{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_50589/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_50589","id":"gutenberg_50589","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/50589","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Art","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Dakota Indians -- Religion","Dakota art","Dakota mythology"],"text":"ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS\n\n                                 OF THE\n\n                       American Museum of Natural\n                                History.\n\n                            Vol. I, Part II.\n\n\n\n                 SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF THE DAKOTA.\n\n                                   BY\n\n                             CLARK WISSLER.\n\n                               NEW YORK:\n                  Published by Order of the Trustees.\n                            February, 1907.\n\n\n\n\n                  American Museum of Natural History.\n                     PUBLICATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGY.\n\nThe results of research conducted by the Anthropological staff of the\nMuseum, unless otherwise provided for, are published in a series of\noctavo volumes of about 350 pages each, issued in parts at irregular\nintervals, entitled Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of\nNatural History. The Anthropological work of the Museum is organized\nunder two heads. The Department of Ethnology exercises curatorial\nfunctions in ethnography, ethnology and physical anthropology and in all\narch\u00e6ology except that pertaining to the present confines of Mexico and\nthe Central American States which has been delegated to a distinct\ndepartment entitled the Department of Arch\u00e6ology. This series of\npublications aims to give the results of field-work conducted by the\nabove departments, supplemented by the study of collections in the\nMuseum. The editorial responsibilities are administered by the Curator\nof the Department of Ethnology.\n\nThe following are on sale at the Museum at the prices stated.\n\n   Vol. I. Part I. Technique of some South American Feather-work. By\n                   Charles\n                   W. Mead. Pp. 1-18, Plates I-IV, and 14 text figures.\n                   January,\n                   1907. Price, $0.25.\n\n          Part II. Some Protective Designs of the Dakota. By Clark\n                   Wissler.\n                   Pp. 19-54, Plates V-VII, and 26 text figures, February,\n                   1907.\n                   Price, $0.50.\n\n\n\n\n                         ANTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS\n\n                                 OF THE\n\n                   AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY\n\n                            VOL. I, PART II.\n\n\n                 SOME PROTECTIVE DESIGNS OF THE DAKOTA.\n\n                           BY CLARK WISSLER.\n\n\n\n\n                               CONTENTS.\n\n\n               INTRODUCTION\n               SHIELD-DESIGNS\n               GHOST-DANCE DESIGNS\n               THE HOOP\n               THE WHIRLWIND\n               THE THUNDER\n               THE SPIDER\n               CONCLUSION\n\n\n\n\n                             ILLUSTRATIONS.\n                                PLATES.\n\n            V. Model of a Shield, Museum No. 50-2929. Diameter,\n                 39 cm.\n           VI. Shield-design on a Cape, Museum No. 50-3102. Width\n                 of cape, 178 cm.\n          VII. Model of a Shield, Museum No. 50-5467. Diameter,\n                 46 cm.\n\n                             TEXT FIGURES.\n\n            1. Shield-cover with Design\n            2. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native\n            3. Drawing, by a Native, of a Shield-cover\n            4. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native\n            5. Spider-design for a Shield, from a Drawing by a\n                 Native\n            6. Shield-design, from a Drawing by the Man who\n                 dreamed of it\n            7. Shield-design representing a Thunderstorm, from a\n                 Drawing by a Native\n            8. Model of a Shield with Pictographic Design\n            9. Design on Sioux Shield captured by a Fox Indian\n           10. Front of a Ghost-dance Garment\n           11. Back of Garment shown in Fig. 10\n           12. Designs on the Front of Ghost-dance Garment\n           13. Designs on the Back of Garment shown in Fig. 12\n           14. Front of a Ghost-dance Garment bearing Dragon-fly\n                 Design\n           15. Back of Garment shown in Fig. 14\n           16. Circular Design upon a Shirt\n           17. Sketch, by a Native, of an Elk-mystery Dancer\n                 carrying a Hoop with a Mirror in the Centre\n           18. Engraved Metal Cross\n           19. Engraved Bone Object\n           20. Whirlwind Design, from the Handle of a Club\n           21. Whirlwind Design, from a Popgun\n           22. Whistle, of Bone\n           23. Design of a Spider-web\n           24. Sketch of a Robe for the Medicine-bow Owner\n           25. Design on a Metal Belt-ornament\n           26. Design of the Spider-web on a Straight Pipe\n\n\n\n\n                             INTRODUCTION.\n\n\nThe decorative art of the Dakota has been treated in a preceding paper,\nin which brief mention was made of religious art, or that art in which\nthere was a definite, unmistakable motive on the part of the artist to\nrepresent mythical or philosophical ideas. In this more serious art, a\nlarge number of designs may be characterized as \u201cprotective designs,\u201d\nbecause their presence or possession is in part a protection. The idea\nin a protective design seems to be a symbolical appeal to the source or\nconcrete manifestation of a protective power. It is not easy to get the\npoint of view and the spirit of the faith that make these designs\nsignificant, but from the detailed explanations of them some general\nidea can be formed. The descriptions given in this paper are based upon\nthe statements of Indians, in most cases the executers of the designs.\nThe attitude of the reader toward such a study as this is often that of\nconcluding that the points of view set forth by a writer are universal\nin the tribe. This leads to a great deal of superficial criticism. In\nthe opinion of the writer, any rejection of such study because one or\ntwo or several Indians deny all knowledge of some or all of the specific\nnative accounts upon which conclusions are based, is absurd. We might as\nwell test the artistic sense of a city by calling in one or two persons\nfrom the street. As a case in point, the reader is referred to the\nremarks of J. Owen Dorsey on the authenticity of Bushotter\u2019s Double\nWoman.[1] A great deal of the information received from Indians relative\nto religion is largely individual, and every ethnological field-worker\nmust take the best of his material from the brightest men of a tribe.\nThe object of this study has been to bring together ideas expressed by\nvarious individuals more or less eminent among their people, because all\nof these individual conceptions seem to have much in common. The data\nwere secured by the writer when on Museum expeditions to the Teton and\nYankton divisions of the Dakota.\n\n-----\n\n[1] Dorsey (Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology,\np. 480).\n\n\n\n\n                            SHIELD-DESIGNS.\n\n\nThe circular shield was distributed over a large part of North America.\nA conspicuous part of the arms of Mexican warriors was \u201cthe round, small\n\u2018target\u2019 worn by the \u2018brave\u2019 on his left arm, and made of canes netted\ntogether and interwoven with cotton \u2018twofold,\u2019 covered on the outside\nwith gilded boards and with feathers, and so strong that a hard\ncross-bow shot could alone penetrate them;\u201d[2] but \u201cmerely ornamental\nshields [were also] used and carried by warriors and chiefs on festive\noccasions only.\u201d[3]\n\nAccording to the same author, in Pre-Columbian times some of the Pueblo\nIndians used a thick disk of buffalo-hide as a shield. On the Plains,\nfrom the Rio Grande to the Saskatchewan, the circular shield of\nbuffalo-hide was, until the extinction of the buffalo, a part of the\nregalia of every warrior. These shields usually bore symbolic designs.\nIn many cases the designs were painted upon the rawhide itself, and\nprotected by a buckskin cover; while in other cases the designs were\npainted upon the cover. Practically no shields of buffalo-hide are to be\nfound in the hands of the surviving Dakota; but in social and religious\nceremonies, models or shield-covers of buckskin or cloth, upon which are\npainted the designs formerly placed on shields, are often used. For\npurposes of study the writer secured such models of shields, with\nexplanations of the designs and with other shield-lore, from persons who\nformerly owned buffalo-hide shields.