{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_51196/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_51196","id":"gutenberg_51196","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/51196","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - European","Category: Journals","Category: Literature - Other","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Science - Biology","Category: Science - Chemistry/Biochemistry","Category: Science - Physics","Chautauqua Institution -- Periodicals","Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle -- Periodicals"],"text":"THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n    A Monthly Magazine Devoted to the Promotion of True Culture.\n    Organ of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.\n\n\n    VOLUME IV.\n\n    FROM OCTOBER, 1883, TO JULY, 1884.\n\n\n    THEODORE L. FLOOD, D.D., Editor.\n\n\n    THE CHAUTAUQUA PRESS,\n    MEADVILLE, PA.\n\n\n\n\nCOPYRIGHTED BY THEODORE L. FLOOD, IN THE OFFICE OF THE LIBRARIAN OF\nCONGRESS, WASHINGTON, D. C., 1883-4.\n\n\n\n\nINDEX TO VOLUME IV.\n\n\n    AGASSIZ. Prof. J. Tingley, Ph.D. 462.\n\n    ALASKA\u2014ITS MISSIONS. Rev. Wm. B. Lewis. 592.\n\n    AMERICAN LITERATURE, Criticisms on. 503.\n\n    AMERICAN LITERATURE, Selections From.\n      Aldrich, Thomas Bailey. 446.\n      Bancroft, George. 334.\n      Bryant, William Cullen. 208.\n      Bushnell, Dr. Horace. 145.\n      Channing, William Ellery. 79.\n      Dana, Richard Henry. 208.\n      Edwards, Jonathan. 16.\n      Franklin, Benjamin. 77.\n      Halleck, Fitz Greene. 207.\n      Higginson, Thomas Wentworth. 392.\n      Holmes, Oliver Wendell. 265.\n      Howells, William D. 394.\n      Irving, Washington. 146.\n      James, Jr., Henry. 393.\n      Jefferson, Thomas. 79.\n      Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth. 210.\n      Lowell, James Russell. 266.\n      Mather, Cotton. 14.\n      Motley, John Lothrop. 333.\n      Paulding, James Kirke. 147.\n      Porter, Dr. Noah. 146.\n      Prescott, William H. 335.\n      Sandys, George. 14.\n      Taylor, Bayard. 446.\n      Thaxter, Celia. 447.\n      Warner, Charles Dudley. 394.\n      Washington, George. 78.\n      Whittier, John G. 264.\n\n    AMERICANS, ECCENTRIC. C. E. Bishop. 43, 95, 211, 275, 348, 510, 584.\n\n    AMUSEMENTS OF THE LONDON POOR. Walter Besant. 457.\n\n    ARDENT SPIRITS. B. W. Richardson, M.D. 347.\n\n    ARNOLD, MATTHEW. Prof. A. B. Hyde, D.D. 270.\n\n    ART, Readings in. 11, 75, 142, 204, 262, 330, 384, 442, 500.\n\n    ASTRONOMY OF THE HEAVENS. Prof. M. B. Goff.\n      December, 183.\n      January, 218.\n      February, 278.\n      March, 346.\n      April, 405.\n      May, 455.\n      June, 528.\n      July, 569.\n      August, 570.\n      September, 571.\n\n\n    BANQUET TO CHAUTAUQUA TRUSTEES. 307.\n\n    BLUE LAWS. 156.\n\n    BOOK KNOWLEDGE AND MANNERS. Lord Chesterfield. 161.\n\n    BOOKS RECEIVED. 127, 187, 249, 314, 496, 556, 612.\n\n    BOTANICAL NOTES. Prof. J. H. Montgomery. 227, 287.\n\n\n    CALIFORNIA. Frances E. Willard, Pres. W. C. T. U. 222.\n\n    CA\u00d1ONS OF THE COLORADO, The. Major G. W. Powell. 564.\n\n    CHARACTER BUILDING. James Kerr. 153.\n\n    CHARITY OF PARIS, A Private. 471.\n\n    CHAUTAUQUA CHILDREN\u2019S CLASS (1883). 62.\n\n    CHAUTAUQUA FOR 1884. 543.\n\n    CHAUTAUQUA TO CALIFORNIA. Frances Willard, Pres. W. C. T. U. 81.\n\n    CHAUTAUQUA WINTER, Echoes from a. Rev. H. H. Moore. 419.\n\n    CLASS OF \u201985, To the. 356.\n\n    CLIMATE SEEKING IN AMERICA. Geo. A. Townsend. 516.\n\n    C. L. S. C. COURSE FOR 1884-\u201985. 600.\n\n    C. L. S. C. IN CANADA, The. 481.\n\n    C. L. S. C. IN THE SOUTH. 292.\n\n    C. L. S. C. IN TORONTO, The. 167.\n\n    C. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS.\n      October, 57.\n      November, 120.\n      December, 183.\n      January, 243.\n      February, 304.\n      March, 370.\n      April, 432.\n      May, 491.\n      June, 551.\n\n    C. L. S. C. REUNION. 104.\n\n    C. L. S. C. TESTIMONY. 103, 606.\n\n    C. L. S. C. WORK. J. H. Vincent, D.D. 44, 102, 165, 228, 287, 355,\n          421, 477, 538, 600.\n\n    C. L. S. C. \u201984. 355.\n\n    COMMENCEMENT, C. L. S. C. Class 1883. 20.\n\n    COOPER INSTITUTE. J. M. Buckley, D.D. 398.\n\n    COUNCIL OF NICE, The. 581.\n\n    COURTS OF THREE PRESIDENTS\u2014Thiers, MacMahon, Gr\u00e9vy. 566.\n\n\n    DEAD-LETTER OFFICE, The. Pattie L. Collins. 460.\n\n    DREAMY OLD TOWN, A. Edith Sessions Tupper. 520.\n\n\n    EARTHQUAKES\u2014ISCHIA AND JAVA. 83.\n\n    EDITOR\u2019S NOTE-BOOK. 54, 117, 180, 241, 302, 368, 430, 488, 548, 610.\n\n    EDITOR\u2019S OUTLOOK:\n      C. L. S. C. an Educational Necessity, The. 53.\n      C. L. S. C. Plan, The. 178.\n      C. L. S. C. Course for 1884-5, The. 607.\n      Chautauqua Outlook for 1884. 609.\n      College Reform, A. 116.\n      Complaint, An Unjust. 367.\n      Day, an Extra. 180.\n      Dress and Income. 300.\n      Efficiency and Tenure. 547.\n      Evangelists. 239.\n      Floods. 429.\n      Founder\u2019s Day. 428.\n      General Conference, Some Points on the. 608.\n      Greece, History of. 116.\n      Greeting, To the Class of 1884. 546.\n      Headquarters of the C. L. S. C. 238.\n      Idea, Dr. Newman\u2019s New. 487.\n      Ingenuity in Local Circles. 365.\n      Is Crime Interesting? 366.\n      Knowledge, Superfluous. 488.\n      Lawlessness, Two Kinds of. 485.\n      Letters of William Cullen Bryant. 367.\n      Luther, Martin. 179.\n      Negro, Dr. Haygood\u2019s Battle for. 115.\n      P\u00e8re Hyacinthe. 241.\n      Phillips, Wendell. 429.\n      Political Methods. 428.\n      Political Outlook, The. 115.\n      Political Outlook, Present. 300.\n      Rewards of Public Service. 486.\n      Shakspere Controversy, The. 53.\n      Social Life, A Drawback to. 366.\n      Spanish Bull Fights. 301.\n      Steam not an Aristocrat. 300.\n      Temperance Question, The. 179.\n      Tenth Assembly, The. 52.\n      Time Standards, The New. 240.\n      Wall Street Troubles, The. 608.\n      Workman, The Decline of Our. 547.\n\n    EDITOR\u2019S TABLE. 56, 119.\n\n    EDUCATION OF NEGRO POPULATION. A. G. Haygood. 148.\n\n    ELECTRICITY. 89.\n\n    ENGLISH, British and American. R. A. Proctor. 410.\n\n    ESTIVATION, or Summer Sleep. Rev. J. G. Wood, A.M. 273.\n\n    ETIQUETTE. 99.\n\n    EXPERIENCE, A C. L. S. C. 167.\n\n\n    FAILINGS. J. Mortimer-Granville. 39.\n\n    FLOWERS, Early. Francis George Heath. 225.\n\n    FRANCE, Republican Prospects in. Joseph Reinach. 80.\n\n    FRENCH HISTORY, Readings in. J. H. Vincent, D.D. 315, 377.\n\n    FROM THE BALTIC TO THE ADRIATIC. 36, 87.\n\n\n    GARDENING AMONG THE CHINESE. 215.\n\n    GERMAN HISTORY. Rev. W. G. Williams. 1, 63, 129, 189, 251.\n\n    GERMAN LITERATURE. 66.\n\n    GERMAN LITERATURE, Extracts From.\n      Goethe, Johann Wolfgang. 194.\n      Heine, Heinrich. 253.\n      Humboldt, Alexander von. 253.\n      Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim. 134.\n      Luther, Martin. 134.\n      Sachs, Hans. 133.\n      Schiller, Friedrich von. 193.\n      Schleiermacher, Friedrich. 254.\n      Schopenhauer, Arthur. 255.\n      Schlegel, Friedrich. 195.\n      Walther von der Vogelweide. 132.\n      Winckelman, Johann Joachim. 193.\n\n    GOING TO EUROPE. 598.\n\n    GOSPELS, THE, Considered as a Drama. D. H. Wheeler, D.D. 412.\n\n    GRADUATES C. L. S. C. 310.\n\n    GREAT ORGAN AT FRIBOURG, The. Edith Sessions Tupper. 94.\n\n\n    HESITATION AND ERRORS IN SPEECH. J. Mortimer-Granville. 454.\n\n    HIBERNATION. J. G. Wood, M.A. 150.\n\n    HYACINTH BULBS. Grant Allen. 351.\n\n\n    INEBRIATES, What to do with the. W. W. Godding. 514.\n\n    INTERMEDIATE NORMAL CLASS. 188.\n\n    ISLAND PARK ASSEMBLY. 31.\n\n\n    LANDMARKS OF BOSTON. E. E. Hale. 572.\n\n    LAKESIDE ASSEMBLY. 31.\n\n    LAW, Commercial. E. C. Reynolds, Esq. 260, 327, 382, 439.\n\n    LIFE OF A PLANET, The. Richard Proctor. 157.\n\n    LOCAL CIRCLE, How to Conduct a. 107.\n\n    LOCAL CIRCLE NOTICE. 47.\n\n    LOCAL CIRCLES. 105, 169, 230, 288, 356, 422, 478, 539, 601.\n\n    LONDON, Disraeli\u2019s. 157.\n\n    LONDON PREACHERS, Some. 536.\n\n    LOW SPIRITS. J. Mortimer-Granville. 85.\n\n\n    MAN OF LEARNING, TELL ME SOMETHING. Margaret Meredith. 150.\n\n    MENDELSSOHN\u2019S GRAVE AND HUMBOLDT\u2019S HOME. 339.\n\n    MIGRATIONS ON FOOT. Rev. J. G. Wood, M.A. 353.\n\n    MISSIONS, Christian. 221.\n\n    MONONO LAKE ASSEMBLY. 30.\n\n    MONTEAGLE ASSEMBLY. Rev. J. H. Warren. 29.\n\n    MONTEREY ASSEMBLY. 28.\n\n    MOUNTAIN LAKE ASSEMBLY. 31.\n\n    MYTHOLOGY, Slavonic. A. H. Cummings. 34.\n\n\n    NAPOLEON\u2019S MARSHALS. 100.\n\n    NAVAL FORCE, Our. Lieut. G. W. Mentz. 595.\n\n    NAVY, The. Lieut. G. W. Mentz. 524.\n\n    NEW ENGLAND ASSEMBLY. 32.\n\n    NEW ENGLAND BRANCH, Class of \u201986. 103.\n\n    NORMAL CLASS, Chautauqua Graduates (1883). 374.\n\n    NORMAL CLASS, Chautauqua. J. L. Hurlbut, D.D., and R. S. Holmes,\n          M.A., Instructors. 112, 176, 236, 297, 364, 426, 484, 545.\n\n    NURSES, Trained. Lulie W. Winchester. 466.\n\n\n    OCEAN MONARCH, An. G. Browne Goode. 582.\n\n    OSTRICH HUNTING. Lady Florence Dixie. 220.\n\n    OUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. READINGS.\n      October, 47.\n      November, 112.\n      December, 166.\n      January, 228.\n      February, 288.\n      March, 355.\n      April, 422.\n      May, 478.\n      June, 539.\n\n\n    PEKING, The Imperial College of. G. W. Smyth. 587.\n\n    PHILLIPS, Wendell. Edward Everett Hale. 451.\n\n    PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 3, 67, 135, 196, 255.\n\n    PLANT NUTRITION. Maxwell T. Masters, M.D. 164.\n\n    POACHERS IN ENGLAND. Jas. Turves. 90.\n\n    POE, Edgar Allen. C. E. Bishop. 407.\n\n    POLITICAL ECONOMY. G. M. Steele, D.D. 9, 73, 140, 202.\n\n    POPULAR EDUCATION, C. L. S. C. Announcement. 48, 175.\n\n    PRISONERS AND PRISONS, Military. O. W. Longan. 475.\n\n    PROHIBITION IN MAINE. Hon. Neal Dow. 415.\n\n\n    QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. A. M. Martin. 49, 109, 172, 234, 294, 362,\n          425, 482, 544.\n\n\n    RECREATION. James Paget. 274.\n\n    RECREATIONS OF PARIS WORKMEN. R. Heath. 153.\n\n    REUNION AT MILWAUKEE. 166.\n\n    ROMAN HISTORY, Readings in. W. C. Wilkinson. 437, 497.\n\n    ROUND-TABLE, C. L. S. C. 171, 233, 292.\n\n    RUSSIAN NOVELIST, A. Gabriel Monod. 154.\n\n\n    SCHOOLS OF BOSTON, Industrial. E. E. Hale. 417.\n\n    SCOTT, WALTER, Eight Centuries with. Wallace Bruce. 91, 162, 216,\n          284, 343, 403, 467, 533, 589.\n\n    SEA AS AN AQUARIUM, The. C. L. Anderson, M.D. 279, 341.\n\n    SKATING AND SKATERS. Robert MacGregor. 159.\n\n    SOLDIERS\u2019 HOME. O. W. Logan. 529.\n\n    SPECULATION IN BUSINESS. Jonathan. 281.\n\n    STATIONERY, C. L. S. C. 103.\n\n    STEEL HORSE, Our. 523.\n\n    SUMMER MEETINGS AT CHAUTAUQUA. 597.\n\n    SUNBEAMS FROM THE CIRCLE. 167, 229.\n\n    SUNDAY READINGS. J. H. Vincent, D.D. 6, 70, 137, 198, 257, 328,\n          388, 440, 499, 560.\n\n    SUN AND STRANGE SUNSETS, Green. 400.\n\n\n    TABLE-TALK OF NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. 224, 269.\n\n    TALK ABOUT BOOKS. 126, 248, 314, 436, 495, 556, 612.\n\n    TEMPERATURE. J. Mortimer Granville. 158.\n\n    TENEMENT HOUSE LIFE IN NEW YORK. Geo. A. Townsend. 561.\n\n    TRICKS OF CONJURORS. Thomas Frost. 125.\n\n    TROLLOPE\u2019S (ANTHONY) AUTOBIOGRAPHY. 400.\n\n\n    UNITED STATES HISTORY. 267, 336, 395, 448, 506.\n\n    UNIVERSITY, Chautauqua. 478.\n\n\n    VANISHING TYPES. Rev. Edward Sprague. 577.\n\n    VEGETABLE VILLAINS. R. Turner. 33, 86.\n\n\n    WAVERLEY NOVELS. Wallace Bruce. 17.\n\n    WHITE HOUSE, The. Mrs. Pattie L. Collins. 557.\n\n    WINE AND WATER. Benj. W. Richardson, M.D. 283.\n\n    WOMEN AS MISTRESSES OF HOUSEHOLDS, Duties of. F. P. Cobbe. 473.\n\n    WOMEN, Work for. 219.\n\n    WRECKAGE, Social. Ellice Hopkins. 40\n\n\nPOETRY.\n\n    AT REST. Sarah Doudney. 42.\n    AUTUMN SYMPATHY. E. G. Charlesworth. 80.\n    BLOSSOMS, To. R. Herrick. 529.\n    CHILLON, Sonnet on. Byron. 582.\n    CRACKED FIDDLE, A lay of. Fred. Langbridge. 155.\n    DIVINE SCULPTOR, The. Mrs. Emily J. Bugbee. 451.\n    FIR TREE, The. Luella Clark. 347.\n    FLOTSOM (1492). J. Logie Robertson. 341.\n    FLOWERY FIELDS, In. Mary Harrison. 38.\n    GONE. E. G. Charlesworth. 40.\n    GROWTH. Mrs. Emily J. Bugbee. 561.\n    HELEN\u2019S TOWER. Chas. Blatherwick. 338.\n    HIS COLD. Foliot S. Pierpoint. 269.\n    HOW WE CAME TOGETHER. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D. 32.\n    IVY, The. Henry Burton. 19.\n    LIGHT AT EVENTIDE. E. G. Charlesworth. 397.\n    LUTHER. Mrs. S. R. Graham Clark. 275.\n    MY YEARS. Ada Iddings Gale. 343.\n    NIGHT. Charles Grindrod. 510.\n    NIGHT. A. St. J. A. 211.\n    PRAYER OF SOCRATES, The. Stuart Blackie. 537.\n    RETURNING. Mary Harrison. 148.\n    RISE HIGHER. Helen G. Hawthorne. 571.\n    SABBATH CHIMES. Phebe A. Holden. 402.\n    SELF-DEPENDENCE. Matthew Arnold. 472.\n    STILL YOUNG. Ellen O. Peck. 412.\n    STORK, The. Translated from the Swedish. 214.\n    SUMMER, A Remnant of. E. O. P. 156.\n    TO MY BOOKS. Lady Sterling Maxwell. 83.\n    UNDER THE AUTUMN SKIES. Mrs. Emily J. Bugbee. 161.\n    WHERE LIES THE MUSIC? Alice C. Jennings. 17.\n    ZENOBIA. Ada Iddings Gale. 152.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n_A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. ORGAN OF\nTHE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._\n\n    VOL. IV.      OCTOBER, 1883.     NO. 1.\n\n\nChautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.\n\n_President_\u2014Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio.\n\n_Superintendent of Instruction_\u2014Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D., New Haven,\nConn.\n\n_Counselors_\u2014Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop\nH. W. Warren, D.D.; Rev. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D.\n\n_Office Secretary_\u2014Miss Kate F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J.\n\n_General Secretary_\u2014Albert M. Martin, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\n\n\n\nREQUIRED READING\n\nFOR THE\n\n_Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle for 1883-4_.\n\nOCTOBER.\n\n\nGERMAN HISTORY.\n\nBy REV. W. G. WILLIAMS, A. M.\n\nI.\n\nThe student of history has need of divisions. By their aid alone can\nhe hope to have command of the facts and events with which history in\nso large part deals. It is well therefore to begin the study of any\nparticular history by noting such changes, such epoch-making events as\nmay form partition walls of boxes in which may be placed our classified\ninformation.\n\nThe history of Germany has been variously divided into periods by the\ndifferent authors. That which we have adopted here has the sanction of\nthe majority and will be found exceedingly natural, and hence simple\nand convenient. The student should memorize it thoroughly, being\nassured that though a very _general_ history of itself, nevertheless it\nis more than many of supposed information could tell of the history of\nthis wonderful people.\n\n\nDIVISION OF THE HISTORY OF THE GERMANS INTO TEN PERIODS.\n\n_First_\u2014From the most ancient times to the conquests of the Franks,\nunder Clovis (A. D. 486).\n\n_Second_\u2014From conquests of Clovis to Charlemagne (511-768).\n\n_Third_\u2014Charlemagne to Henry I. (768-919).\n\n_Fourth_\u2014Henry I. to Rodolphus of Hapsburg. The Saxon, Swabian, and\nHohenstaufen houses (919-1273).\n\n_Fifth_\u2014Rodolphus I. of Hapsburg to Charles V. (1273-1520).\n\n_Sixth_\u2014Charles V. to Peace of Westphalia (1519-1648).\n\n_Seventh_\u2014Peace of Westphalia to French Revolution (1648-1789).\n\n_Eighth_\u2014French Revolution to Peace of Paris (1789-1815).\n\n_Ninth_\u2014Peace of Paris to Franco-Prussian War (1815-1870-1871).\n\n_Tenth_\u2014From Franco-Prussian War to present time.\n\n\nTHE PRIMITIVE POPULATIONS OF GERMANY, THEIR ORIGIN, CUSTOMS, RELIGION,\nETC.\n\n\u201cGermany, or Deutschland, occupies a large part of Central Europe.\nSpeaking roughly, it now reaches from the Alps to the Baltic and the\nNorth Sea, and from the valleys of the Rhine and the Maes to the Danube\nas far as the March and the Mur, and to the Prosna and the Lower\nNiemen. The country is mountainous in the south, hilly in the center,\nand flat in the north, where it forms part of the great plain which\ntakes in the whole of north-eastern Europe. The western part of this\nplain takes in the country between the Teutoburg Wood and the North\nSea. As it passes eastward it widens till it reaches from the Erz and\nRiesen Mountains to the Baltic. A part of South Germany slopes toward\nthe east, and is watered by the Danube; but the general slope of the\ncountry is toward the north. Among the rivers flowing northward are the\nRhine, the Ems, the Weser, the Elbe, the Oder, and the Vistula.\u201d\u2014_Sime._\n\n\u201cGermany has varied very much in extent at different times. This is due\npartly to the fact that it has no clearly-marked natural boundaries\non the east and west, but chiefly to the peculiarity of its position.\nIt is the central country of Europe. Being surrounded by most of the\nleading nations of the Continent, the Germans have been involved, more\nthan any other people, in the general history of Europe. Of all their\nneighbors, the Scandinavians are most nearly allied to the Germans.\nBoth are branches of the Teutonic race. But the Germans are also\nconnected, although not so closely, with the other surrounding peoples.\nAll, if we except the Magyars or Hungarians, who are Turanians, belong\nto the great Aryan family.\u201d\u2014_Sime._\n\n\u201cAncient authors mention several German tribes, as well as their\ndwelling places, with greater or less precision. Several of them\nalso speak of the chief tribes, among which the single septs united\nthemselves. But their statements are not sufficiently unanimous or\nprecise to give us that clear view which we would so willingly obtain.\nThe origin of the Germanic nations, therefore, like that of all others,\nis uncertain. To assign to them a distinct historical origin is to\nmake an assertion without evidence, though it is now indisputably\nestablished that the Teutonic dialects belong to one great family with\nthe Latin, the Greek, the Sanscrit, and other European and Asiatic\ntongues. All the positive knowledge that we have of the German nations,\nprevious to their contact with the Romans, is exceedingly vague and\nmere conjecture.\u201d\u2014_Menzies._\n\n\u201cThe Romans first heard the name \u2018Germans\u2019 from the Celtic Gauls, in\nwhose language it meant simply _neighbors_. The first notice of a\nGermanic tribe was given to the world by the Greek navigator Pytheas,\nwho made a voyage to the Baltic in the year 330 B. C. Beyond the amber\ncoast, eastward of the mouth of the Vistula, he found the Goths, of\nwhom we hear nothing more until they appear, several centuries later,\non the northern shore of the Black Sea. For more than two hundred\nyears there is no further mention of the Germanic races; then, most\nunexpectedly, the Romans were called upon to make their personal\nacquaintance.\u201d\u2014_Bayard Taylor._\n\n\u201cAt the time of their first contact with the Romans, these Germanic\ntribes had lost even the tradition of their Asiatic origin. They\nsupposed themselves to have originated upon the soil where they dwelt,\nsprung either from the earth or descended from the gods. According to\nthe most popular legend, the war-god Tuisko, or Tiu, had a son, Mannus\n(whence the word _man_ is derived), who was the first human parent of\nthe German race. Many centuries must have elapsed since their first\nsettlement in Europe, or they could not have so completely changed the\nforms of their religion and their traditional history.\u201d\u2014_Taylor._\n\n\nMANNERS AND CUSTOMS.\n\n\u201cThe early Germans were noted for their love of feasting, which was\ncarried to such excess that they would sometimes spend whole days and\nnights at table, drinking and gaming, in consequence of which they\noften quarreled and fought so that a convivial meeting frequently\nterminated in bloodshed. They gambled with dice, as Tacitus, with\nastonishment, informs us, in a sober state and as a serious occupation,\nand with so much eagerness for gain, that when they had lost all they\nhazarded their freedom, and even their very persons, upon the last\ncast. The loser freely delivered himself up to slavery, although even\nyounger and stronger than his adversary, and patiently allowed himself\nto be bound and sold as a slave; thus steadfastly did they keep their\nword, even in a bad case. \u2018They call this good faith,\u2019 says the Roman\nwriter. There were various circumstances under which a German might\nforfeit his liberty, such as marrying a bondwoman, or of not being able\nto pay his debts; but the generality of the slaves were captives taken\nin war.\n\n\u201cThe Germans did not all sit down at the same table, but each man had\nhis own seat and board, which were of a very rough description, being\nmerely a wooden stool and table, furnished with drinking horns, wooden\nbowls, spoons, and platters. Each person of rank had his servant behind\nhim to hold his shield and spear. He kept his sword by his side, for on\nno occasion would a German part with his arms, which was a proof that\nhe expected to have frequent need of them.\n\n\u201cThe wives and daughters of the Germans, we are told, shared in all\nthe public entertainments, for however rude and fierce these people\nmight be in other respects, they were distinguished, even in the most\nbarbarous ages, for their attention and respect to the female sex, whom\nthey consulted on the most important affairs, and by whose opinions\nthey were very often guided. The feasts of the Germans, like those of\nthe Gauls and Scandinavians, were always attended by a number of bards,\nseveral of whom were attached to the family of every chief, and were\ntreated with the highest respect. They played on the harp and flute,\nand when they sang of war, the company took part in the concert by\nclashing their swords against their shields.\n\n\u201cThe Germans, in very remote ages, were dressed in skins of wild\nanimals, and afterward in a coarse kind of linen, made by the women;\nbut as they intermixed more with the Gauls, they learned from them to\nmake a finer sort of linen, and woolen also, and as soon as they were\nacquainted with these useful arts, spinning and weaving became the\nprincipal occupations of German women, and a more civilized costume\nwas adopted than that which was made from the skins of the elk and\nreindeer. These animals, in the time of Julius C\u00e6sar, were very\nnumerous in the forests of Germany, from which, however, they have long\nsince disappeared.\n\n\u201cThe Romans justly considered the German nation as an aboriginal, pure,\nand unmixed race of people. They resembled themselves alone; and like\nthe specifically similar plants of the field, which, springing from a\npure seed, not raised in the hot-bed of a garden, but germinating in\nthe healthy, free, unsheltered soil, do not differ from each other by\nvarieties; so, also, among the thousands of the simple German race,\nthere was but one determined and equal form of body. Their chest was\nwide and strong; their hair yellow, and with young children it was of a\ndazzling white. Their skin was also white, their eyes blue, and their\nglance bold and piercing. Their powerful gigantic bodies, which the\nRomans and Gauls could not behold without fear, displayed the strength\nthat nature had given to this people; for, according to the testimony\nof some of the ancient writers, their usual height was seven feet. From\ntheir earliest youth upward they hardened their bodies by all devisable\nmeans. New-born infants were dipped in cold water, and the cold bath\nwas continued during their whole lives as the strengthening renovator,\nby both boys and girls, men and women. The children ran about almost\nnaked, and effeminate nations wondered how those of the Germans,\nwithout cradles or swaddling bands, should grow up to the very fullest\nbloom of health.\n\n\u201cC\u00e6sar, Tacitus, and Suetonius, with many others, have pointed to one\nand the same characteristic of the Germans, as the secret of their\npower and prosperity. The Kelt had everywhere yielded to the eagles\nof Rome, while the Teuton everywhere checked their flight. Amazed,\nand even alarmed, at those tall fair-haired, blue-eyed enemies, who\nhad to be conquered with gold instead of steel, Tacitus examines the\nreasons of their prowess, and finds it in the soberness of their\nblood, in their reverence for women and for the laws of nature, in\ntheir deference to parental authority and their marriages of maturity.\n\u2018Chastity is a custom with them,\u2019 says the \u2018De Moribus Germanorum,\u2019\nand a passage to the same effect might be cited from C\u00e6sar. Those\nsouthern soldiers and statesmen saw, in truth, with a terrible sense\nof overhanging fate, that race of hardy, chaste, home-loving, free and\nfearless barbarians, of whom the Emperor Titus said, \u2018Their bodies\nare great, but their souls are greater.\u2019 The tone of Tacitus is that\nof a man who bitterly feels how much greater, after all, as a moral\nbeing, the barbarian may be than the civilized man, when civilization\nrecognizes no higher aim than material splendor, and that utility which\nsubserves material wants. Other civilizations than that of the Empire\nmay read a lesson in those brief pages where the philosopher of a\nworn-out world records his impression of the races from which the world\nwas hereafter to be reconstituted.\u201d\u2014_Menzies._\n\n\u201cThe three principal vices of the Germans were indolence, drunkenness,\nand love of gaming. Although always ready for the toils and dangers of\nwar, they disliked to work at home. The women ruled and regulated their\nhouseholds with undisputed sway. They were considered the equals of the\nmen, and exhibited no less energy and courage. They were supposed to\npossess the gift of prophecy, and always accompanied the men to battle,\nwhere they took care of the wounded, and stimulated the warriors by\ntheir shouts and songs. They honored the institution of marriage to an\nextent beyond that exhibited by any other people of the ancient world.\nThose who proved unfaithful to the marriage vow were punished with\ndeath.\u201d\u2014_Taylor._\n\n\nRELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND USAGES.\n\n\u201cThe worship of the ancient Germans coincided with their natural\ncharacter, and consequently was much more simple and elevated than that\nof other peoples. Although uncultivated, they carried in their hearts\nthe sentiment of an infinite and eternal power, and they regarded it as\nan affront to the divinity to enclose it within walls, or to represent\nit under human form. They consecrated to it the woods and forests as\na spacious temple of which nature itself erected the pillars, and to\nwhich the immensity of the heavens formed the roof.\n\n\u201cThe ancient Germans adored, like the Persians, the sun and fire,\nbut they regarded Wodan as their supreme god. They called him also\nAlvater, father of all things. Their most beneficent goddess was the\nmother of the earth (Hertha). The Germans attached great importance to\ndivinations and prognostics. The crow and the owl signified misfortune;\nthe cuckoo announced long life. They discovered the future by means of\nthe branches of fruit trees (runes). Various signs were cut upon each\nrod, and afterwards the rods were thrown upon a white cloth; then the\npriest, or father of the family, offered up a prayer to the divinity,\nand thrice chose from among the rods those which were to give the\ndivine revelations. The clairvoyants were held in high estimation, and\nhistory has preserved some of the names of those to which the belief\nof the people had given a great influence over the decision of public\naffairs.\u201d\u2014_Menzies._\n\n\u201cThe people had their religious festivals at stated seasons, when\nsacrifices\u2014sometimes of human beings\u2014were laid upon the altars of the\ngods in the sacred groves. Even after they became Christians, in the\neighth century, they retained their habit of celebrating some of\nthese festivals, but changed them into the Christian anniversaries of\nChristmas, Easter, and Whitsuntide.\n\n\u201cThus, from all we can learn respecting them, we may say that the\nGermans, during the first century before Christ, were fully prepared\nby their habits, laws, and their moral development, for a higher\ncivilization. They were still restless, after so many centuries of\nwandering; they were fierce and fond of war, as a natural consequence\nof their struggles with the neighboring races; but they had already\nacquired a love for the wild land where they dwelt, they had begun to\ncultivate the soil, they had purified and hallowed the family relation,\nwhich is the basis of all good government, and finally, although\nslavery existed among them, they had established equal rights for free\nmen.\n\n\u201cIf the object of Rome had been civilization, instead of conquest and\nplunder, the development of the Germans might have commenced much\nearlier and produced very different results.\u201d\u2014_Taylor._\n\n    [To be continued.]\n\n\n\n\nPHYSICAL SCIENCE.\n\n\nI.\u2014THE AIR.\n\nWhen we begin to look attentively at the world around us, one of the\nfirst things to set us thinking is the air. We do not see it, and yet\nit is present wherever we may go. What is this air?\n\nAlthough invisible, it is yet a real, material substance. When you\nswing your arm rapidly up and down you feel the air offering a\nresistance to the hand. The air is something which you can feel, though\nyou can not see it. You breathe it every moment. You can not get away\nfrom it, for it completely surrounds the earth. To this outer envelope\nof air, the name of _atmosphere_ is given.\n\nThe air is not a simple substance, but a mixture of two invisible\ngases, called nitrogen and oxygen. But besides these chief ingredients,\nit contains also small quantities of other substances; some of which\nare visible, others invisible. If you close the shutters of a room, and\nlet the sunlight stream through only one chink or hole into the room,\nyou see some of the visible particles of the air. Hundreds of little\nmotes, or specks of dust, cross the beam of light which makes them\nvisible against the surrounding darkness, though they disappear in full\ndaylight. But it is the invisible parts of the air which are of chief\nimportance; and among them there are two which you must especially\nremember\u2014the vapor of water and carbonic acid gas. You will soon come\nto see why it is needful for you to distinguish these.\n\nNow what is this vapor of water? You will understand its nature if you\nwatch what takes place when a kettle boils. From the mouth of the spout\na stream of white cloud comes out into the air. It is in continual\nmotion; its outer parts somehow or other disappear, but as fast as they\ndo so they are supplied by fresh materials from the kettle. The water\nin the kettle is all the while growing less, until at last, if you do\nnot replenish it, the whole will be boiled away, and the kettle left\nquite dry. What has become of all the water? You have changed it into\nvapor. It is not destroyed or lost in any way, it has only passed from\none state into another, from the liquid into the gaseous form, and is\nnow dissolved in the air.\n\nCarbonic acid gas is also one of the invisible substances of the\natmosphere, of which, though it forms no more than four parts in\nevery ten thousand, yet it constitutes an important ingredient. You\nwill understand how important it is when you are told that, from this\ncarbonic acid in the air, all the plants which you see growing upon the\nland extract nearly the whole of their solid substance. When a plant\ndies and decays, the carbonic acid is restored to the air again. On the\nother hand, plants are largely eaten by animals, and help to form the\nframework of their bodies. Animals in breathing give out carbonic acid\ngas; and when they die, and their bodies decay, the same substance is\nagain restored to the atmosphere. Hence the carbonic acid of the air is\nused to build up the structure both of plants and animals, and is given\nback again when these living things cease to live. There is a continual\ncoming and going of this material between the air and the animal and\nvegetable kingdoms.\n\nYou know that though you can not see the air you can feel it when it\nmoves. A light breeze, or a strong gale, can be just as little seen by\nthe eye as still air; and yet we readily feel their motion. But even\nwhen the air is still it can make itself sensible in another way, viz:\nby its temperature. For air, like common visible things, can be warmed\nand cooled.\n\nThis warming and cooling of the air is well illustrated by what\ntakes place in a dwelling-house. If you pass out of a warm room, on\na winter\u2019s day, into the open air when there is no wind, you feel a\nsensation of cold. Whence does this sensation come? Not from anything\nyou can see, for your feet, though resting on the frozen ground, are\nprotected by leather, and do not yet feel the cold. It is the air which\nis cold, and which encircles you on all sides, and robs you of your\nheat; while at the same time you are giving off or radiating heat from\nyour skin into the air. On the other hand, if, after standing a while\nin the chilly winter air, you return into the room again, you feel a\nsensation of pleasant warmth. Here, again, the feeling does not come\nfrom any visible object, but from the invisible air which touches every\npart of your skin, and is thus robbed of its heat by you.\n\nNow, how is it that the atmosphere should sometimes be warm and\nsometimes cold? Where does the heat come from? and how does the air\ntake it up?\n\nLet us return again to the illustration of the house. In winter, when\nthe air is keen and frosty outside, it is warm and pleasant indoors,\nbecause fires are there kept burning. The burning of coal and wood\nproduces heat, and the heat thus given out warms the air. Hence it is\nby the giving off or radiation of the heat from some burning substance\nthat the air of our houses is made warmer than the air outside.\n\nNow, it is really by radiation from a heated body that the air outside\ngets its heat. In summer, this air is sometimes far hotter than is\nusual in dwelling-houses in winter. All this heat comes from the sun,\nwhich is an enormous hot mass, continually sending out heat in all\ndirections.\n\nBut, if the sun is always pouring down heat upon the earth, why is\nthe air ever cold? Place a screen between you and a bright fire, and\nyou will immediately feel that some of the heat from the fire place\nhas been cut off. When the sun is shining, expose your hand to its\nbeams for a time, and then hold a book between the hand and the sun.\nAt first, your skin is warmed; but the moment you put it in the shade,\nit is cooled again. The book has cut off the heat which was passing\ndirectly from the sun to your hand. When the atmosphere is felt to\nbe cold, something has come in the way to keep the sun\u2019s heat from\ndirectly reaching us.\n\nClouds cut off the direct heat of the sun. You must often have noticed\nthe change of temperature, when, after the sun has been shining for a\ntime, a cloud comes between it and the earth. Immediately a feeling of\nchilliness is experienced, which passes off as soon as the cloud has\nsailed on, and allowed the sun once more to come out.\n\nThe air itself absorbs some of the sun\u2019s heat, and the greater the\nthickness of air through which that heat has to make its way, the more\nheat will be absorbed. Besides this, the more the rays of heat are\nslanted the weaker do they become. At noon, for example, the sun stands\nhigh in the sky. Its rays are then nearest to the vertical, and have\nalso the least thickness of air to pass through before they reach us.\nAs it descends in the afternoon, its rays get more and more slanted,\nand must also make their way through a constantly increasing thickness\nof air. Hence the middle of the day is much warmer than morning or\nevening.\n\nAt night, when the sun no longer shines, its heat does not directly\nwarm the part of the earth in shadow. That part not only receives no\nheat from it, but even radiates its heat out into the cold sky. Hence\nnight is much colder than day.\n\nThen, again, in summer the sun at noon shines much higher in the sky\nwith us, or more directly overhead, than in winter. Its heat comes down\nless obliquely and has less depth of air to pass through, and hence is\nmuch more felt than in winter, when, as you know, the sun in our part\nof the world never rises high even at mid-day.\n\nIf we were dependent for our warmth upon the direct heat of the sun\nalone, we should be warm only when the sun shines. A cloudy day would\nbe an extremely cold one, and every night as intensely frosty as it\never is in winter. Yet such is not the case. Cloudy days are often\nquite warm; while we are all aware that the nights are by no means\nalways very cold. There must be some way in which the sun\u2019s heat is\nstored up, so that it can be felt even when he is not shining.\n\nIn summer the ground gets warmed; in some parts, indeed, becoming\neven so hot at times that we can hardly keep the hand upon it. In hot\ncountries this is felt much more than in this country. Soil and stones\nabsorb heat steadily, that is to say, soon get heated, and they soon\ncool again. When they have been warmed by the sun, the air gets warmed\nby contact with them, and keeps its heat longer than they do; so that\neven when at night the soil and stones have become ice-cold, the air a\nlittle above is not so chilly. On the other hand, when the surface of\nthe ground is cold, it cools the air next it. The ground parts easily\nwith its heat, and a vast amount of heat is in this way radiated at\nnight from the earth outward into the cold starry space. Much more\nheat, however, would be lost from this cause did not the abundant\naqueous vapor of the atmosphere absorb part of it, and act as a kind of\nscreen to retard the radiation. This is the reason why in hot climates,\nwhere the air is very dry\u2014that is, contains a small proportion of the\nvapor of water\u2014the nights are relatively colder than they are in other\ncountries where the air is moister. In like manner, clouds serve to\nkeep heat from escaping; and hence it is that cloudy nights are not so\ncold as those which are clear and starry.\n\nThe atmosphere, then, is heated or cooled according as it lies upon a\nwarm or cold part of the earth\u2019s surface; and, by means of its aqueous\nvapor, it serves to store up and distribute this heat, keeping the\nearth from such extremes of climate as would otherwise prevail.\n\nThe air lying next to a hot surface is heated; the air touching a cold\nsurface is cooled. And upon such differences of temperature in the air\nthe formation of winds depends.\n\nHot or warm air is lighter than cold air. You have learned how heat\nexpands bodies. It is this expansion of air, or the separation of its\nparticles further from each other which makes it less dense or heavy\nthan cold air, where the particles lie more closely together. As a\nconsequence of this difference of density, the light warm air rises,\nand the heavy cold air sinks. You can easily satisfy yourselves of this\nby experiment. Take a poker, and heat the end of it in the fire until\nit is red-hot. Withdraw it, and gently bring some small bits of very\nlight paper, or some other light substance, a few inches above the\nheated surface. The bits of paper will be at once carried up into the\nair. This happens because the air, heated by the poker, immediately\nrises, and its place is taken by colder air, which, on getting warmed,\nlikewise ascends. The upward currents of air grow feebler as the iron\ncools, until, when it is of the same temperature as the air around,\nthey cease.\n\nThis is the principle on which our fire-places are constructed. The\nfire is not kindled on the hearth, for, in that case, it would not get\na large enough draft of air underneath, and would be apt to go out. It\nis placed some way above the floor, and a chimney is put over it. As\nsoon as the fire is lighted, the air next it gets warmed, and begins to\nmount, and the air in the room is drawn in from below to take the place\nof that which rises. All the air which lies above the burning coal gets\nwarmer and lighter; it therefore flows up the chimney, carrying with it\nthe smoke and gases. You will understand that though a bright blazing\nfire is a pleasant sight in winter, we do not get all the heat which\nit gives out. On the contrary, a great deal of the heat goes up the\nchimney; and, except in so far as it warms the walls, passes away and\nwarms the outer air.\n\nWhat happens in a small way in our houses takes place on a far grander\nscale in nature. As already pointed out, the sun is the great source of\nheat which warms and lightens our globe. While the heat of the sun is\npassing through the air, it does very little in the way of warming it.\nThe heat goes through the air, and warms the surface of the earth. You\nknow that in summer the direct rays of the sun are hot enough to burn\nyour face, and yet, if you put even a thin sheet of paper over your\nhead, enough to cut off these rays, the sensation of burning heat at\nonce goes off, although the same air is playing about you all the time.\n\nBoth land and water are heated by the sun\u2019s rays, and the same change\nin the air then takes place which we find also at our firesides. The\nlayer of air next the warmed earth becomes itself warmed. As it thereby\ngrows lighter it ascends, and its place is taken by colder air, which\nflows in from the neighborhood to take its place. This flowing in of\nair is wind.\n\nOne of the most important ingredients in the air is the vapor of water.\nLet us try to see, first of all, how it gets into and out of the air.\nAnd in this case, as before, you will find that great questions in\nscience often admit of being simply and readily illustrated by the most\nfamiliar things.\n\nYou may have noticed that on very cold nights the windows of\nsitting-rooms, or crowded public halls, are apt to be found streaming\nwith water on the inside.\n\nNow, in such cases, where does the moisture come from? Certainly not\nout of the glass. It is derived from the vapor of water present in the\nair. This word vapor is often used to describe some kind of visible\nmist or fog. But these visible forms of moisture are not properly vapor\nin the sense in which the term is used in science. The aqueous vapor of\nthe air is always invisible, even when the air is saturated with it,\nand only when it passes back into the state of water do you actually\nsee anything.\n\nWhen the invisible vapor dissolved in the air becomes visible, as in\nmists, clouds, dew, or rain, it is said to be condensed, and this\nprocess of liquefaction is called condensation.\n\nThe quantity of vapor which the air can contain varies according to\ntemperature, warm air being able to hold more than cold air.\n\nAs the air is cooled, its power of retaining vapor diminishes. When it\nbecomes colder than the temperature at which it is able to keep its\nsupply of vapor dissolved, the excess of vapor is condensed and becomes\nvisible. The temperature at which this takes place is the point of\nsaturation, or dew-point.\n\nPerhaps you may ask how it is that the vapor so universally present\ngets into the atmosphere, and where it comes from. If you pour a little\nwater into a plate, and set it down in the open air, you will note in\nthe course of a day or two, that the water has sensibly diminished. The\nair has drunk up part of it, and will drink up the whole, if the water\nis allowed to stand long enough. What takes place from a small quantity\nof water goes on from every surface of water on the face of the earth,\nfrom every brook and river and lake, and from the great sea itself.\nWater is constantly passing off into vapor, which is received and\nretained by the air. This process is called evaporation, and the water\nwhich passes off into vapor is said to evaporate.\n\nSince warm air can hold more vapor than cold air, evaporation must be\nmore vigorous in sunshine than at night, and during summer than during\nwinter.\n\nOn a dry, bracing day, evaporation goes on rapidly, because the air has\nnot nearly got all the quantity of vapor it can hold in solution. On a\ndamp day, however, when the air contains about as much vapor as it can\nhold at that particular temperature, evaporation is quite feeble, or\nceases altogether. This varying capacity of the air for vapor is the\nreason why laundresses find so much difference between days, in the\nease with which they can have their clothes dried.\n\nAfter sunset, when the sky is clear, you know that the grass gets wet\nwith dew. In the morning you may see mists hanging over woods, and\nstreams, and hills, and gradually melting away as the sun mounts in\nthe sky. At all times of the year you may watch how clouds form and\ndissolve, and form again, ever changing their size and shape as they\nmove through the air. Now these are all examples of the condensation of\nvapor. Let us see how the process takes place.\n\nCondensation, as we have seen, results from a cooling of the air. When\nvapor is condensed, it does not at once take the form of running water.\nThe cold glass brought into the warm room has first a fine film of mist\nformed upon it, and then by degrees the clear drops of water come. In\nreality mist is made up of exceedingly minute particles of water, and\nit is the running together of these which makes the larger drops. So\nin nature on the great scale, when condensation occurs the vapor first\nappears as a fine mist. This is always the result of cooling; so that,\nwhenever you see a mist or cloud forming, you may conclude that the air\nin which it lies is being cooled.\n\nDew is the name given to the wetness which we notice appearing in the\nevening, or at night, upon grass, leaves, or stones, or even sometimes\non our hair. In the morning you have, no doubt, often watched the\nlittle dewdrops sparkling upon the foliage and the delicate threads of\ngossamer. Now this wetness does not come out of the leaves or stones,\nnor out of your hair. It is all derived from the air by condensation,\nexactly as we see the film of mist form upon the cold tumbler in the\nwarm moist air of a room. In fact, that film of mist was really dew,\nand all dew is formed in the same way, and from the same cause.\n\nAt night, when the sky is clear, the earth radiates heat rapidly; that\nis to say, it gives off into cold space a great part of the heat which\nit has received from the sun during the day. Its surface consequently\nbecomes cold, as you may have felt when you put your hand upon leaves\nor stones after nightfall. The layer of air next the cooled ground is\nchilled below its point of condensation, and the excess of vapor is\ndeposited as dew upon the grass, twigs, stones, and other objects.\nHence it is that the temperature at which this condensation begins to\ntake place is called the dew-point.\n\nAnother way in which a cold surface of the earth may produce\ncondensation is shown by what takes place among mountains. When a warm\nmoist wind blows upon a chill mountain top, the air is cooled, and its\nvapor becomes visible in the form of a mist or cloud. You can often\nsee that the cloud is quite solitary, and even shapes itself to the\nform of the ground, as if it were a sort of fleecy cap drawn down over\nthe mountain\u2019s head. This is often well marked in the morning. As day\nadvances, the ground, warmed by the sun, no longer cools the air, and\nhence the mist is gradually re-absorbed into the atmosphere. But by and\nby, at the coming on of night, when the ground is once more cooled by\nradiation, if there should be vapor enough in the air, the mist will\nre-form, and the mountain put on his cap again.\n\nCold air, as well as cold ground, condenses the vapor of warmer air. If\nyou watch what goes on along the course of a river, you will often see\nexamples of this kind of condensation. The ground on either side of the\nriver parts with its heat after sundown sooner than the river itself\ndoes, and consequently cools the air above it more than the air above\nthe river is cooled. So when this colder air from either side moves\nover to take the place of the warmer damp air lying on and rising from\nthe river, condensation ensues in the form of the mist or river-fog,\nwhich so commonly hangs at night and early morning over streams.\n\nA cloud is merely a mist formed by the cooling of warm moist air, when\nit loses its heat from any cause, such as expansion during ascent,\nor contact with currents of cooler air. If you watch what goes on in\nthe sky, you may often see clouds in the act of forming. At first a\nlittle flake of white appears. By degrees this grows larger, and other\ncloudlets arise and flock together, until at last the sky is quite\novercast with heavy clouds, and rain begins to fall. The vapor which\nis thus condensed in the air has all been obtained by the evaporation\nof the water on the earth\u2019s surface. It rises with the warm air, which\nlosing its heat as it ascends, and coming too in contact with colder\nlayers of the atmosphere, can not hold all its vapor, and is obliged to\nget rid of the excess, which then condenses into cloud.\n\nOn a summer morning the sky is often free from cloud. As the day\nadvances, and the earth gets warmed, more vapor is raised; and as this\nvapor, borne upward by the ascending air-currents, reaches the higher\nand colder parts of the atmosphere, it is chilled into the white fleecy\nclouds which you see forming about mid-day and in the afternoon. Toward\nevening, when less evaporation takes place, the clouds cease to grow,\nand gradually lessen in size until at night the sky is quite clear.\nThey have been dissolved again by descending and coming in contact with\nthe warm air nearest to the earth. Again, you have often noticed that\nclouds move across the sky. They are driven along by upper currents of\nair, and of course the stronger these currents are the faster do the\nclouds travel. In this way the sky is sometimes completely overcast\nwith clouds which have come from a distance.\n\nYou are well aware that rain always comes from clouds in the sky. When\nthe sky is clear overhead, no rain falls. Only when it gets overcast\ndoes the rain come. You can watch a dark rain-cloud gather itself\ntogether and discharge a heavy shower upon the earth. When a cold\nglass is brought into a warm room, you will remember that the film of\nmist formed upon the glass is found by degrees to gather into drops,\nand trickles down the cold surface. Now the mist on the glass and\nthe cloud in the sky are both formed of minute particles of water,\nseparated by air. It is the running together of these particles which\ngives rise to these drops. In the one case, the drops run down the cold\nglass. In the other case, they fall as drops of rain through the air.\nRain, therefore, is thus a further stage in the condensation of the\naqueous vapor of the atmosphere. The minute particles of the cloud, as\ncondensation proceeds, gather more moisture round them, until at last\nthey form drops of water, too heavy to hang any longer suspended in the\nair. These then fall to the earth as rain-drops.\n\nBut there is another important form in which the moisture of the clouds\nmay descend to the surface of the earth. When the weather is cold\nenough, there fall to the ground not drops of rain, but flakes of snow.\n\nIf you bring snow indoors, it soon melts into water. If you expose this\nwater for a time it evaporates. Snow, water, and aqueous vapor are\nthus only different forms of the same substance. We say that water can\nexist in three forms\u2014the gaseous, the liquid, and the solid. Snow is an\nexample of the solid condition.\n\nOn a frosty night pools of water are covered with a hard, transparent\ncrust, of what is called ice. You may break this crust into pieces, but\nif the cold continues, a new crust will soon be formed with bits of the\nold one firmly cemented in it. And the greater the cold the thicker\nwill the crust be, until perhaps the whole of the water in the pools\nmay become solid. If you take a piece of this solid substance, you find\nit to be cold, brittle, and transparent. Brought into a warm room it\nsoon melts into water, and you may drive off the water as before into\nvapor. Ice is the general name given to water when it is in the solid\nstate, such forms as snow and hail being only different appearances\nwhich ice puts on. Whenever water becomes colder than a certain\ntemperature it passes into ice, or freezes, and this temperature is\nconsequently known as the freezing-point.\n\nThe upper layers of the atmosphere are much colder than the\nfreezing-point of water. In the condensation which takes place\nthere, the clouds do not resolve themselves into rain. The vapor of\nthe up-streaming currents of warm air from the earth\u2019s surface is\ncondensed and frozen in these high regions, and passes into little\ncrystals, which unite into flakes of snow. Even in summer the fine\nwhite cloudlets which you see floating at great heights are probably\nformed of snow. But in those countries, such as ours, where in winter\nthe air even at the surface is sometimes very cold, the snow falls to\nthe ground, and lies there as a white covering, until returning warmth\nmelts it away.\n\nBesides rain and snow, the moisture of the air takes sometimes the form\nof hail, which consists of little lumps of ice like frozen rain; and\nof sleet, which is partially melted snow. But rain and snow are the\nmost important, and it is these two forms which we must follow a little\nfurther.\n\nBefore doing so, let us gather together the sum of what has been said\nabout the aqueous vapor of the air. We have learned that, as every\nsheet of water on the face of the globe evaporates, the air is full\nof vapor; that this vapor is condensed into visible form, and appears\nas dew, mist, and cloud. We have learned further, that the vapor of\nwhich clouds are formed is resolved into rain and snow, and, in one\nor other of these forms, descends to the earth again. There is thus\na circulation of water between the solid earth beneath and the air\nabove. This circulation is as essential to the earth in making it a\nfit habitation for living things, as the circulation of blood is in\nkeeping our bodies alive. It mixes and washes the air, clearing away\nimpurities, such as those which rise from the chimneys of a town. It\nmoistens and quickens the soil, which it renders capable of supporting\nvegetation. It supplies springs, brooks, and rivers. In short, it is\nthe very mainspring of all the life of the globe. So important a part\nof the machinery of the world deserves our careful consideration. Let\nus next attend, therefore, to what becomes of the rain and the snow\nafter they have been discharged from the air upon the surface of the\nearth.\n\n    [To be continued.]\n\n\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\nSELECTED BY REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\n\n\n[_October 7._]\n\n\u201cTENDENCIES TO ERROR.\u201d\n\nBy REV. WILLIAM FRASER, LL.D.\n\n    \u201cLet no one, upon a weak conceit of sobriety or an\n    ill-applied moderation, think or maintain that a man\n    can search too far, or be too well studied in the book\n    of God\u2019s word, or in the book of God\u2019s works\u2014divinity\n    or philosophy\u2014but rather let men endeavor an endless\n    progress or proficiency in both; only let them\n    beware that they apply both to charity and not to\n    arrogance; to use, and not to ostentation; and again,\n    that they do not mingle or confound these learnings\n    together.\u201d\u2014_Bacon._\n\n\nMany have lost their early faith in the Bible and are following its\nguidance with faltering footstep. Between them and hitherto accepted\ntruths the sciences have been placing apparently insurmountable\nobstacles. The trustful simplicity with which they once read the\nsacred record has almost perished. Inferences by the man of science,\nconflicting with the interpretations of scripture by the theologian,\nhave rudely shaken their most cherished convictions. They are not\ninfidels, they are not skeptics, for doubt is distasteful to them, they\nlong for more definite expositions and a firmer faith.\n\nSuch, possibly, may be some of you. In the midst of such discussions\nas are at present in progress, perplexity is not unnatural. Your most\nanxiously sustained investigations have hitherto only multiplied\ndifficulties, and a sense of responsibility alone constrains you\nto linger over conclusions from which your judgment recoils. This\nhesitancy of belief may be at the outset disheartening; yet it may be\ninseparable from that clearness of insight and that force of character\nwhich, in the end, commonly create the stablest convictions, and evoke\nadequate proof to shield them. To shun or to denounce you because you\ncan not acquiesce in what we believe is inconsistent, not only with the\nlessons of philosophy, but with his example to \u201cbear witness to the\ntruth.\u201d\n\nWhat is your duty, with the natural sciences on the one hand, appealing\nso largely to your reason, and the scriptures on the other hand,\nappealing so constantly to your faith? Obviously, to depreciate\nneither, but to welcome both the sciences and the scriptures, to\nascertain their harmony, to note their differences, and to accept\nall the treasures of truth which they may bring. Indifference is\ninexcusable as is excessive zeal, and apathy as antagonism.\n\nThe Bible, free to us as are the fields of science, challenges the\nseverest scrutiny. It is the boldest of books, and demands the\napplication of every test. As it is the most comprehensive history\nin the world, and gives amplest scope for research; as its earliest\nrecords are the oldest in existence, and its latest prophecies shed\nlight far into the future; as it touches depths and reaches heights\nwhich no other book can approach; as it brings into closest connection\nthe visible and invisible, natural law and supernatural force, the\ncondition of man and the character of God, it is exposed to assaults\nwhich no other book can bear.\n\nSystematic and persistent study is required at your hand, that you\nmay estimate aright not only the facts and arguments brought against\nthe Bible, but those also which are adduced in its favor. The task\nmay be arduous, but this price is not too great for the settlement of\nquestions so momentous; and if the solution of some of them may have\nto be for a season postponed, yours will be the satisfaction which the\nconscientious improvement of every opportunity invariably fosters.\n\nDifferent lines of investigation may be profitably followed, but we may\nsuggest the following as exhaustive, or nearly exhaustive, of the most\nprominent questions which modern research has raised.\n\nAs the Bible is confessedly related to the natural sciences,\narch\u00e6ology, history, and modern civilization, let it be placed\nsuccessively in the midst of their facts, and let us see to what extent\nits statements can bear their light.\n\nThere are many questions which none of us can honestly avoid; and while\nsome may remain unsettled, the unbiased review of those solutions which\nhave been already offered, and which have been generally accepted, will\nbe found to confirm scripture instead of confuting it.\n\n1. As to science. Have astronomy and geology given evidence for or\nagainst the eternity of the visible universe? Has biology determined\nthe origin of life? Whence it is? Have comparative anatomy and\nphysiology, psychology and ethics, established more than one origin for\nthe human race? Are the incidental allusions in scripture contradicted\nor confirmed in natural science?\n\n2. As to arch\u00e6ology. Can the Bible confront prehistoric revelations?\nAntiquity is pouring over the oldest records, increasing light. Ruins,\nmonuments, inscriptions, parchments, have been emitting their wondrous\ntestimonies, parallel with scripture histories. Assyria, Egypt,\nPalestine, Greece, Rome, in their histories, revolutions, and domestic\nepisodes, have all been interwoven with the statements of scripture as\nwith those of no other book. To what purpose has historic criticism\ndealt with the sacred page? Is the Bible yielding or is it growing\nbrighter in the crucible of arch\u00e6ology?\n\n3. As to modern history and civilization. By its claim to uplift and\nbless the human race, the Bible is separated from all other books. It\nproposes to revolutionize man\u2019s moral history here, and to prepare him\nfor a future whose course it in part delineates. Has it failed, or is\nit failing? Has it been enfeebled by the lapse of ages? Has it become\neffete amid changes which have given intellect new instruments and\nreason new spheres? Has it lost its former hold of the human mind, and\nis it sinking amid the tumult of bitterly conflicting opinions? Has\never tribe been found which it could not raise and enlighten? Or has\never civilization outshone, in any land, its intellectual and moral\nsplendor?\n\n4. As to the supernatural. If the Bible is the book which it professes\nto be, and which we hold it is, the ordinary and the extraordinary,\nthe natural and the supernatural, must be associated in its character\nand history. What is the warrant which men of science adduce for\nrepudiating the supernatural while they accept the natural? And by\nwhat reason does the Christian apologist attempt to preserve their\nconnection? Is there no evidence around us in the contrasts of\nbarbarism and civilization, as well as in the histories of nations, in\ntheir relation to prophecy? And are there no facts in the strangely\nrevolutionized lives of thousands in the Christian church, which\nproclaim the singular moral force of the word of God?\n\n\n[_October 14._]\n\nAssuming that you are willing to follow such a course of study as\nwe have sketched, either to remove doubts which may be lingering in\nyour own mind, or to aid some brother in his struggle to win the\nrepose which you have gained, we shall, at the outset, offer some\nsuggestions as to the spirit and the method by which your work should\nbe characterized. It is of much importance to know, what is, and what\nis not, within our reach.\n\n1. Do not assume the possibility, in the present state of our\nknowledge, of demonstrating a perfect agreement between science and\nscripture, or rather between the inferences of the philosopher and\nthe interpretations of the theologian. Much remains to be ascertained\nbefore that result can be realized. The natural sciences are\nconfessedly incomplete; some of them are only in their infancy, and\ncan teach us little. Many years may pass before they can be brought\ninto perfect accord with the Bible. As the facts of natural science\nhave not been all ascertained and classified, as its laws have not been\nall recognized, and as the inferences of to-day may be modified by\nthe discoveries of to-morrow, it is absurd to be demanding immediate\nevidence of a perfect agreement between science and scripture. Apparent\ncontradictions are, at the present stage unavoidable. There must first\nbe an exact and exhaustive examination of all those points at which the\nscriptures and the sciences touch each other; for so long as a single\nfact or a single law remains unknown, some important or essential\ntruth, intimately related to the Bible, may be concealed. While the\nnatural sciences continue incomplete, natural theology must necessarily\nhave an imperfect foundation. As confessedly dependent on what is\nincomplete, natural theology can have neither the comprehensiveness\nnor the definiteness which characterizes supernatural theology, as\ndependent on what is now complete and unvarying. We can not force the\nlegitimate yet somewhat incoherent teachings of the one book\u2014the works\nof God\u2014of which but a few leaves have been separated, scanned and\npaged, into perfect harmony with the teachings of the other book, whose\nrevelation of truth has been finished, accredited, and closed.\n\n2. Wait patiently, while you work persistently, for the solution of\ndifficulties which may be continuing to press upon you. The experience\nof the past is an encouragement for the future. The sciences have\nagain and again become their own interpreter, and rejected erroneous\ninferences. Many examples might be given, but one or two may in the\nmeantime suffice. Human skeletons were found in what seemed old\nlimestone, on the northeast coast of the mainland of Guadaloupe; and\nafter bold attacks on the Bible, which were met by some very weak and\nirregular defenses, it was ascertained that the whole was a mistake,\nthat the limestone was of very recent formation, that the skeletons\nwere of well-known Indian tribes, and agitation ceased. A similar\ncommotion was raised when the supposed imprints of human feet on\nlimestone had been figured and described in the _American Journal of\nScience_; and Christians met strange infidel hypotheses by feeble\nassertions, until Dr. Dale Owen proved the imprints to have been\nsculptured by an Indian tribe. Thereafter, for a season, the scientific\ninquirer and the theological student prosecuted their respective\ninvestigations in peace. There are important lessons for us in these,\nand in many similar facts. Christian apologists have often egregiously\nerred, not only in hastily accepting statements as to supposed facts,\nbut in admitting the validity of the reasoning which has been eagerly\nfounded on them, and in making a fruitless attempt to twist scripture\ninto harmony with what science itself has subsequently disowned. Facts\nill observed, and afterward misstated, have drawn many of our best\nand most candid students into unnecessary collision with biblical\ncritics; and, after much heat in controversy, and the waste on both\nsides of much intellectual energy, the obstacle lying between them has\nunexpectedly vanished in the fuller light of science. The evil to be\ndeplored is, that after the errors have disappeared their influence\nremains. The imprint often lingers after the counterfeit die has been\nbroken.