{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_55053/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_55053","id":"gutenberg_55053","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55053","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Journals","Category: Language & Communication","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Science - Chemistry/Biochemistry","Category: Teaching & Education","Chautauqua Institution -- Periodicals","Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle -- Periodicals"],"text":"THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n     _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE.\n        ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._\n\n                VOL. V.      FEBRUARY, 1885.      No. 5.\n\nOfficers of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.\n\n_President_, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. _Chancellor_, J. H. Vincent,\nD.D., New Haven, Conn. _Counselors_, The Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.;\nthe Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C.\nWilkinson, D.D.; Edward Everett Hale. _Office Secretary_, Miss Kate\nF. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. _General Secretary_, Albert M. Martin,\nPittsburgh, Pa.\n\n\n\nContents\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was\ncreated for the HTML version to aid the reader.\n\n\n                   REQUIRED READING FOR FEBRUARY\n    How English Differs From Other Languages                 247\n    Sunday Readings\n        [_February 1_]                                       250\n        [_February 8_]                                       251\n        [_February 15_]                                      251\n        [_February 22_]                                      252\n    Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics\n        Chemistry of Fire.\u2014Ancient Fancies                   252\n    Temperance Teachings of Science: or, the Poison Problem\n        Chapter V.\u2014Prohibition                               255\n    Studies in Kitchen Science and Art\n        V. Tea, Coffee and Chocolate                         257\n    Household Beverages                                      260\n    Huxley on Science                                        261\n    The Circle of the Sciences                               264\n    The Poet\u2019s Vision                                        267\n    The Homelike House\n        Chapter II.\u2014The Family Parlor                        268\n    National Aid to Education                                271\n    The Parson\u2019s Comforter                                   274\n    The Smithsonian Institution                              275\n    Geography of the Heavens for February                    279\n    New Orleans                                              280\n    The Upper Chautauqua                                     284\n    Outline of Required Readings, February, 1885             285\n    Programs for Local Circle Work                           286\n    Local Circles                                            286\n    The C. L. S. C. Classes                                  291\n    Questions and Answers                                    293\n    The Chautauqua University\n        Can Language Be Taught By Correspondence?            295\n    Editor\u2019s Outlook                                         296\n    Editor\u2019s Note-Book                                       299\n    C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for February      301\n    Notes on Required Readings in \u201cThe Chautauquan\u201d          302\n    Talk About Books                                         305\n    Special Notes                                            306\n    C. L. S. C. Graduates                                    306\n\n\n\n\nREQUIRED READING FOR FEBRUARY.\n\n\n\n\nHOW ENGLISH DIFFERS FROM OTHER LANGUAGES.\n\nBY RICHARD GRANT WHITE.\n\n\nIt has occurred to me that some readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN may have\nbeen disappointed in these articles because in their judgment they have\nbeen thus far not sufficiently \u201cpractical.\u201d Many people, far too many,\ndesire chiefly to find some short, straight road to knowledge. They like\nto have some man who is called an \u201cauthority\u201d upon a certain subject\ncut his knowledge up into small parcels or \u201cchunks\u201d of convenient size,\nand arrange them with labels, alphabetically, in an article or a book,\nso that they maybe referred to at need, and followed like a recipe for\nmaking a pudding, and with as little thought. But there are no such\nrecipes for acquiring real knowledge. In this way an acquaintance with\nfacts may be made which, used blindly, may prove of some immediate\nservice, and may not. Nothing, however, learned in this perfunctory way\nis worthy of the name of knowledge. For it is a barren process; it really\nteaches nothing; it profits nothing; it does nothing for the education\nof the person by whom it is adopted. Real knowledge comes only by a\nthoughtful learning of the relations of facts. True as to all subjects,\nthis is eminently true as to language; because, language is eminently\na subject of relations. There is hardly a word that we use which has\nnot relations to other words, and other forms of speech; relations\nhistorical, spiritual, almost moral; to set forth which in detail would\nfurnish occasion for a little essay. The mere learning to speak and to\nwrite a language is only a matter of memory and practice; nothing more.\nIt is child\u2019s work, and it is continually done, and is best done, by\nchildren. A man may speak and write English, French, German or Latin\nwith unexceptionable correctness and fluency, and yet know no more about\nthat language than a well instructed parrot would which had been taught\nto use all the words which he uses. His study would not be a study of\nlanguage; and in that which he had painfully learned he might be easily\nand unconsciously surpassed by a child who had never studied at all. Now\nwhat I hope to do here is to help my readers to some knowledge of the\nEnglish language, in so far as my own imperfect acquaintance with my\nmother tongue and its literature will enable me to do so.\n\nWe have seen what English is, of what stuff it is made, how it came\nby its present compositeness of substance; how it became strong, and\nfull, and flexible, and fervent; let us now look a little into its\nstructure, _i. e._, the way in which it is put together, in doing which\nwe shall see by comparison how it differs from other languages. This\nmatter of structure, the formation of the sentence, is the distinctive\ntrait of a language. Mere words are not the essential difference between\nlanguages. Many words are common (with slight phonetic variation) to all\nthe languages of the Aryan or Indo-European stock, as we have already\nseen. Multitudes of words have been adopted into all the modern tongues\nfrom other languages ancient and modern, dead and living, as most of\nthe readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN know. The bulk of English dictionaries\nlike Webster\u2019s and Worcester\u2019s is composed of words which are of Latin,\nGreek, French or Italian origin, and which indeed are essentially the\nsame words in all these languages; their unlikeness being merely a\nphonetic variation, mostly caused by difference in pronunciation, or\nchange in termination. For example, _flower_ is in Latin _flos_ (genitive\n_floris_), in Italian _fiore_, in French _fleur_, in Spanish _flor_;\neach language having somewhat changed the sound of the word, according\nto rules or habits which are loosely called laws; but the word is in\nall essentially the same. A sentence\u2014many sentences\u2014might be written\nin English, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish and German, in which all\nthe words of subject-matter (all but verbs like _have_ and _be_, and\nprepositions and conjunctions) should be essentially the same, and so\nlike that an intelligent person with some faculty for language, and who\nunderstood any one of these languages, could apprehend the meaning of\nany one of the supposed sentences with little difficulty. And yet the\nsentences would be respectively English, Latin, French, and so forth. Why\nand how? It is to the reason of this, that is the why and the how of it,\nthat we shall now give a little time and attention.\n\nThe most important and significant distinction between languages is\nin their grammar; that is, in the structure of the sentence. In the\nlanguages mentioned above the greatest unlikeness in this respect is\nmanifested in English, Latin and German, or to name them in their\norder of grammatical importance, Latin, German and English. The term\n\u201cgrammar\u201d has two senses; one large and vague, and called by some\n\u201cphilosophical\u201d or \u201cscientific\u201d (phrases commonly used with a deplorable\nunion of pretension and looseness), which includes all that relates to\nthe history, the substance and the structure of a language; the other\nmuch narrower and simpler; the sense implied when the phrases \u201cgood\ngrammar\u201d and \u201cbad grammar\u201d are used. To this sense I shall here confine\nmyself, and shall here repeat a definition of grammar which I have given\nbefore.[A]\n\nGrammar concerns the forms of words and their dependent relations in the\nsentence.\n\nTo illustrate this: It is \u201cbad grammar,\u201d ludicrously, monstrously bad\ngrammar, to say in Latin, _Nos habeo bonus mater_, and yet these Latin\nwords, literally and simply translated in their order, mean, We have a\ngood mother, which in English is perfectly \u201cgood grammar.\u201d In the Latin\n(to call it Latin) every word is wrong; in English every word is right.\nThe reason of this is that in Latin words change their forms according\nto their relations, not according to their essential meaning. _Habeo_\nmeans have; but it can not be used to express a plural having; that\nrequires for _we_ (_nos_) the form _habemus_. _Bonus_ means good; but it\ncan not be used to express the goodness of a feminine object, for which\nthe form _bona_ is required. Yet further: Even _bona_ can not be used\nto qualify a noun which is the object of a verb, or, as we say, in the\nobjective (or accusative) case, for which the form _bonam_ is required.\n_Mater_ means mother, but as the object of the verb _have_, _mater_ must\nchange its form to _matrem_. By these required changes of form the Latin\nsentence becomes, _Nos habemus bonam matrem_, which is \u201cgood grammar,\u201d\nalthough poor Latin, but which, after all the changes, means simply, We\nhave a good mother; nothing more nor less. Yet further: The sentence,\nas written above, although grammatical, is poor Latin because it is at\nvariance with the habit, or as it is sometimes called the spirit, or even\nthe genius, of the Latin language. In Latin the word _habemus_ (although\nlike _habeo_ it means simply, have) is so positively and distinctively\nlimited in use to the first person plural that the pronoun _nos_\u2014we\u2014is\nquite superfluous, and is never used unless with an emphatic purpose;\n_habemus_, without the _nos_, means, we have. Moreover it was the Latin\nhabit of speech to place the object generally before the verb; and good\nLatin for, We have a good mother would be, _bonam matrem habemus_\u2014_i.\ne._, A good mother we have, or rather (literally) Good mother we have for\nthe Latin strangely has no articles, or none which correspond to our _an_\n(_or a_) and _the_, and which may be translated by them.\n\nThis illustration, brief and simple although it be, is sufficient, I\nthink, to make the great and essential distinction between English and\nLatin, and measurably between English and all other modern civilized\ntongues, clear to the readers of these articles. The essential difference\nis not one of words but of the construction of the sentence. In Latin and\nother languages that construction depends not upon the thought and the\nmeaning of the words, but upon the forms of the words\u2014their inflections.\nNow the distinctive trait of English is that it is a language without\ninflections\u2014not absolutely so, but so to all intents and purposes; and,\nbeing without inflections, it is therefore without grammar, which, as we\nhave seen, concerns the forms of words and their dependent relations in\nthe sentence. _Nos habeo bonus mater_ is bad grammar because the forms\nof the words are incorrect according to the usage of the Latin language.\n_Bonus_ means good; but for the expression of the quality good in its\nbarest, simplest idea _bonus_ takes on five forms in Latin; _bonus_\nfor masculine goodness in the singular, _bona_ for feminine singular,\n_bonum_ for neuter singular; _boni_ masculine plural; _bon\u00e6_ feminine\nplural, _bona_ neuter plural. To be brief; for use in various relations,\nthis word _bonus_ takes on no less than thirteen forms, of which more\nneed not here be given. _Mater_\u2014mother\u2014takes on eight of these forms\nor inflections, which are called cases. But in English _good_ has but\none form. Singular, plural, masculine, feminine, neuter, nominative,\npossessive, dative, objective, vocative\u2014in whichever of these senses the\nword which it qualifies is used it has but one form\u2014_good_. Thus it is\nwith all English adjectives, and with articles (_an_ and _the_) which\nare a kind of adjective. In all other languages adjectives and articles\nhave various forms adapted to the various numbers, genders, and cases of\nnouns. In English nouns have two cases (strictly but one, the nominative\nnot being a true case), the second of which is the possessive: _e. g._,\nmother\u2019s; and they have a singular and a plural form, _e. g._, _mother_,\n_mothers_.\n\nIn other languages the verb is inflected into a multitude of forms,\nexpressive of voice (active and passive), person, number and time of\naction. In English the variations of form in the verb are very few. There\nis no passive voice. The English has but one passive verb; the obsolete\n_hight_, which means, is called. As to time, there are only the forms\nof present and perfect, e. g., _love_ and _loved_; as to person and\nnumber, inflections only in the present tense, e. g., _love_, _lovest_,\n_loves_; and of these one, _lovest_, is obsolete, or very obsolescent.\nTo these inflected forms there is to be added only the present or\nindefinite participle _loving_. Beyond this there are in English, by\nway of inflection, only the cases of the pronouns, e. g., _he_, _his_,\n_him_, _who_, _whose_, _whom_, _etc._ And it is here to be remarked that\nalmost all the questions of \u201cgood grammar\u201d and \u201cbad grammar\u201d that arise\nin English relate to the use of pronouns. (For surely we may leave out\nof consideration here the difficulties of those who say _I see_ or _I\nseen him_, for _I saw him_, or _I have went_ for _I have gone_, and the\nlike.) Here, therefore, we have set forth, although very succinctly, the\ndistinctive grammatical position of the English language.\n\nThat position is briefly this: In English words have (with the few\nexceptions mentioned above) but one form; and as grammar is concerned\nonly with the formal relations of words in the sentence, English has no\ngrammar. Among languages it is the grammarless tongue.\n\nLet us further illustrate this point by a brief consideration of a\nsubject which is very perplexing to the learners of a foreign language,\nand which is not less so to the historical students of language in\ngeneral; a subject which, I believe, has never been explained by the\nlatter with any semblance of satisfaction\u2014gender. All other languages are\ninfested with gender; in English there is no such distinction in words\nas that of gender. English, it should be needless to say, has words to\nexpress difference of sex; that no language can fail to do, for failing\nin that, it would not communicate the facts and thoughts of every-day\nlife. But grammatical gender has no relation to sex, no relation to the\nessential characteristics of things. Gender, grammatical gender, is an\nattribute of _words_. He creatures are male, she creatures female, and\nthe words which are their names are generally (but not universally)\nmasculine and feminine in all languages. Things neither male nor female\nare neuter, which means merely, neither. But this is not gender. Gender,\nas I have said before, is an attribute of words; of words only. For\nexample, the Latin word _penna_\u2014a pen, or quill, is feminine; in French\nthe word _table_\u2014table, is also feminine. It is needless to say that\nthere is no question as to the sex of a pen, or of a table; nor is\nthere any quality in either of those objects which has a sexual trait\nor characteristic. In each case it is the word which is of the feminine\ngender; and in all, or almost all, languages but English all or almost\nall words are afflicted with this mysterious pest of gender. How annoying\nand perplexing it is, and how it complicates the use of language, and\nmakes the acquisition of foreign languages difficult, no student needs\nbe told. For it creates an ever present and far-reaching perplexity. It\ndominates the construction of the sentence and binds it up in bonds\nof iron. For every adjective, and in French and other languages having\narticles, every article which is applied to a noun must be of the gender\nof that noun. You can not say in Latin _bonus penna_, a good pen, without\n\u201cbad grammar,\u201d you must say _bona penna_. You can not say in French _un\nmauvais table_, a bad table, but must say _une mauvaise table_; nor _le\ntable_, but _la table_\u2014although both mean the table, nothing more nor\nless. The absurdity of this is made very apparent when a feminine word\nis applied to a male object. Thus _majest\u00e9_\u2014majesty, is feminine; but\nwhen a king is called your majesty, the words _sa majest\u00e9_ (her majesty)\nare used because the _word majesty_ is feminine; and instead of saying\nhe (_il_) did thus or so, we must say she (_elle_) did it, although the\nshe was a man; the reason being that the word _majest\u00e9_ is feminine.[1]\nAll this has been swept clean away in English, in which language there\nis no distinction of gender but only that of sex: male creatures, or\nthose so personified, are masculine, female, feminine; those which have\nno sex are neuter; and there an end. English is eminently a language\nof common sense; and one marked evidence of this trait is its freeing\nitself entirely from the nuisance of grammatical gender along with other\ngrammatical trammels.[2]\n\nIt has _freed_ itself from those trammels; for at one time it was\nhampered by them sorely. Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, was an inflected\nspeech, and was tied up in the bonds of gender and other grievous\ngrammatical tetherings. This was long ago; but it was after Britain had\nbecome England, or Engle-land, the land of the English people and of\nEnglish speech. When our English forefathers were little better than\nsemi-savages, bloody, barbarous, heathen, worshiping Thor and Woden, and\nin a state of benighted ignorance of which it would be difficult for\nthose of my readers who have not tried to pierce the darkness of that\nhistorical past to form even an approximate notion\u2014at this time, and in\nthis social and intellectual condition of the speakers of the English\nlanguage, it was copiously provided with grammar. Even Greek had not much\nthe better of it in this respect. It had not only forms for person and\nnumber, but gender forms, and cases galore.[3] Take, for example, a word\nwhich was English a thousand years ago, just as it is to-day, _man_. This\nsimple word has undergone no change in all the thousand years, unless\nby losing a little breadth of sound; it having probably been pronounced\n_mahn_, of which sound the rustic _mon_ of provincial England is a relic\nand representative. But _man_ could not be used pure and simple, under\nall circumstances and in all cases, in the English of that day any more\nthan, as we have seen, _mater_ and _bonus_ could be so used in Latin.\nThere was the nominative singular\u2014_man_, simply; the genitive _mannes_\u2014of\na man; the dative _men_, to or for a man; accusative _mannan_\u2014a man\nobjectively; nominative plural _men_; genitive _manna_\u2014of men, or men\u2019s;\nand a dative _mannum_\u2014to or for men.\n\nOf all these various forms or cases of _man_, the language has freed\nitself, excepting the genitive singular, _mannes_, and the nominative\nplural, _men_. These have been retained, not by accident, or neglect, but\nat the dictate of common sense, because convenience and intelligibility\nrequired their use. It was found necessary to distinguish the plural\nfrom the singular; and the genitive or possessive idea from the simple\nand absolute; but _man_ as a dative or accusative singular, and _men_ as\nthe same in the plural, were found quite as useful and convenient as the\nold inflected forms; and therefore (or therefore finally and in a great\nmeasure) the latter were discarded. The genitive or possessive has been\nretained; but it has slightly changed its form; by contraction only,\nhowever; _mannes_ has become _man\u2019s_. The old sign of the possessive was\n_es_; and it is this, and not the pronoun _his_ (as once was supposed)\nthat is represented in our possessive case, in which the apostrophe\nmerely marks the elision of the old _e_. There is really no good reason\nfor the use of the apostrophe, none which would not apply equally to many\nother cases in which no elision is marked. In the Elizabethan era it was\nnot used, and with no consequent confusion. Mans folly, the boys hat,\nJohns coat, are as clear in meaning as they would be with the apostrophe;\nand the possible confusion of the possessive with the plural, as in that\nfancy of the girls, and that fancy of the girl\u2019s is so remote and so very\nunlikely as to be worthy of little consideration.\n\nAs to English in its earliest form (Anglo-Saxon) suffice it here to say\nin this regard that it was so largely an inflected language, that is, it\nvaried the forms of its words so numerously to express time of action,\nmode of action, person, number, case, and gender, that it is in this\nrespect almost as unlike modern English as Greek is, and is little less\ndifficult of acquirement to the English speaking student of to-day than\nLatin. Its very articles had gender forms as well as case forms; and,\nmoreover, like the M\u00e6so-Gothic and like the Greek it had preserved the\nold dual number (for the expression of a plural of two) although only in\nthe personal pronoun. A comparative examination of the pronoun of the\nfirst person and of the present tense of the verb _to have_ in their\nancient and modern forms will show the mode and the reason of the changes\nby which English has assumed its present character.\n\nOLD ENGLISH PRONOUN OF THE FIRST PERSON.\n\n  SINGULAR.                    DUAL.                     PLURAL.\n\n  N. _ic_, I.                 _wit_, us two.            _we_, we.\n\n  G. _min_, of me.            _uncer_, of us two.       _ure_, of us.\n\n  D. _me_, to, for, with me.  _unc_, to or for us two.  _us_, to, for,\n                                                         with us.\n\n  A. _me_, me (objectively).  _unc_, us two.            _us_, us.\n\nThe dual form has been swept away entirely as needless, and worse,\ncumbrous and perplexing; but it will be seen that we have retained every\none of the other forms. _Ic_ has become I; _mine_ is still the possessive\nof I; _me_ is still not only the objective form of the first person, but\nthe dative, \u201cmake me a hat,\u201d or \u201cbuy me a horse,\u201d being merely \u201cmake a\nhat to or for me,\u201d or \u201cbuy to or for me a horse.\u201d _We_ and _us_ will be\nrecognized at sight, and _ure_ has only changed its pronunciation from\n_oor_ to _our_. These forms have been retained in our modern English\npartly because a pronoun is the most ancient of indestructible parts of\nspeech,[B] but chiefly because of their usefulness, their convenience. A\nbrief consideration of them by the intelligent reader will make this so\nplain that more need not be said on the subject.\n\nNow let us see the unlike fate of the verb _to have_. This will be more\nreadily apparent if we look at it in Latin, in French, and in English (it\nis actually the same word in all these languages, with slight phonetic\nvariation); and we shall thus also have another demonstration of the\nmanner in which English differs from other languages.\n\n               SINGULAR.                          PLURAL.\n\n  Latin.       French.   English.     Latin.      French.       English.\n\n  1. _habeo._  _J\u2019ai._   I have.     _habemus._  _nous avons._  we have.\n\n  2. _habes._  _tu as._  thou hast.  _habetis._  _vous avez._   you have.\n\n  3. _habet._  _il a._   he has.     _habent._   _ils ont._     they have.\n\nIt will be seen at once that the Latin and the French have each a special\nplural form, and also three forms for the three persons of that number.\nEnglish has swept away this plural form entirely, and uses for the plural\nin all its persons the simple _have_ of the first person singular. The\nform of the second person singular has also virtually disappeared; the\nsimple _have_ appearing in its substitute, _you have_. Whether the form\nof the third person singular will ever follow the other is doubtful;\nbut it is certain that our language has lost nothing in clearness, and\nhas gained much in simplicity by the doing away with all the formal\nsuperfluity by which the old numbers and persons were distinguished.\n\nThis simplification of the forms of words is not absolutely confined\nto the English language. It appears to be a tendency of language; a\nmodern tendency, using modern in its widest sense. For this movement\ntoward simplification appears in the Latin, in the Romance tongues\nformed from it, and in the Gothic languages. In none, however, does this\nsimplification, this destruction of superfluous forms, approach, even\nremotely, that which has taken place in English. So different, indeed,\nare the results, that the process seems, if not of another kind, at least\nas having another motive. For example, all the other languages retain the\nabsurdity of gender. In this respect German is no better than French. And\nlet me here remark that the common notion that English and German are\nmost alike of all modern languages, and most nearly akin, is altogether\nwrong. On the contrary, English and German are very unlike; the most\nunlike of all the Gothic (or Teutonic) languages. English and French have\nmuch greater likeness, both in substance and in structure. There are\nmore words now common to the English language and to the French than to\nEnglish and German; and the syntax of the French language is very much\nmore like that of the English, than German syntax is. A French sentence\nliterally translated in the French order of the words is, in most cases,\nso like an English sentence that it requires little change to be correct\nEnglish, while a similar translation of a German sentence produces an\neffect both harsh and ludicrous.\n\nThe simple form of the English language is the result of two causes.\nOf these the first in order of time was the conflict and subsequent\nmingling of the Old English (Anglo-Saxon) and the Norman-French. When two\nlanguages are thus brought together and are both spoken by two peoples,\nall that is superfluous in the words of each soon begins to disappear.\nEach people grasps only the essential in the foreign words which it is\nobliged to use; each soon adopts the curtailed form of its speech used\nby the neighbors of another race and speech with whom it is obliged to\nlive in daily communication; and ere long a composite speech of simpler\nforms takes the place of two tongues\u2014each of which was more complex in\nstructure, but less rich and varied in substance. By this process, out of\nAnglo-Saxon and Norman-French, came modern English. But not only thus.\nOther languages have mingled, but never before with such a result. Never\nwas there in any other amalgamation, such an esurience of superfluous\nform; a devouring which has to all intents and purposes made English\na language of one-formed words, and therefore a language practically\nwithout formal grammar. In this characteristic is its strength; from\nthis comes its flexibility, its adaptation to all the needs of man, the\nhighest and the lowest. Hence it is eminently the language of common\nsense as well as of the highest flights of poetry. The English mind saw\nthat it was not necessary to have two words to express possession in the\nsingular and in the plural; that _good_ as clearly expressed the goodness\nof a woman as of a man, and that of a dozen men as well as that of one;\nthat pens and tables needed no distinction of gender in their names; in\nfact that nothing was gained, and that much was lost by these grammatical\nexcrescences; and therefore they were done away with very thoroughly,\nalmost entirely. The process was pretty well completed some three hundred\nyears or more ago; since when no noteworthy changes in this respect\nhave taken place. But it is still going on, although so slowly as to be\nperceptible only on close examination. All the little specks of grammar\nthat English has are mostly to be found in the pronouns, as I have before\nremarked. In the use of one of these a change is very gradually taking\nplace. _Whom_ has begun to disappear, began, indeed, a long time ago; but\nof late is fading somewhat more perceptibly. For example: all speakers of\ngood English say, The man whom I saw, not The man who I saw; _whom_ being\nthe objective form of _who_.\n\nBut now-a-days not one person in a hundred of the best bred and best\neducated speakers of English asks, Whom did you see? but, _Who_ did you\nsee? Indeed, the latter form of the question may be regarded almost as\naccepted English. Yet in the latter phrase, as in the former, the pronoun\nis the object of the verb _see_, and should strictly have the objective\nform. But, Whom did you see? would now sound very formal and precise,\nalmost priggish, like _gotten_ instead of _got_. When, however, the\npronoun is brought in direct contact with the verb, as in the phrase, The\nman whom I saw, we shrink from insult to the little semblance of grammar\nthat our language possesses, and give the word its objective form. The\ntime will probably come, although it may be remote, when _whom_ will have\naltogether disappeared. As to _gotten_, its use is now so confined to the\nover-precise in this country as to make it almost an Americanism. Its\ndisappearance from our language in England is also one of the evidences\nof the process of simplification which is still slowly going on. Another,\nwhich has taken place within the memory of the elder living generation,\nis the disappearance of the subjunctive mood, which is now obsolete, or\nso very obsolescent as to be met with very rarely. But thirty-five or\nforty years since correct writers used this mood, and wrote, for example,\n_if he go_ instead of _if he goes_. Of the effect of this grammarless\ncondition of the English language we may see something in a subsequent\narticle.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[A] \u201cEvery Day English,\u201d chapter xvii.\n\n[B] Certain uneasy manipulators of speech have lately set\nthemselves at making an impersonal English pronoun. Vanity of vanities!\nMake a pronoun? As well undertake to build a pyramid. Better. There is\nnot a pronoun in use that was not hoary with age before the first stone\nof Keops was laid.\n\n\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\nSELECTED BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D. D.\n\n\n[_February 1._]\n\nI find David making a syllogism, in mood and figure, two propositions he\nperfected.\n\n    (Ps. lxvi) 18. If I regard iniquity in my heart, the Lord will\n    not hear me.\n\n    19. But verily God hath heard me, he hath attended to the voice\n    of my prayer.\n\nNow I expected that David should have concluded thus:\n\n    Therefore I regard not wickedness in my heart.\n\nBut far otherwise he concludes:\n\n    20. Blessed be God, who hath not turned away my prayer, nor his\n    mercy from me.\n\nThus David hath deceived, but not wronged me. I looked that he should\nhave clapped the crown on his own, and he puts it on God\u2019s head. I will\nlearn this excellent logic, for I like David\u2019s better than Aristotle\u2019s\nsyllogisms, that, whatsoever the premises be, I make God\u2019s glory the\nconclusion.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nYoung King Jehoash had only a lease of piety, and not for his own, but\nhis uncle\u2019s life (2 Kings xii:2): He did that which was right in the\nsight of the Lord all his days, wherein Jehoiada the priest instructed\nhim.\n\nJehu was good in the midst of his life, and a zealous reformer to the\nutter abolishing of Baal out of Israel, but in his old age (2 Kings x:31)\nhe returned to the politic sins of Jeroboam, worshiping the calves in Dan\nand Bethel.\n\nManasseh was bad in the beginning and middle of his life, filling\nJerusalem with idolatry; only toward the end thereof, when carried into a\nstrange land, he came home to himself and destroyed the profane altars he\nhad erected.\n\nThese three put together make one perfect servant of God. Take the\nmorning and rise with Jehoash, the noon and shine with Jehu, the night\nand set with Manasseh. Begin with youth-Jehoash, continue with man-Jehu,\nconclude with old-man-Manasseh, and all put together will spell one good\nChristian, yea, one good, perfect performer.\n\nConstantly pray to God, that in his due time he would speak peace to\nthee.\u2026 Prayers negligently performed draw a curse, but not prayers weakly\nperformed. The former is when one can do better, and will not; the latter\nis when one would do better, but, alas! he can not.\u2026\n\nBe diligent in reading the word of God, wherein all comfort is\ncontained.\u2026 Thou hast a great journey to go, a wounded conscience has\nfar to travel to find comfort (and though weary shall be welcome at his\njourney\u2019s end), and therefore must feed on God\u2019s word, even against his\nown dull disposition, and shall afterward reap benefit thereby.\u2026\n\nBe industrious in thy calling; I press this the more because some\nerroneously conceive that a wounded conscience cancels all indentures of\nservice, and gives them (during their affliction) a dispensation to be\nidle.\n\nLet none in like manner pretend that (during the agony of a wounded\nconscience) they are to have no other employment than to sit moping,\nto brood over their melancholy, or else only to attend their devotion;\nwhereas a good way to divert or assuage their pain within is to take\npains without in their vocation. I am confident, that happy minute which\nshall put a period to thy misery shall not find thee idle, but employed,\nas some ever secret good is accruing to such who are diligent in their\ncalling.\u2014_Fuller._[1]\n\n\n[_February 8._]\n\nThe Deity is intended to be the everlasting field of the human intellect,\nas well as the everlasting object of the human heart, the everlasting\nportion of all holy and happy minds, who are destined to spend a blissful\nbut ever active eternity in the contemplation of his glory.\u2026 He will\nforever remain \u201cthe unknown God.\u201d We shall ever be conscious that we\nknow little compared with what remains to be known of him; that our most\nrapturous and lofty songs fall infinitely short of his excellence. If we\nstretch our powers to the uttermost, we shall never exhaust his praise,\nnever render him adequate honor, never discharge the full amount of claim\nwhich he possesses upon our veneration, obedience, and gratitude. When\nwe have loved him with the greatest favor, our love will still be cold\ncompared with his title to our devoted attachment. This will render him\nthe continual source of fresh delight to all eternity. His perfection\nwill be an abyss never to be fathomed; there will be depths in his\nexcellence which we shall never be able to penetrate. We shall delight in\nlosing ourselves in his infinity. An unbounded prospect will be extended\nbefore us; looking forward through the vista of interminable ages we\nshall find a blissful occupation for our faculties, which can never end;\nwhile those faculties will retain their vigor unimpaired, flourish in the\nbloom of perpetual youth, \u2026 and the full consciousness remain that the\nBeing whom we contemplate can never be found out to perfection \u2026 that\nhe may always add to the impression of what we know, by throwing a veil\nof indefinite obscurity over his character. The shades in which he will\nforever conceal himself will have the same tendency to excite our adoring\nwonder as the effulgence of his glory; the depths in which he will\nretire from our view, the recesses of his wisdom and power as the open\npaths of his manifestation. Were we capable of comprehending the Deity,\ndevotion would not be the sublimest employment to which we can attain.\nIn the contemplation of such a Being we are in no danger of going beyond\nour subject; we are conversing with an infinite object, \u2026 in the depths\nof whose essence and purposes we are forever lost. This will probably\ngive all the emotions of freshness and astonishment to the raptures of\nbeatific vision, and add a delightful zest to the devotions of eternity.\nThis will enable the Divine Being to pour in continually fresh accessions\nof light; to unfold new views of his character, disclose new parts of\nhis perfection, open new mansions of himself, in which the mind will\nhave ample room to expatiate. Thus shall we learn, to eternity, that, so\nfar from exhausting his infinite fullness, there still remain infinite\nrecesses in his nature unexplored\u2014scenes in his counsels never brought\nbefore the view of his creatures; that we know but \u201cparts of his ways;\u201d\nand that instead of exhausting our theme, we are not even approaching\nnearer to the comprehension of the Eternal All. It is the mysteriousness\nof God, the inscrutability of his essence, the shade in which he is\ninvested, that will excite those peculiar emotions which nothing but\ntranscendent perfection and unspeakable grandeur can inspire.\u2014_Robert\nHall._[2]\n\n\n[_February 15._]\n\nWe need not go far to seek the materials for an acceptable offering; they\nlie all around us in the work of our callings, in the little calls which\ndivine Providence daily makes to us, in the little crosses which God\nrequires us to take up, nay, in our very recreations. The great point is\nto have the mind set upon seeing and seeking in all things the service of\nChrist and the glory of God, and, lo! every trifling incident which that\nmind touches, every piece of work which it handles, every dispensation to\nwhich it submits becomes a sacrifice.\n\n    \u201cIf in our daily walks our mind\n     Be set to hallow all we find,\n     New treasures still of countless price\n     God will provide for sacrifice.\n     We need not bid for cloistered cell\n     Our neighbor and our work farewell,\n     Nor strive to wind ourselves too high\n     For sinful man beneath the sky;\n     The trifling round, the common task\n     Will furnish all we ought to ask,\n     Room to deny ourselves\u2014a road\n     To bring us daily nearer God.\u201d\n\nIf we allow the beauties of nature to raise our heart to God, we turn\nthat into a sacrifice. If cross incidents, which could not be avoided\nor averted, are taken sweetly and lovingly, out of homage to the living\nwill of God, this, too, is a sacrifice. If work be done in the full view\nof God\u2019s assignment of our several tasks and spheres of labor, and under\nthe consciousness of his presence, however secular in its character, it\nimmediately becomes fit for presentation on the altar. If refreshment and\namusement are so moderated as to help the spirit instead of dissipating\nit, if they are to be seasoned with the wholesome salt of self-denial\n(for every sacrifice must be seasoned with salt) they, too, become a holy\noblation. If we study even perverse characters, with a loving hope and\nbelief that we shall find something of God and Christ in them, which may\nbe made the nucleus of better things, and instead of shutting ourselves\nup in a narrow sphere of sympathies, seek out and try to develop the\ngood points of a generally uncongenial spirit; if we treat men as Christ\ntreated them, counting that somewhere in every one there is a better\nmind, and the trace of God\u2019s finger in creation, we may thus possibly\nsanctify an hour which would else be one of irksome constraint, and after\nwhich we might have been oppressed with a heavy feeling that it had been\na wasted one. If a small trifle, destined to purchase some personal\nluxury or comfort, be diverted to a charitable and religious end, this is\nthe regular and standing sacrifice of alms, recognized by the Scripture\nand the Liturgy. And finally, if we regard our time as, next to Christ,\nand the Holy Spirit, the most precious gift of God; if we gather up\nthe fragments and interstices of it in a thrifty and religious manner,\nand employ them in some exercise of devotion or some good and useful\nwork, this, too, becomes a tribute which God will surely accept with\ncomplacency, if laid upon his altar and united by faith and a devout\nintention with the one Sacrifice of our dear Lord.