{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_49196/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_49196","id":"gutenberg_49196","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/49196","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Science - Biology","Natural history"],"text":"Transcriber's Notes\n\n Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected.\n\n Variations in hyphenation have been standardised, but other variations\n in spelling, accents and punctuation are as in the original.\n\n There are several very wide tables in the book (e.g. Table A is 16\n columns/380 characters wide). These have been divided into blocks\n of 3 or 4 columns. The row alignment has been preserved and, where\n appropriate. the 1st column repeated for each block.\n\n The Errata and Corrigenda have been implemented, except for the final\n item:\n\n _For the words_ evolution _and_ evolved, _read passim in the Botanical\n and Zoological parts_, perfection _and_ perfected, _as the text may\n require_.\n\n Italics are represented thus _italic_.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n    THE\n\n    RAY SOCIETY.\n\n    INSTITUTED MDCCCXLIV.\n\n\n    [Illustration: Portrait of a man, signed W Bagg]\n\n\n    LONDON.\n\n    MDCCCXLVII.\n\n\n    ELEMENTS\n\n    OF\n\n    PHYSIOPHILOSOPHY.\n\n\n    BY\n\n    LORENZ OKEN, M.D.\n\n    PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF Z\u00dcRICH;\n    &c. &c.\n\n\n    FROM THE GERMAN\n\n    BY\n\n    ALFRED TULK,\n\n    MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND.\n\n\n    LONDON:\n    PRINTED FOR THE RAY SOCIETY.\n    MDCCCXLVII.\n\n\n  C. AND J. ADLARD, PRINTERS,\n  BARTHOLOMEW CLOSE.\n\n\n\n\n \"Of all truths relating to phenomena, the most valuable to us are\n those which relate to the order of their succession. On a knowledge of\n these is founded every reasonable anticipation of future facts, and\n whatever power we possess of influencing those facts to our advantage.\n Even the laws of geometry are chiefly of practical importance to us as\n being a portion of the premises from which the order of the succession\n of phenomena may be inferred.\"\n\n  JOHN STUART MILL.\n\nBegun in the autumn of the year 1845, without the cognizance, or\nat the suggestion of a single human being, the present Translation\nis due to the fact of its original having encountered a somewhat\nkindred spirit, and aroused therein the desire to render others\nparticipant, if possible, in the large amount of instruction it is\nso well calculated to afford. And now that the work is done, what\nremains for the labourer at second-hand to say by way of preamble to\nhis newly-dressed wares? Had the book been printed within the pale of\na philosophical or physico-theological sect, the Translator's final\nduty would have been clearly enough prescribed. Already bound to the\nprofession of \"particular tenets,\" his main object would be to indulge\nin a laudatory but servile abstract of his author's doctrines, or,\nif having set out with the expressed intention of illustrating their\nbearings upon the state of science past, present, and to come, he would\nbecome so drunk beforehand with the large and unbridled potation of\nhis creed, as to surprise the casual reader by informing him that such\nan intention is useless, for the two stand in direct antithesis to\neach other. Examples of this mode of procedure are not wanting at the\npresent day, whether at home or abroad. They are the produce of that\nspirit, which, rife enough in the Middle Ages, has been so graphically\ndescribed by Professor Whewell under the title of the \"Commentatorial,\"\nand \"whose professed object is to explain, to enforce, to illustrate\ndoctrines assumed to be true, but not to obtain additional truths or\nnew generalizations.\" While from dealings of this character, as being\nutterly opposed to the sacred cause of Truth, I turn away with feelings\nof repugnance, to which the lessons of some personal experience have\nlent their aid, it is not my business, upon the other hand, to\nenter the lists of controversy against those who, having neither the\ncapacity, nor the desire of its cultivation, for the higher walks of\nscience, delight to dismiss a work of the present kind with some idle\nanathema of mysticism or evasive outcry for more facts.\n\nI refrain from essaying to give any condensed formula or outline[A] of\nProfessor Oken's Physio-philosophy: first, because its leading points\nhave been already noted in his own prefaces to the German work and\nits translation; secondly, because the book will, I trust, best speak\nfor itself to those who shall come with minds unprejudiced and duly\nprepared, each one in his particular department, to its study; and,\nlastly, because any such attempt would necessarily involve an amount\nof historical and critical details, which must be here superficially\ntreated and so misplaced. Suffice it to observe, that the present\nwork stands alone in Germany, as being the most practical application\nupon a systematic scale of the principles advanced by Schelling, more\nespecially in the Mathesis and Ontology; for the concluding part or\nBiology stands almost \"per se.\" As such it will form, apart from other\nand higher considerations, a readily available introduction to the\nwritings upon similar subjects of Carus, Steffens, Hegel and others,\nand may induce further attempts to render, by translation or history,\nthe English student familiar with much of what at present is known only\nby scattered fragments in journals, or through the medium of reviews.\nFrom what has been said, the reader will be at no loss to discern in\nwhat light the Translator humbly desires to be viewed in reference to\nthe present work. He rests content with the confident hope that its\npages will be, at least, found eminently suggestive, that new thoughts\nwill be awakened by facts and their relations being here cast in a\nfresh mould, that shall stimulate others in the field of inquiry, and\nopen paths hitherto untrod. In this he is but expressing the sentiments\nof the author himself, and acknowledging what the present time with\nits accumulating mass of knowledge presses upon us more and more--the\nnecessity of work, wherein abstract science and experience, theory\nand facts shall advance together, the Ideal in part receiving and\nreflecting back with increased lustre the light which it has derived\nfrom the Real or outward semblance of things.\n\n[A] For this the reader may be referred to the 3d vol. of Prof.\nBlainville's Hist. des Sciences de l'Organisation; Par. 1845; or better\nstill, to the sketch (preceded by a view of Schelling's philosophy),\nwhich is given by M. Saint-Agy in the Tome Compl\u00e9mentaire of Cuvier's\nHist. des Sciences Naturelles, 1845. He there rightly observes of\nOken's work, that \"pendant les quarante derni\u00e8res ann\u00e9es il n'a presque\nparu en Allemagne d'ouvrages d'anatomie, de physiologie, de physique et\nde chimie auxquelles elle n'ait servi de base.\" For what a master-mind\nlike Oken's is capable of creating, I would especially refer to his\ntheory of the Cranial Homologies, which has been in our own country\nso beautifully carried out, modified, and proved by the extensive\nresearches of Professor Owen.\n\nMeanwhile, it is with no small amount of diffidence and hesitation\nthat the present Translation will quit my hands. Hemmed in by a rigid\ndialectic terminology upon all sides, I have had difficulties of no\nordinary kind to contend with in adapting a language, composed of such\nvaried elements as our own, to meet the requisites of general clearness\nand conciseness that form so prominent a feature of the German work. If\nerrors and obscurities exist, the blame, it will be observed, attaches\nto myself, not to the distinguished author. Ill-health has conflicted\nmuch with the calmness and repose of mind so indispensable to an\nundertaking, at once novel in kind and character to the English reader;\nor otherwise, these (my last labours unto any extent as a Translator)\nmight have been rendered more worthy of the Ray Society and the objects\nit has in view.\n\nTo those who have kindly afforded me assistance in the progress\nof the work, and to the latter body for undertaking it, I here\nreturn many grateful thanks. The Author himself in a letter to the\nTranslator, dated Jan. 12, 1847, acknowledges the acceptance of his\nwork by the Society in the following words:--\"The intelligence of my\nPhysio-philosophy having been deemed worthy of translation by so goodly\nand enlightened a Society, cannot be otherwise unto me than a source of\ndelight.\"[B]\n\n  ALFRED TULK.\n\n[B] \"Die Nachricht dass meine Naturphilosophie von einer sociferigen\nund erleuchteten Gesellschaft der Uebersetzung f\u00fcr w\u00fcrdig erachtet\nworden ist, konnte nicht anders als mir Freude gew\u00e4hren.\"\n\n\n\n\nAUTHOR'S PREFACE TO THE TRANSLATION.\n\n\nIt is with no readiness or pleasure that I write introductions of any\nkind, and usually abstain from doing so, partly because they appear\nto me like a kind of apology or makeshift for the author, and partly\nbecause the contents of the book itself should indicate his status or\nposition. With regard, however, to the history of the work, some few\nwords are certainly requisite for its Translation.\n\nI wrote the first Edition of 1810 in a kind of inspiration, and on\nthat account it was not so well arranged as a systematic work ought\nto be. Now, although this may appear to have been amended in the\nsecond and third edition, yet still it was not possible for me to\ncompletely attain the object held in view. The book has therefore\nremained essentially the same as regards its fundamental principles,\nsuch as those concerning the formation of matter, the protoplasmic\nsubstance (_Schleim-Substanz_) and vesicular form of the organic mass,\nthe signification and function of the organs, as also the principles\nof classification in Minerals, Plants and Animals, so that all this\nis consequently as old as the first edition. It is only the empirical\narrangement into series of plants and animals, that has been modified\nfrom time to time in accordance with the scientific elevation of\ntheir several departments, or just as discoveries and anatomical\ninvestigations have increased and rendered some other position of the\nobjects a matter of necessity. This susceptibility to change will of\ncourse be persistent in the future, although the principles themselves\nshould continue wholly unchanged; ay, the very stability of the latter\nwill tend the more to invite the naturalist to the pursuit of empirical\ninquiries, by determining beforehand in what direction he is to extend\nhis point of view, and thus spare himself the trouble of blindly and\nlaboriously groping about in the dense labyrinth of facts. Such a work\ntherefore as the present can only approximate completion through the\nprogress made in science, and each new edition will supply some defect\nof its predecessor in the distribution or parcelling out of things.\n\nIn the first edition the principle was raised of individual bodies\nbeing alone the object of Natural History, and that in the next place\nthey are to be arranged according to the combination of their organs or\ncomponent parts, and by no means after the division or mere form of a\nsingle organ; that, for example, a special organ or anatomical system\nlies as the basis of each Vegetable and Animal class, and that there\nmust be therefore as many classes, and no more, as there are cardinal\norgans present upon which to found them. On that account it was\nabsolutely necessary first of all to find out these cardinal organs,\nand determine their rank; and, in so doing, it was shown that organs\nand classes are at bottom of one kind, and that the development by\nstages or degrees of the embryo is the antetype of that of the classes;\nfurthermore, that each class takes its starting-point from below, and\nconsequently that the classes do not stand simply one above the other,\nbut fall into a series of mutually parallel ranks. Now it is this\nwhich, along with the doctrine of the infusorio-vesicular form of the\norganic mass, and that touching the signification of parts, as to how\ne. g. the blossom is the repetition of the vegetable axis or trunk, the\ncephalic bones that of the vertebr\u00e6, the feet of the branchi\u00e6, and the\nmaxill\u00e6 in turn of the feet, appears to me the cardinal point attained\nin my Philosophy of Nature; more especially, because it was these\nvery doctrines which were first of all, i. e. before all the others,\ncomprehended and almost universally adopted. The inorganic matters and\nactivities pass, however, parallel also to the anatomical formations\nand functions; and that this is the case too with the spiritual or\npsychical functions the philosophy of the future will probably be in\nthe condition to point out.\n\nThe reader will not expect to find that the serial arrangement of\nPlants and Animals, with their parallelism, has been in every instance\nthoroughly attained. The present is but a sample of how we are to\nproceed in our desire of obtaining a Natural system. With such an\nattempt one has something to change every year, and I have in the\npresent translation made some alterations in respect to the Mollusca\nand Fishes. In this sense then it is my wish that the book may be\nregarded, and accordingly received with its due amount of indulgence.\n\n  LORENZ OKEN.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nThe first principles of the present work I laid down in my small\npamphlet entitled _Grundriss der Naturphilosophie, der Theorie der\nSinne und der darauf gegrundeten Classification der Thiere_; Frankfurt\nbey Eichenberg, 1802, 8vo (out of print). I still abide by the position\nthere taken, namely, that the Animal Classes are virtually nothing\nelse than a representation of the sense-organs, and that they must be\narranged in accordance with them. Thus, strictly speaking, there are\nonly 5 Animal Classes: _Dermatozoa_, or the Invertebrata; _Glossozoa_,\nor the Fishes, as being those animals in whom a true tongue makes for\nthe first time its appearance; _Rhinozoa_, or the Reptiles, wherein the\nnose opens for the first time into the mouth and inhales air; _Otozoa_,\nor the Birds, in which the ear for the first time opens externally;\n_Ophthalmozoa_, or the Thricozoa, in whom all the organs of sense are\npresent and complete, the eyes being moveable and covered with two\npalpebr\u00e6 or lids. But since all vegetative systems are subordinated\nto the tegument or general sense of feeling, the Dermatozoa divide\ninto just as many or corresponding divisions, which, on account of the\nquantity of their contents, may be for the sake of convenience also\ntermed classes. Thereby 9 classes of the inferior animals originate,\nbut which, when taken together, have only the worth or value of a\nsingle class. So much by way of explaining the apparent want of\nuniformity in the system.\n\nI first advanced the doctrine, that all organic beings originate from\nand consist of _vesicles_ or _cells_, in my book upon Generation. (_Die\nZeugung._ Frankfurt bey Wesche, 1805, 8vo.) These vesicles, when singly\ndetached and regarded in their original process of production, are the\ninfusorial mass, or the protoplasma (_Ur-Schleim_) from whence all\nlarger organisms fashion themselves or are evolved. Their production\nis therefore nothing else than a regular agglomeration of Infusoria;\nnot of course of species already elaborated or perfect, but of mucous\nvesicles or points in general, which first form themselves by their\nunion or combination into particular species. This doctrine concerning\nthe primo-constituent parts of the organic mass is now generally\nadmitted or recognised, and I need not, therefore, add anything by way\nof apology for it or defence.\n\nIn mine and Kieser's _Beytr\u00e4gen zur vergleichenden Zoologie, Anatomie\nund Physiologie_; Frankfurt bey Wesche, 1806, 4to, I have shown that\nthe intestines originate from the umbilical vesicle, and that this\ncorresponds to the vitellus. It is true _Friedrich Wolf_ had already\ndiscovered it in the chick, but his was only a single instance, and\ncompletely forgotten. I have also discovered it and without knowing\nanything about my being anticipated, since it was nowhere taught. But\nI have elevated this structure to the light of a general law, and it\nis that unto which I may fairly lay claim. In the same essay I have\nintroduced into the Physiology the Corpora Wolfiana, or Primordial\nKidneys, but, having failed to recognise their signification, any one\nwho pleases may filch away the credit of their bare detection.\n\nIn my Essay: _Ueber die Bedeutung der Sch\u00e4delknochen_, (Ein Programm\nbeym Antritt der Professur an der Gesammt-Universit\u00e4t zu Jena; Jena\ngedruckt bey G\u00f6pfert, 1807, verlegt zu Frankfurt bey Wesche, 4to,) I\nhave shown that the head is none other than a vertebral column, and\nthat it consists of four vertebr\u00e6, which I have respectively named\nAuditory, Maxillary or Lingual, Ocular and Nasal vertebra; I have also\npointed out that the maxill\u00e6 are nothing else but repetitions of arms\nand feet, the teeth being their nails; all this is carried out more\ncircumstantially and in detail in the _Isis_, 1817, S. 1204; 1818,\nS. 510., 1823. _litt. Anzeigen_ S. 353 und 441. This doctrine was at\nfirst scoffed at and repulsed; finally, when it began to force its way,\nseveral barefaced persons came forward, who would have made out if they\ncould, that the discovery was achieved long ago. The reader will not\nomit to notice that the above essay appeared as my Antritts-Programm,\nor Inaugural discourse, upon being appointed Professor at Jena.\n\nIn my Essay entitled _Ueber das Universum als Fortsetzung des\nSinnensystems_; Jena bey Frommann, 1808, 4to, I showed that the\nOrganism is none other than a combination of all the Universe's\nactivities within a single individual body. This doctrine has led me\nto the conviction that World and Organism are one in kind, and do not\nstand merely in harmony with each other. From hence was developed my\nMineral, Vegetable and Animal system, as also my philosophical Anatomy\nand Physiology.\n\nIn my Essay entitled _Erste Ideen zur Theorie des Lichts, der\nFinsterniss, der Farben und der W\u00e4rme_; Jena bey Frommann, 1808, 4to,\nI pointed out, that the Light could be nothing but a polar tension of\nthe \u00e6ther, evoked by a central body in antagonism with the planets;\nand that the Heat were none other than the motion of this \u00e6ther. This\ndoctrine appears to be still in a state of fermentation.\n\nIn my Essay entitled _Grundzeichnung des nat\u00fcrlichen Systems der Erze_;\nJena bey Frommann, 1809, 4to, I arranged the Ores for the first time,\n_not_ according to the Metals, but agreeably to their _combinations_\nwith Oxygen, Acids, and Sulphur, and thus into _Oxyden_, _Halden_,\n_Glanzen_, and _Gediegenen_. This has imparted to the recent science of\nMineralogy its present aspect or form.\n\nIn the first edition of my _Lehrbuch der Naturphilosophie_, 1810\nand 1811, I sought to bring these different doctrines into mutual\nconnexion, and to show, forsooth, that the Mineral, Vegetable, and\nAnimal classes are not to be arbitrarily arranged in accordance with\nsingle or isolated characters, but to be based upon the cardinal organs\nor anatomical systems, from which a firmly established number of\nclasses must of necessity result; moreover, that each of these classes\ncommences or takes its starting-point from below, and consequently\nthat all of them pass parallel to each other. This parallelism is now\npretty generally adopted, at least in England and France, though with\nsundry modifications, which, from the principles being overlooked or\nneglected, are based at random, and are not therefore to be approved\nof. As in chemistry, where the combinations follow a definite numerical\nlaw, so also in Anatomy the organs, in Physiology the functions, and\nin Natural History the classes, families and even genera of Minerals,\nPlants and Animals, present a similar arithmetical ratio. The genera\nare indeed, on account of their great number and arbitrary erection to\nthe rank whose title they bear, not to be circumscribed or limited in\nevery case with due propriety, nor brought into their true scientific\nplace in the system; it is nevertheless possible to render their\nparallelism with each other clear, and to prove that they by no means\nform a single ascending series. If once the genera of Minerals, Plants\nand Animals come to stand correctly opposite each other, a great\nadvantage will accrue therefrom to the science of Materia Medica; for\ncorresponding genera will act specifically upon each other.\n\nThese principles, which I have now carried out into detail, were\nretained in the _second_, and have been also in the _third_ or\npresent edition of the _Physio-philosophy_, the arrangement and\nserial disposition of the natural objects having, with my increase\nof knowledge and concomitant views of things, been amended, enlarged\nor diminished, as the case might require, especially in the Mineral,\nVegetable and Animal systems. I am very well aware that there is many\nan object which does not stand in its right place; but where again is\nthere a single system in which this is not still more strikingly the\ncase? We have here dealt only with the restoration of the edifice,\nwherein, after years of long and oft-repeated attempts, the furniture\nmay for the first time be properly distributed, without detriment to\nits general bearings or ground plan.\n\nIn my _Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte_, the Mineralogical and Zoological\nportions of which are out of print, but the Botanical still to be had\n(Weimar, Industrie-Comptoir, 1826), I have arranged for the first\ntime the genera and species in accordance with the above principles,\nand stated everything of vital importance respecting these matters.\nThis was the first attempt to frame a scientific Natural History, and\none unto which I have remained true in my last work, the _Allgemeine\nNaturgeschichte_, the principles whereof I have sought to develop more\ndistinctly and in detail in the work now before the reader.\n\nThus then have I prosecuted throughout a long series of years one kind\nof principle, and worked hard to perfectionate it upon all sides. Yet,\nnotwithstanding my endeavour to amass the manifold stores of knowledge\nso requisite to an undertaking like this, I could not acquire within\nthe vast circuit that appertains thereunto, many things which might be\nnecessary unto a system extending into all matters of detail. This it\nis to be hoped the reader will acknowledge, and have forbearance for\nthe errors, against which every one will stumble who has busied himself\nthroughout life with a single branch of the natural sciences. Natural\nHistory is not a closed department of human knowledge, but presupposes\nnumerous other sciences, such as Anatomy, Physiology, Chemistry and\nPhysics, with even Medicine, Geography and History; so that one must be\ncontent with knowing only the main facts of the same, and relinquishing\nthe Singular to its special science. The gaps and errors in Natural\nHistory can therefore be filled up or removed only by numerous writers\nand in the lapse of time.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n                                                              PAGE\n  Conception of the Science                                     1\n  Division of the Science. Truth.\n\n\n  PART I. MATHESIS                                              5\n\n  Nothing, \u00a7 31. Something, \u00a7 50.\n\n  A. _PNEUMATOGENY_                                            13\n\n  Primary Act, \u00a7 55. Primary Consciousness, \u00a7 59. God, \u00a7 61.\n  a. Primary Rest, \u00a7 71. b. Time, \u00a7 72. Polarity, \u00a7 76. Motion,\n  \u00a7 80. Man, \u00a7 93. c. Space, \u00a7 108. Point, Line, Surface,\n  Globe, Rotation.\n\n  B. _HYLOGENY_                                                35\n\n  a. Gravity, \u00a7 148. Matter, \u00c6ther, Heavenly Bodies. b. Light,\n  \u00a7 182. c. Heat, \u00a7 198. Fire.\n\n\n  PART II. ONTOLOGY                                            49\n\n  A. _COSMOGENY_                                               ib.\n\n  a. Rest, Centre, \u00a7 209. Motion, Line, Planets, \u00a7 215. c. Form,\n  \u00a7 231. Planetary System, Comets.\n\n  B. _ST\u00d6CHIOGENY_                                             59\n\n  Condensation, \u00a7 253. Simple matters, Elements. a. Air \u00a7 282.\n  b. Water, \u00a7 294. c. Earth, \u00a7 303.\n\n  C. _ST\u00d6CHIOLOGY_                                             68\n\n  Functions of the Elements. 1. Functions of the \u00c6ther, \u00a7 317.\n  a. Gravity, \u00a7 320. b. Light, \u00a7 321. Inflexion, Refraction, Reflexion,\n  Colours, \u00a7 354. Colours and Planets, \u00a7 379. c. Heat,\n  \u00a7 385. 2. Function of the Air, \u00a7 410. Electrism. 3. Function of\n  the Water, \u00a7 432. Solution. 4. Function of Earth, \u00a7 438.\n  Crystallization.\n\n  D. _KINGDOMS OF NATURE_                                      95\n\n  Individuals, \u00a7 463.\n\n  FIRST KINGDOM--MINERALS                                      96\n\n  I. _MINERALOGY_, \u00a7 474. Division, \u00a7 490.\n\n  a. Chemical Division                                        103\n\n  b. Genetic Division. Classes                                106\n\n  Class I. Earth-Earths        Earths.\n\n  II. Water-Earths        Salts.\n\n  III. Air-Earths        Inflammables.\n\n  IV. Fire-Earths       Ores.\n\n  Table A to face page                                        120\n\n  II. _GEOLOGY_        121\n\n  _I._ Form of the Planet, \u00a7 546. Primary Valleys. _II._\n  Organs of the Planet, \u00a7 570.\n\n  A. _Earths_                                                 127\n\n  a. Earth Formation--Primary Rocks, \u00a7 573. Granite, Gneiss,\n  Mica-schist, Lamination, Primary Limestone. b. Water-formation,\n  \u00a7 622. Transition-rocks, Sedimentary or Stratified Rocks,\n  Stratified Limestone, Petrifactions or Fossil Remains.\n  c. Air-formation--Trap-rocks, \u00a7 681. d. Fire-formation--Volcanic\n  Rocks, \u00a7 690.\n\n  B. _Metallic Ores_                                          148\n\n  a. Metallic Veins, \u00a7 693. b. Production of Ore, \u00a7 698. c. Poison,\n  \u00a7 755. d. Magnetism, \u00a7 760. e. Earth-magnetism, \u00a7 771.\n\n  C. _Inflammables_                                           166\n\n  a. Sulphur, \u00a7 801. b. Coal, \u00a7 819.\n\n  D. _Salts_                                                  170\n\n  a. Salt-periods, \u00a7 827. b. Chemism, \u00a7 847.\n\n\n  PART III. BIOLOGY                                           178\n\n  A. _ORGANOSOPHY_                                             ib.\n\n  I. _Organogeny._ Galvanism, \u00a7 867. Primary Organism, \u00a7 882.\n\n  Creation of the Organic                                     184\n\n  a. Elementary Body--Protoplasma or Primary Mucus, \u00a7 898.\n  Change. b. Form--Globe, \u00a7 926. Primary Vesicle, \u00a7 933. Infusoria,\n  \u00a7 935. Theory of Generation, \u00a7 943. c. Processes of the\n  Organic. 1. Earth-process--Nutrition, \u00a7 964.\n  2. Water-process--Digestion, \u00a7 971. 3. Air-process--Respiration,\n  \u00a7 977. 4. Motion, \u00a7 984.\n\n  II. _Organognosy_                                           197\n\n  Division of the Organism, \u00a7 933, into Planetary and Cosmic Organism.\n  Processes of the Cosmic Organism, \u00a7 1014. 1. Process of Gravity,\n  \u00a7 1021. 2. Process of Heat, \u00a7 1024. 3. Process of Light, \u00a7 1027.\n\n  SECOND KINGDOM--VEGETABLE KINGDOM                           204\n\n  I. _PHYTOGENY_, \u00a7 1038.\n\n  A. _Planetary Organs_--Vegetable Trunk                      206\n\n  I. _Tissues_, \u00a7 1055. 1. Water-organ--Cellular Tissue, \u00a7 1056.\n  2. Earth-organ--Vascular Tissue, \u00a7 1062. 3. Air-organ--Tracheal\n  Tissue, \u00a7 1065.\n\n  II. _Anatomical Systems--Sheaths_, \u00a7 1075. 1. Tracheal\n  System--Wood, \u00a7 1077. Vascular System--Liber, \u00a7 1080. 3. Cellular\n  System--Bark, \u00a7 1084.\n\n  III. _Organs--Members_, \u00a7 1086. 1. Water-organ--Root, \u00a7 1090.\n  Earth-organ--Stalk, \u00a7 1096. 3. Air-organ--Leaves, \u00a7 1120.\n\n  B. _\u00c6ther-Organs_--Thyrsus or Flower                        228\n\n  1. Floral Envelopes, \u00a7 1187. Involucrum, Calyx, Corolla--Numerical\n  Law, \u00a7 1209. Coloration, \u00a7 1241. Stamen-filaments, \u00a7 1252--Anthers.\n  2. Pistil, \u00a7 1276. Style. 3. Seed, \u00a7 1301. 4. Fruit,\n  \u00a7 1335. Fruit of the Flowerless Plants, \u00a7 1346.\n\n  II. _PHYTO-PHYSIOLOGY_                                      255\n\n  I. _Functions of the Trunk._ 1. Facts.\n\n  A. Constituent Parts. a. Inorganic Bodies--Elements, \u00a7 1364.\n  b. Organic Bodies, \u00a7 1368.\n\n  B. Preliminary Events                                       259\n\n  2. Processes                                                262\n\n  A. Cellular Processes, \u00a7 1385. Absorption, Evaporation, Digestion.\n\n  B. Vascular Processes, \u00a7 1399. Conveyance of Sap, Mixture of Sap,\n  Secretion.\n\n  C. Tracheal Processes, \u00a7 1411. Inspiration, Nutrition, Oxydation.\n  Galvanic Process--Sap-motion, \u00a7 1443.\n\n  II. _Functions of the Floral Organs_                        272\n\n  1. Function of the Corolla--Fecundation, \u00a7 1454. Irritability.\n  2. Function of the Ovarium, \u00a7 1473. 3. Function of the Seed.\n  Germination, \u00a7 1476. Growth, \u00a7 1481. Fall of the Leaf.\n\n  III. _PHYTOLOGY_                                            279\n\n  _Vegetable System_, \u00a7\u00a7 1508-1754.\n\n  Table B opposite to page                                    316\n\n  THIRD KINGDOM--ANIMAL KINGDOM                               318\n\n  I. _ZOOGENY_                                                318\n\n  Anatomy                                                     326\n\n  I. _Tissues_                                                327\n\n  1. Point-tissue--Nervous mass, \u00a7 1801. 2. Globe-tissue--Osseous\n  mass, \u00a7 1825. 3. Line-tissue--Muscular mass, \u00a7 1835. 4. Vesicular\n  tissue, \u00a7 1846. Integument.\n\n  II. _Anatomical Systems or Sheaths_                         338\n\n  A. _Vegetative_                                             339\n\n  1. Intestinal System, \u00a7 1878. 2. Cutaneous System, \u00a7 1909.\n  Branchi\u00e6, Trache\u00e6. 3. Vascular System, \u00a7 1926. 4. Sexual\n  System, \u00a7 1999.\n\n  B. _Animal Systems_                                         356\n\n  1. Nervous System, \u00a7 2018. Brain, Senses. 2. Osseous System,\n  \u00a7 2079. Vertebral Number, \u00a7 2109. 3. Muscular System, \u00a7 2118.\n\n  III. _Organs_                                               378\n\n  A. _Vegetative_                                             378\n\n  1. Intestinal Organs, \u00a7 2158. 2. Vascular Organs, \u00a7 2194.\n  Branchi\u00e6, Lungs, Liver, Spleen, Kidneys. 3. Respiratory Organs,\n  \u00a7 2246. Coverings, Hairs. 4. Sexual Organs, \u00a7 2285. Impregnation,\n  \u00a7 2315. Urinary Organs, \u00a7 2337.\n\n  B. _Animal Organs_                                          404\n\n  1. Osseous Organs--Limbs, \u00a7 2370. 2. Muscular Organs, \u00a7 2398.\n  3. Nervous Organs, \u00a7 2405--Senses. 1. Vascular Sense--Sense\n  of Feeling, \u00a7 2440. 2. Intestinal Sense--Taste, \u00a7 2454. 3. Pulmonic\n  Sense--Smell, \u00a7 2468. 4. Osseo-Muscular Sense--Hearing,\n  \u00a7 2476. 5. Nervous Sense--Vision, \u00a7 2488.\n\n  II. _PHYSIOLOGY_                                            423\n\n  A. _General Functions_                                      423\n\n  B. _Special Functions_                                      425\n\n  I. Functions of the Tissues, \u00a7 2539--Heat.\n\n  II. Functions of the Systems                                429\n\n  A. Of the Vegetal Systems. 1. Digestion, \u00a7 2571. Poisoning.\n  2. Respiration, \u00a7 2639. 3. Circulation, \u00a7 2655.\n\n  B. Functions of the Animal Systems                          442\n\n  1. Of the Osseous System, \u00a7 2672. 2. Of the Muscular System,\n  \u00a7 2686. 3. Of the Nervous System, \u00a7 2700. Mesmerism, \u00a7 2721.\n  Sleep, \u00a7 2736. Periodicity, \u00a7 2761.\n\n  III. _Functions of the Organs_                              455\n\n  1. _Functions of the Encephalic or Brain-Animal_            456\n\n  A. Organs of Motion.\n\n  B. Organs of Sensation                                      458\n\n  1. Sense of Feeling, \u00a7 2786. Sense of Taste, \u00a7 2821. Sense of\n  Smell, \u00a7 2835. Auditory Sense, \u00a7 2849. Speech. Sense of\n  Sight, \u00a7 2902.\n\n  2. _Functions of the Sexual Animal_                         477\n\n  A. Vegetal Sexual Organs--Formation of Urine, \u00a7 2934\n\n  B. Animal Sexual Organs                                     480\n\n  1. Male Organs, \u00a7 2946. 2. Female Parts, \u00a7 2952. Mamm\u00e6.\n  Development of the Fruit or Foetus, \u00a7 2981. Parallelism of the\n  Foetus with the Animal Classes, \u00a7 3034. Periods of Life, \u00a7 3502.\n\n  III. _ZOOLOGY_                                              494\n\n  A. Division into Provinces                                  501\n\n  B. Division into Circles                                    502\n\n  C. Division into Classes                                    511\n\n  First Province, Somatozoa (Rumpfthiere) Splanchnozoa;       511\n  including the three Circles of Intestinal, Vascular, and\n  Respiratory Animals, or Protozoa, Conchozoa, and Ancyliozoa;\n  with their contained Classes                          up to 568\n\n  Metamorphosis of Insects, \u00a7 3291. Parallelism, \u00a7 3299.\n  Relationships, \u00a7 3301.\n\n  Second Province, Cephalozoa, (Kopfthiere);                  544\n  including the two circles of Sarcose and Sense-Animals;\n  with their contained Classes                          up to 568\n\n  D. Division into Orders and Families                        569\n\n  Of those included within the Classes of the First Province or\n  Splanchnozoa;\n  with their Tabular Co-arrangement                     up to 614\n\n  Of those comprised by the Classes of the Second Province or\n  Sarcozoa; with their Tabular Co-arrangement           up to 653\n\n  IV. _PSYCHOLOGY_        654\n\n  A. _Spiritual Functions of the Somato- or Dermatozoa_       654\n\n  B. _Spiritual Functions of the Cephalozoa_                  658\n\n\n\n\n  ERRATA AND CORRIGENDA.\n\n\n  Page 4, \u00a7 30, _read_ upon the primary proposition of mathematics\n          or the axiom.\n\n       5, \u00a7 35, _for_ magnitudes _read_ quantities.\n\n       8, \u00a7 39, _for_ Manifold _read_ Different.\n\n      11, \u00a7 49, _l._ 10, _for_ elevating themselves in power,\n         _read_ becoming suppressed.\n          \u00a7 50, _l._ 4, dele the second --.\n\n      12, _l._ 1, _for_ magnitudes _read_ quantities;\n          _l._ 5, _for_ -- _read_ 0.\n          \u00a7 52, _for_ emerged _read_ been evolved out of\n          nothing, or been produced from it by addition; but it is, &c.\n          \u00a7 54, _for_ removing _read_ suppressing.\n\n      14, \u00a7 59, _l._ 8, _for_ posits itself _read_ itself\n          posits.\n\n      16, _for_ presentation _read passim_, representation.\n\n      32, \u00a7 134, _for_ Disintegrated _read_ Dissevered.\n\n      32, \u00a7 137, _for_ never _read_ nowhere.\n\n      37, \u00a7 161, _l._ 7, _for_ it _read_ there.\n\n      38, \u00a7 164, _for_ inventive _read passim throughout\n          Part I._ postulate.\n\n      39, _l._ 1, _for_ and the axiom is _read_\n         the axiom being.\n\n      44, \u00a7 195, _l._ 15, _for_ that it may shine _read_\n         upon which it shines.\n\n      50, \u00a7 214, last line, _for_ darker _read_ dark.\n\n      59, \u00a7 253, _read_ heavy and material.\n\n      61, \u00a7 269, 1 and 2, _for_ caloric _read_ hydrogen,\n          _and for_ hydrogen _read_ carbon.\n\n      80, \u00a7 388, _for_ nitrogen _read_ hydrogen.\n\n     112, _l._ 6, _for_ Terpentin _read_ Serpentin;\n          _l._ 7 from bottom, _for_ Calces _read_\n          Calcareous earths.\n\n     124, \u00a7 562, _for_ the recent _read_ new.\n\n     139, \u00a7 633-4, _for_ disintegrations _read_ dispersions.\n\n     159, \u00a7 761, _for_ metallic read _magnetic_.\n\n     186, \u00a7 914, _for_ heat of blood _read_ blood-heat.\n\n     209, \u00a7 1060, _read_ constantly circulate therein.\n\n     213, \u00a7 1077, _l._ 6, _for_ but before _read_ and\n          whereas; _l._ 7, _for_ have _read_ previously,\n         _and dele_ it has then, _and read_ the appearance is now.\n\n     228, \u00a7 1161, _read_ has been reproduced _after_ trunk,\n         _and dele_ being.\n\n     249, \u00a7 1314, _for_ umbilicus _read_ hilum, _and for_\n          cause _read_ basis.\n\n     307, \u00a7 1679, _instead of_ stipaceous _read_ hypogynous.\n\n     308, \u00a7 1687, _l._ 2, _read_ Stielblumen or Hypogynes.\n\n     320, \u00a7 1763, _after_ light-\u00e6ther _read_ from the dead mass, &c.\n\n     327, \u00a7 1800, _for_ substance, &c., _read_ contents become, &c.\n\n     328-9, _for_ Myxozoa _read_ Protozoa, _and for_ Medus\u00e6\n            _read_ Acaleph\u00e6 _here and passim_.\n\n     330, _l._ 2, _after the word_ radiating _read_ \u00e6ther.\n\n     332, \u00a7 1824, _for_ substance _read_ contents, _and_\n          \u00a7 1827, _for_ substance _read_ mass.\n\n     334, \u00a7 1837, _read_ upon the middle rate of oxydation.\n\n     327, _l._ 5, _transpose the words_ matter _and_ spirit.\n\n     345, \u00a7 1928, _read_ elemental matter.\n\n     346, \u00a7 1931, _read_ at certain points, _after_ each other.\n\n     354, \u00a7 1992, _read_ through the medium of the gills, the water\n          through that of the intestine, &c.\n\n     355, \u00a7 2006, _for_ along with _read_ which belong to the\n         category of.\n\n     361, \u00a7 2039, _read_ plexus-forming ramules; \u00a7 2046, _for_\n          is imparted _read_ furnishes us, _and for_ by\n          _read_ with.\n\n     362, \u00a7 2050, _for_ oesophageal _read_ pharyngeal,\n         _passim_, _as also_, pharynx _for_ oesophagus.\n\n     372, \u00a7 2114, _for_ enter into the composition of _read_\n          appertain to; _and for_ Mammalia _read_ Thricozoa.\n\n     376, \u00a7 2141, _read_ the bone, the fluid which has been\n          secreted from it and rigidified.\n\n     381, \u00a7 2176, _for the last word_ cyst _read_ cyst,\n          _hic et passim_.\n\n     386, \u00a7 2211, _read_ bivalve Mollusca, _passim throughout\n          Zoogeny_.\n\n     393, _l._ 1, _read_ exsecernent.\n\n     398, \u00a7 2313, _read_ Snail-type of organization.\n\n     405, \u00a7 2371, _read_, or the integument _after_ respiratory\n          organ.\n\n     408, \u00a7 2387, _for_ carnivorous _read_ false molars;\n          _for_ incisor _read_ laniary molar; _for_\n          premolar _read_ second, _and for_ tuberculous\n         _read_ third true molar.\n\n     493, \u00a7 3054, _for_ testaceous Mollusca _read_ Conchozoa\n          or Shell-animals.\n\n     515, \u00a7 3170, _for_ stock _read_ trunk.\n\n     544, \u00a7 3301, _after_ analogy _read_ which at best is but\n          a word of random definition.\n\n     532, \u00a7 3256, _read_ pharyngeal or pneumogastric nerves, _to\n          end of paragraph_. _For the words_ evolution _and_\n          evolved, _read passim in the Botanical and Zoological parts_,\n          perfection _and_ perfected, _as the text may require_.\n\n\n\n\nPHYSIO-PHILOSOPHY.\n\n\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\nCONCEPTION OF THE SCIENCE.\n\n\n1. Philosophy, as the science which embraces the principles of the\nuniverse or world, is only a logical, which may perhaps conduct us to\nthe real, conception.\n\n2. The universe or world is the reality of mathematical ideas, or, in\nsimpler language, of mathematics.\n\n3. Philosophy is the recognition of mathematical ideas as constituting\nthe world, or the repetition of the origin of the world in\nconsciousness.\n\n4, 5. Spirit is the motion of mathematical ideas. Nature, their\nmanifestation.\n\n6. The philosophy of Spirit is the representation of the movements of\nideas in consciousness.\n\n7. The philosophy of Nature that of the phenomena or manifestations of\nideas in consciousness.\n\n8. The world consists of two parts: of one apparent, real, or material;\nand one non-apparent, ideal, spiritual, in which the material is not\npresent, or which is naught in relation to the material.\n\n9. There are, accordingly, two parts or divisions of Philosophy, viz.\nPneumato-and Physio-philosophy.\n\n10. Physio-philosophy has to show how, and in accordance indeed with\nwhat laws, the Material took its origin; and, therefore, how something\nderived its existence from nothing. It has to portray the first periods\nof the world's development from nothing; how the elements and heavenly\nbodies originated; in what method by self-evolution into higher and\nmanifold forms, they separated into minerals, became finally organic,\nand in Man attained self-consciousness.\n\n11. Physio-philosophy is, therefore, the generative history of\nthe world, or, in general terms, the History of Creation, a name\nunder which it was taught by the most ancient philosophers, viz. as\nCosmogony. From its embracing the universe, it is plainly the Genesis\nof Moses.\n\n12. Man is the summit, the crown of nature's development, and must\ncomprehend everything that has preceded him, even as the fruit includes\nwithin itself all the earlier developed parts of the plant. In a word,\nMan must represent the whole world in miniature.\n\n13. Now since in Man are manifested self-consciousness or spirit,\nPhysio-philosophy has to show that the laws of spirit are not different\nfrom the laws of nature; but that both are transcripts or likenesses of\neach other.\n\n14. Physio-and Pneumato-philosophy range, therefore, parallel to each\nother.\n\n15. Physio-philosophy, however, holds the first rank,\nPneumato-philosophy the second: the former, therefore, is the ground\nand foundation of the latter, for nature is antecedent to the human\nspirit.\n\n16. Without Physio-philosophy, therefore, there is no\nPneumato-philosophy, any more than a flower is present without a stem,\nor an edifice without foundation.\n\n17. The whole of philosophy depends, consequently, upon the\ndemonstration of the parallelism that exists between the activities of\nNature and of Spirit.\n\n\nDIVISION OF THE SCIENCE.\n\n18. It will be shown in the sequel that the Spiritual is antecedent to\nnature. Physio-philosophy must, therefore, commence from the spirit.\n\n19. It will also be shown in the sequel that the whole Animal Kingdom,\ne. g. is, none other than the representation of the several activities\nor organs of Man; naught else than Man disintegrated. In like manner\nnature is none other than the representation of the individual\nactivities of the spirit. As, therefore, Zoology can be termed the\nScience of the Conversion of Man into the Animal Kingdom, so may\nPhysio-philosophy be called the Science of the Conversion of Spirit\ninto Nature.\n\n20. Physio-philosophy is divisible, therefore, into three parts. The\n_first_ of these treats of spirit and its activities; the _second_, of\nthe individual phenomena, or things of the world; the _third_, of the\ncontinuous operation of spirit in the individual things.\n\nThe first division is the doctrine of the _Whole_ (de Toto)--_Mathesis_.\n\nThe second, that of _Singulars_ (de Entibus)--_Ontology_.\n\nThe third, that of the _Whole in the Singulars_ (de Toto in\nEntibus)--_Biology_.\n\n21. The Science of the Whole must divide into two doctrines; into that\nof immaterial totalities--_Pneumatogeny_; and into that of material\ntotalities--_Hylogeny_.\n\nOntology teaches us the phenomenon of matter. The first phenomenon of\nthis are the heavenly bodies comprehended by _Cosmogony_; these develop\nthemselves further, and divide into the elements--_Stochiogeny_.\n\nFrom these elements the Earth element develops itself still further,\nand divides into minerals--_Mineralogy_; these minerals unite into one\ncollective body, and this is _Geogeny_.\n\nThe Whole in Singulars is the living or _Organic_, which again divides\ninto plants and animals.\n\nBiology, therefore, divides into _Organogeny_, _Phytosophy_ and\n_Zoosophy_.\n\n After this division of the subject the question first of all arises,\n what is science, provided there is one.\n\n\nTRUTH.\n\n22. Science is a series of necessarily inter-dependent and consecutive\npropositions, which rest upon a certain fundamental proposition.\n\n23. Now, if anything be certain it can only be _one_ in number. If,\nthen, there be only _one_ certainty, there can also be only _one_\nscience, from which all the rest must be derived.\n\n24. The Mathematical is certain, and, by virtue of this character, it\nstands also alone. Mathematics is the only true science, and thus the\nprimary science, the Mathesis, or Knowledge simply, as it was called\nby the ancients. The fundamental propositions of mathematics must,\ntherefore, be fundamental propositions for all other sciences also.\n\n25. Physio-philosophy is only a science when it is reducible to, i. e.\ncan be placed upon an equal footing with, mathematics. Mathematics is\nthe universal science; so also is Physio-philosophy, although it is\nonly a part, or rather but a condition of the universe; both are one,\nor mutually congruent.\n\n26. Mathematics is, however, a science of mere forms without substance.\nPhysio-philosophy is, therefore, Mathematics endowed with substance.\n\n27. The substance of Physio-philosophy must be of one kind with the\nform of Mathematics.\n\n28. The certainty of mathematical propositions depends upon no\nproposition being essentially different from another. Though there may\nbe much that is diversified or heterogeneous, there is nothing new in\nMathematics.\n\nFor to prove a mathematical proposition is to show (or demonstrate)\nthat it is equivalent, i. e. of the same kind with another proposition.\nAll mathematical propositions must, consequently, resemble a first\nproposition.\n\n29. Physio-philosophy must also show that all its propositions, or that\nall things, resemble each other, and, finally, some first proposition\nor thing.\n\n30. These natural propositions or natural things must, however,\nresemble also mathematical propositions, and depend, after all, upon\nthe primary proposition of mathematics or the axiom.\n\n Now then comes the question, what is the first principle of\n Mathematics?\n\n\n\n\nPART I.\n\nMATHESIS--OF THE WHOLE.\n\n\nNOTHING.\n\n31. The highest mathematical idea, or the fundamental principle of all\nmathematics is the zero = 0.\n\nThe whole science of mathematics depends upon zero. Zero alone\ndetermines the value in mathematics.\n\n32. Zero is in itself nothing. Mathematics is based upon nothing, and,\nconsequently, arises out of nothing.\n\n33. Out of nothing, therefore, it is possible for something to arise,\nfor mathematics, consisting of propositions, is a something in relation\nto 0. Mathematics itself were nothing if it had none other than its\nhighest principle zero. In order, therefore, that mathematics may\nbecome a real science, it must, in addition to its highest principle,\nsubdivide into a number of details, namely, first of all into\nnumbers, and, finally, into propositions. What is tenable in regard\nto mathematics must be equally so of all the sciences; they must all\nresemble mathematics.\n\n34. The first act towards realization or the becoming something, is an\norigination of Many. All reality can, accordingly, manifest itself only\nin multiplicity.\n\nThat which belongs to the Many is a Definite; this again is a Limited;\nthe Limited is a Finite. The Finite only is real.\n\n The question now arises, how it happens that mathematics becomes a\n multiplicity, or, what is the same thing, a reality, a something.\n\n35. The reality of mathematics consists in the universality of its\nquantities; viz. numbers or figures. Every number, and every thing\nwhich belongs to mathematics, can be derived from no other source than\nzero.\n\nMathematical multiplicity, or its reality, must have proceeded,\ntherefore, out of zero.\n\n36. Zero, however, contains no number and no figure really in itself;\nit contains, forsooth, neither 1 nor 2, neither a point nor a line\nwithin itself. The Singulars or details cannot, therefore, reside in\na real, but only an ideal manner in zero; or, in other words, not\n_actually_, but only _potentially_. The conditions here are the same\nas with all mathematical ideas. We may conceive, e. g., an idea or\ndefinition of a triangle in so general a sense that it shall comprehend\nall triangles, without, however, a definite triangle being actually\nintended, or without even a triangle actually existing. In order that\nthe idea of the triangle be realized, it must become a definite, in\nother words, an obtuse or an acute triangle. In short, the idea of the\ntriangle must multiply itself, be self-evolved, or else it is as naught\nin reference to mathematics, or only a geometrical zero.\n\nThe individual objects or figures of mathematics thus attain existence,\nso far only as the idea comprising them emerges out of itself and\nassumes an individual character.\n\nIt is clear that all individual triangles taken together closely\nresemble the ideal triangle, or, to express the same in more general\nterms, that the Real is equivalent to the Ideal, that the former\nis but the latter which has become dissevered and finite, and that\nthe aggregate of every Finite is equivalent to the Ideal. This will\nprobably be rendered still more distinct by the example of ice and\nwater. The crystals of ice are nothing else than water bounded by\ndefinite lines. So, also, are the Real and Ideal no more different\nfrom each other than ice and water; both of these, as is well known,\nare essentially one and the same, and yet are different, the diversity\nconsisting only in the form. It will be shown in the sequel that\neverything which appears to be essentially different from another, is\nso only in the form.\n\nThe Real and Ideal are one and the same, only under two kinds of form.\nThe latter is the same under an indefinite, eternal, single form; but\nthe Real is also the same, yet under the form of quantity, and, as\nwill be shown, of multiplicity. An infinity resides in both; in the\nReal an endlessness of individual forms; in the Ideal but one endless\nform; in the latter case an eternity, in the former an infinity. The\nquantity and multiplicity of the whole of mathematics is contained in\nthe same manner in the 0, that the quantity and multiplicity of the\ntriangles are in the ideal or primary triangle. Mathematics is a system\nof nullities or nothings, and this admits of being easily proved.\n\n37. Zero is indeed the universality of mathematics, this, however,\nis not real, but only ideal. Every number issues out of zero, like\nthe multiplicity of the real triangles out of the primary triangle.\nThis progression of numbers out of zero takes place through a process\nof becoming determinate and limited; just as the real triangles are\nonly definitions of the absolute triangle. The process of becoming\ndetermined is identical with becoming a Finite; becoming real is called\nbecoming finite. Mathematical singulars or numbers can, therefore, be\nnothing else than zero disintegrated, or rendered real by determination.\n\nWhat zero is in infinite intensity, that are numbers in endless\nextensity. Zero is of two forms: under the ideal it is mere intensity;\nunder the real mere extensity, or a series of numbers. The latter is\nonly expanded intensity; the former, extensity concentrated on the\npoint; both are, consequently, one and the same in toto. Numbers are\nidentical with zero; they are zero in a state of extension, while\nzero is equivalent to numbers in a state of intensity. The sense\nin which numbers are said to come out of zero is, therefore, very\nclear; they have not issued forth from zero as if they had previously\nresided individually therein, but the zero has emerged out of itself,\nhas itself become apparent, and then was it a finite zero, a number.\nSo, also, does the idea of a circle become a real circle, not from\nthe latter emerging from the former, but from this itself becoming\nmanifest. The individual circle is a manifestation or phenomena of the\nspiritual circle.\n\n38. All realization, therefore, is not the origin of a something that\nhas not previously been; it is only a manifestation, a process of\nextension taking place in the idea.\n\nThus the Real does not arise out of the Ideal, but is the Ideal itself\nin a condition of definition and limitation, as are, e. g. the actual\ntriangle or the actual circle. If, then, the Ideal and Real be one,\neverything is necessarily identical, and this identity dominates not\nmerely between the Ideal and Real in a general sense, but between all\nindividual members of the Real.\n\n39. The identity of every Different, or of all things among themselves\nand with the highest unity, is the _essence_ of things. The limitation\nor definition of the Ideal is their _form_. Limitation is the\nImpartient of form.\n\n40. Limitation is originally only a quantitative relation, e. g. the\nsize of the angle in a triangle; later on it becomes also a relation of\ndirection or of position.\n\nIn both cases the limitation is only an ideal relation. Realization\nalso takes place, therefore, only in an ideal manner; and the Real is\ntherefore ideal, not simply as it regards its _form_, but also its\n_essence_. Every Plural resembles itself and the highest principle in\nessence; or, in other words, all Singulars are united through essence\nwith the highest One. All diversity of the Plural resides merely in the\nform, limitation or manifestation. The one unchanging essence possesses\none ideal form, which is that of pure unity, and the same essence has\na limitation, a real form, which is that of subdivision. There is only\none essence in all things, the 0, the highest identity; but there are\ninfinitely numerous forms.\n\nNumbers are naught else than different forms of the one unchangeable\nessence, namely, the 0.\n\n If, then, all numbers are only zero in a state of extension, and are\n consequently identical with it, the question arises, what are the\n first finitings of zero, or as what does it appear when it is no\n longer merely ideal or indefinite; in short, what is the first form of\n the real zero, or of the essence in general?\n\n\nESSENCE OF NOTHING.\n\n41. The ideal zero is absolute unity, or monas; it is not a\nsingularity, such as one individual thing, or as the number 1; but an\nindivisibility, a numberlessness, in which neither 1 nor 2, neither a\nline nor a circle can be found; in short, an unity without distinction,\nan homogeneity, brightness, or translucency, a pure identity.\n\n42. The mathematical monas is _eternal_. It succumbs to no definitions\nof time and space, is neither finite nor infinite, neither great nor\nsmall, neither quiescent nor moved; but it is and it is not all this.\nThat is the conception of eternity.\n\nMathematics is thus in possession of an eternal principle.\n\n43. Since all the sciences are equivalent to mathematics, nature must\nalso possess an eternal principle.\n\nThe principle of nature, or of the universe, must be of one and the\nsame kind with the principle of mathematics. For there cannot be two\nkinds of monades, nor of eternities, nor of certainties. The highest\nunity of the universe is thus the Eternal. The Eternal is one and\nthe same with the zero of mathematics. The Eternal and zero are only\ndenominations differing in accordance with their respective sciences,\nbut which are essentially one.\n\n44. The Eternal is the _nothing_ of Nature.\n\nAs the whole of mathematics emerges out of zero, so must everything\nwhich is a Singular have emerged from the Eternal or nothing of Nature.\n\nThe origin of the Singular is nothing else than a manifestation of the\nEternal. Thereby unity, brightness, homogeneity are lost, and converted\ninto multiplicity, obscurity, diversity.\n\nUnity posited manifoldly is an expansion without termination, but one\nthat always remains the same.\n\nRealization or manifestation is an expansion of the Eternal.\n\n\nFORMS OF NOTHING.\n\n45. The first form of the expansion or manifestation of the\nmathematical monas, or of 0 is +-. The +-is nothing else than the\ndefinition of 0. 0 is the reduction of the positive and negative series\nof numbers, upon which the whole of arithmetic depends. A series of\nnumbers is, however, nothing else than a repetition of a + 1 or a-1;\nconsequently, the whole of arithmetic reduces itself to + 1-1.\n\nWhat, however, is a + 1, or-1? Obviously nothing else than a single +\nor-. The figure is quite superfluous, and only indicates how often +\nor-has been assumed; instead, therefore, of + 1 we can posit +; instead\nof-1 simply-. The series + 1 + 1 + 1 is synonymous with + + +; or\ninstead of 3 we may posit + + +, and so on for every figure ad libitum.\nThe figures are nothing more than shorter signs for the two highest\nmathematical forms or ideas of numbers. Numbers are nothing different\nfrom the ideas of numbers; they are the latter themselves, only several\ntimes posited. Essentially numbers do not exist, but only their two\nideas. These ideas, however, exist an infinite number of times.\n\nMultiplicity or _real_ infinity is, accordingly, nothing special or\nparticular, but only an arbitrary repetition of the Ideal, an incessant\npositing of the idea. The idea posited is reality, non-posited it is =\n0.\n\n46. The first multiplicity is duality, +-. This duality alters nothing\nin the essence of the monas, for +-is = 0. It is the monas itself only\nunder another form. In multiplication it is thus the form alone that\nchanges.\n\nThere are many forms, but not many essences.\n\n47. The first or primary duality is not, however, a double unity, both\nmembers of which are of equal rank, but an antagonism, disunion, or\n_diversity_. Many diversities are _multiplicity_. The Many is thus\ncomplex. The first form is not therefore a simple division of zero or\nthe primary unity, but an antagonistic positing of itself, a becoming\nmanifold.\n\n48. Every Finite is in the same manner only the self-definition\nof the Eternal. The Eternal becomes, accordingly, real, by binary\nself-division. When the Eternal is manifested, it is either a positive\nor negative. The whole of arithmetic is nothing else than a ceaseless\nact of positing and negating, of affirming and denying.\n\nAll realization is nothing else than the act of positing and negating.\nThe act of positing and negating of the Eternal is called realization.\n\n49. Positing and negating is, however, an _act_ or function. Arithmetic\nis, therefore, a ceaseless process of acting or performing. Numbers are\n_acts_ of the primary idea, or, properly speaking, stationary points\nof its function, and hence proceeds a division into the two ideas +\nand -. If these remain always alone nothing is added to them. They\nalone produce the whole science of arithmetic, and simply because they\nare never exhausted by the act of positing themselves repeatedly, but\ncapable after this of again becoming suppressed. Since + is\nin essence nothing else than a simple positing, a mere affirmation,\nand-a mere suppression of this affirmation, a negation; so is the\npositive unity = 1 nothing but an affirmation once declared, and\nthe whole series of numbers is a reiterated affirmation. The act of\naffirmation alone gives the number, and the latter is thus the definite\nquantity devoid of intrinsic value. Bare affirmation alone without\nreference to any substance is unity, duality, &c.\n\n\nSOMETHING.\n\n50. Still, however, there must be something, which is posited and\nnegatived. The form must have a substance.\n\nThis something is the primary idea, or the very Eternal of mathematics,\nthe zero; for + - is = 0. The + is naught else than zero affirmed;\nthe - naught else than this + 0 negatived = - 0. Now since an\naffirmation once declared is = 1, so are unity and zero identical. Zero\ndiffers only from finite unity in that it is not affirmed.\n\n51. The - is not simply the want of affirmation, but its explicit\nabstraction. The + presupposes the 0; the - the + and 0; the 0,\nhowever, presupposes neither + nor-. Purely negative quantities are,\nas is known, a nonentity, because they can only bear reference to\npositive quantities. The - is, indeed, the retroversion of + into 0; yet\nalone, therefore, it is not perfectly equal to 0. It is a retrovertent,\nand consequently the second _act_, which presupposes the positive. By\nthe - we know what is not; the 0 is, however, a nothing in every respect.\nThe - is the _copula_ between 0 and +.\n\n52. If the + is the 0 posited, so is it a nothing posited or\ndetermined. This position is, however, a number, and therefore a\nmathematical something. The nothing thus becomes a something, a Finite,\na Real, through the simple positing of itself, and the something\nbecomes a nothing by the removal of this self-position. The nothing\nitself is, however, the mere neglect of its self-position. The\nsomething, the + -, has consequently not arisen or been evolved out\nof nothing, or been produced from it by addition; but it is nothing\nitself; the whole undivided nothing has become unity. The nothing\n_once_ posited as nothing is = 1. We cannot speak of production or\nevolution in this case; but of the complete identity and uniformity of\nthe nothing with the something; it is a virgin product or birth.\n\n53. Zero _must_ be _endlessly_ positing itself, for in every respect it\nis indefinite or unlimited, eternal. The number of finite singularities\nmust, therefore, pass into the Infinite.\n\n54. The whole of Arithmetic is nothing but the endless repetition of\nnothing, an endless positing and suppressing of nothing.\n\nWe can become acquainted with nothing but the nothing, for the Original\nof our knowledge is the 0.\n\nThere is no other science than that which treats of nothing.\n\nEvery Real, if it were such in itself, could not be known, because\nthe possibilities of its properties would pass into the Infinite. The\nnothing alone is cognizable, because it has only a single property,\nnamely, that of having none; concerning which knowledge no doubt can be\nentertained.\n\n\n\n\nA.--_PNEUMATOGENY._\n\n\nPRIMARY ACT.\n\n55. The + - or, in other words, numbers are acts or functions. Zero\nis, consequently, the primary act. Zero is, therefore, no _absolute_\nnothing, but an act without substratum. Generally speaking there is,\ntherefore, _no_ nothing; the mathematical nothing is itself an _act_,\nconsequently a something. The nothing is only postulate.\n\n56. An act devoid of substratum is a spiritual act. Numbers are,\naccordingly, not positions and negations of an absolute nothing, but of\na spiritual act.\n\n57. The zero is an eternal act; numbers are repetitions of this eternal\nact, or its halting points, like the steps in progression. With zero\nthe Eternal therefore originates directly, or both are only different\nexpressions for one and the same act, according with the difference\nof the science wherein they are employed. Mathematics designates its\nprimary act by the name of zero; Philosophy by that of Eternal. It\nis an error to believe that numbers were absolute nothings; they are\nacts and consequently realities. While numbers in a mathematical sense\nare positions and negations of Nothing, in the philosophical they are\npositions and negations of the Eternal. Everything which is real,\nposited, finite, has become this out of numbers; or, more strictly\nspeaking, every Real is absolutely nothing else than a number. This\nmust be the sense entertained of numbers in the Pythagorean doctrine,\nnamely, that everything or the whole universe had arisen from numbers.\nThis is not to be taken in merely a quantitative sense, as it has\nhitherto been erroneously, but in an intrinsic sense, as implying\nthat all things are numbers themselves, or the acts of the Eternal.\nThe essence in numbers is naught else than the Eternal. The Eternal\nonly is or exists, and nothing else is when a number exists. There\nis, therefore, nothing real but the Eternal itself; for every Real,\nor everything that is, is only a number and only exists by virtue of\na number. Every Singular is nothing for itself, but the Eternal is in\nit, or rather it is itself only the Eternal, though not the Eternal in\nitself, but affirmed or negatived. The existence of the Singular is\nnot its own existence, but only that of the Eternal subjected to an\narbitrary repetition; for the act of being and affirming are of one\nkind.\n\n58. The continuance of Being is a continuous positing of the Eternal,\nor of nothing, a ceaseless process of becoming real in that which is\nnot. There exists nothing but nothing, nothing but the Eternal, and all\nindividual existence is only a fallacious existence. All individual\nthings are monades, nothings, which have, however, become determined.\n\nThe Eternal must posit without cessation, for otherwise it would be an\nactual nothing, while in fact it is an act; but it must incessantly\nsuppress also this position, else it would be only a finite act, or an\nact which had only one kind of direction, that of affirmation + + + +,\nand so on, which represents only the half of arithmetic. The totality\nof the Finite is, therefore, of eternal duration also: the Singular,\nhowever, issues forth and disappears like the numbers in arithmetic.\nThe eternal duration of the Finite consists, however, only in ceaseless\nrepetition. Such an Eternal is to be distinguished therefore from the\nPrimary eternal, and is called the Infinite. The totality of finite\nthings is not therefore eternal, but only _infinite_.\n\n\nPRIMARY CONSCIOUSNESS.\n\n59. Two tendencies are present in the primary act, both of which being\ninseparable are one in kind. It has the tendency to posit, and also\nto suppress, itself. The unity strives unto binary division or to\nantagonism, even as the 0 strives to produce + or-. While the primary\nact itself posits, it does this indeed out of its own strength, and\nthat which it posits is also none other than itself; it itself posits\ni. e. _actively_; and is itself posited i. e. _passively_; it itself\nposits itself, is the self-position of itself; for + is nothing else\nthan 0 self-posited. The positing and posited act are of one kind; the\nlatter, however, is the Real, the Finite; the former the Ideal, the\nEternal. Both are distinguished from each other through this only,\nthat the Real is the posited, numbered, and consequently determined\nact; the ideal, however, the positing, consequently numbering and thus\nundetermined act. While, however, the + is nothing else than 0, it must\nnecessarily bear a relation to it, and thus retrograde into the 0. This\nretrogression is an act in the reverse direction, or what is indicated\nin mathematics by negation. The-has been therefore necessarily granted\nwith the +, else the + would not be represented as = to 0. The act of\npositing is therefore at the same time also an act of negation. So soon\nas the 0 is or exists, it is = +-. The realization of the Eternal is\naccordingly a complete antagonism of itself. For 0 is equal to +-, not\nsimply = + or = to-.\n\n60. The being of the Eternal is therefore a _self-manifestation_. Every\nSingular is nothing but a self-manifestation; since all numbers are\nonly positions of zero or of +, which can never be without-. In every\nessence there are two, but the two are the one essence itself, which\nposits itself by division. The Positing of the Eternal in the sense in\nwhich it has been hitherto adopted, namely, as a realization of the\nsame, is not merely an act of positing, not an indeterminate Positing,\nbut an antagonism of itself. The zero is simply the indeterminate\nPositing, or the negative Positing; but the number, or the real is the\nantagonism of zero, the +-, or the self-manifestation. The 0 cannot be\nthought of for itself alone without the +; the latter, however, not\nwithout 0, as well as the-also not without 0; for it is the suppression\nof the posited 0, namely, the +. Every act of self-manifestation is\ntherefore twofold, a manifestation (= +), but a manifestation of\nitself, consequently a retrogression into 0 (=-). Through negation the\nFinite becomes united with the Eternal. Every disappearance of the\nFinite is a retrogression into the Eternal; for it must return to\nwhence it came. It has arisen out of nothing, is itself the existing\nnothing; it must therefore retrograde again into the nothing.\n\n\nGOD.\n\n61. The self-manifestation of the primary act is _self-consciousness_.\nThe eternal self-consciousness is God.\n\n62. The continued act of self-consciousness, or becoming self-conscious\nrepeated, is called _representation_. God is therefore comprehended\nin ceaseless representation. Representations are single acts of\nself-consciousness. Single acts, however, are real things. All real\nthings, however, are the world. The world therefore originates with the\nrepresentations of the Eternal.\n\n63. The representations are, however, manifested or attain only reality\nthrough _expression_. The world is therefore the language of God; the\ncreation of the world the speaking of God. \"God spake, and it was.\"\nIt is not merely said, God thought and it was. Thought belongs merely\nto spirit; in so far, however, as it becomes apparent, it is a word,\nand the sum of all apparent thoughts is speech. This is the created,\nrealized system of thought. The thought is only the idea of the world,\nbut speech is the idea actualized.\n\n64. As thought differs from speaking, so does God from the world.\nOur world consists in our apparent thoughts, namely, the words. The\nuniverse is the _language_ of God. So far as the thoughts lie at the\nfoundation of the words, it can be said, that our world were the play\nof our thoughts, and the actual world that of God's. The word has\nbecome world. Worldly things have no more reality for God, than our\nwords or our language for us. We carry a world within us while we\nthink; we posit or create a world without us while we speak. Thus God\ncarries the world within himself while he thinks; he posits the same\nwithout himself or creates it, while he speaks. In so far as thought\nnecessarily precedes speech, it may be said, that there would have been\nno world, if God had not thought. In the same sense it may be also\nsaid, that all things are nothing but representations, thoughts, ideas\nof God. So soon as God thinks and speaks is there a real thing. To\nspeak and to create are one. All, that we perceive, are words, thoughts\nof God; we are ourselves nothing else than such words or thoughts of\nGod, consequently his metatypes or images, in as far as we unite in\nourselves the whole system of speech. There is therefore no being\nwithout self-consciousness. That only which thinks is (for itself);\nthat which does not think is not for itself, but only for some other\nconsciousness. The world differs from God as doth our speech from us.\nThe self-consciousness of God is independent of the world, even as our\nself-consciousness is independent of our speech.\n\n65. The divine laws are also the laws of the world; this has therefore\nbeen created and governed in accordance with eternal and immutable laws.\n\n66. Physio-philosophy is the history of creation; the creation,\nhowever, is the language of God. The system of thought, however,\nlies necessarily at the foundation of the system of speech. Now the\nscience of the laws of thought is called logic; physio-philosophy is\ntherefore a divine doctrine of speech or a divine logic. The laws of\nspeech instruct us in the genesis of language. Physio-philosophy is,\ntherefore, the science of the genesis of the world, or Cosmogony.\n\n\nFORM OF GOD--TRIUNITY.\n\n67. As the complete principle of mathematics consists of three ideas,\nso also does the primary principle of nature, or the Eternal. The\nprimary principle of mathematics is 0; so soon, however, as it is\nactual, is it + and-; or the primary idea resolves itself in being at\nonce into two ideas, each of which resembles the other in essence,\nbut differs from it in form. Thus it is here one and the same essence\nunder three forms, or three are one. Now that which holds good of\nmathematical principles, must hold good also of the principles of\nnature. The primary act is manifested, or operates under three forms,\nwhich correspond to the 0, + and-.\n\nThese three ideas of the Eternal are all equivalent to each other, are\nthe same primary act, each of them being whole and undivided, but each\notherwise posited. The positing primary act is the whole Eternal; the\nposited is likewise the whole Eternal, and that which is subtractive,\nretrogressive, combining the two first, is also the whole Eternal.\nAlthough all three ideas are equivalent to each other, still the\npositing idea ranks first, the posited second, and the combining third;\nnot as if they had first arisen successively (this is impossible, for\nthey are coexistent, namely, before all time), nor as if they occupied\ndifferent positions (for they are everywhere); but only according to\ntheir order and value. How one may be three and three one, is thus\nrendered comprehensible only by mathematics.\n\n68. The first idea is the original, that therefore which is thoroughly\nindependent, which having arisen from and being based upon itself,\nhas consequently emerged from nothing else; in short, it is the\neternal idea, like the mathematical 0 = _Monas aoristos_. Everything\nis possible with it; it can propose and solve all problems, knows\ntherefore everything and creates everything. It is the generative,\ncreative and paternal idea.\n\n69. The two other ideas have emerged out of the first, although\napparently equivalent to it; yea, they have themselves issued out\nof themselves. The second idea is, therefore, _Dyas aoristos_, and\ncorresponds to the mathematical +; the third idea is the _Trias\naoristos_, and corresponds to the mathematical-, so that by the three\nthe primary trinity 0 +-is completed. The first idea labours or, what\nis more, rejoices from all eternity to convert itself into the two\nothers. The action or the life of God consists in eternally manifesting\nitself, eternally contemplating itself in unity and duality, eternally\ndividing itself and still remaining one. The second idea has issued\nnext from the first, and is therefore related to it as Son is to\nFather, when the ideas are viewed as personified. The third idea has\nemerged conjointly from the second and first, and forms therefore the\nspiritual union, the mutual love between both. It may be therefore\nsimply called Ghost or Spirit, if it is thought of as personified.\n\n70. Since every Singular, having been produced through the primary\ntrinity, is only the expressed word of the primary trinity, so also\nmust their qualities be recognizable in the same. The Singular is not\nsimply therefore a position of one idea, but of all three. All things\nhave issued out of the trinity. The essence of the universe consists in\nthe trinity which is unity, and in the unity which is trinity; for it\nis a likeness of the primary trinity. _Being_, generally, is an act,\nand that, indeed, of a threefold nature. Apart from act or function\nthere is no _being_. That, which is called nothing, is in itself an\nact, and there is, therefore, no absolute nothing. The nothing is only\nsomething relative to a particular being. Even the mathematical zero is\nnot nothing, but an act. It is nothing only in reference to particular\nnumbers. Numbering is a repetition of one and the same act. The forms\nor conditions of the primary act are Rest, Motion, and Extension or\nexpansion.\n\n\na. PRIMARY REST. (_First form of the Primary Act._)\n\n71. The primary idea is the position simply without any relation, or\nany antagonism; it is the oscillating resting point in the universe,\naround which everything collects itself, and from which everything\nemerges; the _Centrum ubique, circumferentia nusquam_. The primary\nidea is the substratum of everything, which will come before us in the\nsequel of this work. Everything depends upon this primary essence;\nall action, motion, and form issues forth from it; or rather, in all\nphenomena naught else appears than the primary essence in different\nstages of position, just as in all numbers naught else appears but the\nzero. The primary idea is the absolute beginning. This primary idea is\nthe non-representable, the never apparent and yet omnipresent, idea;\nbut which is always withdrawing itself from our view when we imagine or\nbelieve that we gaze upon it; in short, the Spiritual, which declares\nitself in everything and yet always remains the same. The origin of all\naction may be termed the primary force.\n\n\nb. MOTION, TIME. (_Second form of the Primary Act._)\n\n72. The primary idea operates only, while it posits; through positing,\nhowever, arises a succession of positing, or numbers; positing\nand successive positing are one. The function of the primary idea\nconsists in an eternal repetition of the essence; the primary act is\na continuous self-repeating act. Repetition of the primary act devoid\nof another substratum is _Time_. Time is none other than the eternal\nrepetition of the positing of the Eternal, corresponding to the series\nof numbers + 1 + 1 + 1 + n. Time has not been created, but has emerged\ndirectly out of the primary act and its position; it is the function of\nGod himself. Something has thus already originated, which appears to\nconduct us into the universe. Time is the first portal through which\nthe operation of God passes over into the world. Time is the infinite\nsuccession of numbers or the mathematical nothings. The mathematising,\nnumbering act is Time. Numbers, however, are Singulars or finitudes,\nwhich constitute the world.\n\n73. Time is infinite, for it is the totality of positing; it is only\nthe points or numbers in it that are the Finite.\n\n74. All things are created in time; for time is the totality of\nSingulars. Time is no stationary quantity, which is always changing\nitself into something new during its progressive flux. It is not a\ncontinuous stream, but a repetition of one and the same act, namely,\nthe primary act, like as it were to a rolling ball, which constantly\nreturns upon itself. There is no endless, still less an eternal thing;\nfor things are only positions of time. Time itself is, however, only\nrepetition, and thus also a suppression of these positions. The\nvicissitude of things is in fact time; if there be no change, there is\nalso no time. Time is an universal property of things. Exemption from\ntime is only in the Eternal.\n\n75. Time, not being itself the Finite, but creating it, is not itself\na Real, but still an Ideal, a form only of the primary act, an idea,\nwith which finite things have been directly posited. Time is the act of\nnumbering; numbering is thinking; thinking is time. Our thinking is our\ntime. In sleep there is no time for us. God's thought is God's time;\nGod's time, however, is all time, consequently time of the world. Time\nis not of earthly but heavenly descent or origin. In so far a divine\nquality belongs to all finite things. They are divine, in so far as\nthey are time; terrestrial, in so far as they are evanescent moments of\ntime.\n\n\nPOLARITY.\n\n76. Time is an action of the primary power; and all things are active\nonly in so far as they are filled or inspired with the idea of time.\nThe whole activity of things, all their forces arise out of the primary\nact or primary power, are only moments of the same. There are, however,\nno positive without negative numbers, consequently also no moments of\ntime without suppression of the same. There is, therefore, no single\nforce, but each is the position of + and-. A force consisting of two\nprinciples is called _Polarity_. Time is, therefore, the primary\npolarity, and polarity is manifested at the very instant in which the\ncreation of the world is stirring.\n\n77. Polarity is the first force which appears in the world. If time\nis eternal, polarity must also be eternal. There is no world, and in\ngeneral nothing at all without polar force.\n\n78. Every single thing is a duplicity.\n\n79. The law of causality is a law of polarity. Causality is valid only\nin time, is only a series of numbers. Time itself has no causality.\nCausality is an act of generation. The sex is rooted in the first\nmovement of the world.\n\n\nMOTION.\n\n80. Polarity may be viewed as a single positing of +-; if, however,\nthis positing repeats itself, _Motion_ originates, viz. when many\n+-+-are consecutively posited, and thus the principal poles separate\nfrom each other, as in an iron bar when magnetizing. Time is a polar\npositing of the primary act, and an endless repetition of this\npositing; through this originate individual things, whose succession is\nmotion.\n\n81. Primary motion is the result of primary polarity. All motion has\noriginated from duplicity; consequently from the idea in a dynamic not\na mechanical manner. A mechanical motion, which might be produced ad\ninfinitum by mechanical impulses, is an absurdity. There is nowhere a\npurely mechanical motion; nothing, as it is at present in the word,\nhas become so by impulse; an internal act, a polar tension lies at the\nbottom of all motion.\n\n82. Motion itself, however, is not twofold in character; it is unity,\nbut the result of duality. In time we have to distinguish the polar\nact of position, and the act of repeating this position, which is\nmotion. Motion is the simple repetition of the polar, twofold act, or\nthe ceaseless separation of poles; but, as in every polar line the two\npoles are in all cases together, so even is this mutual separation of\npoles only a repetition of polarity.\n\n83. Motion also is not created, but has emerged directly from the\nEternal, is the primary function itself repeated. Motion is the ever\nself-manifesting, consequently progressive God.\n\n84. Motion is thought, which is manifested as speech. Thought polarizes\nthe fingers. If the thought be powerful it moves them, and through\nthem other bodies. Speech is only a thought that has passed over into\nmotion. The world is the thought of God that has been translated into\nmotion, the _moved thought of God_--thought spoken. It is here evident\nthat the world is not simply the _thought_ but the _language_ of God;\nfor there is no action without motion; consequently no thought without\nspeech, and vice vers\u00e2.\n\n85. There is no thing which were without motion, just as there is none\nwithout time. A Finite without everlasting motion is a contradiction.\nAll rest in the world is only relative, is but a combined motion. There\nis only rest in the Eternal, in the nothing of nature.\n\n86. The primary motion is only possible in a circle, because it fills\nevery thing.\n\n87. The motion of finite things by polarity may, in a wider sense, be\ncalled life; for life is motion in the circle. Polarity, however, is\na constant retrogression into itself. Without life there is no being.\nNothing is, simply by virtue of being, e. g. by its mere presence; but\neverything of which a being can be declared, is only, or manifests\nitself, by its polar motion or by life. Being and life are inseparable\nideas. While God acts, he creates life.\n\n88. Life is nothing new, that came first into the world, after it was\ncreated, but an Original, an idea, a moved thought of God, the primary\nact itself with all its consequences.\n\n89. There is in the universe no vital force of its own; the individual\nthings lie not there some time and await the polarizing breath, but\nthey first _become_ through the breath of God. The _Causa existenti\u00e6_\nis life.\n\n90. There is nothing properly dead in the world; that only is dead\nwhich is not, only the nothing. Something can only cease to live, when\nits motion ceases; this, however, ceases only when deprived of its\npolarity; the polarity dissolved, however, is zero. Thus individual\nthings retreat into the Absolute, if they cease to live. Everything\nin the world is endowed with life; the world itself is alive, and\ncontinues only, maintains itself, by virtue of its life; just as an\norganic body maintains itself, only while it is constantly being\ngenerated anew by the vital process.\n\n91. Every living thing is twofold in character. It is one persistent\nin itself, and one immersed in the universe. In everything,\ntherefore, are two processes, one individualizing, vitalizing, and one\nuniversalizing, destructive. By the process of destruction, the finite\nthing seeks to become the universe itself; by the vitalizing process,\nhowever, the variety of the universe, and yet with that to remain a\nSingular. That only is truly living which represents the Eternal, and\nthe whole multiplicity of the universe in the _Singular_.\n\n92. The whole in the singular is called _Individual_. The individual is\nan example of computation, which admits only of being developed, from\nits comprehending the whole of arithmetic in itself. Nothing individual\ncan persist eternally; it must eternally move itself, consequently fill\nup everything, displace everything, must become itself the universe.\n\n\nMAN.\n\n93. Time consists of single acts; i. e. the life or the absolute act\ndoes not work with one stroke, but an infinite number of times. All\nacts, therefore, taken together, all finite things in time, are equal\nto the primary act or the Eternal.\n\n94. There are two totalities, a primary totality 0 +-, and a secondary,\nor the summing up of all numbers 0 + n-n; the former the eternal, the\nlatter the finite totality, or the one the eternity, the other the\ninfinity.\n\n95. The more a thing has adopted into itself of the Manifold of the\nuniverse, by so much the more is it animated, by so much the more does\nit resemble the Eternal. It is conceivable, for a finite or living\nessence to unite all numbers or acts in itself, without, however,\nits being the very Eternal. It would, however, be obviously the most\nperfect finite essence, and, as a secondary totality, be the likeness\nof the primitive; the former the compound universality, the latter the\nidentical.\n\n96. Such an essence would be necessarily the highest and last,\nwhereunto creation could attain; for more than the universe cannot\nbe represented in one thing. With such an essence creation would be\nclosed or would terminate.\n\n97. Since the realization of the Eternal is a becoming self-conscious,\nso is the highest creature also a Self-conscious, but a Singular.\nSuch a creature is the finite God, or God become corporeal. God is\n_Monas indeterminata_, the highest creature is _Monas determinata,\nTotum determinatum_. A finite self-conscious being we call Man. Man\nis an idea of God, but that in which God wholly, and in every single\nact becomes an object unto himself. Man is God represented by God in\nthe infinity of time. God is a Man representing God in _one_ act of\nself-consciousness, without time.\n\n98. Man is God wholly manifested. God has become Man, zero has become\n+-. Man is the whole of arithmetic, compacted, however, out of all\nnumbers; he can therefore produce numbers out of himself. Man is a\ncomplex of all that surrounds him, namely, of element, mineral, plant\nand animal.\n\n99. The other things _below_ man are also ideas of God, but none\nof these ideas is the whole representation of arithmetic. They are\nonly parts of the divine conscience posited in time; but man is\nGod, planted or posited uninjured in time. Man is the object in the\nself-consciousness of God; the creatures below man are, however, the\nobjects only of the _consciousness_ of God. Thus, if God places before\nand from himself only single qualities, there are worldly things;\nif, however, God in this crowd of representations attains to his own\nentire representation, then arises Man. God is = + 0-, Man = + [oo]\n0-[oo], the animal is = + n 0-n. The animals are only represented\nin part. The subject of self-consciousness is = + 0-; the objects,\nhowever, are the numbers which are equivalent to this, being = [oo]\n+ 3 + 2 + 1 + 0-1-2-3-[oo]. Thus if all numbers, all world-elements,\ntogether with their perfections, occur in consciousness = + 0-, there\nis a Man; if only single, and perhaps but few things, such as food,\nstones, &c. (with the entire exception of the celestial bodies), enter\nconsciousness, there is an animal. They are represented only partly or\nin a portion of the universe, but man is represented wholly or in all\nits parts. Animals are fragments of man.\n\n100. No creatures _below_ Man can possess self-consciousness. They\nhave, indeed, consciousness of their several acts and of their\nsensations, and possess memory; but as these several acts are only\nparts of the world, or of the great consciousness, and are not the\nWhole, they can never become objective unto themselves, never imagine.\nAnimals are men, who never imagine. They are imaginative, but never\nof themselves wholly; they are therefore beings who never attain to\nconsciousness concerning themselves. They are single accounts; Man is\nthe whole of mathematics.\n\n\nFREEDOM.\n\n101. An action, which is not determined by some other action, is free.\nGod is free, because apart from him there is none other action.\n\n102. Man, as being an image of God, is likewise free; as being an\nimage of the world he is devoid of freedom. Man is, therefore, in his\nprimary commencement or principle free, but not in his end or object\nto be attained. In the resolution Man is free, in the execution he is\nnot free. The mathematician can select at pleasure any proposition; but\nhaving selected it, must solve it in accordance with necessary laws and\nwith definite numbers and figures. Man is a twofold being, compounded\nof freedom and necessity.\n\n\nRETROSPECT.\n\n103. Hitherto we have considered simply the arithmetical relations of\nthe primary act and of the universe. We have shown, to wit, that all\nideas fluctuate simply under the forms of numbers; that everything was\ncomprised in the 0 +-. Time was only the active series of numbers;\nmotion was the actual arithmetical calculation, namely, the process of\nreducing numbers to absolute identity, to zero.\n\n104. Life is moreover only a mathematical problem, which, the higher\nit ascends, approaches so much the nearer to absolute zero in its\nattainment of the infinity of numbers, becomes so much the more endowed\nwith life.\n\n105. Arithmetic is the science of the second idea, or that of time and\nmotion, or of life; it is, therefore, the first science; mathematics\nnot only begins with it, but creation also, with the becoming of time\nand of life. Arithmetic is, accordingly, the truly absolute or divine\nscience, and therefore everything in it is also directly certain,\nbecause everything in it resembles the Divine. Theology is arithmetic\npersonified.\n\n106. Hence it follows in the most perfect manner, that every science,\nif it would possess certainty, must resemble arithmetic. Now a science\nalways implies a science treating of certain objects; all certain\nobjects must, therefore, resemble the objects of arithmetic; or all\nobjects, of whatever denomination, whether natural or spiritual, must\ncorrespond to arithmetical objects, consequently in idea be numbers, an\nactual arithmetical problem, as it were the numbers of motion, of life.\n\n107. A natural thing is nothing but a self-moving number; an organic or\nliving thing is a number moving itself out of itself, or spontaneously;\nan inorganic thing, however, is a number moved by another thing; now,\nas this other thing is also a real number, so then is every inorganic\nthing a number moved by another number, and thus ad infinitum. The\nmovements in nature are only movements of numbers by numbers; even as\narithmetical computation is none other than a movement of numbers by\nnumbers, but with this difference, that in the latter this operates in\nan ideal manner, in the former after a real.\n\n\nc. FORM, SPACE. (_Third form, of the Primary Act._)\n\n108. Viewed arithmetically every position is a number, geometrically,\nhowever, it is a point. What the 0 is in arithmetic, the point is in\ngeometry; the one the arithmetical, the other the geometrical nothing.\nBoth sciences commence with nothing and are only different views of\nnothing. The 0 is a temporal nothing (a number), the point a spatial\nnothing (a figure).\n\n109. The first motion of numbers or of points is the motion of the\nprimary number, the 0, or the primary act; and this motion depends upon\nthe multiplicity of numbers or points, upon the disintegration of the\nidentical primary number, upon the +-. The first motion of the primary\nact is an expansion of itself into multiplicity, whereby not merely\nsequence but an addition also is posited. The primary act is not simply\npositing, but also posited; as the former it is time, as the latter\nit is time posited universally. Time remaining stationary is _Space_.\nSpace is not different in essence from time, but only according to\nposition; it is only time resting, while this is moved, active space.\n\n110. Space has first arisen out of time, as the third idea out of\nthe second, but only ideally. It has arisen out of it, while, time\nbeing the act of positing, it is the posited; now as time posits from\neternity, so is space also from eternity and in eternity. The eternity\nof space, however, depends not upon duration, but upon extension; it is\nunlimited.\n\n111-112. Space is everywhere, as time is ever. Two spaces can no more\nexist than two times. There is only _one_ Eternal. Time and space are,\nhowever, nothing special that has attained unto the Eternal, but the\nEternal itself. They are also not two kinds of qualities subsisting\nnear each other, but are _one in kind_. The series of numbers is\ninfinite, thus universal; space is consequently universal.\n\n113. Space is an idea like time, a form of God like time; it is the\npassive form, the extended 0 = + 0-.\n\n114. All temporal things are also in space and limited. An unlimited\nthing extended through the whole of space is an absurdity. God's\noperation only is extended through the whole of space; it is space\nitself; when he willed to act, he became time; but when he was time, he\nbecame space.\n\n115. Space has not been created, but has emerged out of the Eternal; it\nis nothing new in the universe, nothing next to God and present with\nhim, but coexistent with God.\n\n116. Single things must be both in space and in time; or a real thing\nfirst originates, where time and space cross each other at one point;\nthey cross, however, everywhere, and therefore things are everywhere.\n\n117. There is no void or empty space, no time and no place, were a\nFinite could not be; for time and space are virtually the manifesting\nprimary act, the zero that has become thing.\n\n\nPOINT.\n\n118. Time has begun with number, space with the point, with the\nspatial nothing, with the zero of space. This point necessarily posits\nitself \"ad infinitum;\" it extends itself also in all directions, and\nnecessarily in equal distances. Such an extended point is the _Sphere_.\n\n119. The sphere is nothing peculiar, nothing new in the thoughts of\nGod, but only the point expanded, while this again is but a contracted\nsphere, just as the totality of numbers is an expanded 0, and this\ntheir contracted sphere.\n\n120. Space is spherical, and, indeed, an infinite sphere. The sphere\nhas been posited with space, and consequently from eternity; it is also\nan idea, and that, indeed, the total idea; for time and space have in\nit been posited together.\n\n121. For God to become real, he must appear under the form of the\nsphere. There is no other form for God. God manifesting is an infinite\nsphere.\n\n122. The sphere is, therefore, the most perfect form; for it is the\nprimary, the divine form. Angular forms are imperfect. The more\nspherical a thing is in form, by so much the more perfect and divine is\nit. The Inorganic is angular, the Organic spherical.\n\n123. The universe is a globe, and everything, which is a Total in the\nuniverse, is a globe.\n\n\nLINE, LIGHT, MAGNETISM.\n\n124. While the point expands, it is active; this active expansion is\na simple repetition of the point, and this is a _Line_, which in the\nsphere, however, is a _Radius_. With time originates not merely a\nseries of numbers, but together with it also the line. The line and\ntime are of one kind, repeated positions of the nothing, of the point.\nIt is consequently clear, how that time were a repeated positing of the\nEternal itself: for the line is only a repeated self-positing of the\npoint, of the nothing. God fluctuating in his eternity, and the point,\nare one in kind; but God acting is a line, being or existing a sphere,\ni. e. the point in the act of being.\n\n125. The line is nothing new in creation, but time itself, when\nregarded more closely. God creates the line as little as he does time;\nbut this originates unto him, while he moves, while he thinks. It is\nimpossible to think without producing a line. The line is therefore\nfrom eternity, is a series of numbers.\n\n126. The essence of the line does not consist in its two extremities\nbeing continued with equal significance into the Infinite; but in its\n_radiality_, i. e. that one extremity turned towards the centre has\nbecome central, converging, absolute; but the other turned towards\nthe periphery has become divergent, finite, multiplicity. The primary\nline is a line produced with two antagonized characters. The central\nextremity is 0, the peripheral is the bisected zero = \u00b1. This radial\nline gives us the antetype of a new polarity. The two extremities\nare not related as + and-towards each other, but as 0 and +-. At the\ninstant, when a line originates in the universe, it is not a line\nmerely, or an indefinite line that originates; but one that is definite\nat both extremities, polar, indeed, but after a determinate fashion.\nNothing, not even a finite thing, exists in an indefinite manner.\n\n127. There is no mathematically straight line in the world: all real\nlines are polar; they are all rooted in God by one extremity, by the\nother in finitude. The primary act becomes in its first operation\nnot merely a posited nothing, a numerical series; not merely time,\nnot merely an aoristic line, but a _Linea determinata_; in short, God\ncan step forth into time only as radius. The _Monas determinata_ is a\n_Monas radialis_, or a centroperipheric monas.\n\n128. The essence of the primary antagonism is a centroperipheric\nantagonism. As centre is related to periphery, so is here one pole\nrelated to the other. Polar existence and central or peripheral\nexistence are one. Primary polarity is centroperiphery. The primary\nline is constantly in a state of polar action, which is called\n_tension_; for it is always converging and diverging, at once central\nand peripheric. Every line originates, therefore, only by tension, and\nis only by it, yea, every line is nothing else than this tension.\n\n129. A line, one extremity whereof strives towards the centre, the\nother to the periphery, the one to identity, the other to duality,\nwill exhibit itself in the world as a _line of Light_, in the planet\nas a _Magnetic line_. Magnetism is centroperipheric antagonism, a\nradial line, 0--\u00b1, the action of the line being cleft at one extremity.\nMagnetism has its root in the beginning of creation. It is prophesied\nwith time.\n\n\nSURFACE, ELECTRICITY, OXYDATION.\n\n130. The periphery is the boundary of the sphere, and is, consequently,\na superficies or _Surface_. This, therefore, originates also directly\nwith the positing of the Eternal.\n\n131. As the primary line is not a purely polar, but a radial line, so\nis the primary surface not a level, but a curved or convex surface.\n\n132. There is _no level_ surface in the universe, no pure surfaces any\nmore than pure lines. All surfaces are curved. For example, those of\ndrops, of the heavenly bodies, of animals. The surface of a sphere is\nno _Continuum_; but consists properly of the divided peripheric and\nupright extremities of the radii; it is a \u00b1.\n\n133. The surface of a globe has no centre, no 0, like the radius; but\nis an absolute Dualized, a \u00b1 without 0.\n\n134. This mode of operating of the primary act is manifested as\nelectricity. Electricity is a merely peripheric antagonism, without\ncentre, thus without union; an eternally Dissevered without rest.\nElectricity is thus also a special form, under which polarity makes its\nappearance, and is likewise rooted in the primary creation. There is,\nconsequently, no thing which were not magnetic and electric.\n\n135. The idea of a surface is constantly that of _surrounding_. It\nis not generated by a section of a globe, but by the completion, the\n_circumferential limitation_ of the sphere. The essence of the sphere\nis _boundary_. Every surface is finite, is convex. In the divine\nposition a surface never occurs, save on the boundary of the primary\nsphere.\n\n136. As no thing can exist without a line, without a radius, so also\nnone can be without surface, without circumscription. The single\nsurface is identical with the _Locus_ of the old philosophers. Every\nFinite is a closed whole, and that thing is of the most perfect kind\nwhich has the most perfect closure, surface, periphery (or skin).\n\n137. The surface is also not different from the primary act, but a\nform of the primary act itself; or a boundary, which, however, nowhere\nremains stationary, but is always displaced by means of the eternal\nact. Therefore the world is at once unlimited and limited; the latter\nin reference to the closure of the surface, the former to the endless\nexpansion of the same.\n\n138. The periphery is the object in divine consciousness, the point\nwhich, posited without the centre, is thus one and the same, centre\n(subject) and periphery (object). It is everywhere the same point, the\nsame 0, wherever it be posited. Hence the profound saying, \"_Mundus est\nSph\u00e6ra, cujus centrum ubique, circumferentia nusquam_.\"\n\n139. The surface stands in antagonism to the line, like periphery and\ncentre; it stands perpendicular upon the radius, and can never pass\nparallel to linear action. Electricity ranks in eternal antagonism to\nmagnetism.\n\n\nSPHERE, HEAT, CHEMISTRY.\n\n140. The line and surface are density, the representation of time\nand space; they have therefore like these originated out of nothing,\nnamely, out of the point. The sphere is the expanded nothing. Nothing\nthus extended, or nothing _posited_, becomes a something, viz. line,\nsurface, density, polarity. The line is a long nothing, the surface a\nhollow nothing, the sphere a dense nothing; in short, the something is\na nothing which has received only predicates. All things are nothings\nwith different forms. The point is = 0, the line = +, the surface = +-,\nthe sphere = + 0-.\n\n141. The internal motion of the globe, or the becoming of the globe, is\nmanifested in the universe as _Heat_, in the planet as _Chemistry_.\n\n\nROTATION.\n\n142. The primary sphere is rotating, for it has originated through\nmotion; the motion of the sphere cannot, however, be progressive,\nfor it fills everything. God is a rotating globe. The world is God\nrotating. All motion is circular, and there is everywhere no straight\nmotion any more than there is a single line or straight surface.\nEverything is comprehended in ceaseless rotation. Without rotation\nthere is no being and no life; for without it, there is no sphere, no\nspace and no time.\n\n143. The more perfectly circular the motion of a thing is, so much\nthe more perfect is it. Straight motion is only the mechanical; such,\nhowever, exists not through itself. The more a body moves in a straight\ndirection, the more mechanical and ignoble is it. Straight motion too\nyields only straight form.\n\n\nGEOMETRY.\n\n144. The sphere with its attributes is the totality of numbers, is thus\na rotating number. The universe is the same. In arithmetic the quantity\nof divine positions is regarded; in the sphere, however, the direction\nof these positions, or of series of numbers.\n\n145. The doctrine of the sphere is _Geometry_; for all forms are\ncontained in the sphere. All geometrical proofs admit of being\nconducted through the sphere. Geometry has originated directly from\narithmetic, or is arithmetic itself, with this difference, that the\nlatter regards series of numbers as individualities, the former,\nhowever, as a whole. Arithmetic is a geometry _seriebus discretis_;\ngeometry is an arithmetic _seriebus continuis_, a solidified arithmetic.\n\n146. Geometry is a science of equal value with arithmetic; it is\neven as certain, because it has no other propositions; it is equally\neternal, is the same realization of the primary act, the _Deus\ngeometrizans_ of the Pythagoreans. Everything to be certain must\ntherefore resemble geometry, must be itself a position of geometry,\nonly under other relations.\n\n147. Geometry is more real, more finite, therefore also more apparent,\nand, as it were, more material than arithmetic. The ideas in it have\nbecome something determinate, have assumed form, while before they\nstill fluctuated formless in arithmetic; here were they mere ghosts\nwithout veils, but in geometry they have received these veils. _Time_\nhas received for its form, its body, the line; _space_, the surface;\n_life_, the globe, consequently the rotation for its form or body. It\nis to be here remarked, that ideas always become more real and more\nfinite, always approximate nearer to actual manifestation, the lower\nthey descend or the more they are considered individually. Geometry has\nnot originated later than arithmetic, but is only a more individual\nview of ideas, arithmetic being more universal. Geometry is arithmetic\nwith stationary numbers, = points. The Divine thus approximates to\nmanifestation, to materiality, the more individual it becomes; and\nthis is very natural, for it verily limits itself more and obtains\nalways more predicates. The more a thing obtains predicates, by so\nmuch the more perfect is its finiteness. By geometry we are actually\ntransferred into the universe, but only into the formal, in which it\nhas, like a skeleton, been sketched for us solely upon a general plan;\nnamely, as infinite extension, in which line and periphery, central and\nperipheric action, magnetism, electricity, and rotation, &c., have been\nprefigured.\n\n\n\n\nB.--_HYLOGENY._\n\n\na. GRAVITY. (_First form of the World. Rest._)\n\n148. In arithmetic the divine acts are only undetermined = numbers. In\ngeometry the numbers obtain determinate or finite directions, become\nfigures. All figures have, however, an especial direction to the\ncentre. Figures are nought but centres manifoldly posited.\n\n149. The direction to a centre is, however, an act, which never ceases\nto operate. The primary act strives therefore to posit ad infinitum\nnought else than a centre, i. e. points.\n\n150. If there are points without the centre, it so happens only because\nthe succeeding points have been displaced by the points that were first\nposited. The peripheric points are only with reluctance out of the\ncentre. The globe only exists in an uneasy state, because it has no\nplace in the centre.\n\n151. Every finite thing strives towards the centre. The finite is only\nsomething, in so far as it is posited in the centre, and it maintains\nits value according to its distance from the centre. This exertion\nor endeavour, by virtue of which things would be in the centre, is\n_Gravity_.\n\n152. What the retrogression of numbers into 0 is, that is the gravity\nin the sphere. The gravity is a geometrical reduction of position\nunto nothing. The sphere is only produced by _action_, and that\nindeed by the centroperipheric. This action must therefore manifest\nitself in two ways, as centrifugality and centripetality. The first\nis the dispersion of the primary act or of points, the second is the\ncollection of the primary acts or points into the unity, and this is\ngravity. Centrifugality originates only in a constrained manner or with\nreluctance, for the primary act always seeks the centre, and only moves\ntowards the periphery, because it has no longer any place there. If\ncentripetality be regarded as a force, then is centrifugality no force,\nbut only centripetality itself retreating from the centre; even as cold\nand darkness are probably no particular forces in themselves, but only\nweaker degrees of heat or light.\n\n153. Gravity is not motion simply, but motion unto a centre, unto rest.\n\n154. That which is itself in the very centre is therefore not heavy.\nThe primary act is not heavy.\n\n155. As all finite things are positions of the primary act in the\nsphere out of the centre, so are all of them heavy. Gravity is the\nforce that strives unto the centre, and which is there impeded by other\nforces already present therein. A finite thing, that is not heavy, is\na contradiction. The gravity of the single thing is weight. The world\nitself has no weight, or else it must be heavy in relation to something\nelse without it. The ideas of gravity and weight, as we speak of them\nin reference to individual things, are not applicable to the world,\nstill less to God.\n\n156. Gravity is also nothing new in the world, but it is only the\npositing of the centre in space. As necessarily as the Eternal, when it\nmanifests itself, must appear under a definite form, so also must it\nbe necessary with the eternal effort, to return into itself or appear\nas gravity. Gravity is nothing different from the primary act, nothing\nspecially created; but the spherical position of the same tending unto\nthe centre.\n\n157. Now, as the sphere has originated out of nothing, so also has\ngravity originated out of the same. The form is a formed nothing:\nthe form is, however, no form without internal forming force, and to\nthis gravity belongs. The being of form and the being of gravity are\none. Gravity is a weighty nothing, a heavy essence, striving towards\ncentre, a realization of the first divine idea. Gravity cannot,\ntherefore, be perceived in the universe as a whole, but only in its\nparts.\n\n158. If gravity is the primary act that has become real, so must\neverything originate out of gravity, or everything must acknowledge\ngravity to be the common mother of the finite. It is in all cases,\nor in every individual thing, only the gravity, the Ponderose, which\nexists, otherwise nothing exists; for verily nothing exists without the\ndivine primary, which is incessantly a central, act.\n\n\nMATTER.\n\n159. Points, which strive towards the centre, are compressed, because\nthey would all occupy one and the same spot. These points, however,\nare forces, which take up space and therefore exclude other points. A\nspace that excludes another is _Matter_. Everything which has been said\nof gravity holds good in respect to matter; for matter is only another\nword for gravity. A heavy thing is a material thing.\n\n160. To the totality of a thing belongs not merely its figure nor its\ntension or motion simply, but also its _gravity_. This is, however, a\nwhole sphere. Matter is, consequently, a total position of the primary\nact, a trinity of ideas.\n\n161. Matter has been imparted with space and time. All space is\nmaterial; ay, matter is itself the space and the time, the form and\nthe motion; for space is nothing special, but only extended or formed\nforce. It is here also shown that the nothing does not exist. There\nis as little nothing in the universe as there is an 0 in mathematics.\nSo soon as the nothing is, there is something. The whole universe is\nmaterial, is nothing but matter; for there is the primary act eternally\nrepeating itself in the centre. The universe is a rotating globe of\nmatter.\n\n162. But the universe is an acting gravity, a matter, in which the\ncentroperipheric antagonism is active; it is therefore _everywhere\nmatter only, which acts_. There is no activity without matter, but also\nno matter without activity, both being one; for gravity is itself\nthe activity, and itself the matter. Matter is only limited activity.\nA matter which does not move is not; it can only subsist through\ncontinuous origination, through life. There is no dead matter; it is\nalive through its being, through the eternal that is in it. Matter has\nno existence in itself, but it is the Eternal only that exists in it.\nEverything is God, that is there, and without God there is absolutely\nnothing.\n\n163. It is an illusion to believe that matter were an actual something\nsubsisting in itself. It is even so with numbers, upon which a\nreality also is bestowed, when they are still demonstrable nothings.\nA number is nothing truly than an affirmation several times repeated,\na reiterated deposition of what is nothing, what is no number. This\ndeposition happens likewise in the universe, where it is the primary\nact, that is deposited. Where, however, this is, no other station can\noccur. This exclusive property is usually called the _Impenetrable_,\nthe _Material_. It cannot be said in what spot matter arises, so\nsecretly and suddenly does it start into existence. It is matter\nproperly at the first manifestation of being, of time and of space; for\nat the same instant also the line, surface, density and gravity have\nbeen given. The line does not exist if it does not _act_; the sphere\ndoes not exist if it be not inert, i. e. if its forces do not strive\ntowards the centre, and consequently to connexion. Nothing exists if it\nis not material. Matter is accordingly coexistent with the presence of\nGod.\n\n164. The Immaterial does not exist; for even the Material which is\n_not_, is the Immaterial. Everything that is, is material. Now,\nhowever, there is nothing that is not; consequently, there is\neverywhere nothing immaterial. Immateriality is only a postulate\nprinciple, by which to get at matter, like the 0 in mathematics, which\nis nothing in itself, does not even exist, but that still must be\nposited, in order that numbers may bear a reference to it.\n\n165. God only is immaterial; he is the only permanent immaterial\ninvention, and the axiom being the Formless, Polarless, Timeless. A spirit\nwith form is a contradiction. But the matter also does not exist,\nbecause matter is nothing, because it is only a sphere of central\nactions, which is gravity.\n\n166. The material universe is called nature. There can be only _one_\nnature, as well according to time as to space and to divine animation.\nThere is only one God, whose operations expressed, or materially\nposited, are nature. Nature has originated out of nothing like time\nand space; or with these has nature also been. God has made heaven and\nearth out of nothing.\n\n167. God has not found matter co-eternal with himself, and, like an\narchitect, arranged this to his fancy; but he has, out of his own\neternal omnipotence, by his will simply, evoked the world out of\nnothing unto existence. He has thought and spoken, and it was.\n\n168. The doctrine of matter is the Philosophy of Nature. It is\ntherefore the science also of all Singulars, like geometry and\narithmetic; thus at bottom is only the third part of mathematics, and\nis even as certain and demonstrable as this.\n\n\n\u00c6THER.\n\n169. The matter, which is the direct position of God, which fills the\nwhole universe, which is the time in a state of tension and motion, the\nformed space, the heavy primary essence, I call the _Primary matter_,\nthe matter of the world, cosmic matter, _\u00c6ther_. The \u00e6ther is the\nfirst realization of God, the eternal position of the same. It is the\nfirst matter of creation. Everything has consequently originated out\nof it. It is the highest, divine element, the divine body, the primary\nsubstance = 0 +-.\n\n170. The \u00e6ther fills out the whole universe, and is, consequently, a\nsphere, yea, the world's sphere itself; the world is a rotating globe\nof \u00e6ther.\n\n171. The sphere of \u00e6ther, not as yet individualized, I call _chaos_.\nFrom the beginning was chaos, and this was \u00e6ther, and unto the end\nwill chaos become \u00e6ther. The \u00e6ther is the apparent nothing, and thus\nit is the chaos. This was not the latter and not the former, but an\nexisting nothing.\n\n172. The \u00e6ther is the imponderable matter, because it is gravity and\ntotality itself, because it is the infinite matter.\n\n173. The \u00e6ther has no life; it is the only mortuum, because it is the\nheavy 0. In \u00e6ther, however, reside all the principles of life, all\nnumbers; it is the substratum, the essence of life. There is only one\nuniversal substratum in nature.\n\n\nHEAVENLY BODY, POINT, CENTRE, GRAVITY.\n\n174. Everything which emerges out of \u00e6ther and is posited as a finite\nmatter, can be nought else than a repetition of the sphere.\n\n175. The \u00e6ther subdivides into an endless number of subordinate\nrotating spheres, and so it must, because the world is not a whole\ndevoid of parts, but only a whole in the parts, only a repetition of\n_positions_. The chaotic sphere of \u00e6ther consists essentially at one\nand the same time of an infinity of spheres.\n\n176. A chaos has never existed. The General never exists, but only the\nParticular. Chaos was from eternity a multiplicity of \u00e6therial globes.\nChaos is only postulate.\n\n177. Every sphere of \u00e6ther is complete in itself and closed, and\ntherefore rotating around its axis and around the universal axis of the\n\u00e6ther.\n\n178. The new rotation in the heavenly bodies condensed in the periphery\nof the \u00e6ther, follows as a necessary result, on account of the unequal\nvelocity of its outwardly and inwardly lying points.\n\n179. Every individual sphere has _two_ motions in itself; the one\ndepends upon the representation of the primary act in itself by the\n_special_ rotation; the other re-attempts to regain the primary centre,\nthrough the _general_ rotation around the universal axis.\n\n180. Such a sphere rotating for itself is called _a Heavenly body_. A\nheavenly body again is the image or metatype of the Eternal; it is a\nwhole, it is alive; everything, even the highest, can originate out of\nit; everything develop itself out of the coagulated, individualized\n\u00e6ther. The heavenly body has a double life, an individual and an\nuniversal, since it is for itself and at the same time in the general\ncentre. Every _Individual_ must have a double life.\n\n181. The heavenly bodies are as old as the \u00e6ther, consequently they\nare from the beginning, and endure also without end. As they are only\ncoagulated \u00e6ther, so are they susceptible of being resolved into the\nsame, such as are probably the comets.\n\n\nb. LIGHT, LINE. (_Second form of the World. Motion._)\n\n182. The \u00e6ther is from eternity, not merely monas, but also dyas;\nfrom eternity it stands in a state of tension with itself, when, as\nthe image of the existing primary act, it has emerged out of itself\ninto two poles. This self-egression or self-manifestation of \u00e6ther,\nor of substance simply, is the self-egression of the point into the\nperiphery. As dyas, \u00e6ther exists under the form of polarity, of\ncentral and peripheric effort; the \u00e6ther in a state of tension is a\ncentroperipheric antagonism.\n\n183. The \u00e6ther is separated from eternity into a central and peripheric\nsubstance, and that indeed through its simple position as a globe. The\nuniverse is a duplicity in the form of \u00e6ther; it is both indifferent\nand different \u00e6ther, both central and peripheric. The central mass\nof \u00e6ther may be called sun, the peripheric planet. Only one sun can\noriginate in a globe of \u00e6ther, but many planets.\n\n184. Between the central and peripheral mass of the \u00e6ther, between the\nsun and planets, there is tension. Through this solar-planetary tension\nthe \u00e6ther fluctuating between the two becomes polarized.\n\n185. The tension of the \u00e6ther proceeds from the centre and thus from\nthe sun. Were the sun to be removed, the polarity of the \u00e6ther would be\nannulled; it would be again the indifferent chaotic \u00e6ther, the null and\nvoid matter. For the absolute substance to exist it needed not simply\nitself, but an identical centre and a dissevered periphery. Is there\nno peripheric mass, no planet, so also is the tension annulled; centre\ncannot be without periphery, sun not without planet, nor vice vers\u00e2.\nThe tension of \u00e6ther is thus excited by the sun and conditioned by the\nplanet. The planet is not the principle, but the Redintegrant of the\ntension of \u00e6ther by the opposition.\n\n186. At that part of the universe where no periphery stands opposed to\ncentre, no planet to the sun, the \u00e6ther is not tense, but indifferent,\nannulled. There can thus only be columns of \u00e6ther, which are rendered\ntense, namely, those _columns_ of \u00e6ther which are found between the\nsun and the planets. Near to the planets the \u00e6ther is void of action,\nindifferent, non-apparent. There are consequently as many apparent\n\u00e6ther-columns, as there are heavenly bodies, that stand in the process\nof polarity opposed to each other. These columns move with the\nplanets around the suns. The indifferent \u00e6ther of the world-space is,\ntherefore, successively rendered tense, as the planets move around\nsuns, and becomes again indifferent behind the planets.\n\n187. But besides this, that columns of tension only exist, and\ntherefore that the \u00e6ther is nowhere active as a sphere, there is still\nno spot in the world-space where there would be only indifferent \u00e6ther,\nnothing; for the \u00e6ther consists of many globes of \u00e6ther. There is thus\nnowhere an indifferent \u00e6ther, consequently nowhere an empty space. The\nidea of the repletion of space is not that of the sphere, but of the\ncolumns of tension, which by their crossing in every direction form a\nsphere only externally.\n\n188. That which is thought of as originally filling space is not the\nquiescent but only the moved, tensed \u00e6ther. The former is the void\nspace, the nothing.\n\n189. The tension of \u00e6ther is an action, which operates according to the\nline. This linear activity, which makes its exit from the central mass\nand is excited hence to the peripheral mass, is _Light_, or in short,\nlight is tension of \u00e6ther.\n\n190. Light is a traction of lines or radial action; consequently an\nantetype of magnetism. A ray of light is a radius. The ray of light\nhas two extremities different from each other; that turned towards the\nsun is 0, that which comes in contact with the planets is \u00b1. Light is,\ntherefore, a splitting, rending action.\n\n191. Light is the life of the \u00e6ther. Hitherto the \u00e6ther was an inactive\nnothing, mere substratum for a future. This nothing, when it becomes\ncentroperipheric, seeks to tear the mathematical point into radii and\ncircumferences, _appears_; and this centroperipheric manifestation we\ncall light.\n\n192. The untensed, indifferent \u00e6ther is, therefore, _darkness_, and\nthis is the essence, the rest of \u00e6ther. Chaos was thus darkness; the\nworld arose out of darkness when light became. Light has originated out\nof darkness when the chaos was moved. Were it possible therefore for\nall light to vanish, the world would again return into its old nothing;\nfor darkness and nothing are one. God has separated the light from the\ndarkness.\n\n193. If light be only a column of \u00e6ther in a state of tension, light\nis or exists only between the planet and the sun; near to the planet\nand behind it is darkness. The primary sphere is a dark sphere,\ntranspierced only by single rays of light. Each star, however, stands\nin a state of tension with another; thus many thousand rays of light\nstream forth from each, and fill out the world-space in all directions.\nThere is therefore no absolute darkness, because there are infinitely\nnumerous rays of light. In the night also there is always as much\nlight present as is necessary to maintain the heavenly bodies in their\naction. For the world there is no night, but only for the planets.\nIt will be shown that the air maintains its existence simply through\nthe operation of light; were it therefore always dark, were night\nto endure for ever, the air must soon assume another composition or\nmixture, and everything that lives in it must fall to ruin. This is\nshown also by the diseases and crises of the same.\n\n194. Light is from eternity, for the tense \u00e6ther was from eternity.\nThe dark chaos exists only as postulate. Light is time that has become\nreal, the first manifestation of God; is God himself positing, is\nthe dyadic God. The dyas is not merely radiality but light; or both\nare one, time and light are one, motion and light are one. When God\nnumbers, when he draws lines, he thus creates light. God becoming\nself-conscious is light. Light is God illuminating. Darkness has\naccordingly never existed, although the light is derived from the\ndarkness, like numbers and figures are out of nothing.\n\n195. Light is no matter. There is no substance called light, but the\n\u00e6ther is illuminant through its binary division. The sun does not,\ntherefore, stream forth when it illumines the planets, and loses\nnothing of its magnitude; it is not to be feared that we shall ever\nlose it. That the sun is an undulating sea of flame, that it is\nthroughout a volcano, that combustions or electrical processes of\nlight, appearing to us as light, occur in its atmosphere; that the\nvelocity of rotation hurls about the light-particles, and that these\nparticles scattered in the world-space are, by an unknown route, or by\nmeans of comets, again brought back to the sun, are opinions unworthy\nthe inquirer into nature. The sun gives out nothing but the impulse,\nnot, however, the mechanical, which makes the space of heaven tremble\nupon which it shines; but the purely spiritual, as the nerves rule the\nmuscle. The sun can never be extinguished, never become dark; for it\ngives out light, not as a fire, but simply by reason of its standing\nin the midst; its simple position, its enchainment to the planets is\nlight. A fire upon the sun would not be perceived by us; it would\nnot lighten nor warm us, because of its having no relation to us.\nThe central relation of the sun toward us cannot, however, remain\nunobserved, and this observation is even that of light.\n\n196. Matter has become by means of light, is a child of light, is but\nilluminating \u00e6ther. Every binary division of matter manifests itself as\nlight.\n\n197. The whole universe is transparent, because everything has issued\nout of the tension of \u00e6ther. Everything which is matter is light, and\nwithout light there is nothing. Without light the universe is not\nonly dark but it is even not. Light is the universe, and every Finite\nis only a different position of light. The world is a thoroughly\nilluminating globe, a rotating globe of light. The solar system must\nhave been created according to the laws of light. The phenomena\nof the world are only representations of optics, consequently of\nliving geometry. What we see is nothing but optical construction or\nfiguration. (Vid. Oken's 'Essay \u00fcber das Licht;' Jena. Fromann. 1808.)\n\n\nc. HEAT, DENSITY. (_Third form of the World. Shape._)\n\n198. Light is not simply a motion in itself, a mere continuous\nexcitation of polarity in the \u00e6ther, but it is also the \u00e6ther itself\n_set in motion_ thereby. All polar actions resolve themselves finally\ninto motion of the polarized masses. The end of electricity, galvanism,\nmagnetism, is motion. It will be, however, shown that all these polar\nfunctions are only repetitions of the primary polarity; this must\ntherefore produce what the former did, namely, \u00e6therial motion.\n\n199. Every point of the \u00e6ther becomes polar, every one attracts and\n_repels_ the other; whereby motion arises in the innermost parts of\nthe \u00e6ther itself. Not a portion of the \u00e6ther is moved on, but motion\noriginates in the mass of \u00e6ther itself. The \u00e6ther-atoms quit each other.\n\n200. The \u00e6ther is, however, that which is filling space, is space\nitself, the Expansissimum of the world, the Formless and therefore that\nwhich adopts all forms. The formless \u00e6ther, when it moves itself,\nmust be connected with a phenomenon, that depends upon its expansion\nand identification, which is polarized by light. This action of the\n\u00e6ther does not therefore depend upon the tension of \u00e6ther, not upon\nproduction from differences in the same, but upon dissolution of the\ntension, therefore upon extension, upon the indifferent representation\nof space. This action, which is at the same time universal, can only be\nheat. Moved \u00e6ther is _Heat_.\n\n201. Heat is the contest of the indifferent \u00e6ther with light; light\nalone produces heat. Without light the world were not only dark, but\nalso absolutely cold. Cold is untensed and quiescent \u00e6ther, death,\nnothing; dark and cold are one. Heat is therefore the result of light,\nbut equally eternal with it; it is space represented really, as that is\nreal time.\n\n202. Heat is not moved indifferent ether, which is = nothing; but moved\nand tensed or the _moved light_.\n\n203. Heat penetrates into thickness as an extending function, but does\nnot oscillate between two poles like light. It is only the function\nof density, and depends upon nothing else, not upon lines or mere\nsurfaces, but upon the living sphere.\n\n204. Heat and light, although characters of _one_ substance, yet\nstand in an antagonism like thickness and line, or as indifference\nand difference. Heat is properly the first perfected position of the\nprimary act, while light is only the act of positing; the latter\ntherefore is +, the former-. Or also, gravity is the absolute position,\nsimply = 0; light is the commencing egression of this position out\nof itself +-, heat the completion + 0-, and therefore the position\neverywhere; it will everywhere deposit, therefore it is motion,\nrepletion of space, expansion. Light is gravity become real, or 0\nbecome real; 0 however, rendered real, is +-. Heat is as-at the same\ntime +-and 0, or light and gravity, material light, light that is\nfilling. Both will also assert the antagonism of their genesis through\nall forms of the world. The heat seeks to destroy the line, which the\nlight endeavours to establish; heat seeks to produce homogeneity in the\nDissimilar, light to effect the reverse. Heat is slow in its motion;\nwith it the mass of \u00e6ther must continually move, or move whither it\nwill operate; light, however, acts spiritually and rapidly, without\nmotion of the mass, but only glides continually with the latter. Heat\nis not created, it is no special matter different from \u00e6ther. There is\nno _body of heat_.\n\n205. Heat is everywhere where the \u00e6ther is, and must consequently be\nregarded as a sphere. Heat is not present merely in the columns of\n\u00e6ther between the heavenly bodies, but everywhere. Therefore heat does\nnot move itself in the direction of the line, but it extends itself on\nall sides, as real space.\n\n\nFIRE.\n\n206. Light and heat were the first phenomena of the world. Heat with\nlight, however, are _Fire_. Fire is the totality of \u00e6ther, is God\nmanifested in his totality. God, previous to his determination to\ncreate a world, was darkness; in the first act of creation, however, he\nappeared as fire. There is no higher, more perfect symbol of divinity\nthan fire. God's whole consciousness, apart from individual thoughts,\nis fire. The Holy Scriptures therefore usually admit of God appearing\nunder the form of a fire, as a fiery bush, a flame. The world is none\nother than a rotating globe of fire.\n\n207. Everything that is, has originated out of fire; everything is\nonly _cooled_, rigidified fire. As everything has become out of fire,\nso must everything to be annihilated have recourse to fire. If finite\nthings be only fire singly posited, so must every change occurring in\nthe same be an igneous change. Nothing changes in the world but fire.\nThe essential change of things take place only by fire.\n\n\nRETROSPECT.\n\n208. The Triplicity of the primary act in the universe has now been\ncompletely demonstrated. The first manifestation of God is monas; to\nthis corresponds _Gravity_, _\u00c6ther_, darkness, the cold of chaos. The\nsecond manifestation of God is the dyas; to this corresponds the \u00e6ther\nin a state of tension, the _Light_. The third manifestation of God is\nthe trias; to this corresponds the want of form, _Heat_. _God being in\nhimself is Gravity_; _acting_, self-emergent, _Light_; _both together_,\nor returning into himself, _Heat_. These are the _three Primals_ in the\nworld, and equal to the three which were prior to the world. They are\nthe manifested triunity = _Fire_.\n\n\n\n\nPART II.\n\nONTOLOGY--OF SINGULARS.\n\n\n\n\nA.--_COSMOGENY_.\n\n\na. REST, CENTRE.\n\n209. Through light duplicity originates in the \u00e6ther, by virtue\nof which the \u00e6ther divides into central and peripheric \u00e6ther. The\nperipheric necessarily rotates around the central. Every part of the\n\u00e6ther is a sphere; the \u00e6ther therefore is separated by the light into\ninfinitely numerous central and peripheric spheres. Creation is an\nendless position of centres. The primary centre is inventive.\n\n210. There cannot be therefore only a single central mass; otherwise\nthe universe would be a finite.\n\n211. The central spheres are characterized by absoluteness, the\nperipheric, however, by finiteness, division; the former are something\nin themselves, but the latter are so only by opposition; yet the two\ncould not be without each other.\n\n212. Every central body must be surrounded by several peripheric\nbodies. The peripheric spheres rotate around the central, the images of\nthe primary centre. A Whole, consisting of a central body and several\nperipheric bodies, is called _solar system_.\n\n213. Chaos is not conceivable, without being at the same time solar\nsystem. The solar systems are nothing specially created, but have been\ngiven with chaos or with light, are indeed only the \u00e6ther separated by\nlight. The primary matter appearing as light must appear at the same\ntime as sun and planet. Primary act, sun and planet are of one kind,\nand differ only in this, that the former is posited individually in the\nlatter, while in itself it is non-posited.\n\n214. There is no general central body, no central sun, about which all\nsuns and planets gravitate. The essence of the \u00e6ther consists in its\ncomplete dissipation. There exists only an infinity of solar systems,\nwhich taken together form the central body. All solar systems pursue a\ncourse to and fro through each other, like the blood-globules in the\nvessels. The general central body is only inventive. That the general\ncentral body may be dark (that it must be, if present, from its being\ninvisible) is an assertion which betrays an ignorance of the essence of\nlight. A dark central body is an absurdity.\n\n\nb. MOTION, LINE.\n\n215. Sun and planet, as individual spheres, have also their own\nindividual gravity. The \u00e6ther therefore must exist otherwise than in\nthe universal sphere. The next change of the \u00e6ther is _condensation_,\nmore intense gravity, because it becomes more individual, centre\nand periphery approximate more closely to each other. The heavenly\nbodies must contain more matter, more \u00e6ther in an equal space than the\nterrestrial globe.\n\n216. The heavenly bodies have obtained their matter nowhere else than\nout of the primary matter, the \u00e6ther; they are condensed \u00e6ther. The\nheavenly bodies of a solar system have derived their mass out of the\n\u00e6ther, which is found within the confines of this solar system. The\nmatter of the heavenly bodies was thus previous to its coagulation\nstrewn in the space of the solar system, and has been by so much the\nrarer, as the space of the solar system is larger than the volume of\nall the planets together with the sun. It admits therefore of being\ncalculated how much rarer the \u00e6ther is than e. g. water.\n\n217. The \u00e6ther is therefore not absolutely imponderable, but only so in\nrelation to the heavenly bodies. Light and heat are therefore ponderose\nsubstances, though they are not ponderable.\n\n218. The separation of the \u00e6ther into central and peripheric mass has\nhappened according to the laws of light, and thus according to the\ncentroperipheric primary antagonism. As a consequence of this, only\n_one_ central body can originate in a solar system; the mass of the\nperiphery can, however, divide into several, and must divide into as\nmany as the light has moments of operation; of this we shall speak for\nthe first time in treating of colours.\n\n219. The matter of the periphery can be condensed by light into no\nother form than that of a _hollow_ globe around the sun. The planets\nare originally concentric _hollow globes_, in the midst of which the\nsun is formed. There are several hollow globes, because the light has\nseveral points of contraction at certain distances from the sun.\n\n220. The number of hollow planetary globes is a definite one, and it is\nnot an arbitrary matter how many of them originate.\n\n221. The matter of such a hollow globe of \u00e6ther is still, however,\nrarer by so much than the present planetary mass, as that of our earth\nwould be rarer if it were to form a hollow globe around the sun, about\nas thick only as from the earth to the moon.\n\n222. This hollow globe rotates with the sun, because the whole globe\nof \u00e6ther, which fills out the space of the subsequent solar system,\nrotates; therefore everything necessarily tends in one direction.\n\n223. These hollow planetary globes, on account of the rarity of their\nmass, their rotation, and the greater tension of light, could not\nsubsist in the equatorial plane of the solar system, but coagulate\ntogether in equatorial rings about the centre of the whole system. The\nplanetary foetuses are only _solar rings_, which rotate with the sun.\n\n224. If the whole coagulated \u00e6ther of the solar system be so small in\nquantity, that when extended around the sun in a planetary track or\ncourse, it still does not become solid; so also can the orbitar ring\nnot persist, but it contracts itself through light, rotation and\nthe peculiar excited gravity into a _globe_. This globe continues to\nrotate, as it did when under the conditions of orbitar ring, of hollow\nglobe and as \u00e6ther; i. e. it pursues a course around the sun. The\nperipheric globe travels necessarily in the same plane in which the sun\nrotates. This is therefore called the zodiac. This globe rotates also\naround its own axis and virtually in the same direction, according to\nwhich it performs its course or the sun rotates. A globe coursing and\nrotating around the sun in its equatorial plane and in its direction is\ncalled _planet_.\n\n225. At the first aggregation of the mass of the planetary ring into\na planetary globe, the latter was still very much extended, the\nearth extending beyond the moon. The mass was thus gaseous. What\nhappened in the great globe of \u00e6ther, of which the sun has become\nthe centre, happens also here. An opposition of centre to periphery\nagain originates; and a subordinate sun and new orbitar rings are\nformed. If the mass of the planetary equatorial ring be only small and\nconsequently rare, it rolls into a globe and together with this into\n_moons_.\n\n226. If it be much, consequently so dense, that it coheres, it remains\nstationary, and is _Saturn's ring_.\n\n227. This is the genesis of the planetary system, but everything has\nbecome, and remained as it became, at one stroke. The moon can never\nhave existed as an orbitar ring around the earth in time, or else it\nhad been solid. Being once solid, it can no more coagulate into a\nglobe. Still less, however, have the planets originated from conjoined\nmoons. From whence then have the moons come? The solar system has not\narisen mechanically, but dynamically; it has not become what it is by\nbeing projected or hurled from the hand of God, nor by impulses and\naberrations; but by polarization according to eternal laws, according\nto the laws of light.\n\n228. As a necessary number of planetary productions exists, so also is\ntheir magnitude, distance and velocity a determinate one. No planet,\nwhatever its situation, has attained that by chance. Were the earth\nlarger, it must also have occupied some other place, and have had\nanother velocity, another density of mass, &c.\n\n229. The coagulating matter of \u00e6ther must collect into a larger mass\nin the centre than in the periphery. The centre will exist everywhere,\nand the periphery comes only to its behalf as if it were a scaffold\nor prop only to existence. The sun can only be the principle of the\ndetermination of the planets by the preponderance of its mass. Our sun\ncomprises above 700 planetary systems in itself.\n\n230. Sun and planet are mutually conditionated; both have originated\nat the same time, the former as the positive pole, the latter as the\nnegative, as the necessary counterpoint, or the one as 0, the other\nas \u00b1. The hypothesis, which surmises that the planets have come from\nanother solar system, is not maturely considered. For how have they\nthere originated? Such explanations are mere child's play. Sun and\nplanet are in idea but _one_ piece, only _one_ line with two different\nextremities. The same act which polarizes the sun polarizes also\nthe planets out of chaos. One and the same \u00e6ther that has become\npositive, is called sun, when negative, it is called planet. Both\nare only a single globe of \u00e6ther, the centre of which is called sun,\nthe periphery, planet. The latter belongs to the sun, like a stone\nthough detached from, belongs to, the earth; its rotation is therefore\nsimilar, but retarded.\n\n\nc. FORM\n\n231. The sun cannot be in the absolute middle of the solar system,\non account of its antagonism with the planets, which would likewise\nbecome the centre. The collective mass of the planets is the secession\nof the sun from the centre. The situation of the sun or the degree of\nits excentricity bears relation to the polar force of the planets. The\nform, under which the solar system really exists, cannot therefore be\nthe sphere, but the ellipse, i. e. the duplicity of the centre.\n\n232. The sphere is only the type of the universe, of the \u00e6ther,\nbut not of the solar system nor the Finite. No Finite is absolutely\nspherical. As the real universe can only exist in a bicentral\ncondition, so is there in this respect also no universal central\nbody. It is there, but under the form of bicentrality, as sun and\nplanet. God only is monocentral. The world is the bicentral God, God\nthe monocentral world, which is the same with monas and dyas. The\nprimary polarity, the dyas, the radiality, the light establishes\nitself in nature as bicentrality, which is the cosmogenic expression\nfor self-manifestation or self-consciousness. Self-consciousness is a\nliving ellipse.\n\n233. The bicentrality determines the distance of the planets from the\nsun. If the sun as the active pole be strong or energetic, the planets\nwill occupy a remote situation; if it be feeble or weak, one that is\nnear. The strength of the polar energy depends, however, upon the\nquantity of the mass. Were the mass of the sun less, all the planets\nwould range nearer to it; were it greater, they would be all driven\nfurther off, as electricity repels the pith-balls of elder-wood; more\nthan this the planets are not towards the sun, but even less. The\nenergy of the solar polarization depends not merely upon its magnitude,\nbut also upon the velocity of rotation, which harmonizes with the\nformer; the latter, however, depends upon the original velocity of\nrotation of the \u00e6ther. The velocity of the rotation of \u00e6ther being\nassumed as definite, that of the sun must be definite also, and with\nthis everything accords.\n\n234. The circumvolution of the planets around the sun is a _polar_\nprocess of _attraction_ and _repulsion_, by virtue of the primary law\nin the solar system, by virtue of the light. The planet then can only\nbe repelled in the neighbourhood of the sun from the sun, when it has\nthe _same_ solar pole in itself, when it has become positive; and can\nonly attract it at a distance from the sun, when it has received the\nopposite pole to the sun, or has become negative.\n\n235. This is only conceivable in that the planet, while it draws\nnearer to the sun, extinguishes in itself by its _own_ power the\nnegative pole, and produces on the contrary the positive pole, or\nbecomes a sun; and that, as it removes itself from the sun, it again\nextinguishes the positive solar pole, and generates the negative\nplanetary pole within itself. This substantial production of\nalternating poles upon the planet takes place through the diversity\nof its surface as water and land, through the oblique position\nof its axis, whereby summer and winter are produced, through the\nprocesses, or through the life that is upon it, through the processes\nof decomposition and combination effected by water, through the\nrevival and death of vegetation, and even the white colour of snow.\nThe planet discharges its pole in the neighbourhood of the sun, like\na cork pellet, and reloads of itself at a distance from the sun;\nand thus oscillates to and fro, like the hammer in an electrical\nbell. The course of the planets takes place with the greatest ease.\nIt is everywhere no force of weight, of impulse, but of the easiest\nself-motion. The planet revolves by its own force to and from the sun,\nlike the blood circulates to and from the heart.\n\n236. The planet cannot, however, be diverted from its course, because\nthe other heavenly bodies, probably the comets, do not act mechanically\nbut only polarly upon it. By means of this polarity they maintain\nthemselves always at a distance, even as the sun keeps itself at a\ndistance from the planets. In addition to this, the polar tension\nbetween the comet and the sun is stronger than between the comet and\nthe planets. The perturbations of the planets depend upon their polar\nrelations to each other. Although the planets have a centrifugal\ntendency, they are not thrown by a prodigious mechanical force in\nthe direction of the tangent, and then drawn back by an attractive\nforce of the sun, that has no import or meaning; but they course in\na playful manner round the sun. A theory of attraction of this kind\nhas no physical sense. Such an attraction is a _Qualitas occulta_, an\nangel which flies before the planets. It does not create the world by\nimpulses and strokes, but only by vivification.\n\n237. Were the planet dead, it could not be attracted or repelled by\nthe sun; it would have from the very beginning always maintained a\nsimilar pole in itself, and it could therefore only move in a circular\nmanner around the sun. The circular motion or course around the sun is\nnot generally conditioned by the polarity of the planets, but depends\nupon the primary rotation. Proportionably to the mutual interchange\nof polar operation between the sun and planet, the latter would only\napproach the sun in the line of the apsides, and thus remove from it;\nbut by the primary rotation it is conducted around it. The elliptical\npath is consequently the result of rotation and of the polar or linear\ninterchange of operation between the two heavenly bodies.\n\n238. The moon would keep a wholly circular path around the sun, if it\nwere not disturbed by the earth, were it not through the difference of\nthe earth's poles to passively retain also different polarities; for\nthe moon is in itself dead.\n\n239. The moon is not attracted more forcibly by the earth than the sun;\nand therefore it remains not by the earth. The sun exercises more polar\naction, more photal action upon it than the earth, and yet it falls not\ninto the sun, for the very same reason that the earth itself does not\nfall in. The moon is forsooth to be regarded as itself a planet with a\ndefinite charge of electricity, which is always equably maintained by\nlight; as such it rotates circularly about the sun. But it rotates in\nthe same path wherein the earth rotates; therefore the latter operates\nupon it and draws it in its strange serpentine line around the sun.\n\n240. The more living a planet is, by so much the more excentric is its\npath, because it enters into great opposition with the light.\n\n241. If polarization by light be the cause of the attraction and\nrepulsion of the planets from the sun, so is it also the cause of the\ndistance of the planetary masses generally. The individual distance\nof the several planets is determined by the energy of their own polar\nexcitation. Planets, which possess a strong polar energy, must range\nfurther than the others from the sun. This polar energy is, however,\ndependent upon the magnitude and density of the mass, upon the level\nstate or unevenness of the surface, upon the capacity for heat, upon\nthe quantity of water, upon the position of the axis in regard to\nthe path, upon the possible processes of vegetation; it is thus not\nto be determined. Before vegetation was upon the earth, there were\nother processes, e. g. the aqueous precipitations, that changed the\npolarity; so that the path might formerly have been different to what\nit subsequently was or is now.\n\n242. Planets are consequently those bodies which possess in themselves\na peculiar degree of polarity and a substantial change of the same,\nwhereby their individual distance and the nature of their paths are\ndetermined.\n\n\nCOMETS.\n\n243. The comets are heavenly bodies, devoid of a persistent grade of\npolarity, and without any substantial change in the same. They obtain\ntheir polarity solely from the sun, like the cork-pellet from the\nelectrical machine. The comet is therefore repelled as far from the sun\nas there is still an action between it and the polarity that has been\nimparted to the comet.\n\n244. At the point where all antagonism between comet and sun ceases,\nthe former must remain stationary, and resolve itself again into \u00e6ther.\nThis is the case with those comets that never return. These comets are\ntemporal coagulations of \u00e6ther by light, and thus continued creation.\n\n245. The \u00e6ther coagulates where the light, already polarized in part by\nthe operations of other heavenly bodies, encounters it. This depends\nupon fortuitous constellations.\n\n246. These comets originate like the planets; they are \u00e6ther condensed\nin the form of an orbitar ring. This dissevered _orbitar ring_ is the\n_tail_, which is only a more gaseous \u00e6ther, through which, or even\nthrough the nucleus itself, the stars are seen. The tail follows the\ncomet not really but only ideally. Around the nucleus, so far as it is\nprolonged, the light concentrates the \u00e6ther. New \u00e6ther is constantly\nemitting light, while that which was before illuminating as tail again\nbecomes dark and again sinks into a state of indifference. The tail\nis only an optical spectrum. For how can the tail be really a part of\nthe comet, since it is always turned backwards from the sun, since it\ntherefore follows and precedes the nucleus? The nucleus is only the\nlamp which kindles the \u00e6ther surrounding it for some time. The light\nsuffers a modification through the nucleus; it therefore polarizes\nonly the \u00e6ther behind it. The tail is the evident example of what is\nantecedent in the origin of the heavenly bodies. It is the heavenly\nbody conceived in the act of becoming, but unto which polarization is\nwanting; it cannot therefore concentrate itself, but again dissolves\nwhen the nucleus is gone. Every heavenly body is a mass of \u00e6ther in the\nworld-space, which is materialized by light, and separated out of its\nindifference into difference, into more solid masses. Finally, the tail\nbecomes dense \u00e6ther, a nucleus.\n\n247. These comets are thus true meteors; as they originate, so\noriginate the globes of fire, by polarization occurring in the\natmosphere, or even too above the limits of the atmosphere.\n\n248. Meteoric stones are terrestrial comets. The opinion that they come\nfrom the moon has no foundation. There is probably as little metal as\nwater upon the moon.\n\n249. Returning comets are probably polarized by two suns.\n\n250. A comet can never come into collision with a planet; the fear of\nsuch an event is equally absurd with the hypothesis, that a comet had\nproduced the deluge or displaced the earth's axis.\n\n251. Two planets also can never come into mutual collision, not\neven those that have been recently discovered, although their paths\nintersect each other.\n\n252. The planets are returning comets, which, however, before they have\ncome to the second sun, have produced within themselves the opposite\npole to the sun. What happens to the comets through the influence of\nthe second sun, the planets effect of themselves.\n\n\n\n\nB.--_ST\u00d6CHIOGENY._\n\n\nCONDENSATION.\n\n253. Through its separation into polar masses the \u00e6ther becomes\n_condensed_, heavy and material.\n\n254. This condensation is the result of the _fixation_ of a definite\npole on a definite mass of \u00e6ther. The essence of the \u00e6ther consists in\nits having no fixed pole, but that all the poles oscillate to and fro\nwith the greatest facility from one particle of \u00e6ther to the other.\nThis is what is meant by indifference, by equivalency of poles; no part\nof the \u00e6ther differs from another, because none retains permanently a\ndefinite pole, but each of them all the poles. The formation of the\nheavenly bodies is none other than an union of poles to a definite mass\nof \u00e6ther.\n\n255. A mass of \u00e6ther with a fixed pole is a dense matter; such a\nmass of \u00e6ther I call _terrestrial_ matter, but the \u00e6ther itself the\n_cosmic_. Sun and planet must be terrestrial matters, for the essence\nof both consists in the difference of their poles.\n\n256. The cause of the fixation of poles resides in light.\n\n257. The heavenly bodies go to ruin by removal of the fixation of the\npole abiding on the mass, substratum or substance, not by mechanical\ndemolition. The destruction of the heavenly bodies is a retrogression\nof their mass into \u00e6ther by means of fire. Heat does not drive the\nbodies, after the manner of a wedge, from each other, but only\nsuppresses their polarity, and then the atoms must withdraw from\neach other. Heat depends only on the destruction of poles, _not_ upon\nextension. The heavenly bodies are ruined in the same way that they\nhave originated, namely, through the primary act in its retrogression.\n\n258. It is only the pole, no other concealed property, which maintains\nthe being of the mass. The mass is not a terrestrial mass subsisting\nsimply by its own rest. Nothing material is the cause of the form\nof matter, but the Spiritual. Matter has therefore no quality, no\nconsistence of itself, but is nothing, is \u00e6ther. Mass cannot supplant\nmass, nor mechanism destroy anything material. The destruction must\nproceed from within.\n\n259. The fixation of poles in the substance is the _impenetrability_\nof matter. It is only the spirit in matter which renders this\nimpenetrable, not the mass itself.\n\n260. The \u00e6ther is penetrable, and therefore also _penetrating_. Heat is\npenetrating; light, as \u00e6ther in a state of tension, is only partially\npenetrating.\n\n261. All the diversity of matter depends upon the fixation of poles in\nthe substance. For there is no diversity in the universe without poles,\nwithout binary division. The substance always remains the same, it is\nonly the poles that change. The substance is the Indestructible, the\nPersistent, the \u00e6ther, the nothing.\n\n262. The fixation is the perquisite, but the necessary one, of the\nsubstance. The diversity of things resides only in the perquisite. In\nthe substance all are alike. There is only _one_ substance, only _one_\nessence.\n\n\n ELEMENTAL BODIES. (_How many kinds of \u00c6ther-condensations may exist?_)\n\n263. The \u00e6ther has three forms, and can therefore condense itself after\na ternary manner, or in other words, there can be only three kinds of\nfixations of poles.\n\n264. The condensations of the several forms of \u00e6ther must be simple\nmatters or _Elemental bodies_, as they are called.\n\n265. There can therefore be only three simple bodies, a body of gravity\n= 0, one of light = +, and one of heat =-.\n\n266. If the heat of the \u00e6ther becomes fixed, the rarest, most mobile\nand lightest body must originate. The body of heat is _Hydrogen_.\n\n267. If the light of the \u00e6ther becomes fixed, a less dense, and thus\na less heavy matter, must originate, and one whose atoms are moveable\nagainst each other. The body of light must be the most active in\nnature; it must determine the changes of all other elemental bodies.\nThe body of light is _Oxygen_.\n\n268. If the gravity of the \u00e6ther become fixed, the greatest\ncondensation must originate. The densest matter is necessarily the\nheaviest. The dense matter must be immoveable in its atoms, i. e.\nendowed with form. The body of gravity is _Carbon_ (as basis of the\nmetals).\n\n269. Besides these 3 elemental bodies, hydrogen, oxygen and carbon,\nthere can be no other simple bodies. All other bodies must be only\ndifferent degrees of fixation of the above-mentioned bodies, or\ncombinations of the same. Different degrees of carbon are without doubt\nthe metals. Different degrees of oxygen are probably chlorine, iodine,\nbromine. Different degrees of hydrogen are probably sulphur. Nitrogen\nis probably peroxydised hydrogen, or an oxyd of hydrogen; this is\nindicated by its medium weight, and its perfectly azotic character.\n\n\nELEMENTS.\n\n270. Simple bodies cannot exist for themselves, for there can nowhere\nbe an \u00e6ther, which merely belongs to gravity, or merely to light or to\nheat.\n\n271. An elemental body is never a Total, but invariably a Polar, a\nsomething not whole, properly a half or rather but a third essence, a\nfraction. One-sidedness is therefore the character of the elemental\nbody.\n\n272. One pole is nowhere produced, but all are invariably present\ntogether. The terrestrial matter completed must therefore consist of\nthe three primary bodies, but occurring in diverse proportions. As\nlight and heat can never subsist without the substance of the \u00e6ther, so\nalso can no body of light and no body of heat subsist per se without\nthe body of gravity or carbon, and vice vers\u00e2. The general materials of\nnature are therefore combinations of the three primary bodies.\n\n273. The \u00e6ther is the totality of the primary bodies in equal\nproportion, where thus no pole is fixed, but all are comprehended in\nfixation, i. e. in constant change.\n\n274. All other general matters must be also combinations of the three\nprimary bodies, but with different fixation, or in unequal proportion.\nThere can consequently be only four general matters.\n\n275. The first general matters are called _Elements_. There are only\nfour elements, one general and three particular.\n\n  1. Element, Fire.\n  2. - - - -  Heat.\n  3. - - - -  Light.\n  4. - - - -  Gravity.\n\n276. Each element is a total representation of the \u00e6ther.\n\n277. An element is not that which is chemically inseparable, but it is\nonly the _Whole_, which has first originated. But the elemental bodies\nare chemically non-decomposible, because they are already separate,\nbeing moieties or fractions.\n\n278. The heat element is the hydrogen element--_Air._\n\n279. The light element is the oxygen element--_Water._\n\n280. The gravity element is the carbon element--_Earth._\n\n281. In each element, beside the basic or combustible elemental body,\nthere is also oxygen; for they are verily naught else than the \u00e6ther\nfixed by light, \u00e6ther that has become heavy by means of light.\n\n\nAIR.\n\n282. The first condensation of the \u00e6ther must be that which corresponds\nto its condition as heat. This element, as being that in which the\natoms have no connexion, must be therefore the lightest and rarest. In\nthis element the poles must be fixed in the least degree, and therefore\nchange with the slightest operation. This element is therefore moveable\nin all directions, is the most unstable, and in form most similar to\nthe \u00e6ther.\n\n283. Active freedom from form predominates in it, i. e. its atoms are\nconstantly striving to withdraw from each other, or the mass to extend.\nThis endeavour is called elasticity. Elasticity is none other than the\nendeavour to become a greatest or interminable globe. The terrestrial\nmatter, with this striving towards an universal globe, is called _gas_.\n\n284. The formless internally moveable element, constantly extending\nitself and changing its pole, is the _Air_.\n\n285. The air is the first terrestrial element, the first degree of\n\u00e6therial condensation associated with the feeblest fixation of poles,\nthe constant change of which is manifested in its electric relations.\nIt corresponds in every respect, in mobility, extension, general\npenetration, &c., to heat. The air consists of a preponderance of the\nbody of heat or hydrogen (oxydulated as nitrogen in the proportion of\n79 by volume), and of a fair quantity of the body of light or oxygen\n(21); also of a very small amount of the body of gravity or carbon, as\nevidenced in the carbonic acid.\n\n286. The air is a maximum of air, a medium of water, and a minimum of\nearth.\n\n287. As heat is not merely indifferent \u00e6ther, nor merely its motion or\nextension, but is the \u00e6ther moved by the polarity of light, so is the\nhydrogen gas in the air not in a pure state, but converted by oxygen\ninto nitrogen. The air is in every respect therefore an element that\nhas undergone combustion, an oxyd of hydrogen and carbon.\n\n288. The oxygen is that which is everywhere active, exciting, moving,\nand vivifying everything; it is the light in the Terrestrial. The\nnitrogen is inert, as it were mortified, and therefore mortifying\nor causing death; the former the +, the latter the-. The greatest\nactivity among all terrestrial elements resides in the air, since all\npolarizations issue from it.\n\n289. The changes in the air are accompanied by constant changes of\ntemperature, for they are verily in themselves nothing else than\nchanges of caloric-\u00e6ther.\n\n290. All subsequent elements must originate from or be condensations of\nair, even as this has arisen out of, and been a condensation of, the\n\u00e6ther.\n\n291. Condensations, however, are fixations of poles; the other elements\ndiffer therefore only from air by having other poles fixed in them.\n\n292. Since the poles are at the same time fixed more internally on\nthese elements, they can no longer have the gaseous form.\n\n293. They must on this account contain more bulk and be therefore\nheavier.\n\n\nWATER.\n\n294. If the polarity of light becomes fixed in a certain quantity of\nthe mass of \u00e6ther, or the oxygen of the air obtains the preponderance,\na less changing element originates possessing a more definite\ncharacter, and the atoms of which adhere more strongly to each other\nthan those of air.\n\n295. This element has, in addition to the gaseous effort towards a\ngeneral globe or periphery, the effort at the same time also to a\ncentre, or to an individual globe. It is therefore neither elastic\nor gaseous. The effort of a mass to a _special_ and _general_ globe\nis a conflict betwixt form and want of form. This effort is called\n_fluidity_.\n\n296. The fluid element must contain a preponderance of oxygen (85), and\nless hydrogen (15). There is also some carbon present in it. The carbon\nof water is to be sought in the slime of the sea, for the sea, and not\nfresh water, is the primary water.\n\n297. The fluid element oxygen is the _Water_. Water in large as well\nas in small quantities, seeks to represent the globe, namely, to\nform drops. It possesses therefore the effort unto form, while it is\nalways relapsing into formlessness. This oscillation between form\nand formlessness is the conception of fluidity, which is therefore\nessentially different from that of gasidity; it might be said that the\nlatter were the arithmetic or constant change of numbers; but that\nfluidity were the combination of arithmetic with geometry.\n\n298. If the essence of water consists in the contest between form\nand formlessness, it must thus seek to produce fluidity everywhere.\nLiquefaction is, however, called solution, namely, globules are formed,\nboth on a large and small scale. The function of water is therefore\nsolution. It dissolves the air, (imbibes it) like the earth.\n\n299. Water is more difficult to analyze than air, because its poles are\nmore fixed.\n\n300. In the analysis of water, the body of heat emerges in a pure state\nas hydrogen, because the antagonism here subsists in an abrupt manner;\nin the air it is constantly changing. Hydrogen is therefore nitrogen\nwholly deoxydised.\n\n301. If water is the oxygen-element, so is it the light-element or\ncondensed light-\u00e6ther; thus it is as little something absolutely new as\nthe air.\n\n302. Terrestrial life originates out of water, as does the cosmic life\nout of light. All form originates from water; for it is the general\nfluid, or that which strives towards form. Without water, there would\nbe no life, no Solid and no Organic.\n\n\nEARTH.\n\n303. If the gravity of \u00e6ther condenses itself, or the action of gravity\nbe fixed in a quantity of \u00e6ther, there originates immobility of the\natoms, i. e. an effort upon their part towards a single direction,\nnamely, simply towards the centre. The effort towards a single\ndirection or towards the centre, is cohesion or rigidity.\n\n304. The mass with fixed gravity is carbon. If therefore the carbonic\nacid of air, or the carbon of water, obtain the preponderance over the\nother elemental bodies, there thus originates the rigid centripetal\nelement.\n\n305. The heavy, rigid, carbon-element is the _Earth_. The earth is\nneither gaseous nor fluid. The earth contains a preponderance of\ncarbon, with a tolerable quantity of oxygen, and a slight amount of\nhydrogen and nitrogen. The earth is an oxyd of carbon.\n\n306. If fire is indicated by + 0-, the air then corresponds to the-,\nthe water to +, the earth to the 0. The earth is therefore the\nIdentical, water the Indifferent, air the Different; or the first the\ncentre, the second the radius, the last the periphery of the general\nglobe or of fire. The earth is naught but an accumulation of points. If\nradii occur in it, it happens only because all points have not place in\nthe middle point.\n\n307. The capacity for analysis of the elements comports with the serial\norder of their origin. The air is most easily analysed, the water with\ndifficulty, the earth scarcely or not at all. The \u00e6ther is occupied in\neternal analysis, and therefore appears only when it is momentarily\npolarized unto light or heat, i. e. obtains the disposition to fixation.\n\n308. If air represent arithmetic, so does earth the geometry or\nuniversality of forms. Water is the synthesis of both, the algebra;\n\u00e6ther the analysis.\n\n309. The geometrical figures of the earthy are called crystals; the\n\ngeometry of the earth is Crystallography.\n\n310. In the creation the three primary ideas attained only by degrees\nto reality. First of all the trias becomes real in the air, then the\ndyas in water, and lastly the monas in the earth. The creation of the\nelements is none other than a representation of the three divine ideas\nin a finite sphere. Creation is a process of formation of the nothing.\n\n311. Creation ceases with the production of the fixed or stable form;\nfor all ideas have parted from each other, and settled down into the\nmost Individual, with which separation all further formation of new\nmatters necessarily ceases. Creation is a constant analysis of the\n\u00e6ther, of air, and finally, of water.\n\n312. The element that is correspondent to gravity necessarily\noccupies the centre upon the planet. It is surrounded by the element\ncorresponding to light, the water, like the centre is by the radii;\nboth are enveloped by the heat-element or air, which forms the\nperiphery of the globe, the integument of the planet.\n\n313. The forms of the elements are the following; water is spherical\nin its greatest as well as least parts; for it is the point merging\nout of itself, and can therefore nowhere acquire form. The earth is\neverywhere nothing but point; it is therefore concrete, and every\npart self-subsistent or individual, while in water no part subsists\nfor itself, but at every opportunity is confluent with the other, and\ntherefore arrives nowhere at individuality. Finally, air is the eternal\nflight of the smallest parts to the periphery. In the earth the Finite\nor Singular is for itself; in the water it is so only through the\nWhole; in the air it is not indeed for itself, but is there only the\nWhole without individualized parts.\n\n314. The world is twofold, an \u00e6therial and a terrestrial; both are\ntranscripts or copies of each other, and both ultimately of God. The\nterrestrial world has originated out of the \u00e6ther; it is therefore\nfurther removed from God than the \u00e6ther; this is the discharged,\npurified Terrestrial.\n\n315. God is a threefold Trinity; at first the Eternal, then the\n\u00c6therial, and finally the Terrestrial, where it is completely divided.\n\n316. The holy primary number is 3; the second is 9. The \u00e6ther is 1 in\n3; the other elements are simply the 3 of the \u00e6ther, together 4. 2 \u00d7 3,\nhowever, or 6, lies at the bottom of this 4. The symbolic numbers are\nconsequently 1, 3, 4, 6, 9, which fundamentally are one and the same,\nbut in different combinations. With this, however, all formation does\nnot yet terminate; to the 4 elements is added the vegetable and animal\nkingdom. The number of the days of creation is 6.\n\n\n\n\nC.--_ST\u00d6CHIOLOGY._\n\n\nFUNCTIONS OF THE ELEMENTS.\n\n\n1. _Functions of the \u00c6ther._\n\n317. The spiritual activity of \u00e6ther manifests itself as a _process of\ncombustion_, which appears as fire. The combination of the substance\nwith light and heat is fire; the elements have therefore originated\nby a process of combustion. All matter has undergone combustion, and\nindeed \u00e6ther has been submitted to the same process. The process of\nfixation of the \u00e6ther or the process of condensation, is consequently a\nprocess of combustion.\n\n318. Each heavenly body has originally burnt, was nothing but fire;\nthe Vulcanic has preceded the Neptunian agency. It was, however, the\nprimary process of combustion, through which the at present combustible\nmatters first originated. The present volcanoes must not be regarded as\nsynonymous with the primary combustion. There it was not Vesuvii that\nburnt, but \u00e6ther.\n\n319. What has not been burnt upon the planet, is again reduced.