\n\n3. There is a constant tendency on the part of discoverers to invest\nnew facts with a fictitious interest, and those who are hostile to\nthe Bible eagerly parade them for the discomfiture of Christians.\nEvery fact is to be welcomed, but it is to be treasured up only that\nit may be adjusted to other facts, and become in part the foundation\nof a new truth. Isolated and unexplained facts have been too often\nunceremoniously dragged in to give testimony against some scripture\nstatement, and have too easily been held sufficient to push aside\nthose accumulated evidences to its truth, which history, or science,\nor both, had indisputably established. It is not, indeed, surprising\nthat the faith of many young men has failed, when they have observed\nthe too ready acquiescence of prominent Christian writers in theories\nwhich necessitate the abandonment of some of the impregnable fortresses\nwhich have been raised by exact scholarship around those portions of\nscripture which had longest been exposed to the fiercest assaults. Were\nthis method common, no permanent foundation could be laid, and progress\nin any science would be impossible. Is it not absurd to be displacing\ncornerstones, and disowning, at random, first principles? No system\nof philosophy, no science, not even mathematical, the exactest, and\nin one sense the most permanent of all the sciences, could have any\nweight or make the least progress if subjected to such changes in both\nits principles and their applications, as have marked the history of\nBible assaults, concessions and defenses. When facts, which are utterly\ninexplicable are presented, we should retain the fact in science and\nalso the relative statement in scripture, assured that in due time the\nsolution will come.\n\n\n\n\n[_October 21._]\n\n\n4. Neither accept nor offer apologies for the Bible. It has, of late,\nbecome common on the part of those who are alarmed by the temporary\ntriumphs which scientific investigation has given to those who are\navowedly hostile to the Bible, to demand that its propositions be\naltogether disassociated from both science and philosophy, on the plea\nthat the Bible was not given to teach either the one or the other.\nThe proposal is plausible, but it is really unnecessary, for although\nnot given to teach physical science, the Bible can not contradict\neither its facts or its legitimate inferences. The word of God can not\nbe regarded as by any possibility contradicting the just lessons of\nhis works. Like every other book, the Bible must bear all the light\nthat can fall on its pages; and it must not only stand the tests of\ncriticism and history, but vindicate all its claims as the \u201cmore sure\nword of prophecy.\u201d Otherwise, appeals for leniency are profitless.\nTrue, in its highest connections, the Bible is unapproachable by other\nbooks; it is easily distinguishable from them all; yet in its human\nrelations it must submit to all the ordinary appliances of scholarship.\nNo apologies can justify a single error in either its science or its\nhistory, and its propositions are obviously inadmissable if they\ncontradict human reason; they may be above, but they can not be opposed\nto it.\n\n5. Akin to an easy escape from difficulties, through apologies for the\nBible, is the tendency to glide into conclusions directly hostile.\nThe prevailing activity of the age is so unfavorable to leisurely\ninvestigations as to facilitate the subtle advances of error. While\nmany writers of the present day are as pre\u00ebminently gifted, and as\ndistinguished in the different departments of learning, as those of\nany preceding age; and while their reasonings and their conclusions\nare borne by the daily and the serial press to every man\u2019s door,\nmultitudes think and decide by substitute. They want leisure, and trust\nto others. Rapidity of locomotion, the chief physical feature of our\ntime, betokens also its intellectual tendencies. Men read cursorily and\ndecide rapidly. The daily newspaper is making book-study rarer than\nhitherto. It is felt in ten thousand instances to be distasteful or\ndifficult. The subtle influence of the daily newspaper is telling on\nour thoughtfulness. We really seem to be approaching the fulfillment\nof Lamartine\u2019s prediction, \u201cBefore this century shall have run out,\njournalism will be the whole press, the whole of human thought. Thought\nwill not have had time to ripen, to accommodate itself into the form\nof a book. The book will arrive too late; the only book possible soon,\nwill be a newspaper.\u201d\n\nAs one result of this process, truth and error are often imperceptibly\nmingled. So swift is the transition from one fact and inference to\nanother, that truth and error, like different colors blent into one\nby rapid motion, become so much alike, that few can separate them.\nThus with every advance of truth, error is wafted forward. The seeds\nof future tares and wheat are being profusely scattered. It can not\nbe denied, that while to almost every man\u2019s door are daily wafted\naccurate records of passing history, of the discoveries of science,\nof the triumphs of art, and of the generalizations of philosophy, the\nsame messengers no less sedulously exhibit, now faintly and now in\nthe strongest light, every difficulty connected with the Bible, both\nreal and imaginary, the boldest objections of historic criticism,\nthe theories of speculative philosophy, the apparent contradictions\nof science and scripture, and the saddening conflicts of professing\nChristians. The constant diffusion of such influences does tell in the\nlong run, not only on less active minds, but on the most energetic, and\nit renders easier of acceptance every erroneous conclusion.\n\nBut this incessant activity is a symptom of health. It augurs good.\nRightly directed, it may strengthen character while it develops mental\npower, and gives a more exquisite appreciation of the just and true.\nBut remember that everything depends on this rightness of direction;\nand to secure this, unfailing caution is required. The wind and tide\nwhich, rightly used, would hasten the voyager to his harbor, may,\nif unheeded, strand him on an unexpected shore; and those subtle\nforces, and those under-currents, which should have aided in guiding\nus to a satisfying intellectual and moral repose, may, through the\nthoughtlessness or the indolence that at the outset disregarded\na slight divergence from the truth, almost but not altogether\nimperceptible, destroy our happiness through the shipwreck and the\nultimate abandonment of our Christian faith.\n\n6. Another common tendency in the wrong direction claims your\nattention. It manifests itself in repugnance to controversy or\ndiscussion in every form. Many shrink from it as unseemly, and\nseek escape in either solitude or study. While peace is in itself\ndesirable, it is not always attainable. You cannot escape conflict\nby letting go the Bible; nor can you traverse any fields of science\nwithout entanglement in the intellectual struggles of disputants whose\nreasonings have sometimes but little of the calmness of philosophy. Nor\nis this to be regretted. The repose of meditation is not so bracing as\nthe discipline of occasional contest for the truth.\n\n\n\n\n[_October 28._]\n\n\nThere are other advantages. The attrition of discussion often\nreveals and beautifies truths which would otherwise have remained\nunrecognized. Apathy or silence may shelter error without preserving\ntruth. Intellectual indolence, bad for the world, is still worse for\nthe Church. The highest life is demanded by the Bible, and, therefore,\nalso the greatest activity. From intellectual warfare, the sciences\nand the scriptures have nothing to lose, but everything to gain.\nOn Christian or skeptic, on prophet true or false, the Bible never\nenforces silence. It seals no thinker\u2019s lip. \u201cThe prophet that hath a\ndream, let him tell a dream; and he that hath my word, let him speak\nmy word faithfully. What is the chaff to the wheat? saith the Lord.\u201d\nIn the field of thought, nothing save the chaff perishes. Lost truths\nspring up again; and, beneath their spreading branches, vitiated\nreasoning, unsound criticism, and erroneous conclusions, ultimately\ndecay as briers beneath the spreading oak.\n\nThere are those also who deplore discussion only because it raises\nquestions hostile to the scriptures, and alarms the weak. This anxiety,\nthough laudable, is fruitless. Vital questions are already discussed on\nall hands, and in every variety of aspect. There are disadvantages, but\nthey are generally inseparable from the progress of truth.\n\nIt will be admitted on both sides, that while the extension of exact\nknowledge contracts the sphere of superstition, it enlarges at the same\ntime the sphere of skepticism. Superstition may be displaced without\nChristianity becoming its substitute; there may be a high and an\nattractive civilization, based on science and its applications, which,\nin acknowledging the intellectual and moral supremacy of the Bible, and\nnothing more, may for a season destroy credulity, only to give fuller\nscope to no-belief, and to evoke ultimately an opposition to the Bible\nhitherto repressed or unknown. For such results we must be prepared;\nthey are collateral, not essential or direct. They are, in fact, the\nprice which we pay for our intellectual freedom. We are neither to\nfalter nor hesitate because the increasing light, which is dissipating\nignorance and extending the boundaries of truth, is at the same time\nindirectly opening to error a wider field for the distribution of her\nforces, revealing new weapons for her armory, and enabling her to seize\nand for a season to retain, positions hitherto unknown and unassailed.\nIn the history of the physical sciences, and of arch\u00e6ological\ndiscovery, error has often rushed to the battlements of truth, and,\nseizing some detached or imaginary facts, has wielded them against the\nBible, until the sciences have themselves expelled her, and repudiated\nher reasoning. Such agitation is not to be deplored; it conducts to\nstability, it evokes more good than evil, and not unfrequently has it\nhappened that the superstition which long benumbed the Church, and the\ninfidelity which aroused her, have yielded to the unexpected sway of\nsome Bible truth, when a more definite meaning has been given to some\nnatural law or Providential dispensation.\n\nThose misunderstand the character of the Bible who suppose its safety\nlies in keeping it as far as possible from the rigorous investigations\nand the exact conclusions of science or philosophy. Such a method is\nindispensable. To pursue truth in one department, implies, or should\nimply, not only a love of truth in every department, but also a\nresolute purpose to discover and dislodge every error. Which of the\nsciences, as preserved from controversy, is entitled to cast the first\nstone at the others, or their students? \u201cPhilosophy and literature,\u201d\nsays Lord Kinloch, in an admirable work, \u201cwhile professing to pursue\ntruth in the composure of unruffled seclusion, and to be desirous of\nhaving it elicited by the healthy excitement of friendly debate, will\nprotest against the dishonor of soiling their hands, or disarranging\ntheir robes in the turmoil of heated controversy; and least of all\nwill they consent to be defiled with the mire or exposed to the perils\nof religious strife. This plea is false in fact, as it is futile\nin philosophy. It is in fact false; for literary and philosophical\ncontroversies have neither been few in number nor wanting in a keen\nand rancorous spirit. And, admitting that religious contentions have\nbeen still more rancorous and embittered, it is only what might be\nreasonably expected, on account of the higher interests at stake.\nThe plea is, moreover, worthless on philosophical principles; for it\neviscerates the distinction between truth and error of all meaning\nand value. Better not to admit the distinction at all, than, having\nadmitted it in one instance, deny it in another; or, what is worse,\ndepreciate its significance even to thought, and that too in the most\nimportant of its applications. All argument and all effort are forever\nat an end, unless truth,\u2014yea, all truth,\u2014be precious; so precious,\nthat in the legitimate pursuit of it we may and ought to put forth our\nutmost strength; and in defense of it, when found, incur the utmost\nhazard.\u201d\n\nDo not be discouraged by apparently insurmountable obstacles. The\nboldest assertions and the most plausible reasonings need not disturb\nyou. Difficulties seemingly insuperable have, in the past, suddenly\nevanished in the light of unexpected discoveries; and every science,\nyou may rest assured, will hereafter show strength enough and light\nenough to purify its own temple and be its own interpreter. The past\nmay be held to be prophetic of future solutions; and the sciences will\nbe found not only correcting the mistakes and the arrogance of many of\ntheir students, but rebuking the too hasty concessions of Christian\napologists, and either directly or indirectly revealing, at the same\ntime, the impressiveness and the majesty of scripture truth.\n\n\n\n\nPOLITICAL ECONOMY.\n\nBy G. M. STEELE, D.D.\n\n\nI.\n\nI. DEFINITIONS\u2014UTILITY OF THE SUBJECT.\n\n1. Social science comprises the statement and explanation of the\nnatural laws which govern men in their mutual relations. Political\neconomy is the application of that portion of those laws which pertain\nto the production and distribution of wealth. Now we are not to be\ndiscouraged by this term _wealth_, as though the subject were one which\nconcerns only rich men, and in which a poor man could have no interest.\nThe man who has a little property, worth only one or two hundred\ndollars, is just as really a possessor of wealth as one who has one or\ntwo millions; and to be able to acquire and rightly use these small\nfortunes is, in the aggregate, of more importance than the acquisition\nand management of the greater riches of the few.\n\n2. But what is meant by _wealth_? For the present it is enough to\nsay that _it comprises all things which have value_. A more complete\ndefinition will follow by and by. What, then, do we mean by _value_?\nThis, too, has many forms of definition, but they for the most part\nhave one element in common. The general notion concerning it is that\nit has reference to the amount of one commodity that may be equitably\ngiven in exchange for a designated amount of another; this is a correct\nnotion. Thus a bushel of wheat may be exchanged for two bushels of\noats, or a cord of wood for twenty yards of cloth. That is, the value\nof a bushel of wheat is that of two bushels of oats, and the value of\ntwenty yards of cloth is the same as that of a cord of wood. It is thus\nseen to be a _relative_ term, and not indicative of any quality of any\none thing considered by itself. But in all instances of relationship\nthere must be some ground of the relation. Let us try to determine\nwhat it is in this case. A superficial thinker might decide that it is\n_money_, from the fact that value is generally estimated in money. But\nmoney is itself in the same relation to all other commodities in this\nrespect as they are to one another, and its value rests upon the same\nbasis.\n\n3. The chief element in value, and that constitutes its original\nstandard, is the _cost of production_; and by _cost_ is meant the\namount of labor involved. _Labor is the voluntary effort put forth by\nman to secure some desired object._ But when we say this, a little\ncaution is needed. We are not to infer that the present value of an\narticle is estimated by the amount of labor required at the time of its\nproduction, especially if that was a long time ago. A hundred years\nsince, it required the labor of a man for days to produce a yard of\ncotton cloth. A dozen yards of better cloth can now be produced by\nthe same amount of labor; of course the present value of the latter\nis superior to the present value of the former, even if this were as\ngood as new. It is the labor that would be required to _reproduce_ or\nreplace an article which determines its value.\n\n4. But there is another element which is essential to value; this is\n_utility_. It comprises all those qualities in an object which make it\navailable to gratify any desire. It will readily be seen that there are\nobjects which have utility and at the same time are without value. They\nare such objects as cost nothing; that is, such as involve no labor in\ntheir acquisition. Thus air, and sunshine, and rain, have no value; but\nthey are of immeasurable utility. Value is often in the inverse ratio\nof utility. Iron is a far more useful metal than gold, but gold is\nvastly more valuable than iron. Still, though utility may exist where\nthere is no value, there can be no value where there is no utility;\nbecause no one would put forth effort for that which could not gratify\nany desire, and it is the ability to gratify desire that constitutes\nutility. Sometimes utility becomes the paramount element in determining\nvalue; but ordinarily it is subordinate to the cost of production. When\nthe article is one for which there is a very great demand, and of which\nthere is a great scarcity, the value may increase many times beyond the\ncost. In such case the utility rather than cost rules. But where the\ndemand is readily and fully met by the supply, the cost controls.\n\n5. But valuable things can not be produced very largely without tools,\nimplements, and various contrivances. These constitute _capital_.\n_Capital is the result of previous labor reserved and employed in\nfurther production._ This implies self-denial. A man can not consume\nwhat he has secured by labor and at the same time preserve it to aid\nin additional production. Hence he must restrain his desires if he\nwould save something for this purpose. This capital is sometimes called\npre-existent labor. The point to be observed is that its existence\nis due, not to labor alone, but to _abstinence_ as well. The two\nelements in the cost of production are labor and abstinence, and we\nmay combine these in the one term, _sacrifice_. Sacrifice and utility,\nthen, are the two essential conditions of value; and we may complete\nour definition of value by saying that _value is man\u2019s estimate of the\namount of sacrifice requisite to the attainment of a desired object_.\n\n6. Hence, if wealth comprises all valuable objects, and if every\ndesirable object which involves sacrifice has value, it would be a\nproper definition to say that _wealth consists of all those objects and\nqualities useful to man, the attainment of which involves sacrifice_.\nThis includes not only material objects and qualities, but also all\nthose human powers acquired by sacrifice, which enable man to master\nnature. This is not admitted by many writers. But Mr. Carey states,\nin a broad way, that \u201cWealth is the power to command the always\ngratuitous services of nature.\u201d When man is at his weakest nature does\nnothing for him. Every infant, if dependent on nature alone, would\ninevitably perish. So in the infancy of society, it is only by the\nmost strenuous exertion that a precarious existence is secured. But\nwith every increment of power in man, nature multiplies her services.\nThey are not bought but freely given, and given as soon as man is\nable to command them. In the most advanced civilization the forces of\nnature have become so subservient to man that in thousands of cases\none can accomplish what a score, or sometimes even a hundred, could\nnot formerly have done. It is this increase of power more than that of\nmaterial commodities which constitutes the real wealth of the world.\n\n7. From this it follows that the proper subject of political economy\nis MAN. The laws pertaining to the underlying science are found in\nthe nature and character of man\u2014in his tastes, his desires, in the\nmotives influencing him and in the limitations to which he is subject.\nThe results to be achieved are his prosperity and freedom, his mastery\nover nature, and his happiness. Here, then, is the prime reason why\nevery person who aspires to any intelligence at all should have some\nacquaintance with this subject. It has to do more than any other study\nwith his temporal welfare, and with the welfare of society, without the\nprosperity of which his individual prosperity will suffer.\n\n8. A second reason is implied in the meaning of the terms used. Economy\nis from a Greek compound signifying _husbandry_. It has reference to\nthe prudent management by a householder of his means so as to secure\nthe largest measure of prosperity for his family. It does not mean\nparsimony, nor even mere frugality; that is, it does not consist\nin mere abstinence for the sake of saving. It is rather a wise use\nof means and forces, so as to make them as effective as possible.\nThere is an old proverb which says, \u201cThere is more in calculation\nthan in hard work,\u201d and though sometimes perverted in the interest\nof human laziness, it is nevertheless full of philosophy. It is this\n\u201ccalculation\u201d which such a study greatly aids.\n\n9. _Political_ economy, as the term implies, has reference to man\nin society,\u2014to \u201cthe body politic.\u201d The social element in man is as\nimperative as any part of his constitution. Man\u2019s greatest need is\n_association_. The solitary individual is only a minute constituent of\nman in man\u2019s relation to the main purposes of life. No man is complete\nin himself. He must be supplemented by others, generally by many\nothers, and he must find a large part of his own completeness in this\nassociation. Each has something that others lack, and we are designed\nto be sources of mutual supply to our several wants.\n\nHere emerges another vital fact. _Individuality_ is as indispensable as\nassociation. A superficial thinker might regard these characteristics\nas antagonistic. The fact is so far otherwise that each is really\ndependent on the other. Men must _differ_ in order to be of any use to\none another. It is the difference that makes the individuality. Mutual\naid is the object of association. Hence the greater the difference,\nthe greater the individuality; and the greater the individuality, the\ngreater the association. No man would associate with another unless the\none had something which the other lacked. But for this there would be\nno commerce. Two farmers producing nothing but wheat would have nothing\nto exchange with each other. Two men of precisely the same mental\npossessions, habits and aptitudes, would never be companions for each\nother.\n\nOn the other hand it is only by association that individuality becomes\nthe most highly developed. Only by such development do the differences\namong men become great and numerous. In the lower grades of humanity\nthere is comparatively little difference between individuals, and there\nis little association. It is only in advanced civilization that a\nstrongly marked individuality exists, and that we find those numerous\ndifferences which make the mutual dependence the greatest. Here is\na potent reason for the study of this subject. It is impossible to\nestimate the power of association in production alone. It is known\nin a general way that the combination of men gives greatly increased\nresults as compared with those of men working separately. Yet it is not\nnearly realized that a hundred men properly associated in an industrial\nenterprise will often effect two or three hundred times as much as all\nthe very same men working separately.\n\n10. Again, this subject intimately concerns man in his governmental\nrelations. For governments must furnish many of the conditions for the\nbest economical results. Then, too, the great moral enterprises of the\nage, and of all ages, have to do with the principles here involved;\neducation, pauperism, vicious social usages, the dangerous classes,\nhave to be considered, and can only rightly be considered in the light\nof these truths. It is wonderful how closely this study is connected\nwith all the great interests of humanity. Whole communities which have\nbeen impoverished and demoralized by neglecting some of the obvious\nprinciples of political economy, have revived and prospered under their\napplication. Portions of our own country are examples of both these\nkinds of effects, and that, too, within the memory of men now living.\n\nWe shall follow the usual plan of the division of the subject under the\nheads of _production, consumption, exchange and distribution_.\n\n\nII. PRODUCTION\u2014LABOR.\n\n1. _Production is the creation of value by rendering the utilities of\nnature available to man._ The creation, it will be noticed, is not of\nmatter but of value. There are two great agencies which must co-operate\nin production\u2014_nature_ and _man_. Man furnishes labor; nature furnishes\nmaterials and forces. The former would be useless without the latter.\nThere must be soils, and mines, and trees, and animals, or no matter\nhow much labor there may be, there can be no grain, nor fruit, nor\nmetals, nor lumber; no houses and no meat, nor hides nor leather. So\nalso there may be all kinds of material, but without labor they are of\nno available service to man.\n\n2. But nature furnishes not only materials but also forces to aid man\nin his productive efforts. The more obvious and palpable of these are\ngravitation, especially in falling water, wind, the explosive property\nof gunpowder and dynamite, the expansive power of steam, magnetism,\nelectricity, and the forces of vegetation. There are also numerous\npassive powers, or properties of matter which, when adapted by man,\ngive him much advantage; such are the mechanical powers of the lever,\ninclined plane, wheel and axle, pulley and wedge, and those qualities\nof the metals which render them capable of taking an edge for cutting\npurposes, as also malleability, ductility, elasticity, etc. It is a\nbeneficent fact of nature that she furnishes these materials and forces\ngratuitously. She is not churlish nor parsimonious in this respect. The\nmore we avail ourselves of her help, the more ready she is to help us;\nand the greater the advantage we obtain, the more lavishly she bestows\nher gifts upon us.\n\nIt is thus seen that labor consists not in creating things but in\n_moving_ them; that is, in effecting changes. It directs the natural\nforces to the service of man, and it is in this that production\nconsists. It can move materials into position where these forces can\nact upon them with the desired effect. Thus an agricultural laborer can\neffect such changes in the soil as are requisite to the growth of corn;\nhe can place the seed in the ground, but he can not make the crop. It\nis as impossible for him to create a kernel of grain as to create a\nplanet. Labor may move the fuel to the fire-place and properly dispose\nit for kindling. It may move a match, which by a previous movement has\ntaken fire, to the prepared fuel; but all this would be useless but for\nthe conditions and forces which nature furnishes.\n\n3. The application of labor to production is of two kinds, _direct_\nand _indirect_. The direct changes effected by labor may be embraced\nunder the three heads of _transmutation_, _transformation_, and\n_transportation_. The first comprises elementary changes, as when under\nrequired conditions ingredients of the soil and of the atmosphere are\nchanged into grain and vegetables, and fruit. The second is where there\nis simply a change in the form of the material, as when boards are\nmade into a table, or leather into shoes. The third implies merely a\nchange of place, as when coal in a mine, where it has no value, becomes\nvaluable by being brought within reach of those who desire it for fuel.\n\n4. The greater part of labor is indirect; in some cases so much so\nthat its relation to the product is unseen. For instance, the man who\nmakes your shoes is not the only laborer concerned in that product.\nSome previous labor produced the leather, and before that some labor\nproduced the hide from which the leather was made; some persons made\nthe tools, some the house or shop, and some provided sustenance for the\nshoemaker. All these are conditions, without which no shoes can be\nmade, and all who provide them furnish a part of the labor on which the\nproduct of the shoes depends.\n\nOf this indirect labor there are several kinds. (1) Those who provide\nthe materials, and there may be many grades of these; (2) those\nwho furnish the implements and the machinery; (3) those who supply\nthe sustenance and shelter, and raiment for the laborers; (4) the\ngovernment agencies for protecting the workman; (5) organizers and\nmanagers of business enterprises, without whom production would often\nfall far short of what it now accomplishes; (6) the labor of raising\nchildren who are subsequently to become laborers; (7) all those engaged\nin the work of education, by which men are prepared for the most\nefficient work\u2014this includes not only teachers, but writers, clergymen,\netc.; (8) professional men, who devote themselves to matters essential\nto the interests of the community and thus not only save the time of\nthe laborers, but often their property and their health, and their\nlives; (9) inventors and discoverers, who ascertain new conditions of\nmore efficient production. These are the principal, though there are\nalso others.\n\n\n\n\nREADINGS IN ART.\n\n\nI.\u2014SCULPTURE: ITS VARIETIES AND MATERIALS.\n\nAll work cut out in a solid material, in imitation of natural objects,\nis called sculpture. Thus carvings in wood, ivory-stone, marble, metal,\nand works moulded from wax and clay, come under the head of sculpture.\n\nBut sculpture, as we are about to consider it, is to be distinguished\nby the term _statuary_ from all carved work belonging to ornamental\nart and glyptics. It must be borne in mind, however, that the sculptor\ndoes not ordinarily carve his work directly out of the marble; he first\nmakes his statue, or bas relief, in clay or wax. This method enables\nhim to \u201csketch in clay\u201d and perfect his work in this obedient material.\nMichael Angelo, and many great masters could dispense with this and\ncarve at once the statue from the block. The modeling in clay is,\nhowever, generally the primary work. The \u201cmodel,\u201d as it is called, is\nafterward moulded, and by means of this mould a cast of the original\nclay statue, or bas-relief, is taken by the use of liquid plaster. The\nclay model is, therefore, like the original drawing of a painter\u2014a\nmaster work.\n\nThe model completed, most of the carving is done by a skilled laborer,\nthe sculptor taking it up to give the finish, which a master-hand\nalone can bestow. The copying of the model into marble is accomplished\nby means of a method of mechanical measurement, or \u201cpointing.\u201d The\nmodel and the block of marble are both fastened to a base called a\n\u201cscale-stone,\u201d to which a standard vertical rod can be attached at\ncorresponding centers, having at its upper end a sliding needle, so\nadapted by a movable joint as to be set at any angle and fastened by\na screw when so set. The master sculptor having marked the governing\npoints with a pencil on the model the instrument is applied to these\nand the measure taken. The standard being then transferred to the\nblock-base, the pointer, guided by his measure, cuts away the marble,\ntaking care to leave it rather larger than the model, so that the\ngeneral proportions are kept, and the more important work is then left\nfor the master hand.\n\nThe character of work is influenced by the nature of the material in\nwhich the sculptor carves; the harder the stone the more difficult\nto give it the pliant forms of life. It is remarkable that the most\nancient and perfect Egyptian statues should have been formed of very\nhard stones; and, as the ancient Egyptians were not acquainted with\nsteel, they must have been dependent upon bronze, of various degrees of\nhardness, for their cutting tools. These works are remarkable for their\nexcellence, both of form and proportion, and in the finish given to the\ndetails of feature, the dress, and the ornaments.\n\nAssyrian sculpture was in softer stones, limestones and alabaster;\nonly small objects, such as seals, being worked in hard stones.\n\nGreek and Roman sculptors made many statues and bas-reliefs in hard\nstones, such as basalt, granite, and porphyry. The extreme difficulty\nof such work may be understood when it is seen that the ordinary method\nof the chisel and mallet, in the most skillful hands, would be quite\nunavailing in this hard material. The treadle-wheel, the drill, and the\nfile, are brought to aid the chisel, and even these require the use\nof emery upon the wheel of the lapidary, in the manner in which the\nhardest stones are cut.\n\nClay modeled and dried in the sun, or hardened by the fire, was\nnaturally one of the early forms in which sculpture was developed. At\nonce ready to hand, and easily modeled, it was adopted for the same\nreasons that made clay convenient for the ordinary vessels of every-day\nuse. We find countless numbers of these baked, or sun-dried clay\nfigures. They have escaped destruction because of the little value of\nthe material and because they resist decay. The Egyptians and Assyrians\napplied a vitreous glaze to terra-cotta objects, which made them more\ndecorative and more durable.\n\nTerra-cotta was chosen by many sculptors to preserve the spirit and\nfreedom of the original. Although some shrinking under the action of\nthe fire must be allowed for, yet what is well baked is certain to\npossess the excellence of the fresh clay. It escapes the chances of\nover-finish, which too often befalls marble and bronze.\n\nAnother form of sculpture to be noticed is called _chryselephantine_,\non account of the combined use of gold and ivory; the nude parts of the\nfigure being of ivory, probably with color applied to the features and\nthe drapery of gold. The statue was substantially but roughly made in\nmarble, with wood, perhaps, upon it; the ivory being laid on in thick\npieces.\n\nStatues of wood, of various kinds, were made by the most ancient\nsculptors. Many small figures in wood, the work of the Egyptian\ncarvers, are to be seen in the museums, and the mummy cases show the\npractice of carving the head, while the trunk is left only partly\nshaped out of the block.\n\nBronze was one of the most important forms of ancient statuary. It must\nbe remembered that bronze is an entirely different alloy from brass,\nthe former being an alloy of copper and tin, while brass is of copper\nand zinc. Small proportions of gold, silver, lead, and iron, were mixed\nwith the bronze by ancient metal-workers to give various colors to\ntheir work; thus a blush of shame was produced by allowing the iron\nin the bronze to rust. Plutarch mentions a face which was pale, the\nsculptor having mixed silver with the bronze.\n\nThe primitive bronze-workers, before they arrived at the knowledge of\ncasting, began by hammering solid metals into shapes. The _toreutic_\nart, although not definitely known at present, was probably that\nof hammering, punching, and chiseling plates of metal, either\nseparately or with a view of fixing them upon stone or wood. Both the\nsolid hammered work and the hollow-plate work is mentioned by the\nauthorities. The hollow statues were built up in pieces, fastened\ntogether with nails, rivets, and dove-tails, and it is not improbable\nthat some system of welding was practiced.\n\nThe casting of metals in moulds must have followed the discovery that\nthey could be melted. As the sculptor improved in his art of modeling\nhe would be able to make better moulds. He would soon observe that the\nsolid statue was not only very costly, but so very heavy that the whole\nfigure would collapse from sheer weight.\n\nThis trouble was corrected by the discovery of a contrivance for\ncasting metals in a hollow mould. It was done pretty much as it is at\nthe present day, by fixing within the mould a _core_, which did not\ntouch the sides, except at certain small points necessary for support.\nThe space between this and the surface of the mould was to be filled by\nthe molten metal.\n\nThere is still another method, less common in modern times, but\nemployed by the ancients, for some of their smaller works. This is\nwhen a wax model is encased in clay or plaster of Paris and the molten\nmetal then poured into it to melt the wax, and take the form of the\nwork precisely as it left the hand of the sculptor. The original model\nis thus destroyed and the bronze takes its place. Some very large and\nimportant works have recently been cast in this method, but with the\ncore. In bronze casting with a core, this contrivance must be made\nwith great care. The mould, which is obliged to be formed of pieces\nfitted together, in order that the model may be taken out, is first\nwell soaked in oil, then melted wax is applied to the inner side of\nthe moulded parts in such thickness as may be required in the metal\nof the completed statue. But as a hollow metal statue would not be\nstrong enough to support its own weight, a sort of skeleton of iron\nbars is made to take the general form of the figure, and this strong\nframe-work is firmly fixed within the mould. We have then the mould,\nwith its wax lining, enclosing the iron skeleton, or _armature_, as it\nis called, with an opening left in the proper place to allow of pouring\nin the liquid plaster of Paris mixed with pounded brick, which fills\nthe space about the armature. Therefore, if at this stage, the mould\nwere taken to pieces again, the sculptor would behold his statue as\none of apparently solid wax. Practically this is done in order that he\nmay satisfy himself of the success of his work, and correct it where\nnecessary. The model is then again placed in the mould preparatory to\ncasting.\n\n_Galvano-plastique_, or the use of electricity, to deposit a thin layer\nof metal in a pure state upon a model, is an important invention or\napplication of science to art.\n\nHaving described the various materials and methods employed in\nsculptured art, we are ready to classify the different forms adopted\nand arrange them under the proper terms.\n\nSculpture in relief is the first division. There are four varieties.\n_Bas-relief_, or _basso-relievo_, is the term used when the work\nprojects from the plain surface, the forms being rounded as in\nnature. If the work is very little raised, the forms being not so\nprojecting as in nature, it is called _flat-relief_, or _stiacciato_.\nIf more raised, but not free from the ground in any place, it is\n_half-relief_ or _mezzo-relievo_. If the relief is still higher it\nbecomes _full-relief_, or _alto-relievo_, in which parts of the human\nfigure are entirely free from the ground of the slab. In _sunk-relief_,\nor _cavo-relievo_, the work is recessed within an outline, but still\nraised in flat relief, not projecting above the surface of the slab.\nMuch of the renaissance and modern sculpture combines the first-named\nkinds of work on different planes in degrees of distance, with some\nunder-cutting. The beauty and character of bas-relief depend much upon\nthe representation of outline.\n\nStatuary proper is sculpture in the round. The statue is therefore seen\non every side.\n\nStatues are, (1) standing; (2) seated; (3) recumbent; (4) equestrian.\n\nStatues are classed into five forms as to size: Colossal, above the\nheroic standard; heroic, above six feet but under the colossal;\nlife-size; small life-size; statuettes, half the size of life and\nsmaller.\n\nTo know the proper proportions of the figures is a matter of the utmost\nvalue in all sculpture, even more so than in painting, as the statue\nis measurable on every side and in every direction. It would have\nbeen impossible for the ancient Egyptians to carve out of the living\nrock their tremendous figures unless they had arrived at a rule of\nproportion for their figure. Without this their colossi would have been\nonly rude monsters. Such a rule they had discovered and laid down in\na canon, as it is called, similar to that which was followed by the\nGreek sculptors after them, and especially made known by Polycletus,\nwhose name it received. Though there is some doubt about the precise\nterms of the canon, there can be no doubt that it had for its unit of\nmeasurement some part of the human figure. The version of Vitruvius\nPollio is supposed to be the correct one. He says: \u201cNature has so\ncomposed the human body that the face, from the chin to the top of the\nforehead, and the roots of the hair, should be a tenth part; also the\npalm of the hand from the wrist-joint to the tip of the middle finger;\nthe head from the chin to the highest point, an eighth; from the top of\nthe chest to the roots of the hair, a sixth.\u201d\n\nThe rule of ten faces, or eight heads, derived from this, has remained\nto the present time. Several sculptors of a later period, who have\ngiven much attention to the subject of proportion, differ slightly from\nthe canon of Polycletus, though it is commonly accepted.\n\nThat strict rules of symmetrical proportion should be followed is\nnecessary in all statuary, but especially in that which serves as a\ndecoration for architecture. The knowledge of the figure acquired by\neminent sculptors inspired them with admiration for the beautiful,\nand enabled them to express in the creation of their art an ideal of\ngrand beauty, which was guided by a taste and feeling which rarely\nfailed to direct them aright. It was the greatest sculptor of modern\ntimes, Michael Angelo, who said that the sculptor should carry \u201chis\ncompasses in his eye.\u201d Some one comments on this that, \u201cSculptors, and\npainters especially, dread the rule of geometry. They regard rule as a\nfetter upon their invention, not dreaming that this great man (Michael\nAngelo), before he expressed himself thus, had for so long a time had\nthe compasses in his hand.\u201d This points to a profound truth in all\npractical art, that no man can be a great artist unless he have the\npower of drawing in the true proportions of the beautiful.\n\nHaving pointed out the leading points in the technic of sculpture, we\ntake up its history, beginning naturally with the earliest forms as\nfound in Egypt.\n\nThe Egyptians, inhabiting a flat, uniform country, of pure and\nsalubrious climate, working as sculptors before a written language\nwas invented, carved their colossal sphinx almost entirely out of the\nliving rock; an amazing example of symbolic sculptural representation,\ncombining the human with the brute form of the lion. The date of\nthis first great work is probably earlier than that of the earliest\npyramids\u2014that built by Chofo, King of Memphis, the Cheops of Herodotus,\nand the larger one by Nef Chofo, his son. M. Renan, speaking for M.\nMariette, states that a tablet was found by him recording that Nef\nChofo did certain repairs to the sphinx; so that since it required\nrepairs, it must already have existed for a considerable time. All\nsmall barbaric or archaic work of the ancient Egyptians in sculpture\nhas perished in the vast lapse of time. But this one monument, raised\nat least 4,000 years before the Christian era, stands to prove, with\nits companion pyramids, the wonderful power of conception, the energy\nand practical skill which characterized the early Egyptians. What they\nlacked in ideas of beauty, they made up for by the simple grandeur in\nthe colossal size and perfection in execution.\n\nThe intention of producing a monument to last forever was shown in an\nequally striking manner in the construction of the pyramids, and with\nan exercise of science and skill even more remarkable.\n\nEgyptian art, in the form of architecture, was, after the pyramids of\nGhizeh, further developed about 1650 B. C., under Osirtesen I., who\nbuilt the oldest of the temples at Thebes. Columns and obelisks were\nthen invented, and the _cavi relievi_ were largely used. Statuary,\nhowever, did not advance until after the Ph\u0153nician Shepherd Kings\u2014a\nbody of wandering Arabs, so called, who conquered Upper Egypt for a\ntime\u2014were driven out by Amosis, King of Thebes, about 1450 B. C.\n\nPassing over Amunothph I. and his successor Thothmosis I., of whom\nthere is a fine statue in the Turin Museum, we come to Thothmosis II.,\nwhose reign marks a period of vast development, as he married Nitocris,\nthe last Queen of Memphis, capital of Lower Egypt, and thus united the\ntwo kingdoms, about 1340 B. C. The great avenue of sphinxes, leading\nto the temple of Karnak, was made in her reign, and there is a statue\nof Thothmosis II., a seated figure seven feet nine inches high, in good\nproportions, of about seven heads high, the fingers and toes straight,\nnot showing the knuckles, and the legs sharply chiseled at the shins,\nnot showing the small bone on the outside of the leg, as in the statues\nof the later time of Amunothph III. (about 1260 B. C.).\n\nThe famous colossus, called the musical Memnon, one of the two still\nstanding in the desert near Thebes, more than fifty feet high, is of\nthis period. These statues are not in good proportion, being too short\nin the waist. The two fine lions, carved in red granite, belonging to\nthis time, which Lord Prudhoe brought over and presented to the British\nMuseum, are remarkable as examples of fine typical treatment of the\nlion. They show much grandeur of feeling, and, compared with the modern\nnaturalistic sculpture of lions, they are superior as examples of\nmonumental art.\n\nIn 1170 B. C. reigned Ramses II., the greatest of the Egyptian kings,\nunder whom was invented all the wonderful adaptation of the lotus and\npapyrus plant to the design of columns, as seen in the famous colonnade\nof the hall of Karnak. His statue, in the Turin Museum, is in the\nfinest style of ancient Theban art; it is a seated figure carved out\nof a block of black granite, and is not colossal, being only five feet\nseven inches high. The point to be noticed in this statue is the effort\nat action, which is not seen in earlier works. The right hand is raised\nto the breast holding the short sort of crosier of the god Osiris;\nthe left hand resting on the knee, strongly clenched. The colossal\nstatue of Ramses, as Osiris, may be taken as examples, with that of\nthe Memnon, in the British Museum, of the sculpture of this time. The\nlarge sphinx in the Louvre bears the name of Ramses II. The four-seated\ncolossi, carved out of the living rock at the entrance of the great\ntemple of Abou Simbel in Ethiopia, represent the same king. They are\nbetween sixty and seventy feet high, and wonderfully well sculptured,\nbut the proportions are not so good as in some smaller statues, as\nthey are six heads only in height, and short in the waist and thick\nin the limbs, showing no attempt at any close or correct imitation of\nnature. They look straight before them with a calm smile of confident\npower and contentment. These statues, and others which are to be seen\nin the museums, are not equal to those of the time of Amunothph III.,\npreviously referred to; they are not so well carved, and the features\nare heavy, with thick noses and lips, while the limbs are clumsy, and\nwithout any attempt at accurate modeling.\n\nIt will be observed, therefore, that Egyptian sculpture may be classed\nbroadly into three styles. (1) the Egyptian proper, reaching its finest\nperiod in the reign of Amunothph III.; (2) the Ethiopic Egyptian; (3)\nthe later Egyptian, leading to the decline of that style of sculpture.\nOf the first it should be noticed that the general proportions of the\nfigure were more accurately considered than the relative proportions\nof hands and feet to the limbs, which are generally incorrect. There\nare, however, some examples of excellent proportion, as in a colossal\narm and fist in the British Museum. This arm belonged to a statue of\nThothmes III., and came from Memphis. It is about ten feet long. The\nfist also came from Memphis, and measures four feet across. The heads\nof statues of this period are of the pure Coptic type, with a nose\nsomewhat aquiline, and the lips comparatively thin. The eyes, however,\nwere always carved in full in profile representations; the feet, one\nin advance of the other on the same plane. The details of form at the\nknuckles and legs are well indicated.\n\nIn the Ethiopic-Egyptian statues, general proportion is lost sight of;\nthe figures become dumpy, being only six heads high; the limbs are\nclumsy and wanting in modeling; the hands and feet stiff and not marked\nby details at the joints; nor do they show the small bone of the leg.\nThe heads are more of the Negro type, with turned-up noses and thick\nlips.\n\nIn the later Egyptian it is remarkable that with more attempt to\nimitate nature in the modeling of the muscles, the forms of the\ntrunk and limbs become unnaturally puffed. More is added in symbolic\nattributes; heads of the cat, the hawk, and the ape, are placed on the\nhuman body; the dress is more elaborate, that of the head especially,\non which a disc for the sun was often placed, as on the god Osiris.\nFrom the fall of Thebes, about 1000 B. C., to the conquest of Egypt by\nthe Persians, 523 B. C., sculpture became more and more degraded, and\nsoon lost its original style of simplicity and grandeur of form.\n\nAfter some two centuries of rule, the Persians were conquered by\nAlexander the Great, 332 B. C., but there are no statues of Greek style\nof this date found in Egypt; under the Ptolemies, his successors for\n300 years, new temples of inferior but still Egyptian style were built,\nsuch as those at Phile, Edfou, and Denderah, and many statues were\nmade, but nearly all have been destroyed, and there is not one of any\nking or queen of the Ptolemies.\n\nAfter Egypt became a Roman province, in 38 B. C., Egyptian sculpture,\nin a debased form, was still continued upon the decoration of the\ntemples, but the statues were then in the hands of Greek artists. Still\nlater, there is the well-known statue of Antinous as an Egyptian, the\nwork of a Greek sculptor of the time of the Emperor Hadrian (A. D.\n117-138).\n\nAssyrian sculpture is a discovery of recent times, first made in 1842-3\nby Botta, the French consul at Mosul on the banks of the Tigris, and\nalmost simultaneously by Mr. Layard, who though he had seen the ruins\nof Nineveh in 1840 did not get permission to examine and excavate till\n1845. The sculptures differ widely from any in Egypt in being nearly\nall in bas-relief and high relief. There are very few statues, carved\nin the round, that stand either with a support practically or on the\nlegs. There are no colossi nearly approaching in size the Egyptian and\nGreek colossal statues, none being higher than eighteen feet, while\nas we have seen sixty feet was a moderate height for an Egyptian or\nGreek colossal figure, and some were higher. The colossal human-headed\nbulls and lions with wings, at the portals of the king\u2019s palace, are\nin high relief on huge slabs, one on each side, facing outwards, and\none on each side on the wall, with the head turned to look to the\nfront. It does not appear that any principal figure was set up in an\ninterior, either of these compound animals, or of any deity or king.\nNo colossal seated figures like the Egyptian statues have been found.\nThe standing figures carved in relief differ entirely in the expression\nof the countenance and motive of the figure from the Egyptian. They\nhave all some action; the king grasps a captured lion, or as chief\npriest he walks with his staff which he holds firmly, while the left\nhand rests on the hilt of his sword. It is true that the legs are\non one plane, and the feet in a position that could not support the\nbody; still the intention to show action and life is there. There\nis none of the desire to express majestic, calm, eternal repose and\ncontent which is so characteristic of Egyptian sculptured statues.\nThroughout the great number of slabs in the British Museum and in the\nLouvre there is a very vigorous descriptive power displayed in carving\nfigures of men, horses, chariots, battles, sieges of cities, hunting\nscenes, processions, rivers with men swimming on inflated skins, with\nfish and boats; implements, weapons, chairs, baskets, trees, birds,\nbuildings, with a close resemblance to the real objects that is very\ndistinctive of the Assyrian style. The quadrupeds and birds are much\nbetter done than the human figures; the character of some of the mules\nis faithfully given, and there is much feeling for nature in some of\nthe lions in the hunting-scenes. There is no doubt, also, that this\nnaturalistic realism was carried further by painting the sculptures.\nIn none of these painted reliefs, however, is there anything of\nthe careful carving and delicate delineation of the Egyptian _cavi\nrelievi_; they are all boldly done, and with a good deal of skill, but\nby hands that would seem to have been self-taught, and at liberty\nto represent as they pleased so that the conventional attributes and\nsymbolic objects were duly made clear. There is scarcely any regulated\nuse of typical forms; and in the proportions of the figures especially\nthere is no rule. The principal figures are about 6\u00bd heads high, and\nin others the heads are often larger, while the arms and legs are out\nof all proportion gigantic, the muscles being exaggerated into masses\nat the calf and knee, and the shin-bone absurdly prominent. All truth\nseems to have been sacrificed for the sake of conveying a violent\nlook of immense strength. The battle scenes remind us of some of the\npuerile representations by medi\u00e6val workmen of a poor style, or the\ndebased Roman work seen on sarcophaguses. The Assyrians, unlike the\nEgyptians, were \u201cmighty hunters,\u201d consequently horses were favorites\nwith the Assyrian carvers, as they were with the Greek sculptors\nafterwards; they seldom have more than one fore-leg and one hind one,\nbut their heads are carefully carved, and all the trappings show the\nsame intention to obtain exact resemblance as is displayed in the\ndress and ornaments of the kings and other figures. It is important\nto observe that these sculptures are very equal in merit; there is no\nsign of improvement and little of falling off. As to the date of these\nsculptures, they are much later than all the Egyptian work of the finer\nstyle.\n\nIt may be concluded that the Assyrian palaces, with their sculptured\nwalls, took a much shorter time to build than the Egyptian, as they\nwere built of sun-baked bricks, with ornamental slabs below, and wooden\nbeams and columns above, all which structures have perished leaving\nonly the stone slabs. The soft nature of the stone, which is a kind of\ngrey alabaster, extremely suited to carving in the manner employed,\nafforded the facility that influenced the style and enabled the carvers\nto indulge their inclination for realistic detail. They do not appear\nto have sought for fine colored hard stones as the Egyptians did, nor\ndo they show the same desire to make their work monumental and enduring.\n\nAssyrian sculpture was always archaic, though at the same time more\nvigorous in what might be called graphic sculpture, and truer in\nimitation of nature than Egyptian, which rarely attempted action in the\nfigure or facial expression. There is, however, no alliance between the\ntwo styles, and there was never likely to be, as the Assyrians were not\na people of poetic and abstract ideas, but of facts, circumstances,\nand action. They thought of the present glory, and did not trouble\nthemselves about the future. The same characteristics will partly\naccount for the absence of any kind of reference to a future state. The\ntree of life with the priest ministering before it and holding fruit is\nto be seen; but it is remarkable that no sepulchral monuments have been\nfound; no tomb or mark of regard in any shape for the welfare of the\ndead hereafter has been discovered.\n\nBearing in mind that the Assyrians were never a statue-making people,\nand never attempted to follow the example of the Egyptians\u2014do we find\nthem influencing the sculptural art of any other people in work like\nthat of the Assyrians? This question is answered at once by the remains\nfound at Persepolis, where there are to be seen similar winged and\nhuman-headed lions and bulls, and sculptured slabs, but no statues\neither in the round or in alto-relievo.\n\nThe ruins of the palaces of Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes, the date of\nwhich is from 560 B. C. to the conquests of Alexander the Great (331 B.\nC.), show only sculptural remains left, after all the soft brick walls\nand the wooden beams and rafters have long perished. Persian sculptural\nart since those days never advanced to the dignity of statuary, but\nlike its Assyrian predecessor stopped short where Greek art began\nto develop. The same is to be observed of that ramification of the\nAssyrian arts which is to be traced in the building of the temple of\nJerusalem under Solomon, which, however, was some five centuries before\nthe time of Cambyses, and about the same length of time after the\nsettling of the Israelites in the Delta of the Nile (1550 B. C.). The\nlaw of Moses was sufficient to prevent any sculpture in the likeness of\nliving things; but the cherubim, with their wings, seem to have been\nborrowed from the Assyrians. The temple was, no doubt, built of stone\nand cedar-wood after the manner of the Assyrians, and with a profusion\nof ornament in carving, of valuable marbles, wood, and embossed work in\nprecious metals.\n\nThe colossal sculptures in the rock-cut temples of India, whether taken\nas derived from the Assyrian centre or not, may be classed with that\nstyle as semi-barbaric and naturalistic, with a superadded symbolism\nwhich only led to the most extravagant deformities of the human figure\nto express the power and attributes of a deity. Statuary proper never\nexisted in any shape of beauty like the human form, throughout Persia,\nIndia, and China, and there is no sign of any disposition amongst the\nAsiatics to learn the art from their European conquerors; it is not in\ntheir nature.\n\n\n\n\nSELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE.\n\n\n\n\nMODERN STATE OF ANCIENT COUNTRIES.\n\nBy GEORGE SANDYS.\n\nThe parts I speak of are the most renowned countries and kingdoms;\nonce the seats of most glorious and triumphant empires; the theaters\nof valor and heroical actions; the soils enriched with all earthly\nfelicities; the places where Nature hath produced her wonderful works;\nwhere arts and sciences have been invented and perfected; where wisdom,\nvirtue, policy, and civility, have been planted, have flourished; and,\nlastly, where God himself did place his own commonwealth, gave laws and\noracles, inspired his prophets, sent angels to converse with men; above\nall, where the Son of God descended to become man; where he honored the\nearth with his beautiful steps, wrought the works of our redemption,\ntriumphed over death, and ascended into glory; which countries, once\nso glorious and famous for their happy estate, are now, through vice\nand ingratitude, become the most deplored spectacles of extreme misery;\nthe wild beasts of mankind having broken in upon them, and rooted out\nall civility, and the pride of a stern and barbarous tyrant possessing\nthe thrones of ancient and just dominion. Who, aiming only at the\nheight of greatness and sensuality, hath in tract of time reduced\nso great and goodly a part of the world to that lamentable distress\nand servitude, under which (to the astonishment of the understanding\nbeholders) it now faints and groaneth. Those rich lands at this present\nremain waste and overgrown with bushes, receptacles of wild beasts,\nof thieves, and murderers; large territories dispeopled or thinly\ninhabited; goodly cities made desolate; sumptuous buildings become\nruins; glorious temples either subverted or prostituted to impiety;\ntrue religion discountenanced and oppressed; all nobility extinguished;\nno light of learning permitted, nor virtue cherished; violence and\nrapine insulting over all, and leaving no security except to an abject\nmind, and unlooked-on poverty; which calamities of theirs, so great and\ndeserved, are to the rest of the world as threatening instructions. For\nassistance wherein, I have not only related what I saw of their present\ncondition, but, so far as convenience might permit, presented a brief\nview of the former estates and first antiquities of those peoples and\ncountries; thence to draw a right image of the frailty of man, the\nmutability of whatever is worldly, and assurance that, as there is\nnothing unchangeable saving God, so nothing stable but by his grace and\nprotection.\n\n\n\n\nTHE DESIGN OF THE NEW ENGLAND PLANTATIONS.\n\nBy the REV. COTTON MATHER.\n\nThere were more than a few attempts of the English to people, to settle\nand improve the parts of New England which were to the northward of\nNew Plymouth, but the designs of those attempts being aimed no higher\nthan the advancement of some worldly interests, a constant series of\ndisasters confounded them, until there was a plantation erected on the\nnobler designs of Christianity, and that plantation, though it has\nhad more adversaries, perhaps, than any one upon earth, yet, having\nobtained help from God, it continues to this day. There have been\nvery fine settlements in the northeast regions, but what is become\nof them? I have heard that one of our ministers, once preaching to a\ncongregation there, urged them to approve themselves a religious people\nfrom this consideration: that otherwise they would contradict the main\nobject of planting this wilderness, whereupon a well-known person, then\nin the assembly, cried out: \u201cSir, you are mistaken, you think you are\npreaching to the people at the Bay; our main end was to catch fish.\u201d\nTruly \u2019twere to have been wished that something more excellent had been\nthe main end of the settlements in that brave country, which we have,\neven long since the arrival of that more pious colony at the Bay, now\nseen dreadfully unsettled, no less than twice, at least, by the sword\nof the heathen, after they had been replenished by many hundreds of\npeople who had thriven to many thousands of pounds, and all the force\nof the Bay, too, to assist them in maintaining their settlements. But\nthe same or like inauspicious things attended many other endeavors to\nmake plantations, on such a _main end_, in several other parts of the\ncountry, before the arrival of the Massachusetts colony, which was\nformed on more glorious aims.\n\n\nREMARKS ON THE CATALOGUE OF PLANTATIONS.\n\n(1) There are few towns to be now seen on our list but what were\nexisting in this land before the dreadful Indian war which befell us\ntwenty years ago; and there are few towns broken up within the then\nMassachusetts line by that war but what have revived out of their\nashes. Nevertheless the many calamities which have ever since been\nwasting the country have so nip the growth of it, that its later\nprogress hath held no proportion with what was from the beginning; but\nyet with such variety, that while the trained companies of some towns\nare no bigger than they were thirty or forty years ago, others are as\nbig again.\n\n(2) The calamities that have carried off the inhabitants of our several\ntowns have not been all of one sort. Pestilential sicknesses have made\nfearful havoc in divers places, where the sound have not perhaps been\nenough to tend the sick, while others have not had one touch from the\nAngel of Death, and the sword hath cut off scores in sundry places,\nwhen others, it may be, have not lost a single man by that avenger.\n\n(3) \u2019Tis no unusual, though no universal experiment, among us, that\nwhile an excellent, laborious, illuminating ministry has been continued\nin a town, the place has thriven to admiration; but ever since that\nman\u2019s time they have gone down the wind in all their interests.\nThe gospel has evidently been the making of all our towns, and the\nblessings of the Upper have been accompanied with the blessings of the\nNether Springs. Memorable also is the remark of Slingsby Beibel, Esq.,\nin his most judicious \u201cBook of the Interests of Europe:\u201d \u201cWere not the\ncold climate of New England supplied by good laws and discipline, the\nbarrenness of the country would never have brought people to it, nor\nhave advanced it in consideration and formidableness above the other\nEnglish plantations exceeding it much in fertility and other inviting\nqualities.\u201d\n\n(4) Well may New England lay claim to the name it wears, and to a room\nin the tenderest affections of its mother, the happy island. For as\nthere are few of our towns but what have their namesakes in England, so\nthe reason why most of our towns are called what they are, is because\nthe chief of the first inhabitants would thus bear up the names of the\nparticular places there from whence they came.\n\n(5) I have heard an aged saint, near his death, thus cheerfully\nexpress himself: \u201cWell, I am going to heaven, and I will there tell\nthe faithful who are gone long since from New England thither, that\nthough they who gathered in our churches are all dead and gone, yet the\nchurches are still alive, with as numerous flocks of Christians as were\never among them.\u201d Concerning most of the churches in our catalogue,\nthe report thus carried unto heaven, I must now also send through the\nearth; but if with \u201cas numerous,\u201d we could in every respect say as\ngracious, what joy to all the saints, both in heaven and on earth,\nmight be from thence occasioned.\u2014_Magnalia Christi Americana._\n\n\n\n\nEXTRACTS FROM \u201cESSAYS TO DO GOOD.\u201d\n\nBy the REV. COTTON MATHER.\n\nTo take a poor child, especially an orphan left in poverty, and bestow\na liberal education on it, is an admirable charity, yea, it may draw\nafter it a long train of good, and may interest you in all the good\ndone by him whom you have educated. Hence, also, what is done for\nschools, for colleges, and for hospitals is done for the general good.