\n\nYes; if laid upon his altar; let us never forget or drop out of sight\nthat proviso. It is the altar, and the altar alone, which sanctifieth\nthe gift. Apart from Christ and his perfect sacrifice, an acceptable\ngift is an impossibility for man. For at best our gifts have in them the\nsinfulness of our nature; they are miserably flawed by defectiveness\nof motive, duplicity of aim, infirmity of will. \u201cThe prayers of all\nsaints,\u201d what force of interpretation must they have with God, if, as we\nare sure, \u201cthe effectual, fervent prayer of a\u201d (single) \u201crighteous man\navaileth much!\u201d Yet when St. John saw in a vision \u201cthe prayers of all\nsaints\u201d offered \u201cupon the golden altar which was before the throne,\u201d it\nwas in union with that which alone can perfume the tainted offsprings of\neven the regenerate man. \u201cThere was given unto him much increase, that\nhe should offer it with the prayers of all saints upon the golden altar\nwhich is before the throne.\u201d\n\nThe increase is the intercession of Jesus. Place your offering, be\nit prayer or alms, deed or work, or submission\u2014in his hands for\npresentation; pray him, as your only priest, to transact for you with\nGod, and he will do so. And the sense of God\u2019s favor shall shine out upon\nthy offering; and the dew of his blessing shall descend upon it, and ye\nshall be gladdened with your Father\u2019s smile.\u2014_Goulburn._[3]\n\n\n[_February 22._]\n\n_Heaven, as a place of residence and state of enjoyment, should always\nbe viewed in contrast with earth._ This is a state of pupilage and\nprobation, that of dignity and promotion. Here is conflict, there\nvictory. This is the race, that the goal. Here we suffer, there we\nreign. Here we are in exile, there at home. On earth we are strangers\nand pilgrims, in heaven fellow citizens with the saints; and, released\nfrom the strife and turmoil, the bitterness and regrets of earth, are\nincorporated forever with the household of God.\n\nThis is triumph! How striking the contrast! How must earth and its\ntrials be lost sight of in such a vision! How must this contrast\nstrengthen the ties of confidence, and kindle the ardor of devotion!\n\nWhat did Moses care for the perils of the wilderness, when, from the\nstorm-defying steep of Pisgah, he viewed the land of promise, imaging\nforth the green fields of heaven\u2019s eternal spring! Look at Elijah, the\nimmortal Tishbite, exchanging the sighs and solitude of his juniper\nshade, for wheels of fire and steeds of wind that bore him home to God!\nLook at Paul\u2014poor, periled and weary, amid the journeyings and conflicts\nof his mission: the hand that once stretched the strong eastern tent,\nor wore the dungeon\u2019s chain, now sweeps in boldest strain the harps of\nheaven.\u2026 Look at the Christian of apostolic and early times, exchanging\nthe clanking of his chains and the curses of his jailor\u2014the dungeon\u2019s den\nand martyr\u2019s stake\u2014for the notes of gladness and lofty anthem pealing\nfrom lute and harp, bedecked with eternal amaranth! The load of chain\nwith which he went out to meet the descending car of his triumph, with\nits angel escort, was a richer dowry than the jewels of empire! The\ntaper that flickered in the dungeon of the sainted hero shot a ray more\nglorious than ever spoke the splendor of the full-orbed moon! What are\nthe crowns or the diadems of all this world\u2019s masters or C\u00e6sars, compared\nwith the prospects of such an expectant!\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nChristians! what need we care, although on earth we were so poor and\nlow we had nor purse nor pillow; so few and trodden down we had no\npower; and hamlets, huts and grottoes were the places where we wept and\nprayed; if these are to be exchanged for a residence amid the jaspers and\nchrysolites, the emeralds and sapphires of the heavenly Jerusalem!\n\nWhat though soiled by the dust of toil or damp with the dungeon\u2019s\ndew\u2014struggling amid tattered want along our lone and periled path\u2014when\neven here we find ourselves invested with glory in the night of our\nbeing, and sustained by hopes guiding and pointing us to the temple hymn\nand the heavenly harp above! \u2026\u2014_Bascom._[4]\n\n\n\n\nHOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.\n\nBY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D.D.\n\nDirector of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY OF FIRE.\u2014ANCIENT FANCIES.\n\nIn all ages, and among all nations, fire has been regarded with peculiar\ninterest. Of the four great elements so essential to life\u2014earth, air,\nwater, fire\u2014the last has often been considered as divine in its origin\nand influence. To the unscientific observer it seems more than matter,\nand little less than spirit. Contemplating a flame, he sees that while\nit has form, it lacks solidity. He may pass a sword through it, but like\nthe ghost of the story, no wound is made in its ethereal substance. Its\ntouch is softer than down, but it penetrates the hardest substances. The\ndiamond carves glass, but flame destroys the diamond.\n\nMen early found that fire was directly connected with their comfort and\nprogress, and even essential to their existence. How they first obtained\nit is still matter of conjecture; whether it was brought down from\nthe skies, as the ancient Greeks supposed, struck out from the flinty\nrock, evolved by the friction of dry wood, kindled by the lightning, or\nobtained from the flaming torch of the volcano, we can not tell.\n\nCertain it is, that having once been obtained, all the early races were\nvery careful to preserve it. Among many it was regarded as sacred, and\nkept perpetually burning, both in their places of worship and in their\nhomes. The officers appointed for its preservation were of the highest\nrank and influence. Among the titles assumed by Augustus C\u00e6sar was that\nof keeper of the public fire. Whenever by accident the fire in the temple\nof Vesta, at Rome, was extinguished, all public business was at once\nsuspended, because the connection between heaven and earth was believed\nto be severed, and must be restored before business could properly\nproceed.\n\nGrecian colonists carried fire to their new homes from the altar of\nHestia. The \u201cPrytaneum\u201d[1] of the ancient Greeks and Romans was a place\nwhere the national fire was kept always burning; it was here the people\ngathered, foreign ambassadors received, and hospitalities of the state\nwere offered. Here, too, heads of families obtained coals for lighting\ntheir household fires, which in turn became sacred, so that every hearth\nwas an altar, where resided the Lares and Penates, the gods who presided\nover the welfare of the home.\n\nFancies akin to these beliefs of olden time may still be found among the\nnations of the East and in northern Europe.\n\n\nMODERN FALLACIES.\n\nNo correct ideas of combustion were attained until the time of\nLavoisier.[2] This great French savant gave precision and accuracy to the\ninvestigations of chemical science by the introduction of the balance.\nHe disproved the theory that \u201cwater is the ultimate principle of all\nthings,\u201d and prepared the way for a clear apprehension of the truth\nthat matter, though constantly changing its form, is never destroyed.\nHe also announced the correct theory of combustion. Until this time\nscientists had held what was called the \u201cPhlogiston[3] Theory.\u201d We can\nbut smile at the absurdity of this belief, and yet no hypothesis was ever\ntaught more positively, or maintained more tenaciously. It declared, in\nbrief, that when substances burned, they parted with a certain material\ncalled phlogiston. When, at length, its advocates were asked to explain\nthe fact, discovered by Dr. Priestly,[5] that quicksilver, when burned,\nweighed more than before, they were forced to put forward the ridiculous\nstatement that phlogiston possessed the property of \u201cbuoyancy\u201d so that\nwhen it was contained in a body its weight was lessened; which was as\nwise as the brilliant supposition that a person can lift himself over a\nfence by tugging at his boot straps. After a fierce struggle they were\nforced to confess that they had placed \u201cthe cart before the horse.\u201d\nThe truth was precisely opposite to their statement. Substances when\nthey burn take up something instead of giving it off. That something is\noxygen, and a body when burned, if it can be weighed, will be found to\nweigh as much more as the added weight of the oxygen which has united\nwith it. Example: Iron-rust is iron, plus oxygen.\n\n[Illustration: MAGNESIUM RIBBON BURNING, AND PRODUCING MAGNESIC OXIDE\n(MgO).[4]]\n\n\nTHE TRUE EXPLANATION.\n\nWe shall here confine ourselves to the consideration of the heat and\nlight produced by chemical action. It will be remembered that by this\nterm (chemical action) is meant the process of uniting two or more\ndifferent elements to form a compound different from either. We usually\nconsider air essential to combustion, but this is not necessarily the\nfact. Gold foil or powdered antimony, dropped into a jar of chlorine,\nspontaneously ignites. Even in the interior of the earth, heat must be\nproduced by the uniting of any elements that have an affinity for each\nother.\n\n[Illustration: BORACIC ACID IMPARTS A GREEN COLOR TO THE FLAME OF\nALCOHOL.[6]]\n\nThe most common agent of combustion is oxygen. Of this interesting\ngas some description has been given in a preceding article. It is the\nfruitful source of almost all of our artificial heat.\n\nThe fallen tree in the forest is slowly consumed by it, not less surely\nthan the flaming wood and coal in our stoves. The human body is a\nfurnace. In the minute corpuscles[7] of the blood, carbon is uniting with\noxygen as certainly as are the particles of carbon in the flame of our\nlamps.\n\nOxygen is the scavenger that partially cleans our gutters. It is a bird\nof prey that devours the offal in our fields and woods. It is nothing\nless than the gnawing tooth of old Father Time himself, which crumbles\ncities and destroys all things.\n\nCombustion, as we now know it, consists simply in the union of some\ncombustible material with oxygen. The generic term for all this action\nis \u201coxidation.\u201d For convenience, special names are given to particular\nmodes. When metallic oxidation occurs we call the product \u201crusting.\u201d\nWhen oxygen unites with vegetable matter we call it decaying or rotting;\nwhen with animal substances we term it rotting or putrefaction. When\nflame is produced, the word combustion or burning is used. The amount of\nheat generated is, in all cases, proportioned to the amount of chemical\naction. Great ingenuity and skill have been shown in the discovery and\nutilization of materials best calculated to combine readily with oxygen.\nTo these, as a class, has been applied the term\n\n\nHYDRO-CARBONS.\n\nAll substances composed essentially of the elements, hydrogen and carbon,\nwould come under this designation. These would include coal, wood,\npetroleum, the fats, resins, wax and many others, with some of the gases,\namong which may be named light and heavy carburetted hydrogen, CH\u2084 and\nC\u2082H\u2084 respectively.\n\n[Illustration: PHOSPHORUS BURNING IN OXYGEN.[8]]\n\nIn the days of our grandfathers tallow candles were almost universally\nemployed for lighting houses, and wood for warming them. It would not\nbe impossible to find even now, in our own country, homes illuminated\n(?) by a rag burning in a saucer of fat. Some of us are not too young to\nremember the bundle of candle-rods\u2014nice, straight sticks used in dipping\ncandles\u2014snugly put away for that purpose, alas! sometimes summoned forth\nto assist in enforcing family discipline!\n\n[Illustration: GREEN FIRE COLORED BY A SALT OF BARIUM.[9]]\n\nStrands of twisted cotton wick were suspended from these sticks, and\nsuccessively dipped into a kettle of hot tallow, until external additions\nmade them of the requisite size. Tin candle moulds finally superseded\nthese. Then the wick was suspended in the center and the fat poured\nin. In cooling, the candles contracted, and so slipped easily from\nthe moulds. Wax candles can not be cast in moulds, as they expand in\ncooling. They are made by pouring successive additions upon them. They\nare afterward given symmetrical form by rolling and shaping. Along the\nsea coast I have seen women and children gathering bay berries,[10]\na fruit about as large as a grain of black pepper and covered with a\ngrayish-white, fragrant wax. When these seeds are placed in hot water the\nwax dissolves and serves the same purpose as tallow, making delightfully\naromatic candles.\n\nMany of the hydro-carbons possess an agreeable odor. Sometimes the\nwoodmen gather the bark and chips of the hickory to smoke hams and\nshoulders on account of the peculiarly pleasant flavor they impart.\nIn burning, a candle or lamp becomes a gas factory, manufacturing and\nconsuming its own product. The flame consists of three cones. The first,\nthat next to the wick, is composed solely of gas. It is not hot, as can\nbe shown by thrusting the end of a match into it, the match will not\nignite. If the match be placed across the flame at the same point it will\nburn at the edges, but not in the center. A more striking illustration\nof the fact that the flame is hot only where it comes in contact with\nthe air, can be shown in the following manner: Place on the bottom of an\ninverted plate some alcohol, in the center set a tiny saucer containing\npowder; ignite the alcohol, and the powder will remain undisturbed in the\ncenter of the surrounding flame until a draft brings the _edge_ of the\nflame against the powder, when it will at once explode.\n\nLook steadily at the flame of an ordinary candle and you can readily\ndiscern the three cones; the first is gas, the second gas in rapid\ncombination with the oxygen of the air, the third the products of this\ncombination\u2014watery vapor, carbonic anhydride, and, possibly, some\nunconsumed carbon.\n\n[Illustration: RED FIRE COLORED BY A SALT OF STRONTIUM.[11]]\n\nThe process that goes on in our stoves is essentially the same. The\ncarbon and hydrogen of the wood or coal unite with the oxygen that passes\nthrough the draft. Now note a wonderful provision for our comfort. It\nhas already been remarked that the product of combustion consists of\nthe thing burned, plus oxygen. Suppose, in the case of our fires, this\nproduct were a solid, we should then be forced to take out of the stove\nmore material than we put in. The Creator has, however, provided that\nthese resulting materials shall take the form of gas or vapor, so that\nthey can float away. The ashes that remain form but a small part of the\nwhole. The two most common products of combustion are watery vapor and\ncarbonic anhydride.\n\nThe illumination of our towns and cities has long been accomplished\nby the use of gas manufactured from coal. Bituminous coal is used for\nthis purpose, and the process consists in heating it to destructive\ndistillation, and afterward condensing and absorbing such portions of\nthe volatilized materials as might clog the gas pipes or interfere with\nperfect combustion.\n\nNature, it is now known, has her own gas works, on an immense scale.\nThirty-five years ago the village of Fredonia, N. Y., was partially\nlighted with gas, and the supply is still unexhausted. Indeed, of late,\nmany private individuals have sunk pipes two or three hundred feet, and\nthus supplied their homes with gas for illuminating, heating, and cooking\npurposes. In Butler and McKean counties, Pennsylvania, the production of\nthese gas wells is enormous. Many have been burning day and night for\nyears, while others have been utilized for heating and lighting towns and\ncities. Gas is now extensively used in rolling mills for smelting iron.\nPetroleum, or rock oil, which is usually associated with this natural\ngas, has now become of immense value to this and other lands. It is one\nof the chief articles of export from this country, ranking perhaps as\nfourth. Wells have recently been struck in Pennsylvania that flowed 5,000\nand 6,000 barrels per day.\n\n[Illustration: SODIUM BURNING ON HOT WATER.[12]]\n\nThere is reason to believe that this material is the product of\ndistillation of organic matter in the earth. It is found in porous rock,\nusually coarse sand, at depths varying from three hundred to two thousand\nfeet. When the rock above the sand containing oil is tight, the gas is\noften retained, which by its expansion presses upon the oil and forces it\nto the surface through the pipes put down for this purpose. This produces\na flowing well. When the gas has escaped a pump is necessary.\n\nThe most useful hydro-carbon now employed is coal. Its use was first\nintroduced in the latter part of the twelfth century, and as late as the\nthirteenth century petitions were made by residents of London demanding\nits exclusion, on account of its injurious effect on the health. But now,\nGreat Britain mines annually more than one hundred million tons of coal.\nIts uses are manifold. By it England has multiplied her power a thousand\nfold. It is almost always employed in generating steam, and the aggregate\nsteam power of England is equal to the productive laboring force of\nfour hundred millions of men, or \u201ctwice the power of the adult working\npopulation of the globe.\u201d Most countries know its value.\n\n[Illustration: POURING CARBON DI-OXIDE FROM ONE VESSEL INTO ANOTHER TO\nEXTINGUISH FLAME.[13]]\n\nCoal is the key that unlocks for us the treasures of the iron ore. It\nseizes upon the oxygen in the ore, and liberates the pure metal. By a\nwonderful provision they often exist in the same mountain, side by side.\nI have seen in Pennsylvania, running out of the same tunnel in the hills,\ncar loads of coal and iron ore.\n\nAmong the many advantages possessed by our own country is our immense\nstore of this precious hydro-carbon. With an area of 300,000,000 miles of\nterritory, we have more than 200,000 square miles of known coal producing\narea, or one in fifteen.\n\nGreat Britain has one-half of the coal fields of all Europe, but even\nshe has but one square mile of coal to twenty square miles of territory.\nBeside, our coal seams are of great thickness, and lie comparatively\nnear the surface. In the far West, vast fields of lignite[14] have been\ndiscovered, so that there seems no prospect of our exhausting our fuel\nsupply for ages to come.\n\nThe diamond is crystallized carbon, and can be burned, though one would\nhardly care to be warmed by so costly a fire.\n\nCleopatra, in a freak of extravagance, dissolved a wonderful pearl,\nbut who could think of the wise queen of England using in so wasteful\na manner her Kohinoor.[15] Six of the great diamonds of the world are\ncalled, by way of eminence, \u201cThe Paragons,\u201d and a romantic interest has\nbeen attached to this form of carbon among all nations. In point of\nfact, however, the black diamonds of the coal pit are more interesting,\nand of far greater value to mankind than these glittering gems from\nGolconda,[16] Brazil and the Dark Continent.[17]\n\n\n\n\nTEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE; OR, THE POISON PROBLEM.\n\nBY FELIX L. OSWALD, M.D.\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\u2014PROHIBITION.\n\n    \u201cRugged or not, there is no other way.\u201d\u2014_Luther._\n\nThe champions of temperance have to contend with two chief\nadversaries\u2014ignorance and organized crime. The well-organized liquor\nleague can boast of leaders whose want of principles is not extenuated\nby want of information, and who deliberately scheme to coin the misery\nof their fellowmen into dollars and cents. But the machinations of\nsuch enemies of mankind would not have availed them against the power\nof public opinion, if their cunning had not found a potent ally in the\nignorance, not of their victims only, but of their passive opponents.\nWe need the moral and intellectual support of a larger class of our\nfellow-citizens, before we can hope to secure the effectual aid of legal\nremedies, and in that direction the chief obstacles to the progress of\nour cause have been the prevailing misconceptions on the following points:\n\n1. COMPETENCE OF LEGISLATIVE POWER.\u2014There can be no doubt that the\nlegislative authority even of civilized governments has been frequently\nmisapplied. The most competent exponents of political economy agree that\nthe state has no business to meddle in such affairs as the fluctuation\nof market prices, the rate of interest, the freedom of international\ntraffic. On more than one occasion European governments, having attempted\nto regulate the price of bread-stuffs, etc., were taught the folly of\nsuch interference by commercial dead-locks and the impossibility of\nprocuring the necessaries of life at the prescribed price, and were thus\ncompelled to remedy the mischief by repealing their enactments. Usury\nlaws tend to increase, instead of decreasing, the rate of interest, by\nobliging the usurer to indemnify himself for the disadvantage of the\nadditional risk. The attempt to increase national revenues by enforcing\nan artificial balance of trade has ever defeated its own object. It\nis almost equally certain that compulsory charities do on the whole\nmore harm than good. On the other hand, there are no more undoubtedly\nlegitimate functions of government than the suppression, and the, if\npossible, prevention, of crime, and the enforcement of health laws; and\nit can be demonstrated by every rule of logic and equity that the liquor\ntraffic can be held amenable in both respects. The favorite argument\nof our opponents is the distinction of crime and vice. For the latter,\nthey tell us, society has no remedy, except in as much as the natural\nconsequences (disease, destitution, etc.) are apt to recoil on the person\nof the perpetrator; the evil of intemperance therefore is beyond the\nreach of the law. We may fully concede the premises without admitting the\ncogency of the conclusion. The suspected possession or private use of\nintoxicating liquors would hardly justify the issue of a search warrant,\nbut the penalties of the law can with full justice be directed against\nthe manufacturer or vender who seeks gain by tempting his fellowmen to\nindulge in a poison infallibly injurious in any quantity, and infallibly\ntending to the development of a body and soul corrupting habit; they\nmay with equal justice be directed against the consumer, stupefied or\nbrutalized by the effects of that poison. The rumseller has no right\nto plead the consent of his victim. The absence of violence or \u201cmalice\nprepense,\u201d[1] is a plea that would legalize some of the worst offenses\nagainst society. The peddler of obscene literature poisons the souls\nof our children without a shadow of ill-will against his individual\ncustomer. The gambler, the lottery-shark, use no manner of force in the\npursuit of their prey. By what logic can we justify the interdiction of\ntheir industry and condemn that of the liquor traffic? By the criterion\nof comparative harmlessness? Have all the indecencies published since the\ninvention of printing occasioned the thousandth part of the misery caused\nby the yearly and inevitable consequences of the poison vice? The lottery\nplayer may lose or win, but the customer of the liquor vender is doomed\nto loss as soon as he approaches the dram-shop. The damage sustained\nby the habitual player may be confined to a loss of money, while the\nhabitual drunkard is sure to suffer in health, character and reputation,\nas well as in purse. And shall we condone the conduct of the befuddled\ndrunkard on account of a temporary suspense of conscious reason? That\nvery _dementation_ constitutes his offense.\n\nHis actions may or may not result in actual mischief, but he has put the\ndecision of that event beyond his control. The man who gallops headlong\nthrough crowded streets is punished for his reckless disregard of other\nmen\u2019s safety, though the hoofs of his horse may have failed to inflict\nany actual injury. A menagerie keeper would be arrested, if not lynched,\nfor turning a city into a pandemonium by letting loose his bears and\nhyenas, and for the same reason no man should be permitted to turn\nhimself into a wild beast.\n\n\u201cVirtue must come from within,\u201d says Prof. Newman;[2] \u201cto this problem\nreligion and morality must direct themselves. But vice may come from\nwithout; to _hinder_ this is the care of the statesman.\u201d And here, as\nelsewhere, prevention is better than cure. By obviating the temptations\nof the dram-shop a progressive vice with an incalculable train of\nmischievous consequences may be nipped in the bud. Penal legislation\nis a sham if it takes cognizance of moral evils only after they have\npassed the curable stage. \u201cIt is mere mockery,\u201d says Cardinal Manning,[3]\n\u201cto ask us to put down drunkenness by moral and religious means, when\nthe legislature facilitates the multiplication of the incitements to\nintemperance on every side. You might as well call upon me as a captain\nof a ship and say: \u2018Why don\u2019t you pump the water out when it is sinking,\u2019\nwhen you are scuttling the ship in every direction. If you will cut off\nthe supply of temptation, I will be bound by the help of God to convert\ndrunkards, but until you have taken off this perpetual supply of\nintoxicating drink we never can cultivate the fields. Let the legislature\ndo its part and we will answer for the rest.\u201d\n\nAll civilized nations have recognized not only the right but the duty\nof legislative authorities to adopt the most stringent measures for the\nprevention of contagious disease; yet all epidemics taken together have\nnot caused half as much loss of life and health as the plague of the\npoison vice.\n\n2. MAGNITUDE OF THE EVIL.\u2014Since health and freedom began to be recognized\nas the primary conditions of human welfare, the conviction is gaining\nground that the principles of our legislative system need a general\nrevision. It was a step in the right direction when the lawgivers of the\nMiddle Ages began to realize the truth that the liberty of individual\naction should be sacrificed only to urgent consideration of public\nwelfare, but the modified theories on the comparative importance of these\nconsiderations have inaugurated a still more important reform. Penal\ncodes gradually ceased to enforce ceremonies and abstruse dogmas and\nto ignore monstrous municipal and sanitary abuses. The time has passed\nwhen legislators raged with extreme penalties against the propagandists\nof speculative theories and ignored the propagation of slum diseases,\nyet, after all, there is still a lingering belief in the minds of many\ncontemporaries that intemperance, as a physical evil, a \u201cmere dietetic\nexcess,\u201d does not justify the invasion of personal liberty. They would\nconsent to restrict the freedom of thought and speech rather than the\nlicense of the rum-dealer, yet the tendency of a progressive advance\nin public opinion promises the advent of a time when that license will\nappear the chief anomaly of the present age. The numberless minute\nprescriptions and interdicts of our law books and their silence on the\ncrime of the liquor traffic will make it difficult for coming ages to\ncomprehend the intellectual status of a generation that could wage such\nuncompromising war against microscopic gnats and consent to gratify the\ngreed of a monstrous vampire.\n\n3. SELF-CORRECTING ABUSES.\u2014Modern physicians admit that various forms\nof disease which were formerly treated with drastic drugs can be safely\ntrusted to the healing agencies of nature. Many social evils, too, tend\nto work out their own cure. High markets encourage competition and\nhave led to a reduction of prices. Luxury leads to enforced economy\nby reducing the resources of the spendthrift. Dishonest tradesmen\nlose custom, and a German government that used to fine editors for\npublishing unverified rumors might have left it to the subscribers to\nwithdraw their patronage from a purveyor of unreliable news. But there\nare certain causes of disease that demand the interference of art.\n_Poisons_, especially, require artificial antidotes. If a child has\nmistaken arsenic for sugar, its life commonly depends on the timely\narrival of a physician. The organism may rid itself of a surfeit, but\nis unable to eliminate the virus of a skin disease. Alcoholism belongs\nto the same class of disorders. We need not legislate against corsets;\nthe absurdities of fashion change and vanish like fleeting clouds, and\ntheir votaries may welcome the change; but drunkards would remain slaves\nof their vice though the verdict of public opinion should have made\ndram-drinking extremely unfashionable. The morbid passion transmitted\nfrom sire to son, and strengthened by years of indulgence, would defy all\nmoral restraints and yield only to the practical impossibility to obtain\nthe object of its desire.\n\n\u201cA number of years ago,\u201d says Dr. Isaac Jennings, \u201cI was called to the\nshipyard in Derby, to see John B., a man about thirty years of age, of\nnaturally stout, robust constitution, who had fallen from a scaffold in\na fit, head first upon a spike below. In my visit to dress the wounded\nhead, I spoke to him of the folly and danger of continuing to indulge his\nhabit of drinking, and obtained from him a promise that he would abandon\nit. Not long after I learned that he was drinking again, and reminded him\nof his promise. His excuse was, that it would not do for him to abandon\nthe practice of drinking suddenly. A few weeks after this he called at my\noffice and requested me to bleed him, or do something to prevent a fit,\nfor he felt much as he did a short time before having the last fit. I\nsaid to him, \u2018John, sit down here with me and let us consider your case\na little.\u2019 I drew two pictures and held before him; one presented a wife\nand three little children with a circle of friends made happy and himself\nrespectable and useful in society; the other, a wretched family, and\nhimself mouldering in a drunkard\u2019s grave; and appealed to him to decide\nwhich should prove to be the true picture. The poor fellow burst into\ntears and wept like a child. When he had recovered himself from sobbing\nso that he could speak he said: \u2018Doctor, to tell you the truth, it is not\nthat I am afraid of the consequences of stopping suddenly that I do not\ngive up drinking. _I can not do it._ I have tried and tried again, but it\nis all in vain. Sometimes I have gone a number of weeks without drinking,\nand I flattered myself that the temptation was gone, but it returned,\nand now if there was a spot on earth where men lived and could not get\nspirits, and I could get there, I would start in a minute.\u2019 I thought I\nhad understood something of the difficulties of hard drinkers before,\nbut this gave me a new impression of the matter, and most solemnly did I\ncharge myself to do what I could to _make a spot on earth where men could\nlive and couldn\u2019t get spirits_.\u201d\n\n4. LESSER EVILS.\u2014Even in a stricter form than any rational friend of\ntemperance would desire its enforcement, prohibition would not involve\nany consequences that could possibly make the cure a greater evil than\nthe disease. The predicted aching void resulting from the expurgation\nof beer-tunnels could be filled by healthier means of recreation.\nThe grief of the superseded poison-mongers would not outweigh the\nmountain-load of misery and woe which the abolishment of their cursed\ntrade would lift from the shoulders of the nation. When the state of Iowa\ndeclared for prohibition the opponents of that amendment bemoaned the\nloss entailed by the departure of \u201cso many industrious and respectable\ncitizens,\u201d _i. e._, from the exodus of the rumsellers! We might just\nas well be asked to bewail the doom of the Thugs[4] as the subversion\nof a prosperous industry. We might as well be requested to sympathize\nwith the respectable bloodhound-trainers and knout-manufacturers whom\nthe abolition of slavery threw out of employment. The liquor dealer\nhas no right to complain about the rigor of a law that permits him to\ndepart with the spoils of such a trade. We are told that the mere rumor\nof Maine laws has deterred many foreigners from making their homes with\nus; that the Russian peasants decline to come without their brewers and\ndistillers, and that by general prohibition we would risk to reduce our\nimmigration from every country of northern Europe. We must take that\nrisk, and let Muscovites rot in the bogs of the Volga if they can not\naccept our hospitality without turning our bread corn into poison. Our\nutilitarian friends would hardly persuade us to legalize cannibalism in\norder to encourage a larger immigration of Fiji islanders. The absence\nof such guests might not prove an unqualified evil. I shall not insult\nthe intelligence of my readers by repeating the drivel of the wretches\nwho would weigh the reduction of revenues against the happiness of a\nhell-delivered nation, and I will only mention the reply of a British\nfinancier who estimates that the increase of national prosperity would\noffset that reduction _in less than five years_.\n\n5. EFFICACY OF PROHIBITION.\u2014Will prohibition prevent the use of\nintoxicating liquor? Not wholly, but it will answer its purpose. It will\nbanish distilleries to secret mountain glens and hidden cellars. It will\ndrive the man-traps of the poison-monger from the public streets. It\nwill save our boys from a hundred temptations; it will help thousands\nof reformed drunkards to keep their pledge; it will restore peace and\nplenty to many hundred thousand homes. More than a century ago the\nphilosopher Leibnitz[5] maintained that the plenary suppression of the\nliquor traffic would be the most effectual means for reforming the moral\nstatus of civilized nations, and experience has since fully demonstrated\nthe correctness of that opinion. A memorandum endorsed by a large number\nof statistical vouchers describes the effect of prohibition in Sweden:\n\u201cThe nation rose and fell, grew prosperous and happy, or miserable and\ndegraded, as its rulers and law-makers restrained or permitted the\nmanufacture and sale of that which all along the track of its history has\nseemed to be the nation\u2019s greatest curse.\u201d \u2026 \u201cThe vigorously maintained\nprohibition against spirits in 1753-1756, and again in 1772-1775, proved\nthe enormous benefits effected in moral, economical, and other respects,\nby abstinence from intoxicating spirits.\u201d \u2026 \u201cThis it is which has so\nhelped Sweden to emerge from moral and material prostration, and explains\nthe existence of such general indications in that country of comfort and\nindependence among all classes.\u201d\n\nFrom the Edinburgh _Review_ for January, 1873, we learn that in\neighty-nine private estates in England and Scotland, \u201cthe drink traffic\nhas been altogether suppressed, with the happiest social results. The\nlate Lord Palmerston[6] suppressed the beer shops in Romsey as the leases\nfell in. We know an estate which stretches for miles along the romantic\nshore of Loch Fyne,[7] where no whiskey is allowed to be sold. The\npeasants and fishermen are flourishing. They have all their money in the\nbank, and they obtain higher wages than their neighbors when they go to\nsea\u201d\u2014a proof that a small oasis of temperance can maintain its prosperity\nin the midst of poison-blighted communities.\n\nHere and there the wiles of the poison-mongers will undoubtedly succeed\nin evading the law, but their power for mischief will be diminished as\nthat of the gambling-hell was diminished in Homburg and Baden,[8] where\ntemptation was removed out of the track of the uninitiated till the host\nof victims dwindled away for want of recruits. Not the promptings of an\ninnate passion, but the charm of artificial allurements is the gate by\nwhich ninety-nine out of a hundred drunkards have entered the road to\nruin. It would be an understatement to say that the temptation of minors\nwill be reduced a hundred fold wherever the total amount of sales has\nbeen reduced as much as five fold\u2014a result which has been far exceeded,\neven under the present imperfect system of legal control. \u201cIn the course\nof my duty as an Internal Revenue officer,\u201d says Superintendent Hamlin of\nBangor, \u201cI have become thoroughly acquainted with the state and extent\nof the liquor traffic in Maine, and I have no hesitation in saying that\nthe beer trade is not more than one per cent. of what I remember it to\nhave been, and the trade in distilled liquors is not more than ten per\ncent. of what it was formerly.\u201d \u201cI think I am justified in saying,\u201d\nreports the Attorney-General, \u201cthat there is not an open bar for the\nsale of intoxicating liquor in this county\u201d (Androscoggin, including\nthe manufacturing district of Lewiston\u2014once a very hotbed of the rum\ntraffic). \u201cIn the city of Biddeford, a manufacturing place of 11,000\ninhabitants, for a month at a time not a single arrest for drunkenness\nhas been made or become necessary.\u201d And from Augusta (the capital of the\nstate): \u201cIf we were to say that the quantity of liquor sold here is not\none-tenth as large as formerly, we think it would be within the truth;\nand the favorable effects of the change upon all the interests of the\nstate are plainly seen everywhere.\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is perhaps not necessary,\u201d says the Boston _Globe_, of July 29, 1875,\n\u201cto dwell on the evils of intemperance, and yet people seldom think how\ngreat a proportion of these might be prevented by driving the iniquity\ninto its hiding places, and preventing it from coming forth to lure its\nvictims from among the unwary and comparatively guileless. Few young men\nwho are worth saving, or are likely to be saved to decency and virtue,\nwould seek it out if it were kept from sight. But when it comes forth in\ngay and alluring colors, it draws a procession of our youth into a path\nthat has an awful termination. Nor does the evil which springs from an\nopen toleration of the way in which this vice carries on its traffic of\ndestruction fall only on men. A sad proportion of its victims is made\nup from shop girls and abandoned women who are not so infatuated at the\nstart that they would plunge into a life of infamy if its temptations\nwere strictly under the ban, and kept widely separated from the world\nof decency. But it intruded itself upon them. Its temptations and\nopportunities are before their eyes, and the way is made easy for their\nfeet to go down to death.\u201d\n\n\u201cTo what good is it,\u201d says Lord Brougham,[9] \u201cthat the legislature\nshould pass laws to punish crime, or that their lordships should occupy\nthemselves in trying to improve the morals of the people by giving\nthem education? What could be the use of sowing a little seed here\nand plucking up a weed there, if these beer shops are to be continued\nto sow the seeds of immorality broadcast over the land, germinating\nthe most frightful produce that ever has been allowed to grow up in a\ncivilized country, and, I am ashamed to add, under the fostering care of\nParliament.\u201d\n\nThe prohibition of the poison traffic has become the urgent duty\nof every legislator, the foremost aim of every moral reformer. The\nverdict of the most eminent statesmen, physicians, clergymen, patriots\nand philanthropists, is unanimous on that point. We lack energy, not\ncompetence, nor the sanction of a higher authority, to gain the votes of\nthe masses.