{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_48876/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_48876","id":"gutenberg_48876","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/48876","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Religion/Spirituality","Category: Science - Biology","Category: Science - Earth/Agricultural/Farming","Category: Science - Physics","Natural history -- Juvenile literature"],"text":"[Illustration: Showing the five groups considered in the book]\n\n\n [Illustration: Group of Extinct Animals.]\n\n\n\n\n OUTLINES\n\n OF\n\n CREATION.\n\n\n BY\n\n ELISHA NOYCE.\n\n AUTHOR OF\n\n \"THE BOY'S BOOK OF INDUSTRIAL INFORMATION.\"\n\n\n ILLUSTRATED WITH\n\n FOUR HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS,\n\n BY\n\n THE BROTHERS DALZIEL.\n\n\n LONDON:\n WARD & LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET.\n 1858.\n\n (_The right of Translation is reserved._)\n\n\n\n\nDalziel, Brothers, Camden Press, London.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n THE SKY.\n\n PAGE\n\n Sky, definition of 1\n\n Stars, what they are 1\n\n Sun, probable planets of 2\n\n Nebul\u00e6 2\n\n Solar system 3\n\n Planets, list of 3\n\n Sun, the source of light 3\n\n \" size, diameter, &c. 3\n\n \" spots on 3\n\n \" compared with size of planets 4\n\n Orbits, elliptical 5\n\n Ellipse, definition of 5\n\n Earth's orbit, form of 6\n\n Mercury 6\n\n Venus 7\n\n Planets, inferior and superior 7\n\n \" conjunction and opposition of 8\n\n The Earth 8\n\n \" form of, demonstrated 9\n\n \" diurnal motion of 10\n\n \" rate of motion of 10\n\n Equinoxes and solstices 12\n\n The Moon 12\n\n \" phases of 13\n\n Mars 14\n\n Jupiter 16\n\n \" satellites of 18\n\n Saturn 18\n\n \" rings of 19\n\n Uranus 21\n\n Neptune 22\n\n The planetoids 22\n\n \" supposed origin of 23\n\n The stellar system 24\n\n Stars, number of 24\n\n The Milky Way 24\n\n Nebul\u00e6 24\n\n Constellations 25\n\n Stars, double 26\n\n \" variable 27\n\n Comets 27\n\n\n THE AIR.\n\n Air, how perceived 29\n\n \" composition of 29\n\n \" weight of 30\n\n Barometer, principle of 30\n\n Winds, course of 31\n\n Vapour, condensation of 31\n\n Snow, hail, and frost 32\n\n \" red and green 32\n\n Air, temperature of 32\n\n Dew, cause of 33\n\n \" artificial formation of 34\n\n Clouds and fogs 35\n\n Lightning 36\n\n \" conductors 37\n\n Thunder-storms 38\n\n Rainbow 39\n\n Air, the source of nourishment 40\n\n \" carbonic acid of 41\n\n \" the source of coal 41\n\n\n THE EARTH.\n\n Elements, list of 45\n\n Earths, list of 46\n\n Silica 46\n\n Alumina, Lime, Potassa 47\n\n Soda 48\n\n The Earth, surface of 49\n\n Strata 49\n\n \" diagram of 50\n\n \" various positions of 51\n\n Faults or dykes 52\n\n Granite 53\n\n Gneiss 54\n\n Strata, primary 54\n\n Earth, primary period of 55\n\n Stalagmites, formation of 58\n\n Terebratula 58\n\n Secondary system 59\n\n Trilobites 59\n\n Mountains, formation of 61\n\n Earth, section of part of 62\n\n Volcanoes, formation of 62\n\n Coral polypi 64\n\n Encrinites 65\n\n Mountain limestone 65\n\n Basalt 66\n\n Tree-ferns, Pines, &c. 66\n\n Air, purification of 67\n\n Coal, formation of 67\n\n \" consumption of 68\n\n Coal shales, ferns found in 69\n\n Earth's surface, alterations of 69\n\n Labyrinthodon 70\n\n Red Sandstone, impressions in 70\n\n Saliferous system 71\n\n Lias and oolite 71\n\n Ammonites and pentacrinites 72\n\n Cretaceous system (chalk) 72\n\n Ichthyosaurus and plesiosaurus 73\n\n Coprolites 74\n\n Chalk, organic remains in 75\n\n \" flints of 76\n\n\n Strata, tertiary 78\n\n Alluvium and diluvium 78\n\n \" quadrupeds of 78\n\n Dinotherium 79\n\n Mammoth, &c. 80\n\n Irish elk, paleotherium 81\n\n Boulder formation 82\n\n Fossil leaves 83\n\n Man, as yet unformed 83\n\n \" his remains only in upper strata 83\n\n Sculptures from Nineveh 84\n\n Earth's surface, always changing 84\n\n \" as it is 86\n\n Earth, temperature of 86\n\n Europe 87\n\n Asia and Africa 88\n\n America 88\n\n Australia 89\n\n The Great Desert 89\n\n Oceans 90\n\n\n THE WATERS.\n\n The waters 91\n\n Sea-weeds, &c. 92\n\n The horizon 93\n\n The cliffs 93\n\n The waters, their divisions 93\n\n The sea, always the same level 94\n\n \" waters poured into it 94\n\n Rain, how produced 95\n\n Rivers and streams 96\n\n \" causes of their overflowing 97\n\n Lakes 97\n\n Chalk downs, &c., once a sea bottom 98\n\n Sea, its encroachments 98\n\n \" waves of 99\n\n \" Sargasso 101\n\n Gulf stream 101\n\n Sand, formation of 102\n\n \" none in deep seas 102\n\n Diatomace\u00e6 103\n\n Foraminifer\u00e6 104\n\n Salt, the source of 104\n\n Sea-water, composition of 105\n\n Tides 105\n\n Waters, beneficially arranged 107\n\n Steam navigation 108\n\n Introduction to organic kingdoms 110\n\n\n THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.\n\n Quantity, distribution, &c. 112\n\n Forests of Russia and America 113\n\n Sargasso sea, sea-weed 114\n\n Diatomace\u00e6 114\n\n Fungi, mould, mildew, &c. 116\n\n Coral reef, fertilisation of 118\n\n Vegetables, composition of 118\n\n \" feed on the air 119\n\n \" the food of animals 119\n\n \" mode of growth 120\n\n\n \" action of light and heat on 121\n\n Seeds, germination of 122\n\n Growth, promoted by rain 123\n\n Endosmose, experiment on 123\n\n Carbonic acid decomposed by\n\n plants 124\n\n Sap, course of 124\n\n Vegetables, position they hold 125\n\n \" compared with radiata 126\n\n \" description of parts of 127\n\n Leaves, forms of 130\n\n Corolla, forms of 132\n\n Stamens, arrangement of 133\n\n Fruit, forms of 134\n\n Inflorescence, forms of 136\n\n Vegetable kingdom, divisions of 139\n\n Acrogen\u00e6 141\n Alg\u00e6 141\n Fungi 143\n Lichens, ferns 144\n Liverworts 145\n Mosses, various 146\n Horsetails 147\n\n Endogen\u00e6 147\n\n Bamboo, applications of 152\n\n Endogen\u00e6, orders of 154\n Grasses 154\n Sedges, Arums 155\n Bull-rush, Colchicum 156\n Lily, Narcissus 157\n Crocus, Orchids 158\n Naiads, Flowering rushes 159\n Water Plantain 160\n\n Exogens 160\n\n \" wood of 161\n\n \" age of 162\n\n Baobab 163\n\n Woods, various kinds of 165\n\n Galls, formation of 167\n\n Wood, uses of 167\n\n Exogens, size of 168\n\n Wellingtonia Gigantea 168\n\n Banyan 170\n\n Exogens, sub-classes of 170\n\n Thalamiflor\u00e6, orders of 171\n White Water Lily 171\n Poppies, Monkshood 172\n Fumitory, Water-cress 173\n Helianthemum, Berberry 174\n Violet, Sun-dew 175\n Milkwort, Bachelor's Buttons 176\n Lime Tree, St. John's Wort 177\n Marsh Mallow, Meadow Geranium 178\n Flax, Maple Tree 179\n Rue, Wood Sorrel 180\n\n Calyciflor\u00e6, orders of 181\n Spindle Tree, Buckthorn 181\n Broom, Garden Pea 182\n Pear Tree, Rose, Strawberry, Loose Strife 183\n French Willow, Myrtle 184\n House-leek, Gooseberry 185\n London Pride, Fennel, Hemlock 186\n\n Corolliflor\u00e6, orders of 187\n Melon, Dogwood 187\n Honeysuckle, Guelder Rose, Cross Wort 188\n Valerian, Red Valerian, Teasel 189\n Coltsfoot, Ox-eye Daisy, Harebell 190\n Grey Heath, Gentian, Buck-bean 191\n Pimpernel, Primrose, Bindweed 192\n Borage, Sage 193\n Tobacco 194\n Speedwell 195\n Butterwort, Plantain 196\n Thrift, Holly 197\n\n Monochlamyde\u00e6, orders of 197\n Ladies' Mantle 197\n Beetroot, Buckwheat 198\n Oleaster, Spurge Laurel 199\n Sweet Chestnut, Box 200\n Hop, White Willow 201\n Birch, Alder, Elm 202\n Larch, Yew, Bay 203\n\n Plants, list of poisonous 204\n Monk's-hood, Wolf's-bane 204\n Bryony, Green Hellebore, Stinking Hellebore 205\n Mezerium, Meadow Saffron 206\n Foxglove, Staves-acre 207\n Nightshade 208\n Hemlock, Thorn Apple 209\n Poppies, Henbane 210\n Caper, Wild Lettuce 211\n Fungi, poisonous 212\n\n\n THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.\n\n Animalcul\u00e6 in water 215\n\n Man, created, not developed 217\n\n Animals, chief division of 217\n\n Animals, invertebrate 217\n\n Infusoria 218\n\n Protozoa 218\n\n Infusoria, higher kinds of 220\n\n Entozoa (intestinal worms) 221\n\n Zoophytes (Sertularia, &c.) 221\n\n Sponge 222\n\n Gorgonia 222\n\n Actinia 223\n\n Corals (Tubipora musica, &c.) 224\n\n Flustra (Sea mats) 225\n\n Echinodermata (Star-fishes, &c.) 225\n\n Sea urchins, &c. 226\n\n Articulata 227\n\n Annellata (Worms, &c.) 227\n\n Cirripeda (Sea acorns) 228\n\n Crustacea 229\n\n Insects 231\n\n \" metamorphoses of 231\n\n \" parts of 232\n\n \" depredations by 234\n\n \" orders of 236\n Beetles 236\n Grasshoppers, Locusts, &c. 237\n Dragon-flies, May-flies, &c. 238\n Bees, Wasps, &c. 240\n Ants, habitations of 240\n White Ants 245\n Stylops 247\n Butterflies, Moths, &c. 248\n Silkworm 249\n Bugs, Aphides, &c. 250\n House-fly, Gnat, &c. 250\n Flea, Chigoe 251\n Spiders and Scorpions 252\n\n Mollusca 252\n Nautilus, mussel, &c. 255\n Tunicated molluscs 255\n Lingula, Terebratula, &c. 256\n Oyster, cockle, scallop, &c. 256\n Clio borealis 257\n Snail, slug, whelk, &c. 257\n Cuttle-fish, nautilus, &c. 258\n\n Vertebrata 259\n\n Fishes, description of 259\n\n Fishes, divisions of 260\n Perch, Mackerel, Gurnard, &c. 261\n Salmon, Pilchard, Pike, &c. 262\n Turbot, Plaice, Soles, &c. 265\n Eels 266\n Pipe-fish, Sea Horse 267\n Sea Porcupine, Sun-fish 268\n Sturgeons, Sharks 269\n Lamprey 270\n\n Reptiles 271\n Frogs and Toads 271\n Snakes 272\n Lizards, Crocodiles, &c. 274\n Turtles and Tortoises 276\n\n Birds 279\n\n \" divisions of 280\n Eagles, Falcons, &c. 281\n King-fisher, Woodpecker, &c. 281\n Poultry, Pheasants, &c. 282\n Herons, Cranes, &c. 284\n Swans, Geese, &c. 285\n\n Mammalia, orders of 286\n Kangaroo, Opossum, &c. 287\n Duckbill 288\n Rat, Beaver, Hare, &c. 289\n Anteaters 291\n Ox, Deer, &c. 292\n Horse, Elephant, Hog, &c. 294\n Whale, Narwal, &c. 296\n Lion, Tiger, &c. 297\n Dogs, Wolves and Jackalls 302\n Bears 302\n Seals and Walrus 303\n Mole, Hedgehog, &c. 303\n Bats 304\n Monkeys 305\n Man 307\n\n Man the only possessor of reason 308\n\n Skeleton, diagram of 309\n\n \" parts of 310\n\n Bones, description of 311\n\n Muscles 312\n\n \" voluntary and involuntary 313\n\n Ligaments and cartilages 313\n\n Form, affected by age and sex 314\n\n \" in infancy 315\n\n \" in middle age 315\n\n \" in old age 316\n\n \" affected by sex 316\n\n Senses, special 317\n\n Sight 317\n\n Eye, structure of 319\n\n Eyes, compound 320\n\n Hearing, smell, taste 321\n\n Touch 322\n\n Digestion 322\n\n Respiration 325\n\n Circulation of Blood 326\n\n Man, his superior faculties 327\n\n \" varieties of 328\n European race 328\n Basks 329\n Skiptar, Kelts (or Celts), Greeks and Latins, Sarmatians,\n Germans 330\n Abyssinians 331\n Mongolians 332\n Hottentots 333\n Malays 334\n Papuans, Negrillo 335\n Indians, or Telingans, Ethiopians 336\n Australians, Negro 337\n\n Races, numerical table of 338\n\n\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n\nThe object of this work is to bring before the reader a simple and\nintelligible description of the whole Creation, without attempting\nto enter into minute particulars on any of the subjects more than\nis sufficient to present them in a form clear enough to be both\ncomprehended, and recollected; thus aiming at the production of a\ntaste for such knowledge, and a desire to enter more minutely into any\nor all of the subjects this work embraces, which desire can easily\nbe gratified by a study of some of the many excellent works devoted\nexclusively to the individual parts, which in this work are treated\nof collectively. The want of a general knowledge of those works of\nthe Great Creator which are constantly spread out before us, in these\ndays of easy acquirement, amounts almost to a sin, for it is by the\nstudy of Nature in all her varied forms and associations, that we learn\nto \"look from Nature up to Nature's God;\" for who can look upon the\nworks of God without a feeling of awe and admiration? who can look\nupwards at \"the spacious firmament on high,\" without a sense of his\nown insignificance? who can gaze around upon the beauty and variety\nthe earth displays, without a strong desire to know more of such a\nGreat Creator's works?--and he who knows the most, be sure it is he\nwho will worship Him with the truest and most heartfelt gratitude and\nadmiration. The works of God (next to the Divine revelation of His\nwill) are the highest studies to which Man can apply his intellect; it\nhas required the greatest study of the greatest minds to find out and\nrecord but a few facts to add to the general store, and surely no one\nshould consider his time misspent who can read over such records, and\ntrace their truth by comparison with Nature, the more especially as it\nis by these means a love of inquiry is engendered, and that ultimately\nhe may be enabled by diligent perusal of the great Book of Nature, to\nadd his quota to the store of knowledge already formed and recorded.\n\nIt is true that infidels have often brought forward some branch of\nScience in confutation of Scripture, but it is also a fact that in\nnearly every such case, the very arguments that have been used by these\nmen, have at last become the strongest arguments on the other side.\nGeology was at first adduced as a proof that the world had existed\nfrom all eternity, instead of having been created by an Omnipotent\nGod, and the question had often been asked, \"Can you produce one proof\nof the creation of anything?\" Now this was a difficult question to\nanswer, until Geology made manifest the fact that Man was created, by\nproducing a clear and unimpeachable proof that up to a certain time, he\ndid _not_ exist on the earth, and that at a period of time, a little\nlater, he _did_ exist; the space between these epochs is not known,\nbut it has nothing to do with the argument, for within that period\n(whatever it may have been) Man _was_ created, and created as perfect\nin his physical organisation as he is at present--no long series of\ndevelopments from the higher animals by fortuitous circumstances, as\nsome pretend--no gradual addition of parts to suit the physical changes\nof the earth's surface. There is undoubted proof from the oldest\nrecords, in the form of Sculptures, that Man's appearance has always\nbeen the same, and the records of the Bible (the _antiquity_ of which,\nat all events, cannot be disputed) show that the constitution of his\nmind was at that time just as it is now--every passion, every desire\nthe same--the only advance he has made, is in the knowledge of God's\nworks; the application of that knowledge to his own benefit, and the\nglorification of his Maker.\n\n\n\n\nTHE SKY.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 11. TELESCOPIC APPEARANCE OF THE MOON.]\n\n\nThe Sky is the familiar name used to express that wonderful and vast\nexpanse of space which extends on all sides far beyond our knowledge\nor conception, and in which the earth and millions of other orbs move\nround suns as their centres. Countless millions of these suns exist\nat immense distances apart and of the most prodigious magnitudes\n(many thousand times larger than this earth), these are the stars\nwhich on clear nights we see twinkling so brightly in the sky; our\nsun is one of them, but being very much nearer to us than the others\nit appears proportionately larger and brighter, and is our centre of\nattraction and circulation. There is but little doubt that every star\nhas its circulating worlds or \"planets,\" but these are too small to\nbe seen even with the best telescopes; this may be understood when it\nis considered that the stars themselves, by the most powerful aids,\nappear but as bright points or specks, and they are thousands of times\nlarger than the worlds which would circulate round them. But though\ntheir planets cannot be perceived by the naked eye, yet analogy teaches\nus that they in all probability exist, for very many of the heavenly\nbodies have satellites revolving round them, of such are our moon and\nthe moons of Jupiter, and in this sense the planets themselves may\nbe considered as the satellites of the sun, and as the sun has its\nsatellites revolving round it, it is fair to conclude that it is not\nthe only one of all the stars which has. All these thousands of suns\nand planets, millions of miles apart, and occupying space, the extent\nof which we have no terms to express, form but one system of stars out\nof many, for by comparison with infinite space they occupy but a point,\ntelescopes of the greatest power having revealed that beyond all these\nstars, there is an immense space in which are seen other systems of\nstars, as great and numerous as our own, to which the name \"Nebul\u00e6\"\nhas been given. The mind fails to reach to such magnitude, and it is\ncertain that the study of these great things, brings us to regard\nsize and space (like time) as nothing; for it appears that God has\nexpanded or contracted His works at will to suit His plan of creation\nwithout regard to limit; whether we look at the most minute shell or\nthe greatest orb, still His marks of design are equally evident. If we\nconsider it wonderful that God should take up hundreds of millions of\nmiles for one system, and that He should scatter through space millions\nof such systems, then let us lay aside the telescope and, after an\nexclamation of adoration, take up the microscope, by which we shall\nlearn that God has also placed millions of systems equally wonderful\nwithin the compass of an inch! We shall at once acknowledge that he\nis \"Lord of all,\" and that size, space, quantity, and time, are mere\nfictions of our own imperfect minds, and that to an Infinite God there\nis no difficulty from such sources.\n\n\nTHE SOLAR SYSTEM.\n\nThis is the name given to that collection of worlds which, with the sun\nas a centre, circulate at different distances from and around it. There\nhave at present been discovered eight large planets and thirty-four\nsmaller ones called \"asteroids\" or \"planetoids,\" the larger planets\nrevolving in the following order from the sun or centre:--\n\n 1. MERCURY.\n 2. VENUS.\n 3. THE EARTH.\n 4. MARS.\n 5. JUPITER.\n 6. SATURN.\n 7. URANUS.\n 8. NEPTUNE.\n\nThe Sun, the centre of the solar system, is the great source of light\nand heat to our planet and all others which revolve around it, as well\nas of another agent not so well understood, namely \"actinism,\" or that\npower which produces the chemical changes in many substances exposed to\nthe sun's rays, and which has been of late turned to such useful and\nwonderful account in the art of photography.\n\nThe sun is an immense sphere, many thousand times larger than our\nearth, or indeed all the planets put together. It turns upon its axis\nin twenty-five days, and, like all spheres which rotate, has a slightly\nflattened form; it is supposed that the sun itself, carrying its\nplanets with it, performs a journey round some other centre very far\naway, but for all the purposes of explaining the solar system it may\nbe supposed to be stationary. The diameter of the sun is about 890,000\nmiles, or nearly 112 times the diameter of our earth, and as the bulk\nof spheres is as the cubes of their diameters, it follows that the\nsun is about 1,400,000 times the bulk of the earth. Fig. 1 shows the\nrelative size of the sun and the planets which rotate round it; the\nspecific gravity of the sun is about a quarter that of our earth or\none-and-a-half times that of water. On its surface irregularities are\nseen (by the aid of the telescope) which give it a wavy appearance,\nand beside these, black spots or tracts (_macul\u00e6_) which appear to\ntraverse from west to east, across its face; these however do not\ntravel on, but are carried round by the sun in its rotation, for\nby observing any one of them, it is seen to go across and make its\nappearance again at the other side, and the time it takes to arrive at\nthe place where it was first seen, determines the time of the sun's\nrotation, which (as before stated) is twenty-five days or nearly; these\nspots alter in size, form, and number from time to time, some of them\nremaining permanent for months, others closing in and disappearing in a\nfew hours.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1. PLANETS COMPARED WITH A QUARTER OF THE SUN.]\n\nThese black spots have a sort of shadowy fringe (_penumbra_) which\ngives them the appearance of being openings through a luminous surface,\ndiscovering a surface less luminous, with openings in it through which\nsome still darker surface is seen; that this really is the case, and\nthat these are not merely dark spots or surfaces, is shown by the\nfore-shortening of the nearest edge as they arrive at the verge of the\nsun's disc, and are consequently presented edgewise to the eye, so that\na spot may have the appearance of fig. 2 when seen in front-view near\nthe centre, and of fig. 3 when seen fore-shortened near the edge of the\nsun's disc. These spots (although but specks in comparison with the\nvast surface of the sun) are yet of prodigious magnitude, some having\nbeen calculated to measure 18,000 miles across--large enough for two\nsuch worlds as ours to pass through side by side! From the rapid motion\nof the \"penumbra\" or edges of these spots, which alter, open, and\nclose up very rapidly, and from some of them being semi-dark, others\nquite dark, &c., it has been concluded that the sun has at least two\nsurrounding atmospheres, that the body of the sun is not luminous, nor\nthe first atmosphere or that nearest to it, but that the outer one is,\nand that the dusky appearance of the inner, as seen through openings\nof the luminous outer atmosphere, results from its being very strongly\nilluminated by the outer one; this luminosity may be (and probably is)\nonly comparative, for the spots which appear black may be yet very\nbright, appearing black only in comparison with the extreme brilliancy\nof the outer atmosphere, just as a bar of red-hot iron appears black\nwhen held up to the sun. The course which the planets take round the\nsun is not exactly circular, but deviating from it more or less, never\nbeing quite a circle. The orbit of each planet, if accurately computed\nand laid down on paper, proves to be that form of curved line called\nan \"ellipse,\" or that form which instead of having one centre, as in\nthe circle, from which all lines radiating to the circumference are\nequal in length, has a longer and shorter diameter, two centres called\n\"foci,\" and the circumference or boundary so placed that the sum of\nany two lines, drawn one from each centre, and meeting at any part of\nthe circumference, shall be equal to any two other lines so drawn and\nmeeting at any other point of the circumference, and to the major axis\nor long diameter of the ellipse. In fig. 4, each pair of lines drawn\nfrom A A and meeting repectively at B are each equal.\n\nAn ellipse may be very much elongated, or almost circular, but still\nhave these properties which are essential to it, and in the case of the\norbits of the planets, they are so nearly circular, that if drawn a few\ninches wide, would hardly be detected to differ from the circle. The\norbit of the earth is about one thirtieth part longer than broad.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.]\n\nThe rate at which the planets revolve round the sun is not equable,\nthat is, their progress is not through equal distances at equal times,\nbut a line drawn from the planet to the sun would always pass over\nequal spaces or \"areas\" in equal times, for example, in fig. 5, if the\narea of the angle included in A B C be equal to that included in A D E,\nthen a planet would pass from B to C and from D to E in equal times.\n\nMercury is the smallest of the greater planets, and the nearest to the\nsun. Its diameter is about 3000 miles, and it is about one-fifteenth\npart the volume of the earth; its distance from the sun is 36,770,000\nmiles, and it performs its revolution in eighty-eight days.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.]\n\nThis planet is but seldom seen with the naked eye; for, being so\n(comparatively) near to the sun, it sets before dark, and does not rise\ntill the grey of morning makes it scarcely visible. Nothing notable has\nbeen discovered on its surface.\n\nVenus is the second in rotation from the sun, and revolves round it,\nat a distance of 68,750,000 miles, in 224-1/2 days. The diameter of\nVenus is about 7760 miles, it is therefore nearly the volume of the\nearth. This is the brightest planet seen in the heavens, for although\nmuch smaller than many others, its comparative nearness to the sun\nand earth causes it to appear larger and brighter to the eye. Venus\nis the evening and morning star; for when to the west of the sun, it\nrises before it, and is then called \"the morning star\" (or, formerly,\n\"Lucifer\"), but when it is to the east of the sun, it sets after\ntwilight is gone, and is called \"the evening star,\" or \"Hesperus.\"\n\nThese two planets, Mercury and Venus, have \"phases\" (like the moon),\nor certain positions in which the whole of the side illuminated by the\nsun is seen from the earth, and other positions in which it is seen\nsideways; the planet is then said to be in \"quadrature,\" as may be seen\nat Q Q, fig. 6. Mercury and Venus, being between the sun and the earth,\nare called \"inferior\" planets, while those whose orbits are outside\nthat of the earth are called \"superior\" planets. When either of the\ninferior planets are between the earth and the sun, they are said to\nbe in \"inferior conjunction\" (I C, fig. 6), and when on the\nopposite side, or behind the sun, so that a straight line from it to\nthe earth would have to pass through the sun, then it is called being\nin \"superior conjunction\" (S C); at mid-distance, either east\nor west, it is said to be in \"eastern\" or \"western quadrature.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6. PLANETS SEEN IN QUADRATURE.]\n\nThe third planet from the sun is the Earth, distant about 95,000,000\nmiles, with a diameter of 7925 miles, so that the most lofty mountains\n(five miles high) bear about the same proportion to it as would an\nelevation one-fourteenth of an inch in height to a ball of ten feet in\ndiameter; therefore, with all its valleys and high hills, the surface\nof the earth is smoother in proportion to its bulk than the rind of an\norange. The earth is not a perfect sphere, but has a slightly flattened\nform, as though it had been compressed at the poles. The diameter at\nthe poles is the smallest, and is 7899 miles, while that at the equator\n(its greatest) is 7925 miles, being a difference of twenty-six miles;\nbut this is so small, when compared with the size of the earth, that\nif an exact model of it were made, four inches in diameter, it would\nrequire the most accurate measurement to determine that it was not a\nperfect sphere.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.]\n\nThe form of the earth has been demonstrated by accurate experiments and\ncalculations, but there are many things we may observe, convincing us\nof its rotundity; one of the most evident of these is the fact that as\na ship at sea goes from the land, the hull first disappears, then the\nlower sails, and lastly the tops, while a ship approaching the shore\nshows first the topsails, and lastly the hull; see fig. 7, where A\nshows a ship on the horizon, B hull-down, C out of sight. In the same\nway, the tops of distant mountains are seen at sea long before the\nlower lands. Another proof is drawn from the fact, that ships have been\nsailed quite round the earth; by steering as nearly as possible in one\ndirection, they have arrived at the place from which they started.\nA third proof of the earth's rotundity is found in the form of its\nshadow, when the moon is eclipsed by it; this shadow, as thrown by the\nearth upon the moon, is circular, in whatever position the earth may\nbe, and a sphere is the only solid form which can in all positions cast\na circular shadow.\n\nThe earth turns upon its axis every 23 hours, 56 minutes, and 4\nseconds, which constitutes a day, and makes one revolution round the\nsun in every 365-1/4 days, which make up a year; but the earth's axis\nis not at a right angle to an imaginary line drawn from the earth to\nthe sun, but at an angle of 23 deg. 28 min. to it, as shown at fig. 8,\nwhere the line from N to S is the earth's axis of rotation, the dotted\nline leading to S is the sun's direction, and E Q is the equator.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.]\n\nThe earth travels through space at a rate of more than a\nmillion-and-a-half miles per day, besides the distance which each\nobject upon it is carried in its diurnal rotation (24,000 miles). At\nfirst thought it would seem impossible that such a rapid motion should\nnot be felt; but as the air and clouds, and every object belonging to\nthe earth, moves with it, and this motion is perfectly smooth, it can\nonly be perceived by looking at objects independent of the earth. If\nsailing on the water, when it is quite smooth and the land not very\nnear, the ship seems to be stationary and the objects on shore appear\nto pass along in an opposite direction to that in which the ship is\ngoing. It is the same with the earth; the sun, which appears to move,\nis stationary, while the earth is going round it; and the result is,\nwhile the earth turns round on its axis the whole firmament appears\nto move, we lose sight of those stars which are to the westward,\nwhich are then said to \"set,\" while those to the eastward, constantly\ncoming into sight, are said to \"rise,\" the whole appearing to pass\nfrom east to west, while in reality the earth's surface is passing\nfrom west to east. At the equator, or that part of the earth which\nlies midway between the poles, the sun and stars appear to rise and\nset perpendicularly to the horizon and at equal times above and below\nit, it is therefore 12 hours day and 12 hours night; in places not\nsituated on the equator, they do not rise and set perpendicularly to\nthe horizon, but form portions of circles at greater or less altitudes\nin the heavens, and the nearer the observer is to either of the poles,\nthe smaller the circle, and the more of it is seen; so that, at the\npoles, any star situated exactly overhead does not appear to move\nat all. This place is called the north pole of the heavens, and the\nnearest star to it is called the \"polestar,\" which neither rises nor\nsets, and, as it always keeps the same position, serves as a guide to\nmariners. All this is the effect of the diurnal motion of the earth,\nits annual motion not affecting the position of the stars, they being\nat such an immense distance that the circle which the earth forms in\npassing round the sun--although nearly 200,000,000 miles across--is as\na mere point in proportion. But not so with the sun: as before stated,\nat the equator it is twelve hours above the horizon and the same time\nbelow it; now, as we approach towards the poles, it forms at each\nrotation an arc above the horizon, lower and lower, until at the poles\nits daily rising and setting is lost altogether, and there would never\nbe daylight there, provided that the earth was only subject to the\ndiurnal motion (fig. 9); but as the earth turns upon an oblique axis,\nthe north and south poles share the blessing of daylight between them,\nso that through one-half of the earth's orbit the north pole is towards\nthe sun, as shown in the figure, and the south pole during the other\nhalf. There is therefore at the poles but one day and one night in\nthe year--the day being summer and the night winter. In less northern\nclimates, as England, this exists to a much smaller extent; for half\nthe year the sun is longer above than below the horizon, constituting\nour summer, the other half of the year the sun is longer below the\nhorizon than above it, and this is winter. Hence, in each case, midway\nbetween, the sun is twelve hours above and twelve below the horizon,\nwhich occurs in spring and autumn, being called the \"equinoxes\" (equal\nnights); the vernal or spring equinox takes place on the 21st of March,\nthe autumnal on the 21st of September. The times just between these,\nwhen the sun is the longest and shortest time below the horizon, are\ncalled the summer and winter solstices, and occur on the 21st of\nDecember and the 21st of June.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9.]\n\nThe earth has a smaller sphere or \"satellite,\" circulating round\nit, this is the Moon; it is placed at a distance of about 238,000\nmiles from the earth, is about one-fiftieth of its bulk or volume,\nand revolves round it every 27-1/2 days, keeping always the same\nside towards it, so that the other side has never been seen. This is\neffected by rotation on its axis, which takes place once for every\ncircuit round the earth; if it did not rotate, or kept the same side\nalways to the same point of the heavens, then, when it had half-way\nrevolved, the other side would be turned towards the earth. There are\ngood reasons for believing that the moon has no atmosphere or air\naround it, for the concave edge (when only a small portion of the half\nilluminated by the sun is seen) instead of being gradually shaded off\ninto darkness, as would be the case if there were an atmosphere, is\nwell defined and uneven, showing the tops of some of the mountains and\ntheir shadows (fig. 10). Nor does there appear to be any clouds, and as\na consequence no water; neither has anything been observed by the aid\nof the best telescopes which could be considered sea, on the contrary,\nthe whole surface seems torn up and rent into chasms and immense\njagged mountains, enclosing circular portions like gigantic walls.\nThe darkened parts which are always seen on the surface of the moon\nwere formerly supposed to be seas, but of late, by the use of improved\ninstruments, they have been seen to be rough like the other parts, and\ncannot therefore be water (fig. 11). As there appears to be no water,\nit may be confidently inferred that there are no inhabitants.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.]\n\nThe moon having always one half illuminated by the sun, while the other\nhalf is dark, presents different \"phases\" to us on the earth, according\nto the position in which we view it; thus, in fig. 12, E represents the\ncentral position of the earth, and S the direction from which the light\nof the sun comes, the outer circle of moons represents the various real\npositions of that luminary with respect to the earth and sun, and the\ninner circle shows its appearance when in these various positions. When\nthe moon is between the earth and sun, as at _a_, it is said to be in\n\"conjunction,\" and as the darkened side is towards the earth, of course\nit is not visible, this is \"new moon\" (a corruption of \"no moon\"); when\nat _b b_, but a small part of the illuminated half is seen, and it is\nthen said to be \"crescentic\" (first and last quarter); at _c c_, half\nof the bright side is seen, the moon is said to be at \"quadrature,\" and\nthe appearance is that of a \"half-moon;\" at _d d_, the greater part of\nthe bright side is seen, and it is called \"gibbous\" and appears as a\n\"three-quarter-moon,\" and at _e_ the whole of the illuminated side is\nseen; it is then \"full-moon,\" and is said to be in \"opposition.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 12.]\n\nBeyond the earth the planet Mars (fig. 13) moves in its orbit round\nthe sun; it is the smallest, but one, of the larger planets, having\na diameter of but 4085 miles, and being only about one-seventh the\nmagnitude of the earth; it makes its revolution in 687 days, at a\ndistance of 144,780,000 miles from the sun.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 13.]\n\nOwing to the brilliancy and proximity to the sun of Venus and Mercury,\ntogether with other causes, no rotation has been observed in them, but\nas this exists in all the other planets there is no doubt they also\nrotate, but the nearness of Mars to the earth when in opposition (that\nis, when the earth is between it and the sun), has caused its rotation\nto be distinctly visible; the observation of this has been from time\nto time greatly favoured by certain dark spots which have remained\nstationary a sufficient time to determine the question very accurately.\nMars takes 24 hours and 37 minutes to turn on its axis, or pretty\nnearly the time the earth does. Its resemblance is still more increased\nby the axis of rotation being oblique, from all which it is inferred\nthat there is a day and night, winter and summer, and variation of\nclimate very nearly resembling that of our own world, and there are\nround bright parts situated at the poles of Mars, which enlarge when it\nis winter there and diminish when summer, just as would the snows of\narctic regions, and these are therefore supposed to be portions of the\nsurface of Mars which are actually covered with snow (fig. 13). As to\nthe question of the planets being inhabited, of course it can never be\nanswered with certainty, but it is a great deal more likely that they\nare than that the moon is, which, having neither water nor atmosphere,\ncan hardly be supposed to give habitation to any beings similar or\nanalogous to those on earth, while Mars possesses a climate not greatly\ndiffering from that of the earth, and has both air and water. Mars\nhas, at certain positions of the earth with respect to it, a partially\n\"gibbous\" form, that is, a small portion of the non-illuminated part\ncomes within the lines of our vision it is then of the form seen in\n(fig. 14), but this can only occur when the earth and planet occupy\npositions somewhat near to that represented in fig. 15, in which S is\nthe sun, E E opposite positions of the earth, and M Mars.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 14.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 15.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 16.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 17.]\n\nJupiter is by far the largest of the planets, it is 87,030 miles\nin diameter, and placed at the enormous distance of 494,000,000\nmiles from the sun. This great planet takes 12 years and 52 days to\nperform its circuit; it turns upon its axis in 9 hours 55 minutes, a\nsurprisingly short time considering the immensity of its bulk. As a\nresult of this rapid motion Jupiter is very far removed from the form\nof a true sphere, for the oblate form of heavenly bodies is caused\nby their rotatory motion, and the centrifugal force set up by it. In\nfig. 16 is an outline of the earth and Jupiter, showing their relative\nsize. It has no phases, like those planets which are nearer to the\nsun than the earth, its great distance preventing this, as may be\nseen in fig. 17, in which the earth (E E) is placed at the\ntwo widest lateral positions of its orbit, but the earth is too near\nthe sun, in proportion to the great distance of Jupiter, to allow\nany part of the latter to come within the range of vision, except\nthat which is illuminated by the sun. This planet is high up in the\nheavens the greater number of nights in the year, and is therefore a\nvery conspicuous object. It also presents a most beautiful appearance\nthrough a good telescope, its vast size causing it to look larger\nthan those which are much nearer; it has several shadowy belts across\nit, which are supposed to be openings in the strata of clouds which\nsurround it, drawn into ring-like forms by the rotation of the planet,\nthese are shown in fig. 18. It being probable that this great planet\nis surrounded by strata of the densest clouds which only open in the\ntropical region, its inhabitants therefore, (if there be any) get\nbut a glimpse of the firmanent and its stars through them, in those\nsituations at or near to the planet's equator. These dense clouds serve\na very useful purpose in regions so very far removed from the source of\nheat, for if radiation were permitted to go on freely from the surface\nof the planet the sun's rays would be too feeble to compensate for it,\nand the cold would be intense; but the clouds reflect back the heat\nradiated from the surface and keep in what little heat is received\nat that great distance. Jupiter has four satellites or moons, which\nrevolve round it as our moon does round this earth.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 18.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 19.]\n\nFar beyond Jupiter rolls another stupendous orb called Saturn, not so\nlarge as Jupiter, but still immense, being 847 times the bulk of the\nearth. It is placed at the distance of 906 millions of miles from the\nsun. An idea of this may be formed from the fact that light, which\ntravels at the rate of nearly 200,000 miles a second or 12,000,000\na minute, takes about an hour and a quarter to pass from the sun to\nSaturn. It performs its journey round the sun only in 29-1/2 years,\nwhich are therefore but as one year, yet all this time it is moving at\nthe rate of nearly 22,000 miles an hour, so immense is the orbit it\nhas to traverse, but it revolves on its axis in about 10-1/2 hours,\nso that the nights and days are extremely short while the years are\nprodigiously long. There is every reason to believe that it has\nchanges of seasons and variation of climate similar to those in our\nworld, but, being so far from the sun, they must be altogether more\nsevere than ours. The most extraordinary part of this great globe is\nits possession of three (perhaps more) great flattened rings, which\nsurround it, one within the other; these rings are of immense size and\nwidth, but very thin, the great breadth through all from the inner to\nthe outer edges being about 30,000 miles, while their thickness cannot\nexceed 250. These rings are placed at a right angle to the planet's\naxis of rotation and revolve with it, so that when the planet is at\nthe equinox, the edge of these rings is turned towards the sun, they\ncan then be seen only by the most powerful telescopes, forming a faint\nstreak on each side of the orb of the planet (fig. 19), but as they\nbecome inclined they appear as a very long ellipse, the ends of which\nproject in loop-like forms on either side, giving rise to the notion of\nthe planet having two handles (fig. 20). This ellipse becomes broader\nand broader as the plane of the rings forms a greater angle with the\nline of vision. For a short time before and after the equinoxes of\nSaturn, the rings become invisible, owing to the earth and sun being on\nopposite sides of them, as may be seen in fig. 21, so that the darkened\nside is turned towards the earth and the edge, which is the only part\nilluminated, is towards the sun.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 20.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 21.]\n\nThe inner ring of Saturn is supposed to be composed of watery vapour,\nas it is somewhat transparent, but the outer ones are solid, which\nis shown by the shadow they cast upon the planet, and the shadow it\ncasts upon them in different positions (figs. 22 and 23). Besides\nthese rings Saturn has eight satellites or moons, which revolve in a\nplane nearly parallel to that of the rings and exterior to them. It\nhas been calculated that Saturn weighs only 100 times more than the\nearth, although it is somewhere about 900 times larger, from which it\nis concluded that the substance of which Saturn is made must be about\none-ninth the density of this earth, half the density of water, or\nabout the same as cork. Saturn is very much flattened at the poles, so\nmuch so that the equatorial diameter is a tenth more than the axial\ndiameter, which difference is distinctly visible through good glasses.\n\nStill further into space, at double the distance of Saturn, or nearly\n1822 millions of miles from the sun, another great world or planet\nrevolves round it, it is called Uranus. This planet is not so large\nas either Jupiter or Saturn, but is of considerable magnitude, being\neighty times that of this world, it takes eighty-four of our years to\ncomplete its vast circle round the sun, which are therefore equivalent\nto but one year of Uranus.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 22.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 23.]\n\nIt has several satellites, four of which have been discerned perfectly,\nbut it is doubtful whether there have not been two more seen. This orb\nwas first recognised as a planet by Sir Wm. Herschell, after whom it\nwas for some time named.\n\nAnother, and the most remote planet in our system, is Neptune,\nrevolving at the immense distance of 2850 millions of miles from the\nsun, and taking more than 164 years to perform the journey. This\nplanet is only to be seen by the most powerful glasses, and was\ndiscovered under very peculiar circumstances, not (like other planets)\nby chance; its existence was recognised as necessary to account for\ncertain \"perturbations\" or deviations in the orbit of Uranus, which\nwas found to take a course differing from what it should, according to\ncomputation, and which were only to be accounted for by supposing that\nanother planet existed far out in space, which affected the course of\nUranus by its attraction. The idea of finding out where this orb should\nbe, occurred to M. Le Verrier and Mr. Adams, independent of each other;\nthey both arrived at nearly similar conclusions, for the positions\nassigned to the supposed planet so nearly agreed with each other and\nwith its real position, that their calculations have been looked on as\nthe greatest feat of astronomical research. It was discovered by Dr.\nGalle of Berlin, upon his hearing from Le Verrier the position in which\nat that time it should be sought for.\n\n\nTHE PLANETOIDS.\n\nUpon observing the relative distances of the planets from each other in\npassing outwards from Mercury, it will be found that each one is placed\nabout double the distance of the one next before it (not exactly, but\nsufficiently near to form a coincidence almost amounting to a law),\nthey are as follows:--\n\n Mercury 36,700,000\n Venus 68,770,000\n The Earth 95,000,000\n Mars 144,780,000\n Jupiter 494,000,000\n Saturn 906,000,000\n Uranus 1822,000,000\n Neptune 2850,000,000\n\nIt will be seen, however, that in this table of distances there is\none great exception to the rule, namely the distance between Mars and\nJupiter, which is nearly double what it should be according to this\nrule, giving rise to the idea that a planet ought to be placed between\nthem. Professor Bode was so convinced that something of the kind was\nnecessary to complete the harmony of the series, that he caused to\nbe instituted a search for the supposed planet, and according to his\nconjecture one was discovered as nearly as possible in the situation\nindicated, but upon more accurate information being obtained, this\nplanet was found to be so small (scarcely 150 miles diameter) that it\ncould hardly be considered as a planet ranging with the others, and\nhaving so large a space of the heavens to itself; shortly afterwards\nanother small planet was discovered, having nearly the same orbit. From\ntime to time others have been discovered, to the number of forty-two,\nup to the present date. Dr. Olbers upon discovering the second of\nthese small bodies, where one great one was anticipated, put forth the\ncurious hypothesis, that one large planet had really existed there\nat some former time, that it had been shattered into pieces by some\naccident, such as an internal explosion, and that more of these pieces\nwould be found; it is curious how accurately this prediction has been\nverified.\n\nIf we suppose the original planet to have been liquid when shattered\nto pieces, it would fully account for the fragments being spherical,\njust as globules of mercury assume this form from their own attraction\nof gravitation, and that the planets, our own earth amongst them,\nare liquid, is very nearly proved by their forms, which are exactly\nsuch as fluid masses rotating on an axis would assume, moreover the\nspecific gravity of some of the planets is but little more than that of\nwater, and with respect to our earth, the evidence of internal heat,\nincreasing as we descend below the surface, &c., show almost beyond\ndoubt that at the present time it is in a liquid state (molten) covered\nover by a few miles' thickness of hardened crust, which bears such\na small proportion to the bulk of the globe, that the whole may be\nconsidered as liquid.\n\n\nTHE STELLAR SYSTEM.\n\nThe thousands of stars which spangle the heavens are all part of one\n\"system;\" but it has been found by the aid of the telescope that this\nsystem is but one out of many. Our system of stars occupies a space\nsomewhat in the form of a thick lens or much-flattened sphere, but\nothers are of very different forms, and some have but little regularity\nof form at all; our sun is one of the stars of this system. It is not\nknown whether there are planets revolving round the other stars, the\ndistance being far too great for any telescope to render them visible.\nOur sun occupies a somewhat central position in the system. The stars\nare classed into sizes, as first magnitude, second magnitude, &c., on\nto the thirteenth or fourteenth magnitude, but all beyond the fifth\nmagnitude (by far the greater number) are only visible by the aid of\nthe telescope. There are about 5000 stars visible to the naked eye.\nBut fourteen stars of the first magnitude are in our hemisphere of the\nheavens, and about fifty of the second, but the number of stars of each\nmagnitude increases prodigiously in the higher numbers, so that those\nstars capable only of being seen by the aid of powerful telescopes,\namount to many millions; these are chiefly situated in a great belt\nwhich encircles the heavens, called the \"Milky Way,\" which is caused by\nthe line of vision passing through the breadth of our starry system,\nand consequently meeting with a greater number of stars than in other\ndirections, where it only crosses its thickness.\n\nThe other systems of stars, called \"nebul\u00e6,\" from their resemblance\nto little clouds, were supposed to consist of luminous matter of but\nlittle density, and which might at some future period be condensed\ninto stars; but the improved power and construction of telescopes have\nenabled astronomers to resolve many of these nebul\u00e6 into clusters of\nstars, and there is but little doubt that all could be thus resolved,\nwere the telescope of sufficient power; and thus it appears that in\nthe infinity of space collections of systems are placed, each one too\ndistant from the others to be calculated or written in numbers, but\neach consisting of thousands of suns many hundred times greater than\nthis earth, and many millions of miles from each other. What an idea\nof space does this afford, and how soon do all our narrow notions of\npossibility and impossibility vanish before such facts accomplished by\nthe hands of God!\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 24.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 25.]\n\nAmongst the stars composing our system there are certain conspicuous\ngroups or constellations, which were named by the earliest astronomers,\nand compose a list of the most ridiculous imaginary figures, as useless\nto the casual observer of the stars as to the astronomer, and have\nnot the most distant resemblance to the figures after which they are\nnamed, as for instance the \"Great Bear\" (Ursa Major) fig. 24. The\ngrouping of stars into constellations serves, however, to find any\none required (provided the groups on the chart can be identified with\nthose in the heavens), as for instance the three conspicuous stars\nforming \"Orion's belt\" (fig. 25), from which a line produced eastward\nwill point to Sirius, the brightest star in the heavens, and another\nline produced westward will serve to point out \"Aldebaran,\" also a\nstar of the first magnitude, &c.; also a line drawn from _a_ to _b_ in\nthe Great Bear will nearly point to the pole-star--the star situated\nnearly (although not exactly) at the pole, or that part of the heavens\nwhich would be indicated by a line drawn through the earth at its axis\nof rotation. Amongst the stars scattered over the vault of heaven\nthere are many which to the naked eye appear single, but which when\nseen through the telescope prove to be two stars closely approaching\neach other. These \"double stars\" are of two kinds, \"optical\" and\n\"physical;\" optical double stars are those which appear to be near\neach other merely from the accident of one being placed behind the\nother, nearly in a straight line, although in reality at an immense\ndistance and in no way connected. Physical double stars (usually called\n\"binary systems\") consist of two suns comparatively near each other and\nrevolving about their common centre of gravity. Sir William Herschell\nfirst discovered their physical connection, and thereby proved that the\ngreat law of gravitation was not confined to our system, but was the\nruling power which controlled and regulated other systems. Astronomers\nhave calculated the orbits of only fourteen such \"binary systems\" at\npresent with any degree of certainty; about a thousand double stars are\nknown, but only about one hundred \"binary systems.\" In some \"binary\nsystems\" the two suns are of different colours; white and purple, red\nand green, or yellow and blue. If any planets revolve about such suns,\nwhen situated between the two, what strange phenomena must occur!\nImagine a day during which a red sun had tinted everything crimson,\nbeing succeeded at sunset (not, as with us, by darkness) by the rising\nof a green sun, changing the colour of every object from red to green,\nand how curious and beautiful must be the shades of light and colour\nduring the transition from one day to the other. Can anything be\nconceived more gorgeous?--no shadow, but every object tinted with a\ncombination of colours of the most brilliant hues! Triple, quadruple,\nand multiple stars are known in abundance, but all probably optically\nso, and not in any way connected with each other by attraction.\nOthers of the stars are called \"variable,\" they are those whose light\ngradually diminishes and after a time regains its former brightness;\nsome of them not only vary in brilliancy but in colour; the cause\nof these phenomena is totally unknown, and fortunate will he be who\ndiscovers it; it will be a great stride in the science of astronomy,\nfor at present everything proposed has been quite inadequate to account\nfor such phenomena. About 60 of these variable stars are at present\nknown, but others are constantly being added to the list. Hind has\ndiscovered twenty-one, Pogson seven, and other astronomers have taken\ntheir share in discerning them.\n\nBut, of all the heavenly bodies, none have excited so much wonder, and\nin former times so much fear, as the Comets. The orbits of these are\nfor the most part in very eccentric ellipses, some of them comprised\nwithin the limits of our solar system, while those of others extend\nmillions of miles beyond it, so that they only reappear to us after\nhundreds of years. The matter of which these bodies is composed is\ncertainly not solid, as the smallest telescopic stars may be seen\nthrough the very middle of it, although many thousand miles in\nthickness. When comets approach the sun, their substance appears to\nbecome more condensed, and therefore to possess a greater power of\nreflecting light. The cause of the \"tails\" which appear appended to\ncomets when they approach the sun is not known, but this tail extends\nalways in a direction from the sun, and passes over many degrees of\nthe heavens' space. As comets obey strictly the law of gravitation,\nthey must possess some amount of weight or mass, however small it may\nbe, and that it is inconceivably small is proved by the fact of comets\nhaving passed close to Jupiter, right amongst his four moons, without\nin any way affecting or disturbing their well-known motions; the\ncomets have, however, been terribly tossed about on such occasions, one\nhaving been totally lost to us by such an occurrence.\n\nThus it is seen how the same laws of gravity exist throughout all the\ninfinity of space. The comets traverse our system of suns, and passing\nonwards with incredible rapidity, for years upon years, through that\ngreat space beyond it, at last visit some other system--perhaps to be\nas much an object of regard and wonderment there as they were here. The\nsame ray of light which emanated from one of the distant stars of some\none of the clusters situated far out in space, and which has travelled\nfor thousands of years at the rate of 200,000 miles for every second\nof time, serves us here on this globe to distinguish it--it enters the\ntube of our telescope and affects our optic nerve; and the Creator who\ncaused it _there_ to be given off, has _here_ made our senses capable\nof perceiving it. Is not this a clear demonstration of the fact, that\none hand has designed the whole; and one Creator provided for all?\n\n\n\n\nTHE AIR.\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2. STORM, WITH HEAVY RAIN.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.]\n\nThe earth is surrounded in all directions by a covering of air about\nforty miles in thickness, which bears about the proportion to the\nearth itself that a coating one inch thick would to a ball seventeen\nfeet through, being about 1/200th of its diameter. This air, though\ninvisible, may at all times be felt while in motion (such is the\nwind), and by rapidly passing the hand backwards and forwards it may\nbe perceived to press against and slightly obstruct it; this air is\ncomposed of about twenty parts oxygen and eighty parts nitrogen,\ntogether with about one part in every thousand of carbonic acid\n(consisting of carbon and oxygen in union) and a small proportion of\nvapour of carbonate of ammonia (ammonia in union with carbonic acid).\nIt is the oxygen which enables animals to live in the air, as it is\ntaken into their systems at every breath, it is thus constantly being\nconsumed and would ultimately be so far diminished, that they could\nlive no longer for want of it; but Providence has so arranged, that the\nnecessary quantity is always being supplied by vegetables (which give\nout oxygen) to meet the deficiency. The air, although a gas, is yet\ncapable of being weighed, of great compressibility, and of expansion\nto an unlimited extent, this causes the lower part (near the surface\nof the earth) to be much more dense than the upper regions, and those\nwho have ascended to the tops of high mountains, have described the\ndifficulty of respiration as being very great, owing to the rarefaction\nor lightness of the air. At the surface of the earth it presses with\na weight of about fifteen pounds upon every square inch, but as this\npressure is equal in every direction, it is not felt by us, nor does\nit crush the most fragile flower or insect; but, remove the pressure\nfrom one side of anything, and it will be found to press with violence\nupon the other. If the air were removed from the inside of a drum, the\nweight of the surrounding air would burst in the parchment and fill it.\nBy way of experiment, fill a large basin with water, take a tumbler\nin the left hand and a piece of lighted paper in the right, hold the\nlighted paper for a moment under the inverted tumbler and immediately\napply its open mouth to the surface of the water, letting it dip in\nabout half an inch, the heat expands and consequently gets rid of some\nof the air in the tumbler, and as this cools again it resumes its\noriginal bulk; the pressure of the air on the surface of the water in\nthe basin will force it up into the tumbler and nearly fill it (fig.\n1). This is the principle of the barometer, which is a tube entirely\nexhausted of air and the weight of the atmosphere forces a column\nof mercury (which is many times heavier than water) up to the height\nof about twenty-nine inches, according to the weight of the air at\nany particular time; this weight varies according to the state of the\nweather, whether wet or dry; but the average weight of air is found\nto be perfectly stationary, and during the twenty years from 1816 to\n1836, it was found at Paris not to have varied 1/1200th of an inch.\nWinds or currents of air proceed from several causes; when the sun\nshines on a large surface of the earth, it becomes heated and a column\nof hot air is pressed upwards, for hot air is lighter than cold, and\nthe cold air all around, by its weight, forces it up and rushes in to\nfill the space; this space may perhaps be many hundred square miles\nin extent, so that a current of wind is caused to blow towards this\nspot from all the regions round. This is the general state of things\nat the equatorial parts of the earth and causes the \"trade winds,\"\nwhich uniformly blow (the greater part of the year) from both north\nand south towards the equator. Another cause of local winds, is the\ncondensation of vapours into water; when the air over a large region\nis saturated with moisture it is greatly expanded by it, and when the\nvapour is condensed and falls as rain, the air from the surrounding\nparts forces itself in to fill the space occupied by the rain while in\na state of vapour, which is nearly one hundred thousand times greater\nthan it occupies when in the form of water. There are many causes to\ndetermine the condensation of the vapour, which the atmosphere always\nholds in larger or smaller quantities, but cold is the chief agent, for\nwhen a current of air passes over seas or rivers, or the damp surface\nof the earth, it becomes loaded with moisture, and being capable of\nholding only a certain quantity (less when cold than hot), it follows\nthat warm air when saturated with moisture must let some of it fall\nwhen it becomes cooled. This may occur from entering a colder region,\nor uniting with another current of air colder than itself. In tropical\nregions the air is so warm that it takes up a very large quantity\nof watery vapour and upon the coming of colder weather, the rainy\nseason begins and the air empties itself of its superfluous moisture,\ncausing the most tremendous falls of rain in consequence (fig. 2).\nWhen the clouds are overcharged with moisture in cold climates or in\ncold weather, the vapour freezes as it condenses and forms snow, which\nunder the microscope presents a series of the most beautiful star-like\ncrystals (fig. 3); the same result is produced by the freezing of the\nvapour or fog near to the earth's surface, this is called \"hoar-frost,\"\nwhich is (like dew) deposited on those parts of the surface most\ncooled by radiation. Hail is caused in all probability by the drops\nof rain passing through a cold stratum of air and becoming frozen as\nthey fall. There are many wonderful accounts on record of great masses\nof ice falling from the clouds, some of them several feet thick; the\ncause of these phenomena (if they ever did occur) is not known. The\ncurious occurrence of red or green snow, which has sometimes been\nknown to fall, is owing to the snow being mixed with myriads of minute\ncellular plants called the _Protococcus pluvialis_, which in one state\nof its existence is green and in another red, and they colour the\nsnow accordingly. The cause of their sudden accumulation in such vast\nquantities is not known, but may be sought for in some peculiar state\nof the atmosphere favourable to their growth, which in many places is\nprodigiously rapid.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.]