\nThe endowment and maintenance of these is at once to do good to many.\n\nBut alas, how much of the silver and the gold is buried in hands where\nit is little better than if conveyed back to the mines whence it came.\nHow much of it is employed to as little purpose as what arrives at\nHindoostan, where a great part of it, after some circulation, is by the\nMoguls lodged in subterraneous caves never to see the light again. The\nChristian whose faith and hope are genuine, acts not thus.\n\nSometimes elaborate compositions may be prepared for the press, works\nof great bulk, and of greater worth, by which the best interests of\nknowledge and virtue might be considerably promoted, but they lie,\nlike the impotent man at the pool of Bethesda, in silent neglect, and\nare likely to continue in that state, till God inspires some wealthy\npersons nobly to subscribe to their publication, and by this generous\napplication of their property to bring them abroad. The names of\nsuch noble benefactors to mankind ought to live as long as the works\nthemselves live; and when the works do any good, what these have done\ntowards the publishing of them, ought to be \u201ctold for a memorial of\nthem.\u201d He urges gentlemen of leisure to seek \u201csome honorable and\nagreeable employments,\u201d and says, \u201cI will mention one: The Pythagoreans\nforbade men\u2019s eating their own brains, or keeping their good thoughts\nto themselves.\u201d The incomparable Boyle observes that as to religious\nbooks in general, \u201cthose that have been written by laymen, and\nespecially by gentlemen, have (_c\u00e6teris paribus_) been better received\nand more effectual than those published by clergymen.\u201d Mr. Boyle\u2019s\nwere certainly so. Men of quality have frequently attained such\naccomplishments in languages and science that they become prodigies\nof literature. Their libraries also have stupendous collections\napproaching toward Vatican or Bodleian dimensions. It were much to be\nwished that persons of wealth and station would qualify themselves for\nthe use of the pen, as well as of the sword, and deserve this eulogium:\n\u201cThey have written excellent things.\u201d An English person of quality in\nhis treatise entitled \u201cA view of the soul,\u201d has the following passage:\n\u201cIt is certainly the highest dignity, if not the greatest happiness of\nwhich human nature is capable in the vale below, to have the soul so\nfar enlightened as to become a mirror, conduit or conveyor of God\u2019s\ntruth to others.\u201d It is a bad motto for a man of capacity to say, \u201cMy\nunderstanding is unfruitful.\u201d Gentlemen, consider what subjects may\nmost properly and usefully fall under your cultivation. Your pens may\nstab atheism and vice more effectually than other men\u2019s can. If out of\nyour tribe there come those who handle the pen of the writer, they will\ndo uncommon execution. One of them has ingenuously said, \u201cThough I know\nof some _functions_, yet I know no _truths_ of religion that like the\nshew-bread belong to the priests alone.\u201d * * *\n\nTo do good is a sure and pleasant way effectually to bespeak God\u2019s\nblessings on ourselves. Who so likely to find blessings as the men who\nare blessings? While we work for God, he certainly will work for us,\nand ours\u2014will do for us more than we have done for him; \u201cmore than we\ncan ask or think.\u201d A good action is its own reward.\n\nBut what shall be done for the good man in the heavenly world? His part\nand work in the city of God are at present incomprehensible to us, but\nthe kindness which his God will show him in the strong city will be\ntruly marvelous. The attempts which the Christian has made to fill this\nworld with righteous things, are so many tokens for good to him, that\nhe shall have a portion in that world wherein shall dwell nothing but\nrighteousness. He will be welcomed with \u201cWell done, good and faithful\nservant.\u201d\n\nI will conclude with a declaration which I will boldly maintain. It\nis this: Were a man able to write in seven languages, could he daily\nconverse with all the sweets of the liberal sciences to which the\nmost accomplished make pretensions; were he to entertain himself with\nall ancient and modern history; and could he feast continually on the\ncuriosities which the different branches of learning may discover to\nhim, all this would not afford the ravishing satisfaction which he\nmight find in relieving the distresses of a poor, miserable neighbor,\nnor would it bear any comparison with the heartfelt delight which he\nmight have by doing service to the kingdom of our great Savior in the\nworld.\n\n\n\n\nSPIRITUAL KNOWLEDGE.\n\nBy JONATHAN EDWARDS.\n\n\nThere is a kind of taste of the mind, whereby persons are guided\nin their judgment of the natural beauty, gracefulness, propriety,\nnobleness, and sublimity of speeches and action, whereby they judge,\nas it were, by the glance of the eye, or by inward sensation, and the\nfirst impression of the object; so there is likewise such a thing as\na divine taste, given and maintained by the Spirit of God, in the\nhearts of the saints, whereby they are in like manner led and guided\nin discerning and distinguishing the true spiritual and holy beauty of\nactions; and that more easily, readily, and accurately, as they have\nmore or less of the Spirit of God dwelling in them. And thus \u201cthe sons\nof God are led by the Spirit of God, in their behavior in the world.\u201d\n\nA holy disposition and spiritual taste, where grace is strong and\nlively, will enable a soul to determine what actions are right and\nbecoming Christians, not only more speedily, but far more exactly,\nthan the greatest abilities without it. This may be illustrated by\nthe manner in which some habits of mind, and dispositions of heart,\nof a nature inferior to true grace, will teach and guide a man in his\nactions. As for instance, if a man be a very good natured man, his good\nnature will teach him how to act benevolently amongst mankind, and will\ndirect him, on every occasion, to those speeches and actions which are\nagreeable to rules of goodness, than the strongest reason will a man\nof a morose temper. So if a man\u2019s heart be under the influence of an\nentire friendship, and most endeared affection to another, though he\nbe a man of an indifferent capacity, yet this habit of his mind will\ndirect him, far more readily and exactly, to a speech and deportment,\nor manner of behavior, which shall in all respects be sweet and kind,\nand agreeable to a benevolent disposition of heart, than the greatest\ncapacity without it. He has, as it were, a spirit within him, that\nguides him; the habit of his mind is attended with a taste by which\nhe immediately relishes that air and mien which is benevolent, and\ndisrelishes the contrary, and causes him to distinguish between one\nand the other in a moment, more precisely, than the most accurate\nreasonings can find out in many hours. As the nature and inward\ntendency of a stone, or other heavy body, that is let fall from aloft,\nshows the way to the center of the earth more exactly in an instant\nthan the ablest mathematician, without it, could determine, by his most\naccurate observations, in a whole day. Thus it is that a spiritual\ndisposition and taste teaches and guides a man in his behavior in the\nworld. So an eminently humble, or meek, or charitable disposition,\nwill direct a person of mean capacity to such a behavior, as is\nagreeable to Christian rules of humility, meekness and charity, far\nmore readily and precisely than the most diligent study and elaborate\nreasonings of a man of the strongest faculties, who has not a Christian\nspirit within him. So also will a spirit of love to God, and holy fear\nand reverence toward God, and filial confidence in God, and an heavenly\ndisposition, teach and guide a man in his behavior.\n\nIt is an exceedingly difficult thing for a wicked man, destitute of\nChristian principles in his heart to guide him, to know how to demean\nhimself like a Christian, with the life and beauty, and heavenly\nsweetness of a truly holy, humble, Christ-like behavior. He knows not\nhow to put on these garments; neither do they fit him.\n\nThe saints in thus judging of actions by a spiritual taste, have not\na particular recourse to express rules of God\u2019s word, with respect\nto every word and action that is before them, the good or evil of\nwhich they thus judge: But yet their taste itself, in general, is\nsubject to the rule of God\u2019s word, and must be tried by that, and a\nright reasoning upon it. As a man of a rectified palate judges of\nparticular morsels by his taste; but yet his palate itself must be\njudged of, whether it be right or no, by certain rules and reasons. But\na spiritual taste of soul mightily helps the soul in its reasonings\non the word of God, and in judging the true meaning of its rules:\nAs it removes the prejudices of a depraved appetite, and naturally\nleads the thoughts in the right channel, casts a light on the word of\nGod, and causes the true meaning, most naturally, to come to mind,\nthrough the harmony there is between the disposition and relish of\na sanctified soul, and the true meaning of the rules of God\u2019s word.\nYea, this harmony tends to bring the texts themselves to mind, on\nproper occasions; as the particular state of the stomach and palate\ntends to bring particular meats and drinks to mind, as are agreeable\nto that state. \u201cThus the children of God are led by the Spirit of\nGod\u201d in judging of actions themselves, and in their meditations upon,\nand judging of, and applying the rules of God\u2019s holy word: And so God\n\u201cteaches them his statutes and causes them to understand the way of his\nprecepts;\u201d which the Psalmist so often prays for.\n\nBut this leading of the spirit is a thing exceedingly diverse from\nthat which some call so; which consists not in teaching them God\u2019s\nstatutes and precepts, that he has already given; but in giving them\nnew precepts by immediate inward speech or suggestion, and has in it\nno tasting the true excellency of things, or judging or discerning the\nnature of things at all. They do not determine what is the will of\nGod by any taste or relish, or any manner of judging of the nature of\nthings, but by an immediate dictate concerning the thing to be done;\nthere is no such thing as judgment or wisdom in the case. Whereas, in\nthat leading of the spirit which is peculiar to God\u2019s children, is\nimparted that true wisdom and holy discretion, so often spoken of in\nthe word of God; which is high above the other way, as the stars are\nhigher than a glow worm; and that which Balaam and Saul (who sometimes\nwere led by the spirit in that other way) never had, and no natural man\ncan have without a change of nature.\n\n    [End of Required Reading for October, 1883.]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    MAN is only a reed, the weakest plant of nature, but\n    he is a thinking reed. It is not necessary that the\n    whole universe should be in arms to crush him. A\n    vapor, a drop of water is sufficient to put him out of\n    existence. But even though the universe could crush him\n    to atoms, man would still be more noble than that which\n    kills him, because he is conscious that he is dying,\n    and of the advantage which the universe has over him;\n    the universe knows nothing.\u2014_Pascal._\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    NOTHING is so dangerous as an ignorant friend; a wise\n    enemy is worth much more.\u2014_La Fontaine._\n\n\n\n\nWHERE LIES THE MUSIC?\n\nBy ALICE C. JENNINGS.\n\n    [When Paganini once rose to amuse a crowded auditory\n    with his music, he found that his violin had been\n    removed, and a coarser instrument substituted for it.\n    Explaining the trick, he said to the audience, \u201cNow I\n    will show you that the music is not in my violin, but\n    in me.\u201d\u2014CHAUTAUQUAN _for December, 1882_.]\n\n\n     An artist once, whose magic could command\n       That sound its deepest secrets should unfold,\n     Had found his instrument by evil hand\n       Exchanged for one of meaner, coarser mould.\n\n     Yet, like the clashing tongue of vibrant bells,\n       The hindrance but a greater power revealed.\n    \u201cSee, I will show thee that the music dwells\n       In _me_, and not the instrument I wield.\u201d\n\n     He turns, and sweetly, grandly, at his call,\n       The violin its richest music flings.\n     The instrument is naught\u2014the player all\u2014\n       The power is in the touch, and not the strings.\n\n     A coarse, rude instrument, this world, at best:\n       Its strings made tense by selfishness and pride;\n     If by its discords music be expressed,\n       The music in our fingers must reside.\n\n     Remember this: in tune keep heart and hand,\n       And to earth\u2019s music thou shalt hold the key,\n     And from its discords sweetest tones command,\n       Unknown and unimagined, save by thee.\n\n\n\n\nWAVERLEY NOVELS.\n\nBy WALLACE BRUCE.\n\n\nWhen Walter Scott, one morning before breakfast, while looking for\nfishing-tackle, came upon his long neglected manuscript of Waverley,\nand decided to publish it, he baited his hook, so to speak, with a\nplump literary angle-worm, and carefully concealing himself, dropped it\ncautiously into one of the quiet and almost stagnant pools which here\nand there break the flow of the eighteenth century.\n\nNot to carry the figure further he wakes up one morning to find the\n\u201cAuthor of Waverley\u201d famous; but no one knew _who_ the \u201cAuthor of\nWaverley\u201d was. Romances, relating alike to the history of Scotland,\nEngland, France, Switzerland and Palestine, covering a wide range\nof life and character, with a varied record of eight hundred years,\nfollowed each other so rapidly that the reading world opened its eyes\nin wonder, until the \u201cgreat unknown\u201d was finally regarded the \u201cgreat\nmagician.\u201d His books, as they came wet from the press, were literally\ndevoured by the story-loving people of England and Scotland; and\npackages, shipped across the Atlantic, were regarded the most valuable\npart of the cargo. I have heard elderly people of New England speak of\nanxiously waiting for the next ship which was to bring to their hands\na new novel by the \u201cAuthor of Waverley.\u201d Never before had the pen of\nany man awakened such responsive interest in his own generation. The\npublication of Waverley marked a new era in romantic literature.\n\nDuring the eighty years that have followed that publication mankind\nhas had its hopes, longings, ambitions and jealousies mirrored in\nworks of fiction. Hundreds, ay, thousands of novels\u2014most of them\nunworthy of their high lineage\u2014have contended with each other for the\nworld\u2019s approbation; writers without number have flooded the century\nwith romance; but through all these years Walter Scott stands the\nacknowledged master, the purest-hearted, the noblest-minded of them\nall; the man who could say upon his death-bed: \u201cI have not written one\nline which I would wish blotted.\u201d\n\nNo words of re-invitation are necessary to those who have once read\nthe pages of Sir Walter, but it will be a \u201cconsummation devoutly to be\nwished\u201d if I can turn the coming generation of your readers away from\nthe sickly sentiment of the day to the works of him, whose influence,\nlike that of King Arthur of the Round Table, inspires the soul with\n\n    \u201cHigh thoughts and amiable words,\n     And courtliness, and the desire of fame,\n     And love of truth, and all that makes a man.\u201d\n\nSome years ago, while preparing a lecture on \u201cThe Landmarks of Scott,\u201d\nI found myself confronted with twenty-six novels and five well-known\npoems, besides innumerable essays and histories, all demanding at\nleast a passing word. I saw that two minutes devoted to each would\nmore than fill my lecture hour, and leave no room for the frame-work,\nviz: Loch Katrine, Loch Lomond, the Trosachs, Melrose, Edinboro, the\nYarrow, the Ettrick, the Tweed, and the Border Country, where the\nPercy and the Douglas fought. It then occurred to me that Scott had\nunconsciously prepared a panoramic history of Europe from the time of\nthe Crusades to the year 1812. Acting upon this suggestion I examined\nthe novels and poems and found to my great delight, that with here\nand there an absent link of fifty or a hundred years the chain was\nalmost perfect. I condensed the prominent features of eight hundred\nyears, tracing their connection with Scott\u2019s graphic pictures into a\npen-sketch of ten minutes, and I have been gratified to see that this\nidea of chronological order has been recently followed by one of the\nleading New York publishers. It is my object in a series of articles to\nelaborate this historical sequence from the time of \u201cCount Robert of\nParis\u201d (1094) down to \u201cSt. Ronan\u2019s Well\u201d (1812), and to point out in\npassing some of the beauties of the great author.\n\nIf the reader of these articles will follow with me the romances to\nwhich I refer, I think he will say, at the close of the series, that\nhe has found in the Waverley Novels a vivid picture of the events\nand customs of Europe, from the days of the crusades down to a time\nwithin the memory of men still living. M. Augustin Thierry, one of the\nmost philosophical essayists of France, has eloquently said: \u201cThere\nare scenes of such simplicity, of such living truth, to be found,\nthat notwithstanding the distance of the period in which the author\nplaces himself, they can be realized without effort. It is because in\nthe midst of the world which no longer exists, Walter Scott always\nplaces the world which does, and always will exist; that is to say,\nhuman nature, of which he knows all the secrets. Everything peculiar\nto the time and place, the exterior of men, and aspect of the country\nand of the habitations, costumes and manners, are described with the\nmost minute truthfulness; and yet the immense erudition, which has\nfurnished so many details, is nowhere to be perceived. Walter Scott\nseems to have for the past that second sight, which, in times of\nignorance, men attributed to themselves for the future. To say that\nthere is more real history in his novels on Scotland and England than\nin the philosophically false compilations, which still possess that\ngreat name, is not advancing anything strange in the eyes of those who\nhave read and understood \u201cOld Mortality,\u201d \u201cWaverley,\u201d \u201cRob Roy,\u201d the\n\u201dFortunes of Nigel,\u201d and the \u201cHeart of Mid Lothian.\u201d\n\nAllison says in his essay on Chateaubriand, published in _Blackwood\u2019s\nMagazine_, March, 1832: \u201cWe feel in Scott\u2019s characters that it is not\nromance, but real life which is represented. Every word that is said,\nespecially in the Scotch novels, is nature itself. Homer, Cervantes,\nShakspere, and Scott, alone have penetrated to the deep substratum of\ncharacter, which, however disguised by the varieties of climate and\ngovernment, is at bottom everywhere the same; and thence they have\nfound a responsive echo in every human heart. He has carried romance\nout of the region of imagination and sensibility into the walks of\nactual life. He has combined historical accuracy and romantic adventure\nwith the interest of tragic events; we live with the heroes, and\nprinces, and paladins of former times, as with our own contemporaries;\nand acquire from the splendid coloring of his pencil such a vivid\nconception of the manners and pomp of the feudal ages, that we confound\nthem, in our recollections, with the scenes which we ourselves have\nwitnessed. The splendor of their tournaments, the magnificence of\ntheir dress, the glancing of their arms, their haughty manners, daring\ncourage, and knightly courtesy; the shock of their battle-steeds, the\nsplintering of their lances, the conflagration of their castles, are\nbrought before our eyes in such vivid colors, that we are at once\ntransported to the age of Richard and Saladin, of Charles the Bold and\nPhilip Augustus.\u201d\n\nThe four novels, which deal with the history of the Crusades, are\n\u201cCount Robert of Paris,\u201d \u201cThe Betrothed,\u201d \u201cThe Talisman,\u201d and\n\u201cIvanhoe.\u201d It is a singular fact that the one occupying the first\nplace in chronological order was written last, and hardly completed\nby the author when he died. \u201cIvanhoe\u201d is, without doubt, the great\nfavorite. I have often thought that \u201cIvanhoe\u201d bears the same relation\nto Scott\u2019s novels that \u201cThe Merchant of Venice\u201d does to the dramas of\nShakspere. \u201cOld Mortality,\u201d and \u201cHamlet,\u201d may show deeper insight; but\nneither Scott nor Shakspere ever surpassed the two I have associated in\ndramatic interest. The three novels which precede \u201cIvanhoe\u201d in point of\ntime will give us a complete knowledge of the times and manners of the\nCrusades, and lead us, as it were, from one picture-gallery to another,\nuntil we come to the master-piece of the great artist.\n\n\u201cCount Robert of Paris\u201d opens with a description of the court of\nAlexius Commenus\u2014a wily monarch, who had ample need of all his strategy\nin dealing with foes that menaced him from every side: the Franks\nfrom the west, the Turks from the east, the Scythians from the north,\nthe Saracens from the south. The wealthy city on the Bosphorous,\nenriched by the spoils of nations, whose golden gate symbolized the\nwealth and magnificence of seven hundred years of prosperity, was on\nthe great highway of travel, where, so to speak, the \u201ccross-roads\u201d\nof Europe met, and presented a tempting prize to the restless and\nbarbarous hordes from the shores of the Caspian to the German Ocean.\n\u201cThe superb successor of the earth\u2019s mistress,\u201d decked in borrowed\nsplendor, gave early intimations of that speedy decay to which the\nwhole civilized world, then limited within the Roman Empire, was\ninternally and imperceptibly tending. Intrigue and corruption in the\npalace had compelled the Greek sovereigns of Constantinople, for\nmany years, to procure foreign soldiers to quell insurrections and\ndefend any traitorous attempt on the imperial person. These were known\nas Verangians\u2014a word signifying barbarians\u2014and formed a corps of\nsatellites more distinguished for valor than the famed Pr\u00e6torian Bands\nof Rome.\n\nThe second chapter of the book reveals the hatred and jealousy existing\nbetween these foreign soldiers and the crafty civilians. The Verangian,\nto whom the reader is introduced, is an Anglo-Saxon too proud to bow\nhis head to a Norman conqueror, a wanderer from his father-land,\na soldier in search of better fortune, soon to discover by lucky\nchance among the crusaders the fair Bertha of his early love. Upon\nthis slender thread the novelist hangs the romantic elements of the\nstory. But Count Robert of Paris is in no sense a love drama; in fact\nit can hardly be termed a romance. It is rather a historic sketch,\nplacing in sharp contrast the wild enthusiasm of western Europe, her\ncastles of rude masonry, her mud hovels, her rude simplicity, with\nthe over-refined manners and tapestried chambers of the eastern court\nhastening to its decay. It is living Europe confronting the dead\ncenturies.\n\nThe third chapter introduces us to a richly furnished drawing room,\nwhere the Princess Anna Commena\u2014the first lady historian\u2014sits reading\nto a sleepy group her prolix history of the glory of her father\u2019s\nreign. At this gathering Scott brings together with great art all the\nleading actors of the drama; the Emperor Alexius and his wife Irene;\nNicepherous Briennius, the intriguing son-in-law, husband of the fair\nhistorian; the crafty philosopher Agelastes; Achilles Tatius, master of\nthe guards, and the faithful Verangian. This is the real commencement\nof the story, and to this gathering the news is announced of another\nbody of the great Crusade, consisting not of the ignorant or of the\nfanatical like those led on by Peter the Hermit, but an army of lords\nand nobles marshaled by kings and emperors. Against this mass of\nsteel-clad warriors the East had no power to oppose save the inherent\ncunning and strategy of Commenus. Craft and wealth meet stupidity and\navarice. The more powerful chiefs of the Crusades are loaded with\npresents, feasted by the emperor with the richest delicacies, and\ntheir thirst slaked with iced wine; while their followers are left\nat a distance in malarial districts, and intentionally supplied with\nadulterated flour, tainted provisions, and bad water. Neglected by\nfriends and insulted by foes, they contracted diseases and died in\ngreat numbers \u201cwithout having once seen a foot of the Holy Land, for\nthe recovery of which they had abandoned their peace, their competence,\nand their native country. Their misfortunes were imputed to their\nown wilfulness, and their sickness to the vehemence of their own\nappetites for raw fruits and unripened wines.\u201d By promises of wealth\nand long-practiced arts of diplomacy, the Emperor Commenus at last even\ninduces the leaders of the crusade individually to acknowledge him\u2014the\nGrecian Emperor\u2014originally lord paramount of all these regions, as\ntheir liege lord and suzerain.\n\nScott takes advantage of this historical fact to draw one of his\nmatchless pictures, which in color and incident rivals the best pages\nof his more dramatic romances; and it is here that Count Robert, when\nthe emperor left his throne for a single moment, dismounted from his\nhorse, took the seat of royal purple, and indolently began to caress\na large wolf-hound, which had followed him, and which, feeling as\nmuch at ease as his master, reposed its grim form on the carpets of\ngold and silk damask which tapestried the imperial footstool. It was\na picture of modern liberty looking worn-out despotism in the face.\nThat sublime audacity revealed the mettle of the race which was to\nmake individual conscience supreme; and his haughty and fearless\nspeech was the prologue of Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, and the\nDeclaration of Independence. We must pass over the meeting in the\ngarden of Agesilaus, the entertainment at the palace, the drugged cup,\nthe dungeon experience of the count, and his miraculous release, the\nfortitude and virtue of his Countess Brenhilda, the meeting of the\nVerangian with Bertha in the garden of the philosopher, the treachery\nof Briennius, his imprisonment and death-decree, and many other\nincidents of interest, for the remaining space of this article must\nbe given to a brief consideration of \u201cThe Betrothed;\u201d but the reader\nwill be happy to know that, after the conquest of Jerusalem, Count\nRobert of Paris returned to Constantinople _en route_ to his native\nkingdom. Upon reaching Italy the marriage of the Verangian and Bertha\nwas celebrated in princely style; and on his return to England a large\ndistrict, adjacent to the New Forest, near the home of his ancestors,\nwas conferred upon him by William Rufus, where it is presumed they\nspent their declining years in peace and happiness.\n\n\u201cThe Betrothed\u201d opens with the year 1187\u2014the time of the Third\nCrusade\u2014when Baldwin, Archbishop of Canterbury, preached the crusade\nfrom castle to castle, from town to town, awaking the inmost valleys\nof his native Cambria with the call to arms for the recovery of the\nHoly Sepulcher. As a connecting link between the stories we will say\nthat the soldiers of the First Crusade, after years of hardship and\nsuffering, at last accomplished their vows. Antioch and Jerusalem\nyielded to their arms, the Holy Sepulcher was redeemed from infidels.\nThose who returned to their homes recounted their triumphs, and all\nEurope was aglow with new zeal. Forty-five years later, in the year\n1142, a Second Crusade was organized against the impending dangers\nwhich threatened Palestine and Jerusalem. The warlike West was again\nin arms; but this crusade was more unfortunate than the first. The\ncrusaders were again compelled to endure the outrages and perfidies of\nthe Greek. As in the First Crusade, the Christian armies dragged in\ntheir train a great number of children, women, and old men, who could\ndo nothing toward victory but greatly augmented the disaster of defeat.\nThe piety and heroism of the First Crusade had degenerated into a love\nof show and military splendor. \u201cThat which was still more injurious to\ndiscipline,\u201d to quote from the admirable \u201cHistory of the Crusades,\u201d by\nJ. F. Michaud, \u201cwas the depravity of manners in the Christian army,\nwhich must be principally attributed to the great number of women\nthat had taken arms and mixed in the ranks of the soldiery. In this\ncrusade there was a troop of Amazons, commanded by a general, whose\ndress was much more admired than her courage,\u201d and whose gilded boots\nprocured her a name which we will not copy from the historian\u2019s pages.\nForty years of struggle pass away in Palestine, and at the time of the\nopening of our story Henry the Second of England, Richard the First,\nand Philip of France, determine on renewing the Holy War. Moved by the\neloquence and enthusiasm of Baldwin, there is a general cessation of\nhostilities between the Welsh princes and their warlike neighbors on\nthe Marches of England. But one castle, known as the Garde Doloureuse,\nwas not so fortunate. Its owner was Raymond Berenger. The hand of his\ndaughter was asked in marriage by one of the Welsh chieftains. The\ncompliment was declined. Raymond Berenger, in accordance with a rash\npromise, gave battle upon the plain and was slain. The castle was\nassaulted, but faithfully defended by an honest Fleming, inspired by\nthe heroism of the orphaned daughter. Before the battle, Scott gives\nus a fine picture of the Welsh bards, and an admirable idea of life in\nthe mountain fastnesses of Wales. His description of the defense of\nthe castle is so graphic that we seem to walk the ramparts with the\nsoldiers, and listen to the counsel of its defenders. Hugo De Lacy,\nConstable of Chester, arrives in time to raise the siege of the castle,\nand at once lays siege to the heart of the fair Eveline, to whom it\nseems she had been promised, when a child, by her father. From a sense\nof duty, rather than love, she accepts his proposal. She visits her\nSaxon aunt\u2014a cruel and demented relic of the house of Baldringham; and\nis compelled to sleep in a haunted chamber, known as the \u201cRoom of the\nRed Finger.\u201d The picture of Saxon life here presented is in strong\ncontrast with the life of the Norman nobles. The century that had\nfollowed the Norman invasion of England had irritated wounded pride.\nOvercome by superstition and terror, Eveline sees in her dreams the\nspectre, and hears the fatal couplet, which gives name to the romance:\n\n    \u201cWidowed wife and married maid,\n     Betrothed, betrayer, and betrayed.\u201d\n\nEveline goes from her aunt\u2019s to the abbess of a convent, a near\nrelative, and Hugo De Lacy, having signified his intention of going\nto the Holy Land, asks a remission of his vow for two years; but the\nrigid prelate Baldwin was inexorable: \u201cThe advancement of the crusade\nwas the chief business of Baldwin\u2019s life, and the liberation of the\nHoly Sepulcher from the infidels was the unfeigned object of all his\nexertions. The successor of the celebrated Becket had neither the\nextensive views, nor the aspiring spirit of that redoubted personage;\nbut on the other hand, saint as the latter had become, it may be\nquestioned whether, in his professions for the weal of christendom, he\nwas half so sincere as was the present archbishop.\u201d\n\nThe interview between De Lacy and Baldwin shows the great power of the\nChurch in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. He was compelled to leave\nEveline before wedlock had united them indissolubly, and the first line\nof the couplet: \u201cWidowed wife and married maid,\u201d seemed already in the\ncourse of fulfillment. Hugo de Lacy sets sail for Palestine with these\ngood-by words: \u201cIf I appear not when three years are elapsed let the\nLady Eveline conclude that the grave holds De Lacy, and seek out for\nher mate some happier man. She can not find one more grateful, though\nthere are many who better deserve her.\u201d\n\nEveline returns to the castle of her father; the care of the country\nagainst Welsh invasion is assigned to Damian de Lacy, who had already\nby acts of bravery won the esteem of Eveline. The days and months of\nindolent castle life wear slowly away, with the occasional visit of\na strolling harper, or a hawking expedition near the castle, which\nScott, with his love for out-door amusements, enters into with apparent\nrelish. On one of these excursions Eveline is made prisoner by a\nparty of Welsh soldiers, and she is led away blindfolded through the\nrecesses of the hills. She is rescued by Damian de Lacy, who however\nis seriously wounded, and taken against the advice of friends to the\ncastle. Unfounded rumors poison the minds of the people, the castle is\nattacked by the king\u2019s forces, led on by a traitor of Hugo\u2019s family.\nDamian is taken prisoner and condemned to death. More than three years\nhad passed away, and now Hugo returns in poverty, and completely broken\nin spirit. Damian is released, and Hugo waives his claim to the hand\nof Eveline, and Damian wins one of the noblest women that Scott has\nmade immortal in the world. So much for the brief outline of the story,\nwhich reveals the manner of life on the Welsh borders during the time\nof the Third Crusade. The two novels which follow, \u201cThe Talisman\u201d and\n\u201cIvanhoe,\u201d portray even in more vivid colors the sufferings of the\ncrusaders in Palestine, and the every day life of Merrie England.\n\n\n\n\nTHE IVY.\n\nBy HENRY BURTON.\n\n\n    Pushing the clods of earth aside,\n    Leaving the dark where foul things hide,\n    Spreading its leaves to the summer sun,\n    Bondage ended, freedom won;\n        So, my soul, like the ivy be,\n        Rise, for the sunshine calls for thee!\n\n    Climbing up as the seasons go,\n    Looking down upon things below,\n    Twining itself in the branches high,\n    As if the frail thing owned the sky;\n        So, my soul, like the ivy be,\n        Heaven, not earth, is the place for thee.\n\n    Wrapping itself round the giant oak,\n    Hiding itself from the tempest\u2019s stroke;\n    Strong and brave is the fragile thing,\n    For it knows one secret, how to cling:\n        So, my soul, there\u2019s strength for thee,\n        Hear the Mighty One, \u201cLean on me!\u201d\n\n    Green are its leaves when the world is white,\n    For the ivy sings through the frosty night;\n    Keeping the hearts of oak awake,\n    Till the flowers shall bloom and the spring shall break;\n        So, my soul, through the winter\u2019s rain,\n        Sing the sunshine back again.\n\n    Opening its green and fluttering breast,\n    Giving the timid birds a nest;\n    Coming out from the winter wild,\n    To make a wreath for the Holy Child;\n        So let my life like the ivy be,\n        A help to man and a wreath for Thee!\n                               \u2014_Good Words._\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. COMMENCEMENT.[A]\n\nCLASS OF 1883.\n\n\nA special dispensation of weather seemed to have been prepared for the\naccommodation of the second graduating class of the Chautauqua Literary\nand Scientific Circle on Saturday. A bright warm day was benevolently\nshaded and cooled by nature\u2019s great sunshade of cloud during all the\nout-door exercises, and promptly upon the entry of the multitude under\nthe cover of the Amphitheater it began to rain to still further cool\nthe air. Everything was opportune, and the surroundings faultless.\n\nThe management terrestrial was equally good. There were four different\nprocessions, in five divisions, moving from different rendezvous in\nthe grounds and converging and articulating with each other. Each of\nthem started on time \u201cto a tick,\u201d got to and dropped into place, and\neverything moved with the smoothness and precision of a well-adjusted\nmachine. The program, as prepared, was carried out to the letter and\nsecond.\n\nThe attendance was as immense, the feeling as good as the day and\nmanagement. The unprecedented crowd of the night before was augmented\nin the morning by boat-loads and train-loads, and when the signal-bells\nfor beginning the day\u2019s movement sounded the avenues were thronged.\n\nPunctually at the hour the \u201cGuard of the Gate,\u201d H. S. Field, J. J.\nCovert, Miss E. E. Tuttle, W. H. Rogers, Charles B. Wood, S. J. M.\nEaton, Miss Myrtie Hudson, A. M. Martin, J. G. Allen, A. M. Mattison,\nand the \u201cGuard of the Grove,\u201d Miss Annie E. Wilcox, A. Wilder, Miss M.\nF. Wells, Miss E. Irvin, Miss Eleanor O\u2019Connell, E. C. Norton, Mrs.\nE. Howe, De Forest Temple, Mrs. Isaiah Golding, George Seebrick, in\ncharge of Marshal S. J. M. Eaton, formed at the cottage of Lewis Miller\n(Auditorium), the right resting on Hedding Avenue.\n\nThe keys of the Golden Gate having been delivered by President Miller\nto the Messenger, Rev. A. H. Gillet, the division marched up Hedding\nAvenue to Clark, and out Clark to the Hall of Philosophy, and were\ndistributed to their proper positions in charge of the inclosure of St.\nPaul\u2019s Grove.\n\nThe second division, consisting of fifty-two little girls, the\nyoungest, Jennie Templeton, four years of age, heading the procession,\nbeautifully garlanded and bearing artistic baskets laden with flowers\nto their very brim, conducted by Mrs. Frank Beard, superintendent,\nassisted by Miss M. E. Bemis, Miss Minnie Barney, Messrs. Garret E.\nRyckman, and W. H. Burroughs, and Miss Blanche Shove, was formed at\nthe Children\u2019s Temple, the right resting on Clark Avenue. The \u201cSociety\nof the Hall in the Grove,\u201d (the graduates of the class of 1882, C. L.\nS. C.) were thus escorted by this beautiful company of prospective\nChautauquans through Clark Avenue to Hedding, down Hedding to Simpson,\nthrough Simpson to Park Athen\u00e6um, through Park Athen\u00e6um to Lake Avenue,\nto Dr. Vincent\u2019s cottage.\n\nThe sixth division, consisting of the graduates of the class of 1883,\nand the graduates of the class of 1882, who had not last year passed\nthrough the Golden Gate, and under the Arches, met at the gate of\nSt. Paul\u2019s Grove, on Merrill Avenue, each provided with a ticket, a\ngarnet badge, and a copy of the commencement service. A portion of\nthe Guard of the Grove stood within the gate, and a portion stood in\nwaiting without. The Messenger stood at the portal, holding the keys\nof the gate. The Guard of the Gate took their places in order, near\nthe Messenger, while the leaders of the graduating class, Rev. H. C.\nFarrar, chairman, and Rev. George C. Wilding, took their stations, one\non the right and the other on the left of the gateway, that at a given\nsignal the class might read responsively the form of service provided.\nThe classes were arranged in parallel columns stretching from the\nportal itself to the middle of Miller Avenue, a block and a half.\n\nAt precisely 9:45 the Chautauqua Band, headed by Frank Wright, Marshal,\nmarching up Lake Avenue, reached the cottage of Dr. Vincent. Here the\nbanner of the C. L. S. C., with the \u201cGuard of the Banner,\u201d Mrs. M.\nBailey and Mrs. Delos Hatch, were escorted to their places in the line.\nFour little children, Chippie Firestone, Edna McClellan, Nellie Mallory\nand Bobbie Davenport were conducted to their places as \u201cstreamer\nbearers,\u201d while the beautiful fabric itself was borne by Mr. W. E. H.\nMassey and Mr. Will Butler. The Superintendent of Instruction, Dr.\nVincent, took his place in the line.\n\nThe procession took its order of march, moving through Lake Avenue to\nHaven Avenue, and up Haven to the Hall of Philosophy, which it entered,\nand the band departed to escort thither \u201cThe Chautauqua Procession.\u201d\n(Division V.) This division formed at the Hotel Athen\u00e6um, Frank Wright,\nMarshal, the right resting on the north main front of the hotel, in the\nfollowing order:\n\n                          Band.\n\n    Chautauqua Board of Trustees, led by Lewis Miller,\n                  Esq., President.\n\n    The Faculty and Students of the \u201cChautauqua School of\n          Languages,\u201d J. H. Worman, Marshal.\n\n    The Normal Alumni, carrying their banners for the\n     various years since 1874, Frank Beard, Marshal.\n\n    The members of the classes of the C. L. S. C. for the\n    years 1887, 1886, 1885, 1884, Mr. Copeland, Marshal.\n\n    The guests of the Assembly, Rev. Frank Russell, Marshal.\n\nThe procession, thus constituted, moved at ten o\u2019clock from the piazza\nof the Hotel Athen\u00e6um, across the north side of the Park Athen\u00e6um, to\nLake Avenue, out Lake Avenue to Cookman Avenue, up Cookman to Clark,\nhalting on Cookman, the right resting on Clark, in open order, the Hall\nof Philosophy being on its right flank.\n\nAt this time the entire neighborhood of the \u201cHall in the Grove\u201d was\nfilled with interested crowds of spectators, whose eyes saw for the\nsecond time the \u201cRecognition Services\u201d of the immense class in the\n\u201cPeople\u2019s University.\u201d\n\nMore than a hundred and fifty of the \u201cSociety of the Hall in the Grove\u201d\n(graduates of the preceding year), entered the Hall, and were seated in\nits western side.\n\nPrecisely at ten o\u2019clock, as the booming of the great bell at the Point\nindicated the hour, the members of the Class of 1883, with such members\nof the Class of 1882 as had not last year passed the Arches, standing\nat the gate of St. Paul\u2019s Grove, read responsively the devotional\nservices, Rev. George C. Wilding acting as precentor of the first\nsection, and Rev. H. C. Farrar as the precentor of the second section.\n\nThe \u201cMessenger,\u201d Rev. A. H. Gillet, in slow and solemn utterance gave\nthe announcement as follows:\n\n    I come to inform all candidates for enrollment in\n    the \u201cSociety of the Hall in the Grove\u201d that the hour\n    appointed for your reception has arrived; the Hall\n    has been set in order; the Path through the Grove has\n    been opened; the Arches under which you must pass have\n    been erected; the Key which will open this Gate has\n    been placed in my hands. And to you who, as members of\n    the CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE, have\n    completed the four years\u2019 Course of Reading, and now\n    hold in your hands a pledge of the same, I extend, in\n    the name of the authorities, a welcome into St. Paul\u2019s\n    Grove, under the First Arch\u2014and let the watchman guard\n    carefully the Gate.\n\nAfter the announcement by the Messenger, he turned and opened the gate.\nThe first to enter was Mr. Miner Curtis, an invalid, borne in a wheeled\ncarriage by the advance members of the class of \u201983, and accompanied by\nhis wife and son, who were graduates of last year.\n\nHaving entered the Gate, and the Gate having been closed, the class\nproceeded very slowly toward the Hall, passing the second and third\nArches. As they walked up the beautifully decorated way, the \u201cChoir of\nthe Hall in the Grove\u201d stationed at the fourth Arch, and led by Prof.\nC. C. Case, sang \u201cA Song of To-day:\u201d\n\n    \u201cSing peans over the Past!\n     We bury the dead years tenderly.\u201d\n\nAt the entrance to the Hall stood the Superintendent of Instruction to\nwelcome the coming class, and as they passed by the Arch nearest the\nHall, the fifty-two little girls standing in double columns, scattered\nthe way of the coming graduates with the beauteous flowers, emblematic\nof the flower-strewn paths of intellectual light which they may hope to\ntread in the coming years.\n\nOn entering the building the \u201cSociety of the Hall in the Grove\u201d\nreceived their brothers and sisters with the most marked tokens of good\ncheer, waving their handkerchiefs and vocally expressing the kindly\nfeeling of the seniors of the year agone.\n\nAt precisely 10:20 the \u201cC. L. S. C. Glee Club,\u201d Prof. W. F. Sherwin,\nconductor, led the classes (which filled the Hall to repletion), as\nthey sang\n\n    \u201cA sound is thrilling thro\u2019 the trees\n       And vibrant thro\u2019 the air.\u201d\n\nAfter the reading of the responsive services came the \u201cRecognition,\u201d by\nthe Superintendent of Instruction, Dr. J. H. Vincent, as follows:\n\n    _Fellow Students of the Chautauqua Literary and\n    Scientific Circle of the Class of 1883_:\n\nDEARLY BELOVED\u2014You have finished the appointed and accepted course\nof reading. You have been admitted to this sacred Grove. You have\npassed the Arches dedicated to \u201cFaith,\u201d \u201cScience,\u201d \u201cLiterature\u201d and\n\u201cArt.\u201d You have entered in due form this Hall, the center of the\nChautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle; and now, as Superintendent\nof Instruction, in behalf of my associates, the counselors, who are\nthis day absent, I greet you, and hereby announce that you, and your\nbrothers and sisters absent from us this day, who have completed\nwith you the prescribed course of reading, are accepted and approved\ngraduates of the \u201cChautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle,\u201d and that\nyou are entitled to membership in the \u201cSociety of the Hall in the\nGrove.\u201d The Lord bless and keep thee; the Lord make his face to shine\nupon thee and be gracious unto thee; the Lord lift up his countenance\nupon thee, and give thee peace.\n\nI may say on behalf of the only counselor who is on the ground, Dr.\nLyman Abbott, that his indisposition renders it unsafe for him to be\nhere, but at my cottage he will join the procession, and go with you to\nthe Amphitheater. We will now unite in singing\n\n    \u201cBright gleams again Chautauqua\u2019s wave,\n       And green her forest arches.\u201d\n\nDuring the singing of the ode, according to the direction of the\nSuperintendent of Instruction, the class of 1882, under the marshalship\nof W. A. Duncan, quietly marched from the Hall in double column,\ntaking their position on Haven, Clark, and Cookman avenues, that the\ngraduating class might pass through their ranks at the close of the\nservice of recognition.\n\nThe Superintendent of Instruction, Dr. Vincent, Lewis Miller, the\nMessenger, the Secretary of the C. L. S. C., preceded by the children\n(flower bearers) and the Banner of the C. L. S. C., headed the\nprocession, which passed out of the south side of the Hall, around\nClark to Cookman Avenue, and passed down through the opened ranks of\nthe classes of the C. L. S. C., from whom they received constant marks\nof recognition and affection, the classes in some cases waving their\nChautauqua salute to the Chief as he passed by.\n\nWhen the head of the procession reached the cottage of Dr. Vincent, a\nhalt was made for a few moments, during which Dr. Lyman Abbott, one of\nthe counselors of the C. L. S. C., and the orator of the day, took his\nplace in the ranks.\n\nAs the procession marched up the long walk to the north door of the\nAmphitheater, immense throngs filled all the available standing room\non the slopes of the ravine, and the \u201cBlooming of the Lilies\u201d (the\nChautauqua salute) was given by all the opened ranks of the classes as\nthe head of the procession passed through.\n\nThe Chautauqua Band, stationed at the entrance of the north gate,\ndiscoursed sweet music during the passage of the long _cortege_.\n\nAll the officers, invited guests, members of the board of Chautauqua\ntrustees, officers and members of the Chautauqua School of Languages,\nthe Normal Alumni, and the various classes of the C. L. S. C., passed\ninto the great Amphitheater, when the ropes were dropped, and sooner\nthan we write it, all the remaining seating space was filled to\noverflowing.\n\nThe platform was filled with distinguished Chautauquans and others; the\norgan gave forth its sweet harmonies under the manipulation of Prof.\nAndrews; the Chautauqua Banner of the C. L. S. C. was stationed in full\nview of the vast throng; and after the devotional exercises Dr. Vincent\nintroduced Dr. Lyman Abbott, who delivered the Commencement oration, as\nfollows:\n\n\nTHE DEMOCRACY OF LEARNING.\n\n_Fellow Chautauquans_:\u2014I see in some of your eyes triumph. You have\nrun in four years a race with uncertainty whether you could ever\nreach the goal. You have carried on your work under difficulties and\ndiscouragements, such as are never known to him who has perfect and\ncontinual leisure for the pursuit of studies; but in the midst of\nemployments which were incessant and imperative in their demands upon\nyou; and your courage, your patience, your hope, have vanquished the\nobstacles, and you are here to-day to receive the outward sign and\nsymbol of your inward victory. In other eyes I see expectation. You\nhave commenced a course and you are hopeful of achieving a result,\nwhich has been made possible to you within the last few years, that\nthe fruits and results of study might be yours though you could not\ngive yourself to a life of study, still less to the persistent and\nprofessional pursuit of scholarship. In other eyes I see desire dimmed\nby fear and doubt; you do not know whether this great realm is open to\nyou or not; you wish that you could be assured that it is. Is this all\na mistake? Is your triumph a false one, your expectation a delusive\none, your hope and your desire one impossible of attainment? This is\nso asserted. There are not a few in our times who are of the opinion\nthat learning is of necessity only for the few, or at all events if the\nmany can enter a little upon the realm, they must always live upon the\nborder and never can enter into the heart of the country.\n\nI desire, if I may this morning, to meet and to answer this objection\nof skepticism, and to show that learning is within the possible reach\nto-day of the great body of industrious, hard-working, perplexed, and\ndriven people of America; that it is not the privilege of the few; that\nit is the prerogative of the many. I desire to show you that we are\nentering into an epoch which I may call the \u201cDemocracy of Learning.\u201d\nWe have already entered into the epoch of democracy in religion. The\ntime has gone by, at least for all Protestant people, of believing that\nreligion is for the few, or that even the higher and larger privileges\nof religious life are for the few. It has been established for all\nthose who believe in an open Bible and in the universal religion of\nJesus Christ that the innermost sanctuary of the temple is for every\none. The great wall that before separated the court of Israel from the\ncourt of the priests has been broken down; there is but one court. The\ngreat veil that hung between the holy of holies and the court of the\npriests has been torn asunder, and every one of us is not only priest\nbut high-priest, free to enter into the very holy of holies. And we\nhave entered into the epoch of democracy in public affairs. The time\nhas gone by when political power belonged to the few, and political\nintelligence was believed to be the prerogative of the few. We have\ncome into an epoch in which political power is lodged in the hands\nof the great masses of the people; and it is lodged there because\nwe believe that, on the whole, political intelligence is lodged in\nthe hands of the great masses of the people. I desire to show you\nthis morning that we are entering upon an epoch of the Democracy of\nLearning, in which the highest and best fruits of scholarship are also\nthe privilege and the prerogative of the many. When we have entered\nupon that land, then we shall be ready to enter upon the last and\nthe completest phase of the triumphant democracy, the Democracy of\nIndustry. Then, when intelligence shall be universally diffused, and\nwhen all men shall have the power at least of acquiring the largest and\nthe best and the ripest fruits of knowledge and of intelligence, we\nshall come into that epoch in which no longer the few will control the\nindustries of the many, but in which industry will be the controlling\npower, and wealth will be its servant.\n\nI have a three-fold object this morning\u2014I desire in the first place to\nshow you that the fruits of learning are fruits which hang on the lower\nboughs of the tree where we may all pluck them; to show you not only\nthat, but that the ripest and the best fruits of learning hang there. I\ndesire to show you that it is not necessary that men should go through\na college course and should have four years of leisure and of quiet for\ncollege study in order to reap the best fruits of a college education.\nThe _process_ of investigation must always be carried on by the few.\nThe _results_ of education may be, yea! are already becoming the\nproperty of the many. Only a few explorers can bear the perils of the\nArctic Sea and investigate the mystery of the North Pole; but we can\nall have the fruits of their investigation. Only a few men can labor\nand toil in the great libraries searching out the course and progress\nof history and its sacred events, but we can all have the garnered\nfruits of their toil and their industry. Not only may we pluck a single\nblossom, and here and there a single half-ripened fruit from this\ntree; but the ripest, the best, that which has hung the longest in the\nsun-light, that whose cheeks are painted the most rosy red, and whose\nheart has in it the most saccharine juice, that is ready to-day to fall\ninto our open palm if we will but extend it.\n\nIn endeavoring to show you this, I shall also necessarily ask you to\nconsider with me what are the ripest and best fruits of learning. What\nis the object of education? It is not an end, it is a means to an end.\nIt is a great pity that our colleges do not understand this better; for\nif they did better comprehend that education is a means, and that the\nend lies behind, fewer students would come out with empty diplomas when\nthe college course is ended.\n\nAnd incidentally I shall hope also to answer one argument which is\nsometimes used, and oftener, I think, lies secretly in the minds of\npeople, against a popular and universal education. Some satirist has\nsaid that \u201cIgnorance is the mother of devotion.\u201d If that were true,\nwe might well doubt whether universal education is worth the price we\nshould have to pay for it. If it were true that God held out in one\nhand devotion to us and in the other hand education, and said, \u201cYou\nmust choose between these two; if you become educated you must be\nskeptical, if you would be devoted you must remain ignorant\u201d\u2014it would\nbe a difficult question for most of us to decide whether we would have\nintelligence without piety or piety without intelligence. I shall show\nyou that it is not learning, but a little learning which is a dangerous\nthing; and that if our work is thorough, the broader the culture, the\nprofounder the piety.\n\nFor our purpose this morning, learning may be divided into four\nprovinces: literature, history, science and philosophy, to which must\nbe added in any complete topography of the realm, pure mathematics. By\npure mathematics I mean arithmetic, algebra, geometry, logarithms, the\ncalculus and the like. But pure mathematics is simply an instrument\nby which the scientific mind reaches certain results. I shall not\ntherefore consider this department at all; it is not necessary for our\npurpose. Some one must look through the telescope, some one must know\nhow to use the spectroscope in order to tell us what is the size of\nthe sun and its constituent elements; but we do not need to examine\nthe telescope or the spectroscope. Some one must be skilled in pure\nmathematics in order to tell us how many miles the sun is distant\nfrom our own earth, but we may take the result without going through\nthe process. This instrument must always be left in the hand of the\nspecialist. I wish to show you that all that is best, highest and most\nimportant in literature, history, science and philosophy lies within\nthe power of your acquisition. I wish to show you the spirit with which\nyou must study, and the purpose with which you must acquire it; and\nI wish to show you that if you acquire in that spirit and with that\npurpose you can not but gain in your religious nature.\n\nI. In the first place, then, what is literature, and why do we study\nit? Literature is the expression of human life, in its innermost\nexperiences, and in its outward forms. Sometimes it is the expression\nof social life, sometimes of the intellectual life, sometimes of the\nemotional life; but always and everywhere literature is a mirror held\nup either before society or before the human heart; no, not a mirror,\nbut the sensitized plate in a photographic apparatus; and the picture,\nnow of society, now of the brain, now of the palpitating heart with\nits fears, hopes, joys and experiences, is given upon the plate; and\nliterature is the picture brought out for us to examine. To study\nliterature is not to study language. Language is merely the instrument\nwhich we use for the study of literature. To study literature is\nto study life\u2014life in its outward semblance or life in its inward\nexperiences. It is to study the life of the community and of society as\nwe study it in Thackeray; or it is to study the life of the brain and\nthe thought as we study it in Plato and Bacon; or it is to study the\nlife of the inward emotions as we study it in Tennyson or Wordsworth.\nNow, in order to study life as it is portrayed in literature it is\nnot necessary to know the original language in which that life was\nportrayed. Some one must have studied the Greek language in order to\nbring Homer to our intelligence; some one must have studied Latin and\nbrought Horace within our horizon; some one must have studied French\nand brought Moli\u00e8re within our knowledge; some one must have studied\nItalian in order to introduce Dante to our acquaintance; but it is\nnot necessary for us to do so. Some one must have taken the negative\nand printed the picture on the paper for us; but we need not all be\nphotographers in order to get the picture for our own enlightenment. I\nhold a silver dollar in my hand. Some one must have gone to the mines\nand dug out the ore with a pick; some one must have put it under the\ngreat stampers and beaten it out in the stamping mill; some one must\nhave put it in the sieve and shaken it and shaken it until the grosser\ndross was washed away; some one must have put it into the furnace and\nheated it until the finer dross was eliminated; some one must have\ncarried it to the mint and put the stamp of the United States authority\nupon it; but we need not all be miners digging in the mines; we need\nnot all be workers in the stamping mill; we need not all be toilers in\nthe furnace room; we need not all be masters or mechanics in the mint.\nThe money was coined by those who have wrought for us, and to whom our\ngratitude is due, but the coin is ours; it is not merely for those who\nworked in producing it.\n\nI hold in my hand an extract from Taine which expresses that which I\ndesire to express better than I can perhaps express it myself. Let me\nread it: \u201cWhat is your first remark on turning over the great leaves\nof a folio, the yellow sheets of a manuscript, a poem, a code of laws,\na confession of faith? This, you say, did not come into existence all\nalone, it is but a mould like a fossil-shell, an imprint, like one of\nthe shapes embossed in stone by an animal which lived and perished.\nUnder the shell there was an animal; and behind the document there\nwas a man. Why do you study the shell, except to bring before you the\nanimal? So you study the document only to know the man. The shell and\nthe document are lifeless wrecks, valuable only as a clue to the entire\nand living existence. We must get hold of this existence and endeavor\nto re-create it. It is a mistake to study the document as if it were\nisolated. This were to treat things as a simple scholar, to fall into\nthe error of the bibliomaniac.\u201d\n\nYou do not need to have traversed the ocean beach or climbed the\nmountain-top and gathered the shells; you may go into the museum where\nthey have already been gathered, and study their history there. You do\nnot need, with dictionary and grammar, to work out the secrets of the\nlanguage; you may take the products of those who have thus wrought, and\nlearn the man that lies behind the document.\n\nNot only is it not necessary that a man should study language in order\nto study literature; in innumerable cases the study of the language has\nabsolutely interfered with the study of the literature. In innumerable\ncases, men at college have ground away, day after day, and month after\nmonth, and year after year, over cases and nouns and parts of speech,\nand rules of syntax and rules of grammar\u2014working only at the grammar,\nand utterly oblivious of the great light that lay behind it. Mr.\nAdams, of Massachusetts, has recently told us how hard a man may study\nGreek and how little he may know of it after he gets through with it,\nfor he assures us that he does not know the Greek alphabet to-day,\nalthough he studied Greek six years, four years before college and\ntwo in it. I confess I should not have thought it possible for a man\nto have studied so much and yet know so little when he got through;\nbut I am very certain of this, that my own experience reflects the\nexperience of many college students. I learned more of Homer\u2014of his\nlife, of his character, of the lessons he has to teach, of the man\nhimself\u2014from reading in the \u201cAncient Classics for English Readers,\u201d\nthe Iliad and the Odyssey, and from reading Bryant\u2019s translation, than\nI ever received from reading Homer himself in the original Greek in\nmy college class. That which is highest, and supremest, and best in\nliterature, you may obtain without a college education. You may learn\nthe life, you may learn the man, you may learn the sacred truth; and\nyou can not do that without broadening your sympathies and developing\nyour charity. When you have read Homer and Virgil and Horace; when you\nhave read Dante and Milton; when you have read Moli\u00e8re and Shakspere;\nwhen you have read Wordsworth and Tennyson, and when, out of all this\nreading, you have gathered their fruits, you will find this to be true,\nthat, though you have one picture of Greek life, one of Italian life,\none of French life, one of English life, one portraying the life of\nfour centuries before Christ, and one portraying the life of eighteen\ncenturies after; yet in all these languages, in all these epochs, in\nall these civilizations the great heart of hope and joy and love and\nfear and reverence and faith was one. And you will learn to know that\nhumanity, in all its nationalities, in all its epochs, in all its\ncivilizations,\u2014aye, and under all the varied forms of its religions,\ntrue and false\u2014that humanity is one in all its brotherhood, and one in\nits great Father in heaven.\n\nII. What is the object of studying history? What is history? It is not\na mere record of dates, not the mere annals of actions, not merely\nthe account of what men have performed or what nations have wrought.\nA man does not know history because he can recite glibly, beginning\nwith Alfred the Great and coming down to the present time, the dates\nof the chief events and the chief epochs in English history. History\nis the record of God\u2019s dealing with the human race. History is the\naccount of the great laws under which this human race has been evolved\nfrom its lowest condition to its highest condition. As the tree grows\nfrom the seed planted in the ground\u2014first the little bud peering above\nthe surface, then the stalk, and then the branches, and by and by the\ncompleted oak; as the child grows from the babe in the cradle, taking\non one new faculty and one power after another till he comes into as\nyet incompleted manhood\u2014for the completion of manhood lies afar off in\nthe dim, distant and invisible future\u2014so the nations of the earth, and\nso the whole race of man has been developed from the seed to the oak\nand from the babe in the cradle to manhood in its maturity; and to read\nhistory is to read the process of this development.\n\nWhat, for example, is English history? To know English history is to\nknow that in the Bible, way back years and years before the birth\nof Christ\u2014fourteen centuries before\u2014were planted all the seeds of a\nfree representative government; to know that in the Mosaic statutes\nis to be found the outline of a perfect political economy; to know\nthat the Mosaic commonwealth had in it all the elements of those\ninstitutions which have made America a free nation; popular suffrage,\nrepresentative assemblies, political government divided into three\ndepartments, executive, legislative, and judicial; a carefully framed\nsystem of laws, with a carefully framed system of penalties, a\nuniversal system of education, and a religion that was national. To\nknow history is to know that Alfred the Great was a devout believer\nin the Bible as the word of God, that he studied it and found in this\nOld Testament, fourteen centuries before the birth of Christ, these\nseeds of a free government buried and forgotten. It is to know that\nhe gathered them out of this old book, as men have gathered wheat\nseeds out of old mummies in the tombs of Egypt, and planted them in\nthe more fertile soil of an Anglo-Saxon community. It is to know how\nthe Anglo-Saxon Witenagemote grew to be an English Parliament; it is\nto know how the people came to be represented in it under Simon de\nMontfort; and how they came to be supreme in it under Charles the\nFirst, and Cromwell. It is to know how the nation was at first a\ncongeries of conflicting tribes, partially brought together by Alfred\nthe Great, and consolidated together under one national sovereignty by\nWilliam the Conqueror, and growing thence into unity under successive\nstatesmen, until these latter days, when William Gladstone, the\ngreatest statesman of them all, is perfecting the Christian unity of\nthe empire by Christian justice and equity. It is to know how, in the\nearlier history of this nation, the Pope of Rome assumed authority and\ncontrol over the nations. It is to know how, through the centuries,\nthe war went on between the Anglo-Saxon love of liberty and this claim\nof the Church of Rome; how it was begun under Augustine, continued\nunder Thomas \u00e0 Becket, brought to the beginning of the end under King\nHenry the Eighth, until finally under Elizabeth the bonds that bound\nEngland to Rome were severed forever, and England was made free from\nevery foreign prince and potentate. It is to know how this seed\u2014the\nsovereignty of the people in the nation, the sovereignty of the nation\nagainst the anarchy of feudalism, and the liberty of the nation\nagainst the Pope\u2014grew into a tree, as yet but a young sapling; it is\nto know how then God carefully dug this sapling up, and transported it\nthree thousand miles across the ocean and planted it in the yet more\nfertile soil of America. It is to know that because of the battle and\nbloodshed, and the long suffering endured on that soil, to-day there\nfloats over us the banner of liberty and justice. The seeds were there\nin that old Bible, the culture was there in that English history; the\nfruit we rejoice in here to-day.