\n\nWhen the enemies of the Dakota were armed with native weapons, the\nshield had some value in itself, because few arrows could get through\nit, and it was of sufficient strength to ward off a blow from a club or\nan axe; but even at that time the designs and medicine objects tied to\nthe shield seem to have been regarded as of greater importance than the\nmechanical properties of the shield itself. It was the power represented\nby the design to which the owner of the shield looked for protection.\nNaturally, with the introduction of fire-arms, shields ceased to have a\nreal protective value; but their designs were still looked upon as\ncapable of affording protection against evil. According to the\nstatements of some old men who still have faith in protective designs,\nthe ancient shield manifested its power upon the mind of the enemy by\ninfluencing them to shoot at the shield rather than at the exposed parts\nof the body of its bearer. But when fire-arms were introduced,\nexperience demonstrated that the shield was no longer a desirable object\nin battle, because the same influence that drew arrows to it drew\nbullets also, and in this case with fatal results. From this they\nconcluded that guns represented a mystic power superior to that of\nshield-designs, but that the latter were still efficacious, except where\nso overpowered.\n\nThis explanation is interesting, because these men seem to have grasped\nthe idea that the shield, being a conspicuous object, would attract the\nattention and thus the aim of the enemy; but they confused this\npsychological explanation of the observed facts with a mystic conception\nthat the magic power of the design upon the shield was the cause or\nforce that reached out and lay hold of the attention of the enemy. Yet\nthe introduction of fire-arms did not relegate the shield to oblivion;\nand shield-designs are still cherished by men of the olden time, because\nthey represent a kind of individual totem or protective power.\n\nThe following descriptions of shield-designs are given with the\ninterpretations of their owners.\n\nA shield-cover decorated with feathers, bearing a design used by a chief\non ceremonial occasions, and said by him to be the copy of a shield\ncarried in his youth, is shown in Plate V. The black border on top of\nthe shield takes the form of the new moon, which it represents. In the\ncentre of the shield is a well executed drawing of an Indian on\nhorseback. The horse is in blue, with zigzag black lines extending down\nthe legs. The blue color of the horse indicates his connection with the\nthunder, or the powers of the sky. The background of the shield is in\nyellow, but the lower part has been worked over with green.\nSymmetrically arranged around the mounted figure are four circles of\npurplish color, representing a phenomenon observed in the sky, which\nseems to have been either the halo of the sun, or the phenomenon that\npasses under the name of \u201csun-dogs.\u201d From the description of the owner\nof the shield, it appears that these four circles were associated in his\nmind with the medicine-hoop. He stated that this design as a whole was\nthe representation of what he saw in a dream; that the moon with its\ndark color was drawn to represent the night, because that was the time\nwhen he had this experience; and that in the dream he saw a horse and\nrider appear in the sky surrounded by the four circular objects, as\nindicated upon the shield. It appears from his explanation, that the\nassociation of the rings with the medicine-hoop was his own individual\ninterpretation of the significance of his dream. In the dream he could\nsee a shield associated with these objects as they would appear in\nreality; but in the design he attempted to convey an idea of what he saw\nin conformity with the conventional modes of representative art\npractised by his tribe.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 1 (50-2970). Shield-cover with Design. Diameter, 42\ncm.]\n\nAnother shield-cover (Fig. 1) bears a bird-design, representing to the\nowner the osprey (?). One half of the background of this shield is in\nyellow; the other half, in light green.[4] These two colors represent\nthe appearance of the sky at sunrise; the yellow corresponding to the\nregion of the dawn, and the green to the dark sky above. The four stars\nsymmetrically arranged are colored black for the night, yellow for the\ndawn, blue for the evening, and red for the day; or in other words the\nwhole circle is represented. The design of the bird presents some\ninteresting details. The lightning-symbols represent the death-dealing\npower conferred upon the owner of such a shield-design at the time of\nhis dream. The red marks upon the breast of the bird, representing the\nnational emblem of the United States, were interpreted by the owner as\nsymbolizing such death-dealing power in contending with soldiers. The\npeculiar feature upon the tail of the bird represents an additional\nexperience, and was added to the shield about the year 1867, after a\nsuccessful engagement with the United States troops, in which the owner\nof the shield participated. According to his account, the design on the\ntail of the bird is the conventional symbol of the spider-web, but is\nused here to represent an experience preceding the above engagement. As\nthe war-party were moving forward, they saw a strange appearance in the\nsky, which took the form of this symbol. The sight of it caused the\nwar-party to scatter; and the interpretation placed upon this by the\nowner was, that its manifestation of supernatural power, which was to be\nconveyed to them, would cause their enemies to scatter in like\nconfusion. During the confusion into which the party fell, the stars\nmoved rapidly through the sky and the lightning flashed in all\ndirections. This is represented by the four corners of the design. At\nthe top of the shield is a braid of sweet-grass and a small buckskin bag\ncontaining medicines of a supposed charm-value. Before going into\nbattle, some of this sweet-grass was to be burnt, and ritualistic songs\npertaining to the shield were to be sung. This having been done, the\nshield was supposed to protect its owner from his enemies. Eight\nfeathers, arranged in pairs, are attached to the shield, and their\nquills are painted to correspond to the parts of the background to which\nthey are attached.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 2. Shield-design,\n from a Drawing by a Native.]\n\nThere is one interesting feature connected with this shield-design, and\nthat is the fact that some of the old men disapproved of the owner\nplacing the spider-web design upon the tail of the bird, because it was\na mixing of supernatural manifestations. The incident connected with\nthis design was regarded by them as most extraordinary, and as having\nbeen worthy of distinct and separate representation. According to the\naccepted modes of interpretation, this experience should have been\nrepresented upon a new shield.\n\nThe specimen shown in Plate VI is not a shield-cover, but was\nnevertheless spoken of as a shield; and the design upon it is an old\nshield-design. The specimen is a cape (made of cotton) worn around the\nshoulders in such a way that the design could be seen upon the back of\nthe wearer. Here are represented the rainbow, the thunder-bird\n(possessing in this case characteristics which indicate that it was\ncopied from the national emblem of the United States), the new and full\nmoon, and the stars. It will be observed that the stars in this case are\nfour-pointed, similar to the design of the spider-web, and they are\nregarded by the Indians as an example of the old original method of\nrepresenting them.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 3. Drawing, by a Native, of a Shield-cover.]\n\nAs a great many Indians who formerly owned shields do not now possess\nshield-covers, the writer secured drawings made by them of their former\nshields. Such a sketch is reproduced in outline (Fig. 2). In the centre\nis a design of the spider-web filled in with red. The ground of the\nshield is in blue, representing the sky. Above and below are circular\nareas in yellow, representing clouds or heaven. Lightning-symbols in red\nconnect the yellow cloud-symbols with the four corners of the spider-web\ndesign. As a final suggestion relative to this interpretation, the\ninformant said, \u201cThe spider is the friend of the thunder.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 4. Shield-design, from a Drawing by a Native.]\n\nThe manner in which the owner secured the shield-design represented in\nFig. 3 is as follows. Once when a war-party of which he was a member\nwere about to take the war-path, it was predicted by an old man that he\nwould be killed in the first battle. Before leaving with the party, he\nwent to an old medicine-man for help, and this man made him a shield\nbearing the design described below. The bird represented is the\nhawk,\u2014flying from the sky, protected by the thunder from the hailstones\nthat fly thick and fast about him,\u2014and symbolizes the manner in which\nthe owner of the shield will pass safely through the hail of lead from\nthe enemy. Four pairs of hawk-feathers are arranged symmetrically on the\ncircumference of the shield.