\n\nThe temperature of the air differs very greatly in different situations\nat the surface of the earth, the extreme difference being about 180\ndegrees; thus in winter, at the poles, the thermometer frequently\nstands at 60 degrees below zero, and at the equator, in summer, 120\ndegrees above, but, in the higher regions of the air, it is even colder\nthan at the poles, for the sun shining on the earth heats it, and the\nair is heated by contact with it; this is its only source of heat, of\nwhich it receives less and less the further it is from the earth, so\nthat at a distance (depending upon the situation and climate) ranging\nfrom 3,500 to 17,000 feet from the surface, the air is so cold that it\nis called \"the region of perpetual snow,\" and all mountains whose tops\nreach above this altitude are covered with snow (formed by the freezing\nof the rain and vapour) from this point to their summits (fig. 4), and\nthe sun (although it nearly always shines there, these regions being\nabove most of the clouds) is not able to melt it, for the radiation of\nheat from its surface is greater than its absorption from the sun's\nrays, white substances absorbing but very slowly, and rough surfaces\n(as the snow) radiating very rapidly.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.]\n\nDew is caused by condensation of the watery vapour held in the air;\nwhen the sun goes down the radiation continues from the surface of the\nearth, and those surfaces which radiate most rapidly, such as fields\nof grass, get cooled down below the temperature of the surrounding\nair, and therefore cause a condensation of its watery vapour. This\nmay be imitated by filling a large glass goblet with very cold water,\nand bringing it into a very warm room, the outside of the glass vessel\nwill become covered with dew, although previously quite dry; the same\nmay be shown by filling a similar glass with water at the ordinary\ntemperature, taking care that the outside is dry, then stirring in an\nounce or so of nitre or Rochelle salt, which will cause the water to\nbecome cold, and the outside of the glass to be covered, as before,\nwith dew. Dew falls fastest when there are no clouds in the sky, as\nradiation then takes place from the earth into space, and is not\ncompensated for by a return of radiation from the clouds to the earth.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.]\n\nClouds are formed by the partial condensation of vapour, and are borne\nalong by the wind, instead of falling as rain; the reason of their\nnot falling is this, when the air below the clouds is saturated with\nmoisture it will absorb no more and the rain falls, but when it is\nwarm and dry, and passed in a constantly renewed current, then the\nvapour is absorbed before it reaches the earth, and is carried off by\nthe wind. Clouds, therefore, although they often appear stationary,\nare constantly altering their form and size, portions being absorbed\nwhile others are being formed. Fogs are the same as clouds, the vapour\narising from wet grass, rivers, &c., being condensed as it ascends,\nby a current of cold air passing over them. The fogs in London have a\nbrown colour, from admixture of smoke, dust, &c., with which the air\nis contaminated (fig. 5). Clouds are of various forms and sizes, and\nindeed of almost every variety, but certain kinds which are frequently\nseen, have received different names. The \"cirrhus\" comprises all the\nfeathery white clouds which float high up in the air in fine weather;\nthe \"cumulus\" consists of the large mountain-like clouds which are\ngenerally seen in summer; the \"stratus,\" those horizontal layers\nof clouds low down in the horizon, so often seen at sunset; and the\n\"nimbus\" is the rain-cloud, of a dark grey or leaden hue, with sharp\nwell-marked edges (fig. 6).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.]\n\nClouds are amongst the most beautiful as well as useful things in\nnature, and it is one of the greatest proofs of the active benevolence\nof God, that all those things which serve man the most, are the most\nbeautiful to contemplate. Without clouds there would be no rain, and\nwithout this no vegetation. In many parts of the tropical regions there\nis little or no rain, and in such parts desert places abound. Clouds\nare often of different states of electricity, and when they come near\nenough to each other, a transfer of the fluid takes place, accompanied\nwith a flash of lightning (fig. 7) and a report, although this is not\nalways heard at the same time that the lightning is seen, as sound does\nnot travel nearly so fast as light; there is no danger from this kind\nof lightning. But it sometimes happens that a cloud in an opposite\nstate of electricity to the surface of the earth is near enough\nto produce a flash of lightning between them, in this case it is\nextremely dangerous to be near; but when the thunder is not heard till\nsome time after the flash is seen, there can be no danger, as it is\nthen far away. Sound travels at about eleven hundred feet per second,\ntherefore (in round numbers) it may be known that the lightning is one\nmile distant for every five seconds that elapse between the flash and\nthe thunder. The notion which prevails that iron and steel attract\nlightning is entirely erroneous, they do not even conduct it so well as\ncopper and many other metals.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.]\n\nLightning conductors (fig. 8) are wires of iron or copper, made to\nproject above the highest parts of buildings and carried down to the\nearth; they have the power of conducting the lightning down without\ninjury to the building, for electricity (which lightning is) travels\nthrough metallic wires for any distance without disturbance or noise\n(as in the electric telegraph), but bad conductors are apt to be burst\nand rent by it if it be strong enough, creating flashes of light and\nreports. Lightning strikes most readily any projecting substance or\npoint, the highest point is therefore selected for the protrusion of\nthe upper part of conductors. In a plain or open space, trees and\nanimals are often struck, as they form conductors (although very bad\nones) to the lightning; being bad conductors, instead of allowing it to\npass quietly to the earth as do the wires, they are generally destroyed\nby it. It has been often stated that we should select an open space\nin a thunder-storm, but this would render one liable to be struck,\nespecially if there were no object near of larger dimensions, the best\nplan is to stand near to any trees or houses without touching them, the\ndanger would not then be so great, the trees or buildings being taller,\nwould be most liable to conduct the lightning to the earth. The danger\nof touching or leaning against a tree in a thunder-storm, arises from\nthe person thus making himself (as it were) part of it and incurring\nthe same risk.\n\nThunder-storms, which would at first thought appear to be of no utility\nto man, are indeed of great service; it is a common saying that thunder\nclears the air, this is the result of feeling and experience, but\nchemists have demonstrated the fact that a substance called \"ozone\" (a\npeculiar state of the element oxygen) is produced by thunder-storms;\nthis ozone possesses the wonderful power of correcting (decomposing)\nputrid and unwholesome gases and exhalations which might otherwise\nproduce fever, cholera, &c., it moreover destroys the ova or germs\nof many animals and vegetables which might otherwise be injurious to\nvegetation of more importance, the slight injury which these storms\ninflict here and there should weigh as nothing in the balance of\nutility with such universal good. Thus it is that the works of God\nhave all the stamps of goodness, and this ought to inspire us with\nso much thankfulness as to overcome every fear for personal safety.\nWere these grand phenomena of nature, (as materialists would make\nus believe) the result of laws depending solely upon the physical\nco-operation of mere matter, good would be the exception instead of\nthe rule, and most of them would produce effects, if not injurious at\nleast not beneficial, but such is not the case, and throughout all the\nwonderful operations of nature there is not one but tends to good,\nfor God often inflicts a small injury that a great good may result;\nwe say a small injury, but it is questionable if the injury is not\noften a benefit, which appears to us injurious only because we do not\nunderstand it fully, every disturbing cause tends to produce some\napparent disorder, such as storms, hurricanes, &c., some indeed so\nterrific as to destroy ships and houses, but what would be the result\nif the atmosphere were never disturbed from any cause? Why the lower\nstratum would become so loaded with impurities that it would be unfit\nto breathe, miasms and noxious gases would for ever remain a curse\nto the races of men and animals who might be doomed to inhabit such\nregions, but the very regions where these miasms are most likely to\nform are those about the tropics, and here it is that the greatest\nstorms occur to remove them. Even the great deserts, which appear so\nuseless to man, and which are uninhabitable to a great extent, have\ntheir office, and an important one too; they are to the earth what\nventilators are to buildings, drawing the cold air from the poles to\ncool the regions that are too hot, and sending a current of heated air\nthrough the upper regions of the atmosphere (where it can do no injury\nto anything) to warm the colder parts of the earth, another instance\nof the wonderful care and goodness on the part of the Creator. The\nvarious and beautiful colours of the clouds, particularly at the rising\nand setting of the sun, are caused by refraction separating the white\nlight into its primitive constituents, blue, red, and yellow light and\ntheir combinations, purple, orange, green, &c., and the more obliquely\nthe rays impinge upon the earth the greater will be this refraction,\nthis accounts for colours seldom appearing in the clouds at midday. But\nof all the beautiful effects of the refraction of light, the Rainbow\n(fig. 9) is the most glorious, it has been celebrated in all ages for\nits transient beauty. It is only seen when rain is falling in front of\na brightly illuminated cloud, the sun being behind the spectator; it\nis a reflection of the sun by the cloud transmitted through millions\nof drops of rain, each of which acts as a prism, and produces rings\nof colour; for each of the rays of light (red, blue, and yellow) are\nrefracted in unequal degrees, and therefore take separate places,\nforming the rings of colour seen in the rainbow.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9.]\n\nThe air is the great source from which all the nourishment of the\norganic creation, whether vegetable or animal, is derived; its carbonic\nacid is decomposed by the vegetables, which appropriate the carbon,\nturning over the oxygen to their companions, the animals; the ammonia\nof the air furnishes all the nitrogen of seeds and other nutritious\nparts of vegetables, which are eaten by animals; and water, the chief\nsource of all nutriment, passes first from the air before it enters\nthe soil, bringing both carbonic acid and ammonia to fertilise it.\nThat all this nourishment is derived from the air is evidently shown\nby the formation and increase of mould in forests which have grown for\ncenturies; this black mould is nearly all decayed vegetable matter,\nformed by the continuous fall and decay of leaves and trees, but which,\ninstead of diminishing, increases. Now, where does all this come from?\ncertainly not out of the earth, for it does not contain the necessary\nelements. Expose the surface of the bare earth for several centuries,\nand first small plants, then larger ones, will grow upon it, until the\nstate of things described above takes place, the earth being just as\nrich in organic matter now as at the beginning, and much richer on the\nsurface, where a thick stratum of black mould forms from the repeated\nfall and decay of leaves and wood; all the substance which the forest\nshall have drawn from the earth (with the exception of certain salts\nand earthy matters) must therefore have been derived from the air,\nwhich contains every ingredient necessary for its formation, while in\nthe earth itself no kind of organic matter is ever found.\n\nThere was formerly a time when the carbonic acid of the air was in much\ngreater abundance, and favoured the growth of those plants which thrive\nwhere there is plenty of water, as in swamps and marshes. They grew and\ndecayed for a vast period of time, till a thick stratum of carbonaceous\nmatter was deposited, which, after being buried (by some convulsion of\nnature) at a great depth, and pressed by the enormous weight of the\nsuperincumbent earth into a hard solid substance, is now being dug up\nby man, and forms that most valuable of all products of the mine, coal\n(fig. 10).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.]\n\nThat coal is derived from decayed and altered vegetable matters,\nis pretty well proved; for many pieces of coal, if ground thin and\nsubjected to the microscope, present a texture exactly such as can be\nseen in wood of the present date, and not only the ordinary structure,\nbut in very many cases certain \"dotted fibres,\" indicating that the\nwood belonged to the order of cone-bearing trees (_Conifer\u00e6_), and\nthere is but little doubt that the constant deposit of such wood and\nits slow and gradual decay was the real source of all our coal. How\nwonderful, and how good, is the foreknowledge of God! Just at a time\nwhen the great forests of the earth are fast disappearing, and with\nthem the only other source of fuel for fires, this reserve of the\nold forests, which was then useless, serves man as a most excellent\nfriend--more useful than gold or silver, more precious than diamonds\nor rubies! But this world is one of perpetual change, and the coal\nthus brought forth from the depths of the earth, is by man being\nrapidly restored to the air from whence--thousands of years ago--it was\nderived; and it is not coal alone which is thus being restored, but\nevery organic being in the whole creation, for at their decay they all\nenter this vast mausoleum of the dead!\n\n[Illustration]\n\n\n\n\nTHE EARTH.\n\n[Illustration]\n\n\nThe Earth, considered as one of those spheres which circulate round\nthe sun amidst the wide expanse of the firmanent, holds but an\ninsignificant position among them, especially when compared with those\ngreat and magnificent orbs, Jupiter and Saturn; but, in another point\nof view, as the dwelling-place of all the animated beings, vegetables,\nand minerals, with which we have any practical knowledge, it holds to\nus a position in creation far above all the others.\n\nIt is upon the surface of this our earth that we behold in detail\nthose wonders of the Great Creator's hands, which must fill all\nwho contemplate and study them with enlarged ideas of His wisdom,\ngoodness, and power. We see the millions of stars sparkling in the\nabyss of space, and our minds are so formed that we can measure and\ngauge their distances and rates of travelling, their orbits and their\nsizes, their weights, and the powers with which they attract and\ninfluence each other; but we only contemplate a star as one bright and\nbeautiful object worthy to be one of the gems which the Almighty has\nset in His crown of glory, or a lamp to light the halls of His infinite\nhabitation, but we still contemplate it as a single object; while on\nthe surface of the earth our Maker has permitted us to roam and search\nout by what benevolent contrivances He has suited all things to the\ncomfort and welfare of His creatures. How His mercy and goodness are\nextended amply to the most minute animalcule as well as to man, and how\nHis powers of construction are to be found in the most minute objects\nwhich the microscope can display, as perfect as in the largest creature\nwe behold. It is here upon our earth that we perceive how the structure\nand functions of all creatures are regulated and controlled by the\nunerring laws which He has created, over which laws the creatures\nhave no control, and which if duly regarded and used according to the\nfaculties each has been gifted with, will return the greatest joy and\nhappiness their several natures are capable of, and secure all that\nperfection of operation which their mechanical frames are suited to\nperform; but before any description of the organised beings which\ndwell on the earth can be given, it will be proper to enter into a\ndescription of the earth itself, to see what sort of place God has\nprovided for them, and how through succeeding cycles of time He has\ngradually perfected and prepared it for the reception of His last great\nwork, Man.\n\nIt is only a few miles below the surface of the earth that man has been\nable to penetrate and examine, but reason comes to assist him where\nexamination fails, and it would have been but a few hundred yards only\nthat his labours could have extended had it not been that parts, which\nare generally situated miles below the surface, are occasionally found\nat or even raised above it, by some disturbing cause which operated in\ntimes far back; so that man is able to examine on the surface parts\nwhich he could scarcely dig down to.\n\nThe whole of the earth, its inhabitants, the air which surrounds it,\nthe waters upon its surface, and its vegetable products, are composed\nof certain substances called elements, combined and united in certain\nnumbers and proportions. The following is a list of all known:--\n\n\nMETALLIC ELEMENTS.\n\n Aluminium 13.7\n Antimony 12.9\n Arsenic 75\n Barium 68.5\n Bismuth 21.3\n Cadmium 56\n Calcium 20\n Cerium 47\n Chromium 26.7\n Cobalt 29.5\n Copper 31.7\n Didymium *\n Donarium *\n Erbium *\n Glucinium *\n Gold 197\n Ilmenium *\n Iridium 99\n Iron 28\n Lanthanium *\n Lead 103.7\n Lithium 6.5\n Magnesium 12.2\n Manganese 27.6\n Mercury 100\n Molybdenum 46\n Nickel 29.6\n Niobium *\n Norium *\n Osmium 99.6\n Palladium 53.3\n Pelopium *\n Platinum 98.7\n Potassium 39.2\n Rhodium 52.2\n Ruthenium 52.2\n Silicon 21.3\n Silver 108.1\n Sodium 23\n Strontium 43.8\n Tantalium 184\n Tellurium 64.2\n Terbinum *\n Thorium 59.6\n Tin 59\n Titanium 25\n Tungsten 95\n Uranium 60\n Vanadium 68.6\n Yttrium 32.2\n Zinc 32.6\n Zirconium 22.4\n\n\nNON-METALLIC ELEMENTS.\n\n Boron 10.9\n Bromine 80\n Carbon 6\n Chlorine 35\n Fluorine 18.9\n Hydrogen 1\n Iodine 127.1\n Nitrogen 14\n Oxygen 8\n Phosphorus 32\n Sulphur 16\n Selenium 39.5\n\nBy this list it will be perceived that the greatest number of the\nelements are metals, but most of these are very rare and met with but\nin certain localities, making up but a very insignificant part of the\nearth's surface, while others (never found in nature, as metals) in\ncombination with oxygen forming \"earths\" compose the greater part of\nits bulk. But of all the elements, oxygen (a gas) is the most widely\ndiffused, and constitutes rather more than one half of the whole earth,\nthus it forms 1/5th of the air, 9/10ths of the water, of the various\nearths and rocks about 1/2, and in all organised beings about 3/4.\n\nOf the metallic elements, those which form the greater bulk of the\nearth are--\n\n Silicon.\n Aluminium.\n Calcium.\n Magnesium.\n Potassium.\n Sodium.\n\nThese never exist in nature as metals, but combined with oxygen forming\nthe following earths and alkalies:--\n\n Silica }\n Alumina } EARTHS.\n Lime }\n Magnesia }\n\n Potassa } ALKALIES.\n Soda }\n\nThese four \"earths\" form about eighty-five per cent. of the whole\nbulk of this globe, the remainder being made up of water (composed of\neight parts oxygen and one part hydrogen), of \"salt,\" both as rock or\ncrystal-salt, and dissolved in the water of the sea, of the ores of\ndifferent metals (metals in union with oxygen, sulphur, &c.), and of\nthe remains of former vegetation, existing as coal.\n\nSilica is composed of 21.3 parts of silicon with 24 of oxygen, it is\nthat earth which constitutes a great part of almost every soil, and\nforms sand, sandstone, and flint, it enters largely also into the\nformation of granite and the other primitive rocks; when pure it is\ncalled \"quartz\" or \"rock-crystal\" and is often found in large and\nbeautiful masses. Silica, in different forms, contaminated and coloured\nby different metallic oxides, &c., forms that class of stones known as\n\"agate,\" \"Scotch pebble,\" \"carnelian,\" &c., and in the form of flint is\nfound nearly pure, forming \"nodules\" or rounded masses lying in layers\nin the chalk cliffs on our coasts, the origin of these nodules of flint\nis very obscure, but they are by many attributed to the petrifaction of\nsponges, &c., the general form of which they often retain as well as\ntheir internal structure, which may be seen when viewed in thin slices\nby means of the microscope. Pure silica is a white insoluble powder,\nand is much used by the makers of porcelain to mix with their other\ningredients.\n\nAlumina consists of 41.1 parts of aluminium in combination with 24\nparts of oxygen, it is the earth which forms the basis of all clays,\nloams, and slates, it is in its pure state perfectly white but in most\nclays is coloured brown or blueish by oxide of iron, many of our most\nbeautiful gems, as the ruby, sapphire, and emerald, consist chiefly of\ncrystallised alumina coloured by oxide of iron, chromium, &c., this\nearth like silica enters largely into the composition of the primitive\nrocks.\n\nLime is another of the earths which form a great part of all soils;\nit consists of 20 parts calcium with 8 of oxygen. Unlike the two\npreceding earths, it exists only in union with some acid. When united\nto carbonic acid it forms limestone, chalk, marble, &c., and when in\na crystallised state \"Iceland spar.\" The various kinds of limestone\nare largely used as building-stones, and any of them when burnt yields\nlime or \"quick-lime\" as it is generally called, which is capable of\nuniting with a certain portion of water, giving out a considerable\namount of heat during the combination. Lime is often found in union\nwith sulphuric acid, forming gypsum or Plaster of Paris, in combination\nwith phosphoric acid it forms the basis or earthy part of the bones of\nanimals, and is found in some of the tissues of plants.\n\nPotassa consists of 39.2 parts potassium in union with 8 oxygen, it\nconstitutes about 12 per cent. of the granites and basalts (primitive\nrocks) in union with silica and alumina, it is also found in the fluids\nof many vegetables in union with carbonic, oxalic, and other acids.\n\nSoda consists of twenty-three parts sodium with eight oxygen, it\nhowever does not exist in this form in nature, but in union with\nchlorine instead of oxygen, constituting chloride of sodium or common\nsalt, this substance forms strata of considerable extent in some\nlocalities and being soluble has no doubt been washed out by the rains\nfrom many other places and has thus communicated saltness to the waters\nof the ocean. The other metallic elements exist chiefly in those forms\nof earth called \"ores\" being metals in union with oxygen, sulphur, &c.,\nor are found in the metallic state, as gold, platinum, &c., it is from\nthese ores that most of our useful metals are procured by the process\ncalled smelting, as in the case of iron, copper, lead, tin, &c. All\nthe substances known result from the combinations of the elements, but\nthese elements do not chemically combine in all proportions, but in\ncertain definite quantities only; these quantities or proportions are\nsignified by the numbers attached to each element in the list given,[1]\nand the union of these substances must be in the proportion of these\nnumbers (or multiples of them) only, all superfluity of the substances\ncombined remaining in a state of mere mechanical mixture. For example,\nif six parts of carbon (charcoal) made red-hot be plunged into a jar\ncontaining twenty parts of oxygen, it will unite with sixteen parts\nonly of the oxygen (a multiple of eight), and form twenty-two parts of\ncarbonic acid, the extra four parts of oxygen still remaining as oxygen\nmixed with the carbonic acid; and if into this carbonic acid twenty\nparts of lime be put, it will unite with the twenty-two of carbonic\nacid, forming forty-two of carbonate of lime, still leaving the four\nparts of oxygen untouched. Had forty parts of lime been put into the\nmixture, instead of twenty, still only forty-two of carbonate of lime\nwould have been formed, and the other twenty parts (like the four of\noxygen) being superfluous, would still have remained as lime, mixed\nwith the carbonate of lime. These combining quantities are called the\n\"equivalents\" of the substances.\n\n[Footnote 1: See the list of the elements at page 45; those\nwhich are distinguished by an asterisk, are elements of which the\n\"equivalents\" are not known.]\n\nUpon examining various portions of the earth's surface, they will be\nfound to differ in character from each other; in one place perhaps\nsandy soil will be found, in another, hard rock, in a third, clay, in\na fourth, chalk, and so on. Now, if this examination were carried no\nfurther, it might well be presumed that each of these kinds of soil\nwere continued downwards into the earth for an indefinite distance,\nbut upon digging (as in sinking a shaft or well) it is found that the\nstratum of soil upon the surface is soon passed through, that others\nin succession present themselves and that this succession of strata\nis not a matter of chance, but (with certain restrictions) follows in\ninvariable order. It is true some strata are occasionally not present,\nand that others replace them; but yet (taken altogether) there is the\nsame order of succession everywhere found. The following diagram (fig.\n1) gives the section of these strata from the earth's surface to the\ngranite which is the lowest of all formations and through which no\none has ever penetrated. The figures give an approximation to their\naverage thickness in feet. These strata do not all run in a direction\nparallel to the surface of the earth, or else it would result that the\nsurface would everywhere be made up of the highest, but they have been\ncontorted and heaved up into mounds or depressed; and the granite has\noften been pushed upwards, carrying with it all the upper strata to a\ncertain extent, at last thrusting quite through them all and presenting\nitself above the surface, forming in this way the tops of many very\nhigh mountains, Mont Blanc for instance. Such a mountain if cleft from\nthe summit to the base would present a section similar to that shown\nin fig. 2, and thus it occurs (contrary to what would at first thought\nbe supposed) that the highest ground is generally formed of the lowest\nstrata, while the valleys are nearly always covered with the latest\nformations, which is partly owing to the elevating process before\nalluded to, and partly to the winds, rains, &c., tending to carry away\nand wash down every kind of soil from the upper ground and deposit it\nin the lower.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.--DIAGRAM SHOWING THE POSITIONS AND RELATIVE\nTHICKNESSES OF THE STRATA.]\n\n[Illustration: _Granite_ FIG. 2.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.]\n\nFig. 3 represents strata in a state called by geologists\n\"conformable,\" which name is applied when the strata follow their\nnatural or regular succession, whether this retains its horizontal\nposition, or, as in fig. 4, assumes a position more or less\nvertical, which frequently happens from the subsidence of one\npart or the elevation of another; but they are sometimes found in\nthe state represented in fig. 5, and in which they are said to be\n\"unconformable.\" Such strata after having been tilted out of the\nhorizontal have had other strata deposited upon them, which again\nmay be more or less contorted from the same causes. The regularity of\nstrata is often interrupted by what are called \"faults\" or \"dykes,\"\nwhich have arisen from some part of the earth sinking down or another\npart being raised up, producing a fracture through all the strata and\ncausing those on either side of this fault or fracture to occupy a\nsituation not corresponding to those on the opposite, as in fig. 6, but\nyet to be found at a higher or lower elevation, and it is nearly always\nfound that these strata are raised on that side to which the line of\nfracture inclines, as in the figure. These faults are often sources of\ngreat annoyance to the miner, who finds a sudden termination to the\nseam of coal or ore that he is working. The cracks are generally filled\nwith some primitive rock, as basalt, rising from beneath while in a\nliquid state and filling up the interstices; it will often happen that\nthe faults thus filled will have veins of the same rock branching out\nand not only filling up cracks but forcing its way between the various\nstrata, thus interposing a stratum of basalt quite out of its proper\nposition and altering, by the effects of the heat communicated, the\ncharacter of the strata in juxtaposition; this is shown in fig. 7.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.]\n\nUpon a close examination of the various strata which form the crust of\nthe earth, it is found that each has its own peculiar character; some\nhave resulted from the accumulation of matters deposited at the bottom\nof ancient seas, others in the beds of rivers or fresh-water lakes, or\nagain others (as the coal formation) from the accumulation of vegetable\nmatters; further, these strata do not only differ in structure and\ncomposition, but also in the remains of animals and plants found in\nthem; for there is scarcely any kind of soil (above the primary rocks)\nin which abundant remains of these have not been found. It will now be\nproper to give a description of them in succession, beginning at the\nlowest or primary, _granite_.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.]\n\nThis appears to be the result of the cooling and crystallisation of\nthat molten mass which many circumstances (hereafter to be mentioned)\npoint out as making up the great body of the earth. Granite differs,\nin various places, in colour and quality (the varieties are known as\n\"sienite,\" \"porphyry,\" \"greenstone,\" &c.), but still retains its own\ndistinctive characters; it is a hard, crystalline rock, consisting of\n\"felspar,\" \"mica,\" and \"quartz,\" in separate crystals, but mechanically\nblended; its chemical composition as a whole is silica, alumina,\nand potassa, with small quantities of lime and oxide of iron. This\ngranite is met with everywhere, if the outer crust of the earth be\npenetrated to a sufficient depth; it however frequently exists on the\nsurface, having no strata below it, and in some places overlies other\nstrata--this, and the fact that cracks and crevices of some of the\nlower strata are filled up with granite, which could only have taken\nplace while it was in a liquid state, as in fig. 8, together with\nevidences of the effects of calcination, and other changes producible\nonly by extreme heat, all around those parts and in the strata\nimmediately overlaying the granite, point out that it was once in a\nstate of fusion.\n\nAbove the granite formation, in many places, especially in Norway and\nSweden, there is a stratum of rock called _gneiss_, which consists of\nthe same ingredients as granite in a slightly altered form. Granite\nwill often pass into gneiss gradually, and this again into those slaty\nformations which rest upon it and come next in the series. These\nconsist of mica-slate, hornblend-slate, and chlorite-slate or schist,\na name given to all those rocks of a slaty structure which have a\ncleavage or capability of being cleft into thin lamin\u00e6 or slices (hence\ntheir applicability to the purposes of building, forming excellent\nroofing materials, &c.).\n\n[Illustration: _Granite_ FIG. 8.]\n\nAll these rocks have received the name of \"primary,\" they have no\nappearance of being stratified or deposited in layers, which appearance\nseems to be in all cases the result of having at some time been\nsuspended in water and thence deposited gradually as mud, sand, &c.,\ntime, pressure, and heat having afterwards altered their consistence.\nAll these consist of the earths described as composing granite,\nbut combined in different proportions. Above these rocks there is\na formation of a totally different composition, namely crystalline\nlimestone, commonly known as marble; this consists wholly of carbonate\nof lime or lime in union with carbonic acid, and its crystalline state\nappears to have been produced by long-continued heat and pressure.\nThis limestone is by many ranked amongst the primary rocks, although\nit differs so entirely in its composition which exactly resembles a\nformation presently to be described (the chalk); however, if this be\nclassed with the primary rocks, then it may be fairly said that all\nabove have resulted from their disintegration and reunion in different\nforms, by the action of water and vital forces of different kinds. The\nstate of the earth at the close of this the \"primary period\" may now\nbe considered.\n\nThe early history of our globe forms one of the great problems of\ngeology, but there is evidence enough upon which to form conclusions\nand show that the earth had undergone some great and varied changes\nembracing immense periods of time, and if the sciences of astronomy,\nchemistry, mathematics, &c., be brought in to assist the inquiry, some\nplain facts become evident. Astronomy shows us orbs circulating round\nthe sun (the planets), strictly analogous to our earth, and furnishes\nus with their densities; these are found to be various, ranging from\nabout six times the density of water to half its density. The planets\nappear to be at different stages of condensation, and it is not\nunreasonable to suppose that our earth was once of no greater density\nthan the lightest of them. The inner ring of Saturn is probably in a\nliquid state, for it is transparent. The substance of which comets\nare composed is a vapour, so rare and thin that it cannot be compared\nin density to our atmosphere even, and yet these comets preserve\ntheir identity, circulating through immense realms of space with\nprodigious rapidity. Thus astronomy presents analogies in favour of\nthe supposition that the earth was once gaseous, or at all events of\nmuch less density than at present; but mathematical inquiries go much\nfurther, and furnish almost proof that the earth was once (if not now)\nin a liquid state, for the exact form which a liquid ball would assume\nupon rotating at the rate which the earth does, is exactly that which\nthe globe is found by measurement to possess.\n\nChemistry has ascertained that the heat of the earth is far greater\nthan any tract of the heavens through which it passes; that this heat\ncould not have been communicated by the sun's rays, for had it been\nso the surface would be hotter than the interior, the very reverse of\nwhich is found to be the fact, and the deeper we go down the higher\nthe temperature is. Chemistry shows further that this heat can be\ncompletely accounted for by the condensation and solidification of the\nearth itself; for the condensation of all gases into liquids, and of\nliquids into solids, causes a very large portion of latent caloric to\nbecome sensible, for example, any quantity of a gas at 60 deg. suddenly\nreduced to a smaller bulk, would have a temperature higher than 60\ndeg. A little contrivance has long been in use for obtaining fire by\nthis process, consisting of a cylinder and piston, the rod of which\nif struck down sets fire to a piece of German-tinder. It is probable\nthat all fire, and every alteration of temperature, are due to this one\ncause alone.\n\nNow assuming it as a fact that the earth was once in a gaseous state,\nand that the atoms of this gas or vapour exerted (as they must have\ndone) an attraction towards each other, the result would be that they\nwould press immensely upon those parts towards the centre and cause\nthem to solidify. This act of solidification would produce such an\nintense heat that the solid would be expanded and fused into a liquid,\nthis continuing until all the more condensible matters had become\nliquid, the earth would assume its spheroidal form from its rotation,\nbe surrounded by an atmosphere of the least easily condensible\nsubstance, nitrogen, together with all the oxygen not wanted to\ncombine with the metallic vapour and form earth. This globe with its\natmosphere continuing to roll through the cold regions of space, would\ngradually lose the heat from its outer part by radiation. A film of\ncooled and condensed earthy matter would begin to form on the surface\nby crystallisation, and then would commence all those grand phenomena\nwhich it is the province of the geologist to study and explain. This\ncrust consisted of the first-formed granite which (from inequality of\ncontraction in the bulk of the earth) was broken up into fragments\nand perhaps partly re-dissolved again and again in some places, as it\nchanced that these contractions were more or less irregular. The result\nof this crushing and crumbling-up is seen in the coarser parts of the\ngneiss, called \"Grauwacke,\" which consist of angular fragments of\ngranite more or less imbedded in a cement of the same substance. This\ncould not have been produced by water, as the surface must have been\ntoo hot for it to have existed on the earth in any other form than the\nmost highly rarefied steam combined with the atmosphere, and in all\nprobability partly condensed in the upper regions, forming a continuous\nstrata of clouds, or rather water, through which the sun could hardly\nbe seen or its light penetrate, and such a state of things exists at\nthis present time in the planet Jupiter. How beautifully does this\ncoincide with the Mosaic account, \"The earth was without form and void,\nand darkness was upon the face of the earth.\"\n\nThe surface of the earth at this time can be well understood by any\none who will take the pains to evaporate any saline solution in a\ncapsule till it is about to crystallise, and observe attentively the\npellicle of salt as it forms on the surface; first a partial film will\nshow itself in a few places, floating about and joining with others,\nthen when nearly the whole surface is coated, it will break up in some\nplaces and sink into the liquid beneath, another pellicle will form and\njoin with the remains of the first, and as this thickens it will push\nup ridges and inequalities of the surface from openings and fissures\nin which little jets of steam and fluid will escape; these little\nridges are chains of mountains, the little jets of steam those volcanic\neruptions which were at that period so frequent; the surface of the\ncapsule is the surface of the earth, and the five minutes which the\nobserver has contemplated it, a million years.\n\nThe next effect of the cooling of the earth would be the gradual\ncondensation of the vapour of water with which it was surrounded; this\nfalling upon the earth formed seas and oceans, leaving only the higher\nportions exposed above its level. The clearing-up of the dense dark\nclouds for the first time let in to the earth's surface the glorious\nand vivifying rays of the sun, and this great effect possibly accords\nwith the earliest record in the Bible of the acts of creation--\"And God\nsaid, let there be light, and there was light.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9--STALAGMITE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.--TEREBRATULA.]\n\nThe earth being chiefly covered with water, and the air partly freed\nfrom watery vapour, then commenced the great creation of organised\nbeings. The air, although to a certain extent, free from vapour, must\nyet have contained an enormous amount of carbonic acid; this, being\nless easily condensed than any of the matters which had gone through\nthat process, would still remain there as a gas, and the effect of this\nsuperabundance would be to saturate all the water covering the earth\nwith it; this solution of carbonic acid, being capable of dissolving\nlime, would (as it percolated and rushed in currents through the rocks\nand inequalities of the surface) become converted into a solution of\npercarbonate of lime, taking up a large quantity of this earth from\nthe broken-up granite, &c., then this carbonate of lime would be\ndeposited at the bottom of the water in one of two ways--either from\npressure, diminution of carbonic acid in the air, and heat of the\nsurface, it crystallised at the bottom in the form of marble (that\nthe water does thus become saturated with carbonic acid and take up\nlime, is constantly shown by the stalagmites which form on the floors\nof caverns, where the water thus loaded with percarbonate of lime,\nevaporating, deposits gradually the carbonate in all sorts of fantastic\nshapes, as in fig. 9), or the myriads of crinoidians and brachiopodous\nmolluscs (fig. 10) which were about this time created, absorbed it into\ntheir systems and at their death deposited their shells, which are made\nof this earth, at the bottom of the sea; these shells, accumulating\nthrough ages into strata, became hardened and partly crystallised by\nheat, thus forming the limestones, which were the first containing\ncarbonate of lime. That such a collection, from such causes, is quite\npossible, will be presently shown in describing the chalk formation.\n\nAges of comparative quiet now appear to have succeeded the first great\ncontraction of the earth's crust, probably millions of years, during\nwhich time the tides and currents of the ocean had to wash and wear\ndown all the thousands of projecting rocks or inequalities and dissolve\n(as before described) all the lime, depositing the sand and clay in\nthose immense strata which form the \"transition series;\" this appears\nto have taken place over nearly the whole world at that time, and ages\nupon ages must have elapsed to form such deposits as the sandstone,\nclaystone, and limestone, in alternation, forming the \"Llandilo,\"\n\"Caradoc,\" and \"Wenlock\" strata, more than a mile in thickness; these\nare by some geologists reckoned among the primary series (by some\ncalled the \"transition rocks\"), and in England form the \"Cambrian\" and\n\"Silurian\" systems.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 11--TRILOBITE.]\n\nIn these strata the remains of organised beings are first found,\nconsisting of zoophytes, crustacea (chiefly Trilobites, fig. 11),\nnautili, crinoidii (stone lilies), and a few ganoid (plate-covered)\nfishes; these lower forms of animal life in some parts abound in the\nmost prodigious numbers. There must, of course, have been vegetables\nof some kind previously formed to constitute nourishment for these\nanimals, but scarcely any remains of such exist, except in a few\nlocalities.\n\nThe Trilobites were amongst the first creatures inhabiting our globe,\nand it is a curious fact to contemplate, that their eyes (fig. 12)\nshould have been preserved perfect; they present one of those\nwonderful objects which carry one's thoughts backwards to the early\nages of the world, probably many millions of years, and yet it is\nfound by the peculiar structure of the eyes of these Trilobites that\nthey were placed at the bottom of the sea with perfect power to look\nupwards at the light of the sun through the transparent waters. The\nsame hand and the same power had then Divine care and solicitude for\nthe well-being of His creatures, as great as He has for those of later\nages, and these first-formed beings exactly correspond with the account\nof the creation of animals given in the book of Genesis, \"And God said,\nlet the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath\nlife.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 12.--EYE OF TRILOBITE.]\n\nAt the end of the \"transition period\"--after ages of long-continued\ndisintegration of the rough surface of the earth, and its deposition in\nstrata--after thousands of generations of crustaceans, molluscs, and\nzoophytes had lived and died, depositing their shells at the bottom\nof the seas, so as to form strata of the carbonate of lime--a great\nand terrific convulsion of nature put a stop to all this quiet and\nsystematic order of things; for through these long reaches of time,\nthe physical laws of nature had continued to exert their influence,\nthe bulk of the world had gone on radiating its heat into space, and,\nas a necessary result, had gradually contracted in size. Now, this\nradiation had doubtless been much retarded by the badly-conducting\nsurface of solid matter which had everywhere covered it, but, although\nretarded, it could not be prevented, and although the crust of solid\nmatter may already have been several miles in thickness, yet this in\nrelation to the bulk of the earth would hold but the proportion of the\npaper on the surface of a twelve-inch globe. As the fluid mass of the\nearth continued to contract, there would of course be a great stress\nor crushing-power exerted on the crust, both by its own gravity and\nthat of the air which surrounded it, and about this period it appears\nto have given way over the greatest portion of the globe, producing\nenormous rents and fractures, seen in every country in the faults\nand dislocations of these primitive and transition strata, some of\nwhich were driven up by the downward force of others, and left in a\nperpendicular position, some overlapping each other, &c.; but the\ngreatest effect of this convulsion appears to have been produced by\nthe rocking or rolling surface of the sub-existing fluid world,\nforming gigantic waves, which, by meeting in opposite directions and\nthrusting upwards the strata to a great height, formed the mighty\nmountain-chains of the now-existing earth, which raise their lofty\npinnacles above the clouds. Now, these mountains may at first thought\nappear too ponderous and extensive to be thrown up in this way; but by\ninspecting the engraved section of a part of the globe (fig. 13), it\nwill be seen how very insignificant a mountain is when compared with\nthe whole world. This section is through Asia from the Persian Gulf to\nthe Yellow Sea, and embraces the highest land on the whole face of the\nearth, and is drawn on a scale in which the earth is represented by\na globe sixteen inches diameter. The rugged and peaked tops of these\nmountains would be formed by the great fractured masses of the broken\nstrata being thrust upwards and there resting against each other;\nbut who can describe the chasms and hollows which must have resulted\nwhen the great wave of melted earth had subsided to its level under\none of these huge mountain masses? or the dreadful abyss into which\nat some future time it and the surrounding country may fall, if they\nhave not already been filled up by the sinking of the surrounding\nstrata. Some of these great waves, when thrust upwards, forced their\nway right through the point of the mountain and came pouring down in\ntorrents of liquid earth (lava), deluging the surrounding country and\nfilling up the beds of the adjacent seas, casting out cinders and ores\nof metals--as iron, which appears to have first made its appearance\nat that time, mingling with the deposits and tinging them of a red\ncolour. These great volcanoes, upon the subsidence of the rock-waves,\nstill (more or less) retained their communication with the interior\nfiery earth, and are now the greatest safeguards against such a general\ncrushing-up of the strata, for they act as safety-valves against any\nunequal expansion of the interior (fig. 14). The greatest eruptions of\nvolcanoes or the most terrific earthquakes of modern times, are as the\nmost insignificant trifles compared with what must have taken place to\nform the inequalities of surface found to exist.\n\n[Illustration:\n\n FIG. 13--SECTION OF 40 DEG. OF THE EARTH'S SURFACE, BEING\n THE SOUTHERN PART OF ASIA, AND INCLUDING THE HIGHEST LAND IN THE\n WORLD.\n\nThe outer uneven line represents the mountains and table-lands from the\nsea's level, and the lower line shows the depth to which the crust of\nthe earth's surface has been examined--about five miles.\n\nA to B.--Level of sea.\n\nB to second C.--Hindustan.\n\nC to D.--Thibet.\n\nD to E.--Great Desert of Gobi.\n\nF.--500 miles of Earth's radius.\n\nC to C.--The Himalayas, in which occurs the highest mountain in the\nworld, Dhawalagiri, which is 28,174 feet high.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 14.--BURNING MOUNTAIN.]\n\nBut the contraction of the interior mass of the earth still continues,\nand the cavities left by the expulsion of volcanic matters, and the\npushing-up of the mountains, may not all have been compensated for by\nthe sinking-in of the strata, so it remains a matter of doubt whether\nthe crust of the earth is sufficiently strong to bear the pressure of\nits own and the air's gravity, or whether at some future day another\ncontraction will break it up and destroy the whole existing order\nof things. The shocks of earthquakes are strictly analogous to such\ncatastrophes, but on an immensely inferior scale.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 15.--LIMESTONE MADE UP OF ENCRINITE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 16.--LIMESTONE MADE UP OF CORALS\n(Favosites polymorpha).]\n\nThe effects of the last great contraction having subsided the surface\nof the earth assumed a new arrangement of its matter, and the order of\nthings which caused the deposition of the secondary strata commenced.\nSedimentary sandstones were deposited from the washings of the\nsurface by the waters which had not yet absorbed all the superfluous\ncarbonic acid of the air, but continued to do so, and as fast as\nit became absorbed and saturated with the calcareous matter of the\nsoil, swarms of coral-polypi, which were then formed, began to build\ntheir habitations in the warm waters of the ocean and rob them of\nthe carbonate of lime which they contained, leaving them capable of\nabsorbing more from the atmosphere. These little creatures formed\nimmense masses of coral, and together with the \"Encrinites\" (having\nstony frameworks, figs. 15 and 16), were the chief artificers of that\nage, and well did they show what perseverance was able to accomplish,\nfor through the thousands of years of quiet which now succeeded,\nthey must have filled up nearly all the existing oceans with their\nstructures, causing the water gradually to flow from its former beds\ninto other situations, and thus from time to time was changed the\nposition of both sea and land. The strata of mountain limestone which\nnow exist are the remains of what these little polypi then produced,\nfor there is scarcely a portion of this kind of rock, but shows\nevidences of having been, once, coral, madrapore, or some analogous\nstructure (fig. 17). This mountain limestone sometimes occurs thousands\nof feet thick, and extends over vast districts both in Europe and\nAmerica.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 17.--ENCRINITIC LIMESTONE.]\n\nDuring this period, although there were no great disturbances, capable\nof displacing the strata, yet there appears to have been frequent\nsmall eruptions of volcanic matter through the crevices of the lower\nstrata, filling up all their cracks and vacuities, and in many cases\nrising to the surface, overflowing with basalt, toadstone, and other\nvolcanic formations; in other cases rising in enormous quantities\nthrough openings at the bottom of the seas, partly filling these up,\ndriving off the waters, and thus covering many of the coral formations\nwith coatings of sand to a great thickness, raising up others into\nconsiderable elevations, and forming hills and fresh tracts of earth.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 18.--FOSSIL TREE FERNS.]\n\nDuring this long period of comparative quiet most of the irregularities\non the surface of the earth became worn down, and extensive swamps were\nproduced by partial evaporation of the inland lakes. These swamps were\nsubject to occasional inroads of the sea, and at times formed shallow\nlakes or lagoons; in these grew the most luxuriant vegetation, gigantic\npines, tree-ferns (fig. 18), equisetac\u00e6, &c. These plants, nurtured by\na hot and moist climate, acquired a great luxuriance of growth, and\nmust have formed forests of such great density, that there is nothing\nexisting at the present time worthy to be compared with them, even in\nthe hottest climates. Such fertility appears to have been dependent\nupon the conditions of the air and earth, the former containing more\ncarbonic acid (the food of vegetables) and the latter a greater amount\nof warmth, than at present; these two circumstances, so favourable to\nthe growth of plants, were equally unfavourable to the existence of\nair-breathing animals, to whom the carbonic acid would be fatal poison.\n\nThus, in the mighty hands of God, the air was undergoing a gradual\npurification, to fit it for the animals He intended to create; the\npolypi were extracting from the water all the carbonate of lime it\nwas absorbing from the air and earth, and fixing it in the soil, to\nbe of use in a hundred ways at some future time, while the vegetation\ngrowing in abundance extracted it from the air, and fixed its carbon\nin their leaves and substance generally; these vegetables, decaying\nand falling upon the surface of the earth, accumulated there for ages,\nand formed a carbonaceous matter which was afterwards changed by time\nand pressure into coal. The same thing (on a very much smaller scale)\nis taking place in the tropical forests of the present age; there the\nsurface-soil is quite black, and consists of nothing but decayed leaves\nand wood for several feet in depth, but in the present time there are\nhosts of insects, every one of which feeds upon this vegetable matter,\npreventing to a great extent its accumulation, while in the former age\nthere was nothing to destroy it when once deposited on the ground; so\nthat the carbon of these forests of the secondary period, existing\nthrough perhaps tens of thousands of years, extracted from the air a\nsufficient quantity of vegetable carbonaceous matter to produce thick\nseams of coal, even when compressed by the superincumbent strata.\nThese forests were subject from time to time to inroads of the sea\nproduced by the before-mentioned causes, and thus it is found that\nthe seams of coal are often buried by several hundred feet of sand,\nclay, shale, &c., above which the same growth recommenced to form a\nsecond strata of coal, and ages must have elapsed whilst each of the\nnumerous seams which interstratify the \"coal measures\" were forming.\nThis coal, preserved in the depths of the earth, now forms the greatest\ntreasure of the mine, and ironstone (from which iron is procured)\nwould be almost useless but for the occurrence of these two minerals\ntogether with limestone (used as a flux) in the same locality, and\nit is this fortunate circumstance which enables England to produce\nsuch vast quantities of iron at such a cheap rate. The quantity of\ncoal consumed in the iron-smelting works and for fuel generally, is\nbeyond what could have been imagined a generation or two back, being\nsomewhere about 50,000,000 tons annually, the coal brought to London\nalone in 1856 being 1,271,800 tons, yet there is such a plentiful\nsupply of this valuable fuel in Great Britain alone that, supposing the\nannual consumption to rise to 70,000,000, it would serve (according\nto computation) a thousand years. Who shall say from whence fuel\nwill then be obtained? probably from some other source provided by\nthe foreknowledge of God, as was shown in the formation of the coal\nitself; for who could have imagined, a thousand years ago, when England\npossessed such immense forests, and wood was the universal fuel, that\nthis very wood would become too scarce and valuable to be used, and\nthat a substitute would be dug out of the earth!\n\nThe coal-shales (thin layers of claystone found in the coal seams)\nfurnish beautiful specimens of ferns and other plants turned into coal\n(fig. 19), or leaving their perfect impressions in the clay. The coal\nformation occurred during the latter part of one of those long eras of\ntranquillity which supervened upon the contraction and breaking-up of\nthe older strata; but the laws of nature are immutable, and these days\nof comparative quiet again came to a close. The same phenomena before\ndescribed again occurred, and there is hardly a square mile of these\nstrata but shows evidences of the terrible convulsion which desolated\nthe earth. Some of the strata were raised, others depressed, and some\nlost altogether, the cracks and flaws being filled with liquid lava or\nbasalt, which in many cases rose upwards through them and overflowed\nthe surface. Many of the cracks of this, the \"carboniferous system,\"\nare filled with sulphuret of lead called \"galena,\" the ore from which\nall the lead of commerce is obtained; it is not well known how the\nveins of this and similar substances got into these crevices, but it is\nprobable they were injected in a fluid state by some unequal pressure\non the liquid beneath, or deposited by electrical action.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 19.--FERN (Pecopteris ligata) FROM UPPER SHALE,\nSCARBOROUGH.]\n\nThe great world of vegetation was thus destroyed, giving place to\nnew forms of animal and vegetable life. The temperature, all this\nwhile sinking, had reached a degree somewhat resembling the hottest\nregions of the earth at the present day. The waters had changed their\nlocalities, new mountains and new continents had made their appearance,\nand again did the ever-active waters begin to demolish and wear down\nthe asperities of the surface and deposit the results upon the strata\nbelow in the form of the new red sandstone and magnesian limestone,\nthe former containing iron in great abundance, and the latter magnesia\n(an earth not met with before), both of which substances were probably\nejected as volcanic products and afterwards combined with the carbonic\nacid of the air.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 20.--LABYRINTHODON.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 21.--IMPRESSIONS OF FEET IN NEW RED SANDSTONE.]\n\nDuring the formation of these strata there appears to have been both\nbirds and quadrupeds of many kinds, together with a reptile much\nresembling a frog, but of great size, being five or six feet long,\ncalled the \"Labyrinthodon\" (fig. 20). The oxide of iron, or some other\nagent appears to have prevented the fossilisation of the inhabitants of\nthese strata, for but few of their organic remains have been preserved;\nbut very curious evidences of their existence nevertheless remain,\nin the impressions of their feet upon the ground they trod (fig. 21),\nwhich appears to have been a moist clay or mud peculiarly adapted to\nreceive impressions, and which having been in many places covered over\nwith a stratum of fine sand, and then abandoned by the sea, the whole\nhave hardened into stone, and being now separated, the one contains\ntheir footprints and the other perfect casts of them! Nor are these\nfoot-marks all that these sandstones have to tell us of their day;\nfor the ripples of the waves, and even the little pits made by drops\nof rain as they fell, are in this most marvellous manner preserved,\nforming objects of wonder and admiration for us mortals to contemplate,\nand themes whereon the devout mind may pour out its tribute of praise\nto their Great Author. How evident it is that the Creator designed\nbeforehand that we should search for these hidden evidences of His\nhandiwork, or for what purpose were they thus stored up and preserved?\n\"Seek, and ye shall find, knock, and it shall be opened unto you,\" are\nthe words of God, and they apply as fully to the material wonders of\nHis works as to the mysteries of His revealed Word.\n\nAs the strata below the new sandstone formation was called the\n\"Carboniferous\" system, from its containing much carbon in the\nform both of coal and carbonic acid, so this has been called the\n\"Saliferous\" system, from the occurrence in many places of strata of\n\"rock-salt\" or crystallised chloride of sodium, and (where the rain\nfinds its way down and dissolves it) of brine springs; these (in\nEngland) exist chiefly in Cheshire and Warwickshire, but in Poland and\nHungary they exist on a much larger scale, the rock-salt being nearly\na thousand feet thick. It has been said that these strata of salt were\nformed by the evaporation of salt lakes, but it is much more probable\nthat salt is one of the natural materials of the earth, and that both\nsalt lakes and oceans have become salt from dissolving out these strata\nwherever they have come into contact. The next sediment deposited\nover the new red sandstone is called the \"Lias,\" a sort of limestone\nmixed with clay of a blueish-grey colour, and upon this has is again\ndeposited the various strata known as the \"Oolite\" (Roe-stone) system,\nfrom its appearance resembling the roe of a fish, it consists of small\nrounded particles of limestone set in a cement of the same substance\nworn down fine.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 22.--AMMONITE (Henlyi).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 23.--PENTACRINITE.]\n\nThese strata furnish a great many organic remains, especially the\nshells of the conchiferous mollusca and cephalopods, as Ammonites (fig.\n22), Belemnites, Nautili, and Pentacrinites (fig. 23), of which a great\nmany varieties are found, also the remains of gigantic reptiles, as the\nIchthyosaurus (fig. 24), Plesiosaurus (fig. 25), and others. New forms\nof animal existence seem to have been created in this period in great\nabundance, and the waters of the earth once again became the theatre of\ndeposition for the shells and polypidomes of zoophytes and molluscs,\nwhich swarmed them in myriads, and another great group of rocks began\nto be formed, namely, the chalk or \"Cretaceous\" system, which form the\ncliffs and downs of our south coasts, and strata of great extent in\nnearly every part of the world; it differs from limestone only in not\nbeing so hard, which is supposed to arise from its not having undergone\nthe changes caused by heat and pressure.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 24.--ICHTHYOSAURUS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 25.--PLESIOSAURUS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 26.--NAUTILUS INEQUALIS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 27.--ORGANISMS FROM CHALK.]\n\n\nThe chalk is interstratif\u00eced with lines of sand, and the lower part is\nalmost entirely sandy, forming the gault and greensand deposits; these\neach contain organic remains, and must have been the original sand of\nthe sea-bottom before the chalk was deposited on it. These seas must\nhave been the residence of a vast number of reptiles, for the gault\ncontains an enormous number of nodules of what appears to be stone,\nbut which upon closer examination, prove to be coprolites, or portions\nof the excrement of those creatures partly fossilised, but still\nretaining phosphate of lime enough to render them valuable manure, and\nthese--like the coal--after being buried in the earth for thousands\nof years, are now being brought into use. In these coprolites may be\nconstantly seen the teeth and bones of fishes, together with portions\nof echini and crustaceans, which had passed through the intestines\nof these saurian reptiles. Fig. 26 is the shell of a small nautilus\n(_Nautilus inequalis_) thus found.