\nA something that has not originally suffered combustion is a\ncontradiction. The metal is therefore not the Original, as for\nobvious reasons also, the solid cannot proceed directly out of the\n\u00e6ther, without having been first gaseous and fluid. The processes of\ncombustion upon the planet are all secondary, are imitations of the\nprimary combustion in matter, in the elements. Fire consists of the\ncombinations of the three activities, gravity, light, and heat, which\nare now to be separately considered.\n\n\na. GRAVITY.\n\n320. The functions of gravity are exhibited principally in the motion\nof the heavenly bodies, and are so completely unfolded in works upon\nPhysics and Astronomy, that they may here be passed over in silence.\n\n\nb. LIGHT.\n\n321. The \u00e6ther and the terrestrial matter are correlative, like Higher\nand Lower, unity and multiplicity, and therefore stand in the same\nantagonism with each other, as the air with the two inferior elements.\nThe \u00e6ther is constantly seeking to convert the matter into itself, to\nrender it indifferent by depolarization, this, however, to condense it.\nMatter is only condensed \u00e6ther. This condensation proceeds, however,\nfrom the polarization of light, and it is consequently the activity of\nlight by which the \u00e6ther hardens into matter.\n\n322. The activity of the \u00e6ther or the light dies or becomes obscured in\nmatter. The next obscuration of light, or its immediate transition into\nmatter is the polar primary body, _oxygen_. Oxygen is the corporeal\nlight. It is the spirit of light to posit every thing with an internal\npolarity, to convert everything into oxygen, to render everywhere free\nthe oxygen pole; for the process of fixation can only happen through\nactivity = light, and fixation is a production of primary bodies.\n\n323. Light is the manifestation of positive tension, of the tension\nof oxygen. When this reaches its maximum, light issues forth. This is\nevident upon the planet. Every generation of the Similar takes place\nthrough the similar principles; the cosmic generation of light must\nbe therefore imparted also by positive tension, by that of oxygen. No\nreference has been here made to the negative relation of oxygen in\nelectrical tension; it does not come under the denomination.\n\n324. The sun is the body of oxygen, the _water_ in the world-space; the\nplanet, however, is the basic body, the earth in world-space. The \u00e6ther\nis diffused between the two as the air of heaven. The sun appears to\nhave only the density of water; for it is four times less dense than\nthe earth, and is thus pretty nearly in the condition of water.\n\n325. The sun must be water, even because it is a body of oxygen. It\nmust be denser than water, because it is in the centre, is central\nwater.\n\n326. It gives out light only, because it is water; for as such it is in\neternal motion.\n\n327. The solar water is moved by the planets, like ebb and flow. At\nevery point of the sun opposite to which a planet stands, there is\nflow; there the illumination is stronger, in other situations weaker.\nThere must be several seas of light upon the sun, as many as there are\nplanets placed opposite to it. There is nowhere a perfectly quiescent\npoint in the sun; therefore it is nowhere wholly solid.\n\n328. The shining is an ebb and flow of the sun. Query Do not the spots\nand flashes of the sun depend upon this? The ebb and flow also of the\nsea gives out light; every motion in water shines. The sun does not\nsimply shine by external motion, but because it is by this motion\npolarized unto the Innermost. It is a true gelatinous animal, a body\ntrembling through its whole mass, and thereupon phosphorescent.\n\n329. The sun is not inhabited. It has no firm ground.\n\n330. The contest of the primary principles of the elemental bodies upon\nthe planet appears as light.\n\n331. Light is now more closely characterized. It is no longer merely\nthe tension of \u00e6ther generally, but tension of material elemental\nbodies. Thereby the light has been torn from heaven and given to\nthe earth. Light has a chemical relation, and admits therefore of\ncomparison with terrestrial matters.\n\n332. Through light the negative, its opposite or the basic, pole has\nbeen evoked in matter. The sun is self-posited as oxygen against the\nplanet as Azotic or phlogiston; hydrogen and carbon. Light therefore\ndeoxydises the bodies; it converts them into itself, into a polar\nprinciple. Acids placed in the light become deoxydised; nitric acid,\nmuriate of silver. Oxygen is developed in light out of water. In like\nmanner the constituent parts of the air continue separated only through\nlight.\n\n\nINFLEXION.\n\n333. The light tends from the sun to the earth, not merely because\nthe polarization in accordance with its nature streams forth from the\ncentre to the periphery, because the light is radiality; but because\nthe earth is the basic pole of the sun. It is thus polarity, and not\nsimply the straight line, which light obeys. Light tends to the centre\nof the earth, because between this and the sun the tension oscillates.\nThe line of tension is only between the two centres.\n\n334. In whatever direction light may fall upon the earth, it must\nstrive towards the middle point. Those bodies that have in themselves\nthe earthy nature, attract the light, not by virtue of an hidden\nquality, but out of the antagonism with the sun; now it may proceed\neither from greater density or from true basic import.\n\n335. Rays of light, which pass close to the earth, as rays of tension\nbetween the sun and another star, become, from the polarity of the\nearth being stronger than that of the star, diverted from their\nstraight direction and drawn towards the middle point. This diversion\nof light from its direct course is called _Inflexion_.\n\n336. It is chiefly basic bodies that inflect the light towards\nthemselves. No such body has an infinite shadow. In other respects, all\nbodies inflect because they are much denser than light.\n\n\nTRANSLUCENCY AND REFRACTION.\n\n337. Light, as an \u00c6therial, permeates matter, and must on that very\naccount pass toward the middle point of the earth, because it is\nvirtually none other than the tension of both middle points, the earth\nand the sun. Originally therefore the light must have gone through the\nearth.\n\n338. This permeation is not, however, mechanical but dynamic, and is\nindeed necessarily a propagation of the tension of \u00e6ther through the\nmatter.\n\n339. Matter is susceptible of the same polarization of which the \u00e6ther\nis susceptible, because it is on no account different from the \u00e6ther;\nthe polarization only takes place more slowly.\n\n340. The transmission of light is called _Translucency_.\n\n341. The \u00e6ther is transparent, because it is everywhere the propagation\nof the tension of light, because it is itself, or becomes, light\neverywhere. Bodies can also be transparent, only in so far as they\nare the light itself, i. e. in so far as the same polarization can\nbe excited in them which is constantly excited in \u00e6ther by the sun.\nBut this is not only possible, but necessary; for matter is surely\nthe \u00e6ther itself, only condensed. The polarity \u00e6ther must therefore\nbe capable also of being excited in the condensed \u00e6ther, although in\na much less degree. The transparency of matter is a tension of \u00e6ther\ncontinually ringing through matter. The whole universe originally was\ntransparent; it has only originated through tension of light.\n\n342. Matter is a tension of light that has become central. This\ncontinuous tension of light in matter in relation to the centre, and\nthus with curvation, is called _Refraction_.\n\n343. All transparent bodies must refract light. The bodies are,\nhowever, denser than the \u00e6ther; therefore the light, which passes from\na rarer into a denser medium, must be refracted towards the centre\n(plummet of incidence), and in the reverse case turned from it.\n\n344. Materiality is not the only determinant of refraction, but also\nthe density of the element, the earth refracting light more than water,\nand this more than air.\n\n345. The density also is not the only determinant, but the quality\nalso of the matter; the Basic or Planetary must refract more than the\nOxygenic or Solar.\n\n346. As translucency is not a dead transmission of light, but a\ncontinued propagation of tension; so must it be viewed as a process\nof light in matter, but one excited from without. Translucency is a\n_co-illumination_, like the concord of equally attuned instruments.\n\n347. Co-illuminating bodies are thus analogous still to the \u00e6ther.\nIf there are non-transparent bodies, they can only be found in the\nearth-element, which, being furthest removed from the \u00e6ther, has\nperfected itself independently, and they must indeed be wholly\ndeoxydised.\n\n348. The co-illumination of bodies or their transparency is an\neffort of deoxydation. Bodies that cannot at all be deoxydised are\nnon-transparent.\n\n\nREFLEXION.\n\n349. Transparency belongs only to those bodies which have in themselves\na twofold character. It will be shown that the metals are absolutely\nidentical matters, and therefore non-transparent. The metals are the\nonly non-transparent bodies. Metaleity = non-transparency.\n\n350. The light falls upon a non-transparent only through a transparent\nbody, and thus one in which the tension of light propagates\nitself. This co-illumination of the matter placed in front of the\nnon-transparent body cannot cease to co-illuminate; the tension must\nthus abide in it, and turn back from the non-transparent body, in a\nstraight direction if the tension fell direct upon it, at a certain\nangle, if obliquely. This phenomenon is called _Reflexion_.\n\n351. Reflexion is no repulsion of light, but only its tension continued\ninto the medium, in which the tension has been.\n\n352. A non-transparent body indicates nothing for the tension of light\nbut the limit of the co-illuminating matter; it does not at all operate\nitself upon the light, it is as it were a void space.\n\n353. Transparent bodies also reflect partly, because they are only\nrelative \u00e6ther, because they only co-illuminate, are not themselves\ntensed; or because the basis in all is the metal. Every other medium\nis, however, an \u00e6ther differently fixed; in every one therefore the\ntension has been changed; every medium is thus a limit for the tension,\nand therefore the transparent bodies also reflect. Since the tension\nbecomes altered, when it passes into another medium, it always remains\nby preference in the neutral medium; therefore reflexion originates\nalso by the air, when the light passes out of glass very obliquely into\nit.\n\n\n_Operation of the terrestrial Elements upon Light._\n\nDECOMPOSITION OF LIGHT--COLOURS.\n\n354. It results from all this, that light cannot enter unchanged into\nmutual operation with matter. The tension of \u00e6ther changes itself in\nmatter. This change of light through the influence of matter is a\ndebilitation of the tension of \u00e6ther and lastly its complete cessation.\nThere can be therefore no absolutely transparent matter; the \u00e6ther only\nis this absolutely transparent matter. The denser a material is, by so\nmuch the more will it be capable of suppressing in itself the tension\nof light. The most transparent bodies must also become with a greater\ndensity adiaphanous or opaque, because the Metallic increases in them.\n\n355. This suppression or expiration of the tension of light in bodies\nhas received, as likewise proceeding from the mechanical theory of\nlight, the name of _absorption_. The absorption is not a mechanical\nadherence of the particles of light in the pores of bodies. There are\nno pores for light, and this requires none.\n\n356. The absorption or _decrescence_ of light is a retrogression\nof light into the indifference of \u00e6ther, into _darkness_. Light in\nconflict with matter does not continue light, but becomes a mean\ncondition between light and darkness.\n\n357. The substratum of light, the \u00e6ther, has two extreme conditions,\nand only two, the tensed and the non-tensed; the one is the _light_,\nthe other the _dark_. Between the two, however, are the mediate\nconditions of _twilight_ or \"clare-obscure.\" The light \u00e6ther emits\nrays, the dark does not; the mediate conditions are half the two.\nThe light condition is the clear unsullied light, the absolute\ntranslucency; the darkness is the absolute want of translucency; the\nmediate members are offuscated light, mediate tensions of \u00e6ther.\n\n358. The mean tension of \u00e6ther, or light mingled with darkness,\nis called _Colour_. Colour is a finite, fixed light, the actual\ntransmission of light into matter.\n\n359. No matter can be uncoloured. An uncoloured matter is a nonentity.\n\n360. Since matter is rigidified light, even so must it be posited in\nreference to colour, like light. Pure light materially substantiated or\nposited is _White_. The untensed \u00e6ther materially posited is _Black_.\n\n361. The mediate tensions of \u00e6ther, or the mixture of Light and Dark,\nare mean conditions of White and Black, mixtures of the two extremes\nor androgynisms of White and Black. If we do not call White and Black\ncolours, colours are then partial positions of light in matter, or in\nthe dark.\n\n362. Colour originates only in the _confinity_ of Light and Dark, or in\nthe limit between White and Black. They are therefore microscopic.\n\n363. Darkness is the cause of colours.\n\n364. There is nothing visible but colour, but the coloured matter.\nThe Non-corporeal itself is invisible. Darkness is the cause of all\nvisibility. Were there no darkness, there would be no world for the\neye. Colours are only illuminated darkness.\n\n365. In the limit between Light and Dark there is neither White nor\nBlack, but their possible mediate conditions, or the proper colours,\nthe material tensions of \u00e6ther. If the shadow-line of light be viewed\nunder a magnifying glass, colours will be seen to reside in it. They\nare invisible only before on account of their minuteness. The prism and\nthe lens do nothing else than magnify the shadow-line of light. They\nonly show the colours that already exist therein, but do not create\nthem.\n\n366. There is properly only _one_ colour between White and Black;\nit is the transmission of light into matter generally. If we look\nthrough a prism with the refracting angle presented downwards, at an\nhorizontal fissure in the shutter of a dark chamber, the red colour\nis then exhibited upon the upper and lower borders of the spectrum\nso formed within the eye; thus, in both instances, where the Dark is\nabove and the White beneath, as also where the latter is above and\nthe former beneath, as on the inferior border of the opening. Upon\nthe lower border of the upper Red, and thus in the Clare, Yellow\nappears, which is consequently a mixture of Red and White, as seen\nthrough the thinner part of the prism. Yellow is thus brighter Red.\nUpon the upper border of the lower Red, thus also in the Clare, Blue\nappears, which is consequently a mixture also of Red and White, but\nthe latter seen through the thicker part of the prism. Blue is thus\noffuscated Red. If Yellow and Blue be mixed, Green then originates.\nThere can be therefore only four colours, whereof the Red is a mixture\nof Black and White, Yellow of Red and White, Blue of Red and Black,\nGreen of Blue and Yellow. The first three are simple or mixed colours,\nthe last a compound colour or a medley. These colours are parallel\nto the gradations in nature, or the latter are none other than the\nmaterializations of colours or the gradations of light. All other\ncolours must be contained in the Red; it must serve as the basis\nor groundwork of all; it must be the noblest, most total, fullest\nand purest colour. This colour is the first position of the \u00e6ther\nas matter, and thus of _fire_. _Fire-colour_ is the first-born, the\nnoblest, highest, fullest, purest; it is the \u00e6therial, cosmic colour.\nIn fire the light is offuscated by gravity, and thereby coloured.\n\n367. The light is not, however, perfected by its position as fire, but\nis posited also terrestrially. There are therefore terrestrial colours\nalso.\n\n368. There can be only three terrestrial colours, neither more nor\nless; for there are only three different material or offuscated\npositions of light.\n\n369. The first terrestrial offuscation of light is the _air_. The\ncolour of the air is thus second in the rank of colours. As the\nfire-colour plays the chief part in the cosmic and in all colours, so\ndoes the air-colour among the terrestrial. It is the highest colour of\nthe planet.\n\n370. The second offuscation of light is water. The colour of water is\nthe third colour.\n\n371. The third offuscation of light is the earth; and this colour is\nthe last, the most ignoble. The colours part into two series, the\ncosmic or solar, and the terrestrial or planetary. The cosmic is the\nRed. The first terrestrial is Blue. The second is Green. The third\nis Yellow. Red alone is worth as much as all the three others taken\ntogether. It is the identification of all numbers. Green is merely\ntheir synthesis, the terrestrial, finite totality.\n\n372. The genesis of colours is thus the genesis of the elements, or\nthat of matter. It cannot be otherwise; for the becoming of matter is\nverily an offuscation of light, a coloration. Colour agrees essentially\nwith the elements, and is itself nothing different from element. Fire\nis in its essence red, as being the impartient of light and heat; air\nis in its essence nothing else than the blue \u00e6ther by virtue of its\nbeing gaseous; water is the green \u00e6ther, earth the yellow. If the \u00e6ther\nis tensed, it then becomes red or fire; if it attains its blue stage,\nit becomes air; at the green stage, water, upon the yellow, earth.\n\n373. The elements are only gradations of light, colours. They have\ntherefore been formed according to the laws of light; for colours are\nwithout doubt the legitimate developments of light.\n\n374. Red, as being the solar or fire-colour, ranks parallel with\noxygen; the more powerful indeed the combustion, the more powerful is\nthe oxydation, and by so much redder the flame. Matters also become red\nthrough oxydation. The Red vanishes lastly into White, and thus the\nhighest oxydation is white.\n\n375. The next interchange of Red is with Blue; it becomes red\nby oxydation, this again blue by desoxydation, but by excessive\nalkalization and terrification, yellow. It is Red that imparts\noxydation, Blue that resolves it and reduces the poles to indifference.\n\n376. From the same cause Red warms, but Blue on the contrary does not.\nThe calefaction given out in prismatic spectra of colours is an impure\nwork, in which refractions, diversions and convergences of light, as\nwell as demi-foci, cooperate.\n\n377. The sun in the firmament may be viewed as the bright opening in\nthe darkened chamber. Colours are therefore nothing but images of the\nsun in darkness, self-manifestations of the sun in dark matter. A point\nof light thrown into darkness is colour. This is the case around the\nsun, which is therefore surrounded by a hollow globe of colours, by\nits own refulgence. The rainbow is a ring around the sun consisting of\ninfinite positions of the solar spectra in darkness.\n\n378. The symbolical doctrine of the colours is correct according to\nthe philosophy of nature. _Red_ is fire, love--Father. _Blue_ is air,\ntruth and belief--Son. _Green_ is water, formation, hope--Ghost. These\nare the three cardinal virtues. _Yellow_ is earth, the Immoveable,\nInexorable, falsity the only vice--Satan. There are three virtues,\nbut only one vice. A result obtained by Physio-philosophy, whereof\nPneumato-philosophy as yet augurs nothing.\n\n\nCOLOURS AND PLANETS.\n\n379. Every condensation of \u00e6ther by light is consequently a production\nof colour, and inversely, every production of colour is a condensation\nof the \u00e6ther. The laws of coloration run parallel with those of\nmaterialization, or, what is more, are the same. The planets are thus\nproduced according to the laws which light exercises in the production\nof colours.\n\n380. There are as many productions of heavenly bodies as there are of\ncolours, and thus there are four.\n\n381. The sun is the incorporation of Red or fire, the planets are that\nof the three terrestrial colours. The comets belong to the kingdom of\ndarkness.\n\n382. The planets are only suns reflected in darkness as in a mirror;\nthey have originally been hollow globes of colour, then orbitar\nrings of colour (solar rainbows), then points of colour. The planets\nare coagulated colours, for they are coagulated light. At that very\ndistance from the sun, where light begins to grow dim, where, to speak\nin the Newtonian sense, it begins to refract, there planetary mass\noriginates. The mass of the planet thus coagulates together around the\nsun, but not in an uniform manner like a mass of pulp, but in pauses of\ncolours, exactly like a rainbow.\n\n383. These planetary chromatic arcs or bows of colour are related to\nthe sun like the three terrestrial colours to the cosmic, or as the\nthree terrestrial elements to fire. _Three_ planetary productions\nmust have thus formed around the sun, because the light condenses,\nmaterializes itself in three moments. Therefore the planets range\nthemselves in groups at three great distances. To the _first_\nproduction belong Mercury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, Vesta, Juno, Ceres\nand Pallas. They are the first digression from Red, the Yellow; the\nEarthy preponderates in them. They are all placed close together. To\nthe _second_ production belong Jupiter and Saturn; water rules them,\nand fluctuates visibly upon them; they are the Green. They range\nat a great distance from the former group. To the _third_ and most\nremote productions belongs Uranus; it is the Blue, in which the air\npreponderates. It again ranges at a great distance from the former\ngroup. The comets are naught but \u00e6ther, which is about to become air.\n\n384. The production of the earth-planets or of the first group is\ndispersed into so many as it is on account of the proximity of the sun,\non account of the energy of the rays of light, as well as the import of\nthe Earthy, which exists essentially under many forms. The planetary\nrings have been arranged like scales behind each other, like clouds\nthrough electrical pauses; but these repeat themselves more rapidly, in\nthe neighbourhood of the sun.\n\n\nc. HEAT.\n\n385. While the \u00e6ther falls into a state of tension or shines, it is\nthrown into motion. This motion of \u00e6ther manifests itself as the\nconatus or effort to extension. The extension, however, considered as a\nworld-phenomenon, is _Heat_.\n\n386. Light, when it operates upon terrestrial matter, excites this to\nspecial polarization, whereby the \u00c6therial that is in it is set in\nmotion, i. e. heat is generated.\n\n387. Light never moves directly the mass itself, but only the \u00c6therial\nthat is in it. Through this motion of the \u00e6ther it becomes separated\nfrom matter; and this separation is manifested as _free_ heat.\n\n388. Heat is not matter itself any more than light is, but it is only\nthe act of motion in the primary matter. In heat, as well as in light,\nthere certainly resides a material substratum; yet this substratum does\nnot give out heat and light; but the _motion_ only of the substratum\ngives out heat, and the _tension_ only of the substratum light. There\nis no body of heat; hydrogen is the body of heat, just as oxygen may be\ncalled the body of fire.\n\n389. Heat is real space; into it all forms have been resolved, as all\nmateriality has been resolved into gravity, and all activity, all\npolarity into light. Heat is the universal form, consequently the want\nof form.\n\n390. Light properly develops heat out of matter through separation of\nthe fixed poles from the substance, whereby the latter again passes\nover into \u00e6ther.\n\n391. The development of heat in a body is not an extrusion of a matter\nadherent, and as it were foreign, to it; but an ascent of the matter\nitself into heat. The matter does not develop, or give out heat, but\n_becomes_ heat, namely \u00e6ther.\n\n392. The loss which a body sustains by the radiation of heat is as\nslight as the \u00e6ther is subtile or rare; thus it is infinitely small,\nwhere the \u00e6ther is infinitely light. We cannot speak of the loss of\nmatter, while it is hot; although a true loss is present, if the point\nin question be philosophically regarded, it can come, however, as\nlittle under consideration as the weight of the \u00e6ther.\n\n393. The fusion of bodies is a diminution of the fixity of their poles,\ntheir further evaporation, and thus an approximation to indifference or\nthe apolarity of \u00e6ther. Heat is the actual retrogression of matter into\n\u00e6ther; light is only the efficient of this transition.\n\n394. As heat becomes originally excited, so must it be always\nexcited; two causes for one effect are impossible. The excitation of\nheat by oxydation takes place in the same way as by light, namely\nby polarization and separation therefore of the Indifferent. The\ngeneration of heat by chemical processes is based upon the same\nprinciple. Lastly, the generation also of heat by compression and\nsimple _friction_ is wholly similar to that which is caused by\nlight. In every case they are only polar, and by no means mechanical\noperations upon matter, whereby the fixity of the poles becomes changed.\n\n395. It is not a change of cohesion, which the friction mechanically\neffects, but the act is purely dynamical. The essence of friction\nconsists in the constant renewal of polar change, because thereby an\ninfinite number of projecting points or apices are alternately brought\ninto contact. There is verily no smooth body.\n\n396. Heat is the transition of light unto darkness; for it is\nindifferent \u00e6ther, only moved. Colours are thus also a conflict of\nlight with heat, and out of this conflict issues the most beautiful,\nthe highest colour, the Red of fire. In fire, the contest between light\nand darkness has risen to the highest pitch; the \u00e6ther therefore is\nalso moved to the greatest degree, becomes hot. If the indifference\nbecomes the maximum, the vital tension then relaxes, the fire is\nextinguished; finally motion ceases, it is cold and dark.\n\n397. In matter also light and heat operate against each other. Light\ndeoxydizes, heat oxydizes. If light appears to oxydize, it is only by\nevoking heat.\n\n398. Heat is the function of expansion for matter. Every body has a\ndefinite degree or amount of expansion, therefore a definite fixity of\n\u00e6ther; this \u00e6ther is _latent_ heat.\n\n399. Heat operates spherically in matter or in all directions, not in\nthe linear direction like light. The propagation of heat can only take\nplace slowly, because it is not a polar action, but only the result of\nsuch an one, only motion. Heat does not penetrate bodies mechanically,\nbut dynamically like light, yet without decomposing them, as light does.\n\n400. Heat is related as indifferent \u00e6ther to the matter as to a Polar.\nThis relation imparts the _process of conduction_. Light, however, is\nitself polar and disturbs matter, while it passes through it.\n\n401. With the exception of their cohesion matters are not directly\nchanged by heat.\n\n402. During every process of decomposition, during every process of\nlight heat must be produced, but not light also during every process of\nheat.\n\n403. Dense materials must conduct heat because they are most opposed to\nit. It is only the formed element therefore that can possess capacity\nfor conducting heat.\n\n404. Absence of form is the character of isolators of heat, form that\nof the conductors, apart from every remaining quality. Solid bodies,\nwhich easily pass into the formless condition are isolators.\n\n405. The densest bodies among the solids must be the best conductors.\nRegard may be first paid to the nature of their constituent parts in\nthe sequel of the present section of this work.\n\n406. The conduction of heat is a continuous excitation from one part\nstriving against or resisting the other; the earths (as metals) are the\nbest conductors.\n\n407. Matters, which are images of heat, do not conduct, because\nthey enter only as minimum into conflict with it, and while they\nexpand at once convert themselves into the same. Such is the air.\nThe Heterogeneous only conducts. The heat expands in the air only by\ncontinuous motion of the aerial particles. The air is an isolator.\nWater ranks in the middle between air and earth.\n\n408. With respect also to conduction, light is opposed to heat. Light\nis conducted by those very bodies, which isolate heat, and isolated,\nnot admitted to permeate or absorbed, by those which conduct heat. The\nair conducts light, isolates heat; the metal, the earth conducts heat,\nisolates light; water holds a mediate relation towards the two, yet\ntowards light that of a conductor, because it is deoxydizable.\n\n409. The conduction of light is likewise a process of deoxydation,\nor a disintegration of matter. By the conduction of light the bodies\nare chemically analysed, and finally resolve themselves into their\nprinciples; such after all is the case with every glass and crystal.\nAs the process of conduction of light may be called a process of\ndeoxydation, so also may it be called a process of the generation of\ncolour. The conduction is an offuscation of light, a colouring; the\ndeoxydation is a solution of the material bonds, an elevation unto\ncolour.\n\n\n2. _Functions of the Air._\n\n\nELECTRICITY.\n\n410. The air is the slightest combination of the primary bodies,\nand stands in opposition with the two other elements, as more solid\ncombustions. In this antagonism the air lays claim upon the other\nelements to analyse them; these, however, upon the air, to combine, and\nundergo more vivid combustion.\n\n411. This antagonism is on a large scale an antagonism of periphery and\ncentre, like the primary antagonism, by which planets and suns have\nwithdrawn from each other. The tension of air with the other elements\nis called _Electricity_. The centroperipheric antagonism between\nthe sun and the planet, between light and colour, represented in an\nelementary manner is electricity.\n\n412. Sun and planet are electrically related to each other, and\nthe circumrotation of the latter may be viewed as conditioned by\nthe change of electrical poles. Colours also are only electrical\nproductions. Light itself is similar to an electrical tension of the\n\u00e6ther.\n\n413. Electricity is an action of the periphery or limit and thus of the\nsurface of the globe. The surface of the globe is, however, everywhere\n+-without centre. The principles of electricity are therefore eternally\nseparated without having a middle point, as occurs in magnetism. The\nelectrical poles live in eternal animosity, because they have no point\nof union. Such is then the essence of electricity. Electricity is\ntherefore only a function of surfaces without any line. It clings only\nto the upper surface of the bodies, and does not penetrate into their\nthickness. It is only the tension of the surfaces of bodies against\neach other, of the apices of divided radii.\n\n414. The air is the periphery, the _limit_ or boundary of the earth.\nElectricity is therefore the spirit of air. It is in its most active\nstate in that stratum of air which is in contact with the earth,\nbecause there the limits are situated. Upon this lightning depends.\n\n415. Electricity, as an aerial function, is terrestrial heat. Both are\ntherefore conducted by the same rigid linear bodies and isolated by the\nsame. The isolation of electricity coalesces with absence of form, or\nwith the transition of denser bodies into air.\n\n416. Electricity is an antagonism between air on the one side and water\nand earth upon the other. By these therefore two kinds of operation are\nposited in the air.\n\n417. While electricity is the tension of air with the other elements,\nit is also the tension of the principles themselves of air. Electricity\nis a twofold character appertaining to the two principles of air. The\ntension of \u00e6ther and of substance, thus the tension of fire repeated\nupon the two elementary bodies of air, is electricity. Electricity\nexists under two forms, as the electricity of the substance or body\nof fire, and as that of the planet. These two conditions are perhaps\nincorrectly named + E and-E, or positive and negative electricity.\n\n418. The + E is the more energetic, active in itself, polar; it is\nthe electricity of fire represented in oxygen. The-E is the weaker,\nthat which has only been evoked, the basic; it is the electricity of\nthe planet represented in nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, sulphur. It may\nbe said that-E is related to + E as planet is to sun, as periphery\nto centre. The sun is + E, the planet-E, the one the electricity of\noxygen, the other of hydrogen.\n\n419. These electrical conditions must always be changing in the air,\naccording as the slightest influence is brought to bear upon them from\nwithout. The air consists in this change of electrical poles. Were\nthe poles not to change, the air would be a solid element. The earth\nis an air with _fixed_ electricity, the water with extinguished or\nneutralized electricity.\n\n420. The twofold character of the aerial principles is increased by\nevery polarizing action from without, and therefore principally by the\nsurface of the earth, which consists of two elements. Were there no\nsurface to the earth, were simply air present, then there would be no\nelectrical change of poles. The surface of the earth itself, however,\nproduces no change of poles in the air, for it remains always neutral;\nbut it becomes unequal or polar from the change wrought upon it by\nwater and earth, by light, by heating and by chemical processes.\n\n421. The air also changes the electricities while it roams over the\nearth. This wandering motion is a contact of differently polarized\ntracts of the earth. Every mountain, valley, and river, every meadow is\ndifferently polarized; from each the air derives another electricity.\nThrough this ceaseless alternation of polar exchange, its activity\nbecomes so elevated that at last the electricity makes its appearance\nin a manner cognizable by the senses. The production of electricity by\n_friction_ admits of a similar explanation. Friction is in miniature,\nwhat the sweeping of air is over the earth. Were the earth quite level,\nand composed of homogeneous matter, the air would not become electric\nby motion.\n\n422. All terrestrial electricity has been evoked by a change of poles\nanalogous to friction. Through light nothing foreign is posited in the\nair, any more than by friction, and by both the electricity is attained\nin a similar dynamical manner.\n\n423. The elements of the air, polarized to the highest degree by\nelectricity, must combine, and this combination is the process of\ncombustion. The final result of electrical tension is combustion\nof air. It is only, however, the two primary bodies that undergo\ncombustion; the two constituent parts of the air must, therefore, be\ndriven by electricity to their last extreme, even to the most perfect\nelement of fire and the basic or terrestrial substance. The internal\ncombination of both these primary or elemental bodies, or the product\nof this aerial combustion is next of all _water_. The termination of\nelectrical tension in the air is rain. All rain is the extinguished\nfunction, the dying spirit of air. The two hostile principles are\nreconciled in water. Water accompanies every process of combustion.\n\n424. By electricity the air was separated into the two inferior\nelements, into water and earth. At present, where the whole water and\nthe whole earth has been precipitated from air, rain is certainly as a\nrule only water condensed and held in solution in the air.\n\n425. The nitrogen gas is the residue of the primary rain. After the air\nhas become sea by the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, it no longer\ncreates water out of its own bulk, but now rederives it from the sea,\nand still but imitates its primary process in rain.\n\n426. Were there merely solid land upon the planet, the oxygen pole\nwould be evoked in the air, and the latter would be precipitated wholly\nas water. Were there merely water or sea upon the planet, the nitrogen\npole would be evoked, and the air be wholly precipitated as earth. But\nsince the two elements are constantly and alternately operating upon\nthe air, so must at one time water, at another earth, be generated and\nprecipitated from it. The earths in the act of falling down, or in\nprecipitation, are the meteoric stones. They are only the after-births\nof the primary decomposition of air.\n\n427. It can indeed be none other than carbonic acid, which is converted\nby decomposition into meteoric stones, or at least into the metals and\nearths which they contain. Sulphur must be regarded as the melting\ndown of carbon and hydrogen. In the upper lighter regions of the air\ncarburetted hydrogen gas may very well be present, and condense itself\ninto meteoric stones.\n\n428. The condensation must take place by means of electricity. The\ngreater condensation or solidification, as well as the calefaction,\nresults indeed first through the fall.\n\n429. Their bursting is only conceivable when some hydrogen gas is in\nthe meteoric stone, which gas, when submitted to the highest degree of\nheat, becomes finally fulminating gas and bursts the stone.\n\n430. Meteoric stones are children of our planet, and not of the\nworld-space. They are the antagonism of the water-formation or of rain.\n\n431. The falling stars are simply indeed condensed carbon or hydrogen\ngas, but which by reason of its small mass does not become solid. It\nis probably converted only into sulphur. Thus falling stars would\nbe the other halves of meteoric stones; the latter consisting of a\npreponderance of carbon, being therefore earths and metals; the former\nof a preponderance of hydrogen, being therefore carburetted hydrogen\nor sulphur. A greater number of meteoric stones must fall over the sea\nthan over the solid land.\n\n\n3. _Function of the Water._\n\n\nSOLUTION.\n\n432. The function of water is necessarily homologous with the process\nof combustion, because the main bulk or proportion of water is oxygen.\nIn conformity with its spiritual activity does water seek to convert\nthe two other elements into water, to impart to them its form, to\nfluidize them. This happens with the air when it has been absorbed;\nbut upon the earth also the water exercises the same action.\n\n433. The function of water is the formation of globes or the _Process\nof Solution_; it directs itself chiefly against the solid; for the\nsolid element is the redintegrant factor of water. Solution is a\npositing of the solid under the internal polar form, but the poles of\nwhich have not yet separated. Every solid _formation_ has come out of\nwater, as water has out of air; every new formation must also return\nout of water, by fluidization, by relaxation of the poles. By solution,\nsolid matters are again reduced to their primary condition, and are\nthen capable of reassuming new fixities. The process of solution is a\nprocess of becoming water, not by agglutination, but by liberations of\nfixity; a _Solution_ in the strongest sense of the term.\n\n434. No process of solution is conceivable without oxydation. The\ndissolved body, while it obtains the aqueous nature, is taken up in\nthe sense of oxygen. No solution occurs without oxygen, as well as no\ncombustion is possible without water. The solvent character of water is\nbased upon the preponderance of the oxygen over the hydrogen.\n\n435. During every solution the two principles of water enter into\na state of tension with each other, as the two aerial principles\ndo in electricity. This tension is established by that which is to\nundergo solution; for everything so circumstanced is polar towards\nwater. During every solution the oxygen is elevated in its pole, and\nthe hydrogen likewise. If the solution be very heterogeneous, they\nseparate, the water is decomposed. In the pure process of solution the\nwater simply abides in a state of tension; if each aqueous principle is\nactually and independently self-evolved, chemistry then originates; but\nof this we shall discourse in the sequel. The process of solution may\nbe characterized as the equilibrium of the process of tension between\nthe object that is to undergo solution and the solvent, and between the\ntwo principles of the latter, whereby separation is not thus attained.\nAs electricity finally strikes out into the process of combustion, so\ndoes that of solution into the chemical.\n\n436. Solution is in essence like electricity. Solution is an electrical\ntension between oxygen and carbon; electricity is a process of solution\nbetween oxygen and nitrogen, a process of tension without separation of\nprinciples. Air and water are in a state of constant tension towards\neach other; and hence therefore result the constant evaporation and the\nclouds.\n\n437. What lightning is in the air, namely formation of water, that is\nchemistry in water. The salt in the sea is what the clouds are in the\nair. Two electrical clouds are what two salts are in the water. Rain is\nthe imitation of the creation of water. Precipitation of salt is the\nimitation of the creation of earth.\n\n\n4. _Functions of the Earth._\n\n\nCRYSTALLIZATION.\n\n438. The earth-element is the highest result of combustion in creation,\nthe highest fixation of \u00e6ther. The earth is the \u00e6ther represented as\ncentre in the Material, or it is the identification of all polar binary\ndivision in the Terrestrial, independently of oxydation; therefore its\nparts are motionless, be they dust or compact masses. The earth is the\ncorporeal gravity, the substance as a perfectly simple position without\nemergence out of itself, the 0, the terrestrial monas. The earth is\nconsequently the heaviest and densest element, and is that which must\ninclude the middle point of our own and every planet.\n\n439. In the middle of the planet there is only earth, and nothing else;\nthe middle is not hollow, does not contain any central fire as has been\nimagined, nor air, and the science of Geogeny will show that no metal\nalso could be contained in the interior of the earth.\n\n440. In the air both material principles are only associated with each\nother, in water they are mixed, but in the earth identified, blended\ntogether.\n\n441. The earth is to the other elements what the sun is to the planets,\nnamely, the basis, the centre and that the mathematical as well as\nthe dynamic centre. That this is the part played by the earth-element\nis proved not only by its character, but also by its volume. The\nearth-element exceeds the other elements in mass as much as the sun\ndoes the planets; the water is only the vascular system in the flesh of\nthe earth-element; while the air is only the expression of the limit or\nin other words its integument.\n\n442. Everything therefore that now occurs upon the planet develops\nitself out of the earth, the water and the air being only the\nauxiliaries of generation. The Earthy is developed in the water by\nthe air. As creation has been closed with the earth, so may the solid\nmaterials, which are now and then found upon the planet apart from the\nearth, not be products of the first creation, but only developments of\nthe planet when created and cosmically completed.\n\n443. The earth as material gravity is solid. It has, however,\noriginated out of the fluid, therefore by a process of cohesion; this\nis called the _Process of Crystallization_.\n\n444. The process of crystallization is perfectly equivalent to the\nprocess of fixation of the \u00e6ther, and is only the termination of\nthe same. As light at any spot in the world-space creates a central\npoint, the nucleus of a comet, around which more of the mass of\n\u00e6ther is constantly accumulating till it finally coagulates into\nthe solid condition; so does the process of crystallization evoke\nsome particular spot, point or nucleus in the water, wherein the\ncrystallizing forces are excited, which attract the mass that is\nsusceptible of fixation and fashion it into a crystal. The process of\ncrystallization is a process of fixation, and with it also is furnished\nthe theory of crystallization. The process of crystallization is a\nprocess of polarization, and one indeed that proceeds from a centre;\nor, properly speaking, the point, from which the polarizing process\nemerges in a fluidity that is fixable or in other words susceptible of\ncrystallization, becomes a central point, a middle point and virtually\nthe middle point of the crystal.\n\n445. The process of polarization does not originate absolutely in\nthe fluid, any more than light has the power of concentrating or\ncrystallizing itself in any given part of the \u00e6ther; but by an external\ndetermination. This is a granule, a projecting point in the vessel\nor in the hollow of the earth, in which the crystals originate. The\ncrystal never begins in the middle of the fluid, but only on its walls\nor on the surface. The point of polarization or of crystallization has\nbeen granted; now this is polar towards the fluid, and works therefore\nby polarizing upon it, and through this water also passes over into the\ncrystal, forming what is called water of crystallization.\n\n446. This polarization of the fluid passes in every direction; for\nevery polar point is polar all around. Thus a spherical portion of\nthe fluid is polarized round about the point. The fixable parts are\nspheroidally attracted and gather together from all sides around the\npoint. For were the polarization not to traverse the whole mass, but\nonly according to individual lines, the crystal must then indeed be\njagged or indented.\n\n447. In this manner the crystal would have been a globe, from the\nfixable particles lying together in distinct points, after the manner\nof pulp. But this is impossible, because the point of starting or\ndeparture is differently polarized to the fluidity, being negative\naccording to observation. Every polar process does not operate in\ncontinuity, so that one end of the line should be purely positive,\nthe other, however, purely negative; but every polar line is an\ninfinity of poles, where, however, at one end the positive character\nonly, at the other the negative preponderates. Such a line is e. g.\nas follows, +-+-+-, which begins with + and ends with-; it therefore\nhas a preponderance of + at one end, of-at the other, and yet is both\neverywhere. By this infinity of polar change the fixable particles\nrange themselves behind each other, while they separate from each\nother to an infinitely minute degree; these parts polarized behind\neach other are lines or fibres. Every crystal must accordingly consist\nof fibres; none possesses an homogeneous or pultaceous structure.\n\n448. In the crystal one principal direction of polarization originates,\nwhich is effected by the antagonism of the point of crystallization\nwith the fluid mass. It gives the direction of the crystal and its\nenergy gives the length. This principal line consists of two poles\nthat recede from each other, and these determine the two ends of the\ncrystal, which are always similar, provided no mechanical obstacle be\ninterposed.\n\n449. From each of the mutually seceding poles lines of polarization\nissue at definite angles, which (like elliptical radii on the\nperiphery) meet at the sides of the newly produced crystal. Then again\nbetween these radii tension arises, so that the fibres become lamell\u00e6.\nThe main line between the two mutually seceding poles is the central\nline or _polar axis_ of the crystal; the angular lines which determine\nthe position of the lamell\u00e6, are the _polar radii_. The polar radii\ndetermine the _nucleus_ of the crystal and are therefore nuclear lines;\nthe polar axis determines the whole of the crystal, is the crystal,\nthe central-line, and determines the form in general, or what has been\ncalled the secondary form.\n\n450. Since all polar activities operate only in a straight line, there\ncan thus be no globular crystal. Water is only susceptible of assuming\nthe globular form upon a large as well as a small scale, because there\nare no fixed poles in it. The nucleus does not originate previous to\nthe secondary form; since it is verily impossible for the polar rays to\noriginate without a polar axis.\n\n451. There are no actual degradations in the genesis of the crystal;\nthey are only a mathematical expression for the finished form of the\ncrystal.\n\n452. The number of possible or actual nuclei is definite. They are\nbased upon the combination of the laws of the globe with those of the\npolarity.\n\n453. The simplest angular body must be circumscribed by at least four\nsurfaces, and thus be a tetrahedron.\n\n454. The fundamental nucleus of crystals is, however, the double\ntetrahedron or the hexahedron, namely the trilateral double-pyramid;\nfor radii do not proceed simply from the point of commencement, but\nalso from the extremities of the axis. When the superior and inferior\nradii meet, they must form a double-tetrahedron. The disposition to\nthis form has been implanted in all crystals. If the nucleus becomes no\nsuch hexahedron, the aberration from, still admits of being referred\nto, the hexahedron.\n\n455. There is no prismatic nucleus. The columns and parallelopiped\nnuclei are only mutilations.\n\n456. The tetrahedron is also only a mutilated nucleus. To the essence\nof a nucleus belong two tetrahedra, with their bases joined to each\nother.\n\n457. The six-sided double-pyramid is a duplication of the hexahedron.\nThe octahedric nuclei, are things intermediate between the three-and\nsix-sided interruptions of the natural type, like quadrinumeral or\ntetrapetalous coroll\u00e6 in flowers.\n\n458. Columns originate only between the two tetrahedra, without doubt\nowing to deficiency in bulk.\n\n459. If the three-sided double-pyramid be the primary form of crystals,\nso must the six-sided column with trilateral terminal pyramids be\nthe ultimate form. The rhomboidal-dodecahedron is therefore the most\nperfect crystal. It is the most perfect representation of the globe in\nthe angular form.\n\n460. The crystal can not commence with the nucleus and then for the\nfirst time continue to grow or even _change_ into the perfected\ncrystal, because it becomes only crystal in the conflict of the linear\nand spherical action. As little as the sun can be produced without\nthe planet, or vice vers\u00e2, so little can a nucleus subsist without\nwhat is called the external shell or crust. The nucleus is in fact\ndetermined by the shell of the crystal, namely by the polar axis. But\ninversely also the shell is determined by the nucleus, by the polar\nradii. A nucleus alone would be called a centre of a circle without\ncircumference. Microscopic crystals therefore have at once the same\nperfected form as the largest in size. A crystal is an entire heavenly\nbody; it is determined by central forces, which have, however, been\nroused and conducted by dualizing forces, forces of light. Everywhere\ndo we meet with the same laws of the fixation of \u00e6ther, upon a small as\nwell as large scale.\n\n461. Every solid matter and thus the Terrestrial generally, is\ncrystallized upon a small as well as large scale. There cannot be an\natom that were not crystallized, not arranged according to central and\npolar forces. Every crystal is therefore, and especially by reason\nof the infinity of the subordinate poles, crystallized again upon an\ninfinitely small scale, or in other words it consists of infinitely\nnumerous crystals. Every lamella or every particle of the lamella of\na crystal consists again of crystals. These are what are called the\n_integral parts_, properly integral forms of the crystal. They are all\nprobably hexahedra. The metals usually form but very small crystals,\nprobably because the atoms are too heavy and cannot therefore be\nattracted from any distance.\n\n462. Crystallography has been incorrectly made the principle of\ndivision in Mineralogy. A single character can never become a principle\nof division. If also it were actually true, that the form is always\ndisposed according to the Interior, yet the form could never be the\nprinciple of division, but the Interior itself. The form is only the\nsign, but not the spirit, the essence of the mass.\n\n\n\n\nD.--_KINGDOMS OF NATURE._\n\n\nINDIVIDUALS.\n\n463. All the matters that have hitherto originated have done so only\nin a _general_ not a _particular_ manner. They are constituent parts\nof the universe, in which as yet no distinctions reside. So soon as\ndistinctions occur in the elements, they cease to be general matters,\nand become particular or individual things. The sum of the individuals\nis the Kingdoms of Nature.\n\n464. The kingdoms of nature are the repetition of the world upon the\nplanet. This repetition in consciousness is Natural History.\n\n465. Acts of the world repeated upon the planet are combinations of the\nelements. Creation, which has hitherto advanced, now retrogrades, and\nthus by the combinations of general elements that have been already\ncreated.\n\n466. Combinations of the elements, in accordance with the laws of the\nworld, are upon the finite planet particular or individual bodies. The\nkingdoms of nature are the totality of particular bodies.\n\n467. That which is not a Particular belongs not to the kingdoms of\nnature, and thus also does not come within the province of Natural\nHistory, but of Physics.\n\n468. The earth-element lies at the basis of all the combinations of the\nelements. These combinations are therefore ascensions or retrogressions\nin creation. Only three such combinations are therefore possible, viz.\n1. Of the earth with water, or air, or fire--binary combination. 2. Of\nthe earth with water and air, without fire--ternary combination. 3. Of\nthe earth with water, air, and fire--quaternary combination.\n\n469. Out of the binary combination the quiescent bodies originate, for\nthey are only a part of the planet--_Minerals_, _Earths_.\n\n470. Out of the ternary combination originate bodies that are\ninternally moved, for they are a whole planet in Particulars--_Plants_.\n\n471. Out of the quaternary combination particular bodies, moved\nthroughout and rotating around themselves, originate; for they are\nrepresentations of the whole universe--_Animals_. Individual bodies\nthat are moved internally are called organic.\n\n472. There can be therefore only _three_ Kingdoms of Nature. The\nfirst consists simply of individualities, because it is not the equal\nproportion of all the elements. The two other kingdoms, however, are\ncombinations of the individualities of the earth-element with two or\nthree elements, and are thus equivalent to the planet or to the whole\nuniverse. The organic bodies are thus combinations of the Singular with\nthe Whole, and supply the third part of the Philosophy of Nature, the\nOrganology.\n\n\n\n\nFIRST KINGDOM.\n\nMINERAL OR EARTH KINGDOM.\n\n\n473. Uni-or bin-elementary terrestrial bodies are minerals or earths;\ntheir development is Mineralogy in the general sense of that term.\nThe earths regarded individually gives us the science of _Mineralogy_\nproper; combined to form a whole, that of _Geology_.\n\n\nI.--_MINERALOGY._\n\n474. Mineralogy teaches us the development of the earth-element.\n\n475. The earth-element does not exist universally, but only in\nparticular bodies or individuals. There is no general earth, but it is\neither silicious earth or common salt, sulphur or iron, and so on.\n\n476. The earth-element or the earth can only sustain changes, which are\npermanent or abiding; for in it alone fixation has become formation, in\nwhich the atoms do not move, or whereby at least a constant individual\ncharacter of body, or one that is chemical, becomes apparent. The\nchanges undergone by the other three elements are not constant, because\nof the atoms ceaselessly moving and balancing themselves. They do not\nexist individually, but only universally. There is only _one_ water,\n_one_ air, and only _one_ fire; there are therefore no igneous, aerial,\nand aqueous individuals.\n\n477. The changes of the earth-element can only take place upon its\nfundamental or characteristic body, thus on carbon.\n\n478. Nothing can, however, change of itself. All change must proceed\nfrom external influence. All things can be changed therefore by such\ninfluences only as are already antecedent to or _before_ them. The two\nother bodies, however, are prior to carbon; before the earth-element\nonly the three other elements.\n\n479. The earth can therefore be changed in only two ways; either the\ncarbon by the other elemental bodies, or the total earth-element by the\nother elements.\n\n480. The changes wrought by the influence of these bodies are, however,\nonly partial or fractional changes. Therefore partial or chemical\ndiversities only originate, and with them other different bodies or\ndegrees of such. The changes effected by the elements are, however,\ntotal changes, which bear not only reference to the carbon, but to all\nthe constituent parts of the earth-element.\n\n481. Total changes or different conditions of the earth-element are\ncalled _Minerals_, or earths.\n\n482. The _genesis_ of minerals, thus their collective character, as\ndifferently posited fixations of earth, determines the classes, orders,\nand genera.\n\n483. The _genus_ is the product of a genetic moment, and is therefore\nalways a definite, chemical mixture, which alone consequently expresses\nthe essential character. Hitherto there has been no definition of\nmineral genera.\n\n484. _Species_ of minerals are successive developments of the genetic\nmoment, thus st\u00f6chiometric subdivisions of the genetic mixture, e. g.\nthe different degrees of oxydation of nitrogen, in the oxyde, binoxyde\ngases and nitric acid. Hitherto it was not known what a mineral species\nmight be; Physio-philosophy has been the first to introduce clearness\nto these conceptions.\n\n485. A st\u00f6chiometric mixture in the earth-element is an individual.\n\n486. Individuals only are the object of natural history, and thus\nneither water, air, nor fire. This also was not known previous to\nPhysio-philosophy; it is, however, gradually acknowledged also by\nempirics.\n\n487. The crystalline form is merely an external character for the\nspecies, and therefore the same nuclei may occur in the different\norders.\n\n488. Kinds or _varieties_ are different conditions of cohesion. They\nare therefore not determined by the form of the secondary crystal,\nsince the aberration of forms results only from a stoppage upon their\npart half way or from the quantitative energy of the polar radii or\npolar axes.\n\n489. While \u00e6ther, air, and water, as being general matters, do not\nbelong to the mineral system, what have been called artificial salts\nmust on the contrary be admitted therein, because they are no works of\nart. The chemist only brings bodies together which do not come together\naccidentally in nature. It is a true misapprehension of nature's\nproducts if those substances only, that adhere to the earth, are\nrecognized as such; surely this definition is perfectly ridiculous.\n\n490. Two kinds or modes of division are possible, a _chemical_, and a\ngenetic or philosophical.\n\n491. The chemical principle of division of the earth are the elemental\nbodies. The philosophical or naturo-historical principles of division\nare the elements.\n\n492. In reference to the chemical bodies four combinations only are\npossible. 1. Carbon, represented as perfectly pure, may be regarded\nas _Metal_. 2. Carbon united with hydrogen, is manifested in the\n_Inflammables_. 3. Carbon with oxygen makes its appearance in the\n_Earths_. 4. Carbon with oxygen and hydrogen in the _Salts_. According\nto this view, the classes would succeed each other thus:--\n\n  1. Ores.\n  2. Inflammables.\n  3. Earths.\n  4. Salts.\n\nNow, as the earths here intervene between the Inflammables and salts,\nit is at once seen that the series is incorrect; for the earths form by\nfar the largest mass, and must therefore constitute the groundwork or\nbasis of Mineralogy, and thus stand at the commencement. If all metals,\nInflammables and salts were to be deducted, the globe of the earth\nwould still lose but little of its magnitude.\n\n493. This chemical division admits thus of no strict arrangement, since\nwhat are called minerals follow each other unnaturally. Meantime the\nchemical view admits also of a philosophical treatment and amelioration\nof the serial order. It may be said that the earth consists of much\ncarbon, little oxygen and very little hydrogen, without any other\nelement. Salt, of little carbon, much oxygen and little hydrogen,\ntogether with water. The Inflammables of little carbon and oxygen, much\nhydrogen, besides air. Ore, of much carbon, little hydrogen, and still\nless oxygen with fire. As the fire or the \u00e6ther is imponderable, so do\nthe three elemental bodies appear blended together into one apparently\nsimple body, with which gravity, light as lustre, heat as spirit and\nthe conduction of heat, are only spiritually combined.\n\n494. But this view leads directly to the _genetic_ division, as the\nonly true one, to that, namely, which has been based upon the mutual\ninfluence of all the elements. It is itself the ultimate cause or\nfoundation of chemical division.\n\n495. There can accordingly, as there are only four elements, be only\nfour kinds of minerals. The Earthy either continues unchanged, or it is\nchanged by water, air and fire.\n\n496. When the _earth-element_ originates or separates itself from the\nwater, in order to free itself from all the properties of the latter\nas well as from those of the air and fire, and to become stiff and\nsolid, the remaining elements exert an incessant influence upon it, and\ndraw a portion of it into their circle, i. e. they confer upon it their\nproperties.\n\n  a. The Earth-element can be changed by fire             Fire-minerals.\n  b. Or changed by air                                    Air-minerals.\n  c. Or changed by water                                  Water-minerals.\n  d. Or lastly, it is severed wholly and substantially }  Earth-minerals.\n      free                                             }\n\n497. Through the influx of _fire_ upon the formation of the Earthy\nit becomes an identical, homogeneous mass, in which the possibility\nresides, as in the \u00e6ther itself, of undergoing all changes. This\ndevelopmental stage of the earth-element is represented by the _metal_.\nThe homogeneous mass of the metal can become earthy by oxydation,\naqueous or saline by acidification, aerial or combustible by being\nhydrogenized.\n\n498. The metal is unanalysable, as is the \u00e6ther, although it consists\nof three forms. The metal is easily restored or brought back from its\ncombinations.\n\n499. Besides, however, the identical, homogeneous or simple character,\nthe metal has still also the three characters of fire or of the \u00e6ther.\nIt is therefore a triplicity in identity.\n\na. In so far as _gravity_ is represented in it, it has the identical\nor homogeneous mass already indicated, and is heavier than all other\nbodies. It is central mass. It must be regarded as pure carbon. Metal\nand the body of gravity are one.\n\nb. In so far as light is represented in it, it has the peculiar lustre,\nwhich stands again also in intimate connexion with the homogeneous\nmass. The usual colour of metals is white, the colour of unsullied\nlight. The lustre is properly a self-illumination, and thereupon\ndepends their repulsion of light, or opacity. Metals are therefore\nadiaphanous or opaque, because they are noncombustible by light. As\nsoon as they become decomposible, namely oxydes, they become also\ntransparent. The metals are the only opaque bodies, because they alone\nare non-decomposible. All matters become only opaque by admixture with\nmetal, or in so far as the metallic body resides at the bottom of all.\nThe visibility of the world is based upon its metallic character.\nWithout metal we would see nothing.\n\nc. In so far as _heat_ is represented in metal is it extensible,\nfusible and fluidifiable. Metal is water that has become dense.\n\n500. In so far as the _air_ has acted upon the Earthy during its\norigin, it has imparted to it electrical and combustible properties;\nthe metal has combined with hydrogen, has become an Inflammable, as in\nsulphur or pit-coal. Sulphur may be regarded as the intimate fusion\nof hydrogen with metal; coal as a combination of the same probably\nelicited by means of oxygen. Inflammables are idioelectric and\ncombustible, because they are rigidified air. That matter belongs only\nto the Inflammables, which, being once kindled in exposure to the air,\ncontinues to burn of _itself_. The Inflammables are volatile, since\nthey undergo combustion, i. e. they take on the condition of their\nantetype, the air. They have from metal the opacity and the colours,\nbut they do not preserve the lustre or self-illumination. They become\ntransparent simply by crystallization or oxydation.\n\n501. With the generation of the Earthy _water_ imparts also to a\nportion of the same its properties, dissolubility and transparency.\nTo the metal and hydrogen oxygen is next added. An hydrated Earthy\noriginates. The Aqueo-earthy is fluid in water; it is _salt_. Salt\nchanges its form in the readiest manner, because it is the metatype or\nlikeness of water; and hence its susceptibility to crystallization. It\nis not combustible by itself, because it is essentially an oxyde and\nhydroid. Salt is a metal or Inflammable that has undergone combustion,\nand can therefore never be simple.\n\n502. Now that part of the earth-element, which remains after the\nsalt, the Inflammable and the metal have been separated, is plainly\nthe _Earthy_ or the _earth_. It has therefore no aqueous properties,\nis not soluble; it has no aerial properties, is not electric and\ncombustible; has no metallic properties, is not heavy, nor opaque and\nglittering, not fusible and malleable or extensible. The pure Earthy is\nalways fixed or firm, and therefore figurate. The Earthy is a metal,\nwith which the oxygen has been intimately melted down; for it is the\nidentification of all elements.\n\n503. The Earthy is the principal mass, because it represents the\nearth-element itself. Salt, Inflammable and metal are only subordinate\nmasses, because they are only displacements of the earth-element by the\nother elements. Therefore a small part only of the Earthy has become\nsalt, a yet smaller Inflammable, and the smallest, metal.\n\n504. Although the metal is simple, it can by no means correspond, as\nmight otherwise appear, to the earth-element; for every element is\na totality of elemental bodies, and therefore those minerals, which\nrepresent the pure earth-element, must be compound, without, however,\nexhibiting the characters of the other elements. This is found only in\nthe earths.\n\n505. There are, accordingly, in a genetic point of view, four, and only\nfour, mineral classes. They originate in an ascending direction, from\nthe earth-element by water and air up to fire. The Classes are--\n\n    I. Earth-minerals  Earths.\n   II. Water-   \"      Salts.\n  III. Air-     \"      Inflammables.\n   IV. Fire-    \"      Ores.\n\na. _Earths_ are those minerals, which admit of being changed neither\nby water, nor air, nor by fire; i. e. which are neither soluble,\ncombustible, fusible, neither yield colour, nor are particularly\nheavy. Such minerals have been properly called earths, as silicious,\nsacrilegious earth, &c.\n\nb. _Salts_ are those which have aqueous properties, i. e. are soluble.\n\nc. _Inflammables_ are those which have aerial properties, i. e. are\ninflammable and volatile.\n\nd. _Metallic ores_ are those which have the three properties of fire,\nare superlatively heavy, yielding light or colour, and fusible.\n\n506. The _Earths_ are to be regarded as the proper total earth-element,\nnamely as carbon neutralized by oxygen. The _Salts_ are to be regarded\nas combinations of the earth-and water-elements; therefore as\ncombinations of carbon with oxygen and hydrogen. The _Inflammables_\nare to be regarded as combinations of the earth-element with the\nair-element, thus of carbon with hydrogen, which supplies the place\nof nitrogen. The _Metals_ are to be regarded as combinations of the\nearth-element with the fire-element; therefore as carbon without any\nother body, only combined with spiritual actions, namely gravity, light\nand heat. Hence the apparent simplicity of metals, and the great number\nof special properties, which are absent in the other classes.\n\n\nDEVELOPMENT OF THE CLASSES.\n\n507. As there is not simply a single earth, salt, Inflammable\nand metal, but in each class many of them; we have to inquire\nwhat is the groundwork of their further distinctions or of their\nsystematic division. Here also may we go to work again chemically and\nphilosophically.\n\n\na. _Chemical Division._\n\nThe _Metals_, _chemically_ regarded, do not admit of being separated\ninto constituent parts. They exhibit only physical differences in\ngravity, colour, hardness, malleability, conducting power, tension or\ntheir mutual polarity. If it be endeavoured to arrange them according\nto these respects, nothing but disorder results. The same is the\ncase in reference to their affinity for oxygen, sulphur, the acids\nand other metals. Rather more order is at once displayed if their\nphilosophical composition, namely as carbon and fire, be submitted to\nour consideration.\n\n508. In consequence of this view, the _Metals_ must divide into\nEarth-metals and Fire-metals; and the latter again into three\nsubdivisions, nearly as follows:--\n\nA. Earth-metals--difficultly fusible and invariably\noxydized--Sidereometalla, e. g. Iron--Manganese, Wolfram, Uranium,\nTitanium, Chromium, &c.\n\nB. Fire-metals.\n\na. Heavy metals; difficultly fusible, unoxydized or noble metals, e. g.\nPlatinum, Nickel, Cobalt.\n\nb. Light metals; the easily fused noble metals--e. g. Gold, Silver, &c.\n\nc. Heat-metals; the easily fused, ignoble and frequently volatile\nmetals, e. g. Lead, Tin, Antimony, Zinc, Arsenic, &c.\n\n509. The _Inflammables_ divide under a chemical point of view into two\ngroups--into the varieties of Coal and Sulphur, whereof the Earthy lies\nat the basis of the former which is non-fusible; the Aerial at that of\nthe latter. They do not admit of being divided, unless a mean betwixt\nthe two be taken, the combinations of carbon and hydrogen in the resins.\n\n510. The _Salts_ admit of a better dismemberment. Their constituent\nparts are alkalies and acids, the former the Earthy, the latter the\nAqueous. The mean condition is exhibited by the neutral salts, so that\nthree orders are the result.\n\n511. Now by the philosophical view we have first attained to the very\nremarkable import of the acids. They are forsooth nothing else than\noxydized elements and mineral classes. In the nitric acid it is evident\nthat, as the acid of nitrogen, it is the _aerial acid_; as sulphuric\nacid is the _inflammable acid_; arsenic acid the _metallic acid_. Upon\nthis ground we may expect that the other acids also have a similar\norigin. Without much hesitation hydrochloric acid may be viewed as the\n_aqueous acid_, which is associated with the sea; the carbonic acid\nas _\u00e6ther-_ or _igneous-acid_, as well on account of its constituent\nparts and gaseous character, as chiefly on account of its general\ndiffusion. There remain then only two that have been called mineral\nacids, the fluoric and boracic acids, the first of which, as conqueress\nof the earths is the _earth acid_, the last being thus the acid of the\n_salts_. We have accordingly--\n\n\na. _Elemental acids._\n\n  1. The oxydized \u00e6ther        is    Carbonic acid.\n  2. The oxydized air                Nitric acid.\n  3. The oxydized water              Hydrochloric acid.\n\n\nb. _Mineral acids._\n\n  4. The oxydized earth        is    Fluoric acid.\n  5. The oxydized salt               Boracic acid.\n  6. The oxydized inflammable        Sulphuric acid.\n  7. The oxydized metal              Arsenic acid.\n\n512. The vegetable and animal acids are none other than repetitions of\nthe elemental and mineral acids. They may perhaps be parallelized in\nthe following manner.\n\n  Fire-acid         (Carbonic acid)       Acetic acid      H\u00e6matosine.\n  Air-acid          (Nitric acid)         Malic acid       Lactic acid.\n  Water-acid        (Hydrochloric acid)  Saccharine acid  Mucic acid.\n  Earth-acid        (Fluoric acid)        Tartaric acid    Phosphoric ac.\n  Salt-acid         (Boracic acid)        Tannic acid      Uric acid.\n  Inflammable-acid  (Sulphuric acid)      Succinic acid    Sebacic acid.\n  Ore-acid          (Arsenic acid)        Indic acid       Formic acid.\n\nAll the remaining acids must be viewed as subordinate to, or as kinds\nof these.\n\n513. The _alkalies_ appear to follow the same course, though it does\nnot admit of being so completely demonstrated.\n\n  Fire-alkali  Ammonia  Vegetable,  and  Animal alkalies.\n  Air-alkali   Potash   Alcaloids        Alcaloids.\n  Water        Soda                      Urea.\n  Earth        Lithium                   Bile, &c.\n  Salt\n  Inflammable\n  Ore-alkali\n\n514. The earths proper do not consist of two principles, and do not,\ntherefore admit of being chemically divided.\n\n515. This division is only incorrect in a naturo-historical sense,\nbecause it has no reference to the totality. Inasmuch as every mineral\nclass is viewed as having originated out of only one or two elements,\nit divides by the chemical method only into constituent parts or\nfractions, as the acids and alkalies, which are obviously only\nmoieties, and taken in a strict sense are not true minerals.\n\n\nb. _Genetic Division of the Classes._\n\n516. The total division only is genetic and consequently correct.\n\n517. As the classes have originated through that which directly\npreceded them, namely, the elements; so must the divisions of the\nclasses be determined by the other classes. Such divisions are called\norders. Every class necessarily divides into four orders.\n\n  Order 1. Earths.\n        2. Salts.\n        3. Inflammables.\n        4. Ores.\n\n\n_CLASS I._\n\n\nEARTHS.\n\n518. There must be therefore pure earths, haloid or salt-earths,\ninflammable earths and metallic earths or ores.\n\n1. The Earth-earths must have neither saline, nor inflammable nor\nmetallic properties, and thus also be insoluble in acids. Such is the\ncase with the _Silicious earths_.\n\n2. The Haloid-earths must have saline properties, dissolve in acids,\nbut not fall to pieces when exposed to air and fire. Such is the\nbehaviour of _Argillaceous earth_; it admits besides of combining with\nwater, that antetype of the salts.\n\n3. The Inflammable earths must be soluble in acids and exhibit electric\nor aerial properties. Such is the behaviour of the _Talcose earths_;\nits minerals are unctuous, fall when exposed to the air into electric\nlamell\u00e6, and burn brittle.\n\n4. The Metallic earths must undergo change in acids, air and fire. The\n_calcareous earth_ dissolves in all acids, burns corrosive and becomes\nalmost a metallic calx. The Orders of earth are consequently:\n\n  1. Earth-earths             _Silica_; Quartz, &c.\n  2. Haloid-earths            _Clays_; Felspar, &c.\n  3. Inflammable-earths       _Talcs_; Mica, &c.\n  4. Metallic-earths or Ores  _Calx_.\n\n519. Nature does not produce any so-called pure calcareous earth,\nbut only this earth in an _oxydated_ condition. Carbonic acid is the\noxygen of the earth that has become free, and the corroding calx is the\nMetallic, the other constituent part of the Earthy, which has obtained\nsome oxygen, but lost the Aqueous by the carbonic acid and thereby has\nbecome corrosive.\n\n520. The carbonate calcareous earth is the whole earth, not the\ncorrosive. This is only the half of the earth-element, only its basic\nor phlogistic principle. What has been called pure calcareous earth is\na half earth; the perfect or naturo-historical earth is just that which\nis chemically impure.\n\n521. The calcareous earth is not, however, perfected with one position.\nIt still exhibits several stages of development which appear to be\napproximations to the salt, e. g. Strontian and Baryta.\n\n522. The silicious earth, which principally represents the Earthy,\nholds its principles more firmly together. No separation occurs there\nin the carbonic acid and the basic or corroding body of earth; no\nassociation with water, no great activity, no direct participation in\nthe highest evolutions of the planet; but it continues to lie in an\nextreme state of contraction, and in a state of indifference in the\nnon-differencing darkness.\n\n523. This pure earth is the basis, the pedestal of all the other\nearths, and the foundation of the planet; for it alone is the earth\nproper, the earth-abiding earth-element, while the other masses of\nearth, divided in their principles, have pitched themselves in outward\nopposition to the sun and other elements. The silicious earth is\nin every respect the centre of all earthy productions, these being\nonly digressions from it. The Zircon earth is only a removal or\ndisplacement of the silicious toward the argillaceous earth.\n\n524. The argillaceous earth also is not dissevered into its principles;\nit is not found as a carbonate. On the contrary, it is at once shown to\nbe far more pliable by its capacity for being kneaded and moulded in\nwater, and by its hardening when exposed to air and fire. It is also\nseized upon and dissolved, i. e. reduced to the aqueous condition,\nby all acids. Its kindred earths are the Glucine and Yttria, verging\ntowards the talcose earths.\n\n525. The first dismemberment of principles is shown by the talcose\nearth. Where it appears uncombined with the former earths it is\ncarbonate, yet still feebly corrosive.\n\n526. These three principal earths together make up the body of the\nearth, while the calcareous earth is only spread over them like a\nmantle or crust.\n\n527. As no earth is in its totality corrosive, and none such occurs\nin nature or has at least not been originally produced from it, so\nmay the insolubility of the earths in water be set up as an essential\nand thoroughly valid characteristic of the earths. Their distinctive\ncharacters have been sedulously rendered fluctuating, by having been\ndrawn not from nature, but the products of art. That the corrosive\nchalk is soluble in water, and may therefore be a salt is true; but\nit has not issued thus out of the womb of nature. Mineralogy knows\nnothing of a corrosive calcareous earth. The earths are sufficiently\nseparated from the salts by their insolubility in water. They are\nseparated from the ores by their incombustibleness, or, if they have\nbeen already burnt, by their incapacity for reduction. As both of these\nqualities are imparted by fire, so the earths are distinguished by\ntheir immutability in fire, whereby is naturally understood not the\nscoriation, but change of the earthy character. They differ also in\nthe same manner from the Inflammables. Nature does not undertake the\nartificial reductions of earths to Metalloids, at least not so, that\nthey may become again of themselves earths. The metals are permanent\nreductions.\n\n528. Earth is thus the body, which is mutable neither in water, air,\nnor fire. _Earth is a water-, air-, and fire-proof body._ This is\nthe brief, rigid, wholly exclusive, and significantly expressive\ndefinition, which a so-called empirical science could never, but\nphilosophy alone, bestow.\n\n529. The Ore is not soluble in water, nor mutable in air; on the\ncontrary, it is fusible, oxydizable, or reducible in fire. _Ore is a\nwater-and air-, but not fire-proof body._\n\n530. The Inflammable is immutable in water, but mutable in air and\nfire. _The Inflammable is a water-proof, but not air-and fire-proof\nbody._\n\n531. The Salt is soluble in water, and decomposible in fire, but\nimmutable in air. _Salt is an air-, but not water-and fire-proof\nbody._ The legitimate series of gradations comprised in the above four\ndefinitions cannot escape the attentive reader, nor moreover that the\nproperties of the earths are all affirmative. Nature has not employed\nsuch insignificant means of distinction as our mineralogy has done;\nhas nowhere used an acid in order to distinguish the metals from the\nearths, nor savour to separate the salts from the earths; but she\nselects universal reagents which are the elements themselves. So simple\nis Nature, if we do not violate her by art.\n\n\nDIVISION OF THE EARTHS.\n\n532. There is not merely a single silicious mineral, but many such,\njust as in clay, talc, and calx. How, then, do differences occur in\nthese earths? When we survey the science of Mineralogy we remark that\nmost minerals are composed of several earths; with them also metals,\ncoal, sulphur, alkalies and acids are frequently associated. It follows\nthereupon that the further distinctions are no longer of an _internal_\nkind, namely, alterations of substance; but proceed from combinations\nand thus indicate st\u00f6chiometric bodies. The next division of the orders\nI call _Families_.\n\nOrder 1. _Silicious_ minerals.    *\n\n533. With how many bodies now can the silicious earth combine? It will\nfirst of all appear in a pure condition, as in quartz; then, in the\nnext place, combine with the other earths, thus with clay, talc and\ncalx. We have thus four families of _Earth-silices_.\n\n  Fam. 1. Pure-Silex        Quartz.\n       2. Argillaceo-Silex  Zircon.\n       3. Talco-Silex       Emerald.\n       4. Calcareo-Silex    Leucite.\n\n534. Thus the hardest minerals or the silicious precious stones are\nhere placed. But these are obviously not exhausted with the above\nfour combinations, but more of the latter must still be sought for.\nThose bodies which rank next to the earths, and can therefore enter\ninto the following combinations are the other mineral classes, such\nas the salts, Inflammables, and metals; and we accordingly obtain the\nfollowing _silicious_ minerals, as constituting _classes_.\n\n  Fam. 5. Salt-Silex         Topaz.\n       6. Inflammable-Silex  Diamond.\n       7. Ore-Silex          Garnet.\n\n535. Still all the silicious minerals are not exhausted with these\ncombinations. But now the silicious earth can combine with nothing more\nthan the _elements_, whence three families originate.\n\n  Fam.  8. Water-Silex  Hornstone, Silicious schist, Jasper, Flint, Opal.\n        9. Air-Silex    Silicious sinter, as Tripoli and Polierschiefer.\n       10. Fire-Silex   Obsidian with Pitchstone, Pearlstone and Pumice.\n\n536. Upon casting a glance at this series, it is shown, that the first\nseven families occur in a crystalline, but the last three only in a\ncompact or structureless condition. The latter occur at the same time\nin large masses, the former, on the contrary, but scantily dispersed.\nThe first family or the quartz, occurs as well in a compact and massive\nstate as crystallized; the others, on the contrary, taken collectively,\nare only crystallized, and scarcely form small rocks here and there,\nbut never mountain-chains. They are the precious stones proper, both\non account of their hardness, as also their rarity. Precious stones\nare thus only combinations of silex with other earths, and with the\nclasses; on the contrary, the elemental silices only, viz. the earth-,\nwater-, air-and fire-silices, are massive.\n\n537. It is here shown, that freedom finds a place also in dead nature.\nQuartz only is necessary as the earth in general. Its marriages with\nthe other earths, &c., to form precious stones are not necessary, but\nfree or accidental, and may therefore happen for the first time in the\nlaboratory.\n\n538. If we now proceed to the arrangement of the Clay, we find\nexactly the same law to prevail in the genesis of its minerals i. e.\nst\u00f6chiometric combinations with other orders, classes, and elements. We\nhave likewise--\n\n\nA.--_Earth-Clays._\n\n  Fam.  1. Silicious clays      Felspar.\n        2. Argillaceous clays   Sapphire.\n        3. Talcose clays        Ruby.\n        4. Calcareous clays     Epidote.\n\n\nB.--_Class-Clays._\n\n  5. Salt-clays           Schorl.\n  6. Inflammable clays    Azurite.\n  7. Ore-clays            Harmotome.\n\n\nC.--_Elemental-Clays._\n\n   8. Water-clays          Clay-slate.\n   9. Air-clays            Potter's-clay, Clay-stone.\n  10. Fire-clays           Lavas, Phonolite, Toad-stone.\n\nThe water-clays are hydrates; the air-clays volatilized hydrates; the\nfire-clays are clay fused or transmuted by heat. Here also the first 7\nfamilies only are crystallized; the 3 last, on the contrary, as well as\nthe first in part, occur only in a compact state and in large masses.\n\n539. The Talcs follow the same laws, and we have--\n\n\n                  A.--_Earth-Talcs._\n\n  Fam. 1. Silicious talcs        Mica.\n       2. Argillaceous talcs     Sapphirine.\n       3. Talcose talcs          Talc, Chlorite.\n       4. Calcareous talcs       Augite.\n\n                  B.--_Class-Talcs._\n\n       5. Salt-talcs          Hornblende.\n       6. Inflammable-talcs   Asbestus.\n       7. Ore-talcs           Olivine.\n\n                  C.--_Elemental-Talcs._\n\n  Fam. 8. Water-talcs         Serpentin, Steatite.\n       9. Air-talcs           Lithomarge, Fuller's-earth, Bole.\n      10. Fire-talcs          Basalt.\n\nHere also the first 7 families only are crystallized and occur for the\nmost part in a scattered manner; but the aqueous, aerial, and igneous\nfamilies, as well as the first family in part, are merely compact and\nmountainous masses.\n\n540. The fourth order or that of the Calcareous earths is developed\nlikewise according to the same laws. As, however, it approximates the\nsalts, and therefore combines with acids, it presents many anomalous\nvarieties, of which account cannot be taken in every instance. These\nminerals are soft throughout, change by fire and admit of being\nwholly or partially dissolved in acids. Here belong the zeolites, or\ncombinations of the calcareous earths with the other earths.\n\n            A.--_Calcareous earths, Zeolites._\n\n   1. Silicio-calcareous earths  Lapis lasuli, Scapolite.\n   2. Argillaceo-      \"         Mesotype, Analcime, Stilbite.\n   3. Talco-           \"         Stellite.\n   4. Calcareo-        \"         Tabular spar.\n\n            B.--_Classes of Calcareous earths._\n\n   5. Halo-calcareous earths    Boracite.\n   6. Inflammable-  \"           Phosphate of lime, Fluorspar?\n   7. Ore-          \"           Titanite, Tungsten.\n\n                C.--_Elemental-Calcareous earths._\n\n   8. Water calcareous earth    Hydrophyllite? Wavellite.\n   9. Air-           \"          Gypsum, Heavy-spar, Celestine.\n  10. Fire-          \"          Limestone.\n\nHere also the first 7 tribes only occur crystallized, the 3 last, in a\ngreat measure, compact, and as mountainous masses.\n\n\n_CLASS II._\n\nWATER-EARTHS. SALTS.\n\n\n541. The chief distinctions of the salts consist also in their\ncombination with the other classes, and we have therefore 4 orders--\n\n  1. Earth-Salts         Double-salts.\n  2. Saline-Salts        Neutral-salts.\n  3. Inflammable-Salts   Saponaceous-compounds.\n  4. Metallic-Salts      Vitriols.\n\nThe same will hold good without doubt of the orders, as in the case\nof the earths. They form as many families as there are principal\nmasses of them present, with which they may combine. As the acids,\nfrom being the children or offspring of water, play the chief part in\nthe water minerals, and are themselves nothing else than oxydized and\noutwardly lying masses, they carry consequently within themselves the\nnumber and import of the families; thus it is they which determine\nindeed the division. If the bases were to be taken as the groundwork\nof arrangement, there would be only earths and alkalies, and on the\nother hand numerous metals, by which step the mineralogist would fall\ninto the unprincipled method of classification adopted by empirics.\nHere also the philosophy of nature shows, and that indeed upon sound\nreasoning, that the acids and not the bases afford the principle of a\nnatural classification. A somewhat different opinion is held by the\nchemist, who must characterize the salts according to both series; but\nthis is by no means the course taken by the historian of nature.\n\n\nORDER I.\n\n_Earth-Salts--Double Salts._\n\n(Combinations of acids with earths.)\n\n  Fam. 1-4. Earthy-acids or Fluoric-acid earths; here also belong Bromic,\n            Iodic, and Cyanic acids.\n  5. Salt or Boracic-acid.\n  6. Inflammable or Sulphuric-acid--Alum, Sulphate of magnesia.\n  7. Metallic or Arsenic-acid.\n  8. Water or Hydrochloric-acid--the earths Barytes, Strontian, and Lime;\n     Murias ammoni\u00e6, Chloride of Calcium.\n  9. Air or Nitric-acid--Strontium, Nitrate of lime.\n  10. Fire or Carbonic-acid--Vegetable-acid earths.\n\n\nOrder II.\n\n_Salt-Salts--Neutral Salts._\n\n(Combinations of acids with alkalies.)\n\n  1-4. Fluoric-acid\n    5. Boracic-acid       Borax.\n    6. Sulphuric-acid     Sulphate of soda, Sulphate of potash.\n    7. Arsenic-acid.\n    8. Hydrochloric-acid  Rock-salt, Muriate of soda, Sal-ammoniacum or\n                          salmiac.\n    9. Nitric-acid        Nitrate of potash or saltpetre, Cream of tartar.\n   10. Carbonic-acid      Soda, Subcarbonate of potash, Binoxalate of\n                          potash, Acetate of potash.\n\n\nORDER III.\n\n_Inflammable-Salts--Saponaceous-compounds._\n\n(Soluble, and at the same time combustible bodies.)\n\n  1-4. Earth-Soaps        Calcareo-sulphuret of potash.\n    5. Salt-Soaps         Common sulphuret of potash.\n    6. Inflammable-Soaps  Fatty or soft soaps.\n    7. Metallic-Soaps     Metallic Soaps.\n    8. Water-Soaps        Animal mucilages.\n    9. Air-Soaps          Saccharum or sugar.\n   10. Fire-Soaps         Vegetable extracts.\n\n\nORDER IV.\n\n_Ore-Salts--Vitriols._\n\n(Combinations of acids with metals.)\n\n  1-4. Fluoric-acid\n    5. Boracic-acid\n    6. Sulphuric-acid      Iron, Copper, Zinc, Vitriol.\n    7. Arsenic-acid        White arsenic.\n    8. Hydrochloric-acid   Calomel, Corrosive sublimate.\n    9. Nitric-acid         Nitrate of silver.\n   10. Carbonic-acid       Sugar of lead.\n\n\n_CLASS III._\n\nAIR-EARTHS--INFLAMMABLES.\n\n\n542. It is very difficult to arrange this class, because it has\nbeen wholly neglected by mineralogists, and is, properly speaking,\nquite unknown to them, because they have had recourse only to those\ncombustible bodies which occur accidentally in the earth, while\naccording to philosophical principles everything belongs to the\nprovince of natural history, that has originated or may originate in\nnature, so that its situation is a matter of complete indifference.\nIf we follow the same laws according to which the earths and salts\nhave been so excellently arranged, we must here also adopt four\norders, namely, combustible things which bear a resemblance to earths,\nothers to salts, others to metals; finally, others which represent\ncombustibility in a pure state, and thus we obtain--\n\n  1. Earth-Inflammables         Coals.\n  2. Salt-Inflammables          Fats.\n  3. Inflammable-Inflammables   Resins.\n  4. Ore-Inflammables           Colouring matters.\n\nThe Earth-inflammables will be such as are solid and burn, without\nbecoming fluid, e. g. Common Coal. The Salt-inflammables will either\nbe or become fluid before they undergo combustion, and are readily\nconverted of themselves into acids, e. g. Animal and Vegetable Fats.\nThe Inflammable-inflammables will be of a sulphurous character, solid\nor fluid, fragile, electric, fetid and fluid before they burn. These\nproperties are found in the Resins. The Ore-inflammables are those\nwhich, independently of their combustibility, possess pre-eminently one\nproperty of metals, namely their non-transparency, or coloration, e. g.\nthe Pigments or colouring matters from the organic kingdoms.\n\n\nORDER I.\n\n_Earth-Inflammables--Coals._\n\n  1-4. Earth-Coals        Common-coal, a mixture of coal and earths.\n    5. Salt-Coals         Gunpowder, viz. a combination of charcoal with\n                          a salt.\n    6. Inflammable-Coals  Glance-coal, viz. carbon without earths.\n    7. Ore-Coals          Black-lead, or carburet of iron.\n    8. Water-Coals        Peat-bog and brown or Common coal?\n    9. Air-Coals          Lignite or wood-coal?\n   10. Fire-Coals         Animal carbon, fibrine.\n\nORDER II.\n\n_Salt-Inflammables--Adipaceous or Unctuous bodies._\n\n  1-4. Earth-fats          Spermaceti? Tallow.\n    5. Salt-fats           Lard and Train-oil?\n    6. Inflammable-fats    Butter?\n    7. Ore-fats            Wax?\n    8. Water-fats          Vegetable oils?\n    9. Air-fats            Desiccative or drying oils.\n   10. Fire-fats           Greasy oils.\n\n\nORDER III.\n\n_Inflammable-Inflammables--Resins._\n\n  1-4. Earth-resins          Sulphur, Phosphorus.\n    5. Saline-resins         Chloride of sulphur, Chlorate of Sulphur.\n    6. Inflammable-resins    Mineral-pitch, Amber, Turpentine.\n    7. Ore-resins            Balsams.\n    8. Water-resins          Gum-resins.\n    9. Air-resins            \u00c6therial oils.\n   10. Fire-resins           Alcohol, \u00c6ther.\n\n\nORDER IV.\n\n_Ore-Inflammables--Pigments._\n\n  1-4. Earth-pigments         Ochre-pigments.\n    5. Salt-pigments          Soluble-pigments from roots and wood, such\n                              as Krapp and Dier's-weed.\n    6. Inflammable-pigments   Retinoid-pigments from roots and wood, such\n                              as Dragon's-blood, Turmeric.\n    7. Ore-pigments           Indigo or devil's-dye.\n    8. Water-pigments         Sap-colours, such as Sap-green, Oak-gall.\n    9. Air-pigments           Flower colours, such as Saffranon and\n                              Saffron.\n   10. Fire-pigments          Animal colours, as Scarlet and Blood-red.\n\n\n_CLASS IV._\n\nFIRE-EARTHS--ORES.\n\n\n543. The metals are again easier of arrangement, because they have a\nresemblance to earths and have been better worked out both in chemistry\nand mineralogy. They divide very naturally into--\n\n  1. Earth-Ores         Ochres, combinations of metals with oxygen.\n  2. Salt-Ores          Haloids, insoluble combinations of metals with\n                        acids.\n  3. Inflammable-Ores   Blendes, combinations of metals with Sulphur,\n                        Phosphorus, and Selenium.\n  4. Metallic-Ores      Pure metals.\n\nThe principles of this arrangement which has been at present pretty\ngenerally followed, were first published in my essay 'Das naturliche\nSystem der Erze,' 1809. In order to gain a proper insight into the\nserial gradation of all the families we must first regard the 4th order.\n\n\nORDER I.\n\n_Earth-Ores--Ochres._\n\n   1. Silicious-Ochres     Metallic calces with silicious earth, as\n                           Lierite, Dioptase, Electric calamine.\n   2. Argillaceous-Ochres  Clay-iron-stone.\n   3. Talcose-Ochres       Blue-iron-stone.\n   4. Calcareous-Ochres    Black oxyde of manganese.\n   5. Salt-Ochres          Calces not peroxydized. Bog-iron.\n   6. Inflammable-Ochres   Pure calces without metallic lustre, as\n                           Wolfram, Protoxide of Uranium, Rutile,\n                           Tin-stone.\n   7. Ore-Ochres           Oxydulated, as Iron-glance, Red oxyd of Copper.\n   8. Water-Ochres         Hydrates, as Brown-iron-stone-ore, Gray ore of\n                           manganese.\n   9. Air-Ochres           Malm-rocks; volatilized Ochres of the\n                           difficultly fusible metals, as Umbra, Yellow\n                           earth, Earthy manganese, Black cobalt.\n  10. Fire-Ochres          Slags, volatilized calces of the difficultly\n                           fusible metals, as oxyde of or White antimony,\n                           Protoxide of Arsenic.\n\n\nORDER II.\n\n_Salt-Ores--Haloids._\n\n  Fam. 4. Earth-Haloids         Fluoric-acid.\n       5. Salt-Haloids          Boracic-acid.\n       6. Inflammable-Haloids   Sulphuric-acid, as Sulphate of lead,\n                                Phosphoric-acid as Green and Blue\n                                phosphates of iron, Diarsenate of iron,\n                                Uran-glance, Green phosphate of Lead.\n       7. Ore-Haloids           Chromic-acid, as Chromate of lead,\n                                Arsenic-acid, as Cube-ore, Arseniate of\n                                iron, Olivenite, Cobalt-bloom.\n       8. Water-Haloids         Hydrochloric-acid, as Muriate of copper,\n                                Horn-silver.\n       9. Air-Haloids           Nitric-acid.\n      10. Fire-Haloids          Carbonic-acid, as Iron-spar, Red\n                                manganese-ore, Earthy blue-copper,\n                                Malachite, Carbonate of lead.\n\nORDER III.\n\n_Inflammable-Ores--Blendes._\n\n   1. Silicious-Blendes     Zinc-blendes, Cinnabar, Red antimony and\n                            Ruby-silver-ore.\n   2. Argillaceous-Blendes  Iron and Copper pyrites.\n   3. Talcose-Blendes       Sulphuret of Titanium, Chrome, Uranium.\n   4. Calcareous-Blendes    Sulphuret of Molybdena.\n   5. Salt-Blendes          Copper-glance, Gray copper.\n   6. Inflammable-Blendes   Nickel-glance, Cobalt-glance.\n   7. Ore-Blendes           Sulphuret of Platinum.\n   8. Water-Blendes         Gray antimony, Galena.\n   9. Air-Blendes           Bismuth-glance, Arsenical pyrites.\n  10. Fire-Blendes          Silver-glance-ore.\n\n\nORDER IV.\n\n_Metallic-Ores.--Metals._\n\n(Pure or reduced metals.)\n\n544. The classification of metals is one of the most difficult, because\nno natural arrangement of them has been as yet attempted, and their\nsignification is also so mysterious that we can only get at it, by\nclinging fast to the laws of development. Thus assuming, that they\nlikewise arrange themselves according to the elements, classes and\norders of the earths, we have at once the _Elemental metals_. The\nearth-metals are without doubt the difficultly fusible, ignoble or\noxydized, such as iron with its congeners. Then the air-metals present\nthemselves with their peculiar character of volatility, as Arsenic with\nits congeners. These being once rendered solid, the easily fusible but\nnon-volatile will correspond to water, such as Lead with its congeners.\nThe noble metals consequently as Gold, Silver, &c., must doubtless be\nregarded as fire-metals. Having once separated these 4 groups, the\n_Class-metals_ admit of being more readily brought into their place.\nThere is one metal, which subjected to moisture is readily converted\ninto a salt, namely copper. This is consequently the representative\nof the salts among the metals. Ore-metals are, without doubt, those\nresembling iron, which do not, however, occur in an oxydized condition\nand are therefore noble Irons. Of this kind are Platinum with its\nretinue. Between Copper and Platinum nothing else can be introduced\nbut Nickel and Cobalt, as they are likewise difficultly fusible and\ntolerably noble. They are thus the Inflammable metals. After all\nthese separations a great group is still left of the earth-metals\nor the difficultly fusible and ignoble. They divide therefore\nwithout doubt according to the 4 earths. If now iron approximates\nthe argillaceous-earths, so will those metals whose oxydes are\ndistinguished by a striking colour be regarded as talc-metals. Of this\nkind are Titanium, Chromium, Uranium, which crystallize moreover into\nspicul\u00e6 like hornblende, or into lamell\u00e6 like mica. These again being\nseparated the silicious and calcareous-metals remain for investigation.\nThe former are those which scarcely admit of being reduced; the latter,\non the contrary, those which approximate to the noble, difficultly\nfusible metals, namely to platinum. It can hardly be doubted that\nTantalum is the silicious-metal. For the calcareous-metals Sulphuret\nof Molybdenum is left, to which Osmium seems to approximate. We have\naccordingly the following genetic arrangement:\n\n  A.--_Earth-Metals._\n\n  (Difficultly fusible and ignoble.)\n\n   1. Silicious-Metals     Tantalium.\n   2. Argillaceous-Metals  Wolfram, Cerium, Manganese, Iron.\n   3. Talcose-Metals       Titanium,  Chromium, Uranium, Vanadium.\n   4. Calcareous-Metals    Molybdenum, Osmium.\n\n  B.--_Class-Metals._\n\n  (Difficultly fusible and noble.)\n\n   5. Salt-Metals          Copper.\n   6. Inflammable-Metals   Nickel, Cobalt.\n   7. Ore-Metals           Platinum, Palladium, Iridium, Rhodium.\n\n  C.--_Element-Metals._\n\n  (Easily fusible or noble.)\n\n   8. Water-Metals         Antimony, Lead, Tin\n   9. Air-Metals           Zinc, Cadmium, Bismuth, Arsenic.\n  10. Fire-Metals          Tellurium, Mercury, Silver, Gold.\n\nEvery one will easily see that these groups of metals agree with their\nantetypes in properties, as also that this arrangement is more natural\nthan any that has hitherto been advanced. Glancing at it, it must\nstrike the reader that in several of the families 4 metals are present,\nand that none exceed this number. There are 4 sideroid, 4 titanoid, 4\nplatinoid, 4 arsenicoid and 4 argyroid metals. Now, as they are to be\nviewed as deoxydized earths, it must be assumed that in each family\nthey are mindful of their origin, and everywhere represent the 4 earths\nalong with the character of their family. They are earths divided unto\nthe last members, or reduced in a primo-chemical manner. In order to\nrecognize the parallelism of the classes, orders and families, we have\nonly to compare the adjoining table. We cannot expect to find all the\nminerals ranging there in their proper place. For we are treating the\nsubject at present only as regards its principles.\n\n                             Table A\n        FIRST CLASS.\n\n        EARTH-EARTHS--EARTHS.\n\n  +--------------------------+---------------------------+\n  |         ORDER I.         |         ORDER II.         |\n  |       Earth-Earths.      |        Salt-Earths.       |\n  |          _Silex._        |          _Clays._         |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _Fam. 1. Pure Silex._    |_Fam. 1. Silicious Clays._ |\n  |  1. Quartz.              |  1. Feldspar.             |\n  |  2. Iron Flint.          |  2. Anorthite.            |\n  |                          |  3. Petalite.             |\n  |                          |  4. Oligoclase.           |\n  |                          |  5. Triphane.             |\n  |                          |  6. Andalusite.           |\n  |                          |  7. Crucite.              |\n  |_F. 2. Argillaceo-Silex._ | _F. 2. Argillaceous       |\n  |                          |                   Clays._ |\n  |  1. Zircon.              |  1. Sapphire.             |\n  |  2. OErstedite.          |  2. Chrysoberyl.          |\n  |                          |  3. Cyanite.              |\n  |                          |  4. Sillimanite.          |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 3. Talco-Silex._     | _F. 3. Talcose Clays._    |\n  |  1. Emerald.             |  1. Spinel.               |\n  |  2. Davidsonite.         |  2. Automolite.           |\n  |  3. Euclase.             |  3. Dichroite.            |\n  |  4. Phenacite.           |                           |\n  | _F. 4. Calcareo-silex._  | _F. 4. Calcareous-Clays._ |\n  |  1. Leucite.             |  1. Epidote.              |\n  |  2. Glaucolite.          |  2. Mangan-epidote.       |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Silex._      | _F. 5. Salt-Clays._       |\n  |  1. Topaz.               |  1. Yttro-cerite.         |\n  |  2. Physalite.           |  2. Schorl.               |\n  |  3. Pycnite.             |  3. Axinite.              |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |_F. 6. Inflammable Silex._|_F. 6. Inflammable-Clays._ |\n  |  1. Diamond.             |  1. Lazulite.             |\n  |                          |  2. Turquois.             |\n  |                          |  3. Amblygonite.          |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 7. Ore-Silex._       | _F. 7. Ore-Clays._        |\n  |  1. Garnet.              |  1. Harmotome.            |\n  |  2. Vesuvian.            |  2. Gadolinite.           |\n  |  3. Acmite.              |  3. Orthite.              |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Silex._     | _F. 8. Water-Clays._      |\n  |  1. Flint-stone.         |  1. W\u00e6rthite.             |\n  |  2. Jasper.              |  2. Allophane.            |\n  |  3. Hornstone.           |  3. Pyrophyllite.         |\n  |  4. Opal.                |  4. Clay-slate.           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Silex._       | _F. 9. Air-Clays._        |\n  |  1. Tripoli.             |  1. Potter's-clay.        |\n  |  2. Polierschiefer.      |  2. Clay-stone.           |\n  |  3. Silicious-sinter.    |  3. Porcelain-clay.       |\n  |                          |  4. Cimolite.             |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Silex._     | _F. 10. Fire-Clays._      |\n  |  1. Pitchstone.          |  1. Clay Iron-stone.      |\n  |  2. Pearlstone.          |  2. Toad-stone.           |\n  |  3. Obsidian.            |  3. Phonolite.            |\n  |  4. Pumice.              |  4. Lavas.                |\n  |                          |                           |\n  +--------------------------+---------------------------+\n  |       ORDER III.         |        ORDER IV.          |\n  |    Inflammable Earths.   |       Ore-earths.         |\n  |          _Talcs._        |    _Calcareous-earths._   |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |_Fam. 1. Silicious Talcs._| _Fam. 1. Silicious Kalke._|\n  |  1. Mica.                |  1. Lapis-lazuli.         |\n  |  2. Pinite.              |  2. Hauyne.               |\n  |  3. Holmesite.           |  3. Sodalite.             |\n  |  4. Margarite.           |  4. Scapolite.            |\n  |                          |  5. Nepheline.            |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |_F. 2. Argillaceous Talcs._| _F. 2. Argillaceo-Kalke._|\n  |  1. Sapphirine.          |  1. Fugenstein.           |\n  |  2. Seybertite.          |  2. Frehnite.             |\n  |                          |  3. Chabazite.            |\n  |                          |  4. Laumontite.           |\n  |                          |  5. Stilbite. 6. Desmin.  |\n  |                          |  7. Analcime.             |\n  |                          |  8. Mesotype.             |\n  | _F. 3. Talcose Talcs._   | _F. 3. Talco-Kalke._      |\n  |  1. Talc.                |  1. Adelforsite.          |\n  |  2. Pyrophillite.        |  2. Stellite.             |\n  |  3. Chlorite.            |  3. Mellilite.            |\n  |                          |  4. Humboldtite.          |\n  |_F. 4. Calcareous Talcs._ | _F. 4. Calcareo-Kalke._   |\n  |  1. Augite.              |  1. Tubular spar.         |\n  |  2. Diopside.            |  2. Apophyllite.          |\n  |  3. Sahlite. 4. Pyroxene.|                           |\n  |  5. Coccolite.           |                           |\n  |  6. Hedenbergite.        |                           |\n  |  7. Diallage. 8. Bronzite.|                          |\n  |  9. Hypersthene.         |                           |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Talcs._      | _Fam. 5. Salt-Kalke._     |\n  |  1. Grammatite.          |  1. Boracite.             |\n  |  2. Strahlstein.         |  2. Datholite.            |\n  |  3. Hornblende.          |                           |\n  |  4. Anthophyllite.       |                           |\n  |_F. 6. Inflammable-Talcs._|_F. 6. Inflammable-Kalke._ |\n  |  1. Asbestus.            |  1. Cryolite.             |\n  |                          |  2. Fluorspar.            |\n  |                          |  3. Wagnerite.            |\n  |                          |  4. Apatite.              |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 7. Ore-Talcs._       | _F. 7. Ore-Kalke._        |\n  |  1. Chrysolite.          |  1. Titanite.             |\n  |  2. Hyalosiderite.       |  2. Tungsten.             |\n  |                          |  3. Pharmacolite.         |\n  |                          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Talcs._     | _F. 8. Water-Kalke._      |\n  |  1. Schiller-spar.       |  1. Diaspore.             |\n  |  2. Serpentine.          |  2. Wavellite.            |\n  |  3. Steatite.            |  3. Hydrophyllite.        |\n  |  4. Meerschaum.          |                           |\n  |                          |                           |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Talcs._       | _F. 9. Air-Kalke._        |\n  |  1. Agalmatolite.        |  1. Aluminite.            |\n  |  2. Lithomarge.          |  2. Heavy-spar.           |\n  |  3. Fuller's-earth.      |  3. Celestine.            |\n  |  4. Bole.                |  4. Gypsum.               |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Talcs._     | _F. 10. Fire-Kalke._      |\n  |  1. Basalt.              |  1. Mellilite.            |\n  |                          |  2. Magnesite.            |\n  |                          |  3. Strontianite.         |\n  |                          |  4. Limestone.            |\n  |                          |                           |\n\n\nSECOND CLASS.\n\nWATER-EARTHS--SALTS.\n\n  +---------------------------+-------------------------------+\n  |         ORDER I.          |           ORDER II.           |\n  |       Earth-Salts.        |          Salt-Salts.          |\n  |       _Double Salts._     |         _Neutral Salts._      |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _Fam. 1. Silicic Acid._   | _Fam. 1. Fluoric Acid._       |\n  |   Fluoric-acid earths.    |   Alkalis.                    |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 2. Albuminic Acid._   | _F. 2. Bromic Acid._          |\n  |    Bromic acid.           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 3. Oxide of Magnesia._| _F. 3. Iodic Acid._           |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 4. Oxide of Calcium._ | _F. 4. Cyanic Acid._          |\n  |    Cyanic acid.           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 5. Hydrochloric Acid._| _F. 5. Hydrochloric Acid._    |\n  |    Boracic acid.          |  1. Sassoline.                |\n  |                           |  2. Borax.                    |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 6. Pyric Acid._       | _F. 6. Inflammable-Acid._     |\n  |  1. Alum.                 |  1. Sulphate of Soda.         |\n  |  2. Magnesia.             |  2. Sulphate of Potash.       |\n  |                           |  3. Mascagnine.               |\n  |                           |  4. Sub-nitrate of Bismuth.   |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 7. Metallic Oxide._   | _F. 7. Ore-Acid._             |\n  |    Arsenic acid.          |  1. Antimonium diaphoreticum. |\n  |                           |      Fowleri.                 |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Acid._       | _F. 8. Water-Acid._           |\n  |  1. Sulphate of Magnesia. |  1. Rock-salt.                |\n  |  2. Sulphate of Baryta.   |  2. Muriate of Soda.          |\n  |  3. Murias Ammoni\u00e6.       |  3. Salmiac.                  |\n  |  4. Chloride of Calcium.  |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Acid._         | _F. 9. Air-Acid._             |\n  |    Nitric acid.           |  Nitrate of Potash.           |\n  |  1. Nitrate of Strontian. |                               |\n  |  2. Nitrate of Lime.      |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Acid._       | _F. 10. Fire-Acid._           |\n  |    Carbonic acid.         |  1. Soda.                     |\n  |    Super-carbonate of     |  2. Subcarbonate of Potash.   |\n  |      Lime.                |  3. Binoxalate of Potash      |\n  |    Acetate of Potash.     |  4. Acetate of Potash.        |\n  |                           |                               |\n  +---------------------------+-------------------------------+\n  |        ORDER III.         |          ORDER IV.            |\n  |    Inflammable Salts.     |          Ore-Salts.           |\n  |        _Soaps._           |           _Vitriols._         |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |_Fam. 1. Silicio-sulphuret_| _Fam. 1. Fluoric Acid._       |\n  |     _of Potash._          |   Metals.                     |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |_F. 2. Argillaceo-sulphuret_ | _F. 2. Bromic Acid._        |\n  |   _of Potash._            |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |_F. 3. Magnesio-sulphuret_ | _F. 3.  Iodic Acid._          |\n  |     _of Potash._          |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |_F. 4. Calcareo-sulphuret_ | _F. 4. Cyanic Acid._          |\n  |    _of Potash._           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Soaps._       | _F. 5. Hydrochloric Acid._    |\n  |  1. Potassio-sulphuret of |                               |\n  |      Potash.              |                               |\n  |  2. Ammoniaco-sulphuret   |                               |\n  |      of Potash.           |                               |\n  | _F. 6. Inflammable-Soaps._| _F. 6. Inflammable-Acid._     |\n  |  1. Hard or Soda-soap     |  1. Green or Iron-vitriol.    |\n  |  2. Soft or Potash-soap   |  2. Blue or Copper-vitriol.   |\n  |  3. Linimentum volatile   |  3. White or Zinc-vitriol.    |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 7. Metallic Soaps._   | _F. 7. Metallic Acid._        |\n  |  1. Carbonate of Lead.    |  1. White Arsenic.            |\n  |                           |  2. Liquor arsenicalis        |\n  |                           |      Fowleri.                 |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Soaps._      | _F. 8. Water-Acid._           |\n  |  1. Mucus.                |  1. Butter of Antimony.       |\n  |  2. Gelatine.             |  2. Calomel.                  |\n  |  3. Albumen.              |                               |\n  |  4. Coagulable lymph.     |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Soaps._        | _F. 9. Air-Acid._             |\n  |  1. Sugar.                |  1. Nitrate of Silver.        |\n  |  2. Manna.                |                               |\n  |  3. Honey.                |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Soaps._      | _F. 10. Fire-Acid._           |\n  |  1. Extracts.             |  1. Tartar emetic.            |\n  |                           |  2. Sugar of Lead.            |\n  |                           |  3. Fulminating Silver.       |\n  |                           |                               |\n  |                           |                               |\n\n\nTHIRD CLASS.\n\nAIR-EARTHS--INFLAMMABLES.\n\n  +---------------------------+-------------------------+\n  |         ORDER I.          |        ORDER II.        |\n  |    Earth-Inflammables     |   Salt-Inflammables.    |\n  |          _Coals._         |          _Fats._        |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _Fam. 1. Silicious Coals._| _Fam. 1. Spermaceti._   |\n  |  1. Common Coal.          |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |_F. 2. Argillaceous Coals._| _F. 2. Adipocire._      |\n  |  1. Common Coal.          |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 3. Talcose Coals._    | _F. 3. Oleine._         |\n  |  1. Common Coal.          |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 4. Calcareous Coals._ | _F. 4. Tallow._         |\n  |  1. Common Coal.          |  1. Stearine.           |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Coals._       | _F. 5. Salt-Fats._      |\n  |  1. Gunpowder.            |  1. Lard.               |\n  |                           |  2. Train-oil.          |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 6. Inflammable-Coals._|_F. 6. Inflammable-Fats._|\n  |  1. Anthracite.           |  1. Butter.             |\n  |                           |  2. Cream.              |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 7. Ore-Coals._        | _F. 7. Ore-Fats._       |\n  |  1. Black Lead.           |  1. Wax.                |\n  |  2. Pyrorthite.           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Coals._      | _F. 8. Water-Fats._     |\n  |  1. Brown Coals.          |  1. Cocoa-butter.       |\n  |  2. Peat.                 |  2. Palm-oil.           |\n  |                           |  3. Nutmeg.             |\n  |                           |  4. Laurel-oil.         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Coals._        | _F. 9. Air-Fats._       |\n  |  1. Lignite.              |  1. Linseed-oil.        |\n  |                           |  2. Nut-oil.            |\n  |                           |  3. Hemp-oil.           |\n  |                           |  4. Poppy-oil.          |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Coals._      | _F. 10. Fire-Fats._     |\n  |  1. Fibrine.              |  1. Rape-oil.           |\n  |                           |  2. Olive-oil.          |\n  |                           |  3. Oil of Almonds.     |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  +---------------------------+-------------------------+\n  |         ORDER III.        |          ORDER IV.      |\n  |  Inflammable-Inflammables.|      Ore-Inflammables.  |\n  |          _Resins._        |          _Pigments._    |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _Fam. 1. Sulphur._        |_Fm. 1. Silicious-       |\n  |                           |               Pigments._|\n  | 1. Alcohol of Sulphur.    |  1. Litmus.             |\n  | 2. Orpiment.              |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 2. Boron._            |_F. 2. Argillaceous      |\n  |                           |     Pigments._          |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 3. Selenium._         | _F. 3. Talc Pigments._  |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 4. Phosphorus._       | _F. 4. Calcareous       |\n  |                                   Pigments._        |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Resins._      | _F. 5. Salt-Pigments._  |\n  | 1. Chloride of Sulphur.   |  1. Krapp.              |\n  | 2. Chloride of Phosphorus.|  2. Dier's-weed.        |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |_F. 6. Inflammable-Resins._|_F. 6. Inflammable-      |\n  |                           |               Pigments._|\n  |  1. Mineral-pitch.        |  1. Sandal-wood.        |\n  |  2. Amber.                |  2. Log-wood.           |\n  |  3. Turpentine.           |  3. Curcuma.            |\n  |  4. Caoutchouc.           |  4. Chlorophyle.        |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 7. Ore-Resins._       | _F. 7. Ore-Pigments._   |\n  |  1. Turpentine.           |  1. Succory.            |\n  |  2. Balsam of Peru.       |  2. Quercitron.         |\n  |  3. Mecca-balsam          |  3. Woad.               |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Resins._     | _F. 8. Water-Pigments._ |\n  |  1. Assafoetida.          |  1. Sap-green.          |\n  |  2. Gumboge.              |   2. Oak-gall.          |\n  |  3. Myrrh.                |                         |\n  |  4. Opium.                |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n  |_F. 9. Air-Resins._        | _F. 9. Air-Pigments._   |\n  | 1. Petroleum.             |  1. Saffranon.          |\n  |  2. Dippel's Oil.         |  2. Saffron.            |\n  |  3. Camphor.              |  3. Anotto.             |\n  |  4. Oil of Turpentine.    |                         |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Resins._     | _F. 10. Fire-Pigments._ |\n  |  1. Spirits of Wine.      |  1. Scarlet.            |\n  |  2. Sulphuric Ether.      |  2. Blood-red.          |\n  |  3. Acetic Ether.         |                         |\n  |  4. Formic Spirit.        |                         |\n  |                           |                         |\n\n\nFOURTH CLASS.\n\nFIRE-EARTHS--ORES.\n\n  +----------------------------+---------------------------+\n  |          ORDER I.          |         ORDER II.         |\n  |         Earth-Ores.        |         Salt-Ores.        |\n  |          _Ochres._         |           _Halde._        |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |_Fam. 1. Silicious Ochres._ |_Fam. 1. Silicious Halde._ |\n  |  1. Lierite.               |  1. Fluor-Cererium.       |\n  |  2. Dioptase.              |                           |\n  |  3. Antimonial Silver.     |                           |\n  |  4. Electric Calamine.     |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |_F. 2. Argillaceous Ochres._|_F. 2. Argillaceous Halde._|\n  |  1. Clay Iron-stone.       |    Bromic acid.           |\n  |  2. Polymignite.           |                           |\n  |  3. Yttro-tantalite.       |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 3. Talc Ochres._       | _F. 3. Talc-Halde._       |\n  |  1. Blue Iron-stone.       |    Iodic acid.            |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 4. Calcareous Ochres._ | _F. 4. Calcareous Halde._ |\n  |  1. Black oxide of         |    Cyanic acid.           |\n  |      Manganese.            |                           |\n  |  2. Pyrochlore.            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Ochres._       | _F. 5. Salt-Halde._       |\n  |  1. Bog-iron.              |    Boracic acid.          |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 6. Inflammable-Ochres._| _F. 6. Inflammable-Halde._|\n  |  1. Wolfram.               |  1. Sulphate of Lead.     |\n  |  2. Protoxide of           |  2. Blue phosphate        |\n  |      Uranium.              |      of Iron.             |\n  |  3. Rutile.                |  3. Uran-glance.          |\n  |  4. Tin-stone.             |  4. Green phosphate       |\n  |                            |      of Lead.             |\n  | _F. 7. Ore-Ochres._        | _F. 7. Ore-Halde._        |\n  |  1. Iron-glance.           |  1. Chromate of           |\n  |  2. Titanate of Iron.      |      Lead.                |\n  |  3. Chromate of Iron.      |  2. Cube-ore.             |\n  |  4. Red Copper ore.        |  3. Olivenite.            |\n  |                            |  4. Cobalt-bloom.         |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Ochres._      | _F. 8. Water-Halde._      |\n  |  1. Thraulite.             |  1. Muriate of Copper.    |\n  |  2. Brown Iron-stone       |  2. Horn-lead.            |\n  |      ore.                  |                           |\n  |  3. Gray ore of            |  3. Horn-silver.          |\n  |      Manganese.            |                           |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Ochres._        | _F. 9. Air-Halde._        |\n  |  1. Umbra.                 |    Nitric acid.           |\n  |  2. Yellow-earth.          |                           |\n  |  3. Black Copper.          |                           |\n  |  4. Black Cobalt.          |                           |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Ochres._      | _F. 10. Fire-Halde._      |\n  |  1. White Antimony         |  1. Iron-spar.            |\n  |  2. Mennige.               |  2. Earthy blue copper.   |\n  |  3. Bismuth Ochre.         |  3. Carbon of Lead.       |\n  |  4. Protoxide of           |  4. Calamine.             |\n  |      Arsenic.              |                           |\n  +----------------------------+---------------------------+\n  |           ORDER III.       |         ORDER IV.         |\n  |    Inflammable-Ores.       |         Ore-Ores.         |\n  |   _Inflammables._          |         _Metals._         |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |_F. 1. Silic. Inflammables._| _F. 1. Silicious Metals._ |\n  |  1. Zinc-blende.           |  1. Tantalium.            |\n  |  2. Cinnabar.              |                           |\n  |  3. Red Antimony.          |                           |\n  |  4. Ruby Silver-ore.       |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 2. Argillaceous        | _F. 2. Argillaceous       |\n  |     Inflammables._         |       Metals._            |\n  |  1. Iron Pyrites.          |  1. Wolfram.              |\n  |  2. Copper Pyrites.        |  2. Iron.                 |\n  |  3. Tin Pyrites.           |  3. Cerium.               |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 3. Talc Inflammables._ | _F. 3. Talc-Metals._      |\n  |                            |  1. Vanadium.             |\n  |                            |  2. Uranium.              |\n  |                            |  3. Titanium.             |\n  |                            |  4. Chromium.             |\n  | _F. 4. Calcareous          | _F. 4. Calcareous Metals._|\n  |     Inflammables._         |                           |\n  |  1. Sulphuret of           |  1. Molybdenum.           |\n  |      Molybdena.            |  2. Osmium.               |\n  |  2. Pyrochlore.            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 5. Salt-Inflammables._ | _F. 5. Salt-Metals._      |\n  |  1. Copper-glance.         |  1. Copper.               |\n  |                            |  2. Gray-copper.          |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 6. Inflammable         |_F. 6. Inflammable-Metals._|\n  |      -Inflammables._       |                           |\n  |  1. Nickel-glance.         |  1. Nickel.               |\n  |  2. Cobalt-glance.         |  2. Cobalt.               |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 7. Ore-Inflammables._  | _F. 7. Ore-Metals._       |\n  |  1. Sulphur-Platinum.      |  1. Rhodium.              |\n  |                            |  2. Iridium               |\n  |                            |  3. Palladium.            |\n  |                            |  4. Platinum.             |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 8. Water-Inflammables._| _F. 8. Water-Metals._     |\n  |  1. Antimonial             |  1. Antimony.             |\n  |      Nickel                |  2. Tin.                  |\n  |  2. Gray Antimony          |  3. Lead.                 |\n  |  3. Galena.                |                           |\n  |                            |                           |\n  | _F. 9. Air-Inflammables._  | _F. 9. Air-Metals._       |\n  |  1. Acicular Bismuth.      |  1. Zinc.                 |\n  |  2. Bismuth-glance.        |  2. Cadmium.              |\n  |  3. Arsenical Pyrites.     |  3. Bismuth.              |\n  |                            |  4. Arsenic.              |\n  | _F. 10. Fire-Inflammables._| _F. 10. Fire-Metals._     |\n  |  1. Foliated Tellurium.    |  1. Tellurium.            |\n  |  2. Silver-glance.         |  2. Mercury.              |\n  |                            |  3. Silver.               |\n  |                            |  4. Gold.                 |\n  |                            |                           |\n\n\nII.--_GEOLOGY_.\n\n545. Geology is the history of the formation of the planet. It is the\ndoctrine which comprises the structure and thus the form, with the\norgans or members of the planet, if we would compare the latter with an\norganic body.\n\n\n1. _Form of the Planet._\n\n546. Crystallization belongs to the essence of the earth as the\nglobular form does to that of water. The life of the earth consists in\nthe formation of crystals. The being of the earth and of the crystal\nare identical. The solid planet earth, has originated also according to\nthe laws of crystallization.\n\n547. It is not, however, a single large crystal, the structure of which\nappears to be homogeneous; but it is crystallized in its smallest\nparts; it is an accumulation of crystals, which its atoms, integral\nparts, or _constituent forms_ present for our examination. If a schorl\nor feldspar were extended to the size of the whole earth, its integral\nparts, though undiscoverable before by the microscope, would then\nbecome visible. Crystals would be exhibited therein of silicious,\nargillaceous, talcose, and calcareous earths, of iron, boracic acid,\n&c. In short it would prove a complex _kind_ of _rock_ or _mountain_.\nThe fundamental or principal mass of the planet is thus a granular\n_kind_ of _rock_ or _mountain_, probably like granite. Each of these\nconstituent forms is crystallized for itself out of the fluid-mass\naccording to the laws developed in the theory of crystallization,\nin every point of the fluid a globe of crystallizing forces being\nconstituted, that generated the constituent forms.\n\n548. The earth (regarded as planet, not as element) has during its\ncoagulation into a solid nucleus, generated an infinity of polar\nspheres, as every polar line consists of an infinite vicissitude of\npoles.\n\n549. These integral crystals have originated only in drops of water;\nfor then only was an infinite multitude of polar axes and polar radii\nseparated from each other. Water in infinitely numerous drops is rain.\nIn the primary rain each drop crystallized, and each fell towards\nthe centre, because the primary water ranged over a vast extent. The\ngranular rock has originated in and out of rain. It is crystallized\n_rain_.\n\n550. It does not follow from this, that the earth should be an\naccidental accumulation of small crystals, which, by the rotation of\nthe planet, formed themselves mechanically into a spheroid. As in small\ncrystals the infinity of poles reunites to constitute some principal\npolarities, so also is this the case with the globe of the earth; this\nresults from its genesis whereby it is present in a definite space, and\nhence coheres or hangs together as _one_ piece. The earth is only _one_\nsmall punctule of contraction wrought in \u00e6ther-space by the agency of\nlight. Again, it was without doubt a single central tension, which,\noccurring upon a large scale, attracted together all the particles of\n\u00e6ther, and from that circumstance arranged them also. It was probably\nmagnetism, which is so intimately connected with the rotation of the\nearth's axis, or the conflict of magnetism in its interior with the\nelectricity upon its surface, which was active in the condensation and\narrangement of the masses.\n\n551. This arrangement of the parts of the earth, upon a large scale,\nis a regulation of its constituent forms. The adjusting forces are,\nhowever, those that operate through the whole sphere, and are thus\nlinear and spherical at one and the same time. By these the lamin\u00e6 of\nthe nucleus were determined. The constituent forms of the earth are\nconsequently arranged in lamin\u00e6. What in the crystal is called the\ncleavage of the lamin\u00e6, is in the earth _stratification_. The strike of\nthe strata combined with their dip determines the crystal nucleus of\nthe earth.\n\n552. The strike and dip of the strata happened without doubt according\nto definite laws of crystallization, and has by no means been resigned\nto elevating force, mechanical dislocation, or even to chance.\n\n553. On this very account the two directions of the earth's lamin\u00e6\ncannot have a similar bearing over the whole earth. They can only\nhave a long tract extending in the same direction in individual\nmountain-chains. This does not, however, exclude a parallel strike and\ndip occurring in some wholly different quarter of the world; it must\nindeed occur, and in such instances we meet with the opposing sides or\nedges of the earth's nucleus.\n\n554. The earth has without doubt originated according to the laws of\nthe polyhedron, which represents in the nearest manner the globe. The\npolyhedron of the globe is the rhomboidal dodecahedron.\n\n555. The land cannot therefore have an equal elevation everywhere above\nthe water, because the crystal consists of edges, angles, and surfaces\nor sides. The mountain tops are probably the angles, the mountain\nridges or chains the edges, the plains the lateral surfaces of the\ncrystal.\n\n556. Several mountain-chains run parallel, but interrupted, with the\nequator. This parallelism extends to the most temperate zones. Then\nfollow oblique mountain-chains, as the Carpathian, Alps, Pyrenees.\nLastly, mountain-chains pass from the poles to the equator, as the\nSewo, Ural and Altai mountains. Subordinate mountain-chains unite the\nlatter transversely and the former in the direction of the meridian.\nThe earth is probably a _regular_ net of crystal edges and angles, and\nthus of crystal surfaces also.\n\n\nPRIMARY VALLEYS.\n\n557. Although the earth may be regarded as originally a crystal, that\nconsists of level surfaces, edges and angles, wide fissures may still\nhave originated between its lamin\u00e6, such as we see in large crystals of\nfelspar. These fissures or gaps are the primary valleys.\n\n558. There must be therefore valleys or parallel valleys, which\nprobably extend for hundreds of miles, and are many miles\ndeep--Longitudinal valleys.\n\n559. The lamin\u00e6 of the earth had without doubt transverse fissures,\nwhich have been called hidden passages. These transverse fissures are\nthe transverse valleys, which are consequently less long and deep.\n\n560. The mountains originate of themselves. They do not properly\noriginate, but valleys only originate, and the ridges of the crystal\nlamin\u00e6 afford the mountains. The mountains have not been originally\nupheaved above the surface of the earth, nor the valleys depressed. A\nvalley, which is several miles broad, must originally have been several\nmiles deep, and the mountain wall consequently several miles high. The\nearth at its origin was a cloven and jagged polyhedron, a polyhedric\nstar, such as the moon is still.\n\n561. The mountains are not therefore large crystals, which crystallized\nabove the surface of the earth. They are only crystal lamin\u00e6, and may\nbe as irregular as possible in form; for they are ruptured crystals.\n\n562. The water, which from the beginning had covered the polyhedron,\nnow sunk into the primary valleys. From the water resulted new\nand final crystallizations, and these deposited themselves in the\nvalleys, upon the level ground and the flanks of the mountains; and\nthus the fathomless primary valleys have been in part filled up. There\nare no longer any primary valleys upon the earth.\n\n563. After the water was once confined in narrow canals, it must begin\nto flow, and by the force of its current many a steep primary wall must\nhave fallen in, been crumbled into ruins, and either been left upon the\nspot or washed away--Diluvial drift rocks (Tr\u00fcmmersteine), Nagelfluhe,\nStratified rocks.\n\n564. The principal direction of the water was formerly, as it is even\nnow, determined by the rotation of the earth; it flowed therefore\nfrom east to west under the equator, from north-east to south-west in\nour temperate zones, and pretty well from the north or from the poles\ntoward the equator in the frigid zones.\n\n565. The primary valleys, which had originated in these directions,\nwere more excavated by aqueous agency than those which ran in other\ndirections, new valleys being also produced; the mountain chains\ntherefore upon the earth agree in the main with the water courses, and,\nthough not generated from, have been certainly changed in character\nby, the latter. Such must be our conclusion, if in the formation of\nthe earth nothing but crystallization be taken into consideration.\nCondensation alone brings yet other phenomena along with it.\n\n566. The first and most important of these is the elevation of\ntemperature. We cannot think otherwise than at the first precipitation\nof the earthy a number of huge cavities remained in the interior of the\nearth, which were filled with water. This being heated, was converted\ninto steam, which thrust up the superincumbent rock, and converted it\ninto new mountains or mountain-chains. These agencies of heat may be\ncalled primary volcanoes, although they are not to be confounded with\nvolcanoes proper.\n\n567. The igneous cavities were probably placed in a certain order,\naccording with the original edges and angles of the earth's body. They\nmay have therefore thrown up mountain tops and chains.\n\n568. But the cavities, besides raising mountain chains, could just as\nwell depress or allow them to sink in, and thus produce valleys. By\nthese means the seas have probably been formed. Like the seas so also\nhave the inland seas or lakes originated.\n\n569. Lastly, a similar origin must be ascribed to the world-sea or\nocean. Many earthquakes arose, with all their concomitant phenomena,\nby partial and sudden falling in of the deep descending cavities of\nthe earth. Frequently that which fell in was again driven out by the\nexpansive force of the suddenly compressed air.\n\n\n2. _Organs of the Planet._\n\n570. The principal mass or body of the planet is formed by the earths\nproper, as being the typical or genuine representatives of the\nearth-element. The other classes, as the metallic minerals or ores,\nthe Inflammables, and salts, are to be regarded only as viscera of\nthis body. If we take a circumspective glance at the planet, we cannot\nfail to recognize this remarkable relation, that it is properly the\nelemental families only of the earths that form the mountain masses,\nwhile the other families are only scattered within them, like the\nglands in an animal body. Let us again place the Families in tabular\ncontrast with each other.\n\n       SILICIOUS,      ARGILLACEOUS,    TALCOSE and CALCAREOUS-EARTHS.\n\n    A. Earth-silices.   Earth-clays.     Earth-talcs.    Earth-calces.\n\n  Fam. 1. Quartz.      1. Felspar.     1. Mica.        1. Lapis-lazuli.\n       2. Zircon.      2. Sapphire.    2. Sappharine.  2. Mesotype.\n       3. Emerald.     3. Ruby.        3. Talc.        3. Stellite.\n       4. Leucite.     4. Epidote.     4. Angite.      4. Tabular-spar.\n       5. Topaz.       5. Schorl.      5. Hornblende.  5. Boracite.\n       6. Diamond.     6. Azurite.     6. Asbestus.    6. Phosphorite.\n       7. Garnet.      7. Harmotone.   7. Olivine.     7. Titanite.\n\n    B. Water-silices.   Water-clays.     Water-talcs.    Water-calces.\n       8. Hornstone.  8. Clay-slate.  8. Serpentine.  8. Hydrophyllite.\n\n    C. Air-silices.      Air-clays.       Air-talcs.      Air-calces.\n       9. Tripoli.     9. Clay-stone.  9. Lithomarge.  9. Gypsum.\n\n    D. Fire-silices.    Fire-clays.      Fire-talcs.     Fire-calces.\n      10. Obsidian.    10. Lava.       10. Basalt.     10. Limestone.\n\n571. Now we here observe that only Quartz, Hornstone, Tripoli and\nObsidian, occur as mineral aggregates in large masses, while all\nthe others are only rare precious stones. Among the Clays, only\nFelspar, Clay-Slate, Hornstone and Lava. Among the Talcs, only Mica,\nSerpentine, Lithomarge, and Basalt. Among the Calcareous-earths, which\nincline towards the nature of salts, all the first families are of\nrare occurrence, and the latter only appear as mineral masses. This\nregularity speaks moreover retrospectively in favour of the correctness\nof the classification. The families have thus the same import or value\nin Geology as in Oryctognosy.\n\n\nA.--_EARTHS_.\n\n572. The proper organs of the planet are the mineral aggregates or\nrocks. These are either presented to us as they have originally\nbeen precipitated from water by chemical process, or as they have\nbeen changed by the co-operation of the other elements. There are\nthus _genetic_ and _metamorphosed_ kinds of rock. The former were\ncrystallized previous to the current of the water--_Primary rocks_.\nThese rocks are changed either--\n\n  1. By water--Transition-rocks, or\n  2. By air--Trappean-rocks.\n  3. By fire--Volcanic-rocks.\n\nThere are properly four kinds of rock formations--\n\n  1. Earth-formation, masses that have originated through the crystallizing\n  force of the earth-element itself--Primary-rocks.\n  2. Aqueous-formation--Transition-rocks.\n  3. Aerial-formation--Trappean-rocks.\n  4. Igneous-formation--Volcanic-rocks.\n\nThe stratified rocks, having originated for the most part mechanically,\nare only the object of Physio-philosophy, in so far as chemical\nprecipitations partly occur amongst them.\n\n573. The earth-formation is represented by the crystallized primary\nrocks.\n\n\na. _Earth-Formation._\n\n574. The earths can only be precipitations from the element that\nimmediately precedes them, and thus from water. They have been\nenveloped in the water, as this has been in the air, and the latter\nagain in the \u00e6ther, but not mechanically, as we at present dissolve\nclay in water, nor chemically either, as lime dissolves by corrosion in\nwater, but dynamically. The water did not exist from the beginning as\nwater in the air, but only its principles, which became for the first\ntime water, when they had combined by electricity.\n\n575. Even so was it the case with the earths. The primary water,\nwhich was present prior to the solid nucleus of the earth, is not\nthe water, with which we are at present acquainted; it had still the\nearthy principles, the basic in itself, which being separated by a\ndifferencing act from the oxygenous of the water, was deposited as\ncarbon specially produced. No calcareous, argillaceous, and silicious\nearth was imbedded in the primary water. How then could they have\nbeen dissolved in it? Some say, by a great quantity of acids which\nprevailed at that time; but from whence then did these acids come? The\nlargest quantity of them resides in lime, gypsum, and common salt; but\nhow could this quantity, which has not so much as acidified all the\ncalcareous earth, have held the rest of the earths in solution? And\nthen again are all the earths soluble by the process of acidification?\nWe cannot reason in geogeny, as we would of a common chemical\nprecipitation, where we precipitate earths that have been dissolved by\nelective affinities.\n\n576. The earths _originated_ for the first time, when they were\nseparated from the primary water. The instant of their precipitation\nwas also the instant of their generation, even as rain is, or rather\nwas, a production of the water. It is easy to say that the earths had\nbeen dissolved in the water, and were then precipitated by elective\naffinities. But it is absurd to rest content with such an assertion.\nThe chief question still remains; how did the earthy originate, before\nthe earth was? Every one can say how that which had already originated,\nand was only suspended in water, was precipitated. But we are in the\nhabit of distinguishing the several earths, before having taken a\nsurvey of matters and inquired if earths then existed.\n\n577. It must not, however, be thought, that all had happened in a\ngradual manner; that air was first converted into water, and lastly,\nafter a lapse of some thousand years, the latter again into earth,\nwithout with the one element the principles conducting to the others\nbeing already and necessarily imparted. No, everything has been granted\nand determined at _one_ stroke, even as with the impregnation of the\novum all the organs of the future embryo are determined, although they\nfirst develop themselves gradually. The same agent, which creates the\nair solicits also its two principles unto combustion in the water; and\nthe same act, which separates the oxygen gas out of the air as water,\nseparates also the carbon from it to constitute earth. Not one can be\nposited, without the other being codetermined.\n\n578. The analysing principle cannot be a something internal residing\nin the planet itself. But all that it is, it is through antagonism\nwith the sun. This antagonism is light. This it is that divorces or\nseparates the elements from their matrix; it is light, which has\nsundered the \u00e6ther into the twofold air, and the air again into the\ndenser elements, water and earth, separating the oxygen from the\nnitrogen and later on from the carbon, which must be taken up in water\nas an oxide.\n\n579. At the commencement of the separation the fluid must be the first\nto emerge, because the cohesion or fixation of the poles is possible\nonly in a successive manner, yet not as if water were according to its\ndetermination to be the first and the Earthy the second in the order\nof production. As the oxygen separated from the air to create water,\nso also must the carbon that was left have been precipitated from the\nwater and metamorphosed into earth. Thence and thence only may we\nventure to say, that the earths originated out of water; for, properly\nspeaking, they arose as absolutely for themselves as air and water; but\nas air succeeded \u00e6ther, and water air, so did the earth the water.\n\n580. Whatever be the bulk of the mass of water, to the same extent is\nthe Earthy, or the germ of the Earthy, diffused throughout it. The\nwhole is a fluid mass of earth. Light, however, penetrates the mass of\nwater as a transparent body. As translucency is not a mechanical but a\ndynamic act, or process of differentialization in matter; so does this\nearth-water become separated into a mass of oxygen and carbon, or into\nordinary water and into the earth-element.\n\n581. The genesis of the earths is a process of conduction of light. All\ntransparency is a formation of earth; for it is a separation of the\nAqueous from the body of gravity. Where non-transparency exists, there\nhas earth been already formed.\n\n582. As the conducting process of light is an act of deoxydation, so\nare the earths at the same time also deoxydized by precipitation, and\nthis in four stages which indicate the elements whereby light operates\nupon the Basic in water; or it might be said, by the four colours\nof, or by coloured, light. We already know that the earth, which\npresents in itself the most dismembered character is the calcareous\nearth; but that those which have preserved a more identical character\nin themselves are the silicious, argillaceous, and talcose earths.\nThese earths may be viewed as those in which the lime has absorbed a\nproportion of oxygen, which has in it become carbonic acid. There is\nindeed only _one_ earth-substance in water. In this substance, which\nis neither silex nor calx, the polar principle has distributed itself,\nand that very portion, which has obtained the most thereof, has become\ncalcareous earth.\n\n583. The calcareous earth has originated in the upper parts of the\naqueous globe, the other earths, however, in the depths, in the middle\nof that globe; for in the upper regions of the water, the light can\nexert a greater polarizing influence, and therefore that very earth\nis generated which stands nearest to the \u00e6ther or to the light, viz.\nthe different calcareous earth. But in the depths of the water, the\nlight loses its energy, and is no longer in a condition to elicit\nthe Oxygenous in the Basic; thereby identical and more fixed earths\noriginate.\n\n\nGRANULAR ROCK OR GRANITE.\n\n584. The differenced calcareous earth has been associated with the\ndifferential water, remained for a longer period identical with and\ndissolved in it, and was therefore the last to be precipitated from\nit. The silicious earth with its neighbours must necessarily have been\nthe first to separate from the water, as it is in a proper sense,\nthat earth from which all water has been withdrawn. Two periods of\nprecipitation exist therefore in geogeny, one that of the identical or\nfundamental earths, and one of the internally subdivided calcareous\nearths.\n\n585. The silicious, argillaceous, and talcose earths must occupy, from\ntheir having been first precipitated, the middle of the planet. The\nwater being earthy everywhere, had everywhere the capacity to become\nearth; but different earths originated, where the light was different\nin the fluid mass of earth. In pure light, or that upon the surface,\nthe Earthy dualized itself into calcareous earth; in situations, where\nthe light exercised less influence, the Earthy became talcose, still\ndeeper argillaceous earth; lastly, at such a depth where the light\ncould scarcely reach, the Earthy became a pure Earthy or silicious\nearth.\n\n586. Precipitation, both upon a large and small scale, is a process of\ncrystallization; the integral parts of the planet originate, like the\nnucleus and the perfected crystal, through central action and polar\naction. The integral forms of the planet impart the crystalline granule\nor its joints.\n\n587. The integral forms of the three fundamental earths crystallized\nwith and through each other into _one_ mass, or, in other words, the\nnucleus of the earth consists of a crystalline mass of the three\nfundamental earths. The solid nucleus of the earth consists of crystals\nupon a small scale of silex, clay, and talc.\n\n588. As, however, no pole is produced of perfect purity in nature, so\nare the integral forms not perfectly pure fundamental earths, but other\nand later factors enter also into their composition, e. g. calcareous\nearth, with even ores and salts. The silicious earth is crystallized as\nquartz, the argillaceous as feldspar, the talc as mica.\n\n589. The mixture of the three crystallized fundamental earths, which\ncomposes the nucleus of the earth, and upon which the polarized masses\nof soil have been supported, is therefore a definite species of rock,\nwhich has all the properties of _Granite_, although that which has been\nextruded from the earth may have been altered by heat.\n\n590. As the mass of the earth is about five times denser than water; so\nmust the planet, before the Earthy was separated, have been much denser\nthan at present. With its separation the fluid must have suddenly\ndiminished, and moved towards the middle point of the planet. During\nthe descent of water for many miles in extent, it must separate in\ndrops. The separation of the earths was combined with rain.\n\n591. In every falling drop the three fundamental earths, which are\ninsoluble in water, crystallized. The first crystals therefore are\nonly of the size of drops. It is only by this mode of origin that the\ncrystallization into one another of the three constituent parts of\ngranite without any cementing substance can be comprehended. Granite is\nan earthy hail-storm. The hail-stones crystallized during their fall in\na similar manner with each other.\n\n592. Upon the whole the silicious character predominates in granite,\nas the primary formation of the planet, and must do so, for silicious\nearth is the primary earth, the principal earth of this precipitation,\nand one from which clay and talc subsequently proceed, being higher\nheterogynisms produced by light. Properly speaking only two perfectly\ndifferent characters of earth exist, the silicious earth as the pure\nseparation of the Earthy, and the calcareous earth, as the last\nseparation of the water from the Earthy. It may also be said that\nin the calcareous earth fire, in the talcose earths the air, in the\nargillaceous earth water has exercised its influence and displaced\nthe Earthy. Not only quartz is silicious earth, but feldspar and mica\nconsist in a great measure of the same. Still, however, these last\ntwo constituent forms are wholly different from quartz, and very far\nremoved from the nature of silex; the feldspar obviously forming the\ntransition to clay by its resolution into porcellanic earths, but the\nmica passing over into talc.\n\n593. There does not exist in nature an order of silex, clay, or talc,\nso soon as we take up these earths in a simply chemical manner. Nature\ninstead of silex produces quartz, instead of clay feldspar, instead of\ntalc mica; and these must be the earths, that determine this part of\nthe mineral system; they are the characters of orders; there is thus\nproperly no order of silex but of quartz, none of clay but of feldspar,\nnone of talc but of mica, at least according to their signification.\n\n594. The points of origin for this division of the mineral system\nor that formed by the fundamental earths are the three fundamental\ncrystallizations, and upon these _everything_ that does not belong\nto the calcareous earth must and does naturally arrange itself. The\nmineral system is only the developed and separated granite. The fact\ncannot rest unobserved, that mica has only one laminar cleavage,\nfeldspar two, quartz three, this being for the first time a perfect\ncrystal, a double tetrahedron with one column.\n\n595. With granite and with it alone the solidity, the body and form of\nthe earth has been given; it is the homogeneous fundamental mass of the\nplanet, and is therefore crystallized throughout to the finest degree\nin its three constituent forms.\n\n\nGNEISS AND MICA-SCHIST.\n\n596. If, in addition to granite, several formations are displayed\nwhich bear traces of the same mode of origin, of the same component\nparts and the same aggregation, it may be inferred that they are only\nmetamorphoses of the same precipitate. Granite is the basis of geogeny.\n\n597. Granite is a totality for the earth, it is a representation of the\nthree terrestrial elements under the form of identical earth; it is the\nearth represented in silex, water in clay, and air in talc; it is an\nuniverse represented individually in the earth-elements.\n\n598. The granite can undergo metamorphosis in only three ways; for its\nessence is indeed only trinity. Nothing can individualize itself from\ngranite but quartz, feldspar, and mica. All the formations of this\nperiod are thus _quartz_, _feldspar_, or _mica formations_. The granite\nappears under a threefold form as quartz, feldspar, and mica-granite.\n\n599. The first quartz formation is properly the granite itself, and\nits character will be also the determinant for all the metamorphoses of\nquartz--quartz-granite.\n\n600. The first structure, in which the character of feldspar as regards\nits laminated form and its more argillaceous nature obtains the\npreponderance, is _Gneiss_--Feldspar-granite.\n\n601. The first structure in which mica is the predominant character, is\nthe _Mica-schist_--Mica-granite.\n\n602. All rocks that do not belong to the calcareous formation come\nunder these three forms. The progressive formation of the earth takes a\nthreefold course, since it begins in a threefold and yet single manner\nin granite.\n\n603. The gneiss and mica-schist precipitations followed subsequently to\nthe completion of granite. For all precipitation is a true process, in\nwhich water has a certain tension peculiar to this process, by virtue\nof which this form of earth and no other has been produced.\n\n604. By granite the silicious principally came out of water, but what\nwas argillaceous and talcose remained behind.\n\n605. Gneiss and mica-schist are indeed subdivided granite, but not in\nthe sense of the already perfected granite having been again stirred up\nand dissolved, but as already separated in principles, in the primary\nwater.\n\n606. Gneiss and mica-schists are products of a more mighty operation of\nlight than granite. They are nearer to the upper layers of water.\n\n607. After the granitic rain, or after the formation of granite, the\nsphere of water was no longer perfectly transparent; but water was\nnow found also in the primary valleys, in which the light had more\npower, and thus greater capacity for splitting. During the formation\nof granite the water has only become polar by light; but, as it was\nthere wholly transparent without opposition, it could never attain to a\nperfect dualization. In the second earth-rain and in the valleys, the\nlight on the contrary produces dualization of the fundamental earths,\nsince the sides of the mountains afford opposition to the light, become\nthemselves polar against the water, and at the same time heat is\nproduced.\n\n608. Gneiss and mica-schist enter into a polar relation with gravity,\nand that indeed as a Different to an Identical, as periphery to centre\nor as light to gravity.\n\n609. Now the falling granite had in part lost its quartz and obtained\na predominance of feldspar. Furthermore as the water-globe was already\ngreatly collapsed, the crystals thus originated in larger drops, and\noccurred besides in water already stagnant or flowing. The schistose\ngef\u00fcge must have emerged as well through the preponderance of the\nlaminar felspar, as by the flowing of water and the attraction of the\ngranite-walls. This schistose granite is _gneiss_.\n\n610. When the gneiss was thrown down the talc predominated in the\nwater; it now fell in the same manner with less quartz and feldspar,\nand was deposited in a still more schistose form than mica-schist.\n\n611. Granite, gneiss and mica-schist are the first that together form\na Whole, each factor whereof has been evolved in an equally perfect\nmanner.\n\n\nLAMINATION.\n\n612. By this active antagonism of granite to gneiss and mica-schist\nthe _Lamination_ of the latter is determined. Every particle of gneiss\nis attracted from the granite-wall and placed in a definite direction,\ncorresponding to the polar operation of granite; the particles of\ngneiss already deposited attract the coming ones, and so on. The parts\nof the gneiss and mica-schist are not deposited upon the granite by\nvirtue of their dead or inert gravity, but by virtue of living polar\nattraction. They are not therefore deposited in the depth of the\nprimary valleys, nor do they fill up the latter; but they are attracted\nby the granite-walls and deposited to a greater or less extent like\nlamin\u00e6 of crystallization, in large perpendicular layers.\n\n613. By these two precipitations the primary valleys were in part\nfilled up, and partly narrowed by the polar attraction of the walls.\nThe primary valleys therefore are no longer present upon the earth,\nunless everything be called a primary valley that has not arisen or\nbeen excavated by the current of water.\n\n614. Gneiss and mica-schist have indeed taken part in the primary\ncrystallization, yet are, however, only its last movements, as the\nwater had already met with resistance, and was partly stagnant; their\nmass therefore is not so purely crystallized as granite. They are not\nparts of the earth's nucleus, but lie only like a crust upon it like\nhollow crystals.\n\n615. It may be said that gneiss and mica-schist originated only because\nthere were fathomless valleys in the granite, in which the dissevering\nactions were inclosed, and extended themselves from one mountain-wall\nto another, while the light could be reflected in them and heat the\nearth.\n\n616. So long as the granite was devoid of valleys, so long also did no\nother formation originate. This is proved by the fact that upon the\nhighest mountains the granite is bare and uncovered, while this is not\nthe case upon its lateral walls. It is therefore the second and third\nearth-rain that first originated, after the earth was heated. Gneiss\nand mica-schist are, so to speak, precipitated by reflected light.\n\n617. The principal valleys of gneiss and mica-schist have not\noriginated by themselves, but have been modelled according to the form\nof the granitic valleys. The valleys of those earth-precipitates are\nproperly only subsequent valleys.\n\n618. The lamination is not everywhere a mechanical phenomenon,\nbut without doubt also a polar. It is exactly the same law, which\ndetermines the lamination of crystals, that does that of the strata of\nthe earth, and operates also in producing their lamination.\n\n\nPRIMARY LIMESTONE.\n\n619. The earths must be viewed as _one_ mass, the component parts of\nwhich observe a mutual relation. Now, after the silex, clay and talc\nhad been precipitated, a proportionate abundance of lime became free,\nwhich was then thrown down at the end of this period of precipitation,\nas _Primary limestone_.\n\n620. The calcareous mass may be viewed as corrosive earth, from which\na certain quantity of carbon has been set free. As such, and combined\nwith the oxygen developed out of the water by the influence of light to\nform carbonic acid, the lime was insoluble and was precipitated.\n\n621. The primary limestone has also not been mechanically deposited.\nIt has a crystalline texture, is a calcareous granite, and generally\nsucceeds the mica-schist formation.\n\n\nb. _Water-Formation--Transition-Rocks._\n\nMETAMORPHOSIS OF THE PRIMARY PRECIPITATIONS.\n\n622. The metamorphosis of the granite did not terminate with\nthese precipitations. They are only the starting points for the\nmetamorphosis, in which the effort was first manifested to free\nthemselves from the primary combination. In the metamorphosis of\nearths, the fundamental earths, or the constituent parts of granite,\nstrove to become each for itself a particular rock. They were all\nidentified in quartz; in granite they for the first time parted company\nwith each other, yet still formed a common sphere; lastly, in gneiss\nand mica-schist they all separated into three spheres, but which still\ndid not differ in mass from granite.\n\n623. Individualization had not yet been attained. The gneiss had still\nall the constituent parts of the granite, as well as the mica-schist;\nboth are only a more peripheric, slaty granite, the one having a\npreponderance of the Argillaceous, the other of the Talcose. With these\nformations, however, Geogeny cannot remain stationary; for verily the\nlaw of the development of the world is individualization. Instead of\ngranite, simply quartz, instead of gneiss simply clay, instead of\nmica-schist simply talc must be separated; and then the termination\nof this period is attained, the trinity of the simple earths has been\ncompletely represented.\n\n624. All the Earthy could not have been separated from the water by\nthe first storm of precipitation. For the water now rested very much\ncollapsed upon the earth's nucleus, and could no longer therefore\nassume the form of rain. That therefore which was now precipitated\ncould no longer be thoroughly crystallized, but must follow the current\nand disquietude of the water, and thus emerge from it in a slaty or\nmassive condition.\n\n625. The quartz of the granite endeavours to set itself free from the\nclay and talc, or it becomes freed by the latter removing from it in\nvirtue of its polar behaviour. There is therefore one series of rocks,\nin which the granite is constantly rejecting the feldspar and mica\nmore and more, and at last subsists as quartz simply, which _quartzose\nrocks_ as forming entire mountains are for intelligible reasons not of\nfrequent occurrence.\n\n626. The completion of the gneiss in its entire separation from the\ngranite, and the evolution of feldspar upon a large scale constitutes\nthe _clay-slate_, and finally clay-stone and clay-porphyry. This yields\nus a new series of formations, in which the gneiss gradually attains to\nbeing divested of quartz and mica and to a pure position as feldspar.\nThe clay-slate is a true gneiss, that has lost the definite particles\nof quartz and mica.\n\n627. The position of mica-schist constitutes in its purity the\ntalc-formation, talc-slate, chlorite-slate, hornblende-slate.\n\n628. After these several precipitations, the calcareous mass\nremains behind in the water, and now, as in the first periods of\ncrystallization, is charged with carbonic acid, and is precipitated as\ntransitionary calx under the form of _mountain limestone_.\n\n629. These formations are found upon the whole to be arranged on the\nearth, in the order of time at which they were precipitated from the\nwater. In the middle of the loftiest mountains is granite, then gneiss\nand mica-schist; then follow quartzose rocks, clay-slate or porphyry,\ntalcose rocks, and lastly on the edge of all these runs the chain\nof alpine or mountain limestone. In the last of these formations\nare found fossil remains of corals and molluscous animals. For these\nformations fell first of all after the water had a solid bottom, and\nthe granitic mountains projected above it.\n\n\nSEDIMENTARY OR STRATIFIED ROCKS.\n\n630. The period had now arrived in which the fundamental earths,\nbeing upon the whole completed, predominate. That which was separated\nin a chemical way from the Earthy out of water, has been in great\npart precipitated. This period, however, although the first and most\nextensive, indicates but the half of Geogeny, or as yet only one pole\nin the genesis, which requires the other. In the beginning both poles\nwere in the water, that of the fundamental earths as well as that\nof the calcareous earth; the light shone upon, dissevered them, and\nearths, the most heterogeneous in respect to water, were first of all\nprecipitated.\n\n631. While the fundamental earths were precipitated, the calcareous\nearth was repelled and retained, on account of its homogeneity, in\nwater, because the acid half continued longer fluid than the basic.\nThe water was thus after its separation from these substances a true\nlimewater.\n\n632. Through this separation, however, the great antagonism in the\nwater ceased; and subordinate antagonisms now made their appearance,\nwhich were kept united by the former. The calcareous earth is now\noccupied no more as one pole, but is the whole water itself, upon\nwhich, as it is less deep, the light acts anew and with greater force.\n\n633. The dispersions of earths began just at this period to\nmultiply themselves, from the only fettering agent, namely gravity,\nhaving betaken itself to rest; every earthy now emerges from its\nconnexions, the factors falling wholly asunder into alkalies and acids,\nwhich combine in a multifarious manner.\n\n634. These dispersions associated with the torrents of water that\nwere now everywhere present prevented crystallization from taking\nplace upon a large scale; they moreover mingled with the mechanically\nwater-borne and crumbling d\u00e9bris of the earlier species of rocks; their\nlaminations therefore resemble rather a mechanical deposit from water.\nThey are the _Stratified rocks_.\n\n635. As the first period must include the calcareous earth, so also\nin the period of strata or in the dualized period this earth is not\nwithout a slight antagonism of the fundamental earths; and this it\nis which for the first time becomes distinct, but always with a\npreponderance of the calcareous over the fundamental earths, while in\nthe primary periods this relative proportion of the two was the reverse.\n\n636. The primary period repeats itself again in the second, and thus\nstrata consisting of the fundamental earths originate, as we have seen\nexemplified in the primary and transition formations of limestone. The\nprecipitation of strata is divided also into four formations, into\nsilicious, argillaceous, talcose and calcareous strata, close to which\nrange also the strata of ores, Inflammables and salts.\n\n637. In other respects the chemical deposits of this period are so\nblended with the mechanical, that their mode of origin seems for the\nmost part to have happened in both ways.\n\n638. The silicious formation returning in the stratified periods is\nchiefly under the condition of _sandstone_. Apart from that, which has\noriginated through the detritus of the older kinds of rocks, it may be\nassumed, that the prevailing lime still held some silicious earth in a\nstate of moisture within itself, and that this during its separation\nwas precipitated as a fine alcohol, namely, as sand. If, however, sand\nfell, so also must a proportionate quantity of lime fall, by combining\nitself with an acid. Sand and lime therefore usually accompany each\nother. If the two be regarded also as only floated freely and suspended\nin water, still the chemical antagonism manifests itself between them\nas if they were in a mortar, and they have been precipitated in layers\nalternating with each other. The sandstone is as a rule therefore\nimbedded in the lime; it is a mortar containing but little lime. The\nmechanical silicious deposits are exemplified in the Nagelfluh, old red\nsandstone, Grauwacke, sandstone and drift-sand.\n\n639. The stratified clay appears to have been deposited as clay-stone;\nit passes over into slate and potters' clay. The talcose strata pass by\nserpentine and potters' stone into steatite and meerschaum.\n\n\nSTRATIFIED LIMESTONE.\n\n640. The pole which had operated continuously from the fundamental\nearths contained in the Earthy has now separated from it, and the\ntension is again extinguished. The Earthy is now contained in a pure\nstate in water without continuance of the silicious pole; the influx\nof water has now obtained the preponderance. So soon, however, as the\nantagonism of this water to the stratified silex, clay and talc ceases,\nthe more internal, hitherto restrained by the feebler antagonism,\nbecomes awakened, as it did after the precipitation of the fundamental\nearths.\n\n641. The principles are necessarily combined more firmly in the\nfundamental than in the calcareous earths. In this both the oxygenic\nand basic earth-principle must each attain for itself completion, and\nrepresent the two primary bodies in the earth with the same capacity\nfor separation and activity.\n\n642. The production of earths results from a constant antagonism\nsubsisting between them and water. The more the Basic is thrown down,\nby so much does the Oxygenous preponderate to a greater degree in\nwater. The water becomes oxydized and seeks to divide into its two\nprinciples, into oxygen and hydrogen.\n\n643. By this contest tension is also excited in the earth-principles,\nnamely, oxygen and carbon, and they begin in themselves to separate.\nThe metallic basis of the earths strives to become free. During the\nseparation, however, the oxygen snatches as it were some carbon along\nwith it and appears as carbonic acid; but the carbon of the earthy lays\nclaim to some of the hydrogen and oxygen to combine with it and appears\nas corrosive or calcareous earth.\n\n644. The acid is therefore a half of the earth, which passes over into\nwater, and the corrosive earth is also a half of the earth that has\nlost its Aqueous. The former is the Aqueous in the earths, the latter\nthe Earthy itself separated from the former.\n\n645. The corrosive force is therefore no peculiar action in nature, but\nonly the effort made by the earths to complete themselves and imbibe\nwater or acid. The corrosive force is no synthesis, but a moiety.\n\n646. A total earth may be therefore regarded as a combination of acid\nand corrosive body. These two component parts are separable in the\ncalcareous and talcose earths; but in the argillaceous and silicious\nearths they are so intimately dissolved, that they can not be separated\nfrom each other.\n\n647. Carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen, but not oxygen, fall or range upon\nthe corrosive side of the earth in question.\n\n648. Regarded in this general manner the corrosive principle stands\nopposite to the principle of combustion, and what is combustible, is\nin idea corrosive. The corrosive power is, however, but feeble in the\ngaseous nitrogen, stronger in hydrogen and finally strongest in the\nbody of earth. The earthy carbon is the proper corrosive principle.