\n\nIn the shield-design in Fig. 4, we find a large circular area in the\ncentre painted yellow and the surrounding portion red. Around the\ncircumference of the yellow portion are black spots, representing tufts\nof short crow-feathers. Upon the original shield, across the top, there\nwas tied the skin of a weasel, represented in the drawing by a\npictograph of that animal. Four pairs of feathers are arranged\nsymmetrically on the circumference of this design.\n\nThe design represented by Fig. 5 is rather striking, since an image of\nthe spider is placed in the centre of the shield surrounded by a circle\nof red, through which the numerous red lines radiate to the\ncircumference of the design. These red lines represent the web of the\nspider. One end of a string is tied to the mouth of the spider, with an\neagle-plume at the other end, painted yellow. Around the circumference\nof the design is a wavy blue line, representing water. The owner of this\ndesign received such a shield when a young man, and stated that he never\nunderstood why the medicine-man who made it for him placed the blue line\naround it, and for that reason he could not explain its significance.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 5. Spider-design for a Shield, from a\n Drawing by a Native.]\n\nThe design represented in Fig. 6 was dreamed of by the owner himself,\nand in this dream he was presented with a shield bearing a design\nsimilar to the sketch. As he was almost blind, the sketch is very crude.\nIn it appear again the thunder-bird, the stars, the yellow clouds, the\nred and blue lightning, the new moon, and the bear. It was claimed that\nthe curved double line at the bottom represented both the moon and the\nlightning; the former by the colors, the latter by its form. Another\ninteresting point in this design is the representation of an\neagle-feather upon the head of the bear. This is the conventional way of\nrepresenting a supernatural bear as distinguished from a real bear.[5]\nThe owner of this shield-design claimed, that, while he did not now and\nhad not for years carried or kept about him a drawing of the design, he\nfelt it as a kind of magic presence hovering around him, shielding him\nfrom harm. He stated, further, that, while he knew that other men used\nthe symbols represented in his shield-design as the signs of particular\npowers and ideas, he himself had no such interpretation; for in the\ndream he saw nothing more than a shield bearing these designs, and\nreceived no instruction or information as to their significance. Their\nprotecting power to him lay in the peculiar supernatural presence which\nhe always felt.\n\nThe shield-design in Fig. 7 represents a thunderstorm. At the top, the\nclouds are represented in blue. Below this, falling rain is represented\nby short irregular lines, and the lightning and thunder by zigzag lines\nextending downward from the clouds on a background of clear sky. This\ndesign originated in the same manner as did the preceding; that is, a\nfinished shield was seen in a dream.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 6. Shield-design, from a Drawing by the Man who\n  dreamed of it.\n Fig. 7. Shield-design representing a Thunderstorm, from a Drawing by a\n   Native.]\n\nPlate VII is the reproduction of a model of a shield made of shrunken\nbull-hide covered with buckskin. It was collected by Dr. J. R. Walker.\nThe design is somewhat similar to the preceding. The upper part is\npainted in blue to represent the clouds, and the lower part in\nbluish-green to represent the sky. In the cloud-area is the drawing of a\nhorse, symbolizing a dream-horse (probably the thunder-horse). The\nthunder, or power, is symbolized by red zigzag lines extending downward\nfrom the cloud-area. An eagle-feather and twelve hawk-feathers are tied\nto a small buckskin bag of medicine, fastened to the shield in a manner\nsuggesting their attachment to the mane of the horse. The circumference\nof the shield is decorated with small feathers, and four pairs of\neagle-feathers are also arranged symmetrically around the circumference.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 8 (50-5456). Model of a Shield\n with Pictographic Design. Diameter, 47 cm.]\n\nA shield (Fig. 8) similar to the preceding represents a vision in which\nthe dreamer was apparently supported by the thunder-horse in a contest\nwith the mythical turtle. A small bag of medicine and a pendant\neagle-plume are attached to the shield, as in the previous case.\nFeathers are again arranged in four pairs. This specimen was collected\nby Dr. J. R. Walker.\n\nIn the Museum collection from the Sauk and Fox Indians, made by Dr.\nWilliam Jones, is a shield captured from the Sioux, at the time of the\noutbreak of 1866, by a Fox in the employ of the United States\nGovernment. The design was painted upon the rawhide, but is now almost\nobliterated. Fig. 9 is a diagrammatic restoration. The writer saw an old\nbuffalo-hide shield in the possession of an Assiniboine, at Fort\nBelknap, Montana. The design was painted upon buffalo-hide, and was\nsimilar to that in Fig. 9. He collected also from the Dakota a number of\ndrawings representing military exploits. While twenty shields are\nrepresented in these drawings, fourteen of them bear simple circular\ndesigns, as shown in the adjoining figure. This suggests that the older\ntype of shield-decoration made use of simple circular designs. This idea\nwas supported by the testimony of a number of old men who ought to be\ncompetent to speak upon the subject. Of course, there is no reason why\nthe image of the thunder-bird, so common upon modern shield-designs,\nshould not have been used in ancient times; and the writer wishes to be\nunderstood as expressing this as an opinion based upon indirect\nevidence.\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 9 (50-3569). Design on Sioux\n Shield captured by a Fox Indian.\n Diameter, 42 cm. ]\n\nThese circular designs often represented the sun, other heavenly bodies,\nor the sky, which suggests that formerly the shield as a whole may have\nbeen considered as a symbol of the sun. The survivors of shield-using\ndays seemed to have no actual knowledge of any connection between the\nshield-form and the sun, but usually expressed it as their opinion that\nit represented the sun, and that the feathers represented the sun\u2019s\nrays. This may have been suggested by the fact that eagle-feathers were\nsometimes arranged in a half-circle to represent the rays of the sun,\nand that, furthermore, the rays of the sun were sometimes spoken of as\nfeathers.\n\nShield-designs could originate only in dreams and visions, and were\npainted by the person experiencing them, who prayed and sang over his\nwork to give the shield power. Usually but four shields could be made\nfrom a single dream: to make a great number was sacrilege. Among the\nBlackfoot, the shield was often accompanied by a ritual composed of\nsongs and prayers; and they possessed a few shields with such important\nrituals that they were distinguished from the others as\n\u201cmedicine-shields.\u201d There seems to have been a similar condition among\nthe Dakota, for it was often said that medicine-shields were hung\noutside the tepees, upon tripods, and that during the day they were\nchanged from time to time so as to keep them facing the sun. This\npractice was observed by a number of Plains tribes. However, among the\nDakota the tripod often gave place to a single pole.\n\n-----\n\n[2] Bandelier (Reports of the Peabody Museum, Vol. II, p. 109).\n\n[3] Bandelier, op. cit., p. 108.\n\n[4] In the drawings, colors are indicated by the following devices: red,\nby horizontal shading; yellow, by vertical shading; green, by left\noblique shading; blue or purple, by right oblique shading. Black and\nwhite have their conventional qualities. The drawings were made by Miss\nR. B. Howe.\n\n[5] For an illustration see Catlin, North American Indians (7th ed.,\n1848), Plate 102.\n\n\n\n\n                          GHOST-DANCE DESIGNS.\n\n\nAbout the year 1890 a religious movement, generally known as the\n\u201cghost-dance religion,\u201d infected the Plains Indians. The chief feature\nof this religion was the belief in a speedy return of the old time, the\nbuffalo, and the extermination of the white race. The different tribes\nhad various ideas of their duties with respect to this new faith, and,\nwith the exception of the Dakota, they did not manifest direct hostility\nto the white race. This warlike people, however, were already greatly\ndissatisfied with the treatment they received from the Government and\nwith the difficult conditions under which they lived. In consequence,\nthey received the ghost-dance religion as a herald of the good time\nwhich, to their minds, was to be secured only by war with the white\nrace. While a great many of the conditions in the immediate environment\nof the Dakota have been given by various writers as causes for the\noutbreak, the fact that these Indians interpreted the new religion as\nthe manifestation of a warlike spirit was probably due to the fact that\nthey were at heart a warlike people. Their ideas still run toward\nmilitary things. As the essential idea of the ghost-dance religion was a\nreturn of the old time, the ceremonies pertaining thereto made use of\nthe typical objects and ideas of the past. In this, of course, they were\nnot entirely consistent, since they did not discard the use of\nfire-arms, and did not actually resurrect bows, arrows, and shields.