\n\nOne does not need to work in the Spanish libraries with Prescott, nor\nin the Dutch libraries with Motley, nor among the old manuscripts of\nthe British museum with Froude, nor among the pamphlets of English\nliterature with Macaulay, in order to gather for himself these\nhighest and supremest fruits of historical learning. The processes\nof historical research must always be carried on by the few; we must\nalways have in this country some men who have leisure to pursue\nthem. Alas for us, if the time ever comes when we grow careless or\nindifferent respecting our colleges or universities, and the kind of\nculture which they give; but they give culture that the cultured may\ngive us fruit. The few garner; the heaviest are for all.\n\nNor is it possible for one thus to study the history of the human race,\nto see how, little by little, liberty has grown, education has grown,\nhumanity has grown, and not grow himself in faith in an overruling\nProvidence, and in hope in the Supreme God.\n\nAs the broad, comprehensive, interior study of literature will give\nbreadth of sympathy, so the broad, comprehensive, and large study of\nhistory will give hope. When the fog covers the ocean, and the mariner\nbefogged knows not where he is, and can not tell whence his course\nhas been, nor where it shall be, he sometimes goes aloft and from the\ntop-mast, looking above the fog, discerns the coast in the distance and\nthe entrance into the harbor. In history we rise out of the fog that\nenvirons all in the lower level; we look above the fog and over it, and\nknow then the courses we have traced, and see the harbor and the haven\nnot far before us.\n\nIII. What is science, and for what purpose do we study it? I use, of\ncourse, the word science in its restricted sense, meaning natural\nscience. For two purposes. Nature is a vast and wonderful machine; its\nmechanism may well arouse both our astonishment and our admiration. If\nyou have a watch that keeps time so that it does not vary more than two\nor three minutes in a year you are proud of it, and if you should by\nchance have a watch that did not vary more than one minute in a year\nyou would be a remarkably humble man if you did not boast of it to\nyour acquaintances. But in the heavens the sun and the planets round\nit have been keeping time for the centuries, and as yet astronomy has\nnot detected an appreciable variation in its time. What a wonderful\nmechanism is this! If an inventor should construct a furnace which\nwould keep us warm in winter and cool in summer, no manufacturer\nwould be able to supply the orders. But you have within you a furnace\nsuch that although you may go from the land of the Esquimaux with\nthe thermometer 40\u00b0 below zero, to the tropics with the thermometer\n110\u00b0 above zero, this furnace does not allow the habitation in which\nyou dwell to vary more than four or five degrees. What a wonderful\nmechanism is this nature which we study! And we study this mechanism\npartly that we may use it, that we may lay hold on these great forces\nof nature and make them subservient to our will by understanding the\nlaws which regulate and govern them. But nature is more than a machine;\nnature is also a book, and a wonderful book, written all over in\nhieroglyphics that require study for their apprehension. It is more\nthan a mechanism. It is a revelation; and it reveals wondrous things to\nhim who knows how to read it aright. Edison and Morse, Copernicus and\nNewton\u2014they have interpreted nature on the one side; but Wordsworth,\nand Longfellow, and Bryant\u2014they have interpreted nature on the other,\nand the one class of interpretations is as valuable as the other. We\nstudy nature as a mechanism that we may know how to use it; we study\nnature as a book that we may know how to read it.\n\nNow, all that which is most valuable in nature, as a mechanism, we\nlay hold of and use without going through the labor necessary in the\noriginal examination by the first investigator. We do not need to\nunderstand the laws of heat and steam to use them; some one has learned\nthe laws, and has brought fire and water together and has pronounced a\nnuptial blessing over them, and a child has been born of the marriage,\nand we take steam for our slave without knowing the ritual which\nmarried the father and mother. Some one must have learned how to reach\nhis hand to the cloud, and bring down the electricity, make it run our\nerrands and serve the purpose of our illumination; but we do not need\nto know the processes in order to sit under the light. Not only is it\ntrue that the mechanical uses that come from natural sciences we get\nwithout going through the processes, but the literary and spiritual we\nget also. Others have been turning over the pages of this marvelous\nbook and have been reading it to us, and unconsciously, unknowingly,\nalmost without the sense that we have been learning anything, we have\nlearned great lessons in this book of nature. Scientists on the one\nside and theologians on the other have put science and religion into\nantagonism with one another. But they are sister teachers of the race;\nscience has received all its life from the late comprehended revelation\nof the first chapter of Genesis that nature is man\u2019s servant, not\nhis god; and theology has learned some of its profoundest lessons\nfrom the book of nature which science has interpreted. Consider for\none moment what a fundamental religious lesson we have learned in the\nschool-room of science almost without knowing that she was our teacher.\nThe ancient Hebrews believed that Palestine was the world; all the\nrest was a mere outlying district environing it, the back yard as it\nwere. The Mediterranean was the Great Sea, the little pond of Galilee\nwas the Sea of Galilee, the sun and moon and stars were torches for\nman\u2019s illumination\u2014that was their conception of the universe. With that\nconception it is not strange that they had an equally insignificant\nand unworthy conception of the God of the world, a conception against\nwhich the inspired writers were continually struggling, and from which\nthey were continually endeavoring to lift the people up. When the\nPhilistines fought against the Israelites and captured the ark of God\nthey were in triumph. \u201cWe have captured God,\u201d they thought; and the\nIsraelites were almost equally in despair, for they also half thought\nthat Jehovah had been carried off a prisoner. Now, science, even more\nthan revelation, has been enlarging our conceptions of this universe.\nThe Holy Land, a province about as large as Vermont, is no longer the\nearth; the Atlantic and the Pacific are the great seas; this globe on\nwhich we live is but one of the smaller globes of the planetary system;\nand the great planetary system itself is but a smaller one of the great\nplanetary systems which are circling around some vast and distant sun.\nScience has taught us too that all this universe is linked together,\nbound together by a common law, bound together by a common order of\nphenomena. It has investigated the sun and the stars, it has analyzed\ntheir light, it has shown us that the substances of these bodies are\nidentical with the substances of ours. It has taught us the unity of\nnature, it has taught us the vastness of nature. There are stars in\nthe firmament which you can see with the naked eye, on which if a\nman were standing with a telescope fine enough and powerful enough\nto see what is transpiring on this globe, and should look through it\nto-day, he would see not this congregation assembled under this roof,\nbut the first outbreaking of the revolution, so long does it take\nlight to traverse from our globe to the stars, light that takes but\neight minutes to travel from the sun to the earth. There are stars so\ndistant that he would see not Chautauqua gathered here to-night, but\nthe crucifixion of Christ taking place on the hill of Calvary; stars\nso distant, that with a telescope powerful enough to carry the message\nof this world to his sight, he would see Abraham coming out of the\nland of his idolatry into the promised land; stars so distant that he\nwould see this earth first taking on its brightness in the birth-day\nof its glory. So vast is our universe that the mind can not attempt\nto comprehend its majestic distances. It is not theology, it is not\nreligion, it is not even the Bible that has unfolded this vastness; it\nis science. It is impossible that men who have once learned anything\nof this greatness of creation, or anything of this unity of creation,\nshould ever bow down again before idols of wood and stone. So long as\nmen thought that the laws of the material universe were antagonistic\nand anarchic, that the universe was made up of warring tribes and\nprovinces, so long it was not strange that they should worship many\ngods. So long as they thought that it was a little province on which\nthey lived, the boundaries of which they could themselves measure with\ntheir tape-line, they might well worship before images they had formed\nwith their utterances or with their hands. But to-day you might burn\nevery Bible in the land, you might burn every church and Sunday-school\nhouse, you might put all the priests and ministers in America on the\ngreat bonfire, and consume them as well, and then you might erase\nfrom every mind every lesson that had been learned from church or\nSunday-school, from priest or minister, and this nation could not go\nback to idolatry, unless it went back to the utter barbarism of utter\nignorance. That which is highest and supremest in science you can\nlearn without becoming a scientist; and you can not learn it without\nlearning the large reverence that is the very foundation of religion.\n\nIV. What is philosophy? The study of philosophy is the study of the\nlaws which govern the spiritual realm, as the study of natural science\nis the study of the laws which govern the natural and the physical\nrealm. It is not studying Hegel, and Kant, and Schleiermacher; it is\nnot studying Hickock or Hopkins; it is not studying what philosophers\nhave thought\u2014they are the mere translators, the mere \u201cponies.\u201d\nPhilosophy is the law of humanity, either social or individual. The\nstudy of philosophy is the study of the laws which God has ordained\nfor the binding of men together into a common organism, or for the\ngovernment of their individual lives. Men believed that the foundation\nof the State was a compact, and that each citizen gave up something of\nhis rights for the common welfare; they believed that the foundation of\nthe Nation was a compact in which each State gave up something which it\nhad of right to secure the advantage of a commonwealth. So believing,\nthey concluded that any State might withdraw from its allegiance, and\nthey might have easily concluded that any individual might withdraw\nfrom his allegiance. It is only as we learned that we are born into\nthe government and made a part of the State from the beginning by\nthe ordinance of God, that we have learned what is the bond that has\nbound the nation together. Revolting from the Romish doctrine that\nmarriage is a sacrament, Protestantism has been teaching for years\nthat it is merely a civil contract. We are reaping the result of this\nfalse teaching. To-day in Puritan Connecticut, the minister can not\ntie the marriage bond much faster than the courts across the street\ncan dissolve it. We have yet to learn that marriage is more than a\ncivil contract, that it is an ordinance of God; that he who made man\nand woman made them that these twain should become one flesh, and made\nthe home to be the first Church and the first State. When we have\nlearned that, we shall have learned the foundation of the home as we\nhave learned the foundation of the State. To study philosophy is to\nstudy the laws which govern society in its organism. All text-books\nare only instructions to teach us how to study life itself, which is\nthe great text-book. To study philosophy is also to study the laws\nwhich govern the individual. It is to know that God has made you body,\nsoul and spirit; that he has given you a physical organism, wonderful,\nbut simply a mechanism in your hands; that he has given you a mental\npower wonderful in its reasoning qualities, but with its partial\nparallels in the animals about you; it is to know that far above the\nbody and the mind is the spirit\u2014reverence, and love, and hope, and a\nliving faith\u2014that makes you one with God, and that points you to your\neternal habitation. This it is to study mental and moral philosophy.\nIt is to know how to read the secrets of your own soul. It is to know\nhow to read the inner life of the souls of others. Books will help;\nscholarship will help; but the great book is the human soul, and we\nneed not have scholarship to read that book. Burns and Shakspere were\nnot great scholars; but no scholar ever surpassed Burns and Shakspere\nin the reading of the human soul.\n\nNo one ever exerted so profound an influence on the life of humanity as\nJesus of Nazareth. You may think that Jesus was simply a man; you will\nnot doubt that from the teachings of Jesus have gone forth an influence\ngreater by far than went forth from Plato, or Socrates, or Confucius,\nor Buddha. You may think with me that he was the Son of God; you surely\nwill not doubt the potency of the influence that proceeded from the\nincarnate Son of God. Jesus, the son of the carpenter, what did he\nknow of literature, of science, of philosophy? Rather, what knowledge\ndid he employ? He was thoroughly familiar with the literature of his\nday\u2014that is, the Bible; but he never displayed or employed any critical\nor literary knowledge respecting it. He never discussed questions of\nauthorship, he never debated questions of origin or date, he did not\ntouch that which lay on the surface. He read the interior and spiritual\ntruth. He saw in that which to their mind was a mere annal, and a\nmere law the beating heart of the inspired prophet telling of God. He\ntore off the wrapping and made the world see it. He plucked from the\npsalm of David this bud, \u201cThe Lord is my shepherd, I shall not want,\u201d\nand in his hand it blossomed into the parable of the Good Shepherd.\nHe plucked from the psalm of David this utterance, \u201cLike as a father\npitieth his children,\u201d and in his hand it blossomed into the parable of\nthe Prodigal Son. He knew the life back of literature. He invented no\nmachine, gave no hint of any, suggested no steam engine, no steam boat,\nno electric light. What he _knew_ I say not. I may say what he used,\nand knowledge of nature as a mechanism he never used; but he looked\ninto nature as a book, read her teachings, and interpreted them; in the\nsower going forth to sow, in the fisher gathering his fish from his\nnet; in the bird\u2019s song in the air he heard the sweet note of trust;\nin the flowers blossoming from the ground he read the sweet promise of\nGod\u2019s providing care. Things which men having eyes saw not and ears\nheard not be brought to their vision and their hearing. He propounded\nno scheme of political philosophy, none of psychology, or theology, but\nhe taught that \u201cOne is your father, even God in heaven, and ye all are\nbrethren;\u201d and the great laws that are to bind together, rather the one\ngreat law of order, the law of love, this law he expounded. The son of\nthe carpenter lived that he might teach, among the other lessons, this\nlesson of the democracy of learning; that learning, in its higher and\nmore valued forms, is for the mechanic busy at his bench, for the smith\ngrimy with toil at his forge, for the mother busiest of all, with hands\nand brain and heart filled with her children.\n\nKings of the earth have fought that they might hold the power in their\nown hands, and the many might be subject to them. The people have\nrisen, and grown strong, until at last they have trampled the king\nand the army under their feet, and have rushed into the citadel and\nthe palace and taken possession, and the citadel of oppression and\nthe palace of luxury have become the temple of liberty. The priests\nhave fought long that they might keep the people out of the temple and\nhold the mysteries of religion an exclusive possession. But the people\nhave surged up against the priests and trampled them under foot, and\noccupied the temple of religion. The temples of earning are open; the\nkings of learning stand at the door, and with their scepters beckon\nyou to come and share their coronation and their crown. The priests\nof learning bid you come, that they may open to you the mysteries of\nliterature. For in the republic of letters there is no aristocracy but\nthat of service. And they only are great who have learned how best to\nserve their fellow-men.\n\nThe triumph that I read in your eyes is not a false triumph. You have\nplucked the first fruits, and all the other brightest and best are\nbefore you for your plucking. The expectation that I read in your eyes\nis not a delusive expectation. The fruit is yours. The desire that\nI read in your eyes is not a cheating desire. The aspiration that\nburns within you for learning may have its gratification. You have no\nmoney? Literature is cheap. You have no time? You have as much time as\nSchliemann had, who stood in the long line before the postoffice and\nstudied his Greek while waiting for the letters. You have as much time\nas Mary Somerville had, who wrote the volume which gave her a princely\nreputation among astronomers, while tending with motherly care the\nchildren in the nursery pulling at her skirts. The forces of nature\ncome out of the ground and offer themselves to you to do the drudgery\nwhich aforetime was left to human hands, that you may have time to\nlearn the truth of God, and the works of God, and the will of God. We\nstand to-day on the mountain height. We look just across the valley.\nThe Jordan is no longer overflowing its banks, but is a narrow and\nshallow stream. The promised land lies there in all its richness and\nbrilliance, and God\u2019s providence utters its promise to us Americans in\nthis nineteenth century: \u201cBe strong and of good courage; be not afraid,\nneither be thou dismayed; for the Lord thy God has given thee this\nland for a possession forever.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAnother immense audience assembled in the Amphitheater at two o\u2019clock\nto listen to the addresses delivered to the graduating class by\nPresident Lewis Miller, and Dr. J. H. Vincent.\n\n\nADDRESS OF PRESIDENT LEWIS MILLER.\n\n_Chautauquans_:\u2014In these days of popular education, it may be\nprofitable to examine the different sources of culture and development.\nFirst among these are books\u2014the treasures that lie hidden in them may\nwell awaken our inquiry and admiration, may well be worth the many\nhours of toil spent in preparing the mind, so that it can converse\nwith the masters of the past and present. I do not wonder at hunger\nafter the hidden treasures of books, for in them are power, wealth and\npleasure. We need but watch the interested audiences that gather in\nthis Amphitheater, to realize the power there is in the rostrum, how\nin all ages peoples have been confirmed or changed in their opinions\nby that mere persuasive power of words. Your mind now runs over the\nhistories you have studied, and you recall the orators who, through the\npower of speech alone, have revolutionized empires, advanced or checked\ncivilization. What pleasure to the mind and heart, to be able in our\nleisure hours to sit with Herodotus, Macaulay, Motley, Bancroft, and\na host of others, and hear them tell their historic stories! or with\nDavid, Homer, Shakspere, Whittier and Bryant, and let them fill our\nminds with the beautiful and soothing words of poetry! Does not art, in\na still more condensed form, give us the history of the nations of the\npast? Does it not give us a clearer idea of thought? What descriptive\nwords could give us so clear a view of the golden candlestick, around\nwhich clusters so much of interest to the Bible student, as can be had\nby a look at the plaster mould of the arch of Titus, in the Museum?\nWhat more rapidly moulds, and more powerfully influences, the present\nage than do the pictures on the walls, and the books in the libraries\nof our homes?\n\nMay I venture to bring before your mind that other phase of art, known\nas the mechanic art? That art, on which the educator has placed so\nsmall an estimate that when an apparently dull boy is found in the\nschool or family, he is turned over to it, in the notion that stupidity\ncan here find subsistence and compensation.\n\nNow, give this art the power to express itself in words and in the fine\narts, and I will bring back to you the days of Raphael and Michael\nAngelo, in which thought was expressed in words and on canvas and\nstone, in such purity that the student in the schools of to-day is\ncarried back to these times, to study the perfection and beauty of\nexpression. In the line of a better educated labor lies the settlement\nof the great labor question. Will it be as Garfield suggests, for\nChautauqua to provide not only for the leisure, but secure the leisure\nby some system of education that will make it possible?\n\nIf by any means the mental energies can be combined with the muscles,\nthe product of labor will be greatly increased, and the time producing\nthe same quantity lessened. Struggling labor hardly sees that in\nthe short space of about thirty years the time has been lessened\nfrom thirteen and fourteen hours to ten hours per day, and the wages\nenhanced from fifty and seventy-five cents per day to an average of two\ndollars per day. In most of the prominent manufacturing establishments\nthroughout the North we are at a near approach to a reduction of\ntime to eight hours\u2014_and may God speed the day_. Take the advance in\nquantity of products for ten years only, and by the aid of machinery,\nand more intelligent labor, we have gained more than two hours. Why\nshould not labor get its due proportion? We are fast turning the\ndrudgery of labor to pleasure. You need but visit the dish-washing and\nlaundry-rooms at the Hotel Athen\u00e6um to witness the truth of what I\nstate.\n\nSome years ago I made an estimate of the number of inhabitants it would\nrequire to do by hard labor that which was done at that time by twelve\nthousand inhabitants by the use of steam and water power. It reached\nthe enormous number of three hundred thousand inhabitants. From this we\nmay learn that it will not be a great hardship to give to labor more\nleisure and more pay, not rashly as by strikes, but by prudent and\ngradual measures.\n\nAh, the wealth of nations rests in this art! The power to subdue\nforests and belt empires with railroads and telegraphs, and ignore\ndistance is in its hands.\n\nThis art sends forth its missionary in its manufactured products to all\nquarters of the globe; every different product is a copy of a volume on\nsome subject, carrying with it some Christian\u2019s impress and prayer. So\ntrue is this that it needs no great expert to tell an article made by\nChristian hands from that made by heathen.\n\nThis power of the individuality impresses with interest and wonder.\nHow readily thoughts in words are detected from others, even on the\nsame subject. Every workman of a manufactured article in some such\nsense makes his individual impress on the work he performs, and it is\nas readily told. The Christian, liberty-loving intelligence is pressed\ninto every article and sent forth on its mission of preaching the\ngospel to every creature, even gaining entrance where the missionary\nis refused. With this truth in mind, with what renewed pleasure must\nthe liberated laborer make still greater impress of his individual\nmind. This thought can be carried into all that we do. Our walk, our\ntalk, and the expression of our faces all enter into our products of\nwhatever kind. How important that it should be imbued with the spirit\nof intelligent Christianity.\n\nClass of \u201983, you have only opened the doors to wider range, to fields\nof greater usefulness. All about you lie sleeping elements to be\nquickened into activity. Have your accumulated mental development well\nstored, and constantly add more. The purpose of the study was more to\ncreate an appetite for knowledge than to give a thorough or finished\neducation.\n\nWe are glad as officers of the C. L. S. C. to present you with diplomas\nhaving places for many seals. May there be no laxity of effort until\nthe crowning seal will emblazon over the whole its rays.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. Dr. Vincent said:\n\nA large number of salutations from members of the C. L. S. C. have\nbeen received, some of them breathing a simple prayer of benediction\non the Circle and its officers, others testifying to the value of the\nCircle to them intellectually, socially, and spiritually; many are too\nlong to read at this time, but every line has been carefully read by\nthe Superintendent of Instruction, and a few of the sentences are here\nreported:\n\nFrom Sacramento, Cal.: \u201cWe long to be with you at the Assembly; but\nsince we can not be, be assured that as we read of Commencement Day our\nhearts beat in sympathy with those of the C. L. S. C.\u201d\n\nFrom Washington, D. C.: \u201cHearty thanks for so splendid an opportunity\nof living more abundantly, as I have enjoyed through the noble\nconception and sensible management of the C. L. S. C. I hope to add\nmany of its seals to my diploma.\u201d\n\nFrom St. Paul, Minn.: \u201cThe day in which \u201983 passes through the Golden\nGate you, who are present amidst the jubilee, will most likely forget\nthe distant ones; but I for one will put on my C. L. S. C. badge, take\nout two faded maple leaves, kept in remembrance of last summer, and in\nimagination march with the proud class under the Arches, while I will\npray the good Lord to bless Chautauqua.\u201d\n\nFrom Brooklyn, N. Y.: \u201cThe salutation, as recorded in Malachi iii:16,\n\u2018Then they that feared the Lord spake often one to another, and the\nLord hearkened and heard it; and a book of remembrance was written\nbefore him for them that feared the Lord and thought upon his name.\u2019\u201d\n\nFrom San Francisco: A New Yorker writes: \u201cI found THE CHAUTAUQUAN on\na planter\u2019s table in the Sandwich Islands, and learned of a circle in\nHonolulu.\u201d\n\nA member writes: \u201cThe royal road to learning is no _terra incognita_.\nOur _route en roi_ is called _via_ Chautauqua.\u201d\n\nFrom Amsterdam, N. Y.: A poem closes:\n\n    \u201cI would like very much to Chautauqua to go;\n       It would certainly give me great joy;\n     But my duties are such that I linger at home:\n       I\u2019ve a year-old Chautauqua boy.\u201d\n\nFrom Elkhorn, Wis.: One who sees through the lenses of the C. L. S.\nC., the Chautauqua University of the future, writes: \u201cIn 1904, A. D.,\nI shall be fifty years old. At that time I hope to graduate at the\nChautauqua University. This will give me just twenty-five years from\nthe beginning of my course in 1876 to complete the work, and I intend\nto work diligently every year.\u201d\n\nFrom Massachusetts: \u201cLanguage would be left a beggar if I were to tell\nyou all that the C. L. S. C. has been to me. It has been a song and a\npoem, when life was beginning to read like prose. It has been sunshine\non many a cloudy day. God bless our alma mater, and make her days long\nin the land.\u201d\n\nFrom New York: \u201cWhen the history of the successful men and women of\nthe next generation shall be written, may it be found that the members\nof the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle of 1883 are among the\nnumber.\u201d\n\nFrom Santa Barbara, Cal., comes the greeting of Mrs. M. P. Austin, who\nprays that \u201cthe C. L. S. C. may do as much for others as it has done\nfor me.\u201d\n\nFrom St. Paul, Minn., a graduate writes: \u201cAlthough in middle life, I\nhave rejoiced like a child at the prospect of graduating. My studies\nhave been precious to me; and, although I have carried them on alone,\nthe enthusiasm has never grown less. May I boast of the dozen recruits\nwhom I have brought into the work, not for the name of it, but because\nI want everybody to be benefited as I have been. Saturday will find me\nin a white dress and blue ribbon, and I shall try to catch the spirit\nwhich ascends to our Father, and have something of the blessings which\nare invoked upon the graduates of that day. May his blessed spirit be\nwith you, and may he be precious not only to them who believe, but to\nmany who never before have called on his name.\u201d\n\nFrom Massachusetts a member writes: \u201cI have heard this objection to\nthe C. L. S. C., that it leads to neglect of Bible study. My personal\nexperience has been that I never spent more time in Bible study or\nloved it more than during the past four years.\u201d\n\nFrom Dakota a mother writes: \u201cAlthough my boy is but eleven years old,\nhe has done the greater part of my reading this year, and dear little\nMaggie, nine years of age, is greatly interested in what she calls\nmamma\u2019s course. She also often reads for me, patiently spelling out the\nhard words.\u201d\n\nWilliam C. Wilkinson, of Tarrytown, New York, writes:\n\n    \u201cI send greeting, congratulation and God-speed to the\n    class of 1883. A persistence on your part of four years\n    in a course of volunteer reading and study has not only\n    created character in you, but also proved that you\n    possessed character to begin with. It was not perfectly\n    easy for you to do what you have done. There have been\n    times, more than once, during these four years, when\n    the temptation was strong to abandon your undertaking.\n    But you did not abandon it, simply because you would\n    not abandon it. Your will was strong enough to overcome\n    the strong temptation. Now your will is stronger for\n    having been strong. Go forward in this added strength\n    to add strength again. The will conquers by conquering,\n    until it becomes at length unconquerable. Conquer is a\n    proud word. Let us change it and say something meeker\n    and truer. Let us say, obey. We conquer only when we\n    obey. You have obeyed your conscience in accomplishing\n    your appointed course. That obedience is your victory.\n    When the will is perfectly obedient to conscience,\n    conscience being at the same time perfectly enlightened\n    by the Word and by the Spirit of God, then we are\n    omnipotent. We reign then with Christ. All things are\n    ours. Go on, alumni of Chautauqua. Carry forward the\n    banner. Let it float in your hands ever farther and\n    higher. I do not say _plant_ it anywhere. I say _bear_\n    it onward and upward. There is always, amid the Alps of\n    our glorious endeavor and struggle, a peak above and\n    beyond. Climb that, and then\u2014forward still. The goal\n    is never attained, but the race itself is better than\n    would be rest at the goal. Remember the ranks that are\n    behind you, year after year, in the future. Give them a\n    generous lead. Remember the one pioneer rank in advance\n    of you. Tread close on their heels. Follow, so that it\n    will be hard for your leaders to lead. Lead, so that it\n    will be hard for your followers to follow.\n\n    \u201cGod bless and crown the Class of 1883!\n\n                                     \u201cW. C. WILKINSON.\u201d\n\nBishop Henry W. Warren writes:\n\n    \u201cTOP OF THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS, August 1, 1883.\n\n    \u201c_Dear Chautauquans_:\u2014Pausing to take a farewell\n    look at the Atlantic slope before going down that\n    of the Pacific, my mind passes over many a place of\n    interest and rests on Chautauqua. There is no more\n    interesting place on the continent. How many faces rise\n    for recognition! But I can not indulge in personal\n    greetings, for the friends are so many and so dear that\n    time would fail me to speak of the institution that\n    is the outcome of the inspiration and labor of all\n    these friends. William Cullen Bryant said Chautauqua\n    exemplified the spirit of mutual encouragement.\n    President Garfield said that it taught what to do with\n    the result of civilization\u2019s first fight, leisure; and\n    Bishop Wiley said it was a Christian center, able to\n    save the gospel if there was nothing else left.\n\n    \u201cUnquestionably, Chautauqua is the grandest inspiration\n    and quickening of mind in this century or any other. It\n    is the consummate flavoring of our Christian republican\n    principles. It offers all opportunities for growth to\n    all men. It seems to present as good a chance to every\n    man as comes to any man. This development of mind is\n    our chief wealth. We turn auriferous quartz into coin,\n    iron ore into a body for the soul of electricity,\n    but mind had to be developed and refined first. Rome\n    sought wealth by the robbery of other nations, but she\n    never gained as much wealth in a decade as we develop\n    from nature in a year. What we need as a nation is\n    a perpetual push and effort of the masses of men to\n    rise. They drag down none of the few that are already\n    eminent, but, by surpassing them, incite to greater\n    attainments. Let there be no fear that there will\n    be too many great men, or men too great. These vast\n    glittering snow-peaks about me find room enough, as\n    well as the mole hills. \u2018There is always room at the\n    top,\u2019 for the top is larger than the bottom, as these\n    bending heavens are larger than the earth, and eternity\n    longer than time.\n\n    \u201cWould that I could set one of these mountains near\n    Chautauqua and let its grassy base, its wooded slopes,\n    its masses of ore, its glittering crown of glorious\n    light say to every beholder: Here is an object lesson\n    worthy of God\u2019s giving to his child, here is a symbol\n    of the eternal power of the God-head of your Father,\n    here are hints of what his child may be. All things are\n    for all men; whosoever will, let him come and take.\n\n    \u201cDear members of the C. L. S. C. of 1883, I commend you\n    to the baccalaureate sermon of Dr. Vincent to-morrow\n    for higher and grander utterances than these heights\n    can give; to Dr. Abbott also for grander foundations\n    than those of these mountains; even those of the\n    Christian faith, for the mountains shall melt with\n    fervent heat, but the word of God standeth forever.\n\n    \u201cYours in Christian knowledge and faith,\n\n                                \u201cHENRY W. WARREN.\u201d\n\nDr. Vincent then read the following:\n\n     Let Framingham Chautauqua hail,\n       The child the mother greet!\n     O\u2019er intervening hill and dale,\n       Oh, courier, be fleet!\n\n     Say, \u201cBrothers, fellow-students, friends,\n       Ne\u2019er turn to look behind;\n     For they whose pathway upward tends,\n       The sun-crowned summits find.\n\n    \u201cThe outlook broadens, even now,\n       A vision rare and grand;\n     Hope in each heart, light on each brow,\n       Join welcome hand to hand!\n\n    \u201cAnd while the kindly grasp gives strength,\n       Repeat along the line:\n    \u2018We\u2019ll turn from earthly lore, at length\n       Beloved, to things divine.\n\n    \u201c\u2018Bright with perennial health and youth,\n       When that glad time shall be,\n     Our guide the way, the life, the truth,\n       Immortal pupils we!\u2019\u201d\n\nAfter the reading of the congratulations and greetings, Dr. Vincent\nand President Miller presented the members of class \u201983, present at\nChautauqua, their well-earned diplomas. Out of this wonderful class of\ngraduates, numbering nearly 1,400, over 300 were present. The class has\nrepresentatives in all of the following States and Territories:\n\nCalifornia, Maine, Virginia, Florida, Tennessee, Pennsylvania,\nMassachusetts, New York, Ohio, Minnesota, Maryland, Iowa, Illinois,\nGeorgia, Indiana, Michigan, Kansas, Rhode Island, Wisconsin, New\nJersey, Texas, Vermont, West Virginia, Connecticut, Missouri, District\nof Columbia, New Hampshire, Colorado, Dakota, Kentucky.\n\nCanada is also represented, and in far-away China there is one\ngraduate. Thirteen different denominations are represented, as follows:\nMethodist, Presbyterian, Congregational, Episcopal, Baptist, Christian,\nUnited Presbyterian, Reformed, Unitarian, Universalist, Friends, Roman\nCatholics, Seventh-day Baptists.\n\nThe following occupations were represented: Teachers, housekeepers,\nministers, lawyers, clerks, students, mechanics, farmers, merchants,\ndressmakers, milliners, music-teachers, and stenographers.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nSOCIETY OF THE HALL IN THE GROVE.\n\nAt 4 o\u2019clock p. m., the Society of the Hall in the Grove assembled\nin the Hall for counsel in regard to its future work. It was clearly\nseen by all that the prosperity of the organization, if not its\nvery existence, required accommodations for its meetings, such as\nChautauqua could not now supply. After considerable discussion of many\nsuggestions, the following committee was appointed to consider plans\nfor the erection of a building, or of a series of buildings, in the\nnear future for the use of the society: R. S. Holmes, of Auburn, N.\nY.; A. M. Martin, of Pittsburgh, Pa.; A. H. Gillet, Prof. Mattison,\nand S. J. M. Eaton, D.D. A committee on constitution, aims and plans\nof the organization was appointed, consisting of J. H. Vincent, D.D.;\nJ. R. Pepper, of Memphis, Tenn.; L. C. Peake, of Toronto, Canada; R.\nS. Holmes and J. G. Allen. J. G. Allen and A. D. Wilder were appointed\nadditional members of the Guard of the Banner.\n\nAfter the Society of the Hall in the Grove had completed the business,\na social followed, and song and chat ruled the hour.\n\nAbout 9 o\u2019clock, under the direction of A. M. Martin, the camp fires\nwere lighted. In the midst of a light which was nearly as bright\nas day, R. S. Holmes, I. I. Covet, of Pittsburgh; J. H. Kellogg,\nof Troy, N. Y.; Lewis C. Peake, of Toronto; Rev. J. H. Warren, of\nTennessee, and A. M. Martin, of Pittsburgh, made speeches, containing\nreminiscences of the past, interspersed with song, and the great crowd\nappeared to listen as attentively as if it had not heard a speech\nduring the day.\n\nBut the fires have burnt low, the people surround a bed of hot coals,\nand the time for corn roasting has come. The boys are ready, and some\nnot boys in years are equally eager for the \u201cgreen corn dance.\u201d Without\ncoarseness or rudeness the fun commenced, and continued till the night\nbells called to repose. Thus closed the graduating exercises of the C.\nL. S. C. Class of 1883. From morning till night the tide of life ran\nhigh, shared in by ten thousand people of all ages, from the tiny girl\nto the veteran of many years.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nORDER OF THE WHITE SEAL.\n\nA meeting of the members of the Order of the White Seal was held on\nSaturday evening at 7:30 o\u2019clock in the Hall, Rev. Dr. Eaton in the\nchair. In the absence of the secretary, the minutes of last meeting\nwere read by the chairman. On motion, the Rev. S. J. M. Eaton, D. D.,\nFranklin, Pa., was elected president for the ensuing year, and Mr.\nL. C. Peake, Toronto, Can., secretary. Rev. W. H. Rogers reported\non behalf of the Committee on Individual Effort, Mrs. E. F. Curtiss\nfor that on Local Circles, and Miss Carrie C. Ferrin for that on the\nRound-Table. On motion these reports were accepted. Committees for the\nensuing year were appointed as follows: On Individual Effort, Rev. W.\nH. Rogers, Sodus, Wayne County, N. Y.; Miss Emily Raymond, Toledo,\nO., and Miss C. Dickey, Geneseo, N. Y. On Local Circles, Mrs. E. F.\nCurtiss, Geneseo, N. Y.; Miss Fannie E. Roy, Atlanta, Ga., and Clarence\nH. Bean, Varysburg, N. Y. On the Round-Table, Miss Carrie C. Ferrin,\nEllington, N. Y.; Mrs. A. W. Briggs, Elma, N. Y., and Miss M. C.\nMcGowan, Cincinnati, O.\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n[A] At Chautauqua, Saturday, August 18, 1883.\n\n\n\n\nMONTEREY ASSEMBLY.\n\n\nThe Pacific Grove Assembly, held near Monterey, California, devoted\nFriday, July 13, to the commencement exercises of the C. L. S. C. We\ngive a full report of the celebration:\n\nFriday was a perfect Monterey day. The Chautauquans gathered according\nto program in the large public parlor of the railroad building and\nfell into line for a procession. The choir sang a cheerful Chautauqua\nsong, in which many others joined, and then \u201cprocessed.\u201d First came\nthe president and officers of the society, then the graduates, then\nall members of the C. L. S. C.\u2014then everybody. All members wore an oak\nleaf, which is the regulation badge, but members of the graduating\nclass wore for a decoration a broad badge of dark garnet-colored\nribbon, fringed with bullion, and with the unfailing \u201cC. L. S. C.\u201d and\nthe figures \u201c1883\u201d printed upon it in gold. They marched toward the\nAssembly Hall, passing under the motto-inscribed and garlanded arches,\nand entering the building proceeded to the front seats, which had been\nreserved. The hall, under the care of the decorative committee, had\nbroken out into fresh verdure and bloom, while the letters \u201cC. L. S.\nC.\u201d and the class dates, \u201c1879-1883,\u201d had blossomed out in gold and\nscarlet upon the white wall behind the speakers\u2019 platform.\n\nThe hall was full to overflowing. Everybody on the grounds had been\ninvited to be present, and the greatest interest was manifested by all.\nThe exercises began with an inspiring Chautauqua song. An earnest and\nappropriate prayer was offered by Rev. Dr. Heacock, of San Jose, and\nthen a beautiful letter of greeting from Dr. Vincent, the founder of\nthe society, was read. It was full of cordial friendliness, outlined\nbriefly the benefits which he trusted all had received from pursuing\nthe C. L. S. C. studies, and pointed out the catholicity and wide\nhelpfulness of the Chautauqua Idea. It closed with words of stimulus\nand encouragement, as well as congratulation. Prof. Norton now made a\nbrief but admirable introductory address. He spoke of the Chautauqua\nenthusiasm and interest as an intellectual revival. It is a work for\nthe masses, differing from that of the great universities of whose\nbenefits only a few favored ones can avail themselves. It goes to homes\nof poverty, to workshops and kitchens as well as the libraries and\nparlors. It is food for the hungry wherever they may be. It comes to\nlives which have been arid and desolate through monotonous toil. He\nspoke of the great increase of insanity among our farming population,\nowing, no doubt, to the lack of healthful mental occupation. The C. L.\nS. C. course of reading and plans for neighborhood circles may help\nthese lonely, overworked people to new and broader horizons of thought\nand life. Prof. Norton closed with a pathetic and poetic comparison\nbetween our real lives and our temporary sojourn by the great sea\nwhich tosses and surges before us. Our footsteps on the shore here\nare washed away by every incoming tide, so with our \u201cfootsteps on the\nsands of time.\u201d The great sea of eternity will soon efface all our\nlittle earthly deeds. Let us live for eternal things. Let to-day be a\ncommencement indeed\u2014a beginning of grander and better living, of deeds\nwhich shall survive in the long years of God.\n\nThe quartet choir sang another beautiful song, and then three essays\nwere read from the graduates.\n\nA delicate little prose-poem called \u201cChildhood in Literature,\u201d by Miss\nMyrtie Hudson, of San Jose (a post-graduate of our society), was read\nby Miss Lydia Bean. The diplomas were presented by Dr. Stratton, who\nremarked when giving them that these diplomas do not confer degrees,\nbut something better than a degree, for they represent mature study,\nhabits of fixed thought and life-long intellectual growth.\n\nThere were more than forty C. L. S. C. graduates in our State this\nyear. The following were present: Mrs. Lydia A. French, Stockton;\nMrs. H. J. Gardener, Rio Vista; Miss E. A. Wood, Riverside; Mrs. A.\nJ. Bennett, San Jose; Mrs. M. E. McCowen, Ukiah; Mrs. E. M. Reynolds,\nSan Jose; Miss M. McBride, Dixon; Mrs. C. C. Minard, Evergreen; Mrs.\nEstelle Greathead, San Jose; Mrs. Lucy N. Crane, San Lorenzo; Mrs.\nS. E. Walton, Yuba City; Miss Cornelia Walker, San Jose; Mrs. S. F.\nGosbey, Santa Clara; Mrs. F. W. Pond, Los Angeles; Miss Alice M. Wells,\nDixon; Mrs. M. H. McKee, San Jose; Miss Henrietta Stone, Mrs. Mira E.\nMiller, Santa Barbara; Dr. C. C. Stratton, San Jose.\n\nAfter the commencement exercises the crowd dispersed, and the friends\nof the graduates gathered around them to congratulate and exchange\nfriendly greetings. But it was late lunch-time, and the keen demands\nof appetite were never keener than here at Pacific Grove. So, with the\nunderstanding that all were to reassemble at 2 o\u2019clock p. m., those\nwho had lingered hastened away. The hour for meeting soon arrived,\nand the Chautauquans mustered in force at the beautiful cove near\nProspect Park. After a lively social time, President Stratton called\nthe meeting to order and pointed out a suggestive-looking traveling\nphotographer, armed with the usual camera and other implements, who had\nbeen hovering about a neighboring cliff, and evidently had intentions\nof immortalizing the C. L. S. C. Assembly. Everybody was requested to\nassume a graceful attitude and a pleased expression, which they made\nhaste to do. The beach was covered with people, standing, sitting,\nreclining. It was very hard work to be sober and proper, and look as\ndignified as future ages will demand. Our president reclined upon the\nsand, as befitted \u201cthe noblest Roman of us all;\u201d the secretary sat\nupright and faced the music; the modest vice-president tried to get\naway, but was restrained by his numerous admiring friends; the small\nboys in front were entreated to keep still; the photographer removed\nthe pall-like black cloth, and the deed was done. The result was quite\nsuccessful, and the picture may yet hang in the \u201cHall in the Grove,\u201d\nthat eastern Chautauquans may see how their transcontinental comrades\nlook when disporting themselves by the sunset sea.\n\nThe photograph business being disposed of, the next thing in order was\nthe Round-Table. There was no table to speak of, but a great deal of\n\u201cround\u201d\u2014an informal all \u2019round talk in a pleasant, familiar fashion.\nEverybody was seated upon the shining white sand, a soft gray sky\noverhead, a mild, warm atmosphere enfolding all, and the illimitable\nsea stretching out before us and breaking in soft murmurs at our feet.\nMembers from all over the State gave, in brief conversational style,\ncheering reports of their various circles, and the utmost interest\nwas manifested by all in the common weal. The tone of the meeting was\ndecidedly inspiring, and all seemed ready to promise improvement and\nrenewed effort.\n\nThe next evening was the mussel-bake. A blazing fire had been built\nupon the sand, but far from the assemblage, and much vigorous _muscle_\nwas displayed in stirring the embers and piling on driftwood and\nresinous pine cones, but as to the _mussels_, perhaps the less said\nabout them the better. There were, indeed, mussels baked, and they were\npassed around upon a board in the most approved style, but it must be\nconfessed the supply was not very abundant. The whole mussel-bake was a\nlittle like Hamlet, with the part of Hamlet left out. The explanation\nlay in the fact that mussels can only be gathered in certain places\nand at very low tide, and there had been a little misunderstanding.\nNevertheless, brethren, we had a grand time, an unlimited supply of\napples and freshly-roasted peanuts, and we fully propose to have a\nmussel-bake every year!\n\nAt a business meeting held during the assembly, Rev. Dr. Stratton was\nre-elected to the presidency of the Pacific Coast C. L. S. C.; Dr. C.\nL. Anderson, of Santa Cruz, was elected vice-president; Mrs. M. H.\nField, of San Jose, general secretary and treasurer; Miss Mary Bowman,\nof San Jose, secretary of the Assembly, and Mrs. Eloise Dawson, of\nSan Jose, treasurer of the Assembly. Votes of thanks were given to\nmany benefactors and to retiring officers, especially to Miss M. E. B.\nNorton, who has given our Branch the most faithful and untiring service.\n\nOur newly elected executive committee consists of Rev. C. C. Stratton,\nD.D., San Jose, president; C. L. Anderson, M.D., vice-president, Santa\nCruz; Mrs. M. H. Field, general secretary, San Jose; Mrs. Eloise\nDawson, San Jose, treasurer; Rev. J. H. Wythe, D.D., Oakland; Prof.\nH. B. Norton, San Jose; Rev. I. H. Dwinelle, Sacramento; G. M. Ames,\nOakland; Miss Lucy Washburn, San Jose; Prof. Josiah Keep, Alameda; Mrs.\nL. J. Nusbaum, Sacramento; Rev. C. D. Barrows, San Francisco; Mrs. S.\nE. Walton, Yuba City; Mrs. Julia Leal, Los Angeles; Mrs. E. M. McCowen,\nUkiah; Clarke Whittier, M.D., Riverside; Mrs. E. A. Gibbs, Santa Rosa;\nMiss M. E. B. Norton, San Jose.\n\n\n\n\nMONTEAGLE ASSEMBLY.\n\nBy REV. J. H. WARREN.\n\n\nMonteagle Assembly is located at Monteagle, Grundy County, Tenn., on\nthe top of Cumberland Mountain, fifteen miles from Cowan, between\nSewanee and Tracy City, immediately on the railroad owned and managed\nby the Tennessee Coal, Iron and Railroad Company. Cowan is a small\nvillage on the Nashville and Chattanooga Railroad, eighty-four miles\nfrom Nashville and sixty-four miles from Chattanooga. The ride up\nthe mountain from Cowan to the Assembly grounds is one of the most\npicturesque in this country. The ascent for the first nine miles is\n1,100 feet. The Assembly owns a hundred acres of land, which have\nbeen laid out into parks, drives, avenues, and building lots. About\ntwenty-five acres have already been improved, and quite a number of\nlots have been sold to individuals upon which to build cottages. An\namphitheater, capable of seating 2,000 persons, on the plan of the one\nat Chautauqua, has been erected. Within a very short distance of the\nAssembly grounds is some of the most magnificent mountain scenery to be\nfound in any country. The elevation is 2,140 feet above the sea level.\nThe Assembly is strictly undenominational. Each Christian denomination\nis entitled to four members in the board of trustees, provided they\nhave as many members of the Assembly. The charter prohibits it from\nbeing managed for the pecuniary interest of any person or persons.\n\nThe first annual meeting of the Assembly has closed. It was a success\nbeyond our most sanguine expectation. The Normal School and Teachers\u2019\nRetreat opened July 2, and closed August 4. These schools were all\nwell attended. More than one hundred and fifty teachers attended the\nNormal alone. About fifty-two studied elocution. These teachers were\nfrom several States, and a more intelligent class I have never seen\ncollected together anywhere.\n\nThe Assembly opened July 17, and closed August 6. At the opening\nservice there were 1,000 people present. The attendance was good during\nthe entire Assembly. At one time on the grounds there were twenty-one\nStates and nineteen Christian denominations represented.\n\nIn the program, two days were given to temperance, one day to Y. M. C.\nA. work, two days to missions, foreign and domestic, and two days to\neducation. The meetings throughout were of great interest.\n\nOut of the large number of speakers on the program only four or five\nfailed to attend.\n\nThe Sunday-school normal instruction, the children\u2019s meetings, and Mr.\nVan Lennep\u2019s \u201cOriental and Biblical Museum\u201d were interesting features\nof the Assembly.\n\nBut I desire to call special attention to the work of the C. L. S. C.\nat Monteagle. We recognize this as an institution in this country. It\nis fast finding its way into many of our Southern homes, and bringing\nsunshine and blessings to many hearts.\n\nAt our solicitation, Dr. J. H. Vincent was present two or three days of\nthe Assembly, and represented the C. L. S. C. His words of wisdom and\ncheer were a joy to many hearts. There were twenty members of the C. L.\nS. C. present to greet him. This number was increased to seventy before\nthe Assembly adjourned.\n\nA permanent organization was perfected, with Miss Emma Brown, Memphis,\nTenn., president, and Miss Anna W. Thomas, Memphis, Tenn., secretary.\nThe idea is to have annual meetings at Monteagle.\n\nEach member went away determined to organize local circles at their\nhomes, so that when we return next year, if permitted to do so, the\nmembers will have swelled from fifty to five hundred. We hope Dr.\nVincent will favor us with his presence each year.\n\nDuring the Assembly a number of C. L. S. C. Round-Tables were held,\nwhich were profitable, socially and intellectually.\n\nOn the evening of July 21 was held the first C. L. S. C. camp-fire at\nMonteagle, under the leadership of Dr. Vincent. The speeches and songs\nwere full of inspiration and good cheer. We only regret that hundreds\nof our people in the South were not present to enjoy the meetings with\nus, and take fresh courage and inspiration for the work of life.\n\nMiss Thomas, our secretary, has been instructed to correspond with all\nmembers of the C. L. S. C., who were at Monteagle, and all others whose\nnames and post-office addresses she can get. She would be glad to have\nthe names of all who are interested in this work. We desire to arrange\nfor some organized effort to push this work out into the many homes\nof our country. Let every city, town, and village, and neighborhood,\norganize a circle.\n\nThose members of the C. L. S. C., who were at Monteagle, have\ndetermined to erect a Hall of Philosophy, that we may have a place in\nwhich to hold our meetings each year. This can be done very easily by a\nlittle co-operative effort.\n\nAll things considered, the Assembly was quite a success. The outlook\nis encouraging. Although located in the South, it is not a Southern\ninstitution, it is for the public good. Let the people come from the\nNorth, South, East, and West; all will be equally welcome. Life is too\nshort to harbor animosities. Let us enter the struggles and conflicts\nof life like heroes and heroines. As a nation, we have a grand work\nbefore us to elevate our people socially, morally, religiously, and\nintellectually. Monteagle proposes to do her part. Will the good people\nof this country stand by us in this noble work? If you will, success is\nsure. There is no other enterprise of the kind in the South. The people\nare united. Give us your prayers and co-operation. If you desire to do\ngood with your money, take hold of Monteagle Assembly.\n\nTo the sister assemblies over the land, we send words of greeting. To\nall the members of the C. L. S. C. throughout this broad land we extend\nthe right hand of fellowship. For the unity, peace, and the uplifting\nof our people, and the establishing of Christ\u2019s kingdom, may we all be\nunited, heart and hand, in Christian love and sympathy.\n\n\n\n\nMONONA LAKE ASSEMBLY.\n\n\nNo one can estimate the extent to which the C. L. S. C. is growing. One\nState after another surrenders to its influence. During the past year\nWisconsin has taken hold of the work, and is now showing a wonderful\ninterest in the studies of the \u201chome college.\u201d The little text-books\nhave found their way into many a quiet family, and are beginning to\nrevolutionize society in every city, village, and country neighborhood.\n\nThis fact was shown very clearly at the Assembly held at Monona Lake,\nnear Madison, Wisconsin. Many local circles sent representatives to\nthis gathering to receive, through them, inspiration and strength\nfor the work of the coming year. The total attendance from various\nlocalities was nearly two hundred. C. L. S. C. Day was the best of the\nwhole session. Although an entirely new feature, yet the people became\nso enthused that about a thousand called for circulars of information,\nand many joined the Circle before they left the grounds.\n\nRev. A. H. Gillet, the president of the Monona Lake Branch, delivered\nthe annual address, in which he explained most admirably the object and\naim of the Circle. Twelve persons, who had completed the four years\u2019\ncourse, were present to receive their diplomas, and notwithstanding the\nabsence of the \u201cGolden Gate\u201d and the \u201cHall of Philosophy,\u201d everything\nhad the Chautauqua appearance, and the very atmosphere was filled with\nclassic odors.\n\nThe camp-fire in the evening was a feature that will never be forgotten\nby those present. After the feast of solid food during the day, this\nevening hour was filled with real enjoyment, and many humorous speeches\nthat were made as the flames ascended and the sparks disappeared in the\nstarry dome above, served to lighten every heart, and to close the day\nwith the feeling that it was indeed the best of the season.\n\nThe round-table conferences, conducted by Rev. A. H. Gillet, were full\nof interest. Some very important questions were discussed, and the\nmembers present prepared for successful work in their respective homes.\nThe Chautauqua Songs were sung at all of these meetings, and never did\n\u201cDay is Dying in the West\u201d sound more sweetly than at Monona Lake.\n\nBut of all the exercises connected with the Circle, the Sunday evening\nvesper services were the best. Here was shown the real secret of\nChautauqua success. Nearly every member, engaged during the week in\ngathering knowledge of art, science and literature, was found in his\nplace on Sunday evening, lifting his heart to God, and showing thereby\nthat we \u201ckeep our Heavenly Father in our midst.\u201d\n\nThe organization of Monona Lake Branch was perfected by the election of\nRev. A. H. Gillet as president, and Mrs. William Millard, of Milwaukee,\nsecretary. An executive committee was appointed to arrange the plans\nfor next year. We look forward to good reports from this daughter of\nChautauqua, and give her a hearty welcome.\n\n\n\n\nISLAND PARK ASSEMBLY.\n\n\nUnusual interest was manifest this season at Island Park, near Rome\nCity, Indiana. The Assembly, conducted by Rev. A. H. Gillet, of\nCincinnati, Ohio, was a great success. The place is growing in favor\neach year, and the fire kindled there will not only continue to burn,\nbut to spread, until every hamlet within a radius of many miles\nshall receive the light and warming influences that come from such\ngatherings. The attendance this year was larger than ever before, the\npeople were of a better class, and the program, as carried out, gave\nuniversal satisfaction. The singing of the Wilberforce Concert Company\ndelighted everybody. Among the lecturers were Drs. O. H. Tiffany and\nC. H. Fowler, of New York City; Dr. Justin D. Fulton, of Brooklyn, N.\nY.; Drs. Stocking and Alabaster, of Detroit, Michigan, and Dr. P. S.\nHenson, of Chicago, Illinois. Dr. W. C. Richards, of Chicago, gave\nseveral very interesting lectures on \u201cElectricity.\u201d The Island Park\nBranch of the C. L. S. C. was regularly organized this year, with Rev.\nA. H. Gillet as president, and J. L. Shearer, of Fort Wayne, Indiana,\nsecretary. There were over two hundred members in attendance. The\ndaily round-table conferences, conducted by Rev. Gillet and Dr. J. L.\nHurlbut, of Plainfield, N. J., were highly appreciated by the members\npresent, and many valuable suggestions given and received by these\nmutual discussions. The circle is enlarging continually in Indiana and\nMichigan, so that there is scarcely a town or village in which there\nis not a local circle, or at least a few individual members. Many have\njoined the class of \u201987, and quite a large number, having completed the\nfour years\u2019 course, were present to receive their diplomas. C. L. S. C.\nday was the best of the session. Dr. C. H. Fowler, of New York City,\ndelivered the annual address. The camp-fire was the grandest ever seen\nat Island Park.\n\nPlans for the erection of a C. L. S. C. building are under\nconsideration, a reading-room for the benefit of the Circle, an Island\nPark lecture association, and many other novel features are things of\nthe near future.\n\nThe Music College, under the direction of Prof. C. C. Case, of Akron,\nOhio, the school of languages, the department of elocution, the art\nschool, and the secular teachers\u2019 normal were also well attended. It is\nthe intention of the managers to lengthen the time of these departments\nnext year, and to offer additional facilities to those who wish to\nimprove their vacation by carrying on some line of study. On the whole,\nwe can say that Island Park Assembly is a fixed fact, a thing that\nhas come to stay, and we are glad that the people are beginning to\nappreciate and to value the educating and refining influences of these\ngatherings.\n\n\n\n\nLAKESIDE ASSEMBLY.\n\n\nA regular \u201cC. L. S. C. Day\u201d was provided for in the program at the\nLakeside, Ohio, Sunday-school encampment, and the \u201crecognition of the\nClass of \u201983\u201d arranged for. The absence of Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D.,\nwas an unexpected and greatly lamented interruption to our plans. But\nthe inspiration of the \u201cChautauqua Idea,\u201d which Lakeside has caught and\nthoroughly incorporated into its own fiber, did not allow a dampening\nof ardor, and so the \u201cday\u201d went on as days will, and especially such\nsunny days by Lake Erie as that was. Happily Lewis Miller, Esq.,\nPresident of the C. L. S. C., was persuaded to remain a while and lend\nhis cheery face, his wise words and his authoritative presence to the\noccasion.\n\nA large audience, filling the capacious Auditorium, assembled, the\nmembers of the Class of \u201983 took seats on the platform, and President\nMiller occupied the chair. After opening exercises in the use of the\nresponsive services provided, copies of which were distributed among\nthe audience, addresses were delivered by Rev. Dr. Hartupee, Rev.\nDr. Worden, Prof. Frank Beard, and Rev. B. T. Vincent. After these\nhad concluded, President Miller called the members of the class to\ntheir feet, and in a neat and appropriate address \u201crecognized\u201d them\nthereby as graduates of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle,\nas part of the great class of fourteen hundred for the current year.\nA round-table was also held, conducted by Rev. B. T. Vincent, at\nwhich the subject of C. L. S. C. work was taken up by those present,\nand treated in a most practical manner. Representatives from several\nlocal circles gave outlines of their plans of work, and questions from\ninterested students as to methods, etc., brought forth suggestive\nanswers, awakening new interest in the subject of study, and stirring\nthe uninitiated, of whom many were present, into an interest in the\nwork. A Sunday evening C. L. S. C. vesper service was also most\ninteresting. On the last evening of the encampment, Bishop Hurst, who\nwas present, applied the subject of general reading as represented\nin the C. L. S. C. in its relation to a firmer religious texture\nin Christian character, in a ringing address which did much toward\nawakening new interest in this great work. The enthusiasm excited by\nthe meetings in this behalf was cordially felt by Lakeside people,\nand it is determined to make the \u201crecognition\u201d of the class of the\ncurrent year, and also the round-table, features of the annual program\nhereafter.\n\nSurrounded as Lakeside is by an immense area filled with studious and\nenterprising people who are taking hold of the C. L. S. C. readings,\nand who are finding their special center of summer gathering there,\nthis provision will be a source of great gratification to them, and a\nmeans of extending these benefits to many who only thus are brought\ninto contact with this agency of Christian intelligence and popular\nculture.\n\n\n\n\nMOUNTAIN LAKE PARK ASSEMBLY.\n\n\nThe fifth annual session of this Assembly lasted ten days, August\n7-17. Some will recall the fact that the institution was established\nin the Cumberland Valley, Pennsylvania, and was held there for three\nsuccessive years. Last year the experiment was made of holding the\nmeeting in the Glades, at the new resort called Mountain Lake Park,\nMaryland. The new field was so full of promise and hope that it was at\nonce determined to make it the center of the movement henceforth. The\nplace is unique in some of its features, situated in the midst of a\nseries of table-land glades, between the peaks of the Alleghenies, in\nthe vicinity of some most romantic and stirring scenery, and possessing\nan atmosphere abounding in stimulation and vigor. Two years ago the\nregion was an uninhabited wilderness, with the Baltimore and Ohio\nRailroad resort, Deer Park, on one side three miles away, and Oakland,\nthe county seat of Garrett County, two miles to the west. Now it is a\nsummer settlement abounding in picturesque cottages, beautiful drives,\nand linked to a Sunday-school Assembly and to \u201csummer schools\u201d of\nvarious sorts for all time to come.