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 28.--AMMONITE FROM THE CHALK.]\n\nThis chalk is of a white colour, very light and porous; under the\nhigher powers of the microscope, it appears to be made up of organic\nforms, as \"Foraminifera,\" and portions of various kinds of shells,\ncrushed and broken into minute fragments (fig. 27). Dr. Carpenter,\nin his work on the microscope, says: \"Many parts of it (the chalk)\nconsist in a great measure of the minuter parts of the smaller kinds\nof Foraminifera, whose shells are imbedded in a mass of apparently\namorphous particles, many of which nevertheless present indications of\nbeing the worn fragments of similar shells, or of larger calcareous\norganisms. In the chalk of some localities, Foraminifera constitute the\nprincipal part of the minute organisms which can be recognised with the\nmicroscope; in other instances the disintegrated prisms of Pinn\u00e6, or\nother large shells of the like structure (as Inoceramus), constitute\nthe great bulk.\" The fossil remains in the chalk are very numerous and\nare all of a marine character, the ammonites (fig. 28), belemnites,\nand other cephalopods, were very prevalent, as were the various\nEchinodermata, as the _Hemicidarus intermedia_ (fig. 29), together\nwith numerous univalve and bivalve mollusca, various crustacea, fish\nand reptiles. There was some considerable wonderment a few years\nago expressed at the skeletons of men being found in the chalk at\nGuadaloupe; but it has been ascertained that this chalk is a modern\nformation, being produced by the sea washing and disintegrating the\nadjacent coral reefs, and depositing a fine white sediment of broken\ncoral on the shore which can hardly be distinguished from ancient\nchalk; the same process is taking place at the Bermudas and other\nislands of the West Indies.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 29.--ECHINUS (Hemicidarus intermedia, Chalk).]\n\nIn many places the chalk strata contain single lines of flints,\nrunning for miles parallel to the layers of chalk; these flints\nconsist of almost pure silica, and it has been, matter of wonder how\nthey got there, but on considering how slowly the deposition of chalk\nmust have taken place, from the formation and death of millions of\nminute creatures, and that it was once the bottom of a deep sea, the\ndisposition of the flints in lines would be accounted for, supposing\nthem to have been formed on that sea-bottom, and the source from which\nthey have been derived is doubtless the petrifaction of sponges,\nmadrapores, &c., there formed. Dr. Carpenter (in the work before\nreferred to) says: \"It may be stated, as a fact beyond all question,\nthat nodular flint and other analogous concretions (such as agates) may\ngenerally be considered as fossilised sponges or alcyonian zoophytes,\nsince not only are their external forms and their superficial markings\noften highly characteristic of those organisms, but when sections of\nthem are made sufficiently thin to be transparent, a spongy texture may\nbe most distinctly recognised in their interior.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 30.--TERTIARY FORMATION.]\n\nDuring the deposition of these secondary strata in the hollows of the\nsurface, but little alteration of the relative situations of sea and\nland could have taken place, as the deposits for the most part lie\nconformably to the same hollows or \"basins\" (fig. 30 will illustrate\nthis); but after the deposition of these strata, there appears to have\nbeen a very great disturbance, many chains of mountains were cast up\n(as the Apennines), carrying upwards with them these deposits; some of\nthe strata were so displaced that they were left in a perpendicular\nposition, as may be seen in several places at the south side of\nthe Isle of Wight. These disturbances, however, did not amount to\nso general a convulsion as those before described, nor is it known\nwhether all the effects produced on these strata took place at or near\nthe same period of time; they nevertheless appear to have produced\nan almost total change in the situation of the land and sea, for the\n\"downs\" of chalk (on the southern coast of England, for example)\nwere, before these changes, the beds of seas. This is the last of\nthe great convulsions which the earth has undergone, for the tertiary\nstrata which afterwards began to be deposited rest in the hollows or\nbasins (chiefly in the chalk) then left; the alterations in and since\nthese deposits appear to consist chiefly of the upheaval of certain\nlocalities, the depression of others, the evaporation of inland lakes,\nand the wear and tear of the land from these causes, which are still in\ncontinuous action (as from the washing down of cliffs by the sea, and\nthe formation of mud deposits at the mouths of rivers), or the volcanic\nagencies which in some places (as in Ireland) have cast up basalt over\nthe chalk.\n\nThe tertiary strata contain remains of most of the classes of animals\nnow in existence, but yet differing greatly in species, and as the\nstrata approach the surface those species become more and more general;\nthe plants also approach more nearly to those of the present time, but\nstill most parts of Europe possessed a climate almost tropical. The\ntertiary strata consist chiefly of marine and fresh water deposits in\nthe form of sands and clays, as the \"London clay,\" which extends under\nLondon, resting upon a basin of chalk. The last deposits, forming the\nsuperficial layer of earth, and the formation last deposited before\nthe creation of man, are called the Diluvium and Alluvium, and contain\nnumerous remains of mammalia, birds, reptiles, and fishes. One of the\nmost extraordinary animals of this period was the Dinotherium, a sort\nof walrus, which is supposed to have been the largest of quadrupeds,\nif indeed it was one (fig. 31). The quadrupeds of this, the \"Pliocene\"\nformation, are thus described by Professor Owen in his \"History of\nBritish Fossil Mammals.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 31.--SKULL OF THE DINOTHERIUM.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 32.--MAMMOTH, TELEOSAURUS, AND GLYPTODON.]\n\n\"At the period indicated by these superficial stratified and\nunstratified deposits the Mastodon had probably disappeared from\nEngland, but gigantic elephants (fig. 32), nearly twice the bulk of the\nlargest individuals that now exist in Ceylon and Africa, roamed here\nin herds, if one may judge from the abundance of their remains. Two\nhorned rhinoceros, of at least two species, forced their way through\nthe ancient forests or wallowed in the swamps. The lakes and rivers\nwere tenanted by hippopotami, as bulky and with as formidable tusks\nas those of Africa. Three kinds of wild oxen, two of which were of\ncolossal size and strength, and one of them maned and villous like\nthe bonassus, found subsistence on the plains. Deer as gigantic, in\nproportion to existing species, were the contemporaries of the old\n_Uri_ and _Bisontes_, and may have disputed with them the pasturage of\nthat ancient land. One of these extinct deer is well known as the Irish\nelk, by the enormous expanse of its broad-palmed antlers (fig. 33).\nAnother herd proves more like those of the wapiti, but surpassed that\ngreat Canadian deer in bulk. A third extinct species more resembled the\nIndian _Hippelaphus_, and with these were associated the red-deer,\nthe rein-deer, the roebuck, and the goat. A wild horse, a wild ass or\nquagga, and the wild boar, entered also into the series of British\npliocene hoofed animals. The carnivora, organised to enjoy a life of\nrapine at the expense of the vegetable feeders, to restrain their undue\nincrease and abridge the pangs of the maimed and sickly, were duly\nadjusted in size and ferocity to the fell task assigned them in the\norganic economy of the pre-adamite world. Besides a British tiger, of\nlarger size and with proportionately longer paws than that of Bengal,\nthere existed a stronger feline animal (Machairodus) of equal size,\nwhich from the great length and sharpness of its sabre-shaped canines,\nwas probably the most ferocious and destructive of its peculiarly\ncarnivorous family. Of the smaller felines, we recognise the remains of\na leopard, a large lynx, and of a wild cat. Troops of hyenas, larger\nthan the Crocuta of South Africa, which they most resembled, craunched\nthe bones of the carcases relinquished by the nobler beasts of prey,\nand doubtless often themselves waged the war of destruction on the\nfeebler quadrupeds.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 33.--IRISH ELK. THE PALEOTHERIUM.]\n\n\"A savage bear, surpassing the _Ursus ferox_ of the Rocky Mountains,\nfound its hiding-place, like the hy\u00e6na, in many of the existing\nlimestone caverns of England. With the _Ursus spoelus_ was associated\nanother bear, more like the common European species, but larger than\nthe present individuals of the _Ursus Arctas_. Wolves and foxes, the\nbadger, the otter, the foumart, and the stoat, complete the category of\nknown pliocene carnivora of Britain.\"\n\nIn the time of these the last of the tertiary strata, there appear\nevidences of a degree of cold much greater than at present exists;\nthis seems to be pretty well proved by the \"boulder formation,\" or\nprevalence of erratic blocks of stone, the progress of which have been\ntraced from their sources of origin to hundreds of miles distant, and\nthere is no conceivable power which could have carried them but the\nfloating fields of ice or glaciers; both of these sources are capable\nof this removal, for it is not uncommon to find large pieces of rock\nand layers of gravel floating on masses of ice. Glaciers are formed\nby the snow on the sides of mountains becoming hardened by being\npartially melted and again frozen, and at every melting the fluid tends\nto descend, when it again becomes frozen, always adding to the lower\npart and carrying away from the upper. In this way whole glaciers of\nmany miles extent become unfixed, and as fresh snows are added to their\nupper parts, they descend slowly, entangling with them and tearing away\nthe rocks in their vicinity. When they arrive at the sea and float\nforth, these rocks are borne with them.\n\nBut there are as yet no traces of man, not one small fragment of his\nskeleton, not one minute relic of his constructive powers, although\nthe bones of man are as capable of preservation as those of any other\nanimal, being the same in structure and composition; the remains of\nhundreds of fragile insects, seeds, leaves, and all sorts of organic\nstructures, are found perfectly preserved (fig. 34). The only way,\ntherefore, of accounting for the absence of any organic remains of man,\nis the assumption that he was not then created; and this is confirmed\nby the fact that in the very uppermost layers of the earth's surface\nhis bones and the works of his hands are found in great abundance;\nit is therefore with good reason that we come to the conclusion,\nthat he was the last creature formed by his Maker. That the creation\nof man was pre-intended by God, seems also almost proved by the\nnumerous objects before created, capable of ministering to his use\nand happiness--capable of exercising his constructive and inquiring\ncapabilities--suitable to his imagination and tastes, and his only,\nand which would serve no purpose of utility to the mere brutes. Of\nwhat use, to any creature but man, is coal--of what use the metals?\nOf what avail is it to any of the lower animals, that God has caused\nglass and other transparent substances to have the power of refracting\nthe rays of light? but without which not one-half of our knowledge of\nHis wondrous works would ever have been obtained, for it is upon this\nproperty alone that the powers of the telescope and microscope depend.\nOf what use to any but man are fire, artificial light, and galvanism?\nand yet all these were created long before man was.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 34--FOSSIL LEAVES.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 35.--SCULPTURE FROM NINEVEH.]\n\nIt has often been asked, What does man gain by the study of the\nsciences? Besides the enlarged views which they give him of his\nCreator's goodness and power, they at this time are fast reaching\ntowards the demonstration of many obscure passages of His Holy Word as\nrevealed to us in the Scriptures. The study of truth can moreover never\nlead one into error, and a habit of drawing correct conclusions from\nthe facts presented is useful to every one. Geology has confirmed one\ngreat truth in Scripture, and overthrown the greatest groundwork of\nDeism, for it had been asserted by many that man (and indeed all other\ncreatures) had risen to his present state by slow developments, and no\nproof to the contrary had ever been given. But geology has shown that\nat a certain era man was created, that (as is stated in Scripture) he\nwas the last of God's works, and that neither before that time had\nhe existed in an undeveloped form, nor since has he altered one jot\nfrom his original configuration; and the same may be said of all other\ncreatures, whatever may be pretended to the contrary, for from the\nsculptures brought from the ruins of Nineveh (at least 3000 years old),\nthere appears the same external form (fig. 35), both of man and what\nanimals are there depicted, and his and their habits were described by\nthe very earliest writers to be then as now. But with respect to the\nform of the earth's surface it is otherwise, there being a slow but\ncontinuous change. Those parts of the land exposed to the tides and\naction of the waves, are washed away, and the rivers are constantly\nbringing down soil to deposit it at their mouths, forming those tracts\nof land known as \"deltas;\" every wind that blows takes away some dust\nfrom the higher and deposits it on the lower parts of the earth's\nsurface, so that, to use the words of the Prophet Isaiah, \"every valley\nshall be exalted and every mountain and hill shall be made low.\" But\nthis alteration is so slow that it takes hundreds of years to make but\na small difference, yet a difference there undoubtedly is, and a time\nmust come when the alteration will be such as has been shown to have\ntaken place in far-back times and recorded in the strata in evident\nlanguage, for though the changes are slow the result is inevitable.\nIt has been ascertained that the northern part of Sweden has been\nsteadily rising and the southern part sinking to a corresponding\ndegree for many centuries past, and that the west coast of Italy has\nbeen elevated for ages past, at the rate of not quite an inch yearly.\nVolcanic actions are raising some lands and depressing others (in the\nearthquakes of 1822 and 1835, the whole of Chili from the Andes to the\nsea, and probably the bed of the sea to an unknown extent, was elevated\nconsiderably), rain and the rivers carry away land into the sea, the\nbeds of many seas are being filled up by coral polypes and protophytes,\nso that the beds of these seas must ultimately be the land whilst the\nlower parts of the land will become sea.\n\nAfter these various changes upon the surface of the earth, from a\nclimate hot beyond anything now existing, from a surface rocky and full\nof fissures and inequalities, studded with islands and continents,\nabounding in marshes and swamps--from a state of atmosphere in which\nthe higher animals could not live--to the present division and\nseparation of land and water, of oceans and seas, of islands and\ncontinents, well supplied with rivers to drain off the superfluous\nfluid and supply highways easy to traverse in boat or canoe, the world\nremains, a fitting habitation for the creatures God has placed upon it\non every hand. Forests to shelter the wild animals from the rains and\nheat of the sun; waters for those who dwell or delight in them; metals,\nstone, earth, and wood for man to exercise his ingenuity upon, and\nother innumerable things contributing to his comfort or luxury--all\nfreely given by the hand of his Heavenly Father for his well-being and\ndelight, that he may lack no excuse to worship and adore Him, and this\ndelightful earth, as Milton says:--\n\n Brought forth the tender grass, whose verdure clad\n Her universal face with pleasant green,\n Then herbs of every leaf, that sudden flower'd\n Opening their various colours, and made gay\n Her bosom smelling sweet: and these scarce blown,\n Forth flourish'd thick the clustering vine, forth crept\n The swelling gourd, up stood the corny reed\n Embattled in her field, and the humble shrub,\n And bush with frizzled hair implicit: last\n Rose as in dance the stately trees, and spread\n Their branches hung with copious fruit, or gemmed\n Their blossoms; with high woods the hills were crowned.\n With tufts the valleys, and each fountain side,\n With borders, long the rivers: that earth now\n Seem'd like to heaven, a seat where gods might dwell\n Or wander with delight, and love to haunt\n Her sacred shades.\n\nAfter all these various elevations and depressions, the land remains\nat this present time in the form of large tracts occupying about a\nthird of the superficial area of our globe. The largest tract is made\nup of Europe, Asia, and Africa, which constitute one continuous area,\nAfrica being almost severed from the others, but still united by the\nIsthmus of Suez; the tract next in size to this is made up of North and\nSouth America, these again are nearly severed, but still united by the\nIsthmus of Panama or Darien; next come Australia and Greenland, but\nthese, although very large, are yet not to be compared in size with\nthe former two; there are numerous other large islands, as Borneo, New\nGuinea, New Zealand, Madagascar, Iceland, England, Ireland, &c., and\nscores of smaller ones.\n\nThe temperature of the earth (as a general rule) is greatest on the\nequator and diminishes gradually towards each pole, but this is by\nno means invariable, for two places of the same latitude may be\nvery different in climate, and a system of lines passing round the\nearth from east to west, would each pass through regions of various\ntemperatures, or what is the same thing, lines made to follow the same\ntemperature would have to make various curves and contortions; such\nlines have been constructed and are called \"isothermal\" lines. The\ncauses of this are to be found in the various currents of the ocean,\nthe tides and winds, and in the proximity to the ocean of snow-clad\nmountains and arid plains. The variation of latitude in these lines\nsometimes reaches as much as seven degrees.\n\nEurope contains about 3,900,000 square miles of surface, and is\nseparated from Asia by the Caucasus, Caspian Sea, River Ural, and\nUralian Mountains. It is about 3000 miles long and 2400 broad, about\ntwo-thirds being plain and table-land and one-third mountain land. The\nchief mountain ranges are those which run through Norway and Sweden in\na north-westerly direction, and the mountain system along the south\npart from Portugal to Turkey. This last includes the Pyrenees, which\nruns from the Bay of Biscay to the Mediterranean, the highest peak of\nwhich is Mont Maladeta (11,500 feet); the Alps, the highest point of\nwhich is Mont Blanc (15,748 feet); the Apennines, the highest point of\nwhich is Mont Viso (12,586 feet); the Carpathian Mountains, extending\nfrom Presburg in Hungary towards the sources of the Waag and March, the\nhighest point being Mont Lemnitz (7962 feet); and the Balkan range,\nwhich may be considered a continuation of the Alps eastward, runs as\nfar as the Black Sea, together with many inferior ranges and branches.\n\nThe climate of Europe embraces a range from the temperate to extreme\ncold. It is bounded by the Arctic Ocean on the north, Asia eastward,\nthe Mediterranean Sea southward, and the Atlantic Ocean to the\nwestward; it contains two great inland seas, the Black Sea and the\nCaspian Sea. There are three great volcanoes in Europe, Hecla,\nVesuvius, and Etna, but the plains of Auvergne contain many which are\nextinct.\n\nAsia contains the highest mountains and the most extensive table-lands\nin the world. It is somewhat square, being bounded northwards by the\nArctic Ocean, westward by Europe, southward by the Indian Ocean, and\neastward by the North Pacific, and contains about 17,500,000 square\nmiles; the greater part is made up of two extensive tracts of elevated\nland called table-lands, although these are often varied by valleys and\nmountain chains of great extent, yet as a whole, they are from 5000 to\n10,000 feet above the level of the sea. The eastern table-land is that\nof Thibet and the Great Desert Gobi, and the western that of Persia.\n\nAsia contains many great mountain chains, the chief of which are the\nHimalaya Mountains, which run along the centre of its southern part\nand contain some of the highest peaks in the world; the Dhawalagiri is\n28,072 feet high, but there are some others supposed to be as high.\n\nThe Altai or Gold Mountains, forming a boundary to the lowlands of\nSiberia, the highest peak of which is called the Katunia Pillars, and\nis 11,000 feet high.\n\nThe Thain-schan or Celestial Mountains, the Kuen Lun, and the Hindoo\nCoosh, all of which run pretty nearly east and west, while the ranges\ncalled Uralian, Bolor, Khingan, and Chinese chains run nearly north and\nsouth.\n\nAfrica is somewhat triangular, with its base towards Asia and its apex\npointing southward. It is bounded northwards by the Mediterranean\nSea, and at its east side by the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, while the\nAtlantic flows on its south-west side. In Africa is the largest desert\nin the world, the Great Desert of Sahara; it occupies nearly all the\nnorthern part, the southern has but few mountains of great extent, but\nfrom their elevation and the amount of waters brought down by rivers,\nit is supposed that the centre has very high table lands. At the\nnorth-western part is an extensive mountain system (the Atlas) covering\nwith its branches nearly 500,000 square miles, and sending its slopes\nto bound the great Desert northwards.\n\nThe great tract of land comprising North and South America extends in\na longitudinal direction pretty nearly north and south through 130\ndegrees of latitude, or nearly 8000 miles. This great tract is divided\nby a narrow neck of land (the Isthmus of Panama) into two pretty equal\nportions; the northern part is peculiar, from containing a number\nof lakes of immense extent, deserving well the name of inland seas,\nand both northern and southern divisions for the great number and\nextent of their water-courses. The whole of this great tract of land\nis traversed from end to end by an extensive chain of mountains, the\nlongest in the world; at its southern part it forms the Andes, from\nwhich a range is continued through the Isthmus, and onwards to form the\nRocky Mountains. In the southern division this immense chain passes on\nthe west side of the land close to the sea, is of great elevation in\nsome parts, has some of the highest mountain peaks in the world, and\nvolcanoes also, the highest being in the Andes (Popocatapetl is about\n16,000 feet high); but from the western side of the continent the land\ndescends gradually to the eastern. In South America are some of the\nhighest table-lands known, great elevated tracts in connection with the\nmountain ranges.\n\nAustralia in its interior is but little known, but the whole aspect of\nthe island appears to be flat, and to have but little elevation, while\nGreenland and the great tracts of the northern regions beyond, deserve\nmore the name of glaciers, being almost entirely a mass of barren rocks\nand snow.\n\nThe water-courses of these various great tracts of land are all\ndetermined by the formation of the surface, but the amount of water\nwhich is carried into the oceans by the rivers of any district is\nalways in proportion to the amount of vegetation in that district; thus\nin Europe, Asia, and America, the number and extent of these correspond\nwith the great fertility of the soil, while the northern and western\npart of Africa--the Great Desert--give off scarcely any of adequate\nextent, the Nile appearing to receive its supply from the central parts\nfurther south. The reason of it is this: wherever there is vegetation,\neither in the form of grassy prairies or forests, there is also a great\nreduction of temperature from the radiation and evaporation, and the\nconsequent formation of rain, dew, or snow, which falling on the ground\nproduces streams, &c.\n\nExcepting the great tracts of land named, and islands too numerous to\nbe mentioned, the whole surface of the earth is covered with water,\nthe great divisions of which (called Oceans) are, the Arctic Ocean, to\nthe north of Europe, the Atlantic, between America, Europe, and Africa,\nthe Pacific between Asia and America, and the Indian Ocean between\nAfrica and Australia.\n\nThe foregoing is a very bare outline of the land and water covering the\nsurface; it may suffice, however, to call to mind the main features\nof the earth as it is now disposed. There can be little doubt that\nthe great variety of climate, whether hot or cold, moist or dry, is\none of the greatest sources of happiness that can be well imagined;\nit stimulates to research, travel, and inquiry into the works of God;\nevery change experienced tends to make man search for further change,\nevery new scene makes him compare it with others; and the acquirement\nof a knowledge of places, and a general idea of the whole world,\nexpands his mind enables him to appreciate the good gifts he has\nreceived, and affords a source of satisfaction beyond almost any other\nkind of enjoyment.\n\n\n\n\nTHE WATERS.\n\n[Illustration: SEA-COAST.]\n\n\nHow grand is the ever-moving ocean! how majestic its voice, how\nterrible its anger! how beautiful every colour that is reflected from\nits dancing spray, and how balmy the air which is wafted from its bosom\nto refresh the heated earth, which, under the glare of a summer's\nsun, seems parched with thirst. How refreshing to the senses is the\nchange from the dry heated grass on a midsummer day--from the dusty\nroads--from the smoke begrimed town, smelling of dirt, and heated\nby the reflection of the sun's rays from bricks and stones till it\nbecomes a furnace--from the close dark habitations of the city--from\nthe rattle, excitement, and continual noise of vehicles and human\nvoices--from the corroding cares and depressing influences attending\nthe fierce \"battle of life\"--to the cool and gentle breeze, \"the wide\no'er-arching canopy of heaven,\" the murmur and ripple of the sea, to\nthe clear and exhilarating air, free from soot and laden with the odour\nof the ocean--Oh what a desirable change! all human nature seems to\nown it, and hasten to the shores of the great watery world, that they\nmay contemplate one of the greatest and grandest of God's works with\nadmiration and thankfulness, and be re-animated by its health-giving\npowers.\n\nIt is a wonderful sight, and one which fills our minds with reflection;\nhere we see many of the laws of nature exemplified on a great scale.\nThe laws of gravity keep the surface of the ocean perfectly spherical\nas a whole, while those of equilibrium keep it in constant and\never-varying motion, the laws of attraction produce the tides, and\nthose of reflection and refraction cause its surface to assume all\nsorts of colours and tints.\n\n \"Great art thou, Ocean, and unknown\n The creatures springing into life from thee,\n Earth's farthest shores full proudly thou dost own,\n The cradle of thy wave from iced to torrid zone.\"\n\nThe ocean is full of life, both vegetative and animal; myriads of\nboth classes have their natural habitation in the sea, and the shore\nis often, after a gale, strewed with curiosities well worth the\ncontemplation of those who devote their minds to thought. How many\nvarieties of sea-weed have you gathered? perhaps twenty; not three of\nthem are sea-weed at all! they are living animals, either zoophytes or\nmolluscs, every branch of that \"_flustra_\" contains a thousand living\nbeings, every spray of \"_sertularia_\" as many more, that other piece\nis the \"_bugula neretina_\" and also owns a colony of animals: the next\nis indeed a member of the vegetable kingdom, its beautiful crimson\ncolour makes it a conspicuous object, and there are many specimens of\nthe same plant, but of all shades of red, crimson, and purple, it\nis the \"_plocamium coccineum_.\" And thus it is with every object we\nview, a knowledge of it brings us to respect and admire it more and\nmore as that knowledge increases, and none more so than some of the\nproductions of the sea. It is here we find specimens of the star-fish,\nthe sea-urchin, and other radiata. Shells of all kinds--both living and\ndead--belonging to the various tribes of mollusca; crabs, shrimps, and\nother crustaceans, besides the endless varieties of pebbles and other\nspecimens of worn-down rock, the effects of constant attrition.\n\nIf we turn from the shore and gaze upon the horizon, what a marvellous\nobject it is--ever receding as we recede, ever rising as we rise, and\nnever nearer nor farther away. This rising of the horizon, so as to be\nalways opposite to our eyes, is because the higher we are up the more\nwe see. On looking at the horizon we do not look on a perfect level,\n(if we did, being above it, of course we could not see it at all)\nbut the depression of the line of vision is so slight as to be quite\nunable to be appreciated; yet, small as it is, it enables us to see a\nconsiderable space of the ocean, and the higher we rise--at the same\nangle--the more we see. The edge of the horizon also appears curved,\nbeing higher in front of us than on either side. This is only so in\nappearance, for if any one were to place a piece of string (stretched\ntightly between the hands) before his eyes, and bring it up till it is\non a level with the horizon, he would soon see that the string and the\nhorizon were both perfectly straight and exactly corresponding with\neach other.\n\nFrom the horizon we turn round and look at the chalk cliffs, those\nwhite walls from which our native isle has received the name of\n\"Albion.\" How were they produced? by the constant lashing of the\nrestless waters, which are constantly wearing them away; but they are\nbeautiful objects, full of marvels and records of bygone ages, when\ntheir tops were at the bottom of the deep seas.\n\nThe sea is a general name given to all the greater collections of water\nthroughout the world, although, in a restricted sense, it is applied\nto those tracts of water of a secondary size, as the Black Sea, the\nBaltic, and the Mediterranean, the term \"ocean\" being applied to the\nlarger tracts of water, as the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, &c.\nAll the great oceans and seas unite, and, in reality, form one great\nworld of waters, spread out and covering all the lower parts of the\nearth, the term \"lake\" being applied to collections of water surrounded\nby land, although the Caspian Sea retains the name of sea, and some of\nthe great lakes of America may well deserve such a name.\n\nThe waters of the sea fill up all the lower parts of the earth, so\nthat, almost without exception, the land is higher than the water, and\nas the land in some places rises but a few feet, and in others as many\nthousands, so, beneath the sea, the land sinks in many places but a few\nfeet, and in others perhaps as many thousands as it is known to rise\nabove it. The sea always maintains the same general level, although in\npast ages the land has risen and fallen, sometimes in one place and\nsometimes in another; indeed, the same process is taking place every\nday, but in so slow a manner that centuries are required to make any\ngreat alteration; while some tracts of land are being encroached on\nby the action of the waves, others are being added to and elevated by\naccumulations of mud and sand, or raised by the action of earthquakes\nand volcanoes, which throw up under the sea, as well as on the land,\nvast quantities of melted earth or lava, forming strata known to\ngeologists as basalt, tufa, &c., or eject showers of ashes and dust in\nsuch prodigious quantities as to cover many hundred square miles of the\nearth's surface. It was by one of these showers of ashes from Vesuvius\nthat the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii were buried. So that, as a\nwhole, although the sea is continually altering slowly its position,\nyet it pretty equally maintains the same elevation. At first thought it\nmay be supposed that the rivers constantly flowing into the sea would\nalter its level, for some are so large that millions of tons of water\nare brought by them into the sea every hour, and there are thousands\nof rivers and rills which, night and day, pour in their tribute of\nwaters; but God has wisely and kindly arranged these things (like all\nothers) so that they shall afford us innumerable comforts, and yet\nnot raise up the sea so that it shall cover the land, for it requires\nbut a moment's consideration to be convinced that all this water which\nflows into the sea must first have been abstracted from it, and it is\nin this way--when the winds blow over the sea, they absorb or take up a\ncertain quantity of the vapour which continually rises from it; for air\nabsorbs a certain quantity, and a certain quantity only, of the vapour\nof water; but this quantity is determined by certain circumstances,\nfor instance, the warmer the air, the more it will absorb, the less\nthe pressure on the air, the more it will absorb, and the drier the\nair, the more it will absorb, that is, the less moisture it has already\ngot, the more will be required to make up that quantity which the other\ncircumstances permit it to contain. Now, what takes place if a warm,\ndry, light current of wind blows over the sea, landward? Why, all the\nvapour given off by the sea, to the amount of millions of gallons, is\nabsorbed and carried inland by the wind or current of the air, and this\ncontinues onward, laden with moisture, until it meets with one of the\nseveral circumstances which shall cause it to be incapable of holding\nthe quantity of moisture which it has already got; for instance, it\nmeets with another current of air colder than itself, these mingle,\nthe vapour of water is condensed by the cold, and a cloud is formed.\nThis consists of minute particles of water suspended in--not absorbed\nby--air; these particles gradually collect, and down falls the rain\non to the earth. This drains off from the surface, forming rills,\nwhich collect as they descend, by their own weight, into the lowest\nchannels of the ground, and form into streams and rivers, and back\ninto the sea comes the water which the air had taken away, with this\ndifference, that it is free from salt and fit for the many uses to\nwhich fresh water alone can be applied; when the vapour rises from the\nsea, none of the saline matters rise with it, for, although the water\nis volatile, yet they are not, and this is the whole source of fresh\nwater. It is distilled in the great laboratory of Nature, and gives\nnourishment to all the living beings who dwell on the land and in the\nrivers and lakes; or the rain may sink into the earth and be carried\nfor miles and miles under ground, running through some porous stratum,\nsuch as gravel, until it flows out in the form of a spring, bubbling up\namongst flowers and weeds, and forming the source of some river, which\nreceiving the rain and all the springs in the country through which it\nflows, finds its way back into the ocean at last.\n\n[Illustration: MOUNTAIN STREAM.]\n\nThis is the way in which all rivers and streams are formed. An enormous\nextent of land thus drained gives rise to thousands of rills, which\ncollect into streams of goodly size, meandering through valleys and\npouring their tribute of waters into a main stream, which at last\naccumulates by additions to its course, and becomes one of those great\nwater-courses which form the highway through a continent. The Amazon,\nHoang-Ho, Ganges, Nile, Danube, and Volga, may be cited as some of\nthe greatest water-courses and highways of civilisation. These great\nrivers are navigable for large ships, even for many hundreds of miles,\nand it is most fortunate that this navigation is so seldom impeded\nby falls; for these, although among the grandest and most beautiful\nobjects of nature, yet put a stop to the navigation of a river which\nwould otherwise be passable for hundreds of miles further. Rivers\nwhich run through districts subject to periodical rains, or those\nwhose sources lead from mountain slopes where vast quantities of snow\nare deposited in winter which melts on the approach of summer, are at\nsuch seasons of the year suddenly augmented, and generally overflow\nthe banks and inundate the country for miles. This is in many cases a\nvery great misfortune, as it spoils the land, reducing it to a swamp,\nbut not in every case; the overflowing of the Nile brings down with\nit a great quantity of fertilising vegetable matter, and serves to\nmanure the whole district, for the soil being extremely porous and the\nheat great, the moisture is soon got rid of, and hence it was a custom\nof the Egyptians to celebrate the rising of the Nile by feasts and\nceremonies.\n\nLakes are formed in the same way as rivers, but, being surrounded by\nhigh land, have no outlet for the waters so that they may flow back\ninto the sea. If a lake were about to be formed it would be in this\nway--the rain descending on the surrounding high lands would run in\nrills to the lowest part, and there collect, forming a pool which would\ngradually increase in size as the water flowed into it, this increase\ncontinuing until the surface became so large that the evaporation from\nit exactly equalled the supply, it would then extend no further, but\nremain a permanent lake or inland sea, giving off vapour to refresh the\nsurrounding country, and again receiving it back by streams and rivers,\nas does the ocean.\n\nThere is scarcely a spot known on the surface of the earth, which does\nnot show strong evidence of having, at some former period, been the\nbed or bottom of some sea or lake. Some of these evidences may be seen\nin the strata or layers of earth forming the sides of the cliffs which\nabut on the sea-shore, and which could not have been produced by any\nother agency; these strata contain so many marine shells and other\nmatters peculiar to the sea, that the fact does not admit of doubt that\nthey were there produced. These same strata are met with throughout\nthe land; in sinking wells and mines, the same strata are cut through,\nand have a known and uniform succession, with but few exceptions; the\ncliffs, however, are the most convenient places to see these strata.\nThat the same process of alteration in the position of the water and\nland is still going forward, is shown by many evidences, such as towns\nwhich were once on the sea-shore, being now some distance from it, as\nthe City of Norwich, and in other cases the reverse. The chalk cliffs\nat Dover, Ramsgate, &c., show the action of the sea in the corroded\nstate they present, and slips or falls of great masses which have been\nundermined by the sea, are frequently occurring.\n\n[Illustration: CLIFFS, SHOWING STRATA.]\n\nThe ancient town of Ravenspurn, at which Henry IV. landed, has entirely\ndisappeared, and others, recorded to have been situated on the shore,\nhave now only their names left. The parts of the shore most rapidly\ncorroded by the sea, are those composed of sand, chalk, and clay,\nwhile those composed of the harder kinds of sandstone or of granite,\nhave been but little wasted away, so that they project and form the\nheadlands, while in many cases deposits of mud have extended them.\nThere are many other causes which determine the elevation or depression\nof the land, besides the action of the sea and earthquakes, such as\nwinds, frosts, &c.\n\n[Illustration: CHALK CLIFFS, DOVER.]\n\n[Illustration: GREAT WAVES AT SEA.]\n\n[Illustration: DEAD CALM.]\n\nThe slightest movement of the air communicates motion to the surface of\nsuch a great sheet of water as the sea, and this motion is gradually\nincreased till one ripple meets another, and the power of both goes\nto form the next, so that they acquire a very considerable size;\nwhen a gale of wind blows, the rolling of the waves far out at sea\nbecomes terrific, and they rise like mountains, chasing one another\nover the wide ocean. But sailors rather like a smart breeze, and more\nespecially did they a few years ago, when the wind was all they had\nto depend upon for onward progress. In those days a calm which would\nsometimes last for weeks together was to them most fearful, for it was\noften a source of great distress and privation, especially if short of\nprovisions; the sea would then look like a great pool of stagnant water\ncovered on the surface with sea-weed and animalcul\u00e6, and fearful it\nmust have been when food was failing, and no hope of progressing but\nthe springing-up of a wind. But, in these days, with the assistance\nof steam, a calm is the very time in which most progress is made,\nand there is no doubt but a time will come when it will be matter of\nwonder that men could ever have trusted to so uncertain an element as\nthe wind; yet, if it were not for the winds, currents, and tides, the\nsea could not maintain its state of purity, for its saltness is not\nsufficient to prevent the growth of fungi and all sorts of animalcul\u00e6,\nwhich, from their decay, would produce noxious gases and be most\ninjurious to animal life. Its constant motion alone prevents this,\nand the spores and germs are tossed about until destroyed and eaten\nup by the inhabitants of the deep who devour every kind of organic\nmatter which is deposited in the sea, and thus it is that the waters\nof the ocean are so bright and clear that an object can be seen at a\nconsiderable depth.\n\nThat the constant currents of the sea prevent the formation and growth\nof sea-weed, is clearly shown by the great \"Sargasso Sea,\" or tract of\nweed (_Fucus natans_), called the Gulf-weed. This great tract embraces\nthousands of square miles, and is situated in the very middle of the\nAtlantic Ocean, where there are but few currents; but surrounding it\nis the Gulf-Stream, an enormous current of water running at a regular\nrate of four or five miles an hour. This Gulf-Stream is supposed to be\ncaused by the same laws and influences which determine the trade-winds,\nnamely, a constant rarefaction of the water at the tropical parts of\nthe earth, and a corresponding condensation at the Arctic portions,\nfor warm water is much lighter than cold, and when the waters of the\ntropical regions become lighter the heavier waters of the cold regions\npressing down more forcibly tend to raise them above their proper\nlevel; they therefore flow towards those very parts which have sunk\ndown by their contraction, and a constant current takes place--this\ncurrent is the Gulf-Stream. It runs from the Gulf of Mexico northwards\ntowards Newfoundland, turning by Iceland towards the British Isles, by\nFrance and Spain, onwards to the coasts of Africa and South America,\nthe West Indies, and again to the Gulf of Mexico, although the return\ncurrent does not go by the name of Gulf-Stream. This great stream of\nwater warmed by the tropical sun serves the same two purposes described\nunder the section \"Air\" as being fulfilled by the trade-winds,\nnamely, a circulation and distribution of the superfluous heat of the\nequatorial regions, warming the northern countries and cooling by the\nreturn of under-currents those in the tropics. The fogs of Newfoundland\nare caused by the great current of warm water entering the cold region\nand carrying with them surface-currents of moist air, which the cold\ncondenses into fog, just as the breath is visible in a cold atmosphere.\nEngland owes its moist and mild climate to the same cause.\n\nThe sand which lies upon the sea-shore is produced by the action of the\nwaves constantly dashing against the earth and rocks of the coast, and\nis mostly composed of what chemists call \"silex,\" or silica, which is\na chief constituent of most rocks and earths; these, being worn down\nby the action of the waters, form sand. The fragments of these rocks\n(especially granite) and those which contain silica in the form of\nminute crystals, are soon rolled and rubbed together until they are\nground to powder, but it is doubtful whether any sand exists at the\nbottom of the deep seas far from shore, as the waters there lie--and\nmust have laid--perfectly quiet ever since they were seas, for the\ngreatest storm that ever rages does not affect the tranquility of\nthe sea more than a few fathoms beneath its surface, so that a stone\ndropped in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, could be picked up after\na hundred years exactly where it fell, were it possible for any to\nfind out the spot and descend; but the bottom of some deep seas, as in\nthe antarctic regions and the north Atlantic Ocean (as the soundings\nbetween Ireland and America have lately shown), is covered to an\nunknown depth with what had been supposed to be sand, but which is not\nsand at all, but a wonderful collection of minute shells and coralines,\nwhich to the unassisted eye have the appearance of sand. They are\nthe silicious shells and coverings of minute vegetables and animals,\nthese creatures, being coated with silica (a substance indestructible\nby age and the action of water), fall to the bottom of the sea and\nthere accumulate in such countless myriads that they form this fine\nsubstance, long mistaken for sand, but between which, in reality, there\nis a marked distinction, the one being formed by the disintegration and\ngrinding-up of rocks, the other the product of organic life; this, when\nit has accumulated for ages, will, in all probability, form some island\nor part of a continent, and be the site perhaps of some magnificent\ncity, reared upon a foundation of these minute wonders of the deep,\nwhose skeletons will have become consolidated into a hard and compact\nstone, of which its houses and churches will, in all probability, be\nbuilt.\n\nThis is not imagination, as such occurrences have really taken\nplace--all our chalk cliffs and downs constitute part of an immense\nstratum. Now, every grain of this chalk contains and is made up of\nthousands of minute shells and corals. These chalk downs were once the\nbed of some ocean which, in all probability, was filled up by their\nremains.\n\nWhat are the railroads and works of men's hands compared with this? Of\nthis chalk (hardened by pressure into limestone) most of our public\nbuildings are constructed, or (changed by pressure and heat into\nmarble) our statues of great men have been carved. What a mockery to\nchoose marble as the medium of rendering our heroes immortal--itself\nthe very type of mortality, being formed by the death of millions of\ncreatures.\n\nIn Dr. Carpenter's work on the microscope occurs the following:--\n\n\"Thus, when we meet with an extensive stratum of fossilised\n_Diatomace\u00e6_, in what is now dry land, we can entertain no doubt that\nthis silicious deposit originally accumulated either at the bottom of\na fresh-water lake or beneath the waters of the ocean, just as some\ndeposits are formed at the present time, by the production and death of\nsuccessive generations of these bodies, whose indestructible casings\naccumulate in the lapse of ages, so as to form layers, whose thickness\nis only limited by the time during which this process has been in\naction.\n\n\"In like manner, when we meet with a limestone rock entirely composed\nof the calcareous shells of Foraminifera--some of them entire,\nothers broken up into minute particles--we interpret the phenomenon\nby the fact that the dredgings obtained from certain parts of\nthe ocean-bottom, consist almost entirely of remains of existing\nForaminifera, in which entire shells--the animals of which may be yet\nalive--are mingled with the debris of others that have been reduced by\nthe action of the waves to a fragmentary state.\n\n\"Now, in the fine white mud which is brought up from almost every part\nof the sea-bottom of the Levant, where it forms a stratum that is\ncontinually undergoing a slow but steady increase in thickness, the\nmicroscopic researches of Professor Williamson have shown that not only\nare there multitudes of minute remains of living organisms, both animal\nand vegetable, but that it is entirely or almost wholly composed of\nsuch remains.\"\n\n[Illustration: ORGANISMS FROM MUD.]\n\nThe water of the sea is everywhere salt, except at the mouths of\ngreat rivers, where the quantity of fresh water displaces that which\nproperly belongs to the sea. The cause of its saltness is the solution\nof a natural mineral (chloride of sodium) which exists in the earth\nin great abundance in layers of a crystalline structure, and as this\nchloride of sodium (common salt) is soluble in water, of course it is\nall dissolved by the water in whatever situation they may come into\ncontact with each other. The composition of sea-water differs slightly\nin different parts of the earth, the southern seas being slightly\nmore salt than the northern. As a general rule, about five per cent.\nof solid matter is contained in sea-water, of this rather more than\nhalf (5.7) is chloride of sodium; the greater part of the other half\nconsists of different salts of magnesia, and this is the whole source\nof the medicines known as Epsom salts and magnesia, the former being\nthe sulphate and the latter the carbonate of magnesia. Iodine, another\narticle used in medicine and photography, is also extracted from\nsea-water, which however contains but a very minute portion, too small\nto be detected as a general rule, but extracted by burning certain\nsea-weeds, in the ashes of which it is found in sufficient quantity to\nbe separated.\n\nAlthough the sea as a whole keeps its level, yet in various parts it is\nconstantly rising and sinking, sometimes at one place and sometimes at\nanother; these risings and fallings are called tides, and are caused\nby the joint action of the sun and moon, that is, by their attraction,\nacting at different distances. First it must be observed (as is well\nknown) attraction varies inversely as the square of the distance, that\nis, if the moon were twice as far off, her attraction of the earth\nwould be one-fourth of what it now is, if three times as far off,\none-ninth, and so on.\n\nThe moon's average distance from the centre of the earth (A to C, in\nthe diagram) is about 240,000 miles, or about 60 times the earth's\nradius (B C), which is a little under 4000 miles, consequently if the\ndistance from the moon to the centre of the earth (A C) be expressed\nby 60, the distance to the nearest surface (A B) will be 59, and the\nfarthest surface (A D) 61. The moon will attract the point B with a\nforce of 1/59^2 or 1/3481, the point C with the force of 1/60^2 or\n1/3600, and the point D with the force of 1/61^2 or 1/3721. Now as\nthe force at C is greater than at D, the earth itself will be pulled\naway from the water at D, and leaving it a little behind, will produce\na high tide there, this tide is known as the \"inferior tide\" (2).\nAgain as the force at B is greater than at C, the water at B will be\npulled away from the earth and produce a still higher tide, called the\n\"superior tide\" (1), or that which takes place when the moon is due\nsouth. This heaping-up of the waters by the moon, to the height of\n4-1/2 feet (on an average) causes corresponding depressions to the same\ndepth in those parts of the earth which are situated between the raised\nparts, making a difference between high and low-water of nine feet due\nto the moon; precisely the same effects are produced by the sun, but\nthough his attractive power is so much greater than the moon's, his\ndistance is also so much greater, that the heap of water he can raise\nis somewhat less than 2 feet, and makes therefore less than 4 feet\ndifference between high and low-water, due to the sun. When the sun\nand moon are both on the same side, or on opposite sides of the earth\n(as at new or full moon), then the attraction of both act together and\nproduce \"spring tides,\" with a difference of 13 feet; at first and last\nquarter the sun and moon oppose each other, acting in cross directions,\nand the difference is then only 5 feet. But these effects could only\ntake place in the wide open space of an ocean, and when other forces do\nnot interfere, such as obstruction to the tide-waves by land, &c.\n\n[Illustration: DIAGRAM OF THE TIDES.]\n\nInland seas (as large as the Mediterranean even) have but very little\ntide, while pinched-up rivers may have a great rush of tide, as at\nBristol, where it rises to 45 feet sometimes, and at Anapolis in Nova\nScotia, to so much as 120 feet! Wind will also accelerate or retard\nboth the speed and height of the tides. London receives a much greater\ntide than its due, for the tidal-wave being interrupted by Ireland and\nEngland, rolls up the western coast (taking a northerly direction) with\nsuch force as to swing round the Shetlands and all down the eastern\ncoast of Great Britain. The direct Atlantic wave also, when split by\nour island, rolls along the south coast from Land's-End to Dover,\nrushes through the \"Straits,\" and meets the backward wave which has\nbeen travelling round by Scotland (as before mentioned), the two then\npour into the Thames and give an otherwise quiet river a high and\nuseful tide; so that London receives two tides, the southern one nearly\n10 hours after Cornwall, and the roundabout one not till nearly 23\nhours after it first reaches England.\n\n[Illustration: RIVER THAMES.]\n\nThe waters are the great highway throughout the whole world, and what\nan easy transit it has formed to those nations sufficiently civilised\nto require a further knowledge of the world, and thence procure for\nthemselves luxuries not obtainable at home--at the same time, spreading\ncivilisation wherever they go!\n\nIf the oceans, instead of forming one great concourse of waters, had\nexisted in the form of inland seas or great lakes, the great chains\nof mountains, deserts, and uninhabited tracts of earth, would, in\nsome cases, have formed impassable barriers, whilst in other parts\ncivilisation would have been impeded from the easy access of the more\nsavage tribes, who would have despoiled the more fortunate by inroads\namongst them, mingling with or exterminating them, and checking the\nonward progress of civilisation. And this has always existed where\ngreat tracts of land are, which are the last parts of the world to be\ncivilised, and in many parts remain as rude as they were thousands\nof years ago. All this is owing to the good and wise arrangement of\nwater and land, and is an instance of the care and foreknowledge of\nGod, who has provided for the onward progress of that creature to whom\nalone such a progress has been allotted; but as they now exist the\noceans form impenetrable barriers to the savage, so as to restrict\nhis brute force and uncultivated habits spreading, while they form\neasily-traversed highways to the more civilised nations, enabling them\nto spread their civilisation without contamination to themselves, but\nto the advancement of others.\n\nThe oceans are now navigated by thousands of vessels engaged in\nmercantile objects, and it is perfectly astonishing with what rapidity\nand safety these great tracts of water are crossed.\n\nIn one of Chambers's \"Papers for the People,\" called \"Ocean Routes,\" is\nthe following, speaking of the perfecting of the steam-vessel:--\n\n\"The regularity, speed, and safety with which the voyages of these\nvessels were made, soon pointed them out as the best conveyance both\nfor passengers and the mails.\n\n\"In 1821 they were employed on the latter service between Dublin and\nHolyhead, and between Calais and Dover; and now, with few exceptions,\nall the channel and ocean-work of the Post-Office is done by steamers,\nand all the passengers and much of the goods' traffic between the parts\nof Great Britain and Ireland, have been within the last quarter of a\ncentury transferred to them.\n\n\"After the steamboat had thus passed through the various stages of\ninfancy and childhood--had tried its strength on English rivers, in\nthe Irish Sea, and in the British Channel--men began to ask, was it\nnot strong enough and old enough to do more? Could it not cross an\nocean as well as a channel--take letters and men, and merchandise to\nAmerica, India, and Australia, as well as to Ireland and France? In\nthis question were involved considerations of the highest importance to\nall the world, but particularly to this country, for no other country\nhas such extensive foreign possessions as Great Britain, or carries on\nsuch an extensive trade.\n\n\"With the exception of the United States, all the colonies planted by\nthe British remain parts of the empire, while Spain and Portugal have\nlost nearly all those rich territories, extending over the fairest\nportion of the American continent, that at one time acknowledged the\nsway of the houses of Bourbon and Braganza. The foreign possessions\nof France are insignificant, and, of the other nations of Europe,\nthe Dutch alone possess a territory abroad greater than they have\nat home.... The proud position of Britain among the nations, the\nnecessities of her foreign trade, and the wants of her colonies and\ndependencies, apart from all other considerations, rendered it fitting\nand natural that she should lead the way in maritime enterprise, and\nteach the nations how to navigate the ocean by steam.\n\n\"Nor has she failed in this high task; for, within thirteen or fourteen\nyears, since the question was first proposed, she has established lines\nof gigantic steam-vessels that are now traversing with regularity and\nsafety every ocean, steaming altogether more than a million and a\nquarter miles every year, and distributing letters and newspapers all\nover the world, at a cost to the country of about \u00a3650,000 per annum.\"\n\nThe rapidity and ease with which thousands of troops were lately\nconveyed to the Crimea and India, together with all their stores,\nhorses, &c., form one of the most wonderful feats of ocean navigation\never performed, and point out the beauty of those arrangements which\nenable man to traverse the whole earth, whether by land or by water, so\nthat it may fairly be said that the civilisation of the world depended\nand still depends upon the waters.\n\n\nINTRODUCTION TO THE ORGANIC KINGDOMS OF NATURE.\n\nThe foregoing descriptions refer to the great works of God as seen in\nthose creations which possess not that most wonderful attribute--life.\nThere is no limit in extent, in quality, or in number, to these works;\ntheir extension appears to be infinite; their magnitudes are large\nor small, just as we compare them one with the other. This earth is\nan enormous mass, contemplated in comparison with ourselves, but an\ninsignificant speck when compared with the sun, and there are certain\nlaws, chemical and mechanical, which govern them all--heat, light,\nand electricity permeate all the infinity of space--attraction exists\neverywhere. There are no individual existences among them; all are\nmade up of matter combined according to certain definite chemical\nlaws, and always obedient to them under the same conditions--moving\naccording to certain mechanical laws, and always obedient to them. The\nCreator who made these lifeless masses made also the laws to regulate\nthem; but, besides these, it has pleased Him to form certain other\ncreatures not for an instant to be compared in size or quantity with\nthe former, and made up also of certain chemical compounds obedient\nto the mechanical and chemical laws, with one more addition, that\nunknown, inexplicable attribute--life. This wonderful quality exists\nin all organic beings; they obtain by it individual identity; they are\nwhole creatures--imperfect with any part taken away, also imperfect\nwith any addition. Clay is clay, in any quality or form; iron is\niron, whether a grain or a ton; but a tree is only a tree when it\nis complete. We cannot say \"some tree,\" as we would \"some clay,\" it\nmust be _a tree_, or several trees, each a separate and complete\nexistence--perfect in itself--made up of solids and fluids, and\npossessing certain attributes, namely, a constant circulation of its\nfluid parts, a constant appropriation of food and rejection of waste\nmatters--growth thereby to a certain definite form, and in many a\ndefinite size, together with the production of germs, capable, under\ncertain conditions, of producing beings exactly similar to themselves.\nThis constitutes organic life, and is possessed by all vegetables.\nAnimal life is exactly the same, with the super-addition of will or\nmind in its most perfect state, of instinct or some analogous function\nin its lower states, or in quite the lowest--a chemical and mechanical\ndifference only, such as shall determine the choice of food and mode of\nassimilating it. This difference consists in the vegetable feeding upon\ninorganic food, and the animal on food which has received the stamp of\norganisation. Creatures possessing life, whether vegetable or animal,\nare called organisms. It is found that these organisms are made up of\ncertain atoms united in larger multiples than in inorganic substances,\nwhich are either simple or compounded of but few atoms; thus water is\ncomposed (every atom of it) of _one_ atom oxygen, united to _two_ of\nhydrogen. Common salt (every atom of it) is composed of _one_ atom of\nthe metal sodium with _one_ atom of chlorine. Chalk is compounded of\n_one_ atom of calcium in union with _one_ of oxygen, and this united to\none atom of carbonic acid, itself composed of one atom of carbon with\n_two_ of oxygen. But organic compounds are often made up of four or\nsix elements, united in multiples of their usual combining quantities.\nThus, grape-sugar is made up (every atom of it) of 24 atoms of carbon,\n28 of hydrogen and 28 of oxygen; these 78 atoms unite and form one\ncompound atom, of which the sugar is wholly compounded, and thus,\nfrom such a complex nature, it happens that most organic compounds\nare decomposed by even a moderate degree of heat--all by a heat equal\nto red-hot iron. From these facts, it may be therefore stated, that\nall organisms are complete in themselves, have definite lives or\nexistences, appropriate certain matters to themselves, grow thereby,\nand are compounded of organic atoms.\n\n\n\n\nTHE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.\n\n[Illustration]\n\n\nQUANTITY, DISTRIBUTION, AND OFFICES OF THE VEGETABLE.