\nYet, as a substitute for the protective power of the shield, they\nintroduced garments bearing protective designs. These garments are\ngenerally known under the name of \u201cghost-shirts,\u201d and at the time of the\noutbreak were spoken of by white people as \u201cbullet-proof shirts.\u201d The\nfollowing are descriptions of these garments by eye-witnesses at the\ntime of their first appearance:\u2014\n\n    \u201cAll the men and women made holy shirts and dresses they wear in\n    dance. The persons dropped in dance would all lie in great dust\n    the dancing make. They paint the white muslins they made holy\n    dresses and shirts out of with blue across the back, and\n    alongside of this is a line of yellow paint. They also paint in\n    the front part of the shirts and dresses. A picture of an eagle\n    is made on the back of all the shirts and dresses. On the\n    shoulders and on the sleeves they tied eagle-feathers. They said\n    that the bullets will not go through these shirts and dresses,\n    so they all have these dresses for war. Their enemies\u2019 weapon\n    will not go through these dresses. The ghost-dancers all have to\n    wear eagle-feather on head.\u201d[6]\n\n    \u201cI think they wore the ghost-shirt or ghost-dress for the first\n    time that day. I noticed that these were all new, and were worn\n    by about seventy men and forty women. The wife of a man called\n    Return-from-scout had seen in a vision that her friends all wore\n    a similar robe, and on reviving from her trance she called the\n    women together, and they made a great number of the sacred\n    garments. They were of white cotton cloth. The women\u2019s dress was\n    cut like their ordinary dress, a loose robe with wide, flowing\n    sleeves, painted blue in the neck, in the shape of a\n    three-cornered handkerchief, with moon, stars, birds, etc.,\n    interspersed with real feathers, painted on the waist and\n    sleeves.\n\n    \u201cThe ghost-shirt for the men was made of the same\n    material\u2014shirts and leggings painted in red. Some of the\n    leggings were painted in stripes running up and down, others\n    running around. The shirt was painted blue around the neck, and\n    the whole garment was fantastically sprinkled with figures of\n    birds, bows and arrows, sun, moon, and stars, and everything\n    they saw in nature. Down the outside of the sleeve were rows of\n    feathers tied by the quill-ends and left to fly in the breeze,\n    and also a row around the neck and up and down outside of the\n    leggings. I noticed that a number had stuffed birds,\n    squirrel-heads, etc., tied in their long hair. The faces of all\n    were painted red with a black half-moon on the forehead or on\n    one cheek.\u201d[7]\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 10 (50-3053). Front of a Ghost-dance Garment.\n Length, 126 cm. ]\n\nAs is noted by the above, designs on these garments were made by\nindividuals who had dreams or other unusual experiences similar to those\nof the medicine-men; and it would seem from this account that the\ndesigns and objects used in the dance were in every way similar to those\nemployed before the ghost-dance religion appeared. The writer made the\nacquaintance of several individuals who had prepared such garments at\nthe time of the ghost-dance, and from them he secured reproductions with\nexplanations as to the significance of the designs. As some time had\nelapsed since the ghost-dance religion was at the height of its\npopularity, it is possible that the more special features belonging to\nit were forgotten by these men, and that they worked into the reproduced\ngarments older and more conservative ideas. However, the writer is of\nthe opinion, and he took special pains to investigate as best he could,\nthat whatever may have been lost in this way made no important changes\nin either the objective character of the designs or in the ideas\nexpressed by them. As a matter of fact, the ghost-dance in some of its\nmilder forms is still observed.\n\nSome garments secured by the writer are decorated on both front and back\nwith designs chiefly pictographic. On the front of one (Fig. 10) is a\nlarge triangular space extending downward from the shoulders (one half\nof which is in red and the other half in blue), thickly dotted over with\nwhite spots representing hailstones. The red represents the morning; and\nthe blue, the night. Extending across from side to side is a large\narched figure made up of red, yellow, white, and green bands,\nrepresenting the rainbow. Above this are two four-pointed stars, the red\nfor the morning star and the black for the stars seen in the night.\nThere is a large green star with eight points on the dividing-line\nbetween day and night, concerning which I secured no satisfactory\nexplanation. At the apex of the triangular space are small dots of\nyellow, representing the dawn; and the sun is placed on each side of the\ndivision between day and night. The new moon is represented by a black\ncrescent. On the morning-side of this design is the picture of a\nbutterfly; while on the night-side, extending over into the morning, is\na picture of a peculiar figure, which the artist regarded as a\nspirit-bird or man-bird, as he expressed it, with the medicine-hoop in\nhis hand. The other portion of the dress is covered over with small dots\nin various colors, representing bullets. There are also pictures of\nbutterflies, stars, and buffalo-tracks. On one side are two parallel\nwavy red lines, and on the other two in green, representing the\nlightning.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 11 (50-3053). Back of Garment\n shown in Fig. 10.]\n\nOn the other side of this garment, or the back (Fig. 11), is the\nrepresentation of a bird, which seems to be mythical rather than\nrealistic. The background upon which the figure rests is dotted to\nrepresent bullets or hail, as both have the same significance. The lower\npart of the garment is the most interesting. Here we have four\nbuffalo-tracks arranged in rectangular relation to represent buffalo,\nand a circle or medicine-hoop (half of which is red and half green) with\nextending lines of the same colors, representing the thunder, or its\npower. The idea of this association of the hoop, or, as it is sometimes\nspoken of, the mirror, is that this buffalo escapes bullets, or perhaps\nis immortal. Below the sign of the buffalo is a four-pointed figure,\nusually known as the spider-web design, representing the heavens; and\nbelow this is the rainbow. Two swallows are represented connected to the\npoints in the spider-web design by lines, indicating that they enjoy the\nprotection of this power, making them difficult to hit with bullets or\nother missiles.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 12 (50-3054). Designs on the Front of\n Ghost-dance Garment. Length, 128 cm.]\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 13 (50-3054). Designs on the Back\n of Garment shown in Fig. 12.]\n\nOn another garment (Fig. 12), the triangular area at the top is entirely\nin red, covered with white spots representing hail, and bordered with\nwavy lines representing the rainbow. This represents the rainbow in the\nsky. The dark crescent represents the moon. Below is a large\nfour-pointed star in black, representing the night, with a line\nextending over each side, representing the clouds. The small disk in red\nrepresents a bullet; and the small green crescent, the moon. Below these\nis the spider-web design, representing the heavens, over the four\ncorners of which the lightning appears; but in this case the design is\ncovered with dots representing the falling of the stars. Near this\ndesign we find the butterfly and the buffalo-tracks. The remaining space\non the whole garment is covered with patches of color, representing the\nhail. On the opposite side (Fig. 13) are peculiar triangular designs,\nthe background of which is in red bordered by straight lines, suggesting\nthe rainbow; while on the red background are placed the design of the\nmoon and two circles in such relation as to suggest a face. This design\nwas spoken of as the \u201cmoon-face;\u201d but this seems to have been an\nafter-interpretation, since the artist wished to represent the\nmedicine-hoop or mirror in the sky. [It seems likely that this is simply\nan adaptation of a head-dress used in the elk ceremony.] Below this we\nhave a combination which appears to be the spider-web design combined\nwith the figure of a bird, which is said to be the dream-figure,\nrepresenting the bird seen on a tree. Below this we have the moon,\nrainbow, tracks of the buffalo, stars, butterfly, and a mounted warrior\nriding through the hail.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 14 (50-3055). Front of a Ghost-dance Garment\n bearing Dragon-fly Design. Length, 125 cm.]