\n\n\u201cWe can prove the success of prohibition by the experience of our\nneighboring state,\u201d writes Dr. Herbert Buchanan, of Portsmouth, New\nHampshire; \u201call the vicious elements of society are arraigned against\nus, _but I have no fear of the event if we do not cease to agitate the\nsubject_.\u201d\n\nAgitation, a ceaseless appeal to the common sense and conscience of our\nfellowmen can, indeed, not fail to be crowned with ultimate success. The\nstruggle with vice, with ignorance and mean selfishness may continue, but\nit will be our own fault if our adversaries can support their opposition\nby a single valid argument, and the battle will be more than half won if\na majority of our fellow-citizens have to admit that we contend no longer\nfor a favor, but for an evident right.\n\n\n\n\nSTUDIES IN KITCHEN SCIENCE AND ART.\n\nV. TEA, COFFEE, AND CHOCOLATE.\n\nBY BYRON D. HALSTED, SC. D.\n\n\nWe have here to consider the sources of the three leading dietetic\nbeverages. They are very unlike in general appearance, but all possess\nthe same vegetable principle, called an alkaloid,[1] though known under\ndifferent names. Thus modern chemistry has proved the identity of the\ntheine of the tea, the caffeine[2] of the coffee and the theo-bromine[3]\nof the chocolate. This same vegetable alkaloid, remarkable for its large\nper cent. of nitrogen, is found in small quantities in a few other\nplants, most of which have been used to some extent for the making of\nan exhilarating drink. It answers our purpose best to treat each of our\nthree subjects under its respective head.\n\nTEA (_Thea viridis_[4]).\u2014The tea of commerce is the prepared leaves of\na shrub belonging to the order Camelliace\u00e6[5] represented in the United\nStates by loblolly bay[6] and Stuartia.[7] Perhaps the most familiar\nnear relative of the tea plant is the camellia of our green houses and\nwindow gardens. The wild tea shrub grows from twenty to thirty feet high,\nand is found native in China and Japan. When under cultivation the shrub\nis pruned so as to not exceed six feet in height. The flowers are large,\nwhite and fragrant; they are produced in clusters in the axils of the\nsimple, oblong, evergreen, serrate leaves. China and Japan are among the\nleading tea-growing countries, its cultivation being chiefly confined\nbetween twenty-five and thirty-five north latitude. Tea was in general\nuse in China in the ninth century, but it was not until the seventeenth\ncentury that it was introduced into Europe. About the middle of this\ncentury the East India Company imported tea into England, since which\ntime it has become the regular beverage of many millions of people in all\nparts of the world. The importations of tea into the United States for\nthe year ending June 30th, 1884, were 67,665,910 pounds. It will be seen\nthat this gives somewhere near a pound and a quarter of tea for each man,\nwoman and child in this country. Most of our China tea trade is carried\non with Shanghai, Foo Chow and Amoy.\n\nIn China the tea shrub is grown chiefly on the southern slopes of hills\nin poor, well watered soil, to which manure is applied. The seeds are\ndropped in holes at regular intervals, and during the third year the\nfirst crop is obtained. In from seven to ten years the shrubs are cut\ndown and shoots spring up from the stumps, which continue to yield crops\nof leaves. A single plant produces on an average between three hundred\nand three hundred and fifty pounds of dried leaves. The leaves are picked\nthree times a year, in April, May, and June or July. The young, tender\nleaves of the first gathering make the best tea, and this is very largely\nconsumed in its native country. The older leaves of the second and third\npickings make a poorer quality of tea which abounds in tannin,[8] and\ncontains but a small per cent. of the best elements of superior tea.\nIt was long supposed that black and green sorts of tea were made from\ndistinct varieties, or even species of plants; in fact, there has been\na great deal of mystery surrounding the culture and preparation of tea\nuntil within the past score of years. Authorities now state that there\nis only one species of plant yielding tea leaves, and from this all\nsorts are made. The differences are natural, being some of them due to\nclimate and conditions of soil, etc., while others are the result of the\nmanipulation of the leaves after they are gathered. Black and green tea\nmay come from the same shrub, or even the same branch of a plant. The\nleaves forming black tea undergo a fermentation before they are dried,\nwhile those designed for green tea are at once submitted to a high heat\nin iron pans, and not copper pans, as generally supposed. After the\nleaves for black tea have been gathered they are placed in heaps, when\nthey become flaccid and turn dark from incipient fermentation. The leaves\nare then rolled between the thumb and fingers or upon bamboo tables until\nthe desired twist is obtained. They next pass to a drying room and are\nheated in an iron pan; again twisted, and afterward dried over a slow\nfire. The principal difference between the preparation of black and green\ntea is that in the latter the freshly gathered leaves go at once into the\nheated pans. The repeated twisting and heating is nearly the same with\nboth classes. The green teas are sometimes artificially colored by using\nturmeric[9] with gypsum or Prussian blue. A flavor is frequently given to\nthe tea by adding aromatic flowers, as those of the pekoe and caper.[10]\nAmong the leading varieties of black tea are: Bohea, a small leaf, crisp\nand strong odor, with brackish taste; two sorts of Congous\u2014the large leaf\nwith fine flavor, and the small leaf with a burnt smell. The Souchong is\nthe much prized \u201cEnglish Breakfast,\u201d made from leaves of three-year-old\ntrees. Only a small part of the so-called Souchong is genuine. Pekoe is\nmade from the tenderest leaves gathered from three-year-old plants while\nin bloom. Oolongs are common kinds of black teas, much used for mixing\nwith other sorts. Of the green teas the Gunpowder is round, like shot,\nwith green color and fragrant taste. The Imperial is more loosely rolled\nthan the Gunpowder. Young Hyson is in loose rolls, which easily crumble\nto the touch; it gives a light green infusion. Old Hyson is the older\nleaves in the picking for Young Hyson. Twankay consists of mixed and\nbroken leaves, and is of inferior quality. Japan teas are both colored\nand uncolored, and come from Japan; they are very largely consumed in\nthis country.\n\nThe chemical composition of a fair sample of tea is; Theine, 1. to 3. per\ncent.; caseine,[11] 15.; gum, 18.; sugar, .3; tannin, 26.; aromatic oil,\n.75; fat, 4.; vegetable fiber, 20.; mineral substances, 5.; and water, 5.\nper cent.\n\nThe tannin is an astringent, while the theine acts as a gentle excitant\nupon the nervous system. This is probably enhanced by the warmth of the\ninfusion. The best authorities agree that tea is a valuable article of\ndiet for healthy, grown people. It however is not suitable for children\nuntil growth is completed. Adults with irritable constitutions may be\ninjured by tea-drinking. Tea is the solace of old age. Cibber[12] wrote:\n\u201cTea! thou soft, thou sober, sage and venerable liquid \u2026 thou female\ntongue-running, smile-smoothing, heart-opening, wink-tippling cordial, to\nwhose glorious insipidity I owe the happiest moments of my life, let me\nfall prostrate.\u201d Waller[13] truthfully says:\n\n    \u201cTea doth our fancy aid,\n     Repress those vapors which the head invade\n     And keep the palace of the soul.\u201d\n\nTea is extensively adulterated in many ways. In China exhausted tea\nleaves and foliage of other trees are employed by millions of pounds\neach year. Willow leaves are among the principal ones used for mixing\nwith tea. A British consul once related that at Shanghai there were at\none time 53,000 pounds of willow leaves in preparation to be sold as\ntea. Mineral matters are used to color or \u201cface\u201d the tea. \u201cThe common\ntest,\u201d states Mr. Felker, in his work \u201cWhat the Grocers Sell Us,\u201d \u201cis\nby infusion; this is poured off the leaves and examined for color,\ntaste, and odor, all of which are characteristic.\u2026 Impurities like sand,\niron filings and dirt may be seen among the leaves or at the bottom of\nthe cups. The leaves, too, betray by their coarseness and botanical\ncharacter, the nature and quality of the tea, for although the leaves\nof the genuine tea differ much in form and size, yet their venation and\ngeneral structure are very distinctive.\u2026 \u2018Lie tea,\u2019 used to adulterate\nGunpowder tea, consists of tea dust mixed with mineral substances, starch\nand gum, and then formed into little masses resembling tea.\u201d Large tea\nhouses employ professional tea tasters who make steepings and judge upon\nthe flavor, purity, etc.\n\nCOFFEE.\u2014The coffee of commerce is the seed of a shrub, _Coffea\nArabica_,[14] belonging to the order Rubiace\u00e6,[15] which is represented\nin the United States by the charming little \u201cbluets\u201d of our pastures in\nspring. The cape jessamine and bouvardias[16] of the green house are\nnear relatives of the coffee plant. The name coffee is probably derived\nfrom the Arabic word _Kahwah_, although some authorities contend that\nit is traced to Caffa, a province of Abyssinia, where the coffee plant\nflourishes in the wild state. The coffee shrub is an evergreen, growing\nto the height of twenty feet, with long, smooth, shining leaves. The pure\nwhite flowers are produced in clusters in the axils of the leaves and\nfollowed by fleshy berries which, when ripe, resemble small, dark red\ncherries. Each berry usually contains two seeds embedded in the yellowish\npulp. These seeds, when separated from the pulp and papery covering, form\nthe raw coffee of the stores. Each seed\u2014improperly called a berry\u2014is\nsomewhat hemispherical, with a groove running through the middle of the\nflat side. Sometimes one seed is abortive in the berry, and the other\nbecomes round, as in the Wynaad coffee from India, sometimes called \u201cmale\nberry\u201d coffee.\n\nCoffee is cultivated in many countries lying between fifteen north and\nfifteen south latitude. It may be successfully grown thirty degrees\nfrom the equator. Like the tea plant, the coffee shrub favors the well\nwatered mountain slopes. The trees are set in long, straight rows, six\nfeet apart, and six feet from each other in the row. The coffee tree is\nnaturally a plant with long, straggling shoots, but under cultivation\nit is pruned to make a shrub not exceeding six feet in height, with\nlong, lateral branches. A full crop should be obtained the third year.\nThe berries are gathered when the pulp begins to shrivel, and are at\nonce taken to the store-house, where they are pulped. The berries are\npassed between large, rough rollers, which remove the pulp, but not the\nparchment-like covering of the seeds. The berries with the pulp removed\nare heaped up, covered with old sacking, and allowed to ferment for two\ndays. Water is turned on and all glutinous matter removed. The seeds are\nspread out to dry, after which they are passed between wooden cylinders\nthat remove the thin, dry covering. The coffee seeds, after being\nwinnowed, are assorted into various sizes and packed ready for shipment.\nA thrifty shrub yields two pounds of marketable coffee. The raw coffee\nseed has a horny texture, without the peculiar aroma characteristic of\nthe roasted berry.\n\nThe early history of coffee is obscure. It has been in use for over a\nthousand years. The knowledge of its use was first brought into Arabia\nfrom Abyssinia in the fifteenth century. \u201cIts peculiar property of\ndissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken advantage of in\nconnection with the prolonged religious services of the Mohametans, and\nits use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up a fierce opposition on\nthe part of the priests. Coffee was by them held to be an intoxicant\nbeverage, and therefore prohibited by the Koran;[17] and the dreadful\npenalties of an outraged sacred law were laid over the heads of all\nwho became addicted to its use. Notwithstanding the threats of divine\nretribution, and though all manner of devices were adopted to check its\ngrowth, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly among the Arabians,\nMohametans, and the growth of coffee as well as its use as a national\nbeverage became as inseparably associated with Arabia as tea is with\nChina.\u201d Coffee reached Great Britain in the seventeenth century. Charles\nII. attempted to suppress coffee houses by proclamation, because they\n\u201cdevised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and scandalous reports\nto the defamation of his Majesty\u2019s government and to the peace and quiet\nof the nation.\u201d How different is this view from that held by those\ninterested in good government, peace and prosperity at the present day!\nWe now rejoice in the establishment of coffee houses, hoping that they\nmay supplant the much dreaded rum shops.\n\nIt is worthy of note here that the three dietetic beverages treated in\nthis article were all introduced into Europe at nearly the same time. Tea\ncame through the Dutch; cocoa was brought from South America to Spain,\nand coffee came from Arabia by the way of Constantinople.\n\nCoffee was for some time supplied only by Arabia, but near the beginning\nof the eighteenth century its culture was introduced into Java and the\nWest India islands. At the present day its culture is general within the\ntropics, Brazil leading the list in amount annually produced. In the\nEastern hemisphere the principal coffee regions are Java and Ceylon,\nwhere a superior article is produced. The amount of coffee imported into\nthe United States during the year ending June 30th, 1884, was 534,785,542\npounds, and 18,907,627 pounds in excess of the previous year. It is seen\nthat these figures give nearly ten pounds for each individual in this\nvast country. This amount per capita is exceeded by only a few countries.\nHolland leads all European states, with an average of twenty-one pounds\nper head, followed closely by Belgium, Denmark and Norway.\n\nThe dietetic value of coffee depends principally upon the alkaloid\ncaffeine or theine which it contains in common with tea and cocoa or\nchocolate. Good coffee contains nearly one per cent. of this substance.\nWhen obtained in a pure state it crystallizes in slender needles. The\npeculiar aroma of coffee is due to the presence of caffeone,[18] which\ndevelops in the process of roasting. It may be isolated as a brown\noil, heavier than water, by distilling roasted coffee with water. The\nroasting of coffee is an operation requiring much good judgment, for by\ncarrying the process beyond a certain point the aroma is destroyed and a\ndisagreeable flavor is produced.\n\nRoasted coffee when ground quickly deteriorates unless kept in close\nvessels. Mocha coffee, which is brought from Arabia, is the best, and\nthat from Java ranks next. Much of the so-called Mocha coffee is raised\nin Brazil, or elsewhere, and shipped to Arabia, after which it finds its\nway into the markets. The berries of the true Mocha coffee are small,\ndark and yellow; those of Java are a paler yellow, while the West India\nand Brazilian coffees have a greenish-gray tint. The last named coffee is\nusually sold under the name of Rio, an abbreviation of the leading coffee\nexporting port of Brazil, namely, Rio de Janeiro; Martinique and St.\nDomingo coffees are two other kinds but little known.\n\nCoffee is principally valuable for its stimulating effects upon the\nsystem. It produces a buoyancy of feeling, lightens the sensation of\nfatigue, and sustains the muscles when under prolonged exertion. A cup\nof rich, hot coffee seems to infuse new life into an o\u2019er-tired body.\nEqually with tea it is \u201cthe cup that cheers, but not inebriates.\u201d\n\n    \u201cCoffee which makes the politician wise\n     And see through all things with his half-shut eyes.\u201d\n\nCoffee is the subject of many adulterations, usually when sold in the\nground state. Several kinds of seeds resembling coffee in size have been\nemployed to adulterate the whole coffee, some of which need to be colored\nbefore they will pass for the genuine. Many kinds of roots are sliced,\ndried and roasted for the adulteration of coffee, among the leading ones\nof which are chicory, carrot and the beet. Spent tanbark and even dried\nbeef\u2019s liver have been thus employed. Many of these fraudulent additions\ncan be detected with the microscope. Ground coffee floats on water, while\nmost of the adulterations will sink or discolor the water. There is said\nto be a machine in England for making false berries out of vegetable\nsubstance.\n\nCHOCOLATE.\u2014The chocolate of the shops is derived from a small evergreen\ntree, native of South America, Mexico, and West Indias. This tree,\n_Theobroma cacao_, has large, pointed leaves and rose-colored flowers,\nwhich are followed by fruit pods six to ten inches long. The first part\nof the botanical name is from the Greek meaning \u201cfood for the gods,\u201d\nand the second or specific word _cacao_ is the old Mexican name for the\ntree. The order Sterculiace\u00e6[19] to which the theobroma or chocolate\ntree belongs is not represented in our flora. It however is known to\nmany by a species of Mahernia[20] from the cape of Good Hope, cultivated\nin conservatories. The order contains about 520 species, nearly all of\nwhich are tropical. The long pods, while green, resemble cucumbers, and\nwhen ripe contain from thirty to an hundred seeds, arranged in rows, and\nof the size of sweet almonds. During the season of ripening the pods are\ngathered daily, laid in heaps until they have fermented, when they are\nopened by hand and the seeds spread in the sun to dry, after which they\nare ready for market. Before the Spaniards visited Mexico the natives\nmade a beverage from the seeds, which they called _chocalat_, and from\nthis we derived our word chocolate. The Spaniards have the credit of\nintroducing this beverage into Europe. In the manufacture of chocolate\nthe _cocoa_ (which is a corruption of the original Mexican _cacao_) beans\nare roasted similar to the roasting of coffee, and after the husk is\nremoved they are reduced to a paste. This paste is afterward mixed with\nequal quantities of sugar and heated and turned into cakes of various\nshapes familiar to all housekeepers. Cacao nibs are the bruised and\nbroken seeds, and cocoa shells are the thin coverings of the seeds or\nbeans which are separated before the seeds are ground to powder. Broma is\nchocolate prepared for the market in a certain way, and is a trade name.\n\nThe importations of chocolate for the year ending June 30th were\n12,235,304 pounds, being an increase of nearly thirty-five per cent. over\nthe previous year.\n\nOf the three leading beverages herein briefly described tea is the only\none that has been grown as a crop in the United States. In a reply to an\ninquiry recently addressed to the Commissioner of Agriculture, it was\nstated that the tea plant is hardy at Washington, D. C., and that the\ntea plantations near Summerville, South Carolina, are doing well. \u201cThere\nis no trouble about growing the plant, but the question of profitable\nculture for the manufacture of tea is quite another thing.\u2026 The purpose\nof the Department of Agriculture \u2026 is to cheapen the present methods\nor possibly suggest the placing of the teas on the market in a wholly\ndifferent shape from what is done at present.\u201d We may be able to supply\nour own demands for tea, but it is not likely that the same will be true\nof coffee and chocolate.\n\n\n\n\nHOUSEHOLD BEVERAGES.\n\n\nAt the breakfast table of a friend not long ago I heard the gentleman of\nthe house remark over his fragrant coffee:\n\n\u201cI laughed at my wife when she went into the cooking school last summer,\nI thought her a model cook before; but for some reason she has improved.\nI never tasted such coffee as this.\u201d\n\nMy hostess answered: \u201cThe reason is simple enough. I had always cooked\nby rule before. I learned in my studies in cookery to reason. It makes a\ngreat difference.\u201d\n\nIt does make a difference, and never a greater than in preparing tea,\ncoffee and chocolate. There is rarely a cup of any one of these beverages\non our tables which is fit to drink; our coffee is bitter and muddy, tea\nis either insipid or too strong, and chocolate has failed to become the\npopular drink which it deserves to be, because so rarely well prepared.\n\nFew cooks understand the nature of either the coffee berry or the tea\nleaf, and consequently do not know how to treat them in order to extract\ntheir delicious flavor, aroma, and nerve-bracing qualities.\n\nFew cooks have an idea of the extreme delicacy of these articles, of how\nscientifically, even artistically, they must be treated. To extract an\noil or flavor is one of the nicest experiments of the laboratory, and\none for which a chemist selects his materials with the greatest care,\nattends strictly to the cleanliness of his vessels, watches every change\nin temperature, and counts even seconds in time. Making these beverages\nis nothing less than performing a delicate chemical experiment, and yet\nwe are so ignorant or careless about this important work that we attend\nstrictly to neither heat nor time, and often take just what we can most\neasily get to work with.\n\nIf you would have good tea, coffee and chocolate begin your care with\nyour buying. Tea is a most troublesome article to purchase. There are\nso many varieties on the market, and so much adulteration that the\nprobability is that unless you are taking extreme precautions you are\ngetting an inferior article. Adulteration is astonishingly common,\npoor teas being manipulated to make them appear like the first-class\ngrades; inferior black teas colored to look like high-priced green\nteas, \u201clie tea\u201d sold in vast quantities, and made-over teas[1] made to\npass for fresh. How to obtain the genuine article is the housewife\u2019s\nfirst problem. Careful examination may be made under the microscope for\ncoloring matter, the tea may be soaked to see if it unrolls into true\nleaves, or after washing it in a little water the liquid may be tested\nwith chemicals for foreign substances. But all this means trouble that\nfew housewives care to take. Probably the most practical plan is to find\nby careful experiment a thoroughly reliable[2] tea-house and then confine\nyour patronage to it. A pound of tea bought here and another there, as\nconvenience may dictate or some friend advise, will insure you nothing\nbut adulteration. The only safe plan is to find a house which sells\ngood tea. Your tea bought, it must be prepared. In making a cup of tea\nthe chemical composition and the effect of each step in its preparation\nmust be observed or your draught will be ruined. The constituents in the\nleaf which you must look after are the theine, the aromatic oil, and\nthe tannin. Your tea must be treated in such a way that the first two,\nwhich give to the drink its flavor and aroma, will be extracted, but that\nthe bitter tannin will be left undeveloped. The theine and oil are both\nvolatile substances, so that if your tea is steeped too long, or if it\nis boiled, they will literally fly away, while the tannin extracted will\nturn your cup into a bitter, herby drink. A rule is easily formulated\nfrom this bit of science:\n\nInto a perfectly clean tea-pot, just scalded with boiling hot water,\nput a heaping tablespoonful of tea for each person, and upon it pour a\ncup and a half of boiling water for each spoonful. Cover your pot with\na \u201ccosy\u201d[3] if you have one, and let it stand on the back of the range,\nwhere it will not boil, for from five to ten minutes. The length of time\nrequired to steep each variety of tea must be determined by experiment,\nsome varieties taking longer than others. The exact length each housewife\nmust determine when she tries a new kind; and it may be said of the\nexact proportion of tea to water that it as well must be determined by\nexperiment. No rule in cooking is inflexible. It must always be modified\nby the good sense and the scientific care of the cook.\n\nThe English custom of making tea on the table is the prettiest and the\nmost satisfactory. They pour upon the tea required a small quantity of\nboiling water, this is placed upon the table, covered with the \u201ccosy;\u201d a\npot of water taken when boiling from the stove is kept hot by a spirit\nlamp, and when the tea is steeped as much boiling water as the quantity\nof tea used demands is poured into the tea-pot. It is allowed to stand\nabout three minutes and then poured into the cups and on the cream.\nRemember, cream should always be poured into the cups first for both tea\nand coffee, and tea is as much improved by cream as is coffee.\n\nThe purchase of coffee is beset with the same trouble as that of\ntea\u2014adulteration. You may get a manufactured berry, you may get chiccory;\nto avoid this careful tests must be applied and only reliable firms\npatronized. Nothing but unbrowned coffee should be bought; the roasting\nshould be done at home. This process requires particular care. The coffee\nberry is hard and horny, water has no effect upon it even when it has\nbeen ground. It must be roasted in order that certain constituents may\nbecome soluble. These constituents are a fragrant volatile oil called\ncaffeone, and the caffeine, which is identical with the theine of\ntea. By roasting the oil is distributed through the berry and so made\nsoluble, while the caffeine is developed so that it may be absorbed by\nwater. Just the right amount of roasting must be done or the essential\nconstituents will be expelled and the bitter qualities will be made to\npredominate. I have said that the roasting should be done at home. It may\nbe done in the shops, of course, but the operation there is carried on so\nunscientifically that the aroma is lost on the town instead of being shut\nup in the berry. Only a few days ago, passing up a business street of a\ncity, I was astonished to find the air heavy with the delicious aroma\nof coffee. It scented the air for a square, and only when I came to a\nlarge grocery store was the mystery explained. The grocer was browning\nhis coffee, and its odor was serving for an advertisement, effective,\nperhaps, among the ignorant, but which would warn every wise housewife\nnot to purchase roasted coffee. The process is best carried on in one\nof the very nearly perfect coffee roasters to be found in the shops; if\nthese are not at hand an ordinary dripping pan may be used. It should\nbe covered to prevent loss of aroma, and should be continually shaken\nto prevent burning. The entire attention of one person should be given\nthe coffee during this operation. When turned to a rich chestnut brown\nremove, keeping covered until quite cool. If left open the aroma escapes\nvery rapidly from warm coffee, but if kept covered much of that made\nvolatile by the heat is re-absorbed. A tight dish\u2014an air-tight canister\nis best\u2014must be ready to keep it in.\n\nWhen using, grind only what you need, and take care that it is not left\ncoarse, when the strength can not be extracted, or that it is not too\nfine, when the liquor will be muddy in spite of you; in this, as always,\nexperiment until you know the degree of fineness which ground coffee\nshould have. A heaping tablespoonful of ground coffee to a cup and a half\nof water is the ordinary proportion for making strong coffee\u2014the only\nkind which should ever be prepared, by the way, the diluting ought always\nto take place in the cup; to the required amount of coffee add the white\nand shell of an egg and cold water to thoroughly wet the whole; stir up\nthese ingredients in your coffee pot and pour upon them the required\namount of _boiling_ hot water. Let it boil from ten to fifteen minutes,\npour in half a cup of cold water and remove to the side of the stove\nwhere it can not boil. Do not boil longer than the exact time which you\nhave found necessary for the kind of coffee you are using, if you do\nyou lose your flavor and extract in its place a bitter principle which\nis ruinous. Remember always what one of our famous cooks says: \u201cThere\ncomes a time in baking, frying or broiling when injured nature revolts\nand burns up, but a thing may boil until not a vestige of its original\ncondition remains, and unless the water evaporates, it may go on boiling\nfor hours without reminding one by smell or smoke that it is spoiled.\u201d\n\nYour coffee will settle in about five minutes. Now if you _must_ use a\ndifferent coffee urn, gently pour off the liquor so as not to disturb the\ngrounds. The settling of coffee is an essential point. The regulation\nmethod of stirring an egg into the freshly ground berry is undoubtedly\nbest, but another and more economical practice may take its place. After\nyour freshly roasted berries are cool enough to be easily handled, add\nto each pound a fresh egg and stir it in until each kernel is coated\nsmoothly with the mixture. Care must be taken that the coffee be not warm\nenough to cook the egg. When eggs are expensive an economical method is\nto wash the shells before they are broken, and use with cold water to\nsettle the coffee.\n\nAfter all these precautions there are still other points to guard. Not\nthe least is the condition of the inside of the coffee pot; it should\nnever be stained, burnt or coated, but kept perfectly bright by being\nwashed, and, if necessary, scoured after each meal. It would be a gain\nin aroma if your coffee pot could always be kept perfectly tight so that\nnone could escape, and if it could go to the table in the same dish. The\npleasant, suggestive odors which precede a meal are always signs that\nthe most delicious flavors of your coming breakfast, dinner or tea are\nescaping, that through the unskillfulness of your cook you are losing\nwhat should give the greatest charm to your meal.\n\n_Caf\u00e9 au lait_[4] is an excellent drink and easily prepared. Make in the\nusual way a pint of strong coffee, and into your table urn or a pitcher\npour a cup and a half of fresh milk, scalding hot; to this add the coffee\nand let the whole stand for five minutes in a hot place, or in a kettle\nof hot water.\n\nChocolate is a most delicious drink if properly prepared; it is, however,\nso often raw, muddy and strong that we have not been able to educate\nourselves to its peculiar disagreeableness. Make it by the following\nrule and you will find it both nutritious and pleasant: Select with care\nthe best make of chocolate, and into a little cold water rub smooth\nfive tablespoonfuls of grated chocolate; be sure that it be rubbed in\nsmoothly, a hard particle of chocolate is as unwelcome a visitor in your\ncup as floating tea leaves or black bobbing bits of coffee berries. So\nrub it smooth and stir it slowly into five cups of boiling water. Let it\nboil for about five minutes, and in the meantime heat two cups of milk;\nthis must be stirred into the boiling chocolate and the whole allowed to\nsimmer for a few minutes longer. You may sweeten it on the fire or in the\ncup.\n\n\n\n\nHUXLEY ON SCIENCE.[C]\n\n\nAll the time that we are awake we are learning by means of our senses\nsomething about the world in which we live and of which we form a part;\nwe are constantly aware of feeling, or hearing, or smelling, and, unless\nwe happen to be in the dark, of seeing; at intervals we taste. We call\nthe information thus obtained sensation.\n\nWhen we have any of these sensations we commonly say that we feel, or\nhear, or smell, or see, or taste something. A certain scent makes us say\nwe smell onions; a certain flavor, that we taste apples; a certain sound,\nthat we hear a carriage; a certain appearance before our eyes, that we\nsee a tree; and we call that which we thus perceive by the aid of our\nsenses a thing or an object.\n\nMoreover, we say of all these things, or objects, that they are the\ncauses of the sensations in question, and that the sensations are the\neffects of these causes. For example, if we hear a certain sound, we\nsay it is caused by a carriage going along the road, or that it is the\neffect, or the consequence, of a carriage passing along. If there is a\nstrong smell of burning, we believe it to be the effect of something on\nfire, and look about anxiously for the cause of the smell. If we see a\ntree, we believe that there is a thing, or object, which is the cause of\nthat appearance in our field of view.\n\nIn the case of the smell of burning, when we find on looking about, that\nsomething actually is on fire, we say indifferently either that we have\nfound out the cause of the smell, or that we know the reason why we\nperceive that smell; or that we have explained it. So that to know the\nreason why of anything, or to explain it, is to know the cause of it.\nBut that which is the cause of one thing is the effect of another. Thus,\nsuppose we find some smouldering straw to be the cause of the smell of\nburning, we immediately ask what set it on fire, or what is the cause\nof its burning? Perhaps we find that a lighted lucifer match has been\nthrown into the straw, and then we say that the lighted match was the\ncause of the fire. But a lucifer match would not be in that place unless\nsome person had put it there. That is to say, the presence of the lucifer\nmatch is an effect produced by somebody as cause. So we ask, why did any\none put the match there? Was it done carelessly, or did the person who\nput it there intend to do so? And if so, what was his motive, or the\ncause which led him to do such a thing? And what was the reason for his\nhaving such a motive? It is plain that there is no end to the questions,\none arising out of the other, that might be asked in this fashion.\n\nThus we believe that everything is the effect of something which preceded\nit as its cause, and that this cause is the effect of something else, and\nso on, through a chain of causes and effects which goes back as far as\nwe choose to follow it. Anything is said to be explained as soon as we\nhave discovered its cause, or the reason why it exists; the explanation\nis fuller, if we can find out the cause of that cause; and the further\nwe can trace the chain of causes and effects, the more satisfactory is\nthe explanation. But no explanation of anything can be complete, because\nhuman knowledge, at its best, goes but a very little way back toward the\nbeginning of things.\n\nWhen a thing is found always to cause a particular effect, we call that\neffect sometimes a property, sometimes a power of the thing. Thus the\nodor of onions is said to be a property of onions, because onions always\ncause that particular sensation of smell to arise, when they are brought\nnear the nose; lead is said to have the property of heaviness, because\nit always causes us to have the feeling of weight when we handle it; a\nstream is said to have the power to turn a waterwheel, because it causes\nthe waterwheel to turn; and a venomous snake is said to have the power\nto kill a man, because its bite may cause a man to die. Properties and\npowers, then, are certain effects caused by the things which are said to\npossess them.\n\nA great many of the things brought to our knowledge by our senses, such\nas houses and furniture, carriages and machines, are termed artificial\nthings or objects, because they have been shaped by the art of man;\nindeed, they are generally said to be made by man. But a far greater\nnumber of things owe nothing to the hand of man, and would be just what\nthey are if mankind did not exist\u2014such as the sky and the clouds; the\nsun, moon and stars; the sea with its rocks and shingly or sandy shores;\nthe hills and dales of the land; and all wild plants and animals. Things\nof this kind are termed natural objects, and to the whole of them we give\nthe name of Nature.\n\nAlthough this distinction between nature and art, between natural and\nartificial things, is very easily made and very convenient, it is needful\nto remember that, in the long run, we owe everything to nature; that\neven those artificial objects which we commonly say are made by men, are\nonly natural objects shaped and moved by men; and that, in the sense\nof creating, that is to say, of causing something to exist which did\nnot exist in some other shape before, man can make nothing whatever.\nMoreover, we must recollect that what men do in the way of shaping and\nbringing together or separating natural objects, is done in virtue of the\npowers which they themselves possess as natural objects.\n\nArtificial things are, in fact, all produced by the action of that part\nof nature which we call mankind, upon the rest.\n\nWe talk of \u201cmaking\u201d a box, and rightly enough, if we mean only that we\nhave shaped the pieces of wood and nailed them together; but the wood is\na natural object and so is the iron of the nails. A watch is \u201cmade\u201d of\nthe natural objects gold and other metals, sand, soda, rubies, brought\ntogether, and shaped in various ways; a coat is \u201cmade\u201d of the natural\nobject, wool; and a frock of the natural objects, cotton or silk.\nMoreover, the men who make all these things are natural objects.\n\nCarpenters, builders, shoemakers, and all other artisans and artists, are\npersons who have learned so much of the powers and properties of certain\nnatural objects, and of the chain of causes and effects in nature, as\nenables them to shape and put together those natural objects, so as to\nmake them useful to man.\n\nA carpenter could not, as we say, \u201cmake\u201d a chair unless he knew something\nof the properties and powers of wood; a blacksmith could not \u201cmake\u201d a\nhorseshoe unless he knew that it is a property of iron to become soft and\neasily hammered into shape when it is made red-hot; a brickmaker must\nknow many of the properties of clay; and a plumber could not do his work\nunless he knew that lead has the properties of softness and flexibility,\nand that a moderate heat causes it to melt.\n\nSo that the practice of every art implies a certain knowledge of natural\ncauses and effects; and the improvement of the arts depends upon our\nlearning more and more of the properties and powers of natural objects,\nand discovering how to turn the properties and the powers of things and\nthe connections of cause and effect among them to our own advantage.\n\nAmong natural objects, as we have seen, there are some that we can get\nhold of and turn to account. But all the greatest things in nature and\nthe links of cause and effect which connect them, are utterly beyond our\nreach. The sun rises and sets; the moon and the stars move through the\nsky; fine weather and storms, cold and heat, alternate. The sea changes\nfrom violent disturbance to glassy calm, as the winds sweep over it with\nvarying strength or die away; innumerable plants and animals come in\nbeing and vanish again, without our being able to exert the slightest\ninfluence on the majestic procession of the series of great natural\nevents. Hurricanes ravage one spot; earthquakes destroy another; volcanic\neruptions lay waste a third. A fine season scatters wealth and abundance\nhere, and a long drought brings pestilence and famine there. In all such\ncases, the direct influence of man avails him nothing; and, so long as he\nis ignorant, he is the mere sport of the greater powers of nature.\n\nBut the first thing that men learned, as soon as they began to study\nnature carefully, was that some events take place in regular order and\nthat some causes always give rise to the same effects. The sun always\nrises on one side and sets on the other side of the sky; the changes of\nthe moon follow one another in the same order and with similar intervals;\nsome stars never sink below the horizon of the place in which we live;\nthe seasons are more or less regular; water always flows down-hill; fire\nalways burns; plants grow up from seed and yield seed, from which like\nplants grow up again; animals are born, grow, reach maturity, and die,\nage after age, in the same way. Thus the notion of an order of nature and\nof a fixity in the relation of cause and effect between things gradually\nentered the minds of men. So far as such order prevailed it was felt that\nthings were explained; while the things that could not be explained were\nsaid to have come about by chance, or to happen by accident.