\nThe direct antagonism is not therefore between the corrosive body and\noxygen, but between it and the carbonic acid, and therefore between it\nand all the acids, or acidity generally. The last earthy antagonism is\nthat between the corrosive body and acid.\n\n649. The corrosive body regarded specially as simply a pure earthy\nbody, must stand opposite to the two moveable elements. The corrodent\nis therefore constantly striving to draw water and air into itself, and\nupon this depend also the effects produced by the corroding matters.\nThe corrosive calcareous earth acts in a destructive manner, it\nabstracts water and air from bodies. The action of the corrosive body\nis a deprivation of water and air, and hence the elevated temperature\nof burnt lime in water. If again the corrosive lime be full of water\nand air, it is neutralized. It is now forsooth again a total earth, in\na mechanical sense being again provided with water and acid. All earths\nare an equal or identical mixture. Acids and alkalies are thus to be\nregarded in this respect as moieties, and thereupon their chemical\nrelation appears to depend. The elemental bodies are desirous to\ncomplete themselves. If therefore a base stands in corresponding import\nwith a certain acid, it will thus have a greater affinity for the\nlatter, tending to separate it from some other combination. Upon this\nprinciple, which has indeed been hitherto unknown to exist, the grades\nof affinity appear to depend.\n\n650. As regards the mode of occurrence of the calcareous earth, it\nalso is not of so mechanical a nature as is generally supposed. Its\nlegitimate relation to sandstone and other precipitations, speak\nagainst that. But crystallization has for the most part disappeared in\nit; and it is only in cavities that crystals shoot out, like the ores\nin metallic veins. In granite the commencement is crystal, but in lime\nit is the termination; crystallization determines the character in\ngranite, in calx or lime, however, the crystals are only blossoms.\n\n651. The calcareous earth multiplies itself as a reduction of the earth\nof gravity and that indeed three times. There exists, so to speak, a\ncorrosive silicious as also argillaceous and talcose earth. The three\ncorrosive earths are calcareous earth, strontian and baryta, or it may\nbe said that the first would be salt, the second Inflammable, and the\nthird, metal.\n\n652. Still a polar separation emerges in the stratified calx, while\nthe two earth-principles become more individualized. The carbonate of\nlime ranks on the lowest stage. In this, however, the differencing\nprocess of light had not remained stationary, but elevated the carbon\nto a higher grade; carburetted hydrogen and sulphur originate in the\ncalcareous earth combined as gypsum, with oxygen.\n\n653. It may be said, that calx were decomposed into alkali and carbon;\nwater into oxygen and acid. Carbon and oxygen become carbonic acid in\nlimestone. Carbons and hydrogen become sulphur, combined with oxygen\nsulphuric acid in gypsum. Hydrogen and oxygen become hydrochloric acid\nin common salt.\n\n654. Gypsum is to be regarded as a calcareous earth, which is\ninflammable in character, as the fundamental earths were metallic.\nThe philosophical essence of gypsum consists not in its oxydation\nby sulphuric acid, but in the combination of calcareous earth with\nsulphur, as occurs in that of iron-spar with iron; in this combination,\nhowever, the carbonic acid has still remained, whereby the sulphur\nbecame acid. The gypsum was therefore a carbonaceo-sulphate of lime, an\noxydized metal with a very large proportion of calcareous earth.\n\n655. Gypsum and chalk are related polarwise to each other, separate\nduring the general precipitation, and are deposited opposite to, or\nalternately upon, each other.\n\n656. In fluor-spar, apatite and boracite the last differentialization\nof lime and carbonic acid is lost. The principal masses are the\ncarbonate and sulphate of lime.\n\n657. The strata of the Inflammables, such as of pit-coal, and of the\nores, as of iron, calamine, appear to have originated in simply a\nmechanical manner.\n\n\nREPEATED SEDIMENTARY PRECIPITATIONS.\n\n658. The precipitating process is a process of polarization, which\ncomprises several stages. In it there are moments of time.\n\n659. If the fluid mass be large, this polarization will then require\nconsiderable time to penetrate throughout it.\n\n660. The polarizing process will issue from a definite point, which\nis different from water, and thus form the point upon which the light\noperates with greatest force.\n\n661. This is solid ground. During the calcareous precipitation, there\nwas no other ground present save that of the mountain tops. It was\nthus from these that the calcareous precipitation set out.\n\n662. With each precipitation a greater number of mountain tops made\ntheir appearance, because the water sank; for the calcareous earth is\nabout three times denser than water.\n\n663. Such being the conditions belonging to the sedimentary periods,\nseveral consecutive centuries characterized by precipitations with\nrepeated recessions and elevations of the water, elapsed and have left\nevidence of the time thus consumed.\n\n664. The recession of the water was not always an ebbing or sinking\nin, but a diminution or disappearance of the same, like the water in\na glass lessens in quantity, or becomes thoroughly solid, if salt\ncrystallizes therein.\n\n665. By such precipitations whole basins of land became dry or freed\nfrom sea-water. Streams therefore of fresh water originated, and with\nthem corresponding organizations.\n\n666. These streams gradually filled the basins and formed seas. As the\nseas coalesced by the constantly descending water, an inland sea arose.\n\n667. This inland sea became again salidified, and that indeed of itself\nby the influence of light and the dissolution of the salt-banks, which\nwere not overflown. Such is still the Caspian sea and others of that\nkind. In these marine plants and animals could again originate.\n\n668. Thereupon new precipitations of salt succeeded, the gypsum and\ncalx being again dissolved, and consequently diminutions also of water,\nwhereby rivers again originated. One and the same basin of land was\nalternately covered with fresh and saline water.\n\n669. Marine and fresh-water animals could therefore originate and\nperish alternately. And this is the explanation of the fact why banks\ninclosing both kinds of animals are found above and below each other.\n\n670. An alternating ingress of the sea is not therefore necessary in\nall cases to explain the occurrence of marine fossil remains. Such an\nassumption is also wholly inconceivable. Nor is alternating elevation\nand depression of the soil necessary to the explanation of this\nphenomenon.\n\n671. During the time of precipitation the temperature of the water and\nconsequently of the earth and air also was necessarily raised. All\ncreatures, which then originated, must correspond therefore to those of\nwarmer climates.\n\n672. The fossil remains do not require the assumption of a change\nhaving taken place in the inclination or bearing of the earth's axis;\nnor of a heating of the surface by a fiery interior.\n\n673. With every later precipitation other animals and plants must\noriginate, because the temperature and also the mixture of water was\nchanged. The fossils therefore indicate the age of the sedimentary\nstrata.\n\n674. During the last precipitations the creatures of colder climates\nmust have originated.\n\n675. Land animals cannot, or but rarely, be found in the sedimentary\nstrata, if even they had already been in existence prior to their\nformation. For the inundations did not break in suddenly, but the water\nrose by degrees. They had time therefore to retire to the high grounds.\n\n676. Land plants may, on the contrary, lie in the sedimentary strata,\nbecause of their inability to escape.\n\n677. The bones of birds and men must be found least of all fossilized,\nbecause a retreat by them was most easily effected. It does not follow,\nfrom our not finding them, that they have not existed.\n\n678. The different fossil remains have therefore not simply lived,\nwhere they are found, but originated there also. Some of course may\nhave been floated also to these localities.\n\n679. The inundations of water were in general necessary, because basins\nof land and precipitations were everywhere present; but not all on that\naccount at the same time.\n\n680. In this sense there was a general flood, a deluge, namely, for\nevery land.\n\n\nc. _Air-formation._\n\nTRAP-ROCKS.\n\n681. Vapours and gases of different kinds may be contained in the\ninterior of the earth in two ways, either chemically combined as\ncarbonic acid, or mechanically inclosed in cavities of the earth.\nBoth may be developed, or expanded by calefaction, and the latter by\ndiminution of pressure.\n\n682. If those that are chemically combined be developed by calefaction,\nthey then form vesicular spaces in the masses of earth whereby the\nlatter are extended and raised above the surface; such as amygdaloid,\nbasalt and others of this kind.\n\n683. Warm springs may originate by subterraneous processes, chemical or\nvolcanic; probably, too, by the compression of air that has forced its\nway into these situations.\n\n684. Earthquakes may indeed originate in different ways; as in addition\nto the falling in of cavities, by the chemical development also of\ngases, by their subjection to heat, by aqueous vapours, and also by the\nsudden diminution of pressure upon these incarcerated gases.\n\n685. This diminution of pressure proceeds from sudden rarefaction\nof the atmosphere--due probably to the disappearance of air in a\nparticular place, or resulting from a change of the wind, or the\nformation of heavy rain. Earthquakes can therefore extend through many\ncountries, without requiring to depend upon each other or on a common\nfocus of action.\n\n686. The silicious trap is silicious sinter, tripoli and polierschiefer.\n\n687. The argillaceous trap, amygdaloid, clinkstone, several porphyries.\n\n688. The talcose trap, basalt.\n\n689. The calcareous trap, probably chalk.\n\n\nd. _Fire-formation._\n\nVOLCANIC-ROCKS.\n\n690. Volcanoes are secondary combustions of masses that have originated\nthrough the primary combustion, and are therefore only of local\noccurrence. Such combustible masses are without doubt bodies belonging\nto the class of Inflammables, and thus carbons, sulphur, sulphuretted\nmetals. Simply burning gases would throw up on high the masses of\nearth, but not heat them to the degree of fusion.\n\n691. By the heat of these combustions the masses of earth have been\nfused, forming lavas. The silicious lavas are obsidian, pitch-stone.\nThe argillaceous lavas are the kinds usually met with. Next come the\ntalcose lavas. The calcareous lavas are probably dolomite.\n\n\nB.--_METALLIC ORES AND INFLAMMABLES._\n\n692. Metallic-ores and Inflammables are products of the planet, when\ncompleted, and have not originated along with the origin of the latter,\nlike the earths. The question accordingly arises, what have been the\nforces by which the metals and Inflammables were produced.\n\n\na. _METALLIC VEINS._\n\n693. Fissures in rocks, so narrow that they cannot be illuminated by\nthe sun, are called passages or _veins_. They are rarely found in\ngranite, appear generally for the first time in gneiss, more rarely\nin the later kinds of rocks, and almost cease to be met with in the\nstratified chain of mountains. They are found principally in mountains,\nand thus in masses of earth which project above the level land. We must\nthus arrive at the conclusion that they have there originated by actual\nfissure, and that indeed for this reason, that masses which project\nor stand freely out would admit of yielding asunder more easily than\nthe masses of the plains. This fissure may take place by mechanical\ndisruption, by land-slips, or even also by desiccation.\n\n694. The veins are not prolonged into the kind of rock that underlies\nthem, as e. g. gneiss veins into granite, and so on; they have hence\noriginated from above.\n\n695. They are open and wider above and strike out below; they have not\ntherefore originated by a force acting from beneath.\n\n696. In the schistose rock they form generally transverse fissures.\n\n697. There was a time in which the veins stood empty, as well as a time\nin which the primary valleys were empty, namely unreplenished with\ngneiss, mica-schist, and such like minerals.\n\n\nb. PRODUCTION OF ORE.\n\n698. Geogeny takes two directions; the one passes upon the periphery\ninto the splitting action of light, the other into the abyss, where\ndarkness reigns.\n\n699. The valleys were the condition that conduced to the\ndifferentialization of the earths, because in them light had power\nto produce the highest polarity. By the valleys the Earthy has been\nseparated into its principles; silex has separated into clay and talc,\nto which finally carbonate calcareous earths and salts succeeded.\n\n700. The Earthy cannot subsist in its identity in the broad valleys;\nthe earth cannot be represented as the pure symbol of gravity. All\nbodies that have originated upon the _surface_ of the planet are oxydes\nor salts.\n\n701. If the earth-difference be generated in the illumined valleys, so\nmust the earth-identity be produced in the dark valleys; for it is the\nabsence of light alone that allows the purely Basic to subsist. This\nearth generated out of gravity is the ore.\n\n702. The ore is a child and a treasure of darkness; where light is, it\nmust vanish; it cannot endure its gaze. Metal when exposed to day is\ngiven up to annihilation, to oxydation.\n\n703. Darkness is, however, no power, and can consequently be only the\nopportunity, not the cause of anything's happening. Other forces,\ninstead of that of light, must have therefore operated in the\nproduction of ores. In order to discover these forces the relations of\nthe ores must be carefully weighed or considered.\n\n704. The ore is in a philosophic sense a reduced earth, and so reduced\nindeed that the basic principle has obtained the preponderance over the\noxygenic or supporter of combustion, and attained unto substantiality.\n\n705. In light, in the water forsooth when illuminated, the two\nearth-principles were already divided internally, but not completely\nseparated; salt only originated, namely an acid and alkali.\n\n706. The ore is, however, a salt wholly reduced, and indeed the reduced\nalkali has become metal, the reduced acid with the basis of hydrogen,\nInflammable, namely, coal or sulphur.\n\n707. Now as light was not able to produce such a separation in the free\nor full sense of the term, forces must thus have been present in the\ndark passages, which completed this separation.\n\n708. Ore and Inflammable are the total salt dissevered, and this is the\ndissolution of the two; the former are blue and yellow, the latter is\nthe compound green.\n\n709. The processes of the formation of salt and of ore are both indeed\nprocesses of separation, but yet they stand opposite to, or rather\ntranscend each other. Both mutually conditionate each other.\n\n710. While the earths submitted to the action of light upon the surface\nof the planet are converted into salt, the process of the formation\nof ore takes place in the dark or under the earth; or while above the\noxygen is predominant, the basic body is that below. The ore imparts\nupon a large scale its oxygen to the salt, and the salt bestows its\nbasic body on the ores.\n\n711. No ores could originate in the middle of the earth were light even\nto have no access thereunto. For not merely do earth and darkness\nbelong to the genesis of the ore, but earthy water like as unto salt.\n\n712. The ore is not a conversion of earths that have already existed,\nor been actually separated; but it originates first of all during the\nprocess of separation. Where ore is, fluid has thus been, and polarity,\nwhich is not directly derived from light. The ore is a mere child of\nthe planet, a pure terrestrial essence generated without the joint\nassistance of the heaven, and therefore the highest substantiality of\nthe planet, the spirit of the earth.\n\n713. What gneiss and mica-schist, calx and salt, are in the bright\nvalleys, such is the ore in the dark valleys; the former are the\ndifferenced ore, and this is their identification.\n\n714. There is no peculiar metallic body or seed, which had already\nexisted in the primary creation as something special or peculiar,\nand which by one process only, as perhaps even by its gravity,\nwas precipitated or posited from the fluid mass. One and the same\nsubstance, if found exposed in a valley to the light, becomes earth;\nbut ore when it is in a dark passage.\n\n715. Of a certainty neither clay, sand, talc, or calx become metal.\nFor these are at once definitions of the spirit, words that have been\nalready completed and expressed, and cannot be recalled; so also the\nore will not again become clay, even if it be submitted to light. The\nindeterminate substance only, which under other conditions might have\nbecome clay, becomes in the darkness ore.\n\n716. What is not in idea, prior to the adjustment or fixation of a\npole, reduced to ore, can on no account become that out of an already\nfinished mass of earth. Conversions of earth into ore by chemical arts\nare labours bestowed in vain.\n\n717. Yet if ores do originate, they originate only out of the\nindefinite Basic, which is still in the water, just as trap stones\noriginate not from a stony dust that pre-existed, but out of the pure\nindifferent substance of the air.\n\n718. The veins and the formation of ore are one, as are the valleys\nwith the calcareous and salt formations; and he who asks how has the\nore originated, must forthwith inquire as to what is the essence of the\nveins.\n\n719. The ore has not originated externally to the veins and been at\nsome time or other conducted into them by means of water. For how\nshould it thus originate? The reply is, a specific action must have\nbeen at work in the fluid, which determined it to separate ore and\nnothing else. But where is this ore-forming action in the free space\nof water? Nowhere. And if also the ore had been separated or diffused\nthroughout the whole mass of water, what a world-wonder is it that\nit merely flowed into the veins and some stockworks? What prevented\nit from filling in large masses the broader valleys? The mechanical\ntheorist upon metallic veins must assume an attraction on the part of\nthe veins for the ore-particles in water; but how could this attraction\nhave drawn these particles for miles in extent out of the water? and\nwere this action strong enough, it must still be gifted with greater\npower to produce or at least separate the ore out of the water, that is\nfound in the empty spaces formed by the veins.\n\n720. Since ore has on a large scale separated from the calcareous and\nsalt formations like the Identical from the Different, it has done\nso also upon a small scale in the veins. There the same process of\nseparation has preceded it.\n\n721. Now, however, nothing can be separated, i. e. nothing be reduced,\nwithout the oxygen accumulating upon something else. The Earthy must\ntherefore separate during the formation of metal into the Reduced and\nPeroxydized.\n\n722. The reduced earthy is the metal or inflammable; the peroxydized,\nhowever, an earth proper. This earth is called _vein-stone_.\n\n723. The ore has _only_ originated in opposition to the vein-stone,\nand when this has taken the Different of the Earthy into itself.\nTherefore the vein-stones are also different from the kind of rock in\nwhich they occur, and that through greater differentialization; they\nhave even receded for the most part into acid and alkaline poles, as\ncalc-spar, fluor-spar, heavy-spar, which are the usual vein-stones.\nAll vein-stones are oxyds and as a rule, those in which the oxygen is\nfreely manifested, namely as acid. The vein-stones were the sheath of\nthe ore, which could first appear when this sheath had withdrawn itself.\n\n724. The metal stands in relation to the vein-stone. Thus in\nargillaceous vein-stones we commonly meet with iron, manganese; in the\nquartzoze with gold; in the calcareous with lead, &c. There are here\nalso extremes. There are vein-stones, called sterile veins, in whose\nantagonism no metal has been formed; and there are veins, that are\nmerely filled with metal, such as the Stockwerke, Lager.\n\n725. Since the ore and the vein-stones thus originate together, and in\nsuch a manner that they conditionate each other; their fundamental mass\nmust have been one, and a separating force, which is not light, must\nhave operated upon them.\n\n726. Moreover, as the ores occur only in narrow spaces with their\nvein-stones and both form alternating tables upon the walls of the\nveins, they must have been attracted by the latter.\n\n727. The walls of the vein consequently exert a polar influence upon\nthe ore and vein-stone. Now, if this be their mode of action, they must\nbe in a condition to separate the fundamental mass.\n\n728. It is thus the vein themselves, which, by a vital force, produce\nthe metals; they are thus a living womb, or matrix as it has been\nemphatically termed.\n\n729. Two walls in close juxtaposition are requisite for the production\nof metal. Upon a freely exposed wall or face of rock no metals are\nfound.\n\n730. By this separation, however, two kinds of minerals originate,\nInflammables, and ores proper or metals. The action of the walls must\nbe therefore of a twofold nature.\n\n731. But two cases also are conceivable, in accordance wherewith this\npolarity of the vein admits of being divided. It subsists either quite\nalone between the two walls, as surface-polarity or electricity; or\nit subsists between the mediate point of the earth and the walls,\nconstituting centroperipheric polarity or magnetism.\n\n732. The product of the surface polarity are the Inflammables, of the\nradial polarity the metals.\n\n733. Since no more metals and Inflammables originate at the present\nday, although magnetism and electricity are in continual operation;\na third influence moreover must have been in constant activity. Now\nthis cannot be thought of as any other than _heat_. The metals must\nthus have originated while the earth was still in a glowing state, and\nwhen thus also magnetism and electricity could operate more powerfully\ntowards effecting a reduction of the mass. By heat the mass in the\nveins was probably converted into gas, through which its separation\nby means of magnetism and electricity into ore and transition earth\ncould more easily take place. The metals are thus sublimations, which\nwere first deposited, when the earths or rather the mountain-stock\nbegan to cool. Thus also zeolithic crystals were deposited in the upper\nstores of mines. Metals are thus the children of heat, of magnetism\nand electricity; the heat renders the mass in a fit state for being\nseparated in the next place by the polar forces.\n\n734. Metal is carbon completely reduced, which contains nothing more\nof the other elements in itself, namely, neither hydrogen nor oxygen.\nIt is consequently the Basic of the earth-element without material\nadmixture, and thus is earth with the properties of its prototype, of\nfire or of gravity, of light and of heat.\n\n735. In accordance with this interpretation metal can be produced by no\nother process than the centro-peripheric. Its occurrence in fissures of\nthe earth that are mostly perpendicular likewise proves this.\n\n736. In the deeply situated veins, therefore, the more identical or\npurer formations of ore must occur; while, on the contrary, in those\nsituated higher up or exposed to the day, i. e. in closer proximity to\nthe water, air and light, the more different or compound formations of\nore must be produced.\n\n737. The four classes of ores occupy a position in the veins tolerably\naccordant with these relations; an additional proof that they have\noriginated in the vein and not been floated into it by the action of\nwater.\n\n738. The production of ore which occurs in the _upper_ parts of the\nveins, furnishes us with the saline ores; for here the water, air\nand earth are principally active. In the upper depths are found most\nfrequently the oxygenized metals, or as they are called mineral spars,\nas spathic-iron, malachite, calamine, lead-spar, pyromorphite, &c.\nFinally, the metallic or ore-spars actually pass over into salts, and\nby the horn-silver ores into the vitriols. They are for the most part\ncrystallized.\n\n739. The salt-formation of the ores has always decreased in proportion\nto the light having less access to it, and hence in greater depths,\nor in wholly mountainous masses. There the ore has not been deposited\nas a light-difference, but only as a Terrestrial, just as the earths,\nespecially the calcareous earth, have obtained the same. It has not\nattained to a complete evolution of the polar body so as to constitute\nan acid, but the two principles have only emerged opposite to each\nother. They are oxydized ores, consequently those among the ores,\nthat represent the character of earths, namely, the ochres. They are\nfrequently uncrystallized.\n\n740. So far the appearance of these ores is thoroughly earthy and\ndevoid for the most part of metallic lustre; finally, the genesis of\nthe ore turns upon the side of the identity, the principle of gravity\nhaving secured itself wholly in the depths, previous to the adverse\naccession of water and light. In such situations nothing more than\nheat and the centro-peripheric polarity of the vein-wall operates. The\nMetallic recedes wholly from the salt and from the earth. The oxygen\ndisappears, but in its place comes sulphur, and the sulphuretted ores\noriginate, e. g. the bi-sulphurets of iron, blendes, glance-ores.\n\n741. Lastly, every combination or influence of the other elements and\nmineral-classes vanishes; acids, oxygen and sulphur are no longer\ngenerated in the perfectly dark depths, and the ore stands there in its\nentire identity, homogeneous, resplendent and heavy as the sterling\nmetal. The same results from sublimation. The heavier metals remain\nbelow, the lighter ones and the sulphur ascend.\n\n742. As the orders of earth are placed in the veins, so also are the\ndifferent metals themselves; for the cause of genesis is alike in both.\n\n743. The earth-like metals, as iron, manganese, &c. which occur\nconstantly oxydized, are usually found upon the surface of the planet;\nthe hydroid or water-like, as lead, tin, lie usually deeper; the aeroid\nor air-like, as arsenic, zinc, exhibit pretty nearly the same relations\nas the sulphur metals; lastly, the pyroid or fire-like, e. g. the noble\nmetals such as gold and silver occur frequently in great depths and not\nunfrequently in granite; the two preceding metals generally occur in\ngneiss, but the first even in younger or more recently formed rocks.\n\n744. As a certain regularity prevails in the arrangements of ores and\nof metals in the veins, so also does this hold good in respect to their\ndistribution over the planet.\n\n745. The more the polar earths are separated and deposited in the\nbroad valleys exposed to light, by so much the more in quantity and\nof greater purity is the ore produced in its own valleys of darkness.\nThe first effect, however, happens through the power of the sun; the\nmore powerful therefore its influence, although indirect, so much the\ngreater in quantity and purity is ore produced in the depths. The\ngreatest quantity of ore and that of the noblest kind was inevitably\ngenerated beneath the equator. There also more lime as well as more\nsalt are probably found upon the surface of the water; towards the\nnorth the oxydized metals, or the whole series of iron-metals, were\nproduced. In the Temperate Zones we find more lead, zinc, bismuth and\narsenic.\n\n746. Thus the theory itself of ores furnishes us with a proof, such as\nthe theory of the earth that has been hitherto entertained could not\nafford, that the equator forsooth has since the formation of the metals\nnot been displaced. The metals formed themselves cotemporaneously\nwith the gneiss, and have thus begun to form prior to the existence\nof the organic world. It is therefore a vague opinion, devoid also of\nfoundation, that since the earth has been inhabited by animals, even by\nthe higher or hair-clothed vertebrata, its axis has been changed.\n\n747. No earthly phenomenon speaks so clearly and loudly against the\nmechanical theories in the natural sciences as ore. Not only has the\nwhole planet been included in the ore, but also the whole of science,\nthe whole of philosophy.\n\n748. The first transition of the Earthy into the metallic character\nis indicated by iron. Iron ranks next to earth, especially to the\nargillaceous earth, is everywhere associated with it and is most\ngenerally distributed, being mixed with almost every earth and even all\norganic bodies, to their very elements.\n\n749. The whole series of metals has but _one_ root. What the primary\nearth is for the metamorphosis of earths, that is iron for the metals:\nit is their silicious earth.\n\n750. The iron as being the first transition from the Earthy into\nthe Metallic has the highest grade of fusion, and all metals which\napproximate to this, belong to the retinue of iron. This grade may be\nset down as 20,000F.\n\n751. As iron is the root of all metals, so every division or group of\nore has a principal metal, which occurs in more considerable quantity\nthan the rest and characterizes the division. Among the saline ores,\ncopper under the form of malachite is the principal metal. Its fusing\npoint is 6000F. Among the sulphurous ores, _lead_ is the chief metal;\nit has with its neighbours the lowest grade of fusion, which may be\nset down in round numbers as 600F. Among the volatile, arsenic is the\nprincipal metal.\n\n752. Among the standard metals, silver is the principal metal; it has\nwith its affinities a fusing point, which ranges midway between that of\niron and lead, being probably about 5000F.\n\n753. There are four grades of fusion of the metals, which are removed\nfrom each other by very wide intervals, between which no metal is\nsituated. Quicksilver is fluid at the temperature of the air and\nbecomes volatile like arsenic. Moreover the artificial metals are\nassociated with the alkalies and acids. Lead, with its congeners, melts\nat 500F.; silver with gold and copper at 5000; iron, platinum and such\nlike at 20,000.\n\n754. There are four metallic characters, which are shown to be peculiar\nin all their relations, in their affinities for oxygen, acid, and\nsulphur, in respect to specific gravity, fusibility, extensibility, in\ntheir electric relation, in mode of fracture, in occurrence, age, and\ngeographical distribution, &c.\n\n\nc. POISON.\n\n755. It is a remarkable fact that the principal metal of the elemental\nmetals, obtains mostly by oxydation or acidification poisonous\nproperties, while the proper earth-metal, iron, acts beneficially upon\nthe animal organization. Among the water-metals lead becomes poisonous\nby acidification; among the fire-metals mercury. Among the air-metals\narsenic ranks highest, becoming poisonous by mere oxydation. Among the\nearth-metals, only one among the salt-metals is poisonous, and that is\ncopper.\n\n756. The metals thus appear to become poisonous, when they enter into\nor put on the character of salt, or of water.\n\n757. The above are also those very metals, which unite most readily\nwith the others, to form alloys, amalgams or metallic compounds. Copper\nis very readily alloyed; lead almost always contains silver; mercury is\nsusceptible of amalgamation; arsenic metallizes the others almost like\nsulphur.\n\n758. The air-metals appear to have lost for the most part the metallic\ncharacter; arsenic therefore destroys also magnetism.\n\n759. The essence of metallic poison thus appears to reside in the\nendeavour on the part of the metals to suppress the metallic character\nand convert themselves into the formless elements. The metallic poison\nis the direct opponent of the metals themselves, and through this, of\neverything that has form, and thus of the Organic also.\n\n\nd. MAGNETISM.\n\n760. Two actions are necessarily manifested in iron, one clearing or\ndividing in so far as it is earth, and one to be identifying, in so\nfar as it is metal. Iron is the fluctuation between oxydation and\nreduction, between light and gravity, and this conflict of the two\nlatter is _Magnetism_. Magnetism is the spiritual function of the\nmetals.\n\n761. Magnetism belongs essentially to the metals only. What is not\nmetal, is magnetic only according to idea or signification; it may be\ntherefore aptly said, that such a body hath no magnetism, and that what\nhas it, were metallic.\n\n762. Magnetism is the direct property only of iron; this alone is the\nhybrid or heterogynous metal.\n\n763. Magnetism appertains only to the other metals in as far as they\nare positions of iron; and is the more powerful, the nearer they stand\nin relation to iron. All metals are magnetic in idea, whether magnetism\nbe manifested in them or not.\n\n764. All metals have originated through magnetism, through the radial\npolarity, or the conflict of light and gravity. Magnetism is the\naction betwixt light and darkness, periphery and centre. Magnetism as\nbeing a metalgenerating action tends towards the centre of darkness\nof gravity. What in the earths and salts is the duplex tendency of\ncrystallization, is in the metals the identifying magnetism, as an\neverlasting operation of attraction.\n\n765. Magnetism is still, however, not identical with gravity. Gravity\nis the centre abstractedly from the periphery; but magnetism is the\ncentre only in relation to the periphery or light.\n\n766. Polarity belongs to the essence as well as the genesis of\nmagnetism; the metal subsists only through a constant resistance\nagainst the universal process of oxydation, against the developmental\nprocess of the earth-principles, which the metal is always striving to\nconceal. The metal is altogether the most mysterious essence of the\nplanet. This resistance to the disclosure of the Innermost of the earth\nis magnetism. Where magnetism has wholly attained this concealment, it\nrenders the metal perfectly free and disappears, because it has become\ncompletely embodied. In the noble metals it has attained what it is\nstill seeking in iron.\n\n767. Magnetism is a linear action with two different extremities,\nlike the primary radius. By one extremity magnetism runs towards\nthe identical centre, by the other towards the partite, electrical\nperiphery, towards the oxydized earths. One extremity will reduce, the\nother oxydize; one will become metal, the other earth. This is the\ndifference between north and south pole, the former centre, the latter\nperiphery.\n\n768. There is no peculiar magnetic fluid, any more than there is a\nmatter of light, heat and electricity. In magnetism the spirit only of\nthe earth appears, as in light the spirit of heaven.\n\n769. Magnetism is a constant process of excitation. This process of\nexcitement is the process of imparting and of propagation. Magnetism\nhas not been given, but excited. It breathes life into the iron bar,\nwhereby the latter awakes, and that is magnetism.\n\n770. Every action, which induces differences in a line of iron,\nrenders it therefore magnetic; thus electricity, unequal calefaction\nand a blow, whereby it is thrown into a state of vibration. An iron bar\nplanted perpendicularly becomes magnetic, because it is then a radius\nto the earth. From the same reason it becomes magnetic, if placed in\nthe magnetic meridian.\n\n\ne. TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.\n\n771. If all metals are in idea magnetic; so must the metallic veins, as\nproducts of magnetism, be magnetic lines. Every vein has a north and a\nsouth pole.\n\n772. As every vein is a magnetic line or magnetic needle upon a large\nscale; so must two veins abutting against each other represent likewise\na magnetic tension. A mountain of ores is a net of numerous magnets\ninterlacing each other. As one vein is related to the other, so must\none metalliferous mountain be related to the other; and thus two\nmountains of this character stand in magnetic polarity with each other.\nThe whole earth is surrounded by a magnetic net.\n\n773. As every metal, every vein, every rock is in miniature a\nmagnet, so must the earth be a magnet upon a large scale. There is a\n_Terrestrial magnetism_.\n\n774. This magnetism belongs only to the earth only in so far as it\npossesses a metallic quality, for magnetism is only the spirit of\nthe metals, not of the other terrestrial bodies, as the earths,\nInflammables, and salts.\n\n775. Magnetism is no general character of the earth, still less of the\nwhole solar system, except in so far as the metallic principle lies at\nthe basis of every thing earthy. Magnetism does not operate outwardly\nover the earth.\n\n776. The determinants of terrestrial magnetism are the _metallic\nveins_, or the metallic beds in the crust of the earth.\n\n777. Terrestrial magnetism has not been produced or determined by\na magnetic nucleus; since a metal in the middle of the earth is a\ncontradiction. All determinations of terrestrial magnetism depend\nupon the nature, character, distribution, number and direction of the\nmetallic veins or beds.\n\n778. Thus the direction of the magnetic axis of the earth, its\nmutability, the declination of the magnetic meridian, the inclination\nor dip of the needle, in short every phenomenon without distinction\nthat concerns magnetism, must be derived from the nature of the\nmetallic veins. Another momentum does not indeed exist for magnetism.\n\n779. Terrestrial magnetism can only be based upon the polarity of\nmetallic veins, and this upon the ores they contain. It must therefore\naccommodate itself to the distribution of the chief masses of metals,\nespecially of the idiomagnetic metal. Now it has been ascertained,\nthat the noble metals are accumulated about the equator, such as gold,\nsilver, copper, which may be regarded as non-magnetic. In the northern\ntemperate zones, the mountains contain for the most part metals that\nare non-magnetic and semi-noble, as lead, zinc, antimony, which are\nusually combined as ores with sulphur. Iron, on the contrary, being the\nonly magnetic metal, (a fact which is also determined chiefly by the\nmagnetic needle in terrestrial magnetism) is accumulated in greater\nquantity towards the north-pole and becomes always rarer in occurrence\ntowards the equator. The southern hemisphere of the earth, is indeed\nless known in this respect; but, that towards the south-pole iron\nreincreases in quantity, is rendered evident by the magnetic needle\nwhen conveyed beyond the equator, inclining to the south-pole. If the\ncause of the inclination upon the northern hemisphere be sought for in\nthe presence of iron, the same must be done in regard to the southern.\nThe arrangement of the metallic groups from north-to south-pole is\nthus; iron, lead, silver, lead, iron.\n\n780. Iron has been deposited at both poles and this in accordance with\nthe genesis of metals, for iron is a half reduced metal, and must\nconsequently be subjected to the demi-action only of light. At or\nbeneath the equator the Ferrogeneous is wholly reduced, and becomes\nnoble.\n\n781. There is obviously, however, less iron at the south-than the\nnorth-pole, because the greatest part of the planet is there covered\nwith water, and thus in general with less earth less metal also is to\nbe found. From this alone it may be explained why the magnetic needle\nconveyed beyond the equator still remains horizontal and first inclines\nabout the tenth degree of southern latitude towards the south-pole.\n\n782. The north-pole is thus more energetic than the south-pole, so that\nthe two poles must be also inversely related to each other. It is only\nfrom this antagonism of the two poles of the earth that we comprehend,\nwhy upon the southern hemisphere the south-pole of the needle dips\ntowards the earth, and why the needle does not turn completely round.\nFor if there was an equal quantity of iron in both hemispheres of the\nearth, the southern must have the same magnetic pole, and thus attract\nthe north-pole of the needle; and under the equator the needle must\nhave actually no direction. The cause of the direction and dip of the\nneedle rests thus in the antagonism of the two poles of the earth, and\nthis again in the unequal masses of iron.\n\n783. The action of terrestrial magnetism does not reside in the iron\nformation alone, but in its antagonism to the reduced ores. The\nterrestrial magnetism is a tension between iron and silver. The lead\nimparts the poles.\n\n784. As the earth is a globe, so are the two masses of iron situated\nnearer to its axis than the masses of silver and lead. If therefore\nthe latter exert also any influence upon the direction of the magnetic\nneedle, yet nevertheless the poles of magnetism must coincide nearly\nwith the poles of the earth's axis, because the exciters of magnetism\noperate in this direction.\n\n785. The magnetic meridian runs indeed in general from pole to pole,\nbut as it is not the earth's axis, which determines the magnetism, but\nthe metallic masses, so the direction of the meridian deviates from\nthe earth's axis in accordance with these masses.\n\n786. The magnetic needle can therefore assume a different direction on\nevery part of the earth, according as its relative position is varied\nbetween two principal masses of metals, and even as is indicated by the\nmovement of the compass with the change of geographical longitudes,\nit is removed from one metallic mass, approaches another, and by\nthis becomes more powerfully attracted. Upon the whole, however,\nthe direction must tend toward the poles. Such are the phenomena of\n_declination_ of the magnetic needle; and we can now comprehend why\nthis is present.\n\n787. But there must be also spots upon the earth, where the needle\npoints straight to the north, probably, when it is between two metallic\nmasses, or stands at a certain angle to them. These are the _lines\nwithout declination_, of which there are many as is well known, but\nwhich have not as yet been reduced to any law. Nor can they ever be so,\nbecause we shall never become acquainted with the metallic beds.\n\n788. As the solid land, so far as it projects out of the water, forms\na horse-shoe figure, of which the two Americas represent one leg,\nEurope with Asia and Africa the other leg, the sea being interposed\nbetween them; so must the lines without declination fall principally\nin the ocean, between the earth's crura. Moreover as both these crura\nof the earth are unequal in size, so must the one influence the needle\nmore than the other, and in this respect also there can be therefore\nno regularity in the lines without declination. Thus everything\nco-operates, to the effect of rendering the direction of the magnetic\nneedle unequal; such as the distribution of metalliferous mountains, of\nmasses of iron, of the earth's hemispheres, of the earth's crura, and\ninversely the earth has probably obtained this horse-shoe form through\nmagnetism. The cavities of the earth probably do not fall in there,\nbecause the ground, namely the mountains, is supported by metallic\nplates. On this account the earth probably maintains an oblique\nposition in her course. In accordance with this the earth's axis had\nfirst changed, when the metals were generated. According to this also,\nthe sea had rushed in first, when the metallic veins were present.\nLastly, in accordance with this, the metals would be generated, when\nthe whole earth was still covered, and the veins filled with water.\nUnto such conclusions the philosophy of nature can alone conduct us.\nThe cause of a horse-shoe magnet acting more powerfully than any other\nshaped instrument, resides probably in the form of the earth's crura.\n\n789. The magnetic meridian varies, however, not only according to\nplaces, but times also. This is explicable from the mutation of metals\nunder the poles, as well as under the equator and in the temperate\nzones. Processes of oxydation and reduction are always occurring, the\nmore too if the water recedes and tracts of land become dry. To this,\nculture, the clearing of woods, the draining of swamps and probably\nmining operations themselves conduce.\n\n790. It must besides be clear to every one, who has learnt to look upon\nnature as a whole, that the numerous metallic masses of metal upon the\nearth are not indifferent to the genesis of metal, that they are not\nforeign to iron; but that they stand invariably in one relation to it,\nwhich can only be magnetic; for therein only are they metals.\n\n791. Magnetism is an infinity of tensions spread over the whole earth,\nof which the tension towards the axis is but the principal, not the\nsole, tension. The expression hereof is the net of metallic veins.\n\n792. Every magnetic line consists of an endless number of shifting\npoles; for every magnetic line can be but the metatype of terrestrial\nmagnetism.\n\n\nC.--_INFLAMMABLES._\n\n\n_Electrism._\n\n793. Coal and sulphur may be regarded as the representatives of the\nInflammables, making their appearance in the carbonic acid of lime, and\nthe sulphuric acid of gypsum, just as the metals did among the alkalies.\n\n794. The Inflammables are accordingly associated with the acids or the\nsalts, the ores with the earths. It may be said that the former are\nreduced acids, the latter reduced earths.\n\n795. The Inflammables are consequently those that succeed next to the\nsalts or water-minerals. Their determining element is in this respect\nalso the air; that of the ores is therefore the fire.\n\n796. The Inflammable, as being the reduced acid, must have the\nstrongest affinity for oxygen. A body, which by its own force, attracts\nthe oxygen from the air, so that it appears luminous, is called\ncombustible.\n\n797. The generating spirit of the Inflammables coincides with the\nspirit of air, and thus with electricity. The generating spirit of\nmetals coincides with the light; it is the radial action in the\nMassive, or magnetism.\n\n798. Electricity has become embodied in the Inflammable, i. e.\nidioelectric; in metal, light has become embodied, i. e. idiomagnetic.\n\n799. Now, as the Inflammable exists under two forms, with the\npreponderance of the earth-nature as coal, and with that of the\nair-nature as sulphur, so must the electricity appear fixed chiefly in\nthe latter. This fixation is the idioelectricity.\n\n800. As electricity is in its essence a constantly dualized agent, so\ncan only one pole belonging to it become fixed. In sulphur this is what\nhas been called the _negative_ pole.\n\n\na. SULPHUR.\n\n801. As the air stands opposed to the earth, so must sulphur to coal.\nThe latter is thus endowed with positive electricity.\n\n802. Coal is, however, the fundamental body of the metals. The metals\nare consequently related as positive electrics to sulphur. Sulphur is\nair-metal or idio-negative; metal is earth-or idiopositive sulphur.\nSulphur therefore occurs almost solely with metals, as iron, pyrites,\nglance; yet frequently with arsenic, the metal that resembles it, e. g.\nin realgar.\n\n803. Sulphur is the basis of all idioelectrism, and this property\noccurs only in bodies, in so far as they are positions of sulphur.\n\n804. Magnetism and electrism are correlated, as iron and sulphur, as\ngravity and light, as centre and periphery. The same spirit, which when\nruling in the dark, exhibits itself as magnetic, is manifested when it\nhas attained to light in sulphur as electrical. Magnetism is only the\nelectricity identified.\n\n805. We may therefore speak of idiomagnetic metals as well as\nidioelectric bodies.\n\n806. Magnetism therefore stands in accordance with these relations in\nopposition to electrism; they mutually change or annihilate each other.\n\n807. Electrism has, in accordance with its signification, the power\nof manifesting itself with one pole accumulated or set free from the\nother, as e. g. the negative in a cake of resin; in magnetism, on the\ncontrary, both poles are always together and inseparable. The radius is\ndivided into two in every part of its length.\n\n808. As the functions of metal and of sulphur are correlated, so also\nare their substances; they are opposed, and hence the metallization by\nmeans of sulphur with all its results. This antagonism is, however,\ndormant or concealed; that of the functions manifests itself much more\nclearly.\n\n809. The metals, as being dense, central, and linear masses, must\nfall into a state of tension with electricity as with heat; this is\ncalled conduction. The metals are therefore conductors of electrism. In\nantagonism to the conducting power of the metals sulphur is naturally\nan _isolator_; for what is idioactive is virtually also isolating.\nIron may be likewise called an isolator of magnetism. There is only\n_one_ series of bodies in nature, belonging to the peripheric and\nexpansive functions, that conducts; the metals only are conductors.\nIsolation belongs to the essence of electricity. _Isolating action_ and\n_Electricity are one_; for electricity is the surface-function, wherein\nthe line, which is the only conductor, disappears.\n\n810. Electrism does not tend towards the metals, and can therefore\nhave no definite direction in the earth; there is neither an electric\nmeridian, nor an electric equator. There is only an electrical surface\nto the earth, and this is alike in all regions of the world.\n\n811. The metals must accordingly stand opposed to sulphur as positive\nbodies, if not as idiopositive, yet as such when brought into collision\nwith sulphur. The metals, when rubbed with sulphur, constantly become\npositive, and the sulphur remains negative.\n\n812. The earths also become positive when rubbed with sulphur; in\nshort, everything which, in the genesis of the earth, ranks below\nsulphur, is positive. Heated bodies rubbed with cold, and rough bodies\nwith smooth, must become negative.\n\n813. Bodies become positive with sulphur, simply because the essence\nof sulphur is of a negative character, or because, in other words, it\nis nothing else but negativity; the persistency of one pole and the\ncounter-resistance to every other, is called _isolation_. The metals\nare conductors, because they stand opposed to sulphur.\n\n814. Positive isolation only is evolved opposite to sulphur, in zinc,\nprobably because this belongs to the air-metals.\n\n815. What sulphur is in its series, that is _zinc_ in the metallic\nseries; the isolating electric rod, with which the other bodies are\nassociated; the one the positive, the other the negative isolator; in\nso far forsooth as one can isolate bodies that have arisen through\nlinear action. With zinc the other metals become negative, because it\ncan be nothing else than positive, as sulphur can be none other than\nnegative. (That this does not hold good absolutely, we need scarcely be\nreminded).\n\n816. Two fixations of electricity thus exist, and from these the\nelectric phenomena must be derived. So long as we imagine that\nelectrical proportions run in a continuous line, so long shall we never\nbe able to avoid contradictions. Two rods stand firmly, and from out\nand around these two heaps of bodies form, which in reference to their\nelectrical relation (according to the experiments hitherto performed)\nare naturally exhibited as only _one_ series.\n\n817. Sulphur does not stand alone, but is associated with a series,\nespecially of the higher Inflammables, bitumens or mineral-resins,\n\u00e6therial oils and hydrogen gas. The higher the inflammability ascends,\nby so much the more energetic is the negative character, so that,\nfinally, the sulphur itself becomes positive towards such matters.\n\n818. If in every polar action it can be proved, that each polar line\nconsists of infinitely numerous poles, and that each point in it\ncan be alternately changing both polarities, in accordance with the\nmutation of the principal poles that exert their influence; so is it in\nelectricity. There is scarcely a single body which cannot be positive\nas well as negative, if it only becomes displaced in its own series, or\nis transported into the other.\n\n\nb. COAL.\n\n819. During the electrical separation of the Basic of the earth, or\nduring the communication of the aerial character to the Earthy, a body\nremains behind with positive character, or the _Coal_.\n\n820. Coal may be regarded as volatilized metal, as a metal which can\nchange by the action of water or acid upon it into air. Black-lead is a\ncoal, which is directly associated with the metals.\n\n821. Coal appears therefore less in particular places, than as\nexpanded into entire rocky masses, as e. g. in the clay-slate and as\ncarbonic-acid in lime.\n\n822. The coal was, during the earth-formation, separated from the sea,\nyet not, or only rarely, by itself, but along with other masses of\nearth, while the sulphur rather accompanies the metals. Coal passes\nover into the earths, the sulphur into the metals.\n\n823. The volatilized earth or coal, i. e. the earth that has ascended\nthrough water or salt unto air, is associated with a higher kingdom,\nand that indeed the general mass of the vegetable kingdom, as is the\ncase in the pit-coals, which are reversions of plants.\n\n824. As the earths and metals extend into pit-coals, so does sulphur\nlose itself in idioelectric, inflammable substances, which are likewise\nreversions of a sulphur that has escaped into a higher kingdom. Here\nbelong the amber, mineral resins and naphthas.\n\n825. There are thus two ways, by which the reduced earthy seeks to\nmount aloft; by the carbon, as belonging to the more inert earth;\nand the Resinous, as belonging to the more active air. The vegetable\nkingdom has its root in the simple earths, especially the hydroid\nargillaceous earths; the animal kingdom in the divided calcareous\nearths.\n\n826. Sulphur is yellow, because it is the earthy that has come to\nlight, the carbon is black, because it is sulphur volatilized,\nmoistened in the gloom or darkness of the earth.\n\n\nD.--_SALTS_.\n\n\n_Salt-periods._\n\n827. So long as the basis of the acid is an earthy, such as carbon\nor sulphur in the carbonic and sulphuric acids, does the earthy also\nobtain the preponderance, and the lime as well as the gypsum or\nsulphate of lime are precipitated as insoluble bodies.\n\n828. It is only through the influence of light constantly becoming\nmore powerful by reason of the solid land under the water that the\noxydation of water rises to the highest degree, so that this element\nfinally converts itself into an acid, or hydro-oxide. This process\nmust be regarded as a decomposition of water, whereby a portion of the\nhydrogen forms sulphur with the carbon, the rest with the oxygen an\nhydro-oxide.\n\n829. The hydro-oxide is hydrochloric acid. This acid must be regarded\nas peroxydized hydrogen. Its signification is thus that of being water\nitself, or a whole element with a preponderance of oxygen. It attains\nthis rank by its constituent parts, namely, the two general gaseous\nprimary bodies, by its distribution as a whole element around the\nearth; by its occurrence as an earth-formation in rock-salt; finally,\nby its presence in all vegetable and animal juices. Hydrochloric acid\nis the type of all acids, as the iron is of all metals. All acids are\nbut imitations of the hydrochloric. All abide by the signification of\nwater, or are conversions of elements or earths by oxydation into an\nhydroid condition.\n\n830. Between the acidified water and the Earthy a higher antagonism now\nemerges. The Earthy separates a part of its carbon from the carbonic\nacid and sulphur, so that the rest remains behind peroxydized, and\nmakes its appearance as an alkali.\n\n831. The alkali is to be regarded as the last conversion of calcareous\nearth in respect to water. It is an earth, whose oxygen has converted\nitself with a portion of its carbon into acid and been set free; a salt\nhalved upon the basic side. This general alkali, that has originated in\nwater, is _soda_ or natrom.\n\n832. Alkali and acid are the last antagonism in the earthy, moieties,\nwhich can never subsist without each other.\n\n833. The alkali is corrosive, because it seeks water and acid, in order\nto perfect itself; acid is pungent to the taste, because it seeks earth\nor alkali.\n\n834. Their antagonism is the highest antagonism between water and\nearth; it is also the representation of the antagonism between fire\nand the terrestrial elements, or also between light and gravity.\nTherefore this antagonism has a cosmic or universal signification.\n\n835. The combination of this antagonism is the _sea_-or _common salt_.\n\n836. Sea-salt is the universal salt. All other salts are to be regarded\nonly as metamorphoses of it, as well as the acids only conversions of\nthe acid of common salt, and the alkalies of soda.\n\n837. The sea-salt is essential to water. It is the product of geogeny,\nhas not entered the water from without, but been generated in it, and\nis constantly being regenerated, so long as light shines upon the sea.\nProperly speaking, sea-salt has been in the water from the beginning;\nbut it was previously shrouded in the other earths, and could act\nsubstantially for the first time, when they had been separated from it.\nIt has become salt, or water and earth-element by the agency of light.\n\n838. The sea-salt has also been generated in opposition to the\ncalcareous earths, and during its separation been rendered polar\ntowards the latter. The salt mines are therefore associated with\nthe last calcareous formation, the gypsum, and this it is also that\ndetermines their lamination.\n\n839. As it may be said, that the metals separate into coal and\nsulphur, namely, pass over at their iron-extremity into coal, at their\narsenical, into sulphur; so may it be said, that the earths separate\ninto acids and alkalies; the one by the conversion of silica into\nfluoric acid, the other by that of calcareous earth into soda. Carbonic\nand sulphuric acid take possession of the calcareous earth; the\nhydro-oxide of the alkali.\n\n840. The sea-salt has been the last to be separated from, because it\nwas last generated in, the water. The salt beds belong to the last\nprecipitation, by not having been mechanically thrown down, but as\nalready observed and as their occurrence proves, by an alternating\nprocess of separation from the acidified lime. It is absurd to wish to\nexplain the presence of common salt in the sea by a solution of saline\nbeds. For where have the latter come from?\n\n841. With the separation of the ore and the Inflammable out of the\nprimary water and the confluence of the Earthy into marine salt, its\nmetamorphosis upon the surface or when exposed to light is at an\nend. All forms of the planet have been successively developed out of\nthe earth-element. It can attain no further to anything new, and if\nnature had not yet been concluded, that which in the sequel is still\ndynamically developed upon our earth, must be thus a product, which\nextends beyond the mineral kingdom.\n\n842. As the fundamental earths lose themselves in pure carbon, in\nresin, and so in the vegetable world, so the series of corrosive earths\nresolves itself likewise in remnants of an organic, and that indeed\nthe animal, kingdom. As the pit-coals and resins are associated with\nthe metals and Inflammables, so are the fossil animal remains with\nthe calcareous earth; and thus the voice of the organic world speaks\nalready with force and clearness to those that hearken, from out the\nstones.\n\n843. For the metamorphosis of the earths, nature has twice prepared\nherself, has planted at the same time two great points of origin,\naccording to which all her action is directed, and which remain in\nconstant correspondence with each other.\n\n844. The main pole is granite. It is at once the primary pole, to which\nthe second main pole, the lime, is directed. The granite brings the\nseries through gneiss and mica-schist down to clay-and talc-slate, then\nmakes a sudden transition to the ores, and terminates at a boundary,\nwhere pit-coals and resins conduct us into a new kingdom.\n\n845. The lime rejects from itself the sand and sedimentary clay,\nprogresses through barytes and strontian up to gypsum, makes a sudden\nbound or transition from thence to the salts, and terminates at a\nlimit, where corals and molluscous animals conduct us into a new\nkingdom.\n\n846. Salt concludes the growth of the earths; it is the eruption\nor breaking out of the soul, as the metal was the body of earths\ncompleted. Both finally pass into a higher world, the metal into the\n_corporeal_, the salt into the _psychical_.\n\n\nCHEMISM.\n\n847. The spiritual activity, the soul of the earth has declared itself\nin crystallization, the spirit of the metals in magnetism, that of\nthe Inflammables in electrism. The calcareous epoch is also the\nmanifestation of a peculiar activity, whose ultimate product is salt.\nIt has been already shown what the functions of the latter are, but the\nsignification of its acts has not yet been mentioned.\n\n848. By the influence of light the water becomes elevated in its\noxygen-action, enters thus into tension with itself, and this\nconstitutes the tendency to solution which is the function of water.\nThe oxygenous water solicits the basic principle in the earth; this\nissues forth, but still combined with its oxygen that has become free;\nthe formerly identical earth is a calcareous earth in a state of\ntension with itself. What does not admit of being brought into a state\nof tension, is thrown down as fundamental earth. Hitherto this process\nwas a mere process of solution, i. e. it had attained in the solid and\nfluid only to tension, not to disseverment of the poles.\n\n849. But the light always renders the water more oxygenous, and\ntherefore the earth always more basic; finally, the one portion of the\nbasic in the water, namely the hydrogen, separates itself, and becomes\nperoxydized or the hydrochloric acid. A portion of the Basic in the\nEarthy, namely the metallic body or carbon, separates itself also, and\nthe remainder becomes peroxydized or soda. As the calcareous earth\nwas at first dissolved in, and therefore one mass with, water, so at\npresent is the alkali also combined with the acid water; while both\ndissolved in each other constitute salt.\n\n850. In this process therefore _whole_ elements have been taken only\nas _one_ primary body, and they have combined with each other like\nthe two primary bodies. The water has no longer become an element or\nEquiponderant, but an Oxygenous, a true light-body; the earth has\nno longer continued a total earth of equal specific gravity, but by\nrelative peroxydation has become an Aqueous, a Soluble. The salt has\nthus from the union of the two lower elements, seeing that each was of\nno more value than one primary body, become a _new_ element.\n\n851. This process converts the elements again into their primary\ncondition, creates new elements and thus actually new matters. It\nis therefore a struggle of the elements with their primary bodies,\na separation and interchange of the same. Such a process is called\n_Chemism_. This is the essence or interpretation of chemism, viz. the\ncreation of new elements out of the old, by the reduction of these to\nthe nature of the primary bodies.\n\n852. Chemism, which separates or combines, ranks a step higher than the\nprocess of solution, which has the power only of heterogynizing, but\nnot of separating. Thus the electrical spark separates and combines\nin combustion, while the tension of air enforces only evaporation.\nChemistry drives the elements to their utmost. In water the oxygen is\nthe predominating; it becomes, however, perfect first in the acid of\nsalt. In the earth the body of gravity prevails; but it becomes first\nof all predominant in soda.\n\n853. The opposition of the two primary bodies has been represented in\nthe two inferior elements as chemical tension, and the combination of\nthese primary elements is a chemical product.\n\n854. Chemism is moreover a process of combustion, in which, however,\na whole element supplies the place of oxygen, and a whole element the\nplace of the base. It is an elementary process of combustion.\n\n855. Chemism is the metatype of primary creation, both from its being\na material process of combustion, as from its creating new elements.\nIt is the union of the antagonism between \u00e6ther and terrestrial matter\noccurring within the circle of the terrestrial elements. Chemism is a\ntrue conversion of substances according to their fixation.\n\n856. All chemism takes place only in water; not only because the\nparticles can move therein, but because chemism is a process of\ncombustion of the elements themselves. The inferior elements, however,\nsuch as water and earth, can only undergo combustion with each other,\nbecause the two are moreover related to each other as \u00e6ther and mass;\nor as oxygen and base, for the two, so to speak, have become unipolar.\nWithout Fluid and Solid we cannot think of chemism.\n\n857. The chemism of air is in the beginning electricity and then\nthe true process of combustion; both are similar, but different in\nposition. In the process of combustion both elements are unipolar in\nthe air, thus moieties; but in chemism two elements unite so as to\nconstitute a Whole. The product of air-chemism is water, as the product\nof earth-chemism is salt. Water and salt fall into one position, but\ntranscend each other, even as the process of combustion invades the\nprovince of chemism. The relation of electrism to chemism has now been\nexpressed in the clearest manner. The one is chemical tension of air,\nbut chemism is the electrical tension of earth and water.\n\n858. Chemism is related to magnetism, as salt is to metal, as the\nsedimentary to the primary periods. The whole sedimentary period\nis a product of chemism, as the whole primary period is a product\nof magnetism; salt and metal are only the last evolution of these\nperiods, and the products for whose sake all the preceding actions and\nformations have taken place; granite and lime with their ramifications,\nare but the stems, upon which metal and salt are borne as blossoms.\n\n859. Magnetism and chemism are thus the creating agents for the solid\nnucleus of the earth, and through both is it completed. The process of\nearth-formation is a magneto-chemism.\n\n860. Regarding the earth as an entire crystal, magnetism is the\nDeterminant of its polar axes and polar radii, while chemism is the\nsame in respect to its integral parts.\n\n861. All terrestrial action is an interchange of these two functions\nor souls, which are none other than the living gravity and the living\nlight upon the planet. The electricity, like the heat, only maintains\nthem in eternal tension or extension.\n\n862. Chemism is the process of space, density, quiescent heat;\ntherefore the latent heat or the temperature must change in every\nchemical process. Chemism is related to magnetism, as heat is to\ngravity, to electricity like as to light. Crystallization is point,\nmagnetism line, electrism surface, chemism cube, or expressed according\nto their powers: O\u2070, O\u00b9, O\u00b2, O\u00b3.\n\n863. Nothing can become solid without taking water into admixture with\nit. This water is the water of admixture. Nothing also can assume form,\nwithout taking water into itself--water of crystallization.\n\n864. In so far as magnetism is active in crystallization, it renders\nthe water identical, basic, and this therefore becomes solid; the water\nis not as water in a crystal, but it first becomes so by separation.\n\n865. All chemical processes are based on the union of bodies, which are\nelements, but which, like acids and alkalies, have assumed the nature\nof the primary bodies.\n\n866. The elective affinities are based upon the polarizibility or\ntransmutability of the Fluid and the Solid into the primary bodies.\nThat is decomposed and combined, which during admixture maintains the\nanimation in the strongest degree unto the origin. What cannot be so\nreduced, is precipitated, as is silex. The chemism is a bin-elementary\nprocess, and therefore constitutes the termination of this period\nof creation, or of the mineral kingdom. So soon as a tri-elementary\nprocess originates, the products pass over into a new kingdom.\n\n\n\n\nPART III.\n\nBIOLOGY--OF THE WHOLE IN SINGULARS.\n\n\n\n\nA.--_ORGANOSOPHY_.\n\n\nI.--ORGANOGENY.\n\nA. _Galvanism._\n\n867. If we take a retrospective glance at the _development_ of the\nplanet, we find that it commenced with the simplest actions, and\nthen assumed a more elevated character by gradually drawing together\nseveral actions and letting them work in common. In magnetism the\nearth-element alone was active, and this having freed itself from the\nother elements by crystallization, asserted itself as a particular\nform upon the planet. By this single act of the planet, an extensive\nseries of positions or numbers originated, which may be called _mineral\nindividuals_.\n\n868. Up to the formation of the solar system or of the planet, the\ncharacter of creation is _analytic_. The three primary ideas emerged\nfrom each other as gravity, light and heat, and appeared as fire.\nThese three united actions emerged again from each other and became\nair, water and earth, which together make up the planet. This was\ntherefore the descending creation. But from and after this period, the\ncharacter of the development of the planet becomes _synthetic_, for the\ndivided elements again united with each other. By synthesis only or by\ncombination of the elements does the planet progressively advance,\nand by it only does it divide into lesser planetary masses or bodies,\ncalled _individuals_. This is the ascending creation.\n\n869. To the earth-element, in which the active magnetism is isolated,\ncomes the element-water; and by the identification of both into _one_\nbody, a new process is evolved, which we have recognized by the term\n_chemism_--salt. Then the earth-element combines with air and becomes\nan Inflammable, in which the process is likewise extinguished and only\na dead product is left--the Inflammable. Then it combines with fire\nand is converted into ore. There never originates therefore from the\ntwofold combination of the earth-element with any other element, but\none product, that namely in which the Earthy obtains the preponderance,\nor a mineral.\n\n870. _Two_ elements only belong to the essence of chemism, and they\nindeed are the two lowest, the elements carbon and oxygen, both being\nreduced to their primary condition, i. e. to that of an alkali in\nnatron, and an acid in the hydrochloric or that of common salt.\n\n871. As the principle or rationale of chemical action consists only\nin the potentiality of two elements to revert to their polar, or the\noxygenous, condition, this action must thus become extinct, so soon as\nthe creation of the new or secondary element has resulted. For if the\ntension equalizes itself in the two, and the two only be coexistent, so\nin accordance with the compensation no new tension can originate, and\nyet such is the groundwork of all chemical action. The result of the\nchemical process is consequently death; and furthermore, because it is\nalso a simple bin-elementary process, it cannot be the ultimate goal or\nlimit attained by the development of the planet.\n\n872. The next stage to which the genesis of the planet ascends consists\nin the bin-elementary processes being associated with the _third_\nterrestrial element. In this manner a process originates in which the\npowers of _earth_ and of _water_ marry or conjoin with the power of\n_air_, and thus originates a chemical power or chemism, influenced by\nthe air.\n\n873. The chemism, when influenced by air, is one of a perpetual\ncharacter; for this power dies only because the tension of its two\nelements is balanced or equalized; the influence of the air is,\nhowever, none other than the constant renewal of the tension.\n\n874. Now, the process of tension in the air is electrism or that action\nin which the two poles being devoid of indifference range opposite to\neach other, can therefore never unite, and the end attained by which is\noxydation. The new process is consequently a chemical power constantly\nexcited by electrism--it is an _electro-chemism_. (Ed. 1st, 1810.) This\ncomposite process is known under the name of _Galvanism_.\n\n875. Hereby the galvanism has been most rigorously and\ncharacteristically separated from the chemism, and the succession of\nstages been exactly indicated. By the accession of a single but higher\nnature-factor, namely, the air, chemism advances one and _only_ one\nstage higher. We have consequently made no leap or abrupt transition\nin tracing out our genesis of nature. Magnetism is the uni-elementary,\nchemism the bin-elementary, galvanism the tri-elementary process of the\n_planet_, in so far as it is occupied with its own evolution, or that\nof the _Solid_.\n\n876. Considered in relation to the result and also the internal nature\nof the process, galvanism is in no wise different from chemism, but\nonly in reference to the continuance of the tension. The fluid and\nsolid are in both the co-equal media or means; the decompositions,\nseparations and combinations also, are alike in both. The air has no\nother office than to sustain the opposition, which in chemism proceeds\nthrough the difference of the two unipolar elements, acid and alkali.\n\n877. The air maintains this animosity of the elements only\nby oxydation, and so far takes part in the contest like a\nfellow-combatant; yet this invariably happens only while the water is\npreserved by these means in its primary condition, that of the acid.\nThe air breathes life only into the chemical body, without being body\nitself. No galvanism therefore continues, if it be denied the access of\nair. The chain or column enters it is true into tension also without\nair, but remains only for a short time in that state, or so long only\nas there is a trace of oxygen in the water.\n\n878. Galvanism, as a tri-elementary process, represents the planet in\nits _totality_. The galvanic column is an entire planet, a planet upon\nthe planet, the planet individualized.\n\n879. The individual, taken in a strong sense, is an entire planet taken\nup into Singulars, a triplicity of the elements in the particular or\n_special_ unity. In galvanism there consequently issues forth for the\nfirst time an individual, which is equivalent to a cosmic totality.\nGalvanism is the metatype of the planet. All other and profounder\nprocesses are not total in character, nor metatypes of a whole system,\nbut only moieties thereof.\n\n880. The planet, regarded in itself, in its three elements, apart\nfrom its relation to the sun, is a galvanic body, a column, just as\ninversely this is a planet.\n\n881. The attributes, which consequently belong to the planet,\nabstractedly from the sun, must belong to every galvanic process, or\nto such a body. The planet is a Whole included in itself, and thus is\ngalvanism. The latter acts only in a closed chain, or only by its own\nbody or its materiality forming _one_ circle that returns into itself.\nThe three elements are mutually self-excited and moved, and that indeed\nfrom internal causes, though not apart from external conditions. Thus\ngalvanism is like an individual planet.\n\n\nB. _Primary Organism._\n\n882. An individual (total, self-included) body, excited and moved by\nitself, is called _Organism_. _Organism is what individual planet is._\nThe metatype of the planet is organism; or a planet upon the planet\nis organism. The planet is not itself an organism, because it is not\nindividual or galvanic in every point.\n\n883. The self-excitation of the individualized elements, is called life.\n\n884. Galvanism is the principle of life. There is no other vital force\nthan the galvanic polarity. The heterogeneity of the three terrestrial\nelements in a circumscribed individual body is the _vital force_. The\ngalvanic process is one with the vital process.\n\n885. Organism is galvanism residing in a thoroughly _homogeneous mass_.\nThe galvanic column is no organism, because it only admits the galvanic\nprocess just as the planet does, in individual places. A body only,\nwhich is zinc-pole, silver-pole and moist pulp at every conceivable\npoint, is an organism. A galvanic pile, pounded into atoms must become\nalive. In this manner nature brings forth organic bodies.\n\n886. Electrism has a basis; it is the air. Magnetism has a basis; it\nis the metal. Chemism has a basis; it is the salt. So has galvanism a\nbasis; it is the organic mass.\n\n887. Accordingly, what would be organic, must be galvanic; what would\nbe alive, must be galvanic. Life is not different from organism, nor\nalso from galvanism. For life is verily the vital process. But the\nvital process is an organic, galvanic process. Galvanism lies at the\nbasis of all the processes of the organic world. They are either\nmodifications of it, or only its combinations with other and still\nhigher actions. A living thing, which is not galvanic, is a nonentity.\n\n888. With galvanism consequently the first step has been made out of\nthe inorganic into the organic kingdom. Every aught of nature, which\nhas hitherto originated, is inorganic. These, however, were mere\nindividualities. The character of the Inorganic consists consequently\nin something being a Singular, a moiety, or a metatype of a Singular;\nthe character of the Organic in its being the metatype of a whole or\nround number. Organic things are internal self-exciting numbers; the\ninorganic things are fractions.\n\n889. Every fraction is dead. No moiety can attain to life, for it does\nnot receive its complement. What is simply fluid, cannot be organic,\nbecause it is not the totality of the planet. What is simply solid,\ncannot be organic. It is only a third of the organism. Every organism\nis produced according to the laws of galvanism, according to the law of\nthe triplicity.\n\n890. As the terrestrial magnetism is indeed only one, but includes an\ninfinity of magnets, which are rendered manifest in the progress of the\nearth's life; so also in the great galvanism of the earth an infinite\nnumber of subordinate galvanic triplicities reside inclosed, which\nbecome gradually detached, and, instead of the universal galvanism,\nrepresent an infinity of individual galvanisms. The universal galvanism\ncannot exist, without establishing itself as an infinity of individual\ngalvanisms. As magnetism is only associated with the net of metallic\nveins, so is the absolute only, with the universality of its finite\npositions. The number of organisms is infinite, both in coexistence as\nalso in consecutive existence.\n\n891. An organism is an individual in the rigid sense of the word,\nbecause it is ruined, so soon as one of its three members parts from\nthe rest. In this sense only are there properly speaking organic\nindividuals.\n\n892. If we do not confine indivisibility to what is mechanical, but\nextend it also to the chemical; individuals may be likewise granted\nto the mineral kingdom. The minerals are chemical individuals; for by\nseparation they are likewise annihilated as such, and moreover the\nrelation of mixture of chemical bodies is not one of an arbitrary\nkind. The gray ores are a definite mixture of sulphur and antimony,\nand are thereby individuals. The silver, lead, and copper, that\nare accidentally mixed in this compound, do not at all alter the\nindividuality, and by no means prove a capacity residing in the\nmatters for mixture in all conceivable numbers. Such a mixture would\nbe a medley only. In plants and animals casual component parts occur\nalso frequently. Thus the individuality of the ruby-silver appears\nto consist in the definite mixture of sulphur and arsenic, with the\naddition perhaps of antimony. The silver is only mingled with it,\nand therefore present in all numbers. The same holds good of the\nbi-sulphurets of iron, and the glance-ores. (Ed. 1st, 1810.)\n\n\n_Creation of the Organic._\n\n893. It has been demonstrated from the genesis of the Organic, that\nits essence consists in the universality of the planetary processes.\nEvery organic individual has essentially three processes in itself,\nwhich must be regarded as its fundamental processes, whereof no one can\never be wanting. Seeing, that if this be the case, the body is only a\nchemical or magnetic, a crystallized carcase.\n\n894. The first three planetary processes, namely, the earth-process,\nwater-process, and air-process, or the _forming_, _chemicalizing_, _and\nelectrifying or oxydizing processes_, are also the first three vital\nprocesses.\n\n895. It has been shown, that with every new process and with every\nnew combination of processes, the materials also of the same were\naltered, ennobled, rendered more composite, and thereupon also more\ndecomposible. Herein also nature advances consecutively and creates new\nmaterials for the organic world.\n\n896. In the metamorphosis of the earths, when the chemism was added to\nthe process of formation, not only the alkalinity and acidity issued\nforth in the calcareous earth and the salts, but the pure Earthy also\nbecame free from fixity, and manifested itself as _carbon_ in the\ncarbonic acid.\n\n897. The last product of an antecedent stage is always the basis of\nthat which is subsequent. _The fundamental matter of the organic world\nis consequently the carbon._\n\n\na. ELEMENTARY BODY--PRIMARY MUCUS.\n\n898. If in this carbon the three processes of the planet, namely, the\nformative or its special, the chemicalizing or fluidizing, and the\nelectrifying or oxydizing, process, concentrate themselves, and are\npresent with all their energy in every atom of the organic body; so\nmust the mass of carbon be at the same time solid, fluid, and aerial,\noxydizable in every spot, and thus also _soft_. Now a carbon mixed\nidentically with water and air is _Mucus_.\n\n899. Mucus is oxydized, hydrated carbon; or expressed in purely\nphilosophical language, mucus is the universality of the minerals and\nelements, or the synthesis of earth, salt, Inflammable, and ore in\nwater and air.\n\n900. Every Organic has issued out of mucus, is naught but mucus under\ndifferent forms. Every Organic is again soluble into mucus; by which\nnaught else is meant, than that the formed mucus becomes one devoid of\nform.\n\n901. _The primary mucus, out of which every thing organic has been\ncreated, is the sea-mucus._\n\n902. Mucus belongs originally and essentially to the sea, and has not\nbeen mixed with the latter through the dissolution in it of putrefying\nsubstances.\n\n903. The sea-mucus has originated in the progress of planetary\ndevelopment, like the calcareous earth has with the carbon and like\nthe sea-salt. As little as this could have entered the sea originally\nthrough solution of rock-salt; so little could the mucus through the\nperishing of animals and plants, for none of these were yet present,\nbut could be first developed, only with the production of this mucus.\n\n904. The sea-mucus was originally generated through the influence of\nlight and by the denudation of the crude masses, especially of the\nearths and salts, which was thereby effected; while with the metals and\nInflammables ranging opposite to these, the carbon thus became free,\nand betook itself as carbonic acid to the water and air. Thus also has\nsalt been produced.\n\n905. The sea-mucus, as well as the salt, is still produced by the\nlight. Everything takes place through the differentialization, or by\nthe absolution of fixed poles on the earth-element. _Light shines upon\nthe water, and it is salted. Light shines upon the salted sea, and it\nlives._\n\n906. All life is from the sea, none from the continent.\n\n907. All mucus is endowed with life.\n\n908. The whole sea is alive. It is a fluctuating, ever self-elevating\nand ever self-depressing organism.\n\n909. Where the sea-organism by self-elevation succeeds in attaining\nunto form, there issues forth from it a higher organism. Love arose out\nof the sea-foam.\n\n910. The primary mucus was and is still generated in those very parts\nof the sea where the water is in contact with earth and air, and thus\nupon the shores.\n\n911. The first creation of the Organic took place, where the first\nmountain summits projected out of the water; and thus indeed without\ndoubt in India, if the Himalaya be the highest mountain.\n\n912. The first organic forms, whether plants or animals, emerged from\nthe shallow parts of the sea.\n\n913. _Man also is a child of the warm and shallow parts of the sea in\nthe neighbourhood of the land._\n\n914. It is possible, that Man has only originated on one spot, and that\nindeed the highest mountain in India. It is even possible, that only\none favorable moment was granted, in which Men could arise. A definite\nmixture of water, definite blood-heat, and definite influence of\nlight must concur to his production; and this has probably been the\ncase only in a certain spot and at a certain time.\n\n915. The first men were the littoral and mountainous inhabitants of\nwarmer countries, and found therefore at once reptiles, fishes, fruit,\nand game for food.\n\n\nCHANGE.\n\n916. The number of individual organisms is not persistent. For they\nare verily only products of a ceaseless polarization or a constant\nevocation of poles in the great galvanism, positions of the general\ngalvanism in time. Thus, as the poles change, so also do the organic\nindividuals. The kingdom of organisms is an iron bar, in which the\nmagnetic poles originate and vanish or change, according as the\npolarizing magnet is removed. Organisms change, because they are\nnumbers, thoughts of God.\n\n917. The process of change in organic individuals is that of their\ndestruction.\n\n918. But this destruction is as nothing for nature. There originate\nagain in the same moment other organisms in other situations. The\nprocess that destroys the poles is only one that effects their change.\n\n919. The world-organism only is eternal, and devoid of change, with the\nexception of that which is within its poles. It can itself change with\nno other, because it is only one.\n\n920. No individual organism is eternal, because it is only a changing\npole of the world-organism.\n\n921. There is no constancy in the individualities. Change only is\npersistent.\n\n922. The world only is persistent. Nothing in it is constant. Were\nindividuals not to perish, but live for ever, the world must then die;\nfor the life of the world, like every life, consists only in the change\nof poles. Individuals could in no way therefore continue alive, if\nthe world were to remain alive, because this is only possible through\nchange of the individuals, which are its organs; nor could they, were\nthe world to die, because the totality of individuals is the world\nitself.\n\n923. Death is no annihilation, but only a change. One individual\nemerges out of another. Death is only a transition to another life, not\nunto death.\n\n924. This transition from one life to another takes place through the\nprimary condition of the Organic, or the mucus.\n\n925. If new individuals originate, they could not therefore originate\ndirectly from others; but they must be redissolved into mucus. Every\ngeneration is a new creation.\n\n\nb. FORM--GLOBE.\n\n926. The organism is a metatype of the planet and must also have the\ncorresponding form. It is the _Sphere_. This results also from the\ncombination of the three actions, which being in equiponderance could\nonly produce the globe.\n\n927. The sphere must commence with the idea of the point. For the idea\nof the sphere is the idea of the centre, which is a point. The point,\nhowever, is not different from the sphere. It is only the infinitely\nsmall or minute sphere.\n\n928. The primary mucus is globular in form. The primary mucus does not\nswell into a single sphere, but it divides into infinitely numerous\nspheres. For were it only one sphere, it would be the planet itself.\nBut it is an individual, or only one sphere in the great sphere. The\nidea of the great sphere consists however of an infinity of small\nspheres.\n\n929. The primary mucus consists of an infinity of points. This admits\nof being proved by its mode of origin. It is formed on the limit\nbetween water and earth, consequently in a line. This line, however,\nbecomes constantly dissevered by disquietude, and divides therefore\nnecessarily into infinitely numerous points.\n\n930. The primary Organic is a mucous point.\n\n931. The organic world commences not merely with one point, but with\ninfinitely numerous points. Where earth, water, and air are found in\n_one_ spot, there also is an organic point.\n\n932. The organic points originate upon the surface of the earth, not\nin it, and not in the air. For only between earth and air do all three\nelements enter into collision.\n\n\nPRIMARY VESICLE.\n\n933. Through the oxydation of the air an opposition of the component\nparts, or of the Fluid and Solid, issues forth in the organic point,\nand these mutually conditionate each other. The Fluid and Solid\ncannot, however, be otherwise conditioned, seeing that the former\nis the Contained, the latter the Containing. The Solid is only a\nprecipitate from the Fluid wrought by the influence of the air. The\nair, however, is externally related to the mucus-point. The Solid can\ntherefore originate nowhere else than between the Fluid and the air. It\nconsequently surrounds in accordance with its genesis the Fluid. The\nphysical cause thereof is naturally the oxydation of mucus upon its\nperiphery. A globe, the middle of which is fluid, but the periphery\nsolid, is called a bladder or cyst.\n\n934. The first organic points are vesicles. The organic world has for\nits basis an infinity of vesicles. (Ed. 1st, 1813. \u00a7. 922.)\n\n\nINFUSORIA.\n\n935. The mucous primary vesicle may in a philosophical sense be aptly\ncalled infusorium, like as we designate the primary condition of\nthe embryo, by the word vitellus. Now are we making use of definite\nexpressions.\n\n936. Everywhere, where the three elements cooperate, are infusoria\npresent--thus upon the sea-shore, the tide-mark or strand, and shallow\nwatery places.\n\n937. The infusorium is a galvanic point, a galvanic vesicle, a galvanic\ncolumn or chain.\n\n938. In every infusorium there is triplicity of the poles, or properly\nspeaking, of the processes. Each one maintains itself by the nutritive,\ndigestive, and respiratory process, or what amounts to the same, the\ninfusorial globule of mucus assumes a figure, its peculiar fluidity is\nformed in its interior, and it becomes oxydized. As is well known, no\ninfusorium can live without moisture, and none if the access of air\nhaving been prevented, or the water boiled, it is freed from the air\nand the Earthy.\n\n939. If the organic fundamental substance _consist_ of infusoria, so\nmust the whole organic world _originate_ from infusoria. Plants and\nanimals can only be metamorphoses of infusoria.\n\n940. This being granted, so also must all organizations _consist_ of\ninfusoria, and during their destruction dissolve into the same. Every\nplant, every animal is converted by maceration into a mucous mass;\nthis putrefies, and the moisture is stocked with infusoria.\n\n941. Putrefaction is nothing else than a division of organisms into\ninfusoria, a reduction of the higher to the primary, life.\n\n942. Organisms are a synthesis of infusoria. Their generation is none\nother than an accumulation of infinitely numerous mucous points,\ninfusoria. In these the organisms have not forsooth been at once wholly\nand perfectly depicted as on the smallest scale, nor contained in a\nstate of preformation; but they are only infusorial vesicles, that by\ndifferent combinations assume different forms, and grow up into higher\norganisms.\n\n\nTHEORY OF GENERATION.\n\n943. The theory of generation is in _this_ sense a synthetical and\nepigenetic, not an analytic.\n\n944. The theory of preformation contradicts the laws of nature's\ndevelopment.\n\n945. Generation is a successive formation, both in relation to the\nquantity as well as the quality, and the specific organs. It having\nbeen preposited, that an organism has several organic systems, so\nmust these range according to their importance, and like the systems\nof nature, behind each other, and be also developed in this order. As\nthe whole of nature has been a successive fixation of \u00e6ther, so is\nthe organic world a successive fixation of infusorial mucus-vesicles.\nThe mucus is the \u00e6ther, the chaos for the organic world. The semen of\nall animals consists also of infusoria; the same may be said of the\nvitellus. The pollen of flowers consists in like manner of microscopic\nvesicles with globules, which have a life of their own and move\nthemselves in water. Many conferv\u00e6 indeed divide evidently into a\nmultitude of living, self-moving globules, which, after they have swam\nabout for some time, again unite to form a stem of conferva.\n\n946. Every generation consequently commences \u00e0 priori or from the\nbeginning. The organic substance must again be dissolved into the\noriginal chaos, if any thing new should reoriginate.\n\n947. Out of an organic menstruum only can a new organism proceed, but\nnot one organism out of the other. A finished or perfect organism\ncannot gradually transform itself into another.\n\n948. The generative juices, or semen and vitellus, are none other than\nthe total organism reduced to the primary menstruum.\n\n949. Physically regarded also every individual originates only from\nthe Absolute, but no one out of the other. The history of generation\nis a retrogression into the Absolute of the Organic, or the organic\nchaos--mucus, and a new evocation from the same.\n\n950. This development from mucus is only applicable however to the\ngeneration of the perfect organisms, but not to the origin of the\norganic body, or the infusorial mass. The former originate only from an\norganic mass that has been already formed; but the infusorial mass, as\nconstituting the organic primary bodies, cannot have originated in the\nsame way. It does and must originate directly from the Inorganic. For\nwhence can the organic matter have otherwise proceeded?\n\n951. The infusorial mucus-mass originated, as has been already\nremarked, at the moment when the earth's metamorphosis was at an end;\nat the moment, when the planet succeeded in so bringing together and\nidentifying all the elementary processes, that they were all together\nor at one and the same time in every point.\n\n952. Hence the organic primary body originated also by synthesis, not\nby analysis, if regard be paid to its factors. But do we consider this\nsubstance as first emerging into view, when the coarse, abundant,\nisolated materials, such as earth, metals, Inflammables, and salts\nhad separated themselves from it; that this organic primary body then\nremained behind as it were for the first time: it has then originated\nthrough analysis, or was preformed; but so preformed as are also the\nmetals, and as is everything. It need scarcely be observed, that this\nlast separation from out the Earthy is the _carbon_, the dissolution\nof the earths into atoms, and thus again into points or globules\nsusceptible of form.\n\n953. Everything is preformed in \u00e6ther, like as every Mathematic is\npreformed in zero, every Active in God; yet for that very reason\nnothing individual is preformed therein; but it originates first\nthrough _fixation of poles on the substance_. This is the true meaning\nof the original generation of the Organic.\n\n954. This origin of the organic primary bodies I designate _Generatio\noriginaria_, _Creation_.\n\n955. But infusorial vesicles can also originate by mere division of\nlarger organic carcases, and these can again originate as well through\nthe combination of these secondary as of the primitive vesicles, or\nas it were by coagulation only, such being the case indeed in the\nintestinal worms also. I nominate this generation, _Generatio \u00e6quivoca_.\n\n956. All generation is _Generatio \u00e6quivoca_; whether imparted by sexes\nor not. For the generative juices of the sexual organs themselves are\nnaught else than organic primary mass, and have originated by division.\n\n957. There are only two kinds of generation in the world. The creation\nproper and the propagation that is sequent thereupon, or the _Generatio\noriginaria_ and _secundaria_.\n\n958. No organism has been consequently created of larger size than an\ninfusorial point. No organism is, nor has one ever been, created, which\nis not microscopic.\n\n959. Whatever is larger, has not been created, but developed.\n\n960. Man has not been created, but developed. So the Bible itself\nteaches us. God did not make man out of nothing; but took an elemental\nbody then existing, an _earth_-clod or carbon; moulded it into form,\nthus making use of _water_; and breathed into it life, namely _air_,\nwhereby galvanism, or the vital process arose.\n\n961. The original origin of organization has been imparted by the\nco-operating influence of heat and light. By the heat, because\nwithout this no galvanic and no chemical process is possible;\nfurther, because heat is the totality of \u00e6ther, the moved \u00e6ther, the\n\u00e6therial air, and thus the menstruum of all action. But the heat is\nnot sufficient to animate the three terrestrial elements, because it\nimparts only the possibility of procedure and of action; while it does\nnot differentialize, nor posit tension, but maintains everything in\nidentity, fluidity. In the heat alone every thing must become fluid and\nfinally decompose. Unto heat therefore the accession is yet necessary\nof the Cosmic-differencing, or the light. The light inspires the body\nprepared by heat with life, antagonism, polarity.\n\n962. The \u00e6ther imparts the substance, the heat the form, the light the\nlife. (Oken first started this opinion in his work, 'Die Zeugung,'\nFrankfurt, Wesche, 1805.)\n\n\nc. _Processes of the Organic._\n\n963. The life of the organic body is not a single but a threefold\naction, consisting of the actions of the three terrestrial elements,\nwhich become the three fundamental processes of the body, or of life,\nand in which _three_ processes galvanism consists.\n\n\n1. EARTH-PROCESS, NUTRITIVE PROCESS.\n\n964. The magnetic earth-process is virtually the formative; and in\norganic bodies is called the _nutrient_ process.\n\n965. The process of nutrition is the principal process in the organic\nworld. Its product or its basis is the fundamental mass of the body\nitself. As crystal and the process of crystallization are related to\neach other, so are the body and the process of nutrition.\n\n966. The process of nutrition is the sustaining, and proper fundamental\nprocess of the organism.\n\n967. It is present entire and indivisible in every part of the body.\nWhencesoever it is ablated or withdrawn, there is death.\n\n968. It operates according to the laws of crystallization.\n\n969. Its very forms are crystals modified by the organic mass or, what\namounts to the same, by the other processes combined therewith. The\norganic body is an accumulation of an infinity of (organic) crystals\n(cells).\n\n970. In the planetary process of formation, which is a process of\ncrystallization, the organism is continually comprehended. It is the\nplanetary body ever becoming; the latter is an organic body, which has\nceased to become.\n\n\n2. WATER-PROCESS, DIGESTIVE PROCESS.\n\n971. Another action, that helps to constitute the organic body, is the\nchemism, which is not only the process of liquefaction, but the process\nalso of the formation or creation of new organic matter. It is known to\nus under the name of _Digestive process_.\n\n972. The digestive process elevates the Inorganic up to the organic\nmass, like the chemism has converted the Earthy into carbonate of lime\nand finally into muriatic natron. The digestive process is the _process\nof the formation of mucus_. Regarded philosophically the nutritive\njuice (or chyle) is naught else than mucus. This is also correct in a\nphysiological point of view.\n\n973. The digestive process is the second organic process, in so far as\nit has been fashioned after the type of the water; but the first, in so\nfar as every Organic has originated out of water.\n\n974. As forming only the mucus it is not directly distributed in every\npart of the body like the nutritive process, which is the body or\nplanet itself. But it interposes, or is mediate, everywhere.\n\n975. As the water of the planet is related to the continent or earth's\nnucleus, so are the digestive matters or the mucus of nutrition to the\nbody. The Earthy, however, is the principal mass of the planet, upon\nwhich the others have been supported. So is the nutritive body the\nprincipal mass, upon which the digestive body has been supported.\n\n976. No organism is conceivable without a digestive process.\n\n\n3. AIR PROCESS, RESPIRATORY PROCESS.\n\n977. The action of the air finally settles down also in mucus. It is\nthat which sustains the constant heterogeneity of the organic factors,\nthe electrical tension. The electrical tension has, however, oxydation\nfor its result. The organic process of electricity is thus at the same\ntime a process of oxydation. It is called _Respiratory process_.\n\n978. Without respiratory process, no organism is conceivable. By\nits influence difference has been induced in the chyle, and by this\ndifference only does the latter become decomposible or serviceable for\nthe process of nutrition.\n\n979. The respiratory process is also present not immediately in every\npart of the body, but only mediately. It is the atmosphere of the body.\n\n980. The mutation, which the juices undergo through the process of\nrespiration, is none other than an emergence from their state of\nindifference. Thereby each point of the juice becomes polar towards\nevery other; all are mutually attracted, all repelled, whereby a\ndecisive vortication originates.\n\n981. As every globule of sap or mucus is indifferent, it has thus\nnaturally an affinity for air. The air itself is comprehended, like the\nwater and the earth, in the organism. And thus it may with full force\nbe said; that the organism is elevated by respiration to the element\nair, by digestion to the element water, by nutrition to the element\nearth. So that respiratory process = air-process, digestive process =\nwater-process, and nutritive process = earth-process.\n\n982. The first three organic processes are consequently true synotypes\nof the planetary processes--are planet-forming processes in miniature\nin individuals. The fundamental organism has thus been shown to be in\nits apparent processes a synotype or likeness of the planet; in other\nwords, a microscopic planet.\n\n983. These three processes constitute the galvanic process. Making\nuse of the expressions applied to the inorganic kingdom, we found the\norganism to be a combination of magnetism, chemism, and electrism;\nwhile in organic parlance it is a nutritive process, maintained by\nrespiration and digestion. The processus nutritorius, digestivus,\nrespiratorius, together constituting galvanism.\n\n\n4. MOTION.\n\n984. Motion is no peculiar or self-persistent process, but the\nnecessary manifestation of galvanism. Motion has been established with\nthe three organic fundamental processes.\n\n985. Every motion depends upon the galvanic process. Taken in a strict\nsense, there is no _process_ of motion, but motion only. For motion\nis verily but the phenomenon of galvanism. The process of motion is\nsynonymous with the galvanic process.\n\n986. The galvanic process is a process of motion effected in circles,\nin its own factors, in its planet, but not from without; it is\nconsequently an actual vital process.\n\n987. As the process of motion is the phenomenon common to all three\norganic fundamental processes, so is the whole organism characterized\nby it. The essence of the Organic depends consequently upon its\nautomatic or self-motion.\n\n988. _Self-motion_ is the only, but essential and ultimate, distinction\nbetween the Organic and Inorganic. (Ed. 1st, 1810. \u00a7 904.) All other\ndistinctions that have been advanced do not suffice; because they do\nnot comprehend the totality of the organism, nor the three fundamental\nprocesses in _one_ phenomenon, but only individual attributes.\n\n989. A circumscribed, closed mass, which moves itself, is an organism.\nThe perpetuum mobile is only the organism.\n\n990. Every Inorganic moves not itself, but is only moved by external\ninfluences; because every Inorganic is only a part of a whole.\n\n991. The organic motion is present and possible in every point of a\nbody. A mass that is automatic, or thoroughly moved by itself, is an\norganism.\n\n992. The Inorganic consists in motion having vanished from it, and in\nbeing simply mass. But the Organic consists exactly in this alone,\nnamely, that the Massive has disappeared, or that the mass is in\nconstant motion. The Organic becomes destroyed, so soon as motion\ndisappears in it; the Inorganic is destroyed, so soon as motion enters\nit. Motion is therefore the soul, whereby the Organic is elevated above\nthe Inorganic.\n\n\n2. ORGANOGNOSY.\n\n\n_Division of the Organism._\n\nPLANETARY AND COSMIC ORGANISM.\n\n993. Hitherto we have regarded the organism merely in a general point\nof view; namely, as regards the substance, form, and processes, which\nmust indiscriminately occur in every organism. We have seen that it is\ncomposed of at least _three_ elements, the earth, water and air. There\nis still, however, one combination that is possible and therefore also\nactual, namely, with the \u00e6ther or the _fire_.\n\n994. The organic world has two stages in its development. Upon each\nstage, however, it is the totality or synotype of nature, yet is\ndifferent in each.\n\n995. The organism represents the whole solar system; but this divides\ninto two stages. The lowest of these is the Planetary, or totality of\nthe Earthy, Aqueous and Aerial; the higher is the Solar or Cosmic,\nnamely, the totality of earth, water, air and fire. Thus there is\na tri-elementary and a quadri-elementary totality. As the first is\nalready an organism, so much the more too must be the second. Thus\nthere must be one organism, which comprehends indeed all systems in\nitself, but with the preponderance of the Planetary; and one with the\npreponderance of the Solar.\n\n996. In the planetary organism the \u00e6ther-systems will be either\nwanting, or only indicated as mere projections; they are there only,\nin so far as the planet itself is not without light. In the solar\norganism, however, the planetary systems are subordinate to the \u00e6ther\nprocesses; the former are only there, because the sun cannot be without\nplanets. In the planetary organism the \u00e6ther-system has only been taken\nup into the Terrestrial; but in the Solar the Terrestrial has been\ntaken up into the \u00e6ther.\n\n997. In the planetary organism all the processes launch out into\nproduction or alterations of the matters; it is a chemical organism;\nin the solar organism there are processes, which neither change, nor\nproduce matters, it may be therefore styled light organism.\n\n998. The chemical organism is associated with the earth, the spiritual\nwith the water and air; the former must therefore consist principally\nof carbon, the latter of the combination of oxygen with hydrogen, and\nthus of nitrogen.\n\n999. The carbon-organism must moreover in accordance with its import be\nassociated with the Inflammables and metals, and through these with the\nsilicious earth.\n\n1000. The nitrogen-organism on the contrary with the salts and\ncalcareous earths; thus we have silicious organisms and calcareous\norganisms; Inflammable organisms and salt organisms. From this it is\nalready clear, that the planetary or primary organism is not general,\nnor indefinite, but the _plant_; for no General or Indefinite has\nexistence. The solar or quadri-elementary organism admits in like\nmanner of being recognized as _animal_. This is the philosophical\ndeduction. But there is also a physiological, which conducts to the\nsame result.\n\n1001. The mucus-vesicle can feasibly pass into two kinds of condition\nonly. It either remains in the water, or is cast upon the shore, or\nin the mud. In the last case it continues to lie, and is only supplied\nwith light, and oxydized by the air upon the upper side; in the first\ncase, on the contrary, it rolls about constantly in the water, and is\nalternately illumed and oxydized upon all sides. The first vesicle thus\nobtains a single axis from above downwards, between light and darkness;\nthe second on the contrary gains a multitude of axes from without\ninwards, where it is alone dark and deoxydized. The first is thus\ndevoid of any middle point, and finds its centre of gravity only in the\nmiddle of the earth, while the latter acquires its centre of gravity in\nits Interior, and this renders the Interior polar towards all points of\nthe circumference. The plant is only one axis, or from having no middle\npoint, is properly only one radius, which has its centre in the centre\nof the earth; the animal is an infinity of axes or radii, which concur\nor converge in the creature itself; the plant is an inverted cone, the\nanimal an infinity of cones or a globe.\n\n1002. Thus the planetary organism originates, if the primary vesicle\nhaving been taken out of the water is given up to the earth, to\nimmobility and to _darkness_. But the light-organism arises, if the\nprimary vesicle continue in water, or in the Moveable and Diaphanous.\nHere then in their genesis an essential difference is declared\nbetween the two organic worlds. Planetary organism originates, if\nthe vesicle develops itself apart from the water, in which case it\nis withdrawn on one side from the light; but the light-organism\noriginates if it remains in water itself, where it can be supplied on\nall sides with light. The essence of both is expressed by the names\n_darkness_-organism and _light_-organism.\n\n1003. The basis of both kingdoms is therefore exactly similar; the\nvesicle and the mucus lie at the foundation of both. It depends solely\nupon the surrounding element, whether out of one and the same mass this\nor that organism should arise, or rather upon the active influence of\nthe light, this being conditioned only by the elements. Not a word can\naccordingly be spoken about preformation. In darkness-organism the\nwater-vesicle has been placed between earth and air, and thus fettered\nto the earth; in light-organism, however, the vesicle has been placed\nin the water and so freed from the earth.\n\n1004. The planetary organism has, in accordance with its situation and\nimport, been bound to the earth. It must originate like the metal in\nthe earth, in the darkness and, as it were, in a vein. But it is at the\nsame time a light-product; it must rise from out of the earth into the\nair and towards the light. It is a mucus, living metallic vein, which\nelevates itself from out the earth into the air.\n\n1005. This organism, which originates in the darkness of the earth, and\ngrows therefrom into the air so as to meet the light, is _plant_.\n\n1006. The solar-organism is, in accordance with its import, void of\nconnexion with the earth; like a planet it revolves freely about the\nearth, and everywhere receives its image or likeness in the influence\nof all four elements.\n\n1007. The organism, which, free from the earth, has originated in\nwater, or properly speaking, in the transparency, is _animal_.\n\n1008. The vegetable and animal are the only organic, kingdoms. In\nboth, nature has exhausted herself, and has in the last kingdom, as\nin a mirror, been wholly reflected. They are together planet and sun,\nor thus solar system. But since the animal comprehends all elements\nin itself, so it contains also the plant, and is therefore for itself\nvegetable and animal kingdom, or the whole solar-system.\n\n1009. The plant hath no free system of motion, because motion is\nwanting to it; bound to the elements, by these it is determined. The\nelement of motion, the \u00e6ther, lies apart from it. It has only motion,\nif and while the elements act upon, or solicit it, thereunto.\n\n1010. It moves itself only by an external or _foreign_ stimulus. If\nno foreign stimulus be present, it does not move itself. A root\ngrows, moves itself towards one spot, not because it there _seeks_ for\nmoisture, but because it is _affected_ by the moisture which is there\nfound. Were the moisture not to act upon it, it would wither.\n\n1011. The animal has independent motion. For it has indeed taken up\nthe centre, the earth-and the light-system which is the principle of\nmotion, into itself.\n\n1012. Thus the animal moves itself independently of external stimuli.\nThe animal can move itself from _want_ of stimulus. It moves itself to\n_seek_ for, and thus from want of, nourishment, which consequently does\nnot act upon it; the plant cannot, however, move itself owing to want\nof food, but only die.\n\n1013. _This is the essential and only conclusive distinction between\nanimal and plant._ All others that have been advanced are not\nsufficient.\n\n\n_Processes of the Cosmic Organism._\n\n\n\u00c6THER PROCESSES.\n\n1014. The primary or planetary organism cannot be the last product of\nnature's development: for it is only indeed the metatype of the three\nterrestrial elements, and consequently not of the totality of nature.\nThe mucus-organism ascends to a higher stage, since it superadds to\nits three elements the primary element, or ascends itself to primary\nelements. It becomes an _\u00e6therial globe of mucus_.\n\n1015. Hitherto there were merely three processes in the organism; to\nthese consequently the fourth is added, which is the \u00e6ther-process. It\nmay be called the fire-process.\n\n1016. With the fire-process the development of the organic world has\nbeen carried to the highest pitch and therewith closed.\n\n1017. The highest organism is a quadri-elementary individual, or a\nquadri-elementary mucus.\n\n1018. The four elements are, however, the universe. The higher organism\nis consequently not merely a synotype of the planet, but of it and the\nsun, or of the whole universe. The higher organism is an universe in\nminiature; in the profoundest, truest sense of the word is it _small\nworld_, _microcosm_.\n\n1019. The planetary, terrestrial organisms are related to the solar or\ncosmic, as the planet is to solar-system.\n\n1020. The cosmic organism has besides the systems of nutrition,\ndigestion, and respiration, those of the \u00e6ther in itself, and thus of\nthe gravity, light and heat. These are immaterial, spiritual processes,\nwhich produce no more matters.\n\n\n1. _Process of Gravity._\n\n1021. The organ of gravity is that of quiescence or rest, the organ\nconstituting the basis of the organic body, or rather of the other\n\u00e6ther-organs, the centralization.\n\n1022. It imparts form to the higher organism.\n\n1023. The quiescent, sustaining, form-imparting system is the rigid\nearth-system, and appears as the _osseous system_.\n\n\n2. _Process of Heat._\n\n1024. As the heat is the motion of the \u00e6ther, so is there a system of\nmotion in the organism.\n\n1025. The system, which has no other function to perform than to move,\nis the _muscular system_.\n\n1026. The osseous system is related to the muscular system as mass to\nmotion, as Passive to Active. The former maintains the form, the latter\nchanges the same exactly like gravitation and heat.\n\n\n3. _Process of Light._\n\n1027. The light-system must be related to all other spiritual systems\nand the three fundamental systems of the organism, or to the _simply_\norganic systems as light is to matter, being thus polarizing or\n_dominant_.\n\n1028. Now the domination of light consists in the sustenance of\npolarity in all matter. The air itself is preserved in its duplicity\nonly by light. All the points of the organism are polarized by the\nlight-system. The light-system acts consequently through the whole body.\n\n1029. The light-system is not capable of producing matter, like the\nterrestrial systems. This is self-evident.\n\n1030. It does not polarize by effecting chemical changes. If\nnevertheless these are present, they are thus only results, occurring\nwhile the terrestrial processes are set in action by the process of\nlight.\n\n1031. Light polarizes the Material by mere fixation or discharging of\npoles, and thus in a spiritual manner. So also does the light-system of\nthe organism. It governs the organism not by mechanical power, not by\nmass, but by a _spiritual breath or aura_.\n\n1032. The organic light-system is the Animative of the organism. In it\nthe spirit exercises its power over the mucous mass. It is the _nervous\nsystem_.\n\n\nLIFE OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.\n\n1033. The light-polarity can bring about no other tension in the mass\nthan that which is peculiar to it, and thus the galvanic tension, whose\nhighest and purest phenomenon is motion. The light-system principally\ncauses motion in the mass, like as in \u00e6ther.\n\n1034. The nervous system has, however, a life also in itself, or the\n_internal_ light-polarity that is without any relation to the organic\nmass. This action of the nerves is called _sensibility_, and its\nphenomenon, _feeling_ or _sensation_. The system of sensation is the\nnervous system as sun in itself; in the motor-system it is as sun in a\ncentre of planets.\n\n1035. The organism, like the elementary nature, is completed by four\nsystems.\n\n  1. By the Nutrient,\n  2.   \"    Digestive,\n  3.   \"    Respiring, and\n  4.   \"    Motive, unto which the nerves, muscles, and\n              bones belong.\n\n1036. It is impossible for more than these to be developed in an\norganism; impossible, for any thing else but what is in nature to\noriginate therein; impossible, that any thing new be born by it.\nEverything in nature is only repetition of an Antecedent or something\nthat has gone before. How could the organism be aught else, how aught\nelse than the focus of the four elements!\n\n\n\n\nSECOND KINGDOM.\n\nVEGETABLE KINGDOM.\n\n\n1037. The Vegetable Kingdom is the individual development of the three\nplanetary elements.\n\n\nI.--_PHYTOGENY_.\n\n1038. Phytogeny represents the developmental history of individual\nplants, or, properly speaking, the idea of the plant.\n\n1039. To the plant belong all the definitions that have been hitherto\ndeduced. It is an organism fettered to the earth, is developed only\napart from water, only in the dark, in the earth; is associated\nwith the metal, with the carbon; is a magnetic needle that has been\nattracted out of the earth into the air towards the light. Seeds\ngerminate better if they have been protected beforehand from the access\nof light; the radicle sinks, indeed, into the earth, because it obeys\nthe gravity, the quiescence or rest; but it is therein maintained,\nbecause it is there humid and dark. This is a reason that has not yet\nbeen connoted, for the plant having been fettered to the earth. There\nare indeed plants which also take root in water, but the water is still\ndarker than the air. The root has, in this respect, completely the\ncharacter of the metal, that is a child of darkness.\n\n1040. Consisting for the greatest part of carbon, plants are associated\nwith the pit-coals, through these pass over into the carbon of the\nclay-slate rocks; finally, through the black-lead unto the iron. In\nlike manner, through their hydrogenous import, they pass over into\nthe inflammable asphalts, and through these unto sulphur. Metal and\nsulphur have, in the Geogeny, announced themselves as the precursors,\nor harbingers, of the vegetable world. In this respect, also, can the\nvegetable kingdom be regarded as the mineral kingdom, that, having\ncontinued to grow, has become alive. The ore, which becomes organic,\nbecomes carbon or plant.\n\n\nPARTS OF THE PLANT.\n\n1041. The character of each development consists in the separation\nof the Indifferent or Chaotic into its ideas or actions, i. e. the\ndevelopment of every system is first completed, when it is divided into\nas many substantial systems as it numbers factors, or has processes in\nitself.\n\n1042. Although the plant is only essentially a planetary-organism,\nit must yet be developed unto an \u00e6ther- or light-organism; and it\ntherefore divides into planetary- and solar-or light-organs.\n\n1043. The planetary organs are those that have the earth-, water-, and\nair-process above them, and which are made known in the root, the stalk\nand foliage, which together constitute the vegetable stem.\n\n1044. The light-organs begin to be stirring in the blossom, and are\ndivulged as sexual organs. They are a repetition of the trunk.\n\n1045. The vegetable body divides therefore into two great principal\nparts, which are synotypes of each other, into _trunk_ and _blossom_ or\n_inflorescence_. If we regard the vegetable trunk empirically; it is\nthen divisible into three stages, whereof each consists of the organs\nof the three fundamental processes, which seek to separate from each\nother.\n\na. The first stage is that of the _three tissues_ namely of the\nparenchyma, medulla or pith; of the _cells_, _ducts_, and _trache\u00e6_ or\n_spiral vessels_.\n\nb. The second stage is _that of the shaft_ or main axis, where these\nthree have separated concentrically into cortex or _bark_, _liber_,\nand _wood_, constituting the anatomical _systems_ or _sheaths_.\n\nc. The third stage is that of the _caudex_ proper or the trunk,\nin which the three tissues have separated in the direction of the\nlongitudinal axis into _root_, _stalk_ or stem, and _leaves_, these\nmaking up the _organs_ proper or _members_. The inflorescence divides\ninto two stages, into _flower_ and _fruit_.\n\nd. The fourth stage or that of the _flower_ repeats root, stalk and\nleaves, in _seeds_, _pistil_ and in the _corolla_.\n\ne. The fifth stage or that of the _fruit_ is a further repetition of\nthese three parts of the flower in the nut, plum and berry, unto which,\nas synthesis, comes the apple.\n\n\nA. _Vegetable-trunk._\n\n1046. The vegetable-trunk is the development of the three\nfundamental processes up to their complete separation or substantial\nrepresentation. It divides itself into the tissues or the pith\n(parenchyma), into the shaft and into the trunk.\n\n1047. The plant is a galvanic water-vesicle, and as such earth, water\nand air. Upon this vesicle it is, however, the earth-element that\nchiefly acts. While the earth seeks to encroach upon the vesicle, the\nmagnetic process becomes active therein, and it enters into opposition\nwith the air. The vesicle becomes now determined by two elements, by\nthe earth and by the air; it stands itself in the category of the water.\n\n1048. The plant may be characterized as organic water which is\npolarized upon two sides, towards the earth and the air. The vegetable\nvesicle must therefore maintain two poles. While it would represent in\nitself the magnetic pole, it endeavours to identify itself, to obey\ngravity and merge into the darkness towards the mediate point of the\nearth; but that it may remain a galvanic pole, it becomes excited by\nthe air, strives to become a Different and to attain the light.\n\n1049. The vegetable vesicle receives two opposed extremities, an\nidentical earth-and a dyadic air-extremity; and thus the plant must\nbe regarded as the organism, which manifests a constant endeavour,\nupon the one side to become earth, on the other air, upon the one side\nidentical metal, on the other duplex air.\n\n1050. The plant is a radius, that towards the centre becomes identical,\ntowards the periphery divides or starts asunder. The plant is not\ntherefore an entire circle or globe, but only a section of such, a\ncone, whose apex has been turned towards the centre of the earth, or\nwould become earth-centre. It can therefore have no middle-point. It\nwill on the contrary demonstrate that the animal is the totality of\nradii, is consequently diameter, and has therefore a centre of its own,\nor is entire globe. As the whole earth is surrounded by plants, and\nall their roots turn towards the centre; the whole vegetable kingdom\nonly forms a sphere, composed of infinitely numerous cones. On the\ncontrary every individual animal forms a sphere for itself alone,\nand is therefore worth as much as all plants taken together. Animals\nare entire heavenly bodies, satellites or moons, which circulate\nindependently about the earth; all plants, on the contrary, taken\ntogether are only equivalent to one heavenly body. An animal is an\ninfinity of plants.\n\n1051. In so far as an organism strives unto identity or to gravity,\nit seeks to produce the Metallic, the carbon, the Alkaline. The\nindifferent and alkaline character appears in the earth-extremity of\nthe plant. Mucus and acid bodies are evidenced for the most part in the\nroot. In so far as the organism strives unto duplicity, it will produce\nthe salt, the acid and the Inflammable. Acids and electric bodies are\nmanifested in the air-extremity of the plant.\n\n1052. The two vegetable extremities are accordingly related to each\nother as alkali and acid, and as carbon and hydrogen. In the air the\nwater is divided into oxygen and hydrogen, acids and oils; in the earth\nit hardens into earths and carbon.\n\n1053. The earth-end or the alkaline extremity of the plant is the\n_root_; the air-end, or the acid and oily, is the entire _stem-fabric_,\nor body. The plant has first of all two cardinal organs, viz. root and\nstem-fabric. Both together represent the water divided into earth-\nand air-mucus. The root is the central extremity of the plant, and is\ntherefore prolonged or runs out into magnetic points; the stem-fabric\nis the peripheric and therefore expands into branches and electric\nsurfaces.\n\n1054. But besides the air, the _light_ also operates upon the plant and\nstimulates it to grow aloft and produce a light-organ. This light-organ\ncan thus originate only upon the apex or summit. It is the _flower_.\nThe flower can therefore stand nowhere else than on the summit or end\nof the plant. The light however acts upon many points of the upper\nsurface of the vegetable trunk and elongates the same. One plant can\ntherefore support numerous flowers, but all of these must stand upon an\nextremity. Wherever therefore a flower may happen to stand, that spot\nmust be regarded as a summit or end. There is thus also, according to\nthe physiological view of the matter, a _light-organ_ in the plant,\nwhich is its animal pre-affection. The chief antagonism in the plant is\nin this respect therefore between trunk and inflorescence the former is\nrelated to the latter as plant to animal. Were the plant to attain unto\nanimal functions; they could thus only take place in the flower.\n\n\nI. _Tissues._\n\n1055. The tissues are the unseparated organs of the three fundamental\nprocesses, the earth-, water-, and air-process.\n\n\n1. WATER-ORGAN, CELLULAR TISSUE.\n\n1056. If a mucus-vesicle lie upon the ground, it thus continues\nindifferent upon the lower or dark side, and is only affected by\nthe gravity and the water; the upper side, on the contrary, by the\ndifferencing air and light. It is consequently prolonged into the earth\nand into the air. It must pass over from the round into a linear\nform. The elongation is not a mere protraction of the vesicle, but an\napposition of new vesicles. For it happens through polarization, and\nthus by infinite repetition of the primary vesicle. The plant is thus a\nbody of infinitely numerous vesicles.\n\n1057. In so far as the plant is a multiplication of the primary\nvesicle, it consists of _Cellular tissue_. The anatomy of plants\ninforms us, that there is nothing _originally_ in the plant but\ncellular tissue, and that other forms first emerge or make their\nappearance in the sequel.\n\n1058. The cellular tissue indicates the Indifferent in the plant, for\nit is only an accumulation of the indifferent primary vesicles. In so\nfar as the plant consists thereof, is it indifference--water-plant.\n\n1059. The cellular tissue is only oxydized, desiccated mucus. Chemistry\nhas proved, that the wood is only oxydized mucus.\n\n1060. The cellular tissue being the water organized and saturated with\nearth, or the organized mucus, has consequently the chemical function\nin itself of solution, homogeneous production, or formation of mucus.\nAs therefore the plant originates, so does it enlarge. It originates\nas vesicle, and its growth is a constant origination of vesicles; from\nthe Indifferent, which is the water. The sap contained in the cells\nconsists of water and starch-granules, which constantly circulate\ntherein in a circle.\n\n1061. The fundamental form of the cells is the rhomboidal-dodecahedron\n(Kieser's Phytotomie); for around a globe only 6 others of equal size\ncan be placed, whereby its 6 lateral surfaces are pressed in, which\nduring the induration impart to it the form of a six-sided column.\nAbove and below these 7 globes only 3 others admit of being placed,\nwhereby 3 point-converging surfaces originate, which thus complete the\nmiddle globe as rhomboidal-dodecahedron.\n\n\n2. EARTH-ORGAN, VASCULAR TISSUE.\n\n1062. So long as the vesicles or cells lie as globes upon each\nother, triangular interspaces are found between them, which stand in\nconjunction with each other on all sides. As water is found in these\ninterspaces, it is plain that they do not entirely disappear with\nthe transformation of the cells into rhomboidal-dodecahedra. These\nspaces are called intercellular passages or sap-tubes, _Vessels_. In\nmany plants, such as those which contain a milky juice, particular\nsap-tubes run through a part of these intercellular passages, and are\nprobably formed by condensation of the sap. Both are therefore in a\nphysiological respect of one kind. At bottom also the blood-vessels of\nanimals are naught else but passages in felted cellular tissue.\n\n1063. As the principal polarity of plants has been directed upwards,\nand the cells therefore been protracted lengthwise; so also the chief\ndirection of the vessels is parallel with the axis of the plant.\n\n1064. The vegetable sap ascends in these tubes, which must be therefore\nviewed indeed as constituting the earth-or nutritive organ.\n\n\n3. AIR-ORGAN, TRACHEAL TISSUE.\n\n1065. The plant is not merely earth-and water-organism, but also\nair-organism; and there must therefore be developed in it an anatomical\nsystem, which coincides with the process of air.\n\n1066. Besides the cells and tubes naught else is found in vegetable\ntissue but spiral vessels; what are called scalariform tubes, annular\nvessels, dotted ducts, vermiform or strangulated vessels, are no\npeculiar formations in themselves, but only different conditions of the\nspiral vessels.\n\n1067. The spiral vessels are the air-system of the plant, and therefore\nrightly deserve the name of _Trache\u00e6_. They exhibit the structure of\nthe air-tubes in insects, and contain, according to the most authentic\nobservations, air, and not sap, except in the period of adolescence,\nas occurs in the animal kingdom.\n\n1068. The spiral vessels consist of one or several filaments spirally\ncontorted, and held together by a delicate tubular-shaped membrane.\n\n1069. They must be regarded as elongated cells, upon whose parietes\nthe starch-granules have been placed in serial juxtaposition with\neach other, so as to form spirally-twisted filaments, as is to be\nplainly seen in many cells and also in Conferv\u00e6. This spiral condition\noriginates without doubt from the spiral-shaped motion of the granules\nin cell-sap.\n\n1070. The ultimate cause of this spiral motion, as well as the position\nof the parts, appears to reside in the rotation of the sun.\n\n1071. Upon this also depends probably the winding of the stem of\nplants, with the spiral-shaped position of the leaves and branches, as\nprobably even the contortions of the snail's shell and of the hairs\nupon the crown of the head.\n\n1072. The production of the spiral form originates from the antagonism\nof the light with the matter. The number of spiral vessels is therefore\nless in those parts that are beneath, than in those above, the earth,\nor less in the root than the stem. The more indeed an organ has\nbeen exposed to the air, by so much the more do the spiral vessels\npreponderate, as e. g. in the leaves.\n\n1073. An organ must necessarily be nobler in character, the more spiral\nvessels it contains. The plant also that, with more spiral vessels,\nexhibits them particularly arranged, must take a higher rank. The\nlowest plants, as the mushrooms, lichens and mosses, consist therefore\nentirely of cellular tissue; in the ferns therefore only a single\nbundle of spiral vessels makes its appearance. When plants become\nnobler, several fasciculi of spiral vessels originate; and in tracing\nthis feature we ascend from the ferns to the grasses and lilies, up to\nthe lower Dicotyledons. In the higher Dicotyledons the packets of the\ntrache\u00e6 increase for the first time to such a degree, that they form a\nclosed circle, the fibrous ring or zone of wood.\n\n1074. The trache\u00e6 extend from one end of the plant to the other; many\nare wont to terminate only in nodes, while these are to be regarded as\narrested branches. The air can therefore penetrate through the spiral\nvessels from the leaves even to the apices of the roots.\n\n\nII. _Anatomical Systems--Sheaths._\n\n1075. These originate by vagination and separation of the tissues in\nthe transverse direction, and prevail throughout the whole plant.\nThe idea of the whole vegetable structure is extremely simple.\nOriginally the plant is a vesicle in water, or cellular tissue in the\nseed; root and stalk also consist in their main bulk or proportion\nof cellular tissue, which is called parenchyma. Therein the three\nplanetary processes reside inclosed. Such a plant is still in the\nrecognizable state of the primary organism. In the sequel, however,\nthrough the influence of light, the polarity between light and\ndarkness issues forth in the parenchyma, the cellular tissue obtains\na linear direction, and becomes elongated into spiral vessels. The\nspiral vessels form one or several fasciculi, which emerge out of the\nparenchyma, by which they, and each packet individually, are circularly\nsurrounded. The cellular tissue is as it were the soil, in which the\nfasciculi of spiral vessels are rooted as proprietary plants and out of\nwhich they grow.\n\n1076. The effort of the three vegetable processes, to separate their\norgans from, and perfect them independently of, each other, is in\nincessant operation, both from without inwards, as well as from above\ndownwards, because in both cases is light there, darkness here, dryness\nthere, humidity here. The cellular tissue, that has finally become\nindependent in the transverse direction or from without inwards, is\ncalled _bark_, the self-substantial tubular tissue is called _liber_,\nthe non-dependent tracheal tissue, _wood_.\n\n\n1. TRACHEAL-SYSTEM, WOOD.\n\n1077. With increased influence of light the tracheal fasciculi also\nincrease, and form a circle of columns in the parenchyma around the\ncentre of the plant. Between the column, externally and internally to\nthe same, is the parenchyma. The more, however, the columns accumulate,\nby so much the more does it diminish, and whereas the columns\npreviously stood singly in the parenchyma, the appearance is now as if\nnarrow _plates_ only of parenchyma traversed between the columns from\nwithout inwards. Finally the columns predominate to such an extent and\napproximate so closely, that the _plates_ almost disappear. They are\nnow called insertions of cellular tissue, or _medullary rays_. As the\ntrache\u00e6 convey air, and have thus been more exposed to the process of\noxydation, they generally harden sooner than in other parts.\n\n1078. Around the fasciculi of spiral vessels the cellular tissue also\nstrives to elongate, and begins at the same time to harden. Such\nextended cells, in which the light has almost disappeared, are called\nfibres. Indurated trache\u00e6 and fibres are called _Wood_. The wood is\nalways in the vicinity of the spiral vessels. It is a production\nsynchronous with the latter.\n\n1079. Only, where spiral vessels are, can genuine wood originate; but\nit is not everywhere, where they are found, that woody fibres must be\nalso present, although the cells extend around all bundles of spiral\nvessels. If the degree of oxydation of the cells be slight, they do not\nharden, but continue herbaceous in texture. The parenchyma has now been\nseparated by a circle of fibrous columns into an external and internal,\nor peripheric and central. The central parenchyma becomes void of sap\nand spongy, because the plant imbibing its nutriment on the surface,\nand the air and the light operating thereupon, the processes conduct it\nthither. This withered parenchyma is called _pith_, which in accordance\nwith its origin merits no physiological consideration, nor is worthy\nand susceptible of any philosophical construction.\n\n\n2. TUBULAR SYSTEM, LIBER.\n\n1080. As the plant draws in its nourishment from without, so is the\nmain proportion of the sap necessarily present in the periphery of the\nspiral vessels. The elongated cells in the neighbourhood of the spiral\nvessels, and which principally contain sap, are called _Liber_.\n\n1081. Liber is necessarily present around every packet of spiral\nvessels, and thus with fasciculi everywhere dispersed throughout the\nstem. The liber is only situated beneath the bark, when the number\nof the spiro-vascular fasciculi is so great, that they form a closed\ncircle in the parenchyma; it is only beneath the bark, in so far as\nit accompanies the spiral vessels, but can only surround the latter\nfrom without. As it is only the woody plants that have been usually\nexamined, the false idea has thus originated of the liber having, as it\nwere from its very essence, to be beneath the bark.\n\n1082. In the liber is the main seat of vegetable activity. For it is\nsoft cellular tissue with open intercellular passages, wherein the sap\ncan move.\n\n1083. Now as every fascicle of spiral fibres is surrounded by liber,\nsuch a fascicle must be regarded as a whole plant. A plant consists\naccordingly of as many plants, as it has or can have tracheal\nfasciculi. Every plant is a trunk of infinitely numerous plants; for\nevery one can contain infinitely numerous tracheal fascicles. One plant\nis a whole vegetable world. (Ed. 1st, 1810. \u00a7 1065.)\n\n\n3. CELLULAR-SYSTEM, BARK.\n\n1084. No spiral vessels lie upon the surface of the plant, for\nwhere they originate, there the liber forms around them, and this\nis consequently the External. The surface of plants is therefore\nnecessarily environed by liber, notwithstanding the greater influence\nof the light. The cellular tissue upon the surface of plants is,\nhowever, less rich in sap than the liber around the tracheal\nfasciculi, because it is too rapidly evaporated and dried up by the\nimmediate contact of the air, light and heat. The surface of the\nplant is too strongly oxydized by the air, and therefore the cells\nharden. The sap also decomposes too rapidly and becomes rigid, so that\nan irregular formation only can proceed from it. The external, more\ninactive, or irregularly wood-converted layer of cells, is the _Bark_.\n\n1085. The plant has thus likewise three anatomical systems, which\nare nothing new, but only the repetition or rather vagination of the\nthree tissues; alburnum and cambium are only transitional, not special\nformations.\n\n\nIII. _Organs of the Vegetable Trunk.--Members._\n\n1086. Organs are separated parts of the body, and combinations of\nsingle tissues and systems, and are consequently a Whole in Singulars.\nThere are, however, no uniform combinations; but one or the other\nsystem asserts its preponderance and imparts the character.\n\n1087. In conformity with the developmental progress of the whole of\nnature, namely, that of always separating further its chaotically\nmingled parts, individualizing and yet forming them with the others\ninto a whole, vegetation cannot continue stationary with the partition\ninto bark, liber and wood, seeing that they are always circumscribed\nand form a body in common; but they must also sever this body itself\ninto as many members as it has constituent parts. This severance makes\nits appearance in the longitudinal axis, because in this direction the\nantagonisms of air and light with water and earth are more powerful.\n\n1088. Through the separation of the vegetable trunk _three_ members\nonly can originate; one with the preponderance of cells or of bark,\none with that of vessels or of liber, and one with that of the trache\u00e6\nor of wood. The cellular tissue has been posited as vegetable trunk in\nthe _root_, the vascular tissue as a special member is _stalk_, the\ntracheal tissue _leaf_. In this manner the trunk of the plant divides\ninto three great divisions; more are not possible.\n\n1089. Now the root is the perfected water-organ, because it is always\nfixed in water; the leaf is the perfected air-organ, because it moves\nin the air; the stalk is the perfected earth-organ, because it removes\nthe mass out of water and air. Root is a heap of cells; leaf a plane of\ntrache\u00e6; stalk a bundle of vessels.\n\n\n1. WATER-ORGAN--ROOT.\n\n1090. By the two polar systems, the earth-and air-system, the cellular\nand tracheal system, is the development of the plant confirmed. Thereby\nis it in the next place a twofold organism. By the first system it has\nbeen turned towards the planet and immersed in earth and water, by the\nsecond it has been turned towards the sun and immersed in the air. The\nroot and the fabric of the stem, or root and stem simply, have now\nobtained their truest significance. Each is the whole plant, each the\nwhole organism; in the root this is only in its original purity, but in\nthe stem it is upon a higher stage. Root is stem in water and earth;\nstem is root in air and light.\n\n1091. The root has accordingly more cellular tissue, fewer trache\u00e6; in\nthe stem this condition is reversed. The root resembles young plants,\nor such as still rank upon a lower stage, and have but few columns\nof trache\u00e6. The root has therefore no marrow or pith. It may be said\nthat it should have no pith, because it is usually thinner than the\nstem and richer in sap; but it has only the latter character, from\nconsisting for the most part merely of cellular tissue. Root is the\nvegetable trunk with preponderating cellular tissue. In consequence of\nthe antagonism between root and stem, wherein even their difference\nconsists, the one strives to produce the Chemical, the watery earth or\nthe mucus, but the other the Electrical, the combustible air-bodies.\n\n1092. The root, as producing mucus or infusoria, has therefore in\nitself the organic process of putrefaction, in so far as the origin\nof mucus and infusoria is a result of the putridity. It corresponds\nto imbibition and digestion. To this is referrible the mouldy, and\nas it were fetid, condition of the root. Through the process of\ndecomposition, which it evokes in its neighbourhood, it kills its\nnutriment, takes possession of it, and thus originates completely,\nas does every first organism, out of putrefaction, out of infusoria.\nTo the essence of the root belong therefore not merely food, but the\nfavouring relations of decomposition, as earth and water, whereby\nthe access of the air, as necessary to every galvanism, has not been\nsuppressed.\n\n1093. The earth is not merely a mechanical station for the plant, in\norder to give it the perpendicular direction, but it is necessary for\npolar excitation, whereby the decomposition is imparted. A plant placed\nupright in pure water, although with the roots, necessarily perishes.\nDarkness is at the same time the lurking-place of putrefaction, as\nbeing that which only plays its part in localities where the polarizing\nand dissevering influence of light is wanting.\n\n1094. The root always passes perpendicular into the earth, on account\nof its greater weight due to repletion with water. In all zones\ntherefore the root stands perpendicular to the horizon, and thus the\nwhole plant, although this is somewhat inclined towards the sun.\n\n1095. The developmental stages of the root pass probably parallel to\nthe parts of the vegetable stem.\n\na. In respect to the tissue, there are thus cellular roots, as is\nprobably the case in the fungi, and with the fibrils of all roots;\ntubular or vascular roots as in the mosses, tracheal roots in the rest.\n\nb. In respect to the systems the bulbs are the cortical or bark-roots;\nthe tubers the liber-roots; the fibres the woody-roots.\n\nc. In respect to the members of the trunk, the turnip is perhaps the\ngenuine root, the tap-root the stalk-root, the so-called aerial roots,\nthe leaf-roots.\n\n\n2. EARTH-ORGAN.--STALK.\n\n1096. The stalk is the idea of the whole plant, posited under the\nimport of the organ of nutrition, of the vessels. The structure of the\nstalk is therefore accordant with that of the root. The anatomical\nsystems are alike in both, bark, liber and trache\u00e6 being in the same\nenvelope.\n\n1097. In the stalk, however, the opposition of tissues and systems\nemerges more strongly, and therefore they all become individualized\nalso to a higher degree. The spiral vessels become more freed from\nthe cellular tissue; the bark is more distinctly divided from the\nliber; this again from the wood, and in its centre the cellular tissue\ndries up into pith. As, however, the stalk is the first product\nof the light-influence, the tracheal system cannot attain as yet\nentire freedom. The cells have nevertheless been extended, and the\nintercellular passages are formed into regular tubes. The _Stalk_ is\nthe trunk of the plant with a preponderating system of tubes.\n\n1098. This separation of the tissues and systems, with the endeavour\nupon the part of each to become individually perfect and isolated from\nthe other, is effected by the air and the light. As root imbibes the\nmucous or slimy water, and sustains the chemical process in the plant,\nso does the stalk set the water in motion, since it exposes it to the\nair and light, whereby the chemical earth-process becomes separated\ninto different saps and elemental bodies.\n\n1099. Through the influence of the air, light and heat upon the\nstalk, as well as by its antagonism with the root, its elongation\nis determined. The greater amount of energy of the aerial polarity\nis in the higher regions; it is thus more excited by these than by\nthe lower, and the bud being lighter grows more rapidly in the upper\nparts, and obtains an elongated form. The excitation is stronger also\nupon the side exposed to the light. It grows also more strongly in\nthat direction, and thus the stalk stands indeed upwards, but somewhat\ninclined from the perpendicular line towards the sun.\n\n1100. The perpendicular direction of the stalk is, however, as\nmechanically determined by gravity as the root. Paradoxical as this\nassertion may appear, it is still correct; for if we think of a moist\nglobe, which is superiorly affected by air, light and heat, the upper\naqueous or mucous parts are thus lighter, and necessarily ascend\nupwards through the pressure of the heavy or unheated parts, just as\nthe air-bubbles in beer ascend to the surface. The light it is true can\ndraw them somewhat sideways, chiefly because this side is more heated,\nmore decomposed, and also undergoes a greater amount of evaporation;\nbut the proper cause invariably resides in the ascent of the light\nparts between the heavy or immoveable. The stalk therefore grows\nupwards also in the darkness, and then indeed quite perpendicularly,\nbecause it has not been diverted by light. Were the light merely the\nDirigent, it could not be comprehended, why towards the poles trees\nstill stand tolerably perpendicular, and do not lie completely upon\nthe earth. Were, however, the air that which determines the direction,\nplants could not thus have been inclined towards the sun, nor could we\ncomprehend why the flowers and also the leaves obey the sun's course.\nFinally, were neither air nor light the imparters of direction, then\nthe plant could shoot in no other direction than quite perpendicularly\nupwards, as is done too for the most part by the fungi.\n\n1101. The _winding_ of the stalk appears to originate from the\nrotation of the sun. The next cause is probably the greater heating\nand decomposition that occurs upon one side. In accordance with this\nassumption the plants upon the northern hemisphere of the earth must\nwind spirally upwards from left to right, or from morning towards\nevening, if our gaze be directed towards the meridian, but inversely\nupon the southern hemisphere. But this is not the case. May we\ntherefore conjecture that plants, twisted contrary to rule, have been\ntransported from their native soil?\n\n1102. The kinds of stalk follow also, without doubt, the direction\nof developmental stages of the vegetable trunk. There are therefore\ncellular stalks in the fungi, vascular stalks in the mosses, tracheal\nstalks in the ferns. A bark-stalk is the culm, a liber-stalk the scape,\na wood-stalk probably the trunk of a palm. A root-stalk is the rhizoma,\na perfect-stalk the stem, a leaf-stalk being probably the shrub.\n\n\n_Ramification._\n\n1103. The differencing, severing character of air and light must never\nbe lost from our thoughts, nor also that at a height this character\nmanifests itself more powerfully than on the surface of the earth,\nwhere the stem abandons its androgynous position in relation to the\nroot. Through the constant process of differencing the tracheal\nfascicles of the plant may finally become so independent that they\nno longer stand in need of the others, and do not merely represent a\nparticular plant, but are perfected also as such.\n\n1104. This dispersion of the tracheal fasciculi will not easily take\nplace upon the earth's surface, on account of its lesser degree of\naerial polarity, but at a certain height. If several stalks emerge from\nthe root, the bush or _shrub_ originates, but if only one, the tree. If\nthe subdivision first commence at a certain distance from the earth,\nthen do _Branches_ originate.\n\n1105. The formation of branches demonstrates in part a great store of\ntracheal fasciculi, and part by an easy differential capacity in the\nplant. Both come to the same thing.\n\n1106. Plants devoid of branches are similar or analogous to roots.\n\n1107. The branches again ramify from the same cause by which the stem\nramifies. A branch or twig must be regarded as an entire fascicle of\ntrache\u00e6, which forms superiorly a closed vesicle or bud, that raises\nthe bark, bursts it open into scales and then opens itself. The opening\nof the external tracheal tubes or vesicle becomes a leaf; a twig can\ntherefore occupy no other position than in the sheath or angle of\na leaf. Every succeeding leaf upon the twig is in the same manner a\nruptured vesicle of trache\u00e6. As many leaves therefore originate as\nthere are tracheal zones present.\n\n1108. Every branch is an entire plant. All the tissues and systems\nare found in it. Trache\u00e6 free themselves from the stalk, pass towards\nthe circumference, break through the bark and carry with them the\nliber, whose external layer again becomes bark. The branch is only\nan elongated bud. The stalk is the soil or the root of the branches.\nBranches, that have been cut off and stuck in the earth, grow. There is\nnothing contradictory, in the tracheal fascicles of the branch growing\ndownwards into the stalk. A branched tree is a complete wood.\n\n1109. From the same cause, or by the influence of water on different\nsituations in the earth, the root has branches. But as this influence\nis weaker than that of air and light, so the number, density, and\nlength of the roots is less.\n\n1110. The polarization of the tracheal fascicles into branches takes\nplace all around the stalk in one situation. The influence is equal\nupon all sides. The idea of the formation of branches is the star.\nAll branches have a radiate position around the stalk--all form a\nverticillum or whorl.\n\n1111. Every other position of branches is only an alteration of the\nverticillate arrangement.\n\n1112. In most plants the arrangement of the branches admits of being\nreduced to the spiral line. This position is only the verticil drawn\nout.\n\n1113. This drawing out takes place through the continued growth of\nthe stalk, in which the bundles of trache\u00e6, doubtless by the varied\noperation of light, develop themselves in order, become individualized,\nand issue from the stalk as branches.\n\n1114. The crucial position of the branches depends upon the same growth\nof the stalk, but one in which transverse polarities are present. The\nirregular or dispersed position is most probably the last completion\nof the spiriform.\n\n1115. The spiriform arrangement stands in relation with the formation\nof the trache\u00e6.\n\n1116. The branches of the root observe no such regularity, partly on\naccount of weaker polarity, partly on account of the obstacles placed\nin their way, at one time by the impenetrable earth, at another by want\nof water.\n\n1117. The more the stem is differenced, so much the higher is it\ndeveloped. Thus the richer in number the branches, by so much the\nmore perfect is the stem. The stelliform branches belong to the first\ndevelopment. The plants, that have this arrangement, stand lower in the\nscale. To this the crucial appears to succeed, as a mediate position\nbetween the former and that which follows. The spiriform ranks higher.\nIn it the stem is manifestly differenced more multilaterally. The\ndispersed arrangement appears to be the highest, because in it the\ngreatest freedom prevails, because the poles have acted on every part\nof the plant, because they are everywhere in the air and in light.\nPlants with dispersed branches are organized air; without branches they\nare organized water as well as earth. Those plants only which have\ncircles of trache\u00e6 or rings of wood, as e. g. the Dicotyledons, ramify;\nthese alone are, properly speaking, a conjunction by growth of many\nplants, and one that is truly persistent, or that bears fruit several\ntimes. The Monocotyledons being devoid of woody rings, do not, or but\nvery rarely, ramify. Most of them therefore die off after they have\nonce produced fruit. The ramification is a multiplication of the plant,\nin which the buds continue to stand upon the old stem.\n\n\n_Formation of Nodes._\n\n1118. The formation of nodes, as in the grasses, is an attempt at\ndifferentialization, that has not, however, attained to perfection.\nA node is a branch-whorl which has continued to adhere to the stalk.\nTherefore the trache\u00e6 also terminate in the circumference of the node.\n\n1119. The formation of nodes consequently ranks directly under\nthe stelliform formation of branches. Taken in a strict sense the\nformation of nodes occurs only in plants with sheathing leaves or in\nMonocotyledons.\n\n\n3. AIR-ORGAN, FOLIAGE.\n\n1120. If in the progressive separation of the tissues the trache\u00e6\nfinally obtain the preponderance, so that they issue forth free from\nthe envelope of cellular tissue, the _leaves_, or _Foliage_, then\noriginate.\n\n1121. The ribs of the leaf are the fascicles of trache\u00e6 that have\nbecome free, and are still only connected together laterally by a thin\nlayer of cellular tissue.\n\n1122. The leaves can be regarded as gigantic and unrolled spiral\nvessels, and these again as microscopic and involuted leaves.\n\n1123. As through the root the water-process enters the plant, and\nthrough the stalk the earth-process, so does the air-process through\nthe leaves.\n\n1124. It is probably the stomata through which the air is conducted\ninto the trache\u00e6; the connexion, however, has not yet been proved.\n\n\n_Gemm\u00e6 or Buds._\n\n1125. With the formation of branches there is at the same time a\ndiminution of the cellular tissue, and an increase of the trache\u00e6.\nEntirely new spiral vessels commence in the branches, and are not\ncontinued or prolonged into the stalk. The further indeed the extent of\nthe ramification, by so much less is the quantity of cellular tissue,\nand by so much greater the number of the trache\u00e6. It comes at last to\nthis, that the tracheal fascicles, which were from all sides surrounded\nby dense cellular tissue, are only then loosely connected by a thin\nlayer of such substance. This ramuscule is still therefore only a\nhollow stalk, consisting of fascicles of trache\u00e6 disposed in circles,\nand so united by a thin cellular integument or membrane, that the whole\nforms a vesicle.\n\n1126. This vesicle is a _Bud_. A bud is at bottom none other than the\nend of a twig that has become hollow.\n\n1127. Several buds are usually involved in each other, i. e. many\nvesicles of tracheal rings have been encased in each other. They issue\ngradually forth and become shoots or buds. Buds are bulbs at the end of\nthe branches.\n\n\n_Leaves._\n\n1128. If the bud or the external vesicle ruptures, while the cellular\nsubstance becomes consumed at the apex or between two or more tracheal\nfascicles, it is then manifested as a _leaf_ or _Leaves_.\n\n1129. Then the second vesicle grows forth, becomes petiolated, ruptures\nand becomes leaf or leaves. In this manner a twig is formed, surrounded\nin a spiral manner by leaves.\n\n1130. The younger leaves have been originally inclosed in the older, as\nin their sheaths.\n\n1131. Every perfect leaf, i. e. every leaf-vesicle, must be regarded as\nthe terminal extremity of an entire twig, from or out of the angle of\nwhich a new twig grows forth, that again as a bud ruptures, and from\nwhich again a twig grows forth.\n\n1132. All leaves therefore range directly opposite to each other. A\nbranch with many leaves is a system of branches, which grow out of each\nother, like the articular pieces of the grass-culm or straw.\n\n1133. A leaf is a whole plant with all its tissues and systems; with\ncells, ducts, trache\u00e6; bark, liber, wood, stalk and branches. The leaf\nis a tree of special form, a tree, whose branches or tracheal fascicles\nall lie in one plane and are held together by parenchyma. It is the\nbodily expression of the position of the tracheal circle in the stem,\nonly ruptured and to the greatest degree attenuated.\n\n1134. In the division of the ribs of the leaf the internal arrangement\nof the woody fasciculi in the stem has been placed before our eyes, as\nby the scalpel of an anatomist.\n\n1135. From the arrangement of the ribs of the leaf the structure of the\nwhole plant can be recognized and its character determined. The leaf is\nthe table of contents or index of the stem.\n\n1136. Plants, which have no trache\u00e6, have also no leaf-ribs--Mosses.\n\n1137. Plants, which have only isolated or non-ramifying fascicles of\ntrache\u00e6, have parallel leaf-ribs that do not ramify--Monocotyledons.\n\n1138. Plants, which have a circle of trache\u00e6, or rings of\nwood, have leaves with ramified ribs--reticular leaves or true\nfoliage--Dicotyledons.\n\n1139. The stronger indeed the ramification of the leaf-ribs, by so\nmuch the higher is the perfection of the leaf. The lowest leaf is that\ndevoid of ribs, the higher that with parallel ribs, the highest being\nthe reticular-veined leaf.\n\n1140. The number and forms of the leaves that proceed from a bud,\ndepend partly upon the number of tracheal fascicles, which pass out of\nthe ramule into the leaf, partly upon the form of the leaf-bud.\n\n1141. If the bud be simply ruptured at its apex or only between two\nfascicles of trache\u00e6, there then originates the spathiform leaf.\n\n1142. If the cellular substance between several tracheal fascicles be\nconsumed by the severing action of light and by the air, then the bud\ndivides into several leaves.\n\n1143. The fundamental form of the leaf is the oviform, because the\nbud is to be thought of as being round. Through the elongation or\ncompression of the bud, lanciform, cordiform leaves, &c. originate.\nBesides it appears, that the leaf-buds, at least those of the\nreticular-veined leaves, burst in a circinate manner, like the ferns,\nand unroll themselves. Therefore the leaves are unilateral and clasp\nthe stem inferiorly; or the petiole displays its spathiform origin.\nIn this case the leaf is not a part of a hollow globe, but the entire\nglobe, that has ruptured in the transverse direction at the extremity\nof the petiole. Such is the case at least in the demispathiform leaves\nof the Umbelliferous plants.\n\n1144. The primary position of the leaves like that of the branches\nis thus verticillate, yet always, however, under the idea of one\nbeing encased within the other. The leaves are here only the ultimate\nbranches.\n\n1145. If the leaves upon the ramules issue from each other, then this\nhappens in the same manner as with the branches.\n\n1146. The verticillate position of the leaves is therefore the lowest,\nnext succeeds the crucial, then the spiriform, and lastly the scattered.\n\n1147. The spathose leaves are only to be regarded as a single bud, and\ntherefore differ from the whorl, in so far as we regard this as the\ndevelopment of several leaves, that have not, however, been extruded\nfrom each other.\n\n1148. Divided leaves originate through a higher operation of light.\nIn them the formation of ribs preponderates, and therefore they rank\nhigher than the undivided.\n\n1149. From this cause the pinnate leaves are the highest.\n\n1150. From the same cause the radical must be worse developed than\nthe ramular leaves. They are usually non-pinnated, undivided, because\nthey have more cellular substance in their composition than the upper\nleaves. In the leaf-system, consequently, the whole idea of the plant\nhas been recontained; on the earth resides the chemical character,\nas is evidenced by cellular, dense and misshapen leaves; above in\nthe air, on the contrary, the leaves are more delicate and are\ndivided--indicating an electric character.\n\n1151. The division and pinnation of leaves can only progress according\nto the odd numbers, 3, 5, 7, because the midrib determines the odd\nleaflet.\n\n1152. Leaflets occurring in pairs, or equally pinnated, are arrests of\ndevelopment.\n\n1153. The even number or the symmetrical form is unnatural in the\nvegetable kingdom.\n\n1154. The leaves are, like the young bark, and thus the whole trunk of\nthe plant, green, because the vegetable kingdom represents the lower\ntotality of the earth, the planet, whose synthesis is the water.\n\n1155. From the same cause, the chief colour of the animal kingdom is\nred, the colour of fire. Thus, plant is to animal, as green is to red.\n\n1156. The division of leaves passes also parallel to the stages of\nrank in plants. _Cellular leaves_ are the scales of mosses and ferns;\n_vascular leaves_, the long riband-like leaves of Monocotyledons;\n_tracheal_ leaves the reticular leaf of Dicotyledons. The _cortical\nleaf_ is the sheath; the _liber leaf_ is probably the fat leaf; the\n_wood leaf_ the acicular leaf. The _radical leaf_ is the undivided\nreticular leaf; the _stalk-leaf_ the free or ragged reticular leaf; the\n_perfect leaf_ the pinnate. The _bracteal leaves_ repeat all forms in\nthe thyrsus, since they are floral leaves.\n\n1157. The accessory leaves or _stipules_ are none other than the\nremnant of the sheath-formation, out of which all the leaves, and\ntherefore the wings of the leaf-petioles or phyllodia, have issued\nforth.\n\n1158. The thyrsus has also its series of leaves; the scale-like or\nradical leaf is involucre and bractea; the vascular or spathe-leaf is\ncalyx; the tracheal or reticular leaf is corolla.\n\n1159. The vegetable trunk, namely, root, stalk, and leaf, is a perfect\norganism, which can exercise all the functions which belong to its\nindividual life. If it therefore produces anything, that can be nothing\nnew, but only itself repeated. This repetition of itself is called\npropagation. The organs of propagation are thus none other than a\nrepetition of the organs of the vegetable trunk. The plant thereby\nsteps forth out of its individuality into the province of the genus.\n\n\nB. _\u00c6ther Organs._\n\n\nTHYRSUS OR FLOWER.\n\n1160. Hitherto we have regarded the plant as simply a planetary\norganism, namely, as a trunk with water-, earth-, and air-organ. But\nthe primary vesicle does not lie wholly in the dark, but is illuminated\nupon its apex by the sun. Every operation, however, produces its like;\nthus in the plant a light-organ must also be developed. As the light\nevokes heat in the \u00e6ther, so also does it evoke a heat-organ in the\nplant. As the heavenly bodies corevolve in \u00e6ther by means of light and\nmotion, or the gravitation condenses the \u00e6ther into matter, so also\nmust an organ of gravity originate also in the plant. These organs\nare not, however, predominant in the plant, because it is essentially\nplanet or vegetable trunk. They can be therefore nothing else than the\nparts of the trunk itself with the properties of the \u00e6ther or fire.\nThey are thus a repetition of the trunk, wherein, in place of the\nmaterial processes of growth, those of the light, heat, and gravity\noccur. The light-organ excites the heat-organ by polarization unto\nmotion and thereby originates the organ of gravity.\n\n1161. The process in which through polar tension the trunk has been\nreproduced, as the Whole in miniature, is called sexual process. The\n\u00e6ther-organs are thus sexual organs. These sexual organs can only be\na leaf-formation, because the last development of the stem is the\nleaf. The leaf-formations which, by means of polar tension, reproduce\nthe trunk, are the _Flower_. The light-organ is the _corolla_. The\nheat-organ is the _pistil_. The organ of gravity the _seed_. The pollen\nupon the stigma sets the pistil in a state of tension with the trunk,\nwhereby the sap, out of which the seed attains to perfection, ascends.\nWithout this tension the pistil would not have had strength sufficient\nto perfect the seed. It would wither ere the latter had obtained\nsufficient nourishment.\n\n1162. The development of the flower takes place through\ndifferentialization, individualization, or complete separation of the\ntrunk-organs. The trunk indeed summons up all power in the leaves, to\nseparate the three vegetable tissues and represent each as a particular\norgan; only in this formation it does not wholly succeed; for in a leaf\nthe ribs or tracheal fascicles are still held together by cellular\ntissue. In the first place with the perfect separation of the tissues\nor, properly speaking, with the ex-organization of each of them unto\nan independent Whole, the limit of the vegetation is attained and the\ngrowth completed. This was the course of the whole of nature; in every\nsystem she has proceeded to individual consummation of the factors,\nto their liberation from chaos; and the developments of the systems\nwere concluded, so soon as all factors became independent, or so soon\nas every factor had itself become an entire nature. Such was the case\nin the genesis of elements, and such in the metamorphosis of the\nearth-element into earths, salts, Inflammables, metals.\n\n1163. This complete severance and individualization can no longer be\neffected by the air, but must be achieved by the light. The air is\nitself not the wholly differencing element, but derives its potency\nonly from the light. All ultimate separation and individualization is\nreserved for the light.\n\n1164. Root and stem are the water-and earth-plant, the leaf is the\nair-plant, the flower is the light-or rather fire-plant.\n\n1165. In the flower the problem has been solved, of producing an entire\nplant simply by the light without earth, water, and air, or as it were\nin a merely spiritual manner.\n\n1166. The plant is a flower that has been posited under three ideas,\nunder the idea of earth, water, and air. As in \u00e6ther or fire all the\nelements are dissolved; so are all the elements of the plant in the\nflower.\n\n1167. The flower is truly, not merely in idea, the whole plant with all\nsystems and formations, posited under a _single_ idea, under that of\nthe \u00e6ther, namely, of the gravity, light and heat, or the fire.\n\n1168. The flower as the \u00e6ther-organ of the plant is not so independent\nas an animal, but subordinated to the planetary systems, being only a\nseparation of the parts of the trunk, not a new formation, as in the\nanimal kingdom.\n\n1169. The flower as the highest formative consummation of the plant, or\nas the highest vegetable organ, is the extremity of the ramules. (Ed.\n1st. 1810. \u00a7 1176.)\n\n1170. Although the flower is a repetition of the whole plant,\nnamely, of the root, stalk, and leaf; it can still only be a direct\ntransmutation of the leaf. For every Superior proceeds from that which\nis immediately subjacent. The light-organ can only be developed out\nof the air-organ, not out of the water-organ. The transition from the\nwater-organ into the light-organ is necessarily indicated through the\naerial form. Preparations are necessary, gradual dismemberments must\nprecede, before the isolated consummation can result. The air purifies\nthe organs, in order that they may become participant of light.\n\n1171. The flower is the totality of the leaves of a ramule placed upon\nthe extremity of the latter. For a flower is the whole plant, and is\nthe Ultimate of the plant.\n\n1172. The flower is a terminal leaf-bud. A leaf-bud, after whose\nrupture the ramule cannot grow any more.\n\n1173. The flower necessarily stands in a whorl-shaped manner, because\nit is the end of the branch; it is the terminal whorl of the plant.\n\n1174. With the flower the ramule or the plant dies off, partly because\nit is the extremity, partly because wholly separated tissues cannot\nlive. In the flower therefore the plant reverts to its origin. It is a\nramule, whose buds have continued stationary.\n\n1175. The idea of the vesicle lies at the basis of the flower. It is an\nentire vegetable vesicle, a leaf-bud that has not been drawn asunder.\nThe flower is the last vesicle into which the stalk swells out.\n\n1176. The flower-vesicle agrees with the leaf-vesicle. The form of the\nflower must pass parallel to the form of the leaves. This has reference\nprincipally to the position and number of parts.\n\n\n_Division._\n\n1177. The flower is the synthesis of the entire plant with complete\nanalysis of the organs. Flower, pistil, and seed are the leaves, stalk,\nand root separated, and yet all combined to form a common organ.\nThis flower regarded in its analysis is the flower proper; in its\ndissolution it is called _fruit_.