\n\nIn contemplating nature there are few things which give more delight\nthan the beauty and variety of the vegetation which clothes the surface\nof the earth, whether it be that we contemplate the grassy covering\nof the plains of the Old World, or the immense \"prairies\" of the New,\nspreading out as it were into seas of grass, and giving food and\nshelter to thousands of wild animals; or gaze upon the rocky height of\nsome vast mountain range, and see the gigantic oak or pine, forming\nby their wide-spread shades the solemn forest which extends for miles\nbeneath us, and which forms a shelter for the various tribes of birds,\nmonkeys, and other animals, to whom it is a home of happiness and\nplenty--under every aspect the contemplation of nature's clothing fills\nthe mind with awe and admiration.\n\nThere is hardly anything more refreshing to the mind than the\ncontemplation of trees and shrubs congregated into a wood, the floor\nof which is carpeted with mosses and flowers, where the gigantic and\ngnarled trunks of the forest trees covered with many-coloured lichens\nstarting up all round, circumscribe the view, while the wide-spreading\nboughs and the leafy canopy overhead exclude the sun's rays. It is here\nthat one views nature in her purest forms and colours, untouched by the\ndestroying hand of artificial arrangement.\n\nThe immense preponderance of the vegetable over the animal world in\nquantity compensates somewhat for the superior organisation and the\nintelligence of the latter, which must be studied in the individual,\nwhile the vegetable world, which can be contemplated in the mass,\nalmost overwhelms the imagination with its vastness. It is indeed\nimpossible to compute the amount of vegetation in the great forests\nof America and Russia (in which latter country are the largest in the\nworld), covering hundreds, nay thousands, of square miles with one\ncontinuous growth of timber. That forest in Russia through which the\nriver Pechora flows, extends over a space of 150,000 square miles!\nThe whole mass of animated existence sinks into insignificance when\ncompared in quantity with this; and when to these forest-tracts are\nadded the thousands of square miles of grass and heaths which grow in\nsome climates with wonderful luxuriance, the amount of the vegetable\nkingdom is at once placed beyond all comparison with the animal kingdom\nin point of quantity. Cooper, in his American novels, describes the\nprairies as great seas of grass extending as far as the eye can reach,\nand rising to a height of 8 or 10 feet; and Humboldt describes some of\nthe grasses on the plains of the Oronoco, as being so gigantic that\nthey measure 18 feet from knot to knot, and says the Indians use them\nfor blow-pipes to shoot their poisoned arrows from. And--as though it\nwere not sufficient that the earth should bring forth everywhere all\nkinds of trees, shrubs, and grasses--the waters of the ocean itself are\noften filled with vegetable life; in some tracks the tangled sea-weed\n(_Fucus Natans_) is so dense as to impede the onward progress of ships\nfor hundreds of miles together.\n\nHumboldt, in his \"Views of Nature,\" describing the two great banks\nof sea-weed, says: \"The two banks of sea-weed, together with the\ntransverse band uniting them, constitute the Sargasso Sea of the older\nwriters, and collectively occupy an area equal to six or seven times\nthat of Germany.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.--DIATOMA VULGARIS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.--VARIOUS DIATOMACE\u00c6.]\n\nNor is this the only vegetation which the great world of waters\ncontains, for if we descend from the contemplation of its larger\nmembers we find them even surpassed in quantity by others of such\nextreme smallness, that they can only be seen individually by means\nof the microscope, but which exist in such prodigious quantities that\nthe mind can hardly realise the fact. These vegetable atoms have been\nso increasing and depositing their minute coverings at the bottom\nof most parts of the ocean, that for hundreds of miles their beds\nare composed of nothing else, and it has been found that most of the\ngreat changes on the surface of the earth have been effected by these\nminute creatures and their companions of the animal world; for as we\nfind chalk-downs and coral-reefs formed by the remains of microscopic\nanimals, so productions of equal extent have been formed by the\nsmallest members of the vegetable kingdom, chiefly the \"Diatomace\u00e6,\" a\nrace of minute vegetable productions which propagate by sub-division\nand have the power of withdrawing earthy matters from the waters in\nwhich they live, which forms a sort of shell or covering; this shell\nat their death remains indestructible and gradually accumulates in\nthe bed of the sea (fig. 1). Examination of the various strata of the\nearth shows that chains of hills, beds of marl, and almost every kind\nof soil, whether superficial or raised from a depth, consist in a great\nproportion of the earthy remains of these minute plants. These tracts\nof land were once the beds of oceans which were thus gradually filled\nup. The waters of the Antarctic Ocean are often opaque and quite brown\nfrom the multiplicity of these creatures, the lead used on shipboard\nfor sounding coming up from the bottom covered with what appears to\nbe mud, but which on a microscopic examination proves to be nothing\nelse than the shells of these and allied species (fig. 2). Thus we\nfind the land and the waters are everywhere full of vegetable life;\nthe air itself moreover is so filled with the germs of vegetable and\nanimal creations, that it is quite impossible to exclude a portion so\nsmall that it shall not contain any; in proof of which, any organic\nsubstance set by for a few days in a vessel ever so carefully closed,\nis shortly covered with a growth of mould consisting of fungi, which\nunder the microscope present most beautiful forms and colours (fig. 3).\nThe cause of this is a deposit from the air of the spores or germs of\nthese creatures, and the nature of the decomposing substance into which\nthey fall often determines the race or tribe which shall come to life\nand inhabit it, showing plainly that but a few of these only among many\ncome to maturity, just as when a variety of seeds are thrown on any\nparticular kind of soil, only those to which the soil may be suitable\ncome to perfection.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.--_a_ _a_, MOULD FROM AN OLD BONE--_b_,\nMOULD FROM JAM.]\n\nDr. Carpenter in his work on the microscope says:--\"There are scarcely\nany microscopic objects more beautiful than some of those forms of\nmould or mildew which are so commonly found growing upon the surface\nof jams and preserves, especially when they are viewed with a low\nmagnifying power and by reflected light; for they present themselves as\na forest of stems and branches of extremely varied and elegant forms,\nloaded with fruit of singular delicacy of conformation, all glistening\nbrightly on a dark ground.\n\n\"The universality of the appearance of these simple forms of fungi\nupon all spots favourable to their development, has given rise to the\nbelief that they are spontaneously produced by decaying substances,\nbut there is no occasion for this mode of accounting for it, since the\nextraordinary means adopted by nature for the production and diffusion\nof the germs of these plants adequately suffices to explain the facts\nof the case.\n\n\"The number of sporules which any one fungus may develope is almost\nincalculable; a single individual of the \"puff-ball\" tribe, has been\ncomputed to send forth no fewer than ten millions. And their minuteness\nis such that they are scattered through the air in the finest possible\ndust, so that it is difficult to conceive of a place from which they\nshould be excluded.\"\n\nPure water exposed to the air does not afford nourishment to the germs\nwhich fall into it till a sufficient number of them shall have been\ndeposited to form a food for those which come after them; but if we\nmix with the water any soluble vegetable or animal matter, in a short\ntime the microscope will detect the growth of the germs that are being\ndeposited, for where nourishment is, there only can they be developed.\nThese germs are capable of existing for an indefinite period, either\nfloating in the water, or blown about by the air, and have been\ndetected hundreds of miles from land, the rigging and sails of ships\nfar away from shore are often covered with what sailors suppose to be\nsand blown from the land, but which are organic substances, either\nvegetable or animal. According to Humboldt, the Red Sea has derived its\nname from the fact that at certain seasons the surface of the water has\na reddish appearance, and this (as he says) he was fortunate enough\nto observe, which colour he found to be due to myriads of red fungi\nwhich had formed on the surface. The seeds of some plants are furnished\nwith minute wings or plumes which cause them to be borne on the air or\nfloated on the water (fig. 4), to fertilise some barren spot, perhaps\na coral reef which has at length reached the surface of the water and\nwhich ascends no higher, for the little creatures which built it are\naquatic and cannot live exposed to the air; this coral reef now becomes\na receptacle for sea-weed and fungi, which float on the surface of the\nocean, are washed on to the reef, die, decay, and leave behind a thin\nlayer of mould, which process being repeated again and again, forms\nan elevated edge to the reef, enclosing a lake or \"lagoon\" as it is\ncalled, the waters of which evaporate and the space is filled up in the\nsame way as the edge was formed, together with the excrements of birds,\n&c., forming layer after layer of mould, and the surface becomes fit\nfor the growth of larger seeds, as the cocoa-nut, banana, &c., which\nare drifted on to it by the waves; in this way a coral reef becomes an\nisland fit to be inhabited by man and other animals.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SEEDS WITH PAPPI.]\n\nThe vegetable kingdom forms a mysterious link between the mineral and\nanimal kingdoms, and binds all creation into one grand and unspeakably\nbeautiful whole. There are certain substances from which the vegetable\nderives its nourishment, namely water, carbonic acid, and ammonia,\nwhich, though strictly inorganic, are yet not simple or elementary\nsubstances, but consist of pairs of elements combined. Thus water\nconsists of oxygen and hydrogen, carbonic acid of oxygen and carbon,\nand ammonia of hydrogen and nitrogen. All these aliments of the\nvegetable kingdom exist in the air, and in sufficient quantities to\nsupply all the requirements of vegetation; so that the air, together\nwith a few metallic oxides (salts) derived from the earth, furnishes\nfood for the whole vegetable tribe, from the highest to the lowest, and\nthese vegetables in their turn supply all the food which the animal\ntribes consume, for although one animal feeds upon others, yet these\nmust previously have derived their nourishment from vegetable matter.\nVegetables not only supply food properly so called, but likewise that\nwhich is essential to respiration, for besides separating all noxious\nexcess of carbonic acid from the air, they are an inexhaustible source\nof oxygen, the element essential to respiration, and consequently\nanimal life. This supply of oxygen by vegetables compensates for that\nwhich is consumed in respiration by animals, and thereby maintains the\natmosphere in a state proper to be breathed. That plants do thus absorb\ncarbonic acid and give out oxygen, can be proved in the most certain\nmanner, if the green parts of a plant be placed in water holding\ncarbonic acid in solution, and exposed to sunshine; the carbonic acid\nwill shortly be found to have disappeared from the water, while oxygen\ngas is evolved and can be collected, its quantity being exactly equal\nto the carbonic acid which the water contained.\n\nBesides furnishing food and oxygen for the nourishment of animals,\nvegetables afford a shelter from the burning rays of the sun in hot\nclimates, not only to man, but to those hundreds of wild animals whose\nproper home is in the forest. Humboldt says he found in South America\nforests composed of such close growth, that it was quite impossible\neven for the wild animals to penetrate into them, except at a few\nplaces, and that the jaguar often lives for weeks in the trees without\ndescending to the ground, preying upon the monkey tribes and other\nanimals, which are found in almost incredible numbers there; and Dr.\nLivingstone thus describes the forests of Africa:--\"The forests became\nmore dense as we went north. We travelled much more in the deep gloom\nof the forest than in open sunlight. No passage existed on either side\nof the narrow path made by the axe. Large climbing plants entwined\nthemselves round the trunks and branches of gigantic trees, like\nboa-constrictors, and they often do constrict the trees by which they\nrise, and, killing them, stand erect themselves.\"\n\nThese woods, as well as the grass and herbage of the plains, afford an\nenormously extended evaporating surface, and act, in the heart of hot\ncountries, as inland seas, giving out clouds of vapour, which ascend\nand are condensed in the form of rain; in this way the surface of the\nearth is cooled, the fluid (far away from its proper source, the ocean)\nis economised and fertilises a greater space of surface. Vegetation\nalso acts in preserving the surface of the earth from those ravages\nwhich both wind and rain would otherwise effect; the great deserts have\nbeen levelled by these causes, the earth not being of a quality to\nsupport vegetation. Cattlin says, that in North America he frequently\nmet with great conical-shaped mounds of earth devoid of vegetation,\nand which were fast being levelled by the rains, at every fall of\nwhich gullies were formed on their sides, down which the mud poured\nin streams; now, had these been of a quality to support a covering of\ngrass, their size and form would have remained unchanged for centuries.\nRailway embankments are often sown with grass seeds, to prevent injury\nto them, especially where this covering is not likely to come soon, as\nin the vicinity of large towns.\n\nThus it is seen that the vegetable kingdom far exceeds the animal\nin quantity, that it is everywhere distributed, that it affords\nnourishment and shelter to animals, preserves the air fit for\nrespiration, keeps down the excess of heat, and preserves the form of\nthe surface of the earth.\n\n\nMODE OF GROWTH--AGENTS AFFECTING--CONSTITUTION AND POSITION IN CREATION.\n\nThe green colour of plants is due to the formation and deposition in\ntheir cells of a peculiar compound called \"chlorophyll,\" and it is\nascertained that this compound is produced in the plant in consequence\nof its exposure to light, for no plant grown in the dark is green, but\nwill become so when light is admitted. This is shown in many cultivated\nvegetables, as celery, lettuces, &c., in which by banking up the\ncelery, or tying together the lettuce, the light is excluded, and the\nstalks of the one and the heart-leaves of the other become mild and\nwhite, whereas the same grown in a state of nature are so green and\nrank as to be almost poisonous.\n\nThe effects of light and heat in favouring vegetation being nearly\nalways found in union, causes that which is really due to light often\nto be attributed to heat, as in the growth of tropical plants; where\nboth are combined, there will be the greatest powers of vegetative\ngrowth. The absence of light and air often causes the upward growth of\na plant to seek them; a curious instance of this, altering the habits\nof a tree, is mentioned by Dr. Livingstone, who says:--\n\n\"As we traverse a succession of lawns and open forests, it is\ninteresting to observe something like instinct developed even in trees.\nOne, which when cut emits a milky juice, and if met with on the open\nlawns grows as an ordinary umbrageous tree, and shows no disposition\nto be a climber, when growing in a forest still takes the same form,\nthen sends out a climbing branch which twines round another tree until\nit rises 30 or 40 feet, or to the level of the other trees, and there\nit spreads out a second crown, where it can enjoy a fair share of\nthe sun's rays. In parts of the forest still more dense than this,\nit assumes the form of a climber only, and at once avails itself of\nthe assistance of a tall neighbour, by winding vigorously round it,\nwithout attempting to form a lower head. It does not succeed so well\nas parasites proper, but when forced to struggle for space, it may be\nmistaken for one which is invariably a climber.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.--PINE TREES ON MOUNTAIN SIDE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.--SEED BEGINNING TO GROW.]\n\nThe absence of heat with plenty of light is shown in the vegetation of\nmountainous districts, where there is great size, but the absence of\nleafy expansion, as in the pine tribe (fig. 5). Where both light and\nheat are deficient, nothing but fungi, mosses, and lichens of the most\nstunted nature will grow. Experiments in hothouses prove that although\ntropical plants be supplied with their proper amount of heat, yet\nwithout the very greatest supply of light that can be obtained, they do\nnot come to any degree of perfection. The influence of light is chiefly\nupon the leaves, that of heat upon the earth and root, which becomes\nmore fully developed. When a seed is placed in the earth, moisture is\nabsorbed by it from the earth, and a development of the cells of the\ncellular tissue of which the seed is composed takes place, and from\nthe peculiar nature of these cells they divide into two sets, one of\nwhich passes upwards towards the light, the other passes downwards\ninto the earth; these last (which pass downwards) form a fibre called\nthe \"radicle\" (fig. 6), those which pass upwards form also a stalk or\nfibre called the \"plumule,\" which carries up with it a part of the\nseed called the \"cotyledon,\" which (like a leaf) has the power of\ndecomposing the carbonic acid of the air and fixing its carbon in the\nform of wood. This begins as soon as the cotyledon has reached the\nlight, and thus the formation of fibres of woody matter takes place,\nwhich fibres descend from the cotyledon to the radicle. Meanwhile the\nformation of other cells of the plumule takes place, until the first\nleaf is formed, when other fibres of wood are sent down, and so on\nfor every leaf, so that the number of woody fibres which form the\ntrunk of a tree is in proportion to the number of leaves which that\ntree has borne, from which we come to the conclusion that the size of\nthe trunk of a tree is the sum of all its branches. While all this is\ngoing on, the cellular tissue of the downward part or radicle also\nbecomes developed and divides out into roots, on the surface and at the\nextremities of which are minute cellular bodies called \"spongioles\"\n(from their power of absorbing moisture), which take up the fluid of\nthe earth which surrounds them; this moisture ascends through the\nvessels of the plant till it arrives at the surface of the leaves,\nwhere it is exposed to the action of light and sunshine. The ascent of\nthe moisture of the earth was first correctly explained by Du Trochet,\nand is owing to a peculiar power which he discovered, and which is\ncalled \"Endosmose;\" this consists in the tendency which a fluid has to\npenetrate a membrane on the other side of which is a fluid of greater\ndensity than itself. This may be seen by the following experiment:\nobtain a piece of glass tubing about a foot long, having the end blown\nout into the form of a bell, as in fig. 7, tie a piece of bladder over\nthe expanded end and fill it partly with syrup or gum-water, so that\nthis shall rise in the stalk about an inch; place this in a glass of\nwater with the bladder downwards, and the fluid will be seen slowly to\nrise in the stalk, so that in perhaps an hour it will rise to the top.\nThis apparatus resembles one of the spongioles at the extremity of the\nfibre of a root.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.--ENDOSMOSE.]\n\nThe rain falling through the air carries with it a certain amount of\ncarbonic acid and ammonia, which the air always contains, and this is\nthe whole source of the nitrogen which forms a very important part\nof the bodies of plants and animals. When the rain arrives at the\nsurface of the earth, it sinks down into it and carries with it all\nsoluble vegetable or animal matter which it meets with, together with\nany soluble earthy matter which may exist in the soil; this forms\nthe sap of the tree. When it arrives at the surface of the leaf, the\nwatery part of it combines with the carbonic acid of the air (through\nthe influence of light) and appropriating its carbon, gives out the\noxygen; this is the true respiration of plants, and is exactly the\nreverse of what takes place during the respiration of animals, in which\ncase oxygen is absorbed and carbonic acid given off. The carbon thus\nretained by the plant combines with the elements of the water to form\nthe solid green substance called chlorophyll, which is the basis of\nall the tissues of the plant, the ammonia is also decomposed, and its\nnitrogen combining with the oxygen and hydrogen of the water, and the\ncarbon of the carbonic acid forms those compounds which constitute the\nmost nourishing parts of vegetables, such as albumen, gluten, &c., and\nof which all the animal tissues are built up, for the production of\nthese organic substances takes place in the vegetable only, animals\nsimply appropriating them from their food. The sap which reaches\nthe leaf is not all converted into chlorophyll, but also into those\npeculiar juices which are found in plants, some of which contain sugar,\nsome gum, others (as the pine tribe) turpentine, and in the laurel\ntribe camphor, all of which are substances containing much carbon;\nmoreover the solid wood and bark are deposited from these juices as\nthey descend from the leaf after having been acted on by light (or the\nactinic power associated with it). Now, as the water, ammonia, and\ncarbonic acid which descend with the rain are from the air, and as the\nvegetable is formed wholly by their absorption, it may be fairly said\nthat the vegetable kingdom (and therefore the animal) feeds upon the\nair, and that the trees do not grow out of the earth but into it.\n\nWith respect to the position which the vegetable kingdom occupies in\ncreation, there can be no doubt that it is subordinate to the animal\nkingdom, and takes a place between it and the mineral world, inasmuch\nas it prepares food from the one kingdom and transfers it to the\nhigher. It has been supposed that the vegetable and animal kingdoms aid\nand support each other equally and mutually; this is true with respect\nto respiration, but not as regards nutrition, for although in the\ndecomposition of animal matters, food is given off for the vegetable,\nyet they are quite independent of this source of nourishment. A forest\nof trees would be quite as well nourished if there were no animals, but\non the other hand the animal kingdom would shortly cease to exist if\nthere were no vegetables.\n\nIt was formerly supposed that the lowest grades of the animal kingdom\nwere higher than the highest of the vegetable kingdom; this is not\nstrictly true, the best way of viewing the connection between the two\nkingdoms is to approximate the lowest of each, when it will be found\nthat our most acute physiologists are only just beginning to determine\ntheir distinctive characters.\n\nDr. Carpenter says:--\"In the present state of science it would be very\ndifficult, and is perhaps impossible, to lay down any definite line\nof demarcation between the two kingdoms, since there is no single\ncharacter by which the animal or vegetable nature of any organism can\nbe tested.\n\n\"Probably the one which is most generally applicable, among those\nlowest organisms which most closely approximate to one another, is\nnot, as formerly supposed, the presence or absence of spontaneous\nmotion, but the dependence of the being for nourishment upon organic\ncompounds already formed, which it takes (in some way or other) into\nthe interior of its body, or its possession of the power of obtaining\nits own alimentary matter by absorption from the inorganic elements on\nits exterior. The former is the characteristic of the animal kingdom as\na whole, the latter is the attribute of the vegetable.\"\n\nBoth vegetables and animals begin with a simple nucleated cell, having\ncertain vital properties, a double chain ascends from this simple\ntype, one branch of which is developed more and more till it arrives\nat a perfect vegetable, and the other branch is developed till it\narrives at a perfect animal. Thus, by the addition of distinctive and\ncharacteristic appendages, one being acquires properties regarded\nas vegetable, while by the addition of other appendages equally\ncharacteristic, the other being obtains those properties which cause\nit to rank as an animal; but it must not be inferred from this that\nall organic forms have been a simple cell at some former period, but\nthat there are two classes of organic beings, the vegetable and the\nanimal, and that each embraces forms, ranging from a simple cell to the\nhighest, and that each of these forms (from the lowest to the highest)\nis and always was, from their first creation, the same as they now\nare, in individual shape and size. Some of the lower members of the\nanimal kingdom resemble the higher members of the vegetable kingdom,\nboth in outward appearance and in intimate structure; Dr. Darwin,\nwho wrote scarce half-a-century ago, says that a tree should no more\nbe considered as one plant than a branch of coral as one animal, for\nas it is found that in the coral hundreds of separate beings exist\nassociated in one habitation, so (he says) should every bud on a tree\nbe considered as a separate being. Even Dr. Carpenter, one of our most\neminent physiologists, seems in a great measure to favour this idea. He\nsays: \"The radiata possess many points of affinity with the vegetable\nkingdom, and of these the circular arrangement of their parts is one of\nthe most evident. Many species of sea-anemones, for instance, present\nan appearance so much resembling that of various composite flowers, as\nto have been commonly termed animal-flowers, a designation to which\nthey seem further entitled from the small amount of sensibility they\nmanifest, and the evident influence of light upon their opening and\nclosing.\n\n\"But it is in the tendency to the production of compound fabrics, each\ncontaining a number of individuals, which have the power of existing\nindependently, but which are to a certain degree connected with one\nanother, that we recognise the greatest affinity in structure between\nthis group and the vegetable kingdom. Every tree is made up of a\nlarge number of buds composed of leaves arranged round a common axis;\neach bud has the power of preserving its own life and reproducing the\noriginal structure when removed from the parent stem, if placed in\ncircumstances favourable to its growth, and yet all are connected in\nthe growing tree by a system of vessels which form a communication\nbetween them. This is precisely the nature of those structures which\nare formed by the animals of the class that may be regarded as the most\ncharacteristic of the group. Every mass of coral is the skeleton of a\ncompound animal, consisting of a number of polypes, connected together\nby a soft flesh in which vessels are channelled out; the polypes are\ncapable of existing separately, since each one, when removed from the\nrest, can in time produce a massive compound fabric like that of its\nparent, but they all contribute to the maintenance of the composite\nstructure so long as they are in connection with it. In some instances\nthe skeleton is stony, and is formed by the deposition of calcareous\nmatter either in the centre of each fleshy column, so as to form a\nsolid stem, or on its exterior so as to form a tube. In other cases\nit is horny, and then it may be a flexible axis in a delicate tube.\nBoth the stony and horny corals often possess the form of plants or\ntrees, and as their skeletons are often found with no obvious traces of\nthe animals to which they belong, they have been accounted vegetable\ngrowths.\"\n\n\nDESCRIPTION OF A VEGETABLE AND ITS PARTS.\n\nAs has been said before, it is extremely difficult to make any\ndistinction between the lower tribes of the vegetable and animal\nkingdoms, and physiologists are not yet agreed, with respect to some\nmembers, as to which kingdom they belong. Their whole substance is made\nup of cellular tissue, and there are but few distinctions of parts,\nforming generally a broad foliaceous expansion called the \"thallus,\"\nas in lichens and sea-weeds, or a sort of root composed of fibres and\ncalled the \"mycelium,\" as in the fungi. But, a very few steps higher,\nthe distinctive characters become so evident that they are impossible\nto be mistaken, the following description will therefore apply to\nvegetables of the more elevated character, such as trees or flowering\nplants.\n\nPlants are fixed to the earth, and receive nourishment from it by\nimbibing its liquids, which circulating upwards through the porous\nstructure of the plant itself, and becoming exposed to the air in the\nleaves, attract to themselves nourishment from that source also. The\npart of a plant which grows into the earth is called the root; this\nhas a variety of forms, in some it is branched like the upper part,\nand these branches divide into rootlets or fibres penetrating deep\ninto the ground, and absorbing nourishment in all directions, but this\nabsorption does not take place from the whole surface of the root but\nfrom spots covering it, and from the slightly expanded ends of the\nfibres, these portions are formed of new and porous cellular tissue,\nand are called \"spongioles.\" The part of plants which springs upwards\nfrom the earth is called the stem, if large the trunk, this divides\ninto branches and twigs; stems in some cases continue for a distance\nmore or less underground. The part of a potato plant, usually called\nthe root, and from which the tubers or potatoes grow, is in reality\nan underground stem, and the fibres which spring from it are the\nroots; the underground suckers of mint are also portions of stem, and\nin some cases these are greatly expanded, they then obtain the names\nof \"tubers\" (as the potato), or \"corm,\" as in the crocus and meadow\nsaffron; when the stem is thin and runs along the ground, sending in\nroots at intervals (as in the strawberry), it is called a \"runner,\"\nwhen thicker and running horizontally under the ground, it is called a\n\"rhizome.\"\n\nThe stem consists of a central portion, either made up of long bundles\nof woody fibre running side by side, as in the endogen\u00e6, or deposited\nin rings and having a central cylinder of pith, as in the exogen\u00e6. In\nthese the wood at the central part (or the oldest) is called \"duramen,\"\nor \"heart-wood,\" while that at the outer part or nearest to the bark\n(the newest), is called \"alburnum\" or \"sap-wood.\" The former is the\nharder and the latter the softer portion. From the pith in the centre,\nthrough the woody part, rays or lamin\u00e6 of cellular tissue similar to\nthat which constitutes the pith itself, are sent outwards through the\nwoody rings to the inner part of the bark, which they form; these are\ncalled medullary rays, and may be seen in wood which has been cut\nacross the grain, they are often called the \"silver grain,\" and are\nvery evident in oak, beech, and elm, the inner part of the bark is\ncalled the \"liber.\" The bark itself is made of cellular tissue dried\nand hardened by age; the outer portion (called the \"epidermis\") is in\nmany cases shed, and may be constantly seen hanging loosely from the\nbark of the birch and other trees in loose white silvery portions. The\nouter part of the bark of some trees is so largely developed as to be\nof considerable thickness, this is especially the case in the Cork\noak (_Quercus suber_), which is the cork of commerce. The bark cannot\nstretch as the circumference of the tree increases, it is therefore\nsplit up and cracked, which accounts for the rough state of it on those\ntrees which do not shed the outer part.\n\nThe chief appendage of the branches, is called a leaf, it grows from a\nsmall projection called a leaf-bud, which contains the leaf rolled up.\nThe method in which this occurs is different in different plants, in\nsome it is folded backwards and forwards, in others doubled up with the\nopposite leaf alternately, and in various forms in other plants. The\nleaf consists of two parts, the stalk (petiole) and the blade (lamina);\nthe blade is of different forms, and has ribs and veins covering it, in\nsome of a reticulated or network pattern, these belong to the exogen\u00e6,\nand in others running parallel, which is the kind of venation found in\nthe leaves of the endogen\u00e6. When leaves are placed on a stalk, they are\nsaid to be \"petiolate,\" when without one, \"sessile.\"\n\nWhen leaves are not separated into different portions (although they\nmay be much notched) they are said to be \"simple,\" as in the oak or\nwillow, but when divided into separate portions, as in the ash, they\nare said to be \"compound.\"\n\nThe following are the chief forms of leaves, named according to\nvariations of their several parts:\n\n[Illustration: DEPENDING ON FORM.\n\nLanceolate (Privet).\n\nOvate (Fuchsia fulgens).\n\nOblong (Primrose).\n\nCordate (White Bryony).\n\nPalmate (Vine).]\n\n[Illustration: DEPENDING ON MARGIN AND ARRANGEMENT.\n\nSerrate (Rose).\n\nBiserrate (Elm).\n\nCrenate (Betony).\n\nEntire (Lilac).\n\nDigitate (Lupin).\n\nPinnate (Vetch).\n\nBipinnate (Acacia).\n\nPinnatifid (Crepis).\n\nTernate (Clover).\n\nBiternate (Columbine).]\n\n\n[Illustration: DEPENDING ON POINT.\n\nObtuse (Dock).\n\nMucronate (Holly).\n\nRetuce (Snowball).\n\nEmarginate (Bladder Senna).]\n\nAt the base of many leaves are a pair of scales called stipules;\nthe petiole or leaf-stalk is generally cylindrical, but frequently\ntriangular, and in grasses it is flat and surrounds the stem, this is\ncalled a sheath; when leaves are narrow and not expanded into a lamina,\nas in the pine tribe, they are said to be \"acicular.\"\n\nThe stalks which bear the flowers are called \"pedicels,\" at the base of\nwhich are a pair of scales called \"bracts;\" when these are large and\nexpanded, so as to enclose the flowers, they are called \"spathes\" (this\nis seen in the arum), and when there are a number of flower-stalks\narising from one point the bracts there collected are called an\n\"involucre.\" A flower consists of several parts, the outermost green\nscales, composing a set, are called the calyx, and each part of it, is\ncalled a \"sepal,\" within this is the \"corolla\" or that coloured part\nwhich forms the most characteristic feature of the flower, each part of\nthe corolla is called a \"petal;\" when the corolla consists of but one\npiece, it is called \"monopetalous,\" and when of many, \"polypetalous.\"\n\nThe forms of corolla vary according to the form and the mode in which\nthe petals are placed, whether united or separated, and to what extent,\nwhether regular or irregular; the most usual forms are the following:--\n\n[Illustration: Campanulate (Bell-shaped), Canterbury Bell.\n\nRotate (Wheel-shaped), Woody Nightshade.\n\nHypocrateriform (Salver-shaped), Phlox.\n\nInfundibuliform (Funnel-shaped), Tobacco.\n\nLabiate (Having Lips), Bugle.\n\nRingent (Grinning), Sage.\n\nGaleate (Helmet-shaped), Monk's-hood.\n\nPappilonaceous (Like a Butterfly), Sweet Pea.\n\nCruciate (Like a Cross), Cuckoo-flower.]\n\n\nWithin the corolla are placed the \"stamens\" (male reproductive organs)\nthese consist generally of two parts, the head and stalk, the former\ncalled the \"anther\" and the latter the \"filament,\" which last is\nsometimes absent, and the anther is said to be \"sessile;\" on the\nsurface of the anther is the \"pollen\" or fertilising dust.\n\nWithin the centre of the flower is the \"pistil\" (female reproductive\norgan), this consists of one or several cells called \"ovaries,\" from\nthe pistil a tube rises, having an expanded end called the \"stigma,\"\nit is by the application of the pollen dust to this stigma that the\novaries are fertilised, and the various insects, especially bees,\nwho seek for honey, shake off by their movements the pollen from the\nanthers and cause it to be applied to the stigma, thus unconsciously\nperforming a necessary office for the plant while they rob it of that\nonly which is not required.\n\nThe stamens are sometimes separate, sometimes bound up into one or\nmore bundles, and are placed in various situations, names are given to\ndescribe such arrangements as follows:--\n\n Stamens in one bundle, Monadelphous.\n Stamens in two bundles, Diadelphous.\n Stamens in more than two bundles, Polyadelphous.\n Filaments placed directly below the pistil, Hypogynous.\n Placed upon the sides of the calyx, Perigynous.\n On the sides of the corolla, Epipetalous.\n On the top of the ovary, Epigynous.\n\nWhen the ovaries are fertilised the flower dies and they begin to\nenlarge and ripen to form the fruit, which is the pistil enlarged, and\ncontains the ovules ripened into seeds.\n\nThe fruits of different plants are known by various names according\nto the state of development of the various parts composing them. If\nthe ripe fruit split open so as to let out the seeds (as in the common\npea) it is called \"dehiscent,\" if it do not so split (as in the apple)\nit is said to be \"indehiscent;\" the outer part of fruit is called the\n\"pericarp,\" and this may be soft and fleshy as in the apple or cherry,\nor hard as in the filbert. The following are the names of the principal\nvarieties of fruit:--\n\n[Illustration: Pome (Apple).\n\nGland (Acorn).\n\nLegume (Pea).\n\nStobule (Hop).\n\nDrupe (Plum).\n\nBerry (Currant).\n\nCapsule (Poppy).\n\nSiliqua (Shepherd's Purse, Wallflower).\n\nEterio (Strawberry).\n\nNut (Hazel-nut).\n\nCaryopsis (Wheat).]\n\nThe seed is the ovule ripened, it contains the germ of the future\nplant, called the \"embryo,\" the outer part of the seed is called the\n\"testa,\" and the space between this and the embryo is generally filled\nwith starchy matter called the \"albumen.\" The embryo consists of the\nplumule or stem, the \"radicle\" or root, and the cotyledons or leaves\nof the future plant; when the seed has but one cotyledon it is called\n\"monocotyledonous\" and when it has two \"dicotyledonous.\"\n\nFlowers are arranged in various ways upon the plants which produce\nthem, and receive names accordingly; the whole arrangement of flowers\nis called the \"inflorescence.\"\n\nThe following are the principal forms of inflorescence:--\n\n[Illustration: Hemlock.]\n\n The UMBEL, in which all the flower-stalks (pedicels) radiate\n from one point, as in the carrot (daucus carota). Umbels are sometimes\n compound, that is, the flowers are placed in umbels at the end of\n stalks themselves radiating from a point and so forming an umbel, as\n in the Hemlock (Conium maculatum).\n\n[Illustration: Plantain.]\n\n The SPIKE, is that kind of infloresence in which all the\n flowers are seated without stalks upon a general peduncle or axis, as\n in the Plantain (Plantago media), in which the spike is entire, or as\n the Lavender (Lavandula Vera), in which the spike is interrupted, that\n is, the inflorescence is not continuous.\n\n[Illustration: Hazel]\n\n CATKIN, or AMENTUM, is the same as a spike, but\n in which the flowers are imperfectly developed, as in the Hazel\n (Corylus), Willow (Salix), White Poplar (Populus Alba), &c.\n\n[Illustration: Water-cress]\n\n The RACEME has the inflorescence placed along a common\n axis or centre, the same as a spike, but with the flowers placed\n upon stalks instead of being sessile, as in Water-cress (Nasturtium\n officinale) and Red Currant (Ribes rubrum).]\n\n[Illustration:Candy-tuft]\n\n The CORYMB is a form of inflorescence pretty much the same as\n raceme, but the flowers of which proceed upwards till they are all on\n a level, as in Candy-tuft (Iberis).\n\n[Illustration: Creeping Soft Grass.]\n\n The PANICLE, the same as the raceme, but having the flower\n stalks themselves divided into branches, as in Creeping Soft Grass\n (Holcus mollis). This and the spike are the most usual form of\n inflorescence found among grasses, in many of which the panicle,\n however, is often contracted almost to a spike.\n\n[Illustration: Elder.]\n\n The CYME, this resembles the panicle shortened in such a\n manner as to become flattened or almost corymbose, as in the Elder\n Tree (Sambucus nigra), in which there are five principal stalks of\n inflorescence.\n\n[Illustration: Chamomile.]\n\n CAPITULUM, in which the flowers arise from a broad round head\n or receptacle as in the composite flowers, such as Chamomile (Anthemis\n nobilis); in such flowers the star-like ray of florets are called the\n florets of the ray, and those composing the centre the florets of the\n disc.\n\n[Illustration: Arum.]\n\n The SPADIX is that form of inflorescence in which the\n expanded bract, called a spathe, forms a sort of sheath inclosing\n the flowers. This spathe is white in the example given, and is often\n mistaken for part of the flower itself, as in the Wake-robin or Arum\n (Arum maculatum).\n\nThe vegetable kingdom is divided into three great natural families, the\nAcrogen\u00e6, the Endogen\u00e6, and the Exogen\u00e6.\n\nThe acrogenous plants are those which as a general rule have neither\nbranches, leaves, nor flowers; they are almost wholly made up of\ncellular tissue, and are many of them so minute that they are quite\ninvisible individually to the unassisted eye, and are among the most\nwonderful works of the Creator, having an amount of beauty in form and\nelaboration of ornament bestowed on them, quite equal to anything among\nthe higher and larger creations, and yet some of these are so small\nthat tens of millions may be placed in the space of a cubic inch, of\nsuch are the Diatomace\u00e6 and Desmidiace\u00e6.\n\nThe acrogens take an immense range in the scale of organisation,\nfrom the ferns (which appear but little inferior to the exogen\u00e6 or\nendogen\u00e6, have stems and leaves, and in some cases, as in hot and moist\nclimates, assume the size and form of a tree), to the very lowest\nstate of vegetable existence, consisting of simple cells uniting into\nstrings or forming simple threads, such as the green alg\u00e6 which form\non stagnant waters and damp ground or wood-work, and the mould or\nmildew which forms on all decomposing substances. The general name for\nthese acrogens, \"cryptogamia,\" which has been in use for a long time\nand is commonly still used, indicates that the reproductive organs\nare invisible, hence the expression used by one of Shakespeare's\ncharacters, \"We have the secret of fern seed, we walk invisible;\"\nbut this is not really the case, for the \"sorri\" at the back of\nfern-leaves, are vessels filled with spore cases each having a number\nof angular seeds within it; the lower tribes of the acrogens do not\ncommonly grow from seed but by an extension of their several parts by\nthe development of the cells of which they are composed, and by their\nseparation into portions.\n\nFew of this tribe have anything like true woody texture, except their\nhighest order, the ferns, which form some of the most beautiful\nobjects in the vegetable world. Few of the family of acrogens are of\nmuch direct use to man, the mushroom tribes are very generally eaten\nwhere they abound, the lichens of the arctic regions form the food\nof the reindeer (the greatest friend of man in these cold climes) as\nwell as, in part, the food of man himself; but although these lowly\nplants serve man but little, directly, there is not a shadow of doubt\nthat they have as important an office to fulfil as any other family\nor tribe of organised creatures, whose purpose may meet the eye more\nplainly. For all the members of creation form, as it were, the links of\none great chain, and were but one removed, though it might perchance\nbe only some poor weed or lowly moss, yet might it cause the whole to\nbe annihilated; for certain earthy matters enter into the structure\nof all plants, and it appears to be the wonderful office of some of\nthese lowest tribes of plants to prepare this earthy matter for its\nreception into the systems of higher organisms, for as silica is one\nof the primitive rocks of the earth and is only found in fragments,\nfrom the largest to the sand on the sea-shore, which is nothing but a\ncollection of minute fragments of quartz worn small by attrition, yet\na grain of sand is a gigantic mass of rock in comparison with the thin\nporous hollow shells of the Diatomace\u00e6, &c., and by far too large to\nbe absorbed or dissolved so as to be taken into the systems of other\nplants that may require it, which plants would cease to exist if this\nearth were not thus prepared for them; now these are the corn-bearing\nplants, the most useful to the animal world, and upon which it in\nreality depends for existence. Moreover the whole of the mould in which\nthe higher orders of plants grow, is formed by the decomposition of the\nmore humble grades, especially the lichens, which first take possession\nof the surface of bare rocks and stones, and furnish by their death\nfood fit for the sustenance of those which follow them. Like the higher\norders of vegetation, these minute plants excrete oxygen, and thus in\nthe ocean may supply this vital element for the respiration of the\nvarious corresponding minute animal organisms which inhabit the depths\nof the sea and which cannot come to the surface to get it, so that the\ntwo thus supporting each other, form food for all the higher marine\nanimals, which are finally eaten by man. So that upon some of these\nminute and apparently useless creatures hang the lives and well-being\nof many of the most important vegetables and animals.\n\nDr. Lindley divides the acrogens into the following orders:--\n\n\n1. ALG\u00c6 (Algals), including Sea-weeds, &c.\n\n The Alg\u00e6 include the lowest of all the vegetative organisms, the\n \"Protophytes\" (first plants). These have no individual parts, but\n consist of living cells, propagating by sub-division or by the union\n of two cells into one, causing the formation of \"nuclei\" or smaller\n cells within them, each of which becomes a parent cell after the\n rupture of the cell-membrane which contained them.\n\n Dr. Carpenter, in his \"History of the Microscope,\" says:--\"The\n life-history of one of these uni-cellular plants in its most simple\n form, can scarcely be better exemplified than in the _Palmogloea\n macrococca_, one of those humble forms of vegetation which spreads\n itself as a green slime over damp stones, walls, &c. When this slime\n is examined with the microscope, it is found to consist of a multitude\n of green cells, each surrounded by a gelatinous envelope; the cell,\n which does not seem to have any distinct membranous wall, is filled\n with granular particles of a green colour, and a 'nucleus' may\n sometimes be distinguished through the midst of these. When treated\n with tincture of iodine, however, the green contents of the cell are\n turned to a brownish hue, and a dark-brown nucleus is distinctly\n shown. Other cells are seen, which are considerably elongated, some\n of them beginning to present a sort of hour-glass contraction across\n the middle; in these is commencing that curious _multiplication by\n duplicative subdivision_ which is the mode in which increase nearly\n always takes place throughout the vegetable kingdom.\"\n\n [Illustration: Fucus Vesiculosus.]\n\n The higher tribes of Alg\u00e6 embrace the sea-weeds; these are for the\n most part broad, leaf-like expansions of \"thallus,\" composed of\n cellular tissue, they sometimes grow to an enormous length. Humboldt\n mentions the sea-grass as extending for miles, and forming continuous\n extensions of two or three hundred feet, and the _Macrocystis\n pyrifera_ attains to the length of more than a thousand. The common\n Bladder-wrack (_Fucus vesiculosus_) was formerly much used to procure\n soda from, its ashes containing a considerable quantity, it is also\n used for manure; the _Laminaria digitata_ is eaten under the name of\n \"tangle,\" and a nutritious jelly is made from the \"Carigeen moss\"\n (_Chondrus crispus_).\n\n\n2. CHARACE\u00c6 (Charas).\n\n These are a kind of fresh-water Alg\u00e6, composed of tubes of cellular\n tissue; they are peculiar, from the fact that the spores of the plant\n have cilia, giving to them the powers of motion and enabling them to\n swim away and spread the plant afar off. It is in the Charas that the\n peculiar circulation of the granules of \"endochrome\" called \"cyclosis\"\n is best seen.\n\n[Illustration: Charas.]\n\n\n3. FUNGI (Fungals), including Mushrooms, &c.\n\n[Illustration: Eatable Mushroom (Agaricus campestris).]\n\n The Fungi comprise a great variety of vegetable growths, from the\n mould which grows on any animal or vegetable substance, to the\n mushroom. Some of the moulds or mildews found on various decaying\n substances are peculiar to them, and in many cases exceedingly\n destructive. The microscopic fungus _Puccinea graminis_, is the\n parasite which fixes itself to corn and produces the disease known\n as mildew, and the _Uredo segetum_ (another microscopic fungus)\n causes the \"smut;\" the \"bunt\" is caused by the _Uredo foetida_,\n and the \"spur,\" or \"ergot,\" which attacks rye, is caused by the\n _Acinula clavis_. These fungi completely destroy the grain of corn,\n in which they form, and propagate in the most rapid manner; the\n ergot is moreover a dangerous poison to those who eat the bread made\n of rye infected by it. The Truffle (_Tuber cibarium_) is a kind of\n underground fungus, and is esteemed a dainty. Mushrooms are also\n fungi, and several species are sufficiently wholesome; these are the\n Field Mushroom (_Agaricus campestris_) and the Fairy-ring Mushroom\n (_Agaricus pratensis_).\n\n\n4. LICHENES (Lichens),\n\n Are those dry scaly growths forming grey, green, or yellow spots\n on the barks of trees and in various other places, and they grow\n in a sort of leaf or scale called a \"thallus.\" They are used as\n articles of food and as \"dye-stuffs;\" the _Cetraria Icelandica_ is\n the \"Iceland Moss\" used here for making a sort of nutritious drink or\n jelly, the natives of Iceland, however, use it as common food; the\n _Cladonia rangifarina_, or Reindeer Moss, is the chief food of that\n useful creature which forms the whole property of the Laplander; and\n the _Roccella tinctoria_ is the substance from which the dye called\n \"archil\" is procured.\n\n[Illustration: Lichen.]\n\n\n5. FILICES (Ferns).\n\n The Ferns are a very numerous order of acrogenous plants, growing in\n the temperate regions from a rhizome or underground stalk (commonly\n called its root), which throws up \"fronds\" or leaves with a strong\n midrib; this midrib is commonly called its stalk, but in tropical\n countries the fern stalk rises above ground to the height of 30 or 40\n feet, and then it is seen that the ordinary stalks are but the midribs\n of the fronds. There are between two and three thousand species of\n fern. The fronds open in a peculiar manner, unwinding as it were from\n a round ball. The \"sorri\" or seed-cases are situated at the back of\n the fronds in little brown spots, each of which is found to consist of\n a heap or collection of round capsules, and if these be placed under\n the microscope they have the appearance of little membraneous cases\n covered with net-like markings, and at the upper part a striated band\n of a brown colour, which after a time stretches out into a nearly\n straight line, tearing open the bag or capsule, and a number of seeds\n escape. Ferns grow best in damp and shady situations, and will thrive\n well in damp mould under a glass case.\n\n[Illustration: Fern.]\n\n\n6. MARCHANTIACE\u00c6 (Liver-worts).\n\n[Illustration: Liver-worts.]\n\n These Liver-worts are much like Lichens, growing between and upon\n stones near springs and moist places, and forming a broad thallus\n or root from which grow cup-shaped sporangia or seed-cases. The\n _Marchanta polymorpha_ is one of its chief members.\n\n\n7. JUNGERMANNIACE\u00c6 (Scale-mosses).\n\n[Illustration: Scale-moss.]\n\n The Scale-mosses grow in moist places and under the stems of trees and\n plants. Their appearance is scaly, and they have a sort of stalk.\n\n\n8. BRYACE\u00c6 (Urn-mosses).\n\n[Illustration: Urn-moss.]\n\n Urn-mosses comprise the most ordinary of the mosses, the \"Brium,\"\n which grows on the ground everywhere, forming tufts; its\n fructification resembles an urn, and hence its name.\n\n\n9. LYCOPODIACE\u00c6 (Club-mosses).\n\n[Illustration: Club-moss.]\n\n These are very beautiful mosses, of a bright green colour, growing in\n moist places. There are about 200 species of club-mosses known. The\n common Lycopodium is its most characteristic member. It grows well\n with ferns under a glass case.\n\n\n10. EQUISETACE\u00c6 (Horsetails).\n\n The Equisetace\u00e6 are the highest of the Acrogens, and nearly resemble\n the Endogens; they grow in ditches and pools, have a hollow stem\n with joints at regular intervals from each of which a whorl of green\n modified leaves arises; they are very full of earthy matter (silica),\n and one kind (_Equisetum Hyemale_), called Dutch Rush, is so rough\n with it that it is used for polishing and scraping many articles.\n\n[Illustration: Horsetail.]\n\n\nThe second division of the vegetable kingdom are the Endogen\u00e6, which\nare those plants growing from a central bud only, as the palms,\nbamboos, and canes of all kinds, the grasses and all graminiferous or\ngrain-bearing plants, as wheat, barley, &c. They have but one cotyledon\nin the seed and have no bark, but in place thereof a kind of natural\nvarnish or thin coating of silica; this varnish or external polish is\nseen in the stalks of corn and on canes. Their leaves are often of\ngreat size, the veins run parallel to each other (fig. 8), they often\ngrow from an expanded base which surrounds the stalk as in corn, and\nbranch off at regular intervals making knobs or joints, as may be seen\nin the bamboo cane (figs. 9 and 10), in other cases they branch off\nspirally, and when fallen form a sort of trellis-work on the stem (as\nin some of the palms) but always in a regular manner. The wood of this\nfamily of vegetables has the same porous structure as cane (figs. 11,\n12, 13,14), and is often hollow in the centre, becoming more and more\nsolid according to the age of the tree. The stems of these plants are\nlimited in growth and soon acquire their full size, which never exceeds\neighteen or twenty inches in diameter although some of the palms are\nnearly 150 feet high. When the stem has acquired its full size, the\ncontinual production of more woody fibres makes it impossible that\nthese (like the exogen\u00e6) can have a very extended period of existence,\nfor when every part of the stem is full of woody matter, the plant\nceases to grow from obstruction to the circulation of the juices. The\nstems of some of this family are always hollow like the stalks of corn;\nthis arrangement allows of great elevations without bending, and is\nfound to be the form which gives the greatest strength from a given\nquantity of material--one of those beautiful mechanical perfections of\nnature which man first admired and then endeavoured to imitate.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.--ENDOGENOUS LEAF, SHOWING PARALLEL VENATION.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9.--BAMBOO CANE, SHOWING JOINT.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.--BAMBOO CANE, SPLIT OPEN.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 11.--PERPENDICULAR SECTION OF ENDOGENOUS WOOD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 12.--PART OF THE SAME, MAGNIFIED.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 13.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF ENDOGENOUS\nWOOD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 14.--PART OF THE SAME, MAGNIFIED.]\n\nSome of the palms and other endogen\u00e6 are of a most beautiful form,\nand are moreover quite as useful as beautiful, furnishing food to\nthe inhabitants of many regions, especially the Arabs of the Desert,\nwho carry the dried fruit of the Date-palm with them, on crossing\nthese vast plains of sand, as their chief food. The Plantain (_Musa\nsapientum_) forms a most beautiful and graceful object, with its\nenormous leaves springing up from the ground by their midrib in\nclusters, and extending upwards for 20 or more feet in graceful curves,\naffording a shady and cool retreat beneath them from the burning rays\nof the sun; the fruit is also one of the necessaries of life in the\nregions where they abound. The Fan-palm is another beautiful specimen,\nfrom the fan-like leaves of which the punkahs or Indian fans are made.\nThe Palmyra palm furnishes leaves which are used to thatch houses, the\nsap is drunk as a refreshing beverage, and when evaporated yields a\nkind of sugar called \"juggery,\" from which palm-wine is made.\n\nThe palms were amongst the first trees created, their fossil stems\nbeing constantly found; they were even then associated with the\nelephant and rhinoceros, and although these are found chiefly in the\nnorthern parts of Europe, yet it is much more reasonable to suppose\nthat the climate of these parts has changed, than that these two\nfavourites of the sunny regions should have had their natures changed.\n\nAmong the useful members of the endogen\u00e6 may be mentioned the Maranta\nArundinace\u00e6, or Arrow-root plant, which is thus described by Dr.\nBaird:--\"It is a genus of monocotyledonous plants, belonging to the\nnatural order Cannace\u00e6 or Marantace\u00e6, and composed of herbs which have\na well-developed rhizome or tuberous root containing a large quantity\nof fecula or starch. The species are natives for the most part, of\ntropical America, a few being also found in India. The structure of the\nflowers is remarkable, and the fruit fleshy. The most important species\nis the Maranta Arundinace\u00e6, a plant which is extensively cultivated in\nthe West Indies, the southern parts of the United States, and in the\nIsle of France, for the sake of its root, which affords the substance\nso well-known as Arrow-root. This root consists of a tuber of a\npeculiar form, and contains a large proportion of fecula; the stem is\nupwards of three feet high, and the flowers are white, delicate, and\nsmall. In Cayenne the tubers are eaten by the natives, roasted, as a\ncure for intermittent fevers, and when bruised, are applied by them\nto wounds, and considered more especially as a specific against those\ncaused by poisoned arrows, hence the name of Arrow-root.\"\n\nAccording to Dr. Livingstone, the inhabitants of Angola live almost\nexclusively upon the Tapioca plant. He thus describes the mode of\npreparing it, &c.:--\"They (speaking of the half-caste Portuguese)\nsubsist chiefly on the Manioc, and as that can be eaten either raw,\nroasted, or boiled, as it comes from the ground, or fermented in water\nand then roasted or dried after fermentation and baked, or pounded\nor rasped into meal and cooked as farina, or made into confectionery\nwith butter and sugar, it does not so soon pall upon the palate as one\nmight imagine when told that it constitutes their principal food. The\nleaves, boiled, make an excellent vegetable for the table, and when\neaten by goats, their milk is much increased. The wood is a good fuel,\nand yields a large quantity of potash.... The root, rasped while raw,\nplaced upon a cloth, and rubbed with the hands while water is poured\nupon it, parts with its starchy glutinous matter, and this, when it\nsettles at the bottom of the vessel and the water is poured off, is\nplaced in the sun till nearly dry to form tapioca, the process of\ndrying is completed on an iron plate over a slow fire, the mass being\nstirred meanwhile with a stick; when dry, it appears agglutinated into\nlittle globules, and is in the form we see in the tapioca of commerce.\"\n\nAlthough none of this family of plants produce building timber\n(according to our notions of that article), yet it is questionable\nwhether we have a greater number of uses for our exogenous woods than\nare found by the natives of those countries where the Endogen\u00e6 abound\nfor palm stems and bamboo canes; as the Grecian styles of architecture\narose from the imitation of structures of timber, so the Hindoo and\nChinese styles have arisen from imitation of bamboo buildings. There\nis scarcely a constructive use that can be imagined to which this\nconvenient material is not applied. In the \"Penny Cyclop\u00e6dia\" (article\n\"Bambusa\") is the following:--\n\n\"The purposes to which different species of bamboo are applied, are so\nnumerous that it would be difficult to point out an object in which\nstrength and elasticity are requisite, and for which lightness is no\nobjection, to which the stems are not adapted in the countries where\nthey grow. The young shoots of some species are cut when tender, and\neaten like asparagus. The full-grown stems, while green, form elegant\ncases, exhaling a perpetual moisture, and capable of transporting fresh\nflowers for hundreds of miles; when ripe and hard, they are converted\ninto bows, arrows, and quivers, lance-shafts, the masts of vessels,\nbed-posts, walking-sticks, the poles of palanquins, the floors and\nsupporters of rustic bridges, and a variety of similar purposes. In\na growing state the spiny kinds are formed into stockades, which are\nimpenetrable to any but regular infantry aided by artillery.\n\n\"By notching their sides the Malays make wonderfully light\nscaling-ladders, which can be conveyed with facility where heavier\nmachines could not be transported. Bruised and crushed in water, the\nleaves and stems form Chinese paper, the finer qualities of which only\nare improved by a mixture of raw cotton, and by more careful pounding.\n\n\"The leaves of a small species are the material used by the Chinese for\nthe lining of their tea-chests. Cut into lengths and the partitions\nknocked out, they form durable water-pipes, or by a little contrivance\nare made into excellent cases for holding rolls of papers; slit into\nstrips they afford a most durable material for weaving into mats,\nbaskets, window-blinds, and even the sails of boats. Finally, the\nlarger and thicker truncheons are exquisitely carved by the Chinese\ninto beautiful ornaments. It is however more especially for building\npurposes that the bamboo is important (fig. 15). According to Marsden,\nin Sumatra the framework of the houses of the natives is chiefly\ncomposed of this material. In the floorings, whole stems four or\nfive inches in diameter are laid close to each other, and across\nthese laths of split bamboo about an inch wide are fastened down\nwith filaments of rattan-cane. The sides of the houses are closed in\nwith the bamboo opened and rendered flat by splitting or notching\nthe circular joints on the outside, clipping away the corresponding\ndivisions within and laying in the sun to dry pressed down with\nweights. Whole bamboos often form the upright timbers, and the house\nis generally roofed in with a thatch of narrow split bamboos six feet\nlong, placed in regular layers, each reaching within two feet of the\nextremity of that beneath it, by which a treble covering is formed.