\n\nBut the more carefully nature has been studied, the more widely has\norder been found to prevail, while what seemed disorder has proved to\nbe nothing but complexity; until, at present, no one is so foolish as\nto believe that anything happens by chance, or that there are any real\naccidents, in the sense of events which have no cause. And if we say that\na thing happens by chance, everybody admits that all we really mean is,\nthat we do not know its cause or the reason why that particular thing\nhappens. Chance and accident are only _aliases_[1] of ignorance.\n\nAt this present moment, as I look out of my window, it is raining and\nblowing hard, and the branches of the trees are waving wildly to and\nfro. It may be that a man has taken shelter under one of these trees;\nperhaps, if a stronger gust than usual comes, a branch will break, fall\nupon the man, and seriously hurt him. If that happens it will be called\nan \u201caccident,\u201d and the man will perhaps say that by \u201cchance\u201d he went out,\nand then \u201cchanced\u201d to take refuge under the tree, and so the \u201caccident\u201d\nhappened. But there is neither chance nor accident in the matter. The\nstorm is the effect of causes operating upon the atmosphere, perhaps\nhundreds of miles away; every vibration of a leaf is the consequence of\nthe mechanical force of the wind acting on the surface exposed to it; if\nthe bough breaks, it will do so in consequence of the relation between\nits strength and the force of the wind; if it falls upon the man it will\ndo so in consequence of the action of other definite natural causes; and\nthe position of the man under it is only the last term in a series of\ncauses and effects, which have followed one another in natural order,\nfrom that cause, the effect of which was his setting out, to that the\neffect of which was his stepping under the tree.\n\nBut, inasmuch as we are not wise enough to be able to unravel all these\nlong and complicated series of causes and effects which lead to the\nfalling of the branch upon the man, we call such an event an accident.\n\nWhen we have made out by careful and repeated observation that something\nis always the cause of a certain effect, or that certain events always\ntake place in the same order, we speak of the truth thus discovered as\na law of nature. Thus it is a law of nature that anything heavy falls\nto the ground if it is unsupported; it is a law of nature that, under\nordinary conditions, lead is soft and heavy, while flint is hard and\nbrittle; because experience shows us that heavy things always do fall if\nthey are unsupported, that, under ordinary conditions, lead is always\nsoft, and that flint is always hard.\n\nIn fact, everything that we know about the powers and properties of\nnatural objects and about the order of nature may properly be termed a\nlaw of nature. But it is desirable to remember that which is very often\nforgotten, that the laws of nature are not the causes of the order of\nnature, but only our way of stating as much as we have made out of that\norder. Stones do not fall to the ground in consequence of the law just\nstated, as people sometimes carelessly say; but the law is the way of\nasserting that which invariably happens when heavy bodies at the surface\nof the earth, stones among the rest, are free to move.\n\nThe laws of nature are, in fact, in this respect, similar to the laws\nwhich men make for the guidance of their conduct toward one another.\nThere are laws about the payment of taxes, and there are laws against\nstealing or murder. But the law is not the cause of a man\u2019s paying his\ntaxes, nor is it the cause of his abstaining from theft and murder.\nThe law is simply a statement of what will happen to a man if he does\nnot pay his taxes, and if he commits theft or murder; and the cause of\nhis paying his taxes, or abstaining from crime (in the absence of any\nbetter motive) is the fear of consequences which is the effect of his\nbelief in that statement. A law of man tells what we may expect society\nwill do under certain circumstances; and a law of nature tells us what\nwe may expect natural objects will do under certain circumstances. Each\ncontains information addressed to our intelligence, and except so far as\nit Influences our intelligence, it is merely so much sound or writing.\n\nWhile there is this much analogy between human and natural laws, however,\ncertain essential differences between the two must not be overlooked.\nHuman law consists of commands addressed to voluntary agents, which\nthey may obey or disobey; and the law is not rendered null and void by\nbeing broken. Natural laws, on the other hand, are not commands, but\nassertions respecting the invariable order of nature; and they remain\nlaws only so long as they can be shown to express that order. To speak\nof the violation, or the suspension, of a law of nature is an absurdity.\nAll that the phrase can really mean is that, under certain circumstances\nthe assertion contained in the law is not true; and the just conclusion\nis, not that the order of nature is interrupted, but that we have made a\nmistake in stating that order. A true natural law is a universal rule,\nand, as such, admits of no exceptions.\n\nAgain, human laws have no meaning apart from the existence of human\nsociety. Natural laws express the general course of nature, of which\nhuman society forms only an insignificant fraction.\n\nIf nothing happens by chance, but everything in nature follows a definite\norder, and if the laws of nature embody that which we have been able to\nlearn about the order of nature in accurate language, then it becomes\nvery important for us to know as many as we can of these laws of nature,\nin order that we may guide our conduct by them.\n\nAny man who should attempt to live in a country without reference to the\nlaws of that country would very soon find himself in trouble. And if he\nwere fined, imprisoned, or even hanged, sensible people would probably\nconsider that he had earned his fate by his folly.\n\nIn like manner, any one who tries to live upon the face of this earth\nwithout attention to the laws of nature will live there for but a very\nshort time, most of which will be passed in exceeding discomfort; a\npeculiarity of natural laws, as distinguished from those of human\nenactment, being that they take effect without summons or prosecution. In\nfact, nobody could live for half a day unless he attended to some of the\nlaws of nature; and thousands of us are dying daily, or living miserably,\nbecause men have not yet been sufficiently zealous to learn the code of\nnature.\n\nIt has already been seen that the practice of all our arts and\nindustries depends upon our knowing the properties of natural objects\nwhich we can get hold of and put together; and though we may be able\nto exert no direct control over the greater natural objects and the\ngeneral succession of causes and effects in nature, yet, if we know\nthe properties and powers of these objects, and the customary order of\nevents, we may elude that which is injurious to us, and profit by that\nwhich is favorable.\n\nThus, though men can nowise alter the reasons or change the process\nof growth in plants, yet having learned the order of nature in these\nmatters, they make arrangements for sowing and reaping accordingly; they\ncan not make the wind blow, but when it does blow they take advantage\nof its known powers and probable direction to sail ships and turn\nwind-mills; they can not arrest the lightning, but they can make it\nharmless by means of conductors, the construction of which implies a\nknowledge of some of the laws of that electricity of which lightning is\none of the manifestations. Forewarned is forearmed, says the proverb;\nand knowledge of the laws of nature is forewarning of that which we may\nexpect to happen, when we have to deal with natural objects.\n\nNo line can be drawn between common knowledge of things and scientific\nknowledge; nor between common reasoning and scientific reasoning. In\nstrictness all accurate knowledge is science; and all exact reasoning\nis scientific reasoning. The method of observation and experiment, by\nwhich such great results are obtained in science, is identically the\nsame as that which is employed by every one, every day of his life, but\nrefined and rendered precise. If a child acquires a new toy, he observes\nits characters and experiments upon its properties; and we are all of us\nconstantly making observations and experiments upon one thing or another.\n\nBut those who have never tried to observe accurately will be surprised to\nfind how difficult a business it is. There is not one person in a hundred\nwho can describe the commonest occurrence with even an approach to\naccuracy. That is to say, either he will omit something which did occur,\nand which is of importance, or he will imply or suggest the occurrence of\nsomething which he did not actually observe, but which he unconsciously\ninfers must have happened. When two truthful witnesses contradict one\nanother in a court of justice, it usually turns out that one or other, or\nsometimes both, are confounding their inferences from what they saw with\nthat which they actually saw. A swears that B picked his pocket. It turns\nout that all A really knows is that he felt a hand in his pocket when B\nwas close to him; and that B was not the thief, but C, whom A did not\nobserve. Untrained observers mix up together their inferences from what\nthey see with that which they actually see in the most wonderful way; and\neven experienced and careful observers are in constant danger of falling\ninto the same error.\n\nScientific observation is such as is at once full, precise, and free from\nunconscious inference.\n\nExperiment is the observation of that which happens when we intentionally\nbring natural objects together, or separate them, or in any way change\nthe conditions under which they are placed. Scientific experiment,\ntherefore, is scientific observation, performed under accurately known\nartificial conditions.\n\nIt is a matter of common observation that water sometimes freezes.\nThe observation becomes scientific when we ascertain under what exact\nconditions the change of water into ice takes place. The commonest\nexperiments tell us that wood floats in water. Scientific experiment\nshows that, in floating, it displaces its own weight of the water.\n\nScientific reasoning differs from ordinary reasoning in just the same way\nas scientific observation and experiment differ from ordinary observation\nand experiment\u2014that is to say, it strives to be accurate; and it is just\nas hard to reason accurately as it is to observe accurately.\n\nIn scientific reasoning general rules are collected from the observation\nof many particular cases; and, when these general rules are established,\nconclusions are deduced from them, just as in everyday life. If a boy\nsays that \u201cmarbles are hard,\u201d he has drawn a conclusion as to marbles\nin general from the marbles he happens to have seen and felt, and\nhas reasoned in that mode which is technically termed induction. If\nhe declines to try to break a marble with his teeth, it is because\nhe consciously or unconsciously performs the converse operation of\ndeduction from the general rule \u201cmarbles are too hard to break with one\u2019s\nteeth.\u201d\n\nYou will learn more about the process of reasoning when you study logic,\nwhich treats of that subject in full. At present, it is sufficient\nto know that the laws of nature are the general rules respecting the\nbehavior of natural objects, which have been collected from innumerable\nobservations and experiments; or, in other words, that they are\ninductions from those observations and experiments. The practical and\ntheoretical results of science are the products of deductive reasoning\nfrom these general rules.\n\nThus science and common sense are not opposed, as people sometimes fancy\nthem to be, but science is perfected common sense. Scientific reasoning\nis simply very careful common reasoning, and common knowledge grows into\nscientific knowledge as it becomes more and more exact and complete.\n\nThe way to science then lies through common knowledge; we must extend\nthat knowledge by common observation and experiment, and learn how to\nstate the results of our investigations accurately, in general rules\nor laws of nature; finally, we must learn how to reason accurately\nfrom these rules, and thus arrive at rational explanations of natural\nphenomena, which may suffice for our guidance in life.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[C] From Science Primers. Introductory. By Prof. T. H. Huxley,\nF.R.S.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES.\n\n\nScience means classified knowledge. There may be much general knowledge\nthat is not science. It attains to that dignity only when the particular\nfacts known are generalized, and arranged in some order, instead of being\njumbled together, and lying about loosely in the memory, to be taken up\nat random. Especially must the basal facts of the science be verified,\nnot assumed.\n\nInformation that is general and assured, though as yet lacking system and\na proper ordering of the elementary facts, may, and usually will in time\nadvance to the dignity of science. History warrants this expectation.\nOnly let not the boast be made, or the honor conferred prematurely.\nGeography, chemistry, and political economy are all now sciences. The\nfirst has been recognized among the sciences from an early day, though\nit has advanced rapidly during the present century. The last two are\ncomparatively new members, having held their place in the \u201cCircle\u201d\nscarcely a hundred years. True, many of the facts of chemistry, and\nthe principles of political economy had been known for ages, but the\nknowledge men had of them lacked either system or certainty, or both. So,\nalso, in respect to mineralogy, botany, and zo\u00f6logy, a store of known\nfacts had been for ages accumulating, before they could rightly be called\nsciences. To reach that distinction the quality and orderly arrangement\nof the things known are as necessary as the quantity.\n\nIn the heading of this series of articles, \u201cCircle\u201d does not suggest the\nrim of a wheel, or a curved line all the points of which are equally\ndistant from the center around which it is drawn, but rather a group\nof sciences, just as \u201csocial circle,\u201d and \u201ccircle of friends\u201d indicate\nthe amicable relations of the persons without saying anything of their\npositions in the place of their meeting. It is a goodly group, this\nfamily of the sciences, and the members now so numerous and having\nsuch distinctive characteristics will be introduced, not as a body but\nseverally, and in five classes: The Mathematical, Physical, Mental,\nMoral, and Social Sciences. They hold such intimate relations with each\nother, mutually giving and receiving aid, that we will not attempt to\nkeep the members of classes from mixing occasionally in our account of\nthem, as they often do in reality.\n\nMathematics is the science of quantities and numbers. Its principles are\nof the first importance, and are of service in all the departments of\nscience. In several of its subdivisions, of which brief mention will be\nmade, it uses known quantities for the determination of those unknown,\nreasoning from certain relations existing between them. The qualities\nit discusses are represented by diagrams, figures, or symbols, adopted\nfor the purpose. It is customary to speak of _pure_ and _mixed_, or\n_abstract_ and _applied_ mathematics; the former treating of laws,\nprinciples, and relations in the abstract, or without any special\nreference to anything as actual or existing. The latter discusses the\nprinciples, laws and relations in connection with existing phenomena. The\noperations with numbers and symbols in pure mathematics, dealing only\nwith abstract quantities, do not necessarily imply the idea of matter.\nThose of the science as applied have much to do with material phenomena.\nThe elements that enter into the calculations in both cases are axioms or\nself-evident truths, things that are known intuitively, or grasped by the\nreason soon as presented, only in applied mathematics, used more or less\nin all sciences, these same axiomatic, self-evident truths are employed\nin the discussion of natural objects, the laws, properties, and relations\nof which are learned mostly by experience and induction.\n\nThe sciences classed as pure mathematics are Arithmetic, Geometry,\nAlgebra, Analytical Geometry and Calculus. Arithmetic is eminently the\nscience of numbers, and treats of, or practically illustrates their\nnature and uses. It employs the nine Arabic digits or figures with\nthe addition of the cipher, giving them various positions to express\nnumerical values, and not the native qualities or functions of the things\nto which they are applied. The methods are the same, and the results\nobtained equally true, whatever may be the nature of the quantities about\nwhich inquiry is made. The elementary or fundamental idea in arithmetic\nis unity, expressed by the figure 1, from which, with the help of the\nother eight digits, and the individually valueless cipher, 0, expressions\nfor all the other values, whole or fractional, are formed.\n\nAs arithmetical processes underlie, or enter into, the work of nearly all\nmathematical calculations, its great importance as a science is evident;\nthough as often taught in our schools and used in business, it is simply\na method of reckoning or computation.\n\nAlgebra is a kindred science, that, by the use of letters and symbols,\nenables us to solve more readily all difficult questions relating to\nnumbers. It is, indeed, a kind of universal arithmetic. In the ordinary\narithmetic the numbers or figures employed, taken separately, have always\nthe same value, and the result, when, sometimes by a tedious process,\nobtained, is applicable only to the particular question proposed, but\nin solving the problem by algebra, since we employ letters to which any\nvalues may be attributed at pleasure, the result obtained is largely\napplicable to all questions of a particular class. Thus, having the sum\nand difference of two quantities given, we readily obtain an algebraic\nexpression for the quantities themselves. By the new method the goal\nis reached speedily, and the cabalistic terms, that may, at his first\nattempts, perplex and discourage the young student, become his delight;\nand in many difficult processes greatly shorten the work, enabling him\nwith ease to solve problems that to the common arithmetician are tedious,\nif not impossible.\n\nGeometry, one of the oldest of sciences, measures extension, treats of\norder and proportion in space. Its working elements are not numbers or\nsymbols, but points, and lines, either straight or curved, and surfaces,\nwith volumes, or solids. The simpler problems, when successfully\ndemonstrated, are used in solving those more complicated, making the\nprogress easy.\n\nLines are made up of points, and have extension only in one direction.\nSurfaces have length and breadth, and are distinguished as triangles,\nquadrilaterals, polygons, etc., according to the number of lines that\ncircumscribe them. Solids have length, breadth, and thickness. From\na few elementary facts, much geometrical science has been deduced,\nby very simple, logical processes. It is intimately related to other\nsciences, and of much practical importance; but, if there were no other\nadvantage derived, as a discipline of the reasoning faculty there can\nbe nothing better. To pursue the study profitably there is little need\nof an instructor. Class recitations are helpful, but let any one intent\non personal culture, and having only a little time for the work, get\na good elementary treatise on plane and solid geometry, and study it.\nThe exercise will become a delight, will give strength and grip to the\nfaculties, and furnish protection against the mental dissipation caused\nby spending much time in the hasty, careless reading of what is fitly\ncalled light literature.\n\nAnalytical geometry is that branch which examines, discusses and develops\nthe properties of geometrical magnitudes by the use of algebraic symbols.\nThe questions or problems are solved, not, as in plane geometry, by\ndiagrams or figures drawn to show certain relations of magnitudes, but by\nmaking algebraic symbols represent them, and thus solving the problems.\nAnalysis is much used in simple algebraic processes, but more in\nanalytical geometry, and in differential and integral calculus, which has\nbeen called the transcendental analysis. It is useful as a higher branch\nof the science, and without it the best achievements of the greatest\nmathematicians would scarcely have been possible. These last named\nbranches are generally best pursued in our higher academies and colleges.\nA college course would be sadly deficient without them, but only for\nexceptional cases would it be advisable to put them in a course of study\nto be pursued privately.\n\nIf this brief mention of the higher mathematics kindles desire for\nfurther knowledge, and you hesitate to grapple with them alone, by\nall means go to college, and after a proper introduction, wherein the\nchief embarrassment is felt, even calculus will be found an agreeable\nacquaintance.\n\nUnder the head of \u201cMixed Mathematics,\u201d applicable to both laws or\nabstract principles and facts, the discussion of things as actual\nand possible, we have first, mechanics, the science that treats of\nthe various forces and their different effects. By _force_ is meant\nany power that tends to prevent, produce, or modify motion. Three\nare recognized\u2014(1) gravitation, or the attraction of bodies toward\neach other; (2) the cause, whatever it may be, of light, heat, and\nelectricity; (3) life, an equally mysterious power producing the actions\nof animals and the growth of plants. These forces, though entirely unseen\nand their causes unknown, are definite quantities. We readily conceive\nof one force as equal to, or greater than another, and know that equal\nforces, applied in opposite directions, balance each other. To everything\nthat moves there is force applied greater than the resistance to be\novercome. A number of forces may act on an object at the same time,\naccelerating, retarding, or changing the direction of the motion given\nto it. When the forces are so balanced as to hold the body on which they\nact in a state of equilibrium, their action and consequent phenomena\nare investigated under the head of STATICS, or the science which treats\nof bodies at rest. When motion is produced, DYNAMICS considers the laws\nthat govern the moving bodies and the phenomena that result. These\nbranches of mechanical science are of great practical importance, and a\nknowledge of them would save from many blunders and failures resulting\nfrom incompetence. The same laws govern in the movement of all bodies,\nwhether solid or liquid. Hydrostatics, Hydrodynamics, Hydraulics, etc.,\nare branches of the same science, and worthy of separate mention only\nbecause they apply the general principles of statics and dynamics to the\nphenomena of rest or motion in liquids. The foundation for all that is\npeculiar in these branches with the lengthened names, and that together\nmay be called Hydro-mechanics, lies in the properties that distinguish\nthe liquid from other states of material bodies, whether gaseous or\nsolid, viz.: in the presence of cohesion, but with great mobility of\nparts and more or less elasticity. Some peculiarities are so noteworthy\nas to deserve mention even in this limited presentation. Because of the\nonly slight cohesive attraction, and entire freedom of motion among the\nparticles, liquid bodies possess no definite form of their own, but adapt\nthemselves to the form of the excavations or vessels containing them.\nThey, of course, vary much in their fluidity, the mobile liquids, as\nwater and alcohol, flowing more readily than molasses, heavy oils, and\ntar. Fluids at rest press equally in all directions, upward, downward,\nand laterally. In this, also, they differ from solids that press only\ndown, or in the direction of the center of gravitation. If not confined\nthey can not be heaped up, but their particles seek a common level. An\nabsolute water level is, of course, possible only when the area covered\nis so limited that lines joining all the points on the surface with\nthe center of gravity are practically parallel, or their convergence\nan inappreciable quantity. In large bodies of water, as the ocean, the\nsurface corresponds with the general rotundity of the earth.\n\nThe fact of the equal pressure of liquids in all directions, and with\nthe same intensity, is found of great importance in practical mechanics.\nThe strong pressure of a small column of water is finely illustrated\nby simple experiment with the water bellows, or hydraulic paradox, in\nwhich one pound of water in a tube lifts a hundred pounds on the top\nof the bellows, and the greater the disproportion between the diameter\nof the tube and that of the top of the bellows, the greater weight it\nwill raise. More than two hundred years ago Pascal showed the enormous\npressure exerted by a lofty column of water in a small tube. A strong\ncask was filled with water, and a small tube forty feet high closely\nfitted in its head, when a few pints of water poured into it burst the\ncask, and would have done so if it had been made of the strongest oaken\nstaves and bound with hoops of iron. This is the power used in the\nhydraulic press, a very simple machine of much value in the industrial\narts when there is a demand for great force that can be slowly and\nsteadily applied, as in compressing cloth, oil cake, paper, gunpowder\nand numerous other things. Its parts are so few that it can be described\nwithout a model to represent it. A small, upright cylinder, with a\nclosely fitting piston used as a pump to draw and force the water, and\nconnected at the base by a tube with a much larger cylinder directly\nunder the substance to be pressed, in which there is also a piston to\nbe moved upward, though water tight. The whole is secured in position\nby powerful frame work. Beneath the piston the water is received. And\nknowing the principles of hydrostatics we can estimate its power. If\nthe areas of the lower surfaces of the two pistons are to each other as\none to four hundred square inches, one pound pressure on the small one\nwill deliver to the lower surface of the large one a pressure equal to\nfour hundred pounds weight. But let the arms of the lever used as the\nforce pump handle be to each other as one to fifty. Then when a force\nof fifty pounds is applied at the end of the long arm of the lever it\nwill descend with a force of 50\u00d750=2,500, and there will be delivered on\nthe lower surface of the large piston a power to raise it expressed by\n50\u00d750\u00d7400=1,000,000. Some allowance must be made for friction or other\nimpediments, say one fourth, which is more than enough, and still a man\nor boy at the end of that pump handle would be able to lift at least\nthree hundred and seventy-five tons.\n\nThe sciences we have been considering under the general name of\nmechanics, which is derived from a Greek word that means to contrive,\ninvent, construct, have much to do with machinery, with the methods of\nconstruction, the propelling forces, and the phenomena produced. There\nwere machinists and some simple machines propelled by human or brute\nforce, by weights and springs, by falling or running water, and air in\nmotion before the laws of motion and forces were understood, or the rude\nmechanic arts began to assume the character of a science. The machines\nwere, of course, imperfect, and lacked efficiency, while many of those\nnow in use seem nearly perfect and adapted to the work expected of them.\nBut notwithstanding the marvelous advance that has been made in the\nmanufacture of machinery, and the intelligent application of mechanical\npowers, we look for still greater things as possible in the future.\n\nIt is well, however, never to forget that whatever the seeming may be,\nthe most perfect machine of human invention does not create force. That\nis as impossible for man as it is to give life or create matter. All he\ncan do is to collect, concentrate and use, to the best advantage, the\nforces that exist. He may by skillful appliances gain a great mechanic\nadvantage, and overcome very formidable resistance, but he must be\ncontent to do it very slowly; and it has been often said that \u201cwhat he\ngains in power he loses in speed.\u201d In many cases this seems a necessity,\nand he must submit to it. His simplest machine, if the fulcrum is placed\nvery near the weight, gives a man tremendous power gained by his position\nat the long arm of the machine. But the point at which he applies the\nforce must move much faster and a greater distance than the object\nagainst which it is directed. So when a man with a system of pulleys\nraises to the top of a tower a block of granite that four men might lift\nfrom the ground he sacrifices in speed what he gains in the new way of\napplying the force he has for the purpose.\n\nYou visit a large manufacturing establishment or the mechanical\ndepartment of a great national or international industrial exposition and\nsee a whole acre of machinery of all kinds, shafts, wheels, saws, lathes,\nand spindles in rapid motion, and, astonished at the complications,\ninquire for the power that carries the whole. You will possibly find it\nis in some remote part of the premises, and shut up in the motionless\nboiler where the steam is said to be generated, which only means that the\nwater heated expands and struggles to escape from its confinement, while\nman understanding the laws of its action manages to liberate the force\nunder conditions that make it his servant.\n\nThe science of numbers and magnitudes, useful in discussing the\ndistances, measurements, and motions of terrestrial bodies, is especially\nso in its application to astronomy.\n\nAstronomy as a physical science will receive consideration in the next\nnumber; here only the mathematical elements are noticed, and they are\neverywhere manifest. The same general laws control all material bodies,\nthose near to us, and those seen at a distance. So the science of the\nstars is not now mere theory, but has all the elements of mathematical\ncertainty. When dealing with such vast numbers and magnitudes as engage\nthe astronomer\u2019s attention, with a few known principles or laws, and\nabundant recorded telescopic observations for the basis of their work,\nmen can calculate even more accurately than they can count or measure.\nHaving once prepared their theorem, aided by the logarithms of Napier[1]\nthat simplify and shorten the more difficult arithmetical calculations,\nthey can readily determine the distance, magnitude and motions of a\nplanet, and know that it is done with sufficient exactness. The distances\nof the heavenly bodies are generally determined by their parallax, that\nis the difference between the directions of the bodies as seen from two\ndifferent points. The inclination of the lines thus drawn is the angle\nof parallax. By supposing the lines prolonged to the sun, and other\nlines drawn through the points selected to the center of the earth a\nquadrangle is formed, all the angles and sides of which are easily found.\nIn measuring very minute parallaxes it may not be possible to determine\nthe exact position of the body as projected on the celestial sphere, but\nin that case recourse can be had to relative parallax, or the difference\nbetween the parallaxes of two bodies lying nearly in the same direction.\nThe best opportunity for this is afforded by the transit of Venus, and\non this account great interest is felt in that phenomenon, and extensive\npreparations are made for taking accurate observations.\n\nThe figure, size and density of the celestial bodies have all been\ncalculated with approximate certainty. The orbits, through which they\npass in their revolutions, described, and their velocities ascertained.\n\nThere is a solar system of which the sun is the center, and in its\nrelation to the planets stationary, though really moving on through\ninfinite space; the orbits through which planets move are not circles,\nbut more or less elliptic, having the sun at one focus of the ellipse.\n\nThat planets move in ellipses was announced by Kepler[2] as the first law\ngoverning their motions, and a second deduced from this and confirmed by\nobservations, is that they do not move with equal velocity in all parts\nof their orbits; and that _a line drawn from the center of the earth to\nthe center of the sun passes over equal spaces in equal times_. He also\nfound as a third law that _the squares of the times of the revolutions of\nthe planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from\nthe sun_.\n\nNavigation shows how vessels are directed in their course upon the great\nwaters. In proportion as the \u201cpaths of the seas\u201d have become open, safe\nand free for all, they are found paths of knowledge and civilization. The\nscience, small at its beginning, has grown to its present advanced state\nby slow degrees, helped by contributions from the most opposite sources.\nPractical but uneducated seamen have doubtless done much, as their\ningenuity is often, in emergencies, taxed to supply means of safety and\nsuccess that are wanting. More has been contributed by scholars, secluded\nphilosophic men whose lives are spent \u201cin communion with the skies,\u201d\nin observing the motions of the heavenly bodies and studying the laws\nby which they are regulated. But perhaps the most valuable service has\nbeen rendered by another class who combine an experience of the sea with\nmuch knowledge of astronomical science, men acquainted with the needs\nof seamen and qualified to meet them. The introduction of the mariner\u2019s\ncompass early in the fifteenth century was an epoch in the history of\nnavigation, as it made seamen in a measure independent of the sun and\nstars. This was an incalculable advantage, as soon became apparent to\nthose who adopted the compass as their guide. Of the many improvements\nand helps in the science of navigation we can only name, as conspicuous,\nthe invention of Mercator\u2019s chart[3] in 1569, Davis\u2019s quadrant[4] about\n1600, and Hadley\u2019s quadrant a century later. The character of the\ninstruments and a glance at the Nautical Almanac will show how largely\nboth mathematics and astronomy enter into the science of navigation. Nor\nis it quite safe to take passage with a shipmaster who has but limited\nknowledge of either. He should at least thoroughly understand his\ninstruments and be a ready, accurate computer.\n\nGeometry grew out of the practice of surveying, and now embodies many\nof the laws and principles of the science. There are several distinct\nsystems of surveying, classed according to the purposes contemplated.\nIt is astronomically employed in determining the figure of the earth\nby the actual measurement of arcs. A fair knowledge of mathematics\nand trigonometry is required in what are known as coast surveys. Land\nsurveying is of the plainest kind, and employed in finding the contents\nof areas, or in dividing large tracts into lots of smaller dimensions.\nThe chief difficulty is in getting the exact bearing of the lines and the\nmeasure of the angles when the plot is an irregular polygon.\n\nTopographical surveying, beside the measurement of lines and angles,\ntakes note of variations of level, that the draft may properly represent\nsuperficial inequalities. Maritime surveying is an important branch,\nfixing the positions of shoals, rocks and shore-lines. Mine surveying\ndetermines the location of works in the mine and decides whether the\nexcavations conform, as required, to lines on the surface. The compass\nand chain are the surveyor\u2019s most common instruments, but others are\nused according to the nature of the surveys to be made. Incompetency or\ncarelessness in surveys often occasions serious trouble and loss.\n\nFortifications for the defense of cities and the protection of soldiers\nare as ancient as the existence of armies. The former, built in time of\npeace, of such form and materials as military science and experience\nsuggest, are called \u201cpermanent fortifications;\u201d and the temporary\nworks constructed as the exigencies of a campaign require are \u201cfield\nfortifications.\u201d The art and science have been practiced and studied in\nall ages, and there is now an immense literature on the subject.\n\nAs methods of defense must be adjusted to those of attack the earlier\npermanent fortifications, in the progress of society and after the\nintroduction of artillery, became nearly worthless. High stone walls are\na protection while they stand, but, however strong, they can be battered\ndown by heavy siege guns that have less effect when directed against\nearth works, which seem less formidable. A place thoroughly fortified is\nseldom taken by a sudden assault. The United States have fortified less\nthan most of the great European nations, but are by no means defenseless.\nPrevious to 1860 there had been expended on our forts more than\n$30,000,000; and all the exposed positions have been greatly strengthened\nwithin the last twenty-five years.\n\n_End of Required Reading for February._\n\n\n\n\nTHE POET\u2019S VISION.\n\nBY MARY A. LATHBURY.\n\n\n    My Lady Lily, the waters sleep,\n      And the winds are among the clover;\n    Would I could hear the tale you told\n    The Poet once, till with voice of gold\n      Singing it over and over\n\n    He came to the court and cried, \u201cO king,\n      My song of thy state and glory\n    Is dead on my lips! I am done with strife,\n    And courts, and conquests. A song of life\n      I have learned from a water lily.\u201d\n\n    \u201cCarol us then thy pretty song,\n      Sir Poet!\u201d the king cried, sneering;\n    So standing stateliest of them all\n    The length of the royal banquet hall,\n      And flinging a look unfearing,\n\n    Full on the king and his court, who sat\n      Smiling in fine derision,\n    He sang or chanted as chants a seer\n    When sense is fading, and draweth near\n      The high beatific vision.\n\n    He sang of life in the soil of death,\n      A seed of a heavenly sowing;\n    Asleep in the murk and mire of earth,\n    In silence waiting its wondrous birth,\n      Of death or of life unknowing.\n\n    He sang of the Sun of Life\u2014His quest\n      In our death-deeps dark and chilly;\n    Of love that quickens to life the dead,\n    As the sun rays seek in the river-bed\n      The germ of the water lily.\n\n    He sang of Faith\u2014of the eye that seeks\n      With a sightless aspiration\n    The source of Love and the fount of Light,\n    Till far in the folds of the utmost night,\n      Storm-swept with fierce temptation,\n\n    A light breaks through like a faint white star,\n      That grows and grows like the dawning,\n    Till, veiled in vapors, it hangs above\n    The wakened soul as the face of Love,\n      And Life has begun its morning.\n\n    He sang of Life in the spring o\u2019 day,\n      Of patience, and truth, and duty,\u2014\n    The narrow ways to the full release,\n    When, lapped in light and a dream of peace,\n      It bursts as a flower to beauty.\n\n    He sang\u2014and his words fell thick and fast\u2014\n      Of the resurrection glory;\n    Of good from evil, of life from death,\n    And then, with hesitant, bated breath,\n      The God-man\u2019s marvelous story.\n\n    Then silence fell on the king and court,\n      And out through the open portal\n    The poet passed with a solemn stride\n    Into the midnight spaces wide,\n      Or into the life immortal.\n\n    My Lady Lily, you will not wake,\n      Wrapped in your dreams Elysian,\n    But this is the mystic tale you hold,\n    Deep in your tremulous heart of gold;\n      And this was the Poet\u2019s vision.\n\n\n\n\nTHE HOMELIKE HOUSE.\n\nBY SUSAN HAYES WARD.\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\u2014THE FAMILY PARLOR.\n\n    From the gay world we\u2019ll oft retire\n    To our own family and fire,\n      Where love our hours employs;\n    No noisy neighbor enters here\n    No intermeddling stranger near,\n      To spoil our heartfelt joys.\n\n                                  \u2014_N. Cotton._\n\nThe room which above all others should be furnished with the most loving\nthought and lavish expense is the household parlor, or family sitting\nroom. Here the father reads his evening paper, the mother busies herself\nwith her ready needle, the children \u201cwith books, or work or healthful\nplay.