\n\n1178. The flower-vesicle is according to its essence a threefold\nvesicle. In it the leaf-system or the air-plant has been represented,\nbut in like manner and of necessity also the earth-and water-plant,\nor the vesicles in which stalk and root have been taken up into\nthe kingdom of light. Thus there is the _leaf-_, _stalk-_, and\n_root-flower_.\n\n1179. The leaf-flower is in the periphery, the stalk- and root-flower\nin the centre of the vesicle. For the former is the metatype or copy of\nthe leaves, the latter of the stalk and the root.\n\n1180. The leaf-flower is the highest and the very first to be\ndeveloped. It is that, which chiefly corresponds to light; the\ntrunk-flower is, however, the lowest, the last developed, because it\nis only the trunk that has been prolonged with difficulty to form a\nflower. It is the child of the heat and gravity.\n\n1181. It may be also said that the leaf-flower is the electrical, the\nstem-flower, however, the chemical. In the latter the chemical process\nmust still act visibly, it must still be produced mucus; in the former,\nhowever, this must disappear and resolve itself into purely electrical\nbodies.\n\n1182. The flower consists of three leaf-buds. The leaf-bud is the\ncorolla or blossom. The stalk-bud the pistil. The root-bud the seed.\n\n1183. The corolla is the external whorl of leaves, is first developed,\nhas the form of a leaf, is a vesicle, secretes in itself electrical,\ninflammable bodies, and is directed towards the sun.\n\n1184. The difference between corolla and pistil is that of the two\nprincipal tissues, the tracheal and cellular tissue. By the light\nthe tracheal fasciculi become finally separated from the cellular\nsubstance, evolved to a higher degree as the child or product of light,\nand planted outwardly. The corolla is the tracheal circle, which has\nforcibly gained its freedom.\n\n1185. The pistil is the vascular substance that has become freely\nevolved, yet to the highest stage; in a similar relation likewise does\nthe seed stand to the cellular substance. In the fruit therefore the\nflower again reverts to the primary condition of the plant.\n\n1186. The flower and pistil are therefore those very organs which have\nbeen most antagonized in the plant. They are in the highest state\nof polar tension, and stand opposite each other like electrism and\nchemism, or as light and matter. This antagonism in the Organic is\ncalled _sex_.\n\n\n1. FLORAL ENVELOPES.\n\n1187. The blossom is the leaf-formation, in which the separation of the\nprincipal tissues is completely attained, where the tracheal fascicles\nentirely separate from the cellular substance, and become a leaf with\nfree ribs. The cellular substance becomes the _corolla-petal_, the rib\nthe stamen.\n\n1188. The blossom passes through the three stages of leaf-varieties\nbefore it attains its completion, and divides therefore into three\nwhorls, which correspond to the root-leaves, stalk-, and ramular or\nperfect leaves. The radical or squamose leaf appears in its repetition\nas _involucrum_ or _spatha_. The stalk or vascular leaf as _calyx_. The\nperfect or tracheal leaf as _corolla_.\n\n\na. _Involucrum._\n\n1189. As the root puts forth numerous branches, so the involucrum or\nspatha frequently incloses many blossoms that constitute the thyrsus\nor synthetic form of inflorescence.\n\n1190. The thyrsus or dense panicle is the whole ramage or branch-fabric\nrepeated in the involucrum; it is therefore just as manifold as the\nformer.\n\n1191. The inflorescence is still as complex as the arrangement of the\nbranches, because with every flower the ramule dies off or ceases to\ngrow, whereby very numerous and strange relations are brought to light.\n\n1192. The involucrum corresponds to the scale-leaves or bracts, and\nis therefore as a rule polypetalous. The involucral leaves stand upon\na lower stage of development, are for the most part only squamose or\nspathiform, rarely divided or pinnate.\n\n1193. The involucral leaves necessarily stand, as being the radical\nleaves of the flower, at the bottom of the peduncles or flower-stalks;\neach flower-stalk therefore has usually an involucral or bracteal leaf\nalso.\n\n\nb. _Calyx._\n\n1194. The repetition of the cauline or spathe-leaf in the flower is\nthe _Calyx_. It does not stand therefore at the base of the peduncle,\nbut towards its summit, and is the external bud of the blossom; it\nis mostly spathiform, rarely or but slightly cloven, and very rarely\npolysepalous; it is generally green like the leaves. Although the calyx\nis no essential organ in itself, still it is rarely wanting and is\noften itself the supporter of the corolla and stamina.\n\n1195. As the calyx is more incomplete than the corolla, so it has\nusually but three lobes, and if it has five, then they are frequently\nplaced irregularly.\n\n1196. The developmental stages of the calyx are also three.\nCorresponding to the scale-like leaf or bract, it is only squamiform,\nas in the catkins of the hazel and fir-cones; corresponding to the\nspathe-leaf, it is tubular or unisepalous; corresponding to the\nreticular leaf, it is multisepalous, and mostly deciduous.\n\n1197. The tubular calyx exhibits likewise three stages of\ndevelopment. At first it is scale-like, confluent with the ovary or\nepigynous--_ovarial coroll\u00e6_. It is next spathe-like, simply connected\nwith the corolla or perigynous--_calycine coroll\u00e6_. Lastly, it\nresembles the reticular-veined leaf, being free from both the above\norgans, or hypogynous--_pedunculate coroll\u00e6_.\n\n\nc. _Corolla._\n\n1198. From the character of the corolla or crown as being a ramular\nleaf all its properties admit of being deduced. It is the upper\nleaf-bud, inasmuch as the ramular leaves stand above those of the\nstalk. It is, on this account too, the internal, inasmuch as the lower\nleaves admit within them the upper.\n\n1199. The corolla is homologous with the whole mass of the petiolated\nor ramular leaves. Thus their arrangement, form, and number taken\ntogether are not worth more than the characters of the corolla, nor are\nthey worth less, because they are relations of deeper organs.\n\n1200. The corolla stands also in a whorl, because it is the totality of\nleaves.\n\n1201. The laws of the leaf-formation are also the laws of the\ncorolla-formation. The corolla will therefore represent at one time a\ngreater, at another a less, ramified leaf-system.\n\n1202. The corolla is the last verticil in the series of leaf-whorls;\nfor it represents the last leaf-form, and must fade, because the\ntissues have completely separated from each other, namely, the trache\u00e6\nas stamina, from the cells that constitute corolla leaflets or petals.\nNo part can carry on life by or for itself.\n\n1203. The parts of the corolla range in an alternating manner with\nthose of the calyx, because they are the next supra-consecutive bud.\n\n1204. In accordance with the three stages of the leaf-formation the\ncorolla is also resolvable into three forms. The scale-or root-leaf\nreturns in the several squamiform micropetals of what have been called\nthe Apetalous plants; it corresponds to the involucrum--squamoid\ncorolla. The spathe-or stalk-leaf appears in the tubular-shaped or\nMonopetalous corolla. It is a leaf-bud, which has only ruptured at the\napex, like most calyces, unto which it corresponds--spathoid corolla.\nLastly, in the polypetalous corolla the reticular or petiolated leaf\nappears upon its highest stage--reticular or phylloid corolla. The rank\nof the leaves consequently determines also that of coroll\u00e6.\n\n1205. Although we regard the corolla as a whorl of leaves, namely, as\nseveral leaf-buds approximated, a yet clearer insight into its numbers\nand positional relations is attained, by viewing it only as the lobes\nof a single leaf.\n\n1206. If we regard the petals of a polypetalous corolla in the\nimport or light of _pinnate leaflets_, the legitimate regularity of\ntheir numerical relations, and the so-called irregularity of their\narrangement is easily explained. The papilionaceous coroll\u00e6 have been\nmanifestly constructed according to the plan of the pinnate leaf; the\nvexillum or vane corresponds to the odd leaflet, the al\u00e6 or wings to\nthe two anterior, the carina or keel to the two posterior pinnate\nleaflets; and hence their consecutive ratio of decrease in respect to\nsize.\n\n1207. All irregular coroll\u00e6 admit of being referred to the\npapilionaceous form. One petal is always found, which separates from\nthe others, is either larger or smaller, or entirely ablated, and\nconsequently corresponds to the odd pinnate leaflet or vane.\n\n1208. The irregular monopetalous or tubular coroll\u00e6 admit also of\nbeing referred to the papilionaceous form. They need only be regarded\nas a confluence of petals. The labiate coroll\u00e6 are one of the same\ncharacter; but, on the contrary, the lower lip is trifid, the upper,\nand thus the keel, bifid. Here the papilionaceous corolla stands,\nproperly speaking, reversed.\n\n\nNUMERICAL LAW.\n\n1209. The number of petals in the corolla ranges parallel with the mode\nof development of the pinnate leaves. But at first the odd terminal\nleaf necessarily originates, because a leaf must have several pairs of\nribs, before it splits in a ptiloidal or pinnate manner. The primary\nnumber of petals is therefore one. This number is found in those plants\ncalled apetalous, where the small lateral petals are abortive, and\nfrequently the terminal petal itself, as in the catkin, where only the\ncalyx has been left remaining.\n\n1210. The normal ratio, in which the numbers of the petals progress, is\nthe odd or uneven. For a leaf is to be regarded as a single fascicle of\nfibres with cellular substance. This packet of fibres grows straight\nout. It is solicited by the light to give off bundles of fibres; there\nis thus no existing cause, why it should only give off such upon one,\nand not upon the other, side of the bundle. At the first division\ntherefore it must be an _odd_ leaflet, which is the principal bundle of\nfibres, while two _even_ pinnate leaflets take their origin upon its\nsides.\n\n1211. The second number of petals is therefore _three_; for this is the\nfirst number in which a pinnate leaf can appear. This number is much\nmore frequently met with than the former, because all division of a\nterminal bud necessarily strives after the representation of the whorl.\nUnder this head come most Monocotyledons, as grasses, rushes, lilies.\n\n1212. Of the three petals of a corolla all three are not of equal\nimport, two only are alike as being lateral pinnate leaflets; the\nthird, however, is present as the odd or uneven leaflet.\n\n1213. Upon this inequality of import depends the irregularity of many\nternary coroll\u00e6, e. g. of the Orchide\u00e6, Apiace\u00e6, and even many Irides\nand lilies.\n\n1214. If the trinity or ternary division depend upon the pinnated leaf,\nso must also the next number depend thereupon.\n\n1215. The third prevalent number in the vegetable world is the quinary.\nThe quinary division originates, when to the two pinnate leaflets two\nothers are superadded. The pentapetalous corolla is also an _odd_\npinnate leaf in a whorl-shaped position with four pinnate leaflets.\n\n1216. The pentapetalous is naturally higher in rank than the\ntripetalous, and this than the monopetalous, corolla.\n\n1217. In the former four petals are of equal rank, but the fifth or\nodd petal differs from them. This difference is shown in its position,\nsize, form, design, and colouring. The odd leaf is usually larger, of a\nrounded form, having more ribs and other spots or markings.\n\n1218. It appears as if, with this second liberation of fibrous\nfascicles from the main bundle, the differentialization were closed.\nFor most coroll\u00e6 are only quinarily divided, or admit at least of being\nreferred back to that number.\n\n1219. It is readily comprehended why there are only three breaks\npresent in the number of petals, that these are denoted by one, three,\nand five, and that they rarely ascend to seven, nine, and so on. For\nthe posterior pinnate leaflets are wont also to abort or be arrested in\nthe leaves.\n\n1220. There can be no plant with _originally_ two corolla-lobes or\npetals; for the fibrous bundle does not thus divide itself; one main\nfasciculus is always left. The cause why the principal bundle does not\ndivide into two equal fasciculi resides in the very nature or essence\nof the stalk. The idea of the stalk operates throughout the whole\nplant. The odd or uneven leaflet is only the last expansion of the\nstalk. The even leaflets are its branches.\n\n1221. For the same reason there can be no _originally_ quaternary\ncorolla.\n\n1222. There can be none that is originally sexanary.\n\n1223. But an originally septenary corolla is conceivable, if forsooth\nthe energy of light is still in a condition to separate two bundles\nof fibres. How rarely this occurs is well known, and thus it still\ncontinues doubtful whether this form is not to be explained by an\narrest of development.\n\n1224. Nature can produce no originally octo-, deka-, or\ndodeka-petalous, &c. corolla.\n\n1225. Coroll\u00e6 with originally nine, eleven, and more numbers are not\nimpossible. The last seem only to exist.\n\n1226. All corollas having even numbered petals, originate through\narrest of the odd leaflet.\n\n1227. The number two originates most usually and in the simplest manner\nfrom the arrest of the number three. If it originates from the quinary\nquantity, two pinnate leaflets are then coarrested.\n\n1228. The aberration is recognized either from the position of the\nlobes or petals that have been left remaining, or from comparison of\nthe number in other parts, in the calyx and capsule.\n\n1229. The quaternary corolla is a quinary without the uneven leaflet.\n\n1230. The hexapetalous is a doubling of the tripetalous, corolla.\nThere are two whorls of petals, provided the calyx has not become\ncorolla-like in character. Both cases are demonstrable through the\nalternating arrangement of the parts.\n\n1231. The number eight is a doubled four.\n\n1232. Nine is indeed in most instances a product of three multiplied by\nthree.\n\n1233. The number ten is a doubled five.\n\n1234. In every number of petals the law of unequal development\nconsequently prevails.\n\n1235. The original arrangement of the parts of the corolla is\nbilateral, and therefore symmetrical. In the papilionaceous coroll\u00e6\nthis originally symmetrical arrangement is most perfectly maintained.\nThey repeat the position of their pinnate leaves.\n\n1236. This symmetrical arrangement is shown even in many tubular, as\nin the labiate and personate, coroll\u00e6. The trifid lower lip is the\nstandard and wings; the bifid upper lip, on the contrary, the keel.\n\n1237. The small liguliform petal of the lettuce's corolla is a tubular\ncorolla entirely slit up; it is therefore mostly quinque-dentate.\n\n1238. Coroll\u00e6 which have only a single petal (the tubular-shaped\ncoroll\u00e6 should not be styled monopetalous, but those which actually\nhave a single petal to the corolla) are indeed to be regarded for\nthe most part as an odd leaflet; yet still much variety appears to\ntake place in these developmental arrests. Thus here no division of\nthe fibrous bundle was attained, or the lateral leaflets have wholly\ndisappeared.\n\n1239. In many this one leaflet also is arrested, and the corolla is\nwholly wanting. Such a corolla is to be viewed as a stem with radical,\nbut without ramular leaves.\n\n1240. It is not a matter of indifference whether the single involucre\nthat is left remaining be called calyx or corolla; the distinction\nbetween both is philosophically correct, though at the same time also\nit may be frequently difficult to determine. Colour and relation to the\nstamina and fruit determine much; but respect must be also paid to the\nwhole idea of the plant, whether it has radical leaves or not, whether\nthe leaf-ribs do or do not ramify. Alternating stamina afford evidence\nof its being the corolla.\n\n\nCOLORATION.\n\n1241. As the colour ranges parallel with the import or quality of the\nmatter, or since the matter and colour are of one and the same kind, so\nalso must this hold good of the colour of the light-flower.\n\n1242. As the corolla only, and not the calyx, is the proper\nlight-organ, so also will it only obey the light in the coloration.\n\n1243. The corolla can no longer be coloured green, for it is no longer\na leaf. Now that which obtains another signification, which passes\nover into another element, must, with the function, lay aside also\nthe old colour. The corolla is besides the perishing, fading leaf; as\nthis begins to turn yellow or red in the autumn, so does the corolla\nimmediately at its origin. It is a born autumnal leaf.\n\n1244. The whole plant must be regarded as a green synthetic colour; the\ncorolla as the analysis of the Green.\n\n1245. The first division of the Green is Yellow and Blue. These two\ncolours are the first which make their appearance in the corolla.\n\n1246. Yellow is the earth-colour, corresponds to the root, and\nconsequently indicates the lowest colour. Yellow coroll\u00e6 are less\ndeveloped than those which are otherwise coloured. The coroll\u00e6 of\nspring flowers are therefore yellow; so likewise is the middle of the\ncorolla, as is specially exemplified in the disk of the Syngenesious\nplants.\n\n1247. Blue is the second colour of coroll\u00e6 in the scale of dignity,\nor rank. Blue is displayed on the better developed corolla, and is\nfrequently the colour in the rays of the Syngenesi\u00e6. Blue belongs to\nthe temperate zones.\n\n1248. If Yellow and Blue be the divided Green of the leaves, the\ncomplementary colour to that of the coroll\u00e6 must thus remain in the\ntrunk. The trunks of plants having blue coroll\u00e6 should therefore\nbe yellow; those with yellow coroll\u00e6 should furnish blue colouring\nmatters, like the Woad.\n\n1249. Red is the third corolla-colour, the true light-colour, in the\nwhich properly all coroll\u00e6 have been immersed; and if they exhibit any\nother colours, these should be viewed only as instances of aberration\nfrom Red. The Reds are the splendid colours, which develop themselves\nin the middle of summer; in flaming red mantles are the flowers of the\ntorrid zone veiled.\n\n1250. Finally, the form triumphs over the colour. The light has in Red\ndone everything which it could do for colour, having allured as it were\nall the colours out of the plant; it now, on the contrary, bestows its\nattention upon the form and delicacy of the substance. The white colour\nmakes its appearance in antithesis to the red, and is mostly associated\nwith very delicate structure.\n\n1251. The cells of the red coroll\u00e6 are replete with starch-granules,\nbut those of the white are quite empty. The yellow and blue coroll\u00e6\nrange in the middle. Red is a superabundance, White a deficiency, of\nnutriment. The most noble and beautiful coroll\u00e6, as well as the lowest\nalso, may therefore be white. White and red are the general colours\nfor all families of plants, but yellow and blue are special colours.\nIn general the trunk is green, the corolla white, the seed black. The\nmediate stages are red, yellow, and blue.\n\n\nSTAMEN-FILAMENTS.\n\n1252. At length we come to the last work achieved by the light in the\ncorolla, or to complete separation of the systems or tissues. If ever\nbundles of fibres may entirely separate from the cellular substance,\nthis is possible only in the corolla, as being the final light-organ.\nSeparation must, however, be attained: for thus far do the claims of\nlight extend. But no development remains stationary before it has\ncorresponded with the operations of the developing agent.\n\n1253. In the corolla, as being the highest kind of leaf, the ribs,\nas the fibrous fascicles, must finally separate themselves from the\nleaf-substance as cellular tissue. The corolla is a double organ.\n\n1254. In conformity with the whole structure of the plant, the ribs are\nplaced internally, the membranes externally.\n\n1255. The leaf-ribs, isolated and perfected as a particular organ, are\nthe _Stamen-filaments_.\n\n1256. The leaf-membranes, or probably the phyllodia, isolated and\nevolved into a particular organ, are the corolla-petals. These compose\nin the strongest sense the corolla. The filaments consist for the\ngreatest part of spiral fibres, and the corolla-petals of the finest\ncellular tissue, which may be almost designated as granular. This then\nwould be the rational import of the corolla and its stamen-filaments.\nBoth are of similar production; they exhibit like substance, colour,\nand delicacy, with cotemporaneous development and cotemporaneous death.\n\n1257. Not only are the ribs of the corolla, but those also of\nthe calyx, liberated to become filaments. There are calyx-and\ncorolla-filaments.\n\n1258. As ribs, the filaments must stand in the middle of their petals,\ni. e. opposite to them.\n\n1259. Filaments, which alternate with the parts of the corolla,\nare consequently calyx-filaments; such as alternate with the lobes\nof the calyx, or stand opposite to the petals of the corolla, are\ncorolla-filaments.\n\n1260. Most filaments, and consequently the calycine, are alternating\nin their arrangement. Most coroll\u00e6 therefore have no longer strength\nsufficient to produce filaments.\n\n1261. Flowers provided with opposite and alternating filaments have\nconsequently two circles of them, as is the case in many Pinks.\nWith the determination of the number of filaments the race has been\ntherefore specified.\n\n1262. The number of filaments stands in relation to the parts of the\ncorolla; therefore three and five are the prevailing numbers.\n\n1263. There is no absolute number in the filaments, but only one\nof relation. Coroll\u00e6 with three petals have invariably also three\nfilaments, and those with five of the former, the same number too of\nthe latter.\n\n1264. The number of filaments is always the simple or multiple of the\nparts of the corolla. Three calyx-or corolla-parts have 3 \u00d7 1 or 3 \u00d7 n,\nfilaments. 6 is not 6, but 3 \u00d7 2; 9 is 3 \u00d7 3; 10 is 5 \u00d7 2; 20 is 5 \u00d7 4;\nor 5 \u00d7 3 + 5 \u00d7 1, and so on.\n\n1265. The filaments do not simply follow the number, but also the\nconjunction, position and arrest, of the corolla. They are epigynous,\nperi-or hypogynous.\n\n1266. In irregular coroll\u00e6 the filaments are usually abortive; as in\nthose of the orchideous, labiate and papilionaceous plants.\n\n1267. The arrest of the filaments usually stands in inverse relation\nwith the corolla. In the case of a larger-sized petal the filament is\nsmall, and, on the contrary, larger in opposite parts of the corolla.\n\n\nANTHERS.\n\n1268. The corolla obtains its last function in the production of the\nhighest electrical bodies, which it exhales as sweet odours. \u00c6therial\noils ascend out of the corolla into the air.\n\n1269. The filament, as a leaf-rib that has become free, is a moribund\nramuscular extremity, which still strives, according to the law of\npinnation, to produce three buds, whereof, however, the terminal one is\nin general arrested, and the two lateral scarce attain unto apertion.\n\n1270. The two lateral buds of the filaments are the _Anthers_. They\nmostly open in a spathose manner, because they have not strength enough\nto develop themselves as perfect gemm\u00e6 or buds.\n\n1271. The anthers are to be regarded as follicles, which mostly rupture\nupon the dorsal or external aspect.\n\n1272. The starch-flour, which forms the precipitate termed albumen in\nthe seed, here obtains in the light-organ electrical properties, and is\ncalled _pollen_.\n\n1273. The pollen has a light-function in the plant.\n\n1274. The function of the pollen must be differencing, thus vivifying\nand secernent.\n\n1275. The principal antagonism of the pollen is with the pistil, upon\nwhich it must therefore act in a properly differencing manner. The\npollen does not hang, like the seed, by a stalk or pedicle to the wall\nof the anther, but is exudated from it like chemical bodies. It is\nnevertheless a vesicle, like all organic parts. This vesicle consists\nof two membranes, and contains yet smaller vesicles, which are called\n_fovilla_ or pollen-viscus. When the pollen comes into contact with the\nmoist surface of the stigma, its external membrane ruptures, and the\ninternal with its contained fovilla protruding in the form of a tube,\npenetrates the style in many instances down to the seed, whereby the\ngerm first becomes developed or self-subsistent.\n\n\n2. PISTIL OR OVARY.\n\n1276. If the corolla be the light-flower, the stalk-flower is\nheat-flower.\n\n1277. The stalk-flower, as being a repetition of the stem, must\nbe developed later than the leaf-flower. It consequently stands\nsuperiorly upon, and so far within, this. The corolla is related to the\nstalk-flower like circumference to centre.\n\n1278. The stalk repeated in the flower is the _Ovarium_, _germen_\nor _pistillum_. It is frequently converted into wood in the nut and\nbecomes hardened into stone.\n\n1279. Nevertheless, the pistil like the corolla is a leaf-formation,\nbecause everything that originates subsequently to, can be none other\nthan, the leaf. It is a leaf-bud under the idea of the stalk. The\npistil is thus a leaf-whorl like the corolla, and one which is subject\nto the same fatalities, only with this difference, that its leaves are\nwont to open first after it has withered, and consequently through\nphysical forces.\n\n1280. Every leaf that has been closed in a vesicular or tubular form\nis a _follicle_ or _carpel_. There are therefore uni-, bi-, and\ntri-locular ovaria, &c. The loculi or cells of the ovarium are none\nother than closed carpels. As many therefore as there are of the\nformer, so many are there of the latter, and vice vers\u00e2. The septa or\npartition-walls are none other than the involuted edges of the closed\nand confluent carpels.\n\n1281. Uni-locular ovaria consist therefore only of one leaf. The legume\nis only a compressed carpel.\n\n1282. Every carpel or every cell has its raph\u00e9 or suture directed\ninwards or along the axis of the flower. For the leaves are always so\nconjoined that the two halves of the upper or inner side stand counter\nto each other.\n\n1283. All other sutures are adventitious and, by their mode of\ndehiscence, determine those parts of the ovarium which are called\nvalves. These sutures are either _dorsal_ or on the back of the\ncarpel, e. g. _capsula loculicida_; _conjunctive_, where two carpels\nabut against each other, e. g. _capsula septicida_; or finally, between\nboth by the side of the dorsal suture, so that the valve springing up\nresembles a shutter, as in many siliqu\u00e6 or pods.\n\n1284. The columella of the ovary is none other than the internal edge\nof the carpels from which the leaf-wall has been freed.\n\n1285. Each carpel-leaf is to be regarded as the common petiole of a\npinnate leaf, upon whose lateral petioles the seeds depend. The seeds\nalways hang therefore upon the inner angle of the cells.\n\n1286. As the parts of the corolla alternate with the calyx, so do the\ncarpels or cells of the ovary with the corolla; they stand therefore\nopposite the parts of the calyx or are situated in front of them.\n\n1287. The parts of the ovary follow also the uneven series of numbers,\none, three, five. The number two is usually found in irregular, e. g.\nthe labiate, coroll\u00e6.\n\n1288. If few cells be present as parts of the flower, the carpels are\nthen to be regarded as arrested. In the personate coroll\u00e6 three are\narrested, but in the papilionaceous, four. The legumen is only a fifth\npart of the ovarium.\n\n1289. The development of the carpels stands usually in an inverse\nrelation to the size of the parts of the corolla. Thus the legume is\nsituated between the two insignificant petals of the keel, opposite\nto the large vexillum; in the Personat\u00e6 a carpel is situated in the\nfissure of the upper lip; upon the lower lip, consisting of three\nlobes, only one carpel is situated, which consequently supplies the\nplace of four, and is therefore also larger.\n\n1290. The stages of leaf-formation are also displayed in the matured\nstate of the ovarium. The _radical_ or _scale-leaf_ is repeated in the\n_cariopsis_; as in the grasses, orachs, nettles, and such like plants.\n\n1291. The _spathe-leaf_ becomes a _siliqua_, or hollow capsule, in\nwhich forsooth the septa are arrested, and the seeds stand upon the\nconjoined edges of the carpels, upon their walls, or also upon a\nmediate replum and placenta, as in the proper Siliquose plants with the\npoppies, Resed\u00e6, Primul\u00e6 and pinks.\n\n1292. The reticular-leaf is perfected into a _capsule_, where the\ncarpels are so confluent with each other, that they form septa and bear\nthe seeds upon the internal angle or upon the axis, as in the Rues. If\nthese carpels separate, then polycarpal plants, as the Ranunculace\u00e6,\nMalvace\u00e6, Magnoliace\u00e6, originate. In these the median columella is the\nelongated floral peduncle. If they separate, without leaving a median\ncolumella between them; they are then simply called _follicles_, as in\nthe larkspur and celandine. If this capsule be compressed flat; it is\ncalled _legumen_, as in the beans.\n\n1293. The cariopsis generally contains one and that a large seed; the\nsiliqua or hollow capsule is many-or small-seeded; the follicle few-or\nmoderately-seeded; the capsule many-and also few-seeded.\n\n1294. In the cariopsis the seed is attached to the base or apex; in\nthe follicle in a row upon the inner suture; in the siliqua upon\nthe carpellar edges, or their walls, and on a meso-replum or frame;\nin the capsule upon the inner angle or on a middle axis or column.\nSeed-bearing al\u00e6 to the columella are only the carpellar edges\nprolonged into the loculi or cells.\n\n\nSTYLE.\n\n1295. What the stamen-filament is for the petal of the corolla, that is\nthe style for the ovarial petal or the carpel, viz. the rib that has\nbecome free. As, however, the leaf-formation in the ovary is generally\nimperfect, so also is the separation of the tissues or systems. The\nstyle is not therefore freed at once from its root, but projects only\nabove the leaf-substance.\n\n1296. But as the singular circumstance occurs in the ovary that the\nmidrib is arrested while only the marginal ribs shoot out, so is the\nstyle the elongation and coalescence of the two marginal ribs. Every\nstigma is therefore biacuminate.\n\n1297. There must always be as many styles as the ovary has carpels or\ncells. If only one style appear, in this case it is then made up of\nseveral mid-ribs. In most instances the number of styles is recognized\nin the number of the stigmata.\n\n1298. As being the rib of the ovary the style is the last ramuscular\nextremity of the stalk, which is resolved into mucus upon the stigma.\n\n1299. Stamen-filament is related to style, as leaf to stalk, thus as\nair to earth, as Differencing to Differencizable, as electrism to\nchemism or rather nutrition. This is the lower comparison; in a true\nsense they are related as light to heat.\n\n1300. The light is the Active, the heat the Passive; light the Moving,\nheat the Moveable; light the Vitalizing, heat the Inactive, or that\nwhich becomes vitalized; light the spirit, heat the matter--male and\nfemale principle. Thus are corolla and pistil related to each other.\n\n\n3. SEED.\n\n1301. The root repeats itself in the interior of the ovary under the\n\u00e6ther-form. The root ascends out of the earth to become an organ of\ngravity.\n\n1302. After the leaves have been made independent in the corolla, and\nthe stalk in the pistil, the root also separates and appears as a free\norgan, as _Seed_.\n\n1303. The seeds are necessarily in the interior of the ovary; for the\ncellular organ can first appear, after the leaf-and stalk-buds have\nopened as corolla and ovarium. The blossom is a bulb, the external\ntesta or covering of which is the leaf-, the mediate the stalk-, and\nlastly, the internal the root-vesicle. The stalk is adherent to the\nleaves, the root to the stalk; so also the seeds to the ovary, and this\nto the corolla.\n\n1304. The seeds are developed in the ovary under the same relations in\nwhich the root is developed in the earth, namely, in the dark.\n\n1305. The darkness does not allow the chemical body to attain unto\ndifference; therefore the sap within the capsule must, instead of\nseparating itself into spiral vessels and leaf-substance, continue to\nremain there undivided and without form, i. e. in the condition of\nsimple granules, or germs of future cells.\n\n1306. The seeds, like the root, are a mass of cells; like it they\ncontain an accumulation of mucus, but of course more highly-formed,\nbeing separated into flour, starch, acid matter, oil, and such like\nsubstances.\n\n1307. These seminal substances are deposited upon the alkaline, in\nopposition to the acid, side of the ovary; just as the root also\nrepresents the alkaline factor in reference to the stalk, in which\nappears the formation of acids.\n\n1308. The seeds are the pinnate leaflets of the ovarian leaves, which\ncontinue in the condition of buds. They stand therefore as unclosed\nvesicles upon both edges of the carpel, as is particularly distinct in\nthe legumens.\n\n1309. As both edges are similar to each other, so there can be no ovary\nthat has fewer than two seeds. In all one-seeded ovaries therefore one\nseed has been arrested, a fact that admits too of being demonstrated in\nthe majority of cases.\n\n1310. Every seed is placed at the extremity of a lateral rib of the\ncarpel. These lateral ribs are called seed-bearers or _placent\u00e6_. If\nsuch lateral ribs terminate before reaching the edge of the carpel,\nthen the seeds stand upon the juncture or wall of the carpel. This does\nnot, however, occur frequently, but only in the Siliquos\u00e6, poppies,\nand some others. The elongated lateral rib, whereupon the seed hangs,\nis called umbilical cord. It is no peculiar organ, but only the\nseed-petiole.\n\n1311. The direction of the seeds is possible in five ways, either\nupright and horizontal, transverse, or rising obliquely upwards and\ndownwards in relation to the axis of the ovary.\n\n1312. Every perfect seed (of Dicotyledons) is none other than a\npentifoliar, involuted, pinnate leaf. The shell of the seed is the\nleaf-spathe or _phyllodium_, the two seed-lobes are the two posterior\npinnate leaflets, while the germinal leaflets, or _plumula_, are the\ntwo anterior pinnate leaflets, together with the odd leaflet. The\nseed-rib or vascular cord (_raphe_) is continued into the seed-rootlet\nor radicle, and this into the petiole of the cotyledons.\n\n1313. Every seed-coat must consist of three integuments; for every\nleaf consists of the lower and upper membrane, and of the interjacent\nparenchyma, in which the vessels are dispersed. The external\nleaf-membrane forms the most hard and coloured covering of the seed\n(_testa_), the internal the brown seed-tunic or _pellicula_; between\nthe two lies the brown fibrous tissue, or desiccated parenchyma with\nthe vessels.\n\n1314. The hilum is the basis of the bud or of the seed-leaf; the\nseed-hole or micropyle is on the apex of the involuted bud, or rather\nof the phyllodium, in which the germ lies rolled up.\n\n1315. Umbilicus and micropyle are united with each other by means of\nseed or leaf-rib (raphe). Both rarely stand opposite to each other,\nso as that the one should be below, the other above; but the apex of\nthe leaf is usually so involuted that it again reaches the bottom of\nthe leaf, whereby umbilicus and micropyle come into close and mutual\napproximation, as in the beans. The seed-petiole elongates itself\ninto the seed-rib; this is continued upon the back of the phyllodium\nor testa, bends round, and returns again to the umbilicus, so as to\ndescribe a complete circle. The shell of the seed has consequently the\nform of the young fern or fern-capsule.\n\n1316. The radicle is the continuation of the seed-rib, which is,\nhowever, dismembered itself, moves off, and thereby causes the\nmicropyle to be, or, properly speaking, only renders it, free. The\ntesta or seed-shell is consequently a phyllodium thrown over the germ,\nbut the micropyle is the upper opening of the bud.\n\n1317. The germ of the seed or embryo, namely, radicle, cotyledons and\nplumule, is therefore only the quinary pinnate leaf without the spathe\nor testa.\n\n1318. Thus the whole seed, shell and embryo, completely resembles a\npinnate leaf with a phyllodium, as we see it in the umbellate plants,\nonly it must be thought of as one so involuted, that the fine leaves\nadhere reversed in the phyllodium. Seeds may consequently change\ninto leaves. A seed has therefore been formed also in all its parts\nlike a papilionaceous corolla. This resemblance speaks moreover\nretrogressively, for the petals of the papilionaceous corolla being\nviewed only as a single leaf-bud. Seeds may therefore change also into\ncoroll\u00e6. All parts of the seed are thus an unity, a single pinnate\nleaf, and it is consequently impossible for them to have been patched\nup out of what has been called the seed-ovum, namely, the testa and\nembryo, which would come from some other source or out of the pollen.\n\n1319. The seed is the whole plant in miniature: the root being\nportrayed in the umbilical cord, and radical leaf in the phyllodium;\nstalk in the radicle; caudal leaves in the seed-lobes; ramuscule in the\ncotyledonal petiole; ramular leaves in the cotyledons. Seeds may thus\nchange into an entire plant. The seed is consequently nothing new in\nthe plant, but the repetition of the same under the relations and forms\nof the root.\n\n1320. It is plain that the seeds must always change into the same\nplant; for they are indeed nothing else but this. The identity ensuing\nupon propagation is accordingly nothing singular and incomprehensible;\nit would be so were it otherwise. With the seed the plant has but\nreverted again to its primary condition, to the galvanic, mucous\nvesicle, out of which in a secondary manner the young plant is\ndeveloped like as is the first plant out of the primary vesicle.\n\n1321. The radicle is not therefore root itself, but only emits rootlets.\n\n1322. The germ or the radicle must observe different positions towards\nthe umbilicus, according as the seed-leaf or the testa has been more or\nless involuted, and according as the germ is removed from the micropyle.\n\n1323. The albumen or perisperm is no particular organ, but only the\ndeposit from the sap, which the inner wall of the testa secretes. The\nalbumen stands in no organic connexion with the parts of the seed. That\ntherefore which has become connate with the kernel or nucleus cannot be\nalbumen.\n\n1324. The arillus can be none other than bud-seeds of the testa,\nbecause it is placed under the phyllodium. It corresponds to the floral\ninvolucrum or bracteal scales.\n\n1325. As the seeds are none other than leaves that have remained\nstationary in the condition of root, so must they pass through the\nthree leaf-stages. There can be therefore only three principal\ndifferences in the seed-formation.\n\n1326. The seeds of plants with reticular leaves consist of several\nleaves arranged symmetrically or in pairs. They have necessarily _two_\nseed-lobes--Dicotyledones.\n\n1327. The seeds of plants with spathose leaves consist too only of\nthe latter, i. e. the seed-leaves remain encased in each other. They\nhave consequently only one seed-lobe, which also incloses only one\nplumule--Monocotyledones.\n\n1328. This seed-lobe is a phylloidal leaf, whose parenchyma has been\nsuperabundantly filled with farinaceous matter or flour.\n\n1329. That which is named vitellus can be none other than the\nsucceeding counter-leaf.\n\n1330. What in the Monocotyledons, at least in most of them, and in\nthe grasses, is called albumen, is not so, but only the flour of the\nseed-lobe.\n\n1331. The germination of these seeds is nothing else than an elongating\nof the spathiform seed-lobe into a culm, from the bottom of which\nradicles spring forth, as out of a bulb. A monocotyledonous seed is in\nits structure none other than a small bulb with undivided coverings.\n\n1332. Lastly, the third form of seeds makes its appearance in those\nplants which have only scale-like leaves. The seed-lobe is wanting in\nthem, and they elongate themselves directly into the plumule or little\nstalk--Acotyledones.\n\n1333. They are devoid of the distinction of testa and embryo, because,\non account of the deficiency of genuine leaf-formation, they are\nnone other than the first. For the embryo is only a small leaf. They\ntherefore include only albumen or _germinal powder_, as it is correctly\nnamed.\n\n1334. Here belong not merely fungi, fuci, lichens and mosses, but also\nthe ferns, as being those which have only cells or squamoid leaves.\nFor the frond with the spiral vessels does not rank in the category of\nleaf, but of stalk.\n\n\nFRUIT.\n\n1335. The fruit is the coalescence or blending of the three parts\nof the flower, or the seed, ovarium and corolla. In the flower the\nindividual perfection of every part of the trunk was completely\nattained; the leaves being separated quite freely from the stalk became\ncorolla; the stalk separated from the leaves and root became pistil;\nlastly, the root separated from all, became the seed. In this manner\nindeed each organ attained its ratio of perfection; the perfection,\nhowever, of the Whole does not alone consist in the perfection of the\nseveral parts for themselves, but in the union or combination of these\nindividual perfections. The vegetable trunk, as being a Partial, has\nbeen represented in the parts of the flower, but as a Whole, in the\nfruit.\n\n1336. The fruit is therefore the last and most perfect consummation of\nthe plant, or the whole vegetable trunk repeated as unity.\n\n1337. In the fruit not merely the sum of all vegetable forms is united,\nbut also that of all vegetable matters. It is the whole vegetable body\nrepeated mathematically, physically and chemically.\n\n1338. The fruit therefore is also that part of the plant in which all\nvegetable bodies have been concentrated into flesh. Now, as the highest\nvegetable bodies pass over into the next, and consequently into the\nanimal kingdom, and are therefore palatable as food, so is the fruit\nalso in essence the sarcocarp. For this is the directly edible part of\nthe plant, that e. g. which does not need being cooked.\n\n1339. The nutritious substance of the fruit can be none other than a\nhighly elevated and analysed kind of mucus, such as starch and gum,\nsugar and acids. Flour is that which resembles the root, sugar the\nstalk, acids the foliage; therefore flour is in the seed, sugar in the\npistil, and acid in the calyx.\n\n1340. There can be only three kinds of fruit, that constantly accord\nwith the preponderance of the three parts of the flower, as seed-fruit,\npistil-and corolla-fruit.\n\n1341. The fruit that has the preponderance of the seed, or where the\nedible substance resides in the seed, and the ovary itself has become\nseed-shaped, is the _Nut_. The nut is the cariopsis that has become\nsarcocarp; it is therefore one-seeded--farinaceous sarcocarp.\n\n1342. In the ovarian fruit the ovarium has become demi nut-like, half\ncorolla-like or fleshy, as in the _Plum_. It is the carpel that has\nbecome sarcocarp--acid sarcocarp.\n\n1343. The fruit, in which the whole ovarium together with the calyx\nis edible, is the corolla-fruit, the _Berry_. Only those perfectly\nsoft fruits are true berries which are inclosed by the calyx, as being\nforsooth a part of the blossom. The berry is the siliqua or hollow\ncapsule that has become sarcocarp. Therefore it has numerous and small\nseeds--saccharine sarcocarp.\n\n1344. Finally, these fruits combine to form a common fruit, which\nrepresents the proper synthesis of all parts of the blossom, or in\nwhich seed, ovarium and flower, along with the calyx, have become\nsarcocarp. This is the _Apple_, a syncarpus. The apple is the calyx\nbecome sarcocarp, and as it usually incloses several carpels, it is\ntherefore polycarpal and contains few seeds. It consists of seed,\novarium and calyx, which have become flesh. The apple, as being an\nunopen calyx-fruit, may probably be regarded as the fruit of the trunk.\nIt furnishes properly drink and food, is the fruit against thirst and\nhunger--the universal, alimentary sarcocarp. The apple contains all\nthe bodies that have been named, viz. flour, acids and sugar. It is\nthus chemically also the synthetic fruit, which may be converted into\nthe whole animal flesh, and thus become a true medium of nutrition. The\nnut is only garbage, the plum and berry, cherry and grape, only drinks\nor delicacies.\n\n1345. Other vegetable substances, which range lower in chemical\ndevelopment, as mucus, bitter and colouring matters, with resins, are\nassociated for the greatest part in root, stalk and leaves.\n\n\nFRUIT OF THE FLOWERLESS PLANTS.\n\n1346. The flowerless or asexual plants can have no genuine seed or no\nembryo. For the genuine seed is the repetition of the blossom under the\nidea of root. (Ed. 1st, 1810. \u00a7 1564.)\n\n1347. That which has been called germinal powder is no seed or germ,\nbut only albumen or perisperm. It has no seed-petiole, has only been\nexuded out of what has been called the wall of the capsule, and\nexhibits in its composition no seed-lobes. (Ed. 1st. \u00a7 1586.)\n\n1348. What is termed capsule in the Acotyledones is none other than the\nseed-shell, whereupon it follows of itself, that the so-called seeds\ncan have no umbilical cords or seed-petioles. (Ed. 1st; 1810. \u00a7 1573.)\n\n1349. The capsules of ferns are involuted like most dicotyledonous\nseeds. The ring corresponds to the seed-rib or raphe, the fissure\nto the seed-aperture or micropyle. The involuted fern-capsule is a\nrepetition of the involuted fern-frond. The little heaps of capsules or\nsori are consequently not pollen, but a nest of seeds surrounded by an\nindusium or veil, which, probably, corresponds to the ovary.\n\n1350. The capsule of mosses is an antetype of monocotyledonous seeds;\nit is a spathe-leaf with the lateral suture; it springs up in a tubular\nmanner similar to grass-leaves, that free themselves from the nodes of\nthe culm.\n\n1351. The hollow columella, which likewise contains germinal powder,\nis an internal spathe, which corresponds to the germinal leaf of\ngrasses.\n\n1352. The oral teeth are the dissevered parallel strips of vessels in\nthe culm and leaf of the Monocotyledons.\n\n1353. The urn-supporting pedicel is the seed-petiole or umbilical cord.\n\n1354. The calyptra probably corresponds to the arillus and thus to the\nbud-scales; or possibly to the indusium of the ferns, and thus to the\novary.\n\n1355. The leaf-roses would consequently be the involucral leaves of the\nmoss-stalk; the moss-stalk itself a peduncle or flower-stalk; so that\nin the upper involucral leaves rudiments might indeed appear of stamina.\n\n1356. In the lichens and fuci the whole trunk is none other than\nseed-shell.\n\n1357. In the fungi, the antetype of the Acotyledons, it may be almost\nsaid that the whole stem is nothing else but albumen, the external\nlayers of which only cling together in a membranaceous manner, and\nrepresent a kind of seed-shell. The fungus is an albumen-body,\nwhich has coagulated out of vegetable juices. In the fungus, seed,\nseed-vessel, ovary, blossom, foliage and trunk have become blended into\none.\n\n1358. In a perfect blossom the albumen is therefore the repetition of\na fungus; the acotyledonous seed that of lichen; the monocotyledonous\nseed-vessel that of a moss; the dicotyledonous, however, is the\nrepeated fern. It may be also said that the albumen were fungus; the\ngerm, lichen; the seed-vessel, moss; the ovary perhaps, a fern, namely,\nits indusium.\n\n\nII.--_PHYTO-PHYSIOLOGY._\n\n\n1359. The life of the plant consists in the co-operation of its\nfunctions. The representation of these functions is the vegetable\nphysiology or the theory of vegetation.\n\n1360. _Vegetation depends first of all upon the two principal\nantagonisms of the plant, or those between the tracheal and cellular\nsystems, or between the stem-and rootsystems, sun and planet, air and\nwater with earth, light and matter, electrism and chemism._\n\n1361. The functions divide into those of the _\u00e6ther-organs_--_blossom_,\nand the planetary organs--_stem_.\n\n\nI.--FUNCTIONS OF THE TRUNK.\n\n1362. The functions of the trunk are those of the tissues, systems\nand members; thus first of the cells, vessels or ducts and trache\u00e6;\nsecondly, of the bark, liber and wood; lastly, of the root, stalk and\nfoliage.\n\n\n1. _Facts._\n\n1363. The phenomena to be regarded in plants bear relation to their\nconstituent parts, and the changes or preliminary incidents which they\nundergo.\n\n\nA. _Constituent Parts._\n\nThe chemical constituent parts of vegetables are inorganic and organic.\n\n\na. INORGANIC BODIES.\n\n_Elements._\n\n1364. The plant contains all the _primitive bodies_; carbon, oxygen,\nhydrogen and nitrogen. The carbon forms the principal mass, and almost\nalone constitutes its solid parts. The nitrogen is only present in\nsmall quantity, being, as it were, a trace only of the future animal\nkingdom.\n\n1365. In the plant all the _elements_ are also active, as the \u00e6ther,\nwhich, through the gravitation of the root, strives towards the middle\npoint or centre of the earth. The light, which imparts the general\npolarity and decomposition, as well as produces colours. The latter\nappear to reside in the starch-flour. The heat, that sustains the\nindifference, promotes the evaporation and the course of the sap, as\nalso protects the plant from being killed by frost or cold. The air\nthat penetrates through the spiral vessels to all parts, and is also\nmet with occasionally in the hollow stalks, the interstices and cells\nof the pith and cuticle. It imparts the process of oxydation. The\nwater is the proper mother of the plant, being the medium by which\nthe nutrition is imparted. It contains in a state of absorption some\nhydrogen and nitrogen, a larger amount of oxygen, and abundance of\ncarbonic acid; besides different salts, mucus, sugar, and acids. The\nearth, as element, bestows upon the plant a firm station, so that the\nwater-and air-organs continue separate from each other.\n\n\n_Minerals or Earths._\n\n1367. The plant is also a totality in reference to the _earths_. It\ncontains all the mineral classes, and from each of these indeed the\nprincipal or fundamental minerals. It can therefore only thrive in a\nsoil which represents the whole mineral kingdom. Among the earths the\nsiliceous earth is very frequently found in plants, and especially\nin the graminaceous kinds. This, having been dissolved in the earth\nby potash and the rich supply even of carbonic acid, appears to be\nabsorbed or imbibed by the plant. The argillaceous earth is scarcely\nmet with in the plant itself; but from imbibing and storing up water\nfor the consumption of the plant, it is without doubt its best and most\nnecessary soil. The talcose earth is rarely found contained in plants;\nit, however, keeps the soil slacker, by dividing into lamin\u00e6, and being\npresent for the most part as mica in sand. The calcareous earth is a\nmore essential constituent part of plants, and is found therein in\ntolerable quantity, usually combined with phosphoric or carbonic acid.\nOf the salts, all plants contain a fair proportion of common salt and\npotash, combined too with carbonic acid; soda with saccharic or oxalic\nacid; probably also ammonia. Of the acids, carbonic acid appears to be\nalone contained in a free state in vegetable sap; the other elemental\nand mineral acids are united to alkalies, talcose and calcareous\nearths. As regards the Inflammables, almost the whole plant consists of\ncarbon, but contains also some sulphur. The metals are represented by\niron, which occurs in all plants.\n\n\nb. ORGANIC VEGETABLE BODIES.\n\n1368. These must be regarded as the repetition of the inorganic bodies.\nThe alcohol, which does not indeed occur ready formed in the plant, but\nis developed out of the sugar, certainly corresponds to the \u00e6ther. The\n\u00e6therial or volatile oils, and the balsams and resins that are thence\nformed, correspond with the air. The mucus, gelatine, albumen, and\nsugar correspond to water; the wood, gum, starch and vegetable mould,\nto the earth. Of the organic salts, plants contain tannin, with azetic,\nbenzoic, mucic, gelatic, saccharic, tartaric, citric, malic, oxalic,\ntannic, oleic, isatic, and hydrocyanic acids. The alkaline bodies are\npungent, bitter, stupefying, and saponaceous; the fixed or greasy\noils, the wax and the vegetable butters, are to be regarded as organic\nInflammables; the colouring matters, as the organic ores.\n\n1369. These bodies intermixed form the compound vegetable matters. What\nhas been called vegetable sap is for plants, what the blood is for\nanimals. It consists for the greatest part of water and mucus, starch,\nsugar, acids, and salts. It passes over into vinous and then into\nacetous fermentation. The starch-granules appear to form in the cells.\n\n1370. To the secreted saps belong the coloured milky juices present\nin particular vessels, and consisting for the most part of water with\nresins, as in the celandine and spurge. The particular saps, especially\nthose of the fruits, are very composite, consisting for the most\npart either of mucus, sugar and acids, or occasionally of gelatine\nand albumen. Solid compound matters are almost universally made up\nof flour, which consists principally of starch and gum; or they are\nfurthermore mucus in the roots and seeds. The excreted or separated\nmatters, which no longer interpose in the vegetable process, are\nthe etherial oils, resins, fixed oils, colouring matters, poisonous\nsubstances, gum, tannin, nectar-juices, and even water.\n\n\nB. _Preliminary Events._\n\na. WROUGHT BY EXTERNAL INFLUENCE.\n\n1371. The influence of the elements produces different phenomena in\nthe plant. I have felt constantly more inclined to consider, that not\nmerely the descent of the root, but even the ascent of the stalk was\nsimply to be viewed as a mechanical event, or one forsooth effected by\ngravity. The roots obey under all circumstances the gravity and would\ngrow as far as the centre of the earth, were they to meet with no\nimpediment; and there they would follow the revolution of the earth,\nand consequently become spirally convoluted upon themselves. It is\nalmost beyond doubt that the water, which sinks downwards and, as it\nwere like that in stalactites, invariably rigidifies or hardens at the\nradical capillaries, is heavier in the root. The cause of this greater\nweight depends upon the mucus not being decomposed.\n\n1372. The straight ascent of the stalk also depends upon nothing\nelse than gravity. The upper drops of mucus become lighter by means\nof greater heat and by decomposition in light and air, and they are\ntherefore compressed by the heavier in the upward direction. It is\nalways such a small drop upon the summit, which hardens into its\nuppermost cell. The stalk, therefore, grows upwards through the same\nforces and in the same manner, as the air-bubbles ascend in a glass\nof beer. The cause of their becoming lighter resides certainly in the\nvital process, which nevertheless effects in this respect nothing else\nthan the extension or increase; but yet the cause of the ascent is\nnaught else than the gravity.\n\n1373. The _light_ likewise acts upon the direction of plants and\nespecially that of their leaves; not simply from its promoting growth\nby elevation of temperature and by decomposition, but obviously in a\nmechanical manner also; for not only do the branches of plants in a\ngreen-house grow towards the window, but most leaves turn themselves\nthe whole day in obedience to the course of the sun. This turning\nmust, nevertheless, have one and the same kind of cause with the\ngrowing towards light; it also is only a conatus or effort unto growth.\nThe upper leaf-cells, being illuminated by the sun, become lighter, and\nare therefore directed at once, like the apices of the branches, toward\nthe influence of light. The cells that stand perpendicularly upon the\nsurface of the leaf are to be regarded as branches conjoined by growth.\n\n1374. The _sleep of plants_ depends also upon the same influence of the\nlight. The upper leaf-cells sleep during the night, while the lower\ncells, especially those of the petiole, fill and consequently bend the\nlatter upwards. The sleep of the flower must have the same cause. As\nlikewise the alternating motion of many leaves, as in the Mimos\u00e6.\n\n1375. The motion also performed by the staminal filaments towards the\npistil must finally depend upon this unequal replenishment of the\nexternal and internal cells.\n\n1376. The coloration of the parts of plants is a result of the\ndecomposition of the starch-granules in the cells by the agency of\nlight.\n\n1377. The operation of the _heat_ is more intelligible than any other.\nThat which is to move and separate itself, must have a certain degree\nof extension, or must be fluid, namely, aquiform. In a cold temperature\nthe upper saps, not becoming warmer than the lower, are consequently\nnot lighter, and on that account also do not ascend upwards. The mortal\nfreezing of trees descends from above downwards. In other respects\nplants have, like animals, a self-inherent, though very feeble, process\nof heat. Germination proves this, in cases where many seeds lie upon\neach other.\n\n1378. The air acts also mechanically and physically upon plants,\nby causing motion of the solid parts and by promoting evaporation.\nElectricity is without doubt active in the spring of the year, and\nevokes the antagonism between the fabric of the stem and root.\n\n1379. The physical operation of water consists indeed, for the greatest\npart, in its preserving the solid parts in a supple or pliant state.\nIts principal office is, however, to convey nourishment to the plant.\n\n1380. The earths act beneficially only upon plants, if they have been\nall mixed with each other. Mineral salts occurring in moderate quantity\nin the soil promote growth; alkalies and acids are injurious thereunto.\nThe same holds good of Inflammables and metallic limes.\n\n\nb. BY INTERNAL ACTIVITY.\n\n1381. That the plant imbibes water, and this indeed in great quantity,\nby its whole surface is a well-ascertained fact; but it has been by\nno means equally determined whether it obtains its nourishment simply\nthrough the water, or directly also from the air, e. g. the carbon, as\nwell as the nitrogen, from the carbonic acid. The principal imbibition,\nhowever, takes place through the root; but experiments that have been\nmade upon this subject leave it doubtful, whether in this case it is\nsimply mucus, extract from the humus or vegetable mould, or simply\ncarbonic acid that has been absorbed.\n\n1382. It is moreover a fact that the green parts of plants exposed to\ndirect sun-light consume or take in carbonic acid, and develop or give\nout oxygen; on the contrary, during the night, and even in cloudy or\ngloomy days, they absorb oxygen and exhale or develop carbonic acid.\nNow, as there are far more gloomy or at least cloudy than clear days,\nit thus becomes evident that far more oxygen has been taken up, than\nseparated, from the air. During germination oxygen gas is consumed and,\non the other hand, carbonic acid developed.\n\n1383. The saps ascend upwards, and chiefly indeed, in the liber; on its\npassage different substances forming from it, which appear especially\nin the fruit in greatest proportion and variety.\n\n\n2. _Processes._\n\n1384. The tissues of plants form three formations, which must\nbe similar in their functions, and can only exhibit subordinate\ndifferences. The cell-formation is displayed in the cellular tissue,\nin the bark and root. The vascular formation in the vascular tissue,\nin the liber and stalk. The tracheal formation in the tracheal tissue,\nthe wood and the leaves. There can accordingly be only three principal\nfunctions in the vegetable stem, and of these each will display minor\ndifferences.\n\n\nA. _Cellular Processes._\n\na. ROOT-PROCESS--ABSORPTION.\n\n1385. As the root is the cellular organ proper, so in it principally\nresides the water-process or the commencement of chemical elaboration\nand analysis. Now the chemism in an organic body is called digestion.\n\n1386. The root is the mouth or pharynx of the plant, and is therefore\nprincipally concerned with absorption. Its process is therefore the\nformation of mucus, or as it were of salivation. The root cannot,\nhowever, create mucus, as it was created at the conclusion of the\nearth-metamorphosis in the sea; it can absorb it or in the highest\ndegree compound it out of the constituent parts.\n\n1387. The process of the formation of mucus is a process of\nputrefaction; the function of the root consists accordingly in\nsupporting a constant process of putrefaction. The soil in which the\nroot stands must contain substances susceptible of, and the conditions\nnecessary to, putrefaction. These substances are organic matters and\nwater; the conditions heat and access of air. Such a soil is called\nhumus or mould. In a pure, dry earth, no root can thrive.\n\n1388. Carbon, from its being the earthy body, is the principal one in\nthe formation of mucus, and the basis also of the vegetable bodies.\nA root can develop itself, if it stand only in a soil such as the\ncalcareous, which contains carbon and water. The calcareous soil is\nas it were an original mould. It is probable that the calcareous earth\nis constantly decomposed by the root and its carbon absorbed. The\ncalcareous earth is again neutralized by the carbonic acid of the water\nand air.\n\n1389. There can be no doubt that the root also abstracts carbon from\nthese elements, and converts it into mucus, or probably separates\nit from carbonic acid. The mucus approximates the animal nature, so\nthat the root in its constituent parts, in its smell, and even in its\nstructure, exhibits animal properties; animal substances therefore are\nalso the best nutritive media of plants.\n\n1390. That which putrefies most easily is the best manure.\n\n1391. Through the process of putrefaction many kinds of antagonisms\nand attractions, by which the absorption takes place through the\nroot-filaments, are aroused.\n\n1392. The root has not merely one orifice for absorbing, but it imbibes\nupon the whole surface, from its being still immersed in the chemical\nmenstruum. The integument of animals does the same.\n\n\nb. BARK-PROCESS--EVAPORATION.\n\n1393. The bark, as an organ of cellular tissue, which is placed wholly\nin the outward direction, must principally exercise the process of\nabsorption and evaporation. Now, as there are two kinds of bark, a\nroot-and a stalk-bark, or a water-and air-bark, so upon the former\nwill the business of absorption chiefly devolve, on the latter that of\nevaporation.\n\n1394. As the bark of the stalk possesses stomata, which are wanting\nin that of the root, so is this a probable reason for these apertures\nbeing organs of evaporation. This opinion is corroborated also by\naquatic leaves being without stomata, while they occur in the leaves\nexposed to air.\n\n1395. Meanwhile the stalk is of a twofold character; it is only the\nroot that has ascended into the air. As an aerial root it absorbs.\nWithout doubt the stalk absorbs the same as the root, namely, moisture\nfrom the air and carbonic acid. Experiments prove it.\n\n\nc. CELL-PROCESS--DIGESTION.\n\n1396. The cells are the crystallized drops of mucus, the fundamental\nmass of the vegetable and consequently the water, which converts\nitself into the Earthy, or wherein the Solid has been elaborated and\nprecipitated. They construct the Solid that has been absorbed into new\ncells. But the Solid can only assume other forms by means of water. The\nsolution, however, with mixture of bodies and formation into globules\nis digestion. The cells are thus the stomachs of which the plant has\nmillions like mouths.\n\n1397. The bodies absorbed must move in the cells; for chemical solution\nand mixture, being itself nothing else than separation and union of\natoms, is consequently motion. In a single cell the motion must be upon\nall sides, because the atoms are attracted and repelled from all points\nof the cell-wall. In cells, however, which are united with others and\ntherefore subjected to longitudinal polarity, this motion must be\nperformed in accordance with the axis of the cells.\n\n1398. This motion proceeds to and fro, because the extremities of the\ncells have different polarities, and therefore repel the same atoms,\nwhich they have before attracted. In the cells the mucus appears to be\nconverted into starch-granules.\n\n\nB. _Vascular Processes._\n\na. _Vessel-process--Conveyance of Sap._\n\n1399. The vessels or intercellular passages conduct the sap, or\nthe water of the plant. Their function is therefore the continued\nconveyance of the sap that has been absorbed from the root, and\nrendered solid or consistent by the evaporation going on in the bark\nand elaborated by the cells.\n\n1400. The vessels of plants are notwithstanding to be compared with the\nlymphatic vessels of animals, in so far also as these are distributed\nthroughout the whole body, and convey the sap simply in one direction\nnot in a circle.\n\n1401. As the passages between all the cells are in all directions,\nso the vegetable saps or fluids flow in all directions, and not to\none centre as in the animal. Plants have no heart. The sap pursues a\ntolerably rapid course in the vessels. A fading or drooping cabbage,\ntwo feet in length, can gradually become erect in a few minutes after\nbeing put to soak in water. In other respects the course of the sap in\nthe vessels may be seen in many plants under the microscope.\n\n\nb. _Liber-process--Mixture of Sap._\n\n1402. In the liber, as being the mass of intercellular passages,\nthe sap contained in the vessels principally accumulates, as in the\nthoracic duct of animals; in it the matters have not been simply\nconveyed and dissolved, but also mixed and converted into true\nvegetable sap, into blood.\n\n1403. The tubes of the liber are those by which the chemical life is\nsustained.\n\n\nc. _Stalk-process--Secretion._\n\n1404. The stalk is the root planted in air, and consequently its\nprocess is the differenced process of putrefaction, in which the mucus\nbecomes further evolved.\n\n1405. The analysis chiefly occurs in the stalk; the mucus, or rather\nthe starch, becoming converted into sugar and acids.\n\n1406. Sugar is the mucus of the stalk, and is found in every vegetable\nsap, especially that of such plants as are characterized by the systems\nof the stalk, and have not yet attained the formation of the reticular\nleaf, as the Monocotyledones, e. g. the grasses.\n\n1407. The sugar originates from a process of fermentation; the process\nof the stalk must consequently be regarded as a vital _process of\nfermentation_.\n\n1408. The process of fermentation is that of putrefaction carried\non in the air, or the polar process of fermentation. Both processes\nconsequently observe a polar relation towards each other.\n\n1409. The sugar-process passes over finally into acidification.\n\n1410. The _Inflammables_, as the \u00e6therial oils, balsams, and resins,\nare formed in the antagonism of the sugar or of the _acids_. Here\nalso belong most of the peculiar vegetable matters, as the milky\nsaps, colouring matters, medicinally active bodies, poisons, and the\nalkaloids.\n\n\nC. _Tracheal-processes._\n\na. _Leaf-process--Inspiration._\n\n1411. In the foliage the woody rings have issued freely into the air,\nin order that they may offer their whole surface to its influence, and\nthus become electrified and oxydized.\n\n1412. The leaf is the free, external organ of respiration to the plant;\nit is its _lung_. Through the leaf the air, and chiefly its oxygen, is\ntransferred into the plant, just as it is through the lungs into the\nanimal.\n\n1413. The leaves take in oxygen gas; this is their _essential_\nfunction, and not that of exhaling it.\n\n1414. The leaves _only_ exhale oxygen gas when exposed to light. The\ndevelopment of oxygen in the plant is accordingly a light-and not an\nair-process. In consequence of this the leaves give out oxygen gas only\nduring the day, but during the night and even upon gloomy days, where\nnot the light but only the air is active, they take in oxygen and give\nout carbonic acid.\n\n1415. The light develops the oxygen gas out of the plant in a perfectly\ninorganic manner, like as from every water, that can be set in a\nprocess of tension. _Rumford_ has developed by simple glass tubes\noxygen gas out of water. The oxygen gas of plants is therefore a\nresult only of the decomposition of water in an inorganic manner by the\nagency of light, or virtually the separation only of the oxygen that is\nclinging to the water.\n\n1416. Through the process of respiration in the plant carbonic acid has\nbeen formed and excreted. For the mucus becomes oxydized, and thereby\nthe process also of fermentation, the product of which is carbonic\nacid, is promoted.\n\n1417. The respiratory process of the leaves is the perfected process of\nfermentation in the stalk, in which finally, namely, in the fruit-saps,\nthe separation of both the products of fermentation, the vinous and\nacetic, is prepared.\n\n1418. Just as acids and sugar originate in the stalk, so in the foliage\ndoes their electrical antagonism, or the \u00e6therial oils and perfumes.\nSweet scents or perfumes are properties of the air, and therefore\noriginate also with the aerial process. This is retrospectively a proof\nthat the leaf-process is the respiratory process.\n\n1419. Through the leaves, with which the whole surface of the earth\nis covered, the planet respires, and thereby the surface of the earth\nprincipally obtains its electricity.\n\n1420. Vegetation must therefore effect an important change in the\nearth's electricity. The earth must be differently polarized after, to\nwhat it was before, the fall of the leaf.\n\n1421. Thereby the northern hemisphere is differently polarized to the\nsouthern, because the latter has less soil than the former.\n\n\nb. _Wood-process--Nutrition._\n\n1422. As most of the spiral vessels are collected together in the body\nof wood, and finally in the leaves issue forth quite free and naked\ninto the air, so must the wood conduct for the most part air into the\nplant. The polarization of the other systems, of the liber and the\nbark, must therefore proceed from the body of wood.\n\n1423. The greatest amount of induration must originate in the body of\nthe spiral vessel, because in it the process of oxydation takes place\nin the most active manner. From the same cause the process of nutrition\nmust also be supported by it in the most powerful manner. The wood is\nthe chief seat of nutrition.\n\n\nc. _Tracheal-process--Oxydation._\n\n1424. The structure of the spiral vessels, their resemblance to the\ntrache\u00e6 or air-tubes of insects, their distribution throughout the\nwhole trunk, the air they contain which is found decidedly free in\nthe plant, leave no doubt that the trache\u00e6 are air-conveying organs,\nand consequently have, like the arteries in animals, the process of\nrespiration directly intrusted to them.\n\n1425. Now through the process of respiration the general polarity, and\nconsequently the cause or fundamental principle of all life, enters the\nplant.\n\n1426. The trache\u00e6 penetrate or traverse the whole plant from the apex\nof the root to that of the flower. Their operation must therefore also\nextend through the whole plant.\n\n1427. The tracheal system must also govern the plant by polarity, and\nthus in an immaterial manner.\n\n1428. This polarity acts simply in the direction of the plant's\nlongitude, not transversely, like the material fundamental processes.\n\n1429. The trache\u00e6 impart in a spiritual manner the antagonism between\nthe root and fabric of the stem.\n\n1430. As the trache\u00e6 are, or constitute, the highest system of the\nplant, so must it be them upon which the light principally acts. The\nmaterial processes of plants are kept in activity by the antagonism of\nlight.\n\n1431. By this only are the instantaneous changes, which follow upon the\ninfluence of light or section of the spiral vessels, to be explained.\nUpon this, therefore, depends the instantaneous elevation of the\nprocesses under the influence of a ray of light, and their depression,\nif only a cloud pass in front of and obscure the sun; hence too does\nthe plant die, so to speak, upon the very spot, if the spiral fibres\nwithin the liber be cut through, but the latter left uninjured.\n\n1432. The liber no longer conveys any sap to the divided trache\u00e6,\nsolely because it has lost the condition to be affected by the\nlight-polarity. On the contrary, a plant does not die so soon, if the\nliber be cut through, but the spiral vessels preserved. The spiral\nfibres conditionate consequently the motion and the excitation of the\norganic processes.\n\n1433. _The spiral fibres are therefore, apart even from their function\nof respiration, or rather because this is the highest vegetable\nfunction, that for the plant, which the nerves are for the animal._\n\n1434. The trache\u00e6 of plants do not ramify like the nerves of animals;\nbut if they divide, they separate only as fascicles, which have been\nliberated from their origin. The trache\u00e6 commence too directly in\nthe mass of cells, wherever that may happen to be, and thus become\nwhat governs an organ, exactly like the animal nerves. Their analogy\nis greatest with the sympathetic nerves. The trache\u00e6, just as in the\nanimal kingdom, are the mediators, not the founders, of vegetable life.\n\n1435. The principle of motion must reside in the trache\u00e6, provided that\nhigher, and not merely chemical movements, occur in the plant.\n\n1436. These movements must and can only exist in those organs which\nconsist almost entirely of spiral vessels, and thus only in the highest\norgans.\n\n1437. Such are the leaves and the coroll\u00e6. Is it wished to compare the\ncorolla, apart from its sexual relation, with an organ in animals, it\ncan only be contrasted with the highest nervous organ. The corolla is\nthe brain of plants, that which corresponds to light, but which here\nremains stationary upon the sexual stage. It may be said that what is\nsex in the plant, becomes brain in the animal, or the brain is only the\nanimal sex.\n\n1438. The most general function of the brain is, however, feeling or\ntouch combined with motion. If the corolla could attain to a sensorial\nfunction, it would be to that of touch.\n\n1439. It is conducted thereto; but at the instant, when it is indulged\nin feeling the mental capacity of the animal, it sinks down exhausted\nand dies. It is punished for the risk that has been run in wishing to\nattain unto self-cognition.\n\n1440. Motion and touch are revealed only in the highest organs of\nthe plant, or in the stamina. The filament moves upon the pistil\nand touches it with the pollen, which at that instant, however, is\nscattered in small particles, and leaves behind the filament in a\nwithered state.\n\n1441. The motion performed by the filaments appears to be a simple\noperation of the irritability in the trache\u00e6 that have become soft,\nwithout undergoing chemical decomposition, but probably by sudden\ninflux of sap, induced by the tension of air in the spiral vessels.\n\n1442. In the highest, or the pinnate, leaves, movements, which are\nprobably a result of the tracheal irritability, also occur, but\nare devoid the object of coming into contact with, or of touching,\nanything. The sensitive plants, as Hedysarum gyrans, move their leaves,\nnot from any intrinsic determination upon their part, but in accordance\nwith an antecedent stimulus, and thus not voluntarily, but probably\nthrough the influence merely of polar tension. The movements of leaves\nare convulsions of plants, although too an afflux of sap be caused or\ninduced by the stimulus.\n\n\nSAP-MOTION.\n\n_Galvanic Process._\n\n1443. _The motion of the sap is imparted through the antagonism of the\nrespiratory and digestive processes._ For these two processes are the\ncombination of the Chemical with the Electric, which is the galvanism.\n\n1444. The galvanic poles attract and repel the fluidity; thus the\nvegetable sap is attracted by the root and by the stalk. But the\ndifferencing or the oxygen pole is the stronger of the two. The\ndetermining principle of the movement of the sap resides consequently\nin the stalk, and the chief direction of the sap-motion tends upwards.\n\n1445. At times, when the air-polarity is elevated, the sap also ascends\nmore rapidly. As in summer, upon clear warm days. It ascends slowly\nupon gloomy and chill days. That in this also light and heat are\nplaying their parts, is self-intelligible. Thereby the upper particles\nof sap become lighter and ascend, being pressed upwards by the lower\nand colder particles. As they are nevertheless by no means changed,\nthis is a proof that, during the time so employed, polar forces also\nact upon them.\n\n1446. But the root has also the endeavour to attract the sap; but\nas its pole is feebler in character, the stalk draws the sap from\nthe ultimate extremities of the root into itself. If accordingly the\npolarity of the air becomes weaker, while the plant is losing its\nleaves or the organs of polarization; so is it easy to imagine why the\nmotion of the sap becomes slower. As, however, the aerial polarity is\nalways stronger than that of the earth, the sap must thus in winter\nalso take the same, or upward, direction.\n\n1447. A fall or descent of the sap can therefore never take place\nabstractedly forsooth from the root, in which it sinks by its own\ngravity. How a part of a plant, e. g. a twig, could continue alive,\nwere the sap to have fallen or receded from it, is not to be conceived.\nIt does not follow from what has been just stated, that movements of\nsap should not take place in all directions, and consequently too\ndownwards; they must indeed occur rather than otherwise, and that\nindeed upon all sides; only the principal track or course of the sap\nmust always pass in the direction upwards.\n\n1448. The movement of the sap consists simply in an ascent and\nimpulsion of its particles upon all sides, but without any\n_circulation_. A circulation would only be possible if the plant were\nan organism disengaged from the elements; but as the earth and air\nbelong to its organization; it thus necessarily oscillates between\nboth, and its movements also can only be oscillations of a similar\nintervening character.\n\n1449. There are consequently no arteries and veins, and still less a\nheart in plants, as some have striven to make out.\n\n1450. The vessels of plants are most properly to be compared with the\nlymphatic vessels of animals, the fluid or sap of which also tends from\nall parts towards one summit, namely, the lungs, while still at times\nretrogressive movements also seem to occur.\n\n1451. The vegetable sap does not move in a straight line upwards, but\nin all directions, to the right and left, in a zigzag manner, and so\non. This is proved by two incisions being made in a branch opposite to\neach other. The motion of the sap in the plant is more an impulsion of\nthe sap toward all sides, with a predominance in the direction upwards,\nthan a rapid current as in the blood. If we reflect that the motion\nof the sap when seen under the microscope and then magnified several\nhundred times, still only resembles a gentle rippling of small drops,\nit thus becomes clear that the true current or flow occurs only in\na very tardy manner. Wherever therefore in the plant the process of\ndifferencialization may be brought into play, there the sap is impelled.\n\n1452. Through the polarization of the sap the cells also become polar\ntowards each other, and then even the cell-walls, whereby the cellular\nsap with its mucous granules is kept in constant motion. The theory\nof the motion of sap has not consequently been based upon the theory\nof capillary tubules; nor is heat alone the cause of its ascent; nor\nthe empty space, which originates superiorly by evaporation; nor\nelectricity in an inorganic sense.\n\n\nII. FUNCTIONS OF THE FLORAL-ORGANS.\n\n1453. These functions correspond to those of the light, heat, and\ngravity in the corolla, pistil and seed. The corolla irradiates, the\npistil gives out heat, the seed sinks like the earth towards the centre.\n\n\n1. _Function of the Corolla._\n\nFERTILIZATION.\n\n1454. As in the vegetable trunk the principle function has been the\nantagonism between the aerial and the terrestriaqueous plant, so must\nthe same function be repeated in the corresponding organs of the\nblossom. It oscillates in the principal antagonism between the corolla\nand pistil, which is the antagonism of leaf and stem, that of electrism\nand chemism, of light and body, of spirit and matter.\n\n1455. The pollen electrifies, animates, or inspirits the ovarium, by\nwhich means it becomes stimulated to the development of seeds. Without\nthis animating influence the seed had not been developed.\n\n1456. This relation, whereby through the balance of an antagonism,\na whole organism has been evoked into life, is called the _sexual\nrelation_.\n\n1457. The sex is consequently the antagonism between spirit and\nmatter, light and mass, \u00e6ther and the terrestrial elements, sun and\nplanet, between electrism and chemism, that has been represented in an\norganism as totality. In sex consequently the primary antagonism of the\nworld, or that of spirit and matter, centre and periphery, has been\norganically represented.\n\n1458. The sex has hence from the beginning been established and\nprophesied; manifests itself also under diverse forms in the Organic,\nbut becomes first individualized in an organic body. This is the lofty\nsense or signification of the sexual relation, that in it the Spiritual\nand Material pair together, and thereby sprout forth or germinate into\na whole world. In sex the mystery of creation lies concealed.\n\n1459. What is producing the fruit is called the _female_, that which\nawakes production, the _male_.\n\n1460. Mascularity is the spirit of the world, feminality the matter\nwhich becomes animated by the former; mascularity is the light of the\nword, which illuminates the feminality, and it is pregnant; mascularity\nis the electricity of the world, which arouses the female chemism unto\ngalvanic circulation. By the male the female becomes animated; before\nthis it is dead and devoid the differentialization, which is necessary\nto every action.\n\n1461. Impregnation is a simple act of light upon the matter, an\n_irradiation_, as it was termed, with such an exalted appreciation\nof its significance, by the ancients. The male imparts nothing in\nimpregnation but the _solar ray_, or _fluid nervous mass, in its\nsemen_, which awakes, animates, and inspirits the quiescent female. The\nfemale supplies or furnishes all the Material or, as in the plant, the\nfruit. In other respects it is not to be understood, as if no material\nwhatever had been imparted by the male, but only that it is not the\nmatter as such, which the male gives the female, that becomes fruit;\nbut that the tension which resides in male semen, evokes at the same\ntime, as by a process of contagion or fermentation, a similar tension\nin the female.\n\n1462. The process of tension resides originally in the male, because he\nis related or akin to the light; but the female first obtains the light\nthrough the male.\n\n1463. Impregnation is an excitation by the electrical, of the\nslumbering chemical, process. The pregnancy is consequently an\nuninterrupted chemical process.\n\n1464. The female is the first and lies deeper in the developmental\nhistory of the planet (but not in the creation), just as the digestive\nprocess is prior or antecedent to the respiratory.\n\n1465. In the truest sense is feminality co-ordinated with the\ndigestive, the mascularity with the respiratory, system. The female\nis (organically considered) abdomen, the male, thorax. Pregnancy\nis a sexual process of digestion, impregnation a sexual process of\nrespiration. In impregnation the female respires the male, whereby it\nreceives into itself a thoracic function, becomes itself male, i. e.\nis then capable of producing something out of itself. Now, the female\nproduces a fruit, which is synonymous with both principles.\n\n1466. The semen is the fruit of the male. The male is always pregnant,\nand that indeed by virtue of his own power. This power is deficient in\nthe female, which does not possess the light in itself, but only the\nelemental bodies that are ready and susceptible of form.\n\n1467. The anthers are the male organs, the pollen is the semen. The\npistils are the female organs, the seed-granules are properly speaking,\nthe _germ_.\n\n1468. The pollen is a most highly differenced, electrical product; the\nseed-granule a wholly indifferent, and tranquil mucous mass. The pollen\nfalls upon the stigma of the pistil, and irradiation has taken place;\nthe material fruit-capsule gains thereby so much polarity, that saps\nenough ascend, in order to develop the germless seed-vesicles.\n\n1469. It is quite unnecessary for the pollen, with its sap or gas,\nto be materially conveyed through the style to the seed. It is only\nrequisite for the style to be excited, dualized, electrified, and then\nit has life enough of its own. But it does not follow, because it is\nunnecessary for the sap of the floral dust or pollen to reach the\nseed-granules, that it cannot or ought not to reach thereunto. In many\nplants the pollen-tube does actually reach there and penetrate through\nthe micropyle. In many styles it is still held as impossible, for the\npollen-tube to penetrate through them to the seeds. The pollen-sap\nindeed simply evokes on the apex of the seed (upon the summit of the\nlorical rib, through whose liberation the micropyle originates) the\nvital process, which, without this stimulus, would perish. Thereby a\nnew cell is secreted, from whence the germ is developed.\n\n\nIRRITABILITY--MOTION.\n\n1470. In impregnation the heaven is married to the earth; for then the\nspirit descends, and does not esteem itself too highly to become flesh.\nImpregnation is the highest immaterial action of the plant.\n\n1471. If, therefore, the irritability of the plant at any time, or\nbut once only, makes its appearance independently, it must be in the\nsexual organs, and in the moments of impregnation. Impregnation ensues,\nwhen the two mundane principles of the plant, light and matter, have\nattained, as corolla and fruit, to the highest pitch of perfection;\nthen the tension of the spiral vessels ranks so high, that they\nexercise their function independently of what is terrestrial in the\nplant, _move_ themselves in the male filaments, touch the female organ,\nand die in this their highest effort.\n\n1472. Thus has it only been conceded to the plant to be, in the instant\nof impregnation, an animal and enjoy animal passion.\n\n\n2. _Function of the Ovarium._\n\n1473. The ovary, by its own power, is in a condition to draw towards\nit the chemical saps from out the stem, and as it were by its own heat\nto thrust new buds from its leaf-ribs, namely, the seed-pellicles or\ntest\u00e6. It has not, however, strength sufficient to put forth also the\nleaf-work, namely, the embryo, upon the apex of the seed-shell. It\nrequires for this purpose the stimulus of the floral pollen. If the\nplant is very rich in sap, the ovary is so likewise, and converts\nitself into fruit or sarcocarp. As a rule, therefore, trees only bear\na crop of fruit. If also the impregnation is less perfect, the force\nof the sap continues to remain inherent in the ovarian leaves; they\nbecome rich in sap, fleshy, and likewise fruity in character; trees,\ntherefore, with imperfect or separated blossoms, as the Amentace\u00e6,\nUrticace\u00e6, Euphorbiace\u00e6, Papilionace\u00e6, Terebinthace\u00e6, and Rosace\u00e6,\nusually bring forth a crop of fruit.\n\n1474. A stronger degree of refinement appears in these fruit-saps than\nin the saps of the stem, because corolla and seeds range closer to\neach other. They are therefore more varied and richer in substance.\nThe fruit-substances range usually upon the side of the water or the\nsalts, while those of the seed range upon the side of the earth or the\nInflammables. The substances of the seed are flour and oil, those of\nthe fruit sugar and acids; the former supplies food, the latter drink.\n\n1475. Seed and ovary stand therefore in antagonism, like earth and\nwater.\n\n\n3. _Function of the Seed_.\n\nGERMINATION.\n\n1476. The seed is the plant contracted upon its centre, it is the heavy\nmineral mass, which can only undergo changes by the operation of the\nother elements, like as it arrived only at completion by the operation\nof the floral pollen. This acts upon it when within the dry ovary,\nlike the water and oxygen in the dry earth. These changes are its\ndevelopment or germination.\n\n1477. All the planetary elements belong to germination, and to growth\nthe Cosmical also with all its actions. To germination belongs earth,\nwater, and air; to growth, light, heat, and gravity; with all the four\nmineral classes also, such as earth, salt, Inflammable, and metal.\nThe plant contains silicious and calcareous earth, salts, coal with\nsulphur, and lastly, iron.\n\n1478. Germination is the disjunctive emergence wrought by means of\nmoisture, heat and oxydation in the processes of decomposition and\nfermentation. No seed germinates in irrespirable kinds of air.\n\n1479. The cotyledons or seed-lobes are the synthesis of the two\nprocesses; they are at once root and leaf, therefore resolvable into\nmucus, and may yet become green.\n\n1480. In germination the elemental bodies of the root-and\nstalk-polarity directly emerge; the mucus or the flour separates into\nalcaline gum, that seeks the darkness, and into acid sugar, which\nelevates itself into the illuminated air.\n\n\nGROWTH.\n\n1481. Growth is none other than continued germination. The sap being\npolarized by the air becomes of necessity decomposed. One part\nevaporates as carbonic acid and water, the other coagulates into\noxydized mucus or into cell-walls.\n\n1482. Growth proceeds directly from the process of digestion and\nrespiration, while its polar organs constantly remove further from each\nother.\n\n1483. Properly speaking the digestive and respiratory processes are\nnone other than growth, since both separate from each other. That,\nwhich originates between them, is the process of nutrition, the\nvascular system.\n\n1484. Growth oscillates between the process of decomposition and that\nof fermentation; it is an uninterrupted fermentation.\n\n\nFALL OF THE LEAF.\n\n1485. If every pole of the plant has been perfected in an isolated\nmanner, it has thus become identical with the air, and the aerial\nprocess ceases.\n\n1486. With the cessation of the aerial process, the respiratory organ\nmust also die off or perish.\n\n1487. The decadence, or falling off, of the leaves is the result of the\ntension having been abrogated between them and the stem; it is a death\nby suffocation.\n\n1488. The fall of the leaf therefore occurs in the autumn, or after the\nfruit is matured.\n\n\nDURATION OF LIFE.\n\n1489. The age of a plant is included between the the limits of the\nsap's impulse, and that which has been called its fall or descent.\n\n1490. The actual fall of the sap is the death of the plant.\n\n1491. If with the cessation of the influence of light, the polarity\nceases entirely in the plant; it is then one year old or an _annual_.\nEvery part of it dies off.\n\n1492. In biennial plants the aerial polarity indeed disappears, but the\npolarity of the root remains. Flower, leaf, and stalk die.\n\n1493. Perennial plants, also, do not entirely lose the stem-polarity,\nbut only while they develop a new plant about the old. Flower and leaf\nonly perish, while the water-and earth-organs remain alive.\n\n1494. The old liber dies with every maturation of the fruit, because\nthere the difference attains solution. But a new life develops itself\nin the parenchyma of the plant, and forms new liber or, properly\nspeaking, a new plant about the old.\n\n1495. Persistent plants consist of numerous plants, which gradually\ngrow round about each other.\n\n1496. In accordance with the idea of the plant, each one perishes with\nthe maturation of the fruit.\n\n1497. On account of the addition of the new plant about the old,\nthe plant has also been confined to no definite magnitude and to no\ndefinite number in its mode of ramification.\n\n1498. Indefiniteness in form, size and number, is the character of the\nplant, although a law lies at the basis of all this. The animal has a\ndefinite size, because several animals do not grow around each other.\n\n\nIII.--_PHYTOLOGY_.\n\n1499. Hitherto the organs of the plant have been considered in a\ngeneral point of view or as to their idea in time; to this now follows\nthe development of the plant in a special sense, or its representation\nin space.\n\n1500. The vegetable tissues, systems, and organs have only by degrees\nbeen disengaged from each other and independently perfected. The\nindependent or self-substantial development of the organs constitutes\ndefinite or _individual_ plants.\n\n1501. A plant, in which all the organs are present, separately or\nself-substantially developed and yet combined, is without doubt the\nhighest in point of rank.\n\n1502. Before it attains to this separation, nature can only produce\nlower forms, in which fewer organs have attained to independence. These\nforms constitute the diversity of plants and their plurality, for\nnature establishes every principal form as a finished organization.\n\n1503. There are as many plants different from each other as there are\norgans, namely, tissues, anatomical systems and members.\n\n1504. The sum of all plants is called the vegetable kingdom; _this is\nthe self-substantial representation of all vegetable organs_. (Ed. 1st,\n1810, p. 123.)\n\n1505. The vegetable kingdom is consequently the expression of\nthe vegetable idea, or of the perfect plant represented _in the\nmultiplicity of individuals_; it is the plant disintegrated, or\nanatomised, by nature herself.\n\n1506. Were we therefore acquainted with all vegetable organs, we should\nknow their rank and developmental series; and thus also recognize the\ncharacter, rank, and developmental series of the plants themselves,\nor their divisions. There can be no doubt that the lowest organs, e.\ng. the tissues, have been first developed and independently perfected\nas plants; later on they separate into anatomical systems and finally\ninto members, whereby perfect plants must originate. _The division or\nclassification of the vegetable kingdom is consequently that of the\nvegetable organs._ The Systematic of plants is a copy of that of their\norgans, or a plastic representation of the philosophical vegetable\nanatomy. With this every thing has been granted, which is requisite\nfor the building or erection of the vegetable system. All principles,\ntogether with the methods, rest in the proposition that has been\nexpressed.\n\n1507. The artificial systems of plants are related to the vegetable\nkingdom, as the lexicon or dictionary is to language. Those systems\nwhich have hitherto been termed natural, but which should properly\nbe called _methodical_, are related to the vegetable kingdom, as\nthe ordinary grammar is to a language. The vegetable system must,\nhowever, be related to the vegetable kingdom, as the philosophical or\ngenetic grammar is to language. This only agrees with the essence of\nthe language, or is _natural_. The vegetable system is necessarily a\nphilosophical or genetic one, that alone being truly or legitimately\nnatural. (This system was first propounded by Oken, in the Ed. 1st\nof the Naturphilosophie, 1810; further developed in _Dietrich's_\nGarten Journal, 1813; carried out in his Naturgeschichte fur Sch\u00fclen,\n1821, and in his Lehrbuch der Nat. Gesch. _Botanik_. Weimar, 1825.)\nThe _artificial_ system collects the materials for the edifice, but\nleaves them to lie without order and in confusion; the _methodical_ or\nwhat has been called the natural system separates these materials and\narranges them in homogeneous groups; the _genetic_, philosophical or\ntruly natural, system, again mixes them amongst each other, but thereby\nactually erects the edifice. All three systems are therefore necessary\nand good, and no one of them merits being despised by the other; it\nis only when one of them imagines that it is the other, or can render\nthe others unnecessary, that it trespasses from out its circle, and\ndeserves reproach. Thus for _Floras_, whose ultimate object is to find\nout rapidly the names of plants upon botanical excursions, as also\nfor the labelling of specimens in botanic gardens, the artificial\nsystem is the best; for the description, however, of foreign plants\nthe methodical; but for insight into the whole vegetable world the\nphilosophical or natural system. Would we compare Floras with each\nother, the latter system must certainly come into play; but then the\nmatter to be dealt with is not about an excursion-book.\n\n\n_VEGETABLE SYSTEM._\n\n1508. Taken in a strict sense all the diversity of vegetable structure\nof vegetables has reference first of all to the difference in the\ntissues; these being either unseparated, or separated, into special\nsystems and members. At first the tissues lie confusedly, or without\norder, amongst themselves. They then _separate_ in a concentric and\ntubular form into systems, that are encased _within_ each other, like\nthe bark, liber, and wood, which form the _shaft_. Furthermore they\nseparate into members, and appear one _above_ the other, as root,\nstalk, and foliage, which collectively may be called the _stem_; these\nare repeated as seed, pistil, and corolla, which together are called\n_flower_, and combined, _fruit_, namely, nut, plum, berry and apple.\nI designate by the term _stock_ or trunk all the parts as far as the\nblossom; and this together with the fruit I name thyrsus. The vegetable\nstock, whose tissues have not yet separated into members, I style, from\nwant of a better word, _thallus_. As we divide political kingdoms into\n_provinces_ and _circles_, so also may these titles be suitably applied\nhere. It is evident, that the plants which simply consist of tissues\nand have as yet no sheaths and members, are the _Acotyledones_; those,\nhowever, provided with sheaths, but devoid of true roots, stalk, and\nfoliage, _Monocotyledones_; those with true foliage or reticular-veined\nleaves are, on the contrary, _Dicotyledones_. The natural system of\nvegetables stands accordingly in the following manner.\n\n A.--STOCK-PLANTS.\n\n  Province I. HISTOPHYTA, OR TISSUE-PLANTS--Acotyledones.\n                         Class 1. Cell-plants.\n                               2. Duct-\n                               3. Trachea-\n\n          II. THECOPHYTA, OR SHEATH-PLANTS--Monocotyledones.\n\n                               4. Bark-plants.\n                               5. Liber-\n                               6. Wood-\n\n         III. ARTHROPHYTA, OR MEMBER-PLANTS--Dicotyledones.\n\n           Circle 1. _Axis-plants_--Tubuliflor\u00e6.\n                               7. Root-plants.\n                               8. Stalk-\n                               9. Leaf-\n\n B.--BLOSSOM-PLANTS.\n\n          Circle 2. _Flower-plants_--Thalamopetal\u00e6.\n                             10. Seed-plants.\n                             11. Ovarium-\n                             12. Corolla-\n\n          Circle 3. _Fruit-plants_--Calycopetal\u00e6.\n                             13. Nut-plants.\n                             14. Plum-\n                             15. Berry-\n                             16. Apple-\n\n1509. A slight glance at the above table shows us the procedure of\nNature. The higher she ascends, the more and more she separates, and\nthereby increases, the organs. There may therefore be plants which have\nonly a single organ or tissue, as well as others, which possess all.\n\n1510. There cannot, however, be any plant which could simply possess\nthe higher without the lower organs. Higher organized plants are not\nsuch therefore, by virtue of their having some one organ more perfectly\ndeveloped, or separated into several parts; but through this, that\nthey actually possess several different organs. The higher grade\nof organization depends accordingly not upon the perfection of the\n_Singular_, but the _number_ of the _Different_. The Perfected consists\nin the _multiplicity_ combined to constitute _unity_, but by no means\nin the simply homogeneous multitude of the _parts_. Numerous stamina\nmay render a _corolla_ higher, but not on that account the whole plant;\nmany digits may make a hand nobler, but not on that account, the\nanimal. But with many digits also that hand is nobler, in which the\ndigits are dissimilar.\n\n\n_First Province._\n\nHISTOPHYTA--ACOTYLEDONES.\n\n_Devoid of, or without true spiral-vessels, leaves, coroll\u00e6, and\npistil._\n\nThe vegetable kingdom ascends, in accordance with the five main\npositions of the organs, by five stages; these are again separable into\nlarger groups, which may be called _asexual_ and _sexual_ plants.\n\n1511. The tissues are a something internal, being, as it were, the\nviscera of plants or their parenchyma, which does not meet the light,\nand can therefore have no light-organs, which are developed only out of\nthe foliage or leaves. The anatomical systems and organs are tissues\nthat have become external, have attained to air and light, and are\nhence developed into air-and light-organs. Now, the light-organs are\nsexual organs. The Tissue-plants can therefore have no sexual organs;\nand plants divide accordingly into asexual and sexual plants. The\nasexual are female plants, and are consequently the first or lowest.\nThus there can be thus no sexual or male plants, without the female\nbeing found that belong to them.\n\n1512. Male or androgynous plants are only possible, if spiral vessels\nor trache\u00e6 be present. They first, however, originate when the trache\u00e6\nbecome external, or form a circle in the stalk, i. e. are accessible by\nlight; as in the Mono-and Dicotyledones.\n\n1513. The asexual plants are not cryptogamic, but agamic. They do not\nperform self-impregnation clandestinely, but not at all; for they\ndo not attain light-difference, and consequently not male organs.\nAnalogues of stamina may make their appearance in the mosses, but they\ninvariably fail to attain the development of pollen. What have been\ncalled male parts in other cryptogamia, do not merit consideration.\nSuch projections or prefigurations are besides to be found everywhere.\n\n1514. The asexual plants are simply formations of the tissues, of the\ngalvanic vesicle, and are thus of a female nature. They are nothing\nmore than a great utricle full of small vesicles, which by desiccation\nsubdivide into _germinal dust_ or sporules, each granule whereof\nattracts other mucous vesicles out of the moisture, in order to form\nagain a large utricle.\n\n1515. The asexuals cease in the process of vegetation, where the other\nplants begin. With the rupture of the gemmal-or bud-vesicle in the\nhigher plants a new world for the first time emerges into view, such as\nstem, leaves, blossom, and then the ultimate bud ruptures for the first\ntime as the pericarp, and scatters its higher organized germinal powder\nas true seeds.\n\n1516. An asexual plant is one, which, without all the intermediate\norgans of the stem, at once represents the capsule or ovary. It\nconsists only of the beginning and end of the plant.\n\n1517. The higher plants differ from the lower by the interposition of\nnew organs between the two terminal organs, namely, the primary vesicle\nand the true seed. It may be said, that the asexual plant is naught but\nseed, and that the seed of the higher plants is a fungus upon a leafy\npeduncle, a fungus more highly organized by light.\n\n1518. The asexual plants have no true root, stalk, and leaf; they have\nnot even a true bark, liber, and wood, in so far as these first make\ntheir appearance through separation. Trache\u00e6 are first exhibited in\nthe higher ferns, and then only as constituting a single string, which\noccupies the middle of the plant, and consequently forms no circle or\nzone.\n\n1519. As again the true seed is a leaf-formation, and possesses\ntherefore cotyledons or seed-lobes, such seeds must be wanting in the\nasexual plants; they are therefore Acotyledones. From the same cause,\nhowever, the germinal leaves or plumula must be also wanting; they are\ntherefore germless, or anembryonic.\n\n1520. The farinaceous or granular matter, lying next to the germ\nwhen within the shell of the true seeds, is called the _albumen_ or\nperisperm; the seeds of the asexual plants are therefore nothing else\nbut albumen. They are therefore devoid of the funiculus or, what has\nbeen called, umbilical cord.\n\n1521. The involucre, wherein, in true seeds, the germ and albumen are\nfound, is the seed-coat or testa; consequently what has been called\nthe capsule of the asexual plants (of mosses and ferns) corresponds\nsimply to this spermoderm or seed-covering, and is no true ovarium. The\ncapsules of mosses and ferns are therefore seeds full of albuminous\ndust.\n\n1522. If any of these be regarded as a capsule, it can be the\n_calyptra_ of the mosses. This, too, is probably nothing else than the\nexternal testa; the proper capsule being its internal coat.\n\n1523. The _indusium_ of ferns incloses several capsules as they have\nbeen called, or properly seeds, and might therefore, if considered\nalone, be compared with an ovarium, but it is probably none other than\nthe covering corresponding to the perichoetium that surrounds the\nbase of the set\u00e6 in mosses. The sorus is an accumulation of seeds with\npulverulent albumen contained in a membranaceous covering, the indusium.\n\n1524. The life of the asexual plants consists simply in the galvanic\nprocess. They are the primary organisms, planted in air.\n\n1525. As being simply galvanic process, they would require but little\nlight and air; they therefore seek the darkness, like the roots, and\nthrive also in a corrupt atmosphere, in caves, mines, cellars, and such\nlike situations. They can from the same cause thrive only in moisture,\nin water, upon marshy meadow lands, after rain, copious dew, and so on.\n\n1526. They are devoid the process of fermentation, as being that which\nis imparted by the oxydation of air, and they therefore yield neither\nsugar nor acids. They are simply the organized process of putrefaction;\ntheir ultimate product is therefore germinal powder, infusorial matter.\nTheir remaining secretions are alkaline bodies; to which belong the\npungent, fetid, and nauseous excretions, as the hydrogen gas and\nammonia of the fungi, the mucus of the fuci, the carbonate of lime in\nthe lichens, the cell-threads of the mosses, the fetid principle of\nferns.\n\n1527. Very few of these plants require the course of a summer in order\nto perfect or complete the vital course; a single ray of light of one\nday's, aye, of one hour's duration, is sufficient with most of them\nto evoke the feeble difference, to rouse the swell of the sap, and\nprecipitate the infusorial powder.\n\n1528. Automatic movements, as in the leaves and stamina of the higher\nplants, scarcely occur in them, or at most in the ferns, from their\npossessing spiral vessels. They divide, according to the tissues, into\nthree classes, into Cell-, Vessel-, and Trachea-plants.\n\n\n_CLASS I._\n\n_Cell-plants--Fungi._\n\nHere belong those plants which consist simply of cellular tissue,\nhaving no sap-tubes and trache\u00e6. Such plants, too, possess no regular\nor hexagonal cellular tissue.\n\n1529. The cellular tissue, in which there is only a single active\nprocess, cannot essentially alter its primary form. It is therefore an\naccumulation of round or cylindrical mucus-vesicles.\n\n1530. Mucus-vesicles, in which the air-process is not as yet active,\ncannot be coloured green; but must have the colour of the earth.\n\n1531. Plants, composed of amorphous and earth-coloured cellular tissue,\nare _Fungi_. The fungi are simply clusters of mucus-vesicles joined\ntogether in a more or less regular manner, their union being effected\nin dark, hollow and wet situations.\n\n1532. They may therefore originate wherever mucous juices are evolved\nby the potential agency of a higher organization, and thus by\nputrefaction. The fungi originate by _\u00e6quivocal generation_. They are\nthe anal-organizations of the higher plants and animals; the corrupted\nand luxuriating juices.\n\n1533. Nevertheless the fungus is propagated by division of its\nvesicles, which again, in accordance with their peculiar laws of\npolarity, attract mucus-vesicles, and thus obtain the form of the\nearlier or parent fungus. This is only a more regulated kind of\n_\u00e6quivocal generation_.\n\n1534. The origin of the fungi may therefore happen in a twofold manner,\nnamely, by formation from other juices, and by that of their own, which\nis called propagation. Still at bottom both are one in kind.\n\n1535. Their granules or vesicles are seeds, properly sporules, which\nare self-developed without male polarization.\n\n\nDIVISION.\n\n1536. The fungi pass moreover through stages of development, which\nrange parallel to the vegetable classes; since it is impossible for any\nother organs to originate in them but such as belong to the idea of the\nplant. The lowest fungus can therefore change only, by endeavouring to\ndevelop in itself ducts, trache\u00e6, roots, and such like parts.\n\n1537. There are accordingly as many developmental stages of the fungi\nas there are vegetable classes. These divisions are called _families_.\n\n1538. The vegetable families range parallel to the classes. This law\nmust hold good of all the classes. There are therefore in each class 16\nfamilies. An association of families upon each stage may be called an\norder.\n\n1539. At first the fungus is none other than a mucus-vesicle or a small\ncluster of vesicles, e. g. an _uredo_ or _mildew_. Such a vesicle next\nbecomes longitudinally extended, and includes within itself other\nvesicles or granules, e. g. _mould_. These mould-filaments or threads\nunite again so as to form a common mass, which is surrounded by an\nexternal membrane, and is then called _puff-ball_. The pulverulent\ngranules, which were irregularly accumulated in the puff-balls, unite\nat length in a regular manner to constitute a trunk of varied form, as\nin the _ascomycetes_, e. g. _sph\u00e6ri\u00e6_. Finally, the mould-filaments\nwith their sporules are regularly collected together in an investing\nmembrane, which, like a puff-ball, is supported upon a stipes or\nstem, e. g. the sarcomycetes or _agarics_. There are therefore 5\ndevelopmental stages of the fungi, which correspond to those of the\nclasses; viz. the parenchyma, shaft, stem, flower, and fruit; and\nconstitute orders.\n\n1540. Each order is resolvable again into three divisions or families,\nwhich correspond to the organs. Thus there are in each class 16 tribes\nor families, which obviously range parallel to the vegetable organs or\nclasses. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n1541. A tribe or family is consequently the representation of a\nvegetable organ within a class.\n\n1542. The genera obey the same law; for essential differences are only\nconceivable through the presence of different organs.\n\n1543. Species is in the animal kingdom that which copulates without\nnecessity and compulsion. The same definition is applicable to plants.\nThe species range, without doubt, according to the diversities in the\nindividual organs themselves, which admit of a great multitude of\ncombinations, the number of which is not as yet to be determined.\n\n1544. The component parts of the fungi are either perfectly\nindifferent, mucous or gelatinoid matter; or they are of an alcaline\nnature, being acrid, poisonous, and such like. Their odour is usually\ndead, disagreeable, and loathsome, or analogous to their essential\nprocess of decomposition.\n\n\n_CLASS II._\n\n_Vessel-or Duct-plants--Mosses._\n\n1545. The intercellular passages or succigerent vessels of plants make\ntheir first appearance in a state of perfection, when, the cells being\nextended lengthways, have become hexagonal and are placed in regular\njuxtaposition. In these plants therefore we meet with regular cellular\ntissue, but still without spiral vessels or trache\u00e6.\n\n1546. As the vessels or ducts constitute the fundamental tissue of the\nliber, while this is the principal system of the stalk; so now does the\nstem begin to be manifested and separated from the fruit. The seeds\nare no longer therefore distributed in the present class throughout\nthe whole trunk, but developed in a special involucrum or theca, which\ncorresponds to the puff-ball, or to the pileus of the higher organized\nfungi.\n\n1547. Plants with vessels, and consequently a cauliform formation, have\nat once also the commencement of a bark, and next the green colour. The\nvascular are the first green plants, and differ chiefly through that\ncharacter from the fungi. They are the _Fucac\u00e6_ or _Sea-wracks_.\n\n1548. They have the colour of the water, because the course of the\nsap corresponds to the aqueous process; they are aquatic, just as the\nbrown fungi are terrestrial, plants. Their component parts are aqueous,\nindifferent, mucous, and filose. Their habitation is the water itself\nor bogs. If they occupy dry situations, they live only when it rains.\n\n1549. They likewise pass through the five stages of vegetation, and\nform therefore five orders.\n\n1550. Order 1. The lowest or _Tissue-mosses_, corresponding to the\nUredines; are again naught but cells or mucous pellicles, but, from\ngrowing in water, and being consequently exposed to light and a\nstronger oxydation, they are green--_Tremellini_.\n\n1551. They multiply by subdivision, since new vesicles or granules\nare developed in their interior, which become separated, and subsist\nor continue to grow for themselves. They therefore originate also by\n\u00e6quivocal generation, but by such an one as constantly occurs in water\nand light.\n\n1552. The second order, or the _Vascular mosses_ corresponds to the\nsheaths, or to the Hyphomycetes. They are long filaments replete\nwith granules, growing in water, and therefore green--_Confervace\u00e6_.\nThese plants begin to ramify, and either increase by this means or by\neffusion of granular matter.\n\n1553. The third order, that of the _Tracheal mosses_, corresponds to\nthe stem, or to the Gasteromycetes. A membranous trunk originates in\nwater, which in certain places secretes the seeds in special vesicles\nor cysts--_Fucales_ or connate Conferv\u00e6. The fuci have at once the form\nof a stalk with root and leaves, because they correspond to these three\norgans of the axis.\n\n1554. The fourth order, the _Floral mosses_, endeavours to obtain the\n_blossom_, and therefore elevates itself out of the water, but loses\non that account the trunk-like character, and exhibits for the most\npart only membranous expansions, upon which seeds are secreted, which\nbeing usually of a beautiful colour, thus assume the appearance of\ncoroll\u00e6--_Lichenales_. The lichens are fuci in dry situations. They\ncorrespond to the Pyrenomycetes or Sph\u00e6riace\u00e6.\n\n1555. As the variegated colours appear in the blossom, so do they\nalso in the lichens; but here they are for the first time chemically\ndeveloped, distributed throughout the whole substance, and concealed.\nMost lichens yield colouring matters.\n\n1556. As the stem is, in accordance with their signification, wanting\nto the lichens, they thus require a foreign trunk for their nutrition.\nThey are therefore developed for the most part upon other plants, and\nprincipally upon the bark.\n\n1557. Lastly, the fifth order, _Fruit-mosses_, originates through the\ndevelopment of a self-substantial _fruit_ upon a cauliform stem--the\n_Mosses_ proper.\n\n1558. As these are the highest plants of this class, and those that\ndirectly precede the tracheal formation, so the bark already resolves\nitself into individual leaves, which are, however, still destitute of\nspiral vessels.\n\n1559. What have been called the seeds or sporules are accumulated in a\ncapsule-like fruit upon the summit of the stalk. This fruit corresponds\nto the pileated fungus, and therefore springs up in an opercular manner\nlike the latter.\n\n1560. But this capsule is only a spermoderm, which incloses albuminous\ngranules that have no proper germ or seed-lobes; they are plants with\nseed-vessels or pyxidia, upon an open-leaved stalk.\n\n1561. They divide likewise into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS III._\n\n_Trachea-plants--Ferns._\n\n1562. At first a fascicle only of spiral vessels can originate, which\nis necessarily surrounded by cellular tissue, and therefore lies in the\nmiddle of the plant. Such plants are the _Filices_ or ferns.\n\n1563. As the spiral vessels are the antetype of the leaves, so does\nthe trunk here obtain the form of the leaf, without itself producing\ntrue leaves. For, in the ferns, the fruits lie upon the back of the\napparent leaf, which can only be the trunk.\n\n1564. The fruits, being further removed from the fungi, no longer\nspring up in an opercular, but in a valvular, manner like the higher\ncapsules.\n\n1565. Green plants with imperfect spiral vessels and blossoms, and also\nwith naked seeds devoid of true capsules, belong to the class of Ferns.\n\n1566. I therefore place in this class the _Conifer\u00e6_ or trees with\nacicular foliage, because they have no ovarium, but naked seeds; and\nbesides these, some other plants, though doubtfully, on account of\ntheir very abortive blossoms, as the Naiadace\u00e6. There are therefore\nTracheal plants without and with stamina. The first portray the stock\nor trunk, the second, the thyrsus or blossom; they live mostly in dry\nsituations, and produce resins or fetid matters.\n\n1567. First order. _Parenchymatous ferns--Aquatic ferns._ I here place\nthe aquatic ferns, because, as water-plants, they occupy a lower\nsituation, because they support the fruits upon a radical trunk, and\nfinally, because these fruit-vesicles have two kinds of contents, all\nof which seems to remind us of the fuci and lichens; they correspond to\nthe Tremellini.\n\n1568. Second order. _Sheath-ferns--Club-ferns._ Here commence the\nland ferns, and those kinds indeed whose so-called capsules open in\na valvular manner, just as in the liverworts; or almost after the\nfashion of a pyxidium by an orifice, somewhat as in the mosses; the\ntrunk is provided with squamose leaves or lobes, e. g. Lycopodiace\u00e6 and\nOsmundace\u00e6; they correspond to the Confervace\u00e6.\n\n1569. Third order. _Stem-ferns--Annular or Ring-ferns._ Here we meet\nwith phylloidal involuted capsules or seeds upon the back of a stem\nthat is likewise leaf-like; e. g. the typical or true ferns.\n\n1570. They have rudiments of roots and a stem, together with foliage,\nbecause they are the prototypes of these three organs.\n\n1571. The ring of their capsules corresponds to the midrib of the\nleaf. In the preceding order the capsule was only an upsprung stalk;\nbut it is here an upsprung and unfolded leaf, the prototype of the\nbud-development.\n\n1572. The fern-capsules, namely, the true seeds, are an accumulation\nof leaf-buds at the extremity of the fascicle of spiral vessels. The\nindusium is the upraised epidermis, which opens in a spathose manner;\nit consequently stands in the signification perhaps of the floral\nspathe or involucrum. They correspond to the Fuci.\n\n1573. Fourth order. _Floral ferns--Fluviales._ If the tracheal plants\nbe exalted unto the flower, male organs cannot fail in at once\nbeginning to develop. I place therefore in this order the Naiadace\u00e6\nwith very arrested blossoms, and simply stamina without calyx and\ncorolla. The spiral vessels are rather doubtful.\n\n1574. Fifth order. _Fruit ferns--Conifer\u00e6._ Tree with\nimperfectly-formed spiral vessels, stamina without coroll\u00e6, seeds\nwithout ovarium; thus agreeing with the Cryptogamia even to the\nstamina; they form likewise sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\nSEXUAL PLANTS.\n\n1575. So soon as the three tissues separate completely from each other\ninto bark, liber, and wood, while the trache\u00e6 are arranged circularly\ninto several clusters or groups, does the antagonism of these organs\nalso make its appearance, and exhibit itself as sex in the floral\norgans.\n\n1576. This separation can only be attained through the influence of\nthe air and light, whereby the sexual organs are conditionated. These\nplants have therefore the several organs of the trunk and blossom.\n\n1577. Anthers can be wanting to none of the following plants. Now, the\nanthers are leaf-buds; the leaf-formation must be therefore developed\nalso in their antagonism, or in the seed. The leaves of the seed,\nhowever, are called seed-lobes; consequently all seeds of sexual\nplants have seed-lobes or cotyledons.\n\n1578. Now the perfect seed is the whole plant in miniature with\nroot, stalk, and leaf. This formation is, however, only possible\nwhere there is a sex, or where the vegetable tissues have emerged\nself-substantially from each other.\n\n1579. But the anthers are buds upon a floral rib; consequently all\nsexual plants must have a part of the blossom, which ranks in the\nsignification of leaf, and thus either the calyx or, with this also,\nthe corolla.\n\n1580. All sexual plants must have a shaft or scape, in which its three\nparts, bark, liber, and wood, are to be distinguished; even so must the\nthree parts of the stem, the root, stalk, and leaf, have the parts of\nthe blossom which correspond to them, viz. seed, ovarium, and calyx or\ncorolla.\n\n1581. The sexual plants next divide into Stock-and Blossom-plants, the\nformer of these parting into Shaft-and Stem-plants.\n\n\n_Second Province._\n\nSHAFT-PLANTS--MONOCOTYLEDONES.\n\n1582. In the Shaft-plants the invaginate character is predominant, the\nwood being surrounded by liber, and this by bark; they are therefore\ntubular in form--_tubular plants_.\n\n1583. The cellular tissue preponderates in them, and the tracheal\nfascicles form therefore no closed circle, but are dispersed; scattered\nfasciculi cannot, however, ramify but only pursue a straight course and\nform streaks--_striated plants_.\n\n1584. Ramification is wanting unto these plants, partly on account\nof their tubular form, partly on account of the smaller quantity of\ntracheal fascicles--_aramose plants_. A vegetable stem without branches\nis called shaft or scape; thus they are _shaft-plants_.\n\n1585. The blossoms do not stand upon ramules, but upon the stem\nitself; thus, if ever ramification originates, it can first occur in\nthe floral peduncles.\n\n1586. As they are deficient in branches, so also are they in\nbuds--_agemmal_ or _budless plants_.\n\n1587. The tendency to produce branches forms nodes, which are only\nimperfect ramal zones--_nodose plants_.\n\n1588. Where the formation of branches is wanting, the minor\nramification of ribs must be also wanting in the leaves; they are\nparallel-ribbed.\n\n1589. The leaf is only a ruptured and expanded tube or spathe, which\nsurrounds the shaft--_spathose plants_.\n\n1590. Where branches are wanting, there can be also no petiolated\nleaves; they have therefore only radical leaves, from the\nmidst of which the shaft or scape sprouts forth, only as a\nfloral-peduncle--_radical-leaved plants_.\n\n1591. If all these leaves be still sheathed or encased within each\nother, they are called bulbs--_bulbose plants_.\n\n1592. Since the corolla is the repetition of the leaves, so also must\nits structure resemble theirs--_spathose coroll\u00e6_.\n\n1593. But as there are here only radical leaves, so also is the corolla\nonly a radical leaf-corolla. In the blossom, however, the radical\nleaf has become spathe, the cauline leaf, calyx, the ramuscular leaf,\ncorolla. Such blossoms consist therefore either of a spathe only, as in\nthe Aroide\u00e6, or of a calyx--_calycine plants_.\n\n1594. The stamina originate from the calyx. In calycine flowers\ntherefore all the stamina must range opposite to the corolla-petals.\nThese plants have only _opposite_, no _alternate stamina_. It has been\ngenerally assumed that the Monocotyledones have no true coroll\u00e6, but\nonly coloured calyces. Philosophy agrees with this opinion; but adds\nthereunto that the coroll\u00e6 of the Monocotyledones may be also merely\nspathes or involucra.\n\n1595. The separation of the bud-formation here takes place for the\nfirst time in the blossom, namely, in the stamina. The number of the\nfloral parts must be limited to three; for this is the first number,\nin which the leaf-ribs may divide. Coroll\u00e6, stamina, and capsules are\nternary--_trinity-plants_.\n\n1596. As the seed is only an undeveloped leaf-bud, so in it only can\nthe number of the leaf be found. Since, however, the leaf does not\nramify in the present group of plants, but is only a single spathose\nleaf; so also does the seed consist only of one such leaf or of\none seed-lobe--_Monocotyledones_. The wheat-seed or grain is none\nother than a grass-leaf with a short spathe and very dense, highly\nfarinaceous, lamell\u00e6. In germinating a new leaf emerges from the short\nspathe; it is the germinal leaf.\n\n1597. Thus plants having a tubular stem, and such kind of foliage,\ncoroll\u00e6 and seeds, are Monocotyledones.\n\n1598. The chemical bodies are more diversified in these than in the\nremaining members of the vegetable kingdom. In the roots, as in the\ntubers of the Orchide\u00e6 we meet with distinct mucilage; in the bulbs\nwith alkalies or acrid matter; and with sugar, as being a feeble\nconversion of the starch in the stalk. The mucilage of the root\nbecomes, when repeated in the seed, flour. Oily matters or acids seldom\noccur, and fleshy fruits scarcely ever.\n\n1599. The ovary is almost throughout this region of plants either a\nsingle spathose leaf or caryopsis; or three spathe-leaves are united\ntogether, which thus, as follicles or carpels, usually burst open upon\nthe internal edge.\n\n\nDIVISION.\n\n1600. If we now proceed to survey the Monocotyledons, in the order just\nset before us, we shall recognize among them three typical groups,\nto which the others are allied; they are the Gramine\u00e6, Liliace\u00e6, and\nPalmace\u00e6.\n\n1601. The Grasses obviously rank the lowest as well in respect of their\nroot, stalk, and foliage, as also of their stunted blossoms, ovarium,\nand seeds.\n\n1602. To them succeed the Lilies, which have a well-marked root, a more\nperfect, though still always herbaceous, stalk, and a few spathoid,\nmore numerously ribbed leaves; lastly, their coroll\u00e6, ovaria, and\nseeds are perfect; but still they invariably have no genuine fruits.\n\n1603. Finally, the Palms are elevated above all by their stem being\nrich in trache\u00e6 and wooded, as also by the perfection of their\nfruit. Scientifically, the scapose or shaft-plants must also resolve\nthemselves into three classes; into Bark-, Liber-, and Wood-plants.\n\n\n_CLASS IV._\n\n_Bark-plants--Gramine\u00e6._\n\n1604. In these plants the whole stalk must have assumed the form of the\ncortex or bark, and consequently be hollow--_tubular_, or _culmaceous\nplants_.\n\n1605. A mere bark cannot ramify. But the tendency unto ramification is\nmanifested as nodes--_nodose plants_.\n\n1606. The leaf which still represents the bark, is only imperfectly\nslit up, and therefore still forms a tube. Such leaves are called\ntubular or spathe-leaves proper.\n\n1607. Such tubular leaves being only half slit up can only shoot forth\ngradually from each other, and that indeed in such a manner that they\nstand actually by twos, encased in, or opposite to, each other.\n\n1608. Since the blossom is, as it were, an impression, or copy\nof the leaves, so will it here also consist only of spathiform,\ninvolucral, or calycine leaves, and only of two, one of which, though\nopposite to, is surrounded by the other. Such floral parts are called\nglumes--_glumaceous plants_. If four glumes are present, then the\nexternal pair of them corresponds to the involucrum or spatha, the\ninternal to the calyx.\n\n1609. The corolla-petals are of necessity arrested in plants such as\nthese, where no true leaf is as yet developed; frequently two only are\nleft persistent as pellicles or _lodicul\u00e6_.\n\n1610. This is still more the case with the ovary and seed; in each only\none leaf attains development, and the seed has entirely coalesced with\nthe ovarium. This kind of fruit is called _caryopsis_.\n\n1611. Nodose plants with hollow scape or shaft, tubular leaves, glumose\nblossoms, and cariopsidal fruits are _Grasses_.\n\n\nDIVISION.\n\n1612. The Bark-plants pass moreover, together with their subdivisions,\nthrough the five stages of vegetable organs, and they will therefore\nproduce also a more perfect stalk, leaves, and flowers. The whole calyx\nwill, however, never be coloured or corolla-like in its character.\nCortical plants are thus herbaceous plants with hollow stalk, and with\nan arrested or green calyx, without sarcose or fleshy fruit.\n\n1613. Those, which have simply glumose flowers, are without doubt the\nlowest in rank, as corresponding to the tissues and stock, but not yet\nto the flower.\n\n1614. These again divide into two great groups, whereof the one\nincludes plants with simply uni-seminal cariopsides, the other,\non the contrary, capsules containing a free seed--_Grasses_ and\n_Reed-grasses_. The grasses which have a cariopsis or grain-fruit\nreascend by two stages; the most inferior in rank do not attain to a\nramification, but the flowers stand crowded together in spikes; the\nothers, on the contrary, are pedunculated and ramify in panicles.\n\n1615. Among the higher kinds instead of glumes there are regular\nflowers, of which, however, the calyx is still glumose or at least\ngreen. The cariopsis is converted into a multilocular capsule, as in\nthe Restiace\u00e6, Commeline\u00e6, &c.\n\n1616. The first order, or the _Parenchymatous grasses_, have glumose\nflowers with a cariopsis for fruit, borne upon culms or nodose straws,\nand do not attain to any ramification--_spicate grasses_. In their\nseeds we meet with the greatest amount of starch developed, though\ndoubtless at the cost of the trunk.\n\n1617. The second order of _Spathose grasses_ are similar, and support\nramified flowers--_paniculate grasses_. In this division occur grasses\nof a dendroidal character, and having occasionally fruit-like ovaria,\nas in the bamboos.\n\n1618. The third order consists of the _Cauline grasses_. Here the\nleaves at once separate completely from the shaft, which is therefore\nfree from nodes. Nut-like capsules, though still inclosed in glumes,\nalso make their appearance--_reed-grasses_.\n\n1619. The fourth order, _Floral grasses_. The leaves are still only\nradical; the shaft is anodal; the flowers are separated into green\ncalyx and coloured corolla, with three or six stamina, and mostly with\na trilocular capsule--Junce\u00e6, to which the Commelinace\u00e6 are allied.\n\n1620. The fifth order, _Carpal grasses_. Hollow anodal shafts,\nwith scarcely spathiform, mostly broad leaves, the ribs of which\nbegin to ramify; with similar calyces and coroll\u00e6, and numerous\ncapsules--_Seerose\u00e6_, to which the _Alismace\u00e6_ and _Hydrocharide\u00e6_ are\nrelated.\n\n1621. The highest kind of fruit attained by this class is nut-like,\nnever fleshy in character. The stalk is nowhere woody as in some\ngrasses. The grasses divide, as do all other orders of plants, into\nsixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS V._\n\n_Liber-plants_--_Liliace\u00e6._\n\n1622. The substance of the stalk is soft and succulent; its structure\ndevoid of nodes; the leaves are tolerably free and ribbed; calyx\nand corolla coloured, both being perfectly formed and invariably\ntripartite, as is likewise the capsule, which has many seeds upon its\ninner angle. These plants are the _Lilies_. In the present class all\nparts have been developed in conformity to the liber, are rich in sap,\nand have become dense and fleshy.\n\n1623. The roots are mostly tubers or bulbs, containing a superior kind\nof mucilage, or aromatic principles. The shaft is not hollow but,\nthough herbaceous, filled up; the leaves are elevated upon the stalk.\nOne division of these plants has irregular coroll\u00e6 with stunted stamina\nand capsules, the latter containing mostly dust-like seeds, as in the\nOrchide\u00e6 and aromatic plants.\n\n1624. The other division has regular 2 \u00d7 3ary coroll\u00e6, with, perfect\nglume-capsules and middling-sized seeds, as the Iride\u00e6 and Liliace\u00e6\nproper.\n\n1625. The first order, _Parenchymatose lilies_. The coroll\u00e6 are\nirregular, bilabiate, and stand upon the calyx and a membranous\nsexlocular capsule with very small seeds; are divided according to the\npollen--e. g. _pulverulent Orchide\u00e6_.\n\n1626. The second order, _Sheath-lilies_. Characters similar to those\nof the preceding order, but the pollen is agglomerated into waxy\ngranules--_granular orchide\u00e6_.\n\n1627. The third order, _Stem-lilies_. The coroll\u00e6 are likewise\nbilabiate and situated above the calyx, but the ovarium contains few\nseeds, and the capsule is mostly nut-like--_aromatic plants_, such as\nthe _Scitamine\u00e6_ and _Musace\u00e6_.\n\n1628. The fourth order _Floral-lilies_, have regular blossoms,\nseparated into calyx and corolla, placed _above_ the capsule, and\nmostly furnished with three stamina. Here belong the _Hypoxide\u00e6_,\n_H\u00e6modorace\u00e6_ and _Iride\u00e6_.\n\n1629. The fifth order, _Fruit-lilies_. The leaves have not yet\ncompletely separated from each other, but still form bulbs; the coroll\u00e6\nare regular, have six stamina, and are placed _beneath_ the capsule, as\nin the _true lilies_. To this order belong the _Colchicace\u00e6_, _Aloin\u00e6_\nand _Liliace\u00e6_. Their bulbs contain mostly acrid matters. They divide\ninto sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS VI._\n\n_Wood-plants--Palmace\u00e6._\n\n_Plants with woody shaft and with fruits, mostly enclosed in spadices._\n\n1630. The desiccation of the cells and fibres is promoted by the\nincreased process of oxydation. Where therefore the trache\u00e6 attain the\npreponderance, there the conversion into wood originates.\n\n1631. The stalks of these plants are not hollow, but have a dense\ninterior, because the fasciculi of trache\u00e6 lie within the liber, and\nthere increase.\n\n1632. The main bulk of the stalk will consist of trache\u00e6.\n\n1633. As the trache\u00e6 are longitudinal organs, and the other tissues\nalso extend lengthways, so does the stalk or stem in these plants\npredominate over the other parts.\n\n1634. In this class the most perfect leaves as regards their present\nstage are developed; for they are only expansions of the trache\u00e6, which\nare here present in superabundance. As regards the form also, these\nleaves must rank higher than those of the preceding class; the spathe\nis shorter, the leaf itself usually broad, many-ribbed, and frequently\npinnate. The leaves are also perfect as to position, being no longer\nmere radical leaves, but situated upon the stalk, even on its apical\nextremity.\n\n1635. The ramification gradually emerges into view, where forsooth its\noccurrence is possible in the shaft-plants, or in the inflorescence.\nIt is always multiple in character, mostly spadici-, muscari-, and\npaniculiform.\n\n1636. As regards the blossom the ovarium is most perfectly evolved,\nbecause it is developed out of the stalk; it is ternary and becomes\nelevated into a fruit with few seeds.\n\n1637. The coroll\u00e6 are frequently stunted, yet regular and 2 \u00d7 3ary,\nthough insignificant on account of the preponderance in size of the\nfruit.\n\n1638. In this class we meet with the first true or genuine fruits;\nbecause in it for the first time the three anatomical systems are\ncompletely separated.\n\n1639. Plants having a ligneous stalk, free and many-ribbed leaves,\nramified inflorescence and ternary fleshy fruits, are the _Palmace\u00e6_.\nThe Palmace\u00e6 have a woody, very hollow stem, with many-ribbed,\ndivided, and often pinnate leaves; a muscariform inflorescence lodged\nin spathes, sexanary coroll\u00e6 with nuts, berries, or drupes. With the\npalms are associated the Typhace\u00e6, Aroide\u00e6, Piperales, Pandanales,\nDioscore\u00e6, Smilace\u00e6, Asparagi, Convallari\u00e6, and Bromeli\u00e6; for their\nstalks are mostly woody, the leaves broad, and placed upon the stalk,\nthe coroll\u00e6 stunted, while, on the contrary, the ovarium is carpoidal\nor fruit-like. The five orders may be disposed as follows:\n\n1640. Order I. _Palmace\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6._ _Cynomorid\u00e6_, _Typhace\u00e6_,\n_Aroide\u00e6_.\n\n1641. Order II. _P. thecales._ _Saurure\u00e6_, _Piperace\u00e6_, _Pandanace\u00e6_.\n\n1642. Order III. _P. axonales._ _Dioscore\u00e6_, _Smilace\u00e6_, _Paride\u00e6_.\n\n1643. Order IV. _P. florales._ _Asparagoide\u00e6_, _Convallari\u00e6_,\n_Bromeli\u00e6_.\n\n1644. Order V. _P. carpales._ _Palms._\n\n1645. The plants of the first order are very imperfect herbs with\nspadices. Those of the second have mostly a ligneous, nodose stalk,\nwith one-seeded fruits in spadices, without coroll\u00e6. The third have\nseparated coroll\u00e6 disposed in an open form of inflorescence. The fourth\nhave perfect sexanary coroll\u00e6, with a frequently woody stalk and\nternary, many-seeded berries. The fifth order consists of trees having\nlarge leaves, muscariform spadices, and perfect fruits, nuts, plums,\nand berries, ternary and one-seeded. They divide into sixteen families.\n(Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_Third Province._\n\nRETICULAR-LEAVED PLANTS--DICOTYLEDONES.\n\n1646. With the separation of the stock or trunk into root, stalk and\nleaf, the latter organ attains its perfection; it becomes a reticular\nleaf--the plants possessing it being called _reticular_.\n\n1647. The retinerved or reticular leaf is, however, only the result\nof a modified organization in the stalk, and indicates a ramification\nor foliiform arrangement of the trache\u00e6 in the stem. The foliiform\narrangement of the trache\u00e6 in the stalk is their circular disposition.\nThese plants have _woody zones_. Through this zone or ring of wood\nfirst originates the perfect separation into wood, liber and bark,\nwhereof each formerly occupied the whole stalk or stem.\n\n1648. The stalk is no longer a shaft or scape, but it divides into\nbranches and twigs--_ramular plants_.\n\n1649. The reticular-veined are ramular leaves, and are no longer\ntherefore spathiform but petiolated--_petiolated leaves_. It is only at\nthe root that spathose leaves may occur, and this only in the plants of\nthe inferior classes.\n\n1650. With the disappearance of the spathose leaves, and the appearance\nof the ramules, the nodes and bulbs also disappear.\n\n1651. The blossoms stand no longer upon a radical peduncle or stipes,\nbut upon ramules; in other words, upon a plant, which again stands upon\nanother plant, namely, the stalk.\n\n1652. As all the higher separations of leaves here occur, so also\ndoes the flower obtain its higher amount of separation; it becomes\nquinary--_pentaschematose plants_. The ovarium passes through all\nnumerical conditions, being 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and polycarpellar. In like\nmanner all the forms of ovaria and fruits occur in the present class,\nsuch as caryopsis, follicle, legumen, siliqua, capsule, nut, plum,\nberry and apple.\n\n1653. As the seed is a leaf-formation, so must it resemble the\nreticular leaf. But reticular leaves are not spathes or simple tubes,\nbut ramified or separated ribs. The seed has therefore several leaves,\nand two indeed for the first time, which are called seed-lobes. These\nplants are therefore styled _Dicotyledones_.\n\n\nDIVISION.\n\n1654. The Dicotyledones are, in the first place, empirically divisible\ninto apetalous, monopetalous and polypetalous, or into plants with\ncalycine, tubular and petalous coroll\u00e6.\n\n1655. It might be believed that the Apetal\u00e6 were, without further\ntrouble, the lowest in point of rank; but, when closely considered,\nthey appear as Polypetal\u00e6 with stunted corolla-petals, and are\nobviously allied to the Rosace\u00e6. Moreover, they all bear nuts, a fact\nwhich occurs in no other class, and they must be therefore placed\namong the fruit-bearing plants. Since, however, they are epigynous\nand perigynous, so must the other polypetalous Perigyn\u00e6 enter into\nproximity with them, and in like manner forsooth come among the\nFruit-plants.\n\n1656. Thus the Dicotyledones separate into the Monopetal\u00e6, hypogynous\nPolypetal\u00e6, and perigynous Polypetal\u00e6, along with the Apetal\u00e6. Viewed\nin a scientific light, they separate according to the principal members\nof the plant into three districts, Axis-, Flower-, and Fruit-plants.\n\n\nFIRST CIRCLE.\n\n_Stem-plants--Monopetal\u00e6._\n\n1657. The Monopetal\u00e6 or Tubuliflor\u00e6 are the lowest in rank, and must\ntherefore take the place here assigned them. They are still spathose\ncoroll\u00e6. Among them are found for the most part only cariopsides and\nmembranous capsules, rarely fruits. They are usually, too, merely\nherbs, rarely bushes, and still more rarely trees.\n\n1658. They divide into Epigynes, Peri-and Hypogynes, of which the\nformer are the lowest, the latter the highest; for in that which is\nleft similar the coalition is an inferior sign.\n\n1659. Their essential or typical character does not, however, reside\nin the blossom, but in the trunk, and that indeed in the root, stalk,\nand foliage. The question therefore may now be asked, whether in the\nEpigynes the root, in the Perigynes the stalk, and in the Hypogynes the\nfoliage, be the principal organ.\n\n\n_CLASS VII._\n\n_Root-plants._\n\n1660. That the Tubuliflor\u00e6 with superior blossoms and fleshy root are\nradical plants, admits of being easily demonstrated. The preponderance\nof the root is evident from its size, its quantity of contained sap,\nor special chemical ingredients. A root that is rich in sap, and much\ndenser than the stalk, is called a turnip. These plants are thus\n_turnip-plants_.\n\n1661. Among the Monopetal\u00e6, however, there are napiform roots only\nin the _Epigynes_, namely, the Syngenesia or salad-plants, and among\nsome _Perigynes_, namely, the Campanule\u00e6, as well as the Cucurbitace\u00e6.\nThe Syngenesia are consequently the radical plants. The roots of the\nScorzoner\u00e6, Pastinace\u00e6, Cichorace\u00e6, and Tussilago or coltsfoot, &c.,\nbelong to this class.\n\n1662. That the Scabios\u00e6 and Valeriane\u00e6 are directly related to the\nSyngenesia is likewise indicated by their roots. Unto these succeed in\npoint of structure the Campanulace\u00e6 and the Cucurbitace\u00e6, which have\nfrequently, too, napiform or turnip-shaped roots.\n\n1663. The number of the Syngenesia is so great that they fill up all\nthe orders of the trunk. In accordance with their whole structure they\nare obviously the lowest, the stalk being for the most part herbaceous\nand placed within a circle of radical leaves, but being itself provided\nwith few, imperfect, and scarcely ever pinnate leaves; they have\nmoreover numerous stunted blossoms that are connate with the single or\nsolitary seed, and crowded together, like spadices, grass-spikes, or\nthe fungal pilei, upon a carpoclinium or receptacle.\n\n1664. They are a repetition of the fungi and grasses; of the former\nin their fleshy root and inflorescence, of the latter likewise in the\ninflorescence and in the spathoidal root-leaves; above all, in the\nsingle large seed, confluent with the ovarium and calyx. The principle\nof their division must, where it is possible, and for obvious reasons,\nbe drawn from the organs of the trunk.\n\n1665. First order. _Radicari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6._--Syngenesia, having\nradical leaves and uniform florets, tubular or wholly stunted ligular\nflorets--_Cichorace\u00e6_ and _Thistles_.\n\n1666. Second order. _P. vaginat\u00e6._--Syngenesia, with opposite leaves\nand different kinds of florets, such as radiated, partly lingual and\npartly tubular coroll\u00e6--_Sunflowers_, _Silphie\u00e6_.\n\n1667. Third order. _R. axonales._--Syngenesia, with alternate leaves\nand diversified florets--_Anthemide\u00e6_, _Senecionid\u00e6_, _Astere\u00e6_.\n\n1668. Fourth order. _R. florales._--Here the ovarium is no longer\ndense and confluent with the calyx, and it begins to become\ntrilocular--_Scabios\u00e6_, _Valeriane\u00e6_, and _Campanul\u00e6_.\n\n1669. Fifth order. _R. fructuari\u00e6._--Here a perfect fruit is developed,\nwhich is connate with the calyx--_Asaride\u00e6_, _Passiflore\u00e6_, and\n_Cucurbitace\u00e6_. They have apple-like 3-5 ry fruits, and many of them\nhave napiform roots, e. g. the Gichtr\u00fcben. They divide into sixteen\nfamilies. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS VIII._\n\n_Stalk-plants._\n\n1670. Plants with a predominating development of stalk, leaves\nnarrow, mostly opposite, quaternary coroll\u00e6 upon the calyx, ovarium\nmultilocular, and containing few seeds.\n\n1671. Here everything, both root and leaf, must be stalk-like in\ncharacter; the stalk is therefore woody, the root fibrous, the foliage\ntwig-like or narrow, like needles.\n\n1672. This structure is chiefly found in the _Heaths_ and _Stellat\u00e6_.\nThe stalk is mostly woody; the foliage either aciculiform or leathery\nin texture, and never pinnated. The leaves are either arranged in\nwhorls or opposite, a position which indicates a lower grade of\ndevelopment. Moreover, they are related to the plants of the preceding\nclass; they are either _Epigynous_ or _Perigynous_. The corolla and\novarium follow the opposite position of the leaves; the former being\nquadripartite, the latter bi-and quaternary. Most of them grow in hot\ncountries upon dry ground, and their virtues reside in the stalk, e. g.\nthe Peruvian bark.\n\n1673. The Stellat\u00e6 or Rubiace\u00e6 are without doubt the lowest, because\nthey are epigynous and have a quadri-petalous corolla, with a binary\nand frequently only follicular ovarium.\n\n1674. First order. _Cauliari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6._ The _Stellat\u00e6_ proper\nalong with the _Coffeace\u00e6_, all of them being two-seeded.\n\n1675. Second order. _C. vaginat\u00e6._ The Rubiace\u00e6 with bilocular\nmany-seeded capsules--_Rondeleti\u00e6_ and _Cinchone\u00e6_.\n\n1676. Third order. _C. axonales._ _Rubiace\u00e6_ with\nfruits--_Guettardid\u00e6_, _Hameli\u00e6_, _Gardeni\u00e6_.\n\n1677. Fourth order. _C. florales._ Quadripetalar Perigyn\u00e6, with similar\ncapsules or berries--_Epacride\u00e6_, _Vacciniace\u00e6_, _Ericace\u00e6_.\n\n1678. Fifth order, _C. fructuari\u00e6._ Quaternary Perigynes with\nfruits--_Myrobalane\u00e6_, _Olacine\u00e6_, _Diospyroide\u00e6_ and _Sapote\u00e6_. (For\nthe arrangement of their families vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS IX._\n\n_Leaf-plants._\n\n1679. Herbs having broad leaves, quinary hypogynous coroll\u00e6, and\nbilocular capsule. Here the whole stem has become leaf; all the parts\nare soft; they are _herbs_ in the propermost sense of the word.\n\n1680. Here belong the _hypogynous_ Monopetal\u00e6: _Primulace\u00e6_,\n_Personat\u00e6_, _Solane\u00e6_, _Gentiane\u00e6_, _Asclepiad\u00e6_, _Carice\u00e6_,\n_Asperifoli\u00e6_, _Sambuce\u00e6_. The roots are fibrous; the stalk herbaceous,\nbeing wholly covered, and that indeed with large leaves; calyx and\ncorolla quinquepartite, frequently bilabiate; the germen a bilocular\nmembranous capsule, which seldom becomes fleshy, and contains few\nseeds. It is these plants which serve chiefly as food for cattle, and\nwhose whole trunk is officinally known under the name of _herbage_;\nrelations which express the leafy character.\n\n1681. First order, _Foliari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Herbs with bilocular\ncapsules, in which there are many seeds placed upon a median\ncone. The capsule dehisces, while both carpels separate from each\nother--_Primulace\u00e6_, _Scrophulari\u00e6_, _Solane\u00e6_.\n\n1682. Second order, _F. vaginat\u00e6_. For the most part herbaceous,\ntheir many-seeded carpels springing open at the dorsal\nsuture--_Orobanchace\u00e6_, _Rhinanthace\u00e6_, and _Bignoniace\u00e6_.\n\n1683. Third order, _F. axonales_. Regular quinary coroll\u00e6 with seeds\nborne upon the margins of the two carpellar valves--_Gentianace\u00e6_,\n_Asclepiadace\u00e6_, _Jasmine\u00e6_.\n\n1684. Fourth order, _F. florales_. Few seeds in one capsule; the\npistil becomes nut-like or trilocular--_Labiat\u00e6_, _Polemoniace\u00e6_,\n_Convolvulace\u00e6_.\n\n1685. Fifth order, _F. fructuari\u00e6_. Herbs and shrubs with fruits; as\nnuts, plums and berries. For their sixteen families (vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\nB. BLOSSOM-PLANTS.\n\n1686. Flowers polypetalous.\n\n\nSECOND CIRCLE.\n\n_Flower-plants._\n\n1687. Calyx, corolla, stamina and ovarium perfectly separated from each\nother--_Pedunculate coroll\u00e6_, _Stielblumen_ or _Hypogynes_. The blossom\nmust be here developed in the most perfect manner; i. e. all its parts\nmust be complete and separated from each other. This is the case only\nin the hypogynous Polypetal\u00e6.\n\n1688. The lowest organized kinds must, from being a repetition of\nthem, remind us of the grasses and Syngenesia. They are therefore\npolycarpellar or multi-ovarial.--_Ranunculace\u00e6_, _Malvace\u00e6_,\n_Magnoliace\u00e6_.\n\n1689. Unto these are allied those plants whose ovaria consist of\nseveral carpels, but that are connate with each other, and mutually\nseparate for the first time with their maturation or decay, as in\nthe _Rutace\u00e6_, _Polygale\u00e6_, _Malvace\u00e6_, _Aurantiac\u00e6_, _Platanace\u00e6_,\n_Malpighie\u00e6_, _Sapinde\u00e6_.\n\n1690. The highest are characterized by coalition of the carpels\ninto a single ovarium with stunted dissepiments, and by coroll\u00e6\nthat are well developed and distinguished for colour, delicacy, and\nmagnitude--_Carnations_, _Violets_, _Cistace\u00e6_, _Siliquos\u00e6_, _Poppies_,\n_Gamboge-trees_.\n\n\n_CLASS X._\n\n_Seed-plants._\n\n1691. Plants having a preponderance of seed, that draws after it all\nthe floral parts.\n\n1692. The ovaria have become seed-like, have separated from each other,\nand inclose for the most part only a single seed.\n\n1693. As in the grasses and Syngenesia many flowers are collected\ninto a spike or upon a receptacle, so here are many carpels in a\nsingle corolla--_Ranunculace\u00e6_, _Geraniace\u00e6_, _Tiliace\u00e6_, _Malvace\u00e6_,\n_Magnoliace\u00e6_.\n\n1694. The stamina are usually of indefinite number, and mostly connate.\n\n1695. All forms of stalks are here met with; such as herbs, bushes,\nshrubs, and trees. All forms also of leaves; spathose leaves,\npetiolated leaves, simple and divided, yet rarely pinnated.\n\n1696. The component parts are usually mucilage, as in the roots of the\nSyngenesia.\n\n1697. They divide into two great groups, into the quinary and\nsexanary. Since among the quinary, herbaceous stalks with nodes and\nspathe-leaves, but capsules only, occur; they must be arranged in the\nlowest rank. The sexanary bear fruits.\n\n1698. First order, _Seminari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Herbs with nodes and\nspathose leaves, together with numerous, mostly one-seeded, carpels,\nattached in an irregular manner to a median columella--_Ranunculace\u00e6_\nand _Geraniace\u00e6_.\n\n1699. Second order, _S. vaginat\u00e6._ Trees having many-seeded carpels,\ncoalesced like the style, _Theace\u00e6_, _Tiliace\u00e6_, _El\u00e6ocarpace\u00e6_.\n\n1700. Third order, _S. axonales._ Bushes and shrubs with free,\nmostly simple, leaves, ovaria, mostly one-seeded, and arranged\nin a circle around the mediate axis or columella; anthers\nbilocular--_Hermanniace\u00e6_, _Dombeyace\u00e6_, _Sterculiace\u00e6_, and\n_B\u00fcttneriace\u00e6_.\n\n1701. Fourth order, _S. florales._ For the most part trees, having\nfrequently divided leaves and similar ovaria, yet mostly many-seeded\nand connate--_Malvace\u00e6_ and _Bombace\u00e6_.\n\n1702. Fifth order, _S. fructuari\u00e6._ Coroll\u00e6 mostly sexanary, ovaria\nin a circle without a columella--_Magnoliace\u00e6_, _Menispermace\u00e6_,\n_Dilleniace\u00e6_, _Anonace\u00e6_. They divide into sixteen families. (Vid.\nTab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS XI._\n\n_Ovarium-plants._\n\n1703. Hypogynous Polypetal\u00e6 with perfect multilocular\novarium--_Polygale\u00e6_, _Melie\u00e6_, _Aurantiace\u00e6_, _Platanace\u00e6_,\n_Malpighie\u00e6_, _Sapinde\u00e6_.\n\n1704. While in the preceding class the number of the carpels was\nusually indeterminate; it is here limited to three and five. In the\none, they usually stood around a middle columella or axis, in the\nother, they form a true capsule with perfect partition-walls or septa,\nand a single style. The number of the seeds is moderate, i. e. there\nare more than one, but they are easily counted. They are therefore of\nmediate size, having no kernels, as is the case in the nuts, but also\nno granules, as in the berries or poppy capsules. In the preceding\nclass the fruits were rare; here they occur frequently in the upper\norders. The number of the floral parts is, throughout the present\nclass, five, that of the stamina five or ten, and they are seldom\ncoalesced; the stalk also passes through all the stages of development\nfrom that of the herb through the shrub into the tree. The leaves are\nseldom spathe-like, but frequently coriaceous and aciculate, as in\ntheir predecessors the _Heaths_; many are pinnated.\n\n1705. First order, _Capsulari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_--_Rutace\u00e6_. Herbs and\nshrubs frequently provided with aciculate and coriaceous leaves;\ncoroll\u00e6 regular with ten stamina; ovarium consisting of five carpels,\nwhich separate when ripe, and contain few seeds--_Rutace\u00e6_, _Diosmace\u00e6_.\n\n1706. Second order, _C. vaginat\u00e6._ Shrubs and trees with similar\ncoroll\u00e6 and ovaria, which are nevertheless frequently separated and\nfleshy--_Quassiace\u00e6_, _Ochnace\u00e6_.\n\n1707. Third order, _C. axonales._ Mostly shrubs and trees with\nirregular coroll\u00e6 and bilocular ovarium--_Polygalace\u00e6_, _Vochysie\u00e6_,\n_Pittospore\u00e6_.\n\n1708. Fourth order, _C. florales._ Trees with a woody or berry-like\novarium, having several cells--_Cedrele\u00e6_, _Melie\u00e6_, _Aurantiace\u00e6_.\n\n1709. Fifth order, _C. fructuari\u00e6._ Trees; flowers quinary, ovarium\nmostly ternary, becoming a winged or fleshy fruit. (Their sixteen\nfamilies probably pursue the order indicated at Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS XII._\n\n_Corolla-plants._\n\n1710. Coroll\u00e6 stipaceous, having free stamina; ovaria with stunted\nsepta, and numerous marginal seeds--_Carnations_, _Violets_,\n_Cistace\u00e6_, _Siliquos\u00e6_, _Papaverace\u00e6_, _Guttifer\u00e6_.\n\n1711. The stalk passes through all the stages of formation, from the\nnodose herb unto the shrub and tree. The leaves occur likewise under\nall forms, modes, division, and arrangement. The plants of this class\nare found in all climates, and yield etherial or volatile and fatty oil\nwith resins. They divide first of all into quinary and quaternary; the\nformer being mostly herbs with a hollow capsule; the latter herbs,\nshrubs, and trees, with siliqu\u00e6 or berries.\n\n1712. Their strength or virtue resides in the flower, which, is\ntherefore of large size, beautifully coloured, sweet-scented, is\nfrequently appreciated and adopted as an ornament. On the contrary,\nthe ovarium and seed are stunted. The former is a siliqua or hollow\ncapsule, which therefore supports the numerous smaller seeds on the\nseptum.\n\n1713. First order, _Corollari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Nodose herbs with\nspathose leaves, quinary coroll\u00e6, and ten stamina; many seeds\nupon a columellar or median placenta situated within a hollow\ncapsule--_Portulace\u00e6_, _Carnations_.\n\n1714. Second order, _C. vaginat\u00e6_. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, with\nsimilar but mostly multi-staminal coroll\u00e6, and seeds on the capsular\nsepta--Droserace\u00e6, _Hypericine\u00e6_, _Violace\u00e6_, _Cistace\u00e6_, and _Bixe\u00e6_.\n\n1715. Third order, _C. axonales_. Herbs with quaternary coroll\u00e6 and a\nsiliqua--_Siliquos\u00e6_.\n\n1716. Fourth order, _C. florales_. Bushes and shrubs with quaternary\ncoroll\u00e6 and numerous stamina; ovarium a siliqua or multi-valvular\nhollow capsule--_Capparid\u00e6_, _Berberide\u00e6_, _Papaverace\u00e6_.\n\n1717. Fifth order, _C. fructuari\u00e6_. Trees with quaternary and quinary\ncoroll\u00e6, numerous stamina, and a fruit--_Guttifer\u00e6_. They divide into\nthe usual sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\nTHIRD CIRCLE.\n\n_Fruit-plants--Apetal\u00e6, Perigynes._\n\n1718. Stunted calycine coroll\u00e6, with nuts, plums, berries, or apples.\n\n1719. They are perigynous Polypetal\u00e6, and include the Apetal\u00e6 and\nDiclines.\n\n1720. The nut consists of a large seed, connate with the woody ovarium,\nand frequently with the calyx.\n\n1721. The plum is a legumen, between the coats of which fleshy matter\nhas accumulated, and whose internal tunic or endocarp has become woody.\nThe berry is a many-seeded hollow capsule, which, as well as the calyx,\nhas become soft and succulent.\n\n1722. The apple is an ovarium surrounded by a fleshy calyx.\n\n\n_CLASS XIII._\n\n_Nut-plants--Apetal\u00e6, Diclines._\n\n1723. Ovarium woody, and inclosing only one seed. Here belong the\nApetalous and Diclinous Exogens.\n\n1724. These plants repeat the fungi, grasses and Syngenesia, and have\ntherefore imperfect coroll\u00e6, the calyx of which has alone remained, and\nusually closely surrounds the nut.\n\n1725. The stalk is indeed usually woody; yet is still found to be also\nherbaceous and nodose with spathiform leaves. The leaves are simple,\nfrequently needle-shaped or else arrested. The principal ingredients\nare starch, as in the Gramine\u00e6 and Syngenesia.\n\n1726. The inflorescence is mostly amentaceous, as in the Agarics,\nGrasses and Syngenesia.\n\n1727. They divide into androgynous and dioecious plants.\n\n1728. First order, _Nucari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Hermaphrodite herbs with\nnodes and spathose leaves, calyx green, superior, and quinquepartite\nwith five opposite stamina; nut mostly triangular and utricular.\n\n1729. Second order, _N. vaginat\u00e6_. Form of vegetation pretty nearly\nas in preceding order, but the calyx is corolla-like, and the stamina\nmostly alternate--_Phytolacce\u00e6_, _Illecebre\u00e6_.\n\n1730. Third order, _N. axonales_. Hermaphrodite, calyx corolla-like,\nsuperior and wholly quaternary; herbs and shrubs bearing nuts and\nplums--_Nyctagine\u00e6_, _Daphne\u00e6_, and _Santalace\u00e6_.\n\n1731. Fourth order, _N. florales_. Trees, calyx corolla-like but\ninferior; capsules, plums and berries--_Proteace\u00e6_.\n\n1732. Fifth order, _N. fructuari\u00e6_. Diclines; herbs, shrubs and trees\nwithout coroll\u00e6, but with nuts or plums. (Their sixteen families stand\nin the order exhibited at Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS XIV._\n\n_Plum-plants--Papilionace\u00e6._\n\n1733. Polypetalous calycine coroll\u00e6, with a drupe or its fundamental\nform, the legumen. Here belong the papilionaceous plants, Rhamnace\u00e6 and\nTerebinthace\u00e6.\n\n1734. The stalk is frequently herbaceous with nodes; but mostly\nfruticose and arborescent.\n\n1735. The leaves here attain their highest development, and are mostly\npinnated, sometimes endowed with the power of independent motion.\n\n1736. The coroll\u00e6 are mostly irregular, quinary, arranged like pinnate\nleaves, with ten, rarely more, connate and free stamina.\n\n1737. The ovarium is a single carpel, owing to the four others being\narrested; it is usually compressed and bivalved, with few seeds; it is\na legumen, frequently converted into a fleshy fruit.\n\n1738. The Papilionace\u00e6 are so rich in number that they include all the\norders of the trunk, and even transcend or exceed its limits; their\nallied families are the Rhamnace\u00e6 and Terebinthace\u00e6 with fleshy fruits.\n\n1739. First order, _Drupari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Papilionace\u00e6 with\nherbaceous, nodose stalk and pinnated leaves; corolla-petals and single\nstamen free; seed-lobes thin--Hedysare\u00e6, _Astragale\u00e6_, _Glycine\u00e6_.\n\n1740. Second order, _D. vaginat\u00e6_. Herbs and shrubs with ternary\nor tendrilless leaves; the corolla-petals or stamina frequently\nconfluent--_Trifoliace\u00e6_, _Geniste\u00e6_, _Galege\u00e6_.\n\n1741. Third order, _D. axonales_. Bushes, shrubs, or trees, frequently\ntraining with pinnate leaves and tendrils; calyx large, seed-lobes\nthick--_Vicie\u00e6_, _Beans_, _Dalbergi\u00e6_.\n\n1742. Fourth order, _D. florales_. Shrubs and trees, with tolerably\nregular flowers and separated stamina; legumens with frequently\ntransverse septa, embryo straight--_Geoffroy\u00e6_, _Swartzie\u00e6_,\n_Detarium_, _Mimos\u00e6_, and _Cassi\u00e6_.\n\n1743. Fifth order, _D. fructuari\u00e6_. Regular flowers with separate\nstamina and multilocular plums--_Stackhouse\u00e6_, _Empetre\u00e6_,\n_Celastrine\u00e6_, _Rhamne\u00e6_, and _Terebinthe\u00e6_. (For their sixteen\nfamilies vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS XV._\n\n_Berry-plants_--_Umbellifer\u00e6_, &c.\n\n1744. Ovarial and calycine corolla with a single perfectly soft fruit\nor berry, on which are five corolla-petals, with a moderate number of\nstamina. This fruit is wholly edible, and has only one or two styles;\nstalk and leaves pass through all the stages of formation.\n\n1745. They divide first of all into two groups, having few or many\nstamina; of these the fruit of one is dry, of the other fleshy. The dry\nfruits are also perfectly edible, as the Caraway-seeds.\n\n1746. First order, _Baccari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Epigynous; nodose herbs\nwith two seeds in the calyx; only five stamina--_Umbellat\u00e6_.\n\n1747. Second order, _B. vaginat\u00e6_. Mostly shrubs with quinary coroll\u00e6\nand bi-or quinquelocular berries--_Mistletoes_, _Elders_, _Araliace\u00e6_,\n_Vines_.\n\n1748. Third order, _B. axonales_. Bushes and shrubs with quaternary\ncoroll\u00e6, only one style and one multilocular many-seeded\ncapsule--_Epilobe\u00e6_, _Salicari\u00e6_.\n\n1749. Fourth order, _B. florales_. Mostly shrubs with quinary coroll\u00e6\nand manifold stamina; capsule or berry multilocular--_Melastomace\u00e6_.\n\n1750. Fifth order, _B. fructuari\u00e6_. Trees with many, frequently\nfasciculated, stamina; fruit multilocular and many-seeded--_Myrtace\u00e6_.\nThese plants likewise divide into sixteen families. (Vid. Tab. B.)\n\n\n_CLASS XVI._\n\n_Apple-plants_--_Rosace\u00e6_.\n\n1751. The fruit is an apple, i. e. several carpels, containing but few\nseeds, adhere in one calyx, upon which there are five corolla-petals,\nwith four to six times as many stamina. Herbs, shrubs, and trees with\ndifferent kinds of leaves are here met with; the coroll\u00e6 are mostly\nsmall and perigynous, the style separated, and thus polycarpal.\nPerigynous Polycarp\u00e6. They grow, dispersed over the whole earth, in\ndry situations; several of them yield edible fruits, and are pretty\ngenerally cultivated.\n\n1752. The apples are without doubt the most perfect fruit, as well\nin reference to their structure as their chemical ingredients. The\napple consists of all the parts of the blossom: seed, capsule, and\nfleshy calyx, and is besides polycarpellar, i. e. composed of separate\ncarpels. Its edible substance or flesh is not simply a sweet-meat, but\na true aliment, which admits of being eaten after it has been kept\nfresh for a year, of being dried, exported, or cooked as a kitchen\nvegetable; in cases of exigency too it occurs in such abundance that\nthe whole human race might live upon it, which cannot be said of any\nother fruit. The apple quenches at the same time the thirst, and thus\nsupplies also the place of drink. All the other fruits are either a\ndainty relish only against thirst, or a simple amylaceous medium of\nnutrition. However, most of the plants belonging to this class produce\nonly dry capsules and calyces.\n\n1753. They divide into two groups, having few or many stamina.\n\nFirst order, _Pomari\u00e6 parenchymatos\u00e6_. Herbs with few stamina and five\nor more carpels, as the _Crassulace\u00e6_ and _Mesembryanthemace\u00e6_.\n\nSecond order, _P. vaginat\u00e6_. Shrubs with few stamina, only two to three\ncarpels and few seeds.--_Tamaricace\u00e6_, _Bruniace\u00e6._\n\n\n                        VEGETABLE SYSTEM   Table B\n +==========================================================================+\n |                               FIRST PROVINCE.                            |\n |                                                                          |\n |                          HISTOPHYTA--ACOTYLEDONES.                       |\n +--------------------------------------------------------------------------+\n |                                                                          |\n +====================+=================+==================+================+\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |                    |     CLASS I.    |    CLASS  II.    |   CLASS III.   |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |       ORGANS.      |    Cellulares.  |    Vasculares.   |   Tracheales.  |\n |                    |      _Fungi._   |      _Mosses._   |     _Ferns._   |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n | ORD. I. Parenchyma.| Roste.          | Schleim-Moose.   | Wasser-Farren. |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |  F. 1. Cells.      |  Entophyta.     |  Diatomace\u00e6.     |  Marsileace\u00e6.  |\n |     2. Ducts.      |  Epiphyta.      |  Nostochine\u00e6.    |  Pilulari\u00e6.    |\n |     3. Trache\u00e6.    |  Tuberculari\u00e6.  |  Batrachosperme\u00e6.|  Equisetace\u00e6.  |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n | O. II. Sheaths.    | Schimmel.       | Wasserf\u00e4den.     | Kugelfarren.   |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |  F. 4. Bark.       |  Mucorini.      |  Confervace\u00e6.    |  Lycopodiace\u00e6. |\n |     5. Liber.      |  Mucedines.     |  Ulvace\u00e6.        |  Ophioglosse\u00e6. |\n |     6. Wood.       |  Byssace\u00e6.      |  Leptomite\u00e6.     |  Dan\u00e6ace\u00e6.     |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n | O. III. Axis.      | Balgpilze.      | Fuci.            | Ringfarren.    |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |  F. 7. Root.       |  Trichodermace\u00e6.|  Cerame\u00e6.        |  Parkere\u00e6.     |\n |     8. Stalk.      |  Trichiace\u00e6.    |  Florid\u00e6.        |  Cyathe\u00e6.      |\n |     9. Leaves.     |  Lycopodine\u00e6.   |  Fucoide\u00e6.       |  Polypodiace\u00e6. |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n | O. IV. Blossom.    | Kernpilze.      | Lichens.         | Fluvialen.     |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |  F. 10. Seed.      |  Cytispore\u00e6.    |  Coniothalame\u00e6.  |  Naiade\u00e6.      |\n |     11. Ovarium.   |  Phacidiace\u00e6.   |  Gasterothalame\u00e6.|  Podosteme\u00e6.   |\n |     12. Corolla.   |  Sph\u00e6riace\u00e6.    |  Hymenothalame\u00e6. |  Ceratophylle\u00e6.|\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n | O. V. Fruit.       | Fleischpilze.   | Mosses.          | Nadelholz.     |\n |                    |                 |                  |                |\n |  F. 13. Nut.       |  Tremellini.    |  Marchantiace\u00e6.  |  Abiete\u00e6.      |\n |     14. Plum.      |  Cupulati.      |  Ricciace\u00e6.      |  Taxace\u00e6.      |\n |     15. Berry.     |  Clavati.       |  Jungermanniace\u00e6.|  Cupresse\u00e6.    |\n |     16. Apple.     |  Pileati.       |  Bryace\u00e6.        |  Cycade\u00e6.      |\n +--------------------+-----------------+------------------+----------------+\n\n +====================+=====================================================+\n |                    |                    SECOND PROVINCE.                 |\n |                    |                                                     |\n |                    |              THECOPHYTA--MONOCOTYLEDONES.           |\n +--------------------+-----------------------------------------------------+\n |                    |                                                     |\n +====================+==================+===================+==============+\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |                    |     CLASS IV.    |      CLASS V.     |   CLASS VI.  |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |       ORGANS.      |    Corticales.   |    Liber-plants.  |  Wood-plants.|\n |                    |    _Gramine\u00e6._   |     _Liliace\u00e6._   |  _Palmace\u00e6._ |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n | ORD. I. Parenchyma.| Spiked Grasses.  | Staub-Orchiden.   | Rohrkolben.  |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |  F. 1. Cells.      |  Secale.         |  Neotti\u00e6.         |  Cynomoria.  |\n |     2. Ducts.      |  Phleum.         |  Arethuse\u00e6.       |  Typhace\u00e6.   |\n |     3. Trache\u00e6.    |  Festuca.        |  Ophryde\u00e6.        |  Aroide\u00e6.    |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n | O. II. Sheaths.    | Panicled Grasses.| Granular Orchide\u00e6.| Piperace\u00e6.   |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |  F. 4. Bark.       |  Bulrushes.      |  Malaxides.       |  Saurure\u00e6.   |\n |     5. Liber.      |  Milium.         |  Epidendra.       |  Piperace\u00e6.  |\n |     6. Wood.       |  Arundinace\u00e6.    |  Vanill\u00e6.         |  Pandanac    |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n | O. III. Axis.      | Reed-Grasses.    | Aromatic plants.  | Sassaparill\u00e6.|\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |  F. 7. Root.       |  Sedges.         |  Amome\u00e6.          |  Dioscore\u00e6.  |\n |     8. Stalk.      |  Junce\u00e6.         |  Canne\u00e6.          |  Smilace\u00e6.   |\n |     9. Leaves.     |  Ruscus.         |  Musace\u00e6.         |  Paride\u00e6.    |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n | O. IV. Blossom.    | Juncine\u00e6.        | Schwerdel.        | Asparagoid\u00e6. |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |  F. 10. Seed.      |  Restiace\u00e6.      |  H\u00e6modorace\u00e6.     |  Asparagoid\u00e6.|\n |     11. Ovarium.   |  Serpe\u00e6.         |  Iride\u00e6.          |  Convallari\u00e6.|\n |     12. Corolla.   |  Commelyne\u00e6.     |  Narcissi.        |  Bromeli\u00e6.   |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n | O. V. Fruit.       | Seerose\u00e6.        | Liliace\u00e6.         | Palms.       |\n |                    |                  |                   |              |\n |  F. 13. Nut.       |  Alismace\u00e6.      |  Colchicace\u00e6.     |  Calamari\u00e6.  |\n |     14. Plum.      |  Hydrocharide\u00e6.  |  Asphodele\u00e6.      |  Cocoe\u00e6.     |\n |     15. Berry.     |  Hydropeltide\u00e6.  |  Alliace\u00e6.        |  Phoenice\u00e6.|\n |     16. Apple.     |  Nymph\u00e6ac\u00e6.      |  Tulipace\u00e6.       |  Borasse\u00e6.   |\n +--------------------+------------------+-------------------+--------------+\n\n VEGETABLE SYSTEM. [TABLE B, p. 316.]\n\n  +=====================================================+\n  |                                                     |\n  |     THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA--DICOTYLEDONES.     |\n  |                                                     |\n  +-----------------------------------------------------+\n  |          CIRCLE I. _Stem-plants--Monopetal\u00e6._       |\n  +==================+================+=================+\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |    CLASS VII.    |  CLASS VIII.   |    CLASS IX.    |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |   Root-plants.   | Stalk-plants.  |   Leaf-plants.  |\n  |     _Epigyn\u00e6._   |   _Perigyn\u00e6._  |    _Hypogyn\u00e6._  |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  | Root-leaved.     | Stellat\u00e6.      | Personat\u00e6.      |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |  Cichorace\u00e6.     |  Galiace\u00e6.     |  Primulace\u00e6.    |\n  |  Cardurace\u00e6.     |  Spermacocid\u00e6. |  Scrophulari\u00e6.  |\n  |  Mutisi\u00e6.        |  Coffeace\u00e6.    |  Solanace\u00e6.     |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  | Opposite-leaved. | Cinchonace\u00e6.   | Bignoniace\u00e6.    |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |  Eupatorium?     |  Hedyotid\u00e6.    |  Orobanche\u00e6.    |\n  |  Helianthus.     |  Rondeleti\u00e6.   |  Rhinanthe\u00e6.    |\n  |  Silphie\u00e6.       |  Cinchone\u00e6.    |  Bignoni\u00e6.      |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  | Alternifoliar.   | Hameliace\u00e6.    | Contort\u00e6.       |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |  Senecionid\u00e6.    |  Guettardid\u00e6.  |  Gentiane\u00e6.     |\n  |  Astere\u00e6.        |  Hameli\u00e6.      |  Asclepiade\u00e6.   |\n  |  Vernoni\u00e6.       |  Gardeni\u00e6.     |  Jasmine\u00e6.      |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  | Aggregat\u00e6.       | Ericace\u00e6.      | Tetrasperme\u00e6.   |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |  Scabios\u00e6.       |  Epacride\u00e6.    |  Labiat\u00e6.       |\n  |  Lobeli\u00e6.        |  Myrtilli.     |  Polemoniace\u00e6.  |\n  |  Campanul\u00e6.      |  Heaths.       |  Convolvulace\u00e6. |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  | Sicuonoid\u00e6.      | Diospyrace\u00e6.   | Pyrenace\u00e6.      |\n  |                  |                |                 |\n  |  Asarid\u00e6.        |  Myrobalane\u00e6.  |  Asperifoli\u00e6.   |\n  |  Loase\u00e6.         |  Olacine\u00e6.     |  Verbenace\u00e6.    |\n  |  Passiflore\u00e6.    |  Diospyros.    |  Sambuce\u00e6.      |\n  |  Cucurbitace\u00e6.   |  Sapot\u00e6.       |  Myrsine\u00e6.      |\n  +------------------+----------------+-----------------+\n\n  +===================================================+\n  |                                                   |\n  |    THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA--DICOTYLEDONES.    |\n  |                                                   |\n  +---------------------------------------------------+\n  | CIRCLE II. _Flower-plants--Hypogynous Polypetal\u00e6._|\n  +===============+=================+=================+\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  |   CLASS X.    |    CLASS XI.    |   CLASS XII.    |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  | Seed-plants.  | Ovarium-plants. | Corolla-plants. |\n  |  _Polycarp\u00e6._ |  _Capsulifer\u00e6._ |   _Siliquos\u00e6._  |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  | Ranunculace\u00e6. | Rutace\u00e6.        | Caryophyllace\u00e6. |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  |  Ranunculi.   |  Rute\u00e6.         |  Portulace\u00e6.    |\n  |  Hellebore\u00e6.  |  Diosme\u00e6.       |  Spergula.      |\n  |  Geraniace\u00e6.  |  Zygophylle\u00e6.   |  Carnations.    |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  | Tiliace\u00e6.     | Ochnace\u00e6.       | Violace\u00e6.       |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  |  Theace\u00e6.     |  Xanthoxyle\u00e6.   |  Droserace\u00e6.    |\n  |  Lime-trees.  |  Ochne\u00e6.        |  Violets.       |\n  |  El\u00e6ocarpe\u00e6.  |  Quassie\u00e6.      |  Cistace\u00e6.      |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  | Sterculiace\u00e6. | Polygalace\u00e6.    | Crucifer\u00e6.      |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  |  Hermanne\u00e6.   |  Polygale\u00e6.     |  Radishes.      |\n  |  Dombeyace\u00e6.  |  Vochysie\u00e6.     |  Cresses.       |\n  |  Stercule\u00e6.   |  Pittospore\u00e6.   |  Cabbages.      |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  | Malvace\u00e6.     | Meliace\u00e6.       | Papaverace\u00e6.    |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  |  Malve\u00e6.      |  Cedrele\u00e6.      |  Capers.        |\n  |  Hibisce\u00e6.    |  Melie\u00e6.        |  Berberide\u00e6.    |\n  |  Bombace\u00e6.    |  Aurantiace\u00e6.   |  Poppies.       |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  | Magnoliace\u00e6.  | Malpighiace\u00e6.   | Guttifer\u00e6.      |\n  |               |                 |                 |\n  |  Magnolie\u00e6.   |  Platanace\u00e6.    |  Dipterocarpe\u00e6. |\n  |  Menisperme\u00e6. |  Malpighie\u00e6.    |  Calophylle\u00e6.   |\n  |  Dillene\u00e6.    |  Hippocrate\u00e6.   |  Marcgraviace\u00e6. |\n  |  Anone\u00e6.      |  Sapinde\u00e6.      |  Garcinie\u00e6.     |\n  +---------------+-----------------+-----------------+\n\n +===================================================================+\n |                                                                   |\n |              THIRD PROVINCE. ARTHROPHYTA--DICOTYLEDONES.          |\n |                                                                   |\n +-------------------------------------------------------------------+\n |   CIRCLE III. _Fruit-plants--Apetal\u00e6_ and _perigynous Polypetal\u00e6_.|\n +==============+===============+================+===================+\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  CLASS XIII. |   CLASS XIV.  |    CLASS XV.   |    CLASS XVI.     |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  Nut-plants. |  Plum-plants. |  Berry-plants. |  Apple-plants.    |\n |  _Nucari\u00e6._  |  _Drupace\u00e6._  |   _Baccari\u00e6._  |    _Pomace\u00e6._     |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n | Olerace\u00e6.    | Astragalace\u00e6. | Umbellat\u00e6.     | Semperviv\u00e6.       |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  Scleranthe\u00e6.|  Hedysare\u00e6.   |  Saniculid\u00e6.   |  Galacine\u00e6.       |\n |  Atriplices. |  Astragale\u00e6.  |  Carrots.      |  Crassulace\u00e6.     |\n |  Amaranths.  |  Glycine\u00e6.    |  Caraways.     |  Mesembryantheme\u00e6.|\n |              |               |                |                   |\n | Polygonace\u00e6. | Trifoliace\u00e6.  | Caprifoliace\u00e6. | Tamariscine\u00e6.     |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  Plantains.  |  Trifolie\u00e6.   |  Mistletoes.   |  Tamarisks.       |\n |  Phytolacce\u00e6.|  Geniste\u00e6.    |  Sambuce\u00e6.     |  Buniace\u00e6.        |\n |  Illecebre\u00e6. |  Galege\u00e6.     |  Vines.        |  Hamamelide\u00e6.     |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n | Thymelace\u00e6.  | Phaseolace\u00e6.  | Lythrace\u00e6.     | Saxifrage\u00e6.       |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  Nyctagine\u00e6. |  Vetches.     |  Trape\u00e6.       |  Saxifrages.      |\n |  Daphnoide\u00e6. |  Dalbergie\u00e6.  |  Epilobe\u00e6.     |  Cunoniace\u00e6.      |\n |  Santalace\u00e6. |  Sophore\u00e6.    |  Salicari\u00e6.    |  Lilacs.          |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n | Laurace\u00e6.    | Mimosace\u00e6.    | Melastomace\u00e6.  | Rosace\u00e6.          |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  Proteace\u00e6.  |  Detarie\u00e6.    |  Rhexie\u00e6.      |  Potentill\u00e6.      |\n |  Aquilarine\u00e6.|  Mimose\u00e6.     |  Melastome\u00e6.   |  Neurade\u00e6.        |\n |  Laurels.    |  Cassie\u00e6.     |  Grossularie\u00e6. |  Sanguisorbe\u00e6.    |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n | Diclinisten. | Terebinthace\u00e6.|  Myrtace\u00e6.     | Fruit-trees.      |\n |              |               |                |                   |\n |  Amentace\u00e6.  |  Empetre\u00e6.    | Lecythide\u00e6.    |  Pomegranates.    |\n |  Nettles.    |  Celastrine\u00e6. |  Barringtonie\u00e6.|  Plums.           |\n |  Artocarpe\u00e6. |  Rhamne\u00e6.     |  Leptosperme\u00e6. |  Medlars.         |\n |  Euphorbic\u00e6. |  Terebinthe\u00e6. |  Myrte\u00e6.       |  Apples.          |\n +--------------+---------------+----------------+-------------------+\n\nThird order, _P. axonales_. Herbs, shrubs, and trees, with similar\nblossoms, but many seeds.--_Saxifrage\u00e6_, _Cunoniace\u00e6_, _Hortensi\u00e6_ and\n_Lilacs_.\n\nFourth order, _P. florales_. Herbs and shrubs, with many stamina and\nfollicles.--_Rosace\u00e6_.\n\nFifth order, _P. fructuari\u00e6_. Trees with multistaminal-coroll\u00e6 and\nfleshy fruits.--_Monimie\u00e6_, _Pomegranates_, _Plums_, _Medlars_,\n_Apples_. (For their sixteen families vid. Tab. B.)\n\n1754. In order to prove that each class of vegetables commences from\nbelow, and that all ascend in a parallel series beside each other, it\nis requisite only to place them in a tabular form. Further details upon\nthis subject are to be found in my earlier works upon Natural History.\nThe adjoining Table may here suffice. I place the families according to\nmy \"Lehrbuch der Naturgeschichte,\" although I am very well aware that\nall do not stand in the right place. That indeed no one will expect.\n\n\n\n\nTHIRD KINGDOM.\n\nANIMAL KINGDOM.\n\n\n1755. The animal kingdom is the individual development of all four\nelements.\n\n\nZOOSOPHY,\n\n1756. Is the development of the animal kingdom in consciousness. The\nrepetition of the animal creation is spiritually divisible into Anatomy\n(Zoogeny), Physiology (Zoonomy), and Zoology.\n\n\nI.--_ZOOGENY_.\n\n1757. Zoogeny represents the idea of the animal or the developmental\nhistory of the individual animal.\n\n\nIRRITABILITY OF THE BLOSSOM.\n\n1758. The Highest to which the vegetable kingdom could attain was\nthe blossom; and of this the sexual parts are the completion. At the\ninstant when the sex originated, the vegetable functions became of a\nnobler character; for the sexual organs are only the inferior organs\nrefined or purified by light. The electrical and chemical process of\nthe vegetable body are again represented, but in a spiritual manner,\nin the blossom. The functions of the fruit were none other than those\nof the elevated chemism; they were only the nobler processes of\ndigestion and nutrition. As their purest expression of life, and that\nwhich has been produced simply by their co-operation, is the motion\nwhich resides in cellular tissue, so also was it this only, which\nobtained a preponderance in the fruit, and that indeed at the cost of\nthe material processes. The germen obtained a kind of motion; yet this\nappears to be still imparted by material processes. In the corolla,\nhowever, this expression of life attained to completion. It is no\nlonger simple nutrition or accumulation of sap that moves the stamina\nupon the female stigma, but a purely polar act; the Immaterial, the\nSpiritual produces the phenomena of life. These movements of copulation\nare by no means a coalescence, are not a nutritive act, nor the result\nof mechanical decissation, as is the case in many capsules; but true\nelevated vital actions. The parts reassume after the motion their first\nor original position, a feat which is performed by no capsule upon its\ndehiscence. Of these movements, those of the leaves in the sensitive\nplants, e. g. Hedysarum gyrans, are the antetypes or prefigurations.\nThere consequently originates with the highest development of the\nlight-organs in the plant, a motion independent of the material\nprocesses, and of the terrestrial elements.\n\n1759. A motion, that is liberated from the terrestrial elements, is\nfree from their mechanism; it simply obeys the nature of the \u00e6ther,\nwhich is of a spiritual, or voluntary, kind.\n\n1760. The essence of volition or free-will does not reside, in a\nphysical sense, in the consciousness of the action, but in the\nautocrasy; or in the ability to perform an action, without external or\nterrestrial influence. The \u00e6ther-actions have originated from special\npolarity. Independent movements must therefore be such as have been\nproduced simply by polarity, apart from material intrusion.\n\n1761. The ability or power upon the part of organic bodies to apprehend\npolar excitation, to move themselves simply by its means, and again to\nrestore themselves to their former state, without regard being paid\nto a material process, I call _Irritability_. That organ is irritable\nwhich can move itself without any other object than that of automacy or\nself-motion.\n\n1762. Irritability belongs to the plant, but is only of that kind\nwhere the perception cannot express itself otherwise than by direct\nmotion. In the sexual parts and probably in the highest leaf-formation,\nthe plant is elevated to irritability; unto motion through simple\nperception, unto motion without design, to motion from mere lust or\ndesire. The highest spiritual operation, of which the plant is capable,\nis irritability. But as everything which has attained its Highest,\nstands at the end of its development, so also has the plant terminated,\nwhen it has once exercised its power of irritability through copulation.\n\n\nSEXUAL MOTION.\n\n1763. All the irritable motion of the vegetable may be confined or\nreduced to the movements of the stamen-filaments, the other movements\nbeing merely precursors of these. What, therefore, the stamina would\nachieve by their motion, that the irritability does in a general point\nof view. The motion of the stamina is directed merely upon the stigma,\nin order to impart the male pollen to the female body; and thus, simply\nto evoke the spiritual tension, which resides originally in the male\nsemen, as in light-\u00e6ther from the dead mass, but that originally dwells\nin the female seed as in the dark mass of earth.\n\n1764. Now, since the stigma bears simply relation to the contents\nof the ovary, and conveys everything to this, and thus, to a female\nutricle, which is the middle of the plant, or its body proper; so in\nthe motion of the male organs, the conatus or effort upon their part to\nintroduce an elemental matter, or rather its spirit into this utricle,\nor this body, is rendered manifest or revealed. The highest Spiritual\nof the plant is accordingly not a mere motion in the general sense;\nbut one that is definite and wholly special--_a motion of Ingestion_.\nThe direction or design of the first _independent_ motion is therefore\n_Ingestion_; this again not being of a general, but a wholly definite\nimport, namely, an ingestion of the _male_ organ into the _female_.\n\n1765. The Male is, however, characterized by its self-substantial\npolarity, and by its self-intrinsic life; the Female by the want of\npolarity, by a heterodependent life. The act of ingestion thus depends\nupon polarization, upon evocation and maintenance of an independent\nlife. The fruit is vivified by impregnation, ay, for the first time\nthen obtains life; the female becomes self-active through the vital\nspirit received from the male; the body is kept alive by, and only\nby, ingestion. The act of ingestion is the act that tends unto the\nself-substantial, independent life.\n\n1766. The blossom dies, so soon as, by ingestion, it has attained this\nindependent life. If we assume that it could not die, but retain the\nlife that was momentarily won for several instants; then this would\nhappen only by repetition of the first act, whereby it had obtained\nin an instant a self-substantial life; and thus by repetition of the\ningestion. By ceaseless ingestion only can the blossom gain a lasting,\nself-substantial life of motion.\n\n1767. But such a blossom, when self-dependently subsisting, could not\ncontinue in further union with the vegetable stock or trunk, for this\nis no longer requisite for its life's support; through the first act of\nvivification, through the once sprinkled pollen, it virtually becomes\ndetached and falls as fruit to the ground; as a fruit certainly, or\nas a female body, unto which is wanting the _continued_ excitation\nproduced by the male coition. A fruit thus detached or fallen off, and\nretaining the male filaments, which ceaselessly exercise the function\nof ingestion, will be of necessity engaged in constant motion; will be\na blossom, that incessantly practises copulation.\n\n1768. As in this blossom the motion of ingestion is that alone\nwhich sustains it, and nothing more can flow to it from a stem;\nso also will this blossom be occupied in constant motion; and it\nconsequently comes to pass that the action, which broke forth at the\nlast and instantaneously in the plant, being thus the highest or most\nindividualized, is here the first, inferior, and most general action,\nor one that lies at the foundation of all other processes. The free\nblossom is naught but movement of ingestion.\n\n1769. The blossom, however, concentrates in itself all the lower\nvegetable processes, is itself naught but the aggregate of such\nprocesses repeated in the body of the light; thus the blossom, having\nbeen set free, is a vesicle of ingestion endowed with all terrestrial\nfunctions.\n\n\nANIMAL FORMATION.\n\n1770. The vegetable blossom loses its definition as plant, so soon\nas it has acquired self-substantial life; it loses its definition,\nbecause as blossom, it simply lives in light, while the plant must half\ndwell in darkness; it loses it, because the copulating motion can be\nfrequently self-repeated.\n\n1771. The self-moveable or automatic blossom has consequently passed\nover into a new kingdom, or into one whose very definition is the\nself-substantial motion.\n\n1772. A blossom, which, when separated from the stem, maintains by its\nown motion the galvanic process or the life within itself, and gets its\nprocess of polarization, not from a body lying external to or coherent\nwith it (as is the vegetable stem); but only from itself--such blossom\nis an _Animal_. An animal is blossom without stem or a flower, which of\nitself produces its stem, this being the reverse of what takes place\nin the plant. The essence of the animal consists in the maintenance\nthrough its own motion of the galvanic vital process. It has been\nalready shown above, in speaking \"quoad\" the distinction of the organic\nessences, that the exclusive or only valid difference between plant\nand animal, was motion arising in the latter apart from any external\nstimulus. We have now been brought by quite another route to the same\nresult.\n\n1773. If the animal is the floral vesicle living from or by itself,\nit can no longer lie fettered like the plant between two elements; it\nmust be nominally free from the chains of darkness, and thus from the\nearth. No animal is so joined by growth with the earth, that like as in\na plant this should be a co-operating pole in its processes. No animal\nmust co-exist in two elements like the plant, but it has all elements\nin itself, like the blossom includes all vegetable parts. It may be\nsaid that the plant has been immersed in the earth, water, and air;\nthese three elements having, on the contrary, been immersed in the\nanimal. The animal is in respect to them the continent, the planet;\nthey, however, are the continent in respect to the plant. Thus the\nrelations to the world are completely reversed in both.\n\n1774. An animal is a floral vesicle freely separated from the earth,\nand living alone through its own motion in the water and air. And\nhere it is not locomotion that is treated of, since this by no means\nbelongs to the animal's essence. Yet on this account the poor oyster\nwas formerly adduced as an argument against this animal character, but\nunjustly; for would a man frozen up in an ice-block lose his character\nas an animal? The oyster opens its shell and shuts it too, as well as\nthe crocodile opens and shuts its jaws.\n\n\nANIMAL SIGNIFICATION.\n\nWe will now proceed to knit or associate with this genetic or\nphysiological, the physio-philosophical mode of development.\n\n1775. Every Organic originates from a mucus-point. If this mucus-point\noccur in the darkness, it thus becomes a terrestrial organism, a plant;\nif it enter into the light, which is only possible in the water and\nin air, it thus becomes a solar organism, independent of the planet,\nself-moving around itself like the sun, an animal.\n\n1776. An animal is a light-mucus-vesicle, a plant, so far as the root\nis concerned, a darkness-mucus-vesicle; but it works its way unto air\nand light, and becomes a light-mucus-vesicle in the blossom.\n\n1777. A free blossom is consequently to be philosophically regarded as\nequivalent to the primary mucus-vesicle, which has at once developed\nitself in the water. Now, such an aqueo-mucus-vesicle is directly that\nwhich the blossom can first become through a series of developments,\nand by divestures of the Dark.\n\n1778. The plant is an animal retarded by the darkness; the animal is a\nplant blooming directly through the light, and devoid of root.\n\n1779. The animal has been posited as a light-or \u00e6ther-Total upon the\nplanet; the vegetable as a planetary Total in light.\n\n1780. The animal is a whole solar system, the plant only a planet. The\nanimal is therefore a whole universe, the plant only its half; the\nformer is microcosm, the latter microplanet.\n\n\nANIMAL PLACE.\n\n1781. No animal can become developed beneath the earth, or where it is\nabsolutely dark and dry. None simply or solely in air. Water is the\norigin or source of all animals.\n\n1782. They have originated upon the sea-shore, but not in the midst of\nthe sea, nor in that of the land. The deluge cast up the first men.\nThey were littoral inhabitants, and without doubt carnivorous, as\nsavages still are. For whence could they have obtained also fruits,\ncabbage, and turnips?\n\n\nSENSATION.\n\n1783. In so far as the animal vesicle is a whole solar system, to it,\nthe characters that transcend the plant, such as motion, belong.\n\n1784. But motion is not that alone which is displayed in the floral\ncyst when it has become solar; but with it there is yet something\nhigher bestowed.\n\n1785. Like light or sun the vesicle has the principle of its\npolarization or determination in itself; and it is certainly itself\nwhich moves its organs in conformity with this self-determination;\nbut it is withal in antagonism towards the elements, like the sun is\ntowards the planets. Through this antagonism the sun is destined unto\nthe development of light. Although the light is its own product, still\nit perceives the object toward which the \u00e6ther-polarity is directed.\nThis perception of the direction, whither motion should act by means\nof the central polarity, is in the animal called _Sensation_.\n\n1786. Sensation is the relation of the Central to the Peripheric, of\nthe sun to the planet; motion is the relation of the periphery to\nthe centre, of the planet to the sun. The Animal emerges into being\nfrom the alternating play of the supremest antagonism in the heavenly\nbodies, the Vegetable from that of the terrestrial antagonisms.\n\n1787. Emission of light is discharging or unloading of the sun achieved\nby the influence of the planets; sensation is unloading of the animal\nby objects, by the world, and by its own organs.\n\n1788. Sensation is therefore a positing of _want_ in the animal.\nThrough sensation nothing comes into, but rather something passes out\nof us.\n\n1789. The animal vesicle is a sentient or feeling blossom.\n\n\nSEXUAL ANIMAL.\n\n1790. As the essence of the blossom consists in the sex, so indeed is\nthe blossom none other than the sexual system; thus it may be said that\nthe animal vesicle is none other than a _sentient Sexual cyst_. This\ndiscovery is of the highest importance for the whole of zoosophy.\n\n1791. Two fundamental properties are originally combined in the\nanimal, at the very instant when an animal can exist. There is never\none without the other, never simply sensation, but also motion; but\nthe latter is not simply this, but is at once also a _movement of\ncopulation_. The animal is a sentient genital.\n\n1792. Both fundamental properties are however subordinated to each\nother. The basis of the animal organism is the sexual system; with this\nthe animal commences; what is further developed in addition thereunto,\nis only higher completion. But what it, as sexual system, does, it does\nonly through sensation.\n\n1793. It is natural that the animal has not been concluded with the\nsentient sexual system; but that the terrestrial processes also are\ndeveloped like as in the plant, and perfected indeed more individually\nthan in the latter. The main distinction is, however, this; that these\nprocesses have preceded in the plant, and the sexual system grown out\nof them; in the animal, on the other hand, the sexual system is the\nfoundation, the root, out of which these processes grow forth. The\nfirst and simplest animal vesicle is a sexual cyst, a _matrix_ or\nwomb.\n\n\nSENSITIVE ANIMAL.\n\n1794. The animal is a twofold representation of the organization,\nbeing at one time the planetary, and at one time the solar. There is\na planetary animal and a solar animal in the higher organism. The\nplanetary animal is the plant in the animal, the galvanic animal; the\nsolar animal is the sentient, the light-or \u00e6ther-animal.\n\n1795. The highest completion of the vegetable animal is in the\nblossom. There is thus a sexual or _Sex's animal_ and a sensitive or\n_Sensation's animal_.\n\n1796. The completed animal consists of two animals, because it is at\nonce planet and sun, plant and animal.\n\n1797. The vegetable and the sensitive animal have been formed parallel\nto each other, yet in such a manner that the former being the lowest,\ncontains only the dispositions unto the highest. There are consequently\nvegetative and animal organs, which take a parallel range. The animal\ngrows upon a vegetable body. It may be aptly said, that the root of the\nplant becomes the mouth or head of the animal, the stem the trunk or\nvisceral body, the blossom the sexual parts. The three parts therefore\nof the animal body, and the antagonism therefore of the head with the\nsexual parts, unite through the medium of the vegetable stem, or the\nvisceral body.\n\n\nANIMAL ANATOMY.\n\n1798. The parts of the animal body divide, as in the plant, into\ntissues, anatomical systems, and into organs proper or members. The\ntissues are the constituent parts of the systems, these of the organs,\nand all collectively, or associated, of the body.\n\n\nI. _Animal Tissues._\n\n1799. These are the mathematical primary forms, whereof the animal body\nconsists, and divide into the animal and vegetative fundamental forms.\n\n\nA. ANIMAL FUNDAMENTAL FORMS.\n\n1800. As animality is the representation of the three conditions of\n\u00e6ther, and thus of the gravity, with light and heat or motion, so are\nthree tissues to be met with, which correspond to these three forms.\nThe light emerges from the centre; the gravity occupies the whole\nmass; the motion oscillates between the two. The organic light-mass\nwill therefore, as sun, occupy the centre, the gravity-mass, like the\nplanets, the periphery, the motion-mass, like the heat, the radii\nbetween the two. The primary form is, however, the primary vesicle.\nIf, therefore, new tissues appear in the animal, they can thus be only\nmetamorphoses of the vesicle. The vesicle, can only resolve itself into\nthree forms; either its contents become self-substantial--_Point_;\nor in like manner the envelope--_Line_; or, finally, both become an\nuniform mass--_Globe_.\n\n\n1. _Point-tissue._\n\n1801. We take up or commence the study of the animal substance, with\nthe condition under which it has originated, that of a vesicle or\nsensitive blossom. The vegetable texture attained a form which was\nprescribed by the light. Now, as the animal vesicle is, in the first\nplace, nothing else but a Sentient, so must the texture of the original\nanimal vesicle be commensurate with this property.\n\n1802. The highest perfection of the blossom was, however, resolution\nof the texture into the original form of vesicles or granules, a\nretroconduction of the organic mass to the primary condition, yet under\nthe signification of light. The Highest of the blossom was an organized\nand designedly-prepared granular texture--pollen.\n\n1803. Now a substance which absolves itself from the terrestrial\nforms, and would assume the form of the \u00e6ther, and thus of that which\nis most discrete, can represent no other form than that of the point.\nThe whole \u00e6ther is an infinity of non-coherent atoms. This atomic\nformation, when metatyped or copied in a terrestrial mass, can be none\nother than a granular substance.\n\n1804. The fundamental substance of the animal is point-substance; but,\nsince the essence of the animal consists in its being a sensitive\nsubstance, so must it belong to the latter's essence, that it be atomic\nor punctiform. The point-texture is equivalent to the sensitive mass.\n\n1805. It might be believed, that as the animal is a floral vesicle,\nthe cystic or cell-form must also lie at its foundation; only, there\nis another relation beyond that which occurs in the plant. This animal\ncyst is an already organized cyst, an _organ_, no longer a component\npart of an anatomical system; this cystic form cannot, therefore, enter\ninto the texture of the animal mass; yet meanwhile, as is natural,\nthe sensitive mass admits of being reduced, but only as organic in\na general sense, to the vesicular form. The lowest animals, such as\nthe Infusoria, Polyps, Acaleph\u00e6, or sea-nettles, in short, all Protozoa\nor mucous animals consist of this point-substance, and are wholly\nsensitive mass.\n\n\n_Nervous Mass._\n\n1806. The sensitive mass is called in higher animals, _Nervous\nmass_. The nervous texture is a conjoined series of mucus-granules,\nwhich have become albuminous in character. The nervous mass is the\nleast organized; it has selected the primary forms, which have been\npreconstructed in \u00e6ther, or the densely fluid solar matter. The\nDominant of the terrestrial organs can have also no other form, than\nsuch as agrees with the Dominant or governing primary mass of the\nplanetary system; or it can have none other, because at the instant\nwhen it exists, it is sentient. At the first instant of the origin of\norganic matter, it can, however, originate only as infinitely numerous\npoints; at the termination of the plant, this mass would be displayed\nas a light-organ; being thus engendered as such, it must forsake the\nvegetable forms, and assume the universal form-susceptive primary form,\nwhich is the form of the point. The floral mass, the delicate petals\nof the corolla, the stamina and the pollen are to be deemed the first\nonset or advance that is made to nervous mass. The cellular tissue\nbecomes delicate and gradually resolves itself into granules.\n\n1807. Granular or point-mass is, however, an accumulation of centres.\nThe nervous mass is therefore, in accordance with the conception of the\nOrganic, a repeated, multiplied centre. The nervous mass has therefore\na light-function, i. e. the gentlest polarization in the organism.\nNervous mass is light-mass.\n\n1808. The animal substance has commenced with the nervous mass; thus\nwith that which is the highest, and which physiologists have deemed to\nbe the ultimate mass. The origin of the animal is from the nerves, and\nall anatomical systems are only free evolutions or separations from the\nnervous mass. The animal is naught but nerve. What it is further or in\naddition, is obtained elsewhere, or is a metamorphosis of nerves. The\nmucus of the Infusoria, Polyps, and Acaleph\u00e6 is nervous substance upon\nthe lowest stage or degree, where the other substances that are therein\ninvolved and merged, have not as yet been perfected in an isolated\nmanner.\n\n1809. The nervous mass indicates the absolute Indifferent in an animal,\nand consequently that which is polarizable by the gentlest aura or\nbreath.\n\n\n_Division of the Nervous Mass._\n\n1810. The nervous mass behaves itself also in its production like the\nsolar mass. As from this the planets have through antagonism on the\nperiphery, emancipated themselves, so from the nervous mass have the\nanatomical systems, which are subservient unto lower purposes.\n\n1811. The development of the animal organs is a constant division\nof the nervous mass, whereby it becomes more and more divested of\ntheir coarse coverings, and traverses the same like radiating \u00e6ther,\nilluminant, heating, and moving \u00e6ther. It is a positing of the centre\nin the periphery.\n\n1812. When also the other systems have been formed out of the identical\nnervous mass, still the whole animal body is naught but nervous mass,\nonly, in a crude or inert condition. There is, consequently, no point\nupon the body, on which the nervous phenomena are absolutely wanting,\nor where they may not appear under certain relations.\n\n1813. What remains behind of the nervous mass, has now the form of\nfilaments or rays, which are projected from one centre, the brain, to\nall parts of the periphery.\n\n1814. The nerves being individualized, and withdrawn from the coarser\nmass, stand in need of no _actio in distans_, or no nervous atmosphere\n(although for other reasons such a one may exist), in order that every\npart of the body should have sensibility or feel; for every substance\nis verily but an aberrant nervous substance, in which the original\nspirit is still inherent or abides.\n\n1815. Each part of the body has consequently irritability, and each\none has the capacity for sensation; and that, indeed, through and in\nitself, or not borrowed from, what have been called, nerves; as it is\nindeed only the coarse nervous envelope of the more delicate nerves.\n\n1816. Yet, meanwhile it is certain, that nothing feels but the nervous\nmass, because every thing, which feels, does, and hath the power to\ndo so, only in so far as it has been _nervous mass_. Precisely as all\nmetals are only magnetic in so far as they are metamorphosed iron,\nwhich is the primary metal.\n\n1817. Certain formations or textures must, on that account, have\ndifferent sensations, because they have deviated more or less remotely\nfrom the primary texture; _without_ in this any regard being paid to\nthe number of nerves running to such systems.\n\n1818. The transformation of the nervous mass upon the periphery is\nchiefly imparted by oxydation, because here the oxygen of the water\nexerts a direct influence. The transformation does not, however, simply\noccur upon the periphery, but also internally, and that indeed in a\nbeamy or radial direction. The external parts will be harder, the\ninternal or radial continue soft, but be more solid than the nervous\nmass itself.\n\n\n2. _Globe-tissue._\n\n1819. The nervous tissue alone cannot constitute the animal substance\nconcerned in all functions, but it must with further development pass\nover into another. As the \u00e6ther-mass cannot concentrate itself into\nthe sun without, from the antagonism with the refraction of light,\ncondensing into planets, so also a central mass cannot subsist in an\nanimal, without converting itself on the periphery into one that is\nplanetary or terrestrial.\n\n1820. The antagonistic mass, originating in a peripheral relation\nin the nervous mass, will surround the residue of the latter like a\ncyst or cyst, just like the planetary masses, or the colours, have\nprimordially surrounded the sun as great hollow globes. The aggregate\nand purer nervous mass becomes thus directly the central mass of the\nanimal--the _brain_.\n\n1821. The limitary mass originates through oxygenation. Thus the\ncolours originate; they are an oxygenated light. Thus has every\nterrestrial mass originated through combustion. The planets are suns\nthat have undergone combustion; the limitary mass is nervous mass\nsimilarly treated and deoxydized.\n\n1822. As having been already subjected to combustion, it therefore\nbecomes polarizable, and consequently susceptible of sensation in\nthe least degree. The limitary mass must be rigid or fixed; for it\nhas indeed originated through fixation of the poles, or through the\nstrongest oxydation. The limitary mass is the most rigid in the whole\nanimal; for it is the primary antagonism with the nervous mass, the\nultimate planetary matter, which is characterized by immoveability of\nthe atoms.\n\n1823. The limitary mass must be typical of the earth-element, this\nbeing the most rigid, and the end of the oxydation. The limitary mass\nis the animal earth-mass, just as the median mass is the animal \u00e6ther-\nor fire-mass.\n\n1824. The texture of the animal earth-mass must be that of a crystal,\nbut of a round globular crystal; for it is organic mass, and can\nconsequently have been only deposited as vesicle; it is, however,\nearthy mass, so that the whole vesicle must be, with all its contents,\nrigidified. Now, the rigidified substance of a vesicle is a globe--the\ntexture of the mass which is opposed to that of the nerves is\nconsequently the globular form.\n\n\n_Osseous Mass._\n\n1825. The rigidified limitary mass, which exhibits histologically\ndense globes, consists of earthy substance, and surrounds the nervous\nmass, is _osseous mass_. The osseous or bony texture is a solid globe\nor rigidified vesicle, being thus ambitus or boundary, as well as\ncomplexus or contents.\n\n1826. Bone can only originate through oxydation of the animal mucous\nor nervous mass, whereby it is converted into a vesicular form. These\nvesicles are, however, by virtue of the highest oxydation, which must\nnecessarily enter into antagonism with the highest central organ,\nconverted wholly and thoroughly into rigid substance or earth, which is\nthe maximum of the oxydation or fixation of \u00e6ther.\n\n1827. The osseous mass, as the organic earth-mass, corresponds to\nthe gravity. It is the materiality in a general point of view in the\nOrganic, and consequently the Inert.\n\n1828. Osseous or limitary organs will become more rigid in the air than\nin water. The air-breathing animals must have more perfect bones or\nharder limitary organs.\n\n1829. Bones are therefore either wanting completely in the aquatic\nanimals, or they are mucus scarcely oxydized, in other words,\ncartilage; or finally, almost entirely rough carbonated earth, in the\ncorals and shells.\n\n1830. This theory is most beautifully proved in the corals. Internally\nthey consist of granular substance, like the polyps, or of sentient\nnervous mass; externally they are simply earth or globular form, which\nis the rudest antagonism presented to the likewise rude central mass.\n\n1831. Bone essentially surrounds the nervous mass. The skull environs\nand incloses the brain, the vertebr\u00e6 the spinal cord, the ribs, the\nvisceral nerves the snail's shell all the soft parts of that animal,\nthe coral stem its polyp-tube, the horny coat the insect.\n\n1832. The purest and highest antagonisms in an animal are nerve and\nbone, and as such they are demonstrated on every occasion. The nerve\nis that which is soft, powerless, changeable, sentient, governing,\nand motion-imparting; the bone, what is hard, strong, unchangeable,\nnon-sentient, governed, and becoming moved; the one properly speaking\nthe spiritually vitalizing, the other the spiritually dead, or\nself-subsistent simply in a mineral point of view. The bone is the\nobedient planet of the nerve.\n\n1833. Point-and globe-form are consequently, as regards the tissue of\nthe substance, the first two forms of the animal body.\n\n1834. What develops itself apart from nerve and bone in the animal,\nmust either range between or below both; it must participate of both\nforms, or be only their incompletion.\n\n\n3. _Fibrous Tissue._\n\n1835. The nervous and osseous substance could not range opposite to\neach other, without a transition or a something interposing; as little\nas could \u00e6ther and Terrestrial, or sun and planet, between which the\nmoved \u00e6ther or the heat oscillates, and conditionates the planetary\nmotion.\n\n1836. Between the soft point-form of the nerve and the hard globe-form\nof the bone, a semi-oxydation stands midway, just as the air stands\nbetween the \u00e6ther and the earth. As this is the medium element, wherein\nthe light is refracted into colours, and thereby warms and moves the\nplanet, so must this median animal formation be the element, through\nwhich the nerve imparts its motion to the bones.\n\n1837. This organ stands, like the air, upon the middle rate of\noxydation; the oxygen becomes alternately united with it and set free;\nwhich is neither possible in the point-form, as being that which\nincessantly liberates oxygen, nor in the globe-form, as being that\nwhich always holds or retains the oxygen in union with it.\n\n1838. This tissue must consist of firm or solid nervous granules, which\nhave been serially co-arranged in lines or radii. Such organic lines\nare called _Fibres_.\n\n1839. The fibrous is the third original tissue, which appears in the\nanimal organization.\n\n1840. The nerve acts upon the fibres as upon the bone, or as a Central\nupon a Peripheric, as the light upon the air.\n\n1841. Thereby the soft fibre is polarized; the poles are mutually\nattracted and repelled, and motion of the fibres originates, their\nextremities approximating or withdrawing by virtue of the polarity.\nContractile fibres are called _sarcose or fleshy fibres_.\n\n\n_Flesh._\n\n1842. The flesh is the median formation between nerve and bone. It is\nhalf nervous mass, therefore sentient, half bone, therefore moving.\n\n1843. The essence of the motion resides in the muscle, not in the\nnerve. Such is the cause of motion, the muscle being the self-moving,\nthe bone that which is moved.\n\n1844. The flesh must surround the bone, as the air or water surrounds\nthe earth.\n\n1845. The flesh is a terrestrial substance, just as the bone is; the\nnerve is a cosmical substance, and on that account the mediator of\neverything.\n\n\nB. VEGETABLE TISSUES.\n\n4. _Cellular Tissue._\n\n1846. There are three, and only three constituent forms essential to\nthe animal substance, the point, the globe, and the line; equivalent to\ncentre, periphery, and radius.\n\n1847. Out of these three all other forms, of whatever kind, are\ndeveloped, through degradation unto vegetable structure. This form can\nbe none other than the _Cell-form_. In the animal there are therefore\nfour fundamental forms, while in the vegetable only one occurs.\n\n1848. The cellular form may be also called the water in the animal, the\nglobe-form the earth, the fibrous the air, the point-form the fire.\nThus is the animal even in its tissues a whole universe, for it cannot\notherwise be thought of.\n\n1849. The cellular substance is the last division of the\npoint-substance, because the nervous granule becomes hollow. A true\ncellular tissue first makes its appearance therefore in the higher\nanimals.\n\n1850. Bone, flesh and nerve are the highest organs of the animal; the\nviscera, which mostly consist of cellular tissue, will indicate the\nVegetative in the animal. Proper animal organs can only present the\nabove-mentioned triplicity. What is not bone, flesh or nerve, is not\nanimal, but vegetable.\n\n1851. Nerve, flesh and bone are mutually excited, and are independent\nof the cellular tissue. They are moreover the animal in the animal, the\nthoroughly Free and Voluntary.\n\n1852. These three substances have therefore nothing to do with the\nthree terrestrial processes; they do not digest, respire, nourish nor\ntransport about the galvanic sap, but live for themselves or to their\nown satisfaction.\n\n1853. The origination of the three inferior substances out of the\nnervous mass, is perfectly similar to the original creative process\nof the three terrestrial elements from the \u00e6ther. The animal organism\nis a second world-creation, for in the organic \u00e6ther an organic air,\nearth and water, have been produced, or it has itself become these\nthrough fixation of the poles. This capacity for resemblance between\nthe organic and inorganic elements is marvellous; but yet there would\nbe more to wonder at, ay, it would be thoroughly incomprehensible, if\nthe organic elements had been created according to some other type.\n\n1854. When once the nervous mass has become separated from the three\nother masses, each then commences to be self-substantially perfected,\nand become a particular organ, though it is still under the supremacy\nof the primary mass.\n\n1855. The principal mass which constitutes the animal body, after\ncomplete separation of the chaotic nervous mass, is without doubt the\nfundamental mass of everything organic; being the mucus or cellular\nmass, in which the other elements have only been included like veins of\nore. It is the cellular mass therefore which we will first consider in\nits process of formative evolution.\n\n1856. As cellular mass it must be the seat of the galvanic process, and\nthus of the life proper. In the cellular mass consequently the three\nvegetative processes, or the three terrestrial elementary processes,\nmust be firmly established; as there digestion, respiration and\nnutrition are.\n\n1857. With these three processes, the three superior elementary forms,\nwhich are peculiar to the animal, as nerves, bones, and muscles, will\nhave nothing to do, excepting in so far as they govern them. As in the\nplant, so also in an animal, the terrestrial processes are only the\nappurtenance of the cellular tissue.\n\n1858. In cellular tissue is therefore the seat of life. But the\nvegetative mass simply lives that it may live, while the animal lives,\nin order to combine the universe with the life. The animal elements\nlive only in order to feel and move, in order to act freely like the\nworld; the vegetative only, that they may subsist as planet. The latter\nare an image of the planet, the former of the world; the one deal with\nmatter, the other with spirit.\n\n\n_Integument._\n\n1859. The cellular tissue does not continue a mere parenchyma in the\nanimal as in the plant, but it obtains a definite anatomical form.\n\n1860. The animal cellular tissue has issued forth from its highest\nformation in the plant, or out of the blossom, which is a great bladder\nor cyst composed of primary vesicles. It is the secondary cystic\nform, wherein the animal cellular tissue appears, when it becomes an\nanatomical system.\n\n1861. The animal cellular tissue forms therefore everywhere _large\nbladders_ or _cysts_, whose walls consist of primary vesicles, or of\nthe vegetable cellular tissue. Cyst-walls are teguments.\n\n1862. The cellular system in the animal is _Tegumentary system_.\n\n1863. The idea of the integument is the wall of a cyst. There is\nno tegument apart from the meaning of circumscription, inclusion, and\nlimitation. There is no flat integument, or one that could be designed\nafter the idea of the plane. Every tegument is periphery, just as there\nis nowhere a surface in the universe, which could have been produced\naccording to the level or plane.\n\n1864. All terrestrial processes, as digestion, respiration, and\nnutrition, are consequently tegumentary processes. All these organs\nmust be tegumentary organs. Intestine, vessel, lung, in a word all\nviscera are naught but tegument.\n\n1865. The vegetable tissue becomes in the animal, tegumentary\ntissue. The tegumentary formation is the vegetable in an animal--the\nparenchyma, the _Visceral_.\n\n1866. The lowest distinction between animal and plant resides\naccordingly in this, that the vegetable tissue consists of actual\nvesicles, which form everywhere closely compressed masses; the animal\ncellular tissue on the contrary of granules, which inclose a hollow\nspace. The animal body is a hollow globe of vesicles, the vegetable\nbody one full of vesicles. (Ed. 1st, 1810, \u00a7 1870.)\n\n1867. Every animal cyst is necessarily composed of the element of\nthe vesicles, and is then for the first time an organ. The vegetable\nbladders are, however, single vesicles, and as such are already an\norgan. In the plant therefore the cellular tissue is upon the lowest\nstage, being only an aggregate devoid of secondary form; in the animal\nalong with its aggregation a secondary form has been imparted. In this\nthe higher character of the animal is at once demonstrated.\n\n1868. The above is certainly a distinction between the two organisms,\nbut it is not the _essential_ one; for with it, what is animal has\nbeen by no means expressed; this being first imparted in the three\ncosmic elemental forms, which manifest themselves through sensation and\nmotion, and then admit of being recognized as an animal. The corolla is\nalso a cyst, but without being an animal; because, to this animal-like\ntegumentary formation, the proper animal elements are still wanting.\n\n1869. Now as the tegument is none other than the form, under which\nthe cellular tissue exists in the animal, we must regard it as an\nelemental form, which has stepped into the place of the cellular. The\ntegumentary form constitutes the fourth form, and is none other than\nthe primo-vesicular form elevated to a higher rank, by being composed\nof cell-granules, which have been formerly nerve-granules.\n\n1870. The animal body must consist of nerve, muscle, bone, and\ntegument, and of no other fundamental form; in other words, of point,\nline, globe, and cyst.\n\n\nII. _Anatomical Systems._\n\n1871. All anatomical systems are developments and separations of the\nfour tissues, which are prolonged as sheaths through the whole body,\nlike as in the plant are the bark, liber and wood.\n\n1872. They are divisible next of all into two great parties, into the\nterrestrial and cosmical, or vegetative and animal.\n\n\nA. VEGETATIVE SYSTEMS.\n\n1873. The vegetable systems can only be different developments of the\ntegument. They accord with the galvanic factors. Any further derivation\nof them is unnecessary. The tegumental development must be represented\nas the systems of digestion, respiration, and nutrition, since from it\nthese have been sufficiently borrowed or derived.\n\n1874. Except these three systems there can be no other tegumental\nsystem; and, if such appear to be present, they must be subordinate\nto these. For there cannot be subsequently any more than there was\nfundamentally or at bottom.\n\n1875. In the animal, however, the galvanic processes do not remain\nentangled in _one_ mass, as in the plant. But they are even\ncharacterized as animal by their individual liberation from the whole\nmass. In the plant digestion or absorption, and nutrition or the course\nof the sap, were in one kind of mass or one kind of cellular tissue,\nall three processes (together with respiration) being in a tolerably\nconfused condition.\n\n1876. The animal appears in its dignity by separation of these\nprocesses, and by the perfection of each individually, or \"per se.\"\n\n1877. As all life consists only in the constant conversion of what\nis inorganic into the Organic, so is the process of digestion or\nabsorption necessarily the first in animals.\n\n\n1. INTESTINAL SYSTEM.\n\n1878. The chemical process of the galvanism is conversion of the\nInorganic into mucus, and thus an assumption of this matter into the\norganic body. Now as every limit of the body is tegument or cellular\ntissue, so can this assumption take place everywhere. Adoption of what\nis external into an organic body is _absorption_.\n\n1879. Absorption originates from the antagonism of the body with the\nearth, which is organizable, and thus with the mucus.\n\n1880. We call this slime or mucus, nutritive matter. Wherever such\nmatter can operate upon the body, a corresponding organ of absorption,\nand thus a cell or integument, will be formed.\n\n1881. The whole body is surrounded by integument; it was originally\nnothing but integument.\n\n1882. The essence of the integument consists in absorption, or in the\nintervention of the chemical process.\n\n1883. The integument is the root of the animal.\n\n1884. The animal cellular mass is, however, in conformity with its\norigin, a bladder or cyst that has been opened by light and air. The\nintegument is a large cyst not closed all round, but open at _one_\nend. It is the open floral cyst, which has just become an animal.\nThe original integument is thus _Intestine_. The intestine is the\nwater-organ.\n\n1885. The integument presents therefore to the external world, or\nto the nutritive matter, two parietes or walls, an external and an\ninternal.\n\n1886. Both walls are opposed to each other like light and darkness,\nlike air and water. The external is the light-and air-wall, the\ninternal the darkness-and water-wall.\n\n1887. It is consequently only the internal wall that stands in the same\nrelation as the root. The internal is \"par excellence\" root, and is\nthus a main organ of absorption.\n\n1888. The external wall comes under the idea of the stem-bark, and\nin so far only as this has a root-nature in itself, is it likewise\nabsorbent.\n\n1889. As upon the external animal wall the light and air constantly\noperate--for without light indeed no animal originates--so is this\nwall more and more removed from the idea of the root, and becomes,\nby virtue of the influence of light and air, instead of an absorbent\norgan, an organ rather of decomposition--an _evaporation's organ_.\n\n1890. As a cyst the internal wall incloses the nutritive matter,\nwhich originates from the mucus, and thus from the organic water. The\ninternal wall is therefore constantly immersed in the water, and is\nconsequently in every respect a root.\n\n1891. As the animal is only developed in light, so must the function\nof the root languish in the external wall, and decay, because it is\ndevoid of the earth, which protects it from or against the light. This\ndeficiency is compensated for in another way, or by the formation of a\ncavity, into which the media of nutrition enter, and which is dark like\nthe earth.\n\n1892. Internal and external wall stand also opposite to each other,\nlike water and air. The one is the water-, the other the air-wall.\n\n1893. The nutritive matters are not decomposed upon the internal wall\nby extraneous influences, but they remain identical; ay, they become\nindifferent, because they enter into darker and warmer water.\n\n1894. On the other hand such nutritive matters are decomposed upon the\nexternal wall; and there here therefore gradually originates, instead\nof the chemicalizing root-process, the polarizing process of air.\n\n1895. In a perfect light-animal it is only the internal wall that is\nchemicalizing; the external has become oxydizing. The internal is a\nmucus-wall, but the external, on account of the decomposition of mucus,\nan oxygen-wall.\n\n\n_Division._\n\n1896. The more an animal has been exposed to the air and light, by so\nmuch the greater is the antagonism between its internal and external\nwall. In aquatic animals the antagonism is at its minimum, because\nexternally and internally there is water; both parietes are therefore\nmucus-walls. The external wall of the fishes secretes an abundance of\nmucus, as does that also of the worms, snails, and molluscs.\n\n1897. But an internal wall is still the more mucous of the two, because\nit is darker and warmer.\n\n1898. At first the animal is content with the antagonism of the walls;\nespecially so long as it remains occluded in dark and deep water,\nor within other animals. Many intestinal worms, polyps, and even\nAcalephous animals, are but simple sacs.\n\n1899. When the animal organization, however, ranks upon a higher stage,\nlight, or even air, operates more upon its external wall, but upon its\ninternal, water; thus the antagonism of the two walls is carried out to\nthe utmost degree.\n\n1900. Through the different, ay, opposed processes, the two walls\nfinally adopt another structure. The external becomes denser and\nharder, on account of the decomposition by light and dessication\nby air; the internal, however, retains its original structure and\nconsistence. Soft, aqueous, indifferent, and constantly absorbent, it\nis only a viscous mucus.\n\n1901. In place of an integument of similar tissue throughout, one will\noriginate, whose external tissue is dense and oxydized, but whose\ninternal is loose or spongy, and indifferent. The previously uniform\nintegument will now separate or fall into two distinct layers; into a\nsoft muco-cellular layer, and into a tough coriaceo-cellular layer.\n\n1902. With the last attainable antagonism the layers finally separate;\ntwo bladders or cysts, disunited from each other, originate; of these\nthe internal is the _mucous_, the external the _coriaceous cyst_.\n\n1903. Now the internal cyst alone is the _intestine_, the external the\n_cutis_ or _skin_.\n\n1904. Intestine and cutis belong to _one_ formation, or to the\nintegument. They pass directly into each other at the mouth and anus.\nTheir structure also is wholly similar.\n\n1905. They are merely distinguished by darkness and light, but more\nclosely by water and air. The intestine is the _water-tegument_, the\nskin the _air-tegument_.\n\n1906. The functions of both are therefore co-related like dissolution\nis to combustion, along with which the evaporation has been bestowed.\n\n1907. Intestine and skin stand in antagonism with each other.\n\n1908. The first animal, as being sentient integument, is a sac; the\nfirst skin is also a sac; an animal around the animal.\n\n\n2. DERMAL SYSTEM.\n\na. _Branchi\u00e6 or Gills._\n\n1909. The external wall, being constantly exposed to the air that is in\nthe water, can adopt no other than the aerial character, and is thus\nlike the leaf of the plant. The skin is the organ of evaporation, and\nwith this of oxydation also.\n\n1910. A self-oxydizing integument is called a _Branchia_ or gill.\n\n1911. The skin is essentially nothing else than a gill; and, if it\nsubsequently appears as anything else, this happens only through a\nhigher state of perfection being attained by its branchial function.\n\n1912. The lowest animals, such as most of the worms, molluscs, and\nsnails, breathe through the external integument; even the gills of\nfishes are none other than a piece of skin.\n\n1913. Thus gills and intestine would be the first two organs, which are\ndeveloped out of the tegumentary system by the antagonism of air and\nwater. Through the gills, air, and through the intestine, water enters\nthe body. The gill is the atmosphere of the animal, the intestine is\nits sea.\n\n\nb. _Trache\u00e6, or Air-tubes._\n\n1914. As the intestine, and in general every water-tegument is\nprolonged into mucous tubes or absorbent vessels; so also, with a more\nvigorous formation, the branchial membrane is drawn out into tubes, in\norder to conduct the air or oxygen towards the intestinal vessels, just\nas the intestine conveys through its absorbent ducts the water to the\nvessels of the skin.\n\n1915. This saccular inversion of the skin constitutes the tegumentary\nlymphatic vessels, whose original function has been to transport\nthe oxygen, combined with the water, to the intestine. They are the\noriginal respiratory vessels, which in the higher animals become,\nthrough the pure influence of air, true _Air-tubes_, like the spiral\nvessels.\n\n1916. The air-vessels traverse the thickness of the body toward the\nintestinal membrane, like the mucous vessels do toward the branchial\nmembrane.\n\n1917. Thus an infinite number of air-vessels will and must originate.\n\n1918. The air-tubes are consequently the formation which is properly\nopposed to the lymphatic vessels. They are for the air or for the skin,\nwhat these are for the water or the intestine. Air-vessels are first\ndisplayed in insects, then in fishes, reptiles, birds, and Thricozoa or\nMammalia.\n\n1919. If the infinitely numerous air-vessels concur to form one stem,\nthey are then called _lungs_, as in the higher animals.\n\n1920. The pulmonary vesicles are nothing but ramified air-tubes, such\nas the insect has.\n\n1921. The formation of air-tubes is one of a higher character than that\nof the gills. For in it, indeed, the function has been separated from\nall other functions. It is simply destined to convey the air without\nwater.\n\n1922. As they pass into the dark, light does not operate upon them;\nand they will therefore less promote evaporation than mediate unto\ncombustion.\n\n1923. The anatomical idea of the air-vessels, or of the lung, is\na saccular inversion of the skin. The skin is prolonged into, and\nramifies towards, the body. The intestine is prolonged through the\nabsorbent vessels, as being also small inversions, toward the lung,\nand becomes a stem--thoracic duct. Then the thoracic duct finally\nunites with the lungs through the medium of the heart, which is a new\nformation.\n\n1924. Everything becomes stem which attains a higher grade, and which\napproximates the air and light. The stem strives to be a centre, but\nthe ramification devolves upon the periphery; the former upon the Solar\nor Animal; the latter upon the Planetary or Vegetative.\n\n1925. The nobler therefore a formation, by so much the more single and\nstemmy is it: such is the case with the trachea of the lungs, such with\nthe lymphatic duct.\n\n\n3. VASCULAR SYSTEM.\n\n1926. The earth or the nutritive mass acts also upon its formation,\nand destines the tegument to a peculiar structure. The result of the\nelectric and chemical process, or of the oxydation of the mucus, is\nprecipitation, mass-and earth-formation; it is thus a process of\nnutrition, since through it the Solid of the body, with even the\nbranchial and intestinal membranes, originates.\n\n1927. The earth-system can only be developed where the two last systems\ncoincide, or where the intestinal and branchial processes enter into\nmutual contact; in short, where the mucus is oxydized, and thereby\nseparated into what is aerial and rigid.\n\n1928. This spot is only in the middle between the two. The process\nof precipitation and the formation of elemental matter occurs,\nconsequently, between the two layers of integument, or at present\nbetween the two teguments that have become self-substantial, or between\nintestine and skin.\n\n1929. A new formation must be evolved, whereby the two shall be held\ntogether; a formation, whereby the antagonism shall be conducted from\none to the other; and thus whereby the mucus shall be conveyed to the\nskin, but the air to the intestine.\n\n1930. Were intestine and skin entirely separated from each other, each\nwould perish; the former would no longer be oxydized, the latter no\nlonger nourished.\n\n1931. With their separation they must continue to be attached to each\nother at certain points, and thus undergo eversion at certain points.\nThereby tubes originate in the intestine, which pursue their course\ntoward the skin; in this again tubes, which pass to the intestine.\n\n1932. A tube, which receives mucus from the intestine, air from the\nskin, and includes both within itself, is a long cyst. A cyst,\nwhich conducts mucus to the skin and air to the intestine, is a\n_Vessel_, a _vein_.\n\n\na. _Unclosed Vascular System._\n\n1933. The vessel has, in virtue of its essence, two extremities,\nan air-extremity, which is polar, and a water-extremity, which is\nindifferent. Every vessel has been rooted in two systems, in the\nintestine and skin, and is subservient to both.\n\n1934. The vessel is no longer a something single, like the\nlast-mentioned or preceding cysts, but double. Every vessel hath two\npoles.\n\n1935. The organization necessarily produces two kinds of vessels.\nA vessel, which conducts the mucus to the skin, cannot also convey\nthe air to the intestine. There is consequently a mucus-vessel and\nan air-vessel, or a water-and an air-vessel, an indifferent and a\ndifferent.\n\n1936. The mucus-vessel is called _absorbent_, the air-vessel\n_respiratory duct_ or trachea.\n\n1937. Air-and absorbent vessel stand in antagonism like skin and\nintestine, like water and air. The air-vessel is the skin or the\nbranchia, which passes to the intestine, the absorbent vessel is the\nintestine, which passes to the air; the one the intestinal branchia,\nthe other the branchial intestine.\n\n1938. So long as intestine and skin were one in kind, this vascular\nprocess was in every situation. With their separation therefore the\nvascular structure has of necessity originated between two opposed\nsituations. There is no point in the skin and none in the intestine,\nwhere there might not be an air-and a water-vessel, a respiratory and\nabsorbent duct.\n\n1939. There are therefore _numerous_ vessels, and consequently a\n_Vascular system_.\n\n1940. Air-and water-vessel must abut against each other; because they\nare polar, because the one leads to this place and the other to that.\n\n1941. The system of water-and air-ducts can form no closed vascular\nsystem; for they only grow towards each other, as did formerly\nintestine and skin.\n\n1942. They would not have originated if both cysts had not separated\nfrom each other. These vessels are not therefore to be met with in\nanimals that have no intestine. The transition of the water-into the\nair-ducts takes place in the higher animals through the union of\nthe thoracic duct with the subclavian vein, which conveys the blood\ndirectly to the lungs.\n\n1943. The vascular system is properly the primo-cellular tissue, which\noccupies the middle, and at whose extremities the two cysts remain\napproximated, in order that they may continue to live.\n\n1944. The vascular is the original system, since its two extremities\nalready carry in themselves the air-and mucus-process, so that branchia\nand intestine are only to be viewed as peculiarly perfected conditions\nof these extremities. I would even have developed the vascular system\nfirst of all, had not another course been required to render the\nsubject intelligible.\n\n1945. The first animal cyst is a vessel with two kinds of extremities,\nwhereof, like the plant, one draws its supply from the water, the other\nfrom the air; but in the animal this is effected by its own motion.\n\n1946. The branchia is nothing but a vascular tissue in the air, the\nintestine none other than a vascular tissue in the water. Thus, do I\nwish that these organs should be understood, and not as mere cystic\nwalls.\n\n1947. Every point therefore in the intestine and skin absorbs, and thus\nevery part is perforated with infinitely numerous holes or pores. Here\nthey absorb air, there water.\n\n1948. Every absorbent point of integument is drawn out as a tube\ntowards the respiratory system, in order to let what it has absorbed\nbecome oxydized. These tegumentary prolongations into tubes are the\n_lymphatic vessels_.\n\n1949. In all teguments there are necessarily lymphatic vessels, but\nmore of them in the water-than the air-teguments. On that account the\nlymphatic vessels are much more numerous in the intestine than the\nskin. They are there called chyliferous, or lacteal vessels.\n\n1950. The lymphatic vessels are the first of all vessels. Many animals,\nas perhaps the Acaleph\u00e6 and Distomata, appear to have only this kind of\nvessel.\n\n1951. Lymphatic vessels are present in the skin, only in so far as it\nhas resigned the respiratory function to special organs.\n\n\n_Meaning of the Unclosed Vascular System._\n\n1952. The action of this unclosed vascular system is wholly similar to\nthe motion of sap and air in the plant, there being only an ascent of\nthe first, and a fall or descent of the last. In the absorbents the sap\nascends out of the root (intestine) into the leaves (branchi\u00e6); in the\nrespiratory vessels the air descends from the foliage (skin) to the\nintestine and the whole body of cells.\n\n1953. This vascular system is therefore the pure remnant of the plant,\nand has as yet assumed no properly animal character, except that both\nits sets of vessels or tubes are self-substantial, and ramify, while in\nthe plant they are only intercellular passages or non-ramified spiral\nvessels.\n\n1954. In insects this system has been most perfectly evolved; there\nthe air-tubes, being well parcelled out, are in great number, and run\ndirectly to the intestine and dorsal vessel, which is, as it were, only\nthe trunk of the lymphatic vessels, or the chyliferous duct.\n\n1955. Now, such a vascular system, merely oscillating, as it were,\nbetween intestine and skin, can be but persistent in animals,\nwhich express only the vegetable type of organization. If other\nsignifications be introduced, so also will this vascular system be\notherwise evolved.\n\n1956. The unclosed vascular system will be present along with an\nenergetic antagonism between skin and intestine; with an antagonism\nthat is almost suppressed, there will be none. There are then only\ncells, or there is only point-substance, as in the Infusoria, polyps,\nand Acaleph\u00e6 or sea-nettles.\n\n1957. The dermal vessels exist only in the air-insects, because in them\nnothing but air and water are engaged in conflict. Externally there is\ndesiccated horn, internally mucous water.\n\n1958. A perfectly unclosed vascular system appears to be developed only\nin animals which respire air. At least there are only genuine air-tubes\nand lymphatic vessels in such as breathe air; e. g., in the Mammalia,\nbirds, reptiles and fishes, the latter set of vessels being probably\nnot present in insects.\n\n1959. Through the predominance of the air-process, as in insects, the\nmucus that is conveyed to it becomes so rapidly decomposed, that no\nmore remains behind, for which a new vessel would be necessary.\n\n1960. The galvanic process is at every instant annulled, and only\nrenovated by a new afflux or supply. Here the galvanism does not\nsubsist in itself as a peculiar and independent system.\n\n\nb. _Closed Vascular System._\n\n1961. The unclosed vascular system is not yet self-substantial,\nbecause it is a c\u00e6cal eversion of the intestine or inversion of the\nskin, being itself only a ramified intestine and skin. Every system,\nhowever, attains its perfection, by being rendered independent of its\norigin. Thus the leaf is the spiral vessel that has become free, the\nroot the cellular tissue in a like condition, the blossom the liberated\nvegetable trunk. The vascular system will therefore aspire also to the\nachievement of its blossom.\n\n1962. If the decomposition that is effected by an inferior amount\nof polarization, does not happen rapidly enough, for what has\nflowed thither, to disappear, during its afflux, by evaporation\nor precipitation; the rest of the mucus which has obtained the\nair-polarity, is now repelled by the respiratory vessels, because both\nhave become synonymous.\n\n1963. The oxydized superfluous mucus is at once, however, attracted\nby the intestine, because they are not synonymous. There consequently\noriginates a vessel in the mass of mucus or parenchyma, that has\nbeen secreted between the intestine and skin, which begins in the\nrespiratory membrane and terminates in the intestine.\n\n1964. This vessel will commence at the end of the absorbents, or at a\npoint, where it devolves upon the respiratory vessels, to take up their\ncontents, namely the oxygen, together with the nutritive substance, and\nconvey them to the intestine. The mucus, which previously stagnated and\nmoved but slowly from one spot to another, is now again carried back by\nanother vessel without interruption to the intestine.\n\n1965. The vessel which conveys oxydized mucus from the respiratory to\nthe intestinal system, is called _artery_.\n\n1966. On the intestine, however, this polar mucus is again reduced to\nordinary mucus. It has now become synonymous with the intestine, is\nrepelled from it and attracted by the branchial membrane.\n\n1967. One and the same fluid or sap is consequently brought back from\nthe branchia to the intestine, and from thence again to the branchia.\nThis last vessel is called _vein_.\n\n\na. _Arteries._\n\n1968. The artery is, according to its signification, an air-vessel,\nwhich is prolonged or elongated as far as the intestine. Essentially,\nthe artery conveys nothing but air, though this is effected by means\nof a medium or vehicle, which is the undecomposed mucus (blood). It\nis an air-tube, that has been self-substantially dismembered from the\nskin, in order to become a special independent air-tube, or such as is\ncommensurate with animal nature.\n\n1969. In the artery the external integument has been repeated in the\nnutritive system, and hence the galvanism has become of a continuous\ncharacter.\n\n1970. The artery must therefore be the highest vessel, the most total\nof all terrestrial processes. For it is the air-duct united with the\nintestinal vessel. It contains mucus, which carries the properties of\nboth poles of the body in itself; there is oxydized mucus.\n\n1971. The artery contains the whole body, lung and intestine, in short,\nthe whole animal, (whereas it was previously dispersed in two vessels,)\nin a fluid state within itself. From the artery therefore nutrition\nwill directly take place; from it the animal will be formed.\n\n1972. The air or respiratory vessels may be viewed as arteries carried\nto the very extreme. In the lung the arterial system has attained its\nhighest purity, the oxygen only, without the indifferent substance,\nbeing contained therein. The trachea is the roughest artery--Arteria\naspera.\n\n1973. The arterial system, in accordance with its signification, makes\nits first appearance in water, because the aquatic mode of respiration\nis less energetic, and thus the mucus is more feebly decomposed. The\nMollusca, snails, and many worms have a perfect arterial system. The\nbranchi\u00e6 do not, like respiratory tubes, pass into the body, as in\ninsects; but there are vessels which take up the oxygen and convey it\ninto the body.\n\n1974. As lung and absorbent belong to the pure air or the pure water,\nso do artery and vein to the water combined with the air. The two\nformer are therefore present only where aerial respiration occurs, and\nthe two latter where water merely is respired.\n\n1975. The last system is only present in animals, in so far as they are\naquatic in their habits.\n\n1976. Insects, as being purely aerial animals, have therefore arteries\nand veins only so long as they are in the larva or worm-like condition,\nand as flies or perfect insects may continue to live without them. On\nthe contrary, the purely aquatic animals appear enabled to live without\ntrue respiratory and absorbent vessels. It in fact appears, that\nlymphatic as well as respiratory vessels are wanting in the molluscs,\nsnails, and worms, since the water directly bathes or washes the\narteries.\n\n1977. Animals with both systems of vessels, the unclosed and closed,\nmust be more perfect in structure, and must at once combine worm and\ninsect in themselves. They are insects from having absorbent and\nrespiratory vessels, but worms as having arteries and veins.\n\n\nb. _Veins._\n\n1978. The veins are developed as mucus-vessels at the intestinal\nextremities of the arteries, which absorb the arterial mucus (blood),\nafter it has deposited its air on the tegumentary substance, just as\nthe lymphatic vessels absorb their fluid from the intestine or any\nother part of the body.\n\n1979. As the artery is a respiratory vessel that has become\nself-substantial, so is the vein a similarly conditioned, and\ndismembered lymphatic vessel. In the one it is the lung, in the other\nthe intestine, that has become the free vascular system. But in the\nproper vascular system both lung and intestine are repeated, the former\nas artery, the latter as vein.\n\n1980. These arterio-lymphatic vessels (veins) necessarily convey their\narterial mucus or blood into the stem of the original lymphatic system,\nor the thoracic duct. For every Indifferent must be brought toward the\nrespiratory organ.\n\n1981. The tegumentary lymphatic vessels (absorbents) consequently unite\nwith the arterio-lymphatic vessels (veins), before arriving at the\nrespiratory organ, and pursue their course thither in common, where\nthey pass over into the air-vessels. The usual notion or idea is, that\nthe lymphatic vessels, from conveying their fluid into the veins,\nshould be subordinated to the latter. But the true philosophical view,\nis of reverse import, although the veins are larger than the thoracic\nduct. In the investigation of such relations, recourse can by no means\nbe had to quantity or size, but to the importance of the quality or\ncontents.\n\n1982. The veins are, properly speaking, subordinated to the lymphatic\nvessels, just as the arteries are to the trache\u00e6, or air-tubes, and the\nformer therefore pass over into the lymphatic vessels.\n\n\nc. _Circulation._\n\n1983. Through the veins, as arterio-lymphatic ducts, the vascular\nsystem has become a closed system in itself, because, on account of the\npolarity, the vein unites at both extremities directly with the artery.\nIt is a continuation of the artery, like the air-duct is of the skin,\nand the lymphatic vessel of the intestine. Thereby a _Circulation_ of\nthe arteriose mucus or blood originates.\n\n1984. In its essence the circulation is a combination of the intestinal\nwith the branchial system into _one_ anatomical system.\n\n1985. The circulation is therefore a higher formation, since through\nit the vascular system repeats in itself the totality of the vegetable\norganism.\n\n1986. On that account the circulation is the vital process proper.\n\n1987. But for that reason also, the circulation is impossible in the\nplant, since it is devoid of arteries and veins.\n\n1988. It makes its appearance in the aquatic animals, for they have,\ngenerally speaking, vessels. Molluscs, snails, worms, and crabs already\npossess a circulation; it is wanting, on the contrary, in those animals\nthat are without intestine, and ceases in insects, when, or in whom,\nthe air-vessels obtain the preponderance.\n\n1989. In circulation the galvanism is restricted. In the skin,\nintestine, air-and lymphatic vessel there is also galvanism, but\ndistributed upon organs that are remote and subservient to different\npurposes.\n\n\nd. _Blood._\n\n1990. The blood signifies the earth in the animal, combined with water\nand air.\n\n1991. The blood is the proper nutritive matter for the animal.\n\n1992. The blood is earth, which carries all terrestrial elements in\nitself, such as the air through the medium of the gills, the water\nthrough that of the intestine, and is consequently a complete planet.\n\n1993. The blood is a fluid planet.\n\n1994. The blood is the fluid body.\n\n1995. The body is the fixed or rigid blood. Blood and body are wholly\nequivalent, have the same elements in themselves; only here the latter\nare stationary, there they course along. Both consist of mucus or\ngelatine, albumen and fibrine.\n\n1996. The blood is half combusted mucus, the body mucus, that has been\nwholly subjected to combustion.\n\n1997. After the vascular system has attained its own circulation, or\nto the closed galvanism, no higher development of the tegumentary\nformation is any longer conceivable; as little as after the blossom\nanything more could originate.\n\n1998. After all three elements are united into _one_ point, into _one_\nsystem, as is the case in the circulation, where the venous blood\nrepresents the water, the arterial blood the earth and air, no new\nsystem can further originate in the vegetative body.\n\n\n4. SEXUAL SYSTEM.\n\n1999. In so far as the animal adopts into itself, or is rather based\nupon, the whole plant, the blossom or _Sex_ is also developed in it.\nThe vegetable sex consists of seed, capsule, and corolla.\n\n2000. The seed is the first part of the blossom which is put forth\nin the plant. The most inferior or asexual plants have only seeds\ndevoid of capsule and corolla, and produced without the concurrence\nof female and male parts. The blossom in the animal is therefore in\nthe beginning also nothing but seeds or ova. Thus these animals are\nasexual. Such as the Infusoria, whose body directly divides into new\nanimals, like the fungi.\n\n2001. The second floral organ is the capsule, which contains on its\nborders or dissepiments the seeds, and on its apex the stigma, or the\nopening of the cyst.\n\n2002. So also in the succeeding forms of animal life the animal capsule\nor uterus originates. The orifice corresponding to the stigma is the\nmouth of the womb; the seeds upon the septum become _ovary_.\n\n2003. The lowest animals, as the Polyps, are fundamentally none other\nthan such an uterine system. The polyp's mouth is the os uteri; the sac\nformed by the polyp's body is the uterus, in which ova-cysts or ovaries\ndevelop, that open into the margins of the month.\n\n2004. In such animals the uterus and intestine, as likewise the mouth\nand uterine orifice are fundamentally _one_ organ; nutritive matter and\nova are also one in kind. External tegument as branchial organ is at\nthe same time also a tegument of the uterus.\n\n2005. The higher animals are distinguished from the lower by separation\nof all these intricate and, as it were, coalesced organs.\n\n2006. Digestion, respiration and nutrition, growth and propagation,\nare originally of one kind. But with further development come the male\nparts also, which belong to the category of the organs.\n\n\n_Parallelism of the Animal and Vegetable Body._\n\nAll vegetative systems of the animal body being now developed, the\nattempt to co-ordinate them with those of the plant admits of being\nmade.\n\n2007. What the _sexual parts_ correspond to in plants, needs no\nexposition.\n\n2008. And just as little that the _lung_ is the parallel organ to\nthe leaves or _foliage_. The relation of the other organs is, on\nthe contrary, difficult; the striking resemblance, however, of the\nsexual parts and the lungs to the same systems in plants, is ground\nsufficient for assuming also the parallelism of the other organs.\n\n2009. If the _root_ be compared with the intestine, then the _stalk_,\nas being the medium of the _vascular system_, must be regarded as\n_heart_.\n\n2010. The _bark_ will correspond to the _skin_, the liber to the\n_veins_, the _wood_ as a tracheal body to the _arteries_.\n\n2011. The vegetable tissue will be transformed into the lowest organs\nof the animal; the _cells_ into the _mucous tissue_, the _intercellular\npassages_ into the _lacteal vessels_, the _trache\u00e6_, or spiral vessels,\ninto the lowest kind of respiratory tubes or the _cutaneo-lymphatic\nvessels_. We have accordingly the following parallel series:\n\n         A. _Tissues._\n\n  1. Cells        Mucous tissue.\n  2. Ducts        Absorbents.\n  3. Trache\u00e6      Cutaneo-absorbents.\n\n        B. _Systems._\n\n  4. Bark         Skin.\n  5. Liber        Veins.\n  6. Wood         Arteries.\n\n       C. _Members._\n\n  7. Root         Intestine.\n  8. Stalk        Heart.\n  9. Foliage      Lung.\n\n     D. _Sexual parts._\n\n  10. Seed        Ovum.\n  11. Ovary       Uterus.\n  12. Corolla     Testes.\n\n\nB. ANIMAL SYSTEMS.\n\n2012. As in the blossom the light allows the whole vegetable trunk\nto be once more developed, though with coloured signs or marks of\ndistinction, so also is the animal body taken up into the sense of\nlight, and the vegetative systems are elevated unto light-or rather\n\u00e6ther-systems.\n\n2013. A new animal originates upon the old animal and is equivalent to\nit. Every perfect animal is twofold in its nature, being a planetary\nand solar animal, a vegetative and animal being.\n\n2014. Three animal systems must be developed out of the three\nvegetative, an earth-, water-, and air-system, each being refined or\npurified through the agency of light, and forming the bones, muscles,\nand nerves, which correspond to the gravity or materiality, the heat or\nmotion, and the light or tension.\n\n2015. Everything that is higher in its nature can only be developed out\nof that which is its direct antecedent, like the blossom from the leaf.\nNow the artery is the ultimate Vegetative. In this therefore, must the\nelements of the osseous, muscular and nervous systems reside. Now, the\nartery consists, of four parts, of the cellular, fibrous, dense serous\ncoat, and of the blood. The cellular coat or tunic is the remnant of\nthe whole tegumentary formation. The fibrous tunic is the embryo of\nthe muscular system. The serous tunic is the embryo of the osseous\nsystem; for in old age it attains to ossification, bony lamell\u00e6 being\ndeposited around it. The blood is the embryo of the nervous system.\nIt is only requisite for it to coagulate, and it is then nervous\nmass. Nervous globules are blood-globules quiescent, or in a state of\nrest. Accordingly, in the artery, the whole body has been actually\nprefigurated or typified.\n\n2016. Every animal system necessarily exists under a duplex character,\nbeing once in the service of the vegetative systems and once for\nitself; or it exists as trunk and as blossom. There is, therefore,\na vegetative and animal nervous system, and, under such binary\nconditions, osseous and muscular systems likewise.\n\n2017. All three systems are offsets from the arteries, and therefore\ntheir constant companions. The animal systems are called _flesh_.\n\n\n1. NERVOUS SYSTEM.\n\n2018. The nervous mass is coagulated blood. The nervous system is thus\na higher arterial system. The highest arteries, however, are the\nair-tubes. The nerves therefore run parallel with the tracheal systems.\n\n2019. What the trache\u00e6 are for the vegetative body, namely, the\nvitalizing and motor principle, such are the nerves for both the animal\nand vegetative body.\n\n2020. The nerves are distributed like the trache\u00e6 of plants, in\nindividual threads or filaments, which run near to each other arranged\nin a fascicular manner, and then mutually separate.\n\n2021. The nervous filaments everywhere accompany the arteries, and, as\nfar as their ultimate ramifications, like the trache\u00e6 of insects pass\nto all parts of the body.\n\n2022. The nervous mass has been separated into an arteriose and venous\nmass, the former being the cineritious or gray substance, the latter\nthe medullary or white. The nervous system is therefore an entire\nblood-system, with two poles; it is therefore alive and active for\nitself, or independent of other systems.\n\n2023. Both nervous masses are in a state of constant tension against\neach other, and consequently in constant tension with the whole body.\n\n2024. The nerves are filaments that, upon the separation of the\nparts of the body, have remained behind, just like the arteries are\ntubes individualized in the general parenchyma, throughout which the\nsap was previously dispersed as in the vegetable trunk. The first\nindividualization necessarily takes place at the oral extremity. The\nfirst nerve is a ring surrounding the pharynx or gullet. Thus,\nif the body consists of several consecutive rings or cysts, as in the\nWorms, each ring will or can have its nervous ring, which inferiorly\ngives off nerves to the vegetative organs, and superiorly to the\nanimal, if these be present. Such a point for giving off nerves is\ncalled a ganglion; since also every ganglion sends off nerves to join\nother ganglia; so both below and above a nervous cord or string will\noriginate in the longitudinal direction. The nerves, which have been\nleft behind in the vegetative parts, form the vegetative nervous\nsystem; those that remain in the animal parts, the animal system.\n\n\na. _Vegetative Nervous System._\n\n2025. The vegetative nervous system is the nervous mass that has\nremained behind, after the greatest part of it has become converted\ninto tegumentary formations. Now, as these tegumentary formations,\nbeing surrounded in the higher animals by flesh, were thus viscera,\nso may the vegetative nerves be called also _Visceral_ or _Splanchnic\nnerves_.\n\n2026. These visceral nerves govern the vessels, the intestine, and\nlung; with the sexual parts also, yet in their case in combination with\nthe animal nerves, because the sexual parts are at one and the same\ntime organs of vegetative and animal life.\n\n2027. These visceral nerves everywhere accompany the vessels, and are\ntherefore like these distributed in a cystic manner between intestine\nand skin. They form a large cyst which concentrically surrounds the\nintestine.\n\n2028. They do not, however, like the intestine, form any closed cyst,\nbut only a cystimorphous net, like the vessels.\n\n2029. The two nervous masses are in them separated from each other,\nlike as the branchi\u00e6 have been distributed along the whole body and\nseparated from the intestine. The gray or branchoid substance has\nseparated itself from the white medullary substance into individual\n_ganglia_, or as it were into individual nervous branchi\u00e6. The\nmedullary substance has also retained its connexion though only in\na ramular manner, and not uninterruptedly like an integument. It is\ncalled _plexus_.\n\n2030. The ganglia and the plexuses stand in mutual opposition, like the\nbranchi\u00e6 and intestine, like artery and vein, like blood and lymphatic\nvessels. The ganglia oxydize, polarize; they are the active. The\nplexuses suffer, digest, and are the recipient.\n\n2031. The visceral nerves, like the viscera, act for themselves, being\nunconcerned for the animal systems.\n\n2032. The visceral nerves have a vegetable sensation for themselves,\na sense of touch, such as the blossom might have in the instant of the\npollenization.\n\n2033. As all formations have become symmetrical through and in\naccordance with the vascular system, so does the vegetative nervous\nsystem separate into two parallel stems which accompany the arterial\ntrunk. They are called intercostal nerves. These ramify and form\nplexuses that accord with the visceral organs, which they govern.\n\n\nb. _Animal Nervous System._\n\n2034. The animal nervous system is the repetition of the vegetative,\nand is combined therewith to constitute an unity. The nervous cyst\nthat was previously dissevered in a reticular manner, becomes a closed\ntube, which is placed upon the light-exposed side of the other animal\nsystems, and thus upon the vertebral column. This closed nervous tube\nis called the _myelon_, or _spinal cord_.\n\n2035. The spinal cord is worth as much as all the visceral nerves\ntaken together; it is the felted system of intercostal nerves; and\nis, properly speaking, none other than the posterior double cord of\nganglia. It consists therefore also of ganglia and plexuses, but\nboth have coalesced, on account of the increase of the mass and its\nendeavour towards the attainment of union.\n\n2036. The ganglia form a tube, which is inclosed by the tubes of the\nplexuses. The ganglion-tube is the gray, the plexus-tube the medullary\nsubstance.\n\n2037. If the gray substance appear to reside within the medulla, this\nis the result only of involution or a folding in. The parietes of the\nspinal marrow stand therefore in everlasting tension with each other,\nlike ganglia and plexuses, and like arteries and veins.\n\n2038. The spinal marrow is the content of the bones and muscles, like\nthe intercostal nerves or the visceral cord are the contents of the\nabdominal cavity, and as the blood is that of the internal and fibrous\ncoat of the arteries. Bones and muscles are the animal parietes of the\nnerves, as the two vascular membranes are the vegetative walls of the\nblood. The skin, as branchia, incloses all, like the cellular membrane\ndoes the vessels.\n\n2039. As the intercostal ganglia give off plexus-forming ramules; so\ndoes the spinal marrow; there are the spinal nerves. The spinal marrow\nis, first of all therefore, the coalescence of the two intercostal\nnerves.\n\n2040. These spinal nerves are, however, animal plexuses, which partly\nencroach upon the visceral nerves, and partly pass to the animal\nsystems.\n\n2041. There are therefore two kinds of spinal nerves, vegetative and\nanimal, and as many of them as there are divisions in the viscera and\nin the animal systems.\n\n2042. The nerves pass off symmetrically from the spinal cord, because\nthe nervous mass belongs to the symmetrical osseous system. They form\ntherefore rings both anteriorly and posteriorly.\n\n2043. The nervous system does not consist of individual cysts, like\nits two animal teguments, or bone and flesh. It is at one time the\ntype or image of the vascular trunk and its ramifications; at another\nthe indifferent \u00e6ther-mass, which does not crystallize; it is lastly\nthe organic primary mass that has remained persistent, and must thus\nbe coherent in texture. It is the blood continually streaming from the\nanimal divisions of the heart.\n\n2044. The whole animal nervous system is a tegumentary cyst with tubes\npassing off from it symmetrically in the form of rings.\n\n2045. The spinal cord cannot be the highest. It has only the lowest\nsignification, in so far as it stands in the service of the viscera and\nthe sense of touch, and thus follows the position and arrangement of\nthe bones. Thus the spinal cord is first of all an _osseo-nervous mass_.\n\n2046. The nerves, as running for the most part _forwards_, are\nmusculo-nervous mass; those running backwards or outwards are\ntegumentary or sensitive nerves. This signification furnishes us, also\nwith the physiological function of these two divisions of nerves. The\nnerves are homologous with the flexors, the spinal cord with the\nextensors; the nerves with the air, the medulla with the earth; the\nformer with the arteries, the latter with the veins; the nerves are\nthus what is more active, the medulla that which is more inert.\n\n2047. On that account the nerves only are in intercourse with the\nworld, while the medulla broods within itself. Consequently, both these\nnerve-formations are not as yet the pure self-substantial nervous\nblossom, which no longer imitates flesh and bone, but only itself.\n\n\n_Brain._\n\n2048. The highest point attained by the lower systems are the orifices\nof the viscera, the mouth and the nose. The mouth is the first animal\nsign, which the plant gives off in the blossom from itself. The Noblest\nlies therefore at the anterior extremity of the animal, or in man in\nthe direction _upwards_.\n\n2049. It consequently occupies the middle point, or one that is between\nthe anterior flesh and the posterior bones, and at the same time the\nspot, from which all vital processes emerge, or the mouth.\n\n2050. The oral nervous mass is the _Brain_. It forms originally the\nposterior ganglia of the pharyngeal ring.\n\n2051. The situation of the brain is essentially in front of or above\nthe body, in opposition to the sexual parts, which are the lower\ntotality.\n\n2052. It is, however, above and behind; for it is originally situated\nposteriorly. The brain can therefore originate only, when the posterior\nmedulla inclines from above forwards, making a curve in the latter\ndirection; the brain is a spinal cord that has been bent from above\nforwards.\n\n2053. The more the spinal cord is curved forwards, so much the nobler\nis it. This is self-evident.\n\n2054. The brain is a spinal cord which makes the transit from the\nsignification of bone to that of flesh.\n\n2055. In the brain therefore the tendency must principally reside, to\ngive off nerves, and perfect them into self-substantial nervous organs.\n\n2056. In man the brain with its nerves curves round like a crosier, and\nthat more perfectly than in any other animal. The spinal cord therefore\nin the highest formation of the brain returns again parallel to the\ndirection, in which it has ascended.\n\n2057. In the brain there is of necessity the greatest quantity of\nnervous mass. The brain is the nervous trunk, as the _liver_ is\nprobably the vascular trunk.\n\n2058. In the brain the cystic formation has been most purely\nrepresented; as e. g. in the cerebral cavities or ventricles. The brain\nis the stomach of the nervous system or its lungs.\n\n2059. The brain consists essentially of two substances, of one\naccommodated to the flesh, and one to the bones, or of one arteriose,\nand the other venous. The former is the gray or cortical, the latter\nthe white or medullary substance. The cortex is the lung of the brain,\nthe medulla the liver or the intestine.\n\n2060. The bark or cortex is the polarizing, active, oxydizing; the\nmedulla the patient or suffering.\n\n2061. This nervous pulmonary substance is continued along the spinal\ncord and even along the nerves, there as veritable gray substance, here\nas the vascular membrane of the nervous mass.\n\n\n_Head._\n\n2062. The brain, as being a system that has been separated superiorly\nfrom the other systems, determines the _Head_. The head is only there\nin so far as a brain is there.\n\n2063. Head and trunk are antagonistically disposed, as Animal and\nVegetable, or still more exactly, like nerve and bony flesh are to the\nviscera.\n\n2064. The head is naught but a nervous organ.\n\n2065. The concomitants of the nervous mass follow the brain, but,\ninstead of the medulla having been previously subordinated to, or at\nleast co-ordinated with, these, it is they that are thus related to\nthe brain. The bones of the brain are the brain-case or cranium, the\nflesh of the brain, the face or countenance. On the head, bones and\nflesh have been disposed in the strictest manner according to their\ndignity or worth. Posteriorly there is almost pure bone, in front\nalmost pure muscle.\n\n2066. The cranium can be none other than the vertebral column continued\naround the brain. It consists of three vertebr\u00e6, the face of one. This\nwill become clear in what follows.\n\n2067. If the bones of the head are the repetition of those of the\ntrunk, so also must the flesh of the head be a repetition of that of\nthe trunk. Pectoral and abdominal muscles are ennobled in the muscles\nof the face.\n\n2068. The face must have been principally formed by the orifice of the\nintestine--the mouth, and by the opening of the lungs--the nose, and\nby the apex of the vascular system--the members which are repeated as\njaws. The month is the stomach in the head, the nose the lung, the jaws\nthe arms and feet.\n\n2069. The salivary glands are the liver in the head, as the mouth is\nits stomach. The liver that was originally also symmetric in form has\nbecome wholly symmetric in the higher organized head and forms two\nglands. The salivary ducts are the hepatic or biliary ducts.\n\n2070. The tongue is the pharynx elongated upon the anterior side,\nbecause in front there is more flesh. The tongue is the extremity of\nthe intestine converted into muscle.\n\n2071. The nose includes pectoral muscles, the mouth arthric muscles or\nthose of the limbs.\n\n2072. If pectoral and abdominal muscles are repeated in the face, so\nalso must the anterior bones, ribs, and limbs be repeated. It will be\nshown, in treating of the organs, that the nose is a vertebra, the jaws\nmembers, and their muscles those of the limbs. The head is the whole\ntrunk with all its systems. The brain is the spinal marrow, the skull\nthe vertebral column, the mouth intestine and abdomen, the nose lung\nand thorax, the jaws are members.\n\n\n_Senses._\n\n2073. The perfect animal again consists of two animals, the spiritual\nor solar, and the terrestrial or planetary. The animal nervous system\ndoes not continue to remain simply in the service of the other\nsystems, but seeks also to gradually render itself self-substantial\nor independent. Now, the operation of the nervous system for\nitself is sensation. The parts of the nervous system having become\nself-substantial, will be therefore pure organs of sensation. Yet as\nthe nervous system cannot emancipate itself from the other systems,\nso will its highest development be attained only in combination with\nthe highest development of the other systems. There are therefore as\nmany stages of the self-substantial nervous development, as there are\nspecial anatomical systems.\n\n2074. Sensation must be modified according to the processes performed\nby those systems, with which the nervous system combines. These systems\nare, however specifically distinct from each other. Sensations that are\nspecifically distinct are sensorial sensations. Organs of sense are\naccordingly the combination of the highest part of an anatomical system\nwith the nervous system. Sensorial sensations are different processes\nof the anatomical systems perceived in the nervous system.\n\n2075. The first combination of the nerves with the vascular system\nthat has become free, or with the integument, is the sense of\nfeeling--vascular sense. The intestinal system emancipated and combined\nwith the nerves, is the tongue--gustatory sense--intestinal sense.\nThe lung upon its highest evolution with the nervous system is the\nnose--olfactory sense--pulmonic sense. These are thus the sensorial\norgans of the vegetative systems--senses of vegetative life.\n\n2076. There are indeed three animal senses; but as the osseous and\nmuscular system form in their conjoined operation but one system or\nthe motor system--there can be therefore only 2 animal senses. The\nosseo-muscular or motor sense is the ear. If the nervous system becomes\nwholly self-substantial, the nervous sense thus originates, or the\neye, in which the brain itself has been planted outwardly, and acts\nindependently of all other systems.\n\n2077. The vessels form the general system, and therefore the\ntegumentary sense surrounds the whole body. Its brain is the spinal\ncord.\n\n2078. The four remaining senses are perfections of individual systems\nat their perfect extremity, and thus in the proximity of the mouth\nand the brain. They together form the head. The jaws and the tongue\nobtain their nerves from the medulla oblongata, and this is therefore\nthe brain of the gustatory sense. The brain for the nose is the gray\ncerebral substance, because the olfactory nerves are its elongations.\nThe ears obtain their nerves from the cerebellum, which is consequently\nthe auditory brain. The eyes are developments of the great brain or\ncerebrum--optic brain. Such is the rationale and signification of the\ndivisions of the brain.\n\n\n2. OSSEOUS SYSTEM.\n\n2079. The nervous mass consists of indifferent, deoxydized\nblood-globules. If these be peroxydized, then the highest oxyd of\nthe planet is deposited in them, namely, the earth, and that indeed\nwhich was the last remnant in the order of their production, or the\ncalcareous earth.\n\n2080. Vesicles or cells replete with calcareous earth are globes. The\nosseous texture consists therefore of globes; is only a dense cellular\ntissue, and thus ranks nearest to the vegetable structure. The basis\nof the bones is at first a cellular gelatine, which, with increased\noxydation, is converted into cartilage. Finally, calcareous earth is\ndeposited in this cartilage.\n\n2081. In the lower organized animals, who breathe for the most part by\nmeans of branchi\u00e6, the acid combined with the calcareous earth is an\ninorganic, or the carbonic acid, i. e. oxygen combined with carbon,\nor the earthy Inflammable; in higher animals it is an organic acid or\nphosphoric acid, i. e. oxygen combined with phosphorus, or the aerial\nInflammable. Phosphoric acid may be regarded as peroxydized gelatine,\nas acid of gelatine. The bone is therefore earth, salt and Inflammable.\n\n2082. The first appearance of the osseous mass is in the oxydizing\norgans. It is formed from the dense or internal coat of the arteries,\nsince in old age bony lamell\u00e6 are deposited upon this. In the hearts\nalso of many animals bones are formed.\n\n2083. The first regular formation of bones is exhibited in the trachea\nor air-tube, which has been directly exposed to the oxydizing process\nof the air. These first forms of the bones are rings.\n\n2084. The antetype of the bone is, however, the intestine, as the\nair-vessels are the antetype of the nerves. The bone is a tube, an\nossified intestine.\n\n2085. There are two osseous systems, a vegetative and an animal; the\none surrounds the tegumentary systems, as, e. g. the scales of Fishes\nand Reptiles, horny rings of Insects; the other the nervous systems.\n\n\na. _Vegetative Osseous System._\n\n2086. The vegetative osseous system is divisible into dermal, tracheal,\nintestinal, and vascular bones.\n\n2087. The dermal bones are tegumentary rings, which surround the whole\nbody, and are tracheal rings in so far as the skin is originally a\nrespiratory organ. Such are the rings of the body in Insects, the\nshells of the Gasteropods and Molluscs, with scales and scutes in\ngeneral.\n\n2088. The tracheal bones are the branchial arches and tracheal rings.\n\n2089. The intestinal or splanchnic bones are tubes environing the\nintestine, as in the corals, or imperfect annular segments, which at\none time are found in the stomach, as in the Mollusca, at another\nin the pharynx, as in the Worms, Snails, Sea-urchins, and\nHolothuri\u00e6; constituting what are called pharyngeal maxill\u00e6. The\nbranchial organs are fundamentally also none other than pharyngeal\nrings. The lingual and palatal bones, with the intermaxillary bones,\nbelong also to the same category.\n\n2090. The vascular bones are displayed in the hearts of many animals.\nThe three last divisions may be called visceral or splanchnic bones;\nand then we have tegumentary, splanchnic, and nerve-bones.\n\nb. _Animal Osseous System._\n\n2091. The animal or nervo-osseous system must separate from the\nvegetative system of bones, and be placed upon the side exposed to the\nlight. The side of the inferior animal that is exposed to the light, or\naverted from the earth, is the upper surface, dorsal region or _back_.\n\n2092. The back holds the same relation to the ventral side as light\ndoes to the darkness, as sun to the earth; therefore the dorsal side is\nof a dark, the ventral of a faint or pale colour.\n\n2093. Back and belly are related polarwise to each other.\n\n2094. Through the medium of the bones the distinction between back\nand belly has been definitely established in the animal, and, as a\nconsequence thereof, the distinction also of right from left. Before\na formation of bone exists, the animal is for the most part a round\ncylinder.\n\n2095. The osseous system can in itself be only symmetrically\nconstructed.\n\n2096. The osseous is the only symmetrical system in an animal. The\nother organs are so only in so far as they follow the arrangement of\nthe osseous system.\n\n2097. The animal osseous system is, from its being a repetition of the\nintestinal canal, a tube. This tube is surrounded, like the trachea, by\nrings, between which the tegumentary tube suffers constrictions.\n\n2098. The back is a series of numerous bony rings.\n\n2099. These bony rings are the _bodies_ of the vertebr\u00e6.\n\n2100. The vertebr\u00e6 have originated through polar repetition, through\nthe muscular cysts.\n\n2101. In addition to the series of vertebr\u00e6 on the back, a vertebral\ncolumn is formed moreover along the ventral surface, and without doubt\nthere only where the air-organ, the branchia or lung, is situated. This\ninferior vertebral column is the breast-bone or _sternum_.\n\n2102. All the systems, even those that are of a subordinate character\nin the animal, follow the direction of the main vertebral column. The\nintestine, as well as the vessels, are placed in accordance with it.\nThus the principal trunks of the vessels take their rise along the\nvertebral column, the other vessels being given off from them in this\nsituation, like the lymphatics from the intestine.\n\n2103. The vascular ramules which surround the intestine and the skin,\nrun out from a main stem, and are directed in a symmetric manner\ndownwards and upwards (in the horizontal body of animals), or towards\nthe belly and back.\n\n2104. If new bony rings originate, they must also take these\ndirections. They accompany the vessels that run in a circle,\nas the vertebral column accompanies the vascular trunks. These\nannularly-disposed bony twigs or apophyses constitute in the direction\ndownwards the ribs, in that upwards the vertebral arches. Anterior\nand posterior to the vertebral column there consequently originates\na long canal formed by the bony rings. In the anterior canal lie the\ngalvanic or vegetative organs, in the posterior or upper, the organs\nof light must be situated \"par excellence.\" The former of these canals\nis called the thoracic and abdominal cavity, the latter the vertebral\ncanal. The vertebral canal is not the bony or medullary cavity itself,\nbut it has been formed by several bony cysts in the same manner as\nthe thoracic cavity. It consists of the body and the two arches.\nThese are thus posterior (superior) ribs. The vertebral canal has the\nsame signification as the thoracic cavity has; it is only a posterior\nthoracic cavity. It therefore contains, like the anterior canal,\nviscera dissimilar in kind to bone; the one including the spinal cord,\nthe other vessels, intestine, and lung.\n\n2105. The bony cysts that have originated through constriction do not\nall harden into calcareous matter, but they remain as alternating\nmembranous cysts. Between the rings there are permanent cysts. The\nmembranous cysts form the _joint_, or articular capsule. An articular\ncapsule is a bone which has remained soft.\n\n2106. This change in the ossific process takes place through the\nattachment of muscles, concerning which we shall treat in the sequel.\n\n2107. The whole osseous system is consequently a symmetrical\narrangement of several polar cysts and rings.\n\n2108. The vertebra is not a single ring, but is at once a tolerably\ncompound osseous system. The whole osseous system is nothing but a\nvertebra repeated.\n\n2109. The number of the vertebr\u00e6 necessarily conforms to that of the\npairs of nerves or ganglia of the spinal cord; for they are indeed\nonly the periphery or envelope of the latter. The number of nerves is,\nhowever, adapted to that of the organs, which they have to take care of.\n\n2110. Now, the nervous organs are the senses. There are consequently\nas many divisions of vertebr\u00e6 as there are senses. Thus there are\nvertebr\u00e6 appertaining respectively to the senses of touch, taste,\nsmell, hearing, and sight. Now as the four latter senses make up the\nhead, but that of touch or feeling is distributed over the whole body,\nand superintended by the spinal nerves, the vertebr\u00e6 thus divide into\ntwo principal sections, into vertebr\u00e6 of the head and trunk. The number\nof cephalic vertebr\u00e6 is 4; namely, nasal, ocular, lingual, and auditory\nvertebr\u00e6.\n\n2111. To a perfect vertebra belong at least five pieces, namely,\nthe body, in front the two ribs, behind the two arches or spinous\nprocesses; every vertebra of the head consists therefore of five pieces\nalso. In those vertebr\u00e6 which are removed from the respiratory organ,\nthe ribs are smaller, as in the ventral ribs, and anchylosed with\nthe body, as in the cervical vertebr\u00e6, where they are represented by\nthe perforated transverse processes, and in the lumbar vertebr\u00e6 they\ndisappear entirely.\n\n2112. The formation of the cervical vertebr\u00e6, where the ribs have\nbeen impacted or interposed between the body and spinous processes,\nis continued into the cranial vertebr\u00e6. These are only expanded\ncervical vertebr\u00e6. At the base of the skull four vertebral bodies lie\nin a series one behind the other; the body of the occipital bone, the\ntwo bodies of the sphenoid, and the vomer. Upon the sides of each of\nthese bodies are situated alar processes, which correspond to the\ntransverse processes of the cervical vertebr\u00e6, or to the ribs; e. g.\nthe articular heads or condyles of the occipital bone, the al\u00e6 majores\nand minores of the sphenoids, and the two sides or lateral surfaces\nof the vomer. Behind these are placed the two broad cranial bones,\nwhich correspond to the spinous processes; as the occipital ridge or\ncrest, the parietal, frontal and nasal bones. The occipital vertebra\nconsists of the body, the two condyles and the occipital crest. The\nparietal vertebra consists of the body of the posterior sphenoid, the\nal\u00e6 majores, and the parietal bones. The frontal vertebra consists\nof the body of the anterior sphenoid, the orbitar wings or al\u00e6, and\nthe two frontal bones. The nasal vertebra consists of the vomer, the\nethmoid and the two nasal bones. The occipital vertebra is the auditory\nvertebra; it incloses the auditory bones and the cerebellum, which\ngives off the nerves of hearing. The parietal vertebra is the lingual\nvertebra; the maxillary and lingual nerves passing through its al\u00e6\nmajores. The frontal vertebra is that belonging to the eye; through\nthe orbitar plates or wings the optic nerves pursue their course, and\nit environs the cerebrum, from which these nerves originate. The nasal\nvertebra contains the olfactory nerves.\n\n2113. Each cranial sense has thus only one vertebra, and the skull will\nconsequently be formed of four vertebr\u00e6, whereof three appertain to\nthe cranium, one unto the face. (See Oken's Ueber die Bedeutung der\nSch\u00e4delknochen, 1807.--Isis, 1817, S. 1204.)\n\n2114. Several vertebr\u00e6 are, however, found for the sense of feeling\nor touch, because it includes all the organs of the trunk. There must\nbe therefore as many vertebr\u00e6 in the trunk as there are particular\norgans placed therein. Of these there are three, the respiratory,\ndigestive, and sexual system, or thorax, abdomen, and pelvis. To\nthe thorax belong the neck, the arms, and the entire set of ribs. 5\nvertebr\u00e6 must appertain to the arms, because they have 5 digits and 5\nnerves. But the ribs, and consequently also the digits, are determined\nby branchial vessels, are only repeated branchial arches, whose number\nin almost the entire class of fishes is 5. There are therefore also\n5 thoracic or pulmonic vertebr\u00e6. Since the larynx consists of the 5\noriginal branchial arches, and lies in front of the neck; so must the\n5 superior cervical vertebr\u00e6 stand in the signification of branchial\nvertebr\u00e6. The odontoid process of the second vertebra must be regarded,\nfrom its being separated from it in the foetus, as a particular\ncervical vertebra. Accordingly, in the Thricozoa there are eight\ncervical vertebr\u00e6. The 3 inferior cervical, and the 2 upper costal or\nrib-vertebr\u00e6, give off through their interspaces the nerves of the\narms, and are consequently the brachial vertebr\u00e6. The 3-7th rib are\nthus appended to the 5 proper thoracic vertebr\u00e6, which stand in the\nsignification of the pulmonary vertebr\u00e6. To these succeed the 5 short\nribs which belong to the abdomen; their vertebr\u00e6 are thus intestinal\nvertebr\u00e6. The succeeding vertebr\u00e6 belong to the sexual system, and are\nindeed the 5 lumbar or pedal vertebr\u00e6, because they furnish the pedal\nor foot-nerves, the 5 sacral vertebr\u00e6 being the proper sexual vertebr\u00e6.\nThe coccygeal or caudal vertebr\u00e6 correspond to the cervical vertebr\u00e6,\nand are present for the sake of the sexual branchi\u00e6; usually one and\nthe other is arrested. Thus there are,--\n\n  3\u00d75 Respiratory vertebr\u00e6.\n  3\u00d75 Sexual vertebr\u00e6.\n  1\u00d75 Digestive vertebr\u00e6.\n\nThe number of the sensitive vertebr\u00e6 is consequently 7\u00d75=35, which\nare distributed into three groups, in accordance with the principal\ncavities of the body, whereof the 2 terminal groups consist of 15, but\nthe abdominal group, which combines or unites them, only of 5. The body\nis accordingly not merely laterally, but also in length, a perfectly\nsymmetrical structure, which has been parcelled out in the following\nmanner into its five stockworks, stories or floors:\n\n    I. _Dermal vertebra._\n         A. _Sexual vertebr\u00e6._\n              a. Coccygeal vertebr\u00e6  5,\n              b. Sexual vertebr\u00e6     5,\n              c. Pedal vertebr\u00e6      5.\n\n         B. _Abdominal vertebr\u00e6_   5.\n\n         C. _Thoracic vertebr\u00e6_.\n              a. Pulmonary vertebr\u00e6  5,\n              b. Brachial vertebr\u00e6   5,\n              c. Cervical vertebr\u00e6   5.\n\n   II. _Auditory vertebra_   1.\n  III. _Lingual vertebra_    1.\n   IV. _Optic vertebra_      1.\n    V. _Nasal vertebra_      1.\n\nThis regularity is found too only in the human skeleton. The animals\nare irregular men. (Vide Oken's Zahlengesetz in den Wirbeln. Isis,\n1829, S. 306.)\n\n\n_Cavities of the Trunk._\n\n2115. The osseous system forms the trunk or body, because it follows\nthe vascular system; the two other galvanic systems, the dermal and\nintestinal systems, form the large portions of the trunk or its\ncavities; to them is added the sexual cavity or pelvis.\n\n2116. There are thus three truncal cavities, a pulmonary, an\nintestinal, and a sexual cavity, or thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic\ncavity.\n\n2117. The osseous system will develop itself most feebly around the\nabdominal, because it is the indifferent cavity. Therefore there are\neither no ribs at all, or they are so short that they do not reach\nto the anterior vertebral column or the sternum. The short or false\nribs are, according to their physiological sense, _abdominal_ or\n_splanchnic_ ribs. The thoracic ribs must be perfectly developed, i.\ne. abut against both vertebral columns, be entire ribs; the entire or\nperfect ribs are thoracic or _pulmonary_ ribs. The sexual ribs are\narrested on the pedal and coccygeal vertebr\u00e6, but on the proper sexual\nvertebr\u00e6, namely, the sacral bone, they are still present as rudiments.\n\n\n3. MUSCULAR SYSTEM.\n\n2118. As the intestinal system reappears in what is animal under the\ncondition of a vertebral column, so also does the aggregate of the\nvascular system ascend, and the vessels become animal.\n\n2119. The animal vessels are the muscles, or filled-up vessels. The\npolar process enters the body through the vessels; thereby the tubes\nobtain two strong poles, and are drawn out lengthways. They are\n_fibres_, and consist of a series of strongly oxydized blood-globules.\n\n2120. The fibre is chiefly apparent in those vessels, such as the\narteries, in which the influence of air operates more forcibly. Now an\nartery has, in addition to the external cellular coat, two coats, like\nthe first animal body, or one wall turned towards the mucus, and one\ntowards the air. The internal arterial wall is enteroid, the external\ndermoid in character; the one being simply granular, the other fibrous\nmembrane. The two membranes separate into two cysts or tubes, which\nlikewise adhere within each other like intestine and skin. The external\nwill become fibre, the internal bone.\n\n2121. There is a vegetative and an animal fibre-or muscle-system. The\none is associated with the tegumentary formations, the other with the\nbones and nerves.\n\n\na. _Vegetative Muscles._\n\n2122. The muscles of vegetative life are simply fibrous tunics, as in\nthe arteries, and are found in the skin, in the intestine, and in the\nvessels.\n\n2123. The tegumentary muscles lie under the skin, and are inserted into\nit, or into the dermo-osteous system, when such an one is present. If\nthe fibrous membrane be strongly developed under the skin, then it\nreceives the name of a _Panniculus carnosus_.\n\n2124. The intestine has also its fibrous coat, which, upon the stomach,\nanus, and pharynx, is frequently developed as a panniculus\ncarnosus.\n\n2125. The same holds good of the vessels, especially of the arteries\nand trachea.\n\n2126. The fibres are either elongated or else annular fibres. The\nlatter obtain the preponderance at the extremities of the tubular\nformations, as on the pharynx, anus, lips, and eyelids.\n\n2127. We have consequently a dermal, splanchnic, and osseo-muscular\nsystem.\n\n\nb. _Animal Muscles._\n\n2128. In the oxydizing part of the vascular system the formation of\nfibres must be preponderant over that of cells, and thus at the root of\nthe lungs.\n\n2129. The vessel becomes in the lungs a fleshy cavity. The fleshy\nvessel is the _heart_.\n\n2130. The heart is a vascular fragment, with a preponderating\ndevelopment of fibrous membrane.\n\n2131. This fibrous membrane is developed at a spot where all vascular\nsystems enter into mutual proximity, such as the respiratory ducts and\nthe intestinal lymphatic vessel, the artery and the vein.\n\n2132. In the union of all the highest galvanism is attained, and then\nthe formation may launch out into what is animal.\n\n2133. The heart is the animal in the plant.\n\n2134. The first heart is an arterial heart. There is originally no\nvenous heart. In the embryo, particularly in that of the bird, this is\nextremely distinct; the arterial heart also emerges for the first time,\nand per se, in the lowest animals, in the Molluscs, Snails, and even in\nthe Fishes, although in the latter it is regarded as a venous heart.\n\n2135. The arterial heart is the central, the venous heart the\nperipheric.\n\n2136. The heart is the prototype of the muscular system. All muscles\nmust be a metatype of the heart.\n\n2137. The muscle is hollow. It is a cyst.\n\n2138. The muscular system is a manifold and serial juxtaposition of\nfibrous cysts or of hearts. In this respect the muscle has been formed\nin a corresponding manner to bone. Both are rows of cysts.\n\n2139. But the muscle, as being the external fibrous tunic, is the\nenveloping or external cyst.\n\n2140. In idea, the muscle can only directly envelop the bones, and\nnot the other parts, for it ranks upon the same grade of development\nwith the bone; it is the arterio-fibrous wall, while the bone is the\ninternal arterial wall.\n\n2141. Bone and flesh stand in antagonism like air and earth. The muscle\nis that which is polarizing--moving, the bone what is polarized, moved.\nThe muscle is heart, the bone the moved blood. Bone and muscle are\nrelated as that which is contained and what is containing. The muscle\nis the wall of the cyst, the bone, the fluid which has been secreted\nfrom it and rigidified.\n\n2142. As therefore the muscle is an individual cyst, a heart, which\ncannot invest the whole body like a single large cyst, so also must the\nmuscular contents be only a discrete cyst. The uninterrupted character\nof the bones depends therefore upon that of the muscles, and the latter\nupon the meaning of the heart.\n\n2143. _A physiological rationale of the joints is accordingly afforded\nin the heart._\n\n2144. A bone is a rigidified, ossified heart; the osseous system is a\nseries of mutually dependent, alternately ossified and non-ossified\n(arteriose and venous) hearts.\n\n2145. The muscular cyst includes the soft bone, or the joint.\n\n2146. At its two extremities there is preponderance of oxydation,\nwhereby the soft osseous cysts are combusted into hard calcareous\nearth.\n\n2147. The muscle is a cause of the alternating ossification.\n\n\nRELATION TO THE OSSEOUS SYSTEM.\n\n2148. As the formation of bone predominates upon the side exposed to\nthe light or the nervous, so does that of muscle upon the shady or\nvascular side. The abdominal side of the animal is the muscular, just\nas the dorsal side is the osseous. Upon the thorax, abdomen, on the\nmembers which belong to the anterior region of the body, and on the\nface, the muscular layer is by far the most predominant. Posteriorly,\nhowever, or upon the back, it is slightly wanting, and the bones there\nproject.\n\n2149. The back is related to the anterior surface (when regarded in\nman) as bone is to muscle. What is _in front_ is muscle, what is\n_behind_ is bone. The anterior side is therefore more active, nobler,\nmore powerful and more spiritual than the posterior. Posteriorly stands\nthe earth inert and rigidified, while in front is the air in ceaseless\ncapacity for, and actually in, motion. The anterior muscular layer is\nmore active and powerful than the posterior.\n\n2150. In every muscular cyst there are two kinds of layers, an anterior\nand a posterior, or stronger and weaker layer.\n\n2151. The stronger layer is the flexing, the weaker the extending. For\nthe limbs have been necessarily bent forwards. The direction alone of\nthe joints at once resides in the structure, which is even determined\nby these relations. Such a muscular layer, which mostly consists of\nseveral bundles, is termed a muscle.\n\n2152. A muscular cyst consists of flexor and extensor muscles. The\nindividual muscle is therefore only a piece of a cyst, and therefore\nnot in itself hollow. It is only an entire muscular layer of flexors\nand extensors which is the pattern of the heart. The flexors are the\nstrongest and are placed in front, the extensors lie behind.\n\n2153. In the heart the flexor layers have not yet separated from the\nextensor layers, because the vegetable flesh has as yet no symmetry in\nitself.\n\n2154. Flexors and extensors occur in pairs; because the osseous system\nis in pairs.\n\n2155. There resides in the osseous and in the muscular system no cause\nfor a diversity in the two halves of the body. Thus, if there be a\ndifference, it must only reside in the asymmetrical galvanic systems.\n\n\n3. _Organs._\n\n2156. Organs are parts of an anatomical system, which separating,\ncombine with a part of another system, and thereby obtain a peculiar or\nspecial function.\n\n2157. For each system therefore there are as many organs, as there\nare possible combinations of systems. There are vascular, intestinal,\npulmonary, sexual and tegumentary organs, with furthermore, osseous,\nmuscular and nervous organs.\n\n\nA. VEGETATIVE ORGANS.\n\n1. INTESTINAL ORGANS.\n\n2158. The intestinal or splanchnic system falls first of all into\nthree great divisions, into that of the viscera, the sex and the\nhead; the visceral intestine separates moreover into pulmonic, venous\nand tegumentary intestine, and this in constant accordance with its\ncombinations and functions.\n\n\na. _Visceral Intestine._\n\n2159. In the digestive system it is the chemical process that takes\nprecedence. This, however, divides into three moments, into that of\n_solution_, _separation_ and _formation_, or crystallization, which is\nhere _absorption_. Thus the intestine separates also into a solvent,\nsecernent and absorbent intestine, and that indeed through its\ncombination with the pulmonic, vascular and tegumentary system. The\nsolvent viscus is the stomach, the second or secernent, the duodenum,\nthe third or absorbent, the small intestine (jejunum and ileum).\n\n\n_Pulmonic Intestine._\n\n2160. All solution is accompanied by oxydation. The gastric juice is in\nits action an acid.\n\n2161. The gastric juice obtains its oxygen from the spleen. The spleen\nis the stomachic lung. This is attested by its position and close\napproximation to the stomach; by its black, venous, and deoxydized\nblood, which in certain diseases has been secreted even in the stomach;\nby its want of any excretory duct; by its tissue, which resembles that\nof the oxydized placenta; furthermore by the natural character of this\nfunction when contrasted with the unnatural quality of other useless\nfunctions that have been assigned to it; and lastly too, by the fact\nthat, without this opinion be admitted, it must remain a superfluous\norgan, and as regards use, unknown. After a series of years, during\nwhich this doctrine has been combated upon all sides, without, however,\na single reason, save and except that it was not believed, being\nadvanced by its opponents, I must still persist in the correctness of\nthe above view.\n\n\n_Vascular Intestine._\n\n2162. In the duodenum the _analysis_ of the food takes place through\nthe medium of the bile. It is consequently the _biliary_ intestine or\nstomach.\n\n2163. The biliary intestine does not stand upon a par with the other\nintestines, but has an equal rank with the stomach. It is therefore not\nconfined within the mesentery, but can expand itself like the stomach;\nit has its vessels and nerves. In it the separation of the chyme into\nchyle and excrementitious matter takes place.\n\n2164. What the spleen is for the stomach, that is the liver for the\nduodenum; it is the hepatic stomach, and consequently the vascular\nstomach.\n\n2165. The liver is the ramification of the intestinal canal along with\nthe whole vascular system.\n\n2166. Now, as the analysis is the principal function in the whole\nprocess of digestion; so is the liver the chief organ of all digestive\norgans.\n\n2167. The liver is the centre, the brain of the digestive system,\nbecause it is the blossom, the synthesis of the vascular system.\nFrom it everything emanates, and upon it everything which concerns\ndigestion, ay, the whole body, retrogressively operates. If the liver\nsuffers or undergoes functional derangement, the whole vascular and\ntegumentary formation then becomes a liver, as is exemplified in the\ndisease called jaundice.\n\n2168. The bile effects the analysis or separation through its basic or\nalkaline character, since it combines with the acids of the chyme, and\nthereby forms the excrementitious matter.\n\n2169. That which mediates between the acid and what is alkaline is the\nfluid secreted by the pancreatic gland. The pancreatic gland is the\nramification of the intestine along with the arterial system.\n\n\n_Tegumental Intestine._\n\n2170. That in the jejunum and ileum or the small intestine proper,\nand in that alone, absorption and thus the tegumentary function, but\nnothing else, occurs, is well known. By this absorption the chyle\nbecomes removed from the intestine, so that the excrement alone is left.\n\n\nb. _Sexual Intestine._\n\n2171. The sexual is pre-eminently that which is exsecernent or\nexcretive, since one sex strives to redintegrate itself upon the other,\nbecomes ingestive for the other, but egestive for or in relation to\nitself. It is therefore an essential property of the sexual parts, that\nthey secrete and excrete.\n\n2172. Every galvanic system, which has been adjoined or appended to\nthe sexual parts, is excretive. They are, taken in a rigid sense, the\nonly system of excretion. The co-operative processes of the sex are\nthose of the vegetative systems, but they take place in the reverse\ndirection. The latter convey inwards, the former outwards. The kidneys\nare a reversed or evacuating lung, an excrement-forming liver; the\nurinary cyst is an exspirant, a trachea containing refuse matter;\nthe urethra is a glottis reversed; their diseases are therefore\nsimilar. They thus expel products of the individual respiratory system.\n\n2173. And in this is the sexual apparatus distinguished from them,\nnamely, that it expels the products of _all_ systems, the products of\nthe whole organism, or the organism itself. In the semen the whole male\nbody with all its parts transudes, or passes over in a fluid state,\ninto the female parts; in a child, the female together with the male\nbody, passes over--formed or fashioned into the world.\n\n2174. The sexual intestine must therefore be expulsive also. It is that\nwhich conducts the intestinal juice and the refuse of the aliment out\nof the body.\n\n2175. The evacuating or efferent intestine is the large intestine. It\nis consequently the _Sexual intestine_.\n\n2176. The large intestine is related to the abdominal or small\nintestine, exactly like the urinary cyst is to the kidney, and\nthis to the vascular system. The small intestine passes therefore by\nperforation into the large, not the latter into the former. The small\nenters by perforating the large intestine, and therein evacuates its\nalimentary residue, as into a special-cyst, that has nothing to do with\nthe intestinal system. The large intestine is the _excrement_-cyst,\njust as that which has been called bladder is the _urinary_ cyst.\n\n2177. The large intestine no longer digests, but only receives what is\nleft from the process of digestion and expels or casts it out.\n\n2178. The large intestine begins with a c\u00e6cal extremity, or with an\nobtuse cyst, and opens into the anus, exactly like the original animal\ncyst, the polyp. The blind extremity is called c\u00e6cum. With this the\nsmall intestine communicates by perforating it at an acute angle, and\nthat indeed in a direction which runs towards the obtuse cystiform\nextremity; so that both intestines lie in mutual juxtaposition like a\nfork, whereof the pharynx and the rectum are the two prongs, while\nthe c\u00e6cum is the handle.\n\n2179. The two intestines are consequently by no means correlated.\nIn the perfect animal there are two intestinal systems thoroughly\ndistinct from each other; two intestines, which belong to two different\nanimals, the sexual and encephalic animal, or the plant and the animal.\nThe genesis of the large intestine and all its relations, which are\nprincipally seen in the c\u00e6cum and rectum, plead for this philosophical\nderivation of the two intestines.\n\n2180. The rectum appertains wholly and entirely to the sexual system,\nand especially to the uterus. It is devoid of mesentery, and supplied\nby special vessels; it stands in most obvious sympathy with the uterus,\nwith its diseases, and with menstruation. Even hemorrhoids are a sexual\ndisease, a disease of the _sexual_ intestine.\n\n2181. The anus is thus the intestinal mouth of the sexual animal. In\nthe lowest organized animals, the oviducts seminal and urinary ducts\ntogether run into it, as into a proper mouth. The anus is a true oral\ncavity in the fishes, reptiles, and even in the whale.\n\n2182. The pharynx opens into the mouth, and so does the rectum\ninto the anus; the trachea opens into the month, and so does the\nurethra into the anus; the salivary ducts open into the mouth, and so\ninto the anus do the oviducts, with the spermatic canals in the lower\nanimals. The rectum moreover lies behind the urinary cyst, like the\ngullet behind the trachea.\n\n2183. The sphincter or occlusor muscles of the anus have been formed\nlike the sphincter muscles of the pharynx. The anus is a mouth without\na head, and therefore a mouth without lips, or an pharynx.\n\n\n_Cephalic Intestine._\n\n2184. The union or combination of the intestine with the animal\nsystems, such as the nervous, muscular, and osseous, occurs in the head.\n\n2185. In so far as it combines with bones and muscles, it becomes an\norgan of motion, and, when with the nerves, an organ of sensation. The\nanimal or sarcal intestine is pharynx and mouth.\n\n2186. The motor organ is an organ of prehension. The organs of\nprehension are endowed with independent motion, and therefore move\ntowards the food. The first general organs of motion are the members\nof the body. In the higher animals the thoracic members are at once\nthe prehensible organs. Instead of the aliment being obliged to flow,\nas unto the plant, in a state of suspension in water, the animal moves\nitself toward its food.\n\n2187. The members are the first organs of prehension. But these are\nrepeated in the head as jaws and teeth. The teeth are the second organs\nof prehension, but the first which belong to the cephalic intestine;\nthey are called _organs of seizure_ or prehension.\n\n2188. The organ of digestion is, however, one of a chemical character.\nIt must be therefore repeated as such in the head. This is shown in\nthe _salivary glands_. The saliva is the animal gastric juice, and is\ntherefore directly solvent in its properties. It is _poison_.\n\n2189. After and during the operation of the saliva, the aliments in\nthe mouth are subjected to the action of the molar teeth and ground or\n_chewed_. These comminuting or crushing organs are only a repetition\nof the act of prehension, and consequently belong to the prehensile or\nbiting organs.\n\n2190. The mouth is the stomach repeated in the head.\n\n2191. The union of the intestine with the nervous system is the\n_tongue_.\n\n2192. The intestine, when repeated in the head's muscular system, is\nthe organ of deglutition, as is seen in the pharynx and oesophagus.\n\n2193. The prehensile and manducatory, venomous, gustatory, and\ndeglutitory organs, are the forms into which the intestinal system\ndivides, when it is repeated in the after-animal, or in the sphere of\nanimal life. The gustatory organ is the nerve-intestine; the prehensile\norgan the bone-intestine; the organ of deglutition the muscular\nintestine; while the poison-organ is the proper cephalic intestine, or\nthe stomach.\n\n\n2. VASCULAR ORGANS.\n\n2194. The vascular system regarded \"en masse,\" or in a general sense,\nhas to participate in the nutrition of the body; so far it takes the\nplace of the cellular tissue, and cannot therefore be developed for\nitself into any special _organs_. If, however, certain vessels separate\nfrom the general system, and combine with other systems unto the\nperformance of special offices or functions, _organs_ then originate,\nwhich, nevertheless, do not, in a rigid point of view, belong to these\nsystems.\n\n2195. There are therefore as many vascular organs as there are possible\ncombinations; thus with the tegument, the lung, the intestine, the\nsexual parts, and with the systems of animal life.\n\n\na. CUTANEO-VASCULAR ORGANS--BRANCHI\u00c6.\n\n2196. The development of the vessels unto a special organ in the\nintegument are _Respiratory organs_; or, more properly speaking,\nthe development of the integument to constitute a special organ in\ncombination with the vessels, is a respiratory organ.\n\n2197. In the commencement the branchi\u00e6 are only a vascular network\nupon, and therefore subordinate to, the integument. They pass, however,\nthrough all possible stages of development, until they have subjected\nand converted also the integument into a vascular system; a point which\nis attained in the formation of the lungs.\n\n2198. The branchial membrane already commences in the earthworm to\nconcentrate itself and dilate, so as to form what have been called the\nsacculi or pouches; in the leech it is folded inwards, so as to form\nlateral vesicles or cysts, that prognosticate the air-passages or\nstigmata of insects; in the Nereids the vessels project upon the back\nfrom above the integument as free branchial ramules, a formation, which\nis again found in the nudibranchiate Gasteropods.\n\n2199. These branchial ramules form at first two rows extending along\nthe whole dorsal region; by degrees, however, the posterior set\ndisappear, and the cervical branchi\u00e6 only are left, as antetypes of the\ngills of fishes.\n\n2200. In the Mollusca the branchial vessels unite to form lamin\u00e6\nupon the ventral sides, and are already surrounded by a kind of\nthoracic cavity, the mantle, as is exemplified in the tectibranchiate\nGasteropods. Here again the branchi\u00e6 are either a simple vascular net\nenveloped in a fold of the mantle, or elongated into filaments disposed\nlike the teeth of a comb, or into lamin\u00e6, &c.\n\n2201. The lateral branchi\u00e6 of the Nereids usually emit filaments\nresembling feet, upon the root of which the true branchi\u00e6 are then\nplaced. In the Crustacea these filaments harden into actual feet\nprovided with joints. The feet are therefore nothing else than\nbranchial filaments, which have lost their vegetative function.\n\n2202. In many worms the same branchial filaments are converted into\nhairs or bristles, which are therefore none other than desiccated\nbranchial filaments.\n\n2203. Even the hairs of Mammalia and the feathers of Birds have been\nleft as remnants of the original branchial formation.\n\n2204. Where the branchi\u00e6 have assumed the laminated form, they are\nsurrounded by a similarly formed covering or operculum. The shells\nof the Mollusca are, as regards their signification, none other than\nbranchial opercula, or gill-covers; the same holds good also of the\ngasteropodal and crustacean shells, and at bottom of every calcareous\nand horny covering of the body.\n\n2205. To the same category belong also the opercula of Fishes, and even\ntheir scales. Fundamentally, the whole epidermis is only a product of\nrespiration or oxydation.\n\n2206. The first saccular or c\u00e6cal inversion of the integument, as in\nthe Leeches, Molluscs, and Snails, is at once a predominance of the\ntegumentary, obtained through the medium of the branchial formation,\nwhereby the skin commences to become a self-substantial organ of\nrespiration.\n\n2207. In the Scorpions the branchi\u00e6 are introverted sacs or cysts, into\nwhich, however, instead of water, air already enters.\n\n2208. This insaccation is converted in the Spiders into more distinct\nair-cysts, which finally ramify in the higher insects and become true\ntrache\u00e6.\n\n2209. Lastly, the respiratory system obtains the upper hand to such\nan extent, that, together with internal air-tubes, external branchial\nlamin\u00e6 are also developed, as in the Molluscs; but in them the trache\u00e6\nobtain the preponderance over the blood-vessels, so that these lamin\u00e6\ndry up and become wings or fins.\n\n2210. The wings of Insects are branchial lamin\u00e6, converted into\nair-organs.\n\n2211. The wing-coverings or elytra are branchial opercula, and\ncorrespond to the shells of bivalve Mollusca.\n\n2212. Every insect therefore must properly possess four wings and two\nwing-coverings, of which last, however, rudiments only appear to be\nleft in the nocturnal Lepidoptera.\n\n2213. In the higher organized animals those gills only which are nearer\nthe head are persistent, the posterior or lateral branchi\u00e6 being\ngradually arrested.\n\n2214. These lateral branchi\u00e6 remain in Fishes as lateral mucous\nopenings, which constitute the lateral line.\n\n2215. The cervical branchi\u00e6 are limited to the number five, which\nhas already begun to be established in the Crustacea; namely, at the\norigins or roots of the five anterior pairs of feet.\n\n2216. The number five probably derives its origin from the vegetable\nkingdom, and that indeed from the genesis of the pinnate leaves, so\nthat one kind of numerical law appears to prevail with respect to this\norgan in both organic kingdoms. It is probably also an imitation of\nthe five organs of sense.\n\n2217. The vessels of the branchi\u00e6 of Fishes are accompanied by bony\nrings, which correspond to the feet of Crustacea.\n\n2218. All Fishes have, with few exceptions, five branchial arches.\n\n2219. When in Fishes the sarcous system begins to produce viscera, then\nthe five branchial foramina pass inwards, and only a single respiratory\naperture is left for them in the fleshy body; namely, the external\nbranchial foramen.\n\n2220. In the lower animals water or air passes in and out through\nthe same respiratory aperture, but in Fishes these two courses are\npreserved distinct; for, except in the Lampreys, the water enters\nthrough the mouth, and passes out through the branchial aperture.\n\n2221. Here the attempt is manifested in a still greater degree, to\nbring the process of respiration wholly under the control of what is\nanimal, this being in the next place, and for the first time attained,\nwhen respiratory apertures only are left upon the head.\n\n2222. The respiratory apertures of the head are the nostrils, which are\nsuddenly manifested in Fishes, but are in them simply subservient to\nthe sense of smell, and not as yet to the respiratory act.\n\n2223. All the higher animals have, like fishes, branchial apertures in\nthe neck, only they coalesce and become obliterated at an early period,\nor so soon as that respiratory process appears, when air passes through\nthe nostrils. In the Salamanders and Frogs these branchial foramina are\npersistent for a longer time, frequently through the whole period of\nlife; but in Birds and Mammalia they disappear, while they are in the\nembryo state.\n\n2224. When the branchial apertures close, the vessels separate from\nthe arches, and betake themselves to a glandular body lying in front\nof them. The thyroid gland is the remnant of the former branchial\nformation, and is therefore found only in Reptiles, Birds, and\nMammalia.\n\n\n_Lungs._\n\n2225. In Fishes the internal organ of respiration is already indicated\nby a c\u00e6cal eversion of the pharynx, which is surrounded by\nthe branchial arches. This membranous c\u00e6cal eversion is called the\nswimming-cyst, which in the higher animals becomes double on account\nof their symmetry, and is then called lung.\n\n2226. In the Fish the aquatic and aerial process of respiration are\npresent together, the former being external, the latter internal.\n\n2227. The branchial arches having coalesced, are converted in the\nhigher animals into tracheal rings, into the larynx and the posterior\ncornua of the hyoid bone, if these are present, as in the Reptiles.\nThe larynx is therefore no special organ, but only a remnant of the\nbranchial respiratory apparatus.\n\n2228. The laryngeal vessels are, like the thyroid glands, branchial\nvessels, and in Fishes, therefore, the branchial vessels do not\ncorrespond to the pulmonary vessels, but to those of the trachea.\nThe pulmonic vessels of Fishes are the blood-vessels of the\nswimming-cyst, which convey blood directly into the heart, whereby\nthis organ obtains the signification of the left or arterial heart.\n\n2229. When the branchial apertures have coalesced, the nose then opens\ninto the mouth or into the trachea, and in this way the nostrils assume\nthe complete character of aerial foramina.\n\n2230. The nose is therefore originally an organ of smell, and then a\npart of the respiratory system. It is the animal lung.\n\n2231. As the secretion of bone is a product of the more powerful\nprocess of oxydation, so do the bony rings multiply beneath the\nbranchial arches or the larynx, and are called tracheal rings. In\nthe feebly respiring Reptiles the trachea is therefore still in a\nmembranous condition, but in Birds and Mammalia, it is surrounded by\nmany rings, or is a repetition of the larynx.\n\n2232. In Birds even a kind of inferior larynx originates, which is\nprovided with muscles and can produce tones.\n\n2233. The ramification of the trachea into two bronchi or branches is\nconstantly progressing, and at length these tubes divide into a great\nnumber of vesicles, which together form the lungs. The lung, which was\nin the commencement a simple saccular inversion of the integument, has\nnow become a self-substantial organ, to which the respiratory vessels\nhave been subordinated. The lung also divides upon each side into five\nlobes.\n\n\nb. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE INTESTINE.\n\n_Liver._\n\n2234. The self-substantial development of the vascular, and its\nseparation from the general, system, is most perfectly attained in the\n_Liver_.\n\n2235. In the liver, as being the vascular system, which combines with\nthe intestinal canal, the venous system has become independent. The\nportal vein arises from the intestinal canal, collects into one trunk,\nand again ramifies in order to unite with the biliary ducts, which are\nonly a ramified saccular eversion of the intestine. This conjunction is\nrepresented by the liver.\n\n2236. The liver as being a venous organ stands therefore in opposition\nto the lung, and produces, instead of oxydes, a basic body, or the\n_bile_. The liver, as being the venous system which has become free, is\nto be regarded as the highest development or blossom of the vascular\nsystem.\n\n2237. It is for the vegetative body, what the brain is for the animal;\nand hence, therefore, the similarity of structure and the sympathy\nbetween both organs.\n\n\n_Spleen._\n\n2238. As opposed to the liver, the arterial system also develops\nitself upon the intestine as a respiratory or branchial organ. These\nintestinal branchi\u00e6 are found in several of the lower organized\nanimals, especially in the Holothuri\u00e6 and Aphrodit\u00e6.\n\n2239. In the higher animals they are aggregated into a special organ,\nthrough which the gastric juice obtains oxygen; this is the spleen. The\nspleen is the branchia of the stomach; it has therefore no excretory\nduct and requires none.\n\n2240. Lastly, the salivary glands also in the mouth as well as in the\nduodenum, the abdomino-salivary glands, and even the odoriferous glands\non the rectum, such as the castor-and civet-pouches, are complications\nof vessels with intestinal ramifications.\n\n\nC. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.\n\n_Kidneys._\n\n2241. The vascular organ of the sexual system is the kidneys.\n\n2242. As the urine is chiefly characterized by the urea and thus by a\nbasic principle; it thus corresponds to the bile, and consequently the\nkidneys directly to the liver or the lung reversed.\n\n2243. But there is also a sexual branchia in those inferior animals\nwhich breathe through the anus, such as many aquatic larv\u00e6.\n\n2244. The remnant of this in the higher animals appears to be the\nallantois, and in the body itself probably what have been called the\nprimordial kidneys.\n\n2245. The combination of the vascular system with the animal systems is\nthe sense of touch.\n\n\n3. RESPIRATORY ORGANS.\n\n2246. The respiratory organ is a development of the integument.\n\n2247. The perfect organ of respiration is an air-organ or _lung_;\ncombined with the tegumentary system, it is a water-organ or _branchia_.\n\n2248. There are _dermo-branchi\u00e6_ or the _branchi\u00e6_ proper, as in the\nWorms, Molluscs, Snails, and Crabs.\n\n2249. Intestinal branchi\u00e6 in the Holothuri\u00e6, constituting in the higher\nanimals a _spleen_.\n\n2250. The sexual branchi\u00e6 are probably the primordial kidneys.\n\n2251. The branchi\u00e6 when united with the osseous system are the\nbranchial arches of Fishes, which subsequently separate into larynx and\nthyroid gland.\n\n2252. The self-substantial development of the integument into the\nrespiratory organ is a lung.\n\n2253. When united with the vascular system or the vegetative systems\ngenerally, the integument forms the tracheal system of Insects.\n\n2254. The trache\u00e6 are spiral vessels as in plants.\n\n2255. The respiratory organ, united with the motor system, is the lung\nproper, which is situated within the thorax, and covered by ribs.\n\n2256. The proper lung divides also, like the intestine, into two parts,\ninto the cystiform, pharyngeal expansion of the larynx, and into the\npulmonic substance, which is equivalent to the stomach, and wherein the\nanalysis of the air takes place.\n\n2257. The trachea, and especially the larynx, is moreover an entire\nthorax, a ribbed skeleton upon a small and membranous scale. In the\nlarynx, the animal thoracic structure, consisting of ribs and muscles,\nresides prognosticated. The larynx has originated from the coalescence\nof branchial arches. The ribs are a repetition of the branchial arches.\n\n2258. The diaphragm is a formation, which admits, by no reasoning from\nits anatomy, but only genetically, of being explained. Originally,\nthe whole body was only an abdomen, upon the external surface of\nwhich the branchi\u00e6 were appended. A remarkable instance of this is at\nonce afforded by the Snails, and also the Fishes. As the gills were\nconverted into lungs, a special body or the thorax originated for them,\nwhich encroached upon the abdomen. Now, the abdominal wall left between\nthese two cavities, was just the diaphragm.\n\n2259. The diaphragm is not a transverse wall or septum. The idea of\nsuch a cross-rail gainsays all sound physiology. It has been the\nabdominal wall.\n\n2260. The union of the lungs with the nervous system is the nose.\n\n2261. The nose is the cephalic thorax; but it has also the thoracic\ncontents, or the very lung repeated in itself.\n\n2262. The multicavernous ethmoid bone is the lung in the nose, the two\nnostrils being the stigmata or foremost openings of the trachea. The\nnasal muscles are homologous to the cartilages of the trachea, and\nespecially to those of the larynx.\n\n2263. The velum palati is the diaphragm between nose and mouth, or\nbetween the cephalic thorax and the cephalic abdomen.\n\n\n_Coverings._\n\n2264. The animal coverings are desiccated respiratory organs\nappertaining to the integument.\n\n\n_Capillary Vessels._\n\n2265. The principal function of the vessel is that of secretion,\nwhereby nutrition is imparted. This secretion must take place in the\nwhole body, in so far as it is opposed to the lung. The vessels then\npass over into the finest canals, and are called _capillary vessels_.\n\n2266. The capillary system of vessels is an organ in antagonism to the\nlung; what enters the latter organ, passes out through the former.\n\n2267. The capillary system of vessels is the property of the\ntegumentary system. It may almost be said that wherever there is\nintegument, there capillary vessels are present. The most perfect\nevolution of capillaries is the integument. It is the proper\nexsecernent, in opposition to the intestine, which is the absorbent\norgan.\n\n2268. Evaporation is the essential tegumentary process.\n\n2269. The product of the evaporation is mucus.\n\n2270. In the evaporation, however, the mucus becomes analyzed by the\ninfluence of the air and light.\n\n\n_Epidermis._\n\n2271. The external mucus exuding from the skin becomes oxydized, the\ninferior on the contrary reduced; the oxydized becomes vitreous and\ntransparent. It is the _Epidermis_.\n\n2272. With the maximum of oxydation the epidermis passes over into a\nvitreous transparent horn, e. g. _scales_.\n\n2273. The scales, which invest the toes and digits are called claws,\nand finally become nails. The finger-nail is nothing but a scale, which\nin this situation has become particularly large and strong.\n\n2274. That which is reduced beneath the vitrified epidermis determines\nthe colour of the skin. With a demi-oxydation it is uncoloured, appears\nwhite. Where the integument is thin, the red colour of the blood\nappears through it; such integument is therefore white upon the whole,\nbut red in individual places.\n\n2275. With the most complete reduction effected by the highest\noperation of light, its substratum or under-layer becomes black. The\nmucus passes over into reduced carbon. Beneath the vitreous epidermis\nthere is thus a metallic _pigmentary membrane_.\n\n\n_Hairs._\n\n2276. Capillary vessels, which simply convey mucus, but are elongated\nsingly above and from out the cutis, are _Hairs_. The idea of the hair\nis a _capillary vessel_, the contents of which are no longer blood,\nbut reduced mucus. It is an indifferent capillary vessel. The hair is\nhollow and contains an oil, which determines the colour.\n\n2277. In the hairs the nutritive system is prolonged above the body.\n\n2278. The hairs and scales are the general terrestrial system of the\nbody determined by the air.\n\n2279. Thus the earth has sprung up into a plant. Scales and hairs are\nlike true vegetable leaves, which still continue their process in the\nanimal; they can no longer it is true make their respiratory process\nhold good for the animal process itself, but are at present content\nwith only oxydizing the material of evaporation. It is properly the\nintegument only, not the entire body, which respires through hairs and\nscales.\n\n2280. The hairs are dried branchial filaments, and therefore continue\nto occupy in Man, those situations only where in the lower animals\nbranchi\u00e6 or tentacula are placed. Around e. g. the mouth, upon the\nhead, under the arms or in the axill\u00e6, and around the sexual apertures.\n\n2281. The feathers are dried ramified branchi\u00e6, pinnate leaves.\n\n2282. The hairs participate in the electric process of the whole body.\n\n2283. What determines the colour in the plant, determines it also in\nthe animal; only in the plant the colour is more coarsely precipitated,\nand nothing therefore glimmers from the interior of the body, but all\nis green. In an animal, however, the colouring matter is transparent,\nand the interior is thus rendered visible.\n\n2284. With the external coverings, such as scales, and lastly with the\nhairs, all organs of the trunk, in so far as they are derived from\nwhat is vegetable, are exhausted. The vegetable animal, as trunk, is\ncompleted, and we must now therefore turn to the sexual organs.\n\n\n4. SEXUAL ORGANS.\n\n2285. The sexual organs are developments of the integument upon a\nhigher grade, and combinations of the same with the animal systems,\nlike as the blossom is a repetition of all vegetative systems.\n\n2286. They range in the middle between the vegetative and the\nencephalic animal, and are therefore a totality for themselves, or a\nsexual animal.\n\n2287. There are vegetative and animal sexual parts.\n\n\nI. _Vegetative Sexual Organs._\n\n2288. Are special developments of the intestine, vessels and branchi\u00e6.\n\n\na. SEXUAL ORGANS PROPER.\n\n2289. The proper sexual parts are a repetition of the digestive system\non its transition to what is animal, or to the organs of sense.\n\n\n1. _Female Organs._\n\n2290. The female parts are a floral capsule, consisting of an ovary\nor sac, stigma and ova. All higher development takes place, however,\nthrough separation of the complicated organs and processes.\n\n2291. The three parts therefore of the gestative sac or matrix\nseparate, each part becoming self-substantially perfected. The orifice\nelongates into a cervix or neck, which is gradually rendered more\ndistinct from the matrix, and in its highest and self-substantial\ncompletion is called oviduct.\n\n2292. The matrix elongates also at its c\u00e6cal extremity or fundus,\nas well as at its open end. The germinal bodies also become\nself-substantial, separate gradually from the fundus of the matrix, and\nare then independent ovaria.\n\n2293. As in the highest animal formation they also assume the animal\nsymmetry, while at first they were only single, or manifold, as in the\nplicated capsules of Star-fishes, and therefore remained stationary at\nthe number two; so is the ovisac prolonged into two long cornua, or\ntrumpet-like tubes, which at the commencement, indeed, still include\nthe ova, as in Insects and Fishes, but are subsequently left entirely\nfree.\n\n\n2. _Male Parts._\n\n2294. The leaf-formation is elevated to the corolla or the male parts\nin the plant. They are, however, only the repetition of the plant upon\na higher stage. Hence in the animal also the male parts will be upon a\nhigher grade of position to the female.\n\n2295. As the stamina surround the ovarian capsule in the plant, so do\nanimal stamina stand around the orifice of the oviduct; as _penes_.\n\n2296. In the lowest ovisacs the penes are circularly disposed around\nthe orifice; as is exemplified by the tentacles of a Polyp; by degrees,\nhowever, they are resolved, for the sake of symmetry, into two, and\nthen project upon the sides of the orifice, as in the Serpents and\nLizards. In the higher animals the two penes coalesce into _one_.\n\n2297. This penis situated at the orifice of the oviduct is the\nclitoris. The vagina is separated from the clitoris; but in the male\norgans they both combine or blend with each other, and the vagina\nbecomes the seminal canal or that of the penis.\n\n2298. As the orifice begins to assume a male character, and the\nexternal parts to be more forcibly developed in the direction outwards,\nso, on the other hand, do the internal parts recede the more, and\nremain simply as ovaria or ovisacs, in which the ova, instead of being\nformed as such, dissolve into pollen, mucus, or male semen. These\novaria, which now secrete semen instead of vitelline vesicles, are\ncalled testes.\n\n2299. The testes originate, while the mucous ova are being reduced to\nprimary mucus, or to infusoria.\n\n2300. What is male originates through an organic process of\ndecomposition or putrefaction of the ova. The semen is an organic\nproduct of decomposition.\n\n2301. The semen must contain infusoria. A semen which does not contain\ninfusoria, is ovum-like, or feminine. Except at the time of heat or\nrut, and thus when the animals have a female character, the semen\npossesses no infusoria, and is in that case simply albumen.\n\n2302. Semen, which is devoid of infusoria, is incapable of\nimpregnation. How can one wretched female ovum impregnate or fructify\nanother?\n\n2303. As the trumpet-like tubes or oviducts belong to the ovaria, so\nare they developed with the testes, and now convey semen instead of\nova. The female tubes become the vasa deferentia or _spermatic ducts_,\nthe uterine cornua, the vesicul\u00e6 seminales.\n\n2304. Between the vesicul\u00e6 seminales and the vagina or the penis\nthe uterus shrivels up into the prostate gland, into which the vasa\ndeferentia open, like the oviducts do into the uterus.\n\n2305. As the matrix is the proper female organ, so will the\nspermatic ducts seek to combine with the penis, or at least open\nself-substantially upon the os uteri. The testes open either through\nthe spermatic ducts into the vagina, as in Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds,\nor into the penis, as in the Gasteropods, Insects, and Mammalia.\n\n2306. Male and female parts are therefore perfectly homologous, the\nformer having a greater development of the external division, the\nlatter of the internal.\n\n2307. The female parts have undertaken the business of vegetation, or\nthat of the viscera, the male that of the animal excitation.\n\n2308. Since the male parts are no new formation, but the female parts\nthemselves, only characterized by internal arrest, and external\nincrease of development, so do male and female parts appear incapable\nof occurring together in any animal. Perfect hermaphrodites would,\naccordingly, be impossible; for where testes are, no ovaria could\nbe, because the testes are themselves the ovaria, or the latter only\nchanged.\n\n2309. Hence androgynism would be possible only by one ovarium remaining\nas such, and the other being converted into a testis.\n\n2310. This development appears only possible when the two halves of the\nbody are unequal. Asymmetrical animals only can be androgynous. In\nthe snails one of the two molluscan shell-valves has been more largely\ndeveloped than the other, and therefore one half also of the body is\ngreater than the other. On this account many hermaphrodites are found\namong these animals.\n\n2311. Thus, there ought to be no androgynous animals with at the same\ntime two ovaria and two testes. Nevertheless, this very peculiarity\noccurs in many of the lower organized animals, e. g. the worms.\n\n2312. Accordingly, the principle of androgynism is in general to be\nfound in the want of symmetry. Symmetrical animals are as a rule\ndioecious. No hermaphrodite is found among the Insects, Fishes,\nReptiles, Birds, and Mammalia.\n\n2313. If such occur, they are formations that have remained persistent\nat the lower stage of development, or upon the transition of the\nembryo through the Snail-type of organization; they are thus\nmonstrosities, or malformations.\n\n2314. These malformations also, when occurring in the higher animals,\ncan never possess more than one testicle and one ovarium. The uterus\nthen ranks midway between its condition as such, and that of a prostate\ngland; the spermatic tube or urethra opens after a female fashion below\nthe root of the penis.\n\n\n_Impregnation._\n\n2315. Since the male sex is related to the female, as corolla to\ncapsule, as leaf to stalk, as air to water, and as light to matter; so\nis it related also as integument to intestine, as lung to lymphatic\nvessel, as artery to vein, as nerve to flesh or muscle, as Animal to\nVegetative.\n\n2316. Copulation is therefore an _irradiation_.\n\n2317. Already, in the course of the heavenly bodies, has the highest\nact of the animal, that of copulation, been preindicated or portrayed.\nThe creation of the universe or world is itself nothing but an act\nof impregnation. The sex is prognosticated from the beginning, and\npursues its course like a holy and conservative bond throughout the\nwhole of nature. He therefore who so much as questions the sex in the\norganic world, comprehends not the riddle or problem of the universe.\n\n2318. If the female parts have effected a complete transition into the\nmale, so are the sexes necessarily separate and distinct.\n\n2319. Since the male parts are the female that have been more highly\ndeveloped, so there resides in the latter the constant conatus or\neffort to convert themselves into the male.\n\n2320. This metamorphosis, or conversion, is, however, no longer\npossible in the female parts, when already finished or fully formed,\nbut is only attainable in a new attempt being made upon their part, to\ntransform the fluid mass into ova.\n\n2321. Gestation or pregnancy is none other than the propensity of the\nFemale to convert itself into the Male.\n\n2322. The foetus is the male in a female, or the foetus is the male\nsexual parts in the female.\n\n2323. In idea, every foetus should be male. But, if mascularity\nbe attained with the first production, then the second necessarily\nsubsides into the female. In this manner there of necessity originates\nan equiponderance in the number of both sexes.\n\n2324. Moreover, if the sexual parts be regarded according to their\nproper signification in the animal, they are the upper intestinal\nsystem, as it has been developed in the mouth, and that indeed in such\na manner, that the female parts are the vegetative form or the oral\ncavity, the male, the animal form, or the tongue with the salivary\nglands; the former represent the process of deglutition, the latter\nthat of taste.\n\n2325. Into the uterus or into the prostate gland the excretory ducts\nof the sexual glands, or the spermatic canals and oviducts, pursue a\nconvergent course, like the salivary ducts do into the oral cavity.\n\n2326. The testes, as also the ovaria, are forebodent of the _salivary\nglands_. The semen and oviducts are salivary ducts; they open by twos\nand symmetrically. Semen and ova are secreted like saliva. Semen and\nova have also a salivary function, though of this the former is endowed\nwith more than the latter.\n\n2327. The ova correspond, as being an object of the semen, to the\nobject of the saliva, which is the food or aliment. The saliva imparts\nto the bole or mouthful of food its first animal signification; it\nrenders it for the first time capable of passing over into animal\norgans; it impregnates the morsel. The semen renders the ovum capable\nof effecting the transition into an animal; it spits upon the ovum.\n\n2328. Impregnation is a process of smearing with saliva, conception a\nprocess of deglutition.\n\n2329. Pregnancy is a process of digestion and formation of blood.\n\n2330. If the internal sexual parts denote the internal visceral parts\nof the mouth, so must the external parts of the one correspond to\nthe external of the other. The labia pudendi correspond to the lips,\nand the clitoris to the tongue, which is more perfectly represented\nin the penis. Both tongue and penis consist of two halves; in cases\nwhere the former is fissured or divided, the latter is so also, as\nin the Serpents and Lizards. In many animals, as the dogs and other\nMammalia, there is likewise a bone in the penis, which corresponds to\nthe os hyoides or linguale. The salivary ducts have combined with the\npenis; or, taken in a more strict sense, it may be said, that in the\npenis the tongue has coalesced with the oral cavity, so that both form\na canal,--that of the penis, into which the salivary ducts (vesicul\u00e6\nseminales) open.\n\n2331. The sexual passion or venereal desire is a gustatory process of\nthe sexual animal, the copulation being at one and the same time a\nmatter both of taste and deglutition.\n\n\n3. _Germ or Embryo._\n\n2332. In the embryo the whole animal already resides in miniature, as\ndoes the plant in its seed.\n\n2333. The embryonic intestine is the vitellus or yelk.\n\n2334. The embryonic integument is the amnion.\n\n2335. The embryonic vascular system is the chorion.\n\n2336. The embryonic sexual system is the allantois. The above\npropositions can only be perfectly developed in the physiology.\n\n\nb. VASCULAR ORGANS OF THE SEX.\n\n2337. The h\u00e6matopoietic or blood-preparing vascular system is the lung;\nthe blood-destroying, exsecernent vascular system is the kidneys. The\nkidneys are the lung reversed. The liver decomposes the venous, the\nkidneys the arteriose blood.\n\n2338. The _kidneys_ are the individualized vascular system of the\nsex, as the liver is that for digestion. They accord with the liver\nin their glandular structure, in the renal pelvis, which is like the\ngall-cyst, in the ureters that resemble the biliary ducts, and\nlastly, in the general signification of the urine as a product, wherein\nthe whole organism, the whole blood-system has been excreted, like the\nbile, in which the venous blood undergoes the same process.\n\n2339. Every disturbance of the digestive function acts in a striking\nand very direct manner upon the urine. The jaundice is apparent in\nurine; and what else is diabetes than a malady analogous to diseases of\nthe liver? In urine we recognize what the bile has done with the food;\nthe urine is the fluid nutritive system, and consequently the fluid\norganism \"in toto;\" the sexual blood, or sexual bile.\n\n2340. The urine is the purest mirror or reflex of the bodily condition,\nand hence ourology or the doctrine of urine is of the most universal\nimportance in semeiotics or symptomatic pathology: the ureters\ncorrespond to the tracheal branches or bronchi; thus, the urinary\ncyst to the trachea; the urethra to the larynx.\n\n2341. In many animals the ureters open directly into the cloaca, as in\nmany Fishes, Reptiles.\n\n2342. By degrees the cloaca is retracted towards the ureters, and then\noriginates a cloaca, which is both urethra and urinary cyst, as in\nBirds.\n\n2343. In the higher animals, where a perfect ourocyst or urinary\ncyst has been evolved, the urethra opens into the anterior wall\nof the vagina, in front of which the urinary cyst then lies, in a\nsimilar manner to the trachea in front of the pharynx.