\nAnother and most ingenious roof is also formed, by cutting large\nstraight bamboos of sufficient length to reach from the ridge to the\neaves, then splitting them exactly in two, knocking out the partitions\nand arranging them in close order, with the hollow or inner sides\nuppermost; after which a second layer with the outer or convex sides\nup, is placed upon the other in such a manner that each of the convex\nfalls into the two contiguous concave pieces, covering their edges, the\nlatter serving as gutters to carry off the rain that falls upon the\nupper or convex layer.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 15.--HUT OF BAMBOO.]\n\nThe Endogen\u00e6 are divided into twelve orders, as follows:--\n\n\n1. GRAMINAC\u00c6 (Grasses).\n\n[Illustration: Wheat, Barley, Meadow-grass.]\n\n The Graminac\u00e6 comprise the great bulk of those plants which supply\n man and the lower animals with food, for it contains all the grasses\n and corn-bearing plants, including rice, maize, wheat, oats, barley,\n and rye. Upon these all the Ruminants of the earth feed, and millions\n of human beings taste no other kind of food. There are nearly 4000\n species of graminaceous plants, rice and maize being the most broadly\n extended, forming the chief food of the Chinese, Hindoos, and other\n nations; wheat is here the most valuable grain, and is now grown in\n all parts of Europe and America. Humboldt, in his \"Views of Nature,\"\n gives an interesting account of the first wheat grown in New Spain. He\n says:--\n\n \"A negro slave of the great Cortes was the first who cultivated wheat\n in New Spain, from three seeds which he found in some rice brought\n from Spain for the use of the troops. In the Franciscan convent of\n Quito I saw, preserved as a relic, the earthen vessel which had\n contained the first wheat sown in Quito by the Franciscan monk Fra\n Jodoco Rixi de Gante, a native of Ghent in Flanders. The first crop\n was raised in front of the convent, on the Plazuela di San Francisco,\n after the wood which then extended from the foot of the volcano of\n Pinchincha had been cleared. The monks, whom I frequently visited at\n Quito, begged me to explain the inscription, which, according to their\n conjecture, contained some hidden allusion to wheat. On examining the\n vessel, I read in old German the words,\n\n \"'Let him who drinks from me ne'er forget his God.'\n\n \"This old German drinking-cup excited in me feelings of veneration.\n Would that everywhere on the New Continent the names of those were\n preserved who, instead of devastating the soil by bloody conquests,\n confided to it the first fruits of Ceres.\"\n\n\n2. CYPERACE\u00c6 (Sedges).\n\n These plants much resemble the Grasses, they afford but little\n nourishment, however, to cattle, having but little starchy matter in\n them, and being but little succulent. The Cyperus Papyrus is the plant\n from which the ancient \"papyrus\" was made, and is probably (according\n to Dr. Baird) the plant termed in Scripture the Bull-rush.\n\n[Illustration: Sedges.]\n\n\n3. ARACE\u00c6 (Arum tribe).\n\n The Arace\u00e6 include the Arum maculatum, or Cuckoo-pint, peculiar in\n having the flowers enclosed by a kind of sheath formed like a leaf,\n and called a \"spathe.\" The \"Portland Sago\" is obtained from the\n Rhizome of this plant, but some of the species of this order are\n poisonous. The Dumb-cane (Caladium Segninum) paralyses the tongue, if\n chewed.\n\n[Illustration: Arum.]\n\n\n4. TYPHACE\u00c6 (Bull-rush kind).\n\n The Typhace\u00e6 are the Bull-rush tribe, having the Typha latifolia or\n great Reed-mace for its characteristic member. It grows in ditches\n and marshy places. The young shoots of the Bull-rush, which resemble\n asparagus, are eaten by the Cossacks as food.\n\n[Illustration: Bull-rush.]\n\n\n5. MELANTHACE\u00c6 (Colchicum kind).\n\n This includes many plants which have bulbous roots, some of them being\n poisonous. The Colchicum autumnale, or Meadow Saffron, is the type of\n this order; it grows in moist meadows, producing a purple flower which\n appears before the leaves. The root or bulb, and the seeds, are used\n in medicine.\n\n[Illustration: Meadow Saffron.]\n\n\n6. LILIACE\u00c6 (Lily kind).\n\n The Liliace\u00e6 are a very numerous tribe, including the Lilies,\n Hyacinths, and Tulips, the Onion, Garlic, Asparagus, the Cape Aloe,\n Yucca, and many others; they are for the most part bulbous plants,\n having simple leaves enclosing the stem. The Palms are included in\n this order; they are among the tallest and most graceful of the\n vegetable tribes, and in the countries where they abound are applied\n to almost every purpose that can be enumerated.\n\n[Illustration: Lily.]\n\n\n7. AMARYLLIDACE\u00c6 (Narcissus kind).\n\n The Amaryllidace\u00e6 are the Narcissus tribe, including also the Agave,\n or American Aloe, and the Snow-drop. The greater number of species\n belonging to this order are natives of the Cape of Good Hope, some of\n these are poisonous; the juice of the Cape Blood-flower (H\u00e6manthus\n Toxicarius) is used by the Hottentots to poison their arrows with.\n\n[Illustration: Narcissus.]\n\n\n8. IRIDACE\u00c6 (Crocus tribe).\n\n The Iridace\u00e6 include the Crocus (Crocus sativa), the Corn-flag\n (Gladeolus communis), and the Blue-flag (Iris Germanica); the bulb of\n the Iris Florentina, is dried and used for various purposes, it has a\n scent resembling violets and is sold at druggists' shops by the name\n of orris-root, a corruption of iris-root.\n\n[Illustration: Crocus.]\n\n\n9. ORCHIDACE\u00c6 (Orchids).\n\n[Illustration: Butterfly Orchis.]\n\n The family of the Orchis. Dr. Baird, in describing them, says:--\"They\n are almost all herbaceous, a very few only being somewhat shrubby in\n their growth; some live in the ground, and besides the ordinary roots\n have bulbs or starch-bearing tubercles; others are what may be called\n pseudo-parasites, living attached to the bark of trees. These plants\n abound in the forests of tropical countries, where the climate is\n moist, and are generally known by the name of Epiphytes. The flowers\n vary very much in shape, form, and colour, and in many instances have\n a striking resemblance to insects, various birds, and animals, as\n Oncidium, in which the resemblance is to butterflies, &c.; Cychnoches,\n in which (in one species) the likeness is strikingly similar to a\n swan; Peristeria, one species of which is called the Sprito-Santo\n plant, of Panama, and in whose flower there is the likeness of a dove\n descending upon the lip, &c. A curious fact in this part of their\n history is, that in the same plant, on the same stem, and even on the\n same head of flowers, we find flowers so different in appearance that\n we might place them in different genera.\"\n\n\n10. NAIADACE\u00c6 (Naiads).\n\n Water-plants, called \"pond-weeds,\" and grow on both fresh and salt\n water. The marine species, Zostera marina, is dried and used for\n stuffing mattresses.\n\n[Illustration: Pond Weed.]\n\n\n11. BUTOMACE\u00c6 (Flowering Rushes).\n\n Of this order the Butomas umbellatus, a sort of rush, producing very\n handsome pink flowers in umbels, growing in ditches and by the sides\n of rivers, is the most characteristic member.\n\n[Illustration: Flowering Rush.]\n\n\n12. ALISMACE\u00c6 (Water Plantain).\n\n The two chief members of this order are the Alisma Plantago or Water\n Plantain, which grows in ditches, having its flowers in the form of\n panicles, and the Sagittaria sagitt\u00e6folia or Arrowhead.\n\n[Illustration: Water Plantain.]\n\n * * * * *\n\nThe third great natural family of plants are the Exogen\u00e6. They comprise\nall the trees and shrubs of the temperate and colder regions, together\nwith many of the flowering plants. They are characterised by certain\npeculiarities which can be at once recognised, such as the twisted and\nbranched form of the stem, the possession of bark, leaves having the\nveins covering them running in all directions and forming a network,\nand the seeds containing two cotyledons; the wood, moreover, is\ndeposited in rings (figs. 16, 17, 18, 19), one of which is formed every\nyear, by the new wood being produced on the outside of the old, and\nbetween it and the bark. This deposition takes place as follows: after\nthe rains of winter and early spring have well saturated the earth with\nmoisture, and the warmth of spring has begun to penetrate to the roots\nof the plants, a development of the points of each fibrile or radicle\ntakes place, forming new spongioles; these, being formed of new porous\ncellular tissue, begin to absorb (by endosmose) the moisture of the\nearth, which entering at all these thousands of minute spongioles at\nonce, collects and rises in the vessels of the trunk and branches, and\narriving at the vessels forming a plexis on the surface of every leaf,\nbegins to be changed by the action of the sun's rays, absorbing carbon\nand giving out oxygen from the carbonic acid always contained in the\nair. The sap which has thus risen is the juice of the earth in which\nthe plant grows, containing several earthy salts and vegetable extract\ndrawn from the manure or decaying vegetation contained in the mould,\ntogether with carbonic acid dissolved in the fluid; this carbonic acid\nis changed by the sun's rays as well as that which was contained in the\nair, and the carbon uniting with the watery part of the sap, forms the\ngreen substance before alluded to, called chlorophyll, which is the\ngreen colouring matter of all plants, and is the basis of the wood.\nThe altered sap descends between the wood and the bark, and forms a\ndeposit gradually, which at the end of the year is a complete ring of\nwood surrounding the wood of former years. This circulation of juices\ncontinues through the summer, until, the cold weather coming on and the\nlight being diminished, the sap neither rises nor is the leaf nourished\nby it, when it decays and falls off.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 16.--PERPENDICULAR SECTION OF EXOGENOUS WOOD\n(ELM), A, the pith, B B, the woody rings, C C, the bark.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 17.--PERPENDICULAR SECTION OF EXOGENOUS WOOD\n(CEDAR), MAGNIFIED.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 18.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF EXOGENOUS WOOD\n(ELM), SHOWING THE GROWTH OF NINE YEARS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 19.--TRANSVERSE SECTION OF EXOGENOUS WOOD\n(CEDAR) MAGNIFIED, SHOWING THE GROWTH OF FIVE YEARS.]\n\n\nThe age of exogenous wood can be ascertained--where the centre has not\ndecayed--by counting the rings, one only being deposited every year;\nand it is truly astonishing to find that some trees will continue\nto live and flourish for several thousand years! There does not, in\ntruth, appear to be any limit assigned to the life of an exogenous tree\nif it escape accidents; for, although decay inevitably attacks the\nheartwood, and a cavity is the result, yet, the new wood continuing to\nbe deposited on the outer part, the vitality of the tree is kept up,\nand its size continues to increase.\n\nThe Baobab or Monkey Bread-fruit trees, growing at the mouths of the\nSenegal, have been estimated by Adinson to be upwards of six thousand\nyears old, and are, in all probability, the oldest relics of organic\nlife existing at the present time. The cedars of Lebanon are supposed\nto have existed longer than the records of history. The Yew at Braburn,\nin Kent, is at least three thousand years old; and that of Fortingal\nnearly as much.\n\nDr. Livingstone, describing the Mowana or Baobab tree (fig. 20), thus\ncomments upon its power of withstanding injury:--\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 20.--THE BAOBAB TREE.]\n\n\"No external injury, not even a fire, can destroy this tree from\nwithout, nor can any injury be done from within, as it is quite common\nto find it hollow, and I have seen one in which twenty or thirty\nmen could lie down and sleep as in a hut. Nor does cutting down\nexterminate it, for I saw instances in Angola in which it continued\nto grow in length, after it was lying on the ground. Those trees,\ncalled exogenous, grow by means of successive layers on the outside;\nthe inside may be dead, or even removed altogether, without affecting\nthe life of the tree; this is the case with most of the trees of our\nclimate. The other class is called endogenous, and increases by layers\napplied to the inside, and when the hollow of the tree is full, the\ngrowth is stopped, and the tree must die. Any injury is felt most\nseverely by the first class on the bark, by the second on the inside,\nwhile the inside of the exogenous may be removed, or the outside of the\nendogenous may be cut, without stopping the growth in the least. The\nMowana possesses the power of both. The reason is, that each of the\nlamin\u00e6 possesses its own independent vitality; in fact, the Baobab is\nrather a gigantic bulb run up to seed than a tree. The roots, which may\noften be observed extending along the surface of the ground forty or\nfifty yards from the trunk, also retain their vitality after the tree\nis laid low, and the Portuguese now know that the best way to treat\nthem is to let them alone, for they occupy much more room when cut down\nthan when growing.\"\n\nOn examining the wood of the exogen\u00e6, it will be found that in the\nvery centre is a small column of cellular tissue, called the pith, and\nthat from this, fine layers of the same substance radiate towards the\ncircumference. These are called the medullary rays, or silver-grain;\nthey form an exterior layer or ring of cellular substance on the\noutside of the wood, which is called the cambium. The lightness of\nwood is owing to its porosity, and, on examining a transverse section\nunder the microscope (figs. 17 and 19), it will be seen how little of\nreal space is occupied in wood by solid substance. The spaces between\nthe wall-work of woody matter in the tree are all filled with sap,\nand hence it is that \"green wood\" is so much heavier than that which\nis well seasoned. It is its lightness and strength, together with the\nease with which it can be cut and fashioned, which renders wood so\nexceedingly useful; but its inflammability and liability to decay are\ngreat barriers to its more general use.\n\nThe leaves of the exogen\u00e6 have their veins always in the form of a\nnetwork, and not running parallel with each other, as in the endogen\u00e6\n(fig. 21).\n\nOf the three divisions of the vegetable kingdom, the exogen\u00e6 alone\nfurnish building timber, properly so called, and it is doubtful whether\nnature has supplied a more generally applicable substance than wood;\nbeing a bad conductor, it can be handled in the coldest weather, which\nmetal cannot, and, being easily cut or split, can be fashioned into\nalmost any form.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 21--EXOGENOUS LEAF, SHOWING RETICULATED VENATION.]\n\nThe woods mostly in use for general purposes are the different kinds of\npine, as American Pine, Norway Pine, yellow and white Deal, Mahogany,\nOak, Beech, Elm, Ash, and Maple. In the \"Penny Cyclop\u00e6dia,\" under the\narticle \"Wood,\" is the following description of the different kinds\nused by cabinet-makers, &c.:--\n\n\"The woods that are used by the cabinet-maker for furniture of a more\ndelicate kind are called 'fancy woods.' The use of these has become\nmuch more general since the introduction of the art of veneering, and\nnow that this is done by machinery instead of by hand, a number of\nwoods are used for furniture and other purposes, which, on account of\ntheir scarcity, could have been formerly used only to a very limited\nextent. The most common of the fancy woods, and that which is most\nused by cabinet-makers, is Mahogany. This wood is the produce of the\n'Swienteria Mahogani.'\n\n\"Next in point of importance and use to Mahogany, is Rosewood. This\nwood obtains its name from its fragrance, and is the produce of a\nmimosa from the forests of Brazil; in veneering it affords about eight\nplates to the inch.\n\n\"King-wood is a beautiful wood much in use, brought from Brazil in\nlogs four feet long and about five inches wide, and is used only for\ndelicate articles; it is said to be the produce of a species of\nBaphia, a genus of Leguminous plants.\n\n\"Beef-wood is a very heavy wood of a pale red colour, and is brought\nfrom New Holland in logs nine feet long and thirteen or fourteen inches\nwide; the tree from which this is obtained is unknown to botanists, as\nwell as most of those producing the fancy woods of commerce.\n\n\"Tulip-wood is brought into the market in very small pieces, not more\nthan four feet long and five inches in diameter, so that probably it is\nthe production of a shrub; it is clouded with red and yellow colours,\nand is used for bordering and for making small articles, such as\ncaddies and work-boxes.\n\n\"Zebra-wood is probably the production of a large tree, as it is cheap\nenough to be made into tables, pianofortes, &c.; it is coloured brown\non a white ground and clouded with black.\n\n\"Satin-wood is of a brilliant yellow colour with delicate glowing\nshades. It is the produce of a plant called Chloroxylon Swienteria,\na native of India; it is one of the trees that yield the wood-oil of\nIndia, and belongs to the natural order Cedrelace\u00e6, the same order in\nwhich the mahogany is placed; it is found in the market in logs two\nfeet wide and seven or eight feet long.\n\n\"Sandal-wood is the produce of a species of Sandoricum belonging\nto the family Meliace\u00e6; the wood is of a light brown colour with\ngolden-coloured waves.\n\n\"Ebony and Iron-wood are the names given to some very hard woods, the\nproduce of the natural order Ebenace\u00e6. These woods are mostly brought\nfrom India, although some of the species are found in Europe and\nAmerica.\n\n\"There are several other woods occasionally used amongst\ncabinet-makers, of which little is known, either with regard to the\nplaces they come from, or the trees to which they belong. Canary-wood\nhas a yellow colour; Purple-wood has a purple colour, without veins;\nSnake-wood is of a deep colour with black shades; Calander-wood is a\nhandsome cheap wood taking a high polish, and is brought from Ceylon.\n\n\"Other woods are named after the places they come from, as\nCoromandel-wood, Amboyna-wood, &c.\"\n\nWoods are largely used as dye-stuffs; the chief of these is log-wood,\nwhich has a deep red colour, is very heavy and solid, and yields a\ngreat deal of red colouring matter. It is very astringent, and contains\ntannic and gallic acids, from which properties it produces a deep black\ncolour when mixed with any of the salts of iron; from this peculiarity\nit is very valuable as a black dye, but the black dye so extensively\nused for dyeing cloth, is, for the most part, made from galls, or\n\"nut-galls,\" as they are sometimes called. These are hard round\nsubstances found growing on many species of oak, chiefly the \"Quercus\ninfectoria,\" and the best are brought from Aleppo; they are diseased\ngrowths produced by a little insect, called the \"Cynips Quercus,\"\nwhich deposits its eggs under the epidermis of the leaf, and the juice\ncollects and forms the gall (fig. 22), from the interior of which the\nlarva eats its way out; thus it will be found that every gall must have\na little round hole in it, whence the larva of the cynips has issued.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 22--ALEPPO GALL.]\n\nThe root of the Madder plant (Rubia tinctorum) produces the most\nbeautiful and permanent of our red dyes, and the cochineal insect\n(Coccus cacti) obtains its colour from feeding upon the cactus.\n\nA useful and very permanent blue dye is obtained from Indigo, a kind of\nextract from the plant \"Indigofera,\" growing in India and other places,\nand many other members of the vegetable kingdom yield dyes and colours\nused in the arts.\n\nAmongst the various and almost endless purposes to which wood is\napplied, that of serving as a material to engrave on and print from\nmust not be omitted. The wood used for this purpose is that of the\nbox-tree (Buxus sempervirens), which furnishes a close, even-grained,\nhard wood, admirably suited to the purpose; and the cultivation and\nperfecting of this most admirable art, has produced an improvement in\nbook-illustrating which can hardly be sufficiently appreciated.\n\nWood must have supplied one of the earliest materials with which to\nerect buildings; the Grecian styles of architecture, beyond doubt,\nwere derived from imitating in stone those structures first made of\nwood. All the largest members of the vegetable kingdom belong to this\ndivision; and indeed the same may be said of size which has been\nsaid of age, namely, that there is no limit except from accidental\ncircumstances.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 23.--WELLINGTONIA GIGANTEA.]\n\nIn the Crystal Palace at Sydenham is a most wonderful and gigantic\nspecimen of the Wellingtonia Gigantea (fig. 23), one of the class of\ntrees called coniferous, and belonging to the exogens, the bark of\nwhich has been stripped off in portions at the place where it grew,\neach of which being numbered, has enabled them to be re-adjusted in\ntheir original places, the result of which is, the whole bark of this\nmost magnificent tree appears as if growing on the timber. It measures\n31 feet across at the base, and 93 feet in circumference; the original\ntree was 363 feet in height, its present height is 116 feet, and the\nbark is 18 inches thick. The Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria excelsa)\nsometimes grows to 300 feet in height, and Humboldt, describing a\nspecimen of the Pinus Trigona, says, \"This gigantic fir was measured\nwith great care; the girth of the stem at 6-1/4 feet above the ground\nwas often 38 to 45 feet; one stem was 300 feet high, and without\nbranches for the first 192 feet.\"\n\nAs the exogens grow by the addition of woody matter to their\ncircumference, of course the older the tree (other conditions being\nequal) the larger will be the trunk, but as the new wood is added\nto the outside, the centre loses its vitality and is liable to the\nattacks of both animal and vegetable parasites, and is therefore\nconstantly found either decayed or totally destoyed; this is not,\nhowever, invariably the case, and many instances are found of wood of\na great age remaining sound in the centre. At St. Nicholas in Lorraine\nis exhibited a plank of walnut wood made into a dining-table which is\ntwenty-five feet wide. Besides timber for various useful purposes, this\ndivision of the vegetable kingdom furnishes us with both cotton and\nlinen for clothing, and many of the dye-stuffs for ornamenting such\nclothing, also with many articles of food (although not so prolific in\nthis respect as the Endogen\u00e6), the potato, most green vegetables, as\ncabbages, lettuces, are exogenous, together with such roots as carrots,\nparsnips, &c.\n\nTo this class of plants belong many of the most beautiful flowers, and\nall our fruit-trees, not the least important of which is the fig-tree,\nalthough the fig can hardly be called a fruit in the strict sense of\nthe word, being a consolidated mass of flowers within a receptacle.\nThe figs of commerce are produced from the Ficus carica, the fruit\nbeing dried in the sun; they form a considerable article of commerce.\nThe celebrated Banyan tree (Ficus indica, fig. 24) is one of the fig\ntribe, it throws down branches (as do many others of this tribe) which\ntake root in the earth and form fresh stems, so that one of the banyan\ntrees with its off-shoots will cover a space of ground sufficient to\nshelter a regiment of cavalry, and many of the fig tribe, especially\nthe sycamore (Ficus sycamorus), are planted for the sake of the shelter\nthey supply by their broad crowns of leaves; another of the fig trees\n(Ficus elastica) supplies a great part of the India-rubber of commerce.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 24--THE BANYAN TREE.]\n\nDe Candolle divides the class of exogens into four sub-classes\naccording to the arrangement of their flowers &c.; they are as\nfollows:--\n\n 1. THALAMIFLOR\u00c6, the flowers of which are furnished with both\n calyx and corolla, the corolla having distinct petals, and the stamens\n hypogynous, that is, growing immediately from below the pistil.\n\n 2. CALYCIFLOR\u00c6, having flowers with both calyx and corolla,\n the corolla divided into distinct petals, but the stamens always\n Perigynous, that is, growing upon the sides of the calyx.\n\n 3. COROLLIFLOR\u00c6, having flowers with both corolla and calyx,\n the former having its petals united.\n\n 4. MONOCHLAMYDE\u00c6, flowers without corolla and often without a\n calyx.\n\nThese four sub-classes have been divided into orders as follows:--\n\n\nORDERS OF THALAMIFLOR\u00c6.\n\n 1. NYMPHACE\u00c6 (Nymph\u00e6a alba) White Water-Lily.\n (Nuphar luteum) Yellow Water-Lily.\n\n This order contains water plants of great beauty, they grow in the mud\n at the bottom of the water, sending up long flower- and leaf-stalks so\n that the flowers may blossom in the air and the leaves float on the\n surface; the leaves are generally round and turned up slightly at the\n edges. The \"Victoria Regia\" is a magnificent specimen of this order;\n it originally came from Brazil, and has flowers a foot wide, leaves\n four or five feet across, and is sufficiently buoyant, it is said,\n to bear the weight of a child. The Lotus of the Nile, the blossom of\n which so frequently occurs on the carvings of the Egyptians as an\n offering to Isis, is another member of this order.\n\n[Illustration: White Water-Lily.]\n\n\n 2. PAPAVERACE\u00c6 (Papaver somniferum) White Poppy.\n (Papaver Rhoeas) Red Poppy.\n\n Opium is prepared from the unripe capsules of the White Poppy, it is\n chiefly cultivated for this purpose in India and Turkey. The Chinese\n are the great consumers of opium, it being a common habit with them\n both to eat and smoke it. Opium is made by collecting the juice in\n the morning which has exuded from incisions made in the capsules over\n night; those employed for this purpose use a small knife with several\n blades and go round the plantations scarifying the capsules in the\n evening, and the juice which issues and forms a thick concrete matter,\n is scraped off, beaten up, and dried in round lumps. About \u00a32,000,000\n worth are exported from India annually.\n\n[Illustration: White Poppy.]\n\n[Illustration: Red Poppy.]\n\n\n 3. RANUNCULACE\u00c6 (Anemone coronaria) Garden Anemone.\n (Aconitum Napellus) Monk's-hood.\n (Ranunculus acris) Butter-cup.\n\n Besides the above examples, there are many beautiful flowers belonging\n to this order, as the Clematis and Peony. Members of this order are\n for the most part poisonous, and some of them, as Monk's-hood and\n Hellebore, are violently so, while even the Butter-cup is to a certain\n extent acrid.\n\n[Illustration: Garden Anemone.]\n\n[Illustration: Monk's-hood.]\n\n\n4. FUMARIACE\u00c6 (Fumaria officinalis) Fumitory.\n\n This order contains no plant of any importance. The common Fumitory\n derives its name from the supposed resemblance of the odour of its\n flowers to smoke.\n\n[Illustration: Fumitory.]\n\n\n 5. BRASSICACE\u00c6 (Sinapis alba) White Mustard.\n (Nasturtium officinalis) Water Cress.\n (Brassica oleracea) Cabbage.\n\n In this order are contained many of the useful occupants of our\n kitchen gardens, the Cabbage, Turnip, Cauliflower, Radish, and many\n more; they have nearly all a pungent taste, and some, as the Rape,\n yield seed producing much oil. The Water Cress is grown near London in\n square pools, into which some neighbouring stream is turned. These\n pools are arranged side by side, and those who gather the plants lie\n down on a plank of wood placed across. Enormous quantities are thus\n supplied to the London markets.\n\n[Illustration: Water Cress.]\n\n\n6. CISTACE\u00c6 (Helianthemum Vulgare) Helianthemum.\n\n These plants are for the most part evergreens; the Yellow Cistus is\n our most familiar example of the order. In Turkey the Rock-roses are\n much cultivated, they exhale a gum having a highly aromatic odour,\n which is there used as a perfume.\n\n[Illustration: Helianthemum.]\n\n\n7. BERBERIDACE\u00c6 (Berberis vulgaris) Common Berberry.\n\n The Berberry is commonly found in our hedgerows, and its fruit\n is sometimes eaten; in Italy it grows to a good-sized tree. It is\n remarkable as furnishing an example of vegetable motion, from the\n irritability of its stamens, which if touched will bend forward in\n a curved position, and touch the stigma with the anther, and after\n remaining a short time in that position the stamens recover their\n natural form.\n\n[Illustration: Common Berberry.]\n\n\n 8. VIOLACE\u00c6 (Viola odorata) Sweet Violet.\n (Viola tricolor) Heart's-ease.\n\n The well known Sweet-smelling Violet belongs to this order, which\n otherwise contains no plants of importance, except one, the Cephaelis\n Ipecacuanha, which produces the well-known emetic bearing that name.\n\n[Illustration: Sweet Violet.]\n\n\n9. DROSERACE\u00c6 (Drosera rotundifolia) Sun-dew.\n\n The Sun-dew is so called from the globules of a sort of viscid liquid\n excreted by the hairs of this plant while in sunshine, and looking\n like dew; some species of this order have their leaves so irritable\n that an insect alighting on them causes them to shut up and catch it,\n hence the name \"Venus's Fly Trap\" (Dionea muscipula) which is given to\n an American species.\n\n[Illustration: Sun-dew.]\n\n\n10. POLYGALACE\u00c6 (Polygala vulgaris) Milk-wort.\n\n The Polygala Senega, or Virginian Snake-root, is a member of this\n order; it is celebrated in America for the cure of the bite of snakes,\n and is used here as an expectorant. The Rhatany, a very powerful\n astringent, is also of this order.\n\n[Illustration: Milk-wort.]\n\n\n 11. CARYOPHYLLACE\u00c6 (Lychnis dioica) Bachelor's Buttons.\n (Dianthus caryophyllus) Common Pink.\n (Stellaria media) Chickweed.\n\n There are upwards of a thousand species of this order, but none are\n of much importance; they form however many of our most beautiful\n ornamental garden flowers, of which the Carnation, Sweet William, and\n several others, are familiar to all.\n\n[Illustration: Bachelor's Buttons.]\n\n[Illustration: Pink.]\n\n\n12. TILIAC\u00c6 (Tilia Europ\u00e6a) Lime Tree.\n\n The Lime Tree grows often to a great size, is a fine handsome tree,\n commonly found in our plantations, has heart shaped leaves, and\n flowers generally in corymbs; it is very general in tropical climates,\n and produces a fine close grained wood.\n\n[Illustration: Lime Tree.]\n\n\n13. HYPERICACE\u00c6 (Hypericum perforatum) Perforated Hypericum.\n\n Many species of Hypericum are cultivated in our gardens, and form\n handsome flowers; the well known plant called Aaron's Beard (Hypericum\n calycinum) is a member of this order, and is remarkable for the long\n runners which it throws out forming fresh plants at intervals. It is\n often suspended in pots, from which these runners descend in a very\n graceful manner.\n\n[Illustration: St. John's Wort.]\n\n 14. MALVACE\u00c6 (Malva sylvestris) Common Mallow.\n (Alth\u00e6a officinalis) Marsh Mallow.\n\n The Marsh Mallow has been much esteemed as a demulcent medicine, and\n an ointment is made from it for external use; but one species of this\n order, the Gossypium, is one of the most important plants in the\n whole world, producing that most useful article, cotton, so largely\n grown in America, and for which the slave population are chiefly\n employed. The fine white hairs surrounding the seeds and filling up\n the pod is the part picked out and preserved, it forms the cotton-wool\n of commerce, of which some eight hundred millions of pounds' weight\n are used annually! employing a million and a half people, in England\n alone, and furnishing clothing to hundreds of millions. It is grown\n in India, which is supposed to be its native place, and will probably\n be grown to a much greater extent when railways and canals shall have\n made a more easy communication from the interior of that country to\n the sea-board.\n\n[Illustration: Marsh Mallow.]\n\n\n15. GERANIACE\u00c6 (Geranium pyreniacum) Meadow Geranium.\n\n Many species of this order are indigenous, and when cultivated\n produce some of our most beautiful garden flowers, as the Geraniums,\n Pelargoniums, and Erodiums. The Geraniums are those species which\n have five irregular petals and ten stamens; they are the most\n characteristic of the order.\n\n[Illustration: Meadow Geranium.]\n\n\n16. LINACE\u00c6 (Linum usitatissimum) Common Flax.\n\n The Flax plant is another of those insignificant plants which, from\n certain properties they possess, have become the greatest boons to\n mankind; the stalks of the Linum usitatissimum, soaked, bruised, and\n prepared by combing, &c., form the flax of commerce, from which all\n our linen fabrics are made. The manufacture of flax is one of the\n oldest arts known, the ancient Egyptians formed their mummy-cloths\n from this article, and a piece of one of these cloths, bleached and\n placed side by side with some of the present date, would hardly suffer\n by the comparison, but the rapidity of its manufacture, and the price\n at which supplied, are doubtless very different in the two cases.\n\n[Illustration: Flax Plant.]\n\n The value of the linen manufacture of Great Britain is between seven\n and eight millions yearly.\n\n The seeds of the flax plant (Linseed) are used to crush and produce\n the linseed oil of commerce so extensively used in the production of\n paints and varnishes, and the cake is used as food for cattle.\n\n\n 17. ACERACE\u00c6 (Acer campestre) Maple Tree.\n (Acer pseudoplatanus) Sycamore Tree.\n\n This order contains the Maple and Sycamore, fine trees, not only\n ornamental, but producing wood much in request, moreover the Acer\n saccharinum or Sugar Maple of North America is used to produce sugar,\n which is obtained from its sap.\n\n[Illustration: Maple Tree.]\n\n\n18. RUTACE\u00c6 (Ruta graveolens) Rue.\n\n Rue is a well-known shrub with small pinnate leaves, and possessing a\n strong and very disagreeable odour; this depends upon the volatile oil\n which is contained in the glands with which the leaves are dotted. It\n has been, from time immemorial, used as a medicine. Another member of\n this order, the Buchu (Diosmia crenata), is also used medicinally.\n\n[Illustration: Rue.]\n\n\n19. OXALIDACE\u00c6 (Oxalis acetosella) Wood Sorrel.\n\n The Wood Sorrel is very acid, and from its juice is made the salt of\n sorrel (which is bin-oxalate of potash), used to get out ink and iron\n stains from linen, &c. This is supposed to be the true Shamrock.\n\n[Illustration: Wood Sorrel.]\n\nThis completes the orders of Thalamiflor\u00e6, which, with the following\nsub-class, Calyciflor\u00e6, contain all our star-like flowers, or those\nin which the corolla forms a whorl or open ring of petals. The third\nsub-class contains those chiefly in which the flowers form cups or\nbells.\n\n\nORDERS OF CALYCIFLOR\u00c6.\n\n1. CELASTRACE\u00c6 (Euonymus Europ\u00e6as) Spindle Tree.\n\n[Illustration: Spindle Tree.]\n\n This order consists of shrubs or small trees growing in the temperate\n regions of most parts of the world, and some of the species, as\n Celastrus venatus, are said to be poisonous; the seeds of the South\n African species are used to express oil from.\n\n\n 2. RHAMNACE\u00c6 (Rhamnus catharticus) Buckthorn.\n (Rhamnus frangula) Black Alder.\n\n[Illustration: Buckthorn.]\n\n Buckthorn berries afford a juice which, when made into syrup with\n sugar, is a popular purgative medicine; the juice precipitated with\n lime produces the green pigment known to artists as \"sap green.\"\n The \"French Berries\" used as a yellow dye-stuff are procured from a\n species of Rhamnus.\n\n\n 3. FABACE\u00c6, or } (Cytisus scoparius) Broom.\n LEGUMINOS\u00c6 } (Pisum sativum) Garden Pea.\n (Faba vulgaris) Garden Bean.\n\n[Illustration: Broom.]\n\n[Illustration: Garden Pea.]\n\n The plants producing pods or legumes are among the most important of\n the orders of this class, giving us very many useful and nutritious\n plants, which, for the most part, are climbers, as Peas, Beans, &c.\n The Tamarind and Cassia trees belong to this order, also those which\n produce gum-arabic, catechu, logwood, and indigo. There are between\n six and seven thousand species of the Leguminos\u00e6.\n\n\n 4. ROSACE\u00c6 (Rosa centifolia) Hundred-leaved Rose.\n (Fragaria vesca) Wood Strawberry.\n (Rubus fruticosus) Bramble.\n (Pyrus communis) Pear Tree.\n\n This important order yields us our most beautiful flower, the Rose, of\n which there are a great many varieties, among which the Dog-rose--that\n beautiful ornament to our hedges--deserves to hold a conspicuous\n place, also the Sweetbriar or Eglantine. The rose is used in Turkey\n and Persia for obtaining that most valuable and delicious perfume,\n \"Otto of Roses.\" It is made by distilling a portion of water from\n several quantities of fresh roses, until it becomes saturated with the\n volatile oil. This water is then exposed to the open air, and, in the\n cool night time, drops of the otto collect on the top, from which it\n is carefully gathered, and the same water again distilled from a fresh\n quantity of roses. Besides the Rose tribe, this order contains some of\n our most valued fruits. The Apple, Pear, and Strawberry belong to it,\n also the Almond.\n\n[Illustration: Pear Tree.]\n\n[Illustration: Rose.]\n\n[Illustration: Strawberry.]\n\n\n5. LYTHRACE\u00c6 (Lythrum salicaria) Purple Loose-strife.\n\n[Illustration: Loose-Strife.]\n\n The Purple Loose-strife is indigenous to England, bearing a purple\n flower, and is also found in Australia. There are several varieties of\n this plant; an Indian species, Lythrum Hunteri, bearing a red flower,\n has been used by the natives as a red dye.\n\n\n6. ONAGRACE\u00c6 (Epilobium angustifolium) French Willow.\n\n[Illustration: French Willow.]\n\n This order contains some very beautiful flowering plants, as the\n Evening-primrose (Enothera biennis), Fuchsia, &c. of which there are\n a great many varieties; they abound plentifully in America, of which\n country the Evening-primrose is said to be a native.\n\n\n7. MYRTACE\u00c6 (Myrtus communis) Myrtle.\n\n[Illustration: Myrtle.]\n\n The Myrtles are, for the most part, inhabitants of the warmer\n climates. They are shrubs or trees, and sometimes of great size and\n beauty; the flowers and leaves of many species are odorous. There are\n upwards of fifty species of Myrtle, and they are found in most of the\n warmer parts of the Old and New Worlds.\n\n\n 8. CRASSULACE\u00c6 (Sempervivum tectarum) House-leek.\n (Sedum Acre) Stone-crop.\n\n[Illustration: House-leek.]\n\n The species of this order have, most of them, thick succulent\n leaves. The Sedums, Stone-crop, and House-leek, are among the most\n common, growing in dry, earthy matter, on walls or housetops; they,\n nevertheless, are full of a milky juice. The juice of Houseleek mixed\n with cream has been a long time a popular remedy for various external\n complaints, but, like most popular remedies, does neither good nor\n harm.\n\n\n 9. GRASSULARIACE\u00c6 (Ribes rubrum) Red Currant.\n (Ribes grassularia) Gooseberry.\n\n[Illustration: Gooseberry.]\n\n The Gooseberry and Currant are members of this order. They are useful\n plants for the kitchen-garden, and afford a grateful and wholesome\n fruit, although unripe gooseberries (eaten raw) are extremely\n unwholesome, as the acid they contain is the \"oxalic.\"\n\n\n10. SAXIFRAGACE\u00c6 (Robertsonia umbrosa) London Pride.\n\n[Illustration: London Pride.]\n\n These are plants growing, for the most part, in mountainous regions,\n and in the crevices of rocks. The London Pride and Hydrangea are the\n best known, the latter producing very large corymbs of flowers. They\n occur in temperate climates in most parts of the world.\n\n\n 11. APIACE\u00c6, or } (Foeniculum officinale) Fennel.\n UMBELLIFER\u00c6 } (Conium maculatum) Hemlock.\n (Apium graveolens) Celery.\n (Petroselinum sativum) Parsley.\n\n[Illustration: Fennel.]\n\n[Illustration: Hemlock.]\n\n Contains many of our useful vegetables, as the Carrot (Daucus Carota),\n Parsnip (Pastinaca), &c. The Celery also, and many of our aromatic\n seeds, are produced by the Umbellifer\u00e6, as Anise, Carraway, Dill,\n Coriander, and Fennel. Some members, however, are poisonous, as\n Hemlock (Conium Maculatum), and Cow-bane or Water Hemlock (Cicuta\n Virosa).\n\n\nORDERS OF COROLLIFLOR\u00c6.\n\n\n 1. CUCURBITACE\u00c6 (Cucurmis melo) The Melon.\n (Elaterium agreste) Spirting Cucumber.\n\n[Illustration: Melon.]\n\n The Cucumber (Cucurmis Sativa), the Melon (Cucurmis Melo), both\n esteemed as delicacies, are of this order. Also the numerous tribe of\n Gourds (Cucurbita), as the Pumpkin, Large Gourd, Bottle Gourd, Squash,\n &c., also the Vegetable Marrow. Gourd-shells form the most common\n vessels for holding liquids, in many parts of Asia.\n\n\n2. CORNACE\u00c6 (Cornus Sanguinea) Dogwood.\n\n[Illustration: Dogwood.]\n\n These plants are chiefly shrubs or trees, growing in most temperate\n regions, and especially in America. The Cornelian Cherry (Cornus\n muscula) produces a berry somewhat resembling a cherry. Some species\n are used in America as a tonic medicine.\n\n\n 3. CAPRIFOLIACE\u00c6 (Sambucus nigra) Elder Tree.\n (Viburnum tinus) Laurustina.\n (Caprifolium perfoliatum) Honeysuckle.\n\n[Illustration: Honeysuckle. Guelder Rose.]\n\n This order contains few plants of any importance. The Honeysuckle is a\n very favourite ornamental plant, and the fruit of the Elder produces\n the Elderberry-wine so much used on Christmas Eve, with toasted bread,\n in many parts of the country.\n\n\n 4. GALIACE\u00c6 (Galium cruciatum) Cross Wort.\n (Rubia tinctorum) Madder.\n\n[Illustration: Cross-wort.]\n\n The root of the Madder is one of our most important \"dye-stuffs,\"\n producing the most permanent reds and browns used in dyeing. It is a\n native of the south of Europe and of Asia. Animals fed upon madder are\n found to have their bones tinged of a red colour.\n\n\n 5. VALERIANACE\u00c6 (Valeriana officinalis) Valerian.\n (Cetranthus ruber) Red Valerian.\n\n[Illustration: Valerian.\n\nRed Valerian.]\n\n Valerian is indigenous, growing by ditches, and bearing a pink flower;\n the root is used in medicine, and has a most disagreeable odour.\n Several species are cultivated as ornamental garden flowers; there are\n about 125 species.\n\n\n6. DIPSACACE\u00c6 (Dipsacus fullonum) Teasel.\n\n[Illustration: Teasel.]\n\n The heads of the Teasel were formerly used, to an enormous extent,\n for carding cloth, and were cultivated largely in some parts for that\n purpose--wagon-loads of them were brought to the cloth-dressers--but\n their use is now, to some extent, superseded, the process called\n \"teaselling\" being frequently performed by machinery.\n\n\n 7. ASTERACE\u00c6 (Tussilago Farfara) Coltsfoot.\n (Helianthus annuus) Sunflower.\n (Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum). Ox-eye Daisy.\n\n[Illustration: Coltsfoot.]\n\n[Illustration: Ox-eye Daisy.]\n\n The members of this family have a star-like inflorescence, as the\n Sunflower, China Aster, &c.; the centre part or eye, being composed\n of undeveloped florets, is frequently, by cultivation, almost lost,\n forming florets which are added to the ray.\n\n\n 8. CAMPANULACE\u00c6 (Campanula rotundifolia) Hare-bell.\n (Campanula media) Canterbury-bell.\n\n[Illustration: Harebell.]\n\n Comprise the various \"Bells,\" which form of inflorescence is\n characteristic of the Corolliflor\u00e6. There are about 500 species of\n this order, the flowers of which are for the most part of a blue\n or purple colour; the Hare-bell is also known as the \"Bluebell of\n Scotland.\"\n\n\n 9. ERICACE\u00c6 (Calluna vulgaris) Heather.\n (Erica cinerea) Grey Heath.\n\n[Illustration: Grey Heath.]\n\n The Heaths are, for the most part, social plants, growing in great\n numbers on waste ground, and giving great beauty to scenery. The\n Heather gives a peculiar aspect to the hills of Scotland. Humboldt\n observes, \"It is curious that, out of more than 300 species of Erica,\n one only should be found throughout the whole American continent.\"\n\n\n 10. GENTIANACE\u00c6 (Gentiana campestris) Field Gentian.\n (Menyanthes trifoliata) Buck Bean.\n\n[Illustration: Field Gentian.]\n\n[Illustration: Buck Bean.]\n\n This order contains no member of great importance; the Gentian-root,\n much used as a tonic, is the product of the \"Gentiana Lutea.\"\n\n\n 11. PRIMULACE\u00c6 (Anagallis arvensis) Pimpernel.\n (Primula veris) Cowslip.\n (Primula acaulis) Primrose.\n\n[Illustration: Pimpernel.]\n\n[Illustration: Primrose.]\n\n These well-known and beautiful flowers form ornaments to our meadows,\n hedgerows, and gardens; the Oxlip, Polyanthus, and Auricula belong to\n this order, of which many varieties are produced by cultivation.\n\n\n12. CONVOLVULACE\u00c6 (Calystegia sepium) Bindweed.\n\n[Illustration: Bindweed.]\n\n The Bindweeds are gay and beautiful flowers, and besides being\n used for ornamental purposes, many of this order have medicinal\n properties of great importance. The Jalap root is from the Convolvulus\n Jalap\u00e6, which comes from Xalapa, in Mexico, of which name Jalap is a\n corruption. Scammony, another medicine much used, is a resin procured\n from a species of this order.\n\n\n13. BORAGINACE\u00c6 (Borago officinalis) Borage.\n\n[Illustration: Borage.]\n\n The members of this order have most of them rough hairy leaves, they\n contain a certain amount of nitrate of potash in their juices, and\n it is this which gives them the peculiar taste which has gained for\n them the name of \"Oyster plants;\" the common Borage has been used as a\n remedy for coughs.\n\n\n 14. LINIACE\u00c6, or } (Salvia officinalis) Sage.\n LABIATES } (Thymus vulgaris) Thyme.\n (Mentha viridis) Spear Mint.\n\n[Illustration: Sage.]\n\n The name Labiates has been given from the form of their infloresence,\n which is generally \"Labiate\" (having lips); they frequently possess\n aromatic properties, and are mostly of a strong smell. Although not\n commonly used as food, yet most of them are employed to flavour it, as\n Mint, Thyme, Sage, and many more.\n\n\n 15. SOLANACE\u00c6 (Atropa belladonna) Deadly Nightshade.\n (Solanum tuberosum) Potato.\n (Capsicum annuum) Capsicum.\n (Hyoscyamus niger) Henbane.\n (Nicotiana Tabacum) Tobacco.\n\n[Illustration: Tobacco.]\n\n A great many members of this order are poisonous, among which the\n Deadly Nightshade (Atropa Belladonna) is the most virulent, there are\n also Henbane and Tobacco, both strong poisons; but, to compensate\n for this bad character, the order contains one of the most useful\n vegetables used in Europe--the Potato. This is the tuber of the\n \"Solanum tuberosum.\" The following account of the introduction of the\n Potato into England is from the \"Penny Cyclop\u00e6dia\":--\n\n \"Queen Elizabeth, in 1584, granted a patent 'for planting and\n discovering in new countries, not possessed by Christians,' and,\n under this sanction, some ships, principally equipped by Sir Walter\n Raleigh, sailed with him to America. Thomas Harriott (afterwards\n known as a mathematician) who accompanied the adventurous squadron,\n transmitted to England the description of a plant, called Openawk by\n the natives of that part of America, which the courtier-like gallantry\n of Raleigh had named 'Virginia.' Harriott described the Openawk as\n having the roots round, and 'hanging together as if fixed on ropes,\n and good for food either boiled or roasted.' Girarde in his Herbal a\n few years subsequently, distinguished the plant by a plate, and not\n only confirmed the assertion that it was an indigenous production\n of Virginia, whence he himself had obtained it, but supplied some\n curious details of its qualities, and of the various modes in which\n it might be dressed for the table. But the Potatoe had been known in\n Spain and Portugal at an earlier period, and it is from the latter\n country that we most directly derive the name by which we know it.\n This is easily shown; although the natives of South America called the\n plant by the name 'Openawk,' those of the South, more particularly the\n inhabitants of the mountains of Quito, called it 'Papas,' which the\n Spaniards corrupted into 'Battata,' this again their neighbours in\n Portugal softened into 'Ba-ta-ta' (da terra), to which 'potato' is a\n very close approximation.\"\n\n This plant, the tubers of which for a long time were a luxury\n obtainable by the rich only, now yields the support of the poor, and\n furnishes the cheapest food known; the peasantry of Ireland almost\n subsist upon Potatoes, and the poor of most parts of Europe find it\n indispensable to their living.\n\n\n 16. SCROPHULARIACE\u00c6 (Digitalis purpurea) Foxglove.\n (Veronica officinalis) Speedwell.\n\n[Illustration: Speedwell.]\n\n Some of the members of this order were formerly considered useful in\n scrofulous complaints, especially the Scrophularia nodosa, a common\n plant growing by the sides of ditches, and whose tuberculated roots\n were considered to resemble scrofulous tumours, and therefore to be\n the natural remedy for them. The Foxglove is used as a medicine and is\n highly poisonous.\n\n\n17. LENTIBULARIACE\u00c6 (Pinguicula vulgaris) Butterwort.\n\n[Illustration: Butterwort.]\n\n This order includes the Butterworts, which are herbaceous indigenous\n plants, growing in ditches and wet places; they are divided into the\n Pinguicula and the Urticularia. The example given is the most common\n and characteristic of the order.\n\n\n18. PLANTAGINACE\u00c6 (Plantago lanceolata) Plantain.\n\n[Illustration: Plantain.]\n\n The common Plantain or Way-bred is found by roadsides, the leaves form\n a sort of star on the ground, from the centre of which a tall stalk\n arises, forming a \"spike\" of flowers. The seeds of plantain are much\n in request by bird fanciers, cage-birds being fond of them. The leaves\n were once in great repute as a styptic, or application for stopping\n the bleeding of wounds.\n\n\n 19. PLUMBAGINACE\u00c6 (Armeria maratima) Thrift.\n (Ilex aquifolium) Holly.\n\n[Illustration: Thrift.]\n\n[Illustration: Holly.]\n\n The most characteristic of this order are the two examples given,\n especially the Holly, which is universally known and admired for the\n decorative uses to which it is applied in our churches and houses at\n Christmas time.\n\n\nORDERS OF MONOCHLAMYDE\u00c6.\n\n\n1. SANGUISORBE\u00c6 (Alchemilla vulgaris) Ladies' Mantle.\n\n[Illustration: Ladies' Mantle.]\n\n Some species of this order, especially the Greater Burnet (Sanguisorba\n officinalis), were once much cultivated as food for cattle, but it is\n now superseded by other plants, especially Sainfoin.\n\n\n 2. CHENOPODIACE\u00c6 (Beta vulgaris) Beet.\n (Spinacia oleracea) Spinach.\n\n[Illustration: Beetroot]\n\n The most important species of this order is the Beetroot, employed in\n France for the production of sugar. Its variety, Mangold-wurzel (Beta\n altissima), is also extensively used as food for cattle.\n\n\n 3. POLYGONACE\u00c6 (Polygonum Fagopyrum) Buckwheat.\n (Rumex obtusifolius) Dock.\n\n[Illustration: Buckwheat].\n\n Buckwheat is used as food in America and other places, and the root\n of the \"Rheum palmatum\" furnishes the Rhubarb of commerce. It is\n brought from Turkey; but is grown in China, and thence passes through\n the hands of Russians to Turkey. Other species of Rhubarb, as \"Rheum\n compactum,\" are cultivated here for the sake of the leaf-stalk, which\n has an agreeable acid taste, and is much used for making tarts and\n puddings.\n\n\n4. EL\u00c6AGNACE\u00c6 (El\u00e6agnus angustifolia) Oleaster.\n\n[Illustration: Oleaster.]\n\n Some foreign species of the Oleaster are extremely fragrant, and\n others, especially those of India, produce a fruit of a pleasant taste\n and is there eaten. The Sea Buckthorn (Hippoph\u00e6 Rhamnoides) is the\n only English species.\n\n\n5. THYMELACE\u00c6 (Daphne pontica) Spurge Laurel.\n\n[Illustration: Spurge-Laurel.]\n\n Some species of this order are cultivated in gardens and are very\n fragrant, others partake of a poisonous quality; the Daphne mezerium,\n the bark of which is very acrid, is used in medicine, and forms one of\n the ingredients in the celebrated compound decoction of Sarsaparilla.\n\n\n 6. CORYLACE\u00c6 (Castanea vesca) Sweet Chestnut.\n (Quercus pedunculata) Oak.\n (Corylus avellana) Hazel Nut.\n\n This order contains some of our finest trees; the Oak, that prince\n of trees, is of this order. It attains a great age and size, and\n there are some celebrated specimens existing which have stood many\n centuries. Oaks constitute the greater part of the forest trees, both\n on the Continent and in England; great numbers are cut in France for\n fire-wood, and in both countries for ship-building. The roof-timbers\n of our old churches and halls are nearly all oak. The bark of the oak\n is largely used for tanning leather. About 30,000 tons are imported\n into this country yearly for this purpose, besides the product of our\n own trees. The bark of the Cork-oak (Quercus suber) is used for making\n corks, some 2,000 tons of this are imported annually. Moreover, the\n Gall-nut used in tanning, and also to make black dye, is the product\n of an oak. The Chestnut is a fine tree, the nuts of which are commonly\n eaten by the peasantry of Spain and Italy as food; the tree grows to a\n great age and to an enormous size.\n\n[Illustration: Sweet Chestnut.]\n\n\n7. EUPHORBIACE\u00c6 (Buxus sempervirens) Box.\n\n[Illustration: Box.]\n\n Many species of this order are acrid and poisonous, and have been used\n for poisoning arrows. The Castor-oil plant (Ricinus palma-christi),\n and the plant that yields that most violent purgative, Croton-oil\n (Croton tiglium), are of this species; also the Box-tree, from which\n that useful wood, known as box-wood, is obtained.\n\n\n 8. URTICACE\u00c6 (Urtica urens) Stinging Nettle.\n (Humulus lupulus) Hops.\n\n[Illustration: Hop.]\n\n The Nettle in Australia grows to the size of a tree; the Hop also\n belongs to this order, and is largely cultivated in Kent and Sussex\n for the use of brewers, as it communicates an agreeable bitter to beer\n which no other plant seems to be able to substitute.\n\n\n 9. SALICACE\u00c6 (Salix alba) White Willow.\n (Populus nigra) Black Poplar.\n\n[Illustration: White Willow.]\n\n The most characteristic of this order are the examples given; the\n Willows are well-known trees, growing by the margins of water and in\n damp places. The Poplar is one of our tallest trees, specimens being\n known 100 feet high; its peculiar tall form distinguishes it from all\n other trees.\n\n\n 10. BETULACE\u00c6 (Betula alba) Birch.\n (Alnus glutinosa) Alder.\n\n[Illustration: Birch.]\n\n[Illustration: Alder.]\n\n The Birch and Alder are both well known trees in our plantations,\n the Alder is often confounded with the Elder. The bark of the Birch\n tree contains tannin; it is used to tan skins in Russia, and gives to\n Russian leather its peculiar qualities.\n\n\n11. ULMACE\u00c6 (Ulnus campestris) Elm.\n\n[Illustration: Elm.]\n\n The Elm is one of our largest and noblest trees, growing to 80 or 90\n feet high, it has often a girth of 10 to 11 feet, and forms a very\n fine tree with a broad crown; the wood is much used for making coffins.\n\n\n 12. PINACE\u00c6 (Taxus baccata) Yew.\n (Abies larix) Larch.\n (Laurus nobilis) Bay.\n (Pinus sylvestris) Scotch Fir.\n\n[Illustration: Larch.]\n\n[Illustration: Yew.]\n\n[Illustration: Bay.]\n\n This order contains the various Pines and Firs, together with the Yew\n and Bay trees, and is sometimes called the \"Conifer\u00e6,\" as they all\n bear cones. In their general aspect many of these somewhat resemble\n endogenous trees, growing perfectly straight in the stem, and giving\n off branches in whorls at regular distances; some, as the Norfolk\n Island Pine, form perfectly regular figures by the interlacement\n of their branches. The Firs have their thin narrow leaves starting\n off singly from the branch, and always on the upper side, like the\n teeth of a comb, while the Pines have their leaves grouped together,\n starting off in fours or fives from the same spot. The Conifera\n furnish the longest and straightest timber of all trees, they commonly\n grow to 100 feet high, and in New Zealand and California to more than\n 300. The Wellingtonia Gigantea is the tallest species known, and\n the Araucaria Excelsa (Norfolk Island Pine), perhaps, the next. The\n trees of this order are amongst the most useful to man, supplying a\n number of useful articles, such as turpentine, resin, &c., besides\n the most valuable timber. Pines, like the Palms, serve as a screen\n against the severity of the weather, but, while the palms keep off\n the burning rays of the sun, the pines defend us from the cold of the\n mountain blasts; they are indeed used as _nurses_, and as such, in\n our oak plantations, serve to screen the young saplings which are\n planted among them from the effects of cold until strong enough to\n bear exposure; when the pines are cut down, and what before appeared\n to be a pine-wood, appears as a plantation of oaks. The pine-trees\n furnish those straight stems largely used by builders under the name\n of \"scaffold poles.\" They also make the best wood for rending into\n laths for building purposes, their straight and open grain allowing of\n their being easily split.\n\nIt is from the vegetable kingdom that most of the medicines in use\nare derived, but many of these, in improper doses, act as violent\npoisons; indeed, the most rapidly fatal of all poisons, prussic acid,\nwas originally distilled from the Laurel-cherry, and strychnine, which\nis hardly less rapid, is the produce of the Nux vomica (Strychnos nux\nvomica).\n\nThe following is a list of the principal poisonous plants found growing\nwild in England:--\n\n\n * 1. MONK'S-HOOD (Aconitum Napellus).\n WOLF'S-BANE (Aconitum lycactonum).\n\n[Illustration: Monk's-hood.]\n\n[Illustration: Horse-radish.]\n\n[Illustration: Wolf's-bane.]\n\n All parts of Monk's-hood and Wolf's-bane are extremely poisonous; the\n root of Monk's-hood has often been mistaken for that of Horse-radish,\n of which an example is therefore given, to show that it is impossible\n for this mistake to be made, if the least attention be paid to the\n leaves, as they are totally dissimilar.\n\n\n* BRYONY (Bryonia dioica).\n\n The whole of this plant is poisonous, and, as the berries are red and\n tempting, it is dangerous to trust children with them. The root is\n large and succulent, and is known by the name of Mandrake; it is very\n purgative and acrid.\n\n[Illustration: Bryony.]\n\n\n * GREEN HELLEBORE (Heleborus viridus).\n * STINKING HELLEBORE (Heleborus foetidus).\n\n[Illustration: Green Hellebore.]\n\n[Illustration: Stinking Hellebore.]\n\n Both poisonous in every part of the plants.\n\n\n* MEZERIUM (Daphne mezerium).\n\n The bark of this plant is acrid and poisonous, producing a burning\n sensation in the throat if chewed, and blistering the skin if applied,\n for which purpose it was often formerly used medicinally.\n\n[Illustration: Mezerium.]\n\n\n* MEADOW SAFFRON (Colchicum autumnale).\n\n The corm (root) and seeds of this plant are poisonous. Meadow Saffron\n is also called Colchicum, it is much used in medicine, and although\n a good and useful one in small doses for gouty affections, yet in\n over-doses it produces violent purging and vomiting.\n\n[Illustration: Meadow Saffron.]\n\n\nFOXGLOVE (Digitalis purpurea).\n\n This plant is very poisonous and dangerous, the leaves are the most\n active part. It is frequently used medicinally, but requires great\n care, as it lowers the action of the heart, the effect of many small\n doses accumulating and at last acting like one large one.\n\n[Illustration: Foxglove.]\n\n\n* STAVES-ACRE (Delphinium Staphisagria).\n\n The Ranunculace\u00e6 are, most of them, poisonous, and this order includes\n the Larkspurs, of which the Staves-Acre is a species. The seeds are to\n a certain extent poisonous, and when ground into meal and mixed with\n flour have been often used by farmers to destroy vermin of various\n kinds, such as rats, mice, beetles, &c.\n\n[Illustration: Staves-Acre.]\n\n\nDEADLY NIGHTSHADE (Atropa Belladonna).\n\n The Deadly Nightshade is also called Belladonna. Both leaves and\n berries are a deadly poison. The berries have been mistaken for black\n currants by children, as they much resemble them. There are several\n species, of which the Solanum nigrum, or Common Nightshade, very much\n resembles the \"Deadly.\"\n\n[Illustration: Deadly Nightshade.]\n\n\nWOODY NIGHTSHADE (Solanum Dulcamara).\n\n This plant, also called Bitter-sweet, from its taste, produces the\n bright red berries so often seen in hedges, and which from their\n pretty appearance frequently tempt children to eat them. They are\n poisonous, but not so much so as the twigs of the plant, which are\n very acrid and narcotic.\n\n[Illustration: Woody Nightshade.]\n\n\nHEMLOCK (Conium maculatum).\n\n The Hemlock is an umbelliferous plant growing by road-sides and\n under hedges, and flowers in June and July; it has been mistaken for\n Parsley, but may be known by the stems being spotted with black; the\n leaves are of a dark green colour, the upper ones bi-pinnate and the\n lower ones large and standing on long channelled foot-stalks.\n\n[Illustration: Hemlock.]\n\n\nTHORN-APPLE (Datura strammonium).\n\n The Thorn-Apple is a native of America, but has become almost\n indigenous, and is frequently found growing in waste places. The whole\n of the plant is poisonous, and is narcotic when smoked, like tobacco.\n It is an annual, bearing a funnel-shaped white flower, the fruit is\n a four-celled capsule covered with sharp spines or thorns, hence its\n name.\n\n[Illustration: Thorn-Apple.]\n\n\nPOPPY, Red (Papaver Rhoeas).\n\nPOPPY, White (Papaver somniferum).\n\n[Illustration: White Poppy.]\n\n[Illustration: Red Poppy.]\n\n The unripe capsules of both of these species of Poppy are narcotic and\n poisonous, but chiefly those of the White Poppy, from which, the opium\n of commerce is procured. The leaves are but very slightly narcotic,\n and the seeds not at all.\n\n\nHENBANE (Hyoscyamus Niger).\n\n[Illustration: Henbane.]\n\n This plant is an indigenous annual growing in waste places, especially\n in chalky soil, bearing flowers in July, which are of a yellowish\n green colour and nauseous odour; the stalk, leaves, and indeed the\n whole of the plant is covered with hairs. It is very narcotic, and is\n much used medicine; in over-doses it is poisonous.\n\n\nCAPER (Euphorbia Lathyris).