\u201d This should be to eye and body pre\u00ebminently a restful room,\ncommodious, cheerful. If the reception room for visitors needs the cheer\nof firelight, how much more the _living room_ of the household.\n\nWhittier\u2019s description of the homely comfort of an old New England farm\nhouse remains unexcelled in the literature of house furnishing:\n\n    \u201cShut in from all the world without\n     We sat the clean-winged hearth about,\n     Content to let the north wind roar\n     In baffled rage at pane and door,\n     While the red logs before us beat\n     The frost line back with tropic heat;\n     And ever, when a louder blast\n     Shook beam and rafter as it passed,\n     The merrier up its roaring draught\n     The great throat of the chimney laughed.\n     The house-dog on his paws outspread\n     Laid to the fire his drowsy head,\n     The cat\u2019s dark silhouette on the wall\n     A couchant tiger\u2019s seemed to fall,\n     And, for the winter fireside meet,\n     Between the andiron\u2019s straddling feet\n     The mug of cider simmered slow,\n     The apples sputtered in a row.\n     And, close at hand, the basket stood\n     With nuts from brown October\u2019s wood.\n     What matter how the night behaved?\n     What matter how the north wind raved?\n     Blow high, blow low, not all its snow\n     Could quench our hearth-fire\u2019s ruddy glow.\u201d\n\nFor the sake of restfulness to the eye, the walls and carpet should be\nneutral in tone, making a good background to the family figures; the wall\npaper being of a good all-overish pattern that will not detract from\npictures that may hang on it, and the carpet or rug well mixed, of not\ntoo loud a pattern, and without strong contrasts of light and dark. Blue\nwall papers are hard to deal with, but creams, fawns, soft greenish or\nolive-grays, and simple leaf patterns with slight variations of color\nor shade are all good for walls that are to be hung with pictures, as\na sitting room should be. Common butchers\u2019 paper, put on in sheets,\nthe better textured cartridge paper, or sheathing paper with a pretty\nvariation introduced by way of frieze or dado are all restful to the\neye and good for the sitting room walls. The greens used should not be\nsharp and crude, but should be modified, making them yellowish, bluish,\nor grayish. So with reds, which will be better yellowish, slightly\nbluish (not purplish), or brownish; and yellows which must be modified\ninto creams, old-golds, or fawns. This rule is for large surfaces. A\nlittle pure, bright color can be introduced here and there by way of\ndecoration, and must appear somewhere in the room if it is to have a\ncheerful look, but wait till your pictures are hung before you introduce\nmuch brilliant color. It may take the life out of them. Picture-rods are\na great convenience, and, after the first expense, save much trouble,\nand much marring of walls by driving nails. The picture-rod should\nrun below the frieze, and a box of picture-hooks of suitable size for\nthe rods should be kept ready to hand, and picture-wire so that a new\npainting or engraving when it comes home may find its place at once and\nnot stand on the floor for a month waiting till the master can drive\na nail. As for the wall decorations, there should be a looking-glass\nfor family convenience either in this parlor or the entry way (the\nparlor is the better place), and the best pictures the house affords,\nalways making sure that they are good pictures. Better always a good\nphotograph, or wood-cut, or etching, than a poor chromo, steel engraving,\nor water-color; and better, a hundred fold, a good water-color than a\npoor oil painting. If your family portraits are poor, consign them to the\ngarret or the upstairs hall, but, if possible, have at least one good\npainting in your home-room, even if it does cost money; and remember that\na first-hand sketch by a good living artist is better than a second-hand\ncopy of an old master. But one good painting in a house, whether a copy\nor an original, is a continual art lesson. A woman of taste will not\nmix all manner of pictures together on one wall. If possible, she will\nkeep oil paintings by themselves, and not put them in juxtaposition with\nwater-colors\u2014nor will she put a picture suited only to a gallery in a\nfamily sitting room. Nor will she put Bacchantes in the same group with\nworshiping cherubs. There is a vast deal of stuff purely ephemeral that\nwomen are apt to load their walls with\u2014Christmas, New Year, Easter and\nbirthday cards, and painted panels, which may do very well to exhibit\nduring the holidays or the day or two after the birthday; then, having\nhad their day, they should cease to obtrude if not to be. There should be\na box or receptacle for all this clutter; such souvenirs are admirable\nfor their suggestions to the amateur decorator or embroiderer of the\nfamily, but they should not be allowed to spot the walls, to hang from\nthe side brackets or to decorate the looking-glass. \u201cGod bless our home\u201d\nis a devout aspiration which is better carried out in a godly life than\nworked in cross-stitch and hung over the sitting room door. I have seen\nScripture texts deftly inwrought into the mural decoration of a sea-side\ncottage, verses from the sailors\u2019 Psalm being painted in a decorative\nway between border lines of frieze or dado, where they did not seem out\nof place, but the summer boarders were well nigh driven from another\ncottage because of a card-board abomination hung over the mantel piece\nof their sitting room, with indigo clouds and grass-green waves, with\na three-quarters-length Christ in all colors of the rainbow uttering\nthe magic words worked in shaded reds\u2014\u201cPeace, Be Still.\u201d The matter\nof mottoes has been overdone, and it is always safe to leave them out\naltogether.\n\nPaintings upon plush must be exceedingly good to make them worth hanging\nanywhere. Usually such decoration is a waste of expensive material.\nAny way, plush is too easily spoiled by dust or careless handling\nto make it welcome in the family room. Painting upon picture and\nlooking-glass frames is another misuse of decoration. A London artist\nwith rare ingenuity paints a stalk of lilies to hide a flaw in his\nhall mirror, and straightway the \u201cDecorative Art\u201d salesrooms all over\nour land effloresce with blooming mirror frames whose unpruned vines\nstraggle and trail over every glass. The beauty of a mirror is to have\nit absolutely clear and free from dust and dirt, finger marks or paint\nblotches, throughout its entire surface. Flower painting in polychrome\nupon frames and easels is utterly out of place, as it calls the eye off\nfrom the picture which the frame or easel holds, and reminds one of a\nservant decked out in finery surreptitiously borrowed from her mistress\u2019s\nwardrobe.\n\nMarble mantel pieces, to be good, must be expensive. A simple pine\nmantel piece with a little incised ornament is far better than white or\ncold gray marble. Raised, stuck-on ornament is objectionable, whether\nin wood or stone, but mantel pieces, book-cases and cabinets give a\nfine opportunity for domestic carving, and one can but wonder that\nmore home ingenuity is not expended on the construction and carving of\nmantels and other woodwork in our rooms, such as doors and windows. I\nhave seen a wooden mantel piece small, plain, and somewhat cheap and\ninferior-looking, so improved by a little carving, judiciously introduced\nby the man of the house\u2014a small panel set in here, and the edge of the\nshelf prettily finished\u2014that the whole thing grew dignified at once and\nbecame a worthy ornament of the \u201cspare room,\u201d when painted in harmony\nwith the rest of the woodwork. The youngest whittlers might be taught to\nuse tools for the family good, if parents were only willing to go to a\nlittle trouble and expense in providing models, tools and wood for their\nuse, and a comfortable chimney nook where the work could be carried on.\nIn the schools of Philadelphia Mr. Leland has shown how much may be done\nby boys and girls when their efforts are wisely directed.\n\nWhen there is no room in the house specially set apart as a library,\ncabinets and book cases form an important part of the sitting room\nfurniture. I would have book shelves of some sort in every room of a\nhouse; but in the room where the family gathers there should be a special\nshelf for books of reference. An encyclop\u00e6dia is of as much value to the\nhousehold as a wood lot is to the farm. Better wear your old silk gown or\nshabby overcoat another year, or two years even, and have your book of\nreference always at hand for the general good. The unabridged dictionary\nis a necessity, and should stand in its rack easy of access to school\nchildren and their elders as well. A household book of poetry, Dana\u2019s or\nBryant\u2019s, or whatever may be better, and an equally comprehensive volume\nof religious verse like Gilman\u2019s, or Palgrave\u2019s choice \u201cGolden Treasury,\u201d\nshould be well thumbed by the children, and should be placed temptingly\nat hand, not locked behind glass doors. Glazed doors are demanded by\ncollectors who revel in vellum, uncut leaves, and rare editions, but\ncases that are well backed and that have leathern, or even moreen or\nflannel, valences tacked to the shelves, will serve well enough to\nprotect books in a house where all the reading matter is for daily use or\nstudy.\n\nA low book case three or four feet high and broad enough to fill a\ngenerous wall space, running, if need be, across one side of the room,\nmay be found ample enough for a family whose library is limited. Pictures\nand vases can be ranged upon its top. I know a room that holds three\nor four such book cases of ebonized pine, filled with books and made\ngay with valences of scarlet moreen, which yet scorns to be called \u201cthe\nlibrary,\u201d and is only known as the family \u201csitting room.\u201d Valences of\nleather or wool are sufficient to protect the books from dust if the\ncases are well backed.\n\nIn addition to the book case, hanging shelves for children\u2019s books, or\ncabinets for collections of any sort, can be made of pine, and when\nabsolutely plain, if neatly varnished, need not prove unsightly. They may\neven be made very ornamental by a bright curtain, plain or embroidered,\nwith rings attached that run lightly over a brass rod or wire, and screen\nthe contents of the shelves from the too inquisitive eye.\n\nIt is really a happy day for a household when one of its members develops\na hobby and begins to make a collection\u2014not of buttons or business cards,\nbut of something on which genuine study will not come amiss, and there is\nhardly any line in which one is likely to interest himself where he may\nnot often pick up for a mere trifle much that will be of special value to\nhis collection, much that, by itself, would be comparatively worthless,\nbut which in a collection has added worth and dignity; and any collection\nmakes a new point of interest in a home. In a quiet country town where I\nonce lived, the boys of the village took to collecting butterflies and\ninsects. Farmers carried turpentine or benzine in their pockets, and\nwould come home from their haying fields with hats gay with the captured\nmoths and butterflies they were taking to the collectors of their\nseveral households. Thus homes hitherto utterly wanting in any \u00e6sthetic\ninfluence, seemed to brighten into something positively charming, when\nfather and mother, son and daughter clustered about the drawers in the\nfront parlor, exhibiting to any chance visitor the fragile treasures so\ncarefully arranged within them, and when a new specimen was captured the\ncollector would\n\n            \u201cRun it o\u2019er and o\u2019er with greedy view,\n    And look and look again, as he would look it through.\u201d\n\nThink of the many lines in which the collector may work! The postage\nstamp craze was by no means to be despised; it was a good geography\nlesson for the children, and well up to the times, throwing in a little\nhistory as well. Coin collecting is yet more profitable in the same\nlines, and when confined to the coins of one\u2019s own land, gives a wide\nenough range for the average collector. For the out-of-door student there\nare shells, sea mosses and birds\u2019 eggs, flowers to press, and minerals\nto secure. One boy hunts up Indian relics, another collects weapons of\nvarious sorts, from\n\n    \u201cThe old queen\u2019s arm which Gran\u2019ther Young\n     Fetched back from Concord, busted,\u201d\n\nto an Australian boomerang or a South Sea Island club brought by the\nsailor uncle from some voyage of long ago. One dear, old lady has a\nchoice collection of bits of lace all dated and named; another of\npieces of brocade, an admirable commentary on silk manufactory. Here we\nfind a treasurer of fans, and there of snuff-boxes; here of children\u2019s\nphotographs, and there of photographs or autographs of famous men; and\neverywhere, all over our land, will be found the covetous collector of\nrare, old china and pottery. Let the children be encouraged to interest\nthemselves in some such lines as these, not so as to make nuisances of\nthemselves and museums of their homes\u2014there will be little danger of\nthat\u2014but enough to give them a wholesome enthusiasm in some particular\nline of study. A vast deal of general information is disseminated through\na household, unconsciously absorbed, as it were, when each one has a\nhobby of his own, and gives out of his choicest discoveries for the\ncommon good.\n\nAs to the sitting room furniture, there are a few essentials that must\nbe emphasized. There should be a table large enough for half a dozen\npeople to sit around of an evening\u2014a round one is best\u2014strong, solid,\nand covered with a serviceable cloth. There are handsome woolen table\ncovers that grow yet handsomer with age as their colors mellow together,\nbut the best is expensive. A square of plain felt does very well, and\nis in better taste than the scarlet and green felt cloths stamped with\nblack figures that were so prevalent twenty years ago. A figured cloth\nshows spots less than a plain one. If a mat of some sort, or even a\nnewspaper, is always laid down under any lamp that burns kerosene, and if\na blotter is always used where writing or painting is going on, a plain\ncloth ought to last for years. Light should abound where the family sit\ntogether, sunlight by day and good gas or lamp light by night should be\ngenerously supplied. A good duplex burner or a double student lamp uses\nno more oil than several small lamps dotted down here and there, about\nthe room, and it brings the family together about the central table. So\nwith the drop light, which is an essential where gas is used. The wise\nwoman discards gas in her sitting room, however, and uses good oil,\nwhich is far better for the eyes. There should be a writing desk in the\nroom. The old-fashioned secretary was a valuable piece of sitting room\nfurniture, and many a good one has been recalled from the attic within\nthe last few years, and, by a judicious use of soda water, has been freed\nfrom old paint, and when scrubbed and rubbed, it has shone as good as\nnew, and much more useful than the modern Davenport. There should be\nlarge, easy chairs, not too low, for the use of the men of the house,\nand for elderly people who find it hard to rise gracefully and with ease\nfrom soft, low chairs. There should also be low chairs with broad seats,\nand short arms, or none at all, for those who must busy themselves with\nsewing, knitting, and embroidery, and comfortable camp chairs that can\nbe lightly lifted by the children and carried here and there about the\nroom. Let the chairs, in fact let everything be strong and comfortable\nin this room. A heavy man is often put to great inconvenience because\nthe chairs at his disposal are too flimsy to bear his weight. There are\ncountless stories told of the Rev. Phillips Brooks, and men of his build,\nwho dare not laugh at a dinner party lest their chairs resolve themselves\ninto kindling wood at the first mirthful shake. In my own parlor there is\none chair deep, broad, and of marvelous strength, bought with an eye to\nthe needs of a friendly neighbor of grand dimensions. \u201cThis is a chair\nthat Mr. B. can\u2019t break,\u201d said the kindly donor who had witnessed the\ncollapsing of ordinary parlor chairs under his ponderous weight. Remember\nthat no chair should be expected to do service that has not connecting\nrungs between the legs.\n\nThere should be, also, a lounge or sofa in this room, with ample pillow,\nnot a round horse-hair cylinder, but something useful, restful, and not\ntoo fine. Let the color be as perfect as may be, but if the material\nof which it is made be really too splendid for daily use, its glories\nshould be veiled behind a strong, washable tidy. I have seen a gray linen\nsquare or towel, with drawn work at the ends, such as costs fifty cents,\nperhaps, at the linen shops, with a few long-stemmed poppies bending\ntogether in a row at one end, wrought in outline, with the familiar\nlegend, \u201cWe are all nodding, nid, nid, nodding,\u201d running sleepily down\nthe center. That had just sentiment enough, and art enough for its place\nand use. Tidies are mere clutter if not intended to be brushed against\nand used. Paintings on blue satin, decked out with lace, are out of taste\nin any room, however fine, and out of place on any chair. No chair should\nbe too daintily dressed out to be sat upon; and no painting should so\nhang as to invite shoulders clad in black broadcloth to rub themselves\nagainst it. \u201cTidies\u201d or \u201cchair backs,\u201d if used at all, should be of a\nfirm material, not easily crumpled, should be firmly attached, should\ngive off little or no lint, and should be washed when they are soiled, or\nthrown away. They are better when off the white.\n\nThere should be a wrap of some sort, afghan, Mexican or army blanket,\nrailway rug or shawl thrown over the foot of the sofa, with which to\ncover up the invalid of the household, or any one who is tempted to\nlounge awhile.\n\nOther sitting room comforts, though not essentials, are a sewing table,\nstand or basket with drawers or pockets attached, for the convenience of\nneedlewomen, a portable screen, two-leaved and not too large, that can\nshut off draughts from rheumatic shoulders, and an occasional hassock or\nfootstool\u2014\u201ccrickets\u201d our grandmothers called them in New England.\n\nThe covering of tables, chairs, etc., affords an opportunity to introduce\ncolor into the room, but it is not at all necessary that the chairs\nshould all be covered with stuffs of the same quality or color. Unless\nvery well chosen, plain colors are apt to stare, like the sharp green\n\u201crep\u201d that was so long popular, and whose good wearing qualities made it\nso hard to displace. If the manufacturers had only kept pace with the\ntimes, and produced the stuff in good, plain shades that would keep their\ncolors, or figured in good designs, it would still hold its own against\nall the so-called tapestry goods that the upholsterers offer us. \u201cRep,\u201d\nhowever, was utterly unsuitable for curtains; it was stiff and wiry, and\nhung in ungainly folds.\n\nFor our sitting room some light drapery at the windows is advisable. If\nthe room has no blinds, there should be some sort of thick shades or\nvenetian blinds. There is a yellowish brown holland that is admirable\nfor the purpose; but with outside or inside blinds, a thin curtain like\nMadras muslin is all that is necessary to shade the blackness of the\nwindows at night, or to temper the brightness of the sunlight by day. The\nadvantage of Madras muslin or Cretan cloth over lace, muslin, or cheese\ncloth curtains lies in the color and figure; colored and figured curtains\nshowing to better advantage against the light than plain white, and\nlooking fresher much longer; they \u201cfurnish\u201d a room more.\n\nWhatever curtains are used, they should be hung with rings from rods of\nbrass, bamboo, or wood\u2014varnished pine is good enough\u2014so that they can\nbe pushed entirely to one side with ease. Rods should not be too large\nand should be finished at the ends with some simple ornament, as a plain\nball which pulls off at one end, so as to allow the rings to slip over\nthe rod. The curtains may be long, if hung outside the window frame, and\njust reach the floor, or they may hang from the upper sash and just reach\nto the window ledge, so as to cover only the window; or they may be half\ncurtains hanging from a small rod or wire so as to screen only the lower\nsash. It is not at all necessary to treat the windows alike. A bay window\nmay have a long, heavy curtain running across the bay and forming a nook\nwhere two or three may sit cosily together, and the other windows may be\ntreated to sash or half-sash curtains of soft silk, Madras muslin, or\neven Turkey red calico. Where a window is filled with plants, the little\nhalf curtain running upon a brass wire and falling over the lower sash\nserves, on winter nights, as a slight protection for the plants from\nouter air, and can be thrust to one side by day, and tucked up out of\nsight. A little drapery is a great relief in a room where there are bare\nfloors and much display of woodwork in doors and window frames. Then,\na porti\u00e8re in place of a closet door, a hanging before a book case, or\ncurtains at the windows would relieve the bareness of the room as nothing\nelse could. Curtains should not repeat the color of the walls, nor should\nporti\u00e8res be of the same material and color as the curtains. Woodwork,\nhowever, when painted should repeat the wall color, though it should be\nsomewhat lighter in shade.\n\nThere lacks but little to make our home parlor complete. A piano, if\npractice thereon will not interfere with the occupancy of the room by\nthe household; otherwise let the piano be kept where music lessons given\nand studied will not disturb the family serenity; for many reasons the\ndrawing room is the best place for the piano, it is more likely to be\ntreated with respect by mischievous fingers there than in the living\nroom; and a clock, the plainer the better\u2014no little French fanciful\naffair, but something substantial, that can last like the tall, ancestral\neight-day time piece. Should the clock stand on the mantel it is not\nessential to have balancing ornaments on either side. The choicest\ntreasures of the house should indeed adorn the mantel piece, but it is\nnever necessary to have two of a kind standing at equal distances from\nthe center.\n\nThis is the room in which all things should seem to grow into a likeness\nto the household, and to grow old with it. Here no changes should be made\nbut for good cause, and always for the better, never by the wholesale.\nNor should furniture be introduced that is so staringly new and gay as to\nput the rest out of countenance and make it look shabby by comparison.\nThere are plenty of good stuffs subdued enough in color to harmonize\nwith any long used parlor, no matter how old the carpet nor how faded\nthe chair seats. Whatever is good and old, though worn, let us respect,\npreserve, and repair.\n\n\n\n\nNATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION.\n\nBY GENERAL JOHN A. LOGAN,\n\nU. S. Senator from Illinois.\n\n\nTo bring to light and expose to public gaze our national defects or\nsocial deformities is an unpleasant and generally thankless task, but\nso long as we shirk it, just so long will they remain to our national\ndetriment and disgrace. To be conscious of disease, to locate and\nproperly diagnose it, is to be half-way on the road to good health.\n\nIt is not necessary in this age of enlightenment to dwell upon the\nmanifest and manifold advantages to a people and to a nation, of\neducation. They are palpable, and conceded by all men. Illiteracy,\nthen, must as plainly be a disadvantage to a nation, a hindrance to\nthe advancement and welfare of its people, and an evil which should be\neradicated.\n\nWe Americans boast, and boast rightfully, of the high position in the\nscale of intelligence we occupy as a people; but pride in that fact\nshould not blind our eyes to our existing imperfections. We are proud of\nthe attainments of our men of letters; we rejoice in the achievements of\nour scientists and inventors; we glory in our rapid advance among the\nnations to wealth and power; and we fail to give serious heed to the\nhundreds of thousands of our people who are growing up every year in\nclouded ignorance, without even the rudiments of education.\n\nIf we examine with care our census returns and the reports of our\nBureau of Education, we will be startled by some of the facts they\nreveal. To follow many of these revelations in detail might lead to an\naccusation of making invidious distinctions, but there are enough to\nwhich the attention of the country may be called without the shadow of\njustification for such a charge. Let us look at these.\n\nTake the Bulletin of \u201cIlliteracy in the United States,\u201d as returned at\nthe tenth census, and its first line reveals the deplorable fact that of\nthe 36,761,607 persons of ten years of age and upward, 4,923,451 (over\none-seventh) are unable to read, and 6,239,958 (nearly one-sixth) are\nunable to write.\n\nIt appears, moreover, from other census tabulations presented[D] to the\nUnited States Senate that, of the 50,155,783 persons constituting our\npopulation in 1880, there were equally proportioned between the white\nand colored races, 4,204,363 of both sexes over twenty-one years of age\nunable to write, or about 2,000,000 \u201cilliterates\u201d out of the 10,000,000\npersons at that time entitled to vote; or, in other words, one of every\nfive voters in the United States unable to write his name. From other\nstatistics of that census it appears also that 1,640,000 voters were\nunable to read. Thus we have the astounding assurance that while one in\nevery five voters can not write the ballot that he wishes to deposit, one\nin every six voters can not even read the ballot that he places in the\nbox!\n\nIt is this one illiterate voter in every five (or six) voters who holds\nthe balance of power at our elections.\n\nWhile a very large proportion of our population, and also of that portion\nof it which exercises the elective franchise, can both read and write,\nyet a great number of these are very little the more intelligent because\ntheir limited ability to do either or both is so imperfect and so rarely\navailed of. Alluding to these, a committee of the United States Senate\n(Report 101, Pt. 2, first session, Forty-eighth Congress), said: \u201cOf\nthose who can write, multitudes do not place a sentence on paper twice in\na lifetime. Thousands never get an idea from the printed page.\u201d Yet these\nare the men who may at any time subject the country to their control\u2014men\nwho hold the weighty balance of political power.\n\nTo the patriot, to the lover of republican institutions, to the advocate\nof unrestricted individual suffrage, this fact is appalling. But it is\nnone the less a fact that should be known. Nor may the advocates of\nmonarchical systems of government and of restricted suffrage take comfort\nfrom that fact. That the deciding ballot in our political contests may\nbe an ignorant one does not prove the evil or folly of unrestricted\nsuffrage. Not at all. Cancer in the breast does not prove the folly of\nlife. Nor is a jammed finger necessarily fatal. These simply remind us\nthat in the one case the knife, and in the other the lotion, should be\nquickly and efficiently used. So with the ignorant ballot. Its existence\nmerely proves the absolute necessity of prompt and vigorous action to\nenlighten it\u2014of educating him who casts it\u2014of taking counsel from the\npast and present and providently guarding the future. It teaches us\nthat while we are properly horrified at any desecration of the sacred\nright of suffrage\u2014whether by bulldozing, ballot-box stuffing, false\ncounting, or other methods of intimidation or of fraud\u2014it is high time\nto arouse ourselves to a state of facts existing around us and under our\nvery noses, constituting a sacrilege only differing from these others\nin degree; to realize, in time to remedy it, that at every election\nwe witness, at almost every voting precinct in the land, a constant,\nnever-failing, almost winked-at desecration by power-clad ignorance of\nthat right; to realize the great dangers from this source that we have\nthus far happily escaped; to properly apprehend the possible perils thus\nstored up for us in the bosom of the future, and by timely, energetic and\nsufficient action to arrest them. Thus the very knowledge that one in\nevery five of our voters exercises ignorantly this undue and prodigious\npower must nerve a free and enlightened people to make immediate and\nadequate provision both to aid and to make obligatory the elementary\neducation of those who in due time will inherit from us the right of\nsuffrage.\n\nIt can not be too often or too strongly urged, under the light of\nthis revelation from the census returns, that an ignorant ballot is\na dangerous ballot, because it may be at once heedless, and easily\ndeceived; that an educated ballot is, to the degree of education, an\nenlightened ballot\u2014possibly wrong-headed or mistaken at times, but\nas a rule careful, brave and pure; and that, as the ballot is placed\nin the hands of all Americans, education\u2014the means by which they may\ndiscriminatingly cast that ballot\u2014should be open and free to all.\n\nThe very existence of the Republic depends upon the proper use of the\npotential ballot. Education alone can teach that proper use. Hence it is\nthat \u201ceducation to all\u201d is the chief corner stone of the Republic; and\nto make that secure, no effort however great, no expense however large,\nshould be withheld.\n\nHere then, with the fact staring us in the face, that the one potential\nvote of every five votes that decides all the great political questions\nof the day\u2014questions involving the most complex and far-reaching\nprinciples of government\u2014questions of finance, of diplomacy, of commerce,\nof trade, of the tariff, of the relations of capital and labor, and\nothers whose solution perplexes the minds of our very ablest statesmen\u2014is\nan utterly ignorant vote, can the American people hesitate to demand of\nCongress not only immediate but adequate remedial legislation in the\nshape of ample national aid to elementary education for all of school\nage, and obligatory attendance within reasonable limits?\n\nBut this is not the only fact bearing heavily upon the question of the\nnecessity of national aid to our public school system. If we examine\nthe details of these census tabulations we shall find that much the\nlarger portion of this illiteracy is found in some thirteen or fourteen\nstates. Taking these states and territories in which the proportion of\n\u201cilliterates\u201d (those unable to write) to the total state or territorial\npopulation of ten years of age and upward exceeds 25 per cent., we find\nthat ratio to be: In Alabama, 50.9 per cent.; Arkansas, 38; Florida,\n43.4; Georgia, 49.9; Kentucky, 29.9; Louisiana, 49.1; Mississippi, 49.5;\nNew Mexico, 65; North Carolina, 48.3; South Carolina, 55.4; Tennessee,\n38.7; Texas, 29.7; and Virginia, 40.6. Massing these twelve states and\none territory together, we find they include a population of 10,079,130\nof ten years of age and upward, of which number no less than 4,324,513,\nor over two fifths, are unable to write\u2014forty-three out of every one\nhundred unable to sign their own names\u2014while of the 26,682,477 persons\nof like age in the remaining states and territories, the number of such\nilliterates is but 1,915,445, or a little over seven in every one hundred.\n\nWe are all of course aware that this large proportion of illiteracy\nin the states named is largely owing to the presence of the colored\npopulation. Nevertheless the fact remains that these people, to whom all\nthe rights of citizenship have been accorded, and who will hereafter form\na very important and possibly predominating factor in the administration\nof the affairs of many of these states, as well as an important factor in\nnational affairs, must remain for a long time in ignorance unless some\nother means of educating them be adopted than that which now obtains.\n\nBut let no one deceive himself with the idea that this undue and\nlamentable ratio of illiteracy in these particular states is due wholly\nto the presence of the colored population. Unfortunately illiteracy\nprevails to a very considerable and almost an alarming extent among their\nnative white population also. Thus the census tabulations show that\nthe proportion of \u201cilliterates\u201d (those unable to write), in the total\nnative white population, ten years of age and upward, is: In Alabama, 25\npercent.; Arkansas, 25.5; Florida, 20.7; Georgia, 23.2; Kentucky, 22.8;\nLouisiana, 19.8; Mississippi, 16.6; New Mexico, 64.2; North Carolina,\n31.7; South Carolina, 22.4; Tennessee, 27.8; Texas, 13.9; and Virginia,\n18.5. Massing them we find that of the 6,010,714 native whites, ten years\nof age and upward, within the territorial limits mentioned, there are as\nmany as 1,395,441\u2014being 23.2 per cent., or nearly one in every four of\nthe whites\u2014unable to write. It is evident, therefore, that the surprising\nilliteracy in these states is not wholly attributable to the presence\ntherein of the colored race.\n\nIt is somewhat humiliating to have to confess to the world by our own\nofficial figures that one out of every four of the native whites over ten\nyears of age in twelve states and one territory of our Republic is unable\nto write his own name, especially when we compare it with the additional\nfact, derived from the same tabulation, that the illiteracy of the\nforeign born of these same localities does not rise in any instance above\n10.9 per cent.\n\nTurning to the other side of the picture we may find some grains of\ncomparative consolation in observing the fact that of the remaining\n19,775,075 native whites, ten years of age and upward, in the United\nStates only 860,019\u2014or 4.3 per cent., being one in twenty-three\u2014are\nunable to write. This favorable condition of one part of the country,\nhowever, only serves to bring out in sharper contrast the sad condition\nof the other part, and should spur the philanthropist and statesman to\nrenewed and more strenuous effort to obliterate, or at least ameliorate,\nthis alarming sectional inequality in the degree of illiteracy.\n\nWere it not for the hope of ultimately removing this inequality by\nattaining an educational homogeneity or equality on the higher level\nas between the sections, one might almost be tempted to wish for an\neducational equalization on the lower grade; for as long as that\ninequality continues to exist, so long must it prove a source of\nirritation and danger in a thousand forms.\n\nAs to the situation in the old slave states, where the colored population\nis proportionately large, it is not difficult to understand it. We can\nappreciate the dread on the part of the whites of an \u201cuprising,\u201d as it\nis termed, of the colored people. But the words of Jefferson[E]\u2014possibly\nprophetic unless averted by the exercise of wisdom and fairness\u2014have in\nthem a depth of meaning that none but those whites can fully realize\nwhen, speaking of the slaves, he says: \u201cAnd can the liberties of a\nnation be thought secure when we have removed their only firm basis, a\nconviction in the minds of the people that these liberties are the gift\nof God? That they are not to be violated but with his wrath? Indeed I\ntremble for my country when I reflect that God is just; that his justice\ncan not sleep forever; that considering numbers, nature and natural means\nonly, a _revolution of the wheel of fortune, an exchange of situation is\namong the possible events_; that it may become probable by supernatural\ninterference! The Almighty has no attribute which can take sides with us\nin such a contest.\u201d\n\nAside from the overawing influence of a large standing army there is\nbut one thing that can prevent a race-conflict, the very possibility of\nwhich we dread to contemplate, and that is the benign and liberalizing\ninfluence of education, resulting in a free and untrammeled exercise\nof the elective franchise. Give the former and you will unquestionably\nsecure the latter.\n\nThat the local as well as sectional inequality in education can be\novercome by no other means than by national aid, will be further\ndemonstrated. Nor is it just that we should expect or ask it to be\notherwise. No matter now what may have caused this inequality, the fact\nthat it exists is that which now momentously concerns us. We know it\ncan not be removed by recurring to the cause; and it will become more\nand more evident as we examine the subject that only by speedy and\nefficient congressional action can we now insure that future educational\nequilibrium, not only between the races and between the sections, but\nalso between the people in each state, which will have so important a\nbearing upon the destinies of this nation, and is so essential to the\ncontinued peace, prosperity and contentment of its people.\n\nAnother fact of great importance, as bearing upon the necessity for\nnational aid to education, is revealed by the census returns. It is a\ncurious as well as an important revelation, because it shows that the\nratio of children or persons under twenty-one years of age to the adults,\nis considerably larger in some states than in others, and correspondingly\nincreases the educational burden.\n\nThe principle involved in this condition of affairs may be simply\nillustrated thus: Suppose the head of each family had to pay directly for\nthe education of his own children. Then, even with an equality of means,\nthe burden would, as a matter of course, fall heavier on the one with a\nnumerous than the one with a small progeny.\n\nTo make apparent the effect of this inequality in the proportion of\nminors to adults in different parts of our common country, let us suppose\nthat the mean average cost of schooling is four dollars per annum for\neach child.\n\nIt appears that in Connecticut, out of every one hundred persons,\nfifty-nine are adults, and forty-one are minors. At this supposed rate,\nthen, the fifty-nine adults would have each to pay two dollars and\nseventy-eight cents per annum in order to make up the one hundred and\nsixty-four dollars per annum needed for the education of the forty-one\nchildren. It appears also that in South Carolina, out of every one\nhundred persons, forty-three are adults and fifty-seven are minors. At\nthe supposed rate, then, these forty-three adults would have each to\npay five dollars and thirty cents per annum in order to make up the two\nhundred and twenty-eight dollars per annum needed for the education of\nthe fifty-seven children.\n\nNow, this is a very important fact, indeed, and must lead all fair minded\nadvocates of education to modify somewhat the criticisms they may have\nmade touching the expenditure in the South for education as compared with\nthat in the North and West; for here it becomes palpable that two dollars\nand seventy-eight cents per adult in Connecticut is equivalent to five\ndollars and thirty cents per adult in South Carolina for the schooling of\nthe children respectively, in those states. Nearly twice as much in one\nstate as in the other.\n\nBut this result is from an assumed uniform mean average standard of the\ncost of educating each child in the Union. Let us test the matter by a\ncomparison founded on actual cost. Take, for instance, the states of\nMaine and Mississippi.\n\nIn Maine there are fifty-eight adults to forty-two minors in every\none hundred persons. In Mississippi there are forty-three adults to\nfifty-seven minors in every one hundred persons. In Maine[F] the\neducational expenditure per capita of the school population is four\ndollars and sixty-seven cents per annum. This enforces an annual\nexpenditure for this purpose of three dollars and thirty-eight cents by\neach adult. An equal school tax of four dollars and sixty-seven cents per\nannum for each scholar, imposed upon the adult population of Mississippi\nwould call for six dollars and nineteen cents from each adult\u2014or nearly\ntwice what the adult of Maine must pay.\n\nThe effects of this disparity will be more fully dwelt upon at a later\nperiod. But it must surely be already apparent that this inequality of\nthe educational burden created by the disparity existing between the\npopulations of various portions of our country can alone be met and\nremedied by some aid from the general government.