\n\n2344. In many Fishes the urinary cyst is absent, their pulmonic sac\nbeing also but feebly developed and only remaining as an asymmetrical\nswimming-cyst--the ureters too open directly into the cloaca, just\nas the swimming-cyst opens into the oesophagus. The pharynx of\nFishes, as being surrounded by the branchial arches, is at once pharynx\nand larynx, like as in many animals cloaca and urinary cyst are of\none and the same kind.\n\n2345. In many Reptiles (such as the Tortoises and Frogs) the urinary\ncyst gives off two c\u00e6ca or blind sacs, as is the case in the larynx\nof many apes.\n\n2346. In the Bird the two cul-de-sacs of the urinary cyst are much\nmore developed and have assumed the form of two c\u00e6cal intestines, so\nthat they have been actually viewed as such, and their number two been\nassigned as characteristic of the bird, the other animals meanwhile\nhaving only one. The c\u00e6ca intestinalia of Birds are the lateral and\nupper extremities of the urinary cyst. The true c\u00e6cum of the bird\nis the vitelline canal or duct, just as in the fishes and all higher\norganized animals; this being distinctly retained in the aquatic birds.\n\n2347. In the Bird the rectum properly opens into the urinary cyst\nbetween the two blind sacs or c\u00e6ca, and that indeed with a regular\nvulva, which is a sphincter muscle.\n\n2348. The cloaca of the Bird is an urinary cyst, into which the anus\nopens.\n\n2349. The orifice of the cloaca is properly that of the urethra; ova\nand f\u00e6ces are moistened with urine. In a bird both these egesta are\ncombined.\n\n2350. Like the urethra, so is the trachea membranous in Fishes, and in\nmost Reptiles also.\n\n2351. Urinary cyst and urethra stand in sympathetic relation with\nthe trachea and larynx, and have also similar diseases, such as\ncatarrh, inflammation, &c.\n\n2352. The proper proof, however, of the urinary cyst belonging to\nthe respiratory system resides in its genesis. It proceeds from the\nallantois, which in Birds is a decided organ of respiration, a branchia.\n\n2353. Out of this urinary cyst issue in the embryo what have been\ncalled primordial kidneys, which shrink or dwindle down at a later\nperiod, but have entirely the structure of branchi\u00e6.\n\n2354. Here then is a sexuo-respiratory process, which corresponds to\nthe anal respiration, upon a higher stage, of many worms and aquatic\nlarv\u00e6, e. g. Holothuri\u00e6 and Libellul\u00e6. This anal respiration is in its\nsignification a sexual respiration.\n\n2355. Even in the acephalous bivalve Mollusca and Snails the respiratory\nopenings are almost always situated in the proximity of the anus; their\nrespiration is still a sexual respiration.\n\n2356. For the first time in Insects it becomes a respiration of the\ntrunk; and for the first time in the higher animals a truly animal,\nnamely, a cephalic respiration.\n\n2357. The urinary system is a double system; it conjoins in itself the\ntwo highest galvanic processes, that of secretion and excretion.\n\n2358. Secretion is an hepatic character, excretion a pulmonic\ncharacter. Secretion belongs to nutrition, excretion to respiration.\nExcretion is an exspiration, secretion an influx or infusion. Secretion\nis related to excretion as water is to air, as liver to lung, as basis\nto oxygen.\n\n2359. Secretion takes place, e. g. of bile and saliva, in so far as the\nprocesses of the body, especially those of the digestion, are promoted.\nExcretion is only effected in so far as that the organs, into which\nwhat is secreted enters, may obtain a tracheal signification, i. e.\nevaporation. All excretory orifices are in a certain sense larynges or\ntracheal orifices. Thus, this relation between secretion and excretion\nwould have been discovered without recourse to conjecture being had\nupon our part.\n\n2360. The urine is \"par excellence\" a double product of this kind. It\nis secreted in the kidneys for simply one object, like the bile. It is\nexcreted, because it belongs to the sexual system, which is essentially\nexsecernent.\n\n2361. The object or purpose of the urine has not been subverted in\nall animals. In Birds, where the urinary cyst and intestine are\nconfluent, the urine enters like the bile into the intestine, at least\nat a spot where there is intestinal matter, which it renders fluid.\n\n2362. In Insects and Snails it appears to invest as a mucus the ova,\nand serve for their attachment. The same appears to hold good of\nthe spider's web. What has been called purple juice and ink (in the\nCephalopods) ranks probably in the signification of urine.\n\n\nc. SEXUAL INTESTINE.\n\n2363. The sexual intestine is the colon or large intestine, which, in\nthis respect, belongs to the sexual system, as has been indicated at \u00a7\n2171.\n\n\nII. _Animal Sexual Organs._\n\n2364. The bones of the sex are the feet with their appurtenances, such\nas the pelvis with the lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebr\u00e6. The\nmuscles, as well as the nerves, are self-understood. But of these we\nwill speak in the sequel.\n\n\nB. ANIMAL ORGANS.\n\n2365. All organs, which are purely animal, are penetrated or traversed\nby the nervous system, just as the lower systems are by the tegumentary\nformation. No higher organ is the wholly pure evolution of _one_\nsystem, but the systems ever combine with each other; and this\ncombination, when individually represented, constitutes the organ.\n\n2366. Organ is distinguished from system in not pursuing its course\nthrough the whole body, nor consisting simply of one and the same mass,\nbut by its occupying a definite part of the body and being composed of\nseveral systems.\n\n2367. Every organ has therefore a special and specific function also.\n\n2368. The systems of animal life divide only into two kinds of organs,\ninto those of sensation and those of motion, into the solar and\nplanetary, or central and peripheric.\n\n\na. MOTOR ORGANS.\n\n2369. Bone and muscle are not societies, but only poles of one system.\nThere is therefore no mere bony organ, and no mere muscular organ.\nMeanwhile we will here regard them in particular or \"per se.\"\n\n\n1. _Osseous Organs._\n\n2370. The first bones were branchial arches or tracheal rings. When\nthe lungs were developed from the branchi\u00e6, the branchial arches were\nrepeated as ribs or pulmonary arches. Lastly, should bones be formed,\nwhich are to be wholly in the service of the animal or the nervous\nsystem, so also must they be wholly liberated from the vegetative\norgans, and become self-substantial, i. e. have nothing else to do, but\nmove. Free motor organs can be none other than ribs that have become\nfree.\n\n2371. These free ribs must inclose the respiratory organ or the\nintegument, which has become an organ of animal life; they are the\nmembers or _limbs_. If we think of ribs, whose office is no longer to\ninclose lungs, which must no longer be subservient to the uninterrupted\nvital motion of respiration, and which are no longer united by\npleura into a closed cyst or sac--will not such simply retain the\nself-substantial voluntary motion in themselves? will they not abandon\nthe inferior cystic form, and represent the same, though but ideally\nand voluntarily? will not such a thorax open in front, like the\nintestine has opened at its nobler extremity?--will not such ribs be\nmembers, arms, digits? The members or limbs are the _members of the\ntrunk_, or ribs that have opened in front; they are the thorax that\nhas opened in front; and hence are nothing new, but only something\nemancipated or set free. Such ribs can be none other than motor organs;\nfor they were previously nothing else. Then, however, they performed\nmotion in the service of the viscera; at present, where they are\nabsolved from this service, they execute it only in accordance to the\nwill of the head, simply according to its will, for they are _verily\nnothing more than motor ribs_. Where, however, or in what region of\nthe body will the ribs attain unto such freedom? Without doubt, in the\nneighbourhood of the head, and thus at the very spot where the lungs\nderive one of their extremities. The limbs are therefore _cervical\nribs_.\n\n2372. The arms are a thorax, consisting quite purely of bone and\nmuscle, and represented as isolated or detached from the viscus, or the\nlung; on this depends their nobility, or, in other words, upon what is\nvegetative having been wholly left behind.\n\n2373. The arms, when clasped together by the fingers, are a thorax\nwithout viscera, without heart and lungs; they are destined to inclose\na whole body in the embrace.\n\n2374. By an embrace that which is embraced has been made our viscus; it\nhas been adopted as our animal heart, and as our animal vital organ--or\nlung. The embrace has an exalted physiological signification, and\nprecisely that which it unconsciously possesses in the state of pure\nlove. Nature always thinks more nobly than we do. We follow blindfold\nher beautiful regulations, and she rejoices in the sport.\n\n2375. As the fundamental number of the branchi\u00e6 is five, so also must\nthe limbs represent five ribs; they split into five digits or fingers.\nThe feet of the Crustacea and Insects generally do not correspond to\nour feet; but to our fingers. The lower organized animals have only\ntoes, no feet. The five thoracic feet of the crab correspond to our\nfingers; its five abdominal feet to our toes.\n\n2376. There are three limbs in accordance with the three totalities of\nthe body, truncal, sexual, and cephalic members, or arms, feet, and\njaws.\n\n2377. The members of the body or trunk belong to the thorax, because it\nis the respiratory system. The abdomen has no members; what have been\nso-called, are in their signification sexual limbs.\n\n2378. Had the animal no sex, it would have no posterior limbs.\n\n2379. As the three lower cervical and the two upper dorsal vertebr\u00e6\nbelong to the arms, so also they appear to commence with five ribs, but\nthen to become arrested, and again emerge to perfection in the digits.\n\n2380. The shoulder appears to consist of five ribs, but this does not\nas yet admit of being clearly pointed out. Meanwhile, it is certain\nthat the scapula, acromion, and coracoid are particular bones, to which\nmay be added the clavicle.\n\n2381. The middle finger is the elongated radius, and is therefore\nthe longest or radial digit. It is that which is persistent, if only\none finger has been left, as in the horse. The ring-finger is the\nulnar finger. It is that which, along with the former, appears in the\nbi-ungulate animals; the spurious or dew-claws are the auricular and\nindex-finger; the thumb is the last ramification, is therefore always\narrested, and frequently present only as a wart-like excrescence or\npapilla.\n\n2382. All animals, which have true digits, are furnished with five of\nthem, more or less completely developed. If what has been called the\nmetacarpal bone of the thumb be numbered, which it must, as a digital\narticulation or phalanx, every finger has thus one carpal bone, and\neach bone of the fore arm also one.\n\n2383. The sexual members or feet correspond in all their pieces to the\narms: the pelvis is the shoulder repeated; and certainly, the iliac\nbone is equivalent to the scapula, the ischium to the coracoid process,\nthe os pubis to the acromion, the marsupial bone to the clavicle.\n\n\n_Cephalic Members._\n\n2384. Both pairs of limbs are repeated in the head, because in it the\nwhole trunk is repeated; the upper jaw corresponds to the arms, the\nlower jaw to the feet. Each jaw consists of two members, which are\nankylosed in the higher animals at their point of meeting or in front,\nbut in Fishes are partly, and in Insects completely, separated.\n\n2385. Each jaw consists of the same bony divisions as the limbs of the\ntrunk, of scapula, humerus, and fore-arm; or of pelvis, femur, and\ntibia. This is easily to be demonstrated in Birds, Reptiles, and Fishes.\n\n2386. The digits are repeated in the teeth. The teeth are claws.\n\n2387. There are therefore five kinds of teeth, which correspond to the\nfive digits. The thumb becomes the canine tooth; the index-finger the\nfalse molars; the middle finger the laniary molar, the ring-finger the\nsecond, and the little finger the third true molar tooth.\n\n2388. The intermaxillary with its incisor teeth belongs, as well as the\npalatal bones, to the pharynx; and is a visceral or intestinal maxilla.\n\n2389. The lower animals therefore, as the Fishes, have almost nothing\nbut intermaxillary and palatal teeth. They act principally upon the\nlingual teeth. The reptiles have still palatal teeth, which higher up\nin the vertebrate series disappear.\n\n\n_Symmetry._\n\n2390. As the cervical ribs have nothing more to inclose, have no longer\nto respire, but only to move; their symmetrical development is thus\nundelayed. The symmetry is at first wholly attained by the act of\nopening or apertion.\n\n2391. The limbs are the most symmetrical organs. They are symmetrical\nin each smallest part, and these parts again assume a symmetrical\narrangement in regard to each other. They are the ideal of symmetry.\n\n2392. They are, however, the free living symmetry. They can create by\ntheir motions symmetrical forms. The symmetry consists chiefly in, and\nhas been produced only by, the motion.\n\n2393. The symmetry of the motion is the most exalted, for it is that\nwhich is endowed with life. The symmetry of the form is that which is\ndead.\n\n2394. The symmetry of the form appertains to inorganic nature, the\nsymmetry of the motion is the property of animals.\n\n2395. Dancing and acting are the highest organic symmetrical movements,\nand also the highest symmetries. They are the symmetry of the motor\nmembers, wrought by motion.\n\n2396. Music is a much higher symmetry of motion.\n\n2397. Speech is the highest spiritual symmetry; it is the dance and\nhistrionism of the spirit or mind.\n\n\n2. _Muscular Organs._\n\n2398. The muscles are everywhere attached to the bones, and help to\nform with them the same set of organs.\n\n2399. The muscles of the larynx are therefore the antetypes of the\ncostal muscles, these of the member-muscles, and the dorsal muscles of\nthe scapular and pelvic muscles.\n\n2400. The muscles of the limbs are found in a state of treble\nrepetition. That the muscles of the arm and leg are of one kind, admits\nof being demonstrated with tolerable facility. But it is necessary,\nthat in doing this regard be paid to the ligaments.\n\n2401. The ligaments are only stunted muscles. Without bringing them\ninto account, the muscular system does not admit of being explained and\nunderstood.\n\n2402. The crural muscles are again found in the lower jaw.\n\n2403. The brachial muscles, on the upper jaw or face.\n\n2404. The movements of the facial muscles correspond to those of the\nlimb-muscles. Upon this depends the interpretation of dumb-show, or the\nart of physiognomy.\n\n\n3. _Nervous Organs._\n\n2405. Nervous organs are liberations of individual parts of the nervous\nsystem, and their endowment with a peculiar function or sensation.\n\n2406. The liberations of the nerves are combinations with the other\nanatomical systems at the spot where they have attained their highest\nevolution.\n\n2407. Each system, however, has its peculiar process. Through the\nreception or adoption of the systems into the nervous system, a\npeculiar sensation must therefore originate.\n\n2408. Peculiar sensations are sensations of sense.\n\n2409. The combinations of the anatomical systems with the nervous\nsystem, whereby the former have been subordinated to the latter, are\nconsequently _sensorial organs_, or organs of sense.\n\n2410. In the sensorial organs the processes of the several systems\nattain unto sensation. They are brains of the anatomical systems.\n\n2411. There are as many senses as there are different anatomical\nsystems, and consequently senses belonging to vegetative and animal\nlife.\n\n2412. The number of vegetative systems is 3; the vascular, intestinal,\nand pulmonary system.\n\n2413. The most complete combination of the vascular with the nervous\nsystem is the integument--constituting the tegumentary sense, or _sense\nof feeling_.\n\n2414. The most complete combination of the intestinal system with the\nnerves is the tongue--intestinal or _gustatory sense_.\n\n2415. The most complete combination of the lungs with the nerves is the\nnose--pulmonary or _olfactory sense_.\n\n2416. Among the three animal systems, bones and muscles produce, from\ntheir association, only one action--the motion. The most complete and\nperfect combination of the motor system with the nerves, is in the\near--osseo-muscular or _auditory sense_.\n\n2417. The nervous system has become a self-substantial organ in the\neye--the nervous, or _visual sense_.\n\n2418. There are therefore only 5 senses; they are none other than\nrepetitions of the anatomical systems in the sensation; they are the\nhighest developments which are possible in the lower systems, being the\nblossoms or heads of such systems.\n\n2419. These systems are, however, processes of the universe taken up\ninto the organization. In its organs of sense, the processes of the\nuniverse are thus felt or perceived. The senses are world-organs, and\nare therefore placed in contact with the world, or occupy an outward\nposition.\n\n2420. The vascular system is the nutritive system. In it the blood\ncoagulates into the solid parts of the body. The feeling-sense is\ntherefore sensible of the nutrition or rigidifying process of the\nbody. Now, the Solid of the planet is the earth. The sense of feeling\nperceives therefore opposition--it is an _earth-sense_.\n\n2421. The function of the intestinal canal is digestion. In taste,\nthe process of digestion is felt. But digestion is a solvent, a\nhydrapoietic process; in taste the water is therefore felt--it is the\n_water-sense_.\n\n2422. Respiration is a process of oxydation. In smell the respiratory\nprocess is felt. Oxydation is, however, an air-process--it is\n_air-sense_. Thus do the three vegetative senses feel the elements of\nthe planet--are _planetary senses_.\n\n2423. The animal systems are symbols of the \u00e6ther, of the gravity with\nthe heat or motion, and of the light.\n\n2424. The motion is only moved matter, and thus a combination of the\nmuscular and osseous system. The ear therefore perceives the motion\nof the primary matter, or the atomic motion--it is _gravity-sense_,\n_\u00e6ther-sense_.\n\n2425. The light is the tension-process of the \u00e6ther; to see, is\ntherefore in an organism to emit light or shine--_light-sense_.\n\n2426. The signification of the senses is twofold; they are anatomical\n_systems_ which have become nerves, and on that account also _elements_\nthat have attained unto sensation.\n\n1. Sense of feeling--vascular, tegumentary, nutritive sense,\n_earth-sense_.\n\n2. Gustatory sense--intestinal, digestive sense, _water-sense_.\n\n3. Olfactory sense--pulmonic, respiratory sense, _air-sense_.\n\n4. Auditory sense--osseo-muscular, motor sense, _\u00e6ther-sense_.\n\n\n_Matter-Sense._\n\n5. Visual sense--nervous, tension-sense, _light-sense_.\n\n2427. The sensorial organs are not simply combinations of the\nanatomical systems with the nerves, but also with the bones and\nmuscles. These have been entirely taken up into the signification of\nthe animal body.\n\n2428. Each sense has its own nervous, osseous, and muscular system.\n\n2429. The sense of feeling has its bones and muscles in the limbs.\n\n2430. The sense of taste, its bones in the lingual bone, its muscles in\nand upon the tongue.\n\n2431. The sense of smell, its bones in the nasal bones, its muscles\nbeing frequently very much developed in the snout or proboscis.\n\n2432. The sense of hearing, its bones in the auditory ossicles, its\nmuscles in the auditory conch.\n\n2433. The sense of sight, its bones in a ring surrounding the sclerotic\ncoat and in the eyelids, its muscles in the ocular muscles.\n\n2434. Besides the proper sensorial nerves, each organ of sense is\nprovided with nerves for the motor system and for the vegetative\nsystems, especially those of secretion.\n\n2435. The integument has, besides the nerves of the tactile papill\u00e6,\nvascular and motor nerves.\n\n2436. The tongue is supplied with nerves of motion and digestion, and\nhas therefore three pairs of nerves.\n\n2437. The nose receives motor and respiratory nerves from the fifth\npair.\n\n2438. The ear has likewise three kinds of nerves; the auditory nerves,\nfacial nerves, and a branch from the fifth pair, not to mention those\nthat are distributed to the auditory conch.\n\n2439. The eye has, in addition to its wholly special motor nerves, a\nnumber of others, which superintend its vegetative systems, such as the\niris and the secretions of the humours.\n\n\na. VEGETATIVE SENSES.\n\n1. _Vascular Senses._\n\n2440. All senses are only conditionated by the peripheric nervous mass\nbecause they are combinations of the nervous mass with the blossoms of\nthe inferior systems.\n\n2441. The most general system of the animal is the vascular system,\nwhich is represented externally as integument. The animal was in the\ncommencement nothing but integument, and this again naught but vascular\nand nervous mass, so that the whole integument was thus an organ of\nsensation.\n\n2442. Through the integument the animal becomes an individual, or a\nsomething distinct from the aggregate of nature. Now as the integument\nis principally the organ of sensation, so is the primary sensation that\nact, by which the animal is distinguished from nature. The tegumentary\nsense is the sense of _distinction_, of limitation.\n\n2443. Through the act of discriminating, a something foreign or\nextraneous is granted us. The immediate perception of what is\nextraneous, is called feeling. Tegumentary sense is _sense of feeling_.\n\n2444. The feeling-sense is the first in the animal.\n\n2445. It is that which is general in the animal.\n\n2446. The whole animal is naught but a sense of feeling.\n\n2447. Out of the feeling-sense all other senses must be developed, just\nas all other systems are developed out of the tegumentary formation.\n\n\n_Organs of Touch._\n\n2448. Where, however, the skin has attained to a higher grade of\nformation, or where it has combined with higher systems, there also\nwill the sense of feeling be supplied by the former.\n\n2449. The combination of the integument with the osseous and muscular\nsystem, and with a nervous system of its own, takes place in the limbs.\nSince the motor members are only a liberated thorax, so no other sense\ncan belong to them but that of feeling, which the thorax previously\npossessed.\n\n2450. But these sensitive organs are moved, and therefore voluntary\norgans, digits, or former branchi\u00e6. Moveable or voluntary organs of\nfeeling are called _tactile organs_. The feeling of the motor members\nis touch.\n\n2451. The highest feeling necessarily consists in touching, because it\nhas in that become active, while before it was only passive.\n\n2452. In the situation of the sensitive papill\u00e6, the origin of the\ndigits from respiratory organs admits of being still recognized. They\nare arranged in spiral lines upon the points of the fingers.\n\n2453. The sexual organs belong as tegumentary developments to the sense\nof feeling. There is no special sexual sense.\n\n\n2. _Intestinal Sense._\n\n2454. Opposite to the general feeling or the integument, the function\nof the intestine is evolved. In the trunk it is simply busied with\nits own processes; when it first mounts or ascends into the head, it\nbecomes subordinated to the nervous action.\n\n2455. The combination of the intestine with bones, muscles and peculiar\nnerves, is presented in the tongue. This is the sensitive organ of the\nintestine.\n\n2456. The tongue is a feeling-sense in water, just as the skin was that\nin the air. For it is the blossom of the digestive process. To the\ntongue therefore belongs the digestive or water-organ of the mouth,\nwhich is constituted by the salivary glands.\n\n2457. The sensation of what is fluid in its chemical relations is\ncalled _taste_. Gustation is not a peculiar process, but obviously only\nthe nervous commencement of the digestive process. On that account also\nthe gustatory sense still lies concealed in a cavity. The whole buccal\nor oral cavity still belongs to the sense of taste.\n\n2458. As in the sense of feeling the motor system still predominates,\nso does it also in the tongue, as being the second sense, which has\nbeen liberated from the plant. The nervous mass is in this sense not\npreponderant over the muscular and bony mass.\n\n2459. The tongue is still to be regarded as an organ of touch, though\none in which the flesh or muscle has gained a mastery over the bones,\nwhile in the true tactile organ the bones determine the principal forms\nand functions. The tongue is a nervous organ in the muscle, the hand is\nsuch in the bone.\n\n2460. The hyoid or lingual bone is none other than the first branchial\narch, and consists pretty nearly of the same pieces as the arm.\n\n2461. Compound lingual bones, such as occur in many Reptiles, have\noriginated from coalescence of several branchial arches.\n\n2462. Like the limbs, so is the tongue originally a double organ. In\nmost Reptiles it is longitudinally fissured. Such animals have usually\nalso a double penis. In all animals the tongue is divided into two\nmoieties, which are only connate by means of suture. The penis also\nconsists of two connate penes.\n\n2463. As in the tegumentary sense, the nerves could not be peculiar\nor special in kind, but took their origin from all parts, and\nparticularly from the spinal cord, so also is this the case with the\nintestinal sense, which is still only an internal tegumentary sense.\nThe lingual nerves proceed from several situations, and that too from\nthe upper part of the spinal cord.\n\n2464. The oral cavity also consists, properly speaking, of mere tactile\norgans, which have been repeated in the head. Thus, there are tactile\norgans which are subservient to the gustatory sense, in biting,\nchewing, and swallowing.\n\n2465. The lips are tactile organs upon the threshold or brink, as it\nwere, of the gustatory sense.\n\n2466. In the oral cavity, however, the glands of the intestinal canal\nare repeated. The salivary glands secrete fluid, like the pancreatic\nglands.\n\n2467. The sense of feeling is present in all animals. They are only\nanimals by virtue of it; but the sense of taste appears to be first\nformed at a later period, after the intestine has separated from the\nintegument; in the animals that have no intestine, its existence is\nproblematical, and even in Fishes and Birds it is but poorly developed.\n\n\n3. _Pulmonic or Lung-sense._\n\n2468. When the respiratory organ is hoisted up into the head, and there\nbecomes an organ of sensation, it passes over into a sense.\n\n2469. That the nose is the thorax, together with its viscera, repeated\nin the head, has been already remarked. The many convolutions of the\nturbinated or olfactory bones correspond to the ramifications of the\ntrachea; the nasal cartilages to the tracheal or laryngeal rings; the\nolfactory membrane to the pulmonic vesicles.\n\n2470. The process of the lungs repeated in the head becomes smell, like\nthat of the intestine became taste. The olfactory sense is the highest\nblossom of the arteriose vascular system or the branchial net. On this\naccount the olfactory membrane is the most delicate, and the densest\ntissue of arteries and veins.\n\n2471. The nose is related to the mouth, as the thoracic is to the\nabdominal cavity; the olfactory membrane to the tongue, as the lung\nis to the stomach. It is a cephalo-thorax. The nose is not therefore\nso completely closed as the mouth, but is opened through the two most\nanterior air-holes or spiracula. The nasal apertures or nostrils are\nthe last persistent remnants of the spiracula, after all those upon the\nsides of the body have been closed up.\n\n2472. It is the last organ of sense, which has been evolved from the\ntrunk. It is therefore nobler than the two others, and has also a\nnobler object, the air.\n\n2473. The nerves of the olfactory organ are peculiar to it, and are\nencephalic nerves. As the sense of smell is the pulmonic or arteriose\nsense; so also does the arteriose substance of the brain combine\nwith this organ. The olfactory nerves consist of cineritious or gray\nsubstance, and are only prolongations thereof.\n\n2474. This is the only phenomenon of the kind met with among all\nnerves, but it is commensurate with the character or signification of\nthis organ. A sensible pulmonary organ can only have arteriose nerves.\nAs the liver is throughout venous, so is the nose throughout arteriose\nin quality.\n\n\nb. ANIMAL SENSES.\n\n2475. It now only remains for us to consider the motor and the\nsensitive system proper upon their highest stage of development. The\nmotor system, when represented in the nervous system, is a peculiar\norgan of sensation, as is likewise the nervous system itself upon\nattaining its highest state of development.\n\n\n4. _Osseo-Muscular Sense._\n\n2476. The lowest condition of the motor system is the limbs, which\nrepresent no peculiar sense, but only the sense of feeling refined or\nset in motion. This motor system ascends into the head, and there no\nlonger exercises its motive powers in prehension, progression, &c.,\nbut solely unto sensation. Now, a system, which converts its function\ninto that of sensation, is a sense.\n\n2477. The sensorial organ, which simply through motion, or a resistance\npresented to that of the atoms, produces sensation, or wherein the\nmotion as such is felt, is the _Ear_.\n\n2478. The ear is none other than the ultimate development of the bone\nand muscle, when they are brought under the direct dominion of the\nnerves.\n\n2479. The auditory ossicles are the limbs subtilized or refined in\ncharacter. They have joints, are provided with muscles, and move\nexactly like the limbs. It may be said; that the stapes is the scapula,\nthe incus the humerus, the malleus the fore arm, and the concha with\nits cartilages, the hand with its digits.\n\n2480. The ear, like the bulk of the limbs, has originated from\nbranchi\u00e6. In Fishes, the auditory ossicles have degenerated into the\nbranchial opercula.\n\n2481. The ear-trumpet (or Eustachian tube), which opens into the mouth,\nis the internal branchial aperture.\n\n2482. The motor system, however, belongs to the trunk, whose viscera\nare repeated also in the ear, or in a cavity which has been called its\nlabyrinth. The three semicircular canals appear to correspond to the\nintestine, the cochlea to the trachea.\n\n2483. The ear has not only a nerve, but likewise a brain, of its own.\n\n2484. The cerebellum is the auditory brain, and from it the acoustic\nnerves take their rise. For, since the ear is the sense of the whole\nmotor system, and consequently of half the animal, it inevitably\nfollows, that an appropriate or special nervous mass must be developed\nfor it, just as the myelon or spinal chord has been for the trunk. An\norgan, which is so constantly active, must necessarily have a large\nnervous mass. The cerebellum is consequently not a brain in the general\nsense, but one which is wholly individualized. It participates in the\nmotion, which, as sound, is transmitted to the animal.\n\n2485. By its signification as well as by its own brain, the ear gives\nus to recognize its elevated rank above the other senses.\n\n2486. The ear must stand in relation with the body's limbs.\n\n2487. The ears first make their appearance in animals, associated with\na tolerable development of the limbs. With the exception of a few\ninstances, the ears first become apparent in Fishes, being in them at\nleast furnished for the first time with true ossicles and semicircular\ncanals. The ear, like the limbs, with which it constantly maintains\na parallel course, is very slowly perfected. In the Fishes which\nhave only fins (as instruments of locomotion) it is wholly concealed\nwithin the cranial bones; in the Reptiles it emerges or is more\nexposed to view; but for the first time in Birds and Mammalia where,\ngenerally speaking, the limbs also are first perfected, it attains\nits completion; in them only is the cochlea fully developed, and an\nauditory meatus which opens externally.\n\n\n5. _Nervous Sense._\n\n2488. In all lower organs, and even in the senses which have hitherto\nbeen commented upon, the nervous system was not the chief, but only\nthe co-ordinate agent. It has only by its conjunction with, assisted\nin elevating the character of, other systems, so that their material\nmight be converted into spiritual processes. But the nervous is also\na self-substantial system, and must therefore attain likewise a free\ndevelopment.\n\n2489. With the highest organs of the nervous system, the relation which\nhas been hitherto maintained, must be reversed. The inferior systems\nwill now be the co-ordinate agents.\n\n2490. The highest nervous organ can only possess that function, which\nis originally peculiar to the nervous system, i. e. the most delicate\npolarization, the light-function. There is the _Light-sense_.\n\n2491. The eye is nothing but a nervous system represented in a state of\npurest organization, just as the ear was the purest system of motion.\n\n2492. In the eye it is the brain itself, which expands, in order to\nturn unto or face the light.\n\n2493. As the ear has its own brain, so also has the eye; the cerebrum\nis the optic brain. (Ed. 1st, 1811. \u00a7. 2317.) This is the rationale of\nour having two brains.\n\n2494. Now the cortical or gray substance has been already diverted from\nthe cerebrum to supply the olfactory sense. Its medullary or white\nsubstance remains for the eye. The medullary brain is the optic brain.\nThe medullary is consequently the nobler part of the nervous system.\n\n2495. The brain's medulla is homologous to the light; its exterior or\ncortical portion is related to the material light, the air.\n\n2496. The eye is only a medullary brain, posited peripherically and in\na nervous manner. The brain itself has elongated and become integument.\n\n2497. The visual membrane (or retina) is the cerebral substance\ncystically expanded. It must be regarded as being originally a closed\nbladder or cyst. (Ed. 1st, 1811. \u00a7. 2321.)\n\n2498. The optic nerve is itself hollow, and unites the cerebral with\nthe orbitar cavity.\n\n2499. The vitreous body, which fills out the cyst of the retina, is\nthe cerebral medulla which has become transparent, or a semi-fluid\nalbuminous mass.\n\n2500. The sclerotic coat of the eye is the continuation of the brain's\ndura mater.\n\n2501. The vascular or choroid coat of the eye is the continuation of\nthe encephalic pia mater. All parts of the brain have been consequently\ncontinued into the eye.\n\n2502. Now, what the brain is for the earthly body, that also must it be\nfor the eye. The eye is not simply brain, but a representation also of\nthe whole body. The brain can, forsooth, be nowhere without its body;\nif therefore it is elevated into the eye, so also must it take up and\nelevate the body along with itself.\n\n2503. The eye is an entire body, a whole animal. Again, in the next\nplace, the animal systems, such as limbs, thorax and abdomen, have\nbeen most distinctly represented in it. The light is seized, respired,\ndigested, and hence felt by the eye.\n\n2504. As the light represents chaotically the whole of nature, but this\nmaterial nature enters completely into the animal through the processes\nof the trunk, so does the light enter it through the eye. The eye is\nthe chaotic representation of all material processes of a body.\n\n2505. The limbs or members of the eye are repeated in the ocular\nmuscles and the sclerotic or bony ring; in many Fishes the eye stands\nupon a flexible pedicle, as in the Crabs. The ocular muscles move the\neye in different directions like a hand.\n\n2506. The sclerotic corresponds to the corium, the cornea to the\ndigital unguis, or finger-nail.\n\n2507. The choroid or vascular coat, is the respiratory system or lung\nin the eye. The iris corresponds to the larynx, the pupil to the\nglottis; its expansion and contraction is a respiratory movement.\n\n2508. The choroid coat incloses also an osseous mass, the lens--a\nvertebral body. The morbid states of the lens are osseous diseases,\nsuch as gout.\n\n2509. In the chambers of the eye, water, as being a product of\ndigestion, is constantly secreted.\n\n2510. The orbitar cavity is a mouth with salivary glands--giving vent\nto tears.\n\n2511. The lachrymal canal is a branchial duct, which opens into the\nnose, like the Eustachian tubes did from the ear into the mouth.\n\n2512. The eyelids consequently correspond to the lips, and are in like\nmanner fringed with hairs.\n\n2513. As the body has everywhere two halves, and laterally also\npresents two entire organisms, so also is the formation of the nervous\nsystem a double one. Each eye is an entire body.\n\n2514. In the two eyes the halves of the body have completely separated\nas entire bodies, and each has attained self-substantiality. Each\neye is a free animal in the animal body. Each eye is therefore\ncircumscribed by its own _integument_--is a free animal. It is endowed,\nlike the hand, with omnilateral motion; it has cavities, i. e. its\nbodily cavities and humours, or inclosed masses--_viscera_.\n\n2515. An organ, which again repeats in its miniature the whole animal\nitself, of which it is only a part, must necessarily be the highest\npoint unto which an organism can attain. With the eye the organization,\nand consequently nature, has been concluded.\n\n2516. The eye is a parasitic animal, of the same kind with the animal\nupon which it exists.\n\n2517. In a certain sense all sensorial organs are parasitic animals in\nthe animal; only they are not all of the same kind with it. No one of\nthe other senses has e. g. repeated _all_ lower systems in itself, and\nit is therefore to be regarded only as a subordinate or half-animal,\nwhich lives upon that which is more perfect.\n\n\n_Senses of the Sexual Animal._\n\n2518. In essaying to speak concerning the sensorial organs of the\nsexual animal, we shall only encounter in the latter the emotions of\nthe vegetative senses, and these indeed disposed according to their\nrank.\n\n2519. The sense of feeling is most perfectly developed in the legs,\nwhereof the pelvis represents the scapula.\n\n2520. The external sexual parts are the analogues of the gustatory\nsense; the female parts being indeed those of the mouth; the male,\nwhich are frequently furnished with bone, of the tongue. The jaws are\nnot repeated in a sexual animal, except in Insects, namely, as the\npharyngeal maxill\u00e6.\n\n2521. The analogue of the nose is wholly stunted, and is only left\npersistent as a trachea or air-tube in the urethra.\n\n2522. In other respects the cavity of the sexual parts is a\ntrunk-cavity \"per se,\" like the thoracic and abdominal; the pelvic\ncavity contains the viscera of a whole animal.\n\n\nII.-_PHYSIOLOGY._\n\n2523. Physiology is the doctrine or science which treats of the\nfunctions of the animal. Like the organology was, so also must the\nscience of the functions be developed. There will be functions of the\nwhole animal, and of the tissues, systems and organs.\n\n\n_A._ FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL IN GENERAL.\n\n2524. The first act of the animal is an assimilation to the universe,\nwhereby it also receives or takes up into itself the primary function\nof the universe. This is the perception of the circumscription and\ntotality in itself, its self-manifestation, the _feeling of self_. The\nfirst action of the animal mass is that of self-sensation. Now, through\nthe self-sensation, self-substantiality has been granted.\n\n2525. The animal is consequently a Whole in Singulars only through the\nfeeling of self.\n\n2526. As the universe is only an analysis of the self-consciousness of\nGod; so also can the development of the animal and the formation of its\norgans, be none other than an analysis of the self-sensation. All other\nfunctions (just as all masses are only a metamorphosed nervous mass)\nare but differently polarized self-sensations, or these as it were\ndispersed.\n\n2527. The self-sensation of an individual body is not, however,\ninclosed within itself, like the primary relation of the universe;\nbecause it is not the universe, but only a fraction of it, which\nhas sprouted forth like a bud from the great planetary body. The\nself-sensation is not therefore a simple feeling of self, but a\nfeeling also of something _foreign_ or extraneous, and thus the\nanimal self-sensation becomes, in reference to Nature, an act of\ndiscrimination or discernment.\n\n2528. Now, the animal is distinguished only from Nature by the act of\nbeing liberated from it. It is therefore comprehended in a constant\nliberation or severance. The life of the animal continues only by a\nconstantly renewed and indefatigable severance, by a desertion or\nfalling off from Nature.\n\n2529. In so doing, however, it detaches itself from Nature, as being\na part thereof; the severance is therefore a conversion of the nature\ninto an animal. In this consists the reciprocal action of both, viz.\nthat the animal is constantly seeking to assimilate the nature unto\nitself.\n\n2530. The ability or power to assimilate the nature, is called\n_excitability_.\n\n2531. Excitability is the most general phenomenon of the organic mass,\nand appertains both to plants and animals.\n\n2532. But in the animal excitability, the free self-sensation,\nwithin which a free motion is necessarily inherent, is superadded or\noriginates. This excitability unto motion I call _irritability_.\n\n2533. Thus this irritability belongs only to animals.\n\n2534. Irritability does not depend directly upon motion, but throughout\nupon sensation. Without sensation no irritability is possible. If the\nsensation ceases, so also does mobility, or the capacity for motion,\ncease.\n\n2535. Since irritability originates from the antagonism of the animal\nwith the world; so is it parallel to an antagonism of the heavenly\nbodies, or to that of sun and planets. The mutual operation of these\ntwo heavenly bodies is, however, an interchange of polarity, a polar\nexcitation. The irritability is a polar process; but one which is pure\nand devoid of material excretions, just as the sun excites the earth\nwithout eliciting therein any material change or transition. The animal\nbecomes polarized by the incentive agent or stimulus.\n\n2536. Through the irritability there originates a double polarity in\nthe animal. In the first place one between the world and the animal; in\nthe second, one between the exterior of the animal and its interior.\nThe world-polarity gives the feeling or sensation, the body's polarity\nthe motion.\n\n2537. In the sensation the animal always transcends itself; there is\nthus only excitability. In the motion the animal abides or remains\nwithin itself; but the self-sensation proceeds from both conditions.\nAccordingly, in self-sensation the world, and the animal within the\nanimal, convene or come together. The animal is itself universe, and\nit at the same time comprehends the great universe. Now, in both\nconditions or in both functions has the animal been turned towards\nthe world and also towards itself. In feeling it turns itself towards\nthe world, in order to adopt this spiritually into, or repel this\nfrom, itself; in motion it turns itself towards the world, in order to\nmaterially adopt or to repel it. In both cases of assumption it turns\nitself towards itself.\n\n2538. Both these properties belong to the animal body; if individual\norgans are deficient in them, it happens therefore, from their having\nsuperadded or adduced other properties, which are predominant, to the\noriginal ones. This is the essence of what is animal in a living body.\nThus, if from an animal all the vegetable systems could be subtracted,\nit would do nothing but feel and move.\n\n\n_B._ FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL IN SINGULARS.\n\nI. _Functions of the Tissues._\n\na. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL TISSUES.\n\n1. _Functions of the Point-Tissue._\n\n2539. The point-tissue is also spiritually represented, and this\nspiritual manifestation or expression is the stamp or impress of the\narrangement of the matter into points.\n\n2540. The point-matter is the matter of sensation; the sensation is,\nhowever, imparted by polarization. The act of feeling is a conduction\nof the polarity from point to point; this is the light-polarity. This\nlight-like polarity transmitted from point to point is sensibility.\n\n2541. The sensibility is not the result of a peculiar nervous fluid, or\neven of mechanical vibration, &c., of the nerves; but of an antagonism\nbetween animal and world, brain and tegument, sun and planet.\n\n2542. The point-tissue is in every respect the \u00e6ther which has become\nthe mucus, and has in every respect also to act in accordance thereunto.\n\n2543. The sensibility or the nervous power, viewed in relation to the\nsmallness of the body, operates instantaneously upon every spot. It\nis not first conducted or tardily conveyed hither and thither; but\neverywhere, where an antagonism, a stimulus, a _planet_ is, there\nalso is the \"vis nervosa.\" Where a planet is, there also is the solar\ntension.\n\n2544. But abstractedly or ideally considered, the nervous force\ncertainly requires a time to elapse for the propagation of the\nstimulus, just as the light-tension darts through the \u00e6ther only in a\ngiven time. As light traverses at the rate of 40,000 miles per second,\nso must the nervous power, if it obey similar laws to those of its\nprototype, and the length of a man be estimated at 1-5000th of a mile,\nglide through the human body in 1-200,000,000th of a second, which,\n\"quoad\" the phenomenon, cannot, of course, be observed.\n\n2545. Accordingly, it is theoretically certain that the nervous power\ndoes not operate with absolute or unconditional velocity. To the\nvalidity of this statement, observations of many kinds, especially\nthose made in diseases, and by astronomical computations of the strokes\nof the chronometer, afford additional evidence.\n\n2546. Thus, for a stimulus impinging upon the brain, to act or be\ntransmitted from thence into the toes, there elapses 1-200,000,000th\nof a second. In the event of disease, a retardation in the process is\nconceivable, and may admit even of being observed.\n\n\n2. _Function of the Globe-tissue._\n\n2547. The dense or solid form is the matter, when it has died away; the\nfunction also, or the crystallization, died therein, so soon as the\ncrystal was represented. The office of the bones is only to preserve\nthe counterpoise to the nerve, to supply a limit, and therefore a\nsupport to its action, by which means the achievement of the latter\nfirst becomes possible.\n\n2548. The business of the bone, is to play an antithetic part to the\nnerve, and nothing else, or to serve the latter as a \"terra firma,\"\nupon which it may execute its plans. The bone suffers, and in this\nconsists its office. The other offices of the bone, such as its\nbeing the firm and solid framework of the body, its protecting the\nnervous mass, &c., are subordinate matters, which are at once clearly\nunderstood.\n\n\n3. _Function of the Fibrous-tissue._\n\n2549. There is the active motion. The primary motion is, however, a\nresult of the polar tension induced in the \u00e6ther by the light. Just as\nthe heat has been produced in the \u00e6ther by the light-polarity, so has\nbeen the animal motion in the fibres by the polarity of the nerves.\n\n2550. Every fibre, when it is in motion, has necessarily two polar\nextremities. For the fibre stands between the artery which is\noxygenous, and the nerve which is basic, or between a zinc and silver\npole.\n\n2551. In the conditions of rest the two poles must be neutralized,\nor, generally speaking, not in existence. This is only possible by\ndisjunction of the galvanic circuit or chain.\n\n2552. Since the artery is constantly operating upon the fibre, but the\nnerve only, when it has been stimulated; so must this change in the\ncondition of the fibre reside in the change of the nervous influence.\n\n2553. In unirritated conditions the nerve does not act upon the fibre;\nthe latter is not _illuminated_, nor does it stand in a state of\ntension with the nerve, which is not in itself polar, but is only, when\nstimulated, a sun towards the fibre, or polar within itself. If the\nchain be then dissevered, the fibre is in a state of indifference.\n\n2554. Thus, in the event of tension, the nervous extremity of the\nfibre becomes negative, the arterial extremity positive; both ends\nnecessarily attract each other in order to discharge or unload\nthemselves. This attraction is an _abbreviation_ or contraction.\n\n2555. After the discharge the fibrous extremities are homonymous; they\nrepel each other, and relaxation or extension ensues.\n\n2556. The motion of the fibres is consequently a perfectly galvanic\nprocess, devoid of _material_ interference, between nerve, fibre, and\nblood. The nerve is silver, the artery zinc, and the fibre moist card.\nAll theories of motion based upon swelling of blood, elementary change,\nand such like causes, are not animal, though organic in character; the\nformer are injections, the latter chemical processes.\n\n2557. Through the fibrous tissue being shortened and elongated, the\nentire animal is self-displaced.\n\n2558. Through the fibrous tissue the animal _appears_ as animal,\nthrough the point-tissue it is (and that in essence) an animal. God\nis in himself, but he first appears in the world. This elucidates or\nexplains the relation of \"noumenon\" and \"phenomenon.\"\n\n\n4. _Function of the Cellular Tissue._\n\n2559. This tissue has no other function than that in the plant. Many\nsaps or juices are effused into the cells. The latter are engaged in\nconstant expansion and contraction, whereby they decompose and propel\nthese juices. They are the proper seat of the nutritive process, since\nthey coincide with the capillary vessels.\n\n2560. But as every rigidification is combined with volatilization, so\ndoes a process of evaporation occur in them at the same time.\n\n2561. This process is the property of the teguments or membranes, both\nof those lining the internal cavities, as also of such as are placed\nexternally.\n\n2562. But the process of evaporation is principally the function of the\ntrue skin or corium. As an organ of evaporation the corium is similar\nto the lung. It is consequently aeriform water, which of necessity\nconstitutes the principal mass of evaporation.\n\n2563. The water is, however, mucous in character, the mucus becomes\noxydized in the air, and through this also carbonic acid is formed.\n\n\n_Heat._\n\n2564. The chief function of the cell-formation is the process of\nheat. The cell-process and heat-process are one in kind. Heat is the\nproduct of the process of condensation and rarefaction, and thus of the\nnutrition and evaporation, both of which happen in the cells, or, if we\nplease, in the capillary vessels.\n\n2565. In the skin the process of temperature is individualized.\n\n2566. All temperature depends upon the process of condensation and\nrarefaction. At one time it is the nerves, at another the vessels,\nanon, external influences, which alter or modify it. Animal heat,\nlike the cosmic heat, has been produced by change of the fixation.\nThis change, however, takes place principally in the nutrition and\nevaporation.\n\n2567. The fat is the \"residuum\" or the antagonism of the process of\nevaporation or water-formation. It is therefore deposited everywhere on\nthe water-organs, beneath the integument, along the intestine and the\nvessels, around the kidneys, and so on.\n\n2568. It is, like the adipocire, a product of the aqueous\ndecomposition. On this account it is subservient to the process of\ntemperature. It is the only isolator of heat, while all other animal\nbodies are conductors.\n\n\nII. _Functions of the Systems._\n\n2569. The functions do not concern the whole body, but only its\nprincipal parts.\n\n\na. VEGETABLE FUNCTIONS.\n\n2570. The vegetative functions are matter-changing processes, which,\nconsequently, correspond directly to the chemical processes, or are\nrather of one kind with these, but altered by organic elemental bodies.\n\n\n1. _Functions of the Intestinal System._\n\n2571. The general function of the integument consists in the secretion\nof juices, of which there are principally two kinds, the general and\nspecial.\n\n2572. The general intestinal juice is mucus; it acts by rarefying.\n\n2573. The gastric juice is of an aqueous, mucous, and acid nature. It\nacts as an acid and is endowed with chemically solvent properties.\n\n2574. The bile is of a basic, inflammable, alkaline nature. It acts\nalso chemically by analysing and precipitating.\n\n2575. The saliva is the gastric juice of the head. It is a juice\n_secreted_ under the influence of the sensibility, and is on that\naccount indifferencing, and nullifying in its effects; it is the\nhighest poison.\n\n2576. As the indifferent saliva precedes the gastric juice, so does the\nindifferent pancreatic fluid the bile.\n\n2577. The proper function of the intestinal system is the digestion\nwith all its divisions. There is an animal and a vegetative, or oral\nand abdominal digestion.\n\n\na. _Oral Digestion._\n\n2578. Oral digestion is a mortifying or putting to death of the food.\n\n2579. Since what is organic only serves as aliment for the animal,\nbut nothing can be assimilated to the latter, without its having been\npreviously reduced to the original condition of Infusoria, so also must\nthe first act of the digestive process depend upon this, or converting\nthe organic into primary organic bodies.\n\n2580. This reduction to the primary condition is a putting to death\nof the organic individual. Organisms only which have been killed, can\nbe converted into infusorial matter, and are then nutriment for the\nanimal. The first act of digestion is consequently an act of putting to\ndeath.\n\n2581. The act of killing consists of two moments, the mechanical and\ndynamical, or in lacerating and poisoning.\n\n\n_Laceration._\n\n2582. The mechanical act of putting to death commences with the search\nafter nutriment, and thus with the movement of the feet; to this\nsucceeds the prehension, or seizure with the claws or hands.\n\n2583. This motion of the limbs is then repeated in the cephalic\nmembers, or the jaws.\n\n2584. The seizure of the food with the cephalic arms or jaws, is the\ninfliction of a wound commensurate with the position and form of the\nteeth. The teeth are digits of the cephalic limbs, or being devoid of\nany fleshy layer, claws. A gripe with such digits is in itself the\ninfliction of a wound. For, in order that the food be grasped with\nonly sufficient firmness to admit of its being drawn into the mouth,\nthe sharp digital points of the mouth, i. e. the teeth, must make an\nincision therein.\n\n2585. To seize, bite, wound, and kill, is in an animal one and the\nsame act. For, so soon as the food or prey is seized, and consequently\nwounded, it is drawn deeper into the mouth, and therefore a new grasp\nand bite is essayed.\n\n2586. Upon this the food is twirled about in the mouth by the muscles,\nor is chewed, whereby the parts are separated into mechanical atoms.\n\n\n_Poisoning._\n\n2587. Mechanical atoms are, however, not yet dead, because the vital\npolarity is not extinguished. It is requisite for a dynamic act, which\nsuppresses all galvanism, to operate upon them.\n\n2588. As this act of killing has directly for its object the death\nof the Organic and that alone, so is it a venenation or _process of\npoisoning_. To poison is not merely a chemical act, but one having for\nits immediate purpose, to separate the connexion of the organic atoms.\n\n2589. The first act performed by the animal is that of poisoning.\n\n2590. Poisoning, as being a direct aggression upon and destruction\nof life, is a destruction of the galvanic process. Now, the galvanic\nprocess is destroyed by suppression, destruction, and separation\nof its poles. The demolition of poles is a _polar equilibration_.\nPoisoning is equilibration of poles on the galvanic organism, or their\nneutralization.\n\n2591. The primary change of poles is, however, in the blood. Poisoning\nis a balancing of the blood-poles.\n\n2592. Indifferent blood is no longer blood, but chyle or infusorial\nprimary mass.\n\n2593. The nutritive fluid or chyle is poisoned organic substance. There\nis no aliment except what is wrought by poison.\n\n2594. The poisoning of the aliments must take place through the medium\nof their blood, or their sap. If poison therefore does not get into the\nblood, the death does not ensue. The digestive juice is poison only for\nthe blood, but not for the other systems.\n\n2595. Chemical bodies which induce death, act by destruction of the\nbodies themselves, not merely by their neutralization or excessive\npolarization. They do not operate very differently from iron when in a\nstate of red heat. Such is the case with sulphuric acid, nitric acid,\nalkalies and arsenic.\n\n2596. Now, if these bodies be called poisons, there are thus three\nkinds of poisons, mineral or chemical, vegetable and animal poisons.\n\n2597. The chemical poisons destroy the mass; they convert the Organic\ninto minerals.\n\n2598. Vegetable poisons reduce the animal to the plant; they do not\neffect the destruction of the mass in a general sense, but only that\nwhich is purely animal, or the nervous system--they are nervous poisons.\n\n2599. The animal poisons destroy what is vegetable in the animal, or\nthe galvanic process--are blood-poisons.\n\n2600. _The saliva is the digestive poison._\n\n2601. The saliva is not present, in order to macerate, and so prepare\nthe dry aliments for digestion, but to _poison_ them. Everything else\nis only a subordinate operation. Now, the process of poisoning takes\nplace only in the blood. The saliva does not act without inflicting a\nwound.\n\n2602. Strictly regarded, all saliva is poison. There are examples of\nthe saliva of birds, and even of men when inflamed with passion, having\nacted as poison.\n\n2603. All other animal poisons, contagious principles or miasmata,\nare analogous to the saliva, being partial saliv\u00e6, partial poisons.\nDiseases of the skin produce tegumentary poisons or saliv\u00e6;\nglandular diseases, glandular poisons; nervous diseases, nervous\npoisons; diseases of the lungs, pulmonary poisons. The saliva is the\nblood-poison; the hydrocyanic acid, the nervous poison.\n\n2604. During mastication saliva imbues every atom of the food, whereby\nthe mass is throughout neutralized, or annulled.\n\n\n_Docimasy or Testing._\n\n2605. The oral digestion or that of the mouth cannot, however, occur\nby itself, without its being a nervous process also. The intestinal\nfunction taken up into the nervous system is the _taste_.\n\n2606. Taste is the chemism resident in the head, the digestion in\nthe nerves. Taste therefore happens according to the theory of the\ndigestion or the chemism.\n\n2607. The lowest element of the chemism is the water, the highest\nrepetition whereof in the earth is--the salt. The former is therefore\nthe object of abdominal digestion, the latter of nervous digestion.\nTo taste is to digest salt. In order to taste the salt, every part\nof the food must be brought in contact with the tongue; this is only\npossible through comminution of the aliment by means of the teeth. The\nmastication dissolves the aliments mechanically into atoms, just as\ndigestion will resolve them chemically into \"infusoria.\"\n\n2608. That which should be digestible, must have a saline character,\nmust be soluble. The tongue is accordingly the test-organ of the\ndigestive process.\n\n\n_Deglutition._\n\n2609. At first the tongue tastes only with its apex or tip; but after\nthe salts which operate upon the tip are neutralized and examined,\nthe tongue will also taste with its root, the two extremities of the\ntongue and their gustatory sensations being thus mutually opposed. It\ntherefore takes the morsel upon the root and presses it against the\npalate, whereby the pharyngeal muscles clasp and swallow it.\n\n2610. In deglutition the object of the tongue is not to give over or\nsurrender the morsel to the pharynx, but to enjoy it \"per se.\" During\nthis fruition, however, it is robbed of it. Deglutition is therefore a\nresult of an undesigned mechanical contrivance. Each organ works for\nthe other, while fancying that it works for itself, which again it\nactually does, while it reaps the enjoyment so derived. Has the tongue\nfinished tasting the food, then the pharynx obtains it involuntarily.\n\n2611. To the saliva, and thus to a morsel, the acidulous gastric juice\nis polarwise related; both therefore seek to unite, and with this their\norgans also, namely, pharynx and stomach. The stomach obtains the\npreponderance, because it is acidulous; the pharynx moves towards it\nand with it also the morsel.\n\n\n_Rumination._\n\n2612. If the food, when received into the stomach, continue acid by\nvirtue of its nature, or from not having been properly chewed and\nimbued with saliva and so neutralized, it is then homonymous with\nthe gastric juice. The stomach therefore seeks to neutralize it, by\nrestoring it again to the action of the saliva.\n\n2613. Acid aliments cause vomiting. Grass which has not been\nmasticated, and therefore enters acid or non-killed, and susceptible\nof fermentation, into the stomach, is regularly brought back into the\nmouth, and to the saliva, i. e. is ruminated or rechewed.\n\n2614. Rumination is a regular act of vomiting, which has originated\nfrom the antagonism of the saliva and gastric juice and from the acid\nnature of the morsel.\n\n\nb. _Intestinal Digestion._\n\n2615. The intestinal digestion is the perfect chemical process taken up\nalong with all its moments into the animal.\n\n\n_Gastric Digestion._\n\n2616. The stomach exercises by means of the spleen the oxydizing\nprocess of the intestine, the solvent function, and thus the action\nof the water. The gastric juice is related to the food, like water is\nto earth. The gastric digestion is liquefaction, unto which oxydation\nmakes the preliminary step.\n\n2617. Through the process of liquefaction, the poles are only\npotentially augmented, but are not dissevered, nor new substances\nformed. The gastric digestion creates no new bodies, but only mixes the\nold in the most homogeneous and intimate manner with each other.\n\n2618. The gastric digestion is an animal process of fermentation. In\nderanged states of the stomach there is therefore a propensity to acid\neructation, development of carbonic acid, and even formation of sugar.\n\n2619. This digestion consequently reduces the (animal) food to the\nsignification of the plant. Gastric digestion is a process of vegetable\ngermination. The salivary process is a reduction to the animal death,\ndigestion a reduction of this dead something itself to a lower kingdom.\n\n2620. The gastric juice alone, like an acid, effects the solution of\nthe aliment; with this, the movement of the gastric walls, which only\ntends to produce an easier mixture of the alimentary particles, having\nnothing to do.\n\n\n_Hunger._\n\n2621. Through the digestive process the gastric juice is consumed by\nthe food, and the stomach deoxydized. If there is a deficiency of\ndephlegmatizing and deoxydizing aliments, then the peroxydation of\nthe stomach must produce a feeling--called appetite. If this be not\nappeased, the oxygenic tension in the stomach is elevated or increased,\nand then begins to become unpleasant; this is _Hunger_.\n\n2622. Here the feeling of the stomach's peroxydation is an obstructed\nprocess of fermentation, dependent upon want of food and alkaline\nprinciples.\n\n\n_Thirst._\n\n2623. The feeling of the reverse condition to the above is _Thirst_.\nIt originates through a too rapid deoxydation of the stomach, through\ndeglutition of the gastric juice on account of an excess of food. But\nit may also originate from a deficiency of gastric juice, or from\nan alkaline tendency in the latter; just as hunger resulted from a\nsuperabundance of gastric juice, or a disposition to form acids.\n\n2624. Thirst is the feeling of too powerful a digestion, or of too\nrapid fermentation, whereby the product or leaven of the latter\nbecomes, as it were, bankrupt; upon this the blood flows in greater\nquantity, in order to secrete the gastric juice; the arterial nature\nbecomes elevated, and finally, an inflammatory condition, associated\nwith a sense of dryness, originates, and is propagated as far as the\nmouth.\n\n2625. Thirst and heat rank, like hunger and cold, parallel to each\nother. The feeling of dryness appears as heat, that of moisture, as\ncold. Cold therefore at once extinguishes or quenches the thirst; but\nproduces hunger, which again is mitigated by heat.\n\n\n_Biliary Digestion._\n\n2626. The stomach is the pulmonic intestine; the duodenum, through\nits combination with the liver, is the vascular intestine, having a\npredominant venous character; or the one is the arteriose, the other\nthe venous stomach.\n\n2627. The gastric digestion has reduced the food to the state of a\nvegetable; but this does not yet suffice for it to become a nutritive\nmatter, namely, a new organism. As the primary organism originates,\nso also must the body originate in the process of nutrition, and thus\nfrom the element of the Organic. Now, this primitive matter or element\nis the mucus, the \"infusorium.\" There is still therefore a process\nnecessary to redissolve the vegetable and convert it into protoplasma\nor primary mucus.\n\n2628. This, however, occurs only through the process of putrefaction\nbeing wrought in the food. This process is not simple solution,\nbut decomposition, or separation of the constituent parts. The\nacid vegetable parts, which had been active through the process of\nfermentation, must be therefore decomposed, and in such wise, indeed,\nthat what is mucous shall be separated from them.\n\n2629. This separation or analysis takes place by means of the _Bile_,\nwhich combines with the acid of the chyme.\n\n2630. The biliary digestion is an alkalizing or saponaceous process.\nThrough it the chyme becomes separated into nutritive juice or chyle,\nand into excrement.\n\n2631. The excrement is what is vegetable, or the product of\nfermentation combined with the bile. The chyle is what is infusorial,\nor the product of decomposition. Nutrition therefore begins anew. Its\nprocess is a \"generatio originaria.\"\n\n2632. In digestion the processes of both organic kingdoms, namely, the\nfermentative and putrefactive, are repeated.\n\n\n_Absorption._\n\nIn the intestine, not merely lung and vascular system, have been\nrepresented, but also the integument or organ of absorption.\n\n2633. After the animal food has been reduced to the vegetable, and this\nagain to the infusorial state, it can be taken up by the body. It now\nbecomes absorbed in the small intestine. The small intestine is the\ntegumentary system, or the root-bark.\n\n2634. The chyliferous or lacteal vessels stand in antagonism with\nthe lung, or the skin as being the original respiratory organ. It is\nonly, therefore, the infusorial chyle that has been absorbed, not the\nexcrement, because between the latter, as the product of oxydation,\nand the lacteal vessels, repulsion takes place. The chyle, having been\nabsorbed, enters into the thoracic duct, and from thence into the lungs.\n\n\n_Evacuation._\n\n2635. Through the absorption of what is fluid, that which is\nexcrementitious becomes more solid, and is thus given over or\ntransferred into the vegetable, sexual, or large intestine.\n\n2636. The excrement is now found in another, i. e. in a lower, or\nvegetable animal. It therefore obtains the direction of all sexual\nsecretions; it is thrown out or ejected, and in a reverse direction,\nbecause the anus is the sexual mouth.\n\n2637. Digestion is thus through all predicaments, from its incipient\ndealings with the highest life unto the plant, and from this to the\nmucous globule, a thorough process of putting to death.\n\n2638. The nutritive will be through all predicaments, from the\ninfusorium to the plant and to the animal, a thoroughly vivifying or\nlife-inspiring process. Digestion is descension, nutrition is ascension.\n\n\n2. _Functions of the Respiratory System._\n\n2639. The branchi\u00e6 and lungs are the air-organ of the animal, the\nfoliage. The animal, like the vegetable foliage, is oxydized from\nwater or air, by which means the animal sap, which hitherto is only a\nroot-sap, becomes differenced into an aerial sap.\n\n2640. No animal can live without oxygen gas, because the air is the\ncondition of the galvanic process.\n\n2641. The oxygen passes over materially into the blood or the chyle.\nBeyond this it is an indifferent matter for physiology, whether the\nblood simply derives the positive tension from the air, or combines\nthe positive oxygen materially with itself. In both cases the same\nheterogeneity originates. Were oxygen, however, not to enter the body\nthrough the lung, it could not then be seen, whence its ingress might\nbe effected. In other respects, every change of matters is established\nwith material combinations and separations.\n\n2642. The carbonic acid of the respiratory process may originate\naccidentally, as when it is formed on the integument. In so far is the\nexpiration one and the same with the evaporation.\n\n2643. The chyle ascends directly from the small intestine into the\nleaf-fabric, or into the lung. Both organs are to be compared with an\nentire plant, whereof the intestine is the root, the lymphatic vessels\nthe stem, the lung the leaf-fabric or foliage.\n\n2644. The chyle moves in the lymphatic vessels like the vegetable\nsap, and thus by polar tension between lung and intestine. Lung and\nintestine have been diametrically opposed. The conductors of the\nantagonism are the lymphatic vessels.\n\n2645. The lymphatic vessels do not absorb by virtue of their own\ncontractility, nor by open ends; but by physical pores like the cells\nof plants.\n\n2646. It is the chyle, which is oxydized in the lung; the venous blood\nis a subordinate object.\n\n2647. Through the oxydation it becomes coloured like the vegetable\nsap does in a leaf. But the latter sap obtains only the colour of the\nterrestrial oxydation, of the terrestrial oxyde or the water, and\nbecomes green; while the chyle gains the colour of the cosmic oxyde, or\nthe fire, and becomes red. The red, fire-coloured sap is the blood. The\nfunction of the lungs is consequently a formation of blood.\n\n2648. The blood is an infusorial, a green mucous sap, which has\nbeen elevated to what is aerial. The blood consists of aerated\nInfusoria--blood-globules. These are the red substance of the blood. In\nthe lower animals only, where the blood, like the body, contains but\nfew blood-globules, is it colourless.\n\n2649. Through the respiration an electrical difference enters the\nblood, whereby it becomes separated into several substances.\n\n2650. The _water_ in the chyle is the inorganic menstruum, wherein the\nmucus, as being a fundamental matter of the vegetable sap, has been\ndissolved. Through the digestion the mucus becomes animal--_gelatine_.\n\n2651. The gelatine is the basi-constituent part of the chyle, being a\nproduct of the digestion or the root-process. Gelatine is the vegetable\nmucus repeated and ennobled in an animal. This ennobling took place\nthrough the digestion.\n\n2652. \"En route\" too, the chyle mixes with the nervous blood, and\nalready undergoes a degree of oxydation, whereby the gelatine becomes\nconverted into albuminous matter.\n\n2653. Through the respiration gelatine and albumen are elevated\nto aerial importance, and still more oxydized; by this means the\nalbuminous matter becomes elevated, and passes over into _fibrine_. The\nfibrine is the last product of respiration. Fibrine is the starch-meal\nin an animal.\n\n2654. The electric duplicity, induced in the blood by the process of\nrespiration, exists accordingly between fibrine and gelatine, while the\nalbumen constitutes or forms the indifference. The fibrine is repelled\nfrom the lung, because they are both homonymous; it is the oxydized\ngelatine. From its communicating its polarity to the whole mass of\nblood, this also is repelled from the lungs.\n\n\n3. _Functions of the Vascular System._\n\n2655. The capillary vessels of the body range opposite to those of the\nlungs, just as the biliary does to the splenic stomach, as alkali to\nacid, as precipitant and secernent to what is non-separated.\n\n2656. The capillary vessels therefore attract the pulmonary blood,\nseparate it, secrete and form new constituent parts; and then, after it\nhas become homonymous, they repel it back again towards the lungs.\n\n2657. The circulation only subsists through the polarity which exists\nbetween lung and capillary vessels, between lung and body, between\noxydation and reduction, combination and separation.\n\n2658. If the intestine and body be the root, the lung the foliage,\nso is the lymphatic and vascular system the stem, in which the most\nperfect substances have been formed. In the circulation the matters for\nthe animal systems must have been fully formed, such as for the bones,\nthe lime; for the muscles, the iron; for the nerve, the albumen.\n\n2659. The liver is the principal organ of the circulation. There also\nmust one principal preparation of the blood take place. On account of\nits parallelism with the brain, the condition probably resides in it\nthat conduces to formation of the albumen, namely, of the Indifferent,\nwhich is the nutritive matter of the nervous mass.\n\n2660. In the vegetable sphere of life there are, in addition to\nthe liver, but two mutually distinct excretory organs, namely, the\nintestine and the skin.\n\n2661. In the mucous secretion of the intestine the condition, requisite\nto the formation of phosphate of _lime_ for the bones, probably resides.\n\n2662. In like manner in the formation of the carbonic acid and the\nwater in the integument, the basis for the formation of phosphate of\niron for the muscles may reside. In the circulation the intestine\nwould thus be the lime-, the skin the iron-, and the liver the\nmedulla-forming organ.\n\n2663. The two extremes of the circulation, or intestine and lung, form\ngelatine and fibrine; the circulation itself forms the purely animal\nmatter. Out of the integument and lung grows the muscle, from the\nintestine the bone and gelatine, out of the liver the nerve. Muscle is\nintegument and air, bone is intestine and chyle, brain is liver and\nblood. Thus each has a function that is peculiar to it; each organ has\nits business to perform in the diffuse fabric of the animal body.\n\n2664. Through this variety or change of the offices, the circulation\nfirst becomes possible.\n\n2665. If the secernent process be therefore suppressed, the animal then\ndies as rapidly as if it had been suffocated. It is a suffocation of\nthe opposed pole. Query? does not many a fit of apoplexy depend upon\nthis?\n\n2666. The circulation has consequently two factors, the lung as\noxygen-pole, the capillary vessels of the body as hydrogen-pole, the\nblood as the indifferent water. The circulation is a galvanic process.\n\n2667. In all extremities of the body the arteriose blood becomes\ndeoxydized, decomposed; it is therefore basic and homonymous with the\ncapillary vessels, so that it is consequently repelled, and driven back\ninto the veins.\n\n2668. It can, however, flow nowhere else than to the lung, because\nthere resides its opposite pole. Being again oxydized in, it becomes\nhomonymous to, the lung, is repelled by it, and again attracted by the\ncapillary vessels of the body.\n\n2669. The circulation is therefore a result of dynamic forces, not of\nmechanical functions. It would occur, were the vessels to be glass\ntubes.\n\n2670. The pulsation of the heart is not a cause of the circulation, but\ninversely rather, its consequence or effect.\n\n2671. In the circulation the whole organism, or intestine, lung and\nintegument, is combined. It is therefore the fundamental system, which\nincludes the whole mass of the body.\n\n\nb. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL SYSTEMS.\n\n\n1. _Of the Osseous System._\n\n2672. The functions of the osseous system are simply mechanical\nrelations, such as solidity, form and motion.\n\n2673. The motion of the joints presents to our notice interesting\nrelations, especially in reference to the motion of the vertebr\u00e6, ribs,\nlimbs and jaws upon each other, but these could not be here treated of\nin detail.\n\n2674. The acts of swimming, creeping, standing, walking, running,\nleaping, climbing, and flying, do not exhibit simply mechanical, but\ntruly philosophical moments.\n\n\na. _Bodily Motion._\n\n2675. Swimming can take place through simple contraction of the body,\nwithout locomotive members. It is the continuation of the vesicle's\nfirst process of origination; as in the Infusoria and Polyps. In the\nWorms and Serpents it is effected by an undulating motion of the body,\nwhereby the water is struck with oblique surfaces; there it is fibrous\nmotion. In the Holothuri\u00e6 and many aquatic larv\u00e6, it is a propulsion,\neffected by expelling water from the anus, and thus by squirts, there\nbeing consequently contraction of the body or arteriose straitening\nof the sphincter muscles. In Fishes, swimming is a rowing or remigial\nstroke, produced by lever-motion, together with the oblique slap made\nby their tail.\n\n2676. Creeping is either a shortening of the body by fibrous motion, as\nin the Snails, or an undulatory motion, as in the Serpents.\n\n\nb. _Pedal Motion._\n\n2677. Standing is the position of a lever \"in equilibrio,\" the creation\nof the proper centre of gravity.\n\n2678. Walking or running is an exchange or alternation of the\nequilibrium, a combination of standing and creeping.\n\n2679. Leaping or hopping is a flight with the feet.\n\n2680. Climbing is an use of the feet as hands.\n\n\nc. _Alary Motion._\n\n2681. Flying is lever-swimming in the air. It takes place by means of\naerial branchi\u00e6, namely, the wings in Insects, and by the thoracic\nextremities in Birds, which are also none other than animal branchi\u00e6.\n\n2682. Soaring is creeping in the air.\n\n2683. Hovering is standing in the air.\n\n2684. Pouncing is hopping in the air.\n\n2685. Diving is hopping in the water.\n\n\n2. _Functions of the Muscular System._\n\n2686. The muscular system performs, in an active sense, what the\nosseous system does in a passive. The strength or power of the muscles,\nand their leverage attachment, is here especially to be regarded. The\ncontraction of the fibres is a _charging_, by nerves and blood, of the\ntwo fibre-poles.\n\n2687. The fibres are charged by the air. It is, in the most general\nsense, the respiratory vessels by which the muscle is charged. This\nis strictly the case in Insects, where the trache\u00e6 traverse all the\nlimbs, and directly conduct to the flesh the polarity of the air. In\nanimals, however, with a closed circulation, the arteries undertake the\nconveyance of air upon the blood, and it is then the latter fluid which\nstreams into the muscles in order to charge them.\n\n2688. Thus if an artery be ligatured, the limb is crippled or lamed.\nThe artery, however, imparts only the positive pole, and consequently\nof itself produces no shortening or contraction of the fibres. The\noxydation takes place at the lower end of the muscle; here, therefore,\nthe latter passes over into tendon.\n\n2689. The nerve is the second condition of the muscular contraction,\nsince it evokes in the fibre the negative pole. Thus if a nerve be\nligatured, the limb is likewise motionless.\n\n2690. If the poles be brought by contraction into close approximation,\nthe fibres must re-extend, so soon as the influence of the blood or the\nnerve ceases.\n\n2691. Now since the blood is constantly streaming in, the reason for\nthe muscular rest must reside in the nerves. The rationale of voluntary\nmotion is consequently the nerve. The relaxation or extension is an\nunloading of the fibres.\n\n2692. The muscular motion is an electrical process, a motion of blood\nin the Solid.\n\n2693. Through the polarization of the fibres the muscle is formed from\nthe arteries. The muscle is therefore an individual biconical piece\nof fibre, having unequal cones. Oxydation takes place at the muscular\nextremity; here, therefore, originates the sinew or tendon.\n\n2694. A fleshy cyst--or heart--which includes an osseous cyst, must\nsubdivide into several fibrous cones or muscles. One reason of this is\nthe \"fore and aft,\" another is the quantity of the essential vascular\nbranches.\n\n2695. The muscle contracts upon application only of a stimulus.\n\n2696. Every stimulus induces motion only as a result of polar\nexcitation. Every stimulus polarizes; for even the gentlest contact is\nlike the friction, and produces electrical antagonism. It therefore\namounts to the same, whatever stimuli, whether mechanical, chemical, or\nspiritual, have been applied to the muscle. One acts like the other.\n\n2697. If no motion supervene upon, or is even suppressed by, the\ncontact of a body, the nature of the body must then be _indifferencing_.\n\n2698. Relaxing, laming, life-destroying matters, are indifferencing, or\ncause a suppression of the poles.\n\n2699. Overcharging principles, e. g. lightning or strong electric\nsparks may also produce relaxation. These destroy the function of the\nfibres, and act therefore worse than the in differencing matters.\n\n\n3. _Functions of the Nervous System._\n\n2700. The function of the point-substance is also that of the nervous\nsystem, for this is only the point-substance, fashioned and arranged\ninto stalk and branches.\n\n2701. But even on this account the nervous tension proceeds only\naccording to a determinate line, while before it penetrated through the\nwhole mass.\n\n2702. The nervous tension takes place in a nervous system only between\na special organ and the nervous centre.\n\n2703. In itself the nervous system is an Indifference, and such then\nare all the organs upon which it acts, when regarded in reference to\nthis operation; they might, through other functions, be polar.\n\n2704. The nervous system becomes differential either through its two\nkinds of substances, or through extraneous influence; in the first case\nit thinks or moves, in the second it feels.\n\n2705. Sensation is in the nervous what motion is in the fibrous system,\nnamely, a polar condition, in which the two ends have a tendency to\ncome together, in order to discharge or unload.\n\n2706. In the sensation the extremity of the nerves strives to approach\nthat of the brain; it is therefore a contractile effort in the nerves,\nlike motion is in the muscular fibre. Juxta-posited granules could not,\nhowever, shorten; therefore, the already calculated polarity courses\nover them.\n\n2707. All external stimuli act upon the nerves and polarize them, but\nnot the muscular fibres.\n\n2708. The fibre becomes directly polarized only through the internal\nstimuli, or by the blood, galvanic tension, &c.\n\n2709. The most general function of the nervous system consists in its\nassuming polarity from the world, and imparting this to other systems,\napart namely, from the alternate operation of its two substances.\n\n\n_Nervous and Motor System._\n\n2710. The first system is that of motion. The tranquil presence of the\nnerve in the fibre produces indifference in the latter; so that it has\nno susceptibility for the polarization that is effected by the artery.\nDoubtless the arterial blood passes, for the most part, close by the\nfibre through other capillary vessels.\n\n2711. But if the nerve be polarized it is then basic, negative, and\nenters into opposition with the arterial blood, which now streams into\nthe capillary vessels of the fibre, and renders the two ends of the\nlatter heterogeneous.\n\n2712. Thus, if the nerve be cut across, it remains always indifferent,\nand no motion can any longer ensue. But this does ensue so soon as the\nnerve is galvanized. A proof that the nervous influence is homologous\nto the galvanic tension.\n\n2713. If the nerve becomes involuntarily negative, then originates\nspasm.\n\n2714. If the nerve continue morbidly indifferent, then paralysis\noriginates.\n\n\n_Nervous and Vegetative Systems._\n\n2715. The second great system is the tegumentary formation. In this\ntoo its ordinary functions occur, such as secretion, evaporation,\nnutrition, elevation or depression of heat without nervous influence;\nor they occur while the nerve only acts indifferently.\n\n2716. But if it acts by polarizing, as in the muscular motion, then the\ntegumentary processes are at once changed. What is material becomes\nextinguished, and the simply Irritable is manifested in the cells,\ncapillary vessels, and so on.\n\n2717. The process of temperature becomes thereby instantly changed,\nbecause the decomposition is changed. The heat is increased by the\nrapid suppression of the evaporation; it is diminished by the rapid\nincrease of the latter.\n\n2718. The art and manner in which the nerves act upon what is\nvegetable, is consequently an elevation of this Vegetable to what is\nanimal. It must resign its processes, and simply undertake those of\nmotion. Exactly the same takes place in the secernent organs. They\nperform their offices themselves through the galvanic tension of the\nvessels. But if the nerve act upon them they secrete more powerfully,\nand exactly from the same cause whereby the muscle is self-moved. Thus,\nif the nerve operate feebly, whereby it is in an irritable state, or if\nits action be wholly withdrawn, then the secretion will become less.\n\n2719. The more irritable the nerves are, by so much the more animal\ndoes the vegetable organism, or the splanchnic system, therefore\nbecome; so much the less is it produced on the mass.\n\n2720. Irritable animals and men are therefore meagre or lean. The two\ncases are uniformly related to each other. Lean men are irritable,\nnot perhaps because the nervous ends are not covered with fat, such\nas there might be over the integument, the ear, the tongue, nose,\n&c., but, because where the nutritive process is inactive, what is\nanimal necessarily preponderates. There are consequently three kinds\nof nervous actions, or phenomena, though all nervous activity in\nentire systems is similar, or but one. The difference is only derived\nfrom the organ upon which the nerves act. There are, consequently, no\nspecial nerves of sensation, motion and secretion; or such, forsooth,\nas have only one of these offices to take care of. Thus, were a nerve\nof sensation to be prolonged or drawn over a muscle, it would excite\nmotion, and in the case of the liver, secrete bile, &c.\n\n\n_Mesmerism._\n\n2721. When the sensibility mounts to the highest degree, each\nmass-function will then almost cease, and the organs of sense feel the\nweakest operation of the stimulus.\n\n2722. Since every stimulation is a polarizing act, and each body is\nin polar activity towards the other at every conceivable distance, so\nmay an extremely irritable nervous system also perceive the feeblest\npolarizations.\n\n2723. The eye perceives the polarization at a remote distance from the\nbody whence it proceeds.\n\n2724. In hearing the vibrating body still indeed acts directly upon the\near through the vibrations of air. But a finer, i. e. more irritable\near, hears farther than one that is more dull.\n\n2725. With an elevated sensibility the other systems also may\ntherefore perceive the polarization of the bodies, without coming into\ncontact with them.\n\n2726. To perceive objects in the distance, i. e. merely their polar\ninfluence, is called _Mesmerism_, or animal magnetism.\n\n2727. Now, if it is once possible for other senses besides that of\nsight to extend their perception into remote space, it no longer\nmatters as to the magnitude of the latter. A feebly charged electrical\nmachine only attracts bodies that are near, one strongly loaded, those\nwhich are more remote; such is the case too with weak and strong\nmagnets.\n\n2728. The integument at once perceives electrified surfaces at certain\ndistances; now, as every surface appears electric to the integument,\nso must the latter, if its sensibility is very much elevated, perceive\nsomething of that sort in every proportionate distance.\n\n2729. But homologous polarities only act upon each other, and therefore\ntraverse thoroughly through heterologous bodies. Thus the magnet\nattracts the iron filings through the table-board, unhindered by the\ninterposed wood, and without any regard being paid to this, or its\nbeing even perceived.\n\n2730. The senses may therefore perceive their homologous polarities\nthrough other bodies, walls, and such like. By virtue of their\nperception, they stand in relation to them.\n\n2731. To the very sensible nervous system the vegetable system and\nits impulse is a foreign object, which detaches itself from the above\nsystem, just as the objects of sense have done from the sensorial\norgans. The vegetable, or in general the material body, appears\ntherefore to the mesmerized like a strange world--they see their own\norgans--are _clair-voyants_. Mesmerism therefore comprises nothing\nwhich could contradict physiology.\n\n\n_Vegetative Nerves._\n\n2732. The splanchnic or visceral nerves are also distinguished from\nthe animal by their being in a constant state of tension, and hence\nkeeping the processes of their system in constant repair.\n\n2733. The rationale of this resides in the two nervous substances\nhaving separated into ganglia and plexuses.\n\n2734. This also serves to explain another phenomenon, viz. that the\nnerves indeed, but never the brain, attain to perfect rest; because\nthe former is without ganglionic or cortical substance, the latter is\nthroughout surrounded, and obviously interwoven, by it.\n\n2735. Therein lies the reason why the viscera do not sleep.\n\n\n_Sleep._\n\n2736. The condition of the nervous system, as hitherto represented, is\ncalled that of being awake. It is the interlude played by the nerves\nwith the world, and with the animal body.\n\n2737. When in a state of health the first interlude ceases, then the\nother also is over or past. The world-nerves, however, operate only\nupon the animal systems, upon the senses and the motion of the muscles;\nit could therefore be these only wherein the nervous function, in\ncompliance with this cessation, is suppressed. Now, muscular rest\noriginates through suppression of the tension between nerve and muscle.\nIn sleep this rest is also derived from the same means.\n\n2738. The tension between nerve and muscle can only cease, if the\ntension also between the termination of the brain and nerves be\nsuppressed. We are now reduced simply to the consideration of the\nnervous system, and may, in treating of sleep, pay no attention to the\nmuscular system.\n\n2739. But whence comes the tension in the motor nerves? Obviously\nonly from the cerebral tension. This can originate only in two ways;\neither through the special organization of the brain, one or the other\nsubstance being preponderant, or through the influence of external\nstimuli.\n\n2740. The encephalic substance becomes more potent than usual, if by\nrest the cortical substance becomes more arteriose in character. This\ntension is communicated to all the nerves, sensitive as well as motor,\nand continues in their interlude with the world and the motor system.\n\n2741. If this encephalic tension is not too potent, it remains only in\nthe brain, without the ability to polarize the nerves also. It then\nonly produces cerebral phenomena, thoughts or _dreams_.\n\n2742. Dreaming is an encephalic tension excited by the organization,\nnot by the world.\n\n2743. Dreaming is the first step in the liberation of the animal from\nthe vegetable system--it is the first step towards mesmerism.\n\n2744. In a perfect or middling state of health, where the nervous is\nnot very much separated from the tegumentary system, we do not dream.\n\n2745. In a healthy condition an external stimulus would be,\nconsequently, the only cause of waking, did not the long repose\nbestow a preponderating influence upon the cortical substance. Dreams\ntherefore happen in the morning.\n\n2746. Waking is the intercourse with the world, not with self. If one\nwakes also from intercourse with self, still the former is synchronous\nand coexciting.\n\n2747. Thus, if intercourse with the world ceases, sleep originates. If\nthe vegetable intercourse with it also ceases, then death originates.\nWaking is \"consensus\" with the world.\n\n2748. Sleep is a death of the _animal_ systems.\n\n2749. Every awaking is a resurrection from death, a new sympathizing\nwith the vegetal body, from which the animal body again originates.\n\n2750. As the animal originally took its rise from, and only through\nthe plant, so also is this repeated in an individual. The plant is the\never-living, ever-verdant, or green, out of which the animal daily\nsprouts forth as a blossom.\n\n2751. The animal intercourse with the world is also interrupted in two\nways, and there are therefore two modes of falling asleep.\n\n2752. The first cause resides in the want of stimulus. The nerves of\nthe senses are not polar, do not therefore excite the brain, nor does\nthis again affect the motor system. The muscle therefore arrives at a\nstate of non-tension; it becomes relaxed, and along with it necessarily\nthe organs of sense, which are thrown into activity by muscular motion.\nThe arms and fingers, whose business is to touch, sink down; the feet\nwhich move, and thereby warm and animate the body, are slackened and\nbent together; the body is in the recumbent posture; the eyelids drop,\nthe light no longer plays upon the visual organs, the external and\ninternal auditory muscles flag also, and the sound is no longer borne\nupon the ear. Now also does the tension of the senses with the brain\ncease, and with it the sensation--there is sleep.\n\n2753. This sleep arising from want of stimulus is a faint sleep, and\nrendered useless by dreams. For there is actually no cause present why\nthe encephalic tension should entirely cease. Men, who do not fall\nasleep through fatigue, but from want of work, sleep restlessly, awake\neasily, and again readily fall asleep. Their life is dreaming.\n\n2754. The other cause of the polar suppression in the nerves is like\nthat of the extension of the muscles, or their falling to sleep; it is\nthus the discharge of the too strongly excited poles. With too high a\ndegree of fibrous tension, which also originates through too long a\ncontinuance of the tension, the fibre is placed in a state of activity,\nwhich consists in the antagonism being balanced by approximation of the\nends. Were nerves, when greatly tensed, capable of being shortened,\nthey would also discharge themselves, and come at least for one instant\nto rest--they would _sleep_.\n\n2755. The falling asleep of the fibre is its sleep, though it also\ndoes not last long. So is the expansion of the heart its sleep, so is\nexpiration the sleep of the thorax.\n\n2756. In all polarizable organs there is a change or alternation of\nwaking and sleeping, which endures a longer and shorter time. This\nperiodicity depends upon the energy of the polar influence, and upon\nthe size and susceptibility of the substance.\n\n2757. Every substance has its own periods of waking and sleeping, of\naction and repose. The pulse sleeps shorter than the breathing; this\nagain shorter than being hungry; this again for a briefer time than the\nsexual function.\n\n2758. There are organs, or systems, which are nearly always in a state\nof slumber, e. g. the osseous system, because in it the polarity is\nextinguished. It is only in states of inflammation that it wakes up.\nOthers scarcely ever slumber, e. g. the cellular system, because in it\nindeed no pole is yet fixed, and in the alternation of poles its life\nconsists.\n\n2759. There is a similar change of poles in a nervous system, and it\nindeed halts or stops for a middling time. Through the persistent\ninfluence of the external world, the nerves of the senses are thrown\ninto such a state of tension with the brain, that blood cannot flow\nthither in sufficient quantity, in order to maintain the two cerebral\nsubstances in mutual antagonism. Brain and nerves become therefore\nindifferent; muscles and sensorial organs lose their polarizability,\nand their intercourse ceases with the nerves as well as the world. The\nbrain, and everything else, has now been discharged, and a deep sleep\nwithout dreams, an animal death, ensues.\n\n2760. It has been arbitrarily asserted, that no sleep is possible\nwithout dreams, but for this statement there are no existing grounds.\nWhence should the dream come if there is no tension in the brain, or if\nit has previously undergone sufficient self-exhaustion?\n\n\n_Periodicity._\n\n2761. The sleep of the nerves ranges parallel with that of the planet.\nIt might be said that such was the case from habit or custom, but it\nis, properly speaking, dependent upon a parallel process of organizing\nthat occurs at the origination of the animal. The matter stands thus:\nthe germ originates in the morning; until evening stimuli act upon and\npolarize it: in the evening they cease, and with them the tension. The\nmuscles relax upon every movement, and rest necessarily follows in the\nmanner above delineated. With to-morrow's morn the world again acts\nuntil evening upon the germ; it wakes up, and the same course of events\nhappens as on the first day. Finally the substance becomes organized\naccording to this periodicity; it becomes, forsooth, not more energetic\nthan is necessary in order to admit or receive a charge of one day;\ntowards evening it is exhausted, is neutral, and rejoices with the\nrelaxation of the muscles, that the world no longer acts upon its frame.\n\n2762. Thus, we may attribute this phenomenon both to custom and\nsynchronous formation; nevertheless one ought not to forget that the\norganic formation is a metatype, or has been imitated from something\nthat has gone before, and that consequently the law of periodicity has\nnot been bestowed upon both at the same time, but first of all unto\nnature, and through this to the body, which is its image or likeness.\n\n2763. The nervous periodicity ranges in accordance with the periodicity\nof the light, or is thus parallel with its archetype, and consequently\nwith the day and night. Day is the waking, night the sleeping of\nnature. But the animal has originated in and by this alternating change\nof nature. It is spiritually, as well as corporeally, nature's likeness.\n\n2764. The sexual function in a perfect animal, as in Man, has been\nadapted to the periods of the year; in other animals other natural\nperiods exert their sway. Animals are commonly pregnant by the month,\ne. g. for one, two, four, five months, &c. The human species requires\nthree quarters of a year for pregnancy, one quarter for giving suck to\nthe babe, and then it can again conceive. Pregnancy thus lasts a year,\nand has been based in the sun.\n\n2765. If the female does not become pregnant, the sexual passion, or\ninstinct, is repeated at the expiration of a month. It sleeps about one\nmonth, and then awakes for some days. The periodicity may be divided\ninto vegetative and animal, thus,--\n\n     a. Animal    = _World-periodicity._\n\n  1. Sleep        = _Rotation of the Earth._\n  2. Menstruation = _Lunar revolution._\n  3. Pregnancy    = _Solar revolution._\n\n     b. Vegetal   = _Earth-periodicity._\n\n  1. Digestion    = _Water, Ebb and Flow._\n  2. Respiration  = _Air, Electricity._\n  3. Pulse        = _Earth, Magnetism._\n\n\n_Awaking._\n\n2766. The awaking takes place of itself through the origination of\na new polarity in the brain during the afflux of arterial blood,\nwhereupon the dreams follow which precede the act of waking. During\nsleep the plant continues to act, the unloaded cortical substance\nbecomes again oxydized and charged; tension arises between it and the\nmedulla, and with this come the dreams. This encephalic polarity is\nimparted to the sensitive and motor nerves, and the organs open. If\nexternal stimuli are superadded, all this happens somewhat earlier.\nThe act of awaking is invariably, however, a restoration effected, or\nbrought about, by the plant, and especially by the circulation.\n\n2767. Man would therefore wake up had there also been no world of the\nsenses; but then he would not continue awake, but at once relapse into\nslumber, and sleep the eternal death.\n\n\nIII. _Functions of the Organs._\n\n2768. The functions of the organs are the functions of the system\nassociated or combined, just as the organs are but ultimate evolutions\nof the systems existing under similar relations. The organic functions\nare always therefore in a state of concatenation with other systems,\nand there can be no organ which acts in an isolated manner.\n\n2769. By this character a new field for sympathy has been opened. All\nthe organs operate through sympathy. Sympathy is therefore the result\nof parallel systems, or also of antagonisms between the factors of a\n_single_ system. Taken in a strict sense, there are no vegetative\norgans. The organs are therefore limited to the _encephalic animal_,\nsuch as are those of motion and the senses, and to the _sexual animal_.\n\n\n1. _Functions of the Encephalic Animal._\n\nA. ORGANS OF MOTION.\n\n2770. Just as the nerves have a function in themselves, and one\ndirected towards the subordinate organs, so also has the motor system.\n\n2771. The motor system is in the first place doomed to serve the whole\nbody, since it flexes it, moves it forwards and backwards and upon all\nsides. It is related principally to the movements of the vertebral\ncolumn, and serves in numberless animals to effect the act of crawling\nor creeping.\n\n2772. Then again it will serve individual parts of the body, such as\nthe belly in its evacuations, or the sexual animal in emitting urine,\n&c. It ministers unto the thorax in the act of respiration, which is a\nvery complicated process. The thoracic muscles are to a certain degree\nco-ordinated with the constantly polar nervous system, and become\nthereby and in part involuntary. But one main reason of this appears to\nbe the air that is constantly renewed in their cavity.\n\n2773. In the act of respiration two orders of muscles are active, the\nproper-pectoral muscles, and the abdominal muscle, which has been\ndisplaced from the thorax, or the _diaphragm_.\n\n2774. As originally the thorax took its rise at the expense of the\nabdomen, so also is every inspiration an elevation of the thorax and a\ndisplacement of the abdomen. Every breath or in-draught of air expands\nand produces the thorax, but narrows and arrests the abdomen. The\ndiaphragm expresses this contest. Its contraction being a result of\nthe respiratory tension, expresses consequently a preponderance of the\nthorax, and in obedience to this, narrows and diminishes the abdomen.\nIt is supplied, in conformity with its origin, by nerves from the upper\ncervical vertebr\u00e6, since prior to this the abdomen extended as far as\nthe head, and the branchi\u00e6 were appended to it as _lateral strips of\nintegument_--as in Fishes.\n\n2775. As the thoracic cavity is drawn by the diaphragm's descent\ntowards the abdomen, so by the pectoral muscles is it raised upwards to\nthe head. The latter movements are what is animal in the respiratory\nprocess, for they lift the thorax towards the head. Pectoral muscles\nand diaphragm stand opposite to each other, like limbs and trunk;\nthe ribs are the limbs, the diaphragm the upper abdominal tunic or\ncovering. Through this antagonism what is limbed, as belonging to the\nthoracic cavity, is drawn upwards, what is abdominal in its character,\ndownwards; the result is expansion, and through this pumping in of the\nair.\n\n2776. The air is in part voluntarily swallowed like the food, as e. g.\nby the movement of the ribs, in part involuntarily by the diaphragm.\nThe diaphragm may be termed the heart of the abdominal cavity.\n\n2777. In the lower organized animals, where merely branchi\u00e6 are\npresent, the animal motion encroaches but little upon the act of\nrespiration. In Molluscs and Snails, the oxygen is almost always on the\nbranchi\u00e6, as is the case also in Insects. In Fishes the water is still\ntaken in like the food through the mouth, and driven out or expelled by\nthe pharyngeal muscles from between the branchi\u00e6. In them the air is\nin both respects swallowed. In many Reptiles the air is indeed drawn\nin through the nostrils, but conveyed into the lungs by a true act of\ndeglutition. These kinds of functions are necessary, because as yet\nthe whole trunk is abdomen, and the thoracic cavity has not as yet\nseparated from it; hence the diaphragm is wanting.\n\n2778. The respiratory originates therefore from the digestive organ; it\nis freely developed only from the abdomen, and is at length entirely\nliberated from the latter as a self-substantial cavity, e. g. first\nof all in the Mammalia. Respiration is originally but an act of\ndeglutition, which has gradually become perfected, by the animal trunk\nbeing associated with it to a greater extent.\n\n2779. The pumping in of air has therefore become in the highest degree\na process of suction, and in this resembles the digestive function when\nit has become animal.\n\n2780. Then also the air passes no longer through the mouth, but through\nthe nose, as being the peculiar opening of the thoracic cavity in the\nhead. Even the Fishes have as yet no nostrils opening into the mouth.\n\n2781. The thoracic motion is a limb-motion, and would become\nlocomotion, were the ribs not conjoined. In many of the lower animals\nthe branchi\u00e6 are at once organs of motion, such as fins or rudders.\n\n2782. Every inspiration is a self-manning towards the animal; every\nexpiration a retro-depression unto the plant; the abdomen in this\ncase regains the upper hand from the diaphragm reverting to its usual\nposition, and the thoracic cavity narrowing. Respiration is a becoming\nanimal.\n\n2783. The motions in themselves, without reference to the trunk, are\nthe motions of the limbs, as standing, walking, &c. The movements of\nthe arms and feet are sympathetic, because their muscles are of equal\nsignification.\n\n\nB. FUNCTIONS OF THE NERVE-ORGANS.\n\n2784. These functions have relation only to the nervous system itself,\nbecause all nerve-organs are elevated above the trunk, and live in\nthemselves. They are simply the functions of the sensorial organs.\n\na. _Functions of the Vegetable Sensorial Organs._\n\n2785. These must be regarded as those that still encroach upon the\ninferior organs. They are not, however, the inferior processes\nthemselves, but their ascensive formations into the nervous system.\nThis therefore works henceforward only in and by itself, but yet in\nrelation to the inferior processes.\n\n\n1. _Function of the Sense of Feeling._\n\n2786. To constitute the sense of feeling the integument, in other words\nthe nutritive or vascular system, has assumed a nervose character,\nand consequently that which is in communication with the materiality\nof the external world. The function of this sense will therefore have\nmateriality only for its object.\n\n2787. The integument is the organ by whose means the animal is absolved\nor liberated from the world. The sensation belonging to it, is none\nother than the perception of this diversity subsisting between the two.\n\n2788. Through the tegumentary sense, the world becomes a something\nexternal in relation to the nervous function; while previously it was\nsuch through the medium of the skin for the lower organs only, viz. as\nan object of absorption. The discrimination of materiality is called\n_Feeling_. The sense of feeling is the earth-sense.\n\n2789. The sense of feeling perceives materiality, like the nerves\nperceive all objects or all stimuli, through polar excitation. Every\npressure, every contact is polar excitation.\n\n2790. The sense of feeling is characterized by poles only being excited\nin it by absolute proximity or immediate contact. Just because it is\nthe first sense, through which the animal is set free, so must that\nwhich is liberated be at once perceived in the moment of liberation,\nand thus in immediate contact. The sense of feeling is a polarity of\ncontact, a polarity without distance. The stronger the contact, by so\nmuch the stronger is the polar excitation--there is increased pressure.\nThe gravity acts simply by pressure. The perception is therefore\nresolvable into one of pressure or contact.\n\n2791. Different degrees of pressure necessarily impart different\namounts of feeling. Perception of the different degrees of pressure\nmade by an object betrays its inequalities of surface. The sense of\nfeeling is also the sense for determining inequalities, for the Soft\nand Hard, for the Solid, Fluid, and Gaseous; all these feelings,\nhowever, are referable to the contact.\n\n2792. Through diseased conditions, the polarizability of the sensitive\nnerves may become exceedingly elevated, and they then perceive the\npolarity of contact prior to the contact having taken place. For\nthe two bodies invariably excite poles that are antagonized to each\nother. Were other bodies not to approach them more closely, or else\nact upon them more energetically and so extinguish the polarity; they\nwould remain at an infinite distance in a state of polar relation\ntowards each other. Feeling can therefore be extended to an indefinite\ndistance. Hysterical, mesmerized, and even healthy human beings, feel\nfurther than they grasp or touch with the hand.\n\n2793. Homogeneous polarities, or those of the same kind, are throughout\nnature to be found also by means of others; e. g. electrical polarities\nare not disturbed by the intervention of magnetic ones. Such is the\ncase also in feeling. That which is related to oneself is felt,\nalthough it is more remote from us than other objects, upon which we do\nnot bestow any attention, or towards which we do not turn our poles.\n\n2794. The sense of feeling differs according to the diversity of\ncertain points in the integument, and is thus nobler in character, the\nhigher the rank which these may hold. Thus it is most feebly developed\nin vegetable situations, where hairs, nails, claws, and scales are\nplaced. It must attain the highest grade of perfection in the animal\norgans, and thus in the limbs or their parallels, the lips.\n\n2795. In the limbs, by reason of their mobility, the feeling becomes\nvoluntary. It is then wholly in our power to strengthen or weaken the\ncontact, to press gently or firmly, and allow these periods of feeling\nto succeed each other rapidly or slowly.\n\n2796. Feeling associated with motion is called _touch_; this condition\nof the organ the _tactile sense_. The tactile sense is by no means\ndifferent from that of feeling; it is only the combination of feeling\nwith motion.\n\n2797. The fingers are the most perfect organs of feeling, because they\nare the most moveable parts of the body, and therefore they are _organs\nof touch_.\n\n2798. As simple feeling perceives the asperities of bodies, so does\ntouch the _forms_. The perception of forms is based upon the form that\nresides in the _tactile organ_ itself.\n\n2799. All possible forms reside in the motion of the fingers.\n\n2800. Each hand is a semi-ellipse, in which the four fingers are the\nperiphery, the thumb the radius. Both hands together form a perfect\nellipse with two radii.\n\n2801. Now, in the ellipse are involved all geometrical figures. The\nhands include in their movements the whole of geometry.\n\n2802. We can only perceive the forms of nature, because they all reside\nin ourselves, because we can create them. This, and none other, is the\nmeaning or sense of the doctrine of pre-established harmony.\n\n2803. The sense of touch is also the sense of form. The fingers\nconstitute so perfect an organ, that it is scarcely requisite for us\nto estimate all its value. In it the whole body is repeated simply in\nforms, in spiritual motions.\n\n2804. Through the hand the whole planet becomes an object unto us. It\nis the hand which instructs us how to know this terrestrial world.\n\n2805. The greatest perfection is attained by the greatest variety or\nmultiplied diversity of the organs. The limbs are simply destined for\nmotion, yet feeling also resides in them, because they are invested\nwith integument. Could the limbs therefore divide into motor and\ntactile members, the conceivable sum total of perfection must be\nattained. This division is present alone in Man. The feet have become\nsimply locomotive members, because they are those of the sex; but\nthe hands have become tactile members, because they are those of the\nencephalic animal.\n\n2806. It is not, as has been imagined, the hands, as hands, which\nconfer nobility upon our species, for by their means an essential\nhalf of the animality, or the power of locomotion, is lost; but it is\nthe preservation of all possible functions in an animal, and in such\na manner that each stands upon its highest grade of perfection. The\nhighest perfection cannot, however, be attained where two functions are\nattached to one organ. Should both hands and feet exercise the sense\nof touch, the motion is impaired; should both move the body, then the\nsense suffers.\n\n2807. The four hands of the Apes are therefore an imperfection, which\nwe have no need to envy them. They can, properly speaking, only climb\nand grasp with them, but not run. Each gait of theirs becomes therefore\nungainly, the horizontal as well as the upright or perpendicular, and\nthey make use of both alternately; because too the act of handling,\ni. e. of climbing, is their only proper movement. Now, in the act of\nclimbing all the limbs are brought into requisition, and consequently a\nfree voluntary touch and a free progression disappear.\n\n2808. The feet support the body and stand in its service.\n\n2809. The hands are, on the contrary, supported by the body, are free.\n\n2810. The wings also support the body.\n\n2811. Feet and hands define man. Through the two only does he become\n_free_.\n\n\n_Tegumental Covering._\n\n2812. The skin, as being originally a branchia, is provided also with\nits branchial operculum. This is the epidermis.\n\n2813. Scales are plications or folds of the epidermis, which accord\nwith the situation of the branchial vessels; they are therefore\narranged generally in a circular form around the body, and are\nmore definitely varied upon the dorsal than ventral aspect of the\nbody. Large scales, or those which may be regarded as formed by the\nconfluence of several scales, are called scutes.\n\n2814. It is merely the epidermis which is concerned in the production\nof the squamous covering; but if the former branchial vessels emerge\nthemselves so as to project above the integument and become dried, then\nhairs originate.\n\n2815. If these hairs ramify, then there are feathers.\n\n2816. It is only therefore the Mammalia and Birds who possess a proper\nexternal covering or garment.\n\n2817. The claws or nails are scales upon the extremity of the branchial\narches, which have become animal in character, or in other words, are\ndigital scales; they are animal branchial opercula.\n\n2818. The nails are demi-claws, and therefore leave the points of the\ndigits free. Free digital apices or points constitute the most perfect\norgan of touch, because this is then divided into two parts and because\nthe nail increases the amount of resistance.\n\n2819. The organs of defence are therefore an appendage of the sense of\nfeeling, as are the bones of the motor system.\n\n\n_Splanchnic or Visceral Senses._\n\n2820. These senses will not be found to disown their predecessors; and\njust as the latter extracted the qualities from terrestrial matter, so\nalso do they. But while the former had to deal with the material, the\npresent set will have to transact business with the spiritual qualities.\n\n\n2. _Function of the Gustatory Sense._\n\n2821. Digestion is a chemical process, and one indeed wherein actual\nmixture and decomposition take place; it is therefore also, and\n\"par excellence,\" an aqueous process. For matters that are actually\ndecomposible are alone submitted to digestion, since it is of too\ncoarse a character to perceive the proneness of such bodies to\ndecomposition.\n\n2822. It belongs only to a higher grade of perfection, or to a nervose\ncondition of the digestive process, to perceive the rationale of the\ndecomposition, or the spiritual conflict, which prevails between the\nmatters, when they are about to separate.\n\n2823. Now, the organ which only perceives the qualities of matters,\nwithout reference to their actual separation, is a sense. Upon the\nhighest grade of perfection the digestive passes over into a sensorial\nfunction.\n\n2824. _Tasting_ is the first commencement of the digestion in the\nnervous system, where the aliments are felt just before the analysis\ninto their polar quantities has taken place. The gustatory is a\nwater-sense.\n\n2825. For the exercise of the sense of taste the same conditions\nare requisite as for digestion, viz. solution and capacity for\ndecomposition. Without the capacity for being dissolved, and without\nthe occurrence of actual solution, nothing can be tasted, any more than\ndigested. The saliva is the gastric juice for the tongue.\n\n2826. If water be the basic element in the process of digestion, so\nin gustation must the higher water, or the _salt_, be the basis of\ntaste. Salt alone is sapid, and every thing in order to be tasted, must\npossess saline properties.\n\n2827. The tongue, by means of the saliva, passes over gradually into\nsalt. Salt is the last extremity of the tongue. The salt-formation is a\nmember of the gustatory formation. Hence tasting is only an ascension\nof the inorganic to the animal tongue. The salt is the gustatory sense\nof the earth.\n\n2828. The general object of taste is the salt of the sea. It alone can\nand must be converted into a pleasing taste or relish. What is general\nin nature, is the antetype of that which is equivalent in an organism.\nSea-salt and the tongue or saliva are one in kind.\n\n2829. Every thing admits only of being tasted, in so far as it is salt;\nevery thing is but savoury, in so far as it is marine salt.\n\n2830. As the component parts of sea-salt are acid and alkali, so also\nare both these the extremes of tastes. Tastes are divisible accordingly\ninto acid and alkaline savours.\n\n2831. As salt is a product of what is inorganic, so will the sapid\nbodies of this kind be pleasant objects for gustation, provided they do\nnot act chemically nor in excess. Therefore, what is saline, or acid\nand alkali combined, is agreeable to the taste, even if its action\nshould last a long time.\n\n2832. On the contrary, the proper organic savours, which admit with\ndifficulty of being reduced to the former or inorganic kinds, if\nthey do not prove at once nauseous or unpleasant, yet become so by\nlengthened operation, e. g. the Sweet, the Bitter.\n\n2833. According to these savours has the organ of taste been regulated.\nIt hath in itself also polar relations. The point or tip of the tongue\ntastes what is acid, its root more readily what is bitter, its dorsum\nor back what is poignant or moist.\n\n2834. The matters are not mechanically analyzed upon the tongue; it\ndoes not therefore taste the several component parts, but only their\nchemical behaviour or relation in the water, in other words, their\nreaction.\n\n\n3. _Function of the Olfactory Sense._\n\n2835. In the lungs the air is materially analyzed and deprived of its\noxygen; but, when these organs have assumed a nervose character, the\ntension only of the air unto the analysis will be perceived. Now,\nthe action of the air is the electrism. The nose perceives only the\nelectrical condition of the air.\n\n2836. The sensation of the electrical relations is called _Smelling_.\nThe olfactory sense is an air-sense. We smell nothing but the\nelectricity, and neither the contact, nor the impressions, &c. of the\nparticles that find their way into the nose. These particles would have\nno effect upon the nasal organ, if they did not stand in an electrical\nrelation unto it.\n\n2837. Now, the electrical bodies in nature are the resins or\nInflammables. What salt is for the gustatory, that is resin for the\nolfactory sense. The nose is an electrical, a resinous organ.\n\n2838. In like manner the solubility of bodies in the air is as\nrequisite for smell, as that in water is for taste. The water is the\nmenstruum of the sapid, as the air is of odorous, bodies; and this\nindeed of necessity, because water and air are the antetypes of these\nmineral classes.\n\n2839. In order to be an odorous body or object of smell, the resin must\nresolve itself into air, or become aeriform. Aeriform resin is \u00e6thereal\noil. Bodies such as those which part rapidly with their electricity,\nsubstances containing hydrogen, \u00e6thereal oils and burnt spirits, are\nthe usual objects appreciated by the olfactory sense.\n\n2840. The hydrogenous body is therefore provided with a sweet scent.\nMost bodies which are evolved by fermentation, in so far as they are\nelectrical, are odoriferous. Most blossoms smell agreeably, because\nthey secrete aerial matters.\n\n2841. The products of putrefaction emit a fetid odour, because they\nindicate the presence not of aerial, but aqueous and terrestrial\nmatters. Nearly all animal bodies stink, besides many secretions of the\nsexual parts, because they belong to the vegetable nature.\n\n2842. The objects of taste have their residence in what is inorganic,\nbut those of smell, as being objects of a higher sense, have it in the\nvegetable kingdom. The succeeding or auditory sense has the animal\nkingdom for its object, while the eye scans the universe.\n\n2843. The nose is in every respect an electrical organ; it is an\nelectrophore, or rather a battery consisting of numerous plates. Of the\ntruth of this, its numerous tortuous passages and laminated bones are\nstriking proofs.\n\n2844. That the nose consists of a great number of blood-vessels, as\nwell as of arteriose olfactory nerves, is quite commensurate with its\ncharacter or signification, as being a higher pulmonary organ.\n\n2845. The objects of the three vegetative senses are the three elements\nof the planet, earth, water and air; in the first of these reside the\nrelation of the gravity, rest, and crystallization; in the last the\nrelation of the electricity; in the water that of the chemism. The\nsense of feeling is an earth-sense, that of taste a salt-sense, that of\nsmell a resin-sense.\n\n\nb. _Functions of the Animal Senses._\n\n2846. The objects of the animal senses are no longer matter, nor its\nchemical qualities, but the higher relations of the solar system,\nand the highest organizations, the animals themselves. Throughout\nthe supra-planetary solar system there is naught to be conceived but\nmotion and light in action. Wherever there is \u00e6ther, it is in motion;\nthe corresponding organs of sense must therefore perceive these two\nrelations. Now, since the animal is also motion and light, and this\nalone, so by means of these senses will the innermost of animality\nbe at once perceived. Animals become acquainted with themselves only\nthrough these senses, and by them only enter, in so far as they are\nanimals, into communication with each other. In so far as they are mere\nmasses of matter, they are capable of self-perception through other\nsenses. These senses may therefore also be called cosmical, while the\nthree former are terrestrial.\n\n2847. They correspond thus with each other. The tactile sense is a\nprecursor of the sense of motion, and represents the motion, gravity,\nand pressure, after a terrestrial manner; the two splanchnic senses are\nthe precursors of the light-sense, since they dwell upon the qualities\nof the matter, while the light also is only a quality of the \u00e6ther.\nThe sense of smell, being as it were an air-sense, will in particular\nborder most closely upon the light-sense.\n\n2848. Through the two cosmic senses the universe is translated into the\nanimal, like the planet is through the terrestrial senses; through the\nformer also the animal spirit, which is a transcript of the universal\nspirit, passes over into other animals. They are the senses of the\nhighest instruction, of freedom.\n\n\n4. _Function of the Auditory Sense._\n\nIn the \u00e6ther resides the movement of the world.\n\n2849. To the motor system that only which is its equal, and thus the\nmovement of nature, can of necessity become an object. The motor system\nrepresented as a sense, cannot, however, perceive the borrowed or\nderived motion, not the planetary or massive motion, but the primary\nmotion of the \u00e6ther. The planetary motion is related to the primary\nmotion as the oxydation is to the electrism, as chemical analysis to\nchemical affinity, and consequently also as respiration to smelling,\nas digestion to tasting, in short, as the material metatype to the\nspiritual antetype.\n\n2850. The limbs are the planetary motion organized, and therefore\nperceive only this material motion--pressure. Touch is related to the\nanimal sense of motion, as digestion is to the tasting.\n\n2851. Smell and taste no longer perceive the bodies in the very act of\ndecomposition, but their laws or their spiritual operations; so will\nthe motor sense not perceive, like the sense of touch, the mass when in\nmotion, but only the _motor laws of the mass_.\n\n2852. These laws of motion are those of the primary motion. This is,\nhowever, a product of the light in the \u00e6ther, an effect of polarity,\nand that indeed the first polarity which was manifested in the\nuniverse. The motor sense therefore perceives only a motion which has\noriginated through primary polarity.\n\n2853. Such motion is not relative in kind, i. e. it does not affect\nseveral portions of the matter in reference to some other matter; but\nit affects the whole matter internally, or its atoms, so that all\nmatter may remain in its place and yet every atom of it be moved.\n\n2854. This motion is like the motion of heat in the matter. By it heat\nis excited. For internal motion of the atoms, when aroused by polarity,\nso that every atom enters into a state of motion against the other, is\na discharging of the poles, and consequently development of heat.\n\n2855. This internal motion has, however, been produced by an external;\nfor the external motion acts by contact, and this is a process of\npolarization. Now, the interior of a mass is only moved by repeated\ncontact, or through the restlessness of polarization and by a proper\namount of force, or one which is proportional to the mechanical\nresistance of the mass to be excited. The last of these is the\nstroke or blow, the first the vibration of the body. By vibration or\noscillation only can a body be internally polarized; for, if it does\nnot oscillate upon the shock being applied, it is still indeed set in\nmotion, but \"en masse,\" so that the internal parts remain in a state of\nrest.\n\n2856. Oscillation is distinguished from continuous or progressive\nmotion by its affecting the _atoms_ of the body, while the latter acts\nupon the body itself. Through the vibration heat is engendered, because\nthe poles are free and the matter passes over into \u00e6ther.\n\n2857. Vibration must endure the longest in solid bodies, and thus in\nthat which belongs to the earth. Among these the hard bodies must take\nprecedence, because the soft are of an aqueous nature. Among the hard\nbodies again the heaviest must vibrate most effectually, because they\noffer a longer resistance, and do not yield so soon as light bodies\nto the effort made at separation. The purest representative of the\nearth-element or the _metal_ is thus the best instrument or means of\nvibration, and consequently the object of the motor sense.\n\n2858. Thus as the salt of the earth-element is the object of taste, and\nas the resin of the earth-element is the object of smell, so would the\nmetal be the object of this motor sense.\n\n2859. But no sense-object is without its medium for transmission,\nexcept in the case of the sense of feeling or touch. The salt is only\ntasted by means of the water, the Inflammable only smelt by means of\nthe air; the metal's primary motion could not therefore be perceived\ndirectly by the auditory sense. It must be propagated through the\nmedium which ranks next to the heat, and whose atoms insinuate\nthemselves most easily into those of the vibrating body--thus through\nthe air. Man perceives the primary motion, in which things tend to\nresolve themselves into \u00e6ther, through the air. By the metal, or by\nevery vibrating body, the vibration of the air is communicated.\n\n2860. This vibration is not, however, a general movement to and fro,\nbut a dissolution of the material bands. This dissolution can only take\nplace according to the laws of the primary motion. They are rigidified\nin the solid masses as crystalline forms. Every law of motion is a\ncrystalline form which has become free or spiritually manifested.\nThrough the vibration forms are engendered in bodies, which are\ncommensurate with the substance and form of the mass and the degree\nof vibration. These forms, being as it were the ghosts or phantoms of\ncrystals, are called _sonorous figures_.\n\n2861. If the air be displaced when in a state of covibration, it is\nnot thrown into undulatory circles or waves, like water into which a\nstone has been cast, but in each of its parts the sonorous figure of\nthe rigid body is repeatedly represented. The vibration of air is a\nprogressive motion of sonorous figures.\n\n2862. If the sonorous figures are not incommensurable, several may\nbe at one and the same time in a _single_ portion of air, without\ninterfering with each other. They harmonize, because they have\noriginated according to concordant laws. But if they are products\nof different laws, they are then confused, and an indeterminate\n_offensive_ vibration originates, just as savours become loathsome if\nthey depart from their laws.\n\n2863. These figures of the air are only perceived by the _Ear_. The\near is the only sense in which the motor system is represented in a\n_pure_ state, devoid of any vegetal signification, and simply endowed\nwith nervose nobility. The ear is therefore the only organ which can\nperceive the primary motion of the matter; for like acts only in or\nupon its like.\n\n2864. The metals are the ear of nature, the salt her tongue, the resin\nher nose, the earth her hand.\n\n2865. The power or capacity excited by sonorous figures of covibrating\naccording to the same laws, constitutes _Hearing_; the phenomenon is\ncalled _Sound_. Hearing is a primary motion in the musculo-osseous\nsystem of the ear, which is communicated to the auditory nerve. The\nauditory sense is \u00e6ther-sense, metal-sense. Hearing is magnetizing.\n\n2866. The sonorous figures are formed in the auditory organ, and even\nin the auditory nerves, just as they have been represented upon an\ninfinitely small scale in the air. The nerve becomes in hearing a\nsonorous figure.\n\n2867. It is not the mere motion in the auditory organs which produces\nthe sensation of sound; the nerve certainly perceives each movement\nin the ears, because none is possible apart from or without primary\nmotion; only such a motion is no sound, but only a noise. What has been\nwritten in the tingling metal according to eternal laws, is transcribed\nor copied in the auditory nerve; it is only this writing, but no\nmassive motion of the air, which is legible by the nerve.\n\n2868. Melody is a retrogression of the matter into \u00e6ther, of the formed\nworld into the primary world; through melody is the spirit of the\nworld revealed. The ear is the first liberation of the animal from all\nterrestrial matter; through the ear the animal becomes for the first\ntime spiritual.\n\n2869. Melody is the voice of the universe, whereby it proclaims its\nscheme, or its innermost essence. Hence the wondrous, mysterious\naction of harmony, the secret sovereignty of music. Music is the\nexpression of the ardent desire to revert to the primary idea. It makes\nman unconsciously yearn after a condition which he knoweth not; it\ntransports him unconsciously into this condition of divine repose and\ngodly bliss.\n\n\n_Speech._\n\n2870. That which melodizes proclaims its spirit: the melody of animals\ndisplays their internal law.\n\n2871. _The musical system of all animal laws is Speech._\n\n2872. Speech is the representation of all nature's sonorous figures in\nthe human organ of sound.\n\n2873. Through speech Man delineates himself in spiritual outlines\nor sketches, which, devoid of matter (or body), he sets down before\nhimself. Such sketches are easily seen through, since to them every\nmaterial covering is wanting, and they lie purely before the sensation,\nas the law, the will of nature.\n\n2874. Through speech Man appears as a double essence. He is a corporeal\nessence; and the spoken word appears before him in the same outlines,\nbut without body. When conversing, Man is a _self-manifestation unto\nself_.\n\n2875. Previous to speech no self-consciousness originates.\n\n2876. Without an auditory organ there is no self-consciousness.\n\n2877. To the organ of hearing, however, belongs also the auditory nerve\nand the cerebellum. Without a cerebellum there is no self-consciousness.\n\n2878. While Man appears unto himself, he appears also to change. Nature\nis gloomy, incomprehensible; the spirit is clear, and enlightens her.\n\n2879. Manifestation is only possible through self-manifestation;\nthrough a doubling of itself, through its expression.\n\n2880. Animals appear only, in so far as they are individual\nself-manifestations of Man.\n\n2881. With speech Man creates unto himself his world. Without\nspeech there is no world. For the Apes there is no world, but only\ntree-fruits, female and male.\n\n2882. Through speech Man becomes acquainted with or learns to know\nhimself; through it he becomes a self-substantial essence, which\nresembles God, because it creates for itself its world, and recognizes\nitself, i. e. speaks.\n\n2883. Words are forms of our body mathematically laid down.\n\n2884. A single world is dead, so also are many.\n\n2885. Words, which are connected together according to organic laws,\nform an organic system, are at once alive, and have a meaning.\n\n2886. Speech originates gradually like the organs, like Man. Speech\ngrows like a plant; at first it is only root, next it puts forth\na stem, then leaves, and finally blossoms, when it is the perfect\nexpression of the animal body.\n\n2887. The organ of speech is composed of the three terrestrial organs\nof sense, the air-, water-, and earth-sense.\n\n2888. The air-organs are the principal medium, because they must\nproduce the sonorous figures; the tongue imparts to them the specific\nmodification; but the lips and jaws, as being motor members, afford the\narticulation or the _movement_ proper. The lungs and nose breathe out\nthe tones; the tongue digests them; the lips move them, and fashion\nthem into perfect bodies--words.\n\n2889. A word is at once for itself a regularly inter-articulated body.\nThe sounds are its members, its organs or fundamental formations.\n\n2890. Speaking is a gentle respiration, carried on by the mouth, nose,\nand limbs or jaws.\n\n2891. As respiration has a special thorax, so also has speaking. The\nspeech-(or voice-) thorax is the larynx.\n\n2892. The larynx represents the ribs and arms, which all move in order\nto form a sound. The tongue is, so to speak, the head upon this thorax.\n\n2893. The nose imparts euphony to the sounds. It tests their fragrancy.\nThe tongue gives them a special quality, their chemical character or\ntaste; the teeth and lips furnish the cadence as a kind of joint to the\nsounds, or in other terms the words.\n\n2894. Four organs of sense belong to speech, viz:\n\n  Touch in the Jaws.\n  Taste in the Tongue.\n  Smell in the Nose.\n  Hearing in the Ear.\n\n2895. The ear receives the products of the three vegetative organs of\nsense. It is a synthetic sense.\n\n2896. The tongue gives the vowels; the jaws the consonants.\n\n2897. In accordance with this the vowels are the _body_ of speech, and\nthe consonants the _limbs_ or members, whereby it effects its movements.\n\n2898. Vowels express time, consonants space; the one the chemical\nimport, the other the form.\n\n2899. The vowel E expresses the present, A that which has just past, O\nthat which has quite passed, U that which has passed long ago, I the\nfuture.\n\n2900. The more consonants there are in the words, so much the richer is\nthe language; the more vowels, the poorer it is. Such is the speech of\nsavages or wild men.\n\n2901. The speech of animals is a vocal or vowel-speech.\n\n\n5. _Function of the Optic Sense._\n\n2902. As the primary motion of the world is manifested to the animal\nthrough the ear; so does the primitive cause of the motion, that of\nevery activity and every phenomenon, i. e. light, appear unto the\nnerve-sense.\n\n2903. The light-sense is similarly formed or modelled according to the\nlight of nature, and kindles also the light within itself, just as the\nlight originated in the \u00e6ther; viz. through primary antagonism taking\nplace in its own substance.\n\n2904. Light is the binary division of the \u00e6ther-mass, not an antagonism\nbetween it and some other matter; in like manner sight is a binary\ndivision of the nerve-mass in itself, without antagonism to other\norgans.\n\n2905. Sight is the tension of the \u00e6ther directly continued into the\nanimal \u00e6ther, just as taste was a chemical action continued into the\nanimal chemism, and smell an electrical process continued into the\nanimal electrism.\n\n2906. In sight the nervous mass is completely self-antagonized, is a\nphenomenon unto itself; the eye is the brain placed opposite to the\nbrain.\n\n2907. Sight is thus a tension between optic and central brain; as\nillumination is tension between planetary and solar \u00e6ther.\n\n2908. Illumination and vision are of one kind, only occurring in\ntwo different sorts of worlds. The planet sees by means of the\nillumination, the animal illuminates or gives out light by means of\nseeing. Sight is a light-sense.\n\n2909. Now, the illumination is a fixation of \u00e6ther, a coloration, and\nthus a descent of the \u00e6ther into what is terrestrial. In seeing we\nperceive the \u00e6ther, as to how it becomes world; in hearing we perceived\nthe world, as to how it became \u00e6ther.\n\n2910. Seeing and hearing are opposite functions; the first indicates\nthe creation, the latter the return of the creation into chaos.\n\n2911. Through sight we become acquainted with the universe, through\nhearing with the miniature universe, or man. Sight passes out of us,\nhearing into us; or through sight Man is posited in the world, through\nhearing among his fellow-men. Sight is the speech of the world, hearing\nthat of the planet.\n\n2912. Sight is the speech or language of the universe, hearing the\nlanguage of Man. Through sight the world reveals unto us its spirit or\nits thoughts; but through hearing man only discloses what are his own.\nAs words are but the representations of the disintegrated body of Man,\nso are the world-forms the representatives of the disintegrated body of\nthe primary spirit. The word is a rigidified, crystallized thought of\nMan; a natural body is a rigidified, crystalline thought of the primary\nact--a word of God.\n\n2913. Through hearing self-consciousness originates; through sight\nconsciousness of the world, universal consciousness. By means of\nthe former we only become acquainted with human relations--which is\n_understanding_; by the latter with those that are universal--this\nbeing _reason_.\n\n2914. Without the ear there would be no understanding, without the eye\nno reason.\n\n2915. Understanding is microcosm, reason macrocosm. From what is\nintelligent we expect human wisdom, from what is rational world-wisdom.\n\n2916. That the light also has a medium, whereby it acts upon us, is\nat once evident from our existing in such a medium; but it could also\nact directly upon us, were it not inevitably broken up beforehand into\ncolours in traversing the media. All terrestrial elements may be a\nmedium for the transmission of light, such as the gaseous, fluid, and\nsolid, i. e. if they are transparent.\n\n2917. We perceive only coloured light, because our organ of light is\nonly a rigidified colour, a material light. There is no pure light for\nus; there is none also in general.\n\n2918. Sight is thus a terrestrial light-tension, a colour-becoming.\n\n2919. This happens only through refraction. The eye is a refracting\nmedium. It is distinguished from the brain by being a translucent,\nrefractive, encephalic substance.\n\n2920. Light does not stream into the eye like water into the sponge,\nbut it progresses gradually into and operates upon it.\n\n2921. The eye, in order to experience the sensation of light, is placed\nin a similar tension to the air, water, or crystal. This tension\nbetween it and the brain is perceived by the latter as illumination.\nThe eye is a prism, in which the brain sees the world, in which the\nbrain observes its own tension, or the production of colour. Sight is a\ndeoxydation of the eye.\n\n2922. The optic nerve is an organized ray of light, the brain an\norganized sun, the eye an organized chromatic sun or rainbow.\n\n2923. Just as the sonorous figures are delineated in the ears, and\nas the nerve perceives these, but not any concussion of the air; so\nalso does the optic nerve perceive not the light in general, but its\nterrestrial formation or the chromatic image, which has been propagated\ninto the eye.\n\n2924. In an eye, while seeing, the world is depicted; as in the ear,\nwhen hearing, the crystalline forms of the air are delineated.\n\n2925. The eye does not on that account see two worlds. For the\nchromatic image is nothing else than that which is external to or\nwithout the eye. It is verily one and the same influence of light,\nwhich acts continuously in a straight line between the chromatic image\nand the object apparent or beheld.\n\n2926. As a stick thrusts us from the side whither it comes; so does\nthe chromatic image from the side whence the light comes. The exit and\nentrance of the light are not distinct from each other. The objects\ncould not therefore appear reversed, because we do not _see_ the image\nin the eye, but _feel_ its process of deoxydation along with its\ndirection.\n\n2927. The objects of the eye are colours. Like as they are related\nin nature, so also must they be in sight; for they are only the eye\nextended, or this again is only the formed colour.\n\n2928. We see nothing else but colours, no bodies. For the eye there is\nno material world. It directly perceives the spirit, and indeed its own\nspirit, or the world of light.\n\n2929. There is no pre-established harmony, but complete conformity\nbetween the world and organ of sense. (Vid. Oken's Essays, \"Ueber das\nUniversum als fort-gesetztes System der Sinne,\" and \"Erste Ideen zur\nTheorie des Lichts.\" Jena bei Fromann, 1808.)\n\n\nII. _Functions of the Sexual Animal._\n\nA. VEGETAL SEXUAL ORGANS.\n\n1. _Of the Sexual Intestine._\n\n2930. As the sexual animal is in every respect the encephalic animal\nreversed, so also is this the case in respect to its functions. The\nsexual intestine gives out through its mouth or anus, while the other\nor animal gut takes in. As being the intestine of the vegetal animal\nit receives the fermented product of digestion, or the excrement, and\nconveys it backwards towards the sexual orifice or mouth.\n\n2931. The intestinal function of the sexual animal is an act of\nvomition. The evacuation is an act of vomition, seeing that the\nintestinal contents are moved backwards.\n\n2932. The sexual stomach is the rectum. In it the excrementitious\nmatter is accumulated, so that it may be ready for being broken away in\nthe process of evacuation.\n\n2933. The commencement of the sexual intestine is the c\u00e6cum, its\nextremity the anus.\n\n\n2. _Functions of the Sexual Lung._\n\n2934. We may distinguish two circulations, the splanchnic or visceral,\nwhich takes place between the lung, intestine, and liver, and the great\ncirculation, which instead of going to the viscera passes to the other\norgans, and is called the bodily or systemic circulation. The liver\nexcretes the product which results from the splanchnic circulation; the\nsystemic circulation has its organ also, but one which does not secrete\na special, but general product.\n\n2935. The general secernent organ of the whole body together with all\nits systems is the sexual system, which having been elevated by virtue\nof this general character to the rank even of an animal, is a true\nsexual animal. That which is a general and not a partial excretion, is\nimparted by the sexual animal. It is the animal reversed.\n\n2936. Thus the secernent organ of the general circulation must belong\nto the sexual system, and perform in it that which the liver, or in\nother words the reverse of the lungs, has done in the splanchnic\ncirculation. The _kidneys_ are the lungs reversed.\n\n2937. If the bile be an extract from the visceral blood, so is the\nurine an extract from the body's blood, and is consequently the purest\nreflex or pattern of the former.\n\n2938. The urine is sexual blood, just as the excrement is a product of\nthe sexual digestion. The urine is reversed blood.\n\n2939. The formation of urine is a retro-formation of the blood into\ndigestive fluid or sap. The urine is blood of the sexual animal which\nhas become chyle. It has both properties in itself. It is discoloured\nblood, and consists for the greatest part of water and salts, all of\nwhich are characters belonging unto chyle. It, however, contains urea,\nwhich corresponds to the noblest parts of the blood. This substance,\nlike fibrine, consists for the greatest part of nitrogen; it may be\ncalled dissolved or decomposed fibrine. It imparts colour to the\nurine; it is converted by oxydation into lithic or uric acid, and is\nprecipitated of a red colour analogous to that of the blood-globules.\nIn addition to this, albumen, gelatine, carbonate of lime, and\nphosphorus, consequently the whole blood, are present in the urine.\n\n2940. In urea the muscle flows or runs out of the animal, in albumen\nthe nerve, in lime and phosphorus the bone, in gelatine the tegumentary\ntogether with the visceral system, lastly, in water the menstruum of\nthe digestion and respiration.\n\n2941. Thus the urine, just like the blood, is the whole body rendered\nfluid, but only in a sexual manner, namely, as being half decomposed.\n\n2942. So the bile, from its not representing the whole body, does not\ncontain the latter in itself. It properly contains only the excretion\nof the intestinal process.\n\n2943. The kidneys stand accordingly opposed without distinction to all\nthe organs, in so far as all of them are affected by the circulation.\nTheir remote sympathy, or if we please, their antagonism, is with the\nanimal systems, or with bone, muscle, and nerve. With the osseous,\nas being the profoundest system, there is of necessity also a close\nsympathy. In diseases of bone the bones, as well as the _morbid\nmatter_, flow away principally through the urine. Their most intimate\nsympathy must be with the organs of circulation, with the lung, liver,\nintestine, and skin. As the skin is also an organ of evaporation, so\nis the antagonism between it and the kidneys of a direct or immediate\nkind. The skin is the kidneys expanded into a large cyst. These are\nin turn, just as the lung is, the inverted skin.\n\n2944. A lung in the reversed animal can do nothing else but expire.\nIt only expels the evaporated matter of the sanguinary system, but\ntakes in none, so as to alter or support the blood. The sexual animal\naims at the destruction of the animal. The urinary cyst, as being\nthe remnant of the allantois, and of the primordial kidneys or sexual\nbranchi\u00e6, is simply destined to purposes of expulsion. It is the larynx\nreversed. Micturition takes place through contraction of the cyst,\nas does expiration by that of the lungs in Reptilia. It is a cough.\n\n\nB. FUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMAL SEXUAL ORGANS.\n\n2945. The sexual functions proper correspond to the sensorial\nfunctions, though to these upon an inferior stage. They are sensorial\nfunctions, which are simply occupied with the materials of the senses,\nso that they are vegetative senses. They are a prefiguration of the\nsense of feeling, taste, and smell.\n\n\n1. _Functions of the Male Organs._\n\n2946. The testes secrete semen in the same manner that the salivary\nglands do their fluid or juice.\n\n2947. The semen is sexual saliva, and is thus sexual virus or poison.\nLike the saliva destroys that which is living, so does the semen. The\nsaliva, however, destroys it in order to form a new animal out of the\nfood; with the same motive the semen destroys it. But both differ in\nthis, that the saliva takes care of the body to which it belongs, while\nthe semen attends to another body, the foetus or fruit.\n\n2948. The saliva is only the highest condition of the digestive fluid,\nand is thus a totality merely of the intestinal system; the urine\nis the total product of the vascular system in its antagonism with\nthe lung; but the semen is the product of the whole body. Through the\nsemen the whole body, rendered fluid or reduced to the primary form,\nruns away. The semen is the chyle already prepared for all parts; but\nbecause it is in a sexual animal, it thus takes the reverse direction\nand passes out.\n\n2949. A fluid, in which the whole animal has been dissolved, is\nparallel to the nerve-or point-mass. The semen is a fluid point-or\nnerve-mass, the fluid brain.\n\n2950. Even what is spiritual directly resides in the semen; it need\nonly assume a form and the cerebral functions commence.\n\n2951. The penis, as being the sexual tongue, has only retained the\nsensibility of the sense of touch and the function of ingestion.\n\n\n2. _Functions of the Female Parts._\n\n2952. The female aperture is the pharynx for the ingestion.\n\n2953. It is by means of the female parts that the whole sexual system\nbecomes for the first time equal to the perfected animal; through them\nfor the first time the male tongue obtains an oral cavity.\n\n2954. In the total representation of the sexual animal the female parts\nenviron and include the male. This moment is called _copulation_.\n\n2955. Copulation is the representation of the entire animal out\nof two incomplete ones. The sexual animal is only an entire beast\nin copulation, and is only then to be considered as equal to the\nencephalic animal. Copulation is a representation of the hermaphrodite.\n\n2956. This propensity for bringing about the sexual animal's completion\nis sexual passion or lust.\n\n2957. In copulation the male parts are \"par excellence\" the sensorial\norgan, the female only the recipient mouth. Both are properly organs of\nsense, but the one is operative or active, the other patient or passive.\n\n2958. Previous to copulation the female parts are consequently\ninactive, just as digestion is before taste. As digestion first\ncommences after taste has given up the food and excited the stomach\nto activity, so also the sexual function first commences in female\nanimals, after the act of tasting is past.\n\n2959. Through copulation what is female becomes masculine. It\nnow secretes for the first time self-substantial semen. Through\nimpregnation the female ovaria are first excited to secrete the saliva,\nwhich the whole animal contains in a state of solution.\n\n2960. As the chyle becomes what it is, or is derived from the saliva\nand food; so from the semen and vitellus proceeds the foetus, but in\nsuch a manner that the female substance gives it the mass, while upon\nthis the male only bestows the polarity.\n\n2961. Thus, were the male semen to actually solidify into the foetus;\nit is still not its mass which comes into consideration in the\nlatter, but only its polarizing strength. It supplies the place of\nthe nervous system. This power appears to reside principally in the\n(seminal) Infusoria or animalcules, just as that of the blood does in\nthe blood-globules. Meanwhile both are only signs of the maturity of\ntheir respective juices, as the Infusoria in sea-water are a proof\nalso that the sea can produce other animals from its mucus or slime.\nThe Infusoria are the primary mass of the Organic. Its life is only a\nmanifestation of the seminal polarity. The Infusoria are semen which\nhas been poured out over the earth. Propagation is only possible\nthrough reduction taking place to the infusorial primary mass.\n\n2962. The semen and the ovum first meet or come together in the uterus.\n\n2963. The ovum is the mean between vegetable and animal semen. As the\nformer is distinctly formed and at once represents, upon a small scale\nwithin itself, the principal parts of the future plant, so does the\novum; but only in parts, from which the animal organs first of all grow\nforth, upon which having commenced, the former or vegetal parts are\ncast aside.\n\n2964. The ovum is the entire animal in idea, or in design, but not yet\nin structure; it is the thought unto the animal; it is related to the\nanimal as the thought is to the word.\n\n2965. The ovum has therefore no organ of the animal preformed within\nitself, but only the materials requisite thereunto. But the materials\nare not so general in character, that like as from the infusorial mass,\neverything could become or derive its existence from everything else.\nBut they are at once destined for definite organs, as the vitellus for\nthe intestine, the albumen probably for the integument.\n\n2966. In an ovum therefore the animal resides preformed only in a\nspectral or phantom-like manner. There are principal masses present in\nit, from which the principal organs originate.\n\n\n_Mamm\u00e6._\n\n2967. In the oviparous animals the secretion of the vitellus is\ndistinct from that of the albumen; the one takes place in the ovarium,\nthe other in the oviduct or uterus.\n\n2968. By degrees the albumen-secreting vessels advance further\noutwards upon the orifice of the sexual parts, and are then called\nmilk-organs--_Mamm\u00e6_.\n\n2969. Mamm\u00e6 are only the vascular bundles of the oviduct placed in the\ndirection outwards, or albumen-glands of the integument.\n\n2970. Mammalia are those animals where the ovarium has completely\nseparated into albumen-and vitellus-organ.\n\n2971. Those mamm\u00e6 which have scarcely been detached from the oviduct,\nand become free, are necessarily more incomplete, and are situated in\nthe neighbourhood of the sexual parts--as udders.\n\n2972. As the separation of the substances composing the ovum is an\nadvancing-step towards their improvement, so also is the removal of the\nalbumen-glands from the vitelline sac a nobler condition. They cannot,\nhowever, remove further off than to the thorax, because this is the\nhighest post or station of the vegetative parts.\n\n2973. Milk is a vegetable product of the animal.\n\n2974. Numerous mamm\u00e6 are a lower development.\n\n2975. The milk is albumen, which has been secreted by tegumentary\nglands; it is animal albumen. The lacteal or milk-organs therefore\nbelong to the sexual system.\n\n2976. As the male parts are only the female otherwise developed, it\nis to be comprehended why the male animals also have mamm\u00e6. They are\nprobably the embryo's principal organ of absorption.\n\n\n_Functions of the Uterus._\n\n2977. Now, the uterus obtains the sexual food in a living state, and\nfrom its being such is affected by it.\n\n2978. The uterus must be thus a world for the living germ. Two\nprocesses are, however, indispensable for the germ, namely _nutrition_\nand _respiration_; both of which are furnished by the uterus.\n\n2979. The uterus is to be regarded as the water, the sea in which the\ngerm or embryo is developed. The water decomposes into basic nutritive\nmatter and oxygenous matter of respiration. The water of the uterus is\nthe blood; this is separated through the antagonism of the foetus\ninto mucus and oxygen. The mucus penetrates into the amnion, the oxygen\ninto the chorion, or the placenta.\n\n2980. The fundus of the uterus is more arteriose than the os uteri, and\nstands therefore in opposition with it.\n\n\n3. _Development of the Foetus._\n\na. _Anatomy._\n\n2981. The germ may be regarded as a vesicle, full of nutritive matter\nor albumen, situated within the cavity of the uterus, the walls of\nwhich act upon it.\n\n2982. As the fundus of the uterus is the arterial pole, so it oxydizes\nthe vesicle and repels that part which lies close upon it. Through\nthis originates a saccular inversion, as in the mesentery of the\nperitoneum, and the vesicle separates into three divisions. In itself\nit is amnion, the inverted part is the integument of the embryo, the\ntube which unites these the umbilical cord.\n\n2983. The amnion is thus the root or primary cyst of the integument.\n\n2984. Through continuous oxydation blood-vessels are developed upon the\nsurface of the amnion, which finally withdraw to constitute a special\nintegument, which is called chorion. Its vessels are in like manner\nrepelled from the fundus uteri, and prolonged into the inversion of the\numbilical cord and the embryo. The chorion is thus the root or primary\ncyst of the vascular system.\n\n2985. These two bladders, sacs, or cysts are the only general ones\nwhich circumscribe or invest the entire embryo, because there are only\ntwo general vegetative systems, namely, the tegumentary and vascular.\n\n2986. The embryo has not originated freely in these shut sacs, but only\nthrough their introversion; it is itself a portion of these sacs.\n\n2987. The embryo properly lies external to its envelopes, as the\nintestine does in respect to the mesentery.\n\n2988. Just as the two general vegetative systems have been developed\nfrom primary cysts, so also are there sacs for the two special\nvegetative systems, or the intestinal and sexual; but, on that very\naccount, these cannot be general sacs, nor any longer envelop the\nembryo.\n\n2989. At the entrance of the inversion of the umbilical cord is\nsituated a small vesicle, which divides and is prolonged into the\ntwo intestines. It is therefore the root or primary sac of the\nintestinal system, and is called in Man the 'vesicula umbilicalis,' in\nthe Mammalia the 'tunica erythroides,' and in oviparous animals the\n'vitellus.'\n\n2990. In the same situation is placed another cyst, which is\nprolonged into what has been called the 'urachus' and the urinary\ncyst, and from which the primordial kidneys, the true kidneys, and\nthe sexual parts are developed by sacciform eversion. This sac is\ncalled the 'allantois,' 'tunica allantoides,' and is consequently the\nroot or primary sac of the sexual system.\n\n2991. These cysts or sacs are consequently not envelopes that serve for\nthe protection of the foetus, but its developmental organs, which\ndisappear, so soon as their prolongations into the foetus itself\nenable them to exercise their functions.\n\n2992. There are thus as many developmental sacs or cysts, as there are\nvegetative systems present, viz.:\n\n  a. Two General Cysts.\n    1. The Vascular cyst--Chorion.\n    2.     Tegumental cyst--Amnion.\n\n  b. Two Special Cysts.\n    3. The Intestinal cyst--Vitellus.\n    4.     Sexual cyst--Allantois.\n\n2993. It is only the vegetative systems which take root in the foetal\nenvelopes, but not the animal systems. There is no developmental cyst\nfor the nervous, muscular, and osseous systems.\n\n2994. The persistent vegetative systems are the developmental organs\nfor the animal systems; as the intestine for the bones, the veins for\nthe muscles, the tegument or branchial sac for the nerves.\n\n2995. The foetus consists of three floors or stories like a house,\nwhereof one has been based upon, or rather developed out of the other,\nviz.:\n\n  a. Of the Developmental cysts.\n  b.    \"   Vegetative systems.\n  c.    \"   Animal systems.\n\n2996. According to time the sacs are developed in the following\nseries. The first sac is that of the vitellus or the intestine,\nwhich is also the first that is present in the development of the\nanimal kingdom. Upon this vitelline membrane the blood-vessels ('vasa\nomphalomesenterica') are developed, are prolonged into the body with\nthe intestine, turn again outwards and form the chorion. From this the\namnion next separates into the envelopes, and the integument upon the\nembryo. Lastly, the allantois appears, and in its prolongation the\nsexual parts.\n\n2997. Originally the whole chorion is replete all around with vessels;\nbut as the process of oxydation occurs most powerfully upon the fundus\nuteri, so are the vessels developed most abundantly in that very\nsituation, and form the placenta.\n\n2998. The placenta is no peculiar organ, but only the more energetic\npart of the chorion.\n\n2999. It must necessarily be placed around the insertion of the\numbilical cord, because at this spot the inversion takes place, on\naccount of the strong oxydation.\n\n3000. The placenta is always situated upon the fundus uteri, because\nit originates only through its influence. It cannot therefore begin to\nsuck, like the mouth of a leech, in a fortuitous or voluntary manner\nanywhere. If it is found occupying some other situation, it is a proof\nthat the oxydizing process of the uterus has been displaced. This is\nconsequently an abnormal situation.\n\n3001. Opposite to the foetal vascular system is first of all\ndeveloped the general system of animal life, namely, the nervous\nsystem, and indeed the spinal chord, or what has been called the\n'carina' or primary streak.\n\n3002. The development of all other systems oscillates in this\nantagonism of blood and nerves.\n\n3003. In the antagonism of the placenta is formed the liver, which in\nthe embryo is one of the largest organs, and in its antagonism the\nbrain is developed.\n\n3004. In the antagonism of the amnion the integument is evolved, and in\nits antagonism the branchi\u00e6 and lungs.\n\n3005. In obedience to the antagonism of the arteries and veins, the\nvitelline sac divides into small and large intestine. The one pursues a\ncourse towards the arterial extremity of the body, the brain, the other\ntowards the venous or sexual parts; mouth and anus.\n\n3006. Finally, from the antagonism of the allantois the sexual parts\nemerge at the very extremity of the body, which is placed opposite to\nthe mouth.\n\n3007. The osseous and muscular system first makes its appearance, when\nthe vegetative parts are present.\n\n3008. The intestines, the vessels, and the commencement of the sexual\nparts are originally situated in the umbilical cord, which is itself\nsurrounded by the integument. The umbilical cord is therefore nothing\nelse than the posterior extremity of the body or abdomen, through which\nthe embryo respires and is nourished.\n\n3009. The first respiration and deglutition is therefore a respiration\nand deglutition effected by the sexual parts, as in the lowest animals.\n\n\nb. _Functions of the Foetus._\n\n1. _Nutrition._\n\n3010. The juices which are contained in the developmental sacs are\nnutritive juices or chyle; they contain principally albumen. The chyle\nof the intestinal vesicle depends upon the vitellus.\n\n3011. The foetal water in the amnion is derived from albumen in the\novum; it is here secreted by the oviduct, but in the Mammalia by the\ninternal wall of the uterus, and absorbed by the general envelopes.\n\n3012. The cause of this secretion resides in the decomposition of the\nblood through the influence of the chorion. Thus if the maternal blood\nbecome deoxydized, it must necessarily revert to the condition of\nchyle. This chyle is the foetal water.\n\n3013. The foetal water is absorbed by the embryo through the\nintegument.\n\n3014. No blood is transferred from the mother directly to the foetus.\n\n3015. The blood-vessels of the uterus and placenta do not open into or\ncommunicate with each other.\n\n3016. The foetal water corresponds to the albumen or the white of\neggs, not to the vitellus. This becomes also during incubation consumed\nin the formation of the body of the chick, and not the vitelline mass,\nwhich is first of all destined for the intestine.\n\n3017. Towards the termination of pregnancy, when the foetus is\nendowed with muscular motion, the foetal water is also absorbed.\nNutrition is therefore in the commencement an absorption carried on by\nthe integument, and lastly by the intestine.\n\n\n2. _Respiration._\n\n3018. The respiratory organ of the foetus is the chorion, and in\nparticular the placenta. Its tissue is like that of the branchi\u00e6 or\nspleen.\n\n3019. The arterial blood transmitted through the umbilical vein is\nconducted through the foramen ovale into the left ventricle of the\nheart, and from thence directly to the principal organ of the foetus,\nthe brain and spinal cord. From hence it returns, venous in quality,\nto the right side of the heart, and from thence through the ductus\narteriosus into the inferior or descending aorta, from which, pursuing\nits course through the umbilical arteries, it again reaches the\nplacenta, in which it undergoes a renewed oxydation.\n\n3020. If therefore the umbilical cord be compressed, the foetus\ndies suddenly, as happens indeed accidentally in certain cases, which\ncompletely resemble those of death produced by suffocation. The chick\nwhen in the egg dies, if the egg-shell be coated over with varnish, or\nif the egg be submitted to the noxious influence of gases which are\ndevoid of oxygen.\n\n3021. The respiration effected through means of the placenta, admits\nalso of being proved by the sudden change which occurs in the\ncirculation after birth. No arterial blood being then any longer\nbrought to the heart through the umbilical vein, the left heart is\nno longer stimulated, and the foramen ovale collapses and is closed.\nThus, all the blood enters the right side of the heart, and finding no\nthoroughfare into the ductus arteriosus, it is driven forcibly into the\nlungs, which now expand, and thereby leave an empty space between the\npulmonary vessels, into which the air rushes in.\n\n3022. The first act of respiration is therefore the result of the\nlungs being injected with venous blood, and thus of necessity ensues.\nWhen, on the contrary, cases arise causing pulmonary suffocation, the\nblood then regurgitates to the umbilical vessels, in order to reach the\noriginal branchia or placenta.\n\n3023. Another process of respiration is found to take place in the\nvessels of the allantois. Its fluid becomes oxydized and penetrates\nthrough the urinary cyst into what have been called primordial\nkidneys. This kind of respiration through the anus is persistent in\nmany Worms and larv\u00e6 of Insects.\n\n3024. Finally, there is a respiratory process on the body of the embryo\nitself through the branchial apertures on its neck; these in the Frogs\nand Salamanders still continue visible after their exclusion from the\negg. This oxygen must be derived from the foetal water.\n\n3025. Without doubt also the vitelline vessels respire, and thus each\nvegetative system has its own process of respiration. The intestine\nrespires through the vitelline vessels, the vascular system through\nthe vessels of the chorion, the sexual system through those of the\nallantois, the integument through the branchial apertures. The lungs\nbelong to, and perform respiration for the whole body.\n\n\n_Decay of the Developmental Organs._\n\n3026. When all the organs are developed, the intestines are drawn\ntogether with the vitellus into the abdomen. The chick is still\nnourished several days after exclusion from the egg by the vitelline\nmass, which passes through the vitelline canal into the intestine. The\nvitelline membrane subsequently becomes flaccid, and finally disappears\nthrough maceration. In the Mammalia the umbilical vesicle separates\nat an earlier period from the intestine, and continues to lie in the\numbilical cord.\n\n3027. The secernent point of the vitelline membrane or of the umbilical\nvesicle is the coecum.\n\n3028. There are therefore two intestinal systems, which branch off in\na bifurcated manner from the coecum, namely, the sexual intestine and\nthe small or truncal intestine.\n\n3029. All embryos have originally umbilical herni\u00e6, which do not\noriginate through protrusion of the intestines out of the abdominal\ncavity, but through their entrance into the latter being retarded.\n\n3030. The umbilical herni\u00e6 therefore indicate an earlier condition of\nthe animal, which has originated through arrest of the development.\n\n3031. At birth all the enveloping membranes die, and their point of\nliberation is called the navel or umbilicus.\n\n3032. The animal has originated through the umbilicus, and through this\nhas it respired.\n\n3033. All animals which breathe by the anus, do so properly through the\nnavel; animals of this kind are fundamentally umbilical animals.\n\n\n_Parallelism of the Foetus with the Animal Classes._\n\n3034. During its development the animal passes through all stages of\nthe animal kingdom. The foetus is a representation of all animal\nclasses in time.\n\n3035. At first it is a simple vesicle, stomach, or vitellus, as in the\nInfusoria.\n\n3036. Then the vesicle is doubled through the albumen and shell, and\nobtains an intestine, as in the Corals.\n\n3037. It obtains a vascular system in the vitelline vessels, or\nabsorbents, like as in the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n3038. With the blood-system, liver, and ovarium, the embryo enters the\nclass of bivalved Mollusca.\n\n3039. With the muscular heart, the testicle, and the penis, into the\nclass of Snails.\n\n3040. With the venous and arteriose hearts, and the urinary apparatus,\ninto the class of Cephalopods or Cuttle-fish.\n\n3041. With the absorption of the integument, into the class of Worms.\n\n3042. With the formation of branchial fissures, into the class\nCrustacea.\n\n3043. With the germination or budding forth of limbs, into the class of\nInsects.\n\n3044. With the appearance of the osseous system, into the class of\nFishes.\n\n3045. With the evolution of muscles, into the class of Reptiles.\n\n3046. With the ingress of respiration through the lungs, into the class\nof Birds. The foetus, when born, is actually like them, edentulous.