\n\nIn Fig. 14, the triangular space at the top is similar to that on the\npreceding garment, and need not be described here. The body of the dress\nis covered with dragon-flies as they appear when flying over water. The\nstars represent reflections in the water; and the dashes of color, the\nhail. The wavy green lines extending down the full length of the garment\nrepresent the lightning. In this case the red at the top is spoken of as\nthe thunder-cloud. On the opposite side (Fig. 15), the triangular area\nwith its tail-like extension represents the rattlesnake. In addition we\nhave tracks of the buffalo dragon-fly, and butterfly, all associated as\nin nature. Upon the sides of this garment are the designs of the lizard,\nswallow, and turtle.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 15 (50-3055). Back of Garment shown in Fig. 14.]\n\nThe above detailed statements concerning the designs and their import do\nnot convey their full significance as it was brought out in discussions\nbetween the writer and the men who made these garments. In the first\nplace we find on them symbols to be described in another section of this\npaper; namely, the spider-web designs and the medicine-hoop. It will be\nseen that in most cases the living creatures represented are those that\nseem to have power to escape the hailstones, because, as they say, no\nmatter how severe the hailstorm may be, no one observes their dead or\nmaimed upon the ground: therefore they assume that these creatures\npossess some extraordinary power, or receive the attention of some\nprotective power. The bird represented does not seem to be the\nthunder-bird, as is usually the case in Dakota art, but such species,\nusually birds of prey, as soar above the destructive range of the hail.\nThe lizard and the turtle are spoken of as animals of great power, since\nthey are killed with great difficulty, from which it follows that they\nalso enjoy the protection of some power. This we may generalize by\nsaying that the Indian placed upon these garments representations of\nliving creatures that, according to his observation and experience, were\nseldom hit by missiles, or that possessed great vitality, making it\ndifficult to kill them. Placed on the garments, they express a prayer, a\nhope, or an actual realization, on the part of the wearer, of the\nprotective power by which these creatures are enabled to survive.\n\nThe triangular designs at the top of these garments were spoken of as\nshields, the idea being that they were in some measure shield-designs,\nand performed the same function as did those upon shields in former\ntimes. Mr. Mooney expresses the opinion that the protective designs on\ngarments used in the ghost-dance religion were not aboriginal with the\nIndian.\n\n    \u201cThe protective idea in connection with the ghost-shirt does not\n    seem to be aboriginal. The Indian warrior habitually went into\n    battle naked above the waist. His protecting \u2018medicine\u2019 was a\n    feather, a tiny bag of some sacred powder, the claw of an\n    animal, the head of a bird, or some other small object which\n    could be readily twisted into his hair or hidden between the\n    covers of his shield, without attracting attention. Its virtue\n    depended entirely on the ceremony of the consecration, and not\n    on size or texture. The war-paint had the same magic power of\n    protection. To cover the body in battle was not in accordance\n    with Indian usage, which demanded that the warrior should be as\n    free and unincumbered in movement as possible. The so-called\n    \u2018war-shirt\u2019 was worn chiefly in ceremonial dress-parades, and\n    only rarely on the war-path.\u201d[8]\n\nThis statement, however, suggests that Mr. Mooney based his opinion upon\nobjective evidence, while the opinion expressed by the writer is based\nupon subjective evidence. A comparison of the interpretations of\nshield-designs and ghost-dress designs seems to leave little opportunity\nfor any other conclusion than that the protective designs used in the\nghost-dance were essentially the same as those used in former times upon\nshields and other objects. The garments may be foreign; but the idea of\nprotective designs is most certainly not peculiar to the ghost-dance\nreligion, since it was widely distributed among American tribes, and\nassociated with ceremonial objects that were in use at least a century\nbefore the ghost-dance religion appeared.\n\nIf the writer had no other information at hand than that furnished by\nMr. Mooney in his comprehensive study of the ghost-dance religion, he\nwould be inclined to regard the whole as the manifestation of aboriginal\nreligious ideas in response to a single foreign conception; namely, that\nof the coming of a messiah and the destruction of the present order of\nthe world. The way in which the ghost-dance ceremonies were performed,\nthe ideas expressed in the songs, the things the priests dreamed of, and\nthe objects used in the ceremonies, are so characteristically Indian,\nthat no other interpretation seems possible. However, in the present\nconnection we are concerned with these designs as types of the universal\nprimitive expression of belief in the presence of a guiding personal\nagency that looks into the affairs of men.\n\n-----\n\n[6] George Sword, on Ghost-dance Religion (Fourteenth Annual Report of\nthe Bureau of American Ethnology, p. 798).\n\n[7] Mrs. Z. A. Parker (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of\nAmerican Ethnology, p. 916).\n\n[8] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American\nEthnology, p. 790).\n\n\n\n\n                               THE HOOP.\n\n\nThe circle, or more properly the hoop, is a very important religious\nsymbol among the Dakota. One form of it appears in the great hoop-game\ndescribed by Louis Meeker,[9] and later by Dr. J. R. Walker.[10] This\nhoop is usually about two feet in diameter, and notched so as to divide\nthe circumference into quadrants. While this hoop-game seems to be a\ntrue gambling game, it could be and was sometimes played as part of a\nritualistic ceremony the object of which was to bring the buffalo. It is\ninteresting to note that this large hoop is similar to the sacred wheel\nused by the Arapaho in the sun-dance. At the time of the ghost-dance\noutbreak among the Dakota of Pine Ridge Reservation, Mr. Mooney saw the\nhoop and the two pairs of sticks used with it carried in the ceremonies\nconnected with the ghost-dance religion. He states:\u2014\n\n    \u201cIt is said that the medicine-man of Big Foot\u2019s band carried\n    such a hoop with him in their flight from the north, and\n    displayed it in every dance held by the band until the fatal day\n    of Wounded Knee. A similar hoop was carried and hung upon the\n    centre tree at the dance at No Water\u2019s camp near Pine Ridge. To\n    the Indian it symbolizes the revival of the old-time games.\u201d[11]\n\nThe last line of the above quotation implies that the hoop was a part of\nthe paraphernalia used in the ghost-dance ceremonies, because it\nsymbolized the ancient games. On another page of the same article occurs\nthe following:\u2014\n\n    \u201cAs it was the favorite game with the men in the olden times, a\n    great many of the songs founded on these trance visions refer to\n    it, and the wheel and sticks are made by the dreamer, and\n    carried in the dance as they sing.\u201d[12]\n\nIt should be remembered, however, that the game was formerly played to\nrestore the buffalo when they were temporarily absent from their range;\nand, as one of the great objects of the ghost-dance religion was the\nreturn of the buffalo as in the olden times, the reason for the use of\nthe hoop in the ceremonies described by Mooney is apparent. In Mooney\u2019s\naccount, a number of songs pertaining to the hoop-game are given as sung\nby the various tribes practising the ghost-dance religion. Among these\nis a Dakota version, as follows:\u2014\n\n      \u201cThe holy (hoop) shall run,    \u201cCome and see it,\n      The holy (hoop) shall run,     Come and see it,\n      The swift hoop shall run,      Says the father,\n      The swift hoop shall run.\u201d     Says the father.\u201d[13]\n\nA mythical account of the hoop-game is given by Dr. J. R. Walker, which\nindicates one of the probable conceptions upon which this religious use\nof the hoop rests.[14]\n\nThe hoop-symbol occurs in graphic form, sometimes upon garments. The\nwriter secured a shirt that was used by one of the leaders in\nghost-dances; and which seems to have been a type of the so-called\n\u201cbullet-proof shirt.\u201d This garment is daubed with red about the neck and\non the shoulders, but in addition bears four circular designs, also in\nred, with large dots at their centres (Fig. 16). One of these designs is\nplaced upon the right breast; another, directly opposite, upon the back\nof the garment; one upon the right shoulder; and one upon the left.\nThese are so arranged, that, no matter from what point you see the\nwearer, one of the circular designs will be visible. These designs were\nrecognized as symbols of the medicine-hoop, and were supposed to have\nthe power to protect the wearer from all harm. The idea of placing the\ndesigns so that one of them should always be between the wearer and the\nsource of danger may be original with the owner of this shirt; but the\nnumber of them (four), and their arrangement according to the four\ndirections, correspond to the common explanation of religious symbols.