\n\nThe lecture course of the session just past was of a high order.\nIt included three superb addresses from Dr. Lyman Abbott, full of\nvigorous thought, religious ardor, and primed and charged with\nsuggestiveness\u2014\u201cWhy I believe in God, in Christ, and in the Bible.\u201d\nProf. Cumnock gave two magnificent entertainments in the shape of\nreadings and recitations. Prof. Young, of Princeton, delighted us with\nthree illustrated astronomical lectures; and the Rev. Jesse Bowman\nYoung gave three tours, illustrated also with the stereopticon: \u201cThe\nMarvels of Colorado,\u201d \u201cLondon and Paris,\u201d and \u201cFrom Dan to Beersheba.\u201d\nProf. Harris, on the \u201cWrong side of the Moon,\u201d Dr. Huntley, on the\n\u201cAmen Corner,\u201d Bishop Andrews, on \u201cThe Method of the New Testament\nLaw,\u201d and Dr. Payne, with two lectures, all did their best work, and\nearned and received high appreciation.\n\nThe normal classes were under the instruction of Rev. J. B. Young,\nRev. J. T. Judd, Rev. J. Vance, and Prof. Elliott of Baltimore. The\nlessons were chosen in part from Dr. Vincent\u2019s \u201cNormal Outlines,\u201d and\nin part were prepared by Mr. Judd.\n\nRev. Mr. Young conducted two enthusiastic and interesting services\nduring the closing days of the Assembly, developing the \u201cChautauqua\nIdea.\u201d Drs. Frysinger, Van Meter, and Leech, Messrs. Judd, Vance,\nBaldwin, Lindsey, and others, made capital addresses, bringing out as\nphases of this \u201cIdea\u201d the following elements: home study, Bible study,\nnormal work, study of the classics, of literature, of the sciences.\n\nOn the last night of the Assembly at Mountain Lake Park the C. L. S. C.\nwas organized, with over fifty members, Rev. J. T. Judd, of Harrisburg,\nPa., being elected president, and Miss Jennie M. Jones, of the same\ncity, secretary.\n\nThus from the tip-top of the Alleghenies we send out greetings to other\nChautauquans, and join in the glorious work which is in marvelous\nmeasure leavening the land.\n\n\n\n\nNEW ENGLAND ASSEMBLY.\n\n\nThe \u201cChautauqua Idea\u201d is taking deep root in the soil of New England.\nFour years ago the first Assembly was held on the grounds of the\nFramingham Campmeeting Association. There was a fair attendance, and\nconsiderable enthusiasm. Each year has been an improvement. The number\nin attendance has been greater, and the interest has been on the\nincrease. This year has been the best of all. Almost from the first the\nlodging accommodations were taxed to their utmost in providing for the\nunexpectedly large numbers. The gentleman in charge of the dormitory\nstated to the writer that he had a greater rush the first day of the\nAssembly, this year, than he had the first week of last year. Thus it\ncontinued during the ten days. It is therefore safe to conclude, that\nin a financial way, the meeting was a success beyond its predecessors.\n\nThe work of the various departments was done efficiently by Dr.\nVincent, in charge, assisted by Dr. Hurlbut, and Prof. Holmes, at\nthe head of the normal classes; Prof. Sherwin at the front with a\nmagnificent chorus of nearly two hundred voices; Frank Beard with a\ndrawing class of one hundred and fifty; and the platform occupied by\nsuch men as Prof. Richards, Dr. Lyman Abbott, Dr. Angell, Wallace\nBruce, Dr. Hull, Dr. J. B. Thomas, Dr. Tiffany, Prof. Young, A. O. Van\nLennep, and others. A feast of good things was to be expected, and we\nwere not disappointed.\n\nOne of the enjoyable features of the Assembly was Rev. O. S. Baketel\u2019s\nlecture on \u201cSights and Insights at Chautauqua,\u201d illustrated with eighty\nstereopticon views. They were shown with the calcium light, and an\naudience of four thousand people sat for an hour and three quarters,\nhearing and seeing. It created a great deal of interest, both with old\nChautauquans and the many who have never seen Chautauqua.\n\nProf. Sherwin had several very excellent soloists, and his chorus was\nexceptionally fine.\n\nOne of the new buildings this year is the C. L. S. C. office. This is a\nvery neat structure, and greatly appreciated by those having in charge\nthe C. L. S. C. It was usually crowded during office hours. About five\nhundred members of the Circle were present during the Assembly. One\nhundred and sixty-five joined the Class of 1887. Thirty-eight members\nof the graduating class were present and received their diplomas from\nthe hands of Dr. Vincent. The Class of 1884 are thoroughly organized,\nand are looking forward to a grand time when next year\u2019s bells shall\nring in their festal day.\n\nAs usual, Mrs. Rosie M. Baketel had charge of the C. L. S. C. office.\nThis is her third year in this position. She is one of the hardest\nworkers on the grounds.\n\nThe presence of Dr. Vincent is always an inspiration to a Framingham\naudience. Though compelled to return to Chautauqua after the opening,\nhe gave us a grand \u201csend-off,\u201d and his presence and labors when he\nreturned again were greatly enjoyed.\n\n    ONE OF 1882.\n\n\n\n\nHOW WE CAME TOGETHER.\n\n    [The following poem, from Counselor W. C. Wilkinson\u2019s\n    volume, recently published by Messrs. Charles\n    Scribner\u2019s Sons, tells the story of the author\u2019s first\n    meeting with a friend of his, who is also a friend\n    of every reader of THE CHAUTAUQUAN\u2014the Rev. John H.\n    Vincent, D.D. The friendship thus formed, not less\n    than twenty years ago, endures yet between the two as\n    vivid as ever. It is bearing fruit not then anticipated\n    in the associated labors which they perform for the\n    Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.]\n\n\n    Thorwaldsen\u2019s Lion, gray and grim,\n      Rock in his rocky lair,\n    On who would rend his lily from him,\n      Glowered out with dying glare.\n\n    I mused awhile the sculptured stone,\n      My pilgrim staff in hand;\n    Then turned to hold my way alone,\n      And lone, from land to land.\n\n    But God had other hap in store:\n      Even as I turned I met\n    A manly eye ne\u2019er seen before\u2014\n      I seem to see it yet!\n\n    Vanish the changeful years between,\n      Like morning-smitten rack;\n    As, morning-like, that crescent scene\n      Comes dawning swiftly back.\n\n    Again, above, that mellow noon\n      And soft Swiss heaven doth yearn;\n    Frowns still on us in pilgrim shoon\n      The Lion of Lucerne.\n\n    Once more each other\u2019s hands we take,\n      The pass-words fly betwixt;\n    Though slack the speed that speech may make,\n      When heart with heart is mixed.\n\n    I see the green Swiss lake asleep\n      With Righi in her dream;\n    We cross the lake, we climb the steep\n      To watch the world agleam.\n\n    The paths are many up the slope,\n      And many of the mind,\n    We catch the flying clue of hope,\n      And wander where they wind.\n\n    The paths are fresh, the pastures green,\n      In walk or talk traversed;\n    The Alpland meadow\u2019s grassy sheen\n      With many a streamlet nursed,\n\n    And the fair meadows of the soul\n      Forever fresh with streams\n    From the long heights of youth that roll,\n      The Righi-Culm of dreams.\n\n    We speak of summits hard to gain,\n      And, gained, still hard to keep;\n    Of pleasure bought with glorious pain,\n      Of tears \u2019twas heaven to weep;\n\n    And of a blessed Heavenly Friend\n      Who, struggling with us still,\n    Would break the blows else like to bend\n      The lonely human will;\n\n    Or with some sudden vital touch,\n      At pinch of sorest need,\n    Would lift our little strength to much,\n      And energize our deed.\n\n    Our talk flows on, through strain or rest,\n      As up the steep we go;\n    Each untried track of thought seems best\n      In hope\u2019s prelusive glow.\n\n    We loiter while the sun makes haste,\n      But we shall yet sit down\n    To watch the gleams of sunset chased\n      From mountain crown to crown.\n\n    Too long, too late\u2014the splendor went\n      Or e\u2019er we reached the goal;\n    But a splendor had dawned that will never be spent\n      That day on either soul.\n\n\n\n\nVEGETABLE VILLAINS.\n\nBy R. TURNER.\n\n\nTHE PLANT COMMUNITY AND ITS VILLAINS.\n\nNo paradise could be complete for us without a pervading freshness\nof green in wood and field. In lazy moods and calm sunshiny weather\nthere are few men who will not condescend to stretch out their limbs\nunder a spreading beech, or at least to envy one who is taking life\neasily for a time in the shade. We all know what a pleasant faint\nrustle of leaves there is above, and what a flickering of mellowed\nsunlight comes over the eyes, and how these steal into the heart\nwith a sense of soft content, till we are apt to become like little\nchildren, enjoying without much thought, yielding ourselves up to the\ndelight of the mere living, letting our consciousness float along\nlazily on the current of being. But if we can in such circumstances\nnerve ourselves to reflect just a little, we shall\u2014if we possess even\na very slight knowledge of the processes of nature\u2014become conscious\nthat there are great silent energies and activities at work around us\nin every blade of grass, and above us in the cool green foliage. The\nleaves have myriads of invisible little mouths eagerly drinking in the\nunseen air, and the minute grains that give the green color to these\nleaves are all the while laying hold of the infinitesimal percentage of\ncarbonic acid impurity in that air, and, invigorated by the quickening\nsunlight, are able to tear this gaseous impurity to pieces, to wrench\nthe two elements that form it asunder, making the one into nutriment\nfor themselves, and letting the other go free in its purity into the\nwide atmosphere. What man\u2014with all his sound and fury, his hammering\nand clanking\u2014has never achieved, is thus quietly done in summer days\nby every green leaf in God\u2019s world, and inorganic matter is forced\nto live. While the sun shines these honest workers are striving with\nall their might to lay hold of every atom of this gas that fouls the\natmosphere for animals, and thus, while finding food for themselves,\nthey are keeping the air sweet and pure for other living things. The\nnecessity is laid on them to maintain themselves by honest work; and\nit is interesting to reflect how massive are the material results that\ngather round their task. We are apt to forget that by far the greater\npart of the solid matter of vegetation\u2014of the giant trees of California\nas well as of the tiniest grasses and green herbs\u2014is thus gathered atom\nby atom from the atmosphere. One eats his potato thankfully, usually\nwithout bothering himself much as to how it came to be a potato; how\nthe green leaves labored away, seizing the scanty atoms of an invisible\ngas and making them into starch; how this insoluble starch became a\nsoluble thing, and melting away into the sap flowed through the stem\nto the tubers, there to form again into little grains and be laid up\nfor future use. The rest of the nourishment of such honest plants is\nusually derived from the soil. The more stimulating food\u2014within certain\nlimits\u2014that crops, for instance, take up by the roots, the harder do\ntheir green parts work in the sunlight, making starch and kindred\nsubstances out of what they can snatch from the atmosphere. Hence\nthe value of manures; they are stimulants to increased endeavor. Such\nhonest, hard-working plants form by far the greater bulk of vegetation,\nand of those that grow on land nearly all are conspicuously green.\nSometimes\u2014but rarely\u2014the green is disguised a little by another color\nassociated with it, or some tint that is but skin-deep. Take a leaf of\nthe copper beech, for instance, scratch the surface, and you will find\nthe honest green beneath. Even the despised field-weeds, that come up\nwherever man digs or plows, and linger lovingly about his agriculture,\nso be it that they are green, are honest in their way, and only take\nhold of what earth they can find to root in, that they may participate\nwith their fellows in the blessings to be got and given by keeping the\natmosphere pure. Man wants to grow grain, or something of the kind,\nwhere they prefer to grow, and so, as they foul his husbandry, he\nruthlessly roots them out, or tries at least. It is their misfortune\nthat man does not wish them there; but still, contemned creatures as\nthey are, they have honest ways about them, and every green grain in\ntheir being is struggling hard to do something genuinely useful. It\nis only an earnest striving to hold their own against man and brute,\nthat makes humble nettles clothe themselves with stings full of formic\nacid and fury, and rude thistles bristle with a sharp _nemo me impune\nlacessit_ at every prickle point. They are armed for defense, not\naggression. It is not of stuff such as this that vegetable villains are\nmade.\n\nSince there is so much honesty, however, in the plant world, rogues,\nand thieves, and pilferers must abound. Consider the animal kingdom.\nWhere herds of deer roam in the wilds there beasts of prey are on the\nprowl, or sportsmen stalk with murderous guns in hand. Where herrings\nand pilchards crowd in shoals clouds of gulls and gannets hover, and\nporpoises with rapacious maws tumble and roll about. Where earthworms\nabound there moles with ravenous appetite are furiously driving mines,\nor birds that have sharp, quick bills keep watch with keen eyes. And so\nin this honest plant community, preying on it and pilfering from it,\nlive and flourish hosts of vegetable villains; some without a trace of\ngreen in their whole being, living by theftuous practices alone; some\nwith just the faintest suspicion of green and the slightest indications\nof a true nature; others with a good deal of the better color about\nthem, but still only indifferently honest. There is something of marvel\nand mystery about these plant pilferers\u2014of strange peculiarities in\ntheir modes of life, and in their adaptations for plundering and\npreying, which can hardly fail to interest intelligent minds, even when\nbrought before them in a sketch such as this, which does not profess to\ntake in more than the outermost fringe of a wide field. Without terms\nand technicalities and a strange jargon of crabbed words that would\nbe dry as dust, and meaningless to most readers, little professing\nto be thorough can be done; yet, after all, something more generally\ncomprehensive may ooze through in comparatively plain English.\n\nWith regard to their pilfering habits, such plants are usually\nproportioned off into two great groups. They either attach themselves\nto other beings and absorb their juices, in which case they form a\nmighty host of plants of prey usually known as _parasites_; or they\nseek their nurtriment, and find it, in dead and decaying organisms,\nand are then known as _saprophytes_, a somewhat hard word to begin\nwith, for which I can not find a popular equivalent, but which merely\nsignifies plants that grow on decomposing matter. All land plants that\nare not blessed with a true green color belong to one or other of these\ngroups, and are villains in their various degrees. They make no effort\nto free the air from the gaseous impurity that haunts it, but, like\nanimals, they keep fouling it instead. With a very few exceptions, all\nof them subsist on organic matter in some form, and this they usually\ndraw from the plants, living or dead, on which they grow, or from\ndecaying matter in the soil. But many of these vegetable villains run\ninto half-honest vagaries, and succeed in raising themselves slightly\nabove the common ruck. If they can not seize and break up carbonic\nacid gas, they may do a little toward atmospheric purification of a\nkind by laying fast hold on such organic particles as are floating in\nthe air or brought to them in falling moisture. Plants such as these\nare sometimes found growing on barren sand, on hard gravel, on parapets\nof bridges, on leaden cisterns, on plastered walls, on slag, and in\nlike inhospitable places, where they are compelled to turn mainly to\nthe atmosphere and trickling moisture for food. Some such haunt mines\nlike phosphorescent ghosts, others make themselves at home on places\nlike the dome of St. Paul\u2019s Cathedral. In a mass two feet in length,\nsimilar strange plants were one morning long ago found by a smith on a\npiece of iron that he had taken, on the previous night, red-hot from\nhis fire, and laid on his water trough. Many similar vagaries they\nrun into that would in the telling sound almost incredible. Indeed,\nthe whole group of the saprophytes is not to be accounted so utterly\nabandoned as that of the parasites. To these they are certainly nearly\nrelated, but there is more of the useful scavenger about them than\nof the useless thief. No sooner has death overtaken any plant than a\nhost of them set to work to clear away the now useless organism from\nthe world, breaking down herbaceousness into putrescence, timber into\ntouchwood, and all at last into vegetable mould. Their mission is to\nseize upon decaying matter and endow it with life in a new form; and\nthus out of rottenness often comes wholesomeness, decay moulding itself\ninto pleasant mushrooms, or into things unfit for human food perhaps,\nbut that may bring the blessings of abundance to many little living\ncreatures. If such as are edible are to be considered villains, then\npeople of delicate palate who smack their lips over some of them have a\nright to insist that these should be specially classed as dainty little\nrogues.\n\nStill this useful scavengering habit is nearly allied to the pilfering\none. Decay attacks part of a tree, for instance, and saprophytes set to\nwork at the dead branch, but they are apt to extend their operations\nto the adjoining living tissues, which die, too, and decay, till in\nthe end the tree may be entirely destroyed. The scavenger, we can\nthus understand, is apt on occasion to relapse into the thief and the\nout-and-out villain.\n\nTo one or other of these two great groups, or occasionally to both,\nbelong, besides a few flowering plants, the whole extensive division\nof the fungi, and it is to be noted that none of this curious class of\nplants is ever blessed with leaf-green or starch in any part of its\nsubstance. Whether minute even under powerful microscopes or measuring\nseveral feet across; whether hard as wood or a mere mass of jelly;\nwhether horny, fleshy, or leathery; whether resisting the action of the\nelements for years or hardly able to outlive a puff of wind; whether\nbeautiful, commonplace, or ugly; whether sweet-scented or otherwise, in\nthis they agree, that in all of them is wanting that greenness which\nmakes honest work possible, and those little grains of starch that come\nfrom honest work done.\u2014_Good Words._\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nI AM afraid that a lightsome disposition and a relish for humor are not\nso common in those whose benevolence takes an active turn as in people\nof sentiment, who are always ready with their tears and abounding\nin passionate expressions of sympathy. Working philanthropy is a\npractical specialty, requiring not a mere impulse, but a talent, with\na peculiar sagacity for finding its objects, a tact for selecting its\nagencies, an organizing and arranging faculty, a steady set of nerves,\nand a constitution such as Sallust describes in Catiline, patient of\ncold, of hunger, and of watching. Philanthropists are commonly grave,\noccasionally grim, and not very rarely morose. Their expansive social\nforce is imprisoned as a working power, to show itself only through\nits legitimate pistons and cranks. The tighter the boiler, the less it\nwhistles and sings at its work.\u2014_Oliver Wendell Holmes._\n\n\n\n\nSLAVONIC MYTHOLOGY.[B]\n\nBy ADLEY H. CUMMINGS.\n\n\nThe mythology of various tribes and races has of late attracted much\nattention, while that of our own ancestors of the North has been\nstudied with the greatest care.\n\nLittle attention, however, has been devoted to the religious belief of\nthe ancient Slavonic race, and yet it is replete with interest for all\nwho yield to the fascination of ancient myth.\n\nWe unfortunately possess no Slavic Edda, or Veda, to throw illumination\nupon the ancient creed of the tribes, but a few scattered facts have\ncome down to modern times\u2014principally contained in popular songs\u2014but\nsufficient to enable us to observe the similarity between Slavonic\nmythology and that of the other members of the Indo-European stock\u2014all\npointing to that immensely ancient time when the ancestors of the\ncombined race could have been gathered within the circuit of the\nsame camp; when they passed the same lives and worshiped the same\ndivinities; wept when the \u201cserpents of the night\u201d strangled the god\nappointed to preside over the day, and rejoiced together with an\nexceeding great joy when the day-god, victorious over his foes, gilded\nthe hills again.\n\nIn Slavonic tradition Swarog is represented as the most ancient of\ntheir gods, as the one who was originally\u2014before Perkunas\u2014the supreme\ndeity of those tribes, corresponding to Sanskrit Surya, like Helios in\nGreece, the dweller in the orb of the sun. Swarog was the pervading,\nirresistible luminary, the solar deity, _par excellence_, of the race,\nand vague recollections of him still exist. In some places Swarog\nseems to have yielded to another solar deity, Dazhbog, the god of\nfruitfulness, represented as the son of Swarog.\n\nThe etymological signification of Dazhbog is the \u201cday-god.\u201d With\nhim, as a representative of the sun, was a god named Khors\u2014probably,\nhowever, but another name of the day-god.\n\nOgon, answering closely to Sanskrit Agni, Latin, _ignis_ (fire), was\nthe god of fire, brother of Dazhbog; his worship was principally\nconnected with the domestic hearth.\n\nBut the deity who stands out most prominently, who became the supreme\ndivinity of the race, though corresponding to the Scandinavian Thor,\nwas Perkunas, or Perun, whose name, yielding to certain laws of\nphonetic change, may correspond to Greek Keraunos (thunder), but more\nclosely to Sanskrit Parjanya, called in the Rig-Veda, \u201cThe thunderer,\nthe showerer, the bountiful, who impregnates the plants with rain.\u201d\nThis god was forgotten by the Hellenic Aryans, who exalted Dyaus (Zeus,\nJove) to the supreme position, but the Letto-Slavonic tribes bestowed\nupon him the endearing appellation of the \u201cAll-Father,\u201d a title which\nthey only conferred upon the creator of the lightnings. It is said that\nthe Russians still say, when the thunder rolls, \u201c_Perkuna gromena_;\u201d in\nLithuanian, \u201c_Perkuns grumena_.\u201d\n\nThe South-Slavic term for the rainbow is \u201cPerunika,\u201d \u201cPerun\u2019s flower,\u201d\nor \u201cbeauty.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhite-Russian traditions,\u201d says Afanasief,[C] \u201cdescribe Perun as tall\nand well shaped, with black hair and a long golden beard. He rides in a\nflaming car, grasping in his left hand a quiver full of arrows, and in\nhis right a fiery bow.\u201d\n\nHe is also represented as carrying a mace, answering to Thor\u2019s hammer,\nmjolnir.\n\nAfter the introduction of Christianity the prophet Elijah became\ncredited with many of the honors and functions of Perkunas. He was\ntermed, \u201cGromovit Ilija\u201d (Thunder Elijah), and the origin of the\nnotion, and the strange metamorphosis of that sweet spirit into a\nBoanerges, undoubtedly lie in his flight to heaven in a chariot of\nfire, and in his power, when on earth, of calling down fire from\nheaven, and of bringing the rain. Thus, II. Kings, i:10, he says, \u201cIf\nI be a man of God, then shall fire come down from heaven and consume\nthee and thy fifty.\u201d Again, Kings, i., 18:41, \u201cAnd Elijah said unto\nAhab: Get thee up; eat and drink, for there is a sound of abundance of\nrain.\u201d\n\nThe Slavs considered that the thunder and lightning were given into\nthe prophet\u2019s hands, and that he closed the gates of heaven, _i. e._,\nthe clouds, to sinful men, who thus might not share in his blessed\nreign. There is evidence of the same belief among the Teutonic tribes,\nand in the old High-German poem, \u201cMuspilli,\u201d a form of that saga which\nprevailed throughout all the middle ages with regard to the appearance\nof anti-Christ shortly before the end of the world. Elijah takes the\nplace which Thor assumes in Scandinavian myth at Ragnarok, and fights\nthe evil one:\n\n    \u201cDaz h\u00f4rtih rahh\u00f4n dia werol trehtwison,\n     Daz sculi der anti-Christo mit Eliase p\u00e2gan.\u201d\n\n     I have heard the very learned say,\n     That anti-Christ shall with Elijah fight.\n\nThe poem then proceeds to say that Elijah shall be wounded, and\nrecounts the many signs and wonders that shall occur before the\nMuspell-doom, the Judgment Day.\n\nVolos, or Veles, was another solar deity. It has been held that the\nGreek Helios appears in this name, while others have identified him\nwith Odin, or Woden, pronounced with an epenthetic _l_, and with other\nchanges, but the etymology seems far-fetched.\n\nHe was the special protector of cattle. The name survives to Christian\ntimes in St. Blasius. Mr. Ralston says: \u201cIn Christian times the honors\noriginally paid to Volos were transferred to his namesake, St. Vlas,\nor Vlasy (Blasius), who was a shepherd by profession. To him the\npeasants throughout Russia pray for the safety of their flocks and\nherds, and on the day consecrated to him (February 11) they drive\ntheir cows to church, and have them secured against misfortune by\nprayer and the sprinkling of holy water.... Afanasief considers that\nthe name was originally one of the epithets of Perun, who, as the\ncloud-compeller\u2014the clouds being the cattle of the sky\u2014was the guardian\nof the heavenly herds, and that the epithet ultimately became regarded\nas the name of a distinct deity.\u201d\n\nBy the names of Volus and Perun the Russians used to swear and confirm\ntheir sayings and treaties by oath.\n\nStribog was the wind-god. According to Russian ideas the four winds\nare the sons of one mother, and in the Old-Russian Igor song the wind\nis addressed as Sir. These winds are called Stribog\u2019s grandsons. So\nin India, the winds are regarded as sentient beings; thus in the\nNalop\u00e1khy\u00e1nam:\n\n    \u201cThus adjured, a solemn witness, spake the winds from out the air.\n\n           *       *       *       *       *\n\n     Even as thus the wind was speaking, flowers fell showering all around,\n     And the gods\u2019 sweet music sounded on the zephyr light.\u201d\n\nByelbog and Chernobog, the representatives of light and darkness, are\nof antagonistic nature\u2014the warring principles of good and evil. Byelbog\nis the white, shining god, the bringer of the day, the benignant\nPh\u0153bus, while Chernobog, a black god, belongs to the diabolical order.\n\nThe goddess of spring and love was Lada\u2014corresponding closely to Freya\nin the Scandinavian traditions. Lovers and the newly married addressed\ntheir prayers to her, praising her name in songs. Lado, the Slavonic\ncounterpart of Norse Freyr, has many of the same attributes as the\ngoddess Lada, to whom the same adoration and praise were offered. Mr.\nRalston says that \u201cone Lithuanian song distinctly couples the name Lado\nwith that of the sun. A shepherd sings, \u2018I fear thee not O wolf! The\ngod with the sunny curls will not let thee approach. Lado, O Sun-Lado!\u2019\nIn one of the old chronicles Lado is mentioned as the god of marriage,\nof mirth, of pleasure, and of general happiness, to whom those about to\nmarry offered sacrifices in order to secure a fortunate union.\u201d\n\nKup\u00e0lo was the god of harvests, and before the harvest\u2014on the 23d of\nJune\u2014sacrifices were offered to him. Young people lighted fires and\ndanced around them in the evening, adorned with garlands of flowers,\nsinging harvest ditties to the god. This custom still survives in the\nfires kindled on St. John\u2019s eve, through which sometimes the people\njump and drive their cattle. The Poles and other Slavonians, especially\nin remote districts, keep up many of their ancient heathen rites.\n\nThe 24th of December was sacred to the goddess Kolyada, a solar deity,\nto whom songs were sung in celebration of the renewed life of the sun\nafter the winter solstice \u201cwhen the gloom of the long winter nights\nbegins to give way to the lengthening day.\u201d This festival became\nblended with the Christmas celebration upon the advent of Christianity,\nand songs are still to be heard at that time containing the name of the\ngoddess, as\n\n    Kolyada! Kolyada!\n    Kolyada has arrived\n    On the eve of the Nativity.\n\nThese ditties are called Kolyadki.\n\nInferior deities were believed in and many supernatural beings were\nsupposed to haunt the woods and waters. The Russalkas, which are\nnaiads, though no more seen, are still believed in, and are of a\nnature similar to the elves and fairies of western nations. \u201cThey are\ngenerally represented under the form of beauteous maidens, with full\nand snow-white bosoms, and with long and slender limbs. Their feet are\nsmall, their eyes are wild, their faces are fair to see, but their\ncomplexion is pale, their expression anxious. Their hair is long and\nthick and wavy, and green as is the grass.\u201d The Russians are very\nsuperstitious in regard to them, fearing to offend them, while the\nmaidens go into the woods and throw garlands to them, asking for rich\nhusbands in return.\n\nThen there are Mavkas, or Little-Russian fairies and water-nymphs, wood\ndemons, house spirits and numerous other minor spirits and powers which\nteem in the folk songs of the peasants.\n\nAmong the eastern Slavs there seem to have been no temples or priests,\nwhile the contrary was true of the west. They burned their dead\nand greatly reverenced the spirits of the departed, in whose honor\nfestivals were held.\n\nA form of Sutteeism undoubtedly prevailed, widows destroying themselves\nin order to accompany their husbands to the spirit land, while slaves\nwere sometimes sacrificed upon the same occasions\u2014a practice common to\nmost barbarous states of society.\n\nUpon a general view of ancient Slavonic mythology we observe the same\ncharacteristics as among all the other Indo-European tribes\u2014the same\nnature-worship and inclination to personify the powers of the air and\nsky; to worship the beneficent sun, which brings to man prosperity,\nlight and happiness; to execrate the night, the enemy of the bright,\nthe beautiful god of day. Men in the childhood of the human race were\nas simple as children ever have been. The same characteristics mark\nthem. When the mother leaves her child for a moment, the babe with\npiteous cries calls on her to return. Why is this so? Because in the\nmind of the child there is no connecting link between the ideas of her\ngoing and returning; in other words, the child cannot reason enough\nto consider it possible\u2014not to say probable, _certain_\u2014that she will\nreturn.\n\nThus in the simple pastoral days of extreme antiquity, when the\nglorious sun, the light of men\u2019s eyes, the joy of their hearts, sank\nbelow the horizon, the idea of its return failed to suggest itself to\ntheir minds. Each sun-setting was a grief, each rising of the blessed\norb a joy unspeakable.\n\nAnd thus upon the plains of Iran, in the flowery meads of Asia Minor\nand on the Russian steppes, when man beheld the sun, his joy appeared,\nhe fell on his face and thanked the regent of the sky for his light\nagain.\n\nHad the earth been nearer to the sun the face of Comparative Mythology\nhad been changed; the sun-myth would have had to seek a different\norigin and home, and the history of that greatest of all studies\u2014the\nstudy of man\u2014would have had a different course.\n\nIt is sincerely to be hoped that the future of the Slavonic tribes may\nbe such as God and nature have intended for them, and that their name\nmay be changed again from _slaves_ to _Slavs_\u2014\u201cmen of glory\u201d\u2014is the\naspiration of all who have hopes for the race; in short, of all who\nwish well to our common humanity.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[B] Extract from a lecture delivered at Pacific Grove Assembly, July,\n1883, Monterey, California.\n\n[C] Ralston, \u201cSongs of the Russian People,\u201d from whom much information\ncontained in this sketch is gained.\n\n\n\n\nFROM THE BALTIC TO THE ADRIATIC.\n\nBy the Author of \u201cGerman-American Housekeeping,\u201d etc.\n\n\nWe hesitated quite awhile before deciding to expend fifty thalers for\na trip from Berlin to Danzig, finally concluding that the historical\ninterest of Marienburg, through which we would pass on our return, and\nthe reputed picturesqueness of Danzig would compensate us for the time\nand money. At an early hour one September morning we drove across the\nbusiest portion of Berlin (and most unknown to the traveler), to take\nour train at the _ost bahn_. I had seen this portion of the large city\nonce before, when we started to visit the country of the Wends, the\noriginal people in all the region by the Baltic.\n\nThe tedious stretch of sand (broken here and there by a peasant\u2019s house\nwith red tile roof), was the same we had traversed so often in leaving\nBerlin for a neighboring town or city, the inevitable \u201cplains of Moab\u201d\nwhich discouraged Frederick the Great\u2019s French gardeners. How such\na thriving, populous city as Berlin has ever asserted itself in the\nsand, is a curious study. We passed Bismarck\u2019s estate in Pomerania,\n\u201cSch\u00f6nhausen,\u201d and one of the party reflected upon the great statesman,\nthe largest factor in German political life; while the other remembered\nthe sad and dejected royal pair which was driven by Napoleon\u2019s fury to\ntake this same route to Memel. The lovely Queen Louise and Frederick\nWilliam III. were there with their royal children, praying that the\ntyrant\u2019s hand might be stayed, and they brought back to their rightful\nkingdom. Alas! death claimed the beautiful queen before the peace for\nwhich she prayed was restored to Prussia. But in her son, the present\nemperor, there has been perpetuated the spirit of his mother. Prussia\u2019s\nhigh position to-day has been secured not altogether by the might of\nher great army, nor the tremendous genius of her great statesmen, nor\nthe ambition of her king, but by the growth of sentiment during the\nreigns of Frederick William III. and IV., and by the precept Queen\nLouise instilled into her sons during those dark and sorrowful days of\nexile in Memel: \u201cMy sons, let the spirit of Frederick the Great animate\nyou,\u201d etc.\n\nMemel, Tilsit, and K\u00f6nigsberg were passed, and finally the blue Baltic\nand Danzig were in sight. We had almost looked for amber-colored water,\nso long had we associated the beautiful display of amber jewels in the\nBerlin shop windows with the Baltic, from which it is taken. Even Homer\nrefers to the Baltic as the resting place of amber, its bed being laid\nwith the sunny stone.\n\nA multitude of ship-masts rose from the coast, and from beyond the\npointed gables of the old city, lessening in altitude as the vista\nlengthened. This first glimpse was a more fascinating picture than we\nwere afterward able to find. Yet the hotel helped the preconceived idea\nthat Danzig was really a second Nuremberg.\n\nThe broad stone steps, or stairway, which started from the\n_portecoch\u00e8re_, were whitened by ashes, as one so often sees them in\nGermany\u2014a pretty state of things for a lady descending in a black\ndress. The room we were to occupy was an immense ball-room, utilized\nin quiet times for a bed-room. Two candles burned in their tall\ncandlesticks on the center-table, and by the light of the twilight we\ncould see across the street some beautiful and curious carvings in the\nopposite gabled houses. The price paid for accommodations was large\nenough to have enabled us to see castles in the air, and to have our\nball-room illuminated with gas until morning. We concluded they seldom\nhad guests in this hotel, and therefore made heavy profits when some\ndid come along.\n\nThat evening we wandered around the old crooked streets\u2014paved in\ncobble-stones, which wore our shoes almost in pieces\u2014until we were glad\nto pause in front of the great old red-brick cathedral. Its towers\ncut the big yellow moon in two at every angle we could see them.\nWe stretched our heads to take in the tremendous dimensions of the\ncathedral, and the ornamentations of some of the best houses, until\nwe suddenly remembered that it was nearing midnight, and that we had\nbeen in actual service at sight-seeing and traveling since an early\nhour that morning, so we returned to our ball-room and two candles. The\nnext morning, we imagined, we would have a great treat in hunting up\nold carved furniture, for which Danzig, we had been told by our German\nfriends, was equal to Augsburg; but the antiquarians had left no place\nunexplored. No trace of massive-legged table or curiously-carved chairs\nwas to be found, save in the Museum and the Rathhaus (Council Hall).\nThe stairway of the Council Hall remains indeed a monument to the\ningenious designer and skillful carver, and the judge\u2019s chair is most\ncurious.\n\nA fine old convent has been turned into a museum. Its _kreuz g\u00e4nge_, or\ncross-passages, give the place a most mysterious, sequestered air, and\nthey are gradually collecting some great pictures and treasures within\nits walls. But the Rathhaus, in its architecture, surpasses everything\nin Danzig, excepting, perhaps, its fine old gateways.\n\nThe most distinguished houses in Danzig have on either side of the\nentrance, at a distance of five feet, immense stones hewn out of\nsolid rock. They are nine feet, probably, in circumference. A chain\nis attached, which is given a graceful swing before being fastened\nagain to either side of the front door, about as high up as the brass\nknocker. As these big round stones grow smaller in perspective, they\ngive a peculiar air to a street. They seem to be peculiar to Danzig,\nunless one or two dwellings in Edinburgh have them. The big stones,\nthe large chains, the tremendous brass knockers, and the innumerable\nwindows in the six stories of the pointed gables, suggest aristocratic\ndwellings, and surpass the houses in Nuremberg.\n\nAn important political meeting at Stettin defeated our intention of\nseeing Marienburg on our return to Berlin. Marienburg is a place few\nforeigners find out, but L\u00fcbke, in his \u201cHistory of Art,\u201d represents the\narchitecture of the palace occupied by the knights, or crusaders, for\ntwo centuries, as one of the most exquisite ruins in all Germany. Thorn\nand K\u00f6nigsburg were also homes for this order of knights.\n\nThe following day at noon it was rather refreshing to drive into so\nmodern and gay a place as Berlin, and forget that so many people must\nexist in places like Danzig. Medi\u00e6val life seems still to enwrap them\nthere as in a garment. Their eyes are closed to any modern idea or\nproject.\n\nBerlin contains all that is new and progressive in Germany. That day\nas we sat in the garden of the \u201cThiergarten Hotel,\u201d eating delicious\nsalmon, the old emperor drove by in his open carriage, with his\nfaithful _j\u00e4ger_. He was still a subject for curiosity, as it was\nso soon after the attempt had been made to assassinate him, June 7,\n1878. He was fired on as he drove by in this same open carriage with\nthis same faithful _j\u00e4ger_. The sight of the old emperor recalled the\nprevious months which had been so full of political stir in Europe. The\nsession of the Berlin Congress, and the occupation of Bosnia by the\nAustrians had taken place.\n\nTo describe Berlin to those who have not visited it, is simply telling,\ngenerally, the size of palaces, the number of art collections, the\nwidth of streets, the squares occupied by statues, the places of\namusement, etc., but even when these objects and interests are put in\nwriting they leave little impression until the place is seen. But there\nis another aspect of the great Prussian capital. It is a wonderful\nplace just now, attracting so many foreign students to its university,\nthe best musical talent to its conservatories, and the first military\ngenius within its walls. No matter what branch of study one may choose,\nthe instruction and illustration is right at hand. To the student of\npolitics it is a most fruitful field, not only because distinguished\nstatesmen frequent its streets every day, but because grave problems\nin political science are discussed in the Reichstag or taught in the\nUniversity. The student of physics or of natural science can work\nunder Helmholz and others; the student of music can secure Joachim\nor Clara Schumann, or the student of art, Knaus, or Richter. Berlin\nhas no pulpit orator. The Dom is more frequented because of its tombs\nthan for any living influence it extends. It contains the coffins of\nFrederick William the great elector, and Frederick I., king of Prussia.\nThe Mendelssohn choir chants its anthems, and the emperor and empress\nbow at its communion table; but St. Hedwig\u2019s Church is better attended.\nThe American Chapel, built by the efforts of Mr. Whright, our American\nminister to the Prussian court, a devout Methodist, is still occupied\nand attended by travelers of the American-English type.\n\nThe annual exhibition of pictures in the academy, the many fine\nconcerts, the treasures in the old museum, the Royal Library, the\npalaces, and the lovely drives along \u201cUnter den Linden,\u201d are only\nmentioned to show what Berlin does contain in the way of sights and\npleasures. This Unter den Linden, the street so well known, was planned\nby Frederick William, in the seventeenth century, and is now worn by\nmany royal carriages and busy hurrying mortals. The street about the\nopera house is crowded every morning by the eager buyers of tickets,\nwhich must be secured in the morning.\n\nSurely life in Berlin can be made very attractive, but after a long\nresidence there I am convinced that it has little religious life.\nThe climate is depressing, the expense of living great, two other\ndetractions. Potsdam, Sans Souci, Charlottenburg Tegel, and many other\nplaces in the suburbs, are, historically and naturally, charming\nresorts.\n\nIt is more compensating in Europe to go from place to place with some\nspecial work or subject in view than to go for mere sight-seeing.\nYour special work brings you nearer the people. If your landlady asks\nyou what it is, and you take the trouble to tell her, she or some of\nher friends will at once see that you know all their acquaintances\nwho are engaged in the same line of inquiry, and while the new\nacquaintances may not be socially or intellectually your ideals, yet\ntheir conversation will help you in the language and give you many\nopportunities.\n\nDresden I only know through hard work in the galleries, as though all\nits sights are familiar\u2014the Schloss, Green Vaults with their immense\ntreasures, the Military Museum, Museum of Natural History, the Grand\nOpera House, the Frauenkirche, Japanese Palace, caf\u00e9s, coinages and\nstatues; yet the picture gallery, with its priceless \u201cMadonna di San\nSisto\u201d of Raphael is to me the starting point of interest and the\nessence of Dresden life.\n\nFrom eight o\u2019clock in the morning until four o\u2019clock in the afternoon\nfaithful copyists labor in the gallery. The price received for their\nwork scarcely keeps them from starving. To go in among them for a time\nand work and feel as they do, enlarges one\u2019s sympathies, and teaches\none to love the masterpieces of the great artists. To the uninitiated\nin such matters it may be well to explain that before the permission\nis given to copy a picture in any of the European galleries, a good\ndeal of red tape must be looked after, especially in Germany. The\ndirector demands a specimen of the applicant\u2019s work, which must be a\nstudy from nature, either figure or landscape or still life. It is with\nconsiderable trepidation that the office of the \u201cHerr Director\u201d is\nentered. If the applicant is successful, he or she comes out with an\nelaborate paper containing the agreement, the name of picture to be\ncopied, the number, room, etc., with the director\u2019s name and the seal\nattached. One of the _gallerie diener_, as they are called in Germany,\ntakes you under his care, arranges an easel, a piece of carpet, a\nrest-stick and table. You are recognized among the copyists, and the\nhat of every _gallerie diener_ is raised at your approach or departure.\nWhen you have finished, the inspector is allowed to criticise your\nwork. You must pay the _diener_ who has waited upon you some _trink\ngeld_, or a fee, as we would express it. At noon you can eat your cold\nlunch, in company with the other copyists, in front of a Raphael or\na Correggio, a Titian or a Rubens, scrutinize its merits or laugh at\nits blunders, or speculate on the old master\u2019s methods of using their\npigments, without being amenable to any court. An artist\u2019s life is a\nlife of liberty\u2014of thought, at least. Many of these copyists spend\ntheir afternoons in sketching, thus establishing their originality and\nemancipating themselves from servile observance of other men\u2019s methods.\nIn company with these plodding, intelligent artists, I have spent many\ndelightful hours sketching in the \u201cAlt Markt,\u201d or the Zwinger, or at\nSans Souci or Charlottenburg.\n\nI have often wondered if the little Greek church in the suburbs of\nDresden was as attractive to all travelers as to me. It is surrounded\non one side by golden wheat fields, with red poppies and dark blue corn\nflowers growing among it. Its gilded dome, semi-domes, and minarets,\nshine like blazing lights against the dark blue sky. The style is such\npure Byzantine and the inside so perfect in its appointments, and yet\nso simple; the service conducted in so solemn and devout a spirit,\nthere seems to be much to impress the looker-on. There are no seats.\nOn one side stand the women and on the other side the men, and before\nthe altar the patriarch, or priest. The service is short, consisting\nalmost entirely of singing by the men and boys, without the aid of an\ninstrument. When the plate is passed for the collection it contains a\nroll of bread, the meaning of which I have never discovered, although\nJames Freeman Clark may give it in the account of the Greek church in\nhis \u201cTen Great Religions.\u201d Their belief that the Holy Ghost proceeds\nfrom the Father, and not from the Father and Son, seems to be the most\nessential difference in prayer between the English Church and the Greek.\n\nA summer in the Harz Mountains, taking in Weimar and Eisenach, and the\n\u201cWartburg,\u201d is a charming experience. To find out that one can live in\nthis age in so interesting a retreat as Weimar, for twenty dollars a\nmonth, gives back some of the simplicity to German life.\n\nTo a student of Goethe, Schiller, Wieland and Herder, no spot offers\nmore pleasure than the quiet, old streets and groves and houses of\nWeimar. A mere drive through the park, passing Goethe\u2019s summer house\nand on out to \u201cTiefert,\u201d where the Grand Duchess Amelia held her\nlittle court, and the open air theater attracted a charming coterie to\nlisten to Goethe or Schiller in some representation, re-awakens the\ngenius of the times and arouses the appetite of the traveler for more\nacquaintance with the place. The next drive or stroll through the park\nwill prove that every stone contains some rhyme, and every bench some\nassociation with those great men. There is a line to Frau Von Stein in\nthe garden of Goethe\u2019s country house, an elegy engraved on the stone\nas one ascends to the Roman house in the park. The front approach to\nthis house is not so attractive, but the back is a fascinating place.\nIt contains on the first floor an open room with round table and\nbenches, where the Duke and his poets sat for hours, looking over the\nold stone steps into the park. A short stroll from there brings one to\nthe large open space, in the middle of the park, which was laid out by\nGoethe, and represents precisely the dimensions of St. Peter\u2019s in Rome.\nThe immense ground plot of that church is here to be recognized more\ndefinitely than when one stands under its dome.\n\nThe grand ducal palace at Weimar contains one unique room, while all\nthe others are handsome. The one which differs from similar palatial\napartments is frescoed with scenes from the works of Weimar\u2019s great\npoets. The halls are silent and one longs to see little fat Karl August\nstep out of a _saal_ or the Duchess Amelia greet Goethe or Schiller\non the stairway as in days of yore. Mr. Lewis, in his life of Goethe,\nportrays such scenes with a graphic pen.\n\nIn 1832 the house in the Goethe-platz was left vacant by its great\noccupant. Its art treasures, its library, its various collections,\nshowing how comprehensive Goethe\u2019s mind was, and how many things he had\ninvestigated, were abandoned, as all human efforts must be abandoned,\nwhen the silent messenger calls the soul into the presence of its Great\nCreator. If self-denial is required of those on earth who hope to enter\ninto his rest, then who can answer for Goethe? But surely the choir of\nangels in \u201cFaust\u201d sing beautifully of it:\n\n    \u201cChrist is arisen,\n       Praised be his name;\n     His love shared our prison\n       Of guilt and of shame;\n     He hath borne the hard trial of self-denial,\n       And triumphant ascends\n     To the hills whence he came.\u201d\n\nThis house still stands as he left it, and is shown every Friday\nafternoon to visitors. It has been occupied by his grandson for years.\n\nThe church in which Lucas Cranach\u2019s great picture is to be seen, and in\nwhich Herder preached, is a cold, heartless structure to a stranger,\nbut its very stones and walls must respond to the prayers of the old\ninhabitants. The _brunnen_, or town well, in front of Lucas Cranach\u2019s\nhouse, when surrounded by a crowd of peasants offers a _genre_ picture\nfor an artist. The picture gallery is new and good. A large fresco\nrepresenting Weimar celebrities is in the front entrance. Bettina Von\nArnim is the only woman in the group. Perhaps her correspondence, which\nis by many considered spurious, will make the artist regret that he\nhas given her so important a position in this fresco. To take an early\nbreakfast in some lovely arbor, overlooking some historic grounds, then\nspend the morning in the gallery and the afternoon in the park, and the\nevening at the concert, is about the happiest program one can follow in\na small German town.\n\nEisenach, the capital of Saxe-Weimar, a town of 10,000 inhabitants,\nwill always remain associated with Martin Luther. It is the principal\ntown in the Thuringian forest. The old \u201cWartburg,\u201d one and a half\nmiles south of the town, is famous for its architecture and history.\nMartin Luther, the Elector of Saxony, who rescued him, and earlier\nthe saintly Elizabeth and her cruel husband, are only a few names\nwhich are associated with it. Of course the story of the Elector of\nSaxony rescuing Luther, after the Diet of Worms, is well known. Yet\nwho can resist dwelling upon this bold character at this period. After\nthe Pope\u2019s excommunication Luther defies all threats and starts out\non his return journey, with the emperor\u2019s promise of a safe-conduct;\nthe decree for arrest follows closely every step. What a picture! to\nhave these armed knights attack him and carry him prisoner to the old\nWartburg. Then to discover afterward that a friend\u2019s hand, and not an\nenemy\u2019s, had done this thing. There he remained ten months, and there\nstill remain the traces on the wall of the ink he threw at the devil.\nPerhaps the chapel, where he preached on Sundays, is a more becoming\nand decorous place to associate him with than this little room, always\npointed out first.\n\nThe Wartburg has been so beautifully renovated of late at the expense\nof the government, it is really worth a second visit to those who\nmay have seen it years ago. The banquet hall is certainly superb,\nand the St. Elizabethangeng, with its beautiful frescoes and long\nnarrow proportions, almost enables one to see the good woman walking\nup and down with her prayer-book, in deep meditation, before starting\nout through the forest with her attendants, and her apron full of\nprovisions for the poor. It is told that once, when her liege-lord met\nher, and inquired what she had in her apron (he had strictly forbidden\nher taking things to the poor), she, with legendary faith, opened her\napron and forthwith the bread became roses.\n\nTaking your faithful donkey which has brought you up the hill, and\nyour Wartburg album collection of photographs, you find yourself soon\nwandering through the lovely and fantastic _Annenthal_, and finally\nresting near the depot at Eisenach. There the untiring finger of your\nold guide points to Fritz Reuter\u2019s house, and at last to his own little\nbill, which he has carefully prepared and which he expects you as\ncarefully to pay. Never goes money from your pocket more liberally!\n\nThe Harz Mountains, their legends and songs, have been so often written\nof there is danger of stupid repetition if one goes over the ground.\n\nA novel experience for an American is to have an attack of rheumatism\nin the house of an old Polish major in midsummer, in Wernigerode, and\nbe attended by the physician of Count Von Stolberg. To inform those\nwho may be so unfortunate as to meet with a similar fate what will\nbecome of them, I would simply remark that the subterfuge of every\nGerman doctor, when he finds a case getting beyond his control, is\nto recommend a water-cure. The one at Magdeburg being the nearest to\nWernigerode, is the one which Count Von Stolburg\u2019s physician would\nbe best acquainted with, so off to the old city and farewell to the\nHarz! What rheumatic patient cares for a view of a fine old cathedral\nfrom a window, or to be informed that the city has existed since the\neighth century? Do these facts lessen the pain or quiet the nerves?\nAfter the bath has restored the patient, and he or she can walk out and\nexamine the cathedral, and read of the sufferings of the people in the\nsixteenth or seventeenth centuries, and again how the Austrian army was\nresisted by Wallenstein for seven months, and how the French besieged\nand took it in 1806, and again in 1813\u2014thus there is diversion in\nfinding oneself on such historic grounds and picturesque surroundings.\n\n    [To be continued.]\n\n\n\n\nIN FLOWERY FIELDS.\n\nBy MARY HARRISON.\n\n\n    Ye flowers in your wonderful silence,\n      Ye birds with your wonderful sound,\n    The love of my God are declaring;\n      For ye are the language he found.\n\n    Ye smile to the eye of my spirit,\n      Ye sing to the ear of my soul;\n    Ye waken soft echoes of anthems\n      Which over God\u2019s Paradise roll.\n\n    Ye bloom as ye bloomed once in Eden,\n      Make holy and sacred the sod;\n    Ye sing as you sang when in rapture\n      Man counted you angels of God.\n\n    By you\u2014common things of the desert\u2014\n      God\u2019s love has this miracle wrought:\n    Ye fill me with exquisite gladness,\n      With worship which silences thought.\n                 \u2014_London Sunday Magazine._\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nREPUBLICS where high birth gives no right to the government of the\nstate, are in that respect the most happy; for the people have less\nreason to envy an authority which they confer on whom they will, and\nwhich they can again take away when they choose.\u2014_Montesquieu._\n\n\n\n\nFAILINGS.\n\nBy J. MORTIMER GRANVILLE.\n\n\nWe all have our _failings_, and for the most part we regard them\ntenderly. They do not count as offences; scarcely are they held to be\nfaults. It is always a probable conjecture that an error of omission\nhas been unintentional; not unfrequently it seems possible it was\nunavoidable. A sentiment of pity for, and even sympathy with, weakness\noverpowers the sense of grievance; the voice of the inward monitor is\nsilenced, and the self-excused conscience sleeps. Meanwhile failings\nare the worst and most mischievous, the deadliest and least curable,\nof the ills to which the moral nature of man is heir. They are the\nsources of evil whence spring the blackest vices of human character,\nthe false roots that nourish and sustain its parasites, and steal the\nsap of its inner life. A failing is not merely negative; its sinister\naspect is one of positive wrong-doing, wherein some behest of the will\nis disobeyed, a measure of moral power wasted, a rebel habit formed or\nfostered. To compassionate failings in others is to beg the question of\nfact for the sake of politeness; to look with leniency on the errors\nwhich self would fain palliate, by assuming that they are unavoidable,\nis to play the traitor to Truth, and let the enemy into the citadel;\nwhereas conscience is set to guard the nature of man from treachery not\nless carefully than to protect it against assault.\n\nFailings may be moral, mental, or physical, as they show themselves\nin the character, the intellect, or the bodily habit and powers. It\ngenerally happens that what strikes the observer as a failing is\ncompounded of errors in feeling, thought, and action combined. The\npractical question is how the overt evil came into existence; or, if\nhappily the failing should be detected in an earlier stage of growth,\nbefore it has betrayed its presence by ugly consequences, we may ask:\nwhat are the mischievous forces, where are they at work, how can they\nbe counteracted? Why has this person the \u201cfailing\u201d of a tendency to\nexcessive indulgence in drink or the gratification of some unbridled\npassion; and that individual a seeming inability to recognize and\npursue the right and honest course of conduct in the presence of any\nso-called \u201ctemptation\u201d or difficulty?\n\nSome of the most regrettable and injurious failings which disfigure\nand defame the character run through families, appearing in successive\ngenerations and seeming to be inherited. This theory of their\nperpetuation is well founded; and it has been adduced as conclusive\nevidence of the truth of the hypothesis that mind, and, of course,\ncharacter, is the mere outcome of matter. The force of the argument\nobviously rests on the assumption that nothing more than, or outside,\nmatter can be transmitted from parent to child; that a particular\nconstitution of brain and nerve centres, a special arrangement or\ncombination of the elements which compose the mind-organ, may be\nreproduced, and, if it is, a similarity of character will be entailed;\nbut as for the independent existence of mind, or spirit, that is a\npure figment of the imagination, which science will sooner or later\ndrive beyond the pale of credulity, and to which, even now, only a few\nthinkers avowedly cling!\n\nLet us examine this proposition at close quarters. It may be stated\nthus. All we know of mind is expressed, and understood, by physical\nagencies and in the formul\u00e6 of material force. Speech communicates\nthought, and we think in words. The faculty of forming and employing\nwords is a brain function. If a particular region of the brain be\ninjured or diseased, the power of using language, at least in speech,\nis _generally_ lost. The materialist argues from this and many similar\nfacts that mind is the product of matter. He fails to perceive that the\nonly warrantable deduction from his own data is that mind or spirit,\ncall it what we will, _can only express itself_ through the brain as\nan instrument. As well deny the skill or independent existence of a\nmusician because he can not play the full score of an opera on a flute,\nas infer the non-existence of a soul from the fact that man cannot\nperform intellectual work without the organ of thought\u2014the brain!\n\nThe capacity of the instrument doubtless limits the expression, but\nit supplies no measure of the power or skill of the performer, except\nin so far as the use he makes of the instrument may be a bad one.\nThis exception is of great significance, and there will be something\nmore to say about it presently. Meantime it is evident that, while\nthe range of brain-power determines the _manifestation_ of mind, it\nneither measures, nor affirms, nor disproves the independent existence\nof mind. The anatomist, the physiologist, and the chemist declare their\ninability to discover the traces of a soul in the physical organism.\nThat no more proves the non-existence of a soul than the failure to\nrecognize more than a certain number of planets at any stage in the\nhistory of astronomy demonstrated that there was nothing further to\nfind.\n\nThe appeal against materialism lies to the instinct of common sense.\nIf mind were the mere outcome of matter, science would long since have\ndiscovered some tolerably constant relation between peculiarities of\nphysical development and manifestations of character; whereas every\nstep onward in the progress of research tends to disprove the existence\nof any certain dependency or connection between morals and matter.\nEven such links as compose the stock-in-trade of the physiognomist and\nphrenologist are shown to be illusory, except in so far as they may be\nthe effects, rather than the causes, of character, and are produced by\nculture\u2014witness the effects of education on facial expression in the\ncase of criminals. The theory of a criminal conformation of cranium has\nbeen abandoned like the silly affectation of being able to detect an\noffender by his \u201chang-dog\u201d or \u201cmurderous\u201d look.\n\n\u201cFailings\u201d must be studied in the light of the lessons these facts and\nconsiderations combine to teach. The moral question involved is one of\nresponsibility for the use each individual may make of the brain-power\nallotted to him. The neglect to employ gifts and capacities is as\ngrave an error, from an ethical point of view, as their application\nto a bad purpose. The servant who buried his talent in the earth was\nheld accountable for the failure to use it, and thereby increase\nits value. The parable sets forth a truth of the highest practical\ninterest. We are responsible for the development, by use, of the\nfaculties vouchsafed to us. If they are allowed to remain in abeyance,\nor a rudimentary state, we are to blame for the deficiencies and the\nfailings to which this neglect gives rise, and are without excuse. The\nobligation to act up to the level of known duty cannot be avoided. A\n\u201cfailing\u201d is an act of contempt for the law of development by use.\nIt is disobedience to an understood command. The fact that it is\nrecognized makes a failing an offence. There may be short-coming in the\nperformance of a good resolve. Few, if any, merely human efforts are\nentirely successful; but the failure which occurs when an endeavor is\nmade in the energy of a resolute and well-aimed purpose is not so much\na fault as insufficiency. The rising tide reaches its highest level by\nsuccessive efforts. Self-improvement is effected in the same fashion.\nThe motive power of persistent good endeavor is accumulative\u2014ever\nadvancing like the great tidal wave of the ocean\u2014though the ground is\nconquered by short and seemingly only half-successful advances.\n\nFailings, however, as we are now regarding them, are excused faults in\nthe character which the individual makes no serious effort to repair.\nSome defects, as we have seen, are inherited, and upon them it is the\ncustom to bestow great commiseration and little blame. Now, in truth,\nthese are the least pardonable, because, if they are known to have\nbeen transmitted from parent to child, the latter has, generally, the\nadvantage of an example, ever present to memory, by which to correct\nhis personal deficiencies. If the \u201cfailing\u201d be a vicious propensity,\nhe can recall its hideousness, and thus stimulate will and conscience\nto aid him in eradicating the fault. If it be some form of deficiency,\nas indolence, lack of perseverance, want of principle, or the like,\nhe can study, as in the pages of history, the evil consequences\nentailed by the defect, and with diligence order his own conduct in\nbetter courses. Inherited failings are the least excusable. Even the\nmaterialist, who claims them as the fruit of physical peculiarities,\nmust concede that by special culture they can be remedied, the healthy\norganism being susceptible of increased development in any particular\ndirection when the proper stimuli are intelligently applied with a\nview to its improvement. The apologist for failings which have been\ninherited can find no comfort in the philosophy of materialism.\n\nFailings which are peculiar to the individual may be less easy to\ndetect, and the subject of these defects is, in a measure, dependent\nupon experience and the monitions of those around him for the\ninformation needed to correct them. This should keep the wise teachable\nand apt to profit by the lessons life is ever reading for their\ninstruction. A self-reliant spirit is manly, and therefore commendable;\na self-sufficient spirit is unreasonable, and therefore despicable. It\nis strange how few of us grow really wiser as we grow older. The work\nof self-improvement is seldom commenced until forced upon the judgment\nby some awakening experience, and this is rarely vouchsafed until the\nductile period of youth has gone by. Early in the adult age of man his\nhabits become rigidly formulated, and failings are then hard to mend. A\nworld of unhappiness and disappointment might be spared the later years\nof life if the young would be warned to begin the business of training\nthe character before it is firmly set in the mould of circumstances,\nwith all the coarse elements\u2014inherited and contracted\u2014uneliminated, and\nthe errors of inconsistency and imperfect development uncorrected.