\n\n3047. After birth it is suckled or fed. The milk is the nutrition\ncontinued by means of albumen; for the mamm\u00e6 are verily only the\nalbuminous vessels of the Bird, which are placed free and external in\nthe Mammiferous animal. After the time for sucking is past the young\none obtains teeth; and thereby becomes for the first time independent\nof the mother, and passes over into the class Mammalia. Now, should\nthe sketch here afforded of these parallels be not in all respects\ncorrect or justifiable, still sufficient proof remains, that a perfect\nparallelism is found to take place between the development of the\nfoetus and that of the animal kingdom.\n\n3048. Animals are only the persistent foetal stages or conditions of\nman.\n\n3049. Malformations are only persistent foetal conditions, or animal\nformations in individual animal bodies.\n\n3050. Diseases are vital processes in animals. Pathology is the\nphysiology of the animal kingdom. A human foetus is a whole animal\nkingdom. (Vid. Oken's 'Die Zeugung,' 'Beytr\u00e4ge zur vergl. Anatomie,'\nand 'Ueber die Nabelbr\u00fcche.')\n\n\n_Periods of Life._\n\n3051. If the young in the ovum or in the mother's body resembles the\naquatic animals, and has passed through their organization; so after\nbirth does it belong to the air-breathing animals and traverse their\norganization.\n\n3052. One period is that of sucking; the edentulous condition of the\nBird. This is called the suckling age, baby-hood or infancy.\n\n3053. One is that of the eruption and persistence of the milk-teeth;\nthe condition of the Rodentia, a repetition of the gelatinous animals.\nThis is the age of childhood.\n\n3054. One is the eruption of the permanent set of teeth until the\nattainment of puberty, or the development of the sexual functions;\nthe condition of the Marsupialia; repetition of the Conchozoa or\nShell-animals. This is boyhood.\n\n3055. From the state of puberty until the development of the faculty of\nunderstanding; the condition of the Shrews and Bats, the repetition of\nInsects. The age of youth.\n\n3056. The period of the understanding passes through the Ungulata, and\nis a repetition of Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds. This is the first stage\nof manhood.\n\n3057. After the understanding the reason matures; this is the condition\nof the higher Mammalia up to Man; it is a repetition of the Mammalia.\nThis is adult age or mature manhood.\n\n3058. Then follows the decadence or dying off of the sexual functions;\na retrogression through the animal classes. Gray old age.\n\n3059. Finally, the reason and understanding die; childhood returns and\nterminates with the death of the vegetable in the animal.\n\n3060. Death results through the sexual animal.\n\n3061. Death is only a continuous growth through retrogression into the\norganic primary matter or Infusoria.\n\n3062. Death is an organized decomposition.\n\n3063. Decomposition is a forming of seeds, ova, and foetuses.\n\n3064. Dying is a multiplication of self.\n\n\nIII. ZOOLOGY.\n\n3065. Zoology is Zoogeny divided and self-substantially represented.\nWhat in Zoogeny was the organ of a single indivisible animal here\nbecomes the organ of a separated animal, or becomes a self-substantial\nanimal.\n\n3066. The self-substantial animals are only parts of the Great animal,\nwhich is the Animal Kingdom.\n\n3067. The animal kingdom is only _one_ animal, i. e. the representation\nof animality with all its organs, each of which is a whole for itself.\n\n3068. A single animal originates, if a single organ frees itself\nfrom the general animal body, and yet exercises the essential animal\nfunctions.\n\n3069. The animal kingdom is only a dismemberment of the highest animal,\ni. e. of _Man_.\n\n3070. Animals become nobler in rank, the greater the number of organs\nwhich are collectively liberated or severed from the Grand animal,\nand which enter into combination. An animal, which e. g. lived only\nas intestine, would be, doubtless, inferior to one which with the\nintestine were to combine a skin; and that animal again must be\nregarded as higher than the latter, which should present, in addition\nto these organs, vessels, liver, branchi\u00e6, trache\u00e6, and lastly bones,\n&c.\n\n3071. Animals are gradually perfected, entirely like the single animal\nbody, by adding organ unto organ. The animal kingdom is developed\nthrough the multiplication of the organs.\n\n3072. Each animal ranks therefore above the other; two of them never\nstand upon an equal plane or level. Animals are distinguished by their\nposition of stages or degrees from each other, by the number of their\n_different_ organs, but not by the division of a single organ.\n\n3073. The animal system cannot be arbitrarily disposed according to\nthis or that organ, just as it may chance to meet the eye; but only in\naccordance with the rigid prescripts of the animal body's genesis.\n\n3074. The animal body separates into two series of organs, which,\ncorresponding with, pursue a proximal course in relation to, each\nother; into the Anatomical systems and the Sensorial organs, unto which\nthe sexual parts appertain.\n\n3075. The number of the sensorial organs is 5, and they thus stand\naccording to their genetic development one above the other:\n\n  Tactile sense or Skin.\n  Gustatory sense or Tongue.\n  Olfactory sense or Nose.\n  Auditory sense or Ear.\n  Optical sense or Eye.\n\n3076. In animals, which are characterized by the sense of feeling or\ntouch, the other sensorial organs must be either still wanting, or if\npresent but imperfectly conditioned, i. e. not constituted like those\nof man, who is the type, pattern, or paragon for every formation.\n\n3077. Their sensations are limited to those of general touch or\nfeeling, and of those derived through the medium of the other senses we\nmeet with but feeble manifestations.\n\n3078. Their body itself will only be a tegumentary body, with the\norgans subordinated to the integument, namely, the _viscera_. They\nare therefore devoid of a true tongue, of a nose, and of ears and\neyes consummated after the fashion of these organs in man; they are\ndevoid of an osseous, muscular, and myelonal (spinal chord) system, and\ntherefore of the nose \"in toto,\" as being the anterior extremity of the\nmyelon.\n\n3079. Such are what have been called the Invertebrate animals, which\nare consequently, in accordance with their physiological signification,\nSplanchnic or _Tegumentary animals_.\n\n3080. The tongue exhibits for the first time in Fishes a resemblance\nto the human structure, while their nose, ears, and eyes have not yet\nattained the latter grade of perfection. To the nose are wanting the\nposterior nasal foramina, to the ears the external auditory meatus, to\nthe eyes the palpebr\u00e6 and power of motion.\n\n3081. In the Reptiles the nose opens for the first time into the mouth,\nand serves for the thorough passage of air. It is thus developed as in\nMan, while to the ears the external auditory meatus and cochlea are\nwanting, the eyes being barely endowed with lids and motion.\n\n3082. In Birds, for the first time, the external auditory meatus, as\nwell as the cochlea, is exhibited in its perfection, while the eyes are\nscarcely gifted with motion, and have only the inferior lid perfect;\nthe tongue and nose, with the limbs also, have again become retrograde\nin character.\n\n3083. For the first time, in the Mammalia, the eyes are moveable and\ncovered with two perfect lids, without the other organs of sense having\nsuffered degradation through this completion of the eyes.\n\n3084. Thus in respect to the Senses there are only 5 animal divisions\nof equal value or worth. They should properly be called classes; but,\nas the lowest division, from comprising within itself the viscera or\nthe vegetative systems, is very rich in contents; were we to call these\ndivisions classes, many inequalities in rank, and hence also in the\nnumber of the orders and families, would originate--\n\n  1. Dermatozoa        _Invertebrata._\n  2. Glossozoa         _Pisces._\n  3. Rhinozoa          _Reptilia._\n  4. Otozoa            _Aves._\n  5. Ophthalmozoa      _Mammalia._\n\n3085. Now, with the sense of feeling, or the integument, the sexual\nsystem is associated or conjoined, and that indeed as the first or\nlowest development of the tegumentary system. Nevertheless, the\nsexual system divides into two groups, into the sexual organs, which\nare impressed with a true sensorial signification, and into their\nproduct, or the sexual juices, and the ovum or foetus. With these two\ndivisions the development of the integument proceeds \"pari passu.\"\n\nIn the ovum the tegument and its contents are not as yet separated.\nBoth consist of a transparent mucous or gelatinous mass, as is\nexemplified by the vitellus and albumen; such is the case also in the\nInfusoria, Polyps, and Acaleph\u00e6 or Sea-nettles.\n\nIn the sexual organs, however, both parts separate into membranous\ncapsules or cysts, and glandular contents, as in the roe or ovary; milt\nor testes; kidneys, with furthermore the oviduct, penis, and urinary\ncyst. The latter are sentient membranes. Such is the case in the\nBivalve Mollusca, and Snails.\n\nIn the next place the tegument becomes, for the first time, a\nself-substantial organ of sensation by appearing as an envelope of the\nbody; the vesical form is then repeated, and by this means the annular\ncharacter originates as a series of cysts arranged one behind the\nother; it is thus a veritable skin, from which, finally, the members\nsprout forth, as in Worms and Insects.\n\nThe Dermatozoa will accordingly range in three stages.\n\n  1. Blasto- or Oozoa.\n  2. Sexual animals.\n  3. Cutaneous \"\n\nAn annulated tegument, cutis or true skin, appears for the first time\nin the _Worms_, with here and there lateral filaments and tentacula.\nTrue feet and antenn\u00e6 appear in the _Crustacea_ or _Crabs_. Lastly,\nfeet and wings in the _Insecta_ or _Flies_.\n\n3086. The external sexual parts, especially the male, first make their\nappearance, and that indeed with a very striking amount of development,\nin the Snails, and in like manner the body of the Bivalve Mollusca\nor Mussels has become almost a complete mass of ova or roe. In the\nCuttle-fishes the first traces or rudiments of urinary organs appear.\nThe animals which belong to this group are accordingly the _Conchozoa_\nor Shell-animals.\n\n3087. Animals, which are directly resolvable into sexual fluids,\nor that represent parts of the ovum, are the gelatinous Infusoria,\nPolyps, and Acaleph\u00e6. Unto this category belong the _Protozoa_ or\n_Mucus-animals_.\n\n3088. The complete subdivision of animals, according to the organs of\nsense, would consequently stand thus:\n\n    I. Dermatozoa              Invertebrata.\n      1. Oozoa                _Protozoa._\n      2. Glandular animals    _Conchozoa._\n      3. Cutaneous   \"        _Ancyliozoa._\n\n   II. Glossozoa              _Pisces._\n  III. Rhinozoa               _Reptilia._\n   IV. Otozoa                 _Aves._\n    V. Ophthalmozoa           _Thricozoa._\n\n3089. Unto these organs of sense the anatomical, or internal parts,\nare subordinated, and range parallel to them in a striking manner. The\nfollowing is their order of succession in accordance with that of their\norigin:\n\n  1. Intestinal system.\n  2. Vascular     \"\n  3. Respiratory  \"\n  4. Osseous      \"\n  5. Muscular     \"\n  6. Nervous      \"\n\n3090. That the vegetative systems are correctly arranged after this\nmanner, is proved chiefly by their order of development in the animal\nseries.\n\n3091. The animals, occupying the lowest grade, are nothing but an\nintestine, which is in many instances scarcely separated or distinct\nfrom the tegument; they are devoid of vessels and branchi\u00e6, and are\nbarely provided with self-substantial ovisacs. Their body consists\nof one or two concentric cysts of an homogeneous and transparent\nsubstance--_Intestinal animals, Protozoa_.\n\n3092. When the intestine is freed from the mass of the body, both then\nobtain the form and substance of tegumental cysts, whereof the external\nbeing only an intestinal tunic, thus represents the peritoneum. They\nare now, however, united by means of a vascular system, which is again\nsurrounded by a cyst, and thus by a pleura. Their body consists of\nthree concentric cysts; intestine, peritoneum, and pleura. It contains\ntoo a liver and self-substantial sexual parts--_Vascular animals,\nConchozoa_.\n\nIf these cysts be repeated in the direction of the axis, the tegument\nbecomes an annulated skin. An annulose animal is a multiplied cystic\nanimal. Associated with this character, the respiratory organs\nare gradually evolved to form vascular plexuses, branchi\u00e6, feet,\ntrache\u00e6, and wings, while the sexual parts are for the most part\nseparated--_Ancyliozoa, Respiratory animals_.\n\n3093. The osseous system first appears in the Fishes, along with\nimperfect, mostly tendonless, and only white muscles, as also a\nmyelon that is only developed into a stunted encephalon, in which the\nbrain-organs of the Thricozoon are in great part wanting.\n\n3094. Typical, or true muscles, provided with tendons, and of a red\ncolour, are first exhibited in the Reptilia.\n\n3095. A complete nervous system, pretty similar to that of the\nThricozoa or Pilose animals, having a cerebrum and cerebellum, with\nsimilarly distributed and delicate nerves, is first displayed in Birds.\n\n3096. According to the anatomical systems there are, therefore, six\ndivisions of animals:\n\n  A. Splanchnozoa.\n      1. Intestinal animals    _Protozoa._\n      2. Vascular      \"       _Conchozoa._\n      3. Respiratory   \"       _Ancyliozoa._\n\n  B. Sarcozoa.\n      4. Osseous animals       _Pisces._\n      5. Muscular   \"          _Reptilia._\n      6. Nervose    \"          _Aves._\n\n3097. The Pilose animals first originate through completion and\ncombination of all the organs of sense. They are _\u00c6sthetic_ or\n_Sensorial_ animals.\n\n3098. The arrangement of animals, according to the organs of sense,\ncoincides consequently with that derived from the anatomical systems,\nand each animal division is therefore determined by two principal\norgans, by a vegetative and an animal. Every animal is at once a\nvegetable and animal body, the inferior kinds being partly so, but the\nhighest or the Pilose animals entirely so, or in every respect, i. e.\nin them are found all the anatomical systems, and all the sexual and\nsensorial organs.\n\n3099. The signification of animals is accordingly as follows:\n\n\nI. _Anatomical Systems._\n\n    A. _Vegetative Systems._\n\n  1. Intestinal animals.\n  2. Vascular    \"\n  3. Respiratory \"\n\n\n    B. _Animal Systems._\n\n  4. Osseous animals.\n  5. Muscular    \"\n  6. Nervose     \"\n  7. Sensorial   \"\n\n\nII. _Organs of Sense._\n\n    A. _Tegumental Sense._\n\n  1. Oozoa               _Protozoa._\n  2. Glandular animals   _Conchozoa._\n  3. Cutaneous    \"      _Ancyliozoa._\n\n    B. _Cephalic Senses._\n\n  4. Glossozoa           _Pisces._\n  5. Rhinozoa            _Reptilia._\n  6. Otozoa              _Aves._\n  7. Ophthalmozoa        _Thricozoa._\n\nThe ovum divides into vitellus, and albumen, along with the calcareous\nshell, and into germ or envelopes; the intestine into pharynx or\nstomach, bowels and absorbent vessels, thus:\n\n  1. Gastric animals       Vitelline animals       _Infusoria._\n  2. Intestinal \"          Albuminous   \"          _Polyps._\n  3. Absorbent  \"          Involucral   \"          _Acaleph\u00e6._\n\nThe sexual parts divide into female, male, and urinary organs; the\nvessels into veins, arteries, and hearts, thus:\n\n  1. Ovarial animals     Venous animals     _Mussels._\n  2. Orchitic   \"        Arterial  \"        _Snails_.\n  3. Renal      \"        Cardiac   \"        _Kracken._\n\nThe annulated tegument divides into papill\u00e6, feet, and wings; the\nrespiratory organs into tegumental network or rete, into branchi\u00e6 and\ntrache\u00e6, thus:\n\n  1. Papillary animals     Reticular animals     _Worms._\n  2. Pedal        \"        Branchial    \"        _Crabs._\n  3. Alary        \"        Tracheal     \"        _Flies._\n\nWhen parallelized with the organs of plants, the following remarkable\nrelationships between them are rendered apparent:\n\n   1. Cells    | Stomach    | Vitellus     _Infusoria._\n   2. Bark     | Intestine  | Albumen      _Polyps._\n   3. Root     | Absorbents | Envelopes    _Acaleph\u00e6._\n   4. Ducts    | Veins      | Ovary        _Mussels._\n   5. Liber    | Arteries   | Testes       _Snails._\n   6. Stalk    | Hearts     | Kidneys      _Kracken._\n   7. Trache\u00e6  | Retia      | Papill\u00e6      _Worms._\n   8. Wood     | Branchi\u00e6   | Feet         _Crabs._\n   9. Foliage  | Lungs      | Wings        _Flies._\n  10. Seeds    | Bones      | Tongue       _Fishes._\n  11. Pistil   | Muscles    | Nose         _Reptiles._\n  12. Corolla  | Nerves     | Ears         _Birds._\n  13. Fruit    | Senses     | Eyes         _Thricozoa._\n\n\nA. DIVISION INTO PROVINCES.\n\n3100. The animal body divides first of all into the vegetative and\nanimal. There will therefore be animals in which the former, and others\nin which the latter, systems predominate. The kingdom consequently\nseparates into a vegetative and into an animal province. The vegetative\nparts are all tegumental developments, and thus the creatures in whom\nthey prevail are _Splanchnic_ or _Visceral animals_, but the animal\nparts are developments of the flesh, and constitute the _Sarcose\nanimals_.\n\n\n_First Province. Splanchnozoa._\n\n3101. Unto the Splanchnic or Tegumental animals are wanting bones,\nmuscles with the nerves belonging to them, and thus the neural axis or\nencephalon; they are consequently devoid of bone, muscle, and brain,\nbeing in a word _asarcose_ or _fleshless_ animals.\n\nThe tegument is, however, the general organ of sensation or feeling;\nthey are thus _Sensitive animals_.\n\n3102. In them, developments only of the sense of feeling can occur,\nsuch as sensitive papill\u00e6, tentacula, feet, and wings. All the\nremaining organs of sense can only be exhibited as rudiments of a very\nfeeble or stunted character. They do not possess a true tongue, nose,\nears, and eyes, i. e. constructed after the type of these organs in\nMan. The eyes only, from their being the sense of the animal system\nproper, can assume a definite kind of development.\n\n3103. But, these organs of sense are the sensorial organs of the head,\nor rather are the head itself; the Tegumental animals are therefore\ndevoid of a true head. They only possess such an one, in so far as it\nis determined by the tegument and nervous sense, by the mouth and the\neyes.\n\nThese animals are what have been called _Invertebrata_, a name which\nis, however, defective, from its indicating the absence of one part\nonly or of a single animal system, while the word _flesh_ comprehends\nbones, muscles, and nervous mass; they are _asarcose animals_. But\neven this last appellation is not correct, because it is negative.\nTheir positive system, or that under which they actually exist, is the\ntegument; so that the name of Dermatozoa or Sensitive animals, is the\nonly proper one.\n\nAs the tegument includes the viscera and forms therefore the trunk\nalone, they may thus also be designated _Trunk-animals_.\n\n\n_Second Province. Sarcozoa._\n\n3104. As in the animal body, bones, muscles, and encephalic system are\nsuddenly associated with the tegumental system; so also does a second\nseries of animals, having these systems, suddenly originate. Now, as\nthe first formation of the osseous system is the vertebra, so all these\nanimals have, as is generally understood, a vertebral column, and are\non that account indeed Vertebrata; but, they are much more than this,\nand hence the title is of too limited a character. Besides there are\namong them animals, in which only the chorda dorsalis is present,\nwithout the ring of the vertebral body being formed around it.\n\nAlong with the animal systems the head is for the first time developed\nwith its organs of sense--_Cephalic animals_.\n\nThese animals have consequently, in addition to the general sense of\nfeeling, a true tongue, nose, ears, and eyes--_Cephal\u00e6sthetic animals_.\n\n\nB. ANIMAL CIRCLES.\n\n3105. Animal Circles are representations of entire anatomical systems\nas self-substantial bodies.\n\n3106. Now, the vegetative body divides into three principal systems,\ninto the Intestinal, Vascular, and Respiratory system, with their\nfunctions, or the digestive, nutritive, and respiratory processes.\nThere are therefore Intestinal, Vascular, and Respiratory animals.\n\n\n_Circle I. Intestinal Animals._\n\n3107. The intestinal system is the first form of body, or that from\nwhich the other systems have not yet separated. The body of these\nanimals consists therefore of the homogeneous primary mass--the animal\nprotoplasma, mucus or slime--_Mucus-animals_.\n\nNow, the protoplasma is a hollow globule. The intestinal system is\ntherefore nothing else than the original cystic form. Thus, there are\n_Cystic animals_ like the Infusoria.\n\nAgain, cysts can increase in no other way, than by dividing into\ntheir like, or engendering cysts within themselves. The first kind of\nincrease or multiplication of species is thus fissiparous, or produced\nby division.\n\nThe newly-engendered cysts are to be compared with the vitellus, and\nwhen they have attained perfection, to the ovum. They are therefore\nOozoa or _Ovum-animals_.\n\nIn these animals consequently there are no separated sexual parts,\nnamely, in addition to the vitelli, neither testes nor renal organs,\nor at least only obscure indications of them. In these Cystic animals\nthe lowest feeling only, that of the _sex_ or _general sensation_, can\noccur.\n\nThe Oozoa or Cystic animals, when compared with the plants, are the\nfirst flower that has been set free, or in other words, a flower which\nno longer stands polarwise upon a stem, because it is not developed in\nthe differencing air, but in the indifferent water. It may be said that\nnature, having brought matters as far as the development of the sexual\nparts, then quits or passes out of the vegetable world; while these\nparts, or even the entire plant, requiring now no longer the stem and\nroot, become a root themselves, and in behalf of this enter the water.\n\nAnimals, which have the form of flowers, are round or radiiform. There\nare _Radiata_ or Radiated animals.\n\n3108. These _Anthoidal_ or Flower-like animals are Infusoria, Polyps,\nAcaleph\u00e6; being single or double concentric cysts.\n\n3109. We may regard the Flower-animals as the fundamental mass of\nthe sexual parts, which has attained unto free motion. They are sex\nthroughout, or nothing but sex; it cannot therefore be said that they\npossess sexual parts like the plants, but that they are sexual parts.\nThey are sexual parts that swim.\n\n3110. Formerly, most of these Anthoidal animals were actually taken\nfor real plants, on account of their floral and ramular form, and even\ntheir very substance; so slightly withdrawn are they from the vegetable\nkingdom. The whole difference between the two is effected by the water.\nCould we transpose them into the air, they would then become real\nplants.\n\n3111. Now, as the vegetable flower is not a mere sexual system, but\nis also stock or trunk; so also is the animal flower at once an organ\nof digestion, respiration, and nutrition. The lowest condition of\nthese organs is, however, only one of absorption, evaporation, and\nrigidification; these processes will therefore be present also, though\nonly upon the lower stage--they are Intestinal animals; for in a simple\nintestine the same processes could occur, only within each other,\nwhereas they are mutually dissevered or set apart in intestine, lung,\nand capillary system or parenchyma.\n\n3112. The sexual parts are themselves viscera, or the viscera\nthemselves are sexual parts, just as the fungus is at one and the\nsame time root and seed-capsule. The sexual parts themselves absorb,\nrespire, and nourish.\n\nThe floral sac is not therefore a mere sexual sac, but also an\nabsorbent sac; upon a somewhat higher grade it is even a digestive sac,\nthe sac-wall itself being a respiratory and nutritive paries or wall.\n\nThe sexual function has at once become an ingestive function, tending\nunto nutrition, or the deglutition of the food is itself an act of\ncopulation.\n\nThe sexual capsule in these animal flowers can as well be termed\nstomach as uterus, and its wall ovary as well as branchia.\n\n3113. As being of a sentient, mucous nature, they are point-substance\nor nervous mass. The tentacula are higher organized stamina, and thus\noccur as cilia, surrounding the oral aperture or mouth, as in the\nInfusoria. These palpi or feelers are, from being organs of ingestion,\nboth male penes as well as digits or tongues, as in the Polyps. Their\nstructure is still wholly tubular, while their elongation appears\nto be for the most part effected by injection with water--they\nare absorbents, as in the Acaleph\u00e6. The Oozoon brings forth young\nin the same cavity, in which it digests and by which it respires,\nand impregnates itself with the same filaments, whereby it seizes,\nswallows, and tastes its food.\n\nIn the bottom of the cavity of the Germ-animals, granules develop,\nwhich are born or escape through the floral opening--pharynx, and\nagain become similar beings. In others the granules also sprout forth\nattached to the walls of the cavity, remain there some time united\nwith the parent animal, and thus completely represent the mode of\npropagation in plants by means of gemmules or buds. Among the Polyps\nand Acaleph\u00e6 it is well known that the ova issue from apertures near\nthe mouth; while in the Actini\u00e6 this is stated to take place from the\nstomach. The ovaria are, as is well known, situated between the stomach\nand parietes of the body.\n\n3114. The intestinal animals are an entire animal organism, but only in\nthe chaotic condition. They are the fundamental tissue, the cellular\nsystem of the animal, and the higher animals are only separated cells.\n\n3115. The propagation is in every respect similar to that of plants.\nNow, as the seeds are the whole plant upon a small scale, so is the\ngranule or ovum the entire animal; it is liberated through the pharynx\nand continues to grow merely by increasing in size. But if the young\nanimal protrude through the tegument, that is a true gemmiparous\npropagation.\n\n3116. Those Oozoa, which like plants can develop buds, consist of\nseveral animals, and may be cut in pieces like plants; when each piece\nbecomes again an entire animal.\n\n3117. The Oozoa represent those products of nature which are prior\nor antecedent to the animal world; namely, first of all plants, and\nfurther still the inorganic kingdom also, or the earth, since they have\noriginated in the water and can be as well developed from the stones\nas the Lichens. There are therefore Lithozoa or Stone-animals, and\nPhytozoa or Plant-animals, among the Oozoa.\n\n3118. Would we compare these animals with the parts in plants, they\nthen represent their cell-development, or cells, bark and root. They\nare themselves either vesicles, as the Infusoria, or barks, as the\nCorallines, or a root-like fascicle of tubes, as the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n3119. In the animals, however, the cells have become stomach, the bark\nintestine, the root absorbents. The Oozoa represent therefore the\naggregate of the intestinal system, the primary mass of the animal body.\n\nTheir whole body is a digestive body, or parenchyma, traversed in many\nspecies in all directions by tubes or absorbents, as in the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\nAs yet no nervous filament, nor any muscular fibre, &c. has been\nseparated from their mass, as in like manner a tegument has barely been\nfreed or separated from the intestine. These animals are nerveless and\nsine-tegumental, precisely because they are wholly made up of nervous\nmass and tegument.\n\n\n_Circle II. Vascular Animals._\n\n3120. In the next place the digestive separates completely from the\ntegumental function, and each constitutes a function for itself, but\nwhich now being separated from its fellow could no longer subsist.\nBetween the two therefore is formed the nutritive function in the\n_vascular system_.\n\nNow, the vascular system of the self-substantial intestine is the\nliver. This organ will therefore for the first time make its appearance\nin this animal circle--_Hepatic animals_. Upon a higher stage, salivary\nglands are also developed on the intestine, and will here likewise\nbegin for the first time to appear--_Salivary animals, Snails_.\n\n3121. Through the separation of the viscera from the remaining\nsubstance, this must necessarily remain behind as a hollow cyst or\ntegument investing the former. The true free tegumental formation is\ntherefore by no means accidental, but is necessarily bestowed with\nthe viscera in the course of animal development. This tegument is\n_peritoneum_. There are animals which are invariably bicystic, but\nconsisting of concentric cysts--_abdomens_.\n\nAround the ventral integument, however, the vascular system also forms\nits tunic; this is the branchial membrane or operculum--_pleura_,\nmantle. There are tri-cystic animals--intestine, abdomen, and thorax\ndisposed concentrically around each other--Mussels. Their body is\ntherefore not articulated, but its parts are still inserted within each\nother.\n\nThe Vascular animals are consequently multiplied Protozoa; or\nMucus-animals of the second power--_Ovum_\u00b2.\n\nThe sense of feeling ascends upon its second stage, when its organ,\nhaving been freed from the mass of the body, surrounds the viscera\nas a self-substantial tegument. The feeling is then no longer one of\na merely general character, but is a definite perception of external\nobjects, a passive power of feeling.\n\n3122. True muscles could not as yet originate in this skin, and that\nfor obvious reasons, although fibres are present; for the former are to\nbe brought under the signification of arterial fibres.\n\n3123. Cilia, when furnished with fibres by whose agency they are\nrendered moveable and susceptible of inversion, are called _tentacula_,\nwhich here occur under every variety of form.\n\n3124. Would we compare the Vascular animals with the plants, they\nmust then represent their ducts, liber, and stalk. The heart is the\nstalk, the arteries liber, the veins tubes or ducts. These animals have\nassumed also upon the whole the cauline or cylindrical form--Cauline\nanimals.\n\n3125. From their having obtained in addition to the intestine only\nthe vascular system, they are still governed by the water, and live\ntherefore for the greatest part in this element. They have the first\nmode of respiration and thus an aqueo-respiratory process--possess\nbranchi\u00e6 but not tracheal tubes.\n\n3126. The sexual parts, which in the Germ-animals were still coalesced\nfor the most part with the body, here become self-substantial through\nthe separation of the teguments, make their appearance as a repetition\nof the digestive system under the condition of a free or separate\nsystem, and are evolved into true ovaria and even male parts--_Sexual,\nGlandular animals_.\n\n3127. The first step towards the evolution of male parts is, however,\nonly half achieved. Only one testis originates, while the other remains\nbehind as ovarium--_Androgynous_ or _Bisexual animals_.\n\n3128. These animals, which are characterized by the vascular system,\nand by the first self-substantial or external sexual parts, which\nindicate organs of sense, are the _Conchozoa_, such as the Mussels,\nSnails, and Kracken.\n\n\n_Circle III. Respiratory Animals._\n\n3129. When once the intestinal and vascular system, through perfection\nof their individual parts, such as the liver and branchia, and\nthrough separation of the sexual parts, are completed; then the\nindividualization of the tegument steps into view, and it becomes an\nindependent _respiratory system_.\n\n3130. Through the increased process of oxydation the tegument hardens\nand is converted into _horn_. All induration, however, only takes place\nin opposition to soft places. The tegument therefore separates into\nhard and soft rings--_Annulate animals_.\n\n3131. The annulate tegument is a tracheal tube wholly converted into\na body. To distinguish it from the general tegument it may be called\nthe cutis or _skin_--_Cutaneous animals_. The annular tegument may\nbe regarded as a series of cysts placed one behind the other. The\nAnnulate animals are therefore multiplied Malacozoa; Mucus-animals of\nthe third power--_Ovum_\u00b3.\n\nThe respiratory organs, being in their lowest condition, will not as\nyet be freed from the tegument; the vessels simply form a network\nor projecting filaments and lamell\u00e6--_reticular branchi\u00e6_; as in\nthe _Worms_. The tentacular organs, from being yet soft and thus\nscarcely moveable, are still very imperfect. Upon the lowest stage\nthe tegument or _skin_ simply feels; in the next place papill\u00e6, and\nfinally filaments, originate, especially about the mouth--_Cutaneous_,\n_Papillary_ and _Filamentary animals_.\n\n3132. If the tegument, as being the original branchial membrane, is\nconverted into horn; then the branchi\u00e6 cannot continue as retia, but\nmust elongate above the tegument into filaments, ramules or lamell\u00e6.\n\nWith this, these elongated branchi\u00e6 separate into two organs, one part\nof them becoming indurated in like manner with the general tegument,\nand supporting the other as gill. Horny branchial filaments, which\ncontain vessels, nerves, and fibres, are called _feet--Pedal animals_.\n\n3133. The limbs or members of these animals are simply hollow tegument,\nhollow hair, and are therefore thoroughly different from the bones or\nthe animal system.\n\nThe tegument thus hardens around the soft parts and the viscera.\nA horny coat of mail originates, and thus we have horny or mailed\nanimals, in opposition to the Malaco-or Conchozoa.\n\n3134. Beneath the horn, however, there must still be soft skin, and\nthis becomes fibrous by the strong oxydation which it undergoes.\nFibrous fascicles are attached to the coat of mail and to the hollow\nlimbs, and are consequently within the tubes.\n\n3135. These fibrous bundles are not flesh, but a fibre-drawn\n_tegument_, so that there are also no true muscles. They must on that\naccount too be numberless.\n\n3136. The articulations or joints are external not internal; they thus\nconsist of tegumental tubes, not of bones, abutting against each other,\nand are not surrounded by flesh. Hence, like all the preceding groups\nthey also are devoid of flesh--asarcose animals like all the preceding\nones.\n\n3137. In the branchi\u00e6, however, it is only the cauline portions which\nbecome horny, while their ramules continue to perform the respiratory\nfunction. The branchi\u00e6 therefore are appended to the extremity or roots\nof the feet; or rather these latter form the branchial arches.\n\nAnnulate animals, having true or hornified and likewise annulated feet,\nare called Crustacea or _Crabs_.\n\nThus, in these animals the sense of feeling obtains special and\nmoveable organs; they are _Tactile animals_.\n\nTactile organs are prolongations of tegument moved by muscular fibres,\nwhich in some degree adapt themselves by pressure unto the forms of\nobjects, or have the power of seizing and retaining them--such as feet,\nantenn\u00e6, maxill\u00e6, palpi.\n\n3138. But if the tegument be entirely converted into horn, and the\nrespiratory vessels have in this way disappeared within it, then the\ninternal respiratory organs are formed by inversion of that part of the\ntegument which is between the rings, and through these openings the air\npenetrates to the internal parts--stigmata, trache\u00e6.\n\n3139. The trache\u00e6 can first of all originate when the respiratory\nprocess has attained its highest development, or, in other words, when\nthe creature breathes air.\n\n3140. Lastly, in the air-breathing Ancyliozoa even the external\nbranchial lamell\u00e6 harden and are converted into _wings_--_Pterozoa_,\n_Insects_ or _Flies_.\n\nThe wings of Insects do not correspond to the wings of birds; they are\nnot feet, but pedal appendages or _branchi\u00e6_, and thus are no new or\nunknown organ.\n\n\n_Circle IV. Sarcose Animals._\n\n3141. The second animal province may be regarded as the fourth stage in\nthe self-substantial development of the anatomical systems, although,\nproperly speaking, it ranks as regards its value or worth upon a level\nwith the three former circles, and resolves itself directly into three\nstages, which accord with its three systems. But since these stages\nare at the same time also classes; they should, for uniformity's sake,\nretain the latter name.\n\n3142. The animal kingdom accordingly divides into _four_ great\ndistricts or circles.\n\n  CIRCLE I. _Intestinal Animals_,  Oozoa--Protozoa.\n        II. _Vascular_      \"      Sexual animals--Conchozoa.\n       III. _Respiratory_   \"      Cutaneous  \"  --Ancyliozoa.\n        IV. _Sarcose_       \"      Cephalic   \"  --Vertebrata.\n\n\nC. ANIMAL CLASSES.\n\n3143. The animal Classes may be designated as the self-substantial\nrepresentation of a stage in the development of an anatomical system\nor of the inferior organ of sense, and in the Sarcose animals of these\nsystems themselves or of the cephalic senses.\n\n3144. There are then as many classes as there are stages of development\nor systems. Thus the intestinal system separates into pharynx or\nstomach, intestine and absorbents.\n\n3145. The vascular system into veins, arteries, and hearts.\n\n3146. The respiratory system into branchial membrane or skin, into\nbranchi\u00e6, and into lungs or trache\u00e6, i. e. air-tubes. Taken in a strict\nsense, such divisions do not constitute classes, as has been already\nremarked.\n\n3147. It is only the animal systems, which do not divide into several\nfunctions, but remaining upon a level with each other, are simply\nrepeated in the higher organs of sense.\n\n\n_First Province. Splanchnozoa, Dermatozoa._\n\nFIRST CIRCLE. INTESTINAL ANIMALS, OOZOA.\n\n3148. The intestinal animals are nothing but depressed cysts. They rank\ntherefore upon the lowest stage of development, and consist of mucus or\ngranular nervous mass--_Protozoa, Gelatinose animals_.\n\n3149. It is an established fact that, with animals as well as\nplants, the first function consists in imbibition or absorption,\nand the body must consequently be an absorbent cyst or a pharynx,\nwhich nevertheless takes up the food in the same way that the\ntegumental lymphatic vessels absorb. We can therefore style these\nanimals pharyngeal or gastric, although the name is not perfectly\ncorrect--_Infusoria_. Then the intestine associates with the pharynx or\nstomach, so that they are Intestinal animals--_Polyps_ or _Corals_.\n\nLastly the intestine sends out absorbents, and then the animal consists\nof pharynx or stomach, intestine and absorbents; such may be termed an\nAbsorbent animal--_Acaleph\u00e6_.\n\nThe Intestinal animals therefore divide according to the developmental\nstages into three Classes.\n\n\n_Class 1. Gastric, Vitelline Animals._\n\n3150. The lowest animals commence with the water, which has scarcely\nbecome mucus; they are nothing but drops, vesicles, which swim about\nindependently--_Protozoa_ or _Primitive animals_.\n\n3151. The Protozoa correspond to the vitellus or the male semen, which\nis nothing but vitellus in a state of solution. They are the animal\nsemen of the planet, the animal dissolved. Animal generation cannot\ntake a deeper commencement or origin. The stone, which is decomposed\ninto carbon mixed with water, can become nothing less than a point.\nThey are the animal germinal powder. The fungus is a tissue of\nvesicles, which dissolves directly into seeds--fungus-powder or dust.\nThus, they are ovaria or testes which have dissolved into seed, fluid\ntestes--_Vitelline, Seminal animals_.\n\n3152. The vitellus or semen is point-or nerve-mass dissolved. The\nVitelline animals are sentient or nerve-points, which have combined all\nother processes in this identical mass. The divided point-mass ranks,\nhowever, in the signification of vesicular or cellular tissue. These\nanimals are nervose cells.\n\n3153. Nerve-cells must originate in every water, because every water\nis in a state of tension with the earth and the air; thus, dissolves\nthe former and absorbs the latter. The water itself is a digesting and\nrespiring mucus.\n\n3154. The nerve-cells have an internal cavity, from the surface\nbecoming oxydized and consequently converting itself into a denser\nlayer, or into tegument. This, however, can only take place at the\nexpense of the internal mass, as being that alone which abuts against\nthe external parietes and becomes rigid.\n\n3155. As the animal life is not simply a single act of rigidification,\nbut a repetition of the same, alternating with solution, so must the\nProtozoon again replace the mucus-granules which have been disposed of\nfrom its interior; it must eat.\n\n3156. It is a matter of indifference for the philosophy, whether the\nreception of food is effected by one or several mouths. There are\nAcaleph\u00e6 and even Intestinal worms (Entozoa), which absorb by several\nmouths, almost like plants.\n\n3157. But in the animal the mouth or mouths is or are definite organic\nopenings, not merely interspaces or pores as in the plants; for they\nrank in the signification of the blossoms, or of composite parts.\n\n3158. It can be therefore said that every animal hath a mouth or\nmouths, and consequently a stomach or stomachs.\n\n3159. Their motions consist in abbreviations or straitenings of the\ncyst. Indications can scarcely be present of the secretions of higher\norgans, such as the intestine, vessel, branchi\u00e6, liver, and such like\nparts.\n\n3160. On the contrary, developments of the tegument and nerves may\noccur, the former as cilia which serve also as organs of motion and as\nbranchi\u00e6, the latter as ocular points or rudimental eyes; for both are\nnone other than nervose tegument. The mouth of these animals is still\npassive, and subordinated to the water. It is surrounded only by cilia,\nwhich by the vortices produced by their movements in the water, impel\nor draw the latter into the mouth and with it the food. Such animals\nare called _Infusoria_.\n\n3161. As the Infusoria are the seed or vitellus itself, so also\nare they the very ovum, and require no special sexual parts for\npropagation. They absorb, and are so nourished, and if there is a\nsufficient quantity of the mass to admit again of its division into\nseveral points, they thus divide. A magnified Infusorial animalcule has\nbecome, as it were, an ovarium or a testis, which then produces seed by\ndissolving itself into the latter. They are a constant conflict of the\norgan and its product, of the Solid and Fluid, a vitelline and orchitic\nprocess.\n\n\n_Class 2. Intestinal, Albuminous Animals._\n\n3162. With the separation of the cyst into an internal and external\nlayer, or into intestine and tegument, the animal must necessarily\nascend a stage higher, since it now contains two systems different from\neach other, and is consequently a double Infusorium.\n\n3163. The form of the _Intestinal animals_ passes gradually from that\nof the globe into the tube--Tubular animals.\n\n3164. They are tubular nerves surrounded by a tegument.\n\nThe cilia also are perfected and lengthen into filaments, which no\nlonger perform simply vortical movements, but now actually seize and\nconvey the food self-substantially into the mouth. Such animals are\ncalled _Polyps_. Their multiplication takes place no longer by division\nor fissure, but by ova and shoots, or ramification.\n\nThe oviducts or egg-tubes lie between the intestine and tegument,\nand open upon the margin of the mouth between the tentacula. In many\ninstances the ovisacs, or cysts, hang also freely from other parts of\nthe body, as in the Sertulari\u00e6.\n\nThe sprouts or offshoots detach themselves from the parent and become\nindependent animals; but they frequently continue to stand as ramules\nupon the maternal animal, though they nourish themselves independently\nof the latter.\n\n3165. If the process of oxydation be augmented, then, the tube's\nexternal wall indurates, becomes coriaceous, and, lastly, ceratoid or\nhorn-like in texture. The nerve-tubes or the animal proper can now\nswim no longer, since one kind only of motion is left it, namely, to\nprotrude itself out of, and then retract itself within, the tube. It\nconsequently falls to the ground, and while the external mucus hardens,\nit clings to the former; such are the Sessile or fixed Polyps.\n\n3166. Sessile Polyps having coriaceous or horny tubes are called\n_Plant-animals_, Zoophyta, Phytozoa.\n\n3167. The adherent, dried and dead external tegument of the Polyp is\ncalled _stem_. Such a ramified stem completely resembles a plant.\n\n3168. These woody or herbaceous stems are not rooted in the earth, but\nhave the power of adhering firmly to every substance, to stone, glass,\nshells, and such like bodies. They do not therefore draw in nourishment\nthrough any root.\n\n3169. The ramification is often wholly plant-like in character,\nresembling that of a shrub with separate ramules, which even assume too\nthe form of leaves, and the animal tubes that of flowers.\n\nBut frequently the ramules grow together also by their extremities,\ngiving rise to a trellis-work, the production of which in plants is\nimpossible. The soft animalcules, which come in contact, cleave unto\neach other, and grow together like wounded parts in the Sarcose animals.\n\n3170. Upon the surface of the ramules or the leaves are apertures, out\nof which the mucous substance protrudes the radiated mouth. But these\nmouths are frequently, especially in the Cystic corallines, of two\ndifferent modes of formation. The one kind are cysts without filaments,\nand contain ova, which are developed and fall out. The others have\nfilaments, which move and do not produce ova. The former look like\nseed-capsules, the latter like flowers with stamina, while the entire\ntrunk resembles a monoecious plant.\n\n3171. With increased oxydation calcareous earth is deposited in\nthe external tegument or rind, and the stem is converted into\nstone--_Lithozoa_, Lithophyta, _Corals_.\n\nThis calcareous earth contains the most general acid, or the carbonic,\nand thus oxygen combined with the inorganic carbon, while the bones\ncontain phosphoric acid, oxydized gelatine.\n\n3172. As the calcareous earth is, properly speaking, only a granular\ndeposit in the tegument, like it is in the cartilages of the higher\nanimals; so is it not to be regarded as a free worm-tube, but as the\nbody itself. Meanwhile it forms a tube open above, from which the mouth\nof the animal projects.\n\n3173. As the animal ramifies, so also do the stony tubes increase, and\nthere originates a phytoidal or plant-like stem, but one consisting of\na stony mass.\n\n3174. Thus the Coral is the earth-animal, and indicates the globular or\nosseous mass under its first grade of formation in the animal kingdom.\n\nBut there are also Polyps, whose stem only originates through saccular\ninversion of the upper portion of the animal's body; yet this is only\ndistinct in the soft stems. In most of the species, where a separate\nintestine is to be found, it is probably only the upper part of the\nbody which is so inverted. Meanwhile there are some, whose intestine\nforms a circle by returning upon itself, and opens into an anus.\n\n3175. If then the Infusoria are the vitellus or seed of the animal\nkingdom; in like manner the Corals are its ova. The carbonate of lime\nis the shell surrounding the albumen, while the animal or intestine is\nthe vitellus--_Albumen-animals_.\n\n3176. Nature forms these living ova, when she takes vitellus and\nalbumen out of the sea-slime, invests them with a shell derived from\nthe earth, and hatches them, after they have been vivified by sun and\nair.\n\n\n_Class 3. Absorbent, Involucral Animals._\n\n3177. Did the former animals remain in the condition of ova, from want\nof a perfect vascular system; they are next developed, so soon as\nvessels appear and form a vascular plexus, into foetal involucra or\nenvelopes. These animals are vitellus with the vascular membrane.\n\n3178. The Absorbent animals are no longer simple vesicles, but large\ncysts or capsules like the developmental envelopes of the foetus,\nalong with a choroid plexus--_Involucral, Foetal-animals_.\n\nThis choroid plexus does not, however, consist of arteries and veins;\nbut is only a ramification of the intestine, so that the vessels are of\na lacteal character--_Absorbent animals_.\n\n3179. In these animals there is no longer any egg-shell, but everything\nhas been taken up into the galvanic circle; the shell has itself become\norganic and life-imbued. Their substance is still mucous or albuminous;\nthey are still vitellus, though converted into a vascular tissue.\n\n3180. They therefore cling firmly nowhere; but swim about freely, like\nbrain-masses converted into radiated cysts.\n\n3181. Free Mucus-animals, traversed by vascular plexuses, are\n_Acaleph\u00e6_.\n\n3182. There are Acaleph\u00e6 which are simply air-sacs, like the air-sacs\nof ova, to which hang ramified vessels as absorbent tubes--Cystic,\nTubular Acaleph\u00e6.\n\nOthers represent hemispheres with numerous absorbent tubes, which\nconcur in the middle of the animal to form a kind of stomach, from\nwhich again other tubes pass towards the border, in order to elongate\ninto tentacula. Thus the absorbent vessels have become motor and\nsensitive organs.\n\nBesides this, many have around the mouth four large lobes, which\nmust be viewed as the antetypes of the sentient lobes of the Bivalve\nMollusca.\n\nLastly, others have a true mouth, which leads to a similar gastric\ncavity, out of which the same vessels emerge and ramify. Both kinds are\ncalled Hutquallen or Acaleph\u00e6.\n\nThere are yet others having the same structure, but oviform, with\nrespiratory lamell\u00e6 upon the absorbent tubes, Rippenquallen or Beroes.\n\n3183. An Acalephan is a brood-egg, which swims freely about without a\nshell.\n\n3184. The vessels are quaternary in their distribution, and form a\ncross, like the involucral vessels of the chick.\n\n3185. In these animals the ova first begin to be detached and\nagglomerated together in definite situations so as to constitute\novaria. The number here is also four.\n\nThey lie usually within four cavities surrounding the stomach, and into\nthese wide apertures situated near to the mouth lead; they are at the\nsame time regarded as respiratory cavities.\n\nIn other species vesicles, wherein seminal animalcules are developed,\noccupy the same situation. Here therefore is recognised for the first\ntime a separated sex.\n\nIn the R\u00f6hrenquallen or Physali\u00e6 the ovisacs mostly depend externally\nin the form of bells.\n\nBesides this we find in the Acaleph\u00e6 all sorts of lamin\u00e6, which are\nprobably organs of respiration.\n\nIt is not known what is the meaning of the air-sacs and of what the air\nconsists.\n\nMost of the species emit light like globes of fire, just as many\nInfusoria do also. It is probably a phosphorescence given out by the\nmucus when passing over into a state of decomposition.\n\nVery many have also the stinging property of the nettle; but, whether\nthe cause of this is chemical or mechanical, is not yet exactly known.\n\n\nSECOND CIRCLE. VASCULAR, SEXUAL ANIMALS.\n\n3186. So far, or in the ascending scale up to the Acaleph\u00e6, the animal\nis only viscus with an absorbent canal, which is at the same time a\ncanal of evacuation, without a distinct intestine being set apart for\nthat purpose; such is the general rule.\n\n3187. After the Acaleph\u00e6 the formation undergoes a change; the\ndistinction between the exterior and interior is prominently displayed,\nand the internal wall becomes freed as a separate and perfect\nintestine along with a mouth and anus; the external wall appears as\na free tegument. But, seeing that two concentric and separated cysts\ncould not subsist without combination by means of the nutritive system\nor the vessels; a perfect vascular system is formed, divided into\nveins, arteries, and hearts.\n\nThe tegument, wherein the vessels become self-substantial, is the\nbranchial membrane. There is therefore placed around the intestinal\nbody a vascular body also, or branchial membrane, which is consequently\npleura or mantle (pallium), as in the Mussels. The body of the\nintestine consists of intestine and peritoneum; that of the vessels of\nbranchi\u00e6 and pleura or mantle.\n\nThese animals are hence bisystemic, being both Intestinal and Vascular\nanimals; but, since the vascular system is a new addition, it is thus\ncharacteristic of the circle, and its members must be therefore called\n_Vascular animals_. With the vascular system, however, all its further\ndevelopments have been bestowed; thus especially the complication of\nthe vessels with the intestinal ramifications or, in other words,\nthe liver--_Hepatic animals_. The salivary glands also are a similar\ncomplication, and in this series therefore they make their appearance.\n\nLastly, the renal glands are such a kind of vascular organ, or branchi\u00e6\nof the sexual parts; they also begin to be astir in this series.\n\nWith the separation of the systems into separate teguments or\nmembranes, the sexual parts also separate. The ovarium becomes an\nindependent organ furnished with its own excretory ducts; the male\nparts are individualized to form veritable testes furnished with\nexcretory ducts, or even with a penis. Still this is all effected only\nby degrees, or as yet within the confines of this circle.\n\nThese animals divide according to the viscera into Venous, Arterial,\nand Cardiac animals; according to the sexual parts, into Ovarial,\nOrchitic, and Renal animals.\n\n\n_Class 4. Venous, Ovarial Animals._\n\n3188. With the protrusion into view of the vascular system, the veins\nare chiefly developed along with their principal organ, the liver, as\nbeing the bond of union between the circulation and the intestine.\n\n3189. The animals, which first bring to bear in addition to the\nintestine a liver, are the Bivalve Mollusca.\n\n3190. With the veins arteries also originate, but with a preponderance\nof venosity or the venous character. The blood is lymphatic, colourless.\n\n3191. The cardinal venous organ or the liver evokes also into existence\na corresponding organ of respiration, namely, free branchi\u00e6 with the\ntegumental form--branchial lamin\u00e6 or leaves.\n\n3192. In the middle between the branchial lamin\u00e6 and the liver, the\nheart is evolved; this organ comprising always a ventricle with an\nauricle, but consisting of a venous, membranous tissue almost devoid of\nfibres.\n\n3193. The first heart is in other respects arteriose; it receives the\nblood from the branchi\u00e6 and transmits it to the liver as well as to the\nremaining parts of the body, from which it proceeds directly to the\nbranchi\u00e6 without entering any venous or right heart.\n\n3194. In these animals, as is well known, four branchial leaves lie\nexternally on the belly, which includes the intestine with a large\nliver, and hangs together with the branchi\u00e6 as a separate purse within\nthe mantle.\n\n3195. In the Mussel a structure originates for the first time, which\ncan be compared with a thoracic or pectoral cavity. What covers the\nbranchi\u00e6, must stand in the signification of the thorax or chest. The\npallium or mantle of the Mussels is pleura.\n\n3196. Their shells are branchial opercula (as in the Fishes). They are\nsecretions from the mantle, and everywhere accompany the branchi\u00e6.\n\n3197. The locket or hinge of the shell-valves corresponds to the\nrachis or spina dorsi, as is especially distinct in the Teredines or\n\"ship-worms.\"\n\nThe shells of Bivalve Mollusca are a calcareo-thoracic box, open in\nfront, inverted behind, and moveable like ribs.\n\n3198. The two sphincter or occlusor muscles signify shoulder and haunch.\n\n3199. These animals begin for the first time to exhibit bilaterality\nor symmetry, because in them there is stirring the idea of the osseous\nformation. From the branchi\u00e6 being situated symmetrically upon both\nsides, the cardiac chambers are also symmetrical.\n\n3200. The pectoral tunic (mantle) usually elongates at the anal\nextremity into two tubes, respiratory tubes, through which the water is\ndrawn in and thrust out or expelled. Such is the case in the highest\nWorms or Holothuri\u00e6, only there the respiratory tube leads into the\nbody itself. A similar arrangement is found in the Echini. Many aquatic\nlarv\u00e6 from all kinds of Insects or out of different classes breathe\nthrough anal tubes. All these animals consequently repeat the Mussels,\nand this formation admits of being followed out up to Man, where it\nis left as allantois and primordial kidneys. The thorax of the Mussel\nthus opens by the anus. But, since the thorax is that which is here\npreponderating and is nearly the whole animal, so does the anus open\ninto the posterior respiratory tube.\n\n3201. The Mussel can be regarded as an animal consisting of three\ncysts or sacs inclosed within each other, namely, of intestine, around\nthis the ventral pouch, and around this again the thoracic sac or\nmantle. If, moreover, the shells be regarded as a cyst, the animal then\nconsists of four sacs. The heart and branchi\u00e6 lie within the thoracic\ncavity; intestine, liver, and ovarium within the abdominal or ventral\ncavity. The Mussel is thus a doubled Acalephan.\n\nWhat is termed foot in the Bivalve Mollusca is nothing else than the\nabdominal tegument dilated in front to form a muscular ridge.\n\n3202. The Mussels are embryos, in whom the liver originates, and\nwhose chorion acquires a placenta. Then again, as the embryo is\nnearly all liver, and hangs surrounded by a watery fluid within the\nwidely-expanded chorion and amnion, so does the abdominal pouch hang\nwithin the pallial cavity, or in the wide, water-full chest.\n\n3203. In the abdomen there is still only the ovarium, and that indeed\nvery large. There are properly two ovaria, each of which, according to\nmy observations (vid. G\u00f6ttinger Gelehrte Anzeigen, 1806. St\u00fcck 148),\nopens laterally under the shoulder-muscle and gives exit to the ova,\nwhich then enter within or between the branchial fringes, in order to\nbe there developed.\n\n3204. Here the respiratory organs are still at the same time a kind\nof uterus. The ova may be oxydized therein, like the embryo is in the\nuterus. These branchi\u00e6 are probably still to be compared with, or\ndesignated as, sexual branchi\u00e6.\n\n3205. In the back of the shoulder these animals have a highly vascular\norgan with two excretory passages, which open near to the orifices\nof the oviducts. I formerly regarded it as a kidney, but, according\nto more recent observations, it should be a testis. In the anterior\npart of the foot there is frequently situated a gland which ejects\na gelatinoid moisture, which hardens into glutinous filaments--the\nbyssus or beard. It is probably a memento of the tentacula of the\nAcaleph\u00e6. There is besides also an organ in the feet of many Bivalve\nMollusca, which occasionally squirts a watery juice out to a great\ndistance. I have occasionally found this organ in our Teichmuschel. Its\nsignification is probably the same as that of the preceding organ.\n\n3206. The organization of the Bivalve Mollusc can be thus most\ndistinctly described; it is an abdomen, wherein is an intestine with\nmouth and anus, a liver and a double ovarium; upon the sides of this\nabdomen are situated the branchi\u00e6 in the form of four lamin\u00e6; around\nthe branchi\u00e6 and the abdomen is the pleura or mantle, which is always\nopen posteriorly.\n\n3207. The mouth is placed directly at the anterior extremity of the\nabdomen, is devoid of neck and head, as also salivary glands; it\nis consequently not a true mouth, but only a pharyngeal aperture.\nThereupon, however, are situated four sensitive lobes, which are in\nstructure exactly like the branchi\u00e6--cephalic or pharyngeal branchi\u00e6.\nThey are the further formations of the four arms of the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n3208. The Mussel has a perfect splanchno-neural system with ganglia and\na pharyngeal ring, which probably corresponds to the nerves that sweep\naround it.\n\n3209. The Mussel has no other organ of sense than that of the passive\nsense of feeling, the tegument. It cannot once move its sensitive lobes\nvoluntarily; it has no lips.\n\n3210. The abdomen only elongates in most of them to form a moveable,\nvariously constructed foot or _keel_, which cannot, however, creep\nbut only push. The progression of the Bivalve Mollusca is backwards,\nas in the Acaleph\u00e6. In the Snails the ventral surface first becomes a\ncreeping _sole_.\n\n3211. The Mussels repeat the Infusoria; are Infusoria with a bivalve\ncalcareous testa or shell.\n\n\n_Class 5. Arterial, Orchitic Animals._\n\n3212. In the preceding class of Bivalve Mollusca, it is in truth the\nabdominal viscera only, such as the intestine, liver and ovarium, which\nhave been perfected; and then the veins and arteries with a membranous\nheart. The cephalic organs, eyes, maxill\u00e6, salivary glands, and even\nmoveable lips with tentacula, are wanting, as well as the muscular\nheart. Lastly, the arterial sexual system or a self-substantial testis\nand the penis were absent.\n\nNow, bivalve Mollusca, which have eyes, maxill\u00e6, a muscular heart and a\nventral sole or foot, with salivary glands and a penis, are Gasteropoda\nor _Snails_.\n\n3213. The Snails possess salivary glands, a trace of the tongue and of\nmaxill\u00e6, moveable lips and tentacula, with thus an approximation to the\nhead, unto which the eyes are rarely wanting--Salivary animals.\n\n3214. With the development of the head or rather of its inferior\norgans of sense, the antagonism makes its appearance also in the\novarium. A half of the ovarium is converted into the testis.\n\nThe Snail is therefore a Mollusc, which is female upon one side, male\nupon the other.\n\n3215. The androgynous or bisexual animal is, as a general rule,\nasymmetrical.\n\n3216. The mantle also or the branchial cavity obeys this want of\nsymmetry. The branchi\u00e6 of one side dwindle down; those of the other\nturn with the mantle towards the head, and the respiratory aperture\noccurs upon the back.\n\n3217. With the one-sided evolution of the mantle, one shell also is\nonly developed, while the other is stunted or placed under arrest. The\nSnail's shell is one of the Bivalve Mollusc's shells, its operculum is\nthe other. This last is stony, horny, and finally is entirely wanting.\n\nIt is remarkable that the right shell has been pretty generally\nperfected, while the left dwindles down into the operculum; all the\nSnail's openings are therefore upon the right side, such as the anus,\nwith the orifices for the escape of the ova and semen.\n\nMale animals are situated on the right side, female on the left; or\nwhere the right side was predominating, there originated the male sex,\nwhere the left, the female.\n\n3218. As the orifice of the mantle and the shell is properly the\naperture of the branchial foramina; so can it be said, that the Snail\nwere a Mussel, which does not simply extend the foot, but also the\nmouth or head to the branchial opening; it is a Mussel reversed.\n\n3219. Every thing else in the Snails is arranged in accordance with\nthese fundamental organs and forms.\n\nThe cephalic portion of the intestinal canal is indicated also by\nmuscular fibres. The pharynx and the mouth can contract and expand,\nseize and bite off; the former frequently admits of being protruded and\nretracted as a fleshy proboscis with perforating maxill\u00e6.\n\n3220. Since the muscular fibres are only tegumental fibres, and\ntherefore lie within cavities; they thus act like as in the feet of\nInsects.\n\nThe tentacula of many Snails are moved like the feet of Insects; but\nas they are not horny, but soft, they are turned either inside out or\n\"vice vers\u00e2.\" The oviduct and seminal duct or penis follow the same\nmode of formation. They are likewise everted and inverted.\n\n3221. These members of the Snail are true Insect-limbs that have\nremained soft, and are thereupon susceptible of inversion and eversion.\nWere an Insect's foot soft, every one will admit that it would then\nyield so as to become inverted, if the fibres pulled upon it. The limbs\nof Insects have thus only become stiff, and are thereby Snail's horns\nthat resist inversion. All these members are teguments, and give the\nlie only unto limbs; for it belongs to the essence of a limb, that it\nbe dense.\n\n3222. That which suffers eversion or its converse is no limb, but\nonly a sheath, a prepuce. Nearly the whole Snail is but a prepuce, a\n\"membrum virile\" or \"verge.\"\n\n3223. There is no class of animals, in which the testes and penis are\nfound so disproportionately developed as in the Snails--_Orchitic,\nPenes-animals_.\n\n3224. The vascular and nervous systems are related pretty nearly as\nin the Mussels. But the heart is fleshy and has, by reason of its\nunilateral or single branchia, only one auricle also.\n\n3225. The Snails repeat the Corals in the cylindrical form of the body,\nthe tubular-shaped shell, and the return of the intestine upon itself\ntowards the mouth, as in many Corallines.\n\n3226. In them also the organ, which virtually corresponds to the\nkidney, appears to be astir, namely, what has been called the\n_calcareous gland_, situated within the branchial cavity, and which\nopens not far from the anus.\n\n\n_Class 6. Cardiac, Nephritic Animals._\n\n3227. Hitherto there has been found only a single \"cardia,\" namely, the\nleft or arterial heart, which, receiving the oxygenated blood from the\nbranchi\u00e6, propels it to all parts of the body--for the purposes of\nnutrition. But now also the right heart suddenly makes its appearance,\nwhich drives the blood into the branchi\u00e6--for oxygenation. This must\ndoubtless be regarded as a higher development, especially since, as I\nhave shown, in the higher animals as well as in the embryo, the right\nheart is first perfected subsequently to the left.\n\nThe Conchozoa with a double heart are the Sepi\u00e6 or Cuttle-fishes. These\nare in consequence correctly called _Cardiac animals_, and must be\nregarded as the fundamental form of this stage.\n\nWith this completion of the heart other structural changes, which\nprobably stand in intimate connexion with it, appear. In the Snails\nindeed a kind of renal organ, or what has been called the calcareous\ngland in the branchial cavity, has been already shown to exist. Whether\nthe shoulder-gland in the other Mollusca belongs also to the members of\nthe present class, may be left undetermined. This kidney, like other\nvegetative organs, pours out its secretion quite involuntarily. In\nthe Cuttle-fishes it is, however, combined with an organ, by means of\nwhich it can discharge its fluid, or the ink, voluntarily as in the\nhigher animals. The kidney or ink-gland with the ink-sac is therefore\ncharacteristic likewise of the Sepi\u00e6, and admits of our calling these\ncreatures _Nephritic_ or _Renal animals_.\n\nAt the same time the whole form of the body is altered; it becomes\ncylindrical, and is provided upon the ventral aspect with neither a\nmuscular keel nor sole, whereby it might glide or shove itself along;\nthus herein also a resemblance is manifested to the higher animals.\n\nThis motionless body is on the contrary endowed with independent\norgans of locomotion, namely, with fins or arms, which are wanting in\nthe Snails and Bivalve Mollusca. The labour of motion is consequently\nremoved by the organs which minister unto it from the body, and thus\nwe trace another similitude to the higher animals, which transport\ntheir body from place to place by wings or feet. These animals can be\ntherefore called _Cylindrical Snails_, out of contrast to the _Sole_\nand _Carinate Snails_ or the Bivalve Mollusca.\n\nClosely allied now to these cylindrimorphous Conchozoa are all those\nMollusca in whom the keel (carina) or sole is wanting; i. e. such snail\nor mussel-like animals, which either cannot transport themselves at\nall, or effect this by means of fins or podoidal appendages, in short\nall that have been called Snails, having no sole, and all supposed to\nbe Mussels, but without a keel.\n\nNow, the Heteropoda or Pterotrache\u00e6 and the Pteropoda or Clion\u00e6 have\nprojecting processes which act like fins.\n\nThe Brachiopoda or Terebratul\u00e6, though unendowed with the power of\nlocomotion, have, as their first name implies, arm-like organs.\n\nThe Cirripedia or Lepades, being likewise without the power of\ncontinuous motion, possess podoidal or foot-like appendages. In both\nthese families, however, these appendages are nevertheless true motor\norgans; for by means of them they seize their food, an act which\nhitherto has been seen to take place neither in the Snails nor Bivalve\nMollusca.\n\nLastly, the prehensile organs dwindle down into mere filaments or small\nlobes, but the body always retains its cylindrical form without keel\nand sole, as in the Ascidi\u00e6 or Meerscheiden.\n\nIn the Salp\u00e6 only the cylindrical body is left, unto which appendages\nare still, and not rarely either, attached, serving them wherewith\nto lay hold of each other. In accordance consequently with their\nexternal form all these animals appertain to one class along with the\nCuttle-fishes. I call them _Kracken_.\n\nThe renal organs are still not to be found in all of them; the\nstructure alone of the heart agrees essentially, despite of its\nsimplicity, with that of the Cuttle-fishes. In the Ascidi\u00e6, simple as\nwell as compound species, it is indeed but a single, though muscular\npouch. Now, this pouch drives the blood alternately, at one time into\nthe branchi\u00e6, at another backwards into the body, and is thus in the\nfirst act a venous or right heart, in the latter an arteriose or left;\nconsequently, according to function this single pouch is compounded or\nmade up of the two hearts.\n\nThe branchi\u00e6 deviate entirely from those of the Mussels and Snails,\nand exhibit a very complicated structure; in the mussel-like families\nthey present the form of a trellis-shaped sac, as in the Ascidi\u00e6, or\nthat of filiform appendages to the feet, as in the Cirripedia, or they\nare funiform as in the Brachiopoda. In the Pteropoda they are very\nvaried; in the snail-like Heteropoda they are mostly pectiniform or\ntuft-shaped; in the Sepi\u00e6 or Cephalopoda phylliform or fin-shaped.\n\nThe external character ccommon to the whole class is the _cylindrical\nbody_, unto which may be aptly conjoined the possession of special\norgans of motion; whether such organs be prehensile in function, media\nof support, or veritable instruments of progression.\n\nThe snail-like Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda, have a head,\nbut this is wanting in the mussel-like Salp\u00e6, Ascidi\u00e6, Cirripedia, and\nBrachiopoda.\n\n\nTHIRD CIRCLE. RESPIRATORY, CUTANEOUS ANIMALS.\n\n3228. Respiratory animals are Dermatozoa with a predominating system of\nrespiration.\n\nNow, the respiratory system is the tegument, which here then must\nattain the highest pitch of perfection.\n\nThis again takes place through the increased process of oxydation,\nwhich produces induration of the parts.\n\nThe vessels, which surround the tegument, must nourish this portion\nof it to a greater degree and render it harder or more compact than\nany other, whereby alternating expansions and contractions thereof\noriginate, in other words, the structure of the trachea.\n\n3229. The whole body of the Respiratory animals becomes a trachea, a\nseries of rings. The Respiratory are therefore the _Annulate animals_.\n\nThe rings are to be regarded as cysts, which are mutually juxtaposited\nor repeated, not being inserted within each other as in the preceding\nanimals, but behind each other, so that the present circle consists of\nmultiplied Cystic animals.\n\n3230. The Annulate animals must represent the developmental stages\nof the tegument, while the viscera make a retrograde step--_Tactile\nanimals_.\n\n3231. The tegument has two functions: it is an organ of respiration and\nof general feeling or sensation. In both cases it passes through three\nstages of development.\n\nIt is either entirely a branchia, i. e. _reticular_ in character; or\nthe branchi\u00e6 become individualized in certain situations and partly\nhorny, constituting _branchi\u00e6_ proper; or finally, the tegument is\nconverted into an air-breathing organ, _trache\u00e6_ or _air-tubes_.\n\n3232. It either feels with its whole surface, or by _papill\u00e6_; or the\nbranchi\u00e6 change into horny _feet_; or lastly, into alary appendages or\n_wings_. The Ancyliozoa consequently divide into Reticular or Papillary\nanimals; into Branchial or Pedal, and into Tracheal or Winged animals.\n\n3233. As the arterial character preponderates in these animals, so\ndo the venous organs, especially the liver and renal structures,\nretrograde.\n\n3234. The body is now an intestinal and tegumental body with\npredominating respiratory and sentient organs; here therefore sensitive\npapill\u00e6, antenn\u00e6, feet and wings, appear in abundance.\n\n3235. With the retrogression of the viscera, the glandular structure\nalso and large proportional bulk of the sexual parts disappears. They\nassume the form of the intestine and tegument, i. e. become tubes.\n\nThe spawn like the milt consists, as a general rule, of only two long\nmembranous tubes, running near the intestine.\n\n3236. The external sexual parts belong to the sense of feeling and\nfollow the developments of the tegument; they make their appearance as\nantenn\u00e6, and are usually accompanied by foot-like accessory organs.\n\n3237. The nervous system in like manner accompanies the tegument. It\nconsists of two gangliated cords passing along the ventral surface.\n\n3238. As the maxill\u00e6 are only repeated feet, so they are rarely\nwanting, and are, like the latter, disposed after the fashion of\nscissor-blades. The same holds good of the antenn\u00e6; they are mostly in\npairs, and consist of a series of rings projecting from the head.\n\n3239. The eyes are usually present, but only as tegumental organs, or\nplaced upon the points of the antenn\u00e6.\n\n\n_Class 7. Reticular or Papillary Animals._\n\n3240. The repetition of the Intestinal or Vascular animal, taking place\nunder the dominion of the respiratory system, must be accompanied by\nthe vascular system. The tegument is a vascular, a branchial membrane,\na _branchial network_ or _skin_.\n\n3241. A body with predominating tegumental and intestinal system, is\ncylindrical. It can only become gross or lump-shaped, if the glandular\nviscera, such as liver, ovarium and testes, get the upper hand or\nprevail.\n\n3242. A tegument which appears as a branchial membrane, is annulate or\nringed.\n\n3243. An animal, having an annulate respiratory membrane without\nannulated feet, is a _Worm_.\n\nUpon the lowest stage the vascular system is still similar to that of\nthe Vascular animals; its blood is a colourless fluid--_White Worms,\nEntozoa_.\n\nIn order to be a Worm, it is sufficient to have an annulate tegument.\nEven if the intestine be wanting and the tegument supplies its place;\nthe character is nevertheless complete. Here it is the skin, which\ndigests, while in the Intestinal animals it is the intestine, which\ndigests and breathes. Since it is here the tegument, which undertakes\nthe offices of the whole body; the vessels, liver, and salivary glands\nare wanting unto the intestine.\n\nThe sexual parts are also frequently arrested and the ova appear to\noriginate in the tegument.\n\nMany undergo division without injury to themselves; yet the detached\nportions do not become again entire animals.\n\nIn most of them, however, the sexual parts of both sexes are present,\nbeing associated with, though separate and distinct from, each other;\nthose of the female mostly opening upon the sides of the body.\n\nAs being Dermatozoa, they have for the most part special organs of\nsensation around the mouth, under the form of papill\u00e6, filaments,\nspines and cups. The nervous system, wherever it is to be met with,\nconsists of a ring surrounding the pharynx, and of a double ganglionic\ncord lying along the ventral surface of the body.\n\n3244. Upon a higher stage of development the arterial system\ngains the preponderance, and the blood becomes mostly of a red\ncolour--_Red-blooded Worms_.\n\n3245. With the arterial the fibrous system also makes a more decisive\nappearance. The tegument is a fibrous tunic--it is itself an artery.\nAll Annulate animals with a fibrous tunic, which can consequently\ncontract, belong to this class, whether too they have red blood or not,\nlike the Holothuri\u00e6 and Star-fishes.\n\n3246. The Lumbricales or Earth-worms and the Hirudines or Leeches\nrespire obviously through the whole tegument, though a special organ\nof respiration does begin to be evolved, in the first family in the\n\"saddle,\" in the second in the lateral vesicles or cysts.\n\n3247. In others the branchial vessels make their appearance above the\nlevel of the tegument as filaments or ramules, and are arranged in two\nrows, as in the common Sea-worm and in the Nereides.\n\n3248. Lastly, they accumulate about the neck or head, as in the\nAmphitrites and Serpulari\u00e6.\n\n3249. There are also Worms which respire only through the intestine,\nits vascular system being bathed on all sides by water, as in the\nAphrodit\u00e6. This water becomes, as it would appear, simply imbibed\nby the tegument in Thalassema, but through an opening at the anal\nextremity of the body in the Holothuri\u00e6.\n\n3250. These Worms have also no liver, or at the very best only traces\nof that organ, by reason of the preponderance of the arteries.\n\n3251. Papill\u00e6 or sensitive filaments gradually sprout from the external\nbranchial filaments, lie along the sides of the body, and are the\nprelude of the feet; as in the Nereides--_Papillary, Filamentary\nanimals_.\n\n3252. Others of these filaments become horny and appear as set\u00e6 or\nbristles, placed somewhat similarly to the above, as in the Earth-worm.\n\n3253. Mouth and head are more perfectly developed than in the Entozoa.\nThe first can readily expand and contract, frequently protrude the\npharynx like a proboscis or tube, and not unfrequently has manducatory\npincers, like as in Insects.\n\n3254. On the head there are mostly annulate tentacula with muscular\nfibres, and frequently simple eyes.\n\n3255. In those species which draw the water itself into the body and\nuse it for the purposes of respiration, the formation of the mouth has\nrisen higher, and the pharynx been provided with maxill\u00e6, in number\nfive or ten--Echini, Holothuri\u00e6. These maxill\u00e6 form in themselves\na peculiar skeleton around the pharynx, which is ranged circularly\ninstead of by pairs.\n\n3256. The nervous system is directed according to the relations of the\ntegument and intestine. It forms two ganglionic cords running along the\nventral side of the body, and, where it makes with the nerves going to\nthe maxill\u00e6 a ring around the pharynx, corresponds to the pharyngeal or\npneumogastric nerves.\n\n3257. In reference to the sense of feeling it may be said, that the\nWorms were those among the Sensitive animals, which feel by the whole\ntegument or body. Their body itself is a tentaculum.\n\n3258. The sexual parts are likewise intestini-and dermiform, not\nglandular in figure like the ovarium and testis of Mussels and Snails,\nbut tubular, as in the Entozoa. There are usually two oviducts and two\nseminal tubes to be found.\n\n3259. So far as we are acquainted with the Red-blooded worms, they are\nandrogynous, at least as regards the Earth-worms and Leeches, and their\nsexual parts are indeed tolerably symmetrical; yet they do not open\nposteriorly, but far forwards on the ventral side of the body, this\nbeing the case with even the male sex-organs.\n\n\n_Class 8. Branchial, Pedal Animals._\n\n3260. The representation of the Cutaneous animals is not yet the entire\ncompletion of the tegument. It attains a higher grade by separating\nin accordance with the visceral systems, and in the conversion of the\nbranchi\u00e6 into sensorial organs or feet.\n\nThe branchi\u00e6 endeavour to separate self-substantially, and form a body\nof their own. The branchial body is the thorax.\n\nBy this attempt, the abdomen originates \"per se\" as the body of the\nintestinal and sexual system. The branchi\u00e6 upon it are arrested or\nstunted. In like manner the body of the nerves separates itself from\nthe thorax and becomes head.\n\nBut meanwhile this separation is only imperfect; the head and thorax,\nif otherwise distinguished by their size and the feet, are for the most\npart connate; abdomen and tail are usually fused together, and only to\nbe recognized as distinct by the limbs or members.\n\nWith this greater division of the body each division of it obtains\nits articulation into rings; but they will be hardened by virtue of\nthe separation of the branchial network, or will become horny--_Horny\nanimals_.\n\n3261. With the conversion into horny texture of the body, its branchial\nfilaments or tentacula must undergo a similar change, and divide\nlikewise into rings like the general or bodily tegument.\n\nAnnulate, horny branchial filaments, are feet--_Pedal animals_.\n\nA part of the branchi\u00e6 remains hanging to the feet, mostly to their\nbasal joints, and is supported by animal motor members or limbs; the\nrespiration becomes voluntary--_Branchial animals_.\n\nThe Annulate animals, having branchi\u00e6 and feet, are the _Crustacea_ or\n_Crabs_.\n\nThe branchi\u00e6 and feet are, of course, most largely developed upon the\nthorax.\n\nThose upon the abdomen continue small, and those upon the tail or\nsexual body dwindle in size and change into other organs, such as fins,\nsacs, filaments, pincers.\n\n3262. The number five of the branchi\u00e6 is also exhibited in the feet.\nThere are mostly five large pairs of feet on the thorax, and as many\nsmall ones on the abdomen, as in the Crabs.\n\nOn the tail they appear more dwindled in size, and are frequently\nreduced to a smaller number.\n\nEach part of the body has properly five rings; and these parts being\nthe thorax, abdomen and tail, there are thus fifteen rings in all.\n\nIn the Crabs it is distinctly demonstrated that the maxill\u00e6 are nothing\nelse but feet; there are therefore for the most part, after taking into\naccount sundry arrests and coalescences, five pairs of maxill\u00e6 also.\n\nThe Crabs have usually two pairs of antenn\u00e6, whose signification is\nunknown; one pair is probably the elongation of the ear.\n\nAll Branchial animals have eyes, frequently too supported upon\narticulated pedicles.\n\nThey have a double nervous cord upon the ventral surface of the body.\n\nThey have, like the Mussels, a heart upon the dorsal aspect, and\narteries with veins.\n\nThe intestine opens into the apex of the tail, and is surrounded by a\nliver.\n\nThe sexual parts still open for the most part on the thorax, and indeed\nby two orifices, as in the Worms.\n\nThere are no more androgynous or bisexual beings in the present class.\n\nIn some few the branchi\u00e6 already enter the body and become air-tubes,\nas in the Scolopendr\u00e6, Spiders and Scorpions.\n\nThe Branchial animals repeat, as being the second class of their\ncircle, the Corals and Snails; their \"quasi\" coat of mail is therefore\nharder, often richer in calcareous ingredients, and, in addition to\nthis, lies frequently upon the thorax or branchia as a special testa,\ncalled the scute or shield.\n\n\n_Class 9. Tracheal, Alary Animals._\n\nAnnulate animals, whose branchi\u00e6 have undergone a partial conversion\ninto trache\u00e6 and into wings, are the _Insecta_ proper or _Flies_.\n\n3263. A Worm with feet, trache\u00e6 and wings, is an _Entomon_ or _Insect_.\n\n3264. The first separation takes place in respect to the three\ntegumental segments of the body, the abdomen, thorax, and head. All\nthree are, in the Insects, more separated from each other than in the\nBranchial animals, and united together usually by a narrow tube; even\nin cases also, where they are connate with each other, they are still\neasily recognized by respect being had to size, form, or appendages.\n\nEvery Insect is divided into three segments. In the abdomen are the\norgans belonging to the Worm, such as the intestine, and a fatty body\nwhich appears to be an analogue of the liver, a dorsal vessel, tubular\nsexual parts and air-tubes (trache\u00e6), but nothing else.\n\nThe abdominal feet now disappear entirely, and even the number of\nthoracic feet diminishes, owing, doubtless, to the production of wings.\n\n3265. The thorax alone is reserved for the limbs or locomotive members.\nIt never carries more than three pairs of legs and two pairs of wings.\nOf the viscera, it contains nothing but the oesophagus, while in the\nCrabs, important intestinal organs and even the liver, are situated\nwithin its cavity. It is in Insects therefore nothing else than a\nmedium of support to the respiratory organs which have become limbs.\nHence the thorax never has more than three rings, namely, one for each\npair of legs. The wings invariably stand upon its two posterior rings.\n\n3266. Since the limbs of the Insect are only the lateral filaments\nof the Worms, which have become hard and consequently hollow; they\nare as such not to be termed true feet, but are only to be compared\nwith branchial arches or ribs; a step by which their greater number\nalso admits of being understood. They are not to be compared with our\nfeet, but unto the toes, which have been separated from each other as\nfar as the rings of the body. The Crab has properly five thoracic and\nfive abdominal toes. All its thoracic feet taken together are only\nequivalent to our hand.\n\nThe feet of the higher animals are only Insect-feet connate or\ncoalesced.\n\n3267. In other respects they already typify or prefigure true limbs,\nas well from their position as by the division of their joints. A\nperfect beetle's foot divides exactly like the limb of Man, into femur,\npatella, tibia, tarsus, and phalanges. These parts of the leg must\nnot, however, be so absurdly divided and named, as has hitherto been\nunfortunately the case in our systems, where the femur has been called\ncoxa, the patella trochanter, the tibia femur, while the toes have been\nlumped under the name of tarsus. (Ed. 1st, 1811. \u00a7 3087.) The regular\nnumber of the toes or tarsal joints is five, so that they correspond to\nour digital phalanges, to the metacarpal, and the anterior carpal bone.\n\n3268. The wings are the branchi\u00e6 of the Mollusc that have been set\nfree; they are placed therefore upon the back and are four in number.\nIn many Insects there is still a pair of wing-like scales in front of\nthe four wings, as in some Lepidoptera. They perhaps correspond to the\nshells of Molluscs, are branchial opercula.\n\nIt is only from this point of view that the structure of Insects admits\nof being fully understood; and apart from this it is absolutely devoid\nof all analogy. Thus it is possible for only six legs to take their\norigin from the thorax in the direction downwards, and nevertheless for\nthere still to be wings upon the dorsum or back. The wings of Birds are\nby no means homologous to the alar appendages of Insects; they are, as\nis well known, the anterior members themselves, and there is no longer\ntherefore in the Bird any feet attached to the thorax below, as in\nInsects. Besides, if the wings did not signify arms in the Bird, then\nit must have four legs. Thus in the Insect the wings could not also\nmean feet.\n\nTheir structure also speaks in favour of our view of the Insect's\nwings. They are known to be completely traversed by respiratory tubes,\nare true, or only desiccated, branchi\u00e6--aerial gills. (Ed. 1st, 1811.\n\u00a7 3088.) Wings and feet are dependent from the same ring of the body,\nand are thus like the branchi\u00e6 and feet of the Crabs. Let the Crab's\nbranchi\u00e6 elongate and dry, and they will thus be wings.\n\n3269. Since the wings are newly eliminated organs of the sense of\nfeeling, so are they here characteristic of the animal, and are\nconsequently of greater importance for the purposes of division and\narrangement than the organs of the head, which in all the lower animals\nis only an apparent head, and cannot therefore serve to characterize\ngroups, &c.\n\n3270. That the trache\u00e6 in Insects have been developed out of the\nbranchi\u00e6 by saccular inversion, is a fact displayed in a particularly\ndistinct manner by the Scorpions and Spiders, who still possess at\nbottom internal branchial lamin\u00e6, unto which, however, air instead of\nwater finds its way. It may be said, that with the general conversion\ninto horny texture, the arteries of the Mussels were transmuted into\ninternal trache\u00e6, and the branchial flabell\u00e6 into external organs.\nWould we interpret the body of the Insect in a strictly philosophic\nsense, the parts must then receive very different names to what they\nnow bear. Properly speaking, in our own species the thorax has no\nlimbs, but only the neck. The upper limbs are not lungs, but branchial\norgans, and it is the cervical vertebr\u00e6, from between which nerves\nare sent off to the arms, for it is just upon the neck also that\nthe branchi\u00e6 have been left. What is termed therefore the thorax in\nInsects, would be properly their neck. Their abdomen would consist\naccordingly of thorax and abdomen, and it is this also, which carries\non the principal share of the respiratory process. It therefore\nconsists generally of ten rings, and has ten pairs of spiracula,\nnamely, twice five, for both thorax and abdomen.\n\nOr again, the abdomen may be regarded as an intestinal and sexual\ncavity, and the thorax may be left with its own name. In that case\nthere would be five spiracles for the sex, five for the intestine, and\nperhaps only two for the thorax.\n\nWould we proceed yet further; the head can then only be viewed as\npharynx, and consequently as neck.\n\n3271. In most Branchial animals that live in the water, a perfect\ncirculation is present, because, by reason of their feeble amount of\nrespiration, all the blood is not consumed. This is also the case in\nthe young of air-breathing Insects, so long as they may have to grow.\nBut when they have ceased to do this, so strong an amount of tension\nemerges in the circulation, owing to the increased respiration of air,\nthat blood remains but in scanty quantity to be carried back by the\nveins, and the arteries now for the most part convey the air in a pure\nstate, namely, uncombined with blood, as in the higher animals.\n\n3272. As the air-tubes pass to all parts of the body, like the arteries\nwhose place they now supply, so does the nutritive juice become\neverywhere oxydized and converted into parenchyma or tissue. The\nnutritive juice doubtless transudes at once through the intestine and\npenetrates to all parts, as in the Plants.\n\n3273. Of the vascular system nothing at last remains but the dorsal\nvessel, whose ramifications appear to disappear entirely. According to\nits analogy with the Crabs, Scorpions, and Spiders, it is the aorta. It\nappears, as if in Insects the circulation dies off from the living body.\n\nThe whole Insect is an air-organ, an aero-vascular stem. All the organs\nrespire directly, such as the intestine, the motor fibres, nerves,\nsexual parts, and wings. There is no part unto which trache\u00e6 do not\npass, and in this respect completely resemble the arteries of other\nanimals.\n\n3274. The intestine is invariably furnished with an anus, and that\ntoo situated quite posteriorly. It is usually expanded into several\nstomachs and has appendages, almost as in Fishes, which virtually\ncorrespond to the abdomino-salivary or pancreatic gland.\n\n3275. The salivary ducts open into the mouth, and thus as in the Snails\nand Kracken, whose similar structures they repeat.\n\n3276. Whether what have been called the biliary vessels are what\nthe name implies, and really convey bile from the fatty body to the\nintestine, or whether they are lacteal vessels and discharge their\nfluid near the rectum into the dorsal vessel, does not yet admit of\nbeing determined. They have been thought to constitute an urinary\napparatus; only certain cysts which occur in connexion with the sexual\nparts, appear rather to correspond to the latter.\n\n3277. The nervous system consists, as in the Worms, of two ganglionic\nventral chords.\n\n3278. In the head, the feet again, and probably also wings, undergo\nrepetition. This repetition is nowhere so distinct as in Insects. He\nwho can still entertain any doubt of the maxill\u00e6 being arms, let him\nresolve to descend into the Insect-world, and he will become in place\nof a sceptic, a believer. (Ed. 1st, 1811. \u00a7 3095.) What have been\ncalled manducatory pincers move outwards as well as the legs, and seize\nlike arms, are only arms. Their gripe takes place in the lateral or\nhorizontal direction, and resembles that of scissors or shears.\n\n3279. Where, moreover, there are three pairs of legs on the thorax, we\nfind also three pairs of maxill\u00e6, namely, an upper and lower maxilla,\nand a labium or inferior lip, which consists of the same parts as the\nmaxill\u00e6, only they are united by tegument.\n\n3280. Where there are five or more pairs of legs on the thorax, as in\nthe Crabs, there also are found as many pairs of maxill\u00e6.\n\n3281. Upon these maxill\u00e6, palpi are likewise situated, which are\nprobably nothing else than what has been termed tarsus, thus repeated\nin the head also. They are only arrested upon the upper maxill\u00e6 or\nmandibles. (Ed. 1st, 1811. \u00a7 3096.)\n\n3282. The wings appear to be repeated upon the head as antenn\u00e6. Thus\nthe head also is in the Insects a perfect trunk.\n\n3283. Upon the head there is nothing more than the eyes. They have\nalso become horny in texture, whereas before they were completely\nmembranous, as in the Snails.\n\nThe eyes have been subordinated to the sense of feeling; they are\nnervous papill\u00e6 placed beneath a transparent tegument upon the apex of\na tentaculum.\n\nInsects therefore have a number of eyes; they stand either separate,\nas in the Worms, and are then called simple eyes, or they are crowded\ntogether, constituting compound eyes.\n\n3284. Of the other sensorial organs a papilliform elevation in the\npharynx is frequently exhibited as a tongue.\n\n3285. Ears are found in the Crabs at the root or base of the antenn\u00e6,\nor in them there is only a tympanic cavity with an ossicle inclosed\nwithin; in the Insect there is nothing of the same kind. But meanwhile,\nsince many species attract each other by means of sounds, they must\nthus possess the faculty of hearing. The antenn\u00e6 therefore probably\ncorrespond to the auditory conch. The auditory conch of the Mammalia\nranks also in the signification of the hand, and thus of the organ of\nfeeling.\n\nNevertheless the antenn\u00e6 may be transformations of the wings. The\nauditory ossicles are indeed members which have originated from\nbranchi\u00e6. Probably the antenn\u00e6 are the auditory ossicles themselves\nwhich have emerged outwards, as in the Fishes and Reptiles.\n\nThere is no trace of a nose; nor can there be any, for it is the\nanterior orifice of the vertebral canal, and this is wanting in all\nlower animals. A noseless animal is an inferior or Tegumental animal.\n\n3286. The sexes are separate, because they are Air-breathing animals\nand perfectly symmetrical in form. The ovi-and seminal ducts are\nlikewise symmetric and in pairs. The ovipositors and penes are perfect,\nas in the Snails, because they can be shoved forwards, but not everted\nas in the latter.\n\n3287. The position of the sexual parts at the posterior extremity\nof the body has been permanently established, with exceedingly few\nexceptions, as in some aquatic Insects.\n\nThat they correspond to the head, or are imperfect cephalic organs,\nis most distinctly shown in the Insect. They are usually environed by\nvalves, pincers, and filaments, which resemble maxill\u00e6 and palpi.\n\n3288. The Ovum-animals multiply by division, by granules or gemm\u00e6, i.\ne. shoots, the Sexual animals by membranous ova, the Arthritic animals\nby horny ova. These last, or egg-shells, are hard, and frequently\nalso so strung together or laid by the parent upon each other as to\nrepresent the annulate body of some Insect.\n\n3289. In the ova of the Dermatozoa or Tegumental animals the vitellus\nonly appears to exist, being without albumen, which first seems to make\nits appearance along with the animal systems. As the animal separates\ninto higher and lower substances, so also does the ovum or microzoon.\nThe simplicity of the Tegumental animals has been prophesied or\nforetold in that of their ova.\n\nThe Insecta, as being the third class of their circle, repeat the\nAcaleph\u00e6 and Kracken. With the last they bear much resemblance in form\nand in their motor organs.\n\n3290. Would we arrange the Worms along with the spiral vessels or\nducts, the Crabs with the woody rings in the stem, we must term the\nTracheal animals foliage or leaves. Their wings are pinnate leaves, and\namong the Orthoptera many occur which, as well in the form of the body\nas of the wings, appear as if they had been just liberated from the\nPapilionaceous tree. The tales or stories, about leaves changing in the\ntorrid zones into Insects, are not without meaning; for poetry is none\nother than the Ideal of natural history.\n\n\n_Metamorphosis._\n\n3291. We now proceed to retrace our steps. The Insect is a Tegumental\nanimal represented in limbs. There can be therefore present in the\nInsect no other development than in the Cutaneous animal, which works\nitself up into the Branchial and Tracheal animal.\n\nThe Insect passes through three stages prior to its attaining the adult\nor perfect condition. It is at first Worm, next Crab, then a perfect,\nvolant animal with limbs, a Fly.\n\n3292. The representative passage of the Insect through the preceding\nclasses in the course of development, constitutes its _metamorphosis_.\nThus the Insect's metamorphosis obtains a meaning and an explanation.\nUpon the whole, the history of every kind of pregnancy is none other\nthan the passage which takes place through all the animal classes, as I\nhave first represented in my book upon \"Generation\" (Von der Zeugung,\n1805); but in no class of animals are the periods so dissevered or\ndrawn apart as in Insects. It therefore comes to pass that these\nanimals are the equivalent transcripts or copies of a system common to\nthem and the preceding animals.\n\n3293. The Worm is the first condition of the Insect. It is represented,\nby the larva, which, according to its diversity of size, is called\nmaggot, caterpillar, grub, &c.\n\n3294. The larva is only a Cutaneous and Intestinal animal. It knows of\nnothing else but eating like the Worm; it has no sexual function, no\nlust, nor pain; it can scarcely move; in many the feet are wanting,\nas in the larv\u00e6 of Flies, which thus resemble the Entozoa; many have\na crop of lateral papill\u00e6, like the caterpillars, which resemble the\nNereids.\n\n3295. The change into a nympha, chrysalis, or pupa, commences with\nthe horny induration met with in the Crab, and in the higher organized\nkinds of Snail. The pupa is the embryonic Crab or its antetype, it is\nthe Snail in its shell.\n\n3296. In the third condition the Insect makes an advance above the\nbranchial condition, and casts aside the Snail's or Crab's shell; and\nis then the perfect Insect, the _Fly_.\n\n3297. The metamorphosis is accordingly the embryonic transition of the\nInsect, after extrusion from the egg, through the three classes of its\ncircle. In the ovum state it only passes through that of the Intestinal\nand Sexual animals.\n\n3298. This is a retrospective proof that the higher animals also pass\nin the ovum through the condition of the lower animals, but after birth\nthrough the classes which directly precede them.\n\nWhat holds good of the Insects, does so also of the preceding groups\nof animals, although in a less degree; the higher class of each circle\nstill passes after birth through one or other of the inferior classes.\n\nThus, the Acaleph\u00e6 first appear under the form of Infusoria; next\nchange into Polyps, and then obtain for the first time the form of\nthe perfect Acaleph\u00e6. The same phenomenon occurs in the naked snails\nor Slugs. They have, when freshly hatched from the egg, a small\nmussel-like shell, which they lose at a later period.\n\nThe Echini or Sea-urchins, which I believe ought to be ranged with the\nKracken, also pass through a metamorphosis.\n\nFinally, it is well known that the Crabs also are subjected to a\nmetamorphosis. Their first condition must be regarded as that of the\nWorm.\n\nThe law is thus universal. The second and third class of every circle\ntraverse after birth the classes, to whose series they belong.\n\nIt would even appear that the classes, also of a lower circle, are\nsubject to similar changes; at least many Entozoa, and thus the first\nclass of the third circle, appear to undergo such a metamorphosis,\nsince they first of all resemble an Infusory animal, next change as\npup\u00e6 into Molluscs, and are then manifested for the first time as Worms.\n\n3299. The Dermatozoa or Sensitive animals range in the following\nmanner, according to the anatomical systems:\n\n  A. INTESTINAL ANIMALS.    B. VASCULAR ANIMALS.   C. RESPIRATORY ANIMALS.\n\n  1. _Gastric animals._     4. _Venous animals._   7. _Reticular animals._\n        Infusoria.                     Mussels.                      Worms.\n  2. _Intestinal animals._  5. _Arterial animals._ 8. _Branchial animals._\n        Polyps.                     Snails.                   Crustacea.\n  3. _Absorbent animals._   6. _Cardiac animals._  9. _Tracheal animals._\n        Acaleph\u00e6.                   Kracken.                  Insects.\n\n3300. According to the developments of the feeling-sense they stand\nthus:\n\n  A. OVUM-ANIMALS.         B. SEXUAL ANIMALS.       C. CUTANEOUS ANIMALS.\n\n  1. _Vitelline animals._   4. _Ovarial animals._   7. _Papillary animals._\n        Infusoria.                  Mussels.                  Worms.\n  2. _Albuminose animals._  5. _Orchitic animals._  8. _Pedal animals._\n        Polyps.                     Snails.                   Crustacea.\n  3. _Involucral animals._  6. _Renal animals._     9. _Alary animals._\n        Acaleph\u00e6.                   Kracken.                  Flies.\n\n3301. From these tables the number and kind of relationships or\naffinities is readily deduced. There is a _Relationship of Proximity_,\nas that between Infusoria, Polyps, and Acaleph\u00e6.\n\nA _Relationship of Repetition_, as of Infusoria, Mussels, Worms.\nThere is also a _Relationship of Series_, which takes its rise from\nthe parallelism of the classes. The two last relationships have been\nconfounded together under the term _analogy_, which at best is but a\nword of random definition.\n\n\n_Second Province--Sarcozoa, Cephalozoa._\n\nFOURTH CIRCLE--SARCOSE ANIMALS.\n\n3302. The system of motion and sensation, which broke forth so forcibly\nin the tegument, now passes over into other forms, into the globular\nform of bone, the fibrous form of flesh or muscle, and the point-form\nof the nerves.\n\n3303. The nervous system when liberated from the vegetative organs is,\nor consists of, the myelon (spinal chord) and the encephalon, i. e.\nbrain.\n\n3304. These animals are therefore Osseous, Muscular, and Encephalic\nanimals, whereupon the senses are proportionately developed, and\nconstitute the basis of the highest animal forms--_Sarcozoa_. The\nDermatozoa are _asarcose_ or _fleshless_ animals.\n\n3305. With the sudden appearance of the animal systems all organs of\nthe head, such as tongue, nose, ears, and eyes, are also developed; no\nasarcous animal has nostrils. Now these parts, especially the nostrils,\nas marking the terminal extremity of the vertebral column, make up the\nhead--_Cephalozoa_, or Cephalic animals.\n\n\n_Class 10. Osteozoa, Glossozoa._\n\n3306. The animals, in which the osseous system for the first time makes\nits appearance are, the _Fishes_.\n\nThe Fish alone has more bones than any other animal. It has dorsal\nrays, which are wanting in all others.\n\n3307. The animal systems are for the first time slightly separated from\neach other. Bone, muscle, and nerve are rather a gelatinous mass, which\nonly bids fair for becoming something higher; on this account the bones\nare frequently but soft cartilages or tendons, the muscle composed of\nwhite fibres like those upon the intestine or vessels, the nerve thick,\noleaginous, and soft in texture, while the brain is in its constituent\nparts hardly comparable with that of the Thricozoa.\n\n3308. The muscles of Fishes are not yet perfect in character, since\nthey are devoid of individualization and red colour, and their fibres\nrun mostly parallel with each other without uniting into tendons. Their\nmuscular body is a muscular wall.\n\n3309. The Fishes, ranking upon the first stage of the Sarcozoa, repeat\nthe same stage of the preceding circle, and thus the Infusoria,\nMussels, and Worms; or the stomach, veins, and branchial rete or\nnetwork; furthermore, the vitellus, ovary, and skin, which systems must\nin them accordingly predominate.\n\n\n_Pelvis._\n\n3310. In Fishes the pelvic organs, sexual parts, and tail predominate.\nThe tail, as being an appurtenance of the pelvis, is larger and\nstronger than in other animals. It mostly makes up the largest part of\nthe body, and is, properly speaking, its only motor organ.\n\n3311. The sexual parts have still the form of the intestine, and occupy\nthe greatest part of the abdomen. The ovaria are two sacs, like two\nInfusoria, in whose parietes granules are developed; even the testes\nare only two such sacs or seminal vesicles wherein the \"milt\" is\ncontained. Fishes may be termed anorchitic, or animals devoid of testes.\n\nThe ova are small, consisting of spawn or roe without shell, but they\nseparate into albumen and vitellus.\n\n3312. External sexual parts are not present. Everything usually opens\ninto a cloaca, which is thus here a true pharyngeal cavity.\n\n3313. With the perfected formation of the head, the animal, so to\nspeak, undergoes a sudden and entire change, and the sexual parts are\ndeveloped with all their accessory organs, such as the sexual lung.\nKidneys are present and mostly an urinary cyst. The kidneys are\nindeed still so amorphous and soft, that they more resemble coagulated\nblood than an organ, yet meanwhile agree in this respect with the\n'milt' and branchial substance.\n\n\n_Abdomen._\n\nThe abdomen is not simply confluent with the sexual body, but thrust by\nit completely forwards. The anus mostly lies in front of the middle of\nthe body.\n\n3314. The intestine separates for the first time distinctly into\ncephalic and sexual, or small and large, intestine.\n\n3315. The vitelline canal is the coecum. This is very distinct in the\nSharks and Rays.\n\n3316. In Birds therefore the vitelline canal is the coecum also, and\nthe two coeca, falsely so called, which are placed upon the side of\nthe rectum cannot represent the coecum coli, or else the Bird must\nhave three of these blind appendages or sacs.\n\n3317. The spleen here appears for the first time; while the pancreas\ndivides into a number of coecal appendages.\n\n\n_Thorax._\n\n3318. The thorax of the Fish is reduced within very narrow limits; it\nis like the first thoracic formation, and is thus a Mussel's thorax.\nThe branchi\u00e6 with their opercula are similarly formed to the branchial\nplates and shells of the Bivalve Mollusca. The thorax is therefore\nattached only externally to the body, and the Fish is to be viewed as a\nMussel, from between whose shells a monstrous abdomen has grown out.\n\n3319. But this Molluscan thorax is conjoined with animal systems, and\nhas assumed their noble or elevated type of structure. Here therefore\nthe osseous and sarcose system blend together, and the higher formation\nof the thorax emerges into view.\n\n3320. For the first time an advance is made towards the formation of a\ntrachea, namely, by the branchial framework or skeleton, which opens\ninto the mouth, and corresponds therefore properly to the larynx.\nFishes are therefore the first animals which breathe through the mouth.\nIn all the preceding classes the air entered the body, or the water\nfound access to the branchi\u00e6, by other routes.\n\n3321. They may be termed Mouth-breathing animals, for the first\nformation of the trachea extends no further than to its junction or\ncommunication with the mouth; since, for it to be continued into the\nhead and open self-substantially as a nasal organ, constitutes a second\nstep in advance, which cannot be ventured upon in an Abdominal animal.\nIn Fishes everything relates to the abdomen, and this is expressed\nby the first union of the trachea having taken place with the\noesophagus or the mouth.\n\n3322. But, at the same time that the trachea is inserted within the\nmouth, it opens externally and in the lateral direction upon the body,\nthus letting the water escape from it posteriorly after a mussel-like\nor sexual fashion. Thus, the trachea is not yet closed inferiorly, nor\nhence also the thoracic cavity. Between the head and abdomen there are\nstill openings--branchial foramina.\n\n3323. The trachea is itself, however, a thorax upon a small scale,\nconsisting as it does of rings, or as it were ribs. These arches are\nnot yet united by muscles with each other, and the water flows out\nbetween them into the apparent thoracic cavity, from which it next\nescapes beneath the branchial operculum.\n\n3324. These tracheal rings are the branchial arches. The branchial\nvessels are tracheal and by no means pulmonary vessels.\n\n3325. Thus, upon taking a retrospective glance at the matter, we may\nfairly conclude that the branchi\u00e6 of the Dermatozoa are not equivalent\nto the lungs of the higher animals, but are only the antetypes of the\nbronchi, being thus cervical organs.\n\n3326. The trachea is thus formed prior or antecedently to the lungs,\nbut is still membranous and devoid of any continuous connexion between\nits rings.\n\n3327. The lung is an organ extraneous or foreign to the trachea, and\nbecomes only as if accidentally associated with it.\n\n3328. But a Sarcozoon is not devoid of lungs nor of aerial respiration;\nfor, being the totality of all lower animals, it consequently unites in\nitself the respiratory apparatus of the Branchial and Tracheal animals;\nthus gills and lungs.\n\n3329. In the Fish the first lung appears, that is to say, if we\ndesignate or interpret the respiratory organ in Insects only as\ntrache\u00e6, which do not open into the mouth.\n\n3330. The Fish's lung is the air-or swim-cyst.\n\n3331. The lung is still subordinate to the abdomen and intestine. It is\ntherefore still separated from the trachea or the branchial arches.\n\n3332. Fishes swallow the air and drive it into the pulmonic cyst,\nwhere it is analysed or decomposed.\n\n3333. This lung, so soon as it stands opposite to and enters into\nconflict with a branchia, is what serves to direct or control the\naction of the heart. It is only when the swim-cyst is allowed to\nhold good as lung, that the circulation in Fishes admits of being\nunderstood. For otherwise venous blood must flow into the heart, from\nthis into the branchi\u00e6, from these directly into the aorta, and so\nto the different organs without again entering a cardiac cavity, a\nstructure which occurs in no other class of animals, but rather in\nevery instance its reverse. The first heart is arteriose, not venous in\nall animals, even in the Mussels and Snails and in the embryos. Now,\nthe Fish is still such an embryo, and has only an arteriose heart.\n\n3334. Thus, the following is the \"modus operandi\" of the parts in\nquestion; the swim-cyst is the lung, in which, seeing that it\ncontains air, the blood is oxydized; this oxydized blood flows into the\nheart and renders it _arteriose_ in character, despite the concomitant\ninflux of venous blood into that organ. Upon this, the blood passes\nout of the heart through a true aorta, which is called the branchial\nartery. Instead then of this aorta giving off only some twigs as\nbronchial vessels to the gills, and next proceeding to pursue its\ncourse as a main trunk through the body and along the back, it passes\nwholly to the branchi\u00e6, i. e. it entirely becomes a bronchial vessel,\nis slightly oxydized, and then returns upon itself to form the aorta,\nwhich should have taken its course directly from the heart.\n\n\n_Senses._\n\n3335. In accordance with the thorax, the corium or true skin is\ndeveloped. It is mucous in character and muco-secernent like the\nintestine, from its being constantly in the water. The whole skin\nis undermined by mucous canals and perforated by their excretory\napertures. These foramina of the lateral line are arrested, and\nmetamorphosed branchial foramina, which have only retained the\nevaporative function of respiration.\n\n3336. The remnants of the tegument's annulation are the scales. They\nare desiccated air-branchi\u00e6, alary opercula or elytra, and consequently\nindicate that feature of the Insect, which has continued to work its\nway into the class of Fishes.\n\n3337. Like the skin, so are the limbs--tegumental members. What is\nflesh and bone upon them, has kept quite close to the body, and that\nonly which is designed for splitting into digits projects, constituting\ntegumental digits with cartilages--_fins_. These fins are something\nbetter than the lateral papill\u00e6 of the Worms, are furnished at their\nbase with joints, and are in number only four, but crippled or stunted\nin every possible way.\n\n3338. The fin-rays do not correspond to the digits, but to the nails.\nThey are fibrillated nails, like the wing-feathers of Birds.\n\n3339. Lastly, the head possesses all the organs of sense which belong\nto a head, but they are still far removed from their perfect condition.\n\n3340. As the nervous system is the first mass, from which the remaining\nones have been set free, so also is the nervous sense the first after\nthat of the tegument, which appears as a whole, and serves as a\npattern for the subsequent senses. The eye is the sense which is first\ndeveloped most perfectly, not directly as regards its own completeness,\nbut when considered in reference to the others.\n\nAs the sense of feeling has been at once manifested in the vegetative\nanimals as a peripheric nervous sense; so antithetically or _vice\nvers\u00e2_ it is in the higher animals the light-sense, as being the\ncentral nervose sense, which appears.\n\n3341. Hitherto both these senses stood altogether alone with each other\nupon the stage of animal existence, in order, as it were, to play\ntheir parts in mutual consent; but so soon as the sense of feeling\nbecame individualized into tactile organs, then also the eye made its\nappearance in a detached or isolated manner.\n\n3342. The Fish's eye is upon the whole composed of the same structures\nas in the Mammalia; but it is devoid of motion and external coverings.\n\n3343. The ear, as being the sense of motion, has scarcely withdrawn\nitself from the brain, has not yet become a true external organ, and\nthat portion of it which appears externally, is subservient to inferior\nsystems, such as the branchi\u00e6 or gills.\n\n3344. The external auditory organ has become confluent with the\nbranchial aperture, and the auditory ossicles have become parts of the\nbranchial operculum.\n\n3345. In the internal ear only the three semicircular canals have been\nleft. The cochlea is not yet developed.\n\nAs true palpebr\u00e6 or eyelids are wanting to the visual organ, so also\nare the conchs of the external ear.\n\n3346. The nostrils exist, because a vertebral canal, which terminates\nin them, is present; stoutly-developed olfactory nerves are also\npresent, so that the sense of smell cannot be wanting. Only this sense\nhas not yet taken the respiratory organ into communication with itself,\nand both therefore live for themselves in an arrested or stunted\ncondition. This nasal organ does not open into the mouth, admits of\nneither water nor air passing through it, and therefore serves not as\na test-organ to the respiratory process. This is my main point for\ndistinction of Fishes from Reptiles.\n\n3347. Every Sarcozoon, whose nostrils do not open into the mouth, is a\nFish. The Siren therefore does not belong to the present class, while\nthe Lepidosiren, having an imperforate nasal organ, does.\n\n3348. The tongue has remained rather an organ of touch and deglutition,\nthan an instrument of taste. The salivary glands are scarcely developed.\n\n3349. But the tongue here appears _for the first time_ in the animal\nkingdom as a perfect organ provided with muscles, and a lingual bone,\nas in Man; Fishes are, as regards the development of this sense the\n_Glossozoa_, Lingual or Tongue-animals.\n\n3350. As Fishes are the repetition of the intestine and vitellus, so\nthey may be termed _abdominal_ or rather _Pelvic animals_. They are an\nabdomen, unto which are appended branchi\u00e6, fins and head.\n\nThey are the repetition of the Infusoria, Mussels, and Worms; in them\nwe meet with mucus, branchial opercula, articulated filaments, and\nlabial cirrhi or palpal organs.\n\n\n_Class 11. Myozoa, Rhinozoa._\n\n3351. Those Sarcozoa which for the first time obtain true muscles and a\nperforated nasal organ are the _Reptilia_.\n\n3352. True muscles are red, have a definitely circumscribed outline,\nand are divisible into head, fleshy portion or belly, and tail or\ntendon. As such they are found for the first time in Reptiles.\n\n\n_Thorax._\n\n3353. With the osseous system in Fishes the sexual abdomen was chiefly\ndeveloped; with the muscular system therefore, as in the present class,\nthe abdomen proper or intestinal abdomen becomes perfectly developed,\nand the thorax more spacious in calibre.\n\n3354. The thorax is still blended with the abdomen. In Fishes the\ndisposition was already stirring to create for themselves an air-organ;\nonly this was imperfectly attained, since the swim-cyst communicated\nwith the gullet, but not with the branchial arches or larynx, nor with\nthe nasal organ, as in the present class.\n\n3355. Now, if the swim-cyst be symmetrically developed, if it\ncommunicates with the branchial larynx and opens through the nose, the\naerial respiration is completely attained, and shares its dominion over\nthe body along with the digestive function.\n\n3356. A Fish, respiring through the nose into two swim-bladders, is an\nAmphibious animal, a _Reptile_.\n\n3357. In the Reptile, however, the thorax is still subordinated to the\nabdomen. Its lungs traverse the whole abdominal cavity, and its manner\nof breathing is still similar in character to the abdominal function.\nThe lungs are simply two membranous bladders, like two intestines, and\nadmit also of being voluntarily filled with air like the intestine is\nwith water. This filling or inflation of the Reptile's lungs takes\nplace also by the abdomen being expanded at the same time that the\nmouth is closed by the muscles of the fauces, and is therefore a true\nprocess of deglutition.\n\n3358. Their inspiration is still therefore fish-like in character,\nexcepting that the air is drawn in by the nostrils; the respiratory\nprocess, however, and the respiratory organ is constituted as in the\nperfect air-breathing animals.\n\n3359. Reptiles may therefore be called _Abdominal animals_, while the\nFishes are Pelvic animals.\n\n3360. The metamorphosis of the branchial arches into larynx is placed\nbeyond doubt in the Reptiles. The anterior branchial arches frequently\nunite with the lingual bone, whereby the latter obtains several cornua.\n\n3361. The thyroid gland also makes its appearance here for the first\ntime, while the branchial vessels separate from the arches. Fishes have\ntherefore no thyroid gland.\n\n3362. The circulation is complete. The venous and also the arterial\nblood enters the heart. But both kinds of blood are still mingled\nwith each other as in Fishes. Yet already, through the direction and\narrangement of the cardiac orifices, provision seems to be made for\ntheir separation.\n\n3363. The rationale of this mixture of the blood appears to reside in\nthe fact, that many of these animals, and probably all of them in the\novum state, breathe by branchi\u00e6. (This proposition, which was announced\nin the 1st Edition, 1810. \u00a7 305, and there based upon the transitional\nstages traversed by the animal classes during embryonic development,\nhas since then been raised to a state of certainty.)\n\n3364. The mixture of the blood takes place through an opening in the\nseptum separating the two cardiac ventricles, and which corresponds to\nthe foramen ovale of the foetus. The heart of Reptiles is therefore a\npersistent foetal heart.\n\n3365. Without doubt, however, the arterial blood only enters the left\nheart, while the venous remains in the right, to be thence driven into\nthe lungs.\n\n3366. In other respects the foramen ovale is not a true opening, but\na bifurcation of the vena cava, one branch of which passes into the\nright, the other into the left ventricle, as I have demonstrated in the\n'Beytr\u00e4gen zur Anatomie' (Frankfurt bei Wesche), in treating of the\ncalf's heart.\n\n3367. There are generally no foramina in the body, but only fissures\nwithout orifices.\n\n\n_Abdomen._\n\n3368. The digestive organs are pretty similar to those in Fishes, as is\nexemplified by the intestine, liver, and spleen; the digestive process\nis, however, more energetic, and frequently aided by venom or poison.\n\n3369. The sexual parts are perfect. The first true testes and ovaria\nhave originated. The tegumental formation has consequently passed\nover at the extremities into a glandular, because the vascular system\npreponderates. Even in the highest Fishes, such as the Rays and Sharks,\nthe testes and ovaria are still not developed to the extent which they\nare in Reptiles.\n\n3370. In the female the oviducts pass together as complete cornua into\nan uterus. In the male the seminal ducts are still indeed separate,\nyet the two bodies or crura of the penis are frequently developed, and\ncontinue separate in the Serpents and Lizards, but are connate in the\nTortoises.\n\n3371. The kidneys are distinct and symmetrical; their ureters usually\nunite into a large urinary cyst. Thus, the sexual lung is also\nsignificantly developed.\n\n3372. Many of these urinary bladders split, as in the Tortoises, into\ntwo cornua. This is the form under which the cyst again occurs in\nBirds, where its two cornua have been incorrectly termed coeca, but\nthe urinary cyst rectum, because the intestine opens into it.\n\n3373. In Reptiles also there is a cloaca or sexual orifice, into which\nall the sexual apertures meet together.\n\nThe ova of Reptiles possess a vitellus and albumen, and are surrounded\nby a membranous or sometimes by a calcareous shell.\n\n3374. Hence Reptiles have originally also a coecum, but it has for\nthe most part disappeared; like its antetype the vitelline canal, which\nis so small in most Fishes and Birds, as to be scarcely distinguishable.\n\nThe tail projects from the body, and is rather trailed after the\nanimal, than enabled to assist the body in its motions, as in Fishes.\n\n\n_Senses._\n\n3375. Many Fishes have only a vertebral column without lateral bones;\nin the Thoracic animals this deficiency can hardly occur any longer,\nalthough we are not, on the other hand, to expect any great amount\nof perfection to be attained by these parts. Reptiles have osseous\nramules, whether such be ribs or true feet; the Serpents have indeed\nonly ribs, but these exist in great numbers; in the Frogs, on the\ncontrary, ribs are wanting, but they have limbs.\n\nIn no Reptile do fin-rays occur; consequently, there are no peculiar\nbones as in Fishes.\n\n3376. In Reptiles the limbs themselves are in a varied or undetermined\nstate, although they constitute a class in which the formation of true\nmuscular limbs is decided. In Reptiles the toes appear for the first\ntime.\n\n3377. As regards the tegument, it quite corresponds with that of the\nCorals, Snails, and Crabs, of which the Reptiles are a repetition. In\nsome cases it is slimy and naked; in others Mussel-shells originate,\nas in the carapace of the Tortoises; the scales, scutes, and claws of\nSerpents and Lizards repeat the rings and scutes of Crabs.\n\n3378. The head has separated itself more from the thorax, the eyes and\nears being much more perfect; as regards the latter organs the cranium\nis always perforated, in the former there are eyelids.\n\n3379. The eyes have still no power of free motion, and the eyelids are\nas yet very imperfect. It is principally the lower eyelid which closes,\nwhile in Mammalia the upper one is the most developed.\n\n3380. The external auditory meatus is notwithstanding usually covered\nby integument, the auditory ossicles are mostly blended into one, which\nprojects above the skull; the cochlea is wanting.\n\n3381. Reptiles produce sounds for the first time through the lungs;\nthey have voice, but as yet no song.\n\n3382. The nose, however, gives the finishing touch to the head. It has\nnot only opened as a vertebral canal in front, but also as a thoracic\ncavity posteriorly into the mouth, which was not the case in Fishes.\nThe open nose is the \u00e6sthetic character of Reptiles, just as the red\nmuscles are the characteristics of the anatomical systems. The Reptiles\nare _Rhinozoa_.\n\n3383. The tongue takes a higher rank than in Fishes. It is throughout\nsoft, fleshy, and smooth; but in most species is still slit into two,\nwhich reminds us of a similar condition of the penis.\n\n3384. The teeth are in these animals more like digits than in Fishes.\nWhile here they consist for the greatest part of front teeth, and are\ntherefore associated with the intestine, in Reptiles they are mostly\nlateral, and thus true maxillary teeth, which are annexed to the\nsalivary system. With this special dental formation the saliva is also\nmore active; it is a rapidly fatal poison.\n\n3385. The poison-teeth or fangs have likewise a groove, which can be\nregarded as the continuation of the salivary duct.\n\n\n_Class 12. Neurozoa, Otozoa._\n\n3386. Those Sarcozoa, whose nervous system is for the first time\nperfectly developed, and whose ear is open externally, are the _Birds_.\n\n3387. The completion of the nervous system is the brain; now the brain\ndefines or determines the head; the Bird is, properly speaking, the\nfirst Encephalic animal.\n\n3388. In the Bird the head has for the first time, and that indeed\nsuddenly, freed itself from the trunk, and been placed upon a long\nneck, far removed from the thorax. In no class are there such long\nnecks and so many cervical vertebr\u00e6 to be found as in Birds. They can\nbe therefore called also Cervical animals, as the neck is not simply\npresent, in order to render the head independent or self-substantial.\n\nThe caudal vertebr\u00e6, on the contrary, are lessened throughout the\nBirds, to a degree met with in no other class of animals.\n\n3389. The brain separates for the first time completely into cerebrum\nand cerebellum, begins to exhibit convolutions, and has in general\nmost of the individual parts analogous to those in the Thricozoa. They\nare therefore _Encephalic animals_, which the name of Neurozoa will\nproperly enough imply. The nerves are in comparison with the spinal\ncord much thinner than in Reptiles and Fishes.\n\nIn the Bird also, all the spiritual or mental faculties make their\nappearance for the first time and suddenly, whereas in the preceding\nclasses but slight traces of them were observed. Such for example\nare their mechanical instincts, varied modes of nidification, powers\nof imitation, susceptibility to instruction, knowledge of their\nbenefactors, sentiment of joy, wheedling or coaxing manners, and so on.\nWe have no example of Fishes and Reptiles having learnt any artificial\ntricks.\n\n3390. Birds are the closest repetition of the Insects, but stand remote\nfrom the Crabs and Acaleph\u00e6, indications of which are reflected by\ntheir structure, disposition, mechanical instincts, and in their nests.\n\n\n_Thorax._\n\nAs the sexual body with the tail predominates in Fishes, and the\nabdomen in Reptiles, so does the thorax in Birds. The whole abdomen and\nsexual body has been subordinated to the thorax.\n\nThe ribs are here directed in such a manner for the first time, that\nthe thorax can act as a voluntary pump-organ. Sternum and respiratory\nmuscles are usually large and peculiarly built.\n\n3391. The lung is only a cluster of Insect trache\u00e6. They are full\nof foramina, out of which the air can penetrate into the whole\nbody, exactly as in Insects. In Fishes the lung was still an actual\nintestine, as seen in the single air-cyst; in Reptiles it was\nnothing more than a double intestine; in Birds this lung is divided\nafter the fashion of an Insect into aerial vessels or ducts.\n\nIn the Bird the intestine lies in the air, and breathes from it, as in\nthe Insect. Birds are also animals which breathe by the intestine.\n\n3392. The whole Bird is lung. Its body is a thoracic cavity, while in\nthe Fish it was simply a sexual cavity, and in the Reptile had obtained\nthe abdominal form. In Birds therefore there is a number of ribs and a\nstrong ossification, from the air itself penetrating into the bones.\n\nEven the intestine has passed over into a motor organ. In Birds and\nInsects only do we find a true muscular stomach, wherein the food is\ncrushed.\n\n\n_Members or Limbs._\n\n3393. In these animals the formation of limbs or members must be wholly\nattained. Everything, that works, must work to the production of limbs.\nThe whole body becomes limb.\n\n3394. With the perfected nervous and respiratory system the bones and\nmuscles make also a perfect appearance. The skeleton is hard, complete,\nand full of air instead of marrow; the muscles are red and separated,\nthe movements free and complex.\n\n3395. The elevated condition of the motor system is demonstrated in\nthe limbs, which here appear in the greatest diversity. There are only\ntwo pairs of limbs, thoracic, and abdominal or sexual members. These\ntwo are equivalent, so long only as the sexual and abdominal cavity\nbelonging to the trunk proper predominate, and therefore preserve the\nequilibrium. But the limbs, which have been given to serve the office\nof the trunk, are destined for progression or swimming, and are simply\nterrestrial or aquatic members.\n\n3396. The higher limbs are thoracic respiratory members, which are\nfilled with air and clothed with trache\u00e6, thus exercising a function\nconformable to the thorax. The thorax has an aerial character. The\nhighest thoracic limbs must be aerial members.\n\n3397. As the abdominal members move upon the earth or in the water, so\ndo the thoracic in the air. The terrestrial limbs are feet, the aerial\nlimbs, _wings_.\n\n3398. The wings are in the member-formation the extremes of the\nthoracic limbs. It does not follow from this that they are the noblest\nin rank, but only that they are the uttermost unto which bodily motion\ncan attain.\n\n3399. The winged animal is the Bird.\n\n3400. The Bird is an Insect with fleshy limbs.\n\n3401. The wings of Birds repeat the alary appendages of Insects in the\nflesh.\n\n3402. A Bird's wing is a strange but very instructive composition. It\nconsists, namely, of a Reptile's foot and an Insect's wings.\n\n3403. We saw how the branchi\u00e6 of the Insect dried up, separated from\nthe feet, and being liberated as wings, were permeated by trache\u00e6. In\nthe Bird these wings have remained standing upon the feet and been\nconverted into feathers.\n\n3404. A feather is an Insect's wing.\n\n3405. As the Bird grows out at the thoracic limbs into the Insect's\nwings, so does it upon the whole body into dried branchial lamin\u00e6.\n\nThe whole body of the Bird is clothed with branchial lamin\u00e6 or plates.\n\n3406. The wings of the Insects might be called free trache\u00e6.\n\nThe Bird's feathers are Insect-trache\u00e6. As in the Insect the wings are\na leash or net of trache\u00e6 held together by membranes, so feathers are\ntrache\u00e6 dividing into fibre-like ramules.\n\n3407. The Bird is a Reptilian or Frog's body, beset all over with\nInsects, like as with parasitic animals.\n\n3408. The highest Insect only attains to the possession of four wings,\nwhich in some Moths split again into several feathers. In the Bird a\nvast number of such wings originates.\n\n3409. An Insect's wing is not more than _one_ feather, and is therefore\nplaced also directly upon the body. These wings must multiply so soon\nas they occur upon a membered trunk, upon arms. Thus, we need not ask\nwhy the Butterfly has four, but the Bird only two wings, seeing that\nthe latter is the nobler animal. The discourse cannot be concerning the\nwings of the former, for the Butterfly has indeed none, but only four\nfeathers.\n\n3410. What the Bird is, it is by virtue of its feathers. It is\nthroughout a trachea, a pair of bellows. Its bones are hollow, full\nof air, and stand likewise in communication with the lungs; the\nfeather-quills are also hollow.\n\n\n_Senses._\n\n3411. The wings have all the muscles to themselves; the bone has in\nthem gone to ruin. On the legs, on the contrary, the muscles have\ndeclined, and the bone has got the upper hand.\n\nHence it results, properly speaking, that only the thoracic members are\nperfected, because the Bird is nothing but thorax. The abdomen has,\nso to speak, vanished, and through this the abdominal limbs are left\nonly, as thin and dry poles or staffs.\n\n3412. From the same cause the muscular flesh upon the head has\ndisappeared. Neck and head are lean, or like Insect horn, which serves\nonly the nervous system.\n\n3413. Beyond the excess of motion the sense of feeling has been nearly\nlost. The toes are simply destined for motion, and to be used as\nscrapers, and the digits have become the supports of feathers.\n\n3414. The bill is an Insect's proboscis. In the Bird no teeth whatever\nproject from the flesh, but the jaws themselves. To such an extent has\nthe flesh been withdrawn. What has been called the cere is the only\nremnant of the facial flesh. Even nostrils and tongue have suffered\nossification.\n\n3415. The tongue is a feather. Saliva is scarcely present.\n\n3416. The ears, as being the sense of motion, are far more perfectly\nevolved than in all the preceding classes. They have opened outwards,\nand possess an additional auditory part, the cochlea.\n\nWith the limbs the sense of hearing must of necessity grow perfect.\n\n3417. The Bird is thoroughly, or \"out-and-out\" organized as an animal\nof song. In it Nature attains unto a definite hearing and speech. The\nBird speaketh the language of Nature.\n\nWith the Bird, the voice, properly speaking, breaks forth for the first\ntime, and that too in a high grade of perfection, as melody.\n\n3418. The ear is the highest representation of the trachea in muscles\nand bones. The Bird is the _Otozoon_.\n\n\n_Sexual Parts._\n\n3419. The kidneys are symmetrically constructed, although not yet a\nperfectly coherent mass. They are of very large size. But a strange\nfeature has come to pass in the urinary cyst, which is the sexual\nlung. Into this, as has been already said, the intestine opens, and\nthus it here again passes over into the lung, just as it has passed\nover into a fleshy cardioid stomach, and completely upwards into the\nfeather-like tongue.\n\nInto this sexual lung the seminal ducts also enter, or the penis, when\none is present, along with the oviduct.\n\n3420. The ovum consists of two completely separated substances, and\nthese indeed are so distinct, that the vitellus is secreted at an\nentirely different place to the albumen, the former in the ovarium, the\nlatter in the oviduct--whereas in Fishes both originated together.\n\nThe separation cannot extend further, or else the substances would no\nlonger unite with each other, and the vitellus must be first mixed with\nthe albumen, after it has been completely formed, after or when it is\nan embryo. In the Bird albumen and vitellus come together during their\npassage out of the parent's body, or in the act of being laid, and\nthus before the albumen has been converted into the chick. But in the\nMammalia they are first completely united, subsequently to their being\nlaid--i. e. during the period of lactation.\n\n3421. The vitellus is directly secreted from the arteries, but the\nalbumen from an enteroidal sac or the oviduct, which is finally\nconverted into mammary glands.\n\n3422. The vitellus is more a product of the thorax, and is therefore\nformed directly into the intestine and entire embryo.\n\n3423. The albumen is an intestinal or digestive product, a solution of\nthe organic mass into protoplasma or primary mucus. It is not fashioned\nitself into the embryo, but is only absorbed as fluid nutriment by the\nlatter.\n\n3424. The shell of the ovum is the last bone, which the animal deposits\nfrom the sexual blood, as being analogous to the urine. It is an aerial\nproduct, or an analogue of the feather's quill.\n\n3425. Even the nest of the Bird is a spiritual repetition of its\nplumage, for in it the stalks of plants, trache\u00e6, or feathers are\nunited into one body, which reminds us in the Swallows of the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n\nFIFTH CIRCLE. AISTHESEOZOA.\n\n_Class_ 13. _Aistheseozoa._\n\n3426. An animal with all its organs of sense perfectly developed, is a\n_Thricozoon_.\n\n3427. The nervous system emerges at length freely above the other\nsystems, and it is no longer its mass, but its _organs_ which impart\ncharacter to the animal. The nervous organs are, however, simply the\norgans of sense. Through these therefore must the present differ from\nthe preceding class of animals.\n\n3428. Now too the senses first make their appearance in a\nself-substantial manner above the other organs, serving merely their\nown functions, and only by chance those of others.\n\n3429. As in Birds the whole body was subordinated to the thorax, in\nReptiles to the abdomen, in Fishes to the sex, in Insects to the\ntrache\u00e6, and so on; in like manner is it here subordinated to the\nsystem of the senses or the head.\n\n3430. As the higher senses determine or define the anterior part of\nthe head, and are in their state of perfection provided with muscles;\nso here the face or visage is invested by flesh, whereby, properly\nspeaking, a true, namely, a moveable countenance, first originates. The\nAistheseozoa have a _fleshy face_.\n\n3431. All possess moveable eyes; fleshy noses, which stand open both\nexternally and internally; ears opening outwards, and mostly provided\nwith a moveable flap; a fleshy tongue, free in front, and moveable\nlips; with at least thoracic limbs and a skin covered with hairs.\n\n3432. In the Bird, Reptile, and Fish the face is merely invested by\ntegument, nearly devoid of any muscles, and therefore immoveable.\nThey have a _tegumental face_, which is incapable of producing any\nexpressions.\n\n3433. In the tegumental face the eyes are motionless, and very rarely\nboth directed so forwards that they can view an object together;\nthe nostrils are frequently devoid of a fleshy rim; the tongue often\nfeather-like, cartilaginous, or covered with teeth; true fleshy lips\nare wanting, as are frequently the teeth, with even the limbs and\ndigits, or these are divided into a number of rays, forming either\nfeathers, or fins; in the Aistheseozoa there are never more than five\ntoes present, and if there be fewer, then the number admits of being\nreferred to some crippling of the normal quantity, five.\n\n3434. It is remarkable, and serves to the discovery of many laws,\nthat the highest sense here appears for the first time in its state\nof perfection. The eye in the Aistheseozoa is present in a perfect\ncondition throughout the class, with the exception of the eyelids; the\nother organs of sense are, on the contrary, exhibited in all their\ngradations of structure.\n\n3435. It appears, as if the whole animal was first perfected, when\nthe eye is present with all its investment or clothing. The eye of\nthe Aistheseozoa has not simply all its internal chambers and all its\nhumours, but also all its muscles; it is moveable and has perfect\neyelids, with very few exceptions--_Ophthalmozoa_.\n\n3436. The ear now begins to suffer arrest. Its completion is indeed\nthe formation of an external concha or flap for receiving the rays of\nsound, the hand being repeated in the ear, and its skeleton constituted\nby the auditory ossicles. This auditory hand occurs only in the\nAistheseozoa, and might serve as characteristic if it were not wanting\nin many, while the eyelids are present. As in the Whales, where the\nauditory passage can be, however, closed, an act which is not possible\nin any Bird. The Bird must hear whether it will or no.\n\nIn all Thricozoa the interior of the ear is perfect, having cochlea,\nsemicircular canals, tympanum, and, as brachial parts, the three\nconjoined auditory ossicles. The concha of the ear passes besides\nthrough all stages of development, from having a simple margin to one\nwith most varied convolutions, lobes and opercula.\n\n3437. Still more than the ear does the nose undergo modifications. In\nthe Whales it seems to be less adapted for the purposes of smell than\nof respiration. The olfactory nerves are in them very delicate, and the\napex of the nose is destitute of motion.\n\nIn other beasts, on the contrary, it is elongated into a very muscular\nproboscis or snout, and is endowed with the power of voluntary motion.\n\nThe form also of the nostrils is very varied, they being round, narrow,\npatulous, and frequently capable of being closed.\n\n3438. The tongue is indeed mostly fleshy and soft; yet in many species\nit is provided with horny points, in others invested by a dense\ncoriaceous tegument, so that it appears to represent an instrument for\ndeglutition rather than gustation.\n\n3439. The lips also are mostly fleshy and moveable; yet in many they\nretrograde exceedingly and lose their mobility, as is partly the case\nin the Ornithorynchus.\n\n3440. In most, however, the limbs, especially the toes, are still\nsubject to variation. Their perfection consists in the number five, and\nin the difference between the two pairs of limbs, as in Man. In the\nApes the posterior feet are also hands, which is an imperfection; in\nthe Marsupials there are hands posteriorly but toes in front; in other\nrespects there are generally toes, sometimes five, then four, finally\ntwo perfect and two dew-claws in the Ox, and at length only one in the\nHorse, while the posterior extremities are virtually lost in the Whales.\n\n3441. The dental system, as being the set of maxillary claws, is alone\npresent in its state of perfection in the Thricozoa. They alone have,\nin addition to the incisor teeth, all the five kinds of teeth that\ndiffer from each other in form, namely, canine, false molars, laniary,\nwith second and third true molars, corresponding to the five fingers\nreckoned from the thumb.\n\n3442. In the dentition of those animals which tear their food the\ngreatest amount of completeness and variety is met with, since each\ntooth has a different form and function.\n\nIn the Bears the molars are uniform in character, and so on through the\nApes up to Man.\n\nIn the Marsupials they are tolerably similar, as also in the Bats and\nShrew-mice.\n\nThey are still more alike in the Pig and Horse, and the incisor teeth\nbegin to be wanting in the Ruminantia, e. g. the Ox.\n\nIn Mice the canines are wanting, in the Sloths the front teeth, and in\nthe Ant-eaters actually all.\n\n3443. In opposition to the perfect eye the general sense of feeling\nis developed in the tegument. The tegument which is best developed\nwill be that, which represents a self-substantial organ with all its\nappurtenances, and thus an organ of touch, whose nobility of rank\nconsists in motion. A skin, which is moveable by means of muscles, must\ntake the noblest rank. A skin with _tegumental_ muscles is an organ of\nfeeling, which is already in some degree subjected to the influence of\nthe will. If tegumental muscles do not occur in all these animals, they\nstill do in most of them.\n\nThe production of the most perfect coat or covering is the second step,\nwhereby the tegument ascends.\n\n3444. Hitherto the outer covering of animals was pretty inorganic,\nconsisting either of hollow trache\u00e6, feathers, or semicavernous scales,\ncoat of mail, or lastly, only mucus. All these organs were only\nconstructed after the type of individual vegetable systems, in greatest\npart only after the respiratory organ, and were therefore partial in\naspect or deficient.\n\nThe highest covering must also bear the highest meaning. This is that,\nwhich grows out of the sanguinary system collectively, out of the\ncapillary vessels. The capillary vessels of the covering are, however,\nthe hairs. The hair is the most perfect covering of the animal.\n\n3445. These animals are the _Thricozoa_.\n\nAlready the highest birds, e. g. the Ostrich and Cassowary, exhibit\nfeathers which merge over into hairs.\n\n3446. An integument clothed with hair, and self-substantially moveable\nis the perfection of this organ, it is a _fur_--_Furred animals_.\n\n3447. The fur is the peripheric combination of the Vegetable and\nAnimal. The hairs are the highest Vegetable, as being the vascular\nsystem grown out of or above the animal, and constituting the\nfundamental or basi-system of the whole body. The tegumental muscles\nare the lowest Animal. In the fur consequently the whole animal has\nbeen represented, but as a limit set between animal and world.\n\n3448. The tegumental covering also varies. The hairs become scanty in\nrespect of number; instead of them spines, horny rings or scales occur,\nyet there are always hairs on the belly. In many Whales they seem to\ndwindle into bristles. In some they have coalesced to form a kind of\nbark, as in the Stellerian Walrus or Sea-cow.\n\n\n_Thorax._\n\n3449. In all the respiration is aerial; in all there is a true costal\nstructure, and a respiration effected through the motion of the ribs or\na pumping action; in all the lungs are filled with cells; in all there\nis a diaphragm, a larynx, a trachea with cartilaginous rings, and a\nthyroid gland. But the air no longer penetrates from out the lungs into\nall the cavities of the body, as in Birds.\n\n\n_Abdomen._\n\n3450. The two intestines, namely, the large and small, are more\ndistinct from each other than in other animals; the c\u00e6cum coli is in\nmost distinct; the stomach expanded and membranous in texture, so that\nit operates simply through chemical influence. Liver, pancreas, and\nspleen occur in all.\n\n3451. The sexual parts are in every respect very perfect. The penis is\npresent in all, and all have an uterus, fallopian tubes, and separate\noviducts. The penis is in many still retracted into a cloaca, and the\ntestes frequently lie within the abdominal cavity.\n\n3452. As in the tegument the parts separate and each becomes\nself-substantial, the fibre animal, the tegument vegetal, and so on\neven in the sexual animal. The ovarium, consisting of two parts, now\nalso separates, since one becomes _animal_, but the other remains\nvegetal. The albumen-organ becomes animal, detaches itself from the\nsexual parts, is developed in the self-substantial tegument and called\nmamma.\n\nThe Aistheseozoa are thus also _Mastozoa_ or Mammalia.\n\n3453. This separation of the sexual animal is one of the first\ncharacters. The mamm\u00e6 could never be wanting, because they indicate\nan essential stage in the development. The albumen-organ becomes an\norgan of sensation. If the existence of mammary organs be doubtful, as\nin the Ornithorynchus, the hairs are in that case perfectly distinct.\nNo Reptile nor Bird can have hairs, because their covering is derived\nonly from a partial system, the respiratory; while hairs are from the\ngeneral vascular system, which is the foundation of the tegument, of\nthe sense of feeling. The Ornithorynchus is a _furred animal_, and this\nwould suffice to bring it among the Aistheseozoa, were we even to deny\nit mammary organs.\n\n3454. Both sexes, male and female, have breasts. In youth they are most\nreadily detected in the male, because their sexual parts then rank\nnearer to the female. In other respects the mamm\u00e6 are probably the\nchiefest organs of absorption for the embryo.\n\n3455. The mamm\u00e6 are nobler in rank, when, as udders they become\nself-substantial; and the more they remove from the belly or abdomen,\nand come, as breasts, to be placed upon the chest.\n\n\nD. ORDERS AND FAMILIES.\n\n3456. Had the names been given in strict accordance with rank; then\nthe class-divisions, which correspond to the circles, would have been\ncalled _Orders_.\n\n3457. Families would be class-divisions, which correspond to the\nclasses themselves.\n\n3458. In no class therefore could there be more than four orders\nadmitted, or five, if the sensorial organs be reckoned to constitute a\nspecial circle.\n\nFrom the same reason there are no more than thirteen or seventeen\nfamilies.--These names cannot meanwhile be so strictly adopted, because\nthe classes are not of equal rank, as has been observed; on this\naccount it is necessary to shove in here and there other divisions,\nwhich should be termed at one time _Cohorts_, at another, _Alliances_.\n\n3459. If the animals of a class differ from each other, it is only\npossible by their bringing to bear in addition to their characteristic\norgan some other organ, and consequently becoming similar to an earlier\nor later class.\n\n3460. Yet nevertheless in this ascent the animals could never outstep\nthe confines of their own circle. There can be no Dermatozoon which\ncould have bones; for in that case it would be an Osteozoon, and belong\nto another province.\n\nEvery class therefore comprises as many orders only as there are\ncircles with which it comes into contact. Thus in the first circle\nthere is only one order, in the second two, and so on.\n\nEach class therefore includes also as many families only as the circles\nwhich are touched by it contain classes. Thus the first to the third\nclass has three, the fourth to the sixth, six; the seventh to the\nninth, nine; the tenth and so on, thirteen.\n\n3461. The serial arrangement of animals into families is naturally\ndifficult; but in Physio-philosophy we have to treat not about the\nexecution of the Systematic in detail, but concerning its principles.\n\n\nFIRST CIRCLE. INTESTINAL, OOZOA--MUCUS-ANIMALS.\n\n_First Class._\n\n_Gastric, Vitelline Animals--Infusoria._\n\n3462. The Infusoria admit of being reduced to three divisions:\nthe lowest of which, such as the Infusoria proper or Monades, are\nprovided for the most part with cilia; the next in succession, as the\nRhizopoda, possess extensible processes, and are mostly covered by a\nmulti-chambered shell; lastly, the most perfect Infusoria have all\nkinds of internal organs, and especially what has been called rotatory\napparatus, as being the dawn of future tentacula.\n\n3463. These three Families obviously correspond to the three classes of\nthe present circle, and that indeed as follows:\n\nTo the _first class_, or Infusoria proper, correspond the _Monades_.\n\nTo the _second class_, or Polyps, the _Rhizopoda_.\n\nTo the _third class_, or Acaleph\u00e6, the _Rotifera_.\n\n3464. The Monades are obviously the simplest organized creatures, being\nmucous vesicles, which move, obtain their food by stirring up vortical\ncurrents in the water, and emit what is undigested again by the mouth.\n\n3465. They occur very abundantly in all infusions, and can very well\noriginate, like Fungi, by division of the organic mass, although they\nare in a condition to propagate themselves, i. e. by spontaneous\ndivision.\n\n3466. The Monades are the semen of the animal kingdom, which is\ndissolved in, or rather produced from, the sea.\n\n3467. The animal body is nothing else than a compound fabric of Monads.\n\n3468. Decomposition is a separation into Monads, a retrogression into\nthe primary mass of the animal kingdom.\n\n3469. All propagation, even that of the sex, commences like the animal\nkingdom, or with its first family. On that account the embryonic\ndevelopment must be a passage through the animal kingdom.\n\n3470. The Rhizopoda usually adhere together within a multi-chambered\ncalcareous shell, out of which they protrude mucous filaments, and are\ntherefore the antetypes of the Corals or Polyps.\n\n3471. The Rotifera exhibit all kinds of viscera, such as intestine and\novaries; besides what have been called rotatory organs, which remind us\nof the arms or tentacles of the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n3472. The families of these animals may be therefore aptly named as\nfollows:\n\n  Fam. 1. Typical Infusoria--_Monades_; cilia or vibratile organs.\n       2. Polypary Infusoria--_Rhizopoda_; extensible processes.\n       3. Acalephan Infusoria--_Rotifera_; intestine and oral organs.\n\n\n_Second Class._\n\n_Intestinal, Albuminous Animals--Polypi._\n\n3473. The Polyps also do not admit of being divided into more than\nthree families. The first are only tubes or vesicles with _capillary\ntentacula_ around the mouth, as the naked Polyps, Tubulari\u00e6,\nSertulari\u00e6, and Cellulari\u00e6.\n\nThe others have true ciliated _tentacular rays_ surrounding the mouth,\nand are always condensed inferiorly into a horny, and occasionally\nstony axis or stem, as is seen in the Gorgoni\u00e6, Alcyoni\u00e6, and Isidi\u00e6.\n\nThe third have ordinary _tentacula_, occurring in great numbers like\ntassels or tufts around the mouth; their integument is either hardened\ninto stone, or becomes fleshy, as in the Star-corals and Actini\u00e6.\n\n3474. There is no doubt that the _naked Polyps_ are closely allied to\nthe Infusoria, and among them indeed to the Rotifera, so that they\nrepresent but a higher stage of these creatures, characterized by\nsuperior size and by tentacular in place of ciliary or vibratile hairs.\n\n3475. The _Cellulari\u00e6_ cannot be more distinctly characterized than by\nsaying that they are cortices or ramules inhabited by Vorticell\u00e6. Thus\nthey are Vorticell\u00e6 surrounded by a shell, and may be compared to ova,\nin whose coriaceous or leathery shell calcareous granules are blended,\nas in the eggs of the Crocodiles and Tortoises.\n\n3476. They increase by means of ova and by ramification, if the former\nmode of division is not carried too far.\n\n3477. The tubes of the Tubulari\u00e6 appear to be nothing else than the\nposterior extremity of the Polyp, desiccated or dried. These tubes are\nnot therefore the product of an excretion, but the body itself.\n\n3478. On the contrary, the tubes of the Sertulari\u00e6 must be held as\nbeing a tegumental excretion, within which the Polyp ramifies and\nproduces ova-cysts. If the naked Polyps resemble ova which are devoid\nof shells, such as the roe or spawn of Fishes, then the Sertulari\u00e6\nresemble ova surrounded by a tough skin, like those of Rays and\nSerpents.\n\nThe _Radiated Polyps_ or Horn-corals are invariably ramified and\nconverted towards their interior into a common horny or stony mass; so\nthat the animals themselves appear to have coalesced upon this into a\ncommon tegument or bark. They possess a stomach and ovaries surrounding\nit, which open into the border of the mouth between the rays. They thus\nincrease by ova and ramifications.\n\nThey therefore represent the class proper of the Polyps.\n\nThe tufted Polyps comprise the proper Corals or Lithozoa, are in form\nand substance like the Acaleph\u00e6 but with this difference, that the\ncovering is mostly lithoidal, while in many Acalephans, as the Porpit\u00e6,\nit only appears as a cartilaginous disc or plate.\n\n3479. These Corals are true ova, having a perfect calcareous shell,\nlike that of the Bird. The gelatinous animal which adheres within\na wide-mouthed Madrepore, e. g. Fungia, resembles a vitellus just\nhatched, and from which the foetal envelopes have been developed.\n\n3480. The numerous tentacular filaments surrounding the wide mouth\nresemble the shags of the chorion, which accumulate around the orifice\nof the umbilical cord to constitute a placenta in the higher animals.\n\nThe Corals are brood-eggs inclosed within the uterus of Nature or in\nthe sea. The Coral-animals are an umbilical cord, treasured up for\nthe embryo, while the Tubulari\u00e6 are only membranous vitelli, and the\nGorgoni\u00e6, ova with desiccated albumen.\n\n3481. The families of Polyps stand therefore in the following order of\nsignificance:\n\n  Fam. 1. Infusorial Polyps--_Tubulari\u00e6_.\n       2. Typical Polyps--_Alcyoni\u00e6_.\n       3. Acalephan Polyps--_Actini\u00e6_.\n\n\n_Third Class._\n\n_Absorbent, Involucral Animals--Acaleph\u00e6._\n\n3482. The Acaleph\u00e6 also can only be brought under three divisions, viz.\nR\u00f6hrenquallen, or _Physali\u00e6_, Rippenquallen or _Beroes_, Hutquallen or\n_Acaleph\u00e6_.\n\n3483. The _Physali\u00e6_ are without doubt the lowest, being only giant\nInfusoria; the _Beroes_ are allied through their simple bodily cavity,\nto the Gorgoni\u00e6; the _Acaleph\u00e6_, through their form, to the Madrepores,\nespecially the Actini\u00e6.\n\n3484. They range therefore in the following order of significance:\n\n  Fam. 1. Infusorial Acaleph\u00e6--_Physali\u00e6_.\n       2. Polypary Acaleph\u00e6--_Beroes_.\n       3. Typical Acaleph\u00e6--_Medus\u00e6_.\n\n3485. The _first_ have not yet attained to the unity or single\ncharacter of the mouth, but imbibe their food through numerous tubes.\nThey are bundles of ramified Vorticell\u00e6, a thoracic duct full of glands\nand roots, which absorbs nutriment out of the sea, instead of an\nintestine.\n\nAs the first family they are the antetypes of the Mussels and Entozoa,\nand especially of the Hydatids and Tape-worms, and we shall not be\nfar from hitting the mark, if we compare their air-bladder with the\nhindermost cystiform member of the body in the Hydatids.\n\n3486. The _second_ family have a single mouth and ribs mostly full\nof lamell\u00e6, which are probably the antetypes of gills; they are also\nfrequently traversed by nutritive vessels.\n\nThey are antetypical of Snails, being in form an abdominal pouch, in\nsubstance a liver, and frequently possessing paired tentacula. Higher\nup, and they indicate the Crabs.\n\n3487. The _third_ have, as a general rule, one central mouth\nsurrounded by four arms and very numerous vessels, which run from\nthe gastric cavity to its margins, and there mostly elongate into\nfilaments or hairs, being thus true lymphatic vessels, which convey\nthe nourishment directly from the stomach through the whole body, and\nbecome on its margin tentacula.\n\n3488. As antetypes of the Kracken they particularly manifest the form\nof the Sepi\u00e6, or Cephalopods, in the strong and frequently papillated\narms that surround the mouth. Gland-like nodes are also developed in\nthe margin of the pileus, but their meaning is as yet doubtful. Upon a\nhigher stage, and they are antetypical of Insects.\n\nTheir vascular system forms an exceedingly regular, quaternary net,\nwith branches and ramules ranging opposite to each other, which have\nbeen believed to be the vitelline network of the ovum when hatched.\nThese vessels terminate likewise in a common marginal vessel, as in the\nvitellus.\n\n3489. Viewed as a whole they resemble in form, appendages, and\nsubstance the foetal involucra or envelopes. The upper surface may\nbe compared with the convex back of the envelopes, the lower to the\nconcave funnel of the umbilical cord, and the succigerent filaments\nor hairs to the shags of the chorion. They are probably elongated by\ninjection, like the so-called legs of the Star-fishes.\n\nThe secretion of the ova in four ovaries speaks also in favour of\ntheir higher grade of development. They lie in four cavities around\nthe stomach, which also open near to the mouth. Their size also is\nsignificantly expressive of their higher position.\n\nFinally, they are of separate sexes. In them is the milt for the first\ntime distinctly displayed, and in the same situation indeed where in\nother animals the ovaries are.\n\n3490. Hence, in these three classes there are found no more than three\nfamilies, which together make up only _one_ order. The want of a fourth\nfamily and so on, proves that the development of these animals does\nnot pass over into the succeeding circle. Their body therefore is only\nan homogeneous, transparent mass, variously excavated and perforated,\nbut not separated into two cysts, namely, tegument and intestine, and\nwithout the other viscera, which are formed by the vascular system,\nsuch as the liver, kidneys, and salivary glands.\n\n\nSECOND CIRCLE. VASCULAR, SEXUAL ANIMALS.\n\n3491. These animals will both traverse the three classes of their\ncircle, as also repeat the preceding three classes, and they\nconsequently divide into two orders and six families.\n\n\n_Fourth Class._\n\n_Venous, Ovarial Animals--Mussels._\n\n3492. The Mussels or bivalve Mollusca resolve themselves into two\norders, according to the structure of their mantle or respiratory sac.\nIt is either closed in a tubuliform manner, and opens posteriorly into\ntwo mostly tubular-shaped respiratory apertures, and in front has an\norifice for the passage of the foot--_Camacea_ (_Lochmuscheln_); or\nit is slit along its whole length anteriorly; and the pedal aperture\nis confluent with the anterior and also indeed with the posterior\nrespiratory opening--_Ostracea_ (_Spaltmuscheln_.)\n\nThe first order still represent the cystic form of the Oozoa, and\npartly by tubuliform calcareous shells placed around the two ordinary\nshell-valves; but the second, by the freer development of the organs,\nrepresent the animals of their own circle.\n\n\n_Order_ 1. _Protozooid Mussels_--_Lochmuscheln_.\n\n3493. These animals repeat the Mucus-animals; are tubular in form, and\nmostly provided with two long respiratory tubes.\n\n_Fam. 1. Infusorial Mussels--Sackmuscheln or Pholades._\n\nCylindrical, with a tubuliform mantle almost entirely closed and\nfrequently surrounded by a calcareous tube, in addition to the two\nordinary shell-valves; the pedal aperture is situated at the oral\nextremity; the respiratory tubes retractile by means of muscles; the\nfoot is cylindriform.\n\nOf the same kind are the Pfahlmuscheln, Teredines, and Sandmuscheln, as\nalso the Solenid\u00e6. They typify the Nudibranchiate Snails and the Salp\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 2. Polypary Mussels--Klaffmuscheln or Tellinid\u00e6._\n\nBody flat, mostly discoidal; there is a large fissure on the abdominal\nside of the mantle for the passage of the foot, while posteriorly there\nare two long respiratory tubes with retractor muscles. Here belong the\nTellinid\u00e6 and Venusid\u00e6.\n\nI have shown, that they are already to be recognized by the uncinate\nor hook-shaped groove for the mantle in the shell, and which proceeds\nfrom the insertion of the retractor muscles. The foot is usually\nlancet-shaped. They typify the Patell\u00e6 and Ascidi\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 3. Acalephan Mussels--Cardiacea._\n\nBody globular in form, mantle having a pedal slit on the abdominal\nside; two respiratory apertures without retractor muscles; foot mostly\nuncinate or strap-shaped.\n\nT have shown that these creatures are to be recognized by a discoid\ngroove in the shell, which simply depends upon the mantle, the\nretractor muscles being wanting. Here belong the Cardiacea and gigantic\nChamid\u00e6, in which last a byssus occurs, and the union also of the\ntwo occlusor or sphincter muscles, as in the following order. They\nantetypify the air-breathing Snails and Cirripedia.\n\n\n_Order 2. Conchozooid Mussels--Spaltmuscheln._\n\n3494. These animals represent their own circle.\n\nThe pedal slit in the mantle occupies the whole length of the latter,\nand is confluent with the anterior or also with the posterior\nrespiratory aperture; so that only one or even no aperture is left,\nand this when present is besides never elongated in a tubular form;\nthe retractor muscles are therefore wanting also, and the shell\nsimply exhibits a discoid groove for the mantle. The occlusor muscles\napproximate and unite at their terminations. Both usually coalesce into\none.\n\n_Fam. 4. Typical Mussels--Mytilace\u00e6._\n\nOcclusor muscles separate, and mantle slit to such an extent, that only\nthe posterior respiratory aperture remains; foot mostly tongue-shaped\nor coniform, with occasionally a byssus.\n\nHere belong the fresh-water Mussels and the Mytili proper, of which\nlast many bore into rocks. They typify the Capulid\u00e6 and Brachiopoda.\n\n_Fam. 5. Snail-Mussels--Arcace\u00e6._\n\nHave two separate occlusor muscles and a perfectly separate mantle\nwithout respiratory aperture; the foot small, mostly cartilaginous.\nHere belong the Arc\u00e6, Avicul\u00e6, and Pearl-mussels.\n\nThey typify the Trochid\u00e6 and Pteropoda.\n\n_Fam. 6. Kracken-Mussels--Ostracea._\n\nOnly _one_ occlusor muscle, mantle entirely open or slit, so that both\nrespiratory apertures are only oblique incisions therein; foot very\nsmall, frequently furnished with a byssus. They typify the Buccinid\u00e6\nand Cuttle-fish.\n\n\n_Fifth Class._\n\n_Arteriose, Orchitic Animals--Snails._\n\n3495. The Snails likewise divide into two orders, according to the two\ncircles, preindicated by the Ovum-and Sexual system. Their branchi\u00e6 are\neither ramulate or pectiniform, the sexual parts combined or separated.\n\nThe first kind are still frequently gelatinous in texture, transparent\nand naked; their branchi\u00e6 usually stand out freely as filaments,\nlamell\u00e6, or ramules upon the back, or lie simply as a vascular network\nwithin the mantle. All are androgynous. They therefore obviously repeat\nthe Protozoa or Mucus-animals.\n\nThe second are invariably covered by the shell and by a mantle, within\nthe cavity of which the branchi\u00e6 lie concealed as one or two comb-like\nbodies. Tentacula and eyes, which are occasionally wanting in the\npreceding order, are here universally present; the sexes separate.\n\nAs in the Snails, the male parts make their appearance for the first\ntime distinct and individualized, and are also a characteristic organ\nof the class; so also do they serve as bases of division, and the\nSnails may be divided into those which are Androgynous or bisexual, and\nthose with separate sexes, i. e. Dioecious.\n\n\n_Order 1. Protozooid Snails--Androgyni._\n\n3496. The male and female sexual parts united together in a single\nindividual, branchi\u00e6 ramuliform, occurring either as filaments,\nleaflets or ramules, freely situate upon the naked body, or as a\nnetwork lodged within the pallial cavity and surrounded by a shell.\n\nThe Nudibranchiate species live in the sea, those with hollow branchi\u00e6\nor the Pulmonea in the air; the former feeding mostly upon animals, the\nlatter upon plants.\n\n_Fam. 1. Infusorial Snails--Notobranchiata, or Tritoni\u00e6._\n\nBody gelatinous and membranous, cylindrical and naked, devoid of shell,\nwith branchial filaments or ramules disposed in two rows upon the back.\n\nHere belong the Tritoni\u00e6 and Dorides. Their body is muscular; the\ntentacula not retractile; the male sexual parts open in company with\nthe female upon the right side of the neck, as in the higher organized\nSnails. All inhabit the sea. They prefigure or typify the Salp\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 2. Polypary Snails--Pleurobranchiata, or Patell\u00e6._\n\nBody and sexual parts as in the preceding family, the branchi\u00e6,\nhowever, occurring as ramules or leaflets upon the sides of the body,\nare more or less covered.\n\nHere belong the Phyllidi\u00e6, Sch\u00fcssel-and Schildschnecken. They are the\nantetypes of the Ascidi\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 3. Acalephan Snails--Dictyobranchiata or Limacid\u00e6._\n\nThe branchi\u00e6 form a rete or network within the pallial cavity, and\nrespire the moisture of air; mantle and viscera are mostly surrounded\nby a shell; the body is therefore bipartite, being separated into a\nsplanchnic or visceral body and a foot with head.\n\nHere belong the Air-breathing Snails, both land as well as fresh-water\nspecies. They typify the Cirripedia.\n\nThe shells are mostly thin and horny, yet nevertheless contain a\nconsiderable quantity of calcareous earth, and are mostly devoid of\nopercula.\n\nThose species, which dwell in fresh water, do not possess introvertible\ntentacula like the marine Snails, and the eyes are placed at their\nbasis; the sexual orifices are separate.\n\nIn the Land-snails, the tentacula are introvertible, and support the\neyes upon their apex; the sexual apertures are blended into one. The\nformer, like the marine Snails, lay numerous small ova inclosed within\na gelatinous mass in the water; the latter deposit their ova free,\ncovered with a membranous, and occasionally calcareous shell, in the\nearth. Copulation is effected in all by a reciprocal interchange of the\nandrogynous species.\n\nI have observed that individuals of Limn\u00e6a auricularia can continue to\npropagate for several generations without being impregnated; they _must\nimpregnate themselves_.\n\n\n_Order 2. Conchozooid Snails--Dioecii._\n\n3497. Branchi\u00e6 situated within the cavity of the mantle, and hanging\ndown in the form of a comb; shell for the most part spirally contorted;\nsexes separate--_Pectinibranchiata_.\n\nHere belong the Capulid\u00e6, Turbinid\u00e6, Nerit\u00e6, Conid\u00e6, Volutid\u00e6,\nBuccinid\u00e6, Muricid\u00e6 and Strombusid\u00e6.\n\nThe tentacula are not retractile, and have the eyes mostly seated at\ntheir basis; the penis is external, very large, and cannot be drawn\nwithin the body, but is only reflected into the pallial cavity; most of\nthem have a protrusile perforating proboscis, and an operculum. They\nlay numerous small ova, contained within large membranous cases, which\nfrequently hang in rows to each other like a necklace of pearls. The\nshells are in some instances horny, in others of a stony texture.\n\n_Fam. 4. Mussel-Snails, Capulid\u00e6._\n\nOnly one branchial comb within the mantle, and covered merely by a flat\nhood-shaped shell; no operculum.\n\nHere belong the Capulid\u00e6; all the species are marine. They prefigurate\nthe Brachiopoda.\n\n_Fam. 5. Typical Snails, Turbinid\u00e6._\n\nTwo branchial combs, mantle devoid of a respiratory groove, shell\nturbinated; mostly furnished with an operculum, and that indeed of a\nstony texture. Here belong the Turbinid\u00e6, and Trochid\u00e6, such as the\nCyclostomata, Paludin\u00e6, Ampullari\u00e6, Janthin\u00e6, Nerit\u00e6. Live in the sea\nand in fresh-water.