\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 16 (50-2964). Circular\n Design upon a Shirt.\n Diameter, 11 cm. ]\n\nMeeker describes[15] a wheel-shaped hoop-ornament consisting of a ring\nenclosing four spokes at right angles to each other. According to his\naccount, this is a symbol associated with the hoop-game; but similar\nspecimens were seen by the writer upon the heads of Dakota men, who\nexplained that these were symbols of the medicine-wheel or\nmedicine-hoop, and did not refer to the hoop-game. They were worn\nbecause they were regarded as symbols of the power that could protect\nthe wearer from arrows, bullets, or other dangers.\n\nAs is suggested by the above, the game-hoop is distinguished from the\nmedicine-hoop as used in ceremonies. A medicine-hoop seems to have been\nused by all divisions of the Dakota, and, according to the descriptions\nreceived by the writer, to have been of several forms. In certain\nceremonies where the elk played an important part, a hoop or ring was\nformed by twining together fresh twigs and leaves of the willow. In the\ncentre of this hoop, a small mirror was held by four cords arranged at\nright angles, and representing the four directions. A drawing of an\nelk-dancer by a native is shown in Fig. 17. The painted centre for the\ncircular designs on a shirt (Fig. 16) described above, as well as the\nsmall wheel-shaped head-ornament, were said to represent a hoop of this\ntype.\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 17. Sketch, by a Native,\n of an Elk-mystery Dancer carrying a\n Hoop with a Mirror in the Centre.\n Drawing collected by R. Cronau. ]\n\nThe connection of this hoop with the idea of protection is well\nillustrated in the manufacture of one kind of red paint. It is produced\nby burning a kind of yellow clay, found near the Black Hills, until it\ntakes on the red color. The paint, however, is given its protective\npower by certain ceremonies performed as it is made. In the particular\nceremony observed by the writer, the yellow earth was pounded fine, and\nmixed with water until it became a stiff paste. This was then made into\na flat disk about half an inch thick and from four to six inches in\ndiameter, after which a hole or depression was made in the centre. The\npurpose of this, as explained, was to give it the form of a\nmedicine-hoop, the hole in the centre corresponding to the place\noccupied by the mirror in the form of hoop just described. This disk was\nthen burned in the fire until red, after which it was pounded on a stone\nuntil fine enough for use. The ceremony in preparing the paint consisted\nof ritualistic songs and prayers, which reached their climax as the disk\nof clay was formed and perforated. The burning and the subsequent\npreparation were not regarded as parts of the ceremony. The idea, as\nexpressed, was to connect the paint with the power represented by the\nhoop, so that when a warrior rubbed some of it upon his body, he came at\nonce under the protection of this power.\n\nAnother idea seems to be connected with the conception of the\nmedicine-hoop, and that is the appearance of certain mythical animals\nwith openings through their bodies where their hearts should be. The\nconception seems to be, that an animal without a heart is immortal and\nsupernatural: at least, this is the way in which the mythical elk was\ndescribed. According to the belief, there is a connection between this\nopening through the heart and the centre of the medicine-hoop,\nrepresented in the elk ceremonies by the mirror; but it is the opinion\nof the writer that this is an error on the part of the Indians\nthemselves in associating two things that were formerly distinct.[16]\n\nIt seems rather curious that the mirror should become so closely\nassociated with the hoop, and that the mirror should have appealed to\nthem as a symbol of almost equal importance. The writer is of the\nopinion that the preceding cases, where the mirror and the hoop are\nconsidered as identical symbols, are the result of a former close\nassociation of the two in ceremonial affairs.\n\n-----\n\n[9] Meeker (Bulletin of the Free Museum of Science and Art, University\nof Pennsylvania, Vol. III. No. 1).\n\n[10] Walker (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society,\nOctober-December, 1905).\n\n[11] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American\nEthnology, p. 1075).\n\n[12] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American\nEthnology, p. 994).\n\n[13] Mooney (Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American\nEthnology, p. 1075).\n\n[14] Walker (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society,\nOctober-December, 1905).\n\n[15] Meeker, op. cit., p. 35.\n\n[16] In the Report of the Peabody Museum (Vol. III, p. 286) is a\ndescription by Miss Fletcher of some ceremonies in which the hoop and\nthe mirror played a part. \u201cThe neophyte held one, having a circular\nmirror, fastened by four cords, from which he cast a reflection of the\nsun from time to time upon the ground, or held up the hoop, and flashed\nthe mirror.\u201d The explanation given by this author of the significance of\nthe mirror in these ceremonies differs from that secured by the writer;\nbut Miss Fletcher\u2019s account seems to refer to a form of ceremony\npertaining to the elk rites not mentioned in his notes.\n\n\n\n\n                             THE WHIRLWIND.\n\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 18 (50-2095). Engraved Metal Cross.\n Collected by R. Cronau. Length, 23 cm.]\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 19 (50-2898). Engraved Bone Object.\n Collected by R. Cronau. Length, 24 cm.]\n\nIn another place the writer has described the conception of the power of\nthe whirlwind among some of the Dakota, but wishes at this time to refer\nto it again because of its relation to their system of protective\ndesigns.[17] As stated in the former publication, there seems to be in\nthe minds of some of the Dakota an association between the phenomenon of\nthe whirlwind and those mental states generally known as \u201cconfusion of\nmind.\u201d Some of them believed and still believe that the power in the\nwhirlwind can be invoked to confuse the mind of an enemy. In common with\nmany other American tribes, the Dakota believe the whirlwind to be\nassociated with the fluttering wings of a moth, but they also associate\nthis with the cocoon of the same moth; and in symbolic representation\nthe design representing the power of the whirlwind is of an elongated\ndiamond-shape, and refers to the cocoon. The protection or aid of the\nwhirlwind was secured by prayers, and these prayers were symbolized by\nthe cocoon worn upon the person, by its image in stuffed buckskin, or by\nits graphic representation, sketched or painted. The power of the\nwhirlwind was supposed to have been associated with the power of the\nspider-web. As an illustration of this, we find engraved upon a\nGerman-silver cross (Fig. 18) the spider, and near it three\nrepresentations of the whirlwind cocoon. Between the spider and these\nthree designs is a zigzag line, implying the mystic power connection of\nthe same. Again, on a forked bone object (Fig. 19), the use of which is\nunknown, occur a number of incised designs, among which is again what\nseems to be the spider-web, the tracks of a quadruped (probably the\nbuffalo), and four designs representing the whirlwind cocoon,\naccompanied in each case by another design which cannot be determined,\nbut which resembles the footprints of a person. It is interesting to\nnote that the German-silver cross also bears the tracks of the buffalo,\nor some ruminant animal, in association with the spider. In the absence\nof direct information, the writer hesitates to offer any interpretation\nof the design upon these specimens, although he feels that they could be\ninterpreted with reasonable certainty.\n\nThe design of the whirlwind resembles a feather-design, and no doubt the\ntwo are often confused. The difference seems to be, that, when\nrepresenting the whirlwind, half of the design is filled with parallel\nor crossing lines; while, when representing feathers, half of the design\nis filled in with color (see Fig. 19). The feather-design is more fixed\nin form than that of the whirlwind. Fig. 20 is a representation of the\nlatter, from the handle of a club, where it appears in a series with the\nspider, lizard, elk, and turtle. Another form of the same design is\nrepeated in a series on a wooden popgun (Fig. 21).\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 20 (50-4380). Whirlwind Design, from the Handle of a\n  Club. Length, 5 cm.\n Fig. 21 (50-4244). Whirlwind Design, from a Popgun. Length of design, 7.5\n   cm. ]\n\n-----\n\n[17] Wissler (The Journal of the American Folk-Lore Society,\nOctober-December, 1905).\n\n\n\n\n                              THE THUNDER.