\n\nIt is true that the facts thus far adduced indicate rather the necessity\nfor national assistance to certain sections or states than for general\nand uniform aid to all. But a further study and the development of other\nfacts will, as we proceed, more fully reveal, not alone the wisdom and\nnecessity of such aid to all, but the character and extent of the aid\nrequired.\n\nBefore we reach that period, however, there are facts touching other\nphases of inequality of burden that are worthy of close and careful\nconsideration.\n\nCareful tabulations from the census returns show that a school enrollment\nof 22.4 per cent. of the total population of Missouri amounts to but 88.6\nper cent. of the school population of that state, fixing the standard of\nschool age as between six and sixteen years; while a school enrollment\nof 22 per cent. of the total population of New Jersey is equal to[G]\n101.5 per cent. of her school population. Hence, although Missouri has a\nsomewhat larger percentage in school of her total population than has New\nJersey, yet she lacks more than 11 per cent. of having all her children\nof school age enrolled as scholars; while a slightly smaller per cent. of\nher total population places more than all the school age children of New\nJersey in school. So also with Vermont, where a school enrollment of 22\nper cent. of the total population gives 109.5 per cent. in school, of all\nof school age.\n\nComparing Nebraska and Connecticut, we find that while 22.3 per cent. of\nthe total population of the former state enrolled in the schools amounts\nto but 95.4 per cent. of her children of school age, 21.3 per cent. of\nthe total population of the latter state enrolled in the schools is\nequivalent to 110.3 per cent. of her children of school age.\n\nMassachusetts has to send 19.2 per cent. of her total population to\nschool in order to equal 104.8 per cent. of her children of school age,\nwhile Illinois has to send to school 24.5 per cent. of her population to\nreach a like ratio of enrolled scholars to children of school age.\n\nEven in states situated so near to each other as Pennsylvania and\nNew York we observe this inequality. In the former, where the school\nenrollment is 22.8 per cent. of the total population, it is but 99.4 per\ncent. of the children of school age, while in New York 23 per cent. of\nthe total population enrolled in the schools is 112.4 per cent. of her\nchildren of school age.\n\nThus far have been selected for comparison some of those states the\nratios of whose school enrollment to the total population were about the\nsame. But while these contrasts bring out very clearly the inequality in\nthe burden of educating the children of our country, yet there are more\nmarked illustrations at hand.\n\nTake Arkansas, West Virginia and New York, for instance. In Arkansas the\nschool enrollment is 13.5 per cent. of population, and but 51.3 per cent.\nof the children of school age. At the same ratio a school enrollment of\n23 per cent. of total population in Arkansas would be but 87.4 per cent.\nof the children of school age. West Virginia has a school enrollment of\n23.3 per cent. of total population, which is only 87.9 per cent. of her\nchildren of school age. Yet New York, as we have already seen, by an\nenrollment of 23 per cent. of her total population secures schooling for\n113.3 per cent.\u2014more than all\u2014of her children of school age.\n\nComparing other states, one with the other\u2014such as Alabama with Maine,\nGeorgia with New Hampshire, Tennessee with Rhode Island, Mississippi\nwith Massachusetts, etc.\u2014we see similar, and in some cases even greater\ninequality.\n\nLet us now apply these facts practically, and thus reach a clearer\nunderstanding of the effect of this great disparity.\n\nThe actual mean average cost of the schooling of each public school\nscholar in the United States is about ten dollars. Assuming then that\nthe adult population of each state bears the burden of educating its\nchildren, and that all the children of school age in each state are\nenrolled in the schools\u2014as they should be\u2014let us ascertain how much the\ntax per capita would be on the adults bearing this burden in each state\nand territory. In other words, let us discover how much in each state and\nterritory must every adult (male or female) pay every year in order to\nsupply the ten dollars per annum that it costs to educate each and every\nchild in that state or territory.\n\nIt would cost each adult in Montana, $1.95; in Wyoming, $2.12; Nevada,\n$2.12; Colorado, $2.20; Arizona, $2.34; New Hampshire, $2.78; Idaho,\n$3.00; Massachusetts, $3.23; Dakota, $3.30; Rhode Island, $3.22;\nCalifornia, $3.33; Connecticut, $3.27; Maine, $3.43; Vermont, $3.46; New\nYork, $3.56; District of Columbia, $3.77; Washington, $3.94; New Jersey,\n$4.02; Michigan, $4.15; Oregon, $4.29; Delaware, $4.31; Pennsylvania,\n$4.26; Ohio, $4.55; Maryland, $4.55; Nebraska, $4.77; Minnesota, $4.70;\nNew Mexico, $4.65; Wisconsin, $4.86; Illinois, $4.88; Indiana, $5.00;\nIowa, $5.10; Missouri, $5.28; Kansas, $5.32; Louisiana, $5.54; North\nCarolina, $5.67; Virginia, $5.59; Texas, $5.86; Kentucky, $5.65; Florida,\n$5.78; Utah, $6.07; Alabama, $6.12; Arkansas, $6.12; Georgia, $5.98;\nSouth Carolina, $5.98; Tennessee, $6.00; West Virginia, $5.86, and\nMississippi, $6.28\u2014while, massing the entire Union, the cost to each\nadult in it would be $4.70.\n\nThus we find that while the school tax on each adult in New York would\nbe but $3.56, in the adjoining state of Pennsylvania it would be $4.26;\nthat while in Massachusetts it would be but $3.23, in Illinois it would\nbe $4.88\u2014a difference of $1.65 per capita to the adult; that while in New\nHampshire it would be but $2.78, in Mississippi it would be more than\ndouble that amount. But the reader can himself, by a glance at the list\npresented, perceive even more glaring inequalities than these in the\nrelative burdens which would be imposed upon the adult population of the\nvarious states and territories, were that burden to be placed entirely on\ntheir shoulders.\n\nIf it be the true policy of a nation to equalize, as far as possible,\nthe necessary burdens imposed upon its people, then we certainly have\nbefore us in these statistics, a condition of facts demanding serious\nconsideration and efficacious action by the general government.\n\nIf inequality in the burdens imposed in order to educate our children be\nany argument in favor of national aid to education\u2014and who will venture\nto deny it?\u2014then we have in these statistics positive evidence of very\ngreat and possibly hitherto unsuspected inequalities; inequalities of\nwhich none could be aware without a close and critical analysis of the\nfigures, the developments of which as previously hinted, may well cause\nus to modify somewhat the reproaches we may have felt inclined to cast\nupon some of our states for what seemed to be a lack of proper effort on\ntheir part in the direction of education.\n\nWhile, however, reproachful criticism of them still appears to\nsome extent justifiable, yet the deductions from rearrangement and\nclassification of the census and educational bureau tables show that\nthe fault does not altogether lie at the doors of those among whom the\ngreatest amount of illiteracy is found.\n\nIn order to make this clear let us examine the ratio of children enrolled\nin schools, not to the state, but to the adult population. That ratio is,\nin Alabama, 34.6 per cent.; Arkansas, 31.4; California, 35.2; Colorado,\n17.7; Connecticut, 36.1; Delaware, 34.6; District of Columbia, 32.1;\nFlorida, 35.8; Georgia, 42; Illinois, 50; Indiana, 54.3; Iowa, 56;\nKansas, 53.8; Kentucky, 36.3; Louisiana, 19.8; Maine, 40; Maryland, 31.4;\nMassachusetts, 33.5; Michigan, 44; Minnesota, 47.8; Mississippi, 48.6;\nMissouri, 47.7; Nebraska, 45.5; New Hampshire, 31.3; New Jersey, 40.7;\nNew York, 40.3; North Carolina, 40.7; Ohio, 47.8; Pennsylvania, 42.2;\nRhode Island, 30.2; South Carolina, 32.3; Tennessee, 49.1; Texas, 25.2;\nUtah, 44.4; Vermont, 38; Virginia, 35.4; West Virginia, 51.8; Wisconsin,\n50.4, and in the entire Union, 42 per cent.\n\nNow, the mean average number of children in the United States enrolled\nin the schools being forty-two to every one hundred adults, what is our\nsurprise to find, in the figures just given, that every New England\nstate, as well as New York, New Jersey, and the District of Columbia,\nfalls below this average, while on the other hand, every northwestern\nstate (including Ohio, Missouri and Kansas), as well as Mississippi,\nTennessee and West Virginia, stands above it!\n\nThat in proportion to the adult population of those states, there are\nmore children at school in Mississippi, Tennessee and West Virginia, than\nin any of the New England states, is, indeed, an astounding revelation.\n\nSupposing, then, the cost of educating a child in those states to be the\nsame, it follows that each one hundred adults in Mississippi, Tennessee,\nand West Virginia are paying more to educate their children than is paid\nby the same number of adults in any New England state!\n\nAt first sight these statistical results fairly stagger one, and give\nrise to doubts of their accuracy. But a careful examination of them\nwill satisfy any reasonable mind that these developments are veritable\nfacts, if the census returns and the school enrollment reported by the\nCommissioners of Education are to be accepted\u2014being based upon and\ndirectly calculated from them. Even supposing the existence of some\ndeficiencies in the returns or some minor errors in the calculations, the\ngeneral facts they reveal must be accepted as true.\n\n[TO BE CONTINUED.]\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[D] By Senator Butler, of South Carolina.\n\n[E] \u201cNotes on Virginia, Fourth American Edition, N. Y. 1801,\u201d p.\n241.\n\n[F] See Report of Commissioner of Education for 1881, page 49.\n\n[G] The surplus of percentage being due doubtless to the\nattendance at school of some children beyond the school age prescribed by\nlaw.\n\n\n\n\nTHE PARSON\u2019S COMFORTER.\n\nBY FREDERICK LANGBRIDGE.\n\n\n    The parson goes about his daily ways\n      With all the parish troubles in his head,\n    And takes his Bible out, and reads and prays,\n      Beside the sufferer\u2019s chair, the dying bed.\n\n    Whate\u2019er the secret skeleton may be\u2014\n      Doubt, drink, or debt\u2014that keeps within his lair,\n    When parson comes, the owner turns the key,\n      And lets him out to \u201csqueak and gibber\u201d there.\n\n    It seems a possibility unguessed\u2014\n      Or little borne in mind, if haply known\u2014\n    The he who cheers in trouble all the rest\n      May now and then have troubles of his own.\n\n    Alas! God knows, he has his foe to fight,\n      His closet-atomy, severe and grim;\n    All others claim his comfort as of right,\n      But, hapless parson! who shall comfort _him_?\n\n    A friend he has to whom he may repair\n      (Beside that One who carries all our grief),\n    And when his load is more than he can bear\n      He seeks his comforter, and finds relief.\n\n    He finds a cottage, very poor and small,\n      The meanest tenement where all are mean;\n    Yet decency and order mark it all:\u2014\n      The panes are bright, the step severely clean.\n\n    He lifts the latch\u2014his comforter is there,\n      Propt in the bed, where now for weeks she stays,\n    Or, haply, seated knitting in her chair,\n      If this be one of those rare \u201cbetter days.\u201d\n\n    A tiny woman, stunted, bent, and thin;\n      Her features sharp with pain that always wakes;\n    The nimble hand she holds the needles in\n      Is warped and wrenched by dire rheumatic aches.\n\n    Sometimes, but seldom, neighbors hear her moan,\n      Wrung by some sudden stress of fiercer pain;\n    Often they hear her pray, but none has known,\n      No single soul has heard her lips complain.\n\n    The parson enters, and a gracious smile\n      Over the poor pinched features brightly grows;\n    She lets the needles rest a little while;\n      \u201cYou\u2019re kindly welcome sir!\u201d\u2014ah! that he knows.\n\n    He takes the Book, and opens at the place\u2014\n      No need to ask her which her favorite psalm;\n    And, as he reads, upon her tortured face\n      There comes a holy rapture, deep and calm.\n\n    She murmurs softly with him as he reads\n      (She can repeat the Psalter through at will);\n    \u201cHe feeds me in green pastures, and He leads,\n      He leads me forth beside the waters still.\u201d\n\n    The reading\u2019s done, and now the prayer is said;\n      He bids farewell, and leaves her to her pain;\n    But grace and blessing on his soul are shed\u2014\n      He goes forth comforted and strong again.\n\n    He takes his way, on divers errands bound,\n      Abler to plead, and warn, and comfort woes;\n    That is the darkest house on all his round,\n      And yet, be sure, the happiest house he knows.\n\n\n\n\nTHE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION.\n\nBY G. BROWN GOODE.\n\n\n    \u201cLet the trust of JAMES SMITHSON to the United States of\n    America be faithfully executed by their representatives in\n    Congress, let the result accomplish his object, \u2018the increase\n    and diffusion of knowledge among men,\u2019 and a wreath of more\n    unfading verdure shall entwine itself in the lapse of future\n    ages around the name of Smithson, than the united hands of\n    tradition, history, and poetry have braided around the name of\n    Percy through the long perspective in ages past of a thousand\n    years.\u201d\u2014_John Quincy Adams._\n\nThe name of the Smithsonian Institution is a household word throughout\nNorth America, and its fame is current wherever printed literature\nexists. Abroad it is regarded as the chief exponent of the scientific\nactivities of the people of the United States, and the administrative\nscientific department of our government. At home, its actual relations\nto the administration are better understood, and it is looked upon in\nits proper capacity\u2014that of an organization closely affiliated to the\ngovernment and tenderly cherished by its officers, yet, in virtue of its\nindependent foundation, independent of political favor, and ready to\nencourage, advise and co\u00f6perate with any public or private enterprise\nwithout the necessity of annual appeals to the congressional committees\non appropriations.\n\nVisitors to the national capital usually carry away pleasant memories of\nthe quiet old building among the trees in the mall, with its medi\u00e6val\nbattlements and turrets of brown stone conspicuous from every point of\nview, and the multitude who enter its halls are at least impressed with\nthe fact that the national treasure houses are becoming filled with\nvaluable collections rather faster than the available money and space\nwill allow to be properly arranged and displayed. Only a very few,\nhowever, of the four hundred thousand persons who visited the buildings\nlast year can have had the opportunity to inspect the administrative\noffices or the scientific laboratories, and very few indeed of those\nwho are acquainted with the general nature of the operations of the\nestablishment, have the slightest conception of their meaning and\nimportance.\n\nNo class of American people, except indeed our scientific investigators,\nbetter understand and appreciate the work of the Institution than do\nour members of Congress, as is clearly shown by the uniform liberality\nwith which, throughout many successive terms, regardless of changes in\nthe political complexion of the administration, they have supported\nits policy, by the care with which they disseminate its reports, by\nthe judgment with which they select their representatives in its board\nof regents, and above all, by the scrupulous care with which they\nhave protected its independence from political complications. Through\nthe disinterested labors of Washington correspondents, novelists, and\nplaywrights, the average congressman of current, popular belief, is not\na person remarkable either for manners, honesty or intellect. Residents\nof Washington, however, do not find the representative men at the Capital\ncounterparts of the eminent politicians depicted by the author of\n\u201cDemocracy,\u201d but in their stead, practical men of business, hard-working\nin their committees and hard-worked by their constituents. It is its\nsupport by these men, and through them by the people of the United\nStates, that has enabled the Smithsonian Institution to do its work in\nthe past. It is to such support that it will owe its efficiency in the\nfuture, and it seems right that every opportunity should be taken to\nexplain its operations to the public. Representatives of the best classes\nof thinking Americans will no doubt thoroughly appreciate the benefits\nwhich education has received and will continue to receive from the proper\nadministration of the Smithsonian bequest.\n\nThe story of the foundation of the Institution sounds more like a romance\nthan like fact. Its history seems like the fulfillment of some ancient\nprophecy\u2014even more strikingly so because it is evident that the future\nis to fulfill the promise of the past. The father of the founder of the\nSmithsonian Institution was one of the most distinguished members of\nthe English peerage. Upon the plate of his coffin in Westminster Abbey,\nwhere he was buried \u201cin great pomp\u201d in 1786, he is described as \u201cthe\nmost high, puissant and most noble prince Hugh Percy, Duke and Earl of\nNorthumberland, Earl Percy, Baron Warkworth and Lovaine, Lord Lieutenant\nand Custos Rotulorum of the Counties of Middlesex and Northumberland,\nVice Admiral of the County of Northumberland and of all America, one of\nthe Lords of His Majesty\u2019s most Honorable Privy Council and Knight of\nthe most noble Order of the Garter, etc., etc.\u201d While his aged father\nwas sustaining this overwhelming accumulation of dignities, and while\nhis elder brother, Earl Percy, was acting as Lieutenant-General in\nthe war against the rebellious British colonies in North America (he\ncommanded the reinforcements at the battle of Lexington in 1775, and led\nthe column that reduced Fort Washington, near New York in 1776), James\nSmithson, a youth of modest fortune, inherited from his mother, was\nlaying the foundations of a scientific education in the English schools\nand colleges, receiving the degree of Master of Arts at Pembroke College,\nOxford, in 1786, the year of his father\u2019s death. He was then known as\nJames Louis Macie, Esq., and did not assume the name of Smithson until\nfourteen years later, after he had attained to some reputation as a man\nof science. His mother was not the Duchess of Northumberland, but a\ncousin of her father\u2019s, Elizabeth Hungerford, who was subsequently known\nas Mrs. Macie. She appears to have been the daughter and heiress of Sir\nGeorge Hungerford of Audley and the Hon. Frances Seymour, sister of the\nDuke of Somerset and aunt of Algernon Seymour, Lord Percy, by marriage\nwith whose daughter Sir Hugh Smithson was enabled to assume the name of\nPercy and the title of Duke of Northumberland. The Smithsons were an\nold Yorkshire family, Sir Hugh Smithson, the great-grandfather of James\nSmithson, having been created baronet in 1660 by Charles II. after his\nrestoration. The names of Percy and Northumberland were, as has been\nstated, assumed by James Smithson\u2019s father. These barren, genealogical\ndetails are referred to because they seem to be necessary to the\nunderstanding of James Smithson\u2019s career.\n\nProud of his descent he undoubtedly was. In his will he describes his\nidentity himself in these words: \u201cI, James Smithson, son of Hugh, first\nDuke of Northumberland and Elizabeth, heiress of the Hungerfords of\nAudley, and niece to Charles the Proud, Duke of Somerset.\u201d He was,\nhowever, a man of broad, philosophic mind, in whom a thorough training\nin the best scientific methods of his day, and associations with leading\ninvestigators in Germany and France, and his brother Fellows of the Royal\nSociety of London, had developed a generous appreciation of the value of\nscholarship and scientific culture.\n\nIn one of his manuscripts was found the following sentiment, which I have\nalready referred to as prophetic in its ring:\n\n\u201cThe best blood of England flows in my veins; on my father\u2019s side I am\na Northumberland, on my mother\u2019s I am related to kings, but this avails\nme not. _My name shall live in the memory of man when the titles of the\nNorthumberlands and the Percys are extinct and forgotten._\u201d\n\nThese words came to my mind last summer in London when I saw the present\nDuke of Northumberland, grandson of Smithson\u2019s half-brother, a feeble\nold man, still one of England\u2019s greatest dignitaries, following in the\ntrain of the Prince of Wales, and rising to falter out a feeble speech\nproposing a vote of thanks to His Royal Highness for presiding at one\nof the conferences of the International Fisheries\u2019 Exhibition, upon the\noccasion of an address by Prof. Huxley, president of the Royal Society.\nThe name of the Smithsonian Institution has a world-wide fame; but who\noutside of English court circles ever heard of Algernon George Percy,\nDuke of Northumberland?\n\nSmithson seems early in life to have become imbued with the scientific\nspirit of his time. In 1784, while still an undergraduate at Oxford,\nhe made a scientific exploration of the coasts of Scotland in company\nwith a party of geologists. In 1787 he was admitted as a Fellow of the\nRoyal Society, and during the remaining forty-two years of his life, a\nconsiderable portion of which was passed upon the continent, in Berlin,\nParis, Rome, Florence and Geneva, he was the associate of the leading\nmen of science, and devoted himself to research. He made an extensive\ncollection of minerals, which was destroyed by the burning of a portion\nof the Smithsonian building in 1865, and always carried with him a\nportable chemical laboratory. His contributions to science are included\nin twenty-seven memoirs, chiefly upon topics in mineralogy and organic\nchemistry, but a number of them relating to applied science and the\nindustrial arts.\n\nHis work was by no means of an epoch-making character, but seems to have\nbeen remarkable for its minute accuracy. Smithson was a much greater man\nthan his published writings would indicate. In his eulogy the president\nof the Royal Society remarked: \u201cHe carried with him the esteem of various\nprivate friends, and of a still larger number of persons who admired\nand appreciated his acquirements.\u201d He was evidently a man of broad,\ngeneral culture, who understood thoroughly the needs of the world in the\ndirection of scientific endowment, and whose action in bequeathing his\nestate to the people of America was deliberate and well considered.\n\nIn his admirable little monograph entitled \u201cSmithson and His Bequest,\u201d\nMr. W. J. Rhees has shown the tendency of the time of Smithson to have\nbeen in the direction of establishing permanent scientific institutions.\nBetween 1782 and 1826, over twenty of the most important academies and\nsocieties now in existence were organized. This period he remarks \u201cwas\nnot less marked by the gloom occasioned by long protracted and almost\nuniversal war, and the extent and rapidity of its social changes, than\nby the luster of its brilliant discoveries in science, and its useful\ninventions in the arts. Pure, abstract science had many illustrious\nvotaries, and the practical applications of its truths gave to the world\nmany of the great inventions by means of which civilization has made such\nimmense and rapid progress.\u201d He quotes in support of these statements\nthe words of Lord Brougham, the representative statesman of the day. \u201cTo\ninstruct the people in the rudiments of philosophy,\u201d Brougham remarked,\n\u201cwould of itself be an object sufficiently brilliant to allure the\nnoblest ambition.\u201d\n\nHe recommended this idea to the wealthy men of England, pointing out how,\nby the promotion of such ends, a man, however averse to the turmoil of\npublic affairs, may enjoy the noblest gratification of which the most\naspiring nature is susceptible, and may influence by his single exertions\nthe character and fortunes of a whole generation.\n\nVery closely do these ideas agree with those expressed by Smithson\nin various passages in his note books, especially with that which is\nused for a motto upon the publications of the Institution: \u201cEvery man\nis a valuable member of society who, by his observations, researches,\nand experiments, procures knowledge for men.\u201d Or this: \u201cIt is in his\nknowledge that man has found his greatness and his happiness, the high\nsuperiority which he holds over the other animals who inherit the earth\nwith him, and consequently, no ignorance is probably without loss to him,\nno error without evil.\u201d\n\nIt was with a mind full of such thoughts as these, with perhaps the\nsupport and inspiration of Lord Brougham\u2019s words quoted above from his\n\u201cTreatise on Popular Education,\u201d printed in 1825, with such models in\nmind as the Royal Society, whose object is \u201cthe improvement of natural\nknowledge,\u201d the Royal Institution \u201cfor diffusing the knowledge and\nfacilitating the general introduction of useful mechanical inventions and\nimprovements, and for teaching the application of science to the common\npurposes of life,\u201d and the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge\nestablished in London in 1825, that in 1826 Smithson drew up his will\ncontaining the following weighty provision: \u201c_I bequeath the whole of\nmy property to the United States of America to found at Washington,\nunder the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an establishment for the\nincrease and diffusion of knowledge among men._\u201d\n\nNo one has been able to show why he selected the United States as the\nseat of his foundation. He had no acquaintances in America, nor does he\nappear to have had any books relating to America save two. Rhees quotes\nfrom one of these, \u201cTravels Through North America,\u201d by Isaac Weld,\nsecretary of the Royal Society, a paragraph concerning Washington, then\na small town of 5,000 inhabitants, in which it is predicted that \u201cthe\nFederal city, as soon as navigation is perfected, will increase most\nrapidly, and that at a future day, if the affairs of the United States go\non as rapidly as they have done, it will become the grand emporium of the\nWest, and rival in magnitude and splendor the cities of the whole world.\u201d\n\nInspired by a belief in the future greatness of the new nation, realizing\nthat while the needs of England were well met by existing organizations\nsuch as would not be likely to spring up for many years in a new, poor,\nand growing country, he founded in the new England an institution of\nlearning, the civilizing power of which has been of incalculable value.\nWho can attempt to say what the condition of the United States would have\nbeen to-day without this bequest? In the words of John Quincy Adams: \u201cOf\nall the foundations of establishments for pious or charitable uses which\never signalized the spirit of the age or the comprehensive beneficence of\nthe founder, none can be named more deserving the approbation of mankind.\u201d\n\nWhen the fact of the bequest became known, some six years after\nSmithson\u2019s death, much opposition was shown in Congress toward its\nacceptance. Eminent statesmen like Calhoun and Preston argued that it\nwas beneath the dignity of the United States to receive presents, and\nthat it was too cheap a way of conferring immortality on the donor. The\nwise counsels and enthusiastic labors of John Quincy Adams, who seems to\nhave had from the first a thorough appreciation of the importance of the\nmatter, finally prevailed, and the Hon. Richard Rush was sent to England\nto prosecute the claim. He entered suit in the Courts of Chancery, in the\nname of the President of the United States, and in less than two years\u2014an\nevent unparalleled in the Court of Chancery\u2014had obtained a favorable\ndecision. The legacy was brought over in the form of 104,960 gold\nsovereigns which were delivered September 1st, 1838, to the Philadelphia\nmint, where they were immediately recoined into American money, producing\n$508,318.46, as the first installment of the Smithsonian legacy. This was\nincreased in 1861 to $534,529.09.\n\nFor eight years the legacy lay in the Treasury, while the wise men of the\nnation tried to decide what to do with it. In this instance the adage\nthat in the multitude of counselors there is wisdom did not appear to\nbe applicable in the ordinary interpretation. The delay, though irksome\nto those who desired to see immediate results, was, however, the best\nthing in the end for the interests of the trust. Every imaginable\ndisposition of the legacy was proposed and discussed in Congress;\nthe debates fill nearly three hundred and fifty pages of Rhees\u2019s\ncompilation of Smithsonian documents. Letters by the hundred, advisory,\nexpostulatory and dissuasive were received from representative thinkers\nand from societies at home and abroad. Every man had a scheme peculiar\nto himself, and opposed all other schemes with a vigor proportionate to\ntheir dissimilarity to his own. Schools of every grade, from a national\nuniversity to an agricultural school, a normal school and a school for\nthe blind were proposed. A library, a botanical garden, an observatory, a\nchemical laboratory, a popular publishing house, a lecture lyceum, an art\nmuseum, any and all of these and many more were proposed and advocated by\nthis voluntary congress of many men of many minds. It is not necessary in\nthis place to discuss the history of the period at length, nor to relate\nthe manner in which the prevalence of wiser councils was brought about.\nIt is sufficient to say that though the new institution was burdened from\nthe start with various undertakings which have since proved unprofitable\nor better suited to the capacity of other institutions, such have been\nthe flexibility of its organization and the vitality of its membership\nthat it has been able to work out a career for itself unparalleled in the\nhistory of benevolent foundations.\n\nIt need not be said that the accomplishment of these effects was the\nresult of long continued effort on the part of men of unusual ability,\nenergy and personal influence. No board of trustees or regents, no\nsuccession of officers serving out their terms in rotation could have\ndeveloped from a chaos of conflicting opinions, a strongly individualized\nestablishment like the Smithsonian Institution. The names of Joseph\nHenry and Spencer F. Baird are so thoroughly identified with that of the\nInstitution that their biographies combined would form an almost complete\nhistory of its operations. A thirty-two years\u2019 term of uninterrupted\nadministrative service has been rendered by one, thirty-four years by the\nother. It is very doubtful whether any other institution has ever had the\nbenefit of such an uninterrupted administration of thirty-eight years,\nbeginning with its birth and continuing in an unbroken line of consistent\npolicy a career of increasing usefulness and enterprise.\n\nJoseph Henry, the first secretary, entered upon his duties at the end\nof the year 1846, a man already famous as an investigator in physical\nscience, a professor of fourteen years\u2019 standing in Princeton College,\nand recognized as eminent in scientific and general acquirements. From\nthe age of forty-seven to that of seventy-nine, his life was merged in\nthat of the Institution. Professor Asa Gray has pointed out so clearly\nthe deep impression which he made upon the Institution while it was\nyet plastic, that I venture to quote his words in order to explain\nthe character of this new force in the evolution of good results from\nthe Smithson benefaction. \u201cSome time before his appointment,\u201d writes\nProfessor Gray, \u201che had been requested by members of the Board of Regents\nto examine the will of Smithson and to suggest a plan of organization by\nwhich the object of the bequest might, in his opinion, best be realized.\nHe did so, and the plan he drew was in their hands when he was chosen\nsecretary. The plan was based on the conviction \u2018that the intention of\nthe donor was to advance science by original research and publication;\nthat the establishment was for the benefit of mankind generally, and that\nall unnecessary expenditures on local objects would be violations of\nthe trust.\u2019 His \u2018Programme of Organization\u2019 was submitted to the Board\nof Regents in the following year, was adopted as its governing policy,\nand has been reprinted in full or in part in almost every annual report.\nIf the Institution is now known and praised throughout the world of\nscience and letters, if it is fulfilling the will of its founder and the\nreasonable expectations of the nation which accepted and established the\ntrust, the credit is mainly due to the practical wisdom, the catholic\nspirit, and the indomitable perseverance of its first secretary, to\nwhom the establishing act gave much power of shaping ends, which as\nrough-hewn by Congress were susceptible of various diversion. Henry took\nhis stand on the broad and ample terms of the bequest, \u2018for the increase\nand diffusion of useful knowledge among men,\u2019 and he never narrowed his\nmind and to _locality_ gave what was meant for mankind. He proposed only\none restriction, of wisdom and necessity, that in view of the limited\nmeans of the Institution, it ought not to undertake anything which could\nbe done, and well done, by other existing instrumentalities. So as\noccasion arose he lightened its load and saved its energies by giving\nover to other agencies some of its cherished work.\u201d The character of\nthe work done in manifold directions will be discussed topically below;\nits spirit is sufficiently indicated in Dr. Gray\u2019s terse summary just\nquoted. Professor Henry died in 1878. \u201cRemembering his great career as\na man of science,\u201d remarked President Garfield, \u201cas a man who served\nhis Government with singular ability and faithfulness, who was loved\nand venerated by every circle who was blessed with the light of his\nfriendship, the worthiest and the best, whose life added new luster to\nthe glory of the human race, we shall be most fortunate if ever in the\nfuture we see his like again.\u201d[H] His statue, erected by Congress, stands\nin the Smithsonian Park.\n\nConcerning the influence of Professor Baird, upon whom the mantle of\nhis predecessor has descended, it would perhaps be premature and out of\ntaste to speak. His eminence as a naturalist and his patriotic service as\nCommissioner of Fisheries are too well known to need mention, and indeed\nmay be quite as appropriately discussed elsewhere. As assistant secretary\nfrom the age of twenty-four he was intimately associated with Professor\nHenry for twenty-seven years, and his executive ability found full scope\nin the development of the systems of publication and international\nexchange, as well as the museum, and the explorations, biological\nand ethnological, which were from the beginning under his charge. As\nsecretary his policy has been a direct continuation of that of Professor\nHenry. The services of Mr. William J. Rhees, for thirty-two years chief\nclerk, merit also especial notice.\n\nThe formal direction of the Institution is vested in a board of regents,\nconsisting of the Vice President and Chief Justice of the United States,\nthree members each from the Senate and the House of Representatives, and\nsix persons citizens of the United States appointed by Congress. The\nPresident and his cabinet are _ex officio_ members of the Institution,\nand there is a provision, not at present carried into effect, providing\nfor the election of honorary members of the Institution. The secretary is\nthe only executive officer of the board, and is responsible to the board\nfor his conduct of affairs. The regents meet once a year in January. Many\neminent men have served in the capacity of regents, and the records of\ntheir proceedings indicate that their interest in the work under their\ncharge has been uniformly very active.\n\nThe building occupied by the Institution and bearing its name is an\nornate structure of Seneca brown stone, occupying a prominent position\nin the \u201cMall\u201d which extends from the Capitol to the Washington monument.\nThis building was begun in 1847 and completed in 1855. It is hybrid in\ncharacter, combining features selected from both Gothic and Romanesque\nstyle, and is more admired by the public than by connoisseurs in\narchitecture. It is doubtful if a building more unsuited to the purposes\nfor which it was designed was ever constructed. The diversion of the\nfunds of the Smithsonian bequest to this building was one of Professor\nHenry\u2019s greatest griefs, and before the close of his life by careful\neconomy of the annual income, he had succeeded in restoring the entire\nsum, amounting to about $450,000 to the permanent endowment fund, beside\nincreasing this fund nearly $150,000 over and above the original bequest.\nThe eastern wing of the building, for so many years the hospitable home\nof the secretary, has been reconstructed internally, and the offices of\nthe Institution are all established within its walls. The remainder of\nthe building is occupied by laboratories and exhibition halls connected\nwith the National Museum. Another building has recently been built\neast of the Smithsonian for the reception of a portion of the national\ncollections. This was put up by congressional appropriation, and Congress\nhas at last recognized the justice of the claim, so many years urged upon\nthem by the secretary, that the Smithson money should not be used to\nprovide shelter for the government cabinets, and has assumed the care of\nthe Smithsonian building and votes money for its repairs and maintenance.\n\nFew people who visit Washington make the proper discrimination between\nthe Smithsonian Institution proper, and the establishments under its\ncustody. What they see is the National Museum. The relations of the\nMuseum to the Institution will be discussed more fully in a separate\narticle, but it is necessary to state just here that it is not the\nproperty of the Institution, but rather its ward\u2014its management being\nintrusted by law to the Institution which is provided with funds for its\nmaintenance by annual congressional grants. In early days the Smithsonian\nsupported collections of its own, but these were not primarily for public\nexhibition, but for the uses of scientific investigators. Professor Henry\nalways maintained that not one cent of the Smithson fund could with\npropriety be applied to the support of the National Museum, and his view\nis now the accepted one.\n\nIn the Smithsonian proper, little is to be seen by visitors. In the\nregents\u2019 room is an interesting collection of relics of the founder,\nincluding his portrait, his scientific library, and certain of his\npictures and personal effects. Beside the regents\u2019 room there are\noffices, store rooms and packing rooms occupied by busy clerks and\nmechanics. The Smithsonian is, first of all, an executive establishment,\nto which have been confided various trusts, to be mentioned hereafter.\nIt is also a publishing house, and an \u201cexchange\u201d for the reception and\ntransmission of scientific materials. The great masses of books in\nbrown wrappers and cases of papers, apparatus and specimens constitute\ntherefore the greater bulk of the material with which it has to deal.\n\nThe leading feature of the plan proposed by Professor Henry was from\nthe first \u201cto assist men of science in making original researches, to\npublish them in a series of volumes, and to give a copy of them to every\nfirst-class library on the face of the earth.\u201d The manner in which the\nfirst item of policy has been carried out can not be described here.