\n\n_Fam. 6. Kracken-Snails, Buccinid\u00e6._\n\nLike the preceding family, but their mantle has a groove, and there\nis a horny operculum. Here belong the Conid\u00e6 and Volutid\u00e6, Buccinid\u00e6,\nMuricid\u00e6, Strombusid\u00e6. Almost all live in the sea and are of\nsanguisugal habits. They antetypify the Cuttle-fish.\n\n\n_Sixth Class._\n\n_Cardiac, Nephritic Animals--Kracken._\n\n3498. Body cylindrical, without sole or foot; frequently venous hearts\ntogether with the arteriose hearts, and a kidney-like organ.\n\nSuch are the proper _Cylindrical Snails_, which are either sessile\nor fixed, or move themselves by fins and what have been called\narms--Sessile and Natant Kracken. Here belong the Salp\u00e6, Cirripedia,\nBrachiopoda, Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda. They all live in\nthe sea.\n\nBranchi\u00e6 and sexual relations very varied.\n\nThey divide likewise into two orders, in accordance with the two\ncircles of Mucus-animals and Conchozoa; the former are spathiform,\nmostly gelatinous, and firmly sessile or fixed; androgynous,\nwithout head and rudders or fins. The branchi\u00e6 trellis-like and\nfiliform--Ascidi\u00e6, Cirripedia and Brachiopoda.\n\nThe others have a kind of head with arms and eyes, or fin-shaped\nsteerage-organs upon the body; branchi\u00e6 pectiniform, reticular, and\nleaf-shaped--Pteropoda, Heteropoda, and Cephalopoda.\n\n\n_Order 1. Protozooid Kracken--Rumpfkracken._\n\n3499. Body sacciform, mostly gelatinous, without head and eyes; species\nandrogynous. They are destitute of independent locomotion, most of them\nbeing quite stationary or fixed, and surrounded frequently by a shell;\nsome few float about passively in the sea.\n\n_Fam. 1. Infusorial Kracken--Salp\u00e6._\n\nThe _Salp\u00e6_ are gelatinous, freely natant cylinders, perforated by\nan open tube, within which are situated the branchi\u00e6, heart, mouth,\nintestine, and liver, without any tentacula. They continue to hang for\na long time to each other, as though they were in the ovary.\n\nThey undergo a remarkable metamorphosis, which traverses two\ngenerations, the young meanwhile not resembling the mother but the\ngrandmother.\n\nBody within a sacciform mantle, with two opposite respiratory apertures.\n\n_Fam. 2. Polypary Kracken--Ascidi\u00e6._\n\nThe _Ascidi\u00e6_ have a sacciform body with two co-approximate respiratory\napertures; branchi\u00e6 internal and trellis-shaped.\n\nThese gelatinous or cartilaginous animals adhere firmly to rocks, with\nthe respiratory apertures directed upwards as in the Mussels, but\nthe branchi\u00e6 are not foliiform; the internal cavity is lined with a\nmembranous sac, upon which the branchial vessels are dispersed in a\ntrellis-like manner. At the bottom of and within the sac is the mouth,\nwhich is destitute of tentacula. Intestine, liver, and a heart that is\nsimple or undivided. Mode of propagation unknown.\n\nThey are frequently connato-sessile, like the Polyps.\n\n_Fam. 3. Acalephan Kracken--Cirripedia._\n\nBody sacciform, without branchial openings, oral apertures situated at\nthe inferior extremity of the longitudinal fissure in the mantle, and\nprovided with a kind of maxillary apparatus; above or behind the mouth\nare annulate or horny filaments representing caudal fins or feet, upon\nthe basal joints of which is a branchial filament. Here belong the\nBalani and Lepades--_Fuss-kracken_.\n\nThese animals are likewise sessile, at least when full grown, and\nare surrounded by shell-plates, which remind us of the Echini or\nSea-Urchins, whose antetypes they are; this resemblance is particularly\ndistinct in the Balani, which have similar odontoid valves upon\nthe aperture or mouth of the shell. These animals also undergo a\nmetamorphosis, since in the early periods of their existence they swim\nabout like small Crustacea, and later on become fixed or sedentary, and\nsurrounded by the plates of shell.\n\nThe Lepades have the ordinary shells of Mollusca, but each of the two\nvalves consists of two pieces, between which an odd one is interposed\ndown the back.\n\nThese five shell-pieces become in the Balani a regular set of teeth,\nwhich are adherent within the cylindrical shell, by which the\nposterior part of the body, or the peduncular and elongated mantle, is\nsurrounded. (Vid. Oken's 'Allgemeine Naturgeschichte,' V, 1835, 509.)\n\nThey bear a resemblance to the Crustacea, not simply in the annulate\nhorny feet, but also in the double and ganglionic nervous chord lying\nalong the abdomen; only they are androgynous, which occurs in no\nCrustacean.\n\n\n_Order 2. Conchozooid Kracken--Kopfkracken._\n\nTentacula upon the head or fins upon the body. They repeat the\nConchozoa or Shell-animals.\n\n_Fam. 4. Mussel-Kracken--Brachiopoda._\n\nThe body is surrounded by a mantle open above, and by two shells; on\nthe sides of the mouth there are two arms.\n\nThese animals look exactly like Bivalve Mollusca; they are firmly\nadherent to rocks, being frequently supported upon a hollow pedicle,\nwhich is a prolongation of the mantle. Branchi\u00e6 and sexual parts but\nlittle known; species probably androgynous--_Armkracken_.\n\n3500. In the following families the body is free and sacciform,\nprovided with arms or fins, and mostly with eyes upon a kind of head.\n\nThese animals have the mouth situated above or in front of the\nbody, and are distinctly separated into mantle and abdomen, while\nthey are frequently surrounded by a shell. They have a kind of head\nwith tentacles or arms, and frequently furnished with eyes like the\nSnails, or pretty nearly like the Fishes; the sexual parts united and\nseparated. They all row, paddle, or steer themselves about in the sea.\n\n_Fam. 5. Snail-Kracken--Pteropoda._\n\nBody mostly gelatinous, sacciform, closed all round and free; fins upon\nthe sides of the neck, with two tentacula frequently projecting from\nnear the mouth; androgynous, naked, and inclosed within a shell.\n\nThese transparent animalcules swim about upright in the sea, and wave\nthe fins in this position as rapidly as a butterfly does its wings.\nMost of them are covered with a spathiform and likewise transparent\nshell. The branchi\u00e6 are placed externally on the body, but are not very\ndistinct. Several species have an appendage in front of the neck, which\nis obviously a rudiment of the Snail's pad or sole--_Flugelkracken_.\n\nThe Heteropoda appear to resemble the Plantar or Sole-Snails,\nbut the body is mostly gelatinous, and the foot or sole is only\ncompressed to form a fin, so that they can only swim but not creep\nwith it. Many of them have a shell almost like that of the Argonauta.\nPterotrache\u00e6--_Ruderkracken_.\n\n_Fam. 6. Typical Kracken, Cephalopoda or Sepi\u00e6._\n\nMuscular animals inclosed within a sacciform mantle, open in front;\nhead furnished with eyes, and surrounded by more than four strong\nprehensile arms; laminated or leaf-like branchi\u00e6 within the mantle,\nsexes separate; in the body is a nephroidal or kidney-like gland, which\nsecretes a dark-coloured or inky fluid, on which account they are\ncalled by us 'Dintenschnecken'--_Sternkracken_. They are obviously the\nhighest organized Malacozoa, and already remind us strongly of Fishes,\npartly from their size, partly by their fleshy body, and in part by\ntheir perfect organs of vision.\n\nThe body is often as large as the trunk of a man; the head being\nseparated from it by means of a neck, has in its interior a kind of\ncartilaginous brain-case or skull, with externally a pair of jaws\nresembling a Bird's beak, and with eyes tolerably similar to those of\nFishes. Auditory organs are also present, which consist of a tympanic\ncavity inclosing an otolithe or ear-ossicle; nostrils are wanting. The\nso-called arms are perfect organs of locomotion, as also useful for\nseizing the prey, being provided for this purpose with sucking cups,\nwhich adhere by producing a vacuum, when applied. In other respects\nthese arms are nothing else but the Snail's sole divided in front into\nlobes. The ova resemble berries, and hang attached to one another\nin branched clusters like a bunch of grapes. The Sepi\u00e6 possess a\nremarkable gland, which is complicated with the liver, and secretes a\ndark brown juice, which has been called ink or sepia; it probably ranks\nin the significance of the kidneys.\n\nMany are covered with a shell externally, as the Nautili and Argonaut\u00e6;\nbut in the common Sepi\u00e6 this shell adheres within the mantle upon the\nback, and forms a straight lamina or plate, which is sometimes horny,\nsometimes calcareous in its texture. It has been called the \"white\nfish-bone.\" What is regarded as the dorsal side of the animal is its\nventral side, because upon the former lies the pallial aperture and the\nanus, while the vitelline sac is also inserted there.\n\nIn the form of the body, as well as in the circular position of the\ncephalic arms, the Sepi\u00e6 strikingly resemble their antetypes, the\nAcaleph\u00e6 and Cirripedia, and their metatypes, the Asteriad\u00e6 and\nCrustacea.\n\nWith these animals the second stage or circle through which the\nDermatozoa pass, or that of the Sexual animals, is closed. They require\nonly a slight additional grade of perfection, and they would pass over\ninto another class of animals. Thus were the arms to become horny and\narticulate, they would be Crustacea; had the head a nose, and the body\nconsequently a myelon or spinal chord, they would then be Fishes.\n\n\nSECOND CIRCLE. RESPIRATORY, CUTANEOUS ANIMALS--ANCYLIOZOA.\n\n3501. Body annulate.\n\nHere range the Worms, Crustacea, and the proper or volant Insects.\n\n3502. In this circle a remarkable relation is revealed. If, namely,\nits classes, orders, and families be compared with those of the two\npreceding circles, it is then distinctly shown that the present one\nagain commences quite from below, ascends parallel with both these, and\ntranscends them in its highest inmates or members.\n\nAs an example of the first case, the imperfect condition of some\nEntozoa, and their great resemblance to Infusoria, is sufficiently\nexpressive.\n\nThe Worms evidently pass parallel to the Mucus-animals, and the Entozoa\nindeed to the Infusoria, the Red-blooded Worms to the Polyps, but the\nHolothuri\u00e6 chiefly to the Acaleph\u00e6, near which they are still arranged\nup to the present day, although they are articulated, and have an\nintestine and vessels.\n\nThus this class traverses the three inferior classes, and consequently\nimparts to them only the value of orders, or must itself be raised only\nto the rank of an order, a step, however, which, considering the great\nnumber of Worms, would not be suitable or just. The names may therefore\nremain for the sake of uniformity; only it must be borne in mind that\nthey are of unequal value.\n\nThe same relation is exhibited in the Crustacea or Crabs. They\nobviously admit of being parallelized with no other animals than the\nMalaco-or Conchozoa. The Entomostraca and Crabs evidently repeat the\nMussels, the Aselli the Snails; but the Spiders and Scorpions the\nKracken or Cephalopoda. Consequently here also the orders correspond to\nthe preceding classes.\n\nThe true or proper Insects transcend the Sexual animals, and therefore\nconform to the classification of their own circle, namely, they repeat\nthe Worms and Crabs, and finally mount forth upon their own stage.\n\nThe inferior or lower organized animals form consequently two series,\nviz. the Smooth and Annulate, which in their lower members range\nparallel, and that indeed after the following manner:\n\n            A. _Smooth._                   B. _Annulated or Ringed._\n\n           I. _Protozoa._                      I. _Worms._\n  a. _Stomach_,      1. Infusoria.        1. White-blooded Worms.\n  b. _Intestine_,    2. Polypi.           2. Red-blooded Worms.\n  c. _Absorbents_,   3. Acaleph\u00e6.         3. Holothuri\u00e6.\n\n          II. _Conchozoa._                    II. _Crustacea._\n  d. _Veins_,        4. Mussels.          4. Crabs.\n  e. _Arteries_,     5. Snails.           5. Aselli.\n  f. _Hearts_,       6. Kracken.          6. Spiders.\n\n         III. _Ancyliozoa._                  III. _Flies._\n  g. _Retia_,        7. Worms.            7. Tracheoptera.\n  h. _Branchi\u00e6_,     8. Crabs.            8. Dictyoptera.\n  i. _Trache\u00e6_,      9. Flies.            9. Ceratoptera.\n\nThe Worms have simply an annulate body with reticular or filamentary\nbranchi\u00e6, but no feet; the branchi\u00e6 are supported by the body.\n\nThe Crabs have an annulate body with feet; the branchi\u00e6 are supported\nby limbs.\n\nThe Insects have an annulate body with feet and wings; the body is\nsupported by the branchi\u00e6.\n\n\n_Seventh Class._\n\n_Reticular, Papillose Animals--Worms._\n\n_Protozooid Ancyliozoa._\n\n3503. There are Worms with a soft body and white blood, without proper\ntentacula; others with red blood, with and without tentacula, having\nalso bristles along the sides of the body; lastly, the rings of the\nbody become hard or muscular, and a circle or ring of osseous maxill\u00e6\nforms around the mouth, which is usually surrounded by numerous\ntentacula, as in the Star-fishes and Holothuri\u00e6, in whom the blood is\nnevertheless colourless.\n\nThey divide accordingly into three orders, and each of these again\ninto three families, in accordance with the classes, namely, those of\nthe Protozoa or Mucus-animals, through which they pass.\n\n\n_Order 1. Infusorial Worms--Parasites._\n\n3504. The White-blooded Worms or Entozoa are very imperfect animals, a\nfact which proves that this circle recommences quite inferiorly or from\nbelow. They live for the most part in the interior of other animals,\nbeing thus located in darkness and in places where they obtain but\nlittle oxygen. Their blood therefore is not simply colourless, but\neven its vessels are only imperfectly developed. They respire without\ndoubt through the tegument. In many, a distinct or separate intestine\nbeing wanting, it is the tegument also which digests; in others the\nintestine is simply a sac without an anus. The sexual parts too are in\nmany species of a doubtful character, while meantime there are both\nandrogynous and dioecious individuals. In the latter the male parts\nopen invariably at the posterior extremity of the body, as in Insects;\nthe female parts in front of its caudal end, as in the Crustacea. Both\nare in other respects constructed as in Insects, namely, there are two\noviducts or seminal ducts, which unite before reaching their external\norifice. They divide into three groups.\n\nIn one of these the body is tolerably smooth, and the pharynx\ncommencing from a simple suctorial mouth elongates into a ramified\nintestine without an anus; they are androgynous--_Saugw\u00fcrmer_.\n\nIn others the body itself supplies the place of the stomach; it is\ncorrugated, and receives the food through one or several orifices,\nwithout separating into a special intestine. They have nearly all a\nclaviform proboscis or rostrum, with which they perforate substantial\ncavities for themselves; it would seem that they are both androgynous\nand of separate sexes--_Hydatids_ and _T\u00e6ni\u00e6_.\n\nOthers are separated into tegument and intestine like the Mussels\nand Snails, but without having a distinct vascular system, heart,\nand liver, though provided with a nervous chord and separate sexual\nparts--_Ascarides_.\n\n_Fam. 1. Monad-like Worms, Saugw\u00fcrmer._\n\nBody tolerably smooth, suctorial mouth and sucker, the intestine losing\nitself in the tissue of the body, and without an anus; androgynous.\n\nThey remind us through their small size and structure of the Monades,\nespecially the Cercari\u00e6, and among the Worms typify or prefigurate in\nparticular the Hirudines or Leeches, both by their form and power of\nsuction, as also in the ramification of the intestine.\n\nMany Cercari\u00e6 might be metamorphosed into Distomata, and so be or\nconstitute their young.\n\nThe Planari\u00e6 are slightly different from the Liver-flukes or Fasciol\u00e6\nhepatic\u00e6, since they are white, bloodless, have a ramified intestine\nwithout anus, and increase also by fissiparous generation. They belong\nto the present order, although they live not as parasites, but in a\nstate of freedom.\n\n_Fam. 2. Rhizopodoid Worms, Hydatids._\n\nBody annulate or articulate, with a claviform proboscis without an\nintestine; they appear to have several mouths.\n\nThe _Cystica_ develop ova simply upon the internal wall of the\ntegument; the body's last ring is expanded into a cystic form, and is\nmostly much larger than the whole body. The Coenurus cerebralis, or\nBrain-hydatid, ramifies like the Polyps.\n\nThe Cestoidea have in each joint or member of the body an ovarium, and,\nas it would appear, male parts also, so that they are androgynous. The\nsexual orifices are at the border or upon the surface of the posterior\nmembers. The member can be viewed as an ovarium liberating itself; as\nin the Lerne\u00e6 and Arguli.\n\nThe Filari\u00e6 or Thread-worms, which also belong here, are in the form of\na cylindrical tube, with separate sexual parts, which open posteriorly.\n\n_Fam. 3. Rotiferal Worms, Ascarides._\n\nBody cylindrical, intestine free, with mouth and anus; sexual parts\nseparate.\n\nUpon the mouth these Entozoa have some papill\u00e6 or points, which may\nbe regarded as tentacula. The larger species have a distinct nervous\ncord. The Gordius cannot well take any other position than the present,\nalthough it does live in a state of freedom.\n\n\n_Order 2. Polypary Worms--Hirudines._\n\n3505. Body cylindrical with branchi\u00e6 in or upon the tegument, blood\nred; two ganglionic nervous threads run along the ventral surface of\nthe body, as in Insects; all are indeed androgynous.\n\nHere belong the _Red-blooded Worms_, as Hirudines, Lumbrici, Nereides,\nand Serpul\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 4. Tubularial Worms--Dermatobranchiata._\n\nBody cylindrical. The branchi\u00e6 are only a vascular network in the\ntegument.\n\nHere belong the Hirudines and Lumbrici.\n\nThe Hirudines have a perfectly naked body, without filaments and\nbristles, a perfect network of vessels containing red blood within the\ntegument, an intestine with an anus, both sexual parts androgynoid;\nposteriorly they have a pad or sucker; in the mouth there are mostly\nmaxill\u00e6, and upon the head simple eyes.\n\nThe Naiades and Lumbrici have bristles in longitudinal rows upon the\nsides of the body. The latter are androgynous. The Naiades increase by\ndivision.\n\nThe Thalassem\u00e6 have a protuberant white body; red blood-vessels only\nupon the intestine; mouth rostriform.\n\nThese Worms stick in the mud, and are nourished by it. They have here\nand there bristles, but which do not form any longitudinal rows. They\nappear to absorb water through the skin, and respire by the intestine.\nThey cannot, by reason of their red blood, range with the Holothuri\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 5. Alcyonioid Worms--Notobranchiata._\n\nBody depressed, with pedal filaments, tentacula and branchi\u00e6 in two\nlongitudinal rows upon the back.\n\nThese Worms all live in the sea, adhering mostly upright in the earth,\nand have frequently annulate, rigid tentacula, ocelli, and pairs\nof maxill\u00e6, like Insects. The gills are not unfrequently covered\nwith pergamentaceous scales, as in many Nereides, and especially in\nAphrodite.\n\n_Fam. 6. Actinioid Worms--Auchenobranchiata._\n\nBody inclosed within a pergamentaceous or calcareous tube with lateral\nbristles, branchi\u00e6 and tentacula upon the neck or head.\n\nThe neck is surrounded by a kind of mantle, almost as in the Snails, so\nthat several animals have been arranged here, which are now known to be\nveritable Snails. Upon the head many have a horny operculum, whereby\nthey can close the shell.\n\nHere belong the Amphitrit\u00e6, Terebell\u00e6, Serpul\u00e6, and Sabell\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 3. Acalephan Worms--Sternw\u00fcrmer._\n\n3506. These creatures attain the most perfect structure of the Worms.\nThe blood is white, the form cylindrical, globular and stellate; the\nmouth surrounded by a ring or wreath of maxill\u00e6. The nerves form a ring\naround the pharynx, and upon the latter are placed membranous cysts,\nwhich spirt water into the tentacula or feet as they have been called,\nand thereby expand them.\n\nIt is impossible for these animals to continue to range with the\nAcaleph\u00e6, although they resemble them in outward form; for they consist\nof two cysts, the intestine having become freed from the outer one as\na special sac; moreover, they have a perfect vascular system, distinct\nmuscles, a mouth with a dental apparatus, which prefigurates a complete\nskeleton, a peculiar vascular system for the injection of the tentacula\nor feet, a nervous ring surrounding the pharynx, an ovarium entirely\nseparated, and lastly, a perfectly annulate body.\n\n_Fam 7. Physalial Worms, Holothuri\u00e6._\n\nBody cylindrical, very plentifully supplied with muscles. Mouth and\nanus present, the former of these being surrounded by a dental wreath\nand ramified branchimorphous tentacula; branchi\u00e6 upon the intestine,\nand branchial aperture at the anal extremity. They correspond to the\nPhysali\u00e6.\n\nTheir tegument is a perfect muscular tunic, consisting of several\nlongitudinal bands, which pursue a downward course upon its internal\nsurface; in other respects being transversely corrugated and full\nof papill\u00e6, partly replete with hollow podoidal filaments, which by\nthe injection of water into them are elongated; thus, they present a\nresemblance to the Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 8. Beroeal Worms, Echini._\n\nAre at bottom Holothuri\u00e6 with ossified tegument, or Asteriad\u00e6 with\nshortened rays.\n\nThe Echini have an anus, pretty like that of the Holothuri\u00e6, and also\nsimilar feet, which are protruded in a similar manner through apertures\nin the shell. The dental wreath surrounding the mouth is a complete\nbony framework, which has been called, on account of its form, \"Laterna\nAristotelis,\" and bears a considerable resemblance to the valves of the\nBalani, the antetypes in general of the Echini, just as these are of\nthe Opossum Shrimps.\n\n_Fam. 9. Medusal Worms, Asteriad\u00e6._\n\nBody stelliform, consisting of bony rings; contains a free multilobular\nintestine with blood-vessels and branchi\u00e6; several ovaria; it would\nappear that they are without male parts.\n\nHere belong the Encrinites, Pentacrinites, and Asteriad\u00e6 proper. Around\nthe mouth of the Encrinites and Pentacrinites stand long, ramified,\nand likewise articulated tentacula, which remind us of the arms of the\nAcaleph\u00e6 and Cephalopoda.\n\nFundamentally too, in the Star-fishes, the disk only is the body\nproper, and the rays are the tentacula, which, being monstrously\ndeveloped, surround the mouth; what have been called pedicles upon\nthese, represent the suckers of the Sepi\u00e6.\n\n\n_Eighth Class._\n\n_Branchial, Pedal Animals--Crustacea._\n\n_Conchozooid Ancyliozoa._\n\n3507. The Crustacea are Worms with horny rings to the body, jointed\nfeet and tentacula, which mostly breathe by branchi\u00e6.\n\nThey correspond to the Conchozoa, or Shell-animals, and divide\ntherefore into three orders, each of these including six families.\n\nHere belong the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders.\n\nIn the lowest forms the head, thorax, and abdomen are blended together,\nand the back mostly covered with a great horny scute--_Mussel-like\nInsecta_.\n\nIn the next place the thorax and abdomen admit of being clearly\ndistinguished, both by their form as well as by their appendages, which\nare much larger on the thorax, as in the Cray-fish.\n\nThen follow cylindrical forms with numerous feet, appended to uniform\nrings, but having a head free and distinguished by tentacula, maxill\u00e6,\nand eyes--_Wood-lice_.\n\nThe Wood-lice bear a resemblance to the air-breathing Insects, although\nall parts of the body still pass over or blend gradually into each\nother.\n\nIn the _Arachnida_ or _Spiders_ aerial respiration takes place, and\ntheir body enters into relations with the more highly organized\nInsects, since the head becomes small, the abdomen large, thick, and\nshort.\n\nAs the Crustacea pass parallel to the Conchozoa or Shell-animals, so do\nthey divide into three cohorts or groups: the _Mussel-_, _Snail-_, and\n_Kracken-like_ Crustacea, or _Crabs_, _Wood-lice_, and _Spiders_.\n\n\nCOHORT I. MUSSEL-LIKE CRUSTACEA--CRABS.\n\n3508. Head and thorax connate, being mostly covered with a shell or\nshield, abdomen stunted or caudiform; maxill\u00e6 and branchi\u00e6 present.\n\n\n_Order 1. Lochmuschelartige, Pfriemenkrebse._\n\n3509. The feet mostly simple and pointed, without large claws or\nforcipes, and furnished with set\u00e6 or lamelliform branchi\u00e6; eyes sessile.\n\n_Fam. 1. Pholadoid, Mussel-Insects._\n\nSmall, almost microscopical, and slightly annulated animals with an\nuni-or bi-valvular dorsal shield or testa, stunted maxill\u00e6, and few\nlegs, having attached to them setiform branchi\u00e6.\n\nThese animals are found in all stagnant waters, in which they are\nincessantly paddling or rowing themselves about. They remind us of\nthose Infusoria which, like Brachionus, are covered by a scute or\nshield. They are what have been called Monoculi (Entomostraca or\nLophyropoda), e. g. Daphni\u00e6.\n\nNumber of feet small, and beyond their appended set\u00e6 there are no\nbranchi\u00e6; two eyes frequently blended together; antenn\u00e6 mostly furcate\nlike the feet; sexes separate; a perfect circulation within a true\nMussel-like ventral cavity. They are microscopic Mussels with eyes and\nfeet.\n\n_Fam. 2. Tellinoid, Branchiopoda._\n\nSimilar animalcules to the above, but with a body strongly annulated,\nnaked or covered with a double shell, and provided with numerous feet,\nunto which are attached leaflets that serve as branchi\u00e6.\n\nHere belong the Branchiopoda properly so called.\n\n_Fam. 3. Cardiaceoid, Shield-Crabs._\n\nLarge animals, with strongly annulated body and numerous feet; head and\nback covered by a shield, whereupon are the eyes--Phyllopoda.\n\nHere range the Trilobites, Apus, and the Molucca or King-Crabs.\n\n\n_Order 2. Spaltmuschelartige, Scheerenkrebse._\n\n3510. Five pairs of thoracic feet, of which the first pair is mostly\nlarge and forcipiform; the eyes upon moveable pedicles or foot-stalks.\n\nThese animals usually attain a striking size, and are generally the\nlargest among the horny Ancyliozoa.\n\nThe sexual parts open mostly upon the posterior legs.\n\nThe abdomen or tail usually supports five pairs of stunted feet, to\nwhich the ova hang.\n\nThe number of maxill\u00e6 agrees tolerably well with that of the thoracic\nfeet.\n\n_Fam. 4. Mytiloid, Locust-Crabs._\n\nAll the feet of pretty equal length, and the forceps stunted in size;\nthe branchial plates free upon the abdominal feet--Squilla.\n\n_Fam. 5. Arcaceous, Macroura._\n\nAbdominal feet arrested, branchial comb upon the femora of the thoracic\nfeet and beneath the dorsal shield, tail extended, as in the common\nCray-fish.\n\n_Fam. 6. Oyster-like Crustacea, Brachyura._\n\nCharacters similar, but tail bent under the body--_Taschenkrebse_.\n\n\nCOHORT II. SNAIL-LIKE CRUSTACEA--ASSELN.\n\n3511. Body mostly cylindrical, annulate, without a true carapax or\nscute; head free; feet short and simple; branchi\u00e6 vesici-or folii-form;\nmostly placed under the tail; eyes non-pediculated, or even wanting.\n\n\n_Order 3. Androgynoid--Saugasseln._\n\n3512. Body soft and slightly annulate, maxill\u00e6, feet and branchi\u00e6\narrested; live by suction as parasites upon other animals, mostly\nfishes.\n\n_Fam. 1. Tritonia-like, Lern\u00e6ace\u00e6._\n\nBody soft, without shield, eyes and branchi\u00e6; feet and maxill\u00e6 stunted;\nova carried in two tubes at the hinder part of the body--_Kiemenw\u00fcrmer_\nor _Lerne\u00e6_.\n\n_Fam. 2. Patella-like, Argulace\u00e6._\n\nBody distinguished into head, thorax, and abdomen, with few natatory\nfeet, maxill\u00e6 moulded to form suctorial organs, mostly eyes; lay also\nstrings of ova; head elongated in many in a scutiform manner. The\nso-called Fish-lice or Argulace\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 3. Luftschneckenartige--Pycnogonid\u00e6._\n\nBody short, with four pairs of long feet; eyes, but no branchi\u00e6 and\nmaxill\u00e6; abdomen puny in size. The _Whale-lice_.\n\n\n_Order 4. Kammschneckenartige--Nagasseln._\n\n3513. Body cylindrical, horny, and distinctly annulate, maxill\u00e6, eyes,\nand mostly seven simple pairs of feet, branchi\u00e6 as cysts or leaves.\n\n_Fam. 4. Capulidenartige, Walzenasseln._\n\nBody cylindrical, with five or seven pairs of feet, and some branchial\nvesicles; body and abdomen very puny. The _L\u00e6modipoda_; Caprella,\nCyamus.\n\n_Fam. 5. Turbinidenartige, Seitenasseln._\n\nBody horny and distinctly ringed, mostly compressed, with perfect\nmaxill\u00e6; seven pairs of thoracic feet and branchial vesicles; abdominal\nfeet rudder-shaped. They swim usually lying upon the side; many\nleap--_Amphipoda_; _Flohkrebse_ or _Gammarin\u00e6_.\n\n_Fam. 6. Buccinidenartige, Sohlenasseln._\n\nSimilar to the preceding family, but the body is depressed, and\nthe abdominal feet furnished with branchial plates. The _Isopoda_;\n_Oniscid\u00e6_, to which belongs the genus _Armadillo_.\n\n\nCOHORT III. KRACKEN-CRUSTACEA--KOBE.\n\n3514. Body not tripartite; spiracula or air-openings; more than three\npairs of feet, no wings. Here belong the air-breathing Crustacea;\nScolopendr\u00e6, Acari, Scorpions, and Spiders.\n\nThese animals are abruptly distinguished from the preceding by a\nconversion of the branchi\u00e6 into spiral-shaped trache\u00e6, which ramify\nand traverse the whole body. They all therefore live in the air, and\nif they do also dwell in the water, they still come to the surface to\ninhale that element. The eyes are only simple points or ocelli, which\nare accumulated frequently upon the sides of the head.\n\nThe most inferior of them are distinguished from the preceding cohort,\nor the Asseln, by almost nothing save the essential character of their\nown cohort, the trache\u00e6. They have mostly a number of feet, and only\nsimple eyes, as the Scolopendr\u00e6.\n\nThe following have a short body, in which the abdomen predominates;\nthorax and head connate; never more than four pairs of feet--_Acari_,\n_Scorpions_, and _Spiders_.\n\nThey likewise divide into two orders, like the Kracken.\n\n\n_Order 1. Rumpfkrackenartige--Langkobe._\n\n3515. Body horny, tolerably cylindrical and uniform; feet mostly very\nnumerous.\n\n_Fam. 1. Salpoid, Spindelkobe._\n\nOnly three pairs of thoracic feet, but still podoidal appendages to the\nabdomen--Podura, Lepisma.\n\n_Fam. 2. Ascidioid, Schnurkobe._\n\nBody cylindrical, with very many feet; sexual parts on the\nthorax--_Juli_.\n\n_Fam. 3. Cirrhopodoid, Bandkobe._\n\nBody band-shaped and depressed, maxill\u00e6 perforate, sexual parts placed\nposteriorly--_Scolopendr\u00e6_.\n\n\n_Order 2. Kopfkrackenartige--Kurzkobe_.\n\n3516. Body thick, mostly globiform; head and thorax blended together;\nonly four pairs of feet.\n\n_Fam. 4. Brachiopodoid, Acarides._\n\nBody rounded; all three parts confluent; usually only two simple eyes.\nThe Acari are mostly so small, that their parts can only be distinctly\nseen through the microscope. Their mouth is always very much arrested,\nand has maxill\u00e6, which are in some cases adapted for manducation, in\nothers for suction.\n\n_Fam. 5. Pteropodoid, Scorpions._\n\nBody tolerably cylindrical, and all three parts connate; palpi very\nlarge and forcipiform.\n\n_Fam. 6. Sepioid, Spiders._\n\nBody rounded, head and thorax connate, abdomen separate, mostly eight\nsimple eyes.\n\nTheir most remarkable organs are the four spinnerets in front of the\nanus, which probably stand in the signification of the renal organs,\njust as the material of the Spider-threads does in that of the urine.\n\nThe trache\u00e6 are but few in number, and expand into lung-like vesicles.\n\nThe sexual parts do not lie posteriorly by the anus, but at the root or\nbase of the abdomen.\n\nIt is moreover remarkable, that their mandibles are perforated and pour\na poisonous juice into the wounds they inflict. They must be therefore\nregarded, like the venom-teeth of Serpents, as elongated salivary ducts.\n\nThe Crustacean families can also be named according to the orders of\ntheir circle, namely, the Worms and Crustacea, e. g. thus:\n\n  ORDER I. _Worm-Crabs_--Pfriemenkrebse.\n\n      Fam. 1. _Entozooid_--Mussel-Insects.\n           2. _Hirudinous_--Branchiopoda.\n           3. _Holothurioid_--Shield-Crabs.\n\n  ORDER II. _Crustacean Crabs_--Scheerenkrebse.\n      Fam. 4. _Typical Crustacea_--Sea-Mantes.\n           5. _Asselkrebse_ \"    --Macrura.\n           6. _Arachnoid_   \"    --Brachyura.\n\n\n_Ninth Class._\n\n_Tracheal, Alary Animals--Flies._\n\n_Typical Ancyliozoa._\n\n3517. Body tripartite, only three pairs of thoracic legs, spiracula\nand wings. They divide, according to the classes of their circle, into\nthree cohorts, of Worm-, Crab-like, and perfect Flies.\n\nAs the wings are their characteristic organ, so also must\nthey be divided according to them, and not after the cibarial\ninstruments. Those wings which are developed to the least degree\nare the homogeneous, transparent wings traversed by few trache\u00e6 or\nducts--_Tracheoptera_, as Flies, Bees, and Butterflies.\n\nTheir chrysalis or pupa condition is perfect.\n\nThen follow wings having very numerous veins united by transverse veins\nso as to form a network--_Dictyoptera_, as Neuropterous, Orthopterous,\nand Hemipterous Insects.\n\nThe pupa is moveable.\n\nFinally, the anterior and posterior pair of wings become wholly\ndissimilar to each other, the former being horny, and the latter\nmembranous in texture with reticulated veins, provided likewise with\njoints like the legs, so that they can be folded up under the anterior\npair or elytra--_Ceratoptera_, as the Beetles.\n\nPupa state perfect.\n\nStrictly speaking, it is a matter of indifference whether the names\nof orders and families be adopted from the first or second parallel\nseries; whether e. g. we speak in the first cohort of Protozooid or\nWorm-flies. The nearest series will, however, bear the greater amount\nof resemblance to them. Meanwhile I will in the sequel vary in the\nchoice of names, in order to exhibit different samples of this double\nparallelism.\n\n\nCOHORT I. WORM-FLIES--TRACHEOPTERA.\n\n3518. Wings membranous with few longitudinal ducts, and almost devoid\nof transverse ducts, eyes larger than head. Here belong the Flies,\nBees, and Butterflies. The abdomen is indeed annulate, but soft; its\nfirst ring is frequently set free and unites with the thorax, but\nsupports neither feet nor wings.\n\nThe sexual parts always lie at the anal extremity.\n\nThe head is almost nothing but eye, and the Insects of this order may\nvery well be termed Megalopid\u00e6, or large-eyed, out of contrast to the\nsucceeding ones. Between the two large compound eyes there are usually\nfound three simple ocular puncta or ocelli, which they have adopted\nfrom the preceding class.\n\nThe larv\u00e6 are either entirely apodal, white and soft like Entozoa, or\nthey have, in addition to the thoracic feet, numerous abdominal feet\nlike the higher Worms.\n\nThe Flies with their soft and imperfect body, and the apodal larv\u00e6,\nrepeat the Infusoria and Entozoa; the Bees therefore the Polyps and\nRed-blooded Worms; the Butterflies with their large farinose or dusty\nwings and polypodal caterpillars, the Acaleph\u00e6 and Holothuri\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 1. Entozooid Flies--Diptera._\n\n3519. All the thoracic rings coalesced, and along with them the first\nor basi-abdominal ring, unto which are attached the halteres or\nbalancers; only the two posterior wings present; the labium prolonged\ninto a proboscis, which incloses the setiform maxill\u00e6. Larv\u00e6 apodal and\nwhite.\n\nThe Diptera resemble the Entozoa in a striking manner through their\napodal, soft and white larv\u00e6, and even through their habitation, which\nis mostly in fetid and moist animal matters. Added to this, they\nrespire usually through two tubes which open upon the anus.\n\nMany during their metamorphosis do not shed their skin; but it becomes,\nduring the pupa condition, only horny, representing a small case, whose\nbottom springs up in front like an operculum, and gives exit to the\nperfect Fly which has been therein developed.\n\nUpon the first abdominal ring of the imago two nodose pedicles stand\nout, which are called halteres; they are probably the old respiratory\ntubes.\n\nThe maxill\u00e6 have changed into bristles, which act like pestels within\nthe groove-shaped labium, puncture and pump in the fluid.\n\nThey divide into three families like the White-blooded Worms, or\naccording to the orders of their cohort.\n\n_Fam. 1. Typical Diptera, Schmeissen._\n\nAntenn\u00e6 triarticulate, the last joint being mostly spatulate and\nfurnished with a lateral awn or bristle; only two suctorial set\u00e6\ninclosed between the terminal valves of a fleshy proboscis, which\nadmits of being retracted within a large cephalic or oral cavity.\nThe Muscid\u00e6, unto whom the Common House-flies belong, and also the\nHippoboscid\u00e6 or Louse-flies. It is my opinion too, that the Fleas also\nare to be ranged among the Diptera.\n\nAlliance 1. _Klappenmucken._ The two punctuating set\u00e6 placed between\ntwo valves without a proboscis--Flea (Pulex) and Louse-fly (Hippobosca.)\n\nAlliance 2. _Acalyptera._ Proboscis having thick lips, and\nretractile into a large cephalic cavity; alul\u00e6 or halteral opercula\narrested--Hypocera to Dolichocera.\n\nAlliance 3. Dung-flies. Characters similar to the above, but the\nalulets are of considerable size--Muscid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Diptera, Dasseln._\n\nAntenn\u00e6 as in preceding family, but the bisetaceous proboscis is\nthin and horny, with small labia, or else large labia with four\nset\u00e6--OEstrid\u00e6, Conopid\u00e6, and Syrphid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 4. _Parasitic Diptera._ Two set\u00e6 with or without a lipless\nproboscis--OEstrid\u00e6, Myopari\u00e6, and Conopid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 5. _Syrphid\u00e6._ Four set\u00e6 within a similar kind of proboscis;\nthe third joint of the antenn\u00e6 spatulate; the palpi thickened.\n\nAlliance 6. _Leptid\u00e6._ Four set\u00e6 within a short thick-lipped proboscis,\nthe third antennal joint mostly coniform--Therexid\u00e6, Leptid\u00e6, and\nDolichopid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Diptera, G\u00f6lsen._\n\nAntenn\u00e6 multiarticulate and stipiform; proboscis with and without\nlabia, mostly four and six set\u00e6 for punctuation--Tipulid\u00e6, Tanystomid\u00e6,\nStratiomyd\u00e6, Tabanid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 7. _Gnats._ Antenn\u00e6 filamentary and multi-articular. Proboscis\nvaried.\n\nAlliance 8. _Spiessmucken._ Four set\u00e6 within a hastate horny proboscis\nwith or without arrested labia; third antennal joint not annulated,\nwith the bristle or awn at the extremity--Tanystomid\u00e6, as Asilid\u00e6,\nEmpid\u00e6, Bombylid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 9. _Stielmucken._ Four or six set\u00e6 within a thick-lipped\nproboscis; third antennal joint stipiform and annulated--Stratiomyd\u00e6\nand Tabanid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 2. Leech-flies--Hymenoptera._\n\n3520. Four naked veined wings, labium mostly elongated, the two pairs\nof maxill\u00e6 acting above it like spears. Larv\u00e6 mostly apodal, or with\nmore abdominal feet or prolegs than in the true Caterpillars.\n\nMost of the larv\u00e6 still bear a great resemblance to the Entozoa,\nthough they do not respire like them through the anus, but by lateral\napertures or spiracula; the larv\u00e6 with abdominal feet repeat the\nNereid\u00e6 and Aselli. In other respects they live no longer in putrid\nmoisture, fungi, roots, and such like bodies, but in living animals or\nin cavities specially prepared for their reception by the parents, and\neven in a state of freedom upon leaves.\n\nAnd here is particularly worthy of our notice the structure of the\ncells, which are by many species fabricated quite substantially of wax\nor wood-shavings, and are to be compared with the webs of Spiders,\nsince both serve as nests for the young. They repeat the Polypidoms.\n\nOthers make cases of leaves, and carry into them honey upon which to\ndeposit their ova.\n\nOthers again simply bore holes in wood or in the earth, in order that\nthey may in a similar manner provide their young with honey or larv\u00e6.\nFinally, others simply stick, by means of their ovipositor, the ova\ninto animals or leaves.\n\nThe dwellings are fabricated by the maxill\u00e6, which but seldom serve as\ncibarial instruments, seeing that the labium undertakes this office as\na lick-organ.\n\nAnother remarkable feature of this order is the arrested development of\nthe sexual parts of the females in certain generations, an occurrence\nwhich depends upon the time of the year or the size of the cells, and\nwhereby they are constrained to lead a social life as workers.\n\nThey divide, according to the Red-blooded Worms or the orders of their\ncohort, into three families.\n\n_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Hymenoptera, Bees._\n\nAbdomen aculeate; labium elongated in a rostriform manner. They dig or\nbuild cells, and carry thither honey to the larv\u00e6, which are apodal.\n\n  Alliance 1. _Fossorial Bees_--Andrenid\u00e6.\n           2. _Carpenter-Bees_--Anthophorid\u00e6.\n           3. _Cell-Bees_--Apid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 2. Typical Hymenoptera, Wasps._\n\nAculeate; labium not elongated--rapacious Hymenoptera, such as Ants,\nFossorial, and Cell-wasps, larv\u00e6 apodal.\n\n  Alliance 1. _Hohlenwespen_--Formicid\u00e6.\n           2. _Fossorial Wasps_--Sphegid\u00e6.\n           3. _Cell-Wasps_--Vespid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Hymenoptera, Terebrantia._\n\nInstead of the sting there is an ovipositor, with which the females\nstick their eggs into other insects, mostly into caterpillars, or else\ninto leaves and wood--Ichneumonid\u00e6, Tenthredinid\u00e6, and Urocerid\u00e6.\nThe larv\u00e6 of the first are apodal, those of the second provided with\nthoracic and abdominal feet like caterpillars, those of the third with\nthoracic feet only like the larv\u00e6 of Coleoptera.\n\nAlliance 1. _Stutzwespen._ Ovipositor short; wings nearly veinless.\nDeposit their eggs in small insects; larv\u00e6 apodal--Chalcidid\u00e6, Oxyuri,\nChrysidid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 2. _Schlupfwespen._ Ovipositor very long, divided into\nthree hairs; wings veined. Deposit their eggs in caterpillars; larv\u00e6\napodal--Ichneumonid\u00e6, Evaniid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 3. _Pflanzenwespen._ Ovipositor spiral or saw-shaped. Deposit\ntheir ova in plants; larv\u00e6 mostly furnished with feet, and frequently\nresembling caterpillars in form--Cynipid\u00e6, Tenthredinid\u00e6, and Urocerid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 3. Holothurioid Flies--Lepidoptera._\n\n3521. Four veined wings, covered with small dust-like scales; maxill\u00e6\nhave coalesced into a proboscis; larv\u00e6 with thoracic and abdominal legs.\n\nThe larv\u00e6 or Caterpillars remind us of the Nereides, especially the\nsetaceous Aphrodites, such as the Holothuri\u00e6, and further still, the\nAselli and Scolopendr\u00e6. There are Caterpillars, which are scarcely to\nbe distinguished from a Wood-louse. They subsist almost throughout\nupon leaves, and being exposed to the light are therefore variously\ncoloured. They have maxill\u00e6, and in the labium is the orifice of the\nsalivary glands, from which they spin the threads used in weaving\ntheir cocoons, or social tents. Where they crawl they leave, like the\nSpiders, their threads beneath them.\n\nThe pupa state is perfect; the perfect insect generally creeps out of\nthe chrysalis by a slit taking place down the back.\n\nThe abdomen is almost throughout covered with hair, which is indicative\nlikewise of a strong mucous secretion.\n\nThey take in their fluid nourishment by suction, but the mechanism by\nwhich this is effected is not yet known, as from the jaws themselves\nforming the proboscis, there can be no suckers lodged within the latter\nthat might act. It is probably effected by expansion of the abdomen\ntaking place during respiration. Their deglutition would be therefore a\nrespiratory act.\n\nBesides their very non-artistic webs, no artistic instincts are to be\nobserved in this order. The ova are just layed without more ado upon\nplants, and rarely upon other objects. The Butterflies are generally\nrelated to the plants, and especially to their coroll\u00e6, whose colours\nand forms they carry in themselves.\n\nThey divide according to their proximal orders into three families.\n\n_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Lepidoptera, Moths._\n\nAntenn\u00e6 filiform, wings mostly thrown like a mantle round the body;\nproboscis short.\n\nSmall and nocturnal in their habits, proceeding from tolerably apodal\nCaterpillars, which reside mostly concealed in plants, or make\nthemselves cases of hairs and leaves.\n\nAlliance 1. Typical Moths, _Tineid\u00e6_.\n\n  a. Typical Tineid\u00e6: Alucitid\u00e6.\n  b. Pyraloid: Tine\u00e6.\n  c. Tortrix-like: Crambid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 2. Bombycoid Moths, _Pyralid\u00e6_.\n\n  a. Tinea-like: Agloss\u00e6.\n  b. Typical: Hydrocamp\u00e6.\n  c. Tortrix-like: Deltoides or Hermini\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 3. Homalopteroid Moths, _Tortricid\u00e6_.\n\n  a. Tinea-like: Fruit-Tortrices.\n  b. Pyraloid: Heterogene\u00e6.\n  c. Typical: Leaf-rolling Tortrices.\n\n_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Lepidoptera, Silk-Spinners._\n\nAntenn\u00e6 filiform, wings tile-shaped.\n\nLepidoptera of considerable size, proceeding out of\n\nCaterpillars, with many feet, and frequently covered with hair, which\nlive mostly in a state of freedom upon plants, and in some cases make\nlarge cocoons freely exposed, in others under the earth--_Noctuid\u00e6_ and\n_Bombycid\u00e6_.\n\nAlliance 1. Moth-like Spinners, _Noctuid\u00e6_.\n\n  a. Typical: Haden\u00e6.\n  b. Pseudobombycoid: Catocal\u00e6.\n  c. Bombycoid: Erebid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 2. Typical Spinners, _Pseudo-Bombyces_.\n\n  a. Noctua-like: Psyches, Limacodes.\n  b. Typical: Notodont\u00e6.\n  c. Bombycoid: Callimorph\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 3. Homalopteroid Spinners, _Bombycid\u00e6_.\n\n  a. Noctua-like: Bombyces.\n  b. Pseudo-Bombycoid: Saturni\u00e6.\n  c. Typical: Hepialid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 3. Typical Lepidoptera, Homaloptera._\n\nAntenn\u00e6 varied; wings flat and expanded; proboscis long--_Geometrid\u00e6_,\n_Vespertina_, _Diurna_.\n\nLarge Lepidoptera proceeding from free-living, strongly-coloured, and\nmostly naked Caterpillars.\n\nThe Geometrid\u00e6 have level, tolerably triangular wings and filiform\nantenn\u00e6; they proceed from naked Caterpillars with few abdominal feet.\n\nThe Vespertina have level, long, and narrow wings, and spindle-shaped\nantenn\u00e6; they emerge from perfect Caterpillars.\n\nThe Diurna have the wings folded upwards in a reverse position,\nclaviform antenn\u00e6, and proceed from perfect Caterpillars.\n\nAlliance 1. _Moth-like Homaloptera, Geometrid\u00e6._\n\n  a. Typical: Geometr\u00e6.\n  b. Sphingoid: Aposur\u00e6.\n  c. Papilionaceous: Uraniid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 2. _Bombycoid Homaloptera, Sphingid\u00e6._\n\n  a. Geometroid: Zyg\u00e6nid\u00e6 and Sesiad\u00e6.\n  b. Typical: Sphingid\u00e6.\n  c. Papilionaceous: Castni\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 3. _Typical Homaloptera, Papilionid\u00e6._\n\n  a. Geometroid: Hesperiid\u00e6, Lyc\u00e6nid\u00e6 and Erycinid\u00e6.\n  b. Sphingoid: Nymphalid\u00e6 and Heliconiid\u00e6.\n  c. Typical: Pierid\u00e6 and Papilionid\u00e6.\n\nCOHORT II. CRUSTACEOUS FLIES--DICTYOPTERA.\n\n3522. Four wings, with longitudinal and numerous transverse veins, the\nanterior pair being mostly leathery in texture; eyes mostly smaller\nthan head.\n\nHere belong the Neuroptera, Orthoptera, and Hemiptera.\n\nThe metamorphosis is tolerably imperfect, and the larv\u00e6 have never more\nthan three pairs of thoracic feet, and therefore correspond no longer\nto the Worms, but to the Crabs, where the number of the feet has been\nalready more determined. Many also strikingly simulate the Crustacea.\n\nIn all three families also the pupa runs about, eats, and has rudiments\nof wings.\n\nThe abdominal rings are mostly horny and hairless. The spiracula lie\nupon the upper margin.\n\nThe eyes are generally much smaller than the head, and may therefore,\nin comparison with those of the preceding and subsequent groups, be\nsaid to be of _middling size_; the simple eyes have for the greatest\npart disappeared. Meanwhile the first family displays _large eyes_, the\nsecond eyes of a _middling size_, the third _small eyes_.\n\nThey divide like their antetypes, the Crabs, into three orders.\n\n\n_Order 4. Crab-Flies--Neuroptera._\n\n3523. All the wings alike and membranous; maxill\u00e6 with mostly large\neyes; abdomen soft.\n\nThese Insects which, on account of their delicate wings, are known with\nus by the name of Flohrfliegen, live mostly upon flesh, and many of\nthem by capturing living prey. Many undergo a short pupa stage. Many\nlive in the water and have, too, branchi\u00e6, whereby they strikingly\nremind us of the Crustacea, especially the Branchiopoda.\n\nLike the Crustacea, or in accordance with the two first cohorts of\ntheir class, they divide into two families.\n\n_Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Neuroptera, Nagbolden._\n\nDo not subsist by rapine, but gnaw slowly animal and vegetable matters;\nmany also as flies eat no longer.\n\nAlliance 1. _Dipteroid Neuroptera, Kieferl\u00e4use._ No wings; gnaw skin,\nfeathers and hair, mostly Bird-lice--Philopterus, Liotheum.\n\nAlliance 2. _Hymenopteroid Neuroptera_, Blumen-and Mulmla\u00fcse, Thrips,\nPsocus, Termes.\n\nAlliance 3. _Lepidopteroid Neuroptera_, _Phryganeid\u00e6_ (_Wassermotten._)\n\n_Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Neuroptera, Raubbolden._\n\nAlliance 4. _Typical Neuroptera, Flohrfliegen_, Panorpid\u00e6, Hemerobiid\u00e6,\nMyrmeleonid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 5. _Orthopteroid Neuroptera_, Raphidiid\u00e6, Mantispid\u00e6.\n\nAlliance 6. _Hemipteroid Neuroptera_, Ephemerid\u00e6, Libellulid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 5. Oniscal Flies--Orthoptera._\n\n3524. Maxill\u00e6 and dissimilar reticular wings; the anterior,\npergamentaceous; abdominal rings, horny; eyes of moderate size; pupa\nmoveable.\n\nLive for the greatest part on plants.\n\n_Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Orthoptera, Saltatoria._\n\n  Alliance 1. _Dipteroid Orthoptera_, Grylli.\n\n  Alliance 2. _Hymenopteroid_ \"       Locust\u00e6.\n\nHave a hard ovipositor, which reminds us of the sting in the\nHymenoptera.\n\nAlliance 3. _Lepidopteroid Orthoptera_, Acrydia.\n\n_Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Orthoptera, Cursoria._\n\n  Alliance 4. _Neuropteroid Orthoptera_, Mantid\u00e6.\n\n  Alliance 5. _Typical_         \"        Blattid\u00e6.\n\n  Alliance 6. _Hemipteroid_     \"        Forficulid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 6. Arachnoid Flies--Hemiptera or Bugs._\n\n3525. Horny suctorial proboscis with puncturating set\u00e6; dissimilar\nreticular wings, the anterior mostly pergamentaceous, the posterior\nmembranous, and mostly capable of being folded up, as in the Chafers;\neyes small, pup\u00e6 moveable.\n\nThe Bugs have much resemblance to the Mites, and Spiders are as it were\nwinged Mites. One party of them suck blood, another vegetable sap.\nThey manifest no artistic instincts.\n\nThe Aphides or Leaf-lice require only a single pairing, to enable\nthem to propagate through several generations. During the summer they\nproduce only females, and in autumn the males first appear.\n\n_Fam. 1. Tracheopteroid Hemiptera, Leptoptera._\n\n  Alliance 1. Dipteroid Hemiptera, _Coccid\u00e6_, _Aphid\u00e6_.\n\n  Alliance 2. Hymenopteroid   \"    _Cicad\u00e6_.\n\n  Alliance 3.  Lepidopteroid  \"    _Fulgorid\u00e6_.\n\n_Fam. 2. Dictyopteroid Hemiptera, Pachyptera._\n\n  Alliance 4. Neuropteroid Hemiptera, _Water-bugs_.\n\n  Alliance 5. Orthopteroid    \"       _Narrow bugs_,\n  _Hydrometr\u00e6_, _Reduvii_, _Cimicid\u00e6_.\n\n  Alliance 6. Typical Hemiptera, _Broad bugs_, _Capsid\u00e6_,\n  _Lyg\u00e6id\u00e6_, _Coreid\u00e6_, _Scutellerid\u00e6_.\n\n\nCOHORT III. PERFECT FLIES--CERATOPTERA, BEETLES.\n\n3526. Maxill\u00e6 and dissimilar reticular wings, the anterior being\nhorny, the posterior membranous and susceptible of being folded upon\nthemselves; eyes small; pup\u00e6 motionless.\n\nThe Chafers or Beetles are the highest Insects, because they possess\nthe greatest variety of organs, namely, two kinds of wings; not to\nmention the perfect condition of their manducatory apparatus, antenn\u00e6,\nand the first thoracic ring which is free.\n\nThe Beetle represents the Flies in their entire perfection; everything\nis rendered horny in the former even to the lower wings, which are\nfurnished with several joints, almost like the feet. The upper wings\nare horny and meet together so closely by their inner margins upon the\nback, that they form a closed suture, like the shells of the bivalve\nMollusc. The antenn\u00e6 are also more perfect than in other families,\nand mostly jointed like the feet, while at their extremity they are\nfrequently thickened into laminated moveable clubs, which open when the\nanimal would fly, as if to listen.\n\nTheir habitation, mode of living and subsistence is exceedingly\ncomplex, and therein also they combine again all the families of this\nclass, and it might be said, all the preceding classes.\n\nThe Beetles are also much more numerous than any other order, and could\nin this point of view even hold good for an entire class, especially,\nif they represented a special organic system, but which is not the case.\n\nThey live upon vegetable saps, and matters, blossoms, leaves, and wood,\nliving animals, putrid flesh, dung, and such like.\n\nThey dwell mostly indeed in concealed situations, but also in those\nthat are freely exposed, while many live in water, and are so subjected\nto its influence that their larv\u00e6 actually respire this element through\nbranchi\u00e6.\n\nThe larv\u00e6 are white and have three pairs of horny thoracic feet. They\nlive concealed.\n\nThe pup\u00e6 are invested by a transparent tegument, which tears in an\nirregular manner.\n\nThe Beetles divide distinctly into three divisions, which correspond to\nthe three cohorts of this class, or repeat the three cohorts of their\ncircle.\n\nThe Beetles have been pretty generally divided according to the number\nof tarsal joints into those having three, four, five, or an unequal\nset of these \"articuli,\" whereby, however, the greatest disorder has\noriginated. I have therefore divided them in my 'Naturgeschichte'\naccording to their mode of living into _Phytophaga_, _Sarcophaga_, and\n_Rypo-_ or _Coprophaga_, which gradually seems to meet with approval.\nAt least a much more natural arrangement comes to light by using these\nmeans.\n\nI have also declared the Rhyncophora to be the lowest and the\nLamellicornes the uppermost in rank, a view, which at present appears\nto be generally adopted.\n\nBy these means I obtained two firm points, whereby the division or\nclassification of the intermediate members is uncommonly facilitated,\nalthough many may still stand in the wrong place. But who can point out\na single system in which Insects range correctly, or, what is more,\nwherein it would not be easy to prove that no single order and family\noccupies the right place.\n\nIn such trumpery systems of classification, one would think, that some\nrespect might be had for principles, or at least a feeling of shame for\nthe blockhead's weakness of intellect. But in vain! Where the sense for\nphilosophy or for principles is wanting, it is not to be inculcated\nor driven in. We still see Natural Histories shoot forth, with whose\nshrub-like ramification we must have compassion. Every thicket of\nbriars is rooted deep, and admits only of being extirpated by wearisome\nand patient culture.\n\nThe Rhyncophora indicate that the Phytophagous beetles are the\nlowest; the Lamellicornes that the Coprophagous are the highest. The\nSarcophagous chafers accordingly take their place between the two.\n\nNow, however, the Rhyncophora are tetrameral. In like manner are the\nPhytophagous beetles, such as the Borkenk\u00e4fer and Holzschr\u00f6ter. They\nconsequently form the main stem, unto which all the true Phytophaga\nmust be annexed. But among them also belong the Pentameral, namely, the\nHolzb\u00f6hrer, Schnell-and Prachtk\u00e4fer; I have therefore disposed them in\nthis order, and I believe quite correctly.\n\nThe Lamellicorn or Dung-beetles are pentameral, and on that account\nto be co-arranged with the Necrophaga or Carrion-feeders and\nSexton-beetles, as well as with the parasitic Lampyrid\u00e6, and the\npredaceous Raub-and Laufk\u00e4fer, despite their exceedingly great\ndifference of living and even anomalous structure. On the contrary,\nmost of the heteromeral kinds agree in their mode of living, and\ntolerably too in structure, with the Dung-beetles, at least the\nMulmfressenden, such as the Meal-beetles or Tenebrionid\u00e6, and indeed\nthe Stenelytra also, while the Cantharides are parasitic at least as\nlarv\u00e6.\n\nIt seems also to me, that the fungi must be viewed as flour or dung,\nand that therefore those very Fungivora, whose structure does not point\nthe way otherwise, can be placed with the Mulm-and Mistk\u00e4fern, although\nthey are only tri-and tetrameral, like the Lycoperdin\u00e6 and Erotyli.\nBesides this the antenn\u00e6 of the Fungivora are usually thickened, and\neven club shaped, whereby they thus stand nearer to the Necrophaga,\nsuch as the Speckk\u00e4fern and Sexton-beetles, as being those which\nlikewise live upon putrid substances. It is difficult to separate the\nCoccinellid\u00e6 from them; their external resemblance to the Erotyli is\nalso striking.\n\nThe pentameral Raub-Lauf-and Sandk\u00e4fern form, as it were, the trunk or\nmain stem of the Zoophagous beetles, to which are annexed likewise the\npentameral Malacopterous chafers, namely, the Lampyrid\u00e6, as parasites.\n\nBut the heteromeral Cantharides have also the same soft wings and mode\nof life, so that they are not in a natural system, even if devoid of\nprinciples, to be separated from the Malacopterous beetles.\n\nThe nourishment of the Lamellicorn beetles appears to me to be most\nperfect in kind. Mould or dung can be regarded as a fully prepared\naliment, or, as it were, a minced and cooked meat with greens prepared\nby Nature, like as Man restores it by art. Thus the lower Thricozoa,\ne. g. the Mice, eat the crudest vegetable substances, such as roots\nand seeds; those that stand higher, grass and leaves; then snails,\nworms, and insects; finally flesh, and last of all fruits, as the Bears\nand Apes. But Man lets the crude matters ferment or reduces them to\nrapid decomposition by cooking, whereby a mixed kind of food results,\nwhich bears obviously the greatest resemblance to dung which, as just\nobserved, is a food cooked by nature.\n\nAccording to these considerations I now arrange what have been called\nBeetles in the following manner into divisions drawn from philosophical\nprinciples.\n\nThe Beetles again commence, like the whole class of Flies, from below,\nand the inferior kinds pass therefore parallel to the Tracheo-and\nDictyoptera, while the superior project above them, as was the case\nalso in the preceding classes.\n\nIn a more remote manner also they repeat the lower classes, namely,\nthe Protozoa, Conchozoa, Worms and Crustacea, a fact which is, properly\nspeaking, self-evident, and which is rendered clear by the following\ntable. We have thus:\n\n  _Order_ I.   Tracheopteroid Coleoptera--_Phytophaga_.\n  _Order_ II.  Dictyopteroid      \"     --_Zoophaga_.\n  _Order_ III. Ceratopteroid      \"     --_Rypophaga_.\n\nIt can also be said; the first correspond to the Worms, the second to\nthe Crustacea, the third to the Flies.\n\nLastly, it may still be said; the first correspond to the Protozoa, the\nsecond to the Conchozoa, the third to the Ancyliozoa.\n\n\n_Order 7. Tracheopteroid Beetles--Phytophaga._\n\n3527. Body cylindrical, head mostly long, antenn\u00e6 setiform, maxillary\nteeth obtuse, tarsi mostly tetrameral.\n\nThey gnaw hard seeds, leaves, and wood, and mostly live concealed. The\nlarv\u00e6 almost or entirely apodal.\n\n_Fam. 1. Dipteroid Beetles--Rhyncophora._\n\nHead rhynchiform or snout-shaped, tarsi tetrameral.\n\n_Fam. 2. Hymenopteroid Beetles, Blattk\u00e4fer._\n\nHead tolerably short as well as the antenn\u00e6, tarsi tetrameral.\n\n_Fam. 3. Lepidopteroid Beetles, Holzk\u00e4fer._\n\nHead pretty short, antenn\u00e6 very long, tarsi tetra-and\npentameral--Borkenk\u00e4fer, Holzbohrer and Schr\u00f6ter.\n\n\n_Order 8. Dictyopteroid Beetles--Zoophaga._\n\n3528. Body long and depressed, antenn\u00e6 short, maxill\u00e6 large with\npointed teeth, feet mostly pentameral and without ungues.\n\nThey subsist upon living or dead animals, dwell usually in water or\nupon dry land, and run very swiftly. The one kind seize upon living\nbeasts, and on that account constantly swarm about them, as the\nRaub-and Laufk\u00e4fer; the others only subsist as larv\u00e6 by suction upon\nother beetles or snails externally, but live, as Flies, upon leaves and\nflowers, as the Lampyrid\u00e6 and Cantharid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 4. Neuropteroid Beetles--Water-beetles._\n\nLike the following, but all three parts of the body closely annexed,\nand rudder-like fringes of hairs upon the feet--Parnid\u00e6, Hydrophilid\u00e6,\nDyticid\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 5. Orthopteroid Beetles--Pr\u00e6datoria._\n\nMaxill\u00e6 very large and pointed, antenn\u00e6 setiform, wings hard and\ntolerably flat like the body, tarsi mostly pentameral.--Raub-Lauf-and\nSandk\u00e4fer.\n\n_Fam. 6. Hemipteroid Beetles--Parasitica._\n\nBody pretty cylindrical, head rounded with moderate sized maxill\u00e6,\nelytra narrow and soft, tarsi penta-and heteromeral.\n\nThey hang as larv\u00e6 like Mites to other beetles, and suck them; but\nafter the metamorphosis they live upon leaves and flowers--Lampyrid\u00e6\nand Cantharid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 9. Ceratopteroid Beetles--Rypophaga._\n\n3529. Body quadripeltate and mostly short, with hard elytra, thorax\nlarge, head small, with short claviform antenn\u00e6 and blunt maxillary\nteeth; feet mostly furnished with ungues, tarsal joints varied. Their\nhabitation is very varied, being both free and concealed, and they live\nfor the greatest part on decaying excrementitious matters, such as\nfungi, dry rot, and even animal ordure.\n\n_Fam. 7. Phytophagoid--Necrophaga._\n\nBody mostly rounded, with hard and large elytra; antenn\u00e6 claviform;\ntarsi tri-tetra-and pentameral--Lycoperdin\u00e6, Erotyli, Coccinellid\u00e6,\nByrrhid\u00e6, Dermestid\u00e6, Sylphid\u00e6. They correspond to the Worms and\nTracheopterous insects.\n\n_Fam. 8. Zoophagoid--Mulmk\u00e4fer._\n\nBody elongated and also nearly spherical, mostly of a dark spotted\ncolour, with hard elytra, thorax rounded, head retractile, palpi\nfiliform, tarsal joints heteromeral or unequal in number--Helopid\u00e6,\nDiaperid\u00e6, Tenebrionid\u00e6, and Pimeliari\u00e6.\n\nThey live usually in dark situations, eating meal and dry-rot; have an\nunpleasant smell. They correspond to the Crabs, Wood-lice, and Spiders,\nas likewise to the Dictyoptera.\n\n_Fam. 9. Perfect Beetles_--_Erdk\u00e4fer_ or _Lamellicornes_.\n\nMostly large, convex and short bodied Beetles with large thorax, broad\nhead, lamellated antennal clubs, spinose tibi\u00e6 and pentameral tarsi.\nTheir habitation is in dung or under the earth, where they live in the\nlarval state frequently for years before they change; some Chafers\neat also leaves of trees and flowers. They are distinguished by their\nstriking size and singular forms, being mostly furnished with horns on\nthe thorax or head. I do veritably believe that they may be generally\ninterpreted as being the highest organized beetles and members of their\nclass, although they are generally placed or arranged midway between\nthe lower forms, while the Sand-and Laufk\u00e4fer are esteemed the most\nperfect.\n\n\n_Tabular Co-arrangement._\n\nThe Dermatozoa now admit of being co-arranged in the following manner,\nfrom which their three Cardinal relations of Proximity, Repetition, and\nSerial analogy or Parallelism, admit of being distinctly recognized.\n\n_PARALLELISM OF THE LOWER ANIMALS._\n\n                          |                       |   IX CL. PTILOTA.     |\n       A. PROTOZOA.       |    VII CL. WORMS.     | Co. I. TRACHEOPTERA.  |\n                          |                       |                       |\n     I CL. INFUSORIA.     | O. 1. _Weissw\u00fcrmer._  | O. 1. _Diptera._      |\n                          |                       |                       |\n  F. 1. Monades           |  F. 1. Saugw\u00fcrmer     |  F. 1. Schmeissen     |\n     2. Rhizopoda         |     2. T\u00e6ni\u00e6          |     2. Dasseln        |\n     3. Rotifera.         |     3. Ascarides.     |     3. G\u00f6lsen.        |\n                          |                       |                       |\n      II CL. POLYPI.      | O. 2. _Rothw\u00fcrmer._   | O. 2. _Hymenoptera._  |\n                          |                       |                       |\n  F. 1. Hydr\u00e6             |     4. Earth-worms    |  F. 1. Bees           |\n     2. Alcyonia          |     5. Nereides       |     2. Wasps          |\n     3. Actini\u00e6.          |     6. Serpul\u00e6.       |     3. Terebrantia.   |\n                          |                       |                       |\n    III CL. ACALEPH\u00c6.     | O. 3. _Sternw\u00fcrmer._  | O. 3. _Lepidoptera._  |\n                          |                       |                       |\n  F. 1. Physali\u00e6          |     7. Holothuri\u00e6     |  F. 1. Moths          |\n     2. Beroe\u00e6            |     8. Echinid\u00e6       |     2. Spinner        |\n     3. Acaleph\u00e6.         |     9. Asterid\u00e6.      |     3. Wanner.        |\n                          |                       |                       |\n    B. CONCHOZOA.         |  VIII CL. CRUSTACEA.  | Co. II. DICTYOPTERA.  |\n                          |                       |                       |\n     IV CL. MUSSELS.      | Co. 1. KREBSE.        | O. 4. _Neuroptera._   |\n                          |                       |                       |\n O. 1. _R\u00f6hrenmuscheln._  |O. 1. _Pfriemenkrebse._|  F. 1. _Nagbolden._   |\n  F. 1. Pholades          |  F. 1. Entomostraca   |  A. 1. Kieferl\u00e4use    |\n     2. Tellinid\u00e6         |     2. Branchiopoda   |     2. Termitid\u00e6      |\n     3. Cardiacea.        |     3. Phyllopoda.    |     3. Phryganeid\u00e6.   |\n O. 2. _Spaltmuscheln._   |O. 2. _Scheerenkrebse._|  F. 2. _Raubbolden._  |\n     4. Mytilace\u00e6         |     4. Squill\u00e6        |     4. Hemerobiid\u00e6    |\n     5. Arcace\u00e6           |     5. Macroura       |     5. Raphidiid\u00e6     |\n     6. Ostrace\u00e6.         |     6. Brachyura      |     6. Libellulid\u00e6.   |\n                          |                       |                       |\n      V CL. SNAILS.       | Co. II. ASSELN.       | O. 5. _Orthoptera._   |\n                          |                       |                       |\n O. 1. _Androgyni._       | O. 3. _Saugasseln._   |  F. 1. _Saltatoria._  |\n  F. 1. Tritoni\u00e6          |  F. 1. Lernoe\u00e6        |  A. 1. Achetid\u00e6       |\n     2. Patell\u00e6           |     2. Arguli         |     2. Gryllid\u00e6       |\n     3. Pulmonea.         |     3. Pyncnogonides. |     3 Locustid\u00e6.      |\n O. 2. _Dioecii._         | O. 4. _Nagasseln_     |  F. 2. _Cursoria._    |\n     4. Capulid\u00e6          |     4. L\u00e6modipoda     |     4. Mantides       |\n     5. Turbinid\u00e6         |     5. Amphipoda      |     5. Blattid\u00e6       |\n     6. Buccinid\u00e6.        |     6. Isopoda.       |     6. Forficulid\u00e6.   |\n                          |                       |                       |\n     VI CL. KRACKEN.      | Co. III. KOBE.        | O. 6. _Hemiptera._    |\n                          |                       |                       |\n  O. 1. _Rumpfkracken._   | O. 1. _Langkobe._     |  F. 1. _Leptoptera._  |\n   F. 1. Salp\u00e6            |  F. 1. Podur\u00e6         |  A. 1. Aphidii        |\n      2. Ascidi\u00e6          |     2. Juli           |     2. Cicad\u00e6         |\n      3. Cirripedia.      |     3. Scolopendr\u00e6.   |     3. Fulgorid\u00e6.     |\n O. 2. _Kopfkracken._     | O. 2. _Kurzkobe._     |  F. 2. _Pachyptera._  |\n      4. Brachiopoda      |     4. Acarid\u00e6        |     4. Water-bugs     |\n      5. Pteropoda        |     5. Scorpions      |     5. Narrow bugs    |\n      6. Cephalopoda.     |     6. Spiders.       |     6. Broad bugs.    |\n                          |                       |                       |\n C. ANCYLIOZOA.           |   IX. CL. PTILOTA.    | Co. III. CERATOPTERA. |\n                          |                       |                       |\n      VII CL. WORMS       | Co. I. TRACHEOPTERA   | O. 1. _Phytophaga_    |\n    VIII CL. CRUSTACEA    |    II. DICTYOPTERA    |    2. _Zoophaga_      |\n IX CL. PTILOTA or FLIES. |   III. CERATOPTERA.   |    3. _Moderk\u00e4fer._   |\n\n\n\n\n  | Co. III. CERATOPTERA. | O. 3. _Rypophaga._    |\n  | O. 1. _Phytophaga._   |  F. 7. _Necrophaga._  |    F. 7. _Erdk\u00e4fer._\n  |                       |                       |\n  |   F. 1. _Rhyncophora_ | A. 1. _Fungivora._    | A. 1. _Phyllophaga._\n  |                       |                       |\n  |  A. 1. Langr\u00fcssler    |    Scaphidiid\u00e6        |     a. Melolonthid\u00e6\n  |     2. Kurzr\u00fcssler    |    Erotyli            |     b. Anoplognathid\u00e6\n  |     3. Breitr\u00fcssler.  |    Encid\u00e6.            |     c. Rutelid\u00e6.\n  |                       |                       |\n  |   F. 2. _Blattk\u00e4fer._ | A. 2. _Speckfresser._ |  2. _Anthobii._\n  |                       |                       |\n  |  A. 1. Galerucid\u00e6     |    1. Dermestid\u00e6      |     a. Lepitrichid\u00e6\n  |     2. Chrysomelid\u00e6   |    2. Nitidulid\u00e6      |     b. Dichelid\u00e6\n  |     3. Criocerid\u00e6.    |    3. Silphid\u00e6.       |     c. Glaphyrid\u00e6.\n  |                       |                       |\n  |   F. 3. _Holzk\u00e4fer._  | A. 1. _Dung-feeders._ |  3. _Melitophaga._\n  |                       |                       |\n  |     7. Bostrychid\u00e6    |    1. Byrrhid\u00e6        |     a. Cetoni\u00e6\n  |     8. Elaterid\u00e6      |    2. Sph\u00e6ridiid\u00e6     |     b. Trichii\n  |     9. Cerambycid\u00e6.   |    3. Histerid\u00e6.      |     c. Goliathi.\n  |                       |                       |\n  | O. 2. _Zoophaga._     |                       |\n  |                       |                       |\n  | F. 4. _Water-beetles._|  F. 8. _Mulmk\u00e4fer._   | A. 2. _Coprophaga._\n  |                       |                       |\n  | A. 1. _Sumpk\u00e4fer._    | A. 1. _Trachelid\u00e6._   |    a. Aphodii\n  |     a. Heterocerid\u00e6   |     a. Lagri\u00e6         |\n  |     b. Parnid\u00e6        |     b. Pyrochro\u00e6      |\n  |     c. Hydrophilid\u00e6.  |     c. Mordell\u00e6.      |\n  | A. 2. _Flussk\u00e4fer._   |   _Serropalpid\u00e6._     |    b. Coprid\u00e6.\n  |     d. Girinid\u00e6       |     d. Mycterid\u00e6      |\n  |     e. Haliplid\u00e6      |     e. OEdemer\u00e6       |\n  |     f. Dytiscid\u00e6.     |     f. Melandry\u00e6.     |\n  |                       |                       |\n  |   F. 5. _Mordk\u00e4fer._  | A. 2. _Stenelytra._   |  _Arenicol\u00e6._\n  |                       |                       |\n  | A. 1. _Raubk\u00e4fer_     |                       |\n  |     a. Pselaphid\u00e6     |     a. Cistelid\u00e6      |    a. \u00c6glali\u00e6.\n  |     b. Scydm\u00e6nid\u00e6     |     b. Helopid\u00e6       |\n  |     c. Staphylinid\u00e6.  |     c. Cnodalid\u00e6.     |\n  | A. 2. _Laufk\u00e4fer._    |   _Taxicornes._       |    b. Trogid\u00e6.\n  |     d. Carabid\u00e6       |     d. Niliond\u00e6       |\n  |     e. Brachinid\u00e6     |     e. Cossyhid\u00e6      |\n  |     f. Cicindelid\u00e6.   |     f. Diaperid\u00e6.     |\n  |                       |                       |\n  |F. 6. _Schmarotzk\u00e4fer._| A. 3. _Tenebrionid\u00e6._ |  _Geotrupid\u00e6._\n  |                       |                       |\n  | A. 1. _Leuchtk\u00e4fer._  |                       |\n  |     a. Lampyrid\u00e6      |     a. Tenebriones    |    a. Geotrupes.\n  |     b  Melyrid\u00e6       |     b. Toxicid\u00e6       |\n  |     c. Clerid\u00e6.       |     c. Opatrid\u00e6.      |\n  | A. 2. _Ziehk\u00e4fer._    |   _Melanosomata._     |    b. Lethri.\n  |     d. Notoxid\u00e6       |     d. Blapsid\u00e6       |\n  |     e. Horiid\u00e6        |     e. Pimeladiid\u00e6    |\n  |     f. Cantharides.   |     f. Sepidi\u00e6.       |\n  |                       |                       |\n  | O. 3. _Moderk\u00e4fer._   |   F. 9. _Erdk\u00e4fer._   | A. 3. _Lohfresser._\n  |                       |                       |\n  |  F. 7. Aask\u00e4fer       |  A. 1. Phyllophaga    |     a. Lucanid\u00e6\n  |     8. Mulmk\u00e4fer      |     2. Coprophaga     |     b. Passalid\u00e6\n  |     9. Erdk\u00e4fer.      |     3. Lohfresser.    |     c. Oryctid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Second Province._\n\n--FOURTH CIRCLE--SARCOZOA.\n\n_Pisces, Reptilia, Aves and Thricozoa._\n\n3530. These animals necessarily pass through all 4 circles, and each\nclass therefore divides into 4 orders, or into 5, if the senses be\nallowed to hold good as constituting a distinct order in themselves.\n\nTwo points of departure for classification here admit of being thought\nof, either wholly from below, or first of all from the commencement of\nthe present circle. In order to be convinced of this, we need only make\na slight attempt. The animal series is as follows:\n\n  A. SPLANCHNOZOA.\n\n  _Circle I. Intestinal animals_      _Protozoa._\n\n      Class 1. Gastric animals        Infusoria.\n            2. Intestinal \"           Polypi.\n            3. Absorbent  \"           Acaleph\u00e6.\n\n  _Circle II. Vascular animals_       _Conchozoa._\n            4. Venous animals         Mussels.\n            5. Arteriose  \"           Snails.\n            6. Cardiac    \"           Kracken.\n\n  _Circle III. Respiratory animals_   _Ancyliozoa._\n             7. Reticular animals     Worms.\n             8. Branchial    \"        Crabs.\n             9. Tracheal     \"        Flies.\n\n\n  B. SOMATOZOA.\n\n  _Circle IV. Sarcozoa._\n           10. Osseous animals        Fishes.\n           11. Muscular   \"           Reptiles.\n           12. Nervose    \"           Birds.\n\n  _Circle V. Aistheseozoa._\n           13. Sense-animals          Thricozoa.\n\n3531. Now it is here conceivable, either that the families of Fishes,\nReptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa, pass parallel to all the preceding\nclasses from the Infusoria upwards, or that they first commence with\nthe class of Fishes.\n\nIn regard to this question the Birds and Thricozoa give the most clear\nand decisive answer. If we adopt the last proposition, then the Birds\nmust follow each other thus:\n\n  1. Fish-like Birds      Palmipedes.\n  2. Reptilian   \"        Grall\u00e6.\n  3. Typical     \"        Gallin\u00e6.\n  4. Thricozooid Birds    Struthionid\u00e6.\n\nAccording to this, the Aquatic Birds would occupy the lowest rank, just\nas they have actually done hitherto in all other systems. The three\nother families too do not admit of any other position. But what is to\nbe done meanwhile with the large majority of other Birds? They would\nextend or pass beyond the Thricozoa, and have thus no anatomical system\nwhatever for their basis. Besides, Humming-birds, Sparrows and Linnets\nwould in this way rank higher than the Gallinaceous and Struthious\nBirds, which some indeed believe to be the case, but without any proof,\nso that it is scarcely necessary to abide by such an opinion.\n\nThe Thricozoa must stand thus:\n\n  1. Icthyoid     Cetacea.\n  2. Herpetoid    Pachydermata.\n  3. Ornithoid    Ruminantia.\n  4. Typical      All the remaining Thricozoa.\n\nIn the systems now in vogue the Thricozoa certainly follow in\nthis manner, and no scruple whatever is made of placing the Mice,\nAnt-eaters, Shrews, and Bats above Elephants, Horses, and Deer. Yet\napart from all this, the former must pass beyond the Thricozoa, and\nwould thus likewise have no other organ as a foundation than perhaps\nthe organs of sense, of which there are but five, while the families of\nThricozoa not yet provided for are much more numerous, namely, besides\nthose named, the Seals, Dogs, Bears, and Apes.\n\nThe above methods of arrangement must be consequently cast aside\nwithout limitation or reserve, although they may have held good for\nhundreds of years. But what does or will not hold good in an age that\nis devoid of principles?\n\nIt is thus evident that the smaller Birds stand below the Aquatics,\njust as the smaller Thricozoa do beneath the Whales, quite apart from\norganic structure, which in every respect is imperfect. They must\ncorrespond, consequently, to the Asarcous animals, wherewith also their\ngreat number agrees.\n\nIf this holds good of the two highest classes, so also must it hold\ngood of the two lower, namely, Fishes and Reptiles, and we shall thus\nhave:\n\n    I. Protozooid Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.\n   II. Conchozooid Fishes,   &c.\n  III. Ancyliozooid   \"      &c.\n   IV. Icthyoid       \"      &c.\n    V. Herpetoid      \"      &c.\n   VI. Thricozooid    \"      &c.\n  VII. Ornithoid      \"      &c.\n\n3532. But this parallelism depends essentially upon the organs, and\nthey are called, in the language of Physio-philosophy, more correctly:\n\n    I. Intestinal Fishes, Reptiles, Birds, and Thricozoa.\n   II. Vascular Fishes,      &c.\n  III. Pulmonary   \"         &c.\n   IV. Osseous     \"         &c.\n    V. Muscular    \"         &c.\n   VI. Nervose     \"         &c.\n  VII. Sensorial   \"         &c.\n\nBut as these names are unused, and give or convey only the anatomical\nidea, but no external image, the first appellations are to be preferred.\n\n\n_Tenth Class._\n\n_Osteozoa, Glossozoa--Pisces._\n\n3533. No one of the upper classes is in such an extensive state of\nconfusion as that of Fishes. Nor does this result simply from the great\ndeviations in their structure from the normal type, these being rather\nuseful than otherwise for the purposes of classification; but mainly\nfrom the utter want of any principle which might serve systematists as\na guide. Thus at one time we find them having recourse to the nature\nof the osseous tissue, at another to the fins, now to the teeth or\nto the scales, ay, even to the fin-rays, and all this because the\ncharacteristic or typical organ has never been sought after, nor the\npresence of such an organ as indispensable been so much as known.\n\n3534. The characteristic organ of Fishes is the Osseous system, which\nis consequently the principle also of their division.\n\nThe physical nature, form, position, and number of the osseous parts\nmust therefore be principally considered, and hence, above all, the\nsubstance or texture of the bones; the limbs also, and the maxill\u00e6 with\ntheir teeth, as well as the teeth upon the palate, upon the tongue and\nthe branchial arches.\n\nWith regard to the component substance or texture of the bones we\nencounter a great difficulty. The Cartilaginous Fishes appear to belong\nto each other, and are also usually arranged together. Yet amongst them\nwe find those species, such as the Lampreys, which obviously occupy\nthe lowest grade of all Fishes, while the Sharks and Rays remind us of\nthe Reptilia and Thricozoa, as well by their external structure as the\ndevelopment of their sexual parts, since they possess perfect testes,\nand ovaria separate or distinct from the oviducts, while they no longer\ndeposit roe, but large ova inclosed in leathery shells, like the\nhigher Reptilia. Now, if we separate these Fishes from the Lampreys,\nwith whom in the scaleless tegument, the branchial foramina, and\neven the external form they have many points of resemblance, nothing\nelse remains to be done than assign them the uppermost place, and so\nparallelize them with the Thricozoa. But one is next constrained to\nunite into one family the Pikes and Herrings, which perhaps admits of\nbeing done.\n\nThere belong namely to the upper Fishes without doubt the Abdominales,\nwhich are divisible into five families: the Carps, Pikes, Shads,\nSalmons, and Herrings. Now, if the Sheat-fishes be placed inferiorly on\naccount of their scaleless body and amorphous maxill\u00e6, four families\nwill still be left, which should correspond to the Fishes, Reptiles,\nBirds, and Thricozoa, so that no place is left remaining for the\nSharks. Now, however, the Salmons correspond decidedly to the Reptilia;\nand the Flying Fishes, which are ranged below the Pikes, probably to\nthe Birds. If we unite them with the Herrings, then the Sharks may\noccupy the place of the Thricozoa.\n\nThis being preassumed, we can now attempt the classification. The\nsubstance or texture of the bones is of such importance, that\nnotwithstanding the separation of the Sharks and their congeners, the\nother Cartilaginous Fishes must be left along with them, and range\nupon the lowest stage, so that they thus correspond to the Intestinal\nanimals.\n\nThe next great distinction in the osseous system is the regular and\nirregular form which it imparts to the body, so that the Regular-shaped\ncan be separated in a tolerably \"tranchant\" manner from the Irregular\nFishes.\n\nThe regular form of a Fish is obviously the ellipse, as we find to\nbe the case in our fresh-water Fishes, namely, the Perches, Salmons\nand Carps. They are collectively covered with large scales, which is\ntherefore also a sign of their regularity.\n\nThe Irregular Fishes are cylindrical, fusi-clavi-spheri-and tubuliform,\nusually destitute of scales or covered with plates, scutes, and spines.\nThus, since the Cartilaginous Fishes are collectively irregular in\nform, the Irregular Osseous Fishes must be allowed to follow them.\n\nThe greatest variety of the osseous system is shown in the limbs,\nespecially the posterior pair, which in the other classes also are\ngenerally imperfect and make their appearance the last. In Fishes\nthey are not divided into digits, but only into rays, which probably\ncorrespond only to the digital ungues or to feathers. An animal which\nhas fin-rays is assuredly a Fish, for fin-rays do not occur in any\nReptile.\n\nThe posterior fins change even their situation. Those Fishes in whom\nthey are placed near to the anus, are obviously the more perfect, as\nthe Abdominales.\n\nIn others they advance to the rear of the thoracic fins, and are even\nattached to what has been called the \"girdle\" or humerus--Thoracici.\n\nIn others they even get in front of the thoracic fins on the\nthroat--Jugulares.\n\nLastly, they are actually wanting--Apodales.\n\nIn the Lampreys there are neither thoracic nor ventral fins.\n\nThe skeleton of Fishes is not simply divided to a greater extent than\nin other animals, but has actually a greater number of bones, such as\nthe rays in the perpendicular fins, which are wanting in all animals,\neven in the Reptilia. An animal with dorsal rays must surely be placed\namong the Fishes, and consequently the Lepidosiren also.\n\nThe misshapen Fishes will therefore occupy the lower stages, the\nregular the upper, not directly by reason of their form alone; but\nbecause the other organs are also more imperfectly developed, the bones\nbeing cartilaginous, the tegument asquamous, mucous, or covered with\nspines, scutes, and plates; the fins wanting or abortive, or displaced\nfrom their proper situation; the head disproportionate in size to the\nbody, the mouth wide or narrow, the eyes placed superiorly or upon the\nforehead.\n\nA lower character is afforded also by very long dorsal fins, such\nnamely as extend from the head to the tail. In the Abdominales,\nSturgeons, Sharks, and Rays, the perpendicular fins are small; in the\nThoracici, Jugulares, and Apodes they are, on the contrary, mostly very\nlong.\n\nMoreover, a lower character is a very long coccygeal or caudal fin,\nwhich denotes that the anus lies far forwards, and therefore that the\ntail has a great preponderance over the trunk. In the Abdominales and\nthe Sharks the tail is short; in the Rays thin and terminated abruptly,\nas in Reptiles and Thricozoa. Thus the higher the animals ascend the\nmore does the tail diminish in length.\n\nRegard being had to all these relations, the Irregular Fishes must be\nviewed as those which correspond to the lower classes of animals, and\nthe Cartilaginous Fishes will indeed make the commencement; to these\nare annexed the Irregular Osseous Fishes, and nearest to them indeed\nthose with arrested ventral fins, whether wanting or placed on the\nthroat; then come the Regular Fishes, and of these first of all the\nThoracici, and next the Abdominales. In this manner we obtain four\ndivisions.\n\n  A. Body irregular.\n\n  I. Pisces Cartilaginei.\n  II. Stummelflosser--Apodales and Jugulares.\n\n  B. Body regular.\n\n  III. Thoracici--Tunnies, Breams, and Perch.\n  IV. Abdominales--Carps, Pikes, Salmons and Herrings, Sharks.\n\nNow, these divisions, having been discovered by a simple analysis\nor testing of facts, are to be arranged according to philosophical\nprinciples, and further subdivided, whereby the ground and legality of\ntheir existence will be recognized.\n\n\nA. IRREGULAR FISHES.\n\n3535. Body deviating from the elliptical form, devoid of scales,\nor covered with spines, scutes, and plates; head and tail\ndisproportionate; fins mostly arrested.\n\nThey correspond to the unarticulate Proto-and Conchozoa; their\nirregular-shaped mucous or mailed body agreeing perfectly with these\nanimals.\n\n\n_Order 1. Intestinal, Protozooid Fishes._\n\n3536. Mouth round and without maxill\u00e6, or disproportionately narrow and\nwide.\n\nThere can be no doubt that the Lampreys are the lowest Fishes, since\nthey remind us in every respect of the Worms by their naked, mucous,\nand lineiform body, with indistinct head, almost devoid of bones and\ntrue teeth, having a circular mouth, obliterated nostrils, puny eyes,\nand finally branchial cysts, which occupy a higher rank only from their\nopening into the oesophagus. They pass therefore parallel to the\nInfusoria, or rather to the commencements of the second animal series,\nnamely, the Etozoa Ancyliozoa.\n\nNow, although much dispute prevails concerning the division of Fishes\nwhich should be associated with the Lampreys, yet it appears to me\nthat no others but the narrow-mouthed Fistularid\u00e6 and Pipe-fishes\ncan follow, since they resemble them not only in their cartilaginous\nbones, but in the structure also of their branchi\u00e6. They will thus\ntruly occupy the place of the second family. Whether the narrow-mouthed\nGlobe-fishes are likewise to be united with them or to be set up as a\nthird family, may seem to be matter of doubt. I adopt the first course,\nand arrange at present the wide-mouthed or Frog-fishes and Shads in the\nthird family.\n\n_Fam. 1. Infusorial Fishes, Lampreys._\n\nBody vermiform, naked, and slimy, without membral fins. Ex.\nBranchiostoma or Amphioxys, Myxine, Petromyzon.\n\nIn these Fishes the mouth is quite in front and round, being without\nmaxill\u00e6 and adapted for the purposes of suction; only one nostril, but\nmostly several branchial foramina, which lead to cysts provided with\nreticular branchi\u00e6, but without opercula.\n\nThe Branchiostomata are the smallest Fishes, not much above 1\" in\nlength, almost devoid of head, yet with traces of eyes and a nostril.\nThe Myxin\u00e6 crawl even into the rectum of other Fishes, and live therein\nlike Entozoa. The river or lesser Lampreys stick in the mud; the\nLampreys cling fast by suction to stones, and do not draw the water in\nthrough the mouth, but through the branchial foramina themselves, like\nthe lower animals.\n\n_Fam. 2. Polypary Fishes, Narrow-mouthed._\n\nBody cartilaginous, mouth having maxill\u00e6, but unusually narrow,\nonly one branchial foramen with immoveable operculum--Fistularid\u00e6,\nPipe-fishes and Globe-fishes.\n\nIn this family we still meet with species entirely naked, but covered\nalso with plates, scutes, nails, and spines. The corymbiform or tufted\nbranchi\u00e6 of the Syngnathi or the Lophobranchii still remind us\nstrongly of the cystiform reticular branchi\u00e6 of the first family.\n\n_Fam. 3. Acalephoid Fishes, Wide-mouthed._\n\nBody naked or covered with plates; mouth in front and mostly unusually\nwide.\n\nI here arrange in doubt the Frog-fishes and the Shads, although the\nlast are Abdominales. But they deviate from the Carps and Pikes by\ntheir asymmetrical, naked or mailed body, the large transverse mouth,\nthe eyes staring upwards, and the arrested branchial opercula.\n\n\n_Order 2. Vascular, Conchozooid Fishes--Stummelflosser._\n\n3537. Asymmetrical Osseous Fishes, Apodales, and Jugulares.\n\nAmong the true Osseous Fishes the Eels must undoubtedly range the\nlowest on account of their vermiform and asquamous body, and the want\nof ventral fins. To them are allied the Jugulares, namely, the Blennii\nand Gadid\u00e6, as well as the Plaice; lastly, the asymmetrical Thoracici\nwithout scales, being quite naked or covered with scutes, as the Gobii\nand Trigl\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 4. Mussel-Fishes, Eels._\n\nBody naked and serpentiform, without ventral fins.\n\nThe Eels, from their naked, cylindrical or riband-shaped body, the long\ndorsal and coccygeal fin, the small branchial foramina occasionally\nconfluent beneath the neck, and by their dwelling in the mud, rank\namong the imperfect Fishes. The one set have soft, the other hard,\nfin-rays, and on that account they have not simply been separated, but\neven far removed from each other. This difference alone is not so great\nas to justify their being arranged, when the structure of the body\nagrees in other respects, into distinct orders. The influence of the\ndorsal spines upon the life and natatory or waving movement of Fishes\nis so slight, and its value generally, in comparison with other parts,\nto be taken so little into account, that a natural arrangement can\nnever result from these appendages, which do not deserve to be called\norgans, and viewed as principal characters.\n\n_Fam. 5. Snail-Fishes, Haddocks._\n\nJugulares without distinct scales and spines on the branchial\noperculum, and hard fin-rays.\n\nThese Fishes are allied to the Eels by the aborted ventral fins, the\ntolerably cylindrical, naked, or small-scaled body and soft dorsal\nfins. The viviparous Blennius bears with us its name of Aalmutter not\nin vain, for it resembles a shortened, slimy Eel. The Gadid\u00e6 are indeed\nless slimy and have in part scales, but, by reason of their lengthened\nform and their fins, cannot be removed far from the Eels; the same\nholds good of the Plaice.\n\n_Fam. 6. Kracken-Fishes, Grundeln._\n\nAsymmetrical Jugulares and Thoracici, with naked and mailed body, in\naddition to hard fin-rays.\n\nHere belong the Gobiid\u00e6 and Triglid\u00e6, the first whereof are usually\nnaked, the second mailed, with roughnesses upon the head and spines on\nthe opercula; in all the eyes placed high up.\n\n\nB. REGULAR FISHES.\n\n3538. Body elliptical, mostly covered with scales, Thoracici and\nAbdominales; eyes placed sideways.\n\n\n_Order 3. Pulmonary, Ancyliozooid Fishes._\n\n3539. Regular Thoracici.\n\nThe position of the abdominal fins immediately behind the thoracic is\nobviously a step further in the perfection of structure, and these\nFishes must be therefore placed above the preceding kinds, in whom,\napart from the asymmetrical form of body, the position of the fins is\nmostly upon the neck or advanced very close to it. The anus is still\nsituated far forwards, and the tail is therefore mostly larger than the\ntrunk. The dorsal fins are still very predominant. Among them we still\nmeet with naked or microlepidal species, which in their abnormal form\nalso remind us of the irregular Fishes, as the Tunnies and Haberdines\nor Stock-fish. They are therefore to be regarded as the lowest.\n\nAs is the case here in Fishes, so also in the Ancyliozoa the truly\nregular or bilateral body originates in them for the first time, or at\nleast constitutes a persistent character.\n\n_Fam. 7. Worm-Fishes, Tunnies._\n\nTolerably naked or microlepidal, cylindriform or very much compressed,\nwith small head and mouth; the teeth very feeble, only like a brush;\nthe branchial opercula without spines. Here belong the proper Tunnies\nand Haberdines: all of them marine Fishes.\n\n_Fam. 8. Crustacean Fishes, Brassen._\n\nBody perfectly regular, covered with great scales; mouth small with\nstrong teeth; branchial opercula unarmed. Here belong the Labrid\u00e6 or\nLipped Fishes, Seabream and Osphromanus.\n\n_Fam. 9. Ptilotoid Fishes, Perch._\n\nBody quite regular with large scales, mouth of moderate size with\nscythe-shaped teeth, branchial opercula armed. Here belong the\nScianoid\u00e6 and Percoid\u00e6. Dwell in the sea and rivers.\n\n\n_Order 4. Sarcose Fishes._\n\n3540. Abdominales, dorsal fins small, with soft ramified rays, mostly\nplaced far behind. Plainly regular Fishes with large scales. The head\nis regular, with the eyes upon its sides; the set of teeth varied;\nthe trunk large, tail small, as are also the dorsal fins, which\nproceed more and more backwards to the sacrum or even the tail, a fact\nindicating their gradual disappearance, and therefore a sign also of\ngreater perfection. Added to this, they are generally distributed over\nthe whole earth in rivers and seas. Finally, it is they that yield\nthe most nutriment to Man, which is also a constant sign of greater\nperfection; as is evidenced in the vegetable kingdom by the Fruit-trees\nor plants; in the animal kingdom by the Oysters, Snails, Sepi\u00e6,\nHolothuri\u00e6, Geese, Fowls, Cattle, &c.\n\n_Fam. 10. Typical Fishes, Carps._\n\nBody of the Carps covered with large scales, mostly but one dorsal\nfin placed pretty far back, mouth nearly edentate, supra-maxillary\nbones arrested, large teeth on the posterior branchial arches, or\nwhat have been called pharyngeal bones. They are for the greatest part\nfresh-water Fishes, and those which are most used as articles of food.\n\n_Fam. 11. Reptilian Fishes, Salmons._\n\nMouth with strong teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; behind\nthe radial dorsal fin there is still a fatty fin and no large scales.\nHere belongs the Lizard-like fish (Saurus), so called on account of its\nresemblance to the Lizards. Live in sea and fresh-water.\n\n_Fam. 12. Ornithic Fishes, Herrings and Pikes._\n\nThe Herrings have teeth in the superior and intermaxillary bone; only\none dorsal fin; mostly large scales.\n\nBody of the Pike slightly scaled, furnished mostly with a small dorsal\nfin situated very far back, mouth full of teeth, but none of these in\nthe rudimental intermaxillary bone. Dwellers in the sea and in fresh\nwater.\n\nAmong the Pikes is placed the Exocoetus or Flying fish.\n\n\n_Order 5. Sensorial Fishes._\n\n3541. Bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the snout.\n\n_Fam. 13. Thricozooid Fishes, Sharks._\n\nAbdominales; bones cartilaginous, mouth opening transversely under the\nprojecting snout; mostly several pairs of separate branchial apertures.\n\nHere belong the Chim\u00e6r\u00e6, Sturgeons, Sharks, and Rays. The last ought\nto be held as higher in rank, partly on account of their slender tail,\npartly because the huge Rays, which are called Cephalopterus, have\nthe anterior thoracic rays free and so moveable that they can seize\ntheir prey with them as with hands. All lay, with the exception of\nthe Sturgeons, large and leathery ova, and in this approximate pretty\nclosely to the Reptilia.\n\nIt has been already remarked, that the large Cartilaginei would\nnot pass correctly into the others, and obviously seem to claim\nthe highest post. At some later period the principle may probably\nbe discovered whereupon their union with the higher Osseous fishes\ndepends. Both are at all events Abdominales.\n\n\nEleventh Class.\n\n_Myozoa, Rhinozoa--Reptilia._\n\n3542. Body entirely naked or covered with scales, with distinctly\nseparate and red-coloured muscles; two nostrils permeable throughout.\n\nAs the Muscular system is here the characteristic organ, it must be\nregarded principally in the division of the present class; the limbs\nalso exhibit nowhere so great a variety as in this class, since they\nare in some cases wanting, while in others two only, in some four,\nare present. In place of fin-rays true toes have, however, made their\nappearance, these again indicating the greatest variety in the number\nof the joints; but meanwhile there are in no instance more than five\ntoes.\n\nThe osseous system is constructed after the pattern of that of the\nThricozoa, and is never furnished with dorsal rays as in Fishes.\n\nThe dental formula begins also to be regular. The teeth stand usually\nin the superior intermaxillary bone, and are sometimes pointed, at\nothers obtuse; in the Ichthyosauri and Crocodiles they are even\ninserted by gomphosis, as in the Thricozoa. In many Serpents additional\nkinds of teeth occur, namely, the curved poison-teeth or fangs, which\nhave an involuted groove traversing their concavity. In most Reptiles\nteeth also occur upon the palatal, but there are no longer any upon\nthe lingual bone. In the Chelonia or Tortoises the teeth are entirely\nwanting, and they are also scarcely indicated in the Asquamous\nSalamanders and Frogs.\n\nThe os quadratum is found as in Birds; in Serpents, however, the\nmastoid bone has been freed, and hence the capability possessed by\nthese creatures of expanding the mouth.\n\nViewed in accordance with the perfection of the limbs, the Salamanders\nand Frogs ought to be regarded as the highest in rank; but their\nscaleless tegument, their development out of spawn in the water, as\nwell as branchi\u00e6 brings them near to the Fishes. In other respects\ntheir position is determined by the dental formula, which, as I have\nalready shown, belongs to the limbs and thus to the motor system.\n\nThe position of the nostrils is now, throughout the class, in front of\nand upon the snout, being no longer situated almost on the forehead\nor vertex, as in Fishes. Their relation to the scales is likewise of\nimportance for the purposes of division.\n\nThe naked Salamanders and Frogs will occupy the lowest place. By their\nform, absence of teeth, and mode of life, the Chelonia are allied to\nthem.\n\nThen follow the Serpents and Lizards with a perfect set of teeth. The\nSerpents are distinguished from the Lizards by their want of feet and\nthe long bifid tongue inclosed within a sheath.\n\nAmong the Lizards apodal species occur, as the Blind-worms; but\nthey have under the skin some pedal bones, and are, in addition to\nthis, sufficiently distinguished from the Serpents by the short and\nsheathless tongue.\n\nAmong the Lizards with perfect feet there are some with small visual\norgans, like as in the Serpents; others with unusually large eyes,\ne. g. the Chameleon, Gecko, Ichthyosauri, and Crocodiles. All other\nLizards, the Serpents, Chelonia, Salamanders and Frogs, have small eyes\nand consequently follow each other.\n\nThe Crocodile has teeth articulated by gomphosis, and consequently\nresembles the Thricozoa.\n\nI divide the present class therefore into the following groups.\n\n\nA. DERMAL REPTILES--SMALL-EYED.\n\n_Order 1. Protozooid Reptilia-Kr\u00f6ten._\n\n3543. Body slimy and scaleless, or maxill\u00e6 devoid of teeth.\n\n_Fam. 1._ Infusorial Reptiles, Petromyzoid--_Caudate Batrachia,\nSalamanders_.\n\nBody naked and furnished with a tail.\n\nThese cylindrical animals bear the greatest resemblance to the\nLampreys, or are Petromyzoid, being provided with setaceous and\nscarcely discernible teeth, frequently only one pair of feet; they are\ndeveloped also out of spawn in the water, and many retain the branchi\u00e6\nduring the whole of life.\n\n_Fam. 2._ Polypary Reptilia, Kugelfischartige--_Stutzkr\u00f6ten_, _Frogs_.\n\nBody thick and naked and without a tail, but with four feet.\n\nThe Frogs and Toads proper are likewise developed out of spawn, but\nsoon lose their branchi\u00e6. In their form and even the structure of their\nmouth they are Kugelfischartige, i. e. remind us strikingly of the\nGlobe-fishes, among the Engm\u00e4ulern or Plectognathi.\n\n_Fam. 3._ Acalephan Reptilia, Welsartige--_Chelonia_.\n\nBody thick and coated with scales, maxill\u00e6 quite edentulous.\n\nThe Chelonia appear certainly to occupy a pretty high rank; they lay\nlarge ova covered with a calcareous shell, but frequently live or\ndwell in the water, and have, in their mode of living as well as form,\na striking resemblance to the naked Batrachia. Through their want of\nteeth they range among all the succeeding families.\n\n\n_Order 2. Conchozooid Reptilia--Ophidia._\n\n3544. Body cylindriform and scaly, teeth acuminate, tongue\nlongitudinally bifid and inclosed within a sheath; no feet and eyelids.\n\nThe Serpents stand without doubt below the Lizards; yet it is difficult\nto arrange them properly into families. The poison-teeth appear to\nindicate a lower character, because the cranium is thereby removed or\nrecedes from the usual type of structure, while the superior maxilla\nbecomes very much arrested. But as there are moveable and immoveable\npoison-teeth, and the latter gradually pass over into the ordinary\nkinds of teeth, while externally also, no character has been found to\ndistinguish the venomous from the non-venomous Serpents, it is best at\npresent to discontinue this separation.\n\nThen the Serpents can be brought according to the structure of their\nscales into 3 families. They are either of equal and small size,\naround the whole body; or there are plates upon the belly and tail; or\nfinally, the plates under the latter are divided into two tablets.\n\n_Fam. 4._ Mussel-Reptiles, Eel-like--_Schuppenschlangen_.\n\nAll the scales around the body small and of equal size; upon the\nbelly only being somewhat larger. Here belong the venomous Hydrid\u00e6 or\nSea-snakes, and huge Boas or Pythons. If once the venomous Serpents\ncould be distinguished as a distinct family, they will indeed be placed\nhigher, and the non-venomous be separated from them. Then probably the\nBoas may be raised, together with their allies, as the highest family.\n\n_Fam. 5._ Snail-Reptiles, Haddock-like--_Tafelschlangen_.\n\nPlates under the belly, those beneath the tail being halved or divided\ninto two.\n\nHere belong our Colubri, but also the venomous Adders.\n\n_Fam. 6._ Kracken-Reptilia, Grundelartige--_Schienenschlangen_.\n\nEntire plates upon belly and tail, as in the Rattle-snakes.\n\n\n_Order 3. Ancyliozooid Reptilia--Lizards._\n\n3545. Scales, the usual kind of teeth and tongue; inferior maxill\u00e6\nanchylosed in front, mastoid bone not freed, mostly feet and eyelids.\n\nThey divide likewise into three families.\n\n_Fam. 7._ Worm-Reptiles, Tunny-like--_Schleichen_.\n\nBody round and serpentiform, with small scales, feet rudimental, or\neven wanting.\n\nHere belong the C\u00e6cili\u00e6, Blind-worms, and Scinci. I have united these\nanimals, which elsewhere have stood dispersed among the Serpents and\nLizards as well as the Salamanders, and placed them as a distinct\nfamily between the two former. By reason of their rudimental feet they\nkeep simply upon the earth and bore themselves passages therein. Their\nmotion is serpent-like, because they lie upon the belly and cannot\nassist themselves with the feet.\n\n_Fam. 8._ Crustacean Reptiles, Bream-like--_Schuppenechsen_.\n\nFour perfect feet, body covered all round with small granular scales,\ntongue short and hardly slit.\n\nHere belong the Flying Lizards, the Iguan\u00e6 and Basilisks. They usually\nclimb about on trees and seek for beetles and berries.\n\n_Fam. 9._ Ptilotoid Reptilia, Perch-like--_Schienenechsen_.\n\nFour perfect feet, but plates upon the belly and tail, tongue thin and\nbifid. Here belong the common Lizards and the \"Sauvegards\" or Monitors.\nTheir body is usually depressed. They cannot climb, but run about\nbriskly upon the ground and eat beetles, and even the higher animals.\nMany are a fathom in length.\n\n\nB. SARCOSE REPTILIA--LARGE-EYED.\n\n3546. These animals have tubercles, spines and plates, with four\nperfect feet, as in the higher Lizards, but the toes are of pretty\nequal length; there are no palatal teeth, and the tongue is not\nfissured. They are of varied size, lead a sluggish and mostly nocturnal\nmode of life, and have a slow pace, occurring too only in warm climates.\n\n\n_Order 4. Sarcose Reptiles._\n\n3547. Feet abnormal, being fin-and wing-shaped, adapted for climbing\nor clinging. They correspond quite closely to the three next animal\nclasses.\n\n_Fam. 10._ Ichthyoid Reptilia, Herring-like--_Ichthyosauri_.\n\nAll four feet converted into fins.\n\nHere belong clearly the monstrous extinct animals, which formerly\nlived in the sea. They had gomphotic teeth almost like the\nCrocodile.--Ichthyosaurus, Plesiosaurus.\n\n_Fam. 11._ Typical Reptiles, Salmon-like--_Geckos_.\n\nClimbing feet, or retractile claws as in the Cats, and perpendicular\nlamin\u00e6 or plates under the soles, by means of which they cling to\nwalls. They usually dwell in houses and catch beetles--Cham\u00e6leo, Gecko.\n\n_Fam. 12._ Ornithoid Reptilia, Pike-like--_Dragons_.\n\nBody short and bird-like, with very long neck and a long digit, unto\nwhich an alary membrane has probably been attached.\n\nHere belong plainly the fossilized species of a single genus known\nby the name of Pterodactylus. They have been hitherto discovered in\ndifferent parts of Europe, and probably flew about, like the Bats, by\nnight.\n\n\n_Order 5. Sensorial Reptiles._\n\n3548. Teeth wedged into the jaws, toes regular.\n\n_Fam. 13._ Thricozooid Reptilia, Shark-like--_Crocodiles_.\n\nFeet and toes of equal length, with swimming webs between them.\n\nThe Crocodiles must be without doubt regarded as the most perfect\nReptilia, on account of their notched teeth and regular feet. In many\nrespects they remind us, like the Sharks do among Fishes, of the\nThricozoa.\n\n\n_Twelfth Class._\n\n_Neurozoa, Otozoa_--_Aves_.\n\n3549. In these animals it is again shown in a striking manner, that\nthe characteristic organ is the principle of classification. Without\nrecourse being had to the varied structure of the head, especially of\nthe beak, the division of Birds would not be possible, although the\nfeet frequently yield good characters.\n\n3550. The development of the young makes an essential distinction upon\na large scale, since one great body of Birds must be fed as nestlings,\nwhilst the other, when scarcely emerged from the egg, runs about and\nseeks its own nourishment. Although in the lower animals the young\ndo not require the assistance of the parents, and, on the other hand,\nthose of the Thricozoa are suckled for a longer time by the mother; yet\nstill those Birds which can, upon issuing from the egg, at once nourish\nthemselves, such as the Fowls, Geese, &c., are probably the most\nperfect, for they pass parallel to the upper classes of animals, and\nfor the Ostrich to be a Thricozoon, there is indeed as little wanting\nas to the Crocodile.\n\n3551. There is no doubt whatever that the Natatores in every respect,\nboth in the structure of the feet and head as also in their mode of\nliving and feeding, repeat the Fishes. This opinion the empirical\nzoologists have already adopted from the Physio-philosophy.\n\nThe same may be said of the Grall\u00e6 or Wading Birds in reference to the\nReptiles. Their feet, neck, and beak are serpentiform, and associated\nwith a frog-like body. Their mode of living and feeding is likewise\namphibious. But these birds pass over so directly into the Fowls,\nthat the latter could not be arranged elsewhere, apart even from\ntheir displaying by their domestication to Man the higher grade of\nunderstanding, which is manifested for the first time in the class of\nBirds.\n\nThe Bustards and Ostriches are, finally, the highest stage of Birds,\nand form the closest alliance with the Thricozoa.\n\n3552. This point being once settled, it is self-evident that the Birds,\nwhich do not stand in need of being fed, occupy the uppermost place,\nand consequently the nestling or parent-fed Birds the lowest, i. e. the\nformer correspond to the Sarcozoa, the latter to the Dermatozoa.\n\n\nA. SPLANCHNIC BIRDS.--NESTH\u00d6CKER.\n\n3553. Remain, after exclusion from the egg, in the nest and are fed;\nneck and feet short, toes four in number and ununited, beak pointed.\n\nBy their short neck, which rarely appears longer than the head, these\nBirds approximate the Reptiles and Fishes, in whom also the head has\nscarcely separated itself from the thorax.\n\nThe uniformity of the feet and toes is likewise an inferior character,\nas it is found in the Dermal Reptiles and Fishes; while in the Sarcose\nReptilia and Fishes the feet and fins make their appearance in the\ngreatest variety, both as regards the form and length of the feet\nthemselves, as the structure of the toes; and such is the case too in\nthe higher organized Birds.\n\nThe same holds good also of the form of the head, and especially of\nthe maxill\u00e6 and teeth, which are very uniform in the lower Fishes and\nReptiles, but occur under very varied conditions in the upper kinds,\nexactly as in the Natatores and Grall\u00e6, in the Gallin\u00e6 and Struthionid\u00e6.\n\n\n_Order 1. Protozooid Birds--Tenuirostres._\n\n3554. Bill awl-shaped.\n\nThese Birds present a resemblance to each other, not simply in their\nmode of feeding, since they are collectively insectivorous, but also\nin the slenderness of their form, and in the dazzling, varied, sharply\ndefined, and very striking colours of their plumage, as well as in\ntheir habits, for they employ their feet and tail usually for the\npurposes of support, and so climb about the upright stems and branches\nof trees.\n\nAmong them also occur the smallest sized Birds, a fact which, compared\nwith a similar one in the Thricozoa, indicates likewise their lower\ngrade or rank.\n\n_Fam. 1._ Infusorial Birds, _Tree-runners or Creepers_.\n\nBill awl-shaped, three toes in front--Humming-birds, Tree-creepers.\n\nThe small size of the Humming-birds seems to render them the lowest\nin rank of the class, and by this means the system obtains a point of\ndeparture, unto which similar forms may be annexed. Their manner of\nfeeding is rather a process of lapping, than an actual snapping with\nthe bill; their food also, which consists of small Beetles and their\nlarv\u00e6, requires scarcely any operation of the bill, so that here the\ncibarial instruments obviously rank upon the lowest stage, and remind\nus of the proboscis in Flies, Butterflies, and Bugs.\n\n_Fam. 2._ Polypary Birds, _Woodpeckers_.\n\nBill straight and chisel-shaped, two of the toes directed forwards and\ntwo backwards.\n\nThe Woodpeckers stand obviously a step higher, because their bill is\nspecially active in seeking out larv\u00e6, and their body is held securely\nby the toes and stiff tail.\n\n_Fam. 3._ Acalephan Birds, _Cuckoos_.\n\nBill rounded, slightly arched and obtuse; feet scansorial.\n\nThese Birds are less animated or lively than the preceding ones, keep\nthemselves more concealed, and live mostly upon caterpillars in warmer\ncountries. Some of them lay their eggs in the nests of other Birds.\n\n\n_Order 2. Conchozooid Birds--Conirostres._\n\n3555. Bill short, thick, and straight, without a notch, three toes\ndirected forwards.\n\nThese Birds usually perch upon branches, without, however, being able\nto walk upon them, since they usually hop, and must therefore make an\nauxiliary use of their wings. They are all of them granivorous, and in\na condition both to crush the seeds with their strong bill, as well as\npound them with their fleshy stomach or gizzard.\n\nTheir instruments of manducation and digestion are therefore perfect,\nadded to which they are so allied to the subsequent order of Rapaces,\nthat they could not be arranged lower; probably they ought even to rank\nhigher.\n\n_Fam. 4._ Mussel-Birds, _Sparrows_.\n\nBill short and coniform, without bristles; eat simply grains.\n\n_Fam. 5._ Snail-Birds, _Crows_.\n\nBill long and coniform; eat grains, beetles and flesh, and pass\ngradually over into the Rapaces.\n\n_Fam. 6._ Kracken-V\u00f6gel, _Parrots_.\n\nBill very thick and curved. The food consists of grains and fruits.\nTheir spiritual energies or capacities are also more strongly developed.\n\n\n_Order 3. Ancyliozooid Birds--Dentirostres._\n\n3556. Bill with a notch; food consists of worms and flesh.\n\n_Fam. 7._ Worm-Birds, _Cantores or Songsters_.\n\nBill tolerably long and straight; eat worms and berries.\n\n_Fam. 8._ Crustacean Birds, _Fly-catchers_.\n\nBill straight, with sharp edges superiorly, point de-curved or bent\ndownwards. Their aliment consists of insects, which they mostly snap at\nduring flight--Fly-catchers, Shrikes, Swallows.\n\n_Fam. 9._ Ptilotoid Birds--_Rapaces_.\n\nBill unciform; seize upon the Sarcozoa with their claws.\n\n\nB. SARCOSE BIRDS--NESTFL\u00dcCHTER.\n\n3557. Run about soon after being hatched, and nourish themselves. Bill\nand feet very varied, the former being mostly obtuse.\n\nThese Birds do not fly much nor hop, but walk, run, or swim. In them\nare found all the diversities of bill and feet; the latter are mostly\nplaced far back, so that the body is usually directed upwards.\n\nTheir food also is very varied, consisting of seeds, grass, fruits,\nworms, and flesh.\n\n\n_Order 4. Sarcose Birds._\n\n3558. Neck long, i. e. much longer than the head and bill, frequently\nlonger than the body.\n\n_Fam. 10._ Fish-Birds, _Natatores_.\n\nNatatory feet short.\n\nMostly large Birds, which live upon fishes, worms, and many of them\neven upon herbs. Their bills are so varied, that they could represent\nseveral families, a fact which likewise speaks in favour of their\nhigher position. It may be regarded as an instructive hint, that\nanimals occupy a higher rank, if in them a richness or variety of\nforms is to be perceived. This is the case throughout the Thricozoa.\nThe Natatores, through the structure and posterad insertion of their\nfeet, through their closely-set plumage, which frequently presents\nshort and scale-like feathers, by their swimming and diving, and\nlastly, through their fish-catching, approximate as closely to the\nstructure and mode of living of Fishes as it is possible for a Bird to\ndo, while still retaining the characters of its class. Many row even\nwith the wings, and consequently use them as veritable fins.\n\n_Fam. 11._ Reptilian Birds, _Grall\u00e6 or Waders_.\n\nLegs, neck, and bill very long.\n\nThese Birds are a lively image of, or a composition from, the Reptilia,\nhaving a Frog's body with its long feet, and a Serpent's neck with a\nTortoise's head.\n\nThey wade about in marshes to catch worms and fish; have also bills of\nvery varied structure, yet generally very long and slender, being in\nsome cases naked, in others covered with a skin.\n\n_Fam. 12._ Typical Birds, _Gallin\u00e6_.\n\nBill and legs shorter, the former being arched, the latter armed with\nstrong toes for scraping.\n\nFeed usually upon grains and worms, and live in dry situations. The\nMarsh-hens pass at once into the true Fowls, and these are attached,\nlike as is no other family, through their capacity for domestication,\nto Man.\n\n\n_Order 5. Sensorial Birds._\n\n3559. Run only, cannot fly.\n\n_Fam. 13._ Thricozooid Birds, _Bustards_.\n\nFowls with long legs and mostly diminished toes--Bustard, Cassowary,\nand Ostrich.\n\nThese Birds have mostly such shortened wings, that they cannot elevate\nthemselves from the earth. In the Cassowary we find, in place of the\nprimary feathers upon the wings, five barbless quills like so many\nclaws. The Ostrich has a pelvis closed in front like the Mammalia. It\nhas not incorrectly been compared with the Camel, since the Ruminant\nanimals in general have many resemblances in common with Birds,\nespecially in the development of the horny substance, which obviously\nagrees with the feathers.\n\n\n_Thirteenth Class._\n\n_Aistheseozoa, Opthalmozoa--Thricozoa._\n\n3560. All the senses perfect, five digits; the face covered with skin\nand flesh, the body with hairs; mamm\u00e6 present.\n\n3561. The Thricozoa combine in themselves all the animal classes, and\nindeed, so far as the development by grades makes no distinction, in\nequal proportion.\n\nThe differences are in no class therefore so numerous and so strongly\npronounced as in this; and yet one is in more doubt almost concerning\nthe rank of the families than in the former classes. It turns out,\ntherefore, that they are not treated according to sound or solid\nprinciples, but that these, after the manner in which Natural History\nis still prosecuted, are despised.\n\nUpon viewing superficially the groups of Thricozoa, it is certainly\ndifficult to determine, which are the lowest families, although the\nuppermost ones are very well known; so that here matters are the\nreverse of what they were in Plants. In the case of Birds the empirical\ninquirer into nature knows neither which are the upper, nor which the\nlower groups; while in the Reptiles and Fishes he fares still worse.\n\nIt is pretty generally conceded that the _Whales_ are the lowest in\npoint of rank, because their posterior feet are wanting, and in this\nthey certainly do depart the most from the usual or normal form of the\nThricozoa; yet still it is just these animals which form the proper\nstarting-point for the present class. Even the empirical naturalists\nhere begin to employ physio-philosophical language, and designate these\nanimals by the title of Fish-like Thricozoa. But, if they repeat the\nFishes, then there must be Thricozoa, which stand or rank below them,\nand pass parallel to the Dermatozoa. Which these latter are, is not\nindeed to be declared until the other groups have been separated and\nbrought into their proper station or place.\n\nIf once there are Ichthyoidal there must also be Herpetoidal or\nReptile-like Thricozoa. Now, if the Whales correspond to the former,\nthen the serial arrangement of the latter kinds is readily enough\ndecided. To the Whales no other animals admit of being annexed but\nthe _Swine-like_ genera, such as the Hippopotamus, Pig, and Elephant,\nwhich, through their muscular mass, almost naked skin, and residence in\nmarshy situations, agree very closely with the Reptilia.\n\nIn the next place come the _Ruminantia_, to take their site opposite\nthe class of Birds, with whom they correspond in their susceptibility\nto domestication, large ears, fine sense of hearing, and timid\ndisposition. The horns must be regarded as the obscure metatype\n(nachregung) of the feathers. These three families may be aptly termed\n_Ungulata_ or Hoofed-animals.\n\nWere matters to fare simply thus, then the center-building of this\nclass would stand firm, and it would consequently not be difficult to\nsay which animals stood below and which above it. For to the Apes are\nallied the Bears, to these the Dogs, Cats, and Martens, and to the\nlatter again the Seals; all would rank above the Ungulata or Hoofed\nanimals, and represent the proper or typical class of Thricozoa.\n\nBut the Thricozoa are \u00c6sthetic or Sense-animals, and consequently the\nupper families must pass parallel to the organs of sense, if the lower\ncorrespond to the anatomical systems.\n\nNow, if the eye has attained its maximum development in Man, the same\nmust be said of the ear in the Apes, of the nose in the Bears, of the\ntongue in the Carnivora, and of the skin in the Seals.\n\nHaving so disposed of these, the only remaining Thricozoa are the Bats,\nShrews, Moles, Marsupials, Sloths, and Rodentia.\n\nIn common parlance we compare the Bats with the Birds on account of\ntheir wings, unto which may be further added the large size of their\nears. Their close relation, however, with the Shrews and Rodents\nassigns them a lower rank. They must be placed parallel with the\nPtilota or Flies. The dental formula of the Bats resembles too so\nstrikingly that of the Shrews that a rusty-grown prejudice can alone\nplace the former in the neighbourhood of the Apes. They have obtained\nthis post, without doubt, simply because they have but two mamm\u00e6, and\nthese placed upon the chest.\n\nThe Moles cannot be removed from the Shrews.\n\nThe choice of position now remains between the Marsupials and Rodents.\nAnd to determine this point cannot prove difficult, for every one\nwill place the former above the latter on account of their size, more\nperfect dental formula, and the hands, upon whose model the hind-feet\nhave been in many species formed. To the Marsupials are annexed the\nSloths, because several of them still possess marsupial or pouch-bones.\n\nViewed in this and in every other respect, the Rodentia stand or rank\nthe lowest; and since the members of this family are much more numerous\nthan those of any other, we may conclude that they fill up several\nfamilies of the asarcose animals.\n\n3562. The series would accordingly be as follows; first of all Rodents,\nthen Sloths and Marsupials; with Moles, Shrews, and Bats, all as the\nrepetition of the Dermatozoa. They are all Myoidal or Mouse-like in\ncharacter. Next come the Whales, Pigs, and Ruminants as the repetitions\nof the Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds.\n\nThe Carnivora with the Bears, Apes, and Man, as being the proper\nrepresentatives of the senses, conclude or wind up the list. They alone\nhave a regular dental formula. We have thus--\n\n  I. Splanchno-Thricozoa; Mice, Edentata, Marsupialia, Shrews and Bats.\n  II. Sarco-Thricozoa; Whales, Pachyderms, Ruminants.\n  III. \u00c6sthesio-Thricozoa; Carnivora, Seals, Bears, Apes and Man.\n\n3563. It is here shown, just as distinctly as in the series of the\nclasses, that no simple scale exists in the history of development, and\nconsequently in the arrangement of animals. The Mouse-like species\nstand off from the rest, and then follow the entirely different\nUngulata with the Pigs and Ruminants, which once again diverge in like\nmanner, and make room for the development of the Seals, which then\nproceed through the Dogs, &c., in a less interrupted series up to Man.\n\nHe who marvels at this, let him take and set the table of the\nclass-series before his eyes, and he must give utterance with us to the\nfollowing words; namely, that the lower animals diverge or turn aside,\nand the entirely different Fishes, Reptiles, and Birds follow, which,\nonce again diverging, make room for the development of the Thricozoa,\nor, in other words, the \"Compendium Animalium.\" A perfect parallelism\nis thus found to exist between the classes of animals generally and\nthe families of Thricozoa; but no linear or continuously progressive\nconnexion is discoverable between one set and the other, but an\nappearance by fits or starts of new forms, just as the systems and\norgans also are not gradually evolved metamorphoses of one system, but\nsudden productions \"en avant\" with new tissues, forms, and functions.\nThe animal system is a multifariously-constructed temple, with its\nnave, choir, chapels, and towers, while these again are present with\nthe whole diversity of forms, which belongs to them in their several\ncharacters or bearings.\n\n\nA. SPLANCHNO-THRICOZOA--PFOTENTHIERE, MAUSARTIGE.\n\n3564. Small animals with irregular set of teeth; four feet with claws.\nThe regular set of teeth has included all kinds of teeth, and with them\nfour or six incisors.\n\nA set of teeth is irregular, which has more or less than the ordinary\nnumber of incisors, in which moreover one or the other kind of tooth is\nwanting, or if it is separated by a breach or interspace.\n\nThe small Thricozoa divide into three orders.\n\nThe one have blunt uniform molars, two rodent or gnawing-teeth, and no\ncanines--Rodentia.\n\nThe others have, one might say, a wholly aberrant and confused dental\nformula, there being at one time too few, at another too many teeth;\nmolars uniform, with perfectly irregular incisors and canines--Sloths,\nMarsupials.\n\nOthers, lastly, have a tolerably regular set of teeth, presenting\nquadriacuminate molars, mostly small canines, and rodent-like\nincisors--Shrews and Bats.\n\n\n_Order 1. Ged\u00e4rm-, Eyer, Schleimthier-Haarthiere--Rodentia._\n\n3565. Rodent teeth, without canines.\n\nThe dental formula of the gnawing Rats and Mice is so varied, and so\ndevoid of influence upon their bodily structure and mode of life, that\nall attempts to arrange these animals in accordance with it have failed.\n\n3566. The lower position of the Rodentia admits of being easily proved\nby taking to our aid the meaning of the dental system. The splanchnic\nor visceral teeth obviously rank lower than the membral teeth. Now, it\nso happens that the anterior teeth are in the Rodentia the principal\norgan, not only of the dental formula, but of the entire animal.\nWithout gnawing-teeth the Mice could not maintain their existence,\nmuch less their character. They thus depend wholly and solely upon the\nvisceral teeth, and are consequently the lowest Thricozoa.\n\nIn addition to this comes their small size, which is by no means a\ncharacter to be despised, and one to which all naturalists pay regard,\neven while they keep it, upon the other hand, in the background; or\nelse they must place the Elephant below the Field-mice.\n\n3567. I divide them, as well according to structure as habit, into\nthree groups. The one has the front and hind feet of equal length, with\nblunt claws for digging.\n\nThe other has similar feet, with sharp claws for climbing.\n\nLastly, the third has the hind feet longer than the fore for leaping.\n\n\n_Fam. 1._ Infusorial Thricozoa--_W\u00fchlm\u00e4use._\n\nEyes and auditory conch\u00e6 feebly developed, feet for scraping, tail lax;\nlive always under the ground, and eat roots and grains--Spalax, Rat,\nCommon and Field-mouse, Beaver; mostly only three molars.\n\n_Fam. 2._ Polypary Thricozoa--_Kletterm\u00e4use_.\n\nEyes, ears, and tail large, the latter being stiff and hairy, claws\npointed; live mostly upon trees, eating nut-kernels and fruit; usually\nfour molars--Squirrels.\n\n_Fam. 3._ Acalephan Thricozoa--_Laufm\u00e4use_.\n\nEyes and ears large, tail hairy, hind feet longest, claws obtuse,\nlamellar or plicated teeth; live upon the surface of the earth and eat\ngrass--Hares and Guinea-pigs; mostly more than four molar teeth.\n\n\n_Order 2. Ader-, Geschlechts, Schalthier-Haarthiere--Kaum\u00e4use._\n\n3568. Teeth and toes deviating completely from those of every other\norder; nor in a less degree the method of propagation.\n\nIn some instances all the teeth are wanting, in some they exceed the\nordinary number, and are quite uniform; sometimes the lateral teeth\nonly are similar, but in this case there are no canines and incisors;\nor else there are canines with more than six incisors, or also with\nrodent teeth.\n\nIn like manner the toes are irregular; the one kind being\ndisproportionately large and the other absurdly small; some are for the\nmost part wholly connate; in many cases there are hands posteriorly.\nThe claws also are in some instances obtuse, in others sharp for\nclimbing, or else asymmetrically large and unciform. Hands adapted for\nswimming or flight also occur.\n\nFinally, the sexual parts are quite aberrant, being mostly very large\nand singularly formed; the mamm\u00e6 frequently lodged in a pouch, or at\nleast furnished with marsupial bones. The young are born as naked and\nimmoveable embryos, and suckled for a very long time.\n\nAll this reminds us of the Conchozoa or Shell-animals as doth also\ntheir unusual covering of belts, scales, spines and long hairs.\n\n_Fam. 4._ Mussel-like Thricozoa, _Sloths_.\n\nLateral and canine teeth equal in size and obtuse, incisors mostly\nwanting, and occasionally all the teeth; claws very large and\ncurved--Ornithorynchi, Ant-eaters, Armadillos and Sloths.\n\n_Fam. 5._ Snail-like Thricozoa, _Herbivorous Marsupials_.\n\nRodent teeth, usually with stunted proximal and canine teeth, lateral\nteeth level; toes mostly connate and very unequal; they live in the Old\nWorld upon roots, grass, and fruit--Wombat, Dasyure, Kangaroo, Opossum.\n\n_Fam. 6._ Kracken-Haarthiere, _Carnivorous Marsupials_.\n\nMostly more than six incisors, triangular molars and large canines;\nlive in the New World and in Australia, eating worms, insects, eggs and\nflesh--Vulpine Phalanger, Phascogale, Beutelratze.\n\nThe abnormal structure of the sexual parts reminds us of the same\nrelation in the Snails and Kracken.\n\n\n_Order 3. Lungen-, Fell-, Ringelthier-Haarthiere--Raubm\u00e4use._\n\n3569. Molar teeth mostly quadriacuminate, with a break in the series,\ncanines and pointed incisors, or rodent teeth with lateral incisors,\nfive toes; live upon worms and insects.\n\n_Fam. 7._ Worm-Thricozoa, _Moles_.\n\nClaws, sharp incisors or rodent teeth, with lateral incisors or false\nmolars; live exclusively under the earth, and cast up the mould.\n\n_Fam. 8._ Crustaceous Thricozoa, _Shrews_.\n\nPaws, rodent teeth, with small lateral incisors and canine teeth. Many\nburrow passages without throwing up the soil.\n\n_Fam. 9._ Ptilotal Thricozoa, _Bats_.\n\nAlary membrane between the feet and anterior digits; pointed canine and\nincisor teeth.\n\n\n_Order 4. Sarco-Thricozoa--Ungulata._\n\n3570. Body large and heavy; teeth stunted, molars uniform, tolerably\nobtuse; feet fin-or hoof-like; mostly udders, rarely mamm\u00e6.\n\n_Fam. 10. Ichthyoid Thricozoa, Whales._\n\nSkin naked; no hind feet; two horizontal caudal fins; toes of the\nanterior feet surrounded by a common skin; no auditory conchs;\nposteriorly two udders. All live in the sea.\n\nIt is hardly necessary, in speaking of the Whales, to direct attention\nto their monstrously-developed osseous system and large fleshy tongue,\nas also to their correspondence with Fishes in the entire form, manner\nof living, and imperfect nose. Their head is still confluent with the\nneck, the teeth are horny plates of coalesced hairs, or uniform simple\npoints, as in Fishes. Most of them have even dorsal fins; the two\nudders are hardly separated from the sexual parts.\n\n\n_Fam. 11. Reptilian Thricozoa, Pigs._\n\nFour feet with hoofs; canines and mostly also incisors; stomach simple,\ndo not ruminate--Nylghau, Pig, Elephant, Rhinoceros, Horse. These\nanimals love the marshes, and are through their mode of living, as also\ntheir form, similar to the larger Reptiles; or, in other words, through\ntheir colossal skeleton, with preponderating muscular mass, they are\nMyozoa, through the proboscis or snout, Rhinozoa.\n\n\n_Fam. 12. Ornithic Thricozoa, Ruminants._\n\nToes bifid, surrounded by a hoof; above there are rarely incisor and\ncanine teeth; udders behind; stomach fourfold; they ruminate. The\nhorn-formation indicates a relationship with feathers; the want of\nincisor teeth, large ears, and timidity of disposition that of the\nfamily with the class of Birds.\n\nBoth families enter into connexion with the Whales through the size\nof their body, the structure of their feet, form of the head and\ndisposition towards water and mud. They are quadrupedal Whales, which\nhave come out of the water, and adopted a manner of living like the\nAmphibious Reptiles and Grallatorial Birds.\n\n\n_Order 5. \u00c6sthesio-Thricozoa--Unguiculata._\n\n3571. Here for the first time an equiponderance of the sensorial organs\nmakes its appearance and along with it therefore a resemblance between\nthe animals, which is no more interrupted by such strange or odd\nforms, as in the preceding orders.\n\nAll of them have divided toes with claws or nails, and all kinds of\nteeth with multiacuminate enamelled molars.\n\n3572. No doubt can exist about the animals belonging to the present\norder; they are the Apes, Bears, and Carnivora generally, as Seals,\nCats, Dogs, Martens, and such like beasts.\n\nI also cherish no doubt concerning the rank of the two first families,\nnamely, the Apes and Bears, although they have been separated in a\nstrange manner by the interposition of the Bats and likewise the\nShrews. At some future time one will not believe that the Bats and\nShrews were once placed next to the Apes.\n\n3573. Doubt, however, may exist concerning the rank of the Carnivorous\nor Rapacious animals; so that here the principles of our philosophy\nmust be brought to bear in our behalf. I regard then these animals as\nthe highest representatives of the sensorial organs. By this step three\nfamilies at once take their proper positions, viz.:\n\nMan upon the station or rank of the Eye.\n\nThe Apes on that of the Ear.\n\nThe Bears upon the post of the Nose.\n\nDifficulties are consequently presented in regard only to the Rapacious\nanimals, but which are removed, so soon as the three families just\nnamed are parallelized with the others thus:\n\nBone, Tongue, Whales.\n\nMuscles, Nose, Pigs--Bears.\n\nNerves, Ear, Cattle--Apes.\n\nSenses, Eye--Man.\n\nNow the Seals range of themselves next the Whales.\n\nThere are thus left the Rapacious animals proper, which as Dermatozoa\nor Sentient animals must consequently correspond to the Splanchnozoa.\nIn favour of this, evidence is afforded not only by the particular use\nmade of their feet, but their great number also, which can admit of\ncomparison with no individual family or order.\n\nNow, however, there are three orders of Murine animals.\n\n  1. Rodent Mice--the Rodentia proper.\n  2. Chewing Mice--the Sloths and Marsupialia.\n  3. Rapacious Mice--the Moles, Shrews, and Flitter-mice, or Bats.\n\nIn like manner do the rapacious Carnivora divide into three groups.\n\n1. The mostly sneaking and scansorial Martens and Viverr\u00e6.\n\n2. The sneaking and fossorial Skunks, Gluttons, and Badgers, with soles\nand blunt claws.\n\n3. The high-legged Digitigrades, as Dogs, Hy\u00e6n\u00e6, and Cats.\n\nAs I have given up the dental formula in the Rodentia as a means of\ndivision, so now it seems to me that it must be abandoned also in\nthe Beasts of Prey. The whole appearance of them and their mode of\nliving, which is still the main point in view, obviously directs us\nmore towards consideration of the feet, than of the dental formula. The\nMarten or Weasel kind were formerly compared with the Mice, and called\non that account Mustela. They cannot be regarded otherwise than as the\nlowest in rank.\n\nUnto them are obviously annexed the short-legged Civets, despite their\ncunoidal set of teeth. Many have half soles or pads under the feet.\nWith these again the Fox-like animals, notwithstanding their viverrine\ndental formula, enter into alliance. I believe that I have rightly\nparted the Badger from the Bears, and rightly done it too in this place.\n\nThe highest are without doubt the Dogs, Hy\u00e6nas, and Cats, with their\nlong and upright legs, not to speak of their mental faculties. We\naccordingly obtain the following arrangement.\n\n_Fam. 13._ Dermal Thricozoa--_Carnaria_.\n\nAll kinds of teeth included; six broad incisors, a longer canine,\ntwo to three small false molars, a large carnivorous tooth and large\nQuerzahn, and frequently also the Kornzahn. Mostly five separated\ntoes, with nails resting upwards, and either sharp or obtuse feet,\noccasionally soled. They eat flesh, mostly that of warm-blooded\nanimals, and kill their prey themselves.\n\n_Alliance 1. Rodent-like Unguiculate Animals--Schleicher._\n\nFeet short and oblique, mostly sharp claws without entire soles.\n\n_1. Mole-like Animals--Martens._\n\nSharp claws without soles, and no Kornzahn--Martens and Otters.\n\n_2. Squirrel-like--Civets._\n\nSharp, curved, and mostly retractile claws, superiorly the\nKornzahn--Civet, Paradoxurus.\n\n_3. Leporine or Hare-like--Ichneumons._\n\nStraight claws with half soles--Ichneumon, Ryz\u00e6na.\n\n_Alliance 2. Kaumausartige--Fossores._\n\nLarge and straight claws with soles, no Kornzahn.\n\n_1. Sloth-like Animals--Mephitic Animals._\n\nDental formula, like that of the Marten--Skunk, Mydaus.\n\n_2. Wombat-like--Gluttons._\n\nDental formula, like that of Marten, but behind the carnivorous is a\nsmall tubercular tooth which is wider, being broader than long.\n\n_3. Opossum-like--Badgers._\n\nThe tuberculous tooth larger than the carnivorous tooth, and nearly\nquadrangular.\n\n_Alliance 3. Raubmausartige--Digitigrada._\n\nLegs high and upright; no soles.\n\n_1. Mole-like--Dogs._\n\nClaws blunt, the Kornzahn both in upper and lower jaw.\n\n_2. Shrew-like--Hy\u00e6nas._\n\nClaws blunt; no Kornzahn but a small Querzahn.\n\n_3. Bat-like--Cats._\n\nClaws sharp, curved, and retractile; no lower tubercular tooth, but a\nsmall upper one.\n\n_Fam. 14._ Lingual Thricozoa, _Seals_.\n\nFeet fin-shaped, the hinder pair stretched out, dental formula\ncomplete, but the lateral teeth tolerably even, and six or four\nincisors; tongue mostly somewhat slit. They correspond to the Whales.\n\n_Fam. 15._ Nasal Thricozoa, _Bears_.\n\nNose elongated into a snout, walk upon soles; all kinds of teeth, of\nwhich, however, the carnivorous or tearing tooth is similar to the\ngrinders, six incisors.\n\nThe slower gait, originating from their walking on the soles of the\nfeet, with the less pointed molars, assign to these animals a less\nrapacious habit of living. They therefore kill no large animals, and\nare satisfied with worms and even roots, fruit, and honey. They repeat\nthe Pigs.\n\n_Fam. 16._ Nasal Thricozoa, _Apes_.\n\nThe ears begin to acquire the human form, as do even the teeth; never\nmore than four incisors, but a longer canine; hands both fore and aft.\n\nThese animals live upon fruits and beetles, and are by their scansorial\nfeet destined to live upon trees. Their varied, piping, and sonorous\ncry is a property of the sense of hearing, and along with it the larynx\nalso usually obtains a stronger amount of development.\n\n3574. It seems that every family of Thricozoa contains five genera,\nand that these accord with the organs of sense. In many families this\nrelation is at least striking, e. g.\n\nAmong the Pigs the Elephant is obviously characterized by the nose, the\nHippopotamus by the skin, the Pig by the dental system; and thus by the\nsense of taste, the Rhinoceros by large ears, the Horse by the eyes,\nthus\n\n  1. Skin       Hippopotamus.\n  2. Tongue     Pig.\n  3. Nose       Elephant.\n  4. Ear        Rhinoceros.\n  5. Eye        Horse.\n\nIn like manner do the Ruminantia or Cattle become distinctly marshalled\naccording to the five senses. The Camel recedes from the others by its\nsimply uplying hoofs, the Musk-deer by its monstrous canine; the Goat\nis distinguished by its fine sense of smell, and the Giraffe by its\nlarge ears, the Ox by the large and beautiful eye, thus\n\n  1. Hautrind       Camel.\n  2. Zungen-        Musk-deer.\n  3. Nasen-         Goat.\n  4. Ohren-         Giraffe.\n  5. Augen-         Ox.\n\nIn the Bears also we are confronted by this principle of classification.\n\n  The Skin-bear is the Common Bear.\n  The Tongue- \"  is the Raccoon.\n  The Nose-   \"  is the Nasua.\n  The Ear-    \"  is the Arctitis.\n  The Eye-    \"  is the Cercoleptes.\n\nAfter this principle had been so strikingly verified in several\nfamilies, I proceeded with confidence also to those which were more\ndifficult, and it resulted that each consists only of five genera\nseverally distinguished by the predominance of some one organ of\nsense. This method has been carried out throughout my \"Allgemeine\nNaturgeschichte.\"\n\n_Fam. 17._ Ophthalmozoa, _Man_.\n\nSuperiorly or in front hands, inferiorly or behind soles.\n\n3575. Here all the senses enter for the first time into a state of\nperfect equiponderance or proportion. Skin naked, and therefore a\nperfect organ of feeling; feet and hands differently constructed for\nprogression and manipulation; tongue and lips fleshy, while the latter\nhave hitherto been only tegumental; all the kinds of teeth different,\nbut still very similar, being of equal height and nearly equal\nsize; nose elevated by its whole length from the face, and fleshy;\nears oval, laid close against the head and having regular windings\nor convolutions; eyes directed forwards, with perfect eyelids, and\nmoveable in all directions.\n\n3576. Man by the upright walk obtains his character, namely, that of\nbodily freedom, for his hind feet take the place of all the four feet\nof other animals, by which means the hands become free and can achieve\nall other offices, the feet alone serving to support the body.\n\nHe is the only animal that surveys with the axes of the eyes borne\nparallel the most extensive horizon. All animals whose eyes look higher\nup or above the ground, as the Horse, Elephant, Ostrich, and such like\ncreatures, have eyes directed sideways.\n\n3577. With the freedom of the body has been granted also the freedom of\nthe mind. Man sees everything, the whole universe, while the animals\ncan only view individual parts thereof, two of these even invariably\nappearing different, so that the images seen by them are never reduced\nto unity.\n\n3578. There is only one human family, only one human genus, and only\none species; and this just because Man is the whole Animal Kingdom.\n\n3579. But yet there are five kinds or varieties of Men, according with\nthe development of the sensorial organs.\n\n  1. The Skin-Man  is the _Black_, African.\n  2. The Tongue- \" is the _Brown_, Australian--Malayan.\n  3. The Nose-   \" is the _Red_, American.\n  4. The Ear-    \" is the _Yellow_, Asiatic--Mongolian.\n  5. The Eye-    \" is the _White_, European.\n\n\n_Co-arrangement._\n\n3580. The classes of Sarcozoa pass or rank parallel to each other in\nthe following manner:\n\n                       |    CLASS X.   |    CLASS XI.    |   CLASS XII.   |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n       Anatomical      |   Osteozoa,   |     Myozoa,     |   Neurozoa,    |\n       _Systems_.      |   _Fishes_.   |   _Reptiles_.   |   _Birds_.     |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n    I. _Intestinal._   |   _Ord._ I.   |    _Ord._ I.    |   _Ord._ I.    |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n                       |F.             |F.               |F.              |\n  Stomach--Infusoria   |1. Lampreys    |1. Salamanders   |1. Tree Creepers|\n  Intestine--Polypi    |2. Plectognathi|2. Frogs         |2. Woodpeckers  |\n  Absorbents--Acaleph\u00e6.|3. Shads.      |3. Tortoises.    |3. Cuckoos.     |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n    II. _Vascular._    |  _Ord._ II.   |   _Ord._ II.    |   _Ord._ II.   |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n  Veins--Mussels       |4. Eels        |4. Schuppen-     |4. Sparrows     |\n  Arteries--Snails     |5. Haddocks    |5. Tafel-        |5. Crows        |\n  Heart--Kracken.      |6. Grundeln.   |6. Schienens-    |6. Parrots.     |\n                       |               |       chlangen. |                |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n    III. _Pulmonary_.  |  _Ord._ III.  |   _Ord._ III.   |  _Ord._  III.  |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n  Skin--Worms.         |7. Tunnies     |7. Schleichen-   |7. Singing-birds|\n  Branchi\u00e6--Crabs      |8. Breams      |8. Schuppen-     |8. Fly-catchers |\n  Trache\u00e6--Flies.      |9. Perch.      |9. Schienen-     |9. Hawks.       |\n                       |               |          Echsen.|                |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n     IV. _Flesh._      |  _Ord._ IV.   |   _Ord._ IV.    |   _Ord._ IV.   |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n  Bones--Fishes        |10. Herrings   |10. Icthyosauri  |10. Geese       |\n  Muscles--Reptiles    |11. Salmons    |11. Geckos       |11. Herons      |\n  Nerves--Birds.       |12. Pike.      |12. Pterodactyli.|12. Fowls.      |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n     V. _Senses._      |   _Ord._ V.   |   _Ord._ V.     |_Ord._ V.       |\n                       |               |                 |                |\n  Thricozoa.           |13. Sharks.    |13. Crocodiles.  |13. Bustards.   |\n\n\n                       |  CLASS XIII.  |\n                       |               |\n       Anatomical      | Sense-animals,| Aisthesio-     |  Sense-Organs.\n       _Systems_.      |  _Thricozoa_. |   _Thricozoa_. |  1. _Tegument._\n                       |               | 13. Mausartige |\n    I. _Intestinal._   |   _Ord._ I.   | 1.  W\u00fchlm\u00e4use  |  I. _Ovum._\n                       |               |                |\n                       |F.             |F.              |\n  Stomach--Infusoria   |1. W\u00fchlm\u00e4use   |1. Martens      |Vitellus--Infusoria\n  Intestine--Polypi    |2. Kletter- \"  |2. Civets       |Albumen--Polypi\n  Absorbents--Acaleph\u00e6.|3. Lauf- \"     |3. Ichneumons.  |Envelopes--Acaleph\u00e6.\n                       |               |                |\n    II. _Vascular._    |   _Ord._ II.  | 2. Kaum\u00e4use    |   II. _Sex._\n                       |               |                |\n  Veins--Mussels       |4. Sloths      |4. Skunks       |Spawn--Mussels\n  Arteries--Snails     |5. Beutelhasen |5. Gluttons     |Milt--Snails\n  Heart--Kracken.      |6. Beutelmarder.|6. Badgers.    |Kidneys--Kracken.\n                       |               |                |\n    III. _Pulmonary._  |  _Ord._ III.  | 3. Raubm\u00e4use   |   III. _Limbs._\n                       |               |                |\n  Skin--Worms.         |7. Scheerm\u00e4use |7. Dogs         |Papill\u00e6--Worms\n  Branchi\u00e6--Crabs      |8. Shrews      |8. Hy\u00e6nas       |Feet--Crabs\n  Trache\u00e6--Flies.      |9. Bats.       |9. Cats.        |Wings--Flies.\n                       |               |                |\n                       |               |                |  IV. _Cephalic\n     IV. _Flesh._      |   _Ord._ IV.  |                |         Senses._\n                       |               |                |\n  Bones--Fishes        |10. Whales     |14. Seals       |2. _Tongue_--Fishes\n  Muscles--Reptiles    |11. Pigs       |15. Bears       |3. _Nose_--Reptiles\n  Nerves--Birds.       |12. Ruminants. |16. Apes.       |4. _Ears_--Birds\n                       |               |                |\n     V. _Senses._      |   _Ord._ V.   |                |\n                       |               |                |\n  Thricozoa.           |13. Aisthesio- |17. Man.        |5. _Eyes_\n                       |               |                |   --Thricozoa.\n                       |     Thricozoa.|                |\n\n3581. By the accompanying table the parallelism of the different\nfamilies is recognized, as well as their remaining relationships, both\namong themselves as also with the Asarcous animals, if their table at\np. 614 be compared with it, and which could not for want of room be\ninserted here.\n\n3582. It is, moreover, proved from this table that the classes stand\none above the other, but yet that each recommences from below, so that\nthe lower animals of a higher class are more stunted or rudimental\nthan the upper ones of a lower class. Thus the Salamanders are more\nrudimental, that is, they have organs more imperfect than the Sharks;\nthe Tree-creepers are more rudimental than the Crocodiles, the Mice\nthan the Fowls and Bustards.\n\nNevertheless these stunted animals stand higher than those of the lower\nclasses, because they are characterized by a higher organ.\n\nWhat holds good of the classes holds good again of the orders and\nfamilies also. The lower animal of a consecutive family is again more\nrudimental than the upper one of the antecedent family. Thus the\nOrnithorynchus is more rudimental than the Beaver, the Shrew-mouse more\nrudimental than the Opossum and such like creatures.\n\nIn the highest families the equiponderance is first restored, and the\nlowest Man is still higher than the uppermost Ape.\n\n\nIV. PSYCHOLOGY.\n\n\nFUNCTIONS OF THE ANIMALS.\n\n3583. The present section treats concerning the functions of the Whole\nanimal, just as the preceding one did of those belonging to individual\norgans. It is at bottom the psychological part of Physio-philosophy.\nThe functions are so numerous and difficult also to arrange, that I\nplace this section here, to point out rather its situation than to\nfollow out or trace its development.\n\n3584. All the functions of an entire animal are spiritual or sensorial\nfunctions; at least they are conditionated by the senses, and I will\nalso speak of them only in this respect. The mechanical and chemical\nfunctions have been already comprehended in the physiological part. The\nsenses only make their appearance gradually in animals, and with them\nalso the spiritual functions.\n\n\nA. FUNCTIONS OF THE DERMATOZOA.\n\n1. _Enterozoa or Oozoa._\n\n3585. These animals are governed chiefly by a passive sense of feeling,\nfrom their consisting for the most part of a naked, homogeneous, and\ngelatinous integument, and living in water, an element wherein the\nother senses can be but slightly active.\n\n3586. Their sense of feeling stands upon the lowest grade, since it is\nonly the sensibility of the tegument, there being no articulated organs\nof touch, so that it consists only in the discrimination of an opposing\nobject.\n\nThe ability or power to discriminate is not yet consciousness; for unto\nthis a reflexion upon the object discriminated is necessary.\n\nThe Infusoria, Polypi, and Acaleph\u00e6, simply feel that something else is\nthere, but they are so completely imprisoned in this feeling that they\nare unable to submit the same to an internal process of comparison.\n\n3587. By reason of this inability to compare their own feelings, not a\ntrace is left unto them of internal change; so that these creatures are\ntruly devoid of memory or recollection.\n\nThe Infusoria have only sensation, nothing else; they are therefore in\nceaseless motion. They are actually capable of nothing but moving and\neating. Of all other spiritual functions they are utterly devoid.\n\n3588. Their spiritual life is in some degree a mesmeric condition.\nDestitute of the senses of seeing, hearing, smelling and tasting, they\nfeel every thing, or, properly speaking, perform all these functions\nat _one and the same time_, and by _one_ organ, the visceral mass.\nBy mesmerism they find their food, perceive the light, and become\ntransparent unto themselves, just as they are really in a physical\npoint of view. For they are only viscera or visceral nerves.\n\n\n_Development of the Mind._\n\n3589. The mind, just as the body, must be developed out of these\nanimals. The human body has been formed by an extreme separation of\nthe neuro-protoplasmic or mucous mass. So must the human mind be a\nseparation, a memberment of infusorial sensation.\n\n3590. The highest mind is an anatomized or dismembered mesmerism, each\nmember whereof has been constituted independent in itself.\n\nThe skeleton of this dissected mind, when scientifically represented,\nwould be the science of the mind, i. e. Philosophy, properly so called.\n\nPneumato-philosophy is the likeness of Physio-philosophy. For spirit is\nonly the tension of nature, and nature only the spirit set in motion.\n\nThe philosophy of spirit must develop itself out of the philosophy of\nnature, as doth the flower out of the stem. For nature is the spirit\nanalyzed and at rest, which we can handle at our pleasure. It does not\nappear only for an instant; but as stone, air and such like entities,\nabideth always, as if to solicit and preserve us for its investigation.\n\nA Philosophy or Ethicks apart from Physio-philosophy is a nonentity, a\nbare contradiction, just as a flower without a stem is a non-existent\nthing.\n\n3591. As many essential members as Physio-philosophy hath, into so many\nmust Pneumato-philosophy also divide, and this too so exactly that the\ntwo shall cover each other.\n\nThe reason why one has hitherto rambled about in Pneumato-philosophy\nwithout ballast and without compass, depends solely upon the disregard\nwhich has been paid to the science or knowledge of Nature. It is in\nfact not difficult to understand how impossible it must be, from\nobservations made upon the rapidly evanescent phenomena of the spirit,\nto thence abstract a system of the laws in conformity wherewith this\nspirit manifests itself or acts. Spirit is nothing different from\nNature, but simply her purest outbirth or offspring, and therefore her\nsymbol, her language. With such a basis as this, we shall no longer\npursue the _ignes fatui_ of the mind, but first of all endeavour\nto banish them into the provinces or realms of Nature, and there\nco-ordinate them in conformity with her laws; then for the first time\nshall we recognize the flaming lights of the mind and the divine\nvoices, which all matter proclaimeth through the speech of Man.\n\nHe, who were once in a condition to reveal or disclose this conformity\nof Nature's phenomena with those of Spirit, will have learnt the\nphilosophy of the latter.\n\n\n2. _Functions of the Vascular or Sexual Animals._\n\n3592. These animals are no longer merely sentient, 'clairvoyant'\nAcaleph\u00e6, because, in addition to the nervous mass, they are provided\nwith other systems, such as the sexual and vascular, with the special\norgans of digestion and taste.\n\nThese three or four organs must also resolve themselves into three\nspiritual functions; the vascular system furnishes special organs of\nfeeling and therewith a voluntary sense of feeling; the intestine and\nchiefly the liver is now the cardinal organ, and will therefore execute\nthe mesmerically percipient functions.\n\n3593. In the liver the faculty of anticipation and foresight, with\nmelancholy, choleric passion, and anger, appear to reside. Encephalic\nthought is reflected in it.\n\nThe liver is the soul in a state of sleep, the brain is the soul active\nand awakening. In it the spirit broods unconsciously for years, and\nthen breaks forth fearfully, as capriciousness, tyranny and sorrow, but\nalso as earnestness and strength.\n\nCircumspection and foresight appear to be the thoughts of the Bivalve\nMollusca and Snails.\n\nGazing upon a Snail, one believes that he finds the prophesying goddess\nsitting upon the tripod. What majesty is in a creeping Snail, what\nreflection, what earnestness, what timidity and yet at the same time\nwhat firm confidence! Surely a Snail is an exalted symbol of mind\nslumbering deeply within itself.\n\nThe old artists must have felt this signification, as in many of their\nrepresentations they have introduced a Snail. One can hardly think,\nthat in so doing they wished to express such common and lascivious\nideas, as are at present manifested openly or secretly by our daily\nenjoyments.\n\n3594. The intestine must moreover be concerned with the sense of taste.\nTaste, however, leads to voracity, gluttony, daintiness, sluggishness\nand drowsiness.\n\n3595. Taste in union with the sexual function is the expression of\nvenery or lust.\n\nThis is indicated by the secretion of slime, by the monstrous size too\nof the sexual organs, and by their androgynism, which enables either\nindividual during copulation to enjoy the delicious feeling, belonging\nto the male and female, either at once or alternately. Their food also\nappears to be selected from a feeling of desire.\n\nCircumspection in feeling, dainty voracity, and immoderate lust appear\nto constitute the spiritual character of the Malacozoa, especially of\nthe Snails.\n\n\n_3. Functions of the Respiratory or Arthric Animals._\n\n3596. The Insect is mainly an aerial and motor organ, and therefore its\nspirit is also of an aerial and motor kind.\n\nThe respiratory process produces strength, and this again courage, both\nwhich are the distinguishing properties of Insects. The Insect is the\nstrongest and boldest animal upon the earth.\n\nHealth, plenitude of life, generosity, nobleness, and heroism dwell in\nthe thorax.\n\n3597. But besides these virtues the spirit of the thorax is also that\nof smell. Insects have an excellent sense of smell, the spirit of which\nis _cunningness_ and treachery, wherein no animal will easily surpass\nthem.\n\n3598. The Insect has moreover a spirit of motion or versatility of the\ntactile sense, which is displayed in the representation of symmetrical\nfigures. This faculty proceeds especially from the creative sexual\nfunctions--as mechanical or _artistic instinct_.\n\nAll spirit of motion launches out into mechanical instinct. It\ndisappears in all classes of animals, which chiefly correspond to the\nsex and belly, as, e. g. in Fishes and Reptiles. On the other hand, in\nthe moveable thoracic animals or Birds, the mechanical instincts at\nonce re-appear.\n\nMechanical instinct and dexterity of limbs run parallel together.\n\nThe dexterity of the limbs taken up into the spirit is an _art-sense_.\n\n\nB. FUNCTIONS OF THE CEPHALOZOA.\n\n3599. Here the head is for the first time placed in a perfect\ncondition, and hence an antagonism arises for the first time between\nhead and trunk.\n\nThe Cephalozoon no longer distinguishes nature and self only like the\nacephalous and amnemonic animals; but it distinguishes even its body\nfrom its head, because the Fish has begun to be a double animal.\n\n3600. The Cephalozoon hath _consciousness_; consciousness of its\ncondition, of its body, but not of its head and the operations therein.\nIt has _no self-consciousness_.\n\n3601. As soon as an animal contemplates a part of its body, of its\nworld, and hath consciousness in a general sense, it has also _memory_.\nFor memory is a repetition of _its own_ condition, not the reiterated\nfeeling of a foreign object.\n\nThe Acephalous or anencephalic animals have therefore no memory,\nbecause they live only in opposition to the world, but never in\nantagonism to themselves. Every perception is therefore a new one for\nthem, because it is always an actual object which excites them. Whether\nInsects have memory, has not yet been made out.\n\n3602. The brainless animals have no ideas, and naturally so, because\nthey have no consciousness.\n\nIt would appear likewise that they do not feel pain.\n\nThe Cephalozoa have ideas, and quite certainly pains, because they\nbecome partly an object unto themselves.\n\n\n4. _Functions of the Osteo-or Glossozoa._\n\n3603. The Fish's head is the lowest, and therefore its mind also will\nmanifest only the first function, that ranks above the mind of the\nAcephalozoa, the _memory_.\n\nWith this memory, however, all the spiritual functions, exhibited by\nthe preceding classes, but chiefly mesmerism, have been bestowed.\n\n3604. Fishes are again provident, zealous animals, that, drawn together\nby mysterious bands, make the longest voyages, wherein they ascend and\ndescend rivers, knowing how to find their prey over miles in extent.\n\nAll the mechanical instincts are, on the contrary, obliterated in\nthem, as being fingerless, finned animals. Their principal business is\npropagation--Pelvic animals.\n\n3605. Gluttony is the principal character of the Glossozoa, in so far\nas taste stands upon the lowest stage. Touch and taste are only motion\nand deglutition.\n\nSmell becomes evidently stronger.\n\nThe ear still ranks upon the lowest stage, but yet they hear closely.\nIn other respects they are mute, and exhibit all the consequences of\naphony.\n\n3606. Fishes are of the Phlegmatic temperament.\n\n\n5. _Functions of the Myo-or Rhinozoa._\n\n3607. Reptiles are Cephalozoa with well-developed lungs and nose, and\nare therefore gifted with voice.\n\n3608. To memory comes the art of _ambuscade_ or lying in wait, a\nproperty of the olfactory sense, the application of memory. The\ncircumspection of the Snails passes over into ambuscade and surprise.\n\nWith this character the higher perfection of the belly or of the\ndigestive system, along with the poisoning saliva, is in parallel\naccordance. To take by surprise and to poison are acts of _one_ series.\n\n3609. Reptiles appear enabled to _reflect_, i. e. several reminiscences\nare at their bidding. Now, the comparison of these constitutes\nreflection. They are therefore more sagacious than Fishes, docile and\nin some measure susceptible of instruction.\n\n3610. The courage, which they have probably obtained through their\naerial respiration, passes over more into impudence and sauciness.\n\n3611. Reptiles are of the Melancholic crasis.\n\n\n6. _Functions of the Neuro-or Otozoa._\n\n3612. The spirit of the thorax and limbs is here predominant, whence\ncomes the restlessness and mechanical instinct of the Bird.\n\nThe motor sense, the ear, is the prominent one. The ear, however, is\npartly the sense for the Indefinite, partly for the demolition of\nmatter. The auditory spirit is _fear_.\n\nBut it passes over into joy, passion, levity, if it perfectly perceives\ntones.\n\n3613. With the ear and the moveable organs of voice originates a\nkind of language, which is in a condition to express a multitude of\nsentiments. The language of Birds hath not a few tones, and expresses\nnot a few passions.\n\n3614. The Bird knits or associates for the first time with some\ncompleteness a sense, or definite sensation, to a simple tone. The Bird\nhath for the first time _signs_, or symbols, which are not the things\nthemselves, but only _signify_ or mean them.\n\nThe Bird understands the relation of the spiritual expression to the\norgan or matter. It comprehends a connexion where none is materially,\nbut which is only imparted by the idea.\n\nThe capacity to understand the thing in the image or idea, I call\n_imagination_, and of this Birds furnish us with very definite proofs.\n\nBirds can therefore dream.\n\n3615. Reptiles and Fishes appear to have no ideas because they have no\n_signs_, or tones, indicating the resolution of the organ into mind.\nFor the tone is none other than the ghost of the organ or animal.\nFishes and Reptiles do not indeed dream.\n\n3616. The Bird, however, appears to get no further than to mere images\nor ideas. The conception is wanting unto them.\n\nIt has therefore no sense of shame. But possesses in a full degree\ncircumspection, desire of imitation, comparison.\n\n3617. To the Bird it is not simply the sensation of its body that\nbecomes, like a foreign product, objective; but its own product, its\nvoice, as something already distinct from its own mind.\n\n3618. It is clear, that if all the sensorial functions were to become\nobjective to the Bird, it would be self-apparent and resolve itself\ninto self-consciousness. Thus does self-consciousness sprout forth\ngradually with the sensorial functions.\n\n3619. Birds are of the Sanguineous temperament.\n\n\n7. _Functions of the \u00c6sthesio-or Ophthalmozoa._\n\n3620. All the faculties hitherto mentioned occur here. The soul of\nthe eye is still associated with them, and therewith the faculties of\nperception, understanding and conception appear to be bestowed.\n\nOne cannot refuse understanding to the Thricozoa. The actions of the\nDog, Horse and Elephant, do not admit otherwise of being conceived; nor\nalso the shame and pride, fidelity, animosity, desire of revenge, and\nyet many other properties exhibited by these animals.\n\nBut it is an understanding without self-consciousness, if we may so\nventure to express ourselves; an understanding of many signs, but\ndevoid of any combination and separation of these signs; in a word,\nthere is no faculty of _judgment_.\n\nThe Thricozoa are Choleric animals.\n\n\n8. _Functions of the Pan\u00e6sthetic Animal._\n\n3621. If finally all its organs become objective to the animal, through\ncontemplation of the universe, through hearkening of the animal\nrestored into symbols; it thus contemplates itself, is apparent unto\nitself, and is quite conscious of itself.\n\nThen is the animal equivalent to the whole animal kingdom and to the\nuniverse.\n\n3622. The universal spirit is _Man_.\n\nIn the human race the world has become individual. Man is the entire\nimage or likeness of the world. His language is the spirit of the\nworld. All the functions of animals have attained unto unity, unto\nself-consciousness, in Man.\n\n3623. The thorough penetration of all the animal's symbols, the\ncomparison of all the world's symbols, and thus free comparison is\n_Reason_.\n\nThe understanding compares only the symbols of sounds, of men; but the\nreason compares also the symbols of light, of the world.\n\nReason is world-understanding; the understanding is animal reason.\n\nAll the mental functions of animals have become ratiocinative in Man.\n\nFeeling is in him consciousness, consciousness is self-consciousness,\nthe understanding is reason, the passion, freedom, the mechanical\ninstinct artistic sense, the comparison science.\n\n3624. The spirits of the senses are Art-spirits, the spirit of reason\nis the spirit of Science.\n\n\n_Art._\n\n3625. Art is the representation of the senses in Nature.\n\n3626. The sense is, however, the last or ultimate design of Nature.\n\nArt is consequently the representation of _Nature's design_. (Ed. 1st,\n1811. \u00a7 3517.)\n\n3627. That is beautiful which represents the will of Nature.\n\nBut non-beautiful is that which represents real Nature by means of art.\n\n3628. Art is one universal business. Beautiful is that, which\nrepresents the world within a fragment or portion of the world.\n\n3629. There is also one natural beauty--unconscious formation of the\nworld's laws.\n\n3630. The highest natural beauty is the universal portion of nature, i.\ne. Man.\n\nMan expresses the ultimate goal or purpose of Nature's design.\n\n3631. The terminus or goal of Nature is, in Man to revert again into\nherself. The human countenance most perfectly repeats the trunk,\nand again reverts wholly and actually into the trunk. That human\ncountenance is beautiful, in which the vertebral column runs back again\nparallel with the vertebral column of the trunk. The facial vertebral\ncolumn is the nose.\n\n3632. The face is _beautiful_, whose nose runs parallel to the spine.\n\nNo human face has grown unto this estate, but every nose makes an acute\nangle with the spine. The facial angle is, as is well known, 80\u00b0.\n\nWhat as yet no Man has remarked, and what is not to be remarked either\nwithout our view of the cranial signification, the old artists have\nfelt through inspiration. They have not only made the facial angle a\nright angle, but have even stepped beyond this, the Romans going up to\n96\u00b0, the Greeks even to 100\u00b0.\n\nWhence comes it, that this unnatural face of the Grecian works of art,\nis still more beautiful than that of the Roman, when the latter comes\nnearer unto Nature? The reason thereof resides in the fact of the\nGrecian's artistic face representing Nature's design more than that of\nthe Roman; for in the former the nose is placed quite perpendicular,\nor parallel to the spinal cord, and thus returns whither it has been\nderived.\n\n3633. He who paints or otherwise copies Nature in a purely mechanical\nmanner, is consequently a bungler; he is devoid of ideas, and imitates\nher no better than a bird does song, or an ape the postures of the\nhuman body. The province of Art is alas! not yet understood.\n\n3634. In Man all the beauties of nature are associated or combined.\n\n3635. Thus, Nature can be beautiful, in so far as she represents the\nindividual ideas of Man.\n\n3636. There are only two art-senses, the eye and the ear; and thus but\ntwo departments of art, the Plastic and Sonant, or that of _form_ and\nof _motion_.\n\n3637. The province of form represents the material universe in its\nideas, its design, and thus in its freedom.\n\n3638. The representation of the bodily universe in the ideas is the\n_Architectural art_. (Ed. 1st 1811, \u00a7 3533.)\n\n3639. The representation of heaven in the Plastic, is the church\narchitecture.\n\nThe temple or church is the art of heaven.\n\n3640. The representation of the planet in the Plastic is the house.\n\nThe house is the art of the planet.\n\nThe architectural art is the cosmical art.\n\n3641. The representation of the Individual is the _Sculptor's art_.\n\nThe sculptural art represents the Terrestrial, and in its highest\nestate Man. It is the _Heroic art_.\n\n3642. This art rendered manifest in matter, or repeated in light, is\nPainting.\n\nPainting represents the symbol, the naught of the world, the heavenly,\nand also in its lowest estate a Spiritual.\n\nPainting is the art of religion, the _Sacred art_.\n\nPainting is the art of heathens, whose deities are men; Painting is the\nart of Christians, whose Men, being sacred or holy, are gods.\n\nGod can be painted, but not formed or sculptured.\n\n3643. The art of motion represents the material and the spiritual\nmotion.\n\n3644. The representation of the world's material laws of motion is the\n_Dance_.\n\n3645. The representation of the motion of individuals is the _Histrionic\nart_.\n\n3646. The representation of the world's spiritual laws of motion, of\nthe laws of the dance, is _Music_.\n\n3647. The spiritual representation of the Histrionic is the _Poetic\nart_.\n\n\n_Science._\n\n3648. The representation of the rational world is Science.\n\n3649. The first science is the _Science of Language_, the architecture\nof science, the earth.\n\n3650. The second science is the _Art of Rhetoric_, the sculpture of\nscience, the river.\n\n3651. The third science is _Philosophy_, the painting of science, the\nrespiration or breath.\n\nThis, like painting, divides into a number of branches, whereof the art\nof government is the highest.\n\n3652. The fourth science is the _Art of War_, the art of motion,\nhistrionism, music, poetic art of science, the light.\n\nAs in the art of poetry all arts have been blended, so in the art of\nwar have all sciences and all arts.\n\nThe art of War is the highest, most exalted art; the art of freedom\nand of right, of the blessed condition of Man and of humanity--the\nPrinciple of Peace.\n\n\n\n\nTHE END.","title":"Elements of Physiophilosophy","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":215147}