\n\n\nThe thunder is a very important deity among all the Indians of the\nPlains, and is usually associated with military exploits. While the\nDakota generally regard the thunder as a bird, usually symbolized by the\neagle, yet they sometimes speak of it as a horse, a man, or a dog. The\nhorse always appealed to them as a creature of mysterious origin, and in\nmany cases was assumed to have been given by the thunder. In any event\nthere is an association in their minds between the power of a war-horse\nand the thunder. The thunder is often represented by a zigzag or wavy\nline, usually in red; but this symbol really represents the power of the\nphenomenon in the abstract, because the Indian does have the conception\nof a force in nature. Consequently this graphic symbol is also a general\nsign for the presence of mysterious supernatural power. The whistles\nmade from the leg and wing bones of eagles, and used among the Plains\ntribes, are generally employed by the Dakota to symbolize the cry of the\neagle as a representative of the thunder-bird. In battle, or sometimes\nin stress of great trial, they are sounded to call up the power of the\nthunder to rescue the unfortunate one. As a rule, a zigzag line is\nscratched down the sides of these whistles. In this connection it is\ninteresting to note the following:\u2014\n\n    \u201cBefore daylight I set off with five Indians. . . . This caused\n    a halt, as we were surrounded and began to suspect that the\n    enemy had planned to cut us off. The Indians put on their\n    war-caps, uttering some few words which I could not hear\n    distinctly, and then began to whistle with a small bone\n    instrument which they hung around their necks for that\n    purpose.\u201d[18]\n\nThis account (1807) by an acute observer is interesting, because our\npresent knowledge enables us to understand the muttered prayers and the\nuse of the whistle.\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 22 (50-3023). Whistle, of Bone.\n Length, 19 cm. ]\n\nThe whistle shown in Fig. 22 is interesting because of the objects that\naccompany it. The whistle is from the wing-bone of an eagle, and near\nthe top is a small bag containing the medicine of the owner. The\nfeathers of the yellow-winged woodpecker are attached thereto, because\nthis bird is considered as an associate of the thunder-bird, or at least\nit holds some relation to the thunder, since the Dakota have observed,\nthat, when a storm is approaching, this bird gives a peculiar shrill\ncall not unlike the sound of the whistle spoken of above. This they\ninterpret as speaking to the thunder. Consequently, the feathers of this\nbird, when attached to the whistle, are supposed to put the individual\nalso in a position to speak to the thunder. This bird has a large dark\nspot on the throat, which is said to represent the moon and to be\nfurther evidence of the sacred character of the bird. Thus we have a\ncombined charm representing the woodpecker and the eagle,\u2014two birds\nclosely associated with the thunder.\n\nThe ceremony of offering a filled pipe to the thunder was frequently\nobserved by the Dakota. One man stated that once, when the camp was\nthreatened by an approaching storm, he filled a large pipe, went to the\ntop of a hill, and, facing the storm, made an offering to the thunder by\nextending the stem upward, and praying, with the result that the storm\ndivided, and passed around the camp without serious damage to his\npeople. In the decoration of pipe-stems, a bunch of horsehair is\nattached (usually colored red), and this is often spoken of as an emblem\nof the thunder-horse. This horsehair is to signify the presence of the\npower of the thunder, as manifest in the horse, in all ceremonies\nconnected with the pipe. It is worth while noting that in this case we\nhave an illustration of a peculiarity of religious lore,\u2014the indirect\nsymbolizing of a power by one of a series of objects in which that power\nis manifest.\n\nThe United States emblem of the eagle with outstretched claws, holding\narrows and the lightning, is regarded by the Dakota as an appeal on our\npart to the thunder-bird; and statements to the contrary are usually\ninterpreted as white men\u2019s lies to deceive the Indians and to guard the\npower. There is little doubt that the Dakota manner of drawing the\nthunder-bird has been modified by the United States emblem, and that\ntheir own idea of his power has been influenced accordingly.\n\n-----\n\n[18] New Light on the Early History of the Greater Northwest, p. 436.\n\n\n\n\n                              THE SPIDER.\n\n\nThe association between the spider, the spider-web, and the thunder, is\nvery close\u2014so close, that it is difficult to understand the conception\nof the power of the spider without considering the power of the thunder.\nThe spider is often spoken of as the \u201cspider-man.\u201d It is also associated\nwith the mythical elk. It was supposed to have great power. The observed\nfact that a spider manufactures a web, and that this web is not\ndestroyed by bullets or arrows (since they pass through it, leaving only\na hole), is cited by some individuals as the basis for the conception\nthat the spider has power to protect people from harm. On the other\nhand, the spider is spoken of as a friend of the thunder; and it is a\ngeneral belief that the thunder will never harm the spider-web, or, what\namounts to the same, that the spider-web itself is a protection against\nthunder. As previously stated, the spider-web is represented by a\npeculiar four-cornered design. This design is sometimes said to\nrepresent the heavens, in which case the four points represent the four\ndirections, the home of the winds, the four thunders, etc.; the\nsupernatural character of the design being indicated by\nlightning-symbols extending from the four corners.\n\n[Illustration: Fig. 23 (50-3095). Design of a Spider-web.]\n\nIn a preceding paper,[19] the spider-web design was discussed in its\nrelation to decorative art, where it was noted that among some divisions\nof the Dakota is a belief in a double woman,[20] to whom, among other\nthings, certain ceremonial uses of this design are attributed. According\nto information secured by the writer, this character was also associated\nwith the elk ceremonies, where she was often represented by two women\ntied together by a cord (about two feet in length), from the middle of\nwhich hung a doll or a ball. Women often receive power by dreaming of\nthis character. Some such women are supposed to perform a kind of\nceremony, somewhat secret, in which a child is taken out to a lonely\nplace, where a swing or hammock-like structure is made in the form of\nthe spider-web design, supported by the four corners, and the child is\nplaced upon it. This is to bring good fortune to the child. A design of\nthe spider-web might then be placed upon the robe of the child as a\nsymbol of its having experienced the ceremony (Fig. 23).\n\nThe men, however, use this design for military protection, in which\nconnection it is not thought of as being associated in any way with the\nmythical double woman. It is, however, closely associated with the\nmedicine-bow. This was a very sacred military object with the Dakota, of\nwhich only four duplicates could be had. It consisted of a bow of plain\nwood, of the usual length, to the end of which was attached a\nspear-head. Fastened to the bow was a stick somewhat longer, sharpened\nat one end, and decorated with feathers and other symbolic objects. The\npurpose of the stick was to support the bow, since all such sacred\nobjects would lose their power if allowed to touch the ground. The bow\nwas not used as a weapon, but was carried as a standard, because of its\nsupposed magical power over the enemy. The figure of the dragon-fly was\nusually painted upon the bow and its support, as well as dots\nrepresenting insects that fly swiftly, and zigzag lines representing\nthunder. Feathers of the eagle, the magpie, the hawk, and, in fact, of\nall birds swift of wing, were likewise attached to it. The association\nbetween these insects and birds was the same as that previously noted;\nthat is, since they were swift in motion, and difficult to strike, they\nrepresented the qualities desired by the bearers of the bow. These bows\nhave long since passed out of existence, but survive in models made for\ncommercial purposes.\n\nThe account of the origin of the medicine-bow is as follows:\u2014\n\n    \u201cA man dreamed of the thunder, and afterwards called in four men\n    to assist him in making the medicine-bow. They went through the\n    preliminaries (the sweat-house, etc.), after which a special\n    tent was erected. The ground inside of this tent, where the\n    dreamer and his four companions sat, was covered with\n    sage-grass. A young man was called in to act as their assistant.\n    He was sent out to cut elm sticks. He went out slowly, and after\n    a time came back with the sticks. Then he was sent out to get\n    together the feathers of swift flying birds, pieces of\n    buffalo-hide, paints, etc. He went around the camp, and begged\n    these of the people.