\nThose who wish to know how it has been done must consult the thirty-four\nthick volumes of the annual reports, presented to and printed by\nCongress. It is safe to say, however, in general terms that there is\nprobably not a scientific investigator in America to whom the helping\nhand of the Institution has not at some time been of service, and that\nassistance of this sort has been by no means restricted to this side of\nthe Atlantic. Books, apparatus and laboratory accommodations have been\nsupplied in thousands of instances, and every year a certain number of\nmoney grants have been made. Not less important has been the personal\nencouragement afforded, especially to beginners and persons remote from\nother advice, in the hundreds of thousands of letters which have been\nwritten by the two secretaries during the seventy years of their added\nterms of office. No communication is ever passed by unnoticed and the\narchive rooms of the Institution packed from floor to ceiling with letter\nfiles and letter copy books are well worthy of inspection.\n\nThe publications of the establishment are as numerous as those of a great\npublishing house, and as a matter of fact, they are all given away;\nalthough there is a provision for their sale at cost price, I doubt if\na thousand dollars\u2019 worth has been sold in five years. There are three\nseries, the aspect of which must be familiar to every observing person\nwho has ever spent a day among the shelves in any American library of\nrespectable standing. The Smithsonian \u201cContributions to Knowledge,\u201d now\nincluding twenty-three stately volumes quarto with 116 memoirs, in all\n12,456 pages, and numerous fine plates, the Smithsonian miscellaneous\ncollection, in octavo, containing 122 papers with 20,299 pages, and\nthirty-five annual reports. The papers included in these volumes are all\npublished separately, the number of separate volumes printed up to this\ntime being above 500. These include papers varying in length from 4 to\n1,000 pages, by the most eminent specialists in every branch of science.\nThe most recent work, one now in progress, two volumes having been\npublished, is a systematic work on the botany of North America by Dr.\nAsa Gray; another is an illustrated work on prehistoric fishing, by Dr.\nCharles Rau.\n\nI have never seen an estimate of the value of the books distributed\nduring the thirty-eight years, but I should judge that it can not fall\nbelow $1,000,000, estimating the prices at standing publishing rates.\n\nIn addition to the direct publications of the Institution let us look at\nthe numerous magnificent volumes of scientific reports printed in more or\nless direct co\u00f6peration with the Institution by the various government\nsurveys and exploring expeditions, at government expense. Who can doubt\nthat the extent of this literature, which is a constant source of comment\nin foreign scientific journals, where it is desired to stimulate European\ngovernments to publish scientific researches in a similar way, is largely\na product of the influence of the Institution?\n\nOne of the main features of the Institution in its early days was its\nlibrary. Its publications were distributed throughout the world to every\nscientific and literary institution of good repute, and in exchange\nthey sent their own publications. In this way an immense collection of\nscientific periodicals and journals was received, and the Smithsonian\nlibrary became one of the most extensive in the world in this department.\nBooks came in freely from other quarters and the support of the library\nbecame a great burden to the Smithson fund. The same policy which led\nto the abandonment of the Smithsonian cabinet, led to a transfer of the\nlibrary, and in 1866 the books were transferred to the Capitol where they\nare cared for as a section of the national library under the name of \u201cThe\nSmithsonian Deposit.\u201d The books come in as heretofore, in exchange and as\ndonations, and are sent weekly to their place of custody at the other end\nof the mall. The increase in 1883 amounted to 11,739 books and pamphlets,\nand the total deposit amounts to about 100,000 volumes. Several thousand\nvolumes are retained in the working libraries of the Institution.\n\nAt the time of the Smithson bequest the endowment of research had\nscarcely been attempted in America. There were schools and colleges\nin which science was taught and certain of the professors employed in\nthese institutions were engaged in original investigation. There were\na few young and struggling scientific societies, the American Academy\nof Sciences in Boston, and the Boston Society of Natural History, the\nConnecticut Academy of Sciences, the New York Lyceum of Natural History\n(now the New York Academy of Sciences), the American Philosophical\nSociety, and the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. The\nAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science was not organized\nuntil 1840. The publications of these societies were necessarily very\nlimited in extent and influence, but then together with the monthly\njournal published at New Haven, by Professor Silliman, they embodied\nthe chief outcome of American scientific work. Science in America was\nan infant in swaddling clothes. Forty years have passed and American\nscience now stands by the side of the science of Britain, of Germany, of\nFrance, a fellow worker, competing on an equal footing in nearly every\nfield of research. No one is likely to question the statement that the\nSmithsonian Institution has done what was absolutely indispensable to the\nrapid and symmetrical development of American scientific institutions,\nand it is equally certain that the progress of American science has had\nan immense influence upon the welfare of America in every department of\nintellectual and industrial activity. It has offered a helping hand to\nevery institution and every individual in America capable of profiting\nby its generous aid, and has stimulated co\u00f6peration by them with similar\nworkers abroad. In this way its influence has been enormous, but still\ngreater has been the benefit of its stimulating powers upon the policy of\nthe general government toward scientific ends.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[H] \u201cOne trait,\u201d remarks Professor Gray, \u201cmay not be wholly\nomitted from the biography of one who has well been called \u2018the model of\na Christian gentleman,\u2019 and who is also our best example of a physical\nphilosopher. His life was the practical harmony of the two characters.\nHis entire freedom from the doubts which disturb some minds is shown in\nthat last letter which he dictated, in which he touches the grounds of\nfaith, both in natural and revealed religion; also in his sententious\ndeclaration upon some earlier occasions, that the person who thought\nthere could be any real conflict between science and religion must be\neither very young in science or very ignorant of religion.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nGEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR FEBRUARY.\n\nBY PROF. M. B. GOFF,\n\nWestern University of Pennsylvania.\n\n\nTHE SUN.\n\n    \u201cNow when the cheerless empire of the sky\n     To Capricorn the Centaur Archer yields,\n     And fierce Aquarius stains the inverted year;\n     Hung o\u2019er the farthest verge of heaven, the SUN\n     Scarce spreads o\u2019er ether the dejected day.\n     Faint are his gleams, and ineffectual shoot\n     His struggling rays in horizontal lines,\n     Through the thick air; as clothed in cloudy storm,\n     Weak, wan, and broad, he skirts the southern sky;\n     And, soon descending, to the long dark night,\n     Wide-shading all, the prostrate world resigns.\u201d\n\nBut as the days go by, his rays no longer struggle \u201cthrough the thick\nair\u201d in \u201chorizontal lines,\u201d nor does he so closely \u201cskirt the southern\nsky,\u201d but higher mounting pierces with penetrating power the dark\nshadows, lessening \u201cthe long, dark night,\u201d driving \u201cthe dusky shades\naway.\u201d So rapidly do these changes occur that in four weeks our daylight\nincreases one hour and seven minutes, or our length of days from ten\nhours and nine minutes on the 1st to eleven hours sixteen minutes on the\n28th. On the 1st, 16th and 28th the sun rises at 7:09, 6:52 and 6:34 a.\nm., and on the same days sets at 5:18, 5:36 and 5:50 p. m. respectively.\n\n\nTHE MOON\n\nPresents us with great regularity her changes: Last quarter on the 6th at\n5:29 p. m.; new, on the 14th, at 9:13 p. m.; first quarter, on the 22d,\nat 5:23 a. m.; and full on the 28th, at 10:52 p. m. In apogee (farthest\nfrom earth) on the 9th, at 7:24 p. m.; in perigee (nearest the earth)\non the 25th, at 6:24 p. m. Least elevation, 10th, amounting to 30\u00b0 9\u00b4;\ngreatest elevation, 24th, equal to 66\u00b0 45\u00b4.\n\n\nMERCURY,\n\n\u201cThe fleet-footed,\u201d makes a direct motion of 43\u00b0 18\u00b4 37\u00b4\u00b4, moving\nfrom about the middle of the constellation _Sagittarius_ and through\n_Capricornus_, and is the companion of Venus throughout the month (see\n\u201cVenus\u201d). Rises on the 1st at 5:55 a. m., and sets at 3:13 p. m.; on the\n16th, rises at 6:12 a. m., sets at 3:50 p. m.; on the 28th, rises at 6:22\na. m., sets at 4:46 p. m. On the 11th, at 7:00 p. m., is 44\u00b4 south of\nVenus; on the 12th, at 4:00 a. m., farthest from the sun; on the 13th, at\n5:42 a. m., 5\u00b0 56\u00b4 south of the moon.\n\n\nVENUS\n\nAnd Mercury are both morning stars during the entire month, and are so\nintimately connected as to afford a fine opportunity for making the\nacquaintance of the latter. On the 1st Venus is about one and a half\ndegrees east and 1\u00b4 38\u00b4\u00b4 north of Mercury; but as Mercury moves more\nrapidly than Venus, he will overtake and pass her on the evening of the\n11th at a point 44\u00b4 south; on the 22d, he will cross her orbit to the\nnorth, and at a distance of 3\u00bd\u00b0 east; and on the 28th will be found\nnearly 6\u00b0 east and 53\u00b4 north of her. Before the 11th Mercury will rise\nearlier than Venus; on the 11th they will practically rise at the same\ntime; after the 11th Mercury will rise later than Venus. On the 1st\nVenus rises at 6:00 a. m.; on the 16th, at 6:05 a. m.; and on the 28th,\nat 6:03 a. m. She sets on the corresponding days at 3:18, 3:51 and 4:19\np. m. respectively. Her motion is direct and amounts to 35\u00b0 54\u00b4 10\u00b4\u00b4;\non the 13th, at 5:18 a m., she is 5\u00b0 9\u00b4 south of the moon. Her diameter\ndecreases from 11.2\u00b4\u00b4 on the 1st to 10.6\u00b4\u00b4 on the 28th.\n\n\nMARS\n\nWill during this month be both evening and morning star, changing his\nrelation on the 11th, on which date he will be in conjunction with the\nsun, and will not be visible to the naked eye. His motion will amount to\n21\u00b0 25\u00b4 32\u00b4\u00b4 direct, and his diameter remain at 4.2\u00b4\u00b4. On the 14th, at\n10:44 p. m., he will be 4\u00b0 30\u00b4 south of the moon; on the 28th, at 2:00 p.\nm., in perihelion, or nearest the sun. On the 1st he will rise at 7:26 a.\nm. and set at 5:22 p. m.; on the 16th, rise at 6:58 a. m., set at 5:24 p.\nm.; on the 28th, rise at 6:35 a. m., set at 5:25 p. m.\n\n\nJUPITER\n\nRises on the 1st at 6:48 p. m., and sets on the 2d at 8:06 a. m.; rises\non the 15th at 5:48 p. m., sets at 7:12 a. m. on the 16th; rises at 5:47\np. m. on the 28th and sets the next day at 5:17 a. m. On the 1st, at 2:07\na. m., he is 4\u00b0 9\u00b4 north of the moon; on the 19th, at 2:00 a. m., in\nopposition to the sun, that is, on the opposite side of the sun from the\nearth; on the 28th, at 6:43 a. m., he is again in conjunction with the\nmoon, being 4\u00b0 27\u00b4 north of our satellite. During the month his diameter\nincreases two-tenths of a second, and he has a retrograde motion of 3\u00b0\n24\u00b4 8\u00b4\u00b4. The statement that Jupiter retrogrades some 3\u00bd\u00b0 may puzzle some\nof our younger readers, who have doubtless been instructed in what is\na fact, that not one of our planets has a retrograde motion; but that\nall move from west to east about the sun as a center. What we mean by\nretrograde is really only _apparent_ retrograde; and it was something\nvery puzzling to the early astronomers, particularly to those who thought\nthat the earth and not the sun was the center of our system; that the\nsun and all the heavenly bodies revolved each day about our earth. When\nit was discovered that the earth revolved each day on its axis, and\nall the planets revolved about the sun, the retrograde motions were\n_comparatively_ easy to understand. Let us see if we can obtain a clear\nidea of Jupiter\u2019s actions for this month. As we view him on the night\nof the 1st he appears about five degrees _east_ and 1\u00b0 2\u00b4 south of the\nbright star _Regulus_, which can be seen almost the entire night as the\nbrightest of the six stars forming the sickle in the constellation _Leo_.\nNoting his position again on the night of the 28th, we find that he has\nmoved westward about 3\u00bd\u00b0, and is only about 1\u00bd\u00b0 _east_ and 17\u00b4 north of\nRegulus; thus, as we say, having retrograded about 3\u00bd\u00b0. To assist us in\nunderstanding this, let us take an orange to represent the sun, a grain\n(of mustard, for example) to represent the earth, a pea to represent\nJupiter, and a point of some kind for Regulus. Now place these objects\non a stand in the following order: In one line, at the beginning, the\norange; two inches distant, the grain; eight inches farther, the pea.\nNext draw a line through the center of the orange so as to make an angle\nof five degrees with the line through the orange, grain and pea, and at\nas great a distance as convenient, stick a pin to represent Regulus. Now\nmove the grain and pea (the former about two and one-fourth times as\nfast as the latter) about the orange as a center, in the direction of\nthe movement of the hands of the clock (that is, from left to right). We\ncan readily see that on account of the more rapid motion of the grain,\ntogether with its being nearer the orange, that the pea will _fall\nbehind_; and if we sight along the line of the grain and pea, the latter\nwill be seen nearer the line joining the orange and the pin; and should\nwe continue the moving of the grain and pea, making similar observations,\nwe should find the pea approaching nearer and nearer, and perhaps even\npassing the line through the orange and pin. These relative motions\nwe can see will continue until the grain makes nearly one-fourth of a\ncircumference, after which the pea appears to make a movement in exactly\nthe opposite direction. Now the foregoing represents tolerably well the\nrelative positions and movements for this month of the bodies named.\nThe earth, Jupiter and Regulus are on the same side of the sun; the\nearth nearest, Jupiter next (about five times as far as the earth), and\nRegulus next (at a distance of say 20,000,000,000,000 miles), and five\ndegrees west of the line joining the earth and Jupiter. (These bodies\nwe know move at the average rate of 18.38 and 8.06 miles per second\nrespectively.) Our standpoint is the earth, and as we move eastwardly so\nmuch more rapidly than Jupiter, we find him dropping back each day, and\napparently approaching nearer to Regulus, till at the end of the month we\nfind him as before stated, only about 1\u00bd\u00b0 _east_ of that star. Should we\nwatch him through March and April, we should find him retrograding during\nthe former month and twenty-two days of the latter, on the 23d of April\nbeing 1\u00bd\u00b0 _west_ of Regulus; and on the same date, as the earth would be\ngoing directly away from him, he would appear stationary; and immediately\nafterward would seem to start again toward the east. Jupiter, as we know,\nis one of the superior planets, and an explanation of his retrograde\nmotion explains that of all the others of his kind. A little ingenuity,\nputting the earth for Jupiter and Mercury or Venus for the earth, will\nshow what is meant by the retrograde motion of the inferior planets.\n\n\nSATURN\n\nRises at 12:58 p. m. on the 1st and sets at 3:34 a. m. on the 2d; rises\nat 11:58 a. m. on the 16th and sets at 2:35 a. m. on the 17th; rises\nat 11:12 a. m. on the 28th and sets at 1:48 a. m. on March 1st. On the\n16th, at 4:00 a. m., stationary; on 23d, at 3:21 a. m., 3\u00b0 44\u00b4 north of\nthe moon. Diameter diminishes one second. Will be an evening star during\nthe entire month, and thus afford most convenient opportunities for\nobservations.\n\n\nURANUS\n\nHas a retrograde motion of 49\u00b4 53\u00b4\u00b4; diameter, 3.8\u00b4\u00b4. On the 3d, at\n3:25 a. m., is 1\u00b0 7\u00b4 north of the moon; on the 31st of January it rises\nat 9:25 p. m. and sets on the 1st at 9:23 a. m.; on the 15th, rises at\n8:24 p. m. and sets on the 16th at 8:22 a. m.; rises on the 27th at\n7:35 p. m. and sets on the 28th at 7:35 a. m. It is now a little south\nof the equator, in the constellation _Virgo_, and will remain in that\nconstellation some six years.\n\n\nNEPTUNE\n\nIs only mentioned, lest the omission of his name might be regarded as\na \u201cslight.\u201d He is a slow-goer, and, except that his presence confirms\na law, we hardly know what he was created for. However, his habits are\nquite regular; and we note that he takes the _r\u00f4le_ of evening star,\nsetting on the 2d at 1:22 a. m.; on the 17th, at 12:23 a. m., and on\nthe 28th, at 11:37 p. m. Has a direct motion of 14\u00b4 35\u00b4\u00b4; a diameter of\n2.6\u00b4\u00b4; and on the 8th, at 9:00 p. m., is 90\u00b0 east of the sun.\n\n\n\n\nNEW ORLEANS.\n\nBY GEORGE ALFRED TOWNSEND.\n\n\nNew Orleans is our most pleasing American city to persons from a northern\nclimate. Florida presents no place important enough to illustrate a large\ngeneral society. Texas has rising towns, but the Anglo-Saxon domination\nthere brings them more and more into resemblance to our own settled\nEnglish, or rather, British communities. In San Francisco we are charmed\nnot only with a complete change of foliage, scenery, and climate, but\nwith unexpected varieties in the population, there being a little tinge\nof the south of Europe as well as of Mexico and of the Celestial Kingdom\nin the speculative yet placid elements there. Yet New Orleans is not\nso hard as even San Francisco. It is a land not merely of fruit, but\nof the sugar-cane. It lies on that warm gulf whose farther shores were\nmore historical three hundred years ago than now. As time advances and\nwe complete our own connections and general developments we see more\nand more that the American destiny must be southward. Canada, which has\nhad a much longer history than the United States, presents even now but\na thin rim of settlement, and her entire population from the banks of\nNewfoundland to Vancouver\u2019s Island is not equal to that of the single\nstate of New York. On the other hand, Mexico, through which the Americans\nhave built costly railroad systems piercing to the very capital city, has\na population certainly twice that of Canada, and probably three times\nthe number, considering the extension of Mexico toward Central America.\nAmerican diplomacy has little other ground to cover for the near future,\nthan the republics to the south of us. The surfeit of enterprises and of\nproductions in the United States compels us to consider a time when we\nmust not only find markets in the Spanish American states, but shall\nbecome, if not pioneers, as we once were, certainly competitors in the\nPacific Ocean, of the English, Germans, and other modern nations. We have\nopened a way to the Pacific by railroad, but the canal long contemplated\nacross Central America will operate more impartially toward shippers,\nwill cheapen the movement of goods, and incline the United States rapidly\ntoward an understanding of the new peoples to our southwest, in methods\nno doubt providentially designed. New Orleans has been so clearly\nunderstood by our railroad magnates that they have hastened, almost\nwithout public assistance, to connect her not only with great points\nlike Hampton Roads, Richmond, Cincinnati and Chicago, but the railroads\nare finished from San Francisco to New Orleans, and the only continental\nrailroad system from ocean to ocean under a single management, does not\npass by Chicago, but by New Orleans. The Americans originally stimulated\nby the governmental credit to build from the Missouri River to San\nFrancisco, have upon their own credit and earnings stretched a railroad\nthrough California nearly to the gulf of that name, and then across the\ndeserts and Texas, until New Orleans is at this moment the Atlantic\nseaport of California. Mr. Gould, who succeeded Colonel Thomas A. Scott,\nhas stretched another railroad system parallel to Mr. Huntington\u2019s from\nthe desert through Northern Texas and down the Red River to New Orleans.\n\nNear the close of the past year another important railroad was built\nfrom Memphis directly to New Orleans. A little earlier last year the\nCincinnati Southern Railroad was extended directly to New Orleans by the\ngreat syndicate which had leased it. Therefore, there now run into New\nOrleans four lines of rail east of the Mississippi River, and two great\nlines west of the Mississippi. Contrast this with the railroad facilities\nwhich existed there only fourteen years ago. At that time New Orleans had\nonly one railroad to the north, and that had certain connections, and was\nunder no consolidated sway. It was not even connected with its adjacent\ncity of Mobile by rail. It had no railroad facilities whatever to reach\nTexas, except a little piece of road which ran to the Gulf near the mouth\nof the Atchafalaya, and there found steamships for Galveston.\n\nWhile other cities in the South have shown a cheerful energy to revive\nthemselves, and while new cities have started up at many points, and have\nbecome respectable centers of trade, New Orleans has retained all that\nimperial promise under freedom which she had in the palmiest days of\nslavery. Perhaps no city in the South, or in the world, has so thoroughly\nchanged its ideas, political and social, in spite of sharp contests for\nparty supremacy there.\n\nThe great exhibition of the present year is the best instance that New\nOrleans means to lead the industrial spirit of the South, and to become\nno longer the great filibuster in the tropics, but the energetic merchant\nand projector there. No lawless impulse guided the erection of the great\nbuildings which are now crowded with the productions of America and\nMexico.\n\nThe attempt to let the sugar interests of Louisiana and Mississippi go\nin favor of the productions of Cuba and the East Indies, distinctly\npoints the people at the mouth of the Mississippi to the fact that their\nalliance is probably to be with the Northern states, not merely in\npolitics, but in commerce.\n\nNew Orleans is not the only French city in the United States, but it is\nthe only one which preserves the French quality and language perfectly,\nand in that respect resembles Montreal and Quebec. St. Louis had a\nFrench and Spanish basis, but when that post became American the small\nLatin element was compelled, in self-defense, to adopt the language\nand living of the Anglo-Saxons. New Orleans, however, had a sufficient\nstart when the Americans occupied it in 1803, to grow relatively with\nthe American settlers and consequently two cities arose side by side,\nwhich still preserve their differences as much as if a quarter of London\nand a quarter of Paris had been cut out and united. Besides, there was\na large rural and planting element in Louisiana, of the French stock,\nwhich has assisted to keep up the French infusion, and hence the market\nat New Orleans is the most characteristic thing in the city, where the\n_habitants_ and the hucksters, the fishers from the Gulf, and the porters\nand carters, carry us back to a scene anterior to the France of to-day,\nor before republican ideas had reached the far French colonies. New\nOrleans, too, constantly received emigration from neighboring French and\nSpanish islands and coasts as they were affected by negro insurrections,\nor by internal revolutions. Naturally the fleeing planters from Hayti\nand the Lesser Antilles made their way to the nearest large town, and\nthe steam shipping of the Gulf all concentrates at the two centers of\nthe ellipse, New Orleans and Havana. The Mississippi River, which is the\nonly river of the first class on the globe to pass through a cultivated\nland and an enlightened population, sufficiently marks New Orleans as\nthe eye of its destiny adjacent to its mouth. There are many Americans\nwho have never been to New Orleans, who are unaware that it, like New\nYork, has two distinct harbors or outlets. As New York has Long Island\nSound and the Bay of New York, one opening a hundred miles to the east\nof the other, so New Orleans has a lake system close by which gives her\ninternal communication far to the east, or almost to the bay of Mobile,\nand saves her two hundred miles of round-about river navigation to reach\nher own coasts. It may be thought that New Orleans is too far from the\nmouth of the Mississippi to command that the commerce of the Gulf should\ncome a hundred miles up that river for her benefit, yet Philadelphia\nand Baltimore are quite as far from the ocean, and these cities have\neasily commanded a great interior trade through the communications they\npossessed, and from the products they had to supply. Coal, for example,\nmakes the most effective article of the commerce of both Baltimore and\nPhiladelphia, and coal is more valuable in the Gulf because farther from\nthe mines, than it is on the near east coast. The coal furnished to the\nshipping at New Orleans has descended the entire line of the river, yet\nby such easy facilities that at New Orleans it is probably the cheapest\ncoal in the world for the distance it has to come to get a market. Great\nfloats, of which dozens are hauled by a small tug or tow boat, go down\nthe Ohio to its mouth, and pass on to New Orleans and are there so easily\ndischarged that the lumber in them finds a market with the coal.\n\nBesides, the railroad projectors, without other inducement than their own\nsagacity, have concurred in running all their railroads to New Orleans,\nfor the country at the mouth of the Mississippi is neither so healthy\nnor so strategical for trade as this old town which was founded by the\nFrench under the direction of their government when they picked slowly\nand carefully the sites of future trade and military empire. These same\nFrench located St. Louis, and it has not been found advisable by any\nsucceeding generation to try a better situation.\n\nWe may ask whether New Orleans has as great an antiquity as our own\nEnglish cities? It is not as old as Philadelphia by almost thirty years,\nand is somewhat younger than Charleston, and is about fifteen years\nolder than Savannah. Of course it does not compare in antiquity with\nthe colonial cities of the northeast, such as New York, Albany, Boston,\nMontreal and Quebec. But it is nearly a century older than any of our\nimportant Anglo-Teuton cities of the West. It is more than half a century\nolder than Cincinnati, and we may almost call it a century older than\nChicago. St. Louis was its Albany, or upstream neighbor, and was under\nthe same political domination. Mobile was the parent place the French\nestablished on the Gulf, and Governor Bienville made New Orleans his\ncapital as late as 1723, or about nine years before the birth of General\nWashington.\n\nSoon after this a levee was built in front of the new town, and the early\nFrench authors and novelists took pleasure in visiting it, and even at\nthat date they called it \u201cthe famous place.\u201d As in Quebec and Montreal,\nthe early French settlement was almost simultaneous with the bringing out\nof monks and nuns, and soon a cathedral was conceived and nunneries were\nbuilt. The French, however, had not the vigorous nature of the English\nin founding new places, and after nearly half a century of occupation\nthere were hardly three thousand persons in it to transfer to the\nSpanish who took possession of the place in the midst of a revolution,\nand had some of the best French citizens shot in order to be a terror\nto what the Spanish governor, O\u2019Reilly, already suspected to exist in\nFrench Louisiana, the spirit of independence, which Spain wanted to\nextirpate in all her colonies, fearing that they would speedily rise to\nimportance and overwhelm the parent power. Spain had been dismembered\nby a treaty early in the eighteenth century, and was left with enormous\nAmerican possessions, and with a very small Spain to handle them. The\nSpanish cabinet then conceived the policy of preventing the growth of the\ncolonies, so as to keep them down, use them merely for trade, and not let\nthat spirit of municipal independence which makes great fermentations in\nstates commence anywhere. Some of the Spanish governors, however, ordered\npublic buildings to be constructed, and the American residents at New\nOrleans say that the Spanish sway of about forty years has left better\nmonuments than the French.\n\nA Spanish infusion of settlers marks the present population, and the\nAmericans call all the Latin races, no matter whether they come from\nFrance and her islands, or Spain and her coasts, by the name of Creoles.\n\nA curious feature of New Orleans is the existence of considerable\nelements there from states as foreign to ourselves as Yucatan.\n\nAt the close of the American Revolution there were less than five\nthousand persons in New Orleans. During that Revolution a considerable\nnumber of respectable British settlers who wanted to avoid the War\nof Independence, settled in West Florida and about Natchez, and in\nother spots contiguous to New Orleans. Hence the Revolution was hardly\nover before the first chapter of manifest destiny was directed from\nPennsylvania, Ohio and Kentucky upon the opening of the Mississippi\nRiver. That physical achievement was so important to the producers on\nthe Ohio and the Tennessee Rivers that schemes of every sort were tried\nto hasten the opening of commerce to the Gulf. One Senator of the United\nStates was expelled from his place for an intrigue partaking of the\nnature of treason with the British who still backed up the Spanish on\nthe Gulf; and a Vice President was actually pursued nearly to the Gulf\nand brought back and tried for treason at Richmond. How long the United\nStates might have had to wait the slow course of diplomacy or the rough\nchance of war to get New Orleans, is uncertain, but Napoleon, who had\nacquired Louisiana by his mastery over Spain, believing that he could\nnot hold it against the English fleets, made haste to sell it to the\nAmericans for a sum of money and old commercial claims.\n\nEighty-two years ago, or about the rounded lifetime of an old man, the\nAmericans occupied New Orleans, and much of the city burnt up the year\nour forefathers were voting for the first President of the United States.\nA French newspaper had been issued in New Orleans several years before\nthe American possession. There were perhaps eight thousand persons in\nthe city when it was transferred to us. Twelve years after the transfer,\nthe Americans under General Jackson had to give battle to hold the city,\nwhich the English attacked with the best troops they had used in Spain\nagainst Napoleon who had already fallen. Napoleon was contemplating his\nlast endeavor to astonish the world at Waterloo, when the English and\nAmericans, unconscious that a treaty of peace had been made between\nthemselves, fought the battle of New Orleans, which resulted in more\ndisaster to the British arms than any battle on land during our second\nconflict for independence. In St. Paul\u2019s Cathedral stand the monuments\nand statues of Packenham and Gibbs who lost their lives in the marshes\naround New Orleans.\n\nIn 1862, Farragut with his fleet took New Orleans. His victory drove an\nentering wedge into the heart of the Confederacy and gave to the navy\nof the United States a prestige which it had never enjoyed and which in\nits present enfeebled state it is rapidly losing. New Orleans was the\nwealthiest and most populous city of the Confederacy; it was four times\nlarger than either Charleston or Richmond, and before the war had the\nlargest export trade of any city in the world. Commanding mid-continental\nnavigation and being the key to the Gulf, its military value was equal to\nits commercial importance.\n\nThe plan for the capture of New Orleans by the navy, and the reduction of\nthe forts which guarded the approach to it from the south, originated in\nthe Navy Department in the fall of 1861. The credit for proposing this\nplan has been claimed by more persons than one, and it is likely that it\nwas conceived and developed from suggestions and hints received from a\nvariety of sources. It was determined that a naval expedition should be\nsent against New Orleans. The plan found little favor with army officers,\nbut the President became interested in it and Secretary Welles set about\ncarrying it into effect. The attention of military men was concentrated\non a proposed combination of the forces of the army and the navy for the\ncapture of New Orleans, in an expedition which was to descend to the\ncity from the upper waters of the Mississippi River. This scheme seemed\nmore attractive, and the idea of taking New Orleans by means of a fleet\nadvancing from the Gulf had never been entertained in military circles.\nWhen Stanton became Secretary of War and was told of the proposed naval\nexpedition, he was astonished at the originality and audacity of the\nidea and exclaimed: \u201cAn attack upon New Orleans by the navy! I never\nheard of it! It is the best news you could give me.\u201d Secretary Stanton\nentered cordially into the spirit of the project and increased the number\nof the troops which General McClelland had promised, from ten thousand\nto eighteen thousand. Shortly after this, General B. F. Butler was made\nacquainted with the purpose of Secretary Welles and he was given the\ncommand of the military force which was to hold New Orleans after the\nfleet had taken it. There is no evidence that General Butler suggested\nany of the important plans or details for the expedition or that he had\nany definite plans concerning it.\n\nCongress had ordered the blockade of 3,500 miles of coast line. There\nwere scarcely ships enough to maintain it, and the vessels for the New\nOrleans expedition had to be built or procured from other sources.\nAfter the Secretary of the Navy had decided to send a fleet against New\nOrleans and had given orders for the construction of it, the most serious\nquestion which presented itself was the selection of a commander. All of\nthe naval officers of high rank were suggested and considered. It was to\nbe the most powerful and splendid fleet ever gathered under the stars and\nstripes, and the Department moved cautiously in the matter of choosing a\nleader for it. Finally the name of David Glasgow Farragut was proposed.\nThe Secretary of the Navy remembered that years before in the war with\nMexico, Farragut had offered a daring plan for the capture of the strong\nfort of San Juan de Ulloa, at Vera Cruz. He proposed that the fort be\n\u201cboarded\u201d by attaching long ladders to the masts of the attacking ships,\nwhich should then be towed up to the walls of the fort. Secretary Welles\nwas impressed at the time with the boldness and dash of the scheme, and\nthough he had not seen Farragut since that day, and really knew very\nlittle of him, yet after some consultation he decided to offer him the\ncommand of the fleet. Farragut, who had never had a squadron, gladly\naccepted the honor and the responsibility. He had been trained by a life\nof study and active service for some great emergency like this, which\ncame late in life, in his sixty-second year, but he was prepared for it\nand he knew it. Farragut adopted the plans which had been considered by\nthe Navy Department and made them his own. He grasped the work before\nhim with a degree of earnestness and enthusiasm unusual in men of his\nage. Secretary Welles says of him at that time: \u201cIn every particular he\ncame up to all that was expected or required of him. He determined to\npass the forts and restore New Orleans. He might not come back, he said,\nbut the city would be ours.\u201d After his arrival at Ship Island on the\n25th of March, 1862, Farragut wrote: \u201cI have now attained what I have\nbeen looking for all my life\u2014a flag\u2014and having attained it, all that is\nnecessary to complete the scene is a victory. If I die in the attempt it\nwill only be what every officer has to expect. He who dies in doing his\nduty to his country and at peace with his God, has played out the drama\nof life to the best advantage.\u201d Here was a genuine pious hero of the old\nschool, determined to do or to die. His task was a herculean one. New\nOrleans was defended by two forts erected at the lowest favorable point\nfor the location of military works, above the Gulf. Fort St. Philip\noccupied the left bank of the river, and a short distance below it on the\nright bank stood Fort Jackson. These forts mounted in all one hundred\nand fifteen guns. A fort on the site of Jackson in 1815 held the British\nfleet in check for nine days. The rebel forts were garrisoned by 1,500\nmen commanded by General J. K. Duncan. A short distance above the forts\nlay fifteen rebel vessels. This fleet included the iron ram \u201cManassas\u201d\nand a great floating battery clad with railroad iron. Below the forts a\nheavy chain supported by the hulks of eight dismasted ships obstructed\nthe river. Farragut was to break through the chain, fight his way by\nthe forts, destroy or capture the rebel fleet and then steam up to New\nOrleans and place that city under his guns. The attack was commenced\nby the mortar fleet. For six days the mortars poured a ceaseless fire\nof shells into the fort. The shells were flying through the air at all\ntimes; nearly six thousand were thrown, but the forts were damaged very\nlittle and the Confederate loss was only fourteen killed and thirty-nine\nwounded. It was determined to pass the forts on April 24th. At sunset on\nthe 23d there were indications of the approaching conflict on every ship\nin Farragut\u2019s fleet. The attack was to be made under cover of darkness.\nAt eleven o\u2019clock that night an officer signaled that an opening which\nhad been made in the chain was still clear. Five minutes before two\no\u2019clock in the morning two red lights were displayed from the peak of the\nflag ship. It was the signal to steam up the river. In about one hour\nthe fleet of seventeen vessels, in three divisions, was moving. The moon\nwas rising, but its light was lost in the fierce flames from bonfires\nand fire rafts. Both forts opened fire upon the first ship as she passed\nthrough the row of hulks. Five minutes later the little \u201cCayuga\u201d was\npouring grape and canister into Fort St. Philip, and in ten minutes more\nshe had passed from the range of its guns and was in the arms of the\nrebel fleet. It was a lively moment for the brave little boat. Eleven\nrebel gunboats tried to demolish her at once. She could not go forward,\nshe would not go backward. There was nothing to do but to close with the\nenemy. She drove an \u201celeven inch\u201d shot through one of her antagonists and\nit ran aground and burned up. Another one was crippled by a well directed\nshot, and the \u201cCayuga\u201d was about to grapple with the third when two ships\nof the Union fleet came to her aid, the \u201cOneida\u201d and the \u201cVaruna.\u201d\n\nThe former ran into one of the rebel ships and almost cut her in twain.\nThe \u201cVaruna\u201d was rammed by the \u201cManassas\u201d and another ship and went to\nthe bottom in fifteen minutes. While she was going down she fired into\none of her adversaries and so damaged her that she had to surrender to\nthe \u201cOneida,\u201d and she sent a shell into another rebel gunboat which\nexploded its boiler. All the time the remaining vessels of the first\ndivision were steaming by the forts, pouring tremendous volleys into them\nand receiving tremendous discharges in return. Farragut\u2019s flag ship, the\n\u201cHartford,\u201d led the second division of the fleet. She was a noble vessel,\nsplendidly equipped; she steamed into the fight and was followed by the\nlong line of ships in the second and third divisions. By this hour day\nwas dawning, but heavy clouds of smoke hung over the river and no light\nfrom the east reached the battling ships. The cannonading which all along\nhad been terrific was now growing sublime. Three hundred heavily shotted\nguns were flashing and roaring over the dark water. The Union ships\nadvanced to the fray like the famous \u201cLight Brigade,\u201d with cannon to the\nright of them, to the left of them and before them. Probably it was the\nmost picturesque naval battle in the world\u2019s history. Thirty-four armed\nvessels and two great forts were struggling in the early morning. The sun\nseemed to stand still in the heavens. The light of the guns was brighter\nthan the orb of day, and Farragut\u2019s gunners had to aim at the cannon\nflashes from the rebel forts. The forts themselves were not visible. The\nvessels of the enemy were not visible. Our ships were striking great\nblows in the dark and they always struck with deadly effect. From points\nabove the rebels pushed great fire barges loaded with blazing pitch and\ncotton into the stream. These rafts came floating down and when they did\nnot ignite our ships they illuminated them for the Confederate marksmen.