\n\n The Caper is a biennial often found in gardens; the seeds are very\n purgative, and to some persons poisonous. This plant bearing the\n name of Caper, many persons have erroneously thought the seeds to\n be the ordinary \"Capers\" sold at shops for making \"Caper-sauce.\"\n These, however, are the flower-buds of quite another plant, known as\n \"Capparis spinosa.\"\n\n[Illustration: Caper.]\n\n\nWILD LETTUCE (Lactuca virosa).\n\n The Wild Lettuce is a biennial plant flowering in July and August; it\n is found growing on the banks of ditches, and is sufficiently narcotic\n to be called poisonous. The dried juice has been used as a substitute\n for opium, but by cultivation the narcotic property is nearly or\n altogether lost.\n\n[Illustration: Wild Lettuce.]\n\n\nMUSHROOMS, TOADSTOOLS, AND OTHER FUNGI.\n\n The only kinds of Mushroom which can be eaten with safety are the\n common Mushroom (Agaricus campestris), the Champignon (Agaricus\n oreades), and the Morell (Marchella esculenta). Those which are of\n very bright colours, or have spots on the cap, those with thin caps,\n or those which are moist--have a film like a cobweb about the stalk,\n or have the stalk coming from one side of the cap--are poisonous.\n\n[Illustration: Common Mushroom.]\n\n[Illustration: Champignon.]\n\n[Illustration: Morell.]\n\n[Illustration: Poisonous Fungi.]\n\nThose marked (*) in the foregoing list are _acrid_ poisons, and the\nremainder are _narcotic_.\n\n * * * * *\n\n[Illustration: OAKS.]\n\nOut of these three great families of plants, in their almost endless\nvariety of size, form, and colour, it has pleased the Great Author of\nNature to form all the vegetation which beautifies this earth, from the\nlofty Palm--which, from its grateful freshness and the beauty of its\nstructure, seems almost as if possessed of more than vegetative life,\nto the Alg\u00e6, which form \"the pool's green mantle\"--from the gigantic\nand \"storm-defying\" Oak, with its green foliage spreading out far\nabove, and throwing its welcome shade around, to defend from the sun's\nrays the gentle deer who pasture on the herbage beneath--to the grass\nand clover, and the sweet-smelling wild flowers at their feet--\n\n \"Daffodils\n That come before the swallow dares, and take\n The winds of March with beauty; violets dim\n But sweeter than the lids of Juno's eyes,\n Or Cytherea's breath,--pale primroses\n That die unmarried, ere they can behold\n Bright Phoebus in his strength\"--\n\nform inexhaustible themes on which to exercise our faculties of\nadmiration, and which serve admirably to minister to those wants\nwhich, without doubt, were given to us that we might derive pleasure\nfrom their being thus beautifully gratified--themes for the pencil of\nthe artist, who \"holds, as it were, the mirror up to nature,\" and the\narchitect, when he designed his vistas of slender columns spreading out\ninto and supporting roofs of tracery, might well be supposed to have\nhad in his \"mind's eye\" some beautiful recollection of the arcades of\nNature's palaces in the sombre forests, where the twisted trunks of the\ntrees, the fretwork of their branches, and the leafy covering formed by\ntheir leaves, supply all the requisites of a grand and lofty temple,\nfit for the worship of that great First Cause who formed them.\n\n[Illustration: FOREST SCENE.]\n\n\n\n\nTHE ANIMAL KINGDOM.\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ANIMALCUL\u00c6 FOUND IN STAGNANT WATER.\n\n A, Cyclops Quadracornis.\n B, Anguillula. Fluviatilis.\n C, Actinophrys. Sol.\n D, Coleps Hirtus.\n E, Vorticella.\n F, Amboeba princeps.\n G, Acineta mystacina.\n H, Oxytrycha.\n I, Triophthalamus dorsalis.\n J, Polyarthra.\n]\n\nAfter considering the beautiful covering which a kind Providence has\ngiven to the earth in the form of all sorts of vegetation, it will\nbe necessary now to consider for what kind of creatures this most\ndelightful garden was prepared, whether they seek their food in the\nair, water, or earth, for all these places are abodes of the vegetable\ntribes, and where there is vegetation there are animated beings; for\nthere is not an animal in existence, but directly or indirectly feeds\nupon the vegetable kingdom, from the elephant and rhinoceros which\ndevour whole plantations, to the minute animalcul\u00e6 which float in the\nair or dwell in every drop of stagnant water, where food in the form\nof equally minute alg\u00e6 is found--each possessed of wonderful organs\nand powers suitable to the kind of existence they lead, for God has\noften placed life in the most simple as well as complicated forms. Dr.\nMantell says:--\n\n\"We have been accustomed to associate the presence of vitality with\nbodies possessing various complicated organs for the elaboration and\nmaintenance of the energies of existence, but here we see perfect\nand distinct creations in the condition of globules and cells, which\nlive and move and have their being, and increase in numbers with a\nrapidity so prodigious, and in modes so peculiar, as to startle all our\npreconceived notions of animal organisation.\"\n\nAnd it is in these Protozoa, the lowest of the animal creation, that\na perfect similarity of condition exists to those of the vegetable\nkingdom, they are here upon a level; but arising out of these simple\nforms, God has created two sets of types or portraits, the members\nof each resembling those below it in some particular, but having\norgans which are superior to it; and above these are found members\nwhose organs are of a still higher order, and so on till the one set\ncomprises the highest orders of the vegetable, and the other those of\nthe animal kingdom, in its ranks. But these simple organisms are never\ndeveloped so as to resemble those placed above them; they each, whether\nhigh or low, continue to produce their like, for each grade was a\ncreation of itself and a separate one from God's hands. There have been\nwriters, who would endeavour to make it appear that God only created\nthe lowest and most simple germs, and the circumstances which were\nnecessary to develop them, and then allowed these to act and re-act\nuntil a man or an oak tree at last became the result! Were this the\ncase, geology would long before this have shown the \"small beginnings\"\nof man; but no! as soon as traces of man's creation are perceived, he\nis found as perfectly formed and organised as he is now, there are no\ntransition stages of man's existence, nor of any other animal. It is\ntrue that the simpler forms of both animal and vegetable existence were\ncreated first, but this was in accordance with the state of the earth's\nsurface, which was not at first suitable to the requirements of the\nhigher animals, which were only created when the earth was in a state\nsuitable to receive them.\n\nBut when the surface of the earth was still more developed God created\nman. His last and greatest work; and there can be no doubt that God in\nHis wisdom caused all these changes to precede the creation of man,\nthat he might lack nothing to confer happiness on him, nor objects to\nexercise his faculties upon.\n\n * * * * *\n\nAnimals are divided into two great natural families, the Invertebrate\nand the Vertebrate, the former having neither spine nor internal\nskeleton, the latter having both.\n\nThe Invertebrate animals are divided into the following sub-families,\nclasses, and orders by Dr. William Carpenter.\n\n\nSub-family 1.--RADIATA, having Four classes.\n\n 1. Infusoria.\n 2. Entozoa.\n\n {Hydroida }\n 3. Zoophyta. {Asteroida } 4 Orders.\n {Helianthoida }\n {Ascidioda }\n\n 4. Radiaria. {Acaleph\u00e6 } 2 Orders.\n {Echinodermata}\n\n\nSub-family 2.--ARTICULATA, having Five classes.\n\n 1. Annellata.\n 2. Cerripeda.\n 3. Crustacea.\n {Coleoptera }\n {Orthoptera }\n {Neuroptera }\n {Hymenoptera }\n 4. Insecta. {Strepsiptera} 9 Orders.\n {Lepidoptera }\n {Hemiptera }\n {Diptera }\n {Aptera }\n 5. Arachnida.\n\n\nSub-family 3.--MOLLUSCA, having Six classes.\n\n ACEPHALA, or Headless.\n 1. Tunicata.\n 2. Brachiopoda.\n 3. Lamellibranchiata.\n\n ENCEPHALA, Having a Head.\n 4. Pteropoda.\n 5. Gasteropoda.\n 6. Cephalopoda.\n\nThe Infusoria, the first class of the Radiata, comprise all those\nmicroscopic organisms called \"Protozoa;\" they consist of a membranous\ncell with fluid contents, and are very nearly allied to the Protophytes\nor lowest vegetable existences. It is still a matter of discussion\namongst physiologists and microscopists as to which kingdom shall claim\ncertain of them, but, according to Dr. Carpenter, it appears that the\nvegetable cell-beings have two envelopes, the inner one albuminous and\nthe outer one cellulose or starchy, and the following passage occurs\nin his treatise on the Microscope (which should be in the hands of all\nenquiring minds):--\n\n\"The animal cell, in its most complete form, is comparable in most\nparts of its structure to that of the plant, but differs from it\nin the entire absence of the 'cellulose wall' or of anything that\nrepresents it, the cell-contents being enclosed in only a single\nlimitary membrane, the chemical composition of which, being albuminous,\nindicates its correspondence with the primordial utricle. In its\nyoung state it seems always to contain a semi-fluid plasma, which is\nessentially the same as the protoplasm of the plant, save that it\ndoes not include chlorophyll granules, and this may either continue\nto occupy its cavity (which is the case in cells whose entire energy\nis directed to growth and multiplication) or may give place, either\nwholly or in part, to the special product which it may be the function\nof the cell to prepare. Like the vegetable cell, that of animals very\ncommonly multiplies by duplicative sub-division, it also (especially\namong Protozoa) may give origin to new cells by the breaking up of its\ncontents into several particles.\"\n\nSome of these creatures are so exceedingly minute that hundreds of\nmillions may be contained in a drop of water. They have no organs of\nany kind, but consist of single cells of a soft substance called\n\"sorcode;\" there is no distinction of sexes, and generation takes place\nby sub-division, each cell separating into two, and these again into\ntwo more, and so on with marvellous rapidity; this is the usual method\nof increase, but occasionally an act of conjugation takes place, two\ncells blending into one at the points of contact, the result of which\nis a nucleus or cell within the original one. These animated cells\nare of all forms, having prolongations which appear to be thrown out\nto absorb any particle of organic matter within reach, which then\nenters within the soft substance of the animalcule and is digested or\ndissolved, such are the Amboeba, the Actinophrys, &c. (see fig. 1);\na step or two higher from these, the very lowest, infusoria\nare found to possess the first rudiments of organs in the form of\ncilia, which consist of minute elongations having a constant vibratory\nmotion, for the purpose of causing a current in the water in which they\nlive and bringing food into their vicinity.\n\nSome very curious and complicated changes take place in the lowest of\nthe animals, very similar to those in the lowest vegetables; and what\nhas been called the life-history of these beings, often embraces a\ngreat number of forms before the circle of their metamorphoses comes\nround to the starting-point. Some of these phases of existence are\nquite different from those going before and after them, and as the\nvegetable free-cell at one time is capable of motion, it has long been\nmistaken for an active living animalcule (the Protococcus pluvialis,\n&c.), and there can be no doubt but that it will be found that many of\nthe lower forms of animated life described by Ehrenberg and others, and\nstill considered as such, will prove to be merely different stages of\nthe metamorphosis of the same protozoon; or it may be not an animal at\nall, but a simple vegetable or protophyte.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.--VOLVOX GLOBATOR.]\n\nDr. Carpenter says, \"It is quite certain that the Desmidiace\u00e6, like\nthe confervoid plants in general, grow at the expense of the inorganic\nelements which surround them, instead of depending upon other living\nbeings for their subsistence, and that they decompose carbonic acid and\ngive off oxygen under the influence of sunlight. They have the power\nof generating from these materials the organic compounds which they\nrequire for their own development, and these are such as are formed by\nother undoubted protophytes, as is proved by the application of the\nappropriate tests.\" These \"Desmidiace\u00e6\" were long considered to belong\nto the animalcul\u00e6, as were the \"Diatomace\u00e6,\" \"Volvox globator\" (fig.\n2), &c.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.--WHEEL ANIMALCULE (Rotifer vulgaris).]\n\nSome of the Infusoria, however, have a far higher organisation, such\nas the \"Rotifer\u00e6,\" and especially the \"wheel animalcule\" (fig. 3),\nwhich at one time was supposed, absurdly enough, to possess a living\nwheel turning round rapidly on its head! This wheel, however, proved\nto be nothing else than a vortex of water produced by rotatory cilia.\nThis and many other mistakes were owing to the imperfect construction\nof the microscopes of that date. These and their fellow animalcules\npossess several organs, as a stomach, &c. The protozoa at one time\nwere supposed to possess a number of stomachs, and were thence called\n\"poly-gastric infusoria,\" but it has now been demonstrated that these\nbeings merely absorb or entangle portions of organic matter into\ntheir substance, and that there are no cysts or stomachs for their\nreception. Some of the Infusoria are able to withstand enormous changes\nof temperature, without losing their vitality; cold far below freezing\npoint, and heat equal to boiling water does not destroy them, and they\nmay be dried in the most complete manner which chemists can devise,\nand kept in this dry state for years, and yet, on the application\nof moisture, return to life. There is no doubt but every inch of air\ncontains the germs of some of the Infusoria in a dry state or their\nova, and make up a portion of that fine halo of dust which always\nappears in the air when a gleam of sunshine is let into a dark place.\n\nThe second class of the Radiata, the Entozoa, are those beings which\ninhabit, as parasites, the intestines and other parts of animals. Their\nhistory is very obscure, but there seems to be about twenty varieties\nof these creatures, and a great number of animals have their peculiar\nEntozoa. The best known in the human subject are the \"Ascaris\" or\nthread-worm, the \"Lumbricus Teres\" or long-worm, and the \"T\u00e6nia\" or\ntape-worm; this last is jointed, and grows to several yards in length.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.--SERTULARIA OPERCULATA (_a_, Natural\nsize, _b_, magnified).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.--FRAGMENT OF SPONGE, MAGNIFIED.]\n\nThe third class, the Zoophyta, includes four orders. The first of\nthese, the Hydroida, comprise the Tubularia, Sertularia (fig. 4), and\nSponges (fig. 5); these are minute gelatinous creatures, secreting a\nsort of tube in which they dwell. These tubes are congregated into\nmasses of different forms and colours, and, with other structures\ntotally different, are erroneously known by the general name of\n\"sea-weed.\" The Zoophyte which dwells in these tubes is furnished with\na set of cilia forming a sort of plume. Most of these Hydroida are\nphosphorescent, such are those which, scattered about on the surface of\nthe sea, contribute to that luminosity so frequently seen.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.--GORGONIA GUTTATA (Natural size).]\n\nThe second order of the Zoophyta, Asteroida, are those which have a\nstar-like shape; they are congregated into compound structures, forming\nwhat are called sea-fans (Gorgonia, fig. 6). These Gorgonia are of all\ncolours, and very beautiful; the animals or \"polypes\" are gelatinous,\nand have a gelatinous mass or stalk with branches, strengthened and\nsupported by a horny centre. This gelatinous mass forms the animal\nitself, as well as a sort of common integument connecting the whole\nfamily of many thousands. The Gorgonia or sea-fans usually preserved,\nare dry and hard, as the gelatinous covering has so little substance\nthat, when dried, it forms a rough powdery covering only to the horny\nsupport. This powdery surface, if washed off with a little water\nand placed under the microscope, is found to contain and be made up\nof spicul\u00e6 or crystals of carbonate of lime, of various colours and\nbeautiful forms (fig. 7); these, when the animal is alive, help to\nsupport its gelatinous frame; the Tubipor\u00e6 also belong to this class.\nFig. 8 represents the Organ-coral (Tubipora musica); it is of a bright\nred colour, and, when the polypes are living, is a very beautiful\nobject.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.--SPICULES OF GORGONIA, MAGNIFIED.]\n\nThe third order of Zoophytes is the Helianthoida, which include the\n\"Actinia.\" These Zoophytes are entirely gelatinous, and have beautiful\nvariations of colour. They throw out tentacles like the petals of\na flower, and form very beautiful objects; they may be seen in the\naquatic vivaria of the Zoological Gardens. To this order of Zoophytes\nbelong the \"corals\" or Zoanthoid polypes, which produce the coral\nreefs, extending in some cases hundreds of miles. Dr. Baird gives the\nfollowing account of them:--\n\n\"By far the greater part of the Zoanthoid polypes, as they grow,\ndeposit in the cellular substance of the flesh of their back an immense\nquantity of calcareous matter which enlarges as the animal increases\nin size, and, in fact, fills up those portions of the substance of\nthe animal, which by the growth of new parts are no longer wanted\nfor its nourishment, and in this manner they form a hard and strong\ncase, amongst the folds of which they contract themselves so as to be\nprotected from external injury, and by the same means they form for\nthemselves a permanent attachment which prevents their being tossed\nabout by every wave of the element in which they live. The stony\nsubstances so formed are called corals, and their mode of formation\ncauses them exactly to represent the animal which secretes them. The\nupper surface is always furnished with radiating plates, the remains\nof the calcareous particles which are deposited in the longitudinal\nfolds of the stomach. These, in all probability were the constructors\nof all the strata of limestone rocks, which form some of our largest\nmountains--they were once the beds of seas, and were up-heaved by\ninternal forces. The Madrepores (fig. 9) are also of this order, and\nform the stony matter in the same way. These are of various patterns,\nand the beautiful brain-stones in the British Museum are of their\nconstruction.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.--TUBIPORA MUSICA.]\n\nThe fourth order of Zoophytes are the Ascidioida, including formerly\nthe Flustr\u00e6 (fig. 10), but of late these have been shown to be closely\nallied, if not identical with, the Tunicated Mollusca, and have\nreceived the name of Polyzoa, they will therefore be noticed under that\nhead.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9.--CORAL (Madrepora brachiata).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.--SEA MAT (Flustra foliacea), (A,\nmagnified, B, natural size).]\n\nThe fourth class of the Radiata, are the Radiaria, including two\norders. The first of these are the Acaleph\u00e6; the Medus\u00e6 or Jelly-fishes\nbelong to this order; these creatures float about sometimes in great\nnumbers, they are transparent and gelatinous, of a hemispherical form,\nthe flat surface being fringed round with fibres, some of which sting\nlike nettles if brought into contact with the skin.\n\nThe second order of the Radiaria include the Echinodermata or\nSea-hedgehogs, Star-fishes, &c., these are many of them furnished with\na profusion of spines, and hence their name; they are also called\nSea-eggs or Sea-urchins (fig. 11), and are mostly of a conical or\nspherical shape, divided into five segments covered with minute holes,\nfrom which project tentacul\u00e6 serving as organs of locomotion, touch,\n&c., and the surface of the body is covered with shelly spines of\nvarious forms and thicknesses; the mouth is in the centre, and they\nfeed upon marine productions. The spines, if cut across and ground\nthin so as to be transparent, show a most complicated and beautiful\nstructure when under the microscope (fig. 12).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 11.--SEA-URCHIN (Echinus), WITH AND WITHOUT SPINES.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 12.--SPINE OF ECHINUS (A, natural size, B, a\nsection magnified).]\n\nThe Star-fishes are inhabitants of the sea, and have generally five\narms covered beneath with tentacul\u00e6 having small suckers at the point,\nit is by means of these that they move from place to place; the mouth\nis in the centre. They live upon small marine animals, and have the\npower of reproducing any of the rays which happen to be broken off; and\nif cut into two or more pieces, each will produce a fresh animal. There\nis a species of Star-fish, so brittle, that it is quite impossible\nto touch it without breaking it, or rather it breaks itself, for it\nseems to have the power of casting off its arms at pleasure. These\nforms complete the Radiate series of animals, they have nearly all a\nsomewhat regular radiated form, and some of them are very beautiful,\nsuch as Sertularia, which grow in communities and form many beautiful\nbranched objects, much resembling sea-weeds and flowers, hence the name\nZoophyte, which means animal flowers.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 13.--EARTH WORM (Lumbricus terrestris), leech\n(Hirudo medicinale).]\n\nThe Articulata form the second division of the Invertebrata. It has\nfive classes, the first of which is the Annellata; in this order are\nincluded the Worms and Leeches (fig. 13), these have no hard covering\nbut are soft throughout, they are made up of a number of soft rings\nwhich encircle their bodies from one end to the other, and are capable\nof being shortened or elongated by the muscles which draw together the\nrings (these are placed longitudinally), or by those which contract and\nwiden them, placed circularly; this enables them to move along, and in\nso peculiar a manner that it has received the name of \"vermicular,\" or\nworm-like. The most familiar example of this class is the Earth-worm\n(Lumbricus terrestris), this lowly creature lives in soft mud and clay\nand bores its way into the ground, in doing so it is assisted by a\nslimy secretion which covers it, its food consists of earth containing\norganic matter, this it swallows constantly and extracts what is fit\nfor its nourishment ejecting the remainder apparently unaltered; the\ncurious little heaps of soft dirt which are so often seen in wet\nweather on the garden-paths, &c., are formed in this way. The Leech\nis another familiar example of the Annellata or Annelid\u00e6, this little\nuseful creature lives in ponds and stagnant waters, and feeds by\nsucking the fluids of other animals (chiefly frogs and fish) with which\nit will gorge itself till it is double its original size, it will then\nremain (often for months) without food till it is all appropriated,\nthe process going on very slowly; a full-grown Leech is perhaps twenty\nyears old, they grow so slowly, (hence it is, that Leeches may be kept\nfor months after being gorged with blood without any food, and they\nwill live and be healthy). They are furnished with two suckers, one at\neach end, and a mouth with numerous fine teeth placed in a tri-radiate\nmanner, with which they pierce the skin when about to feed. They move\nin the water with great rapidity by a wavy motion of their bodies, but\non solid substances their mode of progression is that of adhering by\nthe sucker in front, then drawing the other one close up and extending\nthe body to its full length, taking hold again by the front sucker and\nagain bringing up the hindermost.\n\nThe Cirripeda constitute the second class of the Articulata, which\ncomprise the \"Acorn shells\" and \"Barnacles\" (fig. 14); these little\ncreatures were formerly described as Molluscs, but are now considered\nto be articulate animals, and by some as Crustaceans. Dr. Baird gives\nthe following description of them:--\"The Cirripeds are articulated\nanimals contained within a hard covering composed of several pieces and\nconsisting of calcified chitine. The body of the animal is enclosed in\na sac lined with the most delicate membrane of chitine, which in one\ngroup is prolonged into a peduncle and contains the ova; the body is\ndistinctly articulated and placed with the back downwards.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 14.--A, SEA-ACORNS; B, BARNACLES (Cirripedes).]\n\nDr. Carpenter describes the young of the Cirripedes as not fixed like\nthe adult creatures, but moving about freely, and only becoming fixed\nin the form of the usual acorn shell after undergoing several strange\nmetamorphoses, during which stages they more resemble the ordinary\nCrustaceans than they do in their fixed state.\n\nThe Crustacea form the third class of the Articulata, they comprise\nanimals covered with a hard shell or carapace, like a case made up of\nrings, with joints allowing the pieces to move upon each other, except\nwhere several of them are consolidated to form the principal covering.\nThese rings generally amount to twenty-one in number, some composing\nthe claws, others the legs, &c. The shell is chiefly made of carbonate\nof lime (chalk) held together by animal matter. The greater part of\nthe Crustacea inhabit the waters, and they cast their shells from time\nto time as they grow; the Lobster (Astacus marinus), is a familiar\nexample, it is found in the sea near rocky shores, and is capable of\nrapid motion under the water, darting along (tail foremost) with great\nrapidity, it has powerful claws, with one of which (the blunt one)\nit holds its food and with the other (the sharp one) cuts it up into\npieces; they have the power of casting off these claws and reproducing\nthem; they feed upon smaller Crustacea and fish, or any animal matter\nthey can find. The Cray-fish is another example, it is a sort of\nfresh-water Lobster, living in holes (frequently deserted rat holes) in\nthe banks of rivers; its shell is very rough, but otherwise somewhat\nresembles the Lobster. Crabs, Shrimps, and Prawns, are members of this\nclass (fig. 15).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 15.--CRUSTACEA.\n\n 1. Lobster (Astacus marinus).\n 2. Cray-fish (Astacus fluviatilis).\n 3. Crab (Cancer pagurus).\n 4. Shrimp (Crangou vulgaris).\n 5. Prawn (Pal\u00e6mon serratus).\n]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 16.--INSECTS.\n\n 1. Dragon-fly (Libellulina depressa).\n 2. Grasshopper (Gryllus).\n 3. Bee (Apis mellifica).\n 4. Fly (Musca domestica).\n 5. Butterfly (Pontia brassic\u00e6).\n 6. Musk-beetle (Cerambyx moschatus).\n]\n\nThe Insects form the fourth class of this division, and by far\nthe most important and numerous. They come to maturity only after\nundergoing successive changes from the egg to the perfect animal;\nthese transformations are amongst the most wonderful things connected\nwith them. The eggs (some of which are very beautiful) are first\ndeposited in some safe place, either attached to a leaf or tied up\nin a small bundle by silken threads spun by the parent insect, and\nin some nutritious substance, so that when it comes to life it may\nat once have food; this is sometimes in manure, sometimes in flesh,\nand sometimes under the skin of a living animal (few are exempt from\nthis infliction), where they remain for a time and then come forth as\nmaggots, caterpillars, &c.; in this state they are called \"larv\u00e6,\"\nthese are generally active creatures and eat most voraciously, which\nseems to be the principal act of this state of their existence. These\nlarv\u00e6 frequently change their skins as they grow, and at last they\nassume the next stage of their life, the pupa or chrysalis state,\nwhich is one generally of complete inactivity; many of these larv\u00e6,\nweave themselves a covering of a sort of silk, to defend them while\nin the pupa state--such as the Silkworm, whose covering (cocoon) is\nthe source of all the silk of commerce--others merely place themselves\nin a situation of security. The pupa remains dormant for a certain\ntime, and then becomes the imago or perfect insect (the last state\nof its existence), such as a Moth, a Butterfly, a Beetle, &c. These\nare of different sexes, and in due time produce a batch of eggs and\nthen die; these eggs are often incredible in numbers, amounting to\nmany thousands--fortunately but few escape the watchful eyes of other\ninsects and of birds who feed upon them.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 17.--ANTENNA OF COCK-CHAFFER (Melolontha vulgaris).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 18.--FOOT OF FLY, MAGNIFIED.]\n\nInsects have six jointed legs, a pair of antenn\u00e6 or horns (as they are\ncalled) and generally one or two pairs of wings. The head is joined\nto the body by a constricted neck, the part of the body to which it\nis joined is called the thorax, and to this is added the posterior\npart or abdomen; this part is extremely various in form in different\ninsects, in some it is round and full, in others long and extended.\nThe antenn\u00e6 arise from the head, and are generally composed of eleven\npieces variously disposed; these wonderful organs are possessed of\ngreat sensibility, and they certainly serve to convey information to\nthe insect, of the nature of one of the special senses; it was formerly\nthought to be simply that of touch very much refined, or of smell, but\nit is now generally considered to be that of hearing, or a modification\nof it. The forms of the antenn\u00e6 are very various, fig. 17 represents\nthat of the Cockchaffer (Melolontha vulgaris). The legs proceed from\nthe thorax, as do the wings, the abdomen giving rise to none of the\nextremities; the feet of insects are all pretty much upon the same\nmodel, some being more developed than others, they have a pair of hooks\nor claws for catching and clinging to rough surfaces, and a pair of\ncushions or pads, covered in some cases with suckers. The foot of the\nFly (fig. 18) is well developed in this particular, enabling it to walk\nwith perfect ease even on glass or the smoothest surface, and in any\nposition. Insects do not breathe by lungs or gills, but by means of\nbranched tubes called \"trache\u00e6,\" which convey the air to the interior\nof the animal. On the surface of these, the blood vessels ramify,\ngiving out the carbonic acid of the blood and receiving oxygen; the\nopenings to these air-tubes are arranged along the sides of the body,\nand are called \"spiracles\" (fig. 19). They are curious objects under\nthe microscope, some of them being closed by a perforated membrane,\nothers have a sort of sieve or network of fibres, and most of them a\ncontrivance to catch and exclude minute particles of matter floating in\nthe air, and thus prevent their entry into the trache\u00e6. Insects have\ntwo eyes, one on each side of the head, which are of great size, often\nforming complete hemispheres; each eye is made up of several thousand\nseparate eyes or \"ocelli,\" hence they are called compound eyes; these\nocelli are placed closely together, so as to form a sort of honeycomb\narrangement; the appearance of a part of one of these eyes is shown in\nfig. 20.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 19.--SPIRACLE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 20.--COMPOUND EYE.\n\n(1, perpendicular section; 2, surface.)]\n\nInsects are amongst the most active of creatures, whether for good or\nfor evil, and the prodigious rapidity with which they increase under\nfavourable circumstances would soon cause them to overrun the whole\nearth, to the extinction of almost every other creature, were these\ncircumstances not controlled by an all-wise Providence, who keeps a\nconstant check upon their progress by causing one insect to feed\nupon another, and who has formed almost innumerable other creatures\n(including birds, reptiles, and fishes) with instincts which lead them\nto feed upon insects in every stage of their development (fish devour\nthe larv\u00e6 of many insects which inhabit the waters during the first\nstage of their existence); but it occasionally happens, when some of\nthese salutary checks upon their increase are withdrawn, that they\nmultiply with such fearful rapidity as to produce a complete famine,\nfor they eat up everything before them. Who has not heard of the\nplagues of Locusts and the depredations of the White Ants? The swarms\nof Locusts in Africa will sometimes cover many hundred square miles of\nsurface, and in this space not a vestige of any vegetation would remain\nafter their visit. The description of the prophet Joel is sublime: \"The\nland is as the garden of Eden before them, and behind them a desolate\nwilderness: yea, and nothing shall escape them.... The earth shall\nquake before them, the heavens shall tremble: the sun and the moon\nshall be dark, and the stars shall withdraw their shining.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 21.--LOCUST (Locusta Migratoria).]\n\nBut it is kindly ordained that these visitations shall only\noccasionally take place, and even when they do, terrible as is the\ninfliction, a benefit in reality outweighing the injury often succeeds;\nfor the land in these countries is often made almost barren by the\nquantities of tangled roots and stubble on the surface of the earth,\nwhich by the destructive powers of these insects is completely removed,\nand their manure left in its place, so that the fertility of the ground\nis much increased (often tenfold) after their visits.\n\nThe thousands of species of insects which exist, render it impossible\nin a work like this, even to name them, but under the separate orders\nwill be given a slight outline of the more important.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 22.--THE STAG BEETLE (Lucanus cervus).]\n\nInsects are divided, according to the character of their wings, into\nnine orders.\n\n\n1. COLEOPTERA (Black-winged).\n\nThe Coleoptera are those insects generally denominated Beetles, they\nhave four wings, the two outer of which are not used to fly with, but\nas cases to cover and protect the other two; they are called \"elytra,\"\nare horny and firm in texture, and in some cases, as the Diamond Beetle\nand Musk Beetle, beautifully ornamented; the under pair of wings fold\ntransversely so as to pack up under the outer ones, which are shorter.\nAll Beetles live but one season, both sexes die before winter, leaving\nnothing but their eggs to continue the species, the larv\u00e6 which come\nfrom these are very destructive, eating most voraciously; for the most\npart, Beetles feed on decaying substances such as dung, &c., and are\ntherefore useful creatures; there are between 40,000 and 50,000 species\nof them. Beetles have been called the scavengers of nature, and truly\nthey are so, for they (with other insects) clear off all dead matter,\nwhether animal or vegetable; the Geotrupes stercorarius, and others,\ndig holes in the ground and bury the excrement which is deposited on\nthe surface, thus doing a great service to vegetation, taking it down\nto nourish the roots of the grass and other plants instead of allowing\nit to harden and decompose on the surface. All dead animals are at once\nattacked and devoured by insects, and the Beetles play their full share\nin this necessary operation.\n\nThere are certain Beetles, called Burying Beetles (Necrophorus\nvespillo), which remove the earth from under the dead bodies of small\nanimals, such as birds or mice, till they are beneath the level of the\nground, when they cover them up and deposit their eggs in them; these\nbodies form stores of food for the future larv\u00e6.\n\nThe Stag Beetle (Lucanus cervus, fig. 22), the Dor Beetle (Geotrupes\nstercorarius), the Cockchaffer (Melolontha vulgaris), the Musk Beetle\n(Cerambyx moschatus, fig. 16), and the Lady-bird (Coccinella), are\nwell-known members of this order.\n\n\n2. ORTHOPTERA (Straight-winged).\n\nThe Orthoptera are those insects whose wings fold longitudinally; they\nhave two pairs, but the anterior pair are horny and serve as wing-cases\nto the posterior pair; their food is chiefly vegetable, but to many\nof their species any kind is acceptable, as their mouths are suitable\nfor grinding-up hard substances. The Locusts (Locustid\u00e6, fig. 21),\nGrasshoppers (Gryllid\u00e6), Crickets (Achetid\u00e6, fig. 16), and Cockroaches\n(Blattid\u00e6), or Black-beetles, as they are sometimes incorrectly called,\nbelong to this tribe. Their metamorphoses are not so complete as in\nmany other insects, for they never entirely change their form; the\nlarva as it leaves the egg has no wings, but otherwise is much like the\nparent; it changes its skin several times, which stage is analogous to\nthe pupa state, after casting it five times and obtaining wings, it\nbecomes the imago or perfect insect. The ravages of the Locusts are so\nwell known that little need be said; the following is from Kirby and\nSpence's Entomology:--\n\n\"Although this animal be not very tremendous for its size, nor very\nterrific in its appearance, it is the very same whose ravages have been\nthe theme of naturalists and historians in all ages, and upon a close\nexamination you will find it to be peculiarly fitted and furnished for\nthe execution of its office. It is armed with two pairs of very strong\njaws, the upper terminating in short, and the lower in long teeth,\nby which it can both lacerate and grind its food; its stomach is of\nextraordinary capacity and powers; its hind legs enable it to leap to a\nconsiderable distance, and its ample vans are calculated to catch the\nwind as sails, and so to carry it sometimes over the sea; and although\na single individual can effect but little evil, yet when the entire\nsurface of a country is covered by them, and every one makes bare the\nspot on which it stands, the mischief produced may be as infinite as\ntheir numbers. So well do the Arabians know their power, that they make\na Locust say to Mahomet, 'We are the army of the Great God; we produce\nninety-nine eggs; if the hundred were completed, we should consume the\nwhole earth and all that is in it.'\"\n\n\n3. NEUROPTERA (Nerve-winged).\n\nThe Neuroptera comprise the Dragon-fly (Libellulina, fig. 16), Ant-lion\n(Myrmelion), Caddis-flies (Phryganid\u00e6), and the May-flies (Ephemera);\nthese insects have wings of a beautiful network structure, as may be\nseen in the Dragon-fly, they make their appearance about the middle of\nJune in the locality of ditches and ponds. The Caddis-fly is noted for\nthe peculiar case which the larva makes for itself; the larva inhabits\nthe water and the ease is made of little fragments of wood, shell, and\nsand, agglutinated together so as to float; the perfect insect is not\naquatic, and flies away when formed. The May-flies are noted for the\nshortness of their existence, the larv\u00e6 live in the water, and many\nof them are eaten by fishes who are very fond of them, but sufficient\nnumbers come to the perfect state, to form complete clouds in the air\nwhere the larv\u00e6 were, these creatures live but a day, and some of\ntheir species but an hour or two, in the perfect state, they deposit\ntheir eggs in the water, which come to life in the mud at the bottom.\nThe flight of these fragile beings and their short-lived holiday\nfestivities are well described by Kirby and Spence:--\n\n\"In the beginning of September, for two successive years, I was so\nfortunate as to witness a spectacle of this kind, which afforded me\na more sublime gratification than any work or exhibition of art has\npower to communicate. The first was in 1811. Taking an evening walk\nnear my house, when the sun, declining fast towards the horizon,\nshone forth without a cloud, the whole atmosphere over and near the\nstream swarmed with infinite myriads of Ephemer\u00e6 and little gnats of\nthe genus chironomus, which in the sun-beam appeared as numerous and\nmore lucid than the drops of rain, as if the heavens were showering\ndown brilliant gems. Afterwards, in the following year, one Sunday,\na little before sunset, I was enjoying a stroll with a friend at a\ngreater distance from the river, when in a field by the road-side\nthe same pleasing scene was renewed, but in a style of still greater\nmagnificence; for, from some cause in the atmosphere, the insects\nat a distance looked much larger than they really were. The choral\ndances consisted principally of Ephemer\u00e6, but there were also some\nchironomi, the former, however, being most conspicuous, attracted our\nchief attention. Alternately rising and falling, in the full beam they\nappeared so transparent and glorious, that they scarcely resembled\nanything material; they reminded us of angels and glorified spirits\ndrinking life and joy in the effulgence of the Divine favour. The Bard\nof Twickenham, from the terms in which his beautiful description of his\nsylphs is conceived in the 'Rape of the Lock' seems to have witnessed\nthe pleasing scene here described:--\n\n 'Some to the sun their insect wings unfold,\n Waft on the breeze, or sink in clouds of gold;\n Transparent forms, too fine for mortal sight,\n Their fluid bodies half dissolved in light;\n Loose to the wind their airy garments flew,\n Thin glittering textures of the filmy dew,\n Dipt in the richest tincture of the skies,\n Where light disports in ever mingling dyes,\n While every beam new transient colours flings,\n Colours that change whene'er they wave their wings.'\"\n\n\n4. HYMENOPTERA (Membrane-winged).\n\nThe Hymenoptera are those insects which have four membraneous wings.\nThe Bees (Apid\u00e6, fig. 16), Wasps (Vespid\u00e6), the Ants (Formicid\u00e6), and\nthe Ichneumon Flies (Ichneumonid\u00e6), are the chief tribes of this order.\nThe Bees, Wasps, and Ants are celebrated for forming societies, more\nperfectly arranged and governed than in any other creatures but man.\nIt is curious that the most perfect instincts (such as approach so\nnearly to reason that they almost defy us to make a distinction) should\nhave been given by the Creator to creatures so far removed from man\nin the scale of existence, and so little resembling him in any other\nparticular. This is one of the stumbling-blocks in the way of those who\nwish to have it believed that all animals are progressive from certain\ntypes, which cannot be got over; if such were the case, man would be\nmost nearly imitated by the Apes, and these again by those most nearly\nallied to them, and so on downwards, but here we find a government\nalmost as perfect as that of the human species--an arrangement of work,\na division of labour, buildings, storehouses, &c.--showing nearly all\nthe social habits and feelings of man, in creatures who in form and\nsize have no resemblance to him.\n\nKirby and Spence, in describing the societies of insects, say:--\"But\nwhen we consider the object of these societies, the preservation and\nmultiplication of the species, and the means by which that object is\nattained (the united labours and co-operation of perhaps millions\nof individuals), it seems as if they were impelled by passions very\nsimilar to those main-springs of human associations which I have just\nenumerated. Desire appears to stimulate them, love to allure them, fear\nto alarm them. They want a habitation to reside in and food for their\nsubsistence. Does not this look as if desire were the operating cause\nwhich induces them to unite their labours to construct the one and\nprovide the other? Their nest contains a numerous family of helpless\nbrood. Does not love here seem to urge them to exemplary and fond\nattention, and those unremitted and indefatigable exertions manifested\nby the whole community for the benefit of these dear objects? Is it\nnot also evident by their general and singular attachment to their\nfamilies, by their mutual caresses, by their feeding each other, by\ntheir sympathy with suffering individuals and endeavours to relieve\nthem, by their readiness to help those that are in difficulty, and\nfinally by their sports and assemblies for relaxation? That fear\nproduces its influences upon them seems no less evident, when we see\nthem agitated by the approach of enemies, endeavour to repel their\nattacks, and to construct works of defence. They appear to have besides\na common language, for they possess the faculty, by significative\ngestures and sounds, of communicating their wants and ideas to each\nother.\"\n\nNumerous works have been entirely devoted to the habits and instincts\nof Bees and Ants, and very interesting they are, but it would be\nimpossible to give an intelligible account of them in the small space\nallotted in this volume.\n\nThe wax of which Bees build their beautiful six-sided cells, and\nwhich is the whole source of all the wax used by men for a variety of\npurposes, is secreted in little scales or flakes, between the joints\nof the abdomen, from whence the wax-making Bees take it to build the\ncomb; the cells of the comb are filled with honey, which is obtained\nby the Bees (by means of the apparatus shown at fig. 23), from the\nnectaries of flowers in the form of nectar, and is converted into honey\nin the honey-bag of the Bee, from whence it is discharged into the\ncells. Bees also collect the pollen from the flowers they visit, this\nadheres to the hairs on the Bee, and is scraped and brushed off, and\ncollected into two little lots, which the Bee carries on each hind leg,\nthis pollen is made into bee-bread. By scattering the pollen, flowers\nare often fecundated, for there are many plants, the female flowers of\nwhich are separate from the males, and it is only by insects and the\nwind, that the females are fecundated, for the Bee, with the pollen\nadhering to every part, first visits one flower and then another in\nsearch of nectar.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 23.--HONEY-LAPPING APPARATUS OF WILD\nSEA-BEE (Halictus), (_a_, magnified; _a b_, more highly\nmagnified).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 24.--WHITE ANTS (1, Winged Female; 2,\nFemale, distended with eggs).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 25--NESTS OF WHITE ANTS.]\n\nWith respect to the Ants, Kirby and Spence give the following account\nof the building of their habitations,\n\n\"The nest of _Formica brunnea_ is composed wholly of earth, and\nconsists of a great number of stories, sometimes not fewer than\nforty, twenty below the level of the soil, and as many above,\nwhich last, following the slope of the ant-hill, are concentric.\nEach story, separately examined, exhibits cavities in the shape of\nsaloons, narrower apartments, and long galleries which preserve the\ncommunication between both. The arched roofs of the most spacious\nrooms are supported by very thin walls, or occasionally by small\npillars and true buttresses; some having only one entrance from\nabove, others a second, communicating with the lower story; the\nmain galleries, of which, in some places, several meet in one large\nsaloon, communicate with other subterranean passages, which are often\ncarried to the distance of several feet from the hill. These insects\nwork chiefly after sunset. In building their nest they employ soft\nclay only, scraped from its bottom when sufficiently moistened by a\nshower, which, far from injuring, consolidates and strengthens their\narchitecture. Different labourers convey small masses of this ductile\nmaterial between their mandibles, and with the same instrument they\nspread and mould it to their will, the antenn\u00e6 accompanying every\nmovement. They render all firm by pressing the surface lightly with\ntheir fore feet; and however numerous the distinct masses of clay\ncomposing these walls, and though connected by no glutinous material,\nthey appear when finished, one single layer, well united, consolidated\nand smoothed. Having traced the plan of their structure, by placing\nhere and there the foundations of the pillars and partition-walls,\nthey add successively new portions; and when the walls of a gallery or\napartment, which are half a line thick, are elevated about half an inch\nin height, they join them by springing a flattish arch or roof from one\nside to the other. Nothing can be a more interesting spectacle than\none of these cities while building. In one place vertical walls form\nthe outline, which communicate with different corridors by openings\nmade in the masonry; in another we see a true saloon, whose vaults\nare supported by numerous pillars; and further on are the cross-ways\nor squares where several streets meet, and whose roofs, though often\nmore than two inches across, the Ants are under no difficulty in\nconstructing, beginning the sides of the arch in the angle formed by\ntwo walls, and extending them by successive layers of clay till they\nmeet; while crowds of masons arrive from all parts with their particles\nof mortar, and work with a regularity, harmony, and activity, which can\nnever enough be admired. So assiduous are they in their operations,\nthat they will complete a story with all its saloons, vaulted roofs,\npartitions and galleries, in seven or eight hours. If they begin a\nstory, and for want of moisture are unable to finish it, they pull down\nagain all the crumbling apartments that are not covered in.\"\n\nEvery one has heard of the destructive as well as constructive\nqualities of the \"White Ant;\" another quotation from Kirby and Spence\nwill illustrate both.\n\n\"When they find their way into houses or warehouses nothing less hard\nthan metal or glass escapes their ravages; their favourite food,\nhowever, is wood of all kinds, except the Teak, and Ironwood, which\nare the only sorts known, that they will not touch; and so infinite\nare the multitudes of the assailants, and such is the excellence of\ntheir tools, that all the timber-work of a spacious apartment is often\ndestroyed by them in a few nights. Exteriorly, however, everything\nappears as if untouched; for these wary depredators (and this is what\nconstitutes the greatest singularity of their history) carry on all\ntheir operations by sap and mine, destroying utterly the inside of\nsolid substances, and scarcely ever attacking their outside until they\nhave first concealed it and their operations with a coating of clay.\nA general similarity runs through the proceedings of the whole tribe,\nbut the large African species, called by Smeathman Termes bellicosus,\nis the most formidable. These insects live in large clay nests, from\nwhence they excavate tunnels all round, often to the extent of several\nhundred feet; from these they will descend a considerable depth below\nthe foundation of a house, and rise again through the floors; or,\nboring through the posts and supports of the building, enter the roof\nand construct their galleries in various directions.\n\n\"If a post be a convenient path to the roof, or has any weight to\nsupport, (how they discover it is not easily conjectured), they will\nfill it with their mortar, leaving only a track-way for themselves, and\nthus, as it were, convert it from wood into stone as hard as many kinds\nof freestone. In this manner they soon destroy houses, and sometimes\nwhole villages, when deserted by their inhabitants, so that in two or\nthree years not a vestige of them will remain. These insidious insects\nare not less expeditious in destroying the wainscoating, shelves,\nand other fixtures of a house, than the house itself; with the most\nconsummate art and skill they eat away the inside of what they attack,\nexcept a few fibres here and there, which exactly suffice to keep the\ntwo sides, or top and bottom, connected, so as to retain the appearance\nof solidity after the reality is gone; and all the while they carefully\navoid perforating the surface, unless a book or any other thing that\ntempts them should be standing upon it.\n\n\"Koempfer, speaking of the White Ants of Japan, gives a remarkable\ninstance of the rapidity with which these miners proceed. Upon rising\none morning he observed that one of their galleries of the thickness of\nhis little finger had been formed across his table; and upon a further\nexamination he found that they had bored a passage of that thickness\nup one foot of the table, formed a gallery across it, and then pierced\ndown another foot into the floor; all this was done in the few hours\nthat intervened between his retiring to rest and his rising.\"\n\nMost of this order are armed with some weapon of defence. The Bee\nand Wasp have each a most formidable sting, with which they are able\nto inflict a wound fatal to most insects. The Ants have a peculiar\nsecretion, consisting of formic acid, which they eject with great\nforce, and which has a very disagreeable smell. The eggs of Ants when\nhatched produce a small grub, which spins itself a sort of cocoon,\nand in this state it so much resembles a grain of corn, that it has\nbeen mistaken for it; this error has given rise to the supposition\nthat Ants store up corn for winter, whereas they never eat corn, but\nthe care they take of these larv\u00e6, removing them from place to place,\ntaking them up in their mandibles and running along with them, has been\nmistaken for the act of storing away grains of corn.\n\n\n5. STREPSIPTERA (Twisted-winged).\n\nThis order includes but a few species; Dr. Baird in his Cyclop\u00e6dia,\ngives the following account of them:--\n\n\"Certain insects were discovered by Kirby, living parasitic in the\nabdomen of some Andren\u00e6, which at that time were nondescript, and could\nnot be referred to any existing order. They were afterwards placed\nin an order by themselves, which he called Strepsiptera. The larv\u00e6\nlive in the bodies of Bees, Wasps &c., and the males only undergo a\nperfect metamorphosis; the females, even when adult, have neither legs,\nwings, nor eyes, but resemble larv\u00e6, and continue to live parasitic in\nthe bodies of the Hymenopterous insects within which they were born.\nThe characters are thus taken from the male and consist chiefly in\nthe structure of the wings. The anterior pair are quite rudimentary,\nbeing transformed into a pair of short, slender, contorted appendages\nresembling narrow balancers or halters. The posterior pair are large\nand membraneous, their nervures are only longitudinal, so that they are\nable to fold them like a fan. They have large globular eyes, with the\nfacets few, but of comparatively large size.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 26.--STYLOPS ANDREN\u00c6.]\n\nAbout ten or twelve species are known, forming a small family,\n\"Stylopid\u00e6.\" The genus Stylops may be taken as the type, and contain\nsuch species as have the tarsi with four points and the antenn\u00e6 with\nsix.\"\n\n\n6. LEPIDOPTERA (Scaly-winged).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 27.--SCALES FROM MOTH'S WING (Magnified).]\n\nThis order includes the Butterflies and Moths, they have four wings,\nwhich are large and covered with minute scales, which are for the\nmost part of a heart or battledore shape, as in fig. 27. The wings of\nthese insects are many of them beautifully marked and tinged. There\nare about 12,000 species, by some divided into \"diurnal\" (or those\nwhich fly by day), \"crepuscular\" (or those which fly in the evening),\nand \"nocturnal\" (or those flying by night). The Moths are mostly\ncrepuscular and nocturnal, while the Butterflies are chiefly diurnal,\nbut the most usual distinction between the Moth and Butterfly consists\nin the form of the antenn\u00e6, those of the Moth being feather-shaped,\nwhile those of the Butterfly have a small knob at the end, or, as it\nis called, \"club-shaped.\" The Lepidoptera feed upon the nectar of\nflowers, for which purpose they are furnished with a long proboscis or\n\"Haustellium,\" which is curled up under the head, it consists of two\nsemi-cylindrical pieces which when placed side by side form a tube, up\nwhich the nectar is drawn by capillary attraction. The metamorphosis\nof these insects is complete.\n\nThe Silkworm (Bombyx mori) belongs to this order. It is the most\nimportant of all insects to man, as from it alone all the silk of\ncommerce is obtained. Its cocoon is of a beautiful yellow colour,\nvarying in shade from orange to pale straw-colour; the silk of one\ncocoon weighs somewhere about three grains; it would therefore, at\nthis calculation, take 1920 worms to spin one pound. The annual import\nof silk into this country alone is about 7,000,000 pounds, it must\ntherefore take 13,440,000,000 Silkworms to supply us with silk yearly!\nThe Silkworm feeds almost exclusively on the leaves of the mulberry.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 28.--THE SILKWORM (Bombyx mori). 1, the\nEggs; 2, the young Silkworms; 3, the full-grown Silkworm; 4, the\nCocoon; 5, the Chrysalis; 6, the Moth.]\n\n\n7. HEMIPTERA (Half-winged).\n\n The Hemiptera have two pairs of wings, the hindermost small, and\n the foremost pair half horny and half membraneous, the base being\n horny, and the apex membraneous. They include the Bugs, some of which\n are aquatic, as the Water Scorpion (Nepa), and the Water Boatman\n (Natonecta), which swims on its back, rowing itself by means of a pair\n of long legs, which look like oars; the common bed Bug is also of this\n order, although wingless, as are also the Plant Lice (Aphides), which,\n however, obtain wings in their perfect state.\n\n\n8. DIPTERA (Two-winged).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 29.--PART OF GNAT'S WING, MAGNIFIED. ]\n\nThe Diptera include the common House Fly (fig. 16), Bluebottle Fly,\nGnat, and many others; their wings are like the Neuroptera, but they\nhave but one pair, the other pair being undeveloped, form little\nknobs called \"balancers.\" The wings of Flies are generally covered\nwith short stout hairs, as seen in fig. 29; the common Fly feeds upon\nalmost anything, but some of the Diptera feed exclusively on the blood\nof other animals; the Gnat (Culex pipiens), of which the Mosquito is\na variety, deposits its egg in the water on any floating substance,\nthe larva which comes from the egg is aquatic, living with its head\ndownwards, the end of the abdomen only being above the water, in this\nthere is a spiracle or breathing orifice, which enables it to take in\nthe air; the Gnat, when it comes from this larva, stands on its shell\nfor a moment, and then flies off, for it is not suited to live in the\nwater; this history of the early stages of its life, accounts for Gnats\nbeing always found in such numbers near pools of water. The Tsetse,\nwhich Dr. Livingstone describes as being so fatal to cattle, is of\nthis order; he says, \"It is well known that the bite of this poisonous\ninsect is certain death to ox, horse, or dog.... A most remarkable\nfeature in the bite of the Tsetse is its perfect harmlessness to man\nand wild animals, and even calves, so long as they continue to suck the\ncows.\"\n\n\n9. APTERA (Wingless).\n\nTo this order belongs the Flea (Pulex irritans), which is furnished\nwith lancet-shaped weapons, through which it sucks the blood of other\nanimals, for it is entirely parasitic, and also the \"Chigeo\" (Pulex\npenetrans), which is a troublesome and even dangerous pest in the West\nIndies; it penetrates the skin of the feet, and deposits its young\nbeneath it.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 30.--FLEA (Pulex irritans)\nMAGNIFIED.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 31.--ARACHNIDA.1, Spider (Epeira Diadema);\n2, Scorpion (Scorpio).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 32--LONG-LEGGED HOUSE-SPIDER (Aran\u00e6\ndomestica).]\n\nThe last class of the Articulata, the Arachnida, includes the Spiders,\nScorpions, Centipedes, and Millipedes. The Arachnida differ from\ninsects, in having eight or more legs, more than two eyes, no wings,\nand no head; the Spiders have four pairs of legs, and six, eight, or\nmore, simple eyes, which appear as minute spots on the upper part of\nthe thorax. Spiders nearly all live by preying upon small insects,\nwhich they catch in several ways, but by far the most general mode is\nby constructing a web or net to entangle them; the threads of this\nweb are made of a fluid glutinous substance, which is secreted within\nthe abdomen, and which they project from extremely minute orifices,\nseveral of which exist on the point of little projections called\n\"spinnarets,\" this liquid dries into a solid thread immediately it\ncomes into contact with the air; it is extremely strong, and so fine\nthat several thousand of the single fibres will only make the size of\na human hair. The Garden Spider (Epeira diadema) is often called the\nGeometrical Spider, from the regularity of its web. These Spiders will\noften place a thread from one spot to another, where it would seem\nimpossible that they could attach it, such as from the branch of a\ntree to the corner of a house twenty feet or more from the ground; it\nhas never been accurately determined how the Spider does this, and it\nis the more difficult to observe, as it is always done in the night,\nbut it has been supposed that a fine thread is spun, and that the wind\ncarries it across, when it is strengthened and afterwards made tight.\nThe Spider (Arane\u00e6 domestica) that makes \"cobwebs\" in the corners of\nrooms, is called the Weaving Spider. Some Spiders are called Hunting\nSpiders, they do not construct webs, but pounce upon their prey with a\nleap; the Mygale avicularis of South America is one of this kind; it is\nsaid that some grow so large that their feet spread out a foot wide.\nThe Long-legged Spider, often found in our houses, and of which fig. 32\nis an exact copy, measures 3 1/2 inches, and is the largest species we\nhave. There are also aquatic Spiders, which feed upon insects in the\nwater and dive down for them; their surface being hairy and unctuous,\nretains sufficient air to bring them up and prevent them being wetted.\nThe eyes of Spiders are different from those of other insects; they\nappear as simple, shining spots, or \"ocelli,\" and not compound eyes,\nhaving a great many \"ocelli\" compounded into one. These \"ocelli\" are\narranged in a group of eight or more, and placed on the upper part of\nthe thorax, for Spiders have no head, although generally represented\nwith one. The eggs of Spiders are generally deposited in some sheltered\nplace, fastened together and partly covered with a net-work of a sort\nof yellow silk, very much resembling the cocoon of the Silkworm. The\nScorpion, so terrible in appearance, and in its sting so deadly, and\nwhich is sometimes a foot in length, belongs to this order. It has\neight legs, and a pair of claws like a lobster, the body is lengthened\ninto a sort of tail, at the end of which is a claw or sting, like the\npoison fang of a serpent, with a poison bag at its root; its effects\nare often fatal to man, and always so to the insects and other small\nanimals upon which the Scorpion feeds, its usual mode of killing which,\nis to catch them with its claws and then to sting them to death. The\nCentipede is a scarcely less frightful creature; in South America and\nthe West Indies it is sometimes found to grow to eight or ten inches in\nlength, it is of a long jointed form, with generally twenty-one pairs\nof legs, although some have double this number; its bite is much to be\ndreaded, as it is poisonous, especially the \"Scolopendr\u00e6,\" which have\na poison gland, like the snake; in this country they are very small\nindeed, and are generally found in moist places.