\n\nIt is in the period of youth and adolescence that the mind may be most\nhopefully cultivated and the moral character intelligently formed. No\ngreater mistake can be made by a young and vigorous mind than to treat\nthe faculty of reason and the instinct of moral judgment as parts of\nthe being which may be left to their own devices. The young man bestows\nsome thought on his muscular system\u2014he trains his eye, cultivates his\near, and takes credit for prudence when he strives to develop the\nvigor and to foster the healthy growth of his body. Is it wise\u2014nay,\nis it not rather the worst of folly and shortsightedness\u2014to neglect\nthe ordinary development of those higher powers which man possesses in\na more exalted degree than any of the lower animals? Taking care for\nthe body while the mind is neglected is the worst of failings\u2014the most\ncalamitous and the least excusable.\n\n\n\n\nGONE!\n\nBy E. G. CHARLESWORTH.\n\n\n    Alas! and have I lost thy voice,\n      Lost the sweet face that in my youth\n    Shone from my breast on things to be\u2014\n      Hope-making, changing hope to truth,\n            Thy face, sweet love,\n    That madest beautiful the plainest thing\n            Below, above?\n\n    No; like the priest in times of old,\n      Who drew the temple\u2019s sacred veil,\n    Thou art gone into an inner fold;\n      And now, thy face turned heaven\u2019s way,\n    A paler face, and yet not pale,\n      Looks for the sunset in the west;\n    Thy form appears with outspread wings,\n      I hear thee from thine altar say,\n    With angel-breath o\u2019er former things,\n            _How beautiful is rest!_\n                     \u2014_London Sunday Magazine._\n\n\n\n\nSOCIAL WRECKAGE.\n\nBy ELLICE HOPKINS.\n\n\nMr. Francis Peek has recently published a useful but saddening little\nbook, whose title I have attached to this article. Not that it tells\nanything new to one who has studied deeply the pages of that terrible\nbook of modern life, with its gilded leaves, but its unutterably dark\ncontents; it only focuses the scattered knowledge into alarmingly\nclear vision. Indeed, in reading it, it is difficult to resist the old\nnightmare feeling, that after all this little planet may be the small\nrotary Vaudeville theater of the universe, where we poor actors in\nlife\u2019s scene are playing out a series of farces for the amusement of\nthe angels, or more probably of darker and more distant visitants. The\nadmirably logical social life that religiously shuts all the museums\nand picture-galleries on the Lord\u2019s Day, and opens all the gin-shops;\nthat is never tired of iterating that the proper sphere of woman is\nhome, and brings up its 20,000 female orphans in large pauper barracks,\nfrom which the last touch of home-life has disappeared; that goes to\nmeetings and loudly preaches thrift to the people, and then gruffly\nwhispers in their ear by guardians of the poor, \u201cOnly be drunk and\nspendthrift enough, and we will house you and provide for your old\nage;\u201d that goes to church and preaches that the body is the temple\nof the Holy Ghost, and leaves the people to litter down like pigs at\nnight\u2014men and women, girls and boys, together in tenements where no\nrich man would think of stabling his horses; that goes to school and\nteaches its children the three R\u2019s, and leaves them in dens of infamy\nto learn a fourth R, by every sight and sound of the day and night,\nruin of body and soul; that virtuously declaims against the harlot, yet\nleaves its little girls to be brought up in brothels; that believes a\nfatal disorder is undermining the national health, and shuts the doors\nof its hospitals against it, and denies it the public means of cure;\nthat legally protects the heiress up to twenty-one, and refuses to\nprotect the poor man\u2019s daughter, even at sixteen, from the trade of\nvice; that holds that the man is the responsible head of the woman,\nand throws the blame and disgrace on the woman\u2014alas! alas! what a heap\nof anomalies is here\u2014what real cause to complain of the methods of our\nmoral life! No wonder that the poor Dissenting minister, much entangled\nin our social difficulties, and led on all sides to contradictory\nconclusions, threw in a deprecatory clause in his prayer, \u201cParadoxical\nas it may seem to thee, O Lord, it is nevertheless true.\u201d\n\nAnd what are the results of such methods as these? What must be the\nresults?\n\nThat we read that in the wealthiest nation in the world, one in every\nthirty-one of our countrymen is a pauper; this, moreover, without\nincluding any of that vast number of destitute persons who are\nmaintained in charitable institutions or by private benevolence.\n\nThat in the richest city in the world there were in one year 101 deaths\nfrom actual starvation, in full sight of well-stocked shops.\n\nThat there are about 180,000 apprehensions each year for drunkenness,\nand over 15,000 persons yearly charged with indictable crimes, and over\nhalf a million convicted summarily before the magistrates, of which\nlatter nearly 100,000 are guilty of personal assaults, about 2,500\nbeing aggravated assaults upon women and children.\n\nThat there are extensive districts in London, Liverpool, and all our\nlarge towns, where our people are living in little more than half the\narea of ground required for a corpse, and which they could claim if\nthey were dead, in tenements which are the graves of all decency and\nchastity.\n\nThat \u201cin Liverpool alone, by a rough estimate, there are some\n10,000 or more children who are neither properly fed, clothed nor\nhoused, and surrounded by such evil associations at home, or in the\nlow lodging-houses where they herd, that there is small chance of\ntheir leading afterwards a useful life, and we can predict with\ncertainty that many of them will enter our prisons, penitentiaries and\nworkhouses.\u201d\n\nSurely it must create an uneasy feeling in the most careless to realize\nthis mass of misery and sin on which the life of the well-to-do classes\nin England is based\u2014\n\n    \u201cThis deep dark underworld of woe,\n     That underlies life\u2019s shining surfaces,\n     Dim populous pain and multitudinous toil,\n     Unheeded of the heedless world that treads\n     Its piteous upturned faces underfoot,\n     In the gay rout that rushes to its ends.\u201d\n\nIt is impossible for me to deal adequately with the subject in the\nnarrow space of a short article, but let me touch on three of our\ngreatest problems\u2014overcrowding, pauperism, and the care of the young.\n\nFirst, as to overcrowding. This is a question that distinctly affects\nthe state, and with regard to which we have to \u201clive in the whole,\u201d\nand to see that the welfare of the community is at stake, and that\nthe state must have an authoritative voice in it. Virtue, sobriety,\ndecency, are physically impossible in the conditions under which a\nvast number of its citizens are living. The national health and morals\nare in danger. All the arguments that justified the interference of\nthe state with the rights of the Irish landlord, apply equally to the\nLondon landlords, and the artificial forcing up of rents, which has\nresulted from the necessity many workmen are under of living near their\nwork. Yet this question has been the subject of permissive legislation!\nThe Artisans\u2019 Dwellings Improvement Act, an honest attempt on the part\nof Sir Richard Cross to deal with the problem, was rendered applicable\nto all towns of 28,000 inhabitants or upward\u2014that is to say, about\neighty towns\u2014but it was entrusted to the municipalities to carry it\nout, the town councils which we have left to be composed chiefly of\nmen of narrow education, largely swayed by self-interest, and probably\nextensive owners of the very property to be demolished! It is exactly\nas if the Irish Land Bill had been permissive, and entrusted to the\nIrish landlords to put it into execution! Can we wonder that in about\nsixty out of the eighty towns, it remains a dead letter? In eleven it\nhas led to discussion; in two or three it has led to the demolition of\nbuildings, but not to their erection. Is there not a want of ordinary\n_seeing_ in our moral life? Could we hope to solve a single scientific\nproblem on the methods on which we are content to live?\n\n\u201cThe commercial success,\u201d as Mr. Peek observes, \u201cthat has been achieved\nby several of the Artisans\u2019 Dwellings Companies which, while providing\ngood houses, yet pay fair dividends, shows that the poorest pay rents\nwhich give a fair interest on capital, so that the municipality will\nnot be compelled to embark in a ruinous undertaking, or one that will\nnot pay in the long run, to say nothing of the gain to the health and\nmorals of the nation.\u201d\n\nSecondly, let us take pauperism. First of all let us clearly recognize\nthat no system of paid officials, no mechanical workhouse will take the\nplace of human thought and human care. Nothing will do instead of love.\nIndeed, there are already signs that we are working out a _reductio ad\nabsurdum_ with these portentous and ever-increasing warehouses of the\ndestitute and the vicious that are springing up, throwing the winter\nsupport of whole dissolute families on hard-working rate-payers, and\nsystematically discouraging thrift. But the problem has been solved\nsatisfactorily on a small scale, and can be on a larger. The Elberfield\nexperiment, which in twelve years reduced the number of paupers from\n4,800 to 1,800, notwithstanding that the population had increased from\n50,000 to 64,000, and that great commercial depression existed, has\nbeen too often described not to be familiar to all. But a remarkable\nparallel movement among the Jews is scarcely so well known as it\ndeserves to be. When \u201cOliver Twist\u201d was published, the leading Jews\nwere so mortally ashamed of the picture drawn by the popular novelist\nof Fagan and the low Jewish quarters in London, that they formed\nthemselves at once into an organization to remedy so disgraceful a\nstate of things. The numbers to be dealt with amounted to those of a\npopulous town, with the additional difficulty afforded by immigrant\nJews arriving in large numbers from the Continent in a state of the\ngreatest destitution. The investigation of every case requiring relief\nwas undertaken by volunteer workers, assisted by skilled officers, and\nwas not in the steam pig-killing style, but patient and exhaustive\nwith true human brotherhood; in deserving cases the relief given was\nsufficient to make a guardian\u2019s hair stand on end, but was given with\nthe view to helping the man to a means of livelihood. Especially this\nwise liberality was shown in the treatment of their widows. Whilst Mr.\nPeek has no better suggestion to offer than that the widows\u2019 children\nshould be removed to the pauper barrack-schools to herd with the\nlowest children of casuals, a system which Mr. Peek himself strongly\ncondemns, the Jews recognized that the mother, if well conducted, was\nthe proper person to have the care of them, and that her place was at\nhome. They therefore either provided their widows with indoor work,\nor, when that was impossible, relieved them on a sufficient scale to\nenable them to look after their children at home; the consequence being\nthat instead of feeding the outcast class, as the neglected children\nof our widows too often do, they grew up productive and well-conducted\nmembers of the community. If, however, a family was found overcrowding,\nall relief was steadily refused till they consented to live a human\nlife, assistance being given to move into a larger tenement. By these\nwise and thoughtful methods in the course of a single generation the\nJews have worked up the people from a considerably lower level to one\ndecidedly above our own. To be sure the Jew does not drink. Give the\nmost destitute Jew five pounds down, and at the end of the year you\nwill find him a small capitalist, having considerably despoiled the\nEgyptians meanwhile. But the intemperance of our people is largely\ncaused by overcrowding, and by their amusements and recreation-rooms\nbeing in the hands of those who make their profit not by the\nentertainment but by the drink traffic, and indefinite improvement may\nbe brought about by wiser regulations that have the good of the people,\nand not the fattening of publicans and brewers at heart. Surely the\nsuccess of the Jewish and Elberfeld efforts prove that the problem\nof the reduction of pauperism and the inducing of healthy habits of\nthrift and self-helping in the people is soluble, and with that army of\ndevoted Christian workers in our midst, to whose untiring efforts we\nowe it that social disaster has not already overtaken us, it must be\npossible for us to carry on the same movement, if Birmingham or one of\nour public-spirited towns would lead the way.\n\nLastly, we come to the vast, hopeful field, presented by greater care\nfor the young, and better methods of embodying it.\n\nFirst, let the law protect the young of both sexes up to the legal age\nof majority from all attempts to lead them into a dissolute life. In\nmost continental countries the corruption of minors is an indictable\noffense. The English penal code recognizes this principle in property;\nit is felony to abduct an heiress up to twenty-one, and a young man\u2019s\ndebts, except for bare necessaries, are null and void till he is of\nage; but, as usual, our English law leaves the infinitely more precious\nmoral personality unprotected. There is no practical protection at any\nage for an English child from the trade of vice. An unruly child of\nfifteen or sixteen, or even younger, quarrels with her mother or with\nher employer, and runs off in a fit of temper. Even if she leaves her\nparents\u2019 roof, it can not be brought under the law against abduction.\nNo one abducts her; the child abducts herself. Yet the keeper of the\nlowest den of infamy can harbor that child for an infamous purpose, and\nhe or she commits no indictable offence. It is no wonder, therefore,\nthat the open profligacy of the young forms the very gravest feature\nof our large towns. Thankful as we are for the honest effort to deal\nwith this monstrous anomaly in English law, shown by Lord Rosebery\u2019s\nbill, we can not but regret the extreme inadequacy of its provisions,\nor that the legislature should refuse to extend legal protection from\neven the trade of vice, to the most dangerous age of a girl\u2019s life, the\nage of sixteen\u2014the age when, as the medical faculty are agreed, a girl\nis least morally responsible, and most liable to sexual extravagances,\nand when we can statistically prove that the greatest number of those\nwho go wrong are led astray. The country will not rest till the legal\nprotection from the trade of vice is extended to twenty-one.\n\nSecondly, let us recognize it as an axiom that parental rights do\nnot exist when wholly severed from parental duties; or, in other\nwords, that the child has its rights as well as the parent, and that\nits indefeasible right is, in South\u2019s strong words, \u201cto be born and\nnot damned into the world.\u201d Let it be recognized, then, that no\nchild of either sex is to be brought up in a den of infamy, and to\nattend school from thence to the contamination of the children of the\nrespectable poor, the magistrates being no longer allowed to defeat\nthis beneficent provision of the Industrial Schools Act, and parental\nresponsibility being recognized by the parent being compelled to\npay toward the Christian and industrial training of the child; all\nchildren living in, or frequenting, thieves\u2019 dens and disorderly houses\nto be at once removed. Let day industrial schools be formed for the\nlowest class of children, so as to introduce some classification in\nour board schools, the want of which is one of their gravest defects.\nLet us adopt emigration to our colonies for our pauper and destitute\nchildren, whenever possible. Any one who has gone into the question\ncan corroborate Mr. Samuel Smith\u2019s statement in his able article in\nthe May number of the _Nineteenth Century_, that \u201c\u00a315 per head covers\nall expenses, including a few months\u2019 preparatory training, outfit,\npassage, etc.\u201d The average cost of each child in the metropolitan\ndistrict schools is nearly \u00a325 per annum. About 11,000 pauper children\nare brought up in these large establishments at a cost to the\nratepayers of London of \u00a3250,000 per annum. Probably each child is\nkept, on the average, five years, costing, say, \u00a3120 in all. Truly Mr.\nSmith may well add, \u201cwith a blindness that is incomprehensible, the\nguardians have preferred herding them together at a vast expense, and\nrefused till quite lately to allow emigration to be tried.\u201d And for\nthose children who through bad health, or any other disability, are\nunable to emigrate, and can not be boarded out, as well as children\nwhose drunken and dissolute parents are bringing them up to crime, let\nthere be an order of teaching deaconesses instituted, and a state-aided\ntraining college, where educated ladies may receive training in the\nmanagement of an industrial school, and from which the guardians can\nsupply themselves with mothers for cottage homes on the plan of the\nVillage Homes of Ilford, where the cost of a child is \u00a314, instead of\n\u00a325. By this arrangement the children would come under higher influence\nthan the uneducated workhouse officials. Hundreds of ladies are wanting\nremunerative employment, and would gladly undertake this, if they\ncould be put in the way of the work by a little preliminary training,\nand freed from the necessity of \u201cdoing the washing\u201d in the cottage\nhome. And, lastly, let it be a recognized theory that every Christian\nhousehold has one respectable but rough little girl to train under\nits own upper class servants, to give her a good start in life, that\nour houses, with all their culture and refinement, may no longer be\nstrongholds of _l\u2019egoisme \u00e0 plusieurs_, but centers for teaching good\nwork, high character, and fine manners\u2014organs for the public good.\n\nAnd those social atomists who raise their vehement cry about personal\nrights and the liberty of the subject over all compulsory measures for\nsaving children, I would remind that the question is not of compulsion\nor non-compulsion; but whether the natural guardians of a child shall\nbe compelled to pay toward its Christian and industrial training, or\nwhether they and I, as ratepayers, shall be compelled to pay for its\ndegradation in prisons, in infirmary beds, and workhouses. Compulsion\nthere is anyhow: but surely no reasonable mind can doubt which\ncompulsion is most in accordance with the true right and true liberty.\n\nAnd how can I better close than with the impassioned words of Elizabeth\nBarrett Browning, apostrophizing our material splendor, as shown in the\ngreat Exhibition of 1851, by the side of our moral squalor:\n\n    \u201cO Magi of the East and of the West,\n       Your incense, gold and myrrh are excellent!\n     What gifts for Christ, then, bring ye with the rest?\n       Your hands have worked well: is your courage spent\n     In handiwork only? Have you nothing best\n       Which generous souls may perfect and present\n     And He shall thank the givers for? No light\n       Of teaching, liberal nations, for the poor\n     Who sit in darkness when it is not night?\n       No cure for wicked children? Christ\u2014no cure!\n     No help for women sobbing out of sight\n       Because men made the laws? No brothel lure\n     Burnt out by popular lightnings? Hast thou found\n     No remedy, my England, for such woes?\n\n           *       *       *       *       *\n\n     Alas! great nations have great shames, I say.\n\n           *       *       *       *       *\n\n     O gracious nations, give some ear to me!\n       You all go to your fair, and I am one\n     Who at the roadside of humanity\n       Beseech your alms,\u2014God\u2019s justice to be done!\u201d\n                           \u2014_The Contemporary Review._\n\n\n\n\nAT REST.\n\nBy SARAH DOUDNEY.\n\n\n    Ah, silent wheel, the noisy brook is dry,\n          And quiet hours glide by\n    In this deep vale, where once the merry stream\n          Sang on through gloom and gleam;\n    Only the dove in some leaf-shaded nest\n                  Murmurs of rest.\n\n    Ah, weary voyager, the closing day\n          Shines on that tranquil bay,\n    Where thy storm-beaten soul has longed to be;\n          Wild blast and angry sea\n    Touch not this favored shore, by summer blest,\n                  A home of rest.\n\n    Ah, fevered heart, the grass is green and deep\n          Where thou art laid asleep;\n    Kissed by soft winds, and washed by gentle showers,\n          Thou hast thy crown of flowers;\n    Poor heart, too long in this mad world oppressed,\n                  Take now thy rest.\n\n    I, too, perplex\u2019d with strife of good and ill,\n          Long to be safe and still;\n    Evil is present with me while I pray\n          That good may win the day;\n    Great Giver, grant me thy last gift and best,\n                  The gift of rest!\n\n    \u2014_Good Words._\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nBUSINESS requires earnestness and strength of character, life\nmust be allowed more freedom; business calls for the strictest\nsequence, whereas in the conduct of life inconsecutiveness is often\nnecessary\u2014nay, is charming and graceful. If thou art strict in the\nfirst, thou mayest allow thyself more freedom in the second; while if\nthou mix them up, thou wilt find the free interfering and breaking in\nupon the fixed.\u2014_Goethe._\n\n\n\n\nECCENTRIC AMERICANS.\n\nBy COLEMAN E. BISHOP.\n\n\nI.\u2014THE SAILOR, PEDDLER, FARMER, PREACHER.\n\nIn mechanics, an eccentric is a wheel that can start all the rest of\nthe machinery with a jerk and a kick, and keep it going. It was the\nlittle eccentrics that enabled ten thousand Chautauquans to scatter\nto every part of the land in a few hours. The cam-motion in human\nnature starts its machinery and scatters its thought. We ought to\nthank God for the minds that wabble. Every originator has been counted\neccentric\u2014many of them have been pronounced insane. The little Festuses\nsitting in judgment are always crying to the inspired apostles of\ntruth, \u201cThou art beside thyself.\u201d\n\nIt is finite mechanism and finite thought that invent geometry and\ntheology. Men hang, cunningly and truly, their long counter-shafts of\ncreed, of behavior, of thought, of dress, of consistency, of loyalty;\nthey bolt and key thereto immovably all human characters which are\nround, \u201cline them up\u201d all true and uniform, lubricate with lucre,\nput on the steam and away they all go beautifully and all alike.\nWoe be to one who wabbles in this machine-shop of society! But God\nuses no plumb-lines, right-angles, levels or true circles. \u201cNature\u2019s\ngeometrician,\u201d the bee, never made a true hexagon. The old planets\ngo \u201cspinning through the grooves of change\u201d in eccentrics, and never\ncollide. Erratic comets dash through and among them, and never crash.\nI suppose the most eccentric character that ever walked this earth was\nthat strange boy from Nazareth who confounded the doctors with his\nunprecedented outgivings. His teachings were indeed so strange that\nafter the world has been for one thousand nine hundred years trying\nto work its standard up to them, a perfect Christian would to-day be\naccounted _non compos mentis_ by the rest of Christendom.\n\nSo it is not a bad idea to study eccentric characters, especially if\nthey are strangely good and oddly useful. One such, at least, we have\nat hand for the first study of this series\u2014Rev. Edward T. Taylor,\n\u201cFather Taylor,\u201d \u201cThe Sailor-Preacher,\u201d of Boston and the world.\n\nBorn in Virginia, reared on the sea, and adopted by New England. Born\na religionist, he preached \u201cplay\u201d sermons when a child; born again a\nChristian, he preached the gospel in the Methodist Episcopal Church\nuntil all humanity claimed him. Born a poet, for ten years he studied\nnature in her tragic and her melting moods upon the sea; studied man\nin the forecastle, in the prison, upon the farm, in the market. Nature\nwas his university; humanity his text-book; hard experience his tutor.\nAt the age of twenty he had traveled the world over, had sounded the\ndepths of human fortune, passion, misery, and sin; was profoundly\nlearned in his great text-book, and the most inspired interpreter\nof its unuttered wants\u2014and did not know the alphabet! He had become\ncelebrated throughout New England as a marvelous prodigy in the\ndespised sect of \u201cshouting Methodists\u201d years before he could read a\ntext or \u201cline\u201d a hymn. And to the day of his death his preaching knew\nno method, his eloquence no logic, his conduct no consistency, and\nhis power no limit or restraint. To this day no one has succeeded in\nanalyzing his genius. He could not himself account for his power, nor\ncould he control it. He seemed to play upon his audiences at will as a\nmaster plays upon the harp; yet some unseen, mysterious force played\nupon him in turn. His brethren in the ministry, who accounted for his\nstrange power by attributing it to the Holy Spirit, were confounded by\nthe rudeness, jocoseness, and at times almost profanity of his speech\nat its highest flights; and they who undertook to resolve his efforts\ninto the accepted elements of human power were astounded by the more\nthan human resources of a mind uncultured and a nature as wild, as\nuncontrollable, as bright and as sad as the sea he loved. Surely, if\never man was inspired, Father Taylor was.\n\nHis career, like his methods, answered to all the terms that can define\neccentricity. Deeply religious as the child was by nature, he ran away\nto sea at the age of seven. His conversion was characteristic. Putting\ninto port at Boston, he strolled to a meeting-house where a revival\nwas in progress; instead of going in by the door, he listened outside,\nand when stricken under conviction, with characteristic impulsiveness\nhe climbed in through the window. To use his own sailor words: \u201cI was\ndragged in through the \u2018lubber hole,\u2019 brought down by a broadside\nfrom the seventy-four, Bishop Hedding, and fell into the arms of\nThomas W. Tucker.\u201d This was at the age of nineteen. Then off to sea\nas a privateersman in the war of 1812, he was captured and imprisoned\nat Halifax, and here his preaching of the gospel strangely began. A\nfellow-prisoner read texts to him till one flashed upon his conception\nas the cue to his discourse. \u201cStop!\u201d the boy would cry; \u201cread that\nagain.\u201d \u201cThat will do;\u201d and he was ready to pour forth a fervid hour of\npathos, wit, brilliant imagery, all supported by perfect acting.\n\nOut of prison at last, he returns to Boston, leaves his seafaring\nforever, and takes to the road with a tin peddler\u2019s cart: clad in a\nsailor\u2019s jacket and tarpaulin, talking \u201csea lingo,\u201d religion and poetry\nin equal proportions, he traveled over New England as attractive a\nsight as Don Quixote would have been. He came across an old lady who\ntaught him to read (age 21), and he paid her by gratefully holding\nmeetings in her big kitchen, and exhorting wondering crowds of rustics\nand weeping crowds of penitents. Next he undertook to learn shoemaking,\nand then worked a farm for a living\u2014all the time concentrating his\nintense nature on his grand passion for playing upon the human heart;\nearning little bread for himself, and breaking the bread of life\nabundantly to farmers, shoemakers, fishermen; in farm houses, school\nhouses, barns, camp-meetings; over a circuit of his own organization.\n\u201cHe was a youthful rustic Whitefield,\u201d says Bishop Haven, \u201cthrilling\nrustic audiences with his winged words and fiery inspiration.\u201d He\nloved to preach from the text, \u201cHow knoweth this man letters, having\nnever learned?\u201d Taylor did not know letters, and his speech was rude\nand coarse, his blunders innumerable: if words failed him out of his\nlimited vocabulary, he manufactured them. Once, completely at fault\nin his struggle to express the burning thoughts that crowded his\nbrain he cried, with a perplexed but irradiated face: \u201cI have lost my\nnominative case, but I am on my way to glory!\u201d A few smiled; all wept.\nHis earnestness atoned for many defects; his imagery was even now\nbeautiful, and his magnetism irresistible.\n\nThus young Taylor preached, unlicensed, for five years. It was the\nbreaking-up and seed-time of New England Methodism. Between the\nPuritans and Quakers, with their mutual antagonism, the shouting\nMethodists were as corn between the millstones, a despised and\npersecuted sect.\n\nAbout the age of twenty-five occurred three notable events in his life.\nHe was licensed by the Methodist Conference to preach. He attended\nschool a short time and began his education. He married one of God\u2019s\nnoble-women to complete his education. For ten years he continued the\nlife of a circuit preacher, growing in culture, power, spirit, and\nfame, under that wise and gentle nurture. No one can say how far short\nof its fullness Father Taylor\u2019s life might have fallen without Deborah\nTaylor.\n\nAll these seventeen years of his ministry he had, as far as possible,\nkept near to the coast and the haunts of sailors; praying in the\nforecastle and preaching on the decks of ships about to sail, wherever\nhe could reach them. The salt air was incense to him, and the music\nof the surf seemed ever dwelling in the nautilus-chambers of his\nheart. At last his life-work came in the direction of his longings.\nAt the age of thirty-fire he was called to preach to the sailors of\nBoston. The meetings were a success from the first, and Mr. Taylor\nwent South and solicited the money ($2,100) to buy a house for their\nBethel. (More bread cast on the waters to return after many days to the\nSouth.) The work grew, and soon an incorporated society was organized,\ncalled the \u201cBoston Port Society;\u201d from the first nondenominational,\nthough a majority of its board were Methodists. The work still grew.\nSoon the merchants of Boston assumed the burden of the work, and in\n1833 \u201cThe Seamen\u2019s Bethel\u201d was completed at a cost of $24,000. Soon\na Seamen\u2019s Savings Bank and then a Seamen\u2019s Aid Society, a Seamen\u2019s\nBoarding-house, and then a Mariner\u2019s Home (at a cost of $34,000), an\nIndustrial School for Seamen\u2019s Children, and a Seamen\u2019s Co-operative\nStore, sprang up around this nucleus. These collateral enterprises\nwere largely the inspiration of Mother Taylor, but the burden of them\nfell upon the Unitarians of Boston, who soon assumed entire control\nof the noble charity and mission. Here Father Taylor fulfilled his\nlife-mission. \u201cFrom 1829 to 1871 he trod this quarter-deck, its\nmaster.\u201d The fame of the Bethel and its chaplain, one and the same,\nwent to all quarters of the globe. Edward Everett styled him \u201cThe\nWalking Bethel,\u201d and Richard H. Dana in his \u201cTwo Years Before the\nMast,\u201d said one of the first inquiries of sailors in foreign ports,\nfrom him, was regarding the welfare of Father Taylor, the mariner\u2019s\npreacher in Boston. A sailor declared he had been in ports where the\nUnited States had not been heard of, but never where Father Taylor\nhad not. Once, soliciting aid for Bethel before another audience than\nhis own, he glowingly promised: \u201cDrop your gold into this ocean and\nit will cast a wave on the shores of Europe which will strike back\nto the islands of the Southern Sea, rebound on the Northwest coast,\nand so make the circuit of the world and strike this port again.\u201d The\nrealization of this prediction was more extravagant than the bold\nimagery of it. At the dedication of the Bethel he cried: \u201cAmerica is\nthe center of the world, the center of America is Boston, and the\ncenter of Boston is the Bethel.\u201d\n\nThe first place of a returning sailor\u2019s thoughts became the Bethel,\ninstead of the groggery. Two of them, seeking it for the first time,\nspelled out the name on the flag floating above it: \u201cB-E-T, beat,\nH-E-L, hell; beat-hell! This is Father Taylor\u2019s place,\u201d and they cast\nanchor. \u201cThere he is, Bill,\u201d said an old tar to another, as they\nentered the Bethel; \u201cthere\u2019s the old man walking the deck. He\u2019s got his\nguns double-shotted and will give it to us right and left. See how fast\nhe travels\u2014fifteen knots on a taut bowline. When he walks that way he\u2019s\nready for action.\u201d\n\nThere were strange scenes in that vast audience room. The body of\nthe church was reserved for sailors always, while the side slips and\ngalleries were for the general public. When the seats were all filled,\nhe would order the sailors forward like a sea captain, and crowd the\naltar rail, the pulpit stairs, the pulpit, and the pulpit sofas with\nthe weather-beaten mariners, while the grandest in the land stood and\nlistened in the aisles. \u201cNow,\u201d he would say, with a beaming face,\n\u201cwe have got the hold full and a deck load, and we\u2019ll up anchor and\nstart.\u201d Many of the best critics and reporters have tried to describe\nand analyze a service after such a \u201cstart\u201d\u2014Dickens, Harriet Martineau,\nFredricka Bremer, Horace Mann, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and others\u2014but all\nfail to give us much comprehension of the method of the man; I suspect\nbecause they were all so absorbed they forgot to take notes, mental\nor otherwise. But they recall the _effects_ of the preaching vividly,\neach in his own way. So much of the power of Father Taylor was in his\npresence and action, that no report of one of his sermons has been made\nand preserved. He said himself, \u201cYou might as well try to report chain\nlightning.\u201d Dr. Bellows said, twelve years ago, \u201cAlas! nothing remains\nof him but his memory and his influence. He will be an incredible myth\nin another generation.\u201d Why _need_ this be so? He has left a wealth of\noriginal sayings behind him unequaled by the utterances of few save\nAbraham Lincoln; and he may furnish the material for many rare studies\nin character. We may be forgiven the presumption of attempting to help\nrescue Father Taylor from vanishing into oblivion. What, then, were\nthe characteristics that lay at the foundations of this remarkable\ncharacter? I would classify them under four heads:\n\n1. _Intensity._ This gave him concentration of thought, earnestness of\nbelief, courage and aggressiveness in action. He went into everything\nwith an irresistible impulse. His training on the sea and in the\ncircuit gave free growth to this trait. He was never placed where he\nneeded to be politic or conservative; and his combativeness always had\nfree play. He was the champion of his despised sect, but he fought\nwith the polished weapons of a wit, and the impressive presence of a\nwill which the foes of his cause more dreaded than force. And then his\nspirit was so lovable that there is no instance on record of any one\never having laid hands on him, fierce disputant as he was.\n\nHe was a man born to command. His will was imperious. The last\nconscious act of his life was to shake his fist at his nurse, who\nrefused to let him rise from bed. Peter Cartwright said there were\ntwo cataracts in this country\u2014Niagara and Father Taylor. His brethren\ncalled him \u201cthe breaking-up plow of the Church.\u201d Miss Martineau\nspoke of \u201cthe prodigious force which he carries in his magnificent\nintellect and earnest heart.\u201d Another English writer said, \u201cHe goes on\nas energetically as any \u2018Praise-God Barebones\u2019 of the old Covenanter\ntimes.\u201d\n\nI think one thing all his biographers lost sight of was the fact that\nhis belief became a vital part of him, the very breath of his nostrils.\nThere is a mighty difference between truly believing, and simply\naccepting a belief second-hand, which latter passes for belief with\nmost people. It is the men who genuinely believe who make others accept\nand adopt their belief. In the pulpit his action is tremendous. He\nalways comes down wet through with perspiration, and a complete change\nof wardrobe is necessary with every effort.\n\n2. _Imagination._ To this quality is to be referred his profound\nreligious nature, his poetry, dramatic power, eloquence, and (in\nconjunction with his earnestness) even his faults. One called him a\npoet; another, a born actor. James Freeman Clarke said he was the\nonly man he ever heard to whom the much-abused word, \u201celoquence,\u201d\ncould be truly applied. But I think none of these terms so accurately\nclassify his genius as to call him a painter. His earnestness made\neverything his quick imagination conjured up seem realistic to him;\nand his dramatic power enabled him to make these images realistic to\nhis hearers. His thoughts were entities to him, and they always took\nthe form of objects real and visible. This differs from the _poetic_\nimagination, the essence of which is unsubstantiality. The poet sees\nvisions, the artist creates forms. Taylor was an artist, with words for\nhis colors, action for his pencil. One who heard him said: \u201cWhile he\npreached the ocean rolled and sparkled, the ship spread her sails, the\ntempest lowered, the forked lightnings blazed, the vessel struck, her\ndisjointed timbers floated upon the waves. It was all pictured to the\neye as positive reality. You could hardly believe afterward you had not\nactually witnessed the scene.\u201d\n\nHe describes a shipwreck, and at the climax, as the ship is slowly\nsettling in the water, and every face in the audience is livid with\nfear, he roars, \u201cMan the life boat!\u201d and every sailor in the house\nsprings to his feet. Now sailors, under the influence of drink, have\nkilled their captain. He describes the deed. They start up before\nthe audience, creeping down the stairs and into the cabin; he raises\nthe imaginary knife, and half the men in the house jump forward to\narrest the blow, while women shriek in horror. Once, however, a\nmatter-of-fact, though possessed sailor, confused Father Taylor. He\nhad depicted the impenitent sinner, under the figure of a storm-tossed\nship, with her sails split, and driven by the gale toward the\nrock-bound coast of Cape Ann. \u201cOh, how,\u201d he exclaimed, in tones of\ndespair, \u201cshall this poor sin-tossed sinner be saved?\u201d \u201cPut his helm\nhard down, and _bear away for Squam_!\u201d bellowed the old salt, springing\nexcitedly to his feet.\n\nSo he painted the Mosaic miracles, \u201ctill the brethren saw the snakes\nsquirm, heard the frogs croak, felt the lice bite, brushed the flies\nout of their faces and saw the Israelites march out of Egypt.\u201d\n\nOne of his last sermons, when he was old and feeble, ended thus: \u201cMy\nwork is almost done. Where are all my old shipmates\u2014they who lay in\nhammocks beside me and who have fought at the same guns? Gone, gone\u2014all\ngone! No, blessed be God! not _all_; there\u2019s one left. [Here he made\nthe picture realistic by pointing to an old salt, gray, bent, and\nknotty-faced.] Yes, there\u2019s old Timberhead. He and I have weathered\nmany a storm together. It is only a little farther we have to sail.\nLook, look ahead there! It is only to beat just around that point\nyonder. Now\u2014now! there is the peaceful, blessful haven and home full in\nview.\u201d By this time the audience was weeping, radiant with hope.\n\nEven his isolated sentences are full of this imaginary realism.\n\u201cSailors ignorant!\u201d he cried indignantly when one depreciated them;\n\u201csailors know everything; they grasp the world in their hand like an\norange!\u201d The boldness of this language is wonderful. Of superannuated\nministers he said: \u201cThey are like camels bearing precious spices and\nbrowsing on bitter herbs. They were moral giants. When God made them he\nrolled his sleeves up to the arm-pits.\u201d\n\nIt was the activity of his brain, the realism of his imagery and the\nhomely naturalness of his language that made some of his transitions\nabrupt to grotesqueness and some of his speech border startlingly on\nimpropriety. He really thought aloud\u2014which many a matter-of-fact, heavy\nspeaker would find it unsafe to do. Dissociated from their context and\nfrom the earnestness and devout spirit of the man, they sound much\nworse than when uttered.\n\nIt was the combination of these two qualities also which made him\nextravagant in speech, erratic in sentiment, and inconsistent with\nhimself. He _was_ whatever he thought or imagined for the moment; his\ngenius possessed and controlled him. Thus he was a radical temperance\nreformer, but he denounced prohibitory legislation and hurled ridicule\nat those who proposed the use of an unfermented wine in the sacrament;\nhe called it \u201craisin water.\u201d Of rum-sellers he said: \u201cI wonder that the\nangels in heaven do not tear up the golden pavements and throw them on\ntheir heads;\u201d but he conjured those who should succeed him to \u201cCast out\nfrom this church, in my name, any man that comes up to the altar with\nhis glue-pot and dye-stuff.\u201d\n\nDr. Jewett says: \u201cI have heard him at times when I have been amazed\nat the utter inconsistency of his views, not only with any standard\nof doctrine recognized as sound by other men, but with his own public\nutterances of perhaps the week previous. His imagination, once fairly\nexcited, could furnish in thirty minutes material for half-a-dozen\nspeeches of an hour each; and, unfortunately, it frequently happened\nthat different parts of the same speech could be used on opposite sides\nof the same question.\u201d\n\nSo he denounced the abolitionists and slavery in the same breath.\n\u201cBefore I would assist one of those Southern devils to catch a nigger,\u201d\nhe shouted, after reading \u201cUncle Tom\u2019s Cabin,\u201d \u201cI would see them all\nin hell, and I would shout hallelujah on to the end of it!\u201d \u201cYou talk\nlike a rabid abolitionist,\u201d said his interlocutor. \u201cNo,\u201d he cried, with\neven more vengeance; \u201cno, I despise them. They have cursed the land!\u201d\nHe called Foster, the abolitionist orator, \u201ca devil on the platform.\u201d\nHis reverence for the church led him to consign summarily to a hotter\nclimate those who came out on the anti-slavery issue; and he was a\nvehement advocate of church authority, and evangelical orthodoxy, yet\nthe most of his life he preached for Unitarians; and he openly defied\nthe mandate of the conference regarding Masonry, being a member of the\nfraternity, and he submitted to church discipline for his contumacy,\nbut refused to withdraw from the order, and prayed in public for the\nanti-Masons, \u201cO, Lord, make their hearts as soft as their heads are.\u201d\nPlainly, there was no managing such a tempestuous soul, and he was\nleft to go his own way. Honor be to the church that had the magnanimity\nand broad charity to let him do his own grand work in his own grand\nway. It was herein as grand and eccentric as an organization as he was\namong men.\n\nHis sarcasm, wit, terseness, and vigor of speech were the outcome of an\nenergetic and picturesque mind, struggling with a limited vocabulary\nfor its expression. His sentences were explosive. \u201cThis fast age,\u201d he\nsaid, \u201cwould be glad to put spurs to lightning, and blow a trumpet in\nthe ears of thunder.\u201d Again, \u201cSome people think they are saints. If\nthey could see themselves as the just in glory see them they wouldn\u2019t\ndare to look a decent devil in the face.\u201d \u201cIf I owed the devil a\nhypocrite, and he wouldn\u2019t take that man for pay, I\u2019d repudiate the\ndebt.\u201d He called another minister, who had preceded him, and infringed\non his allotted time, \u201cAs selfish as a whale who takes in a ton of\nherring before breakfast.\u201d Again, \u201cIt is a great mistake to think of\nconverting the world without the help of sailors. You might as well\nthink of melting a mountain of ice with a moonbeam, or of heating an\noven with snow-balls.\u201d He called morality, without religion, \u201cStarting\na man to heaven with an icicle in his pocket.\u201d \u201cI am not two inches off\nheaven!\u201d he exclaimed, in a moment of religious exaltation. He said to\nChanning, the Unitarian: \u201cWhen you die angels will fight for the honor\nof carrying you to heaven on their shoulders.\u201d \u201cSailors\u2019 hearts are\nbig as an ox\u2019s; open like a sunflower, and they carry them in their\nright hands ready to give them away.\u201d One of his converts, gifted in\nprayer, he always called \u201cSalvation-set-to-music.\u201d A colored brother,\nspeaking with the simple pathos of his race, drew from Father Taylor\nthe ejaculation, \u201cThere is rain in that cloud.\u201d\n\nBut, whether homely or lofty, whether pathetic or witty, he always\ntalked in dead earnest out of his warm heart, out of his seething\nbrain, and everything was gilded by the magic touch of imagination.\n\u201cA man,\u201d says Stevens, \u201cwho could scarcely speak three sentences,\nin the pulpit or out of it, without presenting a striking poetic\nimage, a phrase of rare beauty, or a sententious sarcasm, whose\ndiscourses presented the strangest, the most brilliant exhibition of\nsense, epigrammatic thought, pathos, and humor, spangled over by an\nexhaustless variety of the finest images and pervaded by a spiritual\nearnestness that subdued all listeners.\u201d \u201cHis splendid thoughts come\nfaster than he can speak them,\u201d said Harriet Martineau, \u201cand at times\nhe could be totally overwhelmed by them if a burst of tears, of which\nhe was wholly unconscious, did not aid in his relief.\u201d \u201cI have seen a\ndiamond shining,\u201d said Dr. Bartol, \u201cbut he was a diamond on fire.\u201d\n\n3. _Sympathy._ Here was the secret of his power over men. His\nemotional nature constantly overflowed all else. With a marvelous\nintuition in reading character, a free-masonry with all phases of\nhuman emotions, a magnetism that put him inside of every heart, he\nbecame the better self, the ideal longing of each listener. It made\nno difference how learned or stoical the man was; Father Taylor got\nhold of him and stirred his heart from the bottom. A man of wit said,\n\u201cI am always afraid when I am laughing at Father Taylor\u2019s wit, for\nI know he will make me cry before he has done with me.\u201d People cry\nand laugh alternately, and sometimes both together. Laughter is the\nbest preparation for tears. \u201cMan, thou pendulum betwixt a smile and\ntear.\u201d [Are we not all inconsistent, eccentric, at the bottom of our\nnatures, _i. e._, at our very best?] A New York comedian came to study\nthe method of one of whose acting he had heard much report; he was so\naffected by the unlearned art of this master of the soul that he fairly\nblubbered behind his handkerchief.\n\nDr. Wentworth, of another occasion said: \u201cThe immense audience swayed\nin the wealth of his eloquence like a forest of willows. We laughed, we\nwept, we shouted in turns; and finally, finding myself getting utterly\nunmanned, and rapidly dissolving into tears and brine, I fled the\npulpit and hid myself out of earshot of this extraordinary scene.\u201d\n\nDr. Wakely, of New York, describes the effects of a prayer by Father\nTaylor, at the New York Conference: \u201cThe ministers wept all over\nthe house like little children. Dr. Capers and Dr. Pitman were in\nthe pulpit with me. Dr. Capers wept and trembled exceedingly; and\nDr. Pitman laughed and cried alternately\u2014smiles and tears strangely\nblended.\u201d\n\n\u201cHis pathos is the most awful of his powers,\u201d said Miss Martineau,\nterrified at his control over her emotions; \u201cI have seen a single\nclause of a short sentence call up an instantaneous flush on hundreds\nof hard faces.\u201d\n\nMany would not expose their hearts to hear him a second time; they\ncould not bear the overmastering power.\n\nDr. Bartol very finely said: \u201cWhat was the secret but a sympathy,\nraised to the highest power, so as to exceed all that we conceive under\nthat name, so that _he saw out of people as well as into them_! He put\non their eyes for his eyeglasses, looking at the world as they did,\nand they found and felt him in them at the core and center.\u201d \u201cHe was a\nmaster of pathos,\u201d said Dr. Bellows; \u201crough sailors and beautiful and\ncultivated Boston girls, and men like Webster and Emerson, and shop\nboys and Cambridge students, and Jenny Lind and Charles Dickens, and\nHarriet Martineau, and everybody of taste or curiosity who visited\nBoston were seen weeping together with Father Taylor. Ah, the human\nheart, down at the bottom, is one.\u201d\n\nHe loved all little children with all his Master\u2019s passion. The baptism\nof infants was always a baptism of joy and tears with him. He would\ngather one to his breast and kiss and croon over it like a mother.\nTaking a beautiful little girl in his arms, he raised her before the\nwhole audience, and said, with streaming eyes, \u201cLook at the sweet lamb!\nHer mother has brought her to Christ\u2019s fold. A baptism of heaven be on\nthee, my pretty dove.\u201d All children recognized him at sight for one\nof their guild. A ragged little girl walked into the church at his\nfuneral, laid a buttonhole bouquet on the coffin, and said timidly\nand sweetly, \u201cHe was _my_ friend,\u201d and so departed. Once when he had\nbeen called to several children\u2019s funerals in succession, he said to a\nfriend whom he met in the street, \u201cThere is something wrong somewhere.\nThere are storms brewing when so many doves are flying aloft.\u201d\n\nAt funerals he was a refuge of consolation. He so entered into the\nhearts bereaved that he felt their hurt. \u201cFather, look upon us,\u201d he\nonce implored, with mighty and tender supplication, \u201c_we are a widow_!\u201d\n\u201cIt is no wonder to me,\u201d said Harriet Martineau, \u201cthat the widow and\norphan are cherished by those who hear his prayers for them.\u201d\n\nDrunken sailors or abandoned women, none were left out of reach of his\ninfinite sympathy; and it reached the uttermost parts of the earth. A\nsailor boy has died and been buried in South America, and he prays that\nthe Comforter may be near the bereaved father \u201cwhen his aged heart goes\nforth from his bosom to flutter around the far southern grave of his\nboy!\u201d Is Shakspere more dramatic, Shelly more imaginative, Longfellow\nmore pathetic than this?\n\nOut of this fathomless love he preached his gospel of happiness and\npurity and love; for it was doubtless true, as he declared, that \u201che\nnever knew the time when he did not love God.\u201d Out of it came his\nsweet charity and tolerance. His lovers were of all denominations and\nof none\u2014Catholics, Universalists, Unitarians\u2014for he was \u201caltogether\nlovely.\u201d When one at a camp-meeting excluded from salvation all these\nsects, all men who used tobacco and all women who wore jewelry, Father\nTaylor broke in indignantly, \u201cIf that\u2019s true, Christ\u2019s mission was a\nfailure. It\u2019s a pity he came.\u201d \u201cHow far apart are heaven and hell?\u201d he\nwas asked. \u201cI tell you,\u201d said he, \u201cthey are so near that myriads of\nsouls to-day don\u2019t know which they are in.\u201d \u201cBlessed Jesus,\u201d he prayed,\n\u201cgive us common sense, and let no man put blinkers on us, that we can\nonly see in a certain direction; for we want to look all around the\nhorizon\u2014yea, to the highest heavens and to the lowest depths of the\nocean.\u201d \u201cWhen _Bigotry_ is buried I hope I shall be at the funeral,\u201d\nhe said. His intimacy with the Unitarians, and his remarkable tribute\nto Channing have been cited. Of Emerson he said: \u201cHe has the sweetest\nsoul God ever put into a man. If the devil gets him he will never know\nwhat to do with him.\u201d A theologian asked him what he was going to do\nwith the Unitarians; \u201cI don\u2019t know,\u201d he said, confidentially; \u201cif they\ngo to hell they\u2019ll _change the atmosphere_.\u201d \u201cIs your son-in-law a\nChristian?\u201d asked a solicitous brother. \u201cNot exactly,\u201d replied Father\nTaylor, \u201cbut he\u2019s a very sweet sinner.\u201d\n\n4. _His humor._ This kept all cheerful, healthy and bright. He was a\n\u201claughing Christian.\u201d I do not think he ever used humor merely to make\npeople laugh, but always with an earnest purpose back of it. He was no\njoker, and rarely thought his own keen thrusts subjects for merriment.\n\nOf his manliness, his good sense, his improvidence, his sweet and\nbeautiful home life, space does not suffice to speak.\n\nIf to be an original character among men is to be eccentric, Father\nTaylor was indeed odd. \u201cHe was in all things himself and not any\none else; in this generation there has been but one Father Taylor,\u201d\nsaid Dr. Waterstone; and Dr. Bartol declared that, \u201cNo American\ncitizen\u2014Webster, Clay, Everett, Lincoln, Choate\u2014has a reputation more\nimpressive and unique.\u201d No one understood his singularity better than\nhimself. \u201cI will not wear a straight-jacket or Chinese shoes,\u201d he\ndeclared. Having been invited to lecture, he said: \u201cI can\u2019t lecture; I\nwould not lecture if I could. Your lectures are all macadamized; they\nare entertainments where those go who dare not visit the theater. I\nmust cross-plow your fine paths. I am no man\u2019s model, no man\u2019s copyist,\nno man\u2019s agent; go on my own hook; say what I please, and you may help\nyourselves.\u201d\n\nLike all greatly-eccentric souls, I presume, he felt his own isolation\nand want of comprehension of himself by others. One who sat far into\nthe night in communion of soul with him, said: \u201cYou are a strange\nmortal!\u201d \u201cWell,\u201d said he, pathetically, \u201cI have made up my mind there\nnever was but one E. T. Taylor and, so far as I have anything to do\nwith it, there never shall be another.\u201d\n\nWhen we think of his birth, training, and surroundings\u2014the child of the\nplantation and the graduate of the forecastle\u2014and contrast this with\nhis peculiar powers, his strange career, and above all in rarity his\nwonderful world-wide mission, it is not too much to say that Father\nTaylor is without a parallel in American history. \u201cAn impulsive,\nuntrained, and erratic genius;\u201d there was a fixed purpose and a\ncontinuity of effort, such as is seen in few lives. If extravagant\nin speech and inconsistent in views, his intensity, vividness, and\nrealism, make all sound like plain common-sense. Haughty and tender,\nimperious and democratic, grand and simple, splendidly uncultured; a\nstrange, terrible power among men always used for leading, driving,\npersuading to righteousness. He deserves a paraphrase of a higher\ntribute than Phillips, the Irish barrister, gave to Napoleon. Such\na medley of contradictions and at the same time such individual\nconsistency for right were never before united in the same character.\nIn the solitude of his originality, he was always the same mysterious,\nincomprehensible self\u2014a man without a model and without a shadow.\n\n\u201cWhen I am dead,\u201d he pleaded, \u201cI do not want to be buried in dirt. But\nbury me rather in the deep salt sea, where the coral rocks shall be my\npillow, and the seaweeds shall be my winding-sheet, and the waves shall\nsing my requiem forever.\u201d\n\nAnd it was not done. Conventionality triumphed in death over the old\neccentric, who had defied it as long as he lived.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOBSERVE, the fates of men are balanced with wonderfully nice\nadjustments. The scale of this life, if it sinks, rises there,\nwhile if it rises here, it will sink to the ground there. What was\nhere temporary affliction, will be there eternal triumph; what was\nhere temporary triumph, will be there eternal and ever-enduring\ndespair.\u2014_Schiller._\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. WORK.\n\nBy Rev. J. H. VINCENT, D.D., SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION C. L. S. C.\n\n\nMay the new year work be promptly begun, faithfully prosecuted,\nsatisfactorily completed!\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOctober 1 is Memorial Day\u2014the day of the beginning of our college year.\nThe bell at Chautauqua will ring at high noon. Listen for its echoes.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne member has already nearly finished two of the books since the\nmeetings closed at Chautauqua. He read on the train; he read at the\nstation; he read at the hotel; he read during the odd minutes at home.\nThis is a good example.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe readings for October are: History of Greece,[D] vol. 2, by Prof.\nT. T. Timayenis, parts 7 and 8; Chautauqua Text-Books\u2014No. 5, Greek\nHistory, by Dr. J. H. Vincent; Primer of American Literature, by C. F.\nRichardson; required readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLet the members of the Class of \u201983 who were not graduated in August,\nnow begin to read up the required books, and be ready for graduation in\n1884.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn the earliest announcement of the course of study for 1883-84, the\nlittle Chautauqua Text-Book No. 22, on Biology, was given. Many members\nsuppose that this is the substitute for \u201cEasy Lessons in Vegetable\nBiology,\u201d an altogether different book. The price of Chautauqua\nText-Book No. 22 is 10 cents; the price of \u201cEasy Lessons in Vegetable\nBiology\u201d is (in the cheapest edition) 25 cents. If they will return to\nPhillips & Hunt, 805 Broadway, New York, the Chautauqua Text-Book and\n15 cents additional, they will forward the \u201cEasy Lessons in Vegetable\nBiology.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nStudents in the Class of 1887 should have Chautauqua Text-Books Nos. 4\nand 5, English and Greek History. They have already been read by the\nother classes. Price, 10 cents each.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMembers of the C. L. S. C. are earnestly urged to read Chautauqua\nText-Book No. 24, Canadian History. This should have been required in\nthe earlier lists.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAll members of the C. L. S. C. should examine carefully the \u201cPopular\nEducation\u201d circular which appears in this number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, to\nascertain if they have the complete list of books for the year.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nBy the payment of one dollar, all graduates of the C. L. S. C. will be\nentitled to all communications from the central office for four years,\nthe four white crystal seals, and any additional white seals which they\nmay gain. The one dollar does not, of course, pay for special seals.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Chautauqua Hand-Book No. 2\u2014known as the \u201cGreen Book\u201d\u2014which contains\na full account of the C. L. S. C. work, is now ready. Send a two cent\nstamp to Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J., and you will receive a\ncopy.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Class of 1884 should send in their back reports as soon as\npossible. It is so much better to get all ready in advance, and not\nwait until the close of the year, when the general office is crowded,\nthe secretaries busy, and mistakes easily possible.\n\nFOOTNOTE:\n\n[D] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, not\nhaving read volume 1 of Timayenis\u2019s History of Greece, will not\nbe required to read volume 2, but, instead of volumes 1 and 2 of\nTimayenis\u2019s, will read \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d Price, paper, 60\ncents.\n\n\n\n\nLOCAL CIRCLE NOTICE.\n\n\nThe full accounts of the C. L. S. C. commencement exercises at the\nsummer Assemblies, which we publish this month, take the place of the\nreports from the local circles. It is only for this month, however.\nThe department will continue to be a regular feature of the magazine.\nThese reports have been of great service to local circles everywhere,\nand we earnestly request that full and exact accounts of work should\nbe forwarded us by the president or secretary of each local circle.\nLet any new feature in the program be fully described; give us all the\nnew plans for social work, give everything that will be suggestive and\nhelpful. Several times last year we were asked how to work up a new\ncircle, or to revive a dying one. Where leaders have had experience in\nbuilding up these circles let them give testimony through the \u201cLocal\nCircle\u201d column. It may help others in similar circumstances. The new\nand helpful features are what we want for this department. If the\nmembers will co-operate, the local circle reports will be very useful.\n\n\n\n\nOUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. STUDIES.\n\n\nOCTOBER, 1883.\n\nThe required readings for October are:\n\nParts 7 and 8 of the second volume of Timayenis\u2019s \u201cHistory of Greece\u201d\nfor students having read the first volume, but for students of class\n1887 the first ninety-one pages of \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d\n\nChautauqua Text-book, No. 5, \u201cGreek History,\u201d by Dr. J. H. Vincent.\n\n\u201cPrimer of American Literature,\u201d by C. F. Richardson.\n\nReadings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\nThe division is as follows:\n\n    _First Week_ (ending October 8)\u20141. The first three\n    chapters of part 7 of Timayenis\u2019s \u201cHistory of Greece;\u201d\n    or from page 1 to \u201cAge of Pericles,\u201d page 23, in \u201cBrief\n    History of Greece.\u201d\n\n    2. American Literature, the first two chapters.\n\n    3. Readings in American Literature in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n    4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, selection for\n    October 7.\n\n\n    _Second Week_ (ending October 16)\u20141. Timayenis\u2019s\n    \u201cHistory of Greece,\u201d from chapter iv., part 7,\n    to chapter ii., part 8, or in \u201cBrief History of\n    Greece,\u201d from \u201cThe Age of Pericles,\u201d page 23, to \u201cThe\n    Civilization,\u201d page 46.\n\n    2. American Literature, from page 30 to page 55,\n    inclusive.\n\n    3. Readings in Physical Science in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n    4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, selection for\n    October 14.\n\n\n    _Third Week_ (ending October 24)\u20141. \u201cHistory of Greece\u201d\n    (Timayenis\u2019s) from chapter ii., page 73, to chapter\n    vi., page 115, or in \u201cBrief History of Greece,\u201d from\n    page 46, \u201cThe Civilization,\u201d to \u201cManners and Customs,\u201d\n    page 71.\n\n    2. American Literature, from page 56, section 34, to\n    page 81.\n\n    3. Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN on German History and\n    Political Economy.\n\n    4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, selection for\n    October 21.\n\n\n    _Fourth Week_ (ending October 31)\u20141. \u201cHistory of\n    Greece.\u201d Finish part eighth, or in \u201cBrief History\n    of Greece,\u201d from page 71, \u201cManners and Customs,\u201d to\n    \u201cReadings in Greek History,\u201d page 91.\n\n    2. American Literature, from section 34, page 81, to\n    end of volume.\n\n    3. Readings in Art, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n    4. Sunday Readings, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, for October 28.\n\n\n\n\nPOPULAR EDUCATION.\n\nCHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE.\n\n_President_\u2014Lewis Miller.\n\n_Superintendent of Instruction_\u2014J. H. Vincent, D.D.\n\n_Counselors_\u2014Lyman Abbott, D.D.; J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W.\nWarren, D.D.; W. C. Wilkinson, D.D.\n\n_Office Secretary_\u2014Miss Kate F. Kimball.\n\n_General Secretary_\u2014A. M. Martin.\n\n\n1.\u2014AIM.\n\nThis new organization aims to promote habits of reading and study\nin nature, art, science, and in secular and sacred literature, in\nconnection with the routine of daily life (especially among those whose\neducational advantages have been limited), so as to secure to them\nthe college student\u2019s general outlook upon the world and life, and to\ndevelop the habit of close, connected, persistent thinking.\n\n\n2.\u2014METHODS.\n\nIt proposes to encourage individual study in lines and by text-books\nwhich shall be indicated; by local circles for mutual help and\nencouragement in such studies; by summer courses of lectures and\n\u201cstudents\u2019 sessions\u201d at Chautauqua, and by written reports and\nexaminations.\n\n\n3.\u2014COURSE OF STUDY.\n\nThe course of study prescribed by the C. L. S. C. shall cover a period\nof four years.\n\n\n4.\u2014ARRANGEMENT OF CLASSES.\n\n_Each year\u2019s Course of Study will be considered the \u201cFirst Year\u201d for\nnew pupils_ whether it be the first, second, third, or fourth of the\nfour years\u2019 course. For example, \u201cthe class of 1887,\u201d instead of\nbeginning October, 1883, with the same studies which were pursued in\n1882-83 by \u201cthe class of 1886,\u201d will fall in with \u201cthe class of \u201986,\u201d\nand take for their first year the second year\u2019s course of the \u201986\nclass. The first year for \u201cthe class of 1886\u201d will thus in due time\nbecome the fourth year for \u201cthe class of 1887.