\n\n    \u201cThen the four men set to work making the sticks under the\n    direction of the dreamer. The dreamer gave a bow to one of the\n    men, and a piece of buffalo-hide in which to wrap the sticks,\n    also a wooden bowl from which to eat.\n\n    \u201cAfter a time, the faces of the men were painted red. When the\n    sticks were finished, four men came in wrapped in buffalo-robes,\n    each carrying a drum. Now the four men who had prepared the\n    sticks were ready to receive the bow, and the drummers began to\n    drum and sing. Then the man who dreamed about the bow carried it\n    outside of the lodge, pointing it toward the west. He was\n    followed by the whole company, and, after singing a song, they\n    took a step forward and pointed the bow to the north; another\n    step again, then pointed to the east; and then a step forward,\n    pointing to the south. Then they ran toward the west, then\n    toward the east, then toward the north, and then toward the\n    south. [The significance of this is, that the thunder resides in\n    the four directions of the heavens, and also goes in all\n    directions, so that the carrying of the sticks toward the\n    various points of the compass puts them in touch with the\n    thunder.] Then they went back to the sweat-house, and the\n    ceremony was complete.\n\n    \u201cThe man who owns one of these bows must not wear iron on his\n    person, he must never give his food to any one else after eating\n    from it himself, and he must never allow the bow, or any part of\n    it, to touch the ground.\u201d[21]\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 24. Sketch of a Robe for the\n Medicine-bow Owner. Drawn by a Native. ]\n\nThe owner of a medicine-bow should have a buffalo-robe with special\ndecorations, consisting of a spider-web design of the character\npreviously described, from the corners of which extend wavy lines\nrepresenting the thunder. Sometimes the picture of a thunder-bird was\ndrawn above the spider-web design, or a few tail-feathers of the eagle\nwere attached to the robe. The spider-web design on the robe of an owner\nof a medicine-bow was to symbolize the thunder, for, as stated by the\ninformants, the spider is a friend of the medicine-bow. None of these\nrobes are now in existence; but sketches were made for the writer, one\nof which is reproduced in Fig. 24.\n\nThe body-painting for the medicine-bow was rather elaborate. In the\nfirst place, the whole body was smeared over with a brownish-red paint,\nrepresenting the earth in a buffalo-wallow. There were two ways of\ndecorating the face. In one, a curved line was drawn, extending from the\ncorners of the mouth around over the forehead, the ends of the lines\nbeing forked to represent lightning. Wavy lines, also with forked ends,\nwere drawn down the arms and the legs. These lines were in black or\nblue. Blue bands were painted around the ankles, arms, wrists, and\nshoulders, representing the power of the lightning. These bands were\noften covered with wristlets and anklets of rabbit-fur, because the\nrabbit was in some way associated with the medicine-bow. In the other\npainting, a crescent, representing the moon, was placed upon the\nforehead and a line drawn from ear to ear across the bridge of the nose.\nIn this form, the body-painting was the same as in the preceding, except\nthat one of the lines upon the leg was straight instead of wavy, and it\nwas said to signify the desire for ability to think straight or to\npossess presence of mind, in contrast to the state of mind supposed to\nbe produced by the power of the whirlwind.\n\n[Illustration:  Fig. 25 (50-2093). Design on a Metal Belt-ornament. Width,\n  2 cm.\n Fig. 26 (50-3124). Design of Spider-web on a Straight Pipe. Length, 25\n   cm. ]\n\nThe spider-web design has been mentioned in connection with shield and\nother designs, and a retrospect indicates a peculiar graphic resemblance\nin it to the older type of star-designs shown in Plate VI. The writer\nuses the term \u201colder\u201d on the authority of two Indians. Some incised\ndesigns on metal ornaments worn by a woman, of the form shown in Fig.\n25, seem to be a combination of the older star-design and that of the\nspider-web. Another design (Fig. 26) scratched on the bowl of a straight\npipe of red stone was also said to represent the spider-web. There is\nanother design used by the Dakota in ceremonies relating to the buffalo;\nbut it is rectangular in form with projecting corners, and is considered\na distinct symbol.\n\n-----\n\n[19] Wissler (Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, Vol.\nXVII, p. 248).\n\n[20] Dorsey (Eleventh Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, p. 480).\n\n[21] Narrated by an Ogalala man.\n\n\n\n\n                              CONCLUSION.\n\n\nThe first point that appears in the consideration of these designs and\ntheir interpretations is the animistic basis upon which they rest. The\nIndian has observed nature, and singled out those qualities and\nsituations that are not only wonderful from his point of view, but\ngreatly to be desired as means to his own ends. He then proceeds on the\nassumption that these originate in and are due to some hidden agency,\nfrom which it follows, that, if he can put himself in the place of one\nof the favored living creatures, he will in turn be the object upon\nwhich this hidden agency will act. If he can be the bird that rides the\nstorm in safety, he will in turn ride successfully the analogous storms\nof his own sphere, and, like the child that in its own mind is the\npoliceman when it thrusts a club into its waistband, he feels that he is\nthe bird calling to the thunder when he sounds the bone whistle, and\nmutters his song-prayer. That this is true only of the great Indian or\nthe devotee, speaking in relative terms, and that the mass of\nIndian-kind follow in blind imitation of the more sensitive few, may be\ntrue; but the phenomena, for all that, are none the less ethnic.\n\nOne characteristic of the foregoing protective designs is, that they are\nusually animal motives to the almost entire exclusion of plant and\ninanimate forms. While it is true that the phenomena of the heavens hold\na prominent place in this art, such phenomena are often interpreted as\nresults of the activity of animal-like beings, and consequently are so\nexpressed in art. The conditions leading to such a result are doubtless\nmany and intricate; but the tendency to ignore plant-forms in protective\nconceptions may be due to the inactive character of the more inanimate\nworld. Inert things are not easily conceived of as guardians or\nprotectors. On the other hand, the Indian may not see the logical\nnecessity of carrying his view to the utmost bounds of the universe.\nPots and kettles may have an animistic presence within themselves; but\nperhaps this does not appeal to the Indian, because the living creatures\nare so much nearer to him and the analogy between their lives and his is\nnot difficult to perceive. The mystery in the animal forms that come and\ngo, in the storm, and in the heavenly bodies, reaches the mind unaided;\nbut the plant and mineral wonders require a more microscopic eye. That\nthere was a time when the animals were as the people is the striking\nthought in many Indian myths, and this indicates a belief in the\nfundamental life-identity of all moving creatures.\n\nThere is, however, one interesting suggestion in the interpretation of\nprotective powers. In all of these conceptions we find less appeal for\nthe direct destruction of enemies than for a shielding protection to\nenable the man himself to be the destructive agent. His prayers are,\nthat he may be swift and impossible to hit in order that he may strike\ndown the victim.\n\nAgain, there are in every part of the preceding paper examples of the\nclose association between powers, or at least power-symbols, that are\nfrom many points of view incongruous; as the mirror and the hoop, the\nspider, the thunder, and the elk. There is in these a tendency to\ncoalesce into conceptions of larger wholes in which the power becomes\nmore general, tending toward the definite abstraction of a power-unit,\nor identity of forces in nature. These larger conceptions, that are\nreally much more complex than indicated in this brief paper, seem to\nrepresent a growth, or at least an accumulation of ideas, on the part of\na people who have not felt the need of systematically unifying them, or\nexpressing them as an objective unit.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration:  ANTHROP. PAP. A. M. N. H.            VOL. I, PLATE V.\n MODEL OF A SHIELD. ]\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration:  SHIELD-DESIGN ON A CAPE.\n PLATE VI. ]\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration:  ANTHROP. PAP. A. M. N. H.            VOL. I, PLATE VII.\n MODEL OF A SHIELD. ]\n\n\n\n\n                           TRANSCRIBER NOTES\n\n\nMisspelled words and printer errors have been corrected.\n\nPunctuation has been maintained.\n\nSome illustrations were moved to facilitate page layout.\n\n[The end of _Some Protective Designs of the Dakota_, by Clark Wissler.]","title":"Some Protective Designs of the Dakota","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":11761}