\n\nThe Centipedes and Millipedes are, by some, placed in the class\nArachnida, but by others in a separate class called \"Myriopoda,\"\ndivided into two orders, the Chilognatha, which have rounded\ncylindrical bodies, and generally more than one pair of legs to each\nsegment of the body, and the Chilopoda, which have a distinct flattened\nhead and but one pair of legs to each segment.\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 33.--MOLLUSCA.\n\n1, Nautilus (Argonauta); 2, Clio Borealis; 3, Mussel (Mytilus edule).]\n\nThe last of the three great divisions of the Invertebrata is formed\nby the Mollusca; it is divided into six classes, (see page 218). The\nMollusca are characterised by having no internal skeleton, nor external\nhorny case, as in the Articulata; they are rather soft, and either void\nof solid covering, or possessed of \"shells\" composed chiefly of earthy\nmatter (chalk), and in one or two pieces, called valves, hence the\nnames, uni-valve and bi-valve; all shells of this description belong to\nthe Mollusca, some of which have no means of locomotion, as Oysters;\nothers have a \"foot\" covered with a muscular expansion, called the\n\"mantle,\" by which they glide onwards, as the Snail.\n\n 1. The Tunicata have no shell or hard covering, but are of a pretty\n firm consistence; they are either fixed to rocks and sea-weeds, or\n float about freely, and are either solitary, social, or compound. The\n \"Ascidians\" are united in groups, and are all connected by a common\n stalk or \"Stolon,\" from which they grow by buds.\n\n 2. The Brachiopoda. These Molluscs are furnished with a pair of\n shells, within which the animal lives; one of these shells (the\n ventral one) has a small hole in it, close to the hinge, and through\n this a long tendinous cord passes, which fixes the creature to some\n stone or rock, hence the name Brachiopodous, which means arm-footed.\n The young of this Mollusc are not fixed, but float about. The Lingula\n has horny shells, and the foot passes out between them; these\n creatures were some of the first created, if not the very first; the\n shells of Terebratula are found in vast quantities in the oldest\n fossiliferous strata.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 34.--COCKLE (Cardium edule).]\n\n 3. The Lamellibranchiata include a great many of our most ordinary\n Mollusca, commonly known as \"shell fish.\" They have a pair of shells,\n and are thence called \"bivalve.\" The Oyster (Ostrea edulis), Mussel\n (Mytilus edulis), Cockle (Cardium edule), Scallop (Pecten), belong to\n this class. Oysters form a considerable article of commerce, thirty\n or forty thousand bushels are brought each season to London; they are\n dredged up from \"beds,\" where they are found in great quantities. They\n spawn in May and June, and are not then good. There is an old and a\n well-known saying, that \"Oysters are not fit to eat, unless there is\n an R in the month,\" all the names of the months containing an R but\n May, June, July, and August. The spawn is collected and placed in\n artificial beds, consisting of shallow places or hollows in the sea,\n where the tide will not wash them away, and whence they can be easily\n removed when sufficiently grown, which is in five or six years; these\n creatures have no powers of locomotion, but remain where the tide\n washes them; but Scallops, Cockles (fig. 34), and Mussels (fig. 33),\n have the power of fixing themselves to any substance they wish, by\n means of the \"byssus\" or beard, which is a tuft of fibres passing out\n from between the shells; and it is said, the Scallops have the power\n of progression, by suddenly opening and shutting the shells.\n\n 4. The Pteropoda are Mollusca which have no shell, or a very thin one;\n the Clio borealis (fig. 33), which forms the chief food of the Whale,\n is found in great multitudes in the Arctic seas, it swims about by\n means of two extensions, similar to wings. The Hyaloea has a small\n round transparent shell.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 35.--SNAIL (Helix aspersa), AND\nSLUG (Limax cinerius).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 36.--WENTLE-TRAP SHELL (Scalaria).]\n\n 5. The Gasteropoda are extremely numerous; most of them have univalve\n shells, but many of them have none, as the Garden Slug (Limax, fig.\n 35). The Whelk (Buccinum undatum), Perriwinkle (Littorina littoria),\n Garden Snail (Helix aspersa, fig. 35), and the Wentle-trap (Scalaria,\n fig. 36), are the most familiar examples of this class. These Mollusca\n walk by means of the mantle, which is muscular, and capable of\n alternate contraction and expansion; they breathe by means of lungs\n on their back beneath the shell, and to which there is an opening in\n their side. What are usually called the horns are four in number, two\n short and two long; they are tentacul\u00e6, but what is peculiar in them\n is the circumstance of having the eyes placed at their ends. These\n Mollusca have a sort of valve, which, when they retire into the shell,\n closes it like a lid; it is called the \"Operculum;\" in some cases it\n is horny, as in the Perriwinkle, and in others, resembles shell; the\n shells of these mollusca are coiled into a spiral, this is caused by\n the shell always growing by additions to the edges of the mouth, and\n in nearly every case this spiral turns in the same direction that a\n screw does, but in a very few it turns in the opposite direction, as\n in the \"Fusus contrarius.\"\n\n 6. The Cephalopoda include the \"Cuttle-Fish,\" and Nautilus (fig.\n 33). They are furnished with eight or ten tentacula or arms, which\n spring from the head, and which are covered with suckers; the mouth\n is in the centre, and these tentacula are used to lay hold of their\n prey and convey it to the mouth; they have two perfect eyes, and they\n breathe by gills. The Nautilus has a univalve shell, which is of a\n very graceful and elegant form; its interior is divided into chambers,\n with a syphon running through them, by which the air is exhausted or\n compressed so as to cause them to sink or swim; the animal occupies\n only the outer chamber; the extinct Ammonite belonged to this class.\n It is from the Cuttle-Fish (Sepi\u00e6) that the beautiful dark brown\n pigment, known as \"sepia,\" is obtained, and also the material of which\n Indian-ink is made.\n\n\nTHE VERTEBRATA.\n\nThe Vertebrate animals are those which have a brain and spinal cord\ninclosed within a bony case, an internal skeleton, to which are\naffixed the muscles, and which is moved by them; they all possess four\nextremities, more or less modified in form, with the exception of the\nSerpents. They are divided into four classes, Fishes, Reptiles, Birds,\nand Mammals.\n\n\nFISHES.\n\nThe Fishes live in water, and are unable to live in the air; they\nreceive oxygen from the water, but this is received much more slowly\nthan by air-breathing animals, and as the combination of oxygen with\nthe carbon of the system gives the elevated temperature of animals, so\nin Fishes, the oxygen being received slowly, their temperature rises\nbut little above the temperature of the water they inhabit; they have\nthence received the name of \"cold-blooded.\" Fishes live upon the marine\nanimals which they capture, the various sea-weeds which grow in the\nwater, and insects which fall into, or breed there. They have fins\ninstead of legs, but the two pairs of fins known as \"Pectoral\" and\n\"Ventral\" are analogues of them, and in a pectoral fin may be found\nbones analogous to all the bones of the arm and hand of Man, or the\nfore-feet of the other Vertebrata. Fishes urge themselves through the\nwater chiefly by the action of the tail from side to side, and in those\nmembers which have more extended forms (as Eels), by a wavey motion of\nthe body itself; and the rapidity with which they swim is such, that\nSharks have been known to go round the ship they are following many\ntimes in a very short space, although it may be sailing at a great\nspeed before the wind. Fishes are covered with scales, and the head is\nunited to the body without any constriction which can be considered as\na neck; they are mostly of a form such as can easily pass through the\nwater, without offering much resistance, and their specific gravity is\nso nearly that of water, that, by the compression of a small vessel\nfilled with air, called the swimming bladder or \"sound,\" they can rise\nand sink with little effort. Many tribes of the human family, such as\nthe Esquimaux and Polynesians, almost live upon Fish, and even in Great\nBritain, in fishing districts, it forms a great part of the food of the\ninhabitants, and their capture gives employment to thousands.\n\nFish inhabit all kinds of water, the sea, rivers, and ponds, and many\nwhich live habitually in the sea come into rivers at certain seasons;\nand with respect to those which dwell always in the sea, some inhabit\ncertain tracts only, and confine themselves to them, just as quadrupeds\ndo to certain localities on the land. It has been a matter of wonder\nhow the Fish get into ponds formed by the drainage of lands; but most\nponds are supplied by springs which run underground from adjacent\nlakes or rivers, or by rills running on the surface, these bring the\nova or eggs, which in favourable situations become hatched. Fish are\nexceedingly prolific, the eggs in the roe of a Codfish were estimated\nby Lewenhoec, to be upwards of 9,000,000, but not one in a thousand\ncomes to maturity; there are enemies on all sides to devour them before\nthey are hatched, and others to attack them afterwards. Some of the\nrivers of France have lately been artificially stocked with Fish by\ncausing the fecundated spawn to be preserved till they are of a bulk\nand strength to protect themselves. This was effected by confining\nthem in tanks floating in the water and perforated with holes, and\nafterwards placing them in a part of the river, inclosed both above and\nbelow by means of nets, so as to keep away their enemies--the larger\nFishes.\n\nFishes were the first of the Vertebrated animals created, and as a\nproof of the incorrectness of the doctrine of development, these\nfirst-created Fish were of a class corresponding to the most highly\norganised Fishes of the present day.\n\nFishes are divided into two families: 1, Osseous Fishes (with a bony\nskeleton); 2, Cartilaginous Fishes (with a cartilaginious skeleton).\n\nThe Osseous Fishes are divided into six Orders:--\n\n\n1. ACANTHOPTERYGII (Thorny-fin).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 37.--1, PERCH (Perea fluvia\nilis). 2, MACKEREL (Scomber vulgaris). 3, GURNARD\n(Trigla Gurnhardus).]\n\n The Acanthopterygii include a great number of our ordinary useful\n Fishes, as Mackerel, Perch, Tunny, Gurnard, &c. (fig. 37). The Perch\n is a good example of this order, the sharp spines on its dorsal fin\n being well developed, and dangerous for anglers to handle.\n\n\n2. MALACOPTERYGII ABDOMINALES (Abdominal soft-fin).\n\n The abdominal Malacopterygii include the Pilchard, Herring, Pike (fig.\n 38), Salmon (fig. 39), Anchovy, Trout, Roach, Chub, Tench, and many\n more of the Fish which inhabit our streams and the sea.\n\n [Illustration: FIG. 39.--THE SALMON (Salmo salar).]\n\n The following account of the Salmon, is extracted from Dr. Baird's\n Cyclop\u00e6dia of the Natural Sciences:--\"The Salmon is exceedingly\n abundant in all the northern oceans. It is found in France, England,\n Germany, Bohemia, Switzerland, Scandinavia, Iceland, and Greenland.\n It exists also in Labrador and Canada, and down the American coast to\n the Connecticut river, in latitude 41-1/2 deg., and either it, or a\n species so closely allied as not to be distinguished except by close\n comparison, abounds in the Arctic seas washing the northern shores of\n the American continent. It does not frequent the rivers falling into\n the Mediterranean, and, though it has been stated to be the case, it\n does not occur in the Persian Gulf, or the Caspian Sea. In entering\n the mouths of rivers in order to spawn, the females are always\n observed to precede the males, depositing their ova in little pools\n or sort of nests, which they form in the sand at the bottom, for the\n males to fecundate. The young grow very rapidly, and at the present\n time, the subject of the changes which they undergo in their progress\n to maturity is one exciting much interest. When first hatched they\n are about an inch in length, and during the first year are called\n \"Parr.\" When they remove to the sea, they receive a more brilliant\n dress, and then become the \"Smolt,\" varying from four to six inches in\n length. After a residence in the sea of from two months to ten weeks,\n they revisit the fresh waters, and are then from two-and-a-half to\n four pounds' weight, and are called 'grilses' or 'gilses.' During the\n ensuing winter they spawn, and are then known as Salmon. Salmon grow\n to a large size, full-grown specimens weighing about forty pounds,\n though individuals are mentioned which have weighed seventy or even\n eighty pounds. Such are now excessively rare, owing to the perfection\n of the means of capturing them at the mouths of our rivers, by which\n the chances are very greatly against any fish escaping the various\n dangers by which it is environed for such a succession of years as is\n likely to admit of its attaining to its full dimensions. The power\n these fish have in overcoming obstacles to their progress up large\n rivers at spawning time is very great; they shoot up rapids with\n the velocity of arrows, and clear considerable waterfalls, leaping\n a height of ten, twelve, and even as much as twenty feet. The usual\n time at which the Salmon leaves the sea is the autumn; it remains in\n the rivers during the winter, and returns to the sea, after having\n deposited its spawn, in the spring. The fishing of this excellent and\n universally admired fish gives employment to many thousands of people,\n throughout the whole of the north of Europe. Salmon fisheries, it\n has been said, rank next to agriculture. In this country the Scotch\n rivers supply by far the greater proportion of the salmon brought to\n market. The total value of the Scotch fisheries has been calculated at\n \u00a3150,000 a year.\"\n\n Many salmon are caught by stake nets, and also by the practice of\n \"spearing;\" this is a very picturesque sight, as it is conducted by\n torchlight.\n\n The Herring (Clupea Harengus) makes its visit to this country about\n September, in enormous shoals, extending many miles each way; they\n are caught in great quantities and salted in the boats immediately;\n when brought on shore they are suspended in the smoke of wood fires,\n and become \"red herrings.\" The Herring fisheries are very important,\n and afford--like the Salmon fisheries--employment to thousands; the\n greatest quantities are caught off the coast of Norway, where it\n is calculated about 400,000,000 are taken yearly. A great many are\n caught off Lowestoffe, and Wick, in Caithness. The Pilchard (Clupea\n pilchardus) is a kind of Herring, and is caught in enormous quantities\n off the coasts of Cornwall. The Sprat and Whitebait are species of\n \"Clupea.\"\n\n\n3. MALACOPTERYGII SUB-BRACHIALES (Sub-brachial soft fin).\n\n The brachial Malacopterygii include most of the Flat Fish; as the\n Turbot, Plaice, Sole, &c. (fig. 40). The Turbot, and Halibut are\n caught out in the deep waters, but the Plaice and Flounders, chiefly\n in shallows; these fish have one side dark and the other light, and\n both eyes are placed on the dark side; they always swim with this\n side upwards; in the Turbot this is the _left_, while in Plaice it is\n the _right_ side. The Cod (fig. 40) is also included in this order; it\n is a large fish, often weighing forty or fifty pounds, and three or\n four feet long; it is chiefly caught in northern regions, the banks\n of Newfoundland being the most celebrated for its Cod fisheries, and\n supply the London market. These fish are caught by a long line and\n hook let down to a great depth.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 40.--1, TURBOT (Rhombus maximus).\n2, SOLE (Solea vulgaris). 3, PLAICE (Platessa\ncommunis). 4, COD (Gadus morrhua).]\n\n\n4. MALACOPTERYGII APODES (Footless soft fin).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 41.--THE EEL (Anguilla acutirostris).]\n\n To this order belong the Eels (fig. 41). They have no abdominal fins,\n and are therefore called apodial, or footless; they very much resemble\n the serpent in their elongated form; they live chiefly in rivers and\n ponds, in the mud of which they obtain worms, &c., upon which they\n feed, they have been known to leave the water at night and travel\n for some distance in search of worms, frogs, &c. These fish live a\n long time after they are removed from the water, and are extremely\n tenacious of life; their skins are covered with such fine small scales\n that they appear quite smooth, and are extremely slimy. The Conger Eel\n is much thicker in proportion than the common Eel, and has a dorsal\n fin like a fringe all down the back; it grows to the weight of ninety\n or a hundred pounds sometimes. Eels are often caught by thrusting\n many-pronged spears (having the spears barbed) into the mud, and the\n Eels are brought up sticking between the prongs. The Electrical Eel\n (Gymnotus electricus) belongs to this section; it somewhat resembles\n a large ordinary Eel four or five feet long, but has a broad ventral\n fin running all along its lower part; it is famous for its power of\n giving electrical shocks when touched, and seems to have the power of\n using this influence at pleasure, but after giving a certain number\n of shocks its power becomes exhausted, and it has to remain some time\n before it can again give out shocks of any strength; these shocks\n are sufficiently strong to prove fatal to small animals, and even\n to mules and horses crossing the streams which they frequent, when\n a number will attack them at once. This creature is a native of the\n rivers and pools of South America, Demerara, &c.; the natives kill\n them by driving in a great number of horses, and when the Eels have\n exhausted their electrical powers, they are then caught and killed.\n\n\n5. LOPHOBRANCHI (Tufted gill).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 42--HIPPOCAMPUS (From a dried specimen).]\n\n To the Lophobranchi belongs the Pipe-fish (Hippocampus, or Sea-horse,\n fig. 42). The following is Dr. Baird's description of these curious\n little creatures:--\n\n \"Most of these species are straight, but others of the family contract\n after death, so as to form a grotesque resemblance to a horse in\n miniature. These form the genus Hippocampus, and from their shape are\n generally called Sea-horses. Hippocampus brevirostris (the short-nosed\n Sea-horse) is occasionally met with on the British coast. It is\n from six to ten inches long, the body much compressed, short and\n deep; the whole length of the body and tail divided by longitudinal\n and transverse ridges, with tubercular points at the angles of the\n intersection. The snout is slender, and the tail long, quadrangular,\n and terminated in a naked or finless tip. When swimming about, the\n Hippocampus maintains a vertical position, but the tail is ready to\n grasp whatever meets it in the water; it quickly entwines in any\n direction round weeds or other objects, and darts at its prey with\n great dexterity.\"\n\n\n6. PLECTOGNATHI (Plaited jaw).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 43.--THE SUN-FISH (Orthagoriscus).]\n\n The Sea Porcupine (Diodon hystrix) belongs to this order. These\n Fish are of a peculiar thick rounded form, and occasionally inflate\n their stomachs with air, which makes them almost spherical, in which\n state they float with the belly upwards, and being covered with\n spines, present rather a formidable object to attack; the flesh is\n unwholesome, and, it is said, the liver is violently poisonous;\n some of the species of this fish are phosphorescent, and from this\n appearance they derive the name of Sunfish, as they shine very\n brightly in the dark. The short Sunfish (fig. 43) turns round as it\n swims; it is very large, sometimes weighing from three to four hundred\n pounds. They yield a considerable quantity of oil, for which they are\n caught. Their jaws are not divided into teeth, but consist each of a\n single piece; they live upon seaweeds and various crustaceans.\n\nThe Cartilaginous Fishes are divided into three orders.\n\n\n1. STURIONES (Sturgeons).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 44.--THE STURGEON (Accipenser sturio).]\n\n Sturgeons (fig. 44) are inhabitants of the northern seas, but are\n occasionally found in our rivers. They have rows of bony plates\n imbedded in the skin; they sometimes attain the length of twenty feet,\n but are usually from six to eight feet long. Isinglass is made of the\n swimming bladder of the Sturgeon, and the roe (dried and salted) forms\n the \"Caviare.\"\n\n\n2. PLAGIOSTOMI (Wide-mouthed).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 45.--THE SHARK (Carcharias vulgaris).]\n\n The Plagiostomi comprise the Sharks (fig. 45) and Dog-fishes, a\n most voracious tribe; the White Shark often attains the length of\n twenty feet. They are terribly famous for their dreadful powers of\n destruction, swallowing all that comes before them; they are able to\n bite in two, with one snap of their formidable jaws, the body of any\n one unfortunate enough to fall in their way; their mouths are armed\n with several rows of short spear-shaped teeth; the mouth is placed\n a considerable distance under the head, so that when biting they\n turn on one side or quite over; they have no gills, but the water\n passes through five oblong openings on each side. Sailors hold this\n terrible inhabitant of the deep in great detestation, as well they\n may, for there are few who have spent many years at sea but can tell\n of a friend or messmate who has been mutilated or devoured by the\n Sharks. When sailors catch one, it is hauled on deck and killed with\n great gusto; the stomach is opened and its contents examined, and it\n generally contains some terrible mementoes in the form of buttons,\n buckles, &c., the only relics of its victims.\n\n\n3. CYCLOSTOMI (Round-mouthed).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 46.--THE LAMPREY (Petromyzon fluviatilis)\n(_b_, the sucker).]\n\n The Lamprey or Lampern (fig. 46) inhabits both rivers and lakes, and\n some species, the sea; it has a round mouth, by which it affixes\n itself to rocks, &c., and also to other fish, it is furnished with\n teeth on the outer edge, it has no scales, but is covered with a\n glutinous skin; in form it much resembles an Eel, and is from twelve\n to eighteen inches long. The Lamprey was once very plentiful in the\n Thames, and considered a dainty.\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 47.--1, FROG (Rana temporaria).\n2, TOAD (Bufo vulgaris). 3, TADPOLES.]\n\n\nREPTILES.\n\nThese constitute the second class of the Vertebrate animals. They are\ndivided into four orders.\n\n\n1. AMPHIBIA (double-lived).\n\n By some naturalists a separate class is made out of the Amphibia,\n including the Frog kind, Toads, and Newts (fig. 47), which they call\n \"Batrachia,\" and which takes a place between Reptiles and Fishes, as\n the young of this class have a totally different form from the adult\n animal, and much resemble a fish, breathing by gills and having no\n legs, but as they become mature the gills are replaced by lungs, and\n the legs make their appearance.\n\n The Amphibia have soft skins, which appear to serve as lungs or\n gills when they are under the water, extracting the air from it,\n and enabling them to remain a long time there without coming up to\n breathe; they are partly aquatic, and feed upon insects and other\n small creatures, which they capture by darting out the tongue, which\n is covered with a glutinous secretion, and drawing it in again\n instantly with the insect adhering to it, which they swallow whole.\n The Frogs are furnished with webbed feet and swim well; they progress\n on land by leaps, their powerful hind legs carrying them to a great\n distance. The young of the Amphibia are brought forth as eggs, which\n float on the water, and when they first come to life form the curious\n little creatures called Tadpoles, having long tails and no feet, and,\n as before stated, more resembling Fish than Reptiles. The Toads are\n for the most part nocturnal in their habits, living in the daytime in\n gardens and holes; they feed upon insects, as do Frogs, and lay their\n eggs in the water. The stories of Toads being found alive in rock and\n the heart of trees, arise from the following circumstances: Toads\n when small will often creep into holes in rocks and hollows in trees,\n and in these situations they find abundance of food; being slothful\n in their habits, and capable of existing upon but little food, and\n abstaining from it a long time, they are apt to remain in their snug\n quarters and content themselves with what insects may come to them. In\n this way they grow too large to get out of the hole, and live for a\n great time in it; when chance discovers them, by the rock being broken\n open or the wood of the tree cleft, the opening into which they had\n crept is overlooked. The Water Newt (Triton cristatus) inhabits pools\n and ditches, and (like the others of this order) is first formed as\n a Tadpole; it is of a brown and bright yellow colour, with a crest\n down its back and tail, and has the most extraordinary powers of\n reproducing any part cut off or removed, such as a leg or the tail.\n\n\n2. OPHIDIA (Snake-like order).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 48.--1, ROCK SNAKE (Python molurus);\n2, SPECTACLED SNAKE (Cobra de Capello); 3, BOA CONSTRICTOR.]\n\n This includes the Serpents, Boas, and Pythons. These creatures are\n peculiar from their long and flexible form, and the absence of legs.\n They move by a sinuous winding action, and when about to seize their\n prey, make a sudden dart with great rapidity. They are covered with\n regular scales, and mottled with different colours; some, as the\n Adder and Rattle-snake, are very venomous, the poison is contained\n in small glands connected with the poison-fangs, which are two long\n pointed teeth, having a groove or small canal leading from the side of\n the tooth to the poison-bag, upon which, when they bite, they press,\n and inject the poison into the wound while the tooth is in the flesh.\n These poison-fangs lie flat down when the creature is not excited, but\n are drawn up by muscles, when they are about to spring on anything.\n It is a common mistake to think that Serpents have a \"sting,\" arising\n from their having a thin, long forked tongue, which they protrude and\n retract with great rapidity, and which has been mistaken for a sting;\n the greater number of Snakes are not at all venomous. Serpents have no\n teeth fit for eating with, but they are used to hold their prey, while\n they swallow it, and they serve admirably for this purpose, as each\n tooth turns backwards. These creatures have mouths and throats capable\n of enormous distension (the lower jaw not being fixed to the upper\n one), so that they can swallow their food whole, which they always\n do; a Frog or Toad is often swallowed by the common Snake, which is\n quite disfigured by it when in its stomach. The Pythons and Boas (fig.\n 48) are the largest of this class, they kill their prey by coiling\n round it, and gradually tightening their folds till it is suffocated\n and almost crushed, when it is swallowed; these great creatures will\n grow to the length of 30 or 40 feet, and are capable of swallowing\n considerable quadrupeds, as Hares, Goats, Deer, &c.; after having\n their food, they lie torpid for several days. All Serpents lay eggs,\n and the Pythons coil themselves round upon their eggs to protect them;\n the Boa-constrictors are inhabitants of America, the Pythons of the\n Old World.\n\n\n3. SAURIA (Lizards).\n\n The Sauria include the Crocodiles, Alligators, Skinks, Geckos,\n Iguanas, and Lizards; they are carnivorous, the smaller ones feeding\n on insects, and the larger members on whatever they can catch. They\n have four legs, and are covered with hard rough scales running in\n ridges on their backs, they have large strong tails, and their jaws\n are furnished with sharp teeth. The Alligator is found in great\n numbers in the Mississippi, and is a most formidable creature,\n attacking any who may venture into the water. In winter they bury\n themselves in the mud and remain there in a torpid state, they are\n from 15 to 20 feet long. The Crocodile is a native of Africa and the\n West Indies, there are many found in the Nile, it is larger than the\n Alligator, reaching often to 30 feet. Dr Baird gives the following\n account of the Alligators and Crocodiles:--\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 49.--1, CROCODILE (Crocodilus vulgaris);\n2, ALLIGATOR (Alligator lucius); 3, LIZARDS.]\n\n \"The Alligator (Alligator lucius, fig. 49), a native of\n North America and abundant in the Mississippi, is a formidable and\n ferocious creature, prodigiously strong, and sometimes reaching the\n length of 18 feet. It is provided with numerous sharp teeth, long\n tenacious claws, and a powerful tail, a single blow of which is\n capable of overturning a canoe. It chiefly preys by night, assembling\n in large numbers, besetting the mouth of some retired creek, into\n which they have previously driven the fish, and bellowing so loud that\n they may be heard at the distance of a mile. It is said to attack men\n and quadrupeds whilst bathing or crossing the rivers, and to be more\n fierce and voracious then the other species of this sub-family. In\n Winter it buries itself in the mud at the bottom of the swamps and\n marshes which it inhabits, and continues in a torpid state till Spring.\n\n \"The true Crocodiles are natives of Africa, the West Indies, and\n America; and the best known species is the Nilotic Crocodile\n (Crocodilus vulgaris, fig. 49). This animal is a native of the Senegal\n river, of the Niger, and other rivers of Africa, but more particularly\n of the Nile in Egypt, where it attains the length of about 30 feet.\n The Crocodile was held in great veneration by the ancient Egyptians,\n by whom it was known under the name of 'Champsa.' The Crocodiles are\n exclusively carnivorous, and are ferocious animals. Their numbers\n are, however, kept down by the enemies which surround them. For the\n adults, few animals could be their match, but the little Ichneumon\n or 'Mongooz' devours their eggs in great numbers while hatching in\n the sand; and birds of prey pounce upon their young on quitting their\n shell, and before they are able to reach the shore.\"\n\n\n4. TESTUDINATA (having a shield).\n\n The Testudinata include the Tortoise, and Turtle kind. They are\n remarkable for their horny covering (carapace) which forms a sort of\n shell, out of openings in which, their head, tail, and legs protrude;\n they have short feet, covered with scales, and no teeth, but the edges\n of the maxillary bones are sharp, like the edge of a knife, and they\n bite out pieces from vegetable substances with ease. Some of this\n class (the Turtles) are residents of the water, and grow to a great\n size, weighing fourteen or fifteen hundred pounds, and measuring seven\n or eight feet long. Others are much esteemed as food, especially the\n green Turtle. Dr. Baird, in his Cyclop\u00e6dia of the Natural Sciences,\n under the article \"Chelonia,\" gives a good description of these\n creatures, from which the following is extracted:--\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 50.--TURTLE (Chelonia viridis).]\n\n \"The Green Turtle (Chelonia viridis, or midas, fig. 50) is five or\n six feet long, and weighs from seven to eight hundred pounds. It is\n principally found in the Atlantic Ocean, and is often met with seven\n or eight hundred leagues from land. They are easily caught when asleep\n on the surface of the water, to which they come to breathe. In the\n West Indies, the Bahama Islands, and the Island of Ascension, the\n capture of Turtles gives employment to many people, and affords food\n for thousands.\n\n \"The Hawk's-bill Turtle (Caretha imbricata) is a smaller species,\n scarcely ever exceeding two hundred pounds' weight, and is a native of\n the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The flesh is not good, but the shells,\n which are formed of a considerable number of scales overlapping each\n other at their extremities, in the manner of tiles on the roof of a\n building, are of great importance as an article of commerce, and are\n much superior to that of any other species. It is extensively used in\n the manufacture of combs, snuff-boxes, &c., also for inlaying, and\n other ornamental work.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 51.--TORTOISE (Testudo sulcata).]\n\n \"In the family of land Tortoises (fig. 51), the feet are\n club-shaped, and their habits are terrestrial. The shell is very\n solid, thick, ovate, and (in the adult state) covered with horny\n concentrically-grooved shields, marked with a permanent areola. They\n have a short thick tail, are very slow in their motion, and live upon\n vegetables and roots. Most of the species are natives of the warm\n regions of the globe, but those that live in colder regions burrow\n and sleep during the winter. They are quiet, inoffensive animals,\n extremely tenacious of life, and remarkable for longevity. Individuals\n are stated upon good authority to have lived upwards of two hundred\n years.\n\n \"The common Tortoise, or Taragua (Testudo Gr\u00e6ca), is a native of\n the south of Europe, and almost all the countries bordering on the\n Mediterranean; it is found in the islands of the Archipelago, Corsica,\n Sardinia, and in Africa, but is thought to be more common in Greece\n than elsewhere. It is from six to eight inches long, and weighs about\n forty-eight ounces. This species is often brought to this country\n and kept in gardens. One was brought to the Archiepiscopal garden at\n Lambeth, in the time of Laud, in 1633, where it lived till 1753, owing\n its death then, more to neglect than the effects of age.\"\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 52.--1, CONDOR (Sarcoramphus\ngryphus); 2, OSTRICH (Struthio camelus); 3, KIWI-KIWI\n(Apteryx).]\n\n\nBIRDS.\n\nThe third class of the Vertebrata, comprises the \"Birds,\" or those\nwhose young are not born alive, but in the form of eggs; who have\nwarm blood, and breathe by lungs, the air-cells of which communicate\nwith the hollow shafts of the bones, (these are full of air instead\nof marrow), this gives them lightness, and serves as a reservoir of\nair while flying; they have two anterior extremities so modified as\nto form wings, and a heart with four cavities; most of them have the\npower of flying through the air, and some to a very great height, as\nthe \"Condor\" (fig. 52), while in others the wings are rudimentary and\nonly assist them in running, as in the Ostrich (fig. 52) Cassowary,\nPenguin, &c., while in the \"Apteryx\" (fig. 52) they are quite absent.\n\nBirds are covered with a peculiar modification of hair known as\nfeathers; these consist of a central shaft with closely-set diverging\nbranches, some of which have others branching from them with a serrated\nsurface, giving them that peculiar metallic brilliancy so well shown\nin the feathers of the Humming Bird. Birds are furnished with beaks of\nalmost every form, to suit their method of feeding, &c., and likewise\nfeet, sometimes furnished with sharp and powerful talons, at others,\nfeet suitable to climb with, and again in some they are webbed between\nthe toes, so as to enable them to swim with great rapidity.\n\nBirds are divided into five orders, as follows:--\n\n 1. RAPTORES (Preying) Eagle, Owl, &c.\n 2. INSESSORES (Perching), divided into 4 tribes, viz:--\n 1. Dentirostres (Tooth bill) Thrush, Butcher-bird.\n 2. Conirostres (Cone bill) Raven, Crow, Finch.\n 3. Scansores (Climbing) Parrot, Wood-pecker.\n 4. Fissirostres (Split bill) King Fisher, Goat-sucker.\n 3. RASORES (Scraping) Poultry, Pheasants, &c.\n 4. GRALLATORES (Wading) Heron, Crane, &c.\n 5. NATATORES (Swimming) Goose, Duck, &c.\n\n1. The RAPTORES, as the Eagles and Falcons, are furnished with\nhooked beaks and strong sharp talons (fig. 53), they prey upon all\nsmall animals, as birds of less strength, rabbits, &c., and some of\nthem upon fish, as the Osprey, others feed upon dead flesh and offal,\nas the Vultures, and are very useful creatures in hot countries, where\nthey are generally respected, they hover about the towns, feeding\nupon almost everything capable of being swallowed; it is not certain\nwhether these birds detect the presence of food by smell or sight\n(both of these senses are possessed by them in perfection), but it is\ncertain that in the desert, when any animal dies, these birds soon\nmake their appearance, although a few minutes before not one could be\nseen for miles around. The Owls are nocturnal, their plumage is downy,\nand their eyes placed so that both shall look forwards, the pupils\nclose, similarly to a cat's eye, and their vision, like the cats (their\ncompanions among the Mammalia) is extremely sensitive, so that the\nexpression \"as blind as an Owl,\" has no more sense in it than \"as blind\nas a Cat\" would have; they feed upon rats, mice, insects, &c.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 53.--BEAK AND TALONS OF EAGLE.]\n\n2. The INESSORES include some that live by catching insects in\nthe air while they fly, as the Swallows (fig. 54); these are furnished\nwith great powers of flight and rapidity of movement; others (the\nScansores) which climb and hold by the branches of trees, feeding upon\nnuts and fruit, as the Parrot; others live upon insects, but seek\nthem in the crevices of old trees and other similar places, as the\nWoodpeckers (fig. 54). Some live entirely upon fish (King-fishers),\nwhich they catch from the streams on the banks of which they live. This\norder includes all the singing birds, and by far the greater number\nof birds of passage; this propensity to migrate is one of the most\nwonderful of all the instincts of Birds, the Swallow leaves England\nin the Autumn to take up its abode for the Winter in Africa, or the\nIslands of the Archipelago, and returns again in the Spring, year after\nyear, to the same nest; these journeys are accomplished at the rate\nof 40 or 50 miles an hour. Pigeons also have the wonderful faculty of\nreturning home from almost any distance, appearing to know by instinct\nthe right direction; as, after a turn or two, they take a straight\ncourse to their destination.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 54.--1, SWALLOW (Hirundo\nrustica); 2, WOODPECKER (Picus viridis).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 55.--1, DORKING FOWLS (Gallus\nDomesticus); 2, PHEASANTS (Phasianus colchicus).]\n\n3. The RASORES include the common Fowl (fig. 55), Pheasant\n(fig. 55), Partridge, Turkey, &c.; they feed principally on grain,\nbut occasionally on insects and worms, which they scrape up with\ntheir feet; they live chiefly upon the ground, on which they build\ntheir nests, but generally roost on trees. Most of this order supply\nexcellent food, the Turkey is famous as a Christmas dish, and is often\nof a great size; this bird is very plentiful in Central and South\nAmerica in a wild state, and often attains a large size, weighing 30\nor 40 pounds; the natives have a simple and curious method of catching\nthese birds, which are extremely shy, never allowing any one to\napproach near to them. A sort of cage is built of twigs, large enough\nto contain many, and having holes close to the ground all round, of\na size just sufficient to admit a Turkey when its head is bent down;\nleading to each of these holes a train of corn is placed, but none\nwithin, the birds coming to pick the corn, follow up the line of corn\nwith their heads down, till they are within the inclosure, when finding\nno more, they raise up their heads and cannot get out, for they have\nnot the sense to stoop their heads, so as to allow of their exit.\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 56.--1, HERON (Ardea cinerea); 2,\nCRANE (Megalornis cinerea).]\n\n4. The GRALLATORES include the Herons and Cranes (fig. 56),\nwhich wade into streams and catch fish; these are furnished with long\nlegs, neck, and beak, and when they have gone into the water as far as\ntheir long legs permit, they stand still and wait with the head resting\non the shoulders and the eyes fixed on the stream, till an unlucky fish\napproaches near enough, when with a quick stroke they dart at it, and\ncatch it; they are very picturesque objects, standing on one leg (as\nthey commonly do) in some lonely pool or stream.\n\n5. The NATATORES, a very large class of Birds, live almost\nentirely in the water, they are web-footed and swim beautifully, as\nthe Swans, Geese, Ducks, &c. (fig 57); these feed in general upon the\nvegetation growing in, and on the margin of the water, also on worms,\nlarv\u00e6, &c.; they have a beautiful mode of rising and flying in a line,\nwhen disturbed from their haunts, and this line is maintained for a\nlong distance, and is sometimes double like the letter V, one bird\nleading and the others following in single file.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 57. 1, SWAN (Cygnus mansuetus);\n2, GEESE (Anser ferus); 3 and 4, DUCK and WILD\nDUCKS (Anas Boschas).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 58. GROUP OF MAMMALIA.\n\n1, Leopard (Leopardus varius); 2, Bear (Ursus arctos); 3, Goat (Hircus\naegagrus); 4, Boar (Sus scrofa); 5, Beaver (Castor fiber); 6, Armadillo\n(Dasypus); 7. Monkeys (Semnopitheci); 8, Seal (Phoca vitulina); 9, Bat\n(Plecotus auritus).]\n\n\nTHE MAMMALIA.\n\nThis class is divided into twelve orders:--\n\n 1. MARSUPIATA (Pouched) Kangaroo.\n 2. MONOTREMATA (Having but one vent) Platypus.\n 3. RODENTIA (Gnawing) Beaver, Rabbit.\n 4. EDENTATA (Toothless) Anteater.\n 5. RUMINANTIA (Chewing) Ox, Deer, Sheep.\n 6. PACHYDERMATA (Thick skinned) Horse, Elephant.\n 7. CETACEA (Whale-like) Whale, Porpoise.\n 8. CARNIVORA (Flesh-eating) Lion, Tiger.\n 9. INSECTIVORA (Insect-eating) Mole, Hedgehog.\n 10. CHEIROPTERA (Hand-winged) Bat.\n 11. QUADRUMANA (Four-handed) Monkey, Ape.\n 12. BIMANA (Two-handed) Man.\n\nThese twelve orders of the class \"Mammalia,\" of the division\n\"Vertebrata,\" (as their names imply), have their peculiarities, such as\nfit them to their modes of life, as, the medium in which they live, the\nclimate, the food they eat, and the manner of obtaining it. They have\nall the five special senses, sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch,\nbut very differently developed in respect to power. Yet, as a whole,\nthey maintain a similitude. They have all internal skeletons, and each\npart of this skeleton exists in all, but modified to suit different\npurposes. They have all the peculiar attributes of the \"Mammalia,\" such\nas suckling their young, being born alive, having four extremities,\nwarm blood, respiration by lungs, and a heart with two auricles and two\nventricles.\n\nA general description of the anatomy and some of the functions of Man\nwill be given hereafter, and will apply equally to all the Mammalia;\nalways bearing in mind that the difference in structure of every\nanimal, although making it inferior to Man, does not do away with any\nof the essential qualities, which constitute it one of the members of\nthe highest group; for, although immensely inferior to Man, yet the\nMammalia are for the most part greatly superior to all the classes\nbelow it, the capability of being educated, being in itself a vast step\nbeyond mere instinct, wonderful though this may be, and developed to an\nextraordinary degree, as in some of the insects; yet, in these, there\nis no possibility of improving it, while in some of the Mammalia, as\nthe Dog, Horse, Elephant, and Monkey, there is an evident tendency to\nprogressive improvement when aided by the example and tuition of Man.\n\n * * * * *\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 59. 1, KANGAROO (Macropas major);\n2, OPOSSUM. (Didelphus Virginiana).]\n\n1. The MARSUPIATA include the Kangaroos and Opossums (fig.\n59). They are characterised by the possession of a pouch at the lower\npart of the abdomen, into which the young enter as soon as born, for\nthey are born in a very imperfect state, and when in the pouch they\nadhere to the teat of the mother, where they remain till more fully\ndeveloped. In these animals the hind legs are greatly developed, and\nthe fore legs but little. They progress by enormous leaps, resting on\nthe hinder legs and tail, both of which are very strong. They belong\nexclusively to Australia, which appears to produce many forms having\npeculiarities not met with elsewhere, and among the lowest of their\ntype; this and the next order appear somewhat to partake of the form of\nthe Bird, the undeveloped state of the young in the Marsupiata, being\nan approach to the egg of the Oviparous animals.\n\n * * * * *\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 60.--PLATYPUS, OR DUCK-BILL (Ornithorynchus).]\n\n2. The MONOTREMATA includes the Duckbill, called also\n\"Platypus,\" and \"Ornithorynchus paradoxus,\" (fig. 60), a most singular\ncombination of the forms of the mammal and the bird. It has a mouth\nresembling the bill of a Duck, and several other peculiarities, which\nlead to the consideration of it as one of the connecting links between\nthe forms of the Mammalia and Birds.\n\n * * * * *\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 61.--BEAVERS (Castor fiber).]\n\n3. The RODENTIA comprise the Rat, Beaver, Rabbit, Hare,\nMouse, &c. They live upon almost any kind of vegetable matter; the\nRat and Mouse will eat anything they can get. Their incisor teeth are\ntwo in front of each jaw, and are chisel shaped and very sharp; they\nare so constructed that they shall be kept sharp by being used, which\nis effected by the hardest part or enamel being in front in a thin\nlayer, so that it is not so easily worn away as the bony part. If these\nanimals be fed on soft food, their teeth continue to grow nevertheless,\nand protrude from their mouths in a most singular way. The Beaver (fig.\n61) is almost aquatic in its habits, it gnaws through the stems of\ntrees, and uses them to dam up the water of the stream they inhabit,\nso as to secure a constant supply. They build houses or huts of wood,\nmud, and stones, which they unite in constructing. These houses have\ntheir entrances beneath the water, so that the Beavers dive to enter\nthem; they have two divisions or rooms in them, and are sufficiently\nlarge to lodge several families. The Rat is too well-known to need\nmuch description. The brown or Norway Rat has only been an inhabitant\nof this country about forty years, the black Rat being before that\ntime the usual house Rat, but it is now almost exterminated, specimens\nbeing very rare. There are several other species of Rats; the best\nknown is the Water Rat, who burrows in brooks and ditches, and partly\nlives in the water. Of the Mouse there are also several species.\nBesides the usual house Mouse, there is the wood Mouse, which forms\na magazine of grain and nuts underground for winter store; and the\nharvest Mouse, which builds a little round nest between the stalks of\ncorn. The Squirrel is also of this order. This pretty little creature\nlives in the trees, chiefly feeding upon nuts; can leap well, and run\nup the branches of trees with surprising agility. The Flying Squirrel\nhas a broad expansion of skin between the fore and hind legs on each\nside, so that when stretched out, they form a sort of parachute; this\nenables the creature to leap to a great distance from tree to tree, and\nsupports it in the air as it goes. The Porcupine (Hystrix cristata), so\ncelebrated for its quills, which supply a sort of defensive armour, is\nof this order.\n\n * * * * *\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 62. ANTEATER (Myrmecophaga jubata).]\n\n4. The EDENTATA, or Anteaters, have no teeth, but a peculiarly\nshaped tongue, which is covered with viscid mucus, and which they\nproject and retract with great rapidity, causing the Ants and Termites,\non which they feed, to adhere to it, and be carried into their\nmouths. The Great Anteater (Myrmecophaga jubata, fig. 62) is a very\nextraordinary animal in appearance; it has an enormously prolonged\nnose, and the back is covered with a sort of mane; the tail, also, is\nof prodigious size, and very bushy; when this curious animal lies down\nto sleep, the long snout is thrust under it, and the tail laid across\nthe back, the end of the snout projecting behind. In this position, it\nwould lead anyone to suppose that the head was where the tail really\nis, and that when looking at the creature's hinder part, they were\nlooking at its head; and the sudden reversal of the position of these\nparts, when it gets up quickly, is certainly extremely ridiculous.\n\n * * * * *\n\n5. The RUMINANTIA.--The Ruminating animals (fig. 63) are\nthose which chew the cud. There are a great many species, and their\nmembers are also very numerous. The Ox, and its varieties, the Buffalo,\nBison, Yak, &c.; the Deer, Antelopes, Gazelles, &c.; the Sheep, Goat,\nGiraffe, and Camel, all belong to the Ruminants. These all have hoofs,\ncloven into two parts; have no incisor (or front) teeth in the upper\njaw; and are essentially grazing animals. They have stomachs made up\nof four compartments; into the first of these (the Rumen) the crude\ngrass enters, and is afterwards returned to the mouth, and again chewed\nat leisure; the molar teeth, or grinders, are flat, and roughened,\nso as to effect this purpose; and, that they may not become smooth\nby wear, the enamel (or hard part) of the teeth is so disposed in\nvarious layers, that it is always projecting above the bony part, which\nwears down first. The Ruminants are gregarious, associating in herds\nof enormous numbers. Cumming, describes the herds of Springboks, in\nSouth Africa, as being in countless thousands, continuing to pass for\nhours together; and covering the plain as far as the eye could reach.\nCattlin, also, describes the American Bison of the Prairies as being\ncongregated in the most surprising numbers. Some of the members of this\norder are very large and heavy animals. The Cape Buffalo is of enormous\nstrength, and very fierce when attacked.\n\nDr. Livingstone, in his Travels in South Africa, speaking of the Lion,\nsays:--\"He seldom attacks full-grown Buffalos; but frequently, when\na Buffalo-calf is caught by him, the cow rushes to the rescue, and a\ntoss from her often kills him. One we found was killed thus, and on\nthe Leambye, another, which died near Sesheke, had all the appearance\nof having received his death-blow from a Buffalo. It is questionable\nif a single Lion ever attacks a full-grown Buffalo; the amount of\nroaring heard at night, on occasions when a Buffalo is killed, seems to\nindicate there are always more than one Lion engaged in the onslaught.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 63--GROUP OF RUMINANTS.\n\n1, Ox (Bos taurus); 2, Sheep (Ovis aries); 3, Red Deer (Cervus\nelaphus); 4, Camel (Camelus Arabicus); 5, Llama (Pacos).]\n\nThe Ruminants are the only members of the Mammalia furnished with\nhorns, and some of these are of enormous size; the Elk, Buffalo, and\nSteinbok, are instances. In the Deer tribe they are shed yearly, and\nincrease in size and in the number of their branches at each fresh\ngrowth. The flesh of the Ruminants forms the chief animal food of Man,\nand some tribes of the American aborigines live exclusively on it.\n\nThe Camel, next to the Horse, is the most useful beast of burthen. The\nArabs greatly prize these creatures, and from their power of carrying\na supply of water in their stomach, they are very useful in crossing\nthe desert; their hoofs are also spread out so as to enable them better\nto walk on the soft and yielding sand; there are two kinds of Camel,\nthe Bactrian, with two humps, and the Arabian Camel with but one. The\nDromedary is a small agile breed of the Arabian Camel, celebrated for\nits swiftness.\n\n * * * * *\n\n6. The PACHYDERMATA or thick-skinned animals (fig.64) include\nthe Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse, Ass, and its varieties; Hog, Tapir,\nHippopotamus, &c.; these have many of them a single solid hoof on each\nfoot, as in the Horse and Ass tribe, others have separate toes clothed\nwith a hoof, as in the Elephant. In nearly all the Pachydermata there\nis a prolongation of the nose or upper lip, the Horse even has some\npower of prehension in this part; the Rhinoceros is able to bring the\nupper lip into so fine a point as to pick up a crumb, and in the Tapir\nthere is a considerable prolongation of the nose, while the Elephant\nhas this part developed into a complete prehensile organ.\n\nThe Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Hog are fond of wallowing in the mud,\nwith which they completely besmear themselves, and seem to derive great\nsatisfaction therefrom. There are two kinds of Elephants, the Asiatic,\nor Indian, and the African, the chief distinction between them is the\nsize of the ear, that of the African Elephant being of very great size;\nthere is a very young specimen of this kind in the British Museum, but\na full-grown African Elephant has never been brought to England. The\nElephant is furnished with a pair of enormous tusks proceeding from the\nupper jaw, these are composed of solid ivory, and often weigh nearly\na hundred pounds each; with the trunk, the Elephant is able to gather\nfood in the form of grass and herbage, and put it into its mouth, it\ncan also draw up a considerable quantity of water, and this being\npoured down its throat from the trunk, constitutes its usual mode of\neating and drinking, as the neck is too short for the animal to reach\nthe ground except by the trunk. The Indian Elephant is much used as a\nbeast of burthen, and for various other purposes; they are very docile\nand sagacious.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 64.--PACHYDERMATA.\n\n1, Elephant (Elephas Indicus); 2, Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis); 3,\nHippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius); 4, Wild Boar (Sus scrofa).]\n\nThe Horse has been subjected to the service of Man from the earliest\nrecords, indeed it is not known when this beautiful animal was first\ntrained to be his useful servant and companion; he is mentioned, in\nthe Scriptures, as being subjected to the Bit, and in the sculptures\nbrought from the ruins of Nineveh by Layard; the Horse is constantly\nsculptured, decked in the most gorgeous trappings and driven by reins\nand a bit, almost in the same manner as in the present day, and these\nsculptures are among the earliest records of Man's hands. There are\nseveral breeds of Horses; the chief are the Arabian (from which stock\nproceed our race horses), the Flanders or Cart-horse, and the Sheltie\nor Shetland horse. The Horse is nowhere found in a state of nature, yet\nmany wild Horses graze on the plains of America, but it is known that\nthese are not native, but proceed from those placed there to graze, and\nwhich have bred and run wild. The Ass is distinguished from the horse\nby the tail having short hair on it, except at the extremity, and the\nmane being short and upright.\n\n\n7. The CETACEA, or Whale kind, inhabit chiefly the colder\nlatitudes, they are entirely aquatic, but breathe air; the Whale,\nNarwal, Dolphins, and Porpoises are the chief members.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 65.--WHALE (Balena mysticetus),]\n\nIn Whales (fig. 65) the anterior extremities are so developed as to\nform a sort of fin called a \"flipper,\" but in which all the usual\nbones of an extremity exist; the posterior extremities are modified so\nas to completely resemble the tail of a fish; they have smooth skins\ndevoid of hair. All these tribes have a considerable thickness of fat\nor blubber (as it is called) beneath their skin; this protects them\nfrom the cold, for most of these creatures live in the very coldest\nclimates, the oily matters acting as a non-conductor; it is for the\noil yielded by this blubber that they are chiefly caught. The Cachelot\nor Sperm-whale (Phyceter macrocephalus) also yields spermaceti, which\ncrystallizes from the oily matter contained in its head, and the\nGreenland-whale yields baleen or whale-bone, which is a substance\nforming a sort of sieve in the mouth, through which they draw the sea\nwater and catch all it may contain for food, this consists of all small\nfish, but principally a small mollusc called the \"Clio Borealis,\" which\ninhabits the northern seas in great numbers; a whole shoal of these is\ntaken in by the Whale at a draught. The Whale often measures 60 or 70\nfeet in length, and the Razor-back Whale sometimes 100; a large Whale\nwill yield 20 tuns of oil. The Narwal or Sea Unicorn is from 20 to 30\nfeet long; it has but one tooth, which is developed to a prodigious\nlength, and projects in front in a straight line like a sort of horn,\nthere are however sometimes two of these, one being always much larger\nthan the other; this horn is 8 or 10 feet long, perfectly straight\nand twisted, it is used by the animal to break the ice so that it may\nbreathe, and also to spear and capture fish, on which the Narwal lives.\nThis horn produces beautiful ivory.\n\n\n8. The CARNIVORA, or Flesh-eaters (fig. 67), include the\nFeline tribe, as the Lion, Tiger, Jaguar (fig. 68), Leopard, &c.; the\nCanine, as the Hyena, Wolf, Jackal, Dog, Fox, &c., the Ursine, which\nincludes the Bears, and the Phocine, including the Seal kind. The\nFeline tribe are formed to spring upon, hold, and rend other animals\nwhich they kill for food, and have teeth and claws suitable to this\npurpose, and great activity and strength to enable them to contend\nwith, and overcome their prey. They are, for the most part, nocturnal\nin their habits, seldom seeking their prey but in the night, and then\nmostly frequenting the drinking-places where other animals come for\nwater. They attack by gradually stalking after the animal, getting\nnearer and nearer, till at last a well-directed spring brings them\non to it at once. That these animals may better surprise their prey,\nthey have eyes so extremely sensitive to light that they can see well\nwhen it would appear to Man to be quite dark, hence the saying, \"cats\ncan see in the dark.\" The Iris (or coloured part of the eyes) in this\ntribe is made so as to close up into a slit (1, fig. 66), and thus\nexclude the light of the day to a great extent, which would otherwise\nbe too powerful, and injure the extreme sensibility of their vision.\nTheir claws (2, fig. 66) are made to retract by a tendon, so as to keep\ntheir points from being worn by walking. This accounts for the silent,\nstealthy tread of the domestic cat; it enables them to creep quietly\nupon their prey, and at the moment they are about to seize them, the\nclaws are extended. The pointed or flesh-teeth of the Carnivora are\ngreatly developed, and are very sharp. Their molars (3, fig. 66) are\npointed, and suitable to the food they are intended to masticate. The\ntongue of the feline tribe is very rough, and is used to rasp off the\nflesh from bones. When closely examined, the surface of their tongues\npresent a series of horny hooks, all bending in one direction, and\nforming a sort of rasp.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 66.--1, EYE OF LION. 2, CLAW. 3, TEETH.]\n\nThe Lion is usually placed at the head of this race, but it is\nquestionable whether he is so powerful as the Bengal Tiger, and combats\nbetween the two, generally give the mastery to the Tiger.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 67.--CARNIVORA.\n\n1, Lion (Leo Barberus); 2, Tiger (Tigris regalis).]\n\nDr. Livingstone, in his description of the Lion, takes off a good deal\nof the poetical nobility and imaginary superiority with which the Lion\nhas been commonly invested. The following selections will show what\nare Dr. Livingstone's impressions from personal experience:--\"When a\nLion is met in the day-time, a circumstance by no means unfrequent\nto travellers in these parts, if preconceived notions do not lead\nthem to expect something very 'noble' or 'majestic,' they will see\nmerely an animal somewhat larger than the biggest Dog they ever saw,\nand partaking very strongly of the canine features. When encountered\nin the day-time the Lion stands a second or two gazing, then turns\nslowly round and walks as slowly away for a dozen paces, looking over\nhis shoulder, then begins to trot, and when he thinks himself out of\nsight bounds off like a greyhound. By day, as a rule, there is not the\nsmallest danger of Lions which are not molested attacking Man, nor even\non a clear, moonlight night, except at the breeding-time.\n\n\"So general, however, is the sense of security on moonlight nights\nthat we seldom tied up our Oxen, but let them lie loose by the wagons;\nwhile, on a dark, rainy night, if a Lion is in the neighbourhood, he is\nalmost sure to venture to kill an Ox. His approach is always stealthy,\nand the least appearance of a trap is enough to cause him to refrain\nfrom making the last spring.\n\n\"Lions never go near any Elephants, except the calves, which, when\nyoung, are sometimes torn by them. Every living thing retires before\nthe lordly Elephant, yet a full-grown one would fall an easier prey\nthan the Rhinoceros. The Lion rushes off at the mere sight of the\nlatter beast.\"\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 68.--JAGUAR (Leopardus onca).]\n\nThe Bengal or Royal Tiger is the largest of the Feline tribe, being\ngenerally 8 feet long and 4 high. It is, however, often found much\nlarger. It would appear from the most correct accounts that the Lion\nis hardly a match for this formidable creature. The Tiger is as\nbeautiful as dreadful; its colour is of a bright orange-buff, with\nwhite face and under parts, the back and legs being beautifully striped\nwith black. The Tiger has no mane, but is of a sleek, graceful make,\nthough terribly powerful. It inhabits India chiefly, and will prowl\nfor hundreds of miles by the sides of rivers, secreting itself in the\njungle and sleeping by day. Sometimes traces of a Tiger will be seen\nin the locality of villages or towns, and stray Sheep or Bullocks\ndisappear from time to time, but it will destroy any human being who\nunluckily approaches its haunts, and having once tasted human blood,\nappears afterwards to prefer this kind of food to all others, and will\npick out a cow-herd in preference to the cattle he is driving; in all\nprobability this preference is really owing to the ease with which\nthe capture can be made; and the small resistance Man is capable of\noffering; be this as it may, the Tiger having once destroyed a man is\ncalled a \"man-eater,\" and a reward is offered for his head; when this\noccurs near any of the stations of the East India Company, the officers\ngenerally make it a point to sally forth and endeavour to capture this\nterrific beast; this they do on foot, as it is impossible to depend\non any Horse, their natural fear of the Tiger being so great that all\nHorses either shy, or at once retreat. The officers, armed with guns,\ntake with them a number of natives, who with long canes beat the\njungle and generally start out the monster, at whom there are a few\ndeadly rifles pointed, which invariably bring him at once to the ground.