\u201d\n\n\n5.\u2014C. L. S. C. COURSE OF READING, 1883-84\n\n\nI. REQUIRED.\n\n    History of Greece.[E] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2;\n    parts 7, 8, 10 and 11. Price, $1.15.\n\n    Stories in English History by the Great Historians.\n    Edited by C. E. Bishop, Esq. Price, $1.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 16, Roman History; No. 24,\n    Canadian History; No. 21, American History; No. 5,\n    Greek History. Price, 10 cents each.\n\n    Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C.\n    Wilkinson. Price, $1.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 23, English Literature. By\n    Prof. J. H. Gilmore. Price, 10 cents.\n\n    Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson.\n    Price, 30 cents.\n\n    Biographical Stories by Hawthorne. Price, 15 cents.\n\n    How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie.\n    Price, cloth, 80 cents; paper, 50 cents.\n\n    Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe.\n    Price, cloth, 40 cents; paper, 25 cents.\n\n    Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker.\n    Price, cloth, $1; paper, 50 cts.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 18, Christian Evidences;\n    No. 39, Sunday-School Normal Class Work; No. 43, Good\n    Manners; No. 4, English History. Price, 10 cents each.\n\n    THE CHAUTAUQUAN, price, $1.50, in which will be\n    published:\n\n    Sunday Readings. Selected by Dr. J. H. Vincent.\n    Readings in Commercial Law. By Edwin C. Reynolds, Esq.\n    Readings in Political Economy. By Prof. George M. Steele, D.D.\n    Readings in French History and Literature. By Dr. J. H. Vincent.\n    Studies in American History and Literature. By A. M. Martin, Esq.\n\n    THE CHAUTAUQUAN will also contain, in the department of\n    Required Readings, brief papers, as follows:\n\n    Readings in German History and Literature.\n    Readings in Roman History.\n    Readings in American Literature.\n    Readings about the Arts, Artists, and their Masterpieces.\n    Readings in Physical Science.\n\n\n    ADDITIONAL READINGS FOR STUDENTS OF THE CLASS OF 1884.\n\n    Hints for Home Reading. By Dr. Lyman Abbott. Price,\n    cloth, $1; boards, 75 cts.\n\n    The Hall in the Grove. By Mrs. Alden. (A Story of\n    Chautauqua and the C. L. S. C.) Price, $1.50.\n\n    Outline Study of Man. By Dr. Mark Hopkins. Price, $1.50.\n\n\nII. FOR THE WHITE SEAL.\n\nPersons who pursue the \u201cWhite Seal Course\u201d of each year, in addition\nto the regular course, will receive at the time of their graduation a\nwhite seal for each year, to be attached to the regular diploma.\n\n    History of Greece.[E] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2.\n    Completed. Price, $1.15.\n\n    Chautauqua Library of English History and Literature.\n    Vol. 2. Price, cloth, 50 cents; paper, 35 cents.\n\n    Church History. By Dr. Blackburn. Price, $2.25.\n\n    Bacon\u2019s Essays. Price, $1.25.\n\n\nIII. REQUIRED.\u2014FOR THE WHITE (CRYSTAL) SEAL FOR GRADUATES OF \u201982 AND\n\u201983.\n\nFor the benefit of graduates of the C. L. S. C. who, being members of\nlocal circles, wish to continue in the same general line of reading\nas undergraduate members, a White Crystal Seal Course is prepared.\nThis consists mainly of books belonging to the current year\u2019s study,\nbut not previously read by the graduates. An additional white seal is\nalso offered to the graduates, the books for which are specified under\nparagraph 4. Some of these books were in the first four year\u2019s course,\nand are therefore to be _re_-read. The payment of one dollar at one\ntime entitles a graduate to the White Crystal and White Seals for four\nyears. If only fifty cents is paid, it will be credited for but one\nyear.\n\n    THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Required Reading.\n\n    History of Greece.[E] By Prof. T. T. Timayenis. Vol. 2.\n    Completed. Price, $1.15.\n\n    Preparatory Latin Course in English. By. Dr. W. C.\n    Wilkinson. Price, $1.\n\n    Credo. By Dr. L. T. Townsend. Price, $1.\n\n    Bacon\u2019s Essays. Price, $1.25.\n\n\nIV. REQUIRED.\u2014FOR ADDITIONAL WHITE SEAL FOR GRADUATES OF \u201982 AND \u201983.\n\n    Brief History of Greece. By J. Dorman Steele. Price, 60\n    cents.\n\n    Stories in English History by the Great Historians.\n    Edited by C. E. Bishop. Price, $1.\n\n    Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. By Dr. J. H. Wythe.\n    Price, cloth, 40 cents; paper, 25 cents.\n\n    Biographical Stories. By Nathaniel Hawthorne. Price, 15\n    cents.\n\n    How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie.\n    Price, cloth, 80 cents; paper, 50 cents.\n\n    Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker.\n    Price, cloth, $1; paper, 50 cts.\n\n    Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson.\n    Price, 30 cents.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books, Nos. 4, 5, 16, 18, 21, 23, 39\n    and 43. Price, each, 10 cents. #/\n\nThe following is the distribution of the books and readings through the\nyear:\n\n_October._\n\n    History of Greece.[E] Vol. 2. By Prof. T. T. Timayenis.\n    Parts 7 and 8.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 5, Greek History. By Dr. J.\n    H. Vincent.\n\n    Primer of American Literature. By C. F. Richardson.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_November._\n\n    History of Greece.[F] Vol. 2. By Prof. T. T. Timayenis.\n    Parts 10 and 11.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 5, Greek History. By Dr. J.\n    H. Vincent.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_December._\n\n    Easy Lessons in Vegetable Biology. Dr. J. H. Wythe.\n\n    Biographical Stories. By Nathaniel Hawthorne.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_January._\n\n    Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker.\n    14 chapters.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 18, Christian Evidences. By\n    Dr. J. H. Vincent.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 39, Sunday School Normal\n    Class Work.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_February._\n\n    Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation. By J. B. Walker.\n    Completed.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 21, American History; No.\n    24, Canadian History.\n\n    How to Get Strong and How to Stay So. By W. Blaikie.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_March._\n\n    Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C.\n    Wilkinson. Half of book.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_April._\n\n    Preparatory Latin Course in English. By Dr. W. C.\n    Wilkinson. Completed.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 16, Roman History. By Dr. J.\n    H. Vincent.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_May._\n\n    Stories in English History by the Great Historians. By\n    C. E. Bishop. Half of book.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 4, English History. By Dr.\n    J. H. Vincent.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 23, English Literature. By\n    Prof. J. H. Gilmore.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n_June._\n\n    Stories in English History by the Great Historians.\n    Completed.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 4, English History. By Dr.\n    J. H. Vincent.\n\n    Chautauqua Text-Books.\u2014No. 43, Good Manners. By J\u2014\u2014 P\u2014\u2014.\n\n    Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\n\n\n6.\u2014SPECIAL COURSES.\n\nMembers of the C. L. S. C. may take, in addition to the regular course\nabove prescribed, one or more special courses, and pass an examination\nupon them. Pupils will receive credit and testimonial seals to be\nappended to the regular diploma, according to the merit of examinations\non these supplemental courses.\n\n\n7.\u2014THE PREPARATORY COURSE.\n\nPersons who are too young, or not sufficiently advanced in their\nstudies to take the regular C. L. S. C. course, may adopt certain\n_preparatory lessons_ for one or more years.\n\nFor circulars of the preparatory course, address Miss K. F. KIMBALL,\nPlainfield, New Jersey.\n\n\n8.\u2014INITIATION FEE.\n\nTo defray the expenses of correspondence, memoranda, etc., an annual\nfee of fifty cents is required. This amount should be forwarded to\nMiss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J., (by New York or Philadelphia\ndraft, Post-office order on Plainfield, N. J., or the new Postal Note,\nto be ready about September 1.) Do not send postage-stamps if you can\npossibly avoid it. _Three_-cent stamps will not be received.\n\nN. B.\u2014In sending your fee, be sure to state to which class you belong,\nwhether 1884, 1885, 1886, or 1887.\n\n\n9.\u2014APPLICATION FOR MEMBERSHIP.\n\nPersons desiring to unite with the C. L. S. C. should forward answers\nto the following questions to MISS K. F. KIMBALL, PLAINFIELD, N. J. The\nclass graduating in 1887 should begin the study of the lessons required\nOctober, 1883. They _may_ begin as late as January 1, 1884.\n\n1. Give your name in full.\n\n2. Your post-office address, with county and State.\n\n3. Are you married or single?\n\n4. What is your age? Are you between twenty and thirty, or thirty and\nforty, or forty and fifty, or fifty and sixty, etc.?\n\n5. If married, how many children living under the age of sixteen\nyears?[G]\n\n6. What is your occupation?\n\n7. With what religious denomination are you connected?\n\n8. Do you, after mature deliberation, resolve, if able, to prosecute\nthe four years\u2019 course of study presented by the C. L. S. C.?\n\n9. Do you promise, if practicable, to give an average of four hours a\nweek to the reading and study required by this course?\n\n10. How much more than the time specified do you hope to give to this\ncourse of study?\n\n\n10.\u2014TIME REQUIRED.\n\nAn average of forty minutes\u2019 reading each week-day will enable the\nstudent in nine months to complete the books required for the year.\nMore time than this will probably be spent by many persons, and for\ntheir accommodation a special course of reading on the same subjects\nhas been indicated. The habit of thinking steadily upon worthy themes\nduring one\u2019s secular toil will lighten labor, brighten life, and\ndevelop power.\n\n\n11.\u2014MEMORANDA.\n\nThe annual \u201cexaminations\u201d will be held at the homes of the members, and\nin writing. Duplicate Memoranda are forwarded, one copy being retained\nby each student and the other filled out and forwarded to the office at\nPlainfield, N. J.\n\n\n12.\u2014ATTENDANCE AT CHAUTAUQUA.\n\nPersons should be present to enjoy the annual meetings at Chautauqua,\nbut attendance there is not necessary to graduation in the C. L. S. C.\nPersons who have never visited Chautauqua may enjoy the advantages,\ndiploma, and honors of the \u201cCircle.\u201d\n\n\n13.\u2014MISCELLANEOUS.\n\nFor the history of the C. L. S. C., an explanation of the LOCAL\nCIRCLES, the MEMORIAL DAYS to be observed by all true C. L. S. C.\nmembers, ST. PAUL\u2019S GROVE at Chautauqua, etc., etc., address (inclose\ntwo-cent stamp) Miss K. F. KIMBALL, Plainfield, N. J., who will forward\nthe \u201cChautauqua Hand-Book, No. 2,\u201d sixty-four pages. Blank forms,\ncontaining the ten questions given in paragraph 9, will also be sent on\napplication.\n\n\n14.\u2014CHAUTAUQUA PERIODICALS.\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN, organ of the C. L. S. C.; 76 pages; ten numbers;\n$1.50 per year. CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD, organ of Chautauqua\nmeetings; 8 pages; 48 columns. Daily in August; 19 numbers. Contains\nthe lectures delivered at Chautauqua; $1 per volume. Both periodicals\none year, $2.50. Address Dr. Theodore L. Flood, Editor and Proprietor,\nMeadville, Pa.\n\n\n15.\u2014BOOKS OF THE C. L. S. C.\n\nFor all the books address Phillips & Hunt, New York, or Walden & Stowe,\nCincinnati or Chicago.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[E] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, and\ngraduates of the classes of 1882 and 1883, not having read volume 1 of\nTimayenis\u2019s History of Greece, will not be required to read volume 2,\nbut instead of volume 2 of Timayenis\u2019s, will read \u201cBrief History of\nGreece.\u201d Price, paper, 60 cts.\n\n[F] Students of the new class (1887) to be organized this fall, not\nhaving read volume 1 of Timayenis\u2019s History of Greece, will not be\nrequired to read volume 2, but instead of volume 2, of Timayenis\u2019s,\nwill read \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d Price, paper, 60 cts.\n\n[G] We ask this question to ascertain the possible future intellectual\nand moral influence of this \u201cCircle\u201d on your homes.\n\n\n\n\n    [_Not required._]\n\nQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.\n\nBy A. M. MARTIN, GENERAL SECRETARY C. L. S. C.\n\n\n    I.\u2014ONE HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cHISTORY OF\n    GREECE,\u201d VOL. II., PARTS SEVENTH AND EIGHTH\u2014THEBAN\n    SUPREMACY, AND MACEDONIAN HELLENISM.\n\n1. Q. What was the character of the Thebans in the fifth and fourth\ncenturies before Christ? A. They were brave soldiers, and possessed\nsouls, if not always noble, yet ever resolute; bodies, if not\nprepossessing, yet athletic and well prepared, by exercise and thorough\ndrill from early childhood, for every military duty.\n\n2. Q. What two names are permanently associated with the rise of Theban\npower? A. Epaminondas and Pelopidas.\n\n3. Q. What was the training and what some of the striking\ncharacteristics of Epaminondas? A. He was trained from early youth in\nall the branches of gymnastics and military duty; was distinguished by\nthe diligent care he took of his intellectual education; was modest and\nwholly devoid of a boasting spirit, and was indifferent to money.\n\n4. Q. What did Epaminondas, with Pelopidas, organize that filled Hellas\nwith the fame of its achievements, and fell only when the autonomy of\nHellas disappeared? A. The famous lochos, or band, composed of three\nhundred picked men, bound together by the closest ties of friendship,\nand devoted to each other to the death.\n\n5. Q. What was the effect upon the Spartans of the war against the\nThebans, the latter being assisted by the Athenians, during the first\npart of the fourth century before Christ? A. The Spartans were daily\nlosing their prestige and becoming humbled.\n\n6. Q. What was the most noted of the combats of the Thebans with the\nLaced\u00e6monians in B\u0153otia at this time, which served as a sort of prelude\nto that of Leuktra? A. The battle of Tegyra, in which the Thebans, led\nby Pelopidas, achieved a splendid victory.\n\n7. Q. What disastrous visitations heightened the despondency of the\nSpartans in 372 B. C.? A. The terrible earthquakes and rains which\nduring that year occurred in the Peloponnesus, and which they regarded\nas tokens of the wrath of the god Poseidon.\n\n8. Q. What was the result of the Athenians having established their new\nnaval dominion on the Ionian Sea? A. They had no longer ground on which\nto continue the war, and they therefore sent to Sparta for peace.\n\n9. Q. What was the result of the congress of the Hellenic nation which\nfollowed in the year 371 B. C.? A. Agesilaus, on behalf of Sparta,\ncaused the names of the Thebans to be struck from the roll, and\ndeclared war against them upon the spot.\n\n10. Q. What celebrated battle was fought soon after in B\u0153otia between\nthe Laced\u00e6monians and the Thebans? A. The battle of Leuktra.\n\n11. Q. Previous to this time how had Hellenic armies been drawn up in\norder of battle? A. In parallel lines.\n\n12. Q. What plan did Epaminondas adopt on this occasion? A. He massed\nupon the center a greater force than his opponent, and concentrated a\nsuperior number upon the right wing.\n\n13. Q. What is said of the adoption of this arrangement of the forces\nof an army afterward by military leaders? A. It was afterward largely\nadopted by military leaders, and by its successful application some of\nthe greatest battles of the world have been gained by such generals as\nFrederick of Prussia and Napoleon.\n\n14. Q. What was the result at the battle of Leuktra? A. The right wing\nof the Spartans was completely driven back to their camp, and the\nremainder of the army sought safety by retreat.\n\n15. Q. Following immediately upon the defeat at Leuktra what occurred\nin the Peloponnesus? A. A great revolution broke out against Sparta.\n\n16. Q. What movement was next undertaken by Epaminondas? A. He invaded\nthe Peloponnesus with the Thebans and their allies, and approached\nalmost to the very gates of Sparta.\n\n17. Q. What is said of the appearance of an enemy before Sparta? A.\nFull six hundred years had elapsed since the first establishment of\nthe Dorians in Laced\u00e6mon, and this was the first time in all that long\nperiod that they had seen an enemy in their territory.\n\n18. Q. What two enterprises did Epaminondas now execute which had\nformed the special purpose of his expedition? A. The re-establishment\nof Messenia and the consolidation of the Arkadians.\n\n19. Q. Within what space of time had this complete change of affairs\noccurred in the Peloponnesus? A. Within a space of eighteen months from\nthe time the Thebans were insultingly driven from the national congress\nby Sparta.\n\n20. Q. On the north what conquest was made by Pelopidas about the same\ntime? A. He invaded Thessaly, and subdued the greater part of the\ncountry.\n\n21. Q. What were the terms of the permanent league into which the two\nstates of Athens and Sparta now entered? A. That the command both on\nland and sea should alternate between Athens and Sparta for periods of\nfive days.\n\n22. Q. Notwithstanding this league what was the ruling city in Hellas?\nA. Thebes.\n\n23. Q. What countries in Greece acknowledged Thebes as ruler and obeyed\nher? A. Macedonia, Thessaly, most of the countries between Thermopyl\u00e6\nand the isthmus, and most of the Peloponnesus.\n\n24. Q. About the end of the year 368 B. C., what battle was fought\nbetween the Spartans and Arkadians during the absence of Epaminondas\nfrom the Peloponnesus? A. What the Spartans called \u201cThe Tearless\nBattle.\u201d\n\n25. Q. What does Diodorus say of the slain? A. Ten thousand men were\nslain, without the loss of a single Laced\u00e6monian.\n\n26. Q. At the instance of Pelopidas, in 366 B. C., what declaration was\nmade by the Persian king in regard to Thebes? A. Thebes was declared\nthe head city of Hellas, and any city refusing to admit her leadership\nwas menaced with instant compulsion by Persian force.\n\n27. Q. How was this declaration received by the allies of Thebes? A.\nThey collectively refused to adhere to the royal decree.\n\n28. Q. What occurred to Pelopidas while in the execution of his duty as\nenvoy to Thessaly in his efforts to have the supremacy of Thebes there\nrecognized? A. He was seized and detained as prisoner by Alexander of\nPher\u00e6.\n\n29. Q. After he had been released through the efforts of Epaminondas,\nwhat was the result of an engagement of the forces of Pelopidas with\nthose of Alexander of Thessaly? A. The army of Alexander was routed at\nthe battle of Kynos Kephal\u00e6, but Pelopidas was slain.\n\n30. Q. About the middle of 362 B. C., for what purpose did Epaminondas\nmarch again into the Peloponnesus? A. In order to strengthen the\nadherents of the Thebans and to put down their numerous opponents.\n\n31. Q. What celebrated battle was fought between the forces under\nEpaminondas and the allied army opposed? A. The battle of Mantineia.\n\n32. Q. What was the result of the engagement? A. The whole army in\nopposition to Epaminondas was driven from the field.\n\n33. Q. What was the fate of Epaminondas? A. He received a wound in the\nbreast from the thrust of a spear which proved mortal.\n\n34. Q. What is the character of the opinions that have been uniformly\nexpressed, both in ancient and modern times concerning Epaminondas? A.\nThere has ever been for him only praise and admiration.\n\n35. Q. After he fell what prevailed for twenty-five years in Greece? A.\nPolitical anarchy, ending only in the Macedonian supremacy.\n\n36. Q. Following the advice of Epaminondas what did the Thebans at once\ndo after the battle of Mantineia? A. They made peace with the enemy.\n\n37. Q. Where did the Spartan king, Agesilaus, soon after die? A. On\nthe march toward home from Egypt, where he unsuccessfully attempted an\nexpedition against the Persian empire.\n\n38. Q. What three islands and city revolted from Athens and her\nconfederacy which led to the three years\u2019 \u201csocial war\u201d from 358 to\n355 B. C.? A. The islands of Chios, Kos and Rhodes, and the city of\nByzantium.\n\n39. Q. What war was carried on in Greece for the ten years from 355 to\n346 B. C.? A. The second Sacred War.\n\n40. Q. During this war what desecration was committed by the Phokian\ngeneral Philomelus? A. The sanctuary of the Delphian temple was seized\nand robbed of its treasures.\n\n41. Q. What noted king of Macedonia first took part in Hellenic affairs\nduring the second Sacred War? A. Philip.\n\n42. Q. What was the result of an engagement by the forces of Philip\nwith the Phokians? A. He became master of Thessaly, and proclaimed\nhimself the avenger of the Delphian god, and the defender of the\ninsulted Hellenic religion.\n\n43. Q. By whom was the advance of Philip into Hellas repelled? A. By\nthe Athenians, who occupied Thermopyl\u00e6 in opposition to Philip.\n\n44. Q. What renowned orator attempted to arouse the Athenians to oppose\nthe advance of Philip in his efforts to reduce all Hellas to his sway?\nA. Demosthenes.\n\n45. Q. Where does the criticism of the modern world and that of the\ngrandest orators of France and England unanimously place Demosthenes?\nA. At the head of orators.\n\n46. Q. By what name are the most famous of the orations of Demosthenes\nknown? A. The Philipics.\n\n47. Q. What decisive battle was fought in 338 B. C. between the\nMacedonian army and the Athenians and their allies? A. The battle of\nCh\u0153roneia.\n\n48. Q. What was the result of this battle? A. The Greeks were\nconquered, and the Sacred Band of the Thebans to a man fell in this\nbattle as they stood in a solid phalanx, not one of the three hundred\nyielding a foot.\n\n49. Q. To whom was the chief credit of this victory due? A. To the\nyouthful Alexander, the son of Philip.\n\n50. Q. At a congress of Hellenic cities Philip soon after convened at\nCorinth to what position was he chosen? A. General-in-chief of all\nHellas.\n\n51. Q. What was the geographical position of Macedonia before its\nenlargement through the conquests of Philip? A. It was an exclusively\ninland country lying between two mountain ranges on the north side of\nthe great Kambunian chain.\n\n52. Q. What is said of the language of the Macedonians? A. It was\nwidely different from that of the Thracians on the east and the\nIllyrians on the west, and was so nearly akin to the Hellenic that the\nlatter tongue was easily acquired by them.\n\n53. Q. In the earliest times how were the inhabitants of Macedonia\ndivided? A. Into a variety of independent tribes, each of which had its\nown king or chieftain.\n\n54. Q. According to tradition who were the real founders of the\ngreatness of Macedonia? A. Fugitives from Hellas, belonging to the\nroyal Herakleid line of Argos, who are supposed to have arrived in the\ncountry during the seventh century before Christ.\n\n55. Q. Who was the first Macedonian sovereign of real historic\nimportance? A. Amyntas.\n\n56. Q. Mention three other sovereigns of Macedonia before Philip. A.\nAlexander, Perdikkas, and Archelaus.\n\n57. Q. Who was the father of Philip? A. Amyntas II.\n\n58. Q. What mode of life did the immediate predecessors of Philip seek\nas much as possible to approach? A. The Attic mode of life.\n\n59. Q. What is said in regard to King Archelaus? A. That he introduced\nmany social improvements after Hellenic models, and was much attached\nto the youthful Plato and his teacher Sokrates.\n\n60. Q. At the age of fifteen where was Philip taken as a hostage? A. To\nThebes.\n\n61. Q. How long did he remain there? A. Three years.\n\n62. Q. Though a hostage how was he welcomed? A. He was honorably and\ncordially welcomed, received a scientific and oratorical training, and\nstudied philosophy.\n\n63. Q. Almost from the beginning of his reign what income did Philip\nreceive from the gold-producing regions of Mount Pang\u00e6us? A. According\nto Diodorus a yearly income of one thousand talents.\n\n64. Q. How did this income compare with that received by the Athenians\nand the Spartans? A. It was greater than that which the Athenians and\nthe Spartans obtained in the very acme of their power.\n\n65. Q. What steps did Philip take to make his army more efficient? A.\nHe reorganized the army and effected a complete transformation in their\narmament and accomplishments.\n\n66. Q. What was the most formidable part of the army as organized by\nPhilip? A. The Macedonian phalanx.\n\n67. Q. What was the principal weapon of the soldiers serving in the\nphalanx? A. A long pike called the sarissa, twenty-one feet in length.\n\n68. Q. After his return from Corinth in 337 B. C. what did Philip do\nin regard to the invasion of Asia? A. He made so many preparations for\nhis intended expedition into Asia that he exhausted his accumulated\ntreasures.\n\n69. Q. What steps did he take in the spring of 336 B. C. to begin\nhostilities against the Persians? A. He sent to Asia a portion of the\nMacedonian army, under Parmenio and Attalus, to begin hostilities at\nonce until he assumed command of the expedition.\n\n70. Q. What was the result of a quarrel that occurred about this time\nbetween Philip and one of his wives, Olympias, the mother of Alexander?\nA. Olympias went to her brother, the King of Epirus, and Alexander soon\nfollowed her, and expressed strong resentment at the treatment of his\nmother.\n\n71. Q. In what way did Philip seek to reconcile the parties to this\nquarrel, and at the same time ally himself to the King of Epirus? A.\nBy giving the King of Epirus his daughter by Olympias, Kleopatra, in\nmarriage.\n\n72. Q. How were the nuptials celebrated? A. With many splendid and\ncostly entertainments.\n\n73. Q. During the festivities how did Philip come to his death? A.\nAs he was walking toward the door of the theater he was suddenly\nassassinated by Pausanias, one of the body-guard of the king.\n\n74. Q. At what age did Philip die, and how long was his reign? A. He\ndied at the age of forty-seven, after a reign of twenty-three years.\n\n75. Q. Who succeeded him to the throne? A. His son, Alexander the Great.\n\n76. Q. When was Alexander born? A. In July, 356 B. C.\n\n77. Q. What is said of Alexander and the Iliad? A. One of the first\nbooks that he read was the Iliad, to which he became devotedly\nattached, and a copy of which, corrected, as it is said, by Aristotle,\nhe carried with him in his military campaigns.\n\n78. Q. What was the effect of the reception of the news of the death\nof Philip at Athens and elsewhere? A. There was an outbreak, caused\nespecially by Demosthenes, who represented his death as holding forth\nnew hopes of freedom to the city. There was also much disturbance in\nother Hellenic cities.\n\n79. Q. When Alexander was informed of this crisis of affairs what\nsteps did he take? A. He hastened to Hellas with a considerable army,\nreaching there within two months of the death of his father.\n\n80. Q. What action was taken by a common council of the Greeks that\nAlexander assembled at Corinth? A. The council gave him, as it had done\nto Philip two years before, the hegemony of the expedition against\nAsia. The Laced\u00e6monians alone stood aloof, refusing all concurrence.\n\n81. Q. After his return to Macedonia, where did Alexander next go to\nsecure his domains? A. Into Thrace and bordering regions where he\nsubdued the tribes and brought them under his subjection.\n\n82. Q. In the meantime what Hellenic city revolted from the rule of\nAlexander? A. Thebes.\n\n83. Q. What followed Alexander\u2019s immediate march from the north to\nThebes? A. The city was taken after a desperate resistance, six\nthousand of the inhabitants slain, thirty thousand sold into slavery,\nand the houses leveled to the ground.\n\n84. Q. Upon his return to Macedonia what did Alexander institute? A.\nMagnificent sacrifices to the gods, and scenic contests in honor of the\ngod Zeus and the Muses.\n\n85. Q. Who was now upon the throne of the Persian empire? A. Darius\nCodomannus.\n\n86. Q. When did Alexander commence his invasion of Asia? A. In the year\n334 B. C.\n\n87. Q. What was the size of the Macedonian army that Alexander led into\nAsia? A. Thirty thousand infantry and forty-five hundred cavalry.\n\n88. Q. Where did he first encounter the Persian army? A. At the river\nGranicus.\n\n89. Q. What was the result of the engagement that followed? A. The army\nof Alexander forced the passage of the river in the face of the enemy\nand entirely routed the Persian forces.\n\n90. Q. What followed Alexander\u2019s march through Asia Minor? A. Many\ncities surrendered without opposition, and the others he reached he\nsubdued.\n\n91. Q. As he was marching further into Asia, who now advanced to meet\nAlexander? A. Darius himself with an immense army equipped in great\nsplendor.\n\n92. Q. Where did the hostile armies encounter each other? A. On the\nplains of Issus.\n\n93. Q. What was the result of the battle there fought? A. The Persians\nwere completely routed with great loss, and Darius saved himself only\nby precipitate flight.\n\n94. Q. What two cities refused to submit to Alexander, and were taken\nby him only after prolonged sieges? A. Tyre and Gaza.\n\n95. Q. Into what country did Alexander next march, and what great\ncommercial city did he there found? A. Into Egypt, where he founded\nAlexandria.\n\n96. Q. Where did Alexander again encounter the Persian army, and with\nwhat results? A. On the plains of Arbela, eastward of the Tigris. The\nimmense army of the Persians was either cut to pieces, captured, or\ndispersed, and no subsequent attempt was made to gather together a\nlarge regular force.\n\n97. Q. What two great capitals of Persia now surrendered to Alexander\nwithout a struggle? A. Babylon and Susa.\n\n98. Q. Into what region did Alexander further extend his conquests? A.\nInto India.\n\n99. Q. Upon his return from India, when and where did Alexander die? A.\nAt Babylon in the year 323 B. C.\n\n100. Q. What became of the countries subdued by Alexander after his\ndeath? A. The empire was subjected to protracted civil wars, and was\nsubsequently separated into numerous small kingdoms.\n\n\nII.\u2014FIFTY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON AMERICAN LITERATURE.\n\n1. Q. As soon as the English colonists landed on American shores, at\nJamestown and Plymouth, for what purpose did they begin to think of the\nestablishment of schools of sound learning? A. In Virginia, for the\npurpose of educating the Indians, and in Massachusetts Bay for the\nsupply of church pastors.\n\n2. Q. Until politics began to interest the colonists in a vital manner,\nwhat formed the bulk of the issues of the press? A. Religious books and\ntracts.\n\n3. Q. What was the first book written and printed in New England? A.\nThe Bay Psalm Book.\n\n4. Q. Of all the theological writers of the seventeenth and eighteenth\ncenturies, who were the most voluminous? A. Increase Mather and his son\nCotton. The publications of the former numbered eighty-five, and of the\nlatter no less than three hundred and eighty-two.\n\n5. Q. What is the chief monument of the industry and scholarship of\nJohn Eliot, the \u201cApostle to the Indians?\u201d A. His translation of the\nentire Bible into the Indian tongue. This appeared in two parts, the\nNew Testament in 1661, and the whole Bible in 1663, and was the labor\nof the unaided Eliot.\n\n6. Q. What are the names of three minor writers of the seventeenth\ncentury? A. Capt. John Smith, Gov. John Winthrop, and Michael\nWigglesworth.\n\n7. Q. Upon what work does the reputation of Jonathan Edwards as\nphilosopher and theologian chiefly rest? A. His great treatise on the\n\u201cFreedom of the Will,\u201d written about the middle of the eighteenth\ncentury.\n\n8. Q. Who were the principal leaders in the eighteenth century of the\nschool of philosophy which Edwards shaped? A. Samuel Hopkins, Nathaniel\nEmmons and Timothy Dwight.\n\n9. Q. What is one of the most remarkable of the names of great\nAmericans in the eighteenth century? A. Benjamin Franklin, who was a\nmaster in whatever branch of learning he touched.\n\n10. Q. What is one of the best known of Franklin\u2019s works? A. Poor\nRichard\u2019s Almanac.\n\n11. Q. What are the names of three minor writers of the eighteenth\ncentury? A. William Stith, David Brainerd and John Woolman.\n\n12. Q. Of what character was a large part of the books and pamphlets\nwritten during the revolutionary period? A. It was necessarily of\ntemporary interest, and of little value as literature.\n\n13. Q. In what particular did George Washington excel as a writer? A.\nAs a letter writer.\n\n14. Q. What are some of the most noted productions of Thomas Jefferson?\nA. Notes on Virginia, his Correspondence, and the Declaration of\nIndependence.\n\n15. Q. What was the Federalist? A. It was a collection of essays\npublished periodically, and arguing in favor of the Constitution of the\nUnited States adopted in 1789, and was the concerted work of Alexander\nHamilton, James Madison and John Jay.\n\n16. Q. What work of Thomas Paine has always had a wide circulation\nchiefly among the lower classes? A. The Age of Reason. It advocates a\npure deism, but its method of criticism and temper of attack are now\ngenerally repudiated by more scholarly writers of the same school.\n\n17. Q. Who was the first American poet to attain eminence? A. Philip\nFreneau, a Huguenot by descent and a New Yorker by birth.\n\n18. Q. Who was the first American novelist and what was his first work?\nA. Charles Brockden Brown, and his first work called \u201cWieland\u201d was\nprinted in 1798.\n\n19. Q. For what are the histories written during the last century\nchiefly useful? A. As authorities for later writers.\n\n20. Q. Who were two biographical writers of the last century? A.\nWilliam Wirt, who wrote a readable life of Patrick Henry, and Chief\nJustice John Marshall, who prepared a standard life of Washington.\n\n21. Q. What was incident to the beginning of the present century being\nmarked by a considerable controversial excitement among the New England\nclergy? A. The spread of Unitarian views in and around Boston.\n\n22. Q. Who were the Unitarian leaders in this controversy? A. William\nEllery Channing, the Henry Wares, father and son, and Andrew Norton.\n\n23. Q. By whom were the conservative Congregationalists championed?\nA. By Noah Worcester, of Salem, and Moses Stewart and Leonard Woods,\nprofessors in the theological seminary at Andover.\n\n24. Q. What is the principal theological work that has appeared since\nEdward\u2019s famous treatise? A. The \u201cSystematic Theology\u201d of Charles\nHodge, professor in Princeton Seminary.\n\n25. Q. What two college presidents have devoted much thought and\nability to mental science? A. Mark Hopkins, of Williams, and Noah\nPorter, of Yale.\n\n26. Q. What two names are prominent in the literature of Church\nhistory? A. Dr. Philip Schaff and Prof. W. G. T. Shedd.\n\n27. Q. To whom is the term \u201cthe Knickerbocker writers\u201d applied? A. To\ncertain authors who began to write soon after the beginning of the\ncentury, who were for the most part residents of New York, and who were\nin some cases descendants of the old Dutch stock.\n\n28. Q. What are the names of four prominent writers included under this\nhead? A. Washington Irving, James Kirke Paulding, Joseph Rodman Drake,\nand Fitz-Greene Halleck.\n\n29. Q. What are the names of five poets made celebrated by single\npieces? A. Francis Scott Key, Samuel Woodworth, John Howard Payne,\nAlbert G. Greene, and William Augustus Muhlenberg.\n\n30. Q. What are the titles of the pieces for which they are celebrated?\nA. \u201cThe Star Spangled Banner,\u201d \u201cThe Old Oaken Bucket,\u201d \u201cHome, Sweet\nHome,\u201d \u201cOld Grimes is Dead,\u201d and \u201cI would not live alway.\u201d\n\n31. Q. What eminent name connected the earlier and later days of our\nliterature? A. William Cullen Bryant.\n\n32. Q. Who are termed the five great American poets? A. William Cullen\nBryant, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, John Greenleaf Whittier, Oliver\nWendell Holmes, and James Russell Lowell.\n\n33. Q. Who was an entirely original figure in American literature? A.\nEdgar Allen Poe.\n\n34. Q. What are the names of ten persons prominent as orators during\nthe present century? A. Webster, Calhoun, Clay, Everett, Choate,\nSeward, Sumner, Winthrop, Garrison, and Phillips.\n\n35. Q. What are the names of five prominent American historians of the\npresent century? A. Richard Hildreth, George Bancroft, John G. Palfrey,\nWilliam H. Prescott, and John Lothrop Motley.\n\n36. Q. What three names are eminent in the literature of Arctic travel?\nA. Elisha Kent Kane, Charles F. Hall, and Isaac I. Hayes.\n\n37. Q. Who was the first writer of American fiction whose works were\nextensively read? A. James Fenimore Cooper.\n\n38. Q. What American author has James Russell Lowell called the\ngreatest imaginative writer since Shakspere? A. Nathaniel Hawthorne.\n\n39. Q. What work has had the greatest success of any American book? A.\nHarriet Beecher Stowe\u2019s \u201cUncle Tom\u2019s Cabin,\u201d a novel directed against\nslavery. Between five and six hundred thousand copies have been sold in\nthis country alone, and it has been forty times translated.\n\n40. Q. Who is the most distinguished of American essayists? A. Ralph\nWaldo Emerson.\n\n41. Q. Give the chief among standard editions of Shakspere that have\nbeen edited in this country. A. Those of Richard Grant White and Horace\nHoward Furness.\n\n42. Q. Who are the authors of three notable histories of the late civil\nwar? A. Horace Greeley, Alexander H. Stephens, and Dr. John W. Draper.\n\n43. Q. What recent American author attained eminence as a writer of\ntravels, of novels, and as a poet? A. Bayard Taylor.\n\n44. Q. What two poets are the chief American kindred of the English\npre-Raphaelites? A. Walt Whitman and Joaquin Miller; but their kinship\nis one of nature and not of imitation.\n\n45. Q. Who was the originator of a popular dialect poetry of the time,\nwhich has found a troop of imitators? A. John Hay.\n\n46. Q. What author has found a special field in novels of pioneer\nlife in the uncivilized outposts of Western civilization? A. Edward\nEggleston.\n\n47. Q. Who is called the best of American writers of juveniles? A.\nLouisa May Alcott.\n\n48. Q. Give the names of three prominent humorists. A. Charles Farrar\nBrowne, Henry W. Shaw, and David R. Locke.\n\n49. Q. What American writer has devoted the greater part of his\nliterary life to the production of biographies? A. James Parton.\n\n50. Q. Who has enjoyed the acquaintance of more English and American\nauthors than any other of our writers? A. James T. Fields.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S OUTLOOK.\n\n\nTHE TENTH ASSEMBLY.\n\nTen years ago the First Assembly offered to the world the Chautauqua\nIdea. It promised an almost ideal summer life, where health and\nthought and brotherly love should abound. Ten years have passed, and\nnow the question is, has the scheme been carried out? Is the Assembly\na practical idea, and is it a permanency? The answers are most\ndecided. The original plan has not only been put into practice, but,\nwhen enlarged an hundred fold, has been proven practicable. Is it a\npermanency may be a harder question, but the tenth Assembly has, we\nbelieve, in many ways proven it so. First, the character and growth of\nall departments of Chautauqua work show them to be needed institutions,\nand necessary institutions, as a rule, become permanent. The steady,\nhealthy growth of the different branches of work shows how enduring\nis the Idea; the Normal department increased its alumni this year to\nover 1,200; its plans for future work are much more elaborate than ever\nbefore, its course of study much superior. The annual report from the\nSchool of Languages shows a steady increase. Over two hundred full\ntickets were sold in the school this year, and twenty-six different\nstates were represented.\n\nThe Teachers\u2019 Retreat for 1883 shows a great increase over previous\nyears:\n\nIn 1879 there were enrolled 15 members.\n\nIn 1880 there were enrolled 133 members.\n\nIn 1881 there were enrolled 105 members.\n\nIn 1882 there were enrolled 76 members.\n\nIn 1883 there were enrolled 223 members.\n\nThe C. L. S. C. has reached the enormous membership of nearly 50,000.\nBesides the advance in the different schools, the attendance at the\nAssembly was unprecedented. In the earlier years of an institution\nthis might mean very little\u2014a boom, and nothing more\u2014but in the tenth\nyear, when the place has become well-known, it does mean a great deal.\nThese people, too, were not all new friends. Chautauqua has been able\nto keep its old friends, while every season it has added hosts of new\nones. The whole exterior showed it. When streets are lighted by the\nelectric light, and houses are built on stone foundations, lathed and\nplastered, and furnished with modern improvements, a town has reached a\nperiod of durability. Things are built to stay. Chautauqua puts up no\nmore shanties. It has become a city, not of a day but for all time.\n\nThe genuine hearty enthusiasm which animates the workers and friends\nof the movement is, to us, a most excellent reason for believing the\ninstitution lasting. There is a feeling among many that enthusiasm\nis a weakness, a quality not exactly in good form, not in keeping\nwith cultured minds. This is a mistake. Enthusiasm, combined with\ngood sense and industry, is the best equipment for any enterprise. As\nEmerson says, \u201cA man is at his best when enthusiastic,\u201d and we believe\nChautauqua is most successful when most enthusiastic\u2014most sure of\npermanence because capable of always inspiring others with enduring\nenthusiasm.\n\nThe great Assembly opens its doors to every one, but few realize the\nreal value of the idea, or appreciate the conditions of society which\nmake feasible such an idea. Said an eminent German, after having\nstudied the Assembly thoroughly: \u201cYou Americans do not appreciate this\nwonderful plant of yours. In my country we could not have a Chautauqua;\nno other country under the sun could support such an institution. It is\npeculiarly American.\u201d We do not appreciate the Idea. It is too ideal\nfor the practical minds of the day. But though we may not grasp its\nfull meaning, the Tenth Assembly has proven that people are beginning\nto understand the practicability, the breadth, and the permanence of\nthe Chautauqua Idea.\n\n\nTHE C. L. S. C. AN EDUCATIONAL NECESSITY OF THE TIMES.\n\nNecessity is a word which in its use depends on circumstances. What\nis necessary to a people in one age may not have been to their\nancestors a generation earlier. Time was when the masses of men were\nnot required to act with intelligence of their own, but to follow the\ndecree of the privileged few or obey the behest of the autocratic\nindividual. Illustrations of such a state of society remain. They are\nto be found wherever the autocracy or oligarchy, whether political or\necclesiastical, continues its sway.\n\nUnder such conditions it is easily seen that the only education\nrequired is obedience, blind and unquestioning. All that goes beyond\nthis only makes the individual unhappy and embarrasses authority.\nHence, since her ambition has been absolute power, the wisdom of that\nfavorite motto of the Romish church, \u201ckeep the people in ignorance,\u201d a\nmotto which she has done her best to put in practice.\n\nBut our age and civilization have fallen upon other conditions.\nObedience is still required, and indeed ever must be, but it is no\nlonger with eyes tight shut, but open; and we are not only encouraged,\nbut by the very conditions of society, are required to ask questions\nconcerning the very grounds of obedience. Something has taken the\nplace of infallible Church and infallible State. That something is\nenlightened conscience and educated judgment.\n\nIn this country the corner-stone of whose stability and permanence must\nrest on obedience born of intellectual and moral enlightenment, some\nthings have become, and daily are becoming more and more apparent. It\nis apparent that universal education of a certain kind, a kind that\nincludes to no small degree both head and heart, must go with universal\nsuffrage. It is neither treason nor heresy to say that in the light of\nexperience and of the signs of the times, neither our common schools\non the one hand, nor our academies, colleges and universities on the\nother, are competent to meet and provide for all the educational\nneeds of the American people. Too much can not be said in praise of\nthese institutions. They have been the conservators of our national\nideas in the past. But we are growing, and citizenship means higher\nresponsibilities and higher obligations than aforetime. The common\nschool which fits a man for the transactions of ordinary business and\nprepares the foundation for a higher development, does a great work;\nbut the man who settles down to life without further inspiration and\nopportunity can hardly be fitted for the higher work and duties of the\nhome and society. Whence then comes, or can come, this inspiration\nand better preparation? Thus far in our history it has come through\nthe seminary and college. But it is evident that not more than one\nin twenty of the American youth can have these higher advantages.\nReduce the expense to the minimum and there are still insurmountable\nbarriers in the way. It needs no argument, therefore, to show that\nan organization with the plans, aims and methods of the _Chautauqua\nLiterary and Scientific Circle_ has a mission which bears the sanction\nof necessity. The wide gap between the common school and the college\nmust be filled, and only can be filled by that which brings the means\nof education to the home; to the youth learning his trade, to the man\nor woman in the midst of daily duties and employments. The demand is\nfor that which will fill the atmosphere about life with aspiration and\nthe spirit of inquiry. It is for that which will furnish suggestions, a\nplan and a guide to lead the inquiring mind. Precisely this is the C.\nL. S. C. Here is its mission and here its _necessity_\u2014and the necessity\nlikewise of all kindred similar organizations which are yet to spring\nup and follow in her course.\n\n\nTHE SHAKSPERE CONTROVERSY.\n\nIt is strange how sometimes an opinion altogether untenable, which\nsome one has broached, is taken up by others, and comes in time to be\naccepted as true by a considerable number. It was some twenty-five\nyears ago that a Miss Delia Bacon published an elaborate argument whose\nend was to show that not William Shakspere, but Lord Francis Bacon,\nwas the author of the immortal plays which bear the former\u2019s name. She\nfirst gave her discovery\u2014unquestionably of the highest importance, if\ncorrect\u2014to the world in a magazine article; but afterward embodied\nit in quite a large volume, to which Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote an\nintroduction, though he did not accept the writer\u2019s theory. This was\nthe beginning of a controversy which is still alive. Perhaps the\nnumber has never been very large of those who believe that the glory\nof Shakspere belongs to Bacon; but there have always been some to\nentertain the preposterous notion, from Miss Bacon to Mrs. Henry Pott.\n\nThe latter lady has recently issued a book which has excited some\ninterest. The title\u2014somewhat drawn out\u2014is, \u201cThe Promus of Formularies\nand Elegancies (being private notes, _circa_ 1594, hitherto\nunpublished) of Francis Bacon, illustrated and elucidated by passages\nfrom Shakspere.\u201d Mrs. Pott\u2019s undertaking is one more in the line of\nMiss Delia Bacon. By a comparison of the Bacon notes, in forms of\nexpression and thought, with passages of the Shakspere tragedies and\ncomedies, she endeavors to verify the theory that the great English\nphilosopher\u2014author of the \u201cNovum Organum,\u201d and characterized by Pope\nas \u201cthe greatest, wisest, and meanest of mankind\u201d\u2014is also author of\nthe works accorded to the Bard of Avon. That she succeeds in her task\nshe herself evidently entertains no doubt, but probably not many will\nagree with her. She finds correspondences and similarities in passages\ncompared where her readers will try in vain to find them; and it is\nputting the matter mildly to say that her undertaking is a great\nfailure.\n\nConsiderable ingenuity and much enthusiasm have been shown by advocates\nof the theory which makes Lord Bacon the author of the works of\nShakspere; but the theory is an absurd one, with nothing whatever to\nsupport it. The internal evidence, contained in the works of the two\nauthors, not only gives the theory no support, but is alone enough\nto a sane mind completely to demolish it. The whole cast of Bacon\u2019s\nmind, as shown by his known writings, was as unlike as it could be to\nthat of the person who wrote the Shakspere dramas and sonnets. And\nwhat other evidence is adduced by those who would have us transfer to\nanother the laurels of the man who was easily the greatest mind in all\nliterature? None whatever. The truth is, it is the improbability from\nthe nature of the case\u2014or, as some would say, the impossibility\u2014that\nsuch a person as William Shakspere, the son of a Stratford yeoman,\nwith limited educational opportunities, whose youth was by no means\npromising, should have produced the works to which for two centuries\nhis name has been attached, which is at the bottom of the theory which\ngives the authorship to another. This, and nothing else, originated\nthe idea, and keeps it alive. We are told that to believe in Shakspere\nas the author of these works, universally acknowledged as unapproached\nand unapproachable, is to believe a miracle. \u201cWhence hath this man\nthis wisdom?\u201d it is asked, as was asked of the Divine Man; and we\nare reminded that the stream never rises higher than the fountain.\nShakspere could not have produced the works\u2014the power was not in him,\nit is reasoned, but the wise Bacon might have done it; therefore people\nsearch for the wherewithal to substantiate an assumption giving the\nauthorship to the latter. But we must believe the miracle; there is no\nescape. Did Milton write the \u201cParadise Lost,\u201d and Lord Bacon the \u201cNovum\nOrganum?\u201d Is the Iliad the work of Homer? It is just as certain that\nthe Shakspere writings were the offspring of Shakspere\u2019s genius. We\nadmit the marvel, but there is no setting aside of the fact. And when\nwe are asked to explain how this man could have acquired the power to\nproduce these prodigies of human genius, we can only say, the Maker\ngave it to him.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S NOTE-BOOK.\n\n\nThe C. L. S. C. received special attention at the summer Assemblies.\nBy referring to the reports published elsewhere in this number, our\nreaders will learn how the Chautauqua spirit spreads, and how the\norganization is being strengthened in all parts of the land.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nRecent Presidents of the United States have shown their taste for\nrecreation very positively. Ex-President Grant was fond of good horses\nand rapid driving; ex-President Hayes visited colleges during the\ncommencement season, and loved his farm as a quiet retreat; President\nArthur turns from his arduous labors to the rod and line and long\njourneys, such as he has made to Florida and the West during the past\nyear.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe can supply complete sets of the CHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY DAILY HERALD\nfor 1883, for $1.00, postage paid by us. Also complete sets of THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN of volume two and three.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nProphecies are numerous from newspaper men as to who will be the\ncandidates for the presidency in 1884. Ex-Secretary Blaine is reported\nas having turned his attention to literature, and announces that he\nis not a candidate; Mr. Tilden has retired to the privacy of Gramercy\nPark; ex-Secretary Windom, it is said by the wise ones, went out of\nthe succession when he failed of a re-election to the Senate. Reports\nare rife in influential political circles that the Secretary of War is\nlikely to be one of his martyred fathers\u2019 successors, but time alone\nwill show us the true successor.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN opens the fourth volume in a new dress. Our printer\ndoes the work on copper-faced type, prepared with especial reference to\nthe neat and attractive typographical appearance of the magazine.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMr. A. M. Sullivan, in a recent number of the _Nineteenth Century_,\ndiscusses \u201cIrish Emigration as a remedy for Irish trouble in Ireland.\u201d\nHe says: \u201cOf the group of dynamite conspirators who stood in the dock\nat Newgate the other day\u2014men whose frightful purpose was to bury London\nin ruins\u2014not one was born on Irish soil. All were the sons or grandsons\nof men swept away from \u2018congested districts,\u2019 and sent or driven to\nAmerica \u2018for the good of those who went, and of those who were left\nbehind.\u2019 Whoever has recently traveled in America must have been struck\nwith the fact that animosity toward England often displays itself more\nstrongly in the second and third generations of Irish Americans than in\nthe men who were actually driven forth.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe present administration is not all-powerful in a certain kind of\nits political movements. The Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. Folger,\nwas defeated for Governor of New York in the election last fall, and\nrecently Mr. Chandler, Secretary of the Navy, failed of an election to\nthe United States Senate in the New Hampshire Legislature.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nChautauqua grows in favor with the public. The Ohio State Teacher\u2019s\nAssociation held their annual convention there in July last, and with\nsocial gatherings, lectures, and discussions on live questions, in\nthe educational world, they made it an interesting and profitable\nsession. The Pennsylvania State Teacher\u2019s Association will hold their\nconvocation at Chautauqua Lake for 1884. It is an endorsement of\nChautauqua when large bodies of educators go from their own States\ninto another to hold their most important gatherings. The National\nTeacher\u2019s Association met at this center once, and the Ohio people have\nbeen there twice. It is this sort of gatherings that the Chautauqua\nauthorities are especially pleased to welcome to the parks, public\nbuildings, and all the privileges of the classic groves.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Royal Humane Society, in its recently issued report, gives the\nfollowing advice to swimmers and bathers: \u201cAvoid bathing within two\nhours after a meal. Avoid bathing when exhausted by fatigue, or\nfrom any other cause. Avoid bathing when the body is cooling after\nperspiration. Avoid bathing altogether in the open air if, after having\nbeen a short time in the water, it causes a sense of chilliness with\nnumbness of the hands and feet. Bathe when the body is warm, provided\nno time is lost in getting into the water. Avoid chilling the body by\nsitting or standing undressed on the banks or in boats after having\nbeen in the water. Avoid remaining too long in the water; leave the\nwater immediately if there is the slightest feeling of chilliness.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe West promises to set a good example to the East in more than\none question of morals. The case deserving of mention now is where\nGovernor Crittenden, of Missouri, and Governor Glick, of Kansas, and\ntheir Attorney-Generals, notified the two prize-fighters, Slade and\nMitchell, that even training for a prize-fight would send them to the\nState prison. This so alarmed them that they quit the United States\nand went to Mexico. The laws of the older States are as severe on this\nbrutal practice as those of Missouri and Kansas, but the laxity in the\nenforcement of the laws is the only license that prize-fighters find to\njustify their training in New York, Boston, and other old cities. Some\nof our authorities could profitably \u201cgo West\u201d to study how to enforce\ncivil law.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nDr. John Roche, an English physician who has had remarkable\nexperiences, gives as his conclusion that cholera is purely and simply\na specific fever, only inferior in its ravages to yellow fever, and\nclosely allied to it. Cholera has a period of incubation varying from\ntwo to fourteen days; prone to attack the enervated and those subject\nto depression from any cause. It is contagious, and liable to occur\nperiodically about every ten years in some parts of India. It seems to\nhave visited the British Isles about every sixteen years, and as the\nperiod has elapsed since the last outbreak, it is more than likely to\noccur this year. Those persons who indulge in no enervating habits,\nand take nothing internally which would arrest the secretions nor too\ndrastically stimulate them, and partake of nothing which is highly\nfermentable, may safely feel that they are cholera-proof during an\nepidemic.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201cThe Old South Lectures for Young People\u201d is a pleasing and successful\nplan for teaching the History of America. Lectures are held Wednesday\nafternoon at the \u201cOld South Meeting House,\u201d Boston, and the subjects\nillustrate well the tenor of the meeting. Thus for September the topics\nare \u201cFranklin,\u201d \u201cHow to Study American History,\u201d \u201cThe Year 1777,\u201d\n\u201cHistory in the Boston Streets.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn the C. L. S. C. Commencement report the Lutheran has been omitted\nfrom the list of denominations represented in the class of \u201983.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOn Sunday, the ninth day of September, the steamship \u201cNevada\u201d landed\n682 Mormons at New York, being the fourth company that has been brought\nover this year. H. H. Evans, the secretary, said that there were in\nthe company 269 British, 106 Swiss and Germans, 284 Scandinavians, and\n23 returning missionaries. \u201cEvery emigrant,\u201d he added, \u201cpaid his or\nher passage over. No aid is afforded them by the Mormon Church. The\nmajority have a little money with them, enough to establish themselves\nin America. They will locate in sixteen towns in Utah. All we do is\nto protect them while traveling from Liverpool to Utah. Some of these\nimmigrants have been years laying up money to pay their passage to this\ncountry.\u201d One of the Mormon immigrants did not go through to Utah. Her\nname is Regina Andersen. She is a Swedish woman, spinster, thirty-five\nyears of age, and is afflicted with blindness. Her brother Leander and\nher sister Anna, who live in Philadelphia, had heard of her intention\nto go to Utah and were at Castle Garden to intercept her before the\n\u201cNevada\u201d arrived. They insisted upon talking with their blind sister,\nand soon succeeded in persuading her to abandon the Mormon proselytes\nand prepare to go with her relatives to Philadelphia. The Mormon\nmissionaries were strongly opposed to the woman leaving the party,\nbut the matter was brought before Superintendent Jackson, and the\nwoman was permitted to go to Philadelphia with her brother. She had\nprepaid her passage to Salt Lake and did not receive her money back. In\nconversation with a reporter the woman appeared not to know anything\nabout the peculiar institution of the Mormon Church\u2014polygamy. Congress\ncould quite as consistently, and with better results to the country,\nenact a law to prevent this kind of emigration, than the one they have\nleveled against the Chinese. Why not meet Mormonism at New York harbor\nand prevent this infamous traffic in human lives?\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. Henry A. Powell, in his Congregational church in Williamsburg,\non a Sunday in September discussed \u201cThe sorrows of the Free Thinkers\nas revealed at their recent convention,\u201d from this suggestive text:\n\u201cThe show of their countenances doth witness against them.\u201d He stated\nthat over their platform were hung the pictures of Thomas Paine, R.\nG. Ingersoll, and D. M. Bennett\u2014Paine author of a book against the\nBible\u2014Ingersoll, dispenser of blasphemy\u2014Bennett, who not long since\nserved a term in the penitentiary for sending foul literature through\nthe mails. \u201cHow much better than such visionary wanderings is the old\nstory of a living Father in heaven, of a Savior who suffered on the\ncross, and angel visitants to lead us from the life mortal to the life\nimmortal.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe call the attention of our readers to the notice elsewhere\nin this number of the \u201cChautauqua School of Languages,\u201d the\ndifferent departments of which are to be organized into schools of\ncorrespondence, so that students may, at their homes, study Hebrew,\nGerman, French, etc., by corresponding with competent teachers. This\nis a rare opportunity for members of the C. L. S. C., or any others\nwho desire, to study the languages, but are denied the privileges of\nthe schools. Next month we shall introduce the \u201cNormal Work\u201d into THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN, in a few initial chapters, from the pens of Rev. Dr.\nHurlbut and Prof. R. S. Holmes, and thus extend to our readers through\nthe year the privilege of pursuing this course, which is a main feature\nof the summer assemblies.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe telegraph operators have by their strike provoked a general\ndiscussion in the press of the telegraph system of the country, besides\nexciting the attention of Postmaster-General Gresham, who promises to\ndiscuss in his annual report to Congress the practicability of the\ngeneral government assuming control of all telegraph lines as it does\nof the postal service. It ought to work as well in the United States as\nit does in England. Mr. Fawcett, Postmaster-General of Great Britain,\nreports that \u201cthe number of telegraph messages sent in the United\nKingdom during the last year was 32,092,026.\u201d Mr. Fawcett says that it\nhas been decided that as soon as the necessary increase of plant can be\nmade, the minimum charge for inland telegrams will be reduced from 24\nto 12 cents.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA correspondent says, under date of September 9: \u201cThe last spike on the\nNorthern Pacific Road was driven this afternoon on the Pacific slope of\nthe Rocky Mountains, 2,500 miles from the Atlantic Ocean, and 800 miles\nfrom the Pacific, and 91 years after the idea of a highway from the\nLakes to the Pacific was first suggested by Thomas Jefferson.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAnalogous to the Normal Class Bible work of the Chautauqua University\nis a new movement in Russia. An organization called the _Stundists_\nbind themselves to devote an hour (_stunde_) every day to the study of\nthe Bible. The society has grown to immense proportions, and is said to\nhave reclaimed whole villages from drunkenness and crime.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nKeshub Chunder Sen, the famous leader of the Brahmo Somaj, is about to\nvisit Europe and America again, to preach a new development of faith,\nin which Hinduism and Christianity are to be combined. Little good, we\nfear, will result from the Baboo\u2019s advocacy of an eclectic system; for\nhis adherents will be content to stop in that dim twilight instead of\nadvancing into the full glory of the divine day. The teaching of the\nleader himself seems latterly to have degenerated into ceremonialism,\nand he attributes marvelous influence to external things; while some of\nhis followers are giving themselves up with the wildest enthusiasm to\nperfect a sacred dance of a complex kind, organized with rotating rings\nof participants dressed in garbs of varied hue. All this mummery is a\nsad disappointment for those who hoped that Chunder Sen might destroy\nheathenism besides purifying it.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Louisville _Courier_ of August 9, referring to the great\nExposition, speaks thus of one of the exhibitions: \u201cLast night the\nelectric railway was in operation, and the locomotive with two\ncars attached made the tour of the park. To-day it will be running\nconstantly, and visitors will see what is the latest achievement of\nscience. It is an event of extraordinary interest. It is the practical\ndemonstration of the power of electricity applied as a motor. Without\nfire or smoke, with no visible agent to propel it, moved by an unseen\nand even as yet an almost unknown influence, it follows the path marked\nout with all the celerity and certainty demanded by the most cautious\nand practical.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe directors of the Western Union Telegraph Company have made\na concession to their employes by issuing the following order:\n\u201cCommencing to-day (September 1), seven and a half hours actual service\nin this office during week nights will constitute a day\u2019s work, or,\nin other words, the hours of the night force will be from 5:30 p. m.