\nA flaming fire raft was hurled against the \u201cHartford\u201d and flames ran from\nthe water\u2019s edge to the mast top. The well trained crew extinguished the\nfire and within five minutes the \u201cHartford\u201d destroyed a rebel steamer\nfilled with boarding parties. The \u201cBrooklyn,\u201d another Union ship,\nencountered a fire raft and for a time lay helpless before the merciless\nguns of Fort Jackson. Disentangling herself, she steamed up to the fort\nand poured such withering broadsides into it that its guns were silenced\nfor a time, and the gunners were seen by the ship\u2019s crew as they peered\nthrough the cannon-lighted portholes, to be fleeing from their guns. At\nthis time the vessels which had passed the forts were doing good work,\nand the stream was filled with wrecked and burning Confederate gunboats.\nFire rafts and wrecks came drifting down side by side, and frequently\none of the latter would explode with a loud report. The low, curved iron\nrams glided about like gigantic serpents of the sea. Boarding parties\nwere overrunning some vessels and being repulsed from others. It was an\nawful, dazzling and furiously shifting panorama. The last ship to pass\nthe forts on that memorable morning was the \u201cPenola.\u201d In the light of a\nblazing raft she received the discharge of the forty guns of St. Philip,\nand passed on to join the victorious fleet above. \u201cAnd thus,\u201d says\nFarragut\u2019s son, \u201cwas accomplished a feat in naval warfare which had no\nprecedent, and which is still without a parallel except the one furnished\nby Farragut himself two years later at Mobile.\u201d\n\nOn the morning of the next day the fleet moved up to New Orleans. At\nnoon Captain Bailey was sent to demand of the mayor of the city its\nunconditional surrender, and that the flag of Louisiana be removed from\nthe City Hall. The mayor refused to haul down the flag or to make a\nformal surrender of the city. While the officers and men of the fleet\nwere attending divine service the next day, they were startled by the\ndischarge of a howitzer from the main mast of the \u201cPensacola.\u201d The\nwatchman in the rigging had seen four men tear down the flag of the\nUnion from the roof of the mint, and had at once fired the gun which was\ntrained on the flag staff.\n\nOn the 28th the forts surrendered to Commander Porter, who had been\npounding away at them with his mortars. May 1st, General Butler and his\ntroops entered New Orleans, and Farragut turned the city over to him.\nHis administration was vigorous, but was hateful to the citizens. He\nhanged Mumford, the leader of the mob which tore the Union flag from the\nmint; he issued his celebrated woman order which placed every female who\ninsulted a Union soldier on the level of the street walker; he treated\nwith severity a Mrs. Phillips, who jeered at the remains of a Union\nsoldier. He is condemned for all of these things by very many people.\nMany dishonest things were done during his administration, but repose,\nvigor and security were the characteristics of it. General Butler was\na just, efficient, straightforward tyrant, not cruel, but possessed of\nan inflexible determination to make his will the law and to make his\ncause succeed. After General Butler came General Banks. He endeavored to\nrestore loyalty to the state by good treatment, but fell into the error\nof reposing trust in a type of men who could not understand freedom nor\nadopt even a business patriotism for the sake of their own prosperity.\n\nBy the census of 1880 New Orleans showed for three-quarters of a century\nof American rule a population of 216,000 people, of whom 175,000 are\nnatives of the United States, and only 58,000 are colored people. New\nOrleans stood the tenth of American cities, with more than 36,000 houses,\nand more than 45,000 families. Although the manufactures of New Orleans\nwere in their infancy they had an annual product of nineteen million\ndollars, and paid nearly four million dollars a year wages. Looking over\nthe list of states to discover the origin of the people of New Orleans,\nthe remarkable fact appears that of her 216,000 people more then 151,000\nare natives of Louisiana. The neighboring state of Mississippi has not\nput thirty-eight hundred souls into New Orleans. Alabama, which is within\ntwo or three hours\u2019 ride by cars, has not two thousand native children in\nNew Orleans, but New York has over two thousand of her progeny settled in\nNew Orleans, and Virginia has 4,300. Of the 41,000 foreign population,\nnearly 7,000 are natives of France, showing that there is a constant\nimmigration, as in the days of Bienville, from old France to new France.\nGermany has contributed to New Orleans 14,000 emigrants. About the same\nnumber have come to New Orleans from Great Britain and Ireland. Spain\nhas contributed about 800 of her natives, Italy about 2,000, Switzerland\nnearly 500, Mexico only 300, and the West Indies scarcely 400. These\nare suggestive figures, and show that since the great rebellion those\nelements go to the far South which have the most original emigrating\nspirit and the greater variety of self-sustaining trades and pursuits.\nA man who can do nothing, make nothing, improve nothing, has the least\nof all motives to emigrate. The debt of New Orleans was about seventeen\nmillion dollars at the last advices, considerably less than the debts of\nBaltimore and Washington, but some four millions more than the debt of\nChicago. Railroads and other municipal improvements were responsible for\na good deal of this debt.\n\nSince the war New Orleans has been transformed from the likeness of a\nquiet old French city like Orleans which gave it name, to the appearance\nof a new French city with pretty relics here and there, and strong\ncosmopolitan attachments. The great river which sweeps in splendid curves\npast this city has compelled the streets to conform to some extent to\nits shores, but the consequence is a charming disposition of streets to\nboth those who hate crooked streets, and those who hate straight ones.\nThe town may be likened to the spokes of a wheel with streets laid\nout between the spokes in both directions, and conforming to them to\nsome extent. In front of the city stretches the great bank called the\nlevee, at the foot of which ride the majestic steamers which come from\nall portions of the Mississippi valley and are often like palaces in\ncardboard, and since the jetties have been made a success by Captain Eads\nand the United States engineers, you also see at New Orleans, riding\ncosily, the huge steamships from New York, Liverpool and Cuba. The chief\nmaritime lines from New York to Texas now stop at New Orleans and the\njourney is continued by rail. This great levee, which is an artificial\nhill thrown up to keep the river back, is lined with the sugar hogsheads\nand cotton bales of the South, with coal and iron, plows and stoves, kegs\nof nails, merchandise assembled from all parts of the globe, and massive\npresses driven by steam to further compress the bales of cotton and\nreduce them in bulk for shipment. A canal runs through the city, and its\nother termination is on Lake Pontchartrain. At the lake is a beautiful\nnew resort built in recent years, nearly as agreeable as Chautauqua Lake,\nand the peculiar Creole and negro cooking of New Orleans is to be found\nin perfection there, as well as at the Spanish fort, in the environs\nof the city. The shops of New Orleans are open to the air all winter\nlong, and art of a local nature is taking root there. Whatever the Gulf\nproduces is to be seen at the Creole capital, and a visit to it for even\na few days is the next thing to a trip to Europe.\n\n\n\n\nTHE UPPER CHAUTAUQUA.\n\nBY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\nThere is a Chautauqua further on. First, there is a lake level, and\njust above it is the level of the \u201cPoint,\u201d with its pleasant grass, its\nwinding walks, its old Auditorium, shaded and hallowed with memories\nthat have grown through multiplying years. The old cottages, and many\nof the old cottagers remain about this Auditorium\u2014reminders of the old\ntimes, and the oldest times, of Chautauqua, when the first vesper service\nannounced that \u201cThe Day Goeth Away,\u201d and the \u201cNearer My God to Thee,\u201d\nrang out under these forest arches. Who that was there can ever forget\nthat hour? The altars were aglow that night, and hearts on fire. It was\nan experiment, but from the first it was an assured success. The time\nwill come when the remaining sharers in that first feast in the evening\nlight will be very few, and the last of them will receive honor, and the\nchildren of Chautauqua will listen to their story as with quivering lips\nand kindling eye they speak about that first evening under the trees,\nthe words that broke the sacred silence, the songs that bore praise and\nwonder and joy to the heavens, and the friendships that were formed there\nnever to be broken.\n\nHow many who joined in the first Chautauqua service have already \u201cfallen\non sleep\u201d and gone out into a world sleepless and without nightfall,\nwhere, for vesper chant are substituted the hallelujahs of an eternal\nmorning.\n\nBut let us go up higher. Beyond the Point and Auditorium level are the\nterraces that run along the hillside, one above another, gardens and\ncottages, with pathways and winding roads, leading up under welcome\nshadows to a higher Chautauqua\u2014a long stretch of table-land crowned now\nwith Temple and Chapel, Pyramid, Museum and Hall of Philosophy, while\nbeyond, in the open fields toward the north we reach the highest point\nof our Assembly grounds, one of the highest on the lake. Thus from the\nlanding and the beginning of our journey we ascend from the lowest to the\nhighest, and find beauty, delight, pleasant welcomes and rewards all the\nway.\n\nThis study in the lay of the land which makes the physical Chautauqua is\nan allegory. There is an upper Chautauqua. And not all who visit the\nplace see it, and not all who become Chautauquans reach it.\n\nThe Chautauqua movement is progressive, and its friends and students\nare expected to make advancement in the line of its conceptions and\nprovisions. It has court beyond court in which it unfolds its progressive\naims and introduces its disciples to the higher privileges of culture\nwhich it provides. No fences or lines mark these successive stages. They\ndo not correspond with the topographical elevations, although we have\nfound in the one a figure or symbol of the other. But such gradation\nexists, and I shall point it out.\n\nI. THE ASSEMBLY\u2014Is the first point of approach to the true Chautauqua.\nIt is the outer court open to the whole world. It has no restraints upon\nthose who come, save those which are necessary to guarantee a financial\nsupport to the institution, and those rules of ordinary decorum which\nare essential to the quiet enjoyment and profit of those who pay their\ntribute and wait for the promised compensation. And this compensation\ncomes in lectures on the widest range of topics, from the \u201cPhilosophy\nof Locke and Berkeley\u201d to the light and cheery discussions about \u201cFools\nand their Folly.\u201d Concerts by gifted artists, characterizations by rare\nimpersonators, illustrations of life and manners in remote regions,\nby the aid of costumer and _tableaux vivants_, stories of travel,\nwith photographic accompaniments colored, magnified, and illuminated;\nsermons by able ministers, lessons by competent teachers, attractions\nfor lighthearted youth and wearied but rational age, in bonfires,\nprocessions, fireworks, illuminated fleets\u2014these are the features of\nthe outer court of Chautauqua for the entertainment, awakening, and\nbroadening of people who come with no far-reaching or serious purpose,\nbut who come to \u201chear\u201d and \u201csee\u201d and have \u201ca good time.\u201d They are simply\nrecipients. The will-power lies dormant, save as some stirring statement\nof lecture or sermon, or some unsyllabled passage in music opens the\nsoul to the worlds all about it replete with marvel, beauty and power.\nSo much for the outer Chautauqua. There are those who see this\u2014only this\nand nothing more. They come and go. They wonder why they and others\ncome, and yet they think they may come again\u2014but are not sure. They do\nnot forget Chautauqua, and they do not \u201cgo wild\u201d over it. They smile at\nother people, whom they call \u201cfanatics,\u201d because they are full of it, and\n\u201cbound to come again,\u201d and to \u201ccome every year,\u201d and always, and \u201cwould\nbe willing to live there.\u201d These have seen the Upper Chautauqua\u2014for\nbeyond the \u201cAssembly\u201d is\n\nII. THE CIRCLE.\u2014It is another court\u2014further in, and a little higher\nup\u2014with a white-pillared hall among the trees\u2014\u201cThe Hall in the Grove,\u201d\nabout which a book has been written, and in which songs are sung and\nweird services held, and where strange inspirations fall on people. For\nthose who belong to the Circle\u2014the \u201cC. L. S. C.\u201d as everybody calls\nit\u2014are advanced Chautauquans. They know why they come to the place. And\nthey know when to come. They keep a calendar, and they mark the feasts,\nand they know what to do when they are there. They seem at home. There\nare hosts of them\u2014all knowing each other, and apparently bound together\nby some secret association which has a mystic power. They wear badges on\ncertain days, badges of different styles and colors and legends. In all\nthis there is something singular and beautiful.\n\nThis \u201cCircle\u201d is a company of pledged readers in wide ranges of\nliterature. The \u201cAssembly\u201d contains people who listen. The \u201cCircle\u201d\nis made up of people who read. The \u201cAssembly\u201d covers a few weeks. The\n\u201cCircle\u201d casts its canopy over the year and the years. The \u201cAssembly\u201d is\nat Chautauqua. The \u201cCircle\u201d carries Chautauqua to the world\u2019s end\u2014to the\neast and to the west, to Canada, to Florida, to Scotland, to the Sandwich\nIslands, to India, and Japan, to Cape Colony\u2014everywhere.\n\nThe members of the \u201cCircle\u201d stand on a higher plane than the Assembly,\nbecause they put will into the work. They read what they ought, for\nmonths and years, everywhere, getting larger views of the world, and\nworthier views of life, and nobler views of the race, and of God the\nFather of all.\n\nThe \u201cCircle\u201d takes a wide sweep in the world of letters. Its themes\nare those of the college world. It puts the preparatory and college\ncurriculums into good, readable English, and helps people out of college\nto know what is going on there; what the young people study in history,\nlanguage, and literature; what authors they read, and what estimate is to\nbe placed on them and their work. It gives glimpses of science, physical\nand metaphysical\u2014pointing down to the rocks and up to the stars, and\nabout to the fields and seas and the forms of life in plant and animal.\nWhatever college boys study, the \u201cCircle\u201d provides in some form and\ndegree for parents to read, that home and college may be one in outlook\nand sympathy, in aim and delight. But there is something beyond.\n\nIII. THE INNER CIRCLE.\u2014Beyond the readers are the students\u2014those who\nhave completed the four years\u2019 reading in the \u201cCircle,\u201d and the members\nof the \u201cSociety of the Hall in the Grove;\u201d have filled out the various\nmemoranda; have certain seals on their C. L. S. C. diplomas, testifying\nto this fact, and to the reading of the additional books. These walk on\nthe higher levels. Their names are enrolled in the \u201cOrder of the White\nSeal.\u201d Their faces are turned toward the Upper Chautauqua.\n\nIt is possible that the members of the C. L. S. C. who walk in the\ninner circle may meet those who rank with them, although they have come\nhither by other routes\u2014through the \u201cChautauqua Teachers\u2019 Retreat,\u201d\nthe \u201cChautauqua Spare Minute Courses,\u201d and the \u201cChautauqua Assembly\nNormal Courses.\u201d As students, they all rejoice in the larger places of\nChautauqua. But there are heights beyond these heights.\n\n\u201cHearers,\u201d \u201creaders,\u201d \u201cstudent-readers,\u201d successively mark the three\nascending grades of the Chautauqua movement, as outlined in the\n\u201cAssembly,\u201d the \u201cCircle,\u201d and the \u201cInner Circle.\u201d Beyond these three\nstages, we come to\n\nIV. THE UNIVERSITY CIRCLE.\u2014Here are members of \u201cThe League of the Round\nTable,\u201d whose seven seals on the C. L. S. C. diploma entitle them to\nthis higher honor. Here, too, are advanced students in the \u201cChautauqua\nSchool of Languages;\u201d these walk in the outer courts and among the sacred\ncorridors adjoining the University itself. Chautauqua now means more than\never to them. The towers of the University rise above them. They ask why\nits doors may not open to them, and why they may not rejoice in work,\nreal work, with after-tests in genuine examinations, and after-honors in\ndiploma and degrees.\n\nSome remain in this goodly place, hearing the songs that float down from\nthe higher halls, enjoying converse with their fellows of the grander\ndegree, and encouraging other and younger and more vigorous companions to\ngo up and possess the land. Others knock at the door by the upper step,\nand as it opens, they enter the fifth and highest form of the Chautauqua\nmovement\u2014\n\nV. THE UNIVERSITY, with its schools, colleges, and _academiae_;\nits teachers and professors, its text-books and tasks, its rigid\nexaminations, and its promotions. Concerning the UNIVERSITY, I shall\nwrite later on.\n\n\n\n\nOUTLINE OF REQUIRED READINGS.\n\n\nFEBRUARY, 1885.\n\n_First Week_ (ending February 7).\u20141. \u201cCollege Greek Course,\u201d from page 83\nto 107.\n\n2. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapters I, II and III.\n\n3. \u201cHow to Help the Poor,\u201d from page 1 to 32.\n\n4. \u201cHow English Differs from other Languages,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for February 1, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Second Week_ (ending February 14).\u20141. \u201cCollege Greek Course,\u201d from page\n107 to 133.\n\n2. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapters IV and V.\n\n3. \u201cHow to Help the Poor,\u201d from page 32 to 66.\n\n4. \u201cTemperance Teachings of Science\u201d and \u201cHome Studies in Chemistry and\nPhysics,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for February 8, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Third Week_ (ending February 21).\u20141. \u201cCollege Greek Course,\u201d from page\n133 to 154.\n\n2. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapters VI and VII.\n\n3. \u201cHow to Help the Poor,\u201d from page 66 to 92.\n\n4. \u201cKitchen Science and Art,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for February 15, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Fourth Week_ (ending February 28).\u20141. \u201cCollege Greek Course,\u201d from page\n154 to 187.\n\n2. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapter VIII.\n\n3. \u201cHow to Help the Poor,\u201d from page 92 to 125.\n\n4. \u201cThe Circle of Sciences\u201d and \u201cHuxley on Science,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for February 22, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\n\n\nPROGRAMS FOR LOCAL CIRCLE WORK.\n\n\nFIRST WEEK IN FEBRUARY.\n\n1. Essay\u2014The Life of Plato.\n\n2. Selection\u2014\u201cTranslators of Homer.\u201d From the \u201cProse Writings of William\nCullen Bryant,\u201d vol. ii.\n\n3. Fifteen minutes\u2019 talk on Home Decoration.\n\n4. Select Reading\u2014Extracts from the Life of Pericles, found in \u201cThe Young\nFolks\u2019 Plutarch.\u201d\n\nMusic.\n\n5. Essay\u2014Lavoisier and the Phlogiston Theory\n\n[In the \u201cHistory of the Inductive Sciences,\u201d by Whewell, a good reference\nwill be found.]\n\n6. What we have all seen (mentally, perhaps,) at New Orleans this week.\n[Reports being made by each one of what he has read, heard or witnessed.]\n\n7. Report of Critic, who is to be appointed at the beginning of the\nevening, and who is to note and correct all mistakes.\n\n\nMONTHLY PROGRAM.\n\n1. Roll call\u2014Quotations from \u00c6schylus, taken from the \u201cCollege Greek\nCourse.\u201d\n\n2. Essay\u2014Socrates.\n\n3. Select Reading\u2014\u201cValentine\u2019s Day.\u201d By Charles Lamb. [Found in his\n\u201cElia.\u201d]\n\nMusic.\n\n4. A General Talk on Huxley and his Teachings. [Let each one come\nprepared to read or tell something about him.]\n\n5. Essay\u2014The Greek Drama.\n\n6. Debate\u2014Resolved, that it is wrong to feed tramps.\n\n\nFOUNDER\u2019S DAY\u2014FEBRUARY 23.\n\n    \u201cHe tried the luxury of doing good.\u201d\n\nMusic.\n\n1. Roll-call\u2014Quotations on the Companionship of Books.\n\n2. Essay\u2014New Departures in Education.\n\n[Reference can be made to Pestalozzi, Froebel, Col. Parker, and others.]\n\nMusic.\n\n3. Recitation\u2014Alone with My Conscience.\n\n[Found in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for October, 1884.]\n\n4. A Paper on the Chautauqua Institutions.\n\nMusic.\n\n5. Select Reading\u2014Proper Method of Employing Time. By Addison.\n\n6. A _Conversazione_\u2014Subject: What Chautauqua has done for me. [Entered\ninto informally by all members of the circle.]\n\nMusic.\n\n\nLONGFELLOW\u2019S DAY\u2014FEBRUARY 27.\n\n    \u201cHigh as our hearts he stood.\u201d\n\n1. Roll call\u2014Quotations from Longfellow.\n\n2. Let several members who have been appointed beforehand give brief\naccounts of different periods of the poet\u2019s life, such as: His early\nlife, his years in college, his life as a college professor, his travels\nabroad, his literary work, his home in the Craigie House, and his love\nfor children.\n\nMusic.\n\n3. Recitation\u2014\u201cThe Hanging of the Crane.\u201d\n\n4. Select Reading\u2014Extracts from \u201cOutre-Mer.\u201d\n\nMusic.\n\n5. Essay\u2014Longfellow\u2019s Characteristics as a Writer.\n\n6. Recitation\u2014\u201cThe Poet and the Children.\u201d By John G. Whittier.\n\n7. A Paper\u2014The Tributes to Longfellow by Eminent Men and Women.\n\n8. An analytical study of the poem \u201cSandalphon.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA delightful Longfellow entertainment may be arranged from \u201cEvangeline\u201d\nor \u201cMiles Standish.\u201d The poem chosen should be carefully cut so as not to\nrequire more than an hour for reading. Let a good reader be chosen, and\nas he reads let the most picturesque and striking passages be represented\nby tableaux.\n\nHelp in preparing programs for Longfellow\u2019s Day may be found in the\nfollowing articles: _The Century_, June, 1882, \u201cHenry Wadsworth\nLongfellow,\u201d poem; _The Century_, October, 1883, \u201cLongfellow;\u201d _The\nCentury_, November, 1878, \u201cHenry Wadsworth Longfellow;\u201d Allibone\u2019s\n\u201cDictionary of Authors;\u201d Griswold, \u201cPoets and Poetry of America;\u201d\nDuyckinck, \u201cCyclop\u00e6dia of American Literature,\u201d vol. ii.; _North American\nReview_, January 1840, July 1842, July 1845, and January 1848; _Fraser\u2019s\nMagazine_, March 1848; _British Quarterly Review_ for January and\nApril 1864; _The Literary World_, vol. xii., No. 5; \u201cHomes of American\nAuthors,\u201d by George William Curtis; \u201cAmerican Classics for Schools,\u201d vol.\ni; \u201cLongfellow Leaflets\u201d\u2014these convenient little slips have been prepared\nfor schools, but will be found very useful for large circles. They may be\nhad of Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, Mass.\n\n\n\n\nLOCAL CIRCLES.\n\n\nC. L. S. C. MOTTOES.\n\n\u201c_We Study the Word and the Works of God._\u201d\u2014\u201c_Let us keep our Heavenly\nFather in the Midst._\u201d\u2014\u201c_Never be Discouraged._\u201d\n\n\nC. L. S. C. MEMORIAL DAYS.\n\n    1. OPENING DAY\u2014October 1.\n\n    2. BRYANT DAY\u2014November 3.\n\n    3. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014November, second Sunday.\n\n    4. MILTON DAY\u2014December 9.\n\n    5. COLLEGE DAY\u2014January, last Thursday.\n\n    6. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014February, second Sunday.\n\n    7. FOUNDER\u2019S DAY\u2014February 23.\n\n    8. LONGFELLOW DAY\u2014February 27.\n\n    9. SHAKSPERE DAY\u2014April 23.\n\n    10. ADDISON DAY\u2014May 1.\n\n    11. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014May, second Sunday.\n\n    12. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014July, second Sunday.\n\n    13. INAUGURATION DAY\u2014August, first Saturday after first\n    Tuesday; anniversary of C. L. S. C. at Chautauqua.\n\n    14. ST. PAUL\u2019S DAY\u2014August, second Saturday after first Tuesday;\n    anniversary of the dedication of St. Paul\u2019s Grove at Chautauqua.\n\n    15. COMMENCEMENT DAY\u2014August, third Tuesday.\n\n    16. GARFIELD DAY\u2014September 19.\n\nOne of the most profitable half hours of the local circle evening is\nthat spent in general conversation on a particular topic. It furnishes\na practice which is of incalculable value. At the same time it is not\npossible to put a number on a program of which it is more difficult to\nmake a perfect success. Of course many circles have learned the art of\ntalking. At SHILOH, N. Y., the \u201cAtlantic\u201d circle of sixteen members, a\nbusy, prosperous organization, to introduce variety into their programs,\noften hold a \u201cmeeting of informal conversation,\u201d but very many of us can\nnot succeed. At the root of our trouble lies that totally false idea\nthat the ability to converse is the gift of a few. When leaders suggest\na _conversazione_ the difficulties presented seem almost insurmountable.\nThe members contend that they can not talk; they will not try; they urge\nthat while history and science make excellent studies, they are too\n\u201cheavy\u201d for conversation; they fly the subject and intrude a chit-chat\nwhich totally destroys serious conversation. Some time ago we saw\nsuccessfully tried in a circle of about twenty members, the following\nmethod for cultivating conversation: The subject was introduced by the\nleader in a brief and earnest talk. He showed the barrenness of ideas\nand the lack of fine and exact expression in our social converse. He\nurged the possibility and the duty of every one becoming an entertaining\ntalker. An interest was thoroughly aroused, and a vote was carried by\nthe society to devote a half hour to talking on subjects suggested by\nthe C. L. S. C. readings. Each member promised to confine himself to\nthe subject, to come prepared to follow the whole subject, and to give\nparticular items on certain points. Members were bound to ask questions,\nto look up pictures to illustrate, anecdotes to enliven and wise words\nto enforce the points brought out. They learned to talk, and to talk on\nworthy subjects. Their experience soon grew to be a little like that\nwhich happened to a member of the HOLLISTER, CALIFORNIA, circle. A lady\nmeeting her, remarked: \u201cI am getting jealous of those Chautauquans, for\nif two of them meet they can talk of nothing but those old Greeks.\u201d\nOur friends grew to talk so well that a lady, applying for admission,\nsaid: \u201cI want to join your society, for it seems to me that a society\nwhich inspires so much intelligent conversation must be very valuable.\u201d\nEvery circle of the C. L. S. C. which has had experience in this work\nshould lend to others its ideas and suggestions. But now let us turn\nto something which is much easier to chat over than are methods for\nimproving ourselves in conversation\u2014our circles.\n\nNOVA SCOTIA gives no hint in its report from the HALIFAX C. L. S. C.\nof the bleakness which we usually associate with its stormy northern\ncoast. This Halifax circle announces itself in a flourishing condition,\nwith a regular membership of fifteen and with twenty or thirty regular\nattendants. The growth of the work in Nova Scotia is apparent to them and\nthey look for an addition of many members soon. Already the number of\nmembers in Nova Scotia is nearly double that of last year.\n\nAt the extreme eastern point of MAINE, in the pretty village of LUBEC,\nthe \u201cPansies\u201d have taken root. The busy little \u201cQuoddy\u201d circle of eight\nmembers forms the nucleus around which, we trust, will collect a future\nlegion of as interested members as are our present friends.\u2014\u2014Another\nPine-Tree state town, BROWNFIELD, has a circle reading its third year\u2019s\ncourse. It would be difficult, they think, to find more enthusiastic\nworkers.\u2014\u2014On the southern point of the beautiful Moosehead Lake, in the\ntown of GREENVILLE, a circle of \u201cPlymouth Rocks\u201d was founded in November,\n1884. The class express increasing interest in their readings, and are\nconfident of a large growth in numbers during the year. The \u201cNorth Star\u201d\nis the pretty name they have chosen for their circle.\n\nNEW HAMPSHIRE sends two year-old circles to our columns this month.\nOne from TILTON reorganized last fall with twenty-four members. They\nmeet fortnightly and remember all the memorial days. May their name,\n\u201cWinnipisaukee,\u201d prove auspicious, and the \u201csmile of the Great Spirit\u201d\nbe ever with them.\u2014\u2014The \u201cSt. Paul\u201d circle, which was organized in the\nfall of 1883, at MANCHESTER, N. H., but not reported to THE CHAUTAUQUAN,\nwas reorganized last fall with a membership of thirty-seven. They have\nin the circle twenty-one of the class of \u201988, while only five are of the\nclass of \u201987\u2014a proof that the \u201cChautauqua Idea\u201d is growing in favor. They\nprepare interesting programs consisting of essays, readings, talks, etc.\nAlso, they use the \u201cChautauqua Songs,\u201d and find them a great help.\n\nThe circle at PLAINFIELD, VERMONT, consists of fourteen hard working\nmembers and is in its first year. They find great enjoyment in their\nreading. Last November, the loss by death of one of their most active and\nloved members, Mrs. F. A. Drinell, threw a shadow over their circle, but\nthey have persisted in their work.\u2014\u2014To the numbers of pretty programs\nwhich have come to our table has been added a neatly painted one from\nRUTLAND, VT., a souvenir of the Milton Memorial Reception held by the\n\u201cAlpha\u201d branch of the C. L. S. C. This entertainment was very highly\ncomplimented by the local press.\n\nA member of the \u201cMizpah\u201d circle of NEW BEDFORD, MASS., pays a very high\ncompliment to the character of that circle\u2019s work. He writes that he has\nlearned more of Greek history and literature in the four meetings which\ntheir circle had held when he wrote, than in all the time he gave last\nyear to solitary study. Certainly the circle must be accomplishing its\ndesign of doing \u201csolid work.\u201d Nor are their numbers, though but six,\na drawback. A small circle, if perfectly congenial, has some strong\nadvantages.\u2014\u2014Last month EAST WEYMOUTH, MASS., reported the circle which\nhas had such a vigorous growth this year. Now we hear of a new circle\nin the sister city of SOUTH WEYMOUTH, and very soon we may hope to do\nsomething more than formally introduce our new friend.\u2014\u2014The \u201cParker\nHill\u201d local circle, of BOSTON, organized in September, 1883, has become\nso much interested in the circles which month after month send their\ngreetings and their suggestions to THE CHAUTAUQUAN\u2019S columns, that it\njoins our number. Very glad we are to present it\u2014the only circle, so\nfar as we remember, composed entirely of young men. Thirteen of them\nform this club, all of them connected with the Highland Congregational\nChurch, of which the Rev. A. E. Dunning, the honored president of the\n\u201cPlymouth Rocks,\u201d has been pastor. A particularly happy suggestion, it\nseems to us, is contained in a special feature of their program. They\nrequire each member to suggest at each meeting, in writing, some subject\nfor the next meeting\u2019s program. These suggestions being read by the\npresident, the circle selects from them a sufficient number of topics to\noccupy the allotted time. The subjects are then assigned to the various\nmembers.\u2014\u2014From two other Massachusetts circles come pleasant letters. One\nfrom CAPE COD says: \u201cWe call ourselves the \u2018Seaside\u2019 circle, and our name\nis very appropriate, for \u2018the sea\u2019 lies both east and south of us. We are\nlocated in the \u2018elbow\u2019 of the \u2018right arm\u2019 of Massachusetts, and scarce\nan hour in our lives passes that we do not feel the invigorating breezes\nof the Atlantic Ocean. At present we number fourteen regular and three\nlocal members, one \u201985, four \u201987s, and the rest \u201988s. Our enthusiasm is\ngreat, and, as is the experience of every local circle, increases with\nevery meeting.\u201d\u2014\u2014And another from FALMOUTH: \u201cOur \u2018Neptune\u2019 circle is\nprosperously started this year with twenty-three active members. We are\nencouraged, as this is more than double our last year\u2019s membership. We\ntry to keep the line of study for each evening separate, one evening\nbeing devoted to science, another to Greek. Last week we took up the\n\u2018Iliad,\u2019 different members giving five-minute sketches of its gods and\nheroes. At other meetings we have had successful experiments in carbon\nand hydrogen. Our local badges bear the letters C. L. S. C., with the\ntrident, the symbol of our circle.\u201d With this letter the writer sends a\nbit of experience which is very interesting. \u201cLast summer,\u201d she writes,\n\u201cwhile visiting the \u2018Morning Star,\u2019 as she lay at the wharf before\nstarting on her noble life work, I found the C. L. S. C. books in the\ncaptain\u2019s library. I never before so fully realized the bond of sympathy\nbetween Chautauquans. Mrs. Bray, the captain\u2019s wife, told me that she and\nher husband belonged to the class of \u201985. They take the readings together\nwhile far out on the deep.\u201d\n\nCONNECTICUT has a goodly array of items for the month. NORWICH sends us\nseveral of its capital programs; peculiarly attractive is the one for\nMilton\u2019s Day.\u2014\u2014BRISTOL reports a circle of twenty-four members, organized\nin October last, and boasts, most justly, of ten school teachers in\nits ranks. All the regular work arranged for circles they have been\nperforming, and report most pleasant special meetings on Bryant and\nMilton Days.\u2014\u2014WINSTED has sent us a New Year greeting. A happy circle\nthey are, with their enormous membership of sixty-one members, and \u201cnot\none lazy one in our ranks,\u201d the secretary writes.\u2014\u2014At NEW BRITAIN the\nMilton Day service was very pleasant. The professor of English literature\nin the State Normal School gave a talk on Milton, and the evening closed\nwith a question match.\n\nThe plan of reviewing each work read has been adopted at BRISTOL, R. I.\nAn unusually interesting review was prepared on the \u201cArt of Speech.\u201d The\nepitome which the writer gives of the opening chapter will not only be\ninteresting, it may serve to disentangle some one\u2019s ideas on the puzzling\ngrowth of English:\n\n    With Chapter first our toil begins,\n    \u2019Tis like a penance for our sins\n        To try to read it over.\n    We read it once, we read it twice,\n    With close attention read it thrice,\n        Its meaning to discover.\n\n    We find, at last, that English speech\n    Through long succeeding years, doth reach\n        Back to primeval ages.\n    From Aryan root it sprang at first\u2014\n    How long ago, tell us who durst\u2014\n        And grew by easy stages.\n\n    Teutonic trunk and German branch\n    And Saxon twig grew strong and stanch,\n        And Norman foliage crowned it;\n    From Latin grafts it gained new strength\n    And from Greek scions, too, at length\n        Grew thrifty leaves around it.\n\n    The fruits upon the wondrous tree,\n    If we should test, we soon should see\n        Have many foreign flavors.\n    From Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese,\n    Italian, Indian, and Chinese,\n        Have they derived their savors.\n\nThe \u201cKnowledge Seekers,\u201d of JAMESTOWN, R. I., form a new circle. Until\nthis year they were a branch of the local circle in NEWPORT, but as six\nmembers were added they have formed a circle of their own.\u2014\u2014\u201cPawcatuck\u201d\nlocal circle, of the \u201988 class, C. L. S. C., was organized September\n23, 1884, in the village of CAROLINA, a small manufacturing place in\nsouthern Rhode Island. The circle has now twenty-four members and meets\nweekly. Considering the fact that there are only about 375 inhabitants\nin the place, in all, and that fully one half of this number are mill\noperatives, the size of the circle is remarkable. The members are all\nthoroughly interested in the work, and are taking hold of it in a very\ncommendable manner.\n\nFrom all directions throughout NEW YORK STATE good news of growing\ncircles reaches us. Away up north, in JEFFERSON COUNTY, in the village of\nADAMS, there has been organized \u201ca real live C. L. S. C.\u201d It is modeled\non the broad Chautauquan platform, and has three churches represented\nin its officers. The program of their Bryant Memorial Day exercises was\na model of happily chosen selections, and we learn from the columns of\ntheir local paper that it was as happily rendered.\u2014\u2014A very profitable\nplan of assigning subjects is followed at KINGSTON, N. Y., in their\ncircle of seven members. Each member is given, at the beginning of the\nyear, a subject from the C. L. S. C. readings, to which he devotes his\nentire attention; thus our correspondent writes that during last year\nshe furnished outlines and questions upon the subject of \u201cArt,\u201d and that\nthis year her theme is \u201cKitchen Science and Art.\u201d We like the plan.\u2014\u2014In\nthe pleasant town of MOUNT KISCO, not far from New York City, there\nis a circle which dates back to a public meeting in the interests of\nthe C. L. S. C. held by one of the pastors of the town, in the fall of\n1882. A thriving circle of the class of 1886 still exists there. Their\nplan of work is very comprehensive, including Chautauqua music, general\ndiscussions, essays and social observance of the special days.\u2014\u2014The\nITHACA, N. Y., C. L. S. C. has a membership of forty-six of the classes\nof \u201985, \u201986, \u201987 and \u201988. The meetings, held bi-monthly, are full of life\nand interest. They observe memorial days generally. One of their most\nactive members has moved to CAZENOVIA, N. Y., Mrs. Rev. H. F. Spencer,\nvice president. She writes: \u201cOur circle, here, is in embryo\u2014think\nhow prosy to come down to a circle of three or four.\u201d\u2014\u2014The NEWFIELD\ncircle of fifteen members was organized last fall, and held their\nmeetings every Friday evening. Their president, the Rev. W. H. Rogers,\nis a graduate of the class of \u201982.\u2014\u2014In an interesting letter from the\npresident of a circle at BINGHAMTON, N. Y., we have found some very good\nhints. He says: \u201cHere in Binghamton our circle numbers twenty. We call\nourselves the \u2018F. F. F.\u2019 circle, from our motto: \u2018Fortiter, fideliter,\nfeliciter\u2019\u2014bravely, faithfully, successfully. Two things our programs\nall include: First, devotional exercises, remembering that \u2018we study the\n_Word_\u2019 as well as \u2018the works of God.\u2019 We use the Chautauqua hymns, all\nsinging together and greatly enjoy it. Secondly, roll call. This is one\nof our most interesting exercises. We respond by quotations from one or\nmore authors, specially designated for the evening, and keep a record of\nevery quotation given. In this way we are