\n\nThe largest of this tribe inhabiting the New World, is the Puma or\nCougar, which is much inferior to the Lion both in size and strength,\nalthough very fierce and dangerous, it is of a pale drab colour\ninclining to grey; it climbs trees and stretches itself along their\nbranches, waiting for some unlucky animal to pass, when it drops\nquietly upon its shoulders and quickly destroys it. The Leopard tribe\nincludes several varieties, as the Jaguar, Panther, Ounce, Ocelot,\n&c., they are all more or less spotted with black, and possess all the\nferocity and much of the strength of the nobler species of their tribe,\nthe smallest of them being more than a match for a man without weapons.\n\nThe Canine tribe of the Carnivora includes Dogs, Wolves, Jackalls, and\nFoxes. The Dogs are greatly altered from their wild nature by being\ndomesticated, resembling in their wild state a small Wolf; the Dog in\nits domesticated state is too well known to need any description here.\nThe Jackals and Wolves generally hunt in packs, and devour all kinds\nof offal, flesh and bones, which their strong jaws and teeth appear to\ncrush and break up without difficulty.\n\nThe Bears form the next tribe, these are often very large animals; the\nGrisly Bear of the Rocky Mountains (Damis ferox) is the largest of\nthe Brown Bears, it often measures eight feet long and is extremely\npowerful, the Brown Bear (Ursus arctos) is smaller, but still a\npowerful animal, the Polar Bear (Thalarctos maratimus) is white and is\nthe largest of all the Bears, measuring eight or nine feet long, it is\ncoated with long shaggy hair, and even its feet are clothed with hair\nunderneath, that it may not slip on the ice, and to defend it from the\ncold; this Bear is found in the Arctic Regions among the ice, and feeds\nupon Fish and other marine animals. Bears in general are carnivorous,\nbut eat many other kinds of food; they are very fond of honey, and\nare never contented if they smell it, until they get at it, for this\npurpose they will often gnaw a hole in a tree and thrust in their\nhead. Advantage is taken of this predilection to entrap the animal, the\nnatives of the Rocky Mountains often baiting Bear traps with honey.\n\nThe Seals and Walrus (fig. 69) form the next, or Phocine tribe; they\nare amphibious, and feed chiefly on Fish, inhabiting the colder regions\nof the North; their hinder extremities are but little developed, and\nserve the purposes of a tail. They are covered with a close fur,\nand the canine teeth of the Walrus are so largely developed in the\nupper jaw as to form tusks, by means of which they hook on and attach\nthemselves to the blocks of ice.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 69.--WALRUS (Trichicus rosmarus);\nSEAL (Phoca vitulina).]\n\n\n9. The INSECTIVORA, such as the Mole, Hedgehog, and\nShrew-mouse, (fig. 70), live entirely on insects, the Mole burrows for\nthem in the earth, and the fore paws are so made as to dig out and\nthrow the earth behind it, and it burrows in this way with the greatest\nrapidity. As it is nearly always beneath the surface of the earth, and\nconsequently in the dark, so a sense of vision is not required, it is\ntherefore blind, but the senses of touch and smell, being very acute\nenable it to find its food. The Hedgehog and Shrew-mouse are furnished\nwith pointed noses, with which they dig up the earth in search of\ninsects, and when found they devour them with amazing rapidity. The\nHedgehog has the power of rolling itself up into a ball and defying the\nattacks of almost anything, for its bristles are so stiff and sharp\nthat they prick like thorns, and make a capital defensive armour; the\nHedgehog is eaten by many, especially by the Gipsies, who esteem it a\ndainty.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 70.--INSECTIVORA.\n\n1, Hedgehog (Erinaceus Europ\u00e6us); 2, Mole (Talpa Europ\u00e6us); 3,\nShrew-mouse (Sorex araneus).]\n\n\n10. The CHEIROPTERA (Bat tribe, fig. 71), have fore feet so\nmodified as to serve as wings, with which they fly with tolerable\nswiftness, producing a peculiar flapping sound. These wings are formed\nby a membrane which is stretched out between the fingers, which are\nexceedingly elongated, and which reaches from the fore feet to the\nhind feet. The Bat tribe all feed upon insects, especially moths;\nthey rest in the day time head downwards, clinging to rough places by\nmeans of the claws of their hind feet, coming out at night to seek\ntheir food; their sight, which is very quick, enabling them to see\ntheir prey when almost dark. Some of the larger species of this tribe,\ninhabiting America, are called Vampire Bats, they live by sucking the\nblood of various animals, such as cattle and horses, thereby inflicting\ndangerous wounds.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 71.--BATS (Plecotus auritus).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 72.--QUADRUMANA.\n\n_Baboons._--1. Mandrill (Papio maimon); 2. Chacma (Chacma Porcarius).\n_Monkeys._--3. Mona (Cercopithecus mona); 4. Howler (Mycetes); 5.\nSpider (Ateles).]\n\n11. The QUADRUMANA (fig. 72), so called from their hind and\nfore feet both having thumbs, and being developed into hands, includes\nthe Monkeys; they may be divided into two tribes, those inhabiting\nthe Old World (Simiid\u00e6), and those inhabiting the New (Cebid\u00e6),\nthese include what were formerly called Apes, Baboons, &c. These\nanimals approach the most nearly to the form of the human being, the\nChimpanzee being considered the nearest in formation to Man; there are,\nhowever, many very broad distinctions between the two, especially in\nthe foot and head. The Quadrumana are very clever, but their actions\nseem to have more meaning in them than they in reality possess, owing\nto the resemblance of these creatures to the human being. There\nare many surprising accounts of these beings, such as their arming\nthemselves with sticks and stones to defend themselves; but no act of\nreason has ever yet been perceived in them, nor any tendency towards\nimprovement, except that which has been given them by Man. \"The Monkey\nwho had seen the world,\" and went home and taught his companions, is\na fable in both senses of the word. The Monkey tribe are formed to\npass their lives in the trees among the branches, their hands being\nformed to suit this kind of life. None of them walk well, but when\nthey are among the branches, swinging themselves from bough to bough,\nfew creatures are more active; their food is fruit and nuts of all\nkinds. The Chimpanzee, certainly, is the nearest approach to Man in\nthe lower animals, and walks better in an upright position than does\nthe Ourang-outang, whose whole life is spent in the trees, while the\nChimpanzee often inhabits holes in the earth and rocks. In the \"Penny\nCyclop\u00e6dia\" is the following account of one, by Captain Payne:--\n\n\"It shook hands with some of the sailors, but refused its hand with\nmarks of anger to others, without any apparent cause. It speedily,\nhowever, became familiar with the crew, except one boy, to whom it was\nnever reconciled. When the seamen's mess was brought on deck it was\na constant attendant, would go round and embrace each person, while\nit uttered loud yells, and then seat itself among them to share the\nrepast.\"\n\nSome of the Monkey tribe (the Spider-monkeys) have the power of holding\nfast with the end of the tail; it, in fact, forms a sort of hand,\nand they swing from the boughs by it, and it is said that several\nwill attach themselves in this way, forming a long chain, and swing\nthemselves from the topmost bough of a tree when they wish to cross a\nstream, the lowest catching hold of the boughs on the opposite side,\nand the uppermost of them letting go his hold, they are all thus\nconveyed across.\n\n\n12. BIMANA (two-handed). This order includes Man alone. Man\nhas been placed in a separate class, and not as the first order of\nthe Mammalia, but, as will be presently noticed, although he has many\nattributes which no other animal has, yet in bodily construction, and\nall the functions of his material part, he so nearly resembles the\nother orders of his class that it is deemed better to place him at\ntheir head under the designation of \"two-handed;\" although indeed he is\nthe only animal who can be said to possess hands, properly so called,\nfor those of the Monkey tribe are so imperfectly developed that they\nhave but little claim to the name.\n\nIn his circulation, respiration, digestion, &c., Man exactly resembles\nthe other Mammalia, also in the organs of locomotion and special sense,\nmodified slightly in form; but to these purely animal attributes, he\nhas superadded faculties which raise him above them, and show him to\nbe the last and most perfect of God's creatures, one step further, in\nfact, than any other living being; and it is a curious circumstance,\nand one showing the accuracy of detail, with which the Mosaic account\nof Creation in the Bible abounds, that this very superiority is not\nonly mentioned in many ways, but recorded as the result of a special\nact of God over and above his formation as an ordinary animal, in\nwhich state he was created, for we find the words, \"and breathed into\nhis nostrils the breath of life, and man became _a living soul_,\"\nthis especial act was not performed for any other being which God had\ncreated, of which it is stated simply \"male and female created He them.\"\n\nMan is possessed of sentiments (or those feelings which prompt him to\nbelieve in, look forward to, and hope for a higher state of existence,\nthan that which he enjoys here) which none of the lower animals\nhave, and of reason in place of instinct. There is certainly a vast\ndifference between the two, although many would have us believe the\none is the same as the other, but of a higher order; instinct causes\nits possessor to act from innate impulse without consciousness of the\nresult, while reason points out \"the why and the wherefore.\" Man is\nconscious of his own identity, this is also peculiar to him; moreover,\nall the performances of man can be improved by practice, none of the\ninstincts can, but are as perfect at first as at last; the Bee makes\nthe comb, and the Bird the nest, as well the first time as the last,\nand although the higher animals, as the Dog, Horse, Elephant, &c., can\nbe taught to perform various clever and useful acts, yet it is by\nMan's instrumentality and not by their own powers; in fact there is not\nan animal which left to itself has the slightest power within itself\nof deviating one iota from those peculiar instincts which were given\nit by God. But Man at every effort rises higher than he was before,\ntill he arrives at such a knowledge of the great works and designs\nof his Creator that he bows his head in awe and admiration of the\nwonders permitted to appear to his comprehension. With respect to his\nbodily structure, Man undoubtedly stands first in the race of beings,\nalthough, in some particulars, such as the acuteness of the senses, he\nmay be inferior to some.\n\n[Illustration:\n\n _a._ Skull.\n\n _b. b._ Vertebral column or Spine.\n\n _c._ Ribs.\n\n _d._ Sternum or Chest bone.\n\n _e. e._ Scapulae or Blade bones.\n\n _f. f._ Clavicles or Collar bones.\n\n _g. g._ Pelvic or Hip bones.\n\n _h. h._ Humeri or Arm bones.\n\n _i._ Radius }\n } Bones of fore-arm.\n _j._ Ulna }\n\n _k._ Femur or Thigh bone.\n\n _l._ Tibia or Large bone of leg.\n\n _m._ Fibula or Small bone of leg.\n\n _n._ Calcaneum or Heel bone.\n\n _o._ Tarsal bones or Bones of the\n foot.\n\n _p._ Carpal bones or Bones of the\n wrists.\n\nFIG. 73.--THE HUMAN SKELETON.]\n\nThe Human frame consists of a skeleton (fig. 73) formed of hard\nand unyielding bone, having joints to admit of motion in certain\ndirections; this skeleton performs certain great and important offices,\nit forms strong boundaries or protecting cases for most of the vital\nparts, so as to shield them from external violence, such as the brain\nand spinal cord, the lungs, heart, &c., it also furnishes a series of\nlevers to be acted on by the muscles, for the purposes of motion, and a\nfirm support for the soft parts of the system. The skeleton is divided\ninto the head, trunk, and extremities; the head is again divided into\ncranium and face; the trunk is divided into spine, thorax, and pelvis;\nthe extremities into the upper and lower, the upper consisting of arm,\nfore-arm, and hand; the lower of thigh, leg, and foot. The bones are\ndivided into \"flat bones\" (fig. 74) and \"long bones\" (fig. 75), the\nflat bones (as a general rule) form the boundaries of the cavities, and\nthe long bones the levers.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 74.--FLAT BONE (Scapula).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 75.--LONG BONE (Femur).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 76.--SECTION OF BONE, MAGNIFIED.]\n\nThe bones consist of earthy matter, chiefly phosphate of lime, held\ntogether by a sort of cartilage, and arranged in fine scales or plates\nforming interstices or cells (fig. 76), these are large in the centre\nof the bone so as to make it nearly (and in some instances quite)\nhollow, and very small at the surface, so as to make it there nearly\nsolid; this arrangement is found to be the very best to secure strength\nand lightness, together with a very slight degree of flexibility. The\ngeneral form of a long bone is that of a shaft, having an enlargement\nat either extremity, the shaft is generally curved slightly so as to\ngive elasticity, and is more solid than the ends, which are expanded to\ngive size and firmness to the joints, and porous to keep them light;\nthe shaft is small and close in its texture, that there may be plenty\nof room for the muscles which lie on and cover it. The skeleton then,\nconsists of bony cases which enclose the viscera, a series of levers\ncovered with, and moved by the muscles, and the whole forming a solid\nframework to support the soft parts. All the various motions of the\nbody, from the winking of the eyelid and the wonderfully adjusted\nmotions of the eye itself--which are so accurate, that a certain\nperceptible motion is required to look alternately at one side and\nthe other of a pin's head--to the most powerful stroke of the arm, are\nperformed by the contraction of the muscles. But there are several\nactions which would at first appear to be produced by elongation\ninstead of contraction, such as the protrusion of the tongue, the\nwinking of the eyelids, and the closure of the lips; but the first of\nthese is produced by the contraction of a muscle which is attached at\none extremity to the under part of the root of the tongue, and at the\nother to the inner part of the lower jaw, which, when it contracts,\ndraws the whole tongue forwards, causing a part of it to protrude;\nthe eyelids and lips are closed by circular muscles surrounding them,\nwhich, by contraction, draw together those parts.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 77.--FIBRILS OF VOLUNTARY MUSCLE, MAGNIFIED.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 78.--THE SAME, MORE HIGHLY MAGNIFIED.]\n\nThe muscles form the flesh of an animal, or that part which is of a red\ncolour, and which is called lean (in contra-distinction to fat), they\nare composed of fibres, each fibre made up of a number of fibrils, and\nthe whole bound up together by means of a fine membrane, called areolar\ntissue. Each of these fibrils consists of a number of cells pressed\nclosely together and having a peculiar bearded appearance (figs. 77,\n78). It is by the sudden approximation and flattening of these cells\nthat the muscle is shortened during contraction, but the contraction\nof each fibril is only for an instant, and then a relaxation and\nelongation of the cells takes place, which is followed by a second\ncontraction, and so on. Now, the way in which a muscle keeps in a state\nof permanent contraction is this: the various fibrils or strings of\ncells relieve each other instead of all contracting and all relaxing\ntogether, and in this way a part only of the fibrils are in a state\nof contraction at any given time, while the others are relaxed, and\nas one begins to relax another contracts, and so keeps up a state of\ncontraction in the muscle up to a certain point, when the contractions\nbecome gradually more feeble, and finally cease altogether; the muscle\nis then exhausted, but, if allowed to rest awhile, it again obtains its\ncontractile power. This peculiar contractile power is a physical one,\nand exists for a short time after death, that is, until its perfect\nstructure is altered by the beginning of decomposition; and what is a\ncurious fact, the muscles of a dead body stimulated to contraction by\npricking or galvanism, will tire and again obtain their contractility\nby rest, just as in the living body. The nature of the stimulus which\ncauses the muscles to contract during life is not known; but, whatever\nit may be, it is conveyed from the spinal cord and brain, through the\nmedium of a set of nerves, called the \"motor nerves,\" or nerves of\nmotion, to the muscles, to every fibre of which they are distributed.\nThere is, however, another set of nerves which have nothing to do\nwith motion, although exactly similar in appearance and generally\nassociated and bound up in the same sheath with them; these are the\nnerves of sensation. They take their origin from every part possessed\nof sensibility or feeling--more especially the skin--and convey every\nimpression of feeling to the brain. The muscles are not all under the\ncontrol of the will, for the muscles of the heart, bowels, &c. are\nquite out of our control. Those which are subservient to our will are\ncalled \"voluntary\" muscles, or the \"muscles of animal life,\" while\nthose out of the control of the will, are the \"involuntary\" muscles,\nor \"muscles of organic life\" (fig. 79). These last have a structure\ndifferent to the voluntary muscles, being composed of flattened fibres\ncontaining granules and overlapping each other. The tendons are the\ncord-like extremities of the muscles which connect them to the bones;\nthey are fibrous and slightly elastic, flexible, and exceedingly\nstrong; while moist they have a splendent appearance, somewhat like\nmother-of-pearl.\n\nThe ligaments are the strong fibrous bands which connect the bones\ntogether. Cartilages are substances of a white colour, smooth in\ntheir texture, and not very flexible; they are connected to the\nbones which they sometimes serve to prolong, and are themselves often\nconverted into bone in old people, by the deposition of earthy matter\nwithin their structure, in fact, they may be considered as bone in an\nundeveloped state; for, in the infant, many parts are cartilaginous,\nwhich, in the adult, are bony; such as the ends of the long bones, the\nbones of the nose, &c.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 79.--INVOLUNTARY MUSCULAR FIBRE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 80.--HEAD OF AN INFANT.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 81.--HEAD OF AN ADULT.]\n\nWith respect to the development of the form of the human body, there\nare two chief conditions which influence it, namely, age and sex. With\nrespect to age, the proportional magnitudes of the different parts,\nearly and late in life, vary very considerably. In the infant (fig.\n80) the hand is by far the most completely developed (in size), next to\nthis the abdomen, then the chest and upper extremities, and, finally,\nthe lower extremities. In the adult (fig. 81), the largest measurement\nis round the chest and shoulders, but in the infant it is round the\nhead; in the adult the lower extremities weigh one half of the whole\nbody, but in the infant not one quarter. The infantile face has many\npeculiarities, so also has the face of old age (fig. 82). In the infant\nthe lower part of the face is but little developed, the lower jaw\nis small, the chin scarcely at all prominent, and the distance from\nthe nose to the chin very short, owing to the absence of the teeth,\nor (when formed) their smallness. The bones of the nose are scarcely\nformed, and this organ has therefore no bridge, properly so called;\nthe nostrils are small, the lower part of the forehead small, smooth,\nand rounded, and the arches of the eyebrows but little prominent. The\ncheek-bones are small, and so are the bony arches which join them to\nthe temples; the cheeks are full of fat, and the angles of the jaws\nrounded. In middle age the lower part of the forehead becomes more\nfully developed, the bony edges which support the eyebrows project\nand overhang the eyes, the bridge of the nose and the nostrils become\nmore fully formed, the space from the nose to the chin is greater,\nthe teeth cause the lips to be pushed more forward, the lower jaw is\nlarger, and the cheek-bones show more plainly. In old age the whole\nupper part of the face becomes more marked, the nose and eyebrows still\nmore prominent, the cheeks hollow from absorption of the fat, the space\nfrom the nose to the chin (as in infancy) shortens from loss of teeth,\nbut the chin, being more fully formed, projects as the jaw rises to\nfill the space occupied by the teeth. The angles of the jaw are also\nvery sharp and square, the eyes sunk in the head, and the whole skin\nof the face loosened and wrinkled from loss of substance beneath. With\nrespect to sex, in the Male the facial bones are more fully formed,\nthe shoulders broader and higher, the collar-bones longer and more\ncurved, the chest wider, the hips narrower, and the legs longer, and\nevery bone has its processes or markings more fully developed, and is\nmore contorted from the action of the muscles, which are larger and\nmore powerful than in the Female. In the Female (fig. 83) there is a\ngreater deposition of fat, and, in many other respects, a tendency to\na child-like conformation.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 82--HEAD OF AN OLD MAN.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 83.--HEAD OF A FEMALE.]\n\nThe body is everywhere covered by a common integument called the skin,\nbeneath which is a layer of areolar and adipose tissue, which last has\nits cells filled with fat, which during life is in a liquid or oily\nstate; this serves to protect the parts beneath both from cold and\nviolence, fills up the hollows and irregularities between the muscles,\nand gives the body a more rounded and graceful appearance.\n\nMan, in common with all the higher animals, is possessed of the five\n\"special senses,\" namely, sight, smell, hearing, touch, and taste, the\norgans of which are the eyes, nose, ears, skin, and mouth; but these\nare developed in very different degrees in different animals.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 84.--FRONT VIEW OF EYE.]\n\n_Sight_ is the sense by which we take cognisance of those external\nobjects which either give out or reflect light. The eye (fig. 84) is\nan optical instrument of great beauty and perfection, and by its help\nan image of everything we look at is produced in miniature on the\nexpanded optic nerve called the \"retina,\" as an image is produced in\nthe \"camera,\" which instrument is made in imitation of the eye; this\nimage by some unknown power is perceived by the mind, and produces\nthe sense of vision. By the sense of sight we recognise all forms,\ncolours, and gradations of light and shade, and also (assisted by the\nexperience gained by the sense of touch) the qualities of surface, such\nas roughness, smoothness, &c.; for instance, we know by touch that a\npiece of glass is smooth, that a piece of velvet has a different kind\nof smoothness, &c., and the mode in which these surfaces reflect the\nlight, teaches us to recognise them so that we could predict from touch\nwhat appearance an object would have, or by the look how it would\nfeel. Our knowledge of the solidity of bodies is known to the sense of\nsight by (unconsciously) looking at them with each eye alternately,\nso as to see to a certain extent round them, or somewhat on either\nside alternately. By this fact the principle of the stereoscope is\nexplained, the pictures looked at through it, consist of two views\nof the same object, taken at points of sight a short distance apart\n(corresponding to the distance between the eyes) and they give us, when\nsteadily looked at, the same result that real objects do when looked\nat with each eye, alternately. It is a curious fact, but one which has\nbeen clearly demonstrated by optical experiments, that the picture\nrepresented on the \"retina\" is inverted, but from habit we refer things\nto their natural position, and how naturally and easily this is done,\nmay be ascertained by holding the head down close to the floor, and\nlooking at objects through one's legs, in this position they are all\ninverted; but we naturally make ourselves satisfied that they are still\nas they were before, so that they really do not appear to be inverted.\nThe impression formed by objects upon the retina is not immediately\ndestroyed upon their removal, but remains for an instant permanent;\nthis gives rise to a great many curious phenomena, among which the\nmost familiar is the circle of light produced by the rapid evolution\nof any luminous body, as the red-hot end of a stick. This is also\nshown by a toy, called the \"Thaumatrope,\" which consists of a piece of\ncard having a small wire attached to the upper part by which it may be\nturned rapidly round by the thumb and finger. On one side of the card\nis painted an object, such as a parrot, and on the other a cage; when\nthe card is turned round, first the bird and then the cage is presented\nto the eye, but the image of the one has not left the eye before the\nother is presented to it, and the result is the uniform appearance on\nboth sides of a parrot _in_ a cage.\n\nThe structure of the eyes in Man and the higher animals is very nearly\nalike, so that the same description will serve for both, but those of\ninsects and the lower orders of animated beings are very different.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 85.--SECTION OF HUMAN EYE.\n\n A. Sclerotic.\n B. Choroid.\n C. Retina.\n D. Vitreous humour.\n E. Aqueous humour.\n F. Cornea.\n G. Crystalline lens.\n H. Pupil.\n I. Optic nerve.\n]\n\nThe eye consists of various humours of different densities enclosed\nin membranes (fig. 85); the human eye is spherical for the posterior\nfour-fifths of its circumference, but the front part projects a little,\nbeing formed of part of a smaller sphere. The globe of the eye, all\nbut this front part, is enclosed in a firm fibrous coat called the\n\"sclerotic,\" within which is a membrane full of blood-vessels called\nthe \"choroid,\" this on its inner side is covered with a black substance\ncalled the \"black pigment,\" and within this (lining the ball) is the\nnervous coat or retina, it is the optic nerve so expanded as to form\na lining to the membranes of the ball of the eye for the greater part\nof its extent. The ball of the eye is filled with a transparent fluid,\nsomewhat glutinous, called the \"vitreous humour;\" stretched across the\nfront part of the ball of the eye is a membrane having a round hole in\nits centre, called the \"iris,\" coated (like the choroid) with black\npigment on its back surface; this membrane (the iris) is the coloured\npart of the eye, and its transparency or opacity determines the colour\nof the eye. The pupil is the hole in its centre, it looks black because\nthe black pigment which covers the inside of the ball of the eye (for\nthe retina is transparent) is seen through it; behind the iris and in\nfront of the vitreous humour, is the crystalline lens, it is just the\nshape of a very thick lens, but is more convex behind than in front, it\nis quite transparent, and of a density almost approaching to solidity.\nThe front fifth of the ball of the eye is covered in by a dense\ntransparent substance called the cornea, of the form of a watch-glass\nand quite transparent, between this and the crystalline lens there is\na small space called the anterior chamber, filled with a clear watery\nfluid called the aqueous humour. The eye is moved by six muscles, four\nstraight and two oblique, these turn it in every direction with the\ngreatest accuracy; the front of the eye is defended by the eyelids,\nwhich by winking and being moistened by the tears, keep the eye always\nmoist and free from dust.\n\nThe eyes of insects and several other classes of animals are called\ncompound eyes, and the image they produce must resemble objects\ndepicted in mosaic, or made up of small spots of distinct colours; they\nconsist of hundreds of small tubes, radiating and forming part of a\nsphere on each side of the head, each of these tubes admits the light\nfrom objects at which they point. Some of the animals still lower in\nthe scale have simple spots of transparent membrane with an expansion\nof optic nerve beneath them; in such creatures the power of vision is\nprobably limited to distinguishing light from darkness.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 86.--SECTION OF THE HUMAN EAR.\n\n_a_, external opening; _b_, tympanum; _c_, small bones; _d_, Eustachian\ntube; _e_, cochlea; _f_, semicircular canals.]\n\n_Hearing._--Sound is conveyed to the mind by the vibration of air, and\nthis vibration is communicated to a membrane within the ear, called the\n\"tympanum;\" this is in connection (by means of three minute bones) with\nthe expanded auditory nerve, which ramifies within the \"vestibule,\"\nwhich is filled with a fluid, so that the vibrations of the air are\nthus communicated to the nerve of hearing (fig. 86).\n\n_Smell._--The interior of the nose is lined by a fine moist membrane,\non which the olfactory nerve is distributed. The cause of odour is\nquite unknown; though, as most volatile substances are odorous, it is\nsupposed to be some volatile matter which comes in contact with the\nolfactory nerve, or nerve of smelling. The quantity given off in some\ninstances must be exceedingly small, for one grain of musk placed on a\npiece of glass will give out scent for months, and at the end of that\ntime weigh still one grain. Some animals, as Dogs and Birds of prey,\nhave this sense so acute that it serves them instead of almost every\nother; the Vulture will scent carrion miles away, and the Dog will\ntrack his master by the power of scent.\n\n_Taste._--The sense of taste resides chiefly in the tongue, but to\nsome extent in the palate or roof of the mouth; it appears to be a\nmodified sense of smell, combined with common sensation or touch, and\nis much diminished by loss of smell.\n\n_Touch_, next to sight, is the most important of the senses. The whole\nskin possesses this sense, but in some parts far more than others, the\nfinger-ends being the most perfectly endowed with it; and in the lower\nanimals the parts which are used as prehensile organs, are in them the\nmost acutely sensitive to touch, as the end of the proboscis in the\nElephant, and the lips of most other quadrupeds. In the Feline tribe,\nthe smellers or hairs from the side of the face, appear to be true\norgans of touch, and enable them to feel their way in the dark. By the\nsense of touch we are informed of the amount of resistance of matter\n(and consequently its weight), of hardness, smoothness, roughness, and\nother qualities of surface, and by the amount of extension of the hand\nto reach them of their distance from us, and also of the form and size\nof things.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 87.--TIGER'S HEAD AND ELEPHANT'S TRUNK.]\n\nThe human hand is the most perfect organ of prehension possessed by any\nanimal, for although Monkeys have hands, yet these are so imperfect as\nto serve chiefly for clinging to, and climbing amongst the branches,\nthey cannot take any small substance between the thumb and finger,\nwhile the human hand, besides enabling its possessor to grasp firmly\nwith all the fingers and thumb, each can individually be approximated\nto the thumb so as to hold the very smallest substance, and as Man is\nso constituted that he can stand firmly on his feet, his hands can\nbe solely appropriated to the acts of prehension. It has been said\nthat Man owes much of his superiority to the lower animals, to the\npossession of hands which can take, examine, and compare everything\nwithin his reach; but it seems more probable that these hands have\nbeen given him because he, only, has the faculties of examining and\ncomparing. The Lion and Tiger would be no better off, had they Man's\nhands instead of their feet with claws--probably much worse.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 88.--HUMAN HAND.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 89.--MONKEY'S HAND.]\n\nAnimals do not feed upon unorganised matter, as do vegetables, but\nmerely appropriate to their own use those organic principles which are\nready formed in the vegetable or animal, such as albumen, fibrine,\nstarch, gum, sugar, &c., and assimilate them into their substance.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 90.--HUMAN STOMACH.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 91.--LUNGS, HEART, AND LARGE VESSELS.\n\n1 and 2, Right and left Lungs; 3, Heart; 4, Aorta; 5, Trachea.]\n\nWhen food enters the mouth of an animal it there meets with a fluid\n(the saliva) which is capable of converting starchy matters into\nsugar, thus rendering this aliment (which is presented in a state of a\nnature quite insoluble at the heat of the stomach) not only soluble,\nbut nutritious. This ensalivation takes place while the food is being\nmasticated; when in the stomach (fig. 90) it meets with the \"gastric\njuice,\" a fluid capable of dissolving both fibrine and albumen (the\ntwo other chief aliments), even when coagulated; thus all kinds of\nfood when they have been a short time in the stomach are reduced to\na liquid, and so far fitted to enter the system. The stomach is a\nmembraneous bag, communicating at the upper orifice with the mouth,\nand at the lower with the intestines; its internal (mucous) coat is\nsmooth, and contains many absorbents; its outer coat is muscular, and\ncapable of contraction, so as to roll together its contents, thus\nbringing every portion into contact with the gastric juice; this mass\nof dissolved food has received the name of \"chyme.\" By admixture\nwith the bile (a fluid excreted by the liver) and other juices, it\nseparates (like curds and whey) into a liquid and partially solid\nmatter; the liquid part is like milk, and is called \"chyle,\" and it\nis taken up by absorbent vessels, by \"endosmose,\" a peculiar power\nwhich membranes have of allowing liquids to pass through them when\nthere is a more dense liquid on the other side (as described in the\nexperiment at page 123, \"Vegetable Kingdom,\"), and, passing through\nthe vessels called \"lacteals,\" is mixed there with the impure blood\nas it is about to be returned to the heart, and from thence to the\nlungs, where impurities are got rid of in the form of carbonic acid.\nThe lungs (fig. 91), in performing this office, expose the\nblood (contained in thousands of minute blood-vessels) to the air\nwhich enters the windpipe at every inspiration or breath, the windpipe\ndivides into two, and these each into two more (the bronchial tubes),\nand so on until they are no larger than a hair; at the end of each tube\nis a little \"air-cell,\" on the membraneous walls of which the vessels\ncontaining the blood are distributed as a network. The blood when it\nenters the lungs is of a dark purple or blackish colour, and is loaded\nwith carbonic acid; this blood is received by the heart from the great\nveins, which pour it into the right auricle, this contracting, sends\nit into the right ventricle, which, in turn, sends it through the\npulmonary arteries into the lungs; while there, it is exposed in the\nnetwork of vessels which ramify on the walls of the air-cells; another\nprocess of endosmose takes place, and the carbonic acid passes through\nthe walls of the vessels into the air-tubes, and escapes by the breath;\nat the same time that this carbonic acid is cast off, an equal bulk\nof oxygen is absorbed from the air, so that the air which enters the\nlungs, and that which passes out, are the same in bulk--plus watery\nvapour--although what enters is pure air, and what is expelled, is\nloaded with carbonic acid. The blood, having exchanged carbonic acid\nfor oxygen, is now altered from a black to a bright scarlet colour,\nand is in a condition to be circulated through the system. On leaving\nthe lungs by the \"pulmonary veins,\" it enters the left auricle of the\nheart, and passes from thence to the left ventricle, which is very\npowerful, and forces it by compression upwards into the \"aorta\" (the\nfirst great artery), and thence through the other arteries, which\ndivide, and become smaller and smaller until it arrives at every\npart of the body, forming a network of fine vessels which are called\ncapillaries; so perfectly are these vessels distributed, that it is\nalmost impossible to cut or prick any part of the body without wounding\none of them, and thereby drawing blood. When these capillaries have\nsupplied this pure blood to repair and renovate every part of the\nsystem, and received for the new material, that which is worn out or\nspoiled, they urge it onwards to where they unite into small veins,\nand, as these continue to unite, they form large trunks, and pour the\nblood, now black and impure, into the right auricle of the heart,\ntogether with the fresh material (chyle) derived from the food, again\nto be sent through the lungs and purified for fresh circulation. This\ndescription applies as well to the other Mammalia as it does to Man,\nfor these classes do not differ from Man in their physical structure,\nexcept in form and size, and the alteration in the proportion of the\nvarious parts to adapt each to its peculiar purpose.\n\n[Illustration: EUROPEAN AND NEGRO.]\n\nMAN is, without doubt, the only animal possessed of reflective\nand reasoning faculties, and the possession of these has raised him\nimmeasurably above all the rest. He has also physical capabilities\nsuitable to a dominant being whose race is destined to people the\nearth in every part. Were his constitution formed like that of the\nChimpanzee or the Ourang, he could only live in the very hottest of\nclimates; but it is found that Man is healthy and happy through ranges\nof temperature, which would prove fatal to most other animals. In\nthe frigid regions of the north, the Laplander enjoys many comforts\nwhich he fancies could never be obtained in any other latitude, and\nthe Bushman of Africa, following the wild animals of that region, and\nneeding no covering to shield him from the burning rays of the sun,\ndeems his lot the happiest that can be. The human race are gradually\nincreasing in number, and there is scarcely a spot capable of being\ninhabited at all, but they are found there; and, wherever Man comes,\nthe wild animals of the region retire or become entirely extinct,\nexcepting those which serve him as food, such as the Ruminants.\n\nThe difference between the highest of the lower animals and Man, is so\ndistinct, that no more need be said about it; but among men themselves,\nthere is a great difference; between the European, and the Negro or the\nHottentot, there is a vast distinction, but the most simple would at\nonce say they are both men, and possessed of the essential qualities\nof men; and there can be no doubt that all men of every kind form\n_one species_. This is a point pretty well settled among all who have\nwritten on the subject; and indeed, great as the difference is among\nmen, it is not half so great as that which exists between the Bull-dog\nand Italian Greyhound, and yet they are both dogs; or between the\nRace-horse and the Dray-horse, and yet who is there can doubt of these\nboth being of the same species.\n\nBlumenbach made out five varieties--namely, 1, Caucasian; 2, Mongolian;\n3, American; 4, Malay; 5, Ethiopian or Negro. Pickering[2] describes\neleven varieties, and arranges them as follows:--\n\n WHITE.\n 1. Arabian.\n 2. Abyssinian.\n\n BROWN.\n 3. Mongolian.\n 4. Hottentot.\n 5. Malay.\n\n BLACKISH-BROWN.\n 6. Papuan.\n 7. Negrillo.\n 8. Indian or Telingan.\n 9. Ethiopian.\n\n BLACK.\n 10. Australian.\n 11. Negro.\n\n[Footnote 2: Pickering's \"Races of Man.\" By John Charles Hall, M.D., p.\n300.]\n\nIn this arrangement the \"Arabian\" corresponds with the \"Caucasian\"\nof Blumenbach; both names are given from the supposed country of\nthe original members of the race; the appellation \"European,\" used\nby Dr. Latham is, however, a much more appropriate one than either,\nboth the Caucasian and Arabian being now limited to the inhabitants\nof the localities from which their names were derived. The Arabian,\nCaucasian, or European family occupy the chief part of Western Europe,\nthe British Isles, and the United States of America, and is fast\nspreading in other parts of the American Continent and in Australia. It\nis characterised by a fair complexion, arched nose, ruddy cheeks, thin\nlips, and the frequency of blue eyes and light hair. Its members are at\nthis present time the highest and most civilised classes in the world,\nbeing further advanced in religion, arts, sciences, and literature;\nalso their capacity for enterprise and speculation, and their love of\nnovelty, is far beyond that of any other variety of the human race;\nanything new that offers the smallest chance of being beneficial is\nat once adopted by them and carried out. This is, perhaps, the great\nsecret of their advancement, for the other most numerous variety of\nthe human family, and which exceeds the European in numbers (the\nMongolian), has but little capacity for change of any kind, in fact,\nappears to admire and adhere to those matters only, which have the most\nundoubted stamp of antiquity--such a mode of feeling especially obtains\namong the Chinese. Dr. Latham divides the European family into--\n\n 1. THE BASKS.\n 2. THE SKIPTAR.\n 3. THE KELTS.\n 4. THE GREEKS AND LATINS.\n 5. THE SARMATIANS.\n 6. THE GERMANS.\n\n[Illustration: EUROPEAN.]\n\nThe BASKS appear to have been the original inhabitants of\nSpain and Portugal, which have abandoned their former habitation and\nnow dwell in the mountains of Navarre and Gascony, just as the American\nIndians may be supposed to dwell at some future time in the Rocky\nMountains.\n\nThe SKIPTAR are the inhabitants of Albania, much resembling in\npersonal appearance the Turks and Sclavonians, but having a language\nderived from a different source. The following is a description of the\nAlbanian, from the \"Penny Cyclop\u00e6dia:\"--\n\n\"The Albanians are about five feet and a half high, muscular and\nstraight in their persons. Their activity, and the tight girdles which\nthey wear, render them small round the loins; they have full broad\nchests, long necks, long oval faces with prominent cheek bones, and\nflat raised foreheads, arched eyebrows, blue or hazel (rarely quite\nblack) lively eyes, thin straight noses, thin but open nostrils, and\nsmall mouths furnished with good teeth. Their complexions are white in\nyouth, but become tinged a dusky hue in old age.\"\n\nThe KELTS (or Celts) were the former inhabitants of both\nFrance and England, they are now to be found chiefly in Ireland and the\nHighlands of Scotland, and are called Gaelic Celts; the English are a\nmixture of these with Saxon and German, but still retain a good deal of\nthe blood of the Celts; in Wales the Celts are derived from the ancient\nBritish branch. The English retain more of the Germanic language, while\nthe Welsh retain most of the original British; the French are Celtic\nmixed with Roman, and have therefore a great admixture of Latin in\ntheir language. The Kelts appear to have been a race above the usual\nheight, with red or light hair, ruddy complexion, and of a fierce and\nimpetuous disposition.\n\nThe GREEKS and LATINS.--Of this stock, the\ninhabitants of Italy and Greece are the purest descendants, but it is\nextended with more or less contamination to Spain and the Danubian\nPrincipalities. Italy was probably the original seat of both races.\n\nThe SARMATIANS.--This stock inhabits Russia, Poland, Bohemia,\nHungary, and Servia, all speaking the Sclavonic languages.\n\nThe GERMANS.--This race inhabits Germany, Holland, Denmark,\nSweden, and Norway, and its immediate branch the English, forming the\nAnglo-Saxon family, are extended to America, Canada, Australia, and\nother parts of the world by colonisation.\n\nDr. Pickering calls the European race Arabian, and makes it extend\nthrough the whole of Europe, India, Arabia, and the northern parts of\nAfrica, believing all these to have been derived from the same stock,\nand forming variations of the same family. The language spoken by the\nEuropeans of all classes has been called Indo-European, hence Pickering\nclasses with them the Hebrews, Armenians, Parsees, and many more, all\nderived from a stock supposed to have migrated from Asia into Europe\nand Africa.\n\n\nThe ABYSSINIAN.--This race inhabits the table lands of\nAbyssinia, and its extension into the interior. Dr. Pickering thus\ndescribes the appearance of three individuals of this race whom he met\nat Singapore--\n\n[Illustration: ABYSSINIAN.]\n\n\"The hair was much alike in all three, and was crisped and fine,\nneither coarse enough nor in sufficient quantity to form a resisting\nmass. The beard of one individual was in pellets absolutely like the\nclose wool of the Negro, but the prominence of nose, greater even\nthan usually occurs in the white race, bore sufficient testimony to\nhis purity of descent. The second individual had the face very much\nelongated, but the nose was not particularly prominent. The third had\na straighter beard, which was black and grey in regular stripes. The\ncomplexion was the same in all three, and though very light, was by no\nmeans of a sickly hue, and indeed these persons might readily have been\npassed in the streets as belonging to the white race.\"\n\n[Illustration: MONGOLIAN.]\n\n[Illustration: ESQUIMAUX.]\n\n\nThe MONGOLIAN race, according to Pickering, includes the\ninhabitants of part of China and all the north-eastern parts of Asia,\nalso the aborigines of North and South America, with the exception\nof a tract of land on the south-western coast, including what is now\nCalifornia, and part of the United States. This race is probably\nthe most numerous in the world. The complexion of the Mongolian is\ndecidedly yellowish brown, but rather pale withal (it is well seen in\nthe Chinese); the head is flattened from before to behind, and expanded\nfrom side to side, so that in some well-marked cases the head is as\nbroad as it is long, the eyes are drawn upwards at the outer angles,\nand appear wide apart, from the inner angle, being but little prolonged\ninwards, the cheek-bones are prominent; the eyes black, and the hair\nblack and straight. The best specimens of this family are the Tartars\nand Chinese. The Chinese are highly skilful in most of the useful arts,\nespecially in agriculture. Their history extends very far back, and\nprobably the longest series of recorded events in existence, being\ncontinuous for a period of about 4,000 years, during the whole of which\ntime they have been in a state of civilisation nearly the same as they\nare at the present time.\n\nThe aboriginal tribes of America belong to this family. Dr. Latham\nderives their origin from the Esquimaux (or Eskemo), and their\nmigration from north-eastern Asia, Kamschatka, and the Aleutian\nIslands, to the eastern or Pacific shores of America.\n\nThe Chinese and Tartars are of a decidedly yellow tint. The Americans\nare of a dark copper-coloured hue, hence their designation \"Red\nIndians.\"\n\n[Illustration: AMERICAN INDIAN.]\n\n\nThe HOTTENTOT. This race inhabits the south of Africa, and\nparts extending thence into the interior; they are of a yellowish-brown\ncomplexion, small in stature, with hair consisting of small black\nknobs of a crisp sort of wool, separated from each other in such a way\nthat the skin of the head may be distinctly seen between them. They\nare strictly nomadic, scarcely ever remaining in any fixed spot, but\nfollowing the animals they hunt and kill for food, upon the flesh of\nwhich, with a few roots, they live.\n\nDr. Livingstone denies that they are very small in stature; speaking of\nthe Bushmen, a tribe of the Hottentot family, he says:--\"They are the\nonly real nomads in the country, they never cultivate the soil, nor\nrear any domestic animals, save wretched dogs; they are so intimately\nacquainted with the habits of the game, that they follow them in their\nmigrations from place to place, and prey upon them, and thus prove as\ncomplete a check upon their inordinate increase as the other carnivora.\nThe chief subsistence of the Bushmen is the flesh of game, but that is\neked out by what the women collect of roots, beans, or fruits of the\ndesert.\n\n[Illustration: HOTTENTOT FEMALE.]\n\n[Illustration: _MALAY._]\n\n\nThe MALAY family are a coast-dwelling people, delighting in\nthe water, and never found very far removed from it; they inhabit the\nsouthernmost coast of China, from Siam southwards, and all the adjacent\nislands. They are of a dark rich brown colour, with straight, coarse,\nblack hair and scanty beard, which in some is quite wanting. Some of\nthe members of this family are above the usual standard of height, such\nas the Polynesians and Tahitians. The moral character of the Malays,\ngenerally speaking, is of an inferior order. They are a race differing\nmuch, in some respects, from the Negro and Red Indian, being of\npeculiarly active temperaments; they exhibit considerable intellectual\ncapacity, and are an ingenious people. It is extremely probable, from\nthe fact of their being found in islands surrounded by others in the\nhands of the Ethiopic race, that they have pushed out the less active\nvariety, and, in short, annihilated them; and it is likely that they\nwill in turn suffer extinction at the hands of a superior variety, or a\nvariety rendered superior by civilisation.\n\n\nThe PAPUAN race inhabit the Feejee Islands and the coasts of\nNew Guinea; they are almost black, with a rough skin and thick woolly\nhair, which grows much longer than in the Negro, and which they wear\ncurled up so as to form a resisting mass, and no bad protection against\nthe blow from a club (their national weapon). Their height is above the\naverage of Europeans. Fish and yams are their chief food.\n\n[Illustration: PAPUAN.]\n\nThe NEGRILLO are nearly black in colour, short in stature,\nwith projecting jaws and thick woolly hair, the nose not so flat as the\nNegro, nor the lips so thick; they inhabit the interior of New Guinea\nand a few islands in its locality, of which they appear to have been\nthe aborigines, the central parts only being occupied by them; the\ncoasts are inhabited by the Papuan and Malay races, who have driven the\nNegrillo aborigines from their former abode to the central mountains.\n\n\nThe INDIAN or TELINGAN race inhabit the whole of Hindostan, and parts\nof Persia. The complexion is much the same as in the two preceding\nraces (Negrillo and Papuan), and is so decidedly darker than in the\nMalayan, that by common consent it is called black, although, on\ncomparison, the two differ widely from that of the unmixed Negro. The\ngreater part of Hindostan is, however, inhabited by a mixed race,\npartly Persian, partly Arabian.\n\nPickering describes them as follows:--\"The features approximated very\nclosely to those of the White race, but in general the mouth appeared\nto be wider, the nose rather less prominent, and the lips sensibly\nthicker. The profile was less vertical than in the surrounding Malays,\nthe lower part of the face projecting with a regular arch, as in the\nMongolian, and there was a further correspondence with the latter race\nin the frequent instances of the arched nose. The beard occurred more\nfrequently, and was more copious than in the Malay race; the hair was\nstraight and fine, and I have never seen it any other colour than\nblack.\"\n\n[Illustration: HINDOO.]\n\n\nThe ETHIOPIANS inhabit the central and north-east part of\nAfrica, Nubia, and the upper districts of the Nile. They are black, but\ntheir features are not far removed from the European, except in the\nfulness of the lips, and they are in some cases extremely handsome.\nThe hair is black and crisp, but not completely woolly, and grows\nsufficiently long to be plaited, which is the usual mode in which it is\nworn by the females of this race.\n\n\nThe AUSTRALIANS.--The natives of Australia are quite black,\nand have the nose and mouth very wide; the lips are thick, but not so\nmuch so as in the Negro; the hair is black and curly, but not woolly;\nthe eyes are very small, deeply set, black, and keen; the lower part\nof the face does not project like that of the Negro. These make a wide\ndistinction between the two races, although they have been confounded\nwith each other.\n\n[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN.]\n\n[Illustration: NEGRO.]\n\n\nThe NEGRO.--This race appears to differ from the European\nmore than any other. The skin of the Negro is quite black and shining,\nthe hair black, closely crisped into a sort of wool, and never growing\nto any great length; they have but little beard, the nose is flat and\nbroad, and the lips very thick and protruding, as is also the whole\nlower part of the face; the front teeth also project outwards, and the\nwhole contour of the face and head is backwards, forming a gradually\nreceding outline. They inhabit the interior and eastern parts of Africa\nconjointly with the Hottentot.\n\nThe preceding is a slight outline of the various races of men which\ninhabit the earth; their numbers are in the gross somewhere about a\nthousand millions, and it has been computed as follows, bearing in mind\nthat these numbers are but a rude approximation to truth:--\n\n European 350,000,000\n Mongolian 400,000,000\n Malay 100,000,000\n Telingan 80,000,000\n Negro 50,000,000\n Ethiopian 10,000,000\n Abyssinian 30,000,000\n Papuan 3,000,000\n Negrillo 3,000,000\n Australian 500,000\n Hottentot 500,000\n\nIn examining the various tribes of animated nature, there is one great\nfact which impresses itself irresistibly upon our minds, namely, that\nthey all form the handiwork of one Creator, and His Autograph is\nstamped everywhere. His care is also shown in the way in which animals\nare made to feed on all kinds of organic matters, and on each other;\nthis has been the means of economising all the nutriment which exists\non the earth, for, although it may not always be apparent, yet there\nis not a scrap or crumb ever wasted in nature; not a decayed leaf or\nblade of grass, not a leg of a fly, nor the wing of a gnat, nor any\npart or portion of organic matter, from the smallest animalcule to the\nhuge carcass of the dead elephant, or the trunk of the giant pine tree\nwhich the hurricane has uprooted, but forms a feast for some of the\nsmaller tribes of animated beings there placed by Providence to eat\nit. Millions of these, after devouring the waste-matters of organic\nexistence, whether embedded in the soil or elsewhere (not accessible\nto larger creatures), themselves form the food for creatures of larger\ngrowth, as birds, fishes, &c.; these again form the food of Man, so that\n\n\"NOTHING IS WASTED.\"\n\n\nTHE END.\n\n\n\n\n_Cloth, Gilt, Price Five Shillings._\n\nUNIFORM WITH \"OUTLINES OF CREATION.\"\n\nTHE\n\nBOY'S BOOK\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRIAL INFORMATION.\n\nBY ELISHA NOYCE.\n\nAUTHOR OF \"OUTLINES OF CREATION.\"\n\nILLUSTRATED WITH THREE HUNDRED AND SIXTY-FIVE ENGRAVINGS, BY\n\nTHE BROTHERS DALZIEL.\n\nOPINIONS OF THE PRESS.\n\n\n_Examiner, July 3. 1858._\n\n\"This book contains a brief and very clear summary of information for\nyoung readers upon the natural products used in the arts, and the arts\nby which they are converted to Man's use. It tells the main facts\nthat relate to every manufacture, and describes the various kinds\nof apparatus and machinery--chains, cranks, valves, wheels, steam\nand other engines, fire-arms, stills, thermometers and barometers,\nploughs, thrashing-machines, &c., as well as the more notable kinds\nof engineering work. To make the brief descriptions as effectual as\nfull ones, they are very freely illustrated with good woodcuts by the\nBrothers Dalziel. Whatever is described is shown not only by plans\nand diagrams, but frequently also by little pictures that are very\ninteresting and effective. The illustrations, we should add, are not\ncopies of copies, but new and direct sketches from the things they\nrepresent. Among efforts to produce cheap volumes of useful information\nfor the young, we account this one of the most successful.\"\n\n\n_Art Journal, August._\n\n\"This is just the book to place in the hands of an intelligent boy or\ngirl--for why should the useful information it contains be limited to\nsex?--who desires to know something about those things from which so\nmuch of his comfort and enjoyment is derived. Every youth in Prussia,\nwhatever be his condition--the prince and the peasant alike--is,\nwe believe, compelled by the laws which apply in that country to\neducation, to learn some trade or handicraft. Mr. Noyce's book will\nserve to initiate every boy in the United Kingdom who reads it, into\nthe theoretical art and mystery of the material and manufacturing\nworld. He divides his teachings into six sections, under the respective\nheads of Natural Products, Manufactured Products, Products of Skilled\nLabour, Arts and Trade Processes, Apparatus and Machinery, and\nEngineering Works, bringing into notice more than one hundred and\nfifty different subjects. The explanations and descriptions are, as\nthey should be, simple and untechnical, as far as possible; concise,\nyet sufficiently demonstrative; a _multum in parvo_, to which Messrs.\nDalziel's clear and well-executed engravings give great additional\nvalue. Such a volume is worth a hundred story-books as a present to the\njuveniles.\"\n\n\n_Illustrated London News, July 3._\n\n\"This work, by Elisha Noyce, with 365 illustrations by the Brothers\nDalziel, is calculated to do much good. The object is not only to\nplease, but to instruct; and, although written ostensibly for the\nyoung, it may be read with advantage by all who desire to possess a\nknowledge of things in everyday use. The information throughout is\nconveyed in a clear and understandable form; this, combined with its\npictures on every page, is well calculated to make the mind familiar\nwith many objects that as a rule have hitherto been but imperfectly\nrealised to the young. The book is admirably adapted to assist those\nwho are about to make choice of an occupation, and this of itself\nwould make it a welcome addition to the numerous works written for\nthe information and guidance of the rising generation. The book is\npublished by Ward and Lock.\"\n\n\n_Dispatch, July 4._\n\nThere is really a great deal to recommend this book to the attention\nof the public as one especially adapted for the entertainment and the\ninstruction of the young. The subjects themselves embrace the whole\narcana of the material universe, the mineral and vegetable products of\nthe earth, their properties, manufacture, and varied convertibility to\nthe service and uses of man. Three hundred and sixty-five first-class\nengravings, from the pencils of the Brothers Dalziel, and most of these\nbeing illustrative of the finished machinery of Woolwich Arsenal,\nand drawn by permission of the authorities, add to the value of the\nmatter incorporated in these pages, while in almost all other forms the\nindustrial arts, with their varied apparatus and machinery, are ably\nand fully described. It is a true \"Boy's Book,\" and merits the amplest\ncirculation possible for it to attain.\n\n\n_Daily Telegraph, July 20._\n\nThe title of Mr. Noyce's book sufficiently explains its object, and\nwe have only to say that it answers its purpose. It is clearly and\namusingly written, and embraces a large variety of useful subjects,\nwhich it treats in a full, though, at the same time, a concise manner.\nThe book is illustrated with three hundred and sixty-five excellent\nengravings by the Brothers Dalziel.\n\n\n_Leeds Times, July 31._\n\nThe author's object in the elegant-looking issue before us, as\ndescribed by himself, is to convey to the youthful reader a knowledge\nof the materials, processes, and apparatus made use of in the various\nexamples of industry and skill constantly before our eyes. No\nfewer than 365 wood-cuts by the Brothers Dalziel are appropriately\ninterspersed with the letterpress, thus enabling the reader to clearly\nunderstand what otherwise would of necessity, in some cases, be almost\nincomprehensible. The work is clearly and ably written, and even the\nintelligent adult must possess a large fund of general knowledge who\ncan truthfully affirm that he has derived no information from its pages.\n\n\n_Norfolk News, Aug. 7._\n\nThe title of \"The Boy's Book\" has been applied to more than one, two,\nor three subjects; but to none more appropriately than to this, which\nis really and truly \"The Boy's Book of Useful Knowledge.\" The author\nhas observed the happy medium of saying neither too little nor too\nmuch--of neither wearying the patience of his young readers by long and\nneedless details, nor of disappointing their curiosity by unnecessarily\nbrief and insufficient descriptions. If we are not greatly mistaken,\nthe book will soon become a general favorite with the young, and we\nshould strongly recommend it as a text-book of general information to\nEducational establishments. It is beautifully got up, and its value is\nconsiderably enhanced by the superior wood engravings of the Brothers\nDalziel, which speak the language of explanation as plainly to the eye\nas does the letterpress to the understanding.\n\n\nLONDON: WARD & LOCK, 158, FLEET STREET.\n\n * * * * *\n\nTranscriber's Notes\n\n Variations in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained\n except in obvious cases of typographical errors which have been silently\n corrected.\n\n Italics are shown thus _italic_.\n\n The repetition of the title on the first two pages has been removed.","title":"Outlines of Creation","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":83696}