\ntill 1:30 a. m., allowing thirty minutes for lunch. Sunday service\nwill be paid for the same as other over-time services, at the rate of\none-seventh of a day\u2019s pay for each hour. All payments for over-time,\nincluding Sunday service, or for a fractional part of a month, will be\nbased upon the number of week days in the month.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nProfessor Bell is reported as saying in a recent conversation that\nthere are more than 500,000 telephones in use in the United States, and\nthe manufacturers are unable to supply the demand so as to keep abreast\nof orders. He said that the progress of the telephone would have been\ngreater but for the opposition of the telegraph companies, who regarded\nit as, in part, a competitor instead of an ally. In other countries\nthe telegraph companies had very generally adopted the telephone as an\nauxiliary, especially at city branch offices and at small offices in\nthe country.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLord Chief Justice Coleridge, of England, is in this country, a guest\nof the American bar. English judges may be aristocrats, but they are\ngenerally above corruption. It is to be hoped that American ideas of\njudicial dignity and honor will be raised by what they may observe in\nthis chief of the English bench.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nNot a few Americans were astonished at the display of local\nmanufactures which Ireland exhibited in the Boston \u201cForeign Art and\nIndustrial Exhibition.\u201d Among the objects were bog-wood ornaments,\nhair ornaments, furniture, marbles, sculpture, etc. The variety of\nwork suggests that in the not distant future the distressed country\nwill have manufactures and arts to employ its people. Its resources\nare particularly fitted to certain arts. Thus few countries boast so\ngreat a variety of marbles; its clay is particularly suitable for\nmodeling: osiers grow readily on its soil, and the natural woods are\nincomparably fine. With these industries developed, and a system of\nrailroads through the country, much would be done toward settling the\nIrish question.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhen a woman marries, and learns that in the race of life she is\nbetter qualified to earn the family living than her husband, it will\nbe helpful to have a precedent at hand by which to govern her husband.\nHere is one, taken from the communication of a successful working\nwoman to a Boston exchange. She says: \u201cI am a milliner, and have made\nbetween $1,500 and $2,500 a year in my business for some time past. I\nmarried four years ago. My husband is kind and good looking, but he\nnever learned any trade, had no profession and could not average $500\na year. I loved him, however, but I saw that it would not do to depend\nupon him, so I kept on with my business. After a time I think he got\na little lazy, and as we were both away during the day, we could not\nkeep house and got sick of boarding. Finally I proposed that he should\nkeep house and I would run the business and find the money. We have\nnow lived very happily in this way for two years. My husband rises and\nbuilds the fire, gets breakfast, and I leave at 7:45 for my place of\nbusiness. He does the washing, ironing, and cleaning, and I do not know\nof any woman who can beat him. He is as neat as wax, and can cook equal\nto any one in town. It may be an isolated case, but I think the time\nhas now come when women who have husbands to support should make them\ndo the work; otherwise they are luxuries we must do without.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S TABLE.\n\n\nQ. What is the meaning of boycotting?\n\nA. Boycott was the name of an Irish landlord whose tenants refused to\ngather his crops, and endeavored to prevent his doing it. To withhold\nhelp and patronage, or in any way to obstruct or hinder the business of\nanother\u2014a meanness that is despicable\u2014is to treat him as the tenants\ntreated Mr. Boycott.\n\nQ. Was General Grant the author of the expression, \u201cWe have met the\nenemy and they are ours?\u201d\n\nA. The above is very like to C\u00e6sar\u2019s \u201c_veni, vidi, vici_,\u201d and as a\ngeneral\u2019s report of a great victory just won, is remarkable for its\ncomprehensive brevity. The words, though in harmony with the character\nand sayings of General Grant, were not, if used, original with him, but\nshould be credited to Commodore Perry.\n\nQ. Why was the son of Edward III. called the Black Prince?\n\nA. Because of his black armor.\n\nQ. Was Alexander of Macedon, who informed the Greeks before the battle\nof Platea of the intended attack, their ally?\n\nA. Not openly; but secretly he was, or the information would not have\nbeen given.\n\nQ. Where is the mountain lake Shawangunk?\n\nA. The Shawangunk (Shon-gum) mountain is properly a continuation of the\nAppalachian, or Allegheny chain in New York. Like the Adirondacks and\nCatskills, south of the Mohawk, also outliers of the chain, it seems\nseparated by intervening lands of lower elevation, and the relationship\nis shown by similarity of the geological formation. Look for the lake\nin the same region. It is probably small, and may not be found on most\nmaps.\n\nQ. Was it not Leonidas who, before the battle of Thermopyl\u00e6, said,\n\u201cThe Persians are so numerous that their arrows will darken the sun?\u201d\n\nA. No. Those words may intimate fear of the overwhelming force of the\nenemy, and the Greek historian does not mention their author, but says\nthat on hearing them, a brave Spartan replied: \u201cAll the better, as we\nwill then fight in the shade.\u201d\n\nQ. Which construction? \u201cThus were music and poetry born in the same\nfamily, and we shall notice how that they have clung to each other,\u201d or\n\u201chow they have clung?\u201d\n\nA. The latter is preferred. The conjunctive particle is not needed,\nand though occasionally thus used by a good writer, only encumbers the\nsentence.\n\nQ. Who was Caius Cestius?\n\nA. A wealthy Roman citizen of the Augustan age, a client of Cicero, of\nnot much distinction, though rich. A part of his estate was employed in\nbuilding for him a fine mausoleum, which remains to the present day,\nthough most of the contemporaneous surrounding structures have long\nbeen in ruins. Near it lie the ashes of Keats and Shelly. After the\ndeath of Keats, Shelly wrote of his friend: \u201cHe lies in the lovely,\nromantic cemetery of the Protestants of Rome, near the tomb of Caius\nCestius, and within the mossy walls and towns, now mouldering and\ndesolate, which formed the circuit of ancient Rome. The cemetery is an\nopen space among the ruins, covered in winter with violets and daisies.\nIt might make one in love with death to think of being buried in so\nsweet a place.\u201d\n\nQ. Can you give the date of Mrs. Browning\u2019s birth in 1809?\n\nA. We can not. No records now at hand give the day or month. It is\nnot best to be greatly troubled over our want of information on the\nsubject, as it is quite safe to conclude she was \u201cwell born\u201d some time\nduring the year mentioned. Many other eminent writers have gone into\nhistory with the same uncertainty as to the day of their birth.\n\nQ. In whose hands was the government of the United States from 1783 to\n1789?\n\nA. Nominally in the Continental Congress\u2014a kind of quasi central\ngovernment. Practically in the hands of the colonists and their\nlegislators. The war was ended and the United States acknowledged a\nfree, sovereign, and independent nation. But they were, as yet, united\nonly by the \u201carticles of confederation\u201d adopted in 1778; a bond of\nunion that was soon found inadequate to secure a strong, permanent\ngovernment amidst the perils that threatened the new republic. The\nregulation of commerce, the adjustment of difficulties between\nStates, and the public defense were not sufficiently provided for.\nCongress could devise and recommend measures, but had little power\nto legislate, even on subjects that concerned the whole. There was\nstill more need of an efficient executive department. Feeling that the\narticles of confederation were, in the changed state of the country,\nno longer sufficient, the leading statesmen wisely framed, and the\ncountry adopted the American Constitution, giving us a strong central\ngovernment, with the least possible surrender of rights by the States\nthus united.\n\nQ. Was there any reason for calling Alexander the Great a Greek?\n\nA. Alexander was not a Greek, though educated by Greek teachers, and,\nas other Macedonians, using the Greek language. Macedon was not a part\nof Greece, but held Greece as a dependency, and used her power in\nexpelling the Persians.\n\nQ. After the confusion of tongues and the dispersion of mankind, into\nwhat families lingual were they divided?\n\nA. Into _Shemetic_, _Hametic_, and _Japhetic_. The descendants of Shem\npeopled central Asia, particularly the parts about the Euphrates.\nThe dialect or language called Aramaic prevailed in their northern\nand northeastern territory, the Arabic in their southern, and in\ntheir central and western the Hebrew. These are cognate languages,\nand profitably studied in connection. The descendants of Japheth\nspread over Europe and the northwest of Asia. Those of Ham occupied\nthe southern part of the globe, particularly Africa. The languages\nspoken in these sections, respectively, may also be grouped together,\nand, however different, give evidence of a common origin. The general\ndivision into the above three classes has been found convenient, though\nthe patronymics are used only to indicate remote origin and kinship.\n\n\n\n\nC. S. L. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR OCTOBER.\n\n\nHISTORY OF GREECE.\n\nInstead of indicating the sounds of the vowels in the Greek and Latin\nnames given in the notes, we follow the plan of Webster\u2019s Unabridged\nDictionary, giving rules for pronouncing the vowels and consonants.\nAs the two principal marks ([= ][) ]) are in Greek and Latin used\ndifferently from what they are in English, indicating the _quantity_\ninstead of _quality_, it will be found less confusing to adopt this\nmethod.\n\nRULES FOR THE VOWELS.\n\n1. Any vowel at the end of an accented syllable, and _e_, _o_, and _u_,\nat the end of an unaccented syllable, have the long English sound.\n\n2. _A_, ending an unaccented syllable, has the sound of _a_ in\n_father_, or in _last_.\n\n3. _I_, ending a final syllable, has the long sound. At the end of an\ninitial unaccented syllable it varies between _i_ long and _i_ short\n(like _i_ in _pin_). In all other cases _i_, ending an unaccented\nsyllable, is short.\n\n4. _Y_ is like _i_ in the same situation.\n\n5. _\u00c6_ and _\u00e6_ like _e_ in the same situation.\n\n6. If a syllable end in a consonant the vowel has the short English\nsound.\n\n7. _E_, in final _es_, like _e_ in Andes.\n\nRULES FOR CONSONANTS.\n\n1. _C_, before _e_, _i_, _y_, _\u00e6_, _\u0153_, is pronounced like _s_; before\n_a_, _o_, and _u_, and before consonants, like _k_.\n\n2. _G_, before _e_, _i_, _y_, _\u00e6_, and _\u0153_, or another _g_ followed\nby _e_, has the sound of _j_; before _a_, _o_ and _u_, and consonants\nother than _g_, the hard sound.\n\n3. _Ch_ is like _k_, but is silent before a mute at the beginning of a\nword.\n\n4. Initial _x_ is like _z_.\n\n5. _T_, _s_, and _c_, before _ia_, _ie_, _ii_, _io_, _iv_, and _ev_,\npreceded immediately by the accent, change into _sh_ and _zh_; but when\nthe _t_ follows _s_, _t_, or _z_, or when the accent falls on the first\nof the vowels following, the consonant preserves its pure sound.\n\n6. Initial _ph_, before a mute, is silent.\n\nP. 1\u2014\u201cAutonomy,\u201d au-t\u014fn\u00b4o-my. The word is formed from the Greek\nwords for _law_ and _self_ and means a law unto one\u2019s self, or\nself-government.\n\nP. 1\u2014\u201cKoroneia\u201d or Coronea, cor=\u00b4=o-ni\u00b4a.\n\nP. 2\u2014\u201cAntalkidas,\u201d an-tal\u00b4ci-das.\n\nP. 2\u2014\u201cPh\u0153bidas,\u201d ph\u0153b\u00b4i-das. A Laced\u00e6monian of whom nothing of\nimportance is known save his part in the seizure of Thebes. Ph\u0153bidas\nwas slain in battle by the Thebans in 378.\n\nP. 2\u2014\u201cLeontiades,\u201d le-on-ti\u00b4a-des; \u201cIsmenias,\u201d is-me\u00b4ni-as;\n\u201cPelopidas,\u201d pe-lop\u00b4i-das; \u201cMellon,\u201d mel\u00b4lon; \u201cCharon,\u201d ka\u00b4ron;\n\u201cGorgias,\u201d gor\u00b4gi-as; \u201cThe\u00b4o-pom\u00b4pus.\u201d\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cHegemony,\u201d he-g\u0115m\u00b4o-ny. Leadership. Formed from the Greek word\nfor guide or leader.\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cPolymnis,\u201d po-lym\u00b4nis.\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cSparti,\u201d spar\u00b4ti; the sown-men. The dragon from which these\nancestors of the Theban patricians sprung guarded a well near the site\nof the Cadmeia. The men whom Cadmus had sent there to draw water had\nbeen killed by the monster, and in return Cadmus had slain it, sowing\nits teeth as Minerva advised. Fearing the armed men which sprang forth\nhe caused a quarrel among them, in which all but five were slain.\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cKadmus,\u201d cad\u00b4mus. The mythical founder of Thebes, the son of a\nking of Ph\u0153nicia and the brother of Europa.\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cSimmias,\u201d sim\u00b4mi-as. The two principal speakers, besides\nSocrates, in Plato\u2019s \u201cPh\u00e6don\u201d are Simmias and his brother.\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cTarentine,\u201d ta-ren\u00b4tine; \u201cSpin\u00b4tha-rus.\u201d\n\nP. 3\u2014\u201cGrote.\u201d (1794-1871.) An English historian, famous chiefly for his\nHistory of Greece.\n\nP. 4\u2014\u201cLysis,\u201d ly\u00b4sis. An eminent philosopher driven out of Italy about\n510 B. C., during the persecution of the Pythagorean club. He spent\nthe remainder of his life in Thebes, where he was held in the greatest\nhonor.\n\nP. 4\u2014\u201cPythagorean Brotherhood,\u201d pyth\u00b4a-g\u014d\u00b4re-an. See p. 119, Vol.\n1, Timayenis. As a political and social power the brotherhood died out\nbefore the death of Pythagoras, though the sect still lived and kept up\ntheir religious observances.\n\nP. 4\u2014\u201cKadmeia,\u201d cad-me\u00b4a.\n\nP. 5\u2014\u201cPolybius,\u201d po-lyb\u00b4i-us. (204-122 B. C.) A Grecian historian.\n\nP. 6\u2014\u201cLeuktra,\u201d luke\u00b4tra; \u201cMantineia,\u201d man\u00b4ti-nei\u00b4a; \u201cMegalopolis,\u201d\nmeg=\u00b4=a-lop\u00b4o-lis; \u201cKleombrotus,\u201d kle-om\u00b4bro-tus; \u201cAgesilaus,\u201d\na-ges-i-la\u00b4us; \u201cKith\u00e6ron,\u201d ci-th\u00e6\u00b4ron; \u201cNaxos,\u201d nax\u00b4os; \u201cChabrias,\u201d\ncha\u00b4bri-as.\n\nP. 7\u2014\u201cTimotheus,\u201d ti-mo\u00b4the-us. The son of the famous general Conon.\n\nP. 7\u2014\u201cTegyra,\u201d te-gy\u00b4ra; \u201cHarmost,\u201d har\u00b4most; \u201cOrchomenus,\u201d\nor-chom\u00b4e-nus; \u201cPolemarch,\u201d p\u014dl\u00b4e-march.\n\nP. 8\u2014\u201cCh\u00e6roneia,\u201d ch\u00e6r\u00b4o-ne\u00b4a.\n\nP. 8\u2014\u201cEurotas,\u201d eu-ro\u00b4tas. The largest river of Laconia.\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cZacynthus,\u201d za-cyn\u00b4thus. Now Zante; called by Homer the \u201cWoody\nZacynthus.\u201d\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cKorkyra,\u201d cor-cy\u00b4ra. Now the island of Corfu, one of the Ionian\nislands belonging to the nomarchy Corfu of the kingdom of Greece.\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cPeriplus,\u201d p\u0115s. A rare word from the Greek, meaning to sail\naround a sea or coast.\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cIphikrates,\u201d i-phic\u00b4ra-tes.\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cPoseidon,\u201d po-si\u00b4don. The Neptune of Roman mythology, the god of\nthe sea.\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cHelike,\u201d hel\u00b4i-ce; \u201cBu\u00b4ra.\u201d\n\nP. 10\u2014\u201cKallias,\u201d cal\u00b4li-as. An Athenian family famous through several\ngenerations for its wealth.\n\nP. 10\u2014\u201cAutokles,\u201d au\u00b4to-cles; \u201cKallistratus,\u201d cal-lis\u00b4tra-tus.\n\nP. 10\u2014\u201cB\u0153otarch,\u201d b\u0153-o\u00b4tarch. One of the chief civil officers of B\u0153otia.\n\nP. 10\u2014\u201cXenophon,\u201d xen\u00b4o-phon.\n\nP. 11\u2014\u201cPhilo-Laconian.\u201d Friendly to Laconia.\n\nP. 12\u2014\u201cEphors,\u201d \u011bf\u00b4or.\n\nP. 14\u2014\u201cHelikon,\u201d hel\u00b4i-con.\n\nP. 14\u2014\u201cKopais,\u201d cop\u00b4a-is. The largest lake of Greece.\n\nP. 14\u2014\u201cKreusis,\u201d creu\u00b4sis. The harbor of the city of Thespi\u00e6.\n\nP. 14\u2014\u201cKriss\u00e6an,\u201d cris-s\u00e6\u00b4an; \u201cThespi\u00e6,\u201d thes\u00b4pi-\u00e6.\n\nP. 16\u2014\u201cDeimon,\u201d dei\u00b4mon; \u201cSphodrias,\u201d spho\u00b4dri-as.\n\nP. 16\u2014\u201cKleonymus,\u201d cle-on\u00b4y-mus. The dearest friend of Archidamus, the\nson of Agesilaus.\n\nP. 17\u2014\u201c\u00c6gospotami,\u201d \u00e6\u00b4gos-pot\u00b4a-mi.\n\nP. 17\u2014\u201cPeir\u00e6us,\u201d pi-r\u00e6\u00b4us. The principal harbor of Athens, situated\nabout five miles southwest of the city.\n\nP. 18\u2014\u201cArchidamus,\u201d ar-chi-da\u00b4mus.\n\nP. 18\u2014\u201cPher\u00e6.\u201d A city of Thessaly, the site of the modern Velestino.\n\nP. 18\u2014\u201c\u00c6gosthena,\u201d \u00e6-gos\u00b4the-na.\n\nP. 19\u2014\u201cAristotle,\u201d ar\u00b4is-to-tle.\n\nP. 19\u2014\u201cEpiknemidian,\u201d e-pic\u00b4ne-mid=\u00b4=ian; \u201cO-pun\u00b4tian.\u201d The inhabitants\nof Eastern Locris were divided into two tribes: the Locri Epicnemidii,\ninhabiting the northern and the Locri Opuntii the southern part.\n\nP. 20\u2014\u201cPanarkadian,\u201d pan-ar-ca\u00b4di-an. Belonging to all Arcadia.\n\nP. 20\u2014\u201cTegea,\u201d te\u00b4ge-a; \u201cHe-r\u00e6\u00b4a.\u201d\n\nP. 21\u2014\u201cDorians,\u201d do\u00b4ri-ans; \u201cLaced\u00e6mon,\u201d lac\u00b4e-d\u00e6=\u00b4=mon; \u201cKephisus,\u201d\nce-phi\u00b4sus. There are four rivers in Greece which bore this name. One\nthe chief river of B\u0153otia, two in Attica (one of which is its chief\nriver, and the one here referred to), and a fourth in Argolis.\n\nP. 22\u2014\u201cPhliasians,\u201d phli-a\u00b4si-ans; \u201cHelots,\u201d h\u0113\u00b4lots, or h\u0115l\u00b4ots;\n\u201cKinadon,\u201d cin\u00b4a-don.\n\nP. 22\u2014\u201cPeri\u0153ki,\u201d per-i-\u0153\u00b4ci. From the same derivation we have the word\n\u201cperiecians,\u201d or \u201cperi\u0153cians,\u201d meaning those who dwell on the opposite\nside of the globe, in the same parallel of latitude.\n\nP. 22\u2014\u201cIthome,\u201d i-tho\u00b4me. A strong fortress had stood on the mountains\nfor centuries.\n\nP. 23\u2014\u201cPeltasts,\u201d pel\u00b4tasts; \u201cPol\u00b4y-phron\u201d; \u201cPol\u00b4y-do\u00b4rus.\u201d\n\nP. 24\u2014\u201cLarissa,\u201d la-ris\u00b4sa.\n\nP. 24\u2014\u201cPharsalus,\u201d phar-sa\u00b4lus, now \u201cPhersala.\u201d Chiefly celebrated for\nthe battle fought there between C\u00e6sar and Pompey in 48 B. C.\n\nP. 24\u2014\u201cAleuad\u00e6,\u201d a-leu\u00b4a-d\u00e6; \u201cAmyntas,\u201d a-myn\u00b4tas; \u201cKrannon,\u201d cran\u00b4non;\n\u201cEurydike,\u201d eu-ryd\u00b4i-ce; \u201cPerdikkas,\u201d per-dic\u00b4cas; \u201cPausanias,\u201d\npau-sa\u00b4ni-as.\n\nP. 25\u2014\u201cAlorus,\u201d a-lo\u00b4rus; \u201cOneium,\u201d o-nei\u00b4um.\n\nP. 26\u2014\u201cPammenes,\u201d pam\u00b4me-nes. A Theban general, and a friend of\nEpaminondas.\n\nP. 26\u2014\u201cDyonysius,\u201d di\u00b4o-nys\u00b4i-us.\n\nP. 28\u2014\u201cSusa,\u201d su\u00b4sa. The Shushan of the Old Testament; the winter\nresidence of the Persian kings.\n\nP. 28\u2014\u201cRescript.\u201d The answer of the Roman emperor when consulted on any\nquestion was called the _rescript_.\n\nP. 29\u2014\u201cDrachm\u00e6,\u201d dr\u0103ch\u00b4m\u00e6. A silver coin of the Greeks, worth about\neighteen cents.\n\nP. 30\u2014\u201cChersonese,\u201d cher\u00b4so-nese\u00b4; \u201cChalkidike,\u201d chal-cid\u00b4i-ce.\n\nP. 30\u2014\u201cByzantium,\u201d by-zan\u00b4ti-um. Now Constantinople.\n\nP. 31\u2014\u201cKynos Kephal\u00e6,\u201d cy\u00b4nos ceph\u00b4a-l\u00e6.\n\nP. 31\u2014\u201cMagnesians.\u201d The inhabitants of Magnesia, the most easterly\nportion of Thessaly. It contained the two mountains, Ossa and Pelion.\n\nP. 31\u2014\u201cPhthiot\u00e6,\u201d phthi-o\u00b4t\u00e6.\n\nP. 32\u2014\u201c\u00c6nianes,\u201d \u00e6\u00b4ni-a\u00b4nes. An ancient race originally near Ossa, but\nafterwards in Southern Thessaly.\n\nP. 32\u2014\u201cPallantium,\u201d pal-lan\u00b4ti-um; \u201cA\u00b4se-a.\u201d Towns of Arcadia.\n\nP. 33\u2014\u201cIsidas,\u201d is\u00b4i-das.\n\nP. 34\u2014\u201cKephisodorus,\u201d ce-phis\u00b4o-do\u00b4rus; \u201cGryllus,\u201d gryl\u00b4lus;\n\u201cEuphranor,\u201d eu-phra\u00b4nor; \u201cM\u00e6nalian,\u201d m\u00e6-na\u00b4li-an.\n\nP. 35\u2014\u201cTripolitza,\u201d tre-po-lit\u00b4sa.\n\nP. 36\u2014\u201cDiodorus,\u201d di\u00b4o-do\u00b4rus. A contemporary of C\u00e6sar and Augustus.\nHe wrote \u201cThe Historical Library,\u201d consisting of forty books, not half\nof which are extant.\n\nP. 37\u2014\u201cIolaidas,\u201d i-o-la\u00b4i-das.\n\nP. 38\u2014\u201c_Status quo._\u201d The state in which.\n\nP. 39\u2014\u201cTachos,\u201d ta\u00b4chos; \u201cNectanabis,\u201d nec-tan\u00b4a-bis.\n\nP. 39\u2014\u201cKyrene,\u201d cy-re\u00b4ne. The chief city of Cyrenaica, in Northern\nAfrica.\n\nP. 40\u2014\u201cKlerouchi,\u201d kle-rou\u00b4chi.\n\nP. 41\u2014\u201cThebe,\u201d the\u00b4be; \u201cTimoleon,\u201d ti-mo\u00b4le-on.\n\nP. 42\u2014\u201cAmphiktyonic,\u201d am-phic\u00b4ty-on\u00b4ic.\n\nP. 43\u2014\u201cKirrh\u00e6an,\u201d cir-rh\u00e6\u00b4an; \u201cDelphi,\u201d del\u00b4phi.\n\nP. 43\u2014\u201cMagnetes,\u201d mag-ne\u00b4tes. The same as the Magnesians.\n\nP. 43\u2014\u201cPerrh\u00e6bians,\u201d per-rh\u00e6\u00b4bi-ans; \u201cAthamanes,\u201d ath\u00b4a-ma\u00b4nes;\n\u201cDolopes,\u201d dol\u00b4o-pes.\n\nP. 44\u2014\u201cPhilomelus,\u201d phil\u00b4o-me\u00b4lus; \u201cThracid\u00e6,\u201d thra\u00b4ci-d\u00e6; \u201cPyth\u00b4i-an.\u201d\n\nP. 45\u2014\u201cOnomarchus,\u201d on\u00b4-o-mar\u00b4chus.\n\nP. 46\u2014\u201cIllyrians,\u201d il-lyr\u00b4i-ans; \u201cP\u00e6onians,\u201d p\u00e6-o\u00b4ni-ans; \u201cEupatrid\u00e6,\u201d\neu-pat\u00b4ri-d\u00e6; \u201cLykophron,\u201d lyc\u00b4o-phron. The brother-in-law of\nAlexander, and his assistant in his murder.\n\nP. 47\u2014\u201c\u00c6schines,\u201d \u00e6s\u00b4chi-nes. The Athenian orator.\n\nP. 47\u2014\u201cKleobule,\u201d cle-o-bu\u00b4le; \u201cGylon,\u201d gy\u00b4lon.\n\nP. 47\u2014\u201cBosporus,\u201d bos\u00b4po-rus. Literally the _ox-ford_. The name given\nto any straits by the Greeks, but particularly to that uniting the Sea\nof Azof with the Black Sea. The country on both sides this latter was\ncalled Bosporus. Its cities became important commercial centers, and\nfrom them large supplies of corn were annually sent to Athens. It was\nin this country that Gylon made his money.\n\nP. 47\u2014\u201cDemochares,\u201d de-moch\u00b4a-res.\n\nP. 48\u2014\u201cAphobus,\u201d aph\u00b4o-bus; \u201cO-ne\u00b4tor.\u201d\n\nP. 48\u2014\u201cPal\u00e6stra,\u201d pa-l\u00e6s\u00b4tra. In Greece a place for wrestling was\ncalled _pal\u00e6stra_.\n\nP. 48\u2014\u201cPlato.\u201d The philosopher. After having been instructed by\nthe best teachers of his time Plato became a follower of Socrates.\nAfter the death of the latter he traveled in many countries, seeking\nknowledge, and at last returned to Athens to open a school in\nhis garden, near the academy. Here Plato taught and wrote almost\ncontinuously until his death, about 348 B. C. His works have come\ndown to us very complete and perfect. They are mainly in the form\nof dialogues, Socrates being one of the chief characters. His most\nimportant doctrines are the existence of the soul before entering the\nbody, its independence of the body, and its immortality.\n\nP. 48\u2014\u201cIsokrates,\u201d i-soc\u00b4ra-tes. (436-338 B. C.) One of the ten Attic\norators. He was carefully educated, but as he was too timid to come\nforward as an orator, he devoted himself to teaching the art and\nwriting speeches for others. Although he took no part in public affairs\nhe loved his country, and despairing of its freedom after the battle of\nCh\u00e6roneia, he took his own life. His style was artificial and labored,\nbut exercised immense influence upon oratory at Athens.\n\nP. 49\u2014\u201cIs\u00e6us,\u201d i-s\u00e6\u00b4us. One of the ten Attic orators. Instructed by\nLysias and Isokrates. We have no particulars of his life. Eleven of\nhis orations in existence are remarkable for their vigor and purity of\nstyle.\n\nP. 49\u2014\u201cThucydides,\u201d thu-cyd\u00b4i-des. (471?-400?) The historian. Little\nmore is known of his life than is related by Timayenis (vol. i., p.\n337). The accounts of his death are uncertain. The work which gives him\nhis place in history is his account of the Peloponnesian war.\n\nP. 49\u2014\u201cLysias,\u201d lys\u00b4i-as. (B. C. 458-378.) An Attic orator. When a\nyouth, Lysias emigrated to a colony in Italy, where he finished his\neducation. After the defeat of the Athenians in Sicily he returned to\nAthens, but only to be imprisoned as an enemy of the government. He\nescaped, and on the overthrow of the tyranny of the thirty tyrants\nwent back to Athens, where he wrote speeches. Only thirty-five are now\nextant, but they are said to be specimens of the best Attic Greek.\n\nP. 49\u2014\u201cBema,\u201d be\u00b4ma. The Greek for the stage on which speakers stood.\n\nP. 50\u2014\u201cPhalerum,\u201d pha-le\u00b4rum. The most easterly of the harbors of\nAthens.\n\nP. 50\u2014\u201cEunomus,\u201d eu\u00b4no-mus; \u201cPerikles,\u201d per\u00b4i-cles; \u201cSatyrus,\u201d\nsat\u00b4y-rus.\n\nP. 50\u2014\u201cEuripides,\u201d eu-rip\u00b4i-des. (B. C. 480-406.)\n\nP. 50\u2014\u201cSophocles,\u201d soph\u00b4o-cles. (B. C. 495?-406). The chief of the trio\nof Greek dramatists. In 468 he defeated \u00c6schylus in a dramatic contest.\nHis character is said to have been that of a complete Greek, combining\nsymmetry of person, skill in music and gymnastics, self-possession,\ngenius, taste. Only seven of his dramas have been preserved.\n\nP. 51\u2014\u201cDionysius of Halicarnassus.\u201d A rhetorician who came from\nHalicarnassus, a city in Asia Minor, about B. C. 29. His most ambitious\nwork is a history of Rome in twenty-two books.\n\nP. 52\u2014\u201cHerodotus,\u201d he-rod\u00b4i-tus.\n\nP. 53\u2014\u201cPhokion,\u201d pho\u00b4ci-on.\n\nP. 54\u2014\u201cOlynthians,\u201d o-lyn\u00b4thi-ans.\n\nP. 55\u2014\u201cPerinthus,\u201d pe-rin\u00b4thus. An important town in Thrace on the\nPropontis.\n\nP. 55\u2014\u201cChares,\u201d cha\u00b4res.\n\nP. 56\u2014\u201cAmphissa,\u201d am-phis\u00b4sa. Now Salona; though destroyed by Philip,\nit was afterward rebuilt.\n\nP. 56\u2014\u201cElateia,\u201d el\u00b4a-te\u00b4a. Its ruins still exist near the town of\nElephtha.\n\nP. 58\u2014\u201cSolon,\u201d so\u00b4lon; \u201cThe-og\u00b4nis;\u201d \u201cAlkaeus,\u201d al\u00b4ce-us; \u201cPindar,\u201d\npin\u00b4dar.\n\nP. 59\u2014\u201c\u00c6schylus,\u201d \u00c6s\u00b4chy-lus. The great tragic poet. The Athenians\ncalled \u00c6schylus the father of tragedy because of the changes he made\nin the representation of plays. He introduced a second actor, provided\nscenic effects, gave his actors better costumes, and introduced\nnew figures into the choral dances. Only seven of his plays are in\nexistence.\n\nP. 59\u2014\u201cIktinus,\u201d ic-ti\u00b4nus. A contemporary of Phidias and Pericles, and\nthe architect of the Parthenon or temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis.\n\nP. 59\u2014\u201cPolygnotus,\u201d pol\u00b4yg-no\u00b4tus.\n\nP. 59\u2014\u201cAristophanes,\u201d ar\u00b4is-toph\u00b4a-nes. The great comic poet of Athens,\nborn about B. C. 444, but of whose private life almost nothing is\nknown. His comedies are a series of caricatures on Athenians and their\nfollies.\n\nP. 61\u2014\u201cSkardus,\u201d skar\u00b4dus; \u201cBer\u00b4mi-us;\u201d \u201cKam-bu\u00b4ni-an;\u201d \u201c\u00c6g\u00e6,\u201d \u00c6\u00b4g\u00e6;\n\u201cE-des\u00b4sa.\u201d\n\nP. 62\u2014\u201cThermaic,\u201d ther-ma\u00b4ic. See _Sinus Thermaicus_ on map.\n\u201cPisistratid\u00e6,\u201d pis\u00b4is-trat\u00b4i-d\u00e6.\n\nP. 62\u2014\u201cStrymon,\u201d stry\u00b4mon. The boundary between Thrace and Macedon down\nto the time of Philip. \u201cArchelaus,\u201d ar\u00b4che-la\u00b4us.\n\nP. 63\u2014\u201c_L\u2019Etat, c\u2019est moi._\u201d \u201cThe State, it is I.\u201d\n\nP. 63\u2014\u201cOrestes,\u201d o-res\u00b4tes; \u201cA\u00ebropus,\u201d a-er\u00b4o-pus.\n\nP. 65\u2014\u201cNichomachus,\u201d ni-chom\u00b4a-chus.\n\nP. 66\u2014\u201cArg\u00e6us,\u201d ar-g\u00e6\u00b4us; \u201cAmphipolis,\u201d am-phip\u00b4o-lis.\n\nP. 67\u2014\u201cMantias,\u201d man\u00b4ti-as; \u201cPang\u00e6us,\u201d pan-g\u00e6\u00b4us.\n\nP. 68\u2014\u201cAnthemus,\u201d an\u00b4the-mus.\n\nP. 69\u2014\u201cPotid\u00e6a,\u201d pot\u00b4i-d\u00e6\u00b4a; \u201cThasians,\u201d tha\u00b4si-ans.\n\nP. 69\u2014\u201cNeoptolemus,\u201d ne\u00b4op-tol\u00b4e-mus; \u201cMolossi,\u201d mo-los\u00b4si; \u201c\u00c6akid\u00e6,\u201d\n\u00e6-ac\u00b4i-d\u00e6; \u201cSamothrake,\u201d sam\u00b4o-thra\u00b4ce.\n\nP. 70\u2014\u201cSarissa,\u201d sa-ris\u00b4sa.\n\nP. 71\u2014\u201cPhalangites,\u201d fal\u00b4an-g\u012b-tes; \u201cHypaspists,\u201d hy-pas\u00b4pists;\n\u201cHet\u00e6ri,\u201d het\u00b4\u00e6-ri.\n\nP. 72\u2014\u201cPaulus \u00c6milius,\u201d pau\u00b4lus \u00e6-mil\u00b4i-us. (B. C. 230-160.) A Roman\ngeneral.\n\nP. 74\u2014\u201cPagas\u00e6,\u201d pag\u00b4a-s\u00e6. Now Volo; also, the Pagas\u00e6an Gulf is now the\nGulf of Volo.\n\nP. 76\u2014\u201cCharidemus,\u201d char-i-de\u00b4mus.\n\nP. 78\u2014\u201cDionysia,\u201d di-o-nys\u00b4i-a. A festival in honor of the god Bacchus,\ncelebrated in Athens in the spring, and with greater splendor than any\nother festival of the god.\n\nP. 78\u2014\u201cChoregus.\u201d The Greek word for a leader of the chorus.\n\nP. 78\u2014\u201cApollodorus,\u201d a\u00b4pol-lo-do=\u00b4=rus.\n\nP. 79\u2014\u201cKritobulus,\u201d crit-o-bu\u00b4lus.\n\nP. 81\u2014\u201cPhal\u00e6kus,\u201d pha-l\u00e6\u00b4cus; \u201cTenedos,\u201d ten\u00b4e-dos.\n\nP. 82\u2014\u201cElaphebolion,\u201d el\u00b4a-phe-bo=\u00b4=li-on. The Greeks divided their\nyear into twelve lunar months.\n\nP. 84\u2014\u201cPrytaneium,\u201d pryt-a-ne\u00b4um. The common hall of the Senate, in\nwhich they met daily.\n\nP. 86\u2014\u201cParmenio,\u201d par-me\u00b4ni-o. Of whom Philip said \u201cI have never been\nable to find but one general, and that is Parmenio.\u201d\n\nP. 86\u2014\u201cAttalus,\u201d at\u00b4ta-lus.\n\nP. 88\u2014\u201cLeonnatus,\u201d le\u00b4on-na\u00b4tus.\n\nP. 89\u2014\u201cAmbrakiot,\u201d am-bra\u00b4ci-ot.\n\nP. 90\u2014\u201cEurymedon,\u201d eu-rym\u00b4e-don.\n\nP. 91\u2014\u201cLeonidas,\u201d le-on\u00b4i-das. The hardy habits of self-denial which\nAlexander displayed were attributed by him to the teachings of the\naustere Leonidas.\n\nP. 91\u2014\u201cLysimachus,\u201d ly-sim\u00b4a-chus.\n\nP. 93\u2014\u201cH\u00e6mus,\u201d h\u00e6\u00b4mus; \u201cTriballi,\u201d tri-bal\u00b4li.\n\nP. 94\u2014\u201cOnchestus,\u201d on-ches\u00b4tus; a town a little south of Lake Copias.\n\nP. 94\u2014\u201cLychnitis,\u201d or Lychnidus, lych\u00b4ni-tis; \u201cKleitus,\u201d clei\u00b4tus.\n\nP. 94\u2014\u201cGlaukias,\u201d glau\u00b4ki-as. The king of one of the Illyrian tribes.\n\nP. 95\u2014\u201cPh\u0153nix,\u201d ph\u0153\u00b4nix; \u201cProch\u00b4y-tes;\u201d \u201cEphialtes,\u201d eph\u00b4i-al\u00b4tes.\n\nP. 95\u2014\u201cSinope,\u201d si-no\u00b4pe. The most important of all the Greek colonies\non the Black Sea in Asia Minor.\n\nP. 95\u2014\u201cDiogenes,\u201d di-og\u00b4e-nes.\n\nP. 96\u2014\u201cArtaxerxes,\u201d ar\u00b4tax-erx\u00b4es; \u201cMne\u00b4mon;\u201d \u201cO\u00b4chus;\u201d \u201cBagoas,\u201d\nba-go\u00b4as; \u201cCodomannus,\u201d cod-o-man\u00b4nus.\n\nP. 97\u2014\u201cAbydos,\u201d a\u00b4by-dos. It was from Abydos to Sestus that Leander\nswam to Hero.\n\nP. 98\u2014\u201cPhilotas,\u201d phi-lo\u00b4tas; \u201cHar\u00b4pa-lus;\u201d \u201cEr\u00b4-i-gy\u00b4i-us\u201d (ji\u00b4yus).\n\nP. 99\u2014\u201cZeleia,\u201d ze-li\u00b4a.\n\nP. 99\u2014\u201cArrian,\u201d ar\u00b4ri-an, (100-170 A. D.) A native of Bithynia. One of\nthe best writers of his time. He strove to imitate Xenophon, attached\nhimself to the philosopher Epictetus, as Xenophon to Socrates; wrote\nthe lectures of Epictetus to correspond to the Memorabilia. His best\nwork is a history of Alexander\u2019s Asiatic expedition, which, both in\nstyle and matter, is similar to the Anabasis. He wrote numerous other\nworks, many of which are lost.\n\nP. 100\u2014\u201cJustin.\u201d Lived in the third or fourth century. Justin left a\nhistory of the Macedonian empire, compiled from a work now lost by\nTrogus Pompeius, who lived in the time of Augustus.\n\nP. 100\u2014\u201cGranicus,\u201d gra-ni\u00b4cus; \u201cSkepsis,\u201d scep\u00b4sis; \u201cAdrasteia,\u201d\nad\u00b4ras-ti\u00b4a; \u201cPri-a\u00b4pus;\u201d \u201cPa\u00b4ri-um;\u201d \u201cA-ris\u00b4be.\u201d\n\nP. 101\u2014\u201cMeleager,\u201d me\u00b4le-a\u00b4ger; \u201cNikanor,\u201d ni-ca\u00b4nor.\n\nP. 101\u2014\u201cArrhib\u00e6us,\u201d ar\u00b4rha-b\u00e6\u00b4us; \u201cAg\u00b4a-thon.\u201d\n\nP. 101\u2014\u201cBaktrians,\u201d bac\u00b4tri-ans. The warlike inhabitants of Bactria, a\nnortheast province of the Persian Empire.\n\nP. 101\u2014\u201cPaphlagonians,\u201d paph=\u00b4=la-go\u00b4ni-ans. A district on the north of\nAsia Minor between Bithynia and Pontus.\n\nP. 101\u2014\u201cHyrkanians,\u201d hyr-ka\u00b4ni-ans. Hyrcania, the country of these\npeople, is on the southern and southwestern shores of the Caspian Sea.\n\nP. 101\u2014\u201cArsites,\u201d ar-si\u00b4tes; \u201cSpith\u00b4ra-da\u00b4tes;\u201d \u201cAr-sam\u00b4e-nes.\u201d\n\nP. 103\u2014\u201cDemaratus,\u201d dem\u00b4a-ra\u00b4tus; \u201cDrop\u00b4i-des.\u201d\n\nP. 104\u2014\u201cLysippus,\u201d ly-sip\u00b4pus.\n\nP. 104\u2014\u201cSardis.\u201d One of the most famous cities of Asia Minor. This\ncitadel had always been considered impregnable from its situation.\n\nP. 105\u2014\u201cMiletus,\u201d mi-le\u00b4tus.\n\nP. 106\u2014\u201cTralles,\u201d tral\u00b4les; \u201cLycia,\u201d lyc\u00b4i-a; \u201cPam-phyl\u00b4i-a;\u201d\n\u201cPi-sid\u00b4i-a;\u201d \u201cGordium,\u201d gor\u00b4di-um; \u201cSan-ga\u00b4ri-us;\u201d \u201cPhrygia,\u201d\nphryg\u00b4i-a.\n\nP. 108\u2014\u201cMesopotamia,\u201d mes\u00b4o-po-ta\u00b4mi-a.\n\nP. 108\u2014\u201cSogdiana,\u201d sog\u00b4di-a\u00b4na. The northeastern portion of the Persian\nEmpire, including portions of the present country of Turkestan and\nBokhara.\n\nP. 109\u2014\u201cGates of Kilikia.\u201d See on map, p. 108, _Pyl\u00e6 Kikili\u00e6_,\n\u201cAmanus,\u201d a-ma\u00b4nus.\n\nP. 110\u2014\u201cBeylan,\u201d b\u0101\u00b4lan.\n\nP. 112\u2014\u201cKardakes,\u201d car\u00b4da-ces.\n\nP. 113\u2014\u201cSeleukis,\u201d se-leu\u00b4cis.\n\nP. 116\u2014\u201cK\u0153le-Syria,\u201d c\u0153l\u00b4e-syr\u00b4i-a. Hollow Syria. The name given to the\nvalley between the two ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria,\nand bordering on Palestine.\n\nP. 117\u2014\u201cPersepolis,\u201d per-sep\u00b4o-lis. A treasure city of the Persians\nsituated on the north of the river Araxes.\n\nP. 119\u2014\u201cPelusium,\u201d pe-lu\u00b4si-um; \u201cHeph\u00e6stion,\u201d he-ph\u00e6s\u00b4ti-on.\n\nP. 119\u2014\u201cApis,\u201d a\u00b4pis. The name given to the Bull of Memphis, worshiped\nby the Egyptians as a god. There were certain signs by which the\nanimal was recognized to be the god: he must be black, a white, square\nmark must be on his forehead, etc. When found he was worshiped with\ngreatest honors. Gradually the bull came to be regarded as a symbol,\nand Apis was identified with the sun.\n\nP. 119\u2014\u201cKanopus,\u201d ca-no\u00b4pus.\n\nP. 119\u2014\u201cPharos.\u201d The island is mentioned by Homer. Alexander united it\nto his new city by a mole. Ptolemy II. built a lighthouse here. Hence\nwe have the name Pharos often given to such buildings. The translators\nof the Septuagint are said to have been confined here until they\nfinished their task.\n\nP. 119\u2014\u201cMareotis,\u201d ma-re-o\u00b4tis.\n\nP. 120\u2014\u201cAmmon.\u201d Originally an Ethiopian god, afterward adopted by the\nEgyptians. The Greeks called him Zeus Ammon, and the Romans, Jupiter\nAmmon. The god was represented under the form of a ram, and this\nseems to indicate that the original idea in the worship was that of a\nprotector of flocks.\n\nP. 121\u2014\u201cArbela,\u201d ar-be\u00b4la; \u201cGaugamela,\u201d gau-ga-me\u00b4la.\n\nP. 123\u2014\u201cAlbanians.\u201d These people came from Albania, a country on the\nwest of the Caspian and in the southeast of Georgia.\n\nP. 123\u2014\u201cKarians,\u201d from Karia; \u201cMenidas,\u201d men\u00b4i-das.\n\nP. 124\u2014\u201cBessus,\u201d bes\u00b4sus.\n\nP. 125\u2014\u201cAretas,\u201d ar\u00b4e-tas.\n\nP. 127\u2014\u201cCurtius,\u201d cur\u00b4ti-us. The Roman historian of Alexander the\nGreat. Nothing is known of his life. His history is fairly reliable.\n\nP. 128\u2014\u201cEul\u00e6us,\u201d eu-l\u00e6\u00b4us. The Old Testament Ulai, rises in Media, and\nuniting with the Pasitigris, flows into the Persian Gulf.\n\nP. 128\u2014\u201cPasitigris,\u201d pa-sit\u00b4i-gris.\n\nP. 129\u2014\u201cT\u00e6narus,\u201d t\u00e6n\u00b4a-rus. Now Cape Matapan.\n\nP. 131\u2014\u201cDrangiana,\u201d dran\u00b4gi-a\u00b4na; \u201cAr\u00b4a-cho\u00b4si-a;\u201d \u201cGe-dro\u00b4si-a;\u201d\n\u201cPar\u00b4o-pa-mis\u00b4i-d\u00e6;\u201d \u201cSeistan,\u201d s\u0101-stan\u00b4; \u201cCandahar,\u201d can-da-har\u00b4;\n\u201cZurrah,\u201d zur\u00b4rah.\n\nP. 132\u2014\u201cEcbatana,\u201d ec-bat\u00b4-a-na.\n\nP. 135\u2014\u201cDioskuri,\u201d di\u00b4os-cu\u00b4ri. Literally the sons of Jupiter. The\nheroes Castor and Pollux.\n\nP. 136\u2014\u201cOxyartes,\u201d ox\u00b4y-ar\u00b4tes.\n\nP. 137\u2014\u201cTelestes,\u201d te-les\u00b4tes; \u201cPhi-lox\u00b4e-mus;\u201d \u201cBukephalia,\u201d\nbu\u00b4ce-pha-li\u00b4a; \u201cAkesines,\u201d ac\u00b4e-si\u00b4nes; \u201cHyd-ra-o\u00b4tes;\u201d \u201cHyph\u00b4a-sis.\u201d\n\nP. 139\u2014\u201cArabit\u00e6,\u201d ar\u00b4a-bi\u00b4t\u00e6; \u201cO-ri\u00b4t\u00e6;\u201d \u201cIch\u00b4thy-oph\u00b4a-gi.\u201d\n\n\nBRIEF HISTORY OF GREECE.\n\nThe \u201cBrief History of Greece\u201d has not been annotated as the\npronunciation of the Greek and Latin names is marked, and its foot\nnotes are sufficient.\n\n\nAMERICAN LITERATURE.\n\nP. 9\u2014\u201cSandys,\u201d s\u0103n\u00b4d\u012ds.\n\nP. 11\u2014\u201cMagnalia Christi Americana.\u201d The great deeds of Christ in\nAmerica.\n\nP. 14\u2014\u201cFox.\u201d (1624-1690.) The founder of the sect of the Quakers.\n\nP. 14\u2014\u201cIpswich,\u201d ips\u00b4wich, \u201cAg-a-wam\u00b4.\u201d The latter was the first name\ngiven to Ipswich.\n\nP. 15\u2014\u201cYale Library.\u201d These forty books have increased to over 112,000,\nexclusive of pamphlets.\n\nP. 18\u2014\u201cHopkinsianism,\u201d hop-kins\u00b4i-an-ism.\n\nP. 20\u2014\u201cPhilomath,\u201d phil\u00b4o-math. A lover of learning.\n\nP. 21\u2014\u201cBrainherd,\u201d br\u0101\u00b4nerd.\n\nP. 25\u2014\u201cPublius,\u201d p\u016db\u00b4li-us.\n\nP. 27\u2014\u201cFreneau,\u201d fre-n\u014d\u00b4.\n\nP. 27\u2014\u201cHuguenot,\u201d h\u016b\u00b4ge-not. Diminutive of Hugo, a heretic and\nconspirator. The name was afterwards given to the French Protestants of\nFrance.\n\nP. 27\u2014\u201cColumbiad,\u201d co-l\u016dm\u00b4bi-ad.\n\nP. 28\u2014\u201cDeFoe,\u201d de-f\u014d\u00b4. (1661?-1731.)\n\nP. 30\u2014\u201cHollis professorship.\u201d Established in 1721 by Thomas Hollis.\nBeing a Baptist, he required that the candidate for the professorship\nshould be of orthodox principles.\n\nP. 31\u2014\u201cTrinitarian,\u201d tr\u012dn-i-ta\u00b4ri-an. Pertaining to the Trinity.\n\nP. 31\u2014\u201cArian,\u201d \u0101\u00b4ri-an. A follower of Arius, who held Christ to be a\ncreated being.\n\nP. 36\u2014\u201cSchaff,\u201d sh\u00e4f.\n\nP. 36\u2014\u201cSwedenborgian,\u201d sw\u0113-den-b\u00f4r\u00b4gi-an.\n\nP. 39\u2014\u201cPseudonym,\u201d s\u016b\u00b4do-n\u012dm. A fictitious name.\n\nP. 39\u2014\u201cSalmagundi,\u201d s\u0103l-ma-g\u016dn\u00b4d\u012d. Originally a mixture of\nchopped meats, fish with pepper, etc.; hence, a medley, a _pot-pourri_.\n\nP. 42\u2014-\u201cGranada,\u201d gra-na\u00b4da; \u201cAl-ham\u00b4bra.\u201d\n\nP. 45\u2014\u201cGuildford,\u201d gil\u00b4ford.\n\nP. 46\u2014\u201cMarco Bozzaris,\u201d mar\u00b4c\u014d bot\u00b4s\u00e4-ris. A Greek patriot, born in\n1790, killed at Missolonghi in 1823.\n\nP. 46\u2014\u201cBuccanneer,\u201d b\u016dc\u00b4ca-neer\u00b4.\n\nP. 47\u2014\u201cMuhlenburg,\u201d mu\u00b4len-berg.\n\nP. 47\u2014\u201cHadad,\u201d h\u0101\u00b4d\u0103d.\n\nP. 48\u2014\u201cThanatopsis;\u201d than-a-top\u00b4sis. A view of death.\n\nP. 49\u2014\u201cPhi Beta Kappa Society.\u201d A prominent Greek letter society,\nfounded in the College of William and Mary in 1776.\n\nP. 49\u2014\u201cVerplanck,\u201d ver-pl\u0103nk\u00b4.\n\nP. 51\u2014\u201cLope de Vega,\u201d lo\u00b4p\u0101 da v\u0101\u00b4g\u00e4. (1562-1635.) A Spanish poet\nand dramatist.\n\nP. 52\u2014\u201cBruges,\u201d br\u00fczh.\n\nP. 54\u2014\u201c_Morituri Salutamus._\u201d Literally, We about to die, salute you.\n\nP. 54\u2014\u201cAftermath,\u201d aft\u00b4er-m\u0103th. The second crop of grass mown in a\nyear.\n\nP. 54\u2014\u201cOutre-mer.\u201d Beyond the sea.\n\nP. 54\u2014\u201cHyperion,\u201d hy-pe\u00b4r\u012d-on; \u201cKavanagh,\u201d kav\u00b4a-n\u00e4h.\n\nP. 61\u2014\u201cLaunfal,\u201d laun\u00b4fal.\n\nP. 63\u2014\u201cBaudelaire,\u201d b\u014d-de-lar.\n\nP. 67\u2014\u201cG\u00f6ttingen,\u201d get\u00b4ting-en.\n\nP. 70\u2014\u201cBarneveld,\u201d bar\u00b4ne-v\u0115lt.\n\nP. 72\u2014\u201cMohicans,\u201d mo-hi\u00b4cans.\n\nP. 74\u2014\u201cSurinam,\u201d soo-r\u012d-nam\u00b4. Dutch Guiana.\n\nP. 76\u2014\u201cThoreau,\u201d tho\u00b4ro.\n\nP. 78\u2014\u201cAurelian,\u201d au-re\u00b4li-an; \u201cJu\u00b4li-an;\u201d \u201cZe-no\u00b4bia.\u201d\n\nP. 78\u2014\u201cYemassee,\u201d ye-mas-see\u00b4. The Yemassees were the tribe of Indians\nafterwards called Savannahs.\n\nP. 78\u2014\u201cBeauchampe,\u201d b\u014d\u00b4sh\u014fn\u00b4.\n\nP. 81\u2014\u201cPotiphar,\u201d pot\u00b4i-phar.\n\nP. 84\u2014\u201cAudubon,\u201d aw\u00b4du-bon; \u201cAgassiz,\u201d \u0103g\u00b4a-see; \u201cGuyot,\u201d g\u0113\u00b4o\u00b4.\n\nP. 87\u2014\u201cPre-Raphaelites,\u201d pre-r\u0103ph\u00b4a-el-\u012btes. Following the style\nbefore the time of Raphael.\n\nP. 89\u2014\u201cImprovisatori,\u201d im-pr\u014f\u00b4vi-sa-t\u014d\u00b4ri. Those who compose\nextemporaneously.\n\nP. 92\u2014\u201cRossetti,\u201d ros-s\u0115t\u00b4ee.\n\nP. 94\u2014\u201c_Toujours amour._\u201d Always love.\n\nP. 94\u2014\u201cPiatt,\u201d p\u012b\u00b4at.\n\nP. 103\u2014\u201cAzarian,\u201d az\u00b4a-ri\u00b4an.\n\nP. 103\u2014\u201cHjalmar Hjorth Boyesen,\u201d h-a-jal-mer h-a-jorth bo-yay-sen.\n\nP. 110\u2014\u201cLitterateur,\u201d l\u0113-t\u0101\u00b4r\u00e4-tur. A literary man.\n\n\n\n\nNOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN \u201cTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u201d\n\n\nGERMAN HISTORY.\n\nP. 1, c. 1\u2014\u201cClovis,\u201d kl\u014d\u00b4vis; \u201cCharlemagne,\u201d shar\u00b4le-m\u0101n\u00b4;\n\u201cRudolphus,\u201d roo-d\u014fl\u00b4fus; \u201cSwabian,\u201d swa\u00b4b\u012b-an; \u201cHohenstaufen,\u201d\nho\u00b4en-stow\u00b4fen; \u201cWestphalia,\u201d west-ph\u0101\u00b4l\u012d-a.\n\nP. 1, c. 1\u2014\u201cMaes.\u201d The Flemish name for the Meuse.\n\nP. 1, c. 1\u2014\u201cMarch,\u201d or \u201cMorawa.\u201d A river of Austria. Its position as\na boundary of Hungary, and proximity to Vienna, have often made it of\nhistorical importance.\n\nP. 1, c. 1\u2014\u201cMur,\u201d or \u201cMuir,\u201d moor.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cProsna,\u201d pros\u00b4na; \u201cNieman,\u201d nee\u00b4man.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cTeutoburg,\u201d toi\u00b4to-boorg. A range of mountains in Western\nGermany, about eighty miles in length. It was in this forest that the\nGerman Arminius defeated the Romans in A. D. 9.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cErz,\u201d erts. The Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, are on the\nboundary between Bohemia and Saxony, extending about 100 miles. There\nare several granite peaks in the range. These mountains have long been\nfamous for their mineral products of silver, tin, iron, cobalt, copper,\netc. Coal is found also and porcelain clay.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cRiesen,\u201d ree\u00b4zen. Giant mountains. A continuation of the\nErzgebirge, lying east of the river Elbe. The range extends about\nseventy-five miles. It is of the same geological formation as the Erz.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cWeser,\u201d We\u00b4ser; \u201cVistula,\u201d vist\u00b4yu-la.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cMagyar,\u201d mod\u00b4jor. A tribe which came from the far East.\nIn 887 they came into Hungary and soon conquered it and the adjoining\ncountry. For one hundred years their conquests were extended, but at\nlast they consolidated the power within their own country. The Magyars\npossessed an independent kingdom until the present century, but now\nconstitute one of the two leading divisions of the Austro-Hungarian\nmonarchy. The Emperor of Austria is the King of Hungary.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cTuranians,\u201d tu-ra\u00b4ni-ans. The tribes of the Turanians are\nthe Finns, the people of Siberia, the Tartars, the Mongols, and the\nMantchoos.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cAryan,\u201d \u00e4r\u00b4yan. The tribes speaking the Germanic, Slavic,\nCeltic, Italic, Greek, Iranian, and Sanskrit languages belong to this\nfamily.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cTeutonic,\u201d te\u016b-ton\u00b4ic. The Teutonic dialects were the\nlanguages spoken by the ancient Germans, so-called from one of the\ntribes, the Teutons.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cPytheas,\u201d pyth\u00b4e-as. He is said to have made two voyages,\none to Britain and Iceland, another to the northern coast of Europe.\n\nP. 1, c. 2\u2014\u201cTuisko,\u201d too-is\u00b4ko. The German legends describe the god as\na gray-haired man, clad in skins of animals, and with a scepter in his\nright hand.\n\nP. 2, c. 1\u2014\u201cTacitus,\u201d tac\u00b4i-tus. (A. D. 55-117.) A Roman historian. His\nhistories of the condition and customs of the Britains and Germans are\ntrustworthy accounts, written in a clear and concise style. A history\nof Rome is his most ambitious work.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cSuetonius,\u201d swe-to\u00b4ni-us. A Roman historian, living in the\nlatter half of the first century. His writings were very voluminous.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cK\u011blt,\u201d or \u201cC\u011blt.\u201d A race of Asiatic origin, which in\nvery early time passed into Europe and gradually worked their way to\nthe present countries of France, and Great Britain. The Irish, Welsh,\nand the Scotch of the Highlands are descendants of the Celts.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cEagle.\u201d From the time of Marius the eagle was the principal\nemblem of the Roman Empire, and the standard of the legions. In the\nfourteenth century the Germans adopted it, and afterwards Russia. The\narms of Prussia bear the black eagle, those of Poland bore the white.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cDe Moribus Germanorum.\u201d Treatise concerning the customs of\nthe Germans.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cTitus.\u201d (A. D. 40-81.) Roman Emperor. Titus had\nopportunities of observing the Germans when he was young, being\nmilitary tribune in Germany.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cW\u014d\u00b4dan,\u201d The same as Odin, Wuotan, and Wotan. See \u201cNotes\non Scandinavian Literature,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for April.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cHertha,\u201d also written \u00c6rtha, or Nerthus. As goddess of the\nearth Hertha was believed to bring fertility. In the spring festivities\nwere held to celebrate her arrival, all feuds were suspended and the\ngreatest rejoicing prevailed.\n\nP. 2, c. 2\u2014\u201cRunes.\u201d The Norsemen had a peculiar alphabet of sixteen\nletters, or signs. It was not used as we use our alphabet; indeed, as\nthe word _rune_ (mystery) signifies, its meaning was known to but few.\nThe letters were carved on rocks, stones, utensils, etc. Also, as in\nthe case alluded to, on smooth sticks for divination. A mysterious\npower was supposed to reside in these characters.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe article on \u201cAir,\u201d in the Physical Science series, is abridged\nfrom the \u201cEnglish Science Primer on Physical Geography,\u201d by Archibald\nGeikie. The clear, simple style of the article make annotations\nunnecessary. The same is also true of the paper on \u201cPolitical Economy.\u201d\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\nP. 6, c. 2\u2014\u201cArch\u00e6ology,\u201d \u00e4r-ch\u00e6-\u014fl\u00b4o-gy. The science of antiquities.\n\nP. 7, c. 1\u2014\u201cGuadaloupe,\u201d gaw\u00b4da-loop\u00b4. An island of the West Indies.\n\nP. 7, c. 2\u2014\u201cOwen.\u201d (1807-1860.) An American geologist. He made\ngeological surveys of several States of the West and published reports\nof his labors.\n\nP. 8, c. 1\u2014\u201cLamartine,\u201d l\u00e4-mar-ten\u00b4. (1790-1869.) A French poet. After\nseveral years of writing and travel Lamartine, in 1835, was chosen a\nmember of the Chamber of Deputies. Here his oratory won him laurels.\nHe was a Liberalist, and in 1848, during the establishment of the\nrepublic, Lamartine\u2019s eloquence and boldness prevented open attack\nupon the aristocracy. He occupied several positions under the new\ngovernment, but finally retired to literary work.\n\n\nREADINGS IN ART.\n\nP. 11, c. 1\u2014\u201cGlyptics,\u201d glyp\u00b4tics. Carving on precious stones.\n\nP. 11, c. 1\u2014\u201cBas relief,\u201d b\u00e4-re-leef\u00b4. \u201cMichael Angelo,\u201d me-k\u0115l\nan\u00b4ja-lo. (1474-1562). The Italian painter and sculptor.\n\nP. 11, c. 2\u2014\u201cLapidary,\u201d l\u0103p\u00b4i-da-ry. One who cuts, polishes, and\nengraves stones. \u201cVitreous,\u201d v\u012dt\u00b4re-ous, glassy; \u201cTer\u00b4ra cot\u00b4ta;\u201d\n\u201cChryselephantine,\u201d chrys\u00b4el-e-ph\u0103nt\u00b4ine; \u201cTo-reu\u00b4tic;\u201d \u201cAr\u00b4ma-ture.\u201d\n\nP. 12, c. 1\u2014\u201cGalvano-plastique,\u201d gal-v\u0101\u00b4no-pl\u0103s-teek;\n\u201cB\u0103s\u00b4so-r\u0113-li\u0113\u00b4vo;\u201d \u201cStiacciato,\u201d st\u0113-\u00e4t-ch\u00e4\u00b4to;\n\u201cMezzo-relievo,\u201d m\u0115d\u00b4zo-re-li\u0113\u00b4vo; \u201cAl\u00b4to-re-li\u0113-vo;\u201d\n\u201cCa-vo-re-li\u0113\u00b4vo.\u201d\n\nP. 12, c. 1\u2014\u201cRenaissance,\u201d r\u016dh-n\u0101\u00b4s\u014fngs\u00b4. The awakening or\nnew birth, that took place in architecture, literature, and the fine\narts from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. Men\u2019s minds during\nthe middle ages had been under the influence of the church. Freedom of\nthought and action became almost extinct. Reaction revived all branches\nof art and literature, producing the period called the \u201cRenaissance.\u201d\n\nP. 12, c. 1\u2014\u201cPolycleitus,\u201d pol\u00b4y-clei\u00b4tus. A Greek sculptor who lived\nabout 430 B. C. His statues of men are said to have surpassed those of\nPhidias. The Spear Bearer was a statue so perfectly proportioned that\nit was called the canon or rule.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cVitruvius Pollio,\u201d vi-tru\u00b4vi-us pol\u00b4li-o. A Roman\narchitect who served under C\u00e6sar. His treatise on architecture is a\ncompendium of Greek writers on the subject.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cMem\u00b4phis.\u201d Meaning the abode of the good one. Once the\nmost magnificent city of Egypt, the capital of the kingdom, and\nresidence of several Egyptian deities. It is only of late that its site\nhas been known.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cCheops,\u201d k\u0113\u00b4ops.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cRenan,\u201d ree\u00b4nan. A French orientalist, author and critic.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cMariette,\u201d m\u00e4=\u00b4=re=\u00b4=[)et]\u00b4. French Egyptologist.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cGhizeh,\u201d jee\u00b4zeh, or gee\u00b4zeh. A village of Egypt three\nmiles from Cairo. The three great pyramids are but five miles from\nGhizeh.\n\nP. 12, c. 2\u2014\u201cAmosis,\u201d a-mo\u00b4sis; \u201cA-mu\u00b4nothph;\u201d \u201cThoth\u00b4mo-sis;\u201d\n\u201cNi-to\u00b4cris.\u201d\n\nP. 13, c. 1\u2014\u201cKarnak,\u201d kar\u00b4nak. A modern village of Egypt, in which has\nbeen found a portion of the ruins of Thebes.\n\nP. 13, c. 1\u2014\u201cMem\u00b4non.\u201d A statue of a hero of the Trojan war. It is\ncalled musical because at sunrise a sound comes from it like the twang\nof a harp string. It has been conjectured that this tone was caused by\nthe expansive effect of the sun\u2019s rays upon the stone.\n\nP. 13, c. 1 \u201cRam\u00b4ses;\u201d \u201cTu\u00b4rin.\u201d\n\nP. 13, c. 1\u2014\u201cOsiris,\u201d o-si\u00b4ris. One of the chief divinities of the\nEgyptians.\n\nP. 13, c. 1\u2014\u201cLouvre,\u201d loovr; \u201cAbou Simbel,\u201d \u00e2-boo-sim\u00b4bel; \u201cCoptic,\u201d\nc\u014fp\u00b4tic.\n\nP. 13, c. 2\u2014\u201cEdfou,\u201d ed\u00b4foo\u00b4; \u201cDenderah,\u201d den\u00b4der-\u00e4h.\n\nP. 13, c. 2-\u201cHadrian,\u201d ha\u00b4dr\u012d-an, or Adrian. (76-138.) Roman Emperor.\n\nP. 13, c. 2\u2014\u201cBotta,\u201d bot\u00b4\u00e4; \u201cMo\u00b4sul.\u201d\n\nP. 14, c. 1\u2014\u201cSarcophaguses,\u201d sar-c\u014fph\u00b4a-g\u016dses. Literally the word\nmeans _eating flesh_, and was named from the peculiar kind of limestone\nused by the Greeks for making coffins which consumed the body in a\nshort time. Now a coffin or tomb made from stone of any kind.\n\nP. 14, c. 1\u2014\u201cCambyses,\u201d kam-b\u012b\u00b4s\u0113z. The second king of Persia,\nand probably the Ahasuerus mentioned in Ezra.\n\n\nAMERICAN LITERATURE.\n\nP. 14, c. 2\u2014\u201cSandys.\u201d The extract here given is taken from the\ndedication of one of Sandys\u2019s works to Prince Charles, afterward\nKing Charles I. The work bears the ambitious title, \u201cA Relation of a\nJourney begun in A. D. 1610; Four Bookes containing a description of\nthe Turkish Empire, of Egypt, of the Holy Land, of the remote parts\nof Italy and Islands adjoining.\u201d Of this work a traveler of the times\nsays, \u201cThe descriptions are so faithful and perfect that they leave\nlittle to be added by after-comers, and nothing to be corrected.\u201d\n\nP. 15, c. 2\u2014\u201cMogul,\u201d mo-g\u016bl\u00b4. A person of the Mongolian race.\n\nP. 15, c. 2\u2014\u201c_C\u00e6teris paribus._\u201d Other things being equal.\n\nP. 15, c. 2\u2014\u201cBoyle,\u201d boil. (1626-1691.) An Irish chemist and\nphilosopher. He has been called the inventor of the air pump, and by it\nhe demonstrated the elasticity of the air. His charity and philanthropy\ngave him the reverence of his associates and his philosophical\nexperiments placed him among scientists. He has been called \u201cthe great\nChristian philosopher.\u201d\n\nP. 15, c. 2\u2014\u201cBodleian,\u201d b\u014dd\u00b4le-an. Pertaining to Sir Thomas Bodley,\nwho founded a celebrated library in Oxford in the sixteenth century.\n\nP. 15, c. 2\u2014\u201cV\u0103t\u00b4i-can.\u201d An assemblage of buildings in Rome,\nincluding the Pope\u2019s palace, museum, library, etc.\n\nP. 16, c. 1\u2014\u201cEdwards.\u201d This selection is taken from Edwards\u2019s treatise\non the \u201cReligious Affections.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nCHAUTAUQUA CHILDREN\u2019S CLASS, 1883.\n\n\nThe grades of the written examination are given upon the standard of\n100. The three receiving 98\u2154 in the full-course list are entitled to\nthe prizes. No prizes are given to those passing only on the lessons of\nthe first series, but their standards are given showing good work.\n\nFULL COURSE.\n\n    Lillian Aldrich, box 79, Madisonville, O.                    92\u2154\n    Edna Amos, 10 Brighton Street, Cleveland, O.                 92\u2154\n    Helen Archbold, box 16, Titusville, Pa.                      96\n    James H. Archbold, box 16, Titusville, Pa.                   95\u2153\n    Bessie Barrett, care C. S. Barrett, Titusville, Pa.          84\u2154\n    Grace E. Barrett, care C. S. Barrett, Titusville, Pa.        92\n    Mary E. Bray, Parker\u2019s Landing, Pa.                          95\u2153\n    Irma Campbell, Hartfield, Chautauqua County, N. Y.           85\u2153\n    Lizzie Cary, Conneautville, Pa.                              82\n    Phrania Chesbro, Harrisville, Pa.                            94\n    Nell Clark, Union City, Pa.                                  95\u2153\n    Carrie Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest County, Pa.               93\u2153\n    Mary Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest County, Pa.                 97\u2153\n    Rachel Dithridge, Tionesta, Forest County, Pa.               78\u2154\n    Carrie M. Dixon, box 213, Titusville, Pa.                    94\n    Daisy A. Doren, 307 East Sixth Street, Dayton, O.            98\u2154\n    Elsie Downs, box 195, Chautauqua, N. Y.                      92\u2154\n    Mary E. Ensign, Madison, O.                                  90\n    Alice R. Eaton, Titusville, Pa.                              96\n    Louise Folley, 101 South Sixth Street, Lafayette, Ind.       96\u2154\n    Anna Funnell, care Mrs. J. McAllister, White Hall, Ill.      93\u2153\n    Emma G. Guernsey, Oil City, Pa.                              87\u2153\n    Florence Guernsey, Oil City, Pa.                             95\u2153\n    Mamie A. Guernsey, Canton, Bradford County, Pa.              98\u2154\n    Claire Hammond, Oil City, Pa.                                91\u2153\n    Albert J. Harris, 530 South Division Street, Buffalo, N. Y.  74\n    Inez Harris, box 1159, Bradford, Pa.                         73\u2153\n    May Herrick, Chautauqua, N. Y.                               78\u2154\n    Hattie K. Horr, Sidney, O.                                   96\n    Edith D. Hunter, Mill Village, Erie County, Pa.              94\n    Helen E. Irwin, Tampa, Fla.                                  95\u2153\n    Blanche Jackson, Collins Center, Erie County, N. Y.          88\u2154\n    Dora E. Jackson, Collins Center, Erie County, N. Y.          80\u2154\n    Willie Johnson, Girard, O.                                   74\n    Cora B. Jones, Greenfield, Pa.                               90\n    Florence A. Jones, Greenfield, Pa.                           96\n    Florence E. Keller, Titusville, Pa.                          84\u2154\n    Grace J. Kirkland, Dewittville, N. Y.                        96\n    Jessie Leslie, Chautauqua, N. Y.                             90\n    Fannie E. Lowes, Canonsburg, Pa.                             97\u2153\n    Clair Metcalf, box 1194, Bradford, Pa.                       79\u2153\n    Nellie M. Norris, West Farmington, O.                        98\u2154\n    Herbert Russell, Mansfield, O.                               96\u2154\n    Alma J. Schofield, Hartfield, N. Y.                          79\u2153\n    Clyde Simmons, Oil City, Pa.                                 78\u2154\n    Mary A. Sixbey, Mayville, N. Y.                              96\n    Julia A. Tifft, care S. E. Tifft, Titusville, Pa.            93\u2153\n    Mary L. Turrill, Cumminsville Street, Cincinnati, O.         83\u2153\n    Harry B. Vincent, Pottsville Pa.                             72\n\nWRITTEN EXAMINATION\u2014FIRST SERIES.\n\n    Edna Amos, 10 Brighton Street, Cleveland, O.                 97\u00bd\n    William F. Amos, 10 Brighton Street, Cleveland, O.           97\u00bd\n    Annie Archbold, box 16, Titusville, Pa.                      91\u2154\n    Percy Barlow, 88 Mayberry Avenue, Detroit, Mich.             97\u00bd\n    Carrie Bradley, Titusville, Pa.                              79\u2159\n    Bessie Burwell, Mercer, Pa.                                  80\u215a\n    Ellis J. Chesbro, Harrisville, Pa.                           99\u2159\n    Jessie Clauson, Rutland, Vt.                                 95\u215a\n    Jessie Galey, Pollock P. O., Pa.                            100\n    Helen M. Guernsey, Canton, Pa.                               95\n    Claire Hammond, Oil City, Pa.                               100\n    Maud Harkins, Chautauqua, N. Y.                              82\u00bd\n    Willie M. Hill, Liverpool, O.                                91\u215c\n    Louie Hogan, West Monterey, Pa.                              81\u2154\n    Grace Holmes, Union City, Pa.                                88\u2153\n    Clara Irwin, Tampa, Fla.                                     95\u215a\n    Cora B. Jones, Greenfield, Pa.                               99\u2159\n    Hudson Layton, 269 Liberty Street, Pittsburgh, Pa.           70\n    Winnie Maguire, Pittsfield, Pa.                              90\n    Mabel Metcalf, Bradford, Pa.                                 83\u2153\n    Ettie Niles, Flushing, Mich.                                 98\u2153\n    Carrie Perkins, Dunkirk, N. Y.                               82\u00bd\n    Herbert Russell, Mansfield, O.                              100\n    Grace Vance, New Wilmington, Pa.                             75\u2154\n    Nellie Vance, New Wilmington, Pa.                            81\u2154\n    Bessie S. Williams, 221 N. Juniper, Philadelphia, Pa.        97\u00bd\n    Nellie Wood, Kansas, Ill.                                    96\u2154\n    Lovie Yingling, Pollock P. O., Pa.                          100\n    _No name_ on a successful paper.                             85\n\n\nORAL EXAMINATION\u2014FIRST SERIES.\n\n    Russell Armor, Bradford, Pa.\n    Gracie Bosley, Bradford, Pa.\n    Miner D. Crary, Sheffield, Pa.\n    Carrie Darling, Spartansburg, Pa.\n    Eva Hall, Brockton, N. Y.\n    Ralph Harris, 530 South Division Street, Buffalo, N. Y.\n    Gracie Jones, Greenfield, Pa.\n    Nina Jones, Princeton, Ky.\n    Carlie F. Kittridge, Geneseo, N. Y.\n    Robert Kittridge, Geneseo, N. Y.\n    Hattie Miner, Deposit, N. Y.\n    Grace L. Smith, Union City, Mich.\n    Emily E. Spear, Spring Mills, N. Y.\n    Annie Taylor, Chautauqua, N. Y.\n    Willie F. Walworth, 107 Public Square, Cleveland, O.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: ROYAL BAKING POWDER\n\nAbsolutely Pure.]\n\nThis powder never varies. A marvel of purity, strength and\nwholesomeness. More economical than the ordinary kinds, and can not be\nsold in competition with the multitude of low test, short weight, alum\nor phosphate powders. _Sold only in cans._ ROYAL BAKING POWDER CO., 106\nWall Street, New York.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes:\n\nObvious punctuation errors repaired. Aterisks in the list below\nindicate a space or smudged letter.\n\nPage 4, \u201ctemperture\u201d changed to \u201ctemperature\u201d (same temperature as the)\n\nPage 8, \u201cskepic\u201d changed to \u201cskeptic\u201d (Christian or skeptic)\n\nPage 10, \u201c*ruths\u201d changed to \u201ctruths\u201d (truths. It is)\n\nPage 11, \u201cbass\u201d changed to \u201cbas\u201d (his statue, or bas)\n\nPage 13, the small-capital III. was changed to all-captials to match\nthe rest of the usage in the text (of Amunothph III., previously)\n\nPage 14, as above, B. C. was changed to B. C. twice to reflect majority\nof usage in text. (560 B. C.) (331 B. C.)\n\nPage 15, \u201cvarietyt\u201d changed to \u201cvariety,\u201d (with such variety,)\n\nPage 16, \u201cpay\u201d changed to \u201cday\u201d (day. Thus it is)\n\nPage 17, \u201cthe of\u201d changed to \u201cof the\u201d (a vivid picture of the)\n\nPage 19, the first column ends midline with the words:\n\n    indissolubly, and the first line of the couplet:\n\nThe next column does not have either a couplet or an indentation\nindicating a new paragraph. It simply goes with the sentence. This was\nretained as printed.\n\nPage 22, \u201cMoliere\u201d changed to \u201cMoli\u00e8re\u201d (and brought Moli\u00e8re)\n\nPage 26, \u201cot\u201d changed to \u201cto\u201d (Athen\u00e6um to witness the)\n\nPage 27, \u201cther*\u201d changed to \u201cthere\u201d (no fear that there)\n\nPage 28, \u201cChautauqna\u201d changed to \u201cChautauqua\u201d (present at Chautauqua)\n\nPage 35, \u201cslaves\u201d changed to \u201cSlavs\u201d (the eastern Slavs there)\n\nPage 36, \u201cportecoch\u00e9re\u201d changed to \u201cportecoch\u00e8re\u201d (_portecoch\u00e8re_, were\nwhitened)\n\nPage 36, \u201cinerests\u201d changed to \u201cinterests\u201d (these objects and interests)\n\nPage 37, \u201cwlll\u201d changed to \u201cwill\u201d (yet their conversation will)\n\nPage 37, \u201cFrauenkircho\u201d changed to \u201cFrauenkirche\u201d (Opera House, the\nFrauenkirche)\n\nPage 37, \u201ceopy\u201d changed to \u201ccopy\u201d (copy a picture in)\n\nPage 39, \u201cdeficiences\u201d changed to \u201cdeficiencies\u201d (his personal\ndeficiencies)\n\nPage 52, \u201cora*ors\u201d changed to \u201corators\u201d (prominent as orators)\n\nPage 56, \u201cAdriondacks\u201d changed to \u201cAdirondacks\u201d (the Adirondacks and\nCatskills)\n\nPage 58, \u201cPherae\u201d changed to \u201cPher\u00e6\u201d (\u201cPher\u00e6.\u201d A city of Thessaly)\n\nPage 61, \u201cWe\u00b4ser;\u201d changed to (\u201cWeser,\u201d We\u00b4ser;) to match rest of\nentries in section.\n\nPage 61, \u201cbearer\u201d changed to \u201cBearer\u201d (The Spear Bearer was a)\n\nPage 61, \u201cMich\u00e6l\u201d changed to \u201cMichael\u201d (\u201cMichael Angelo,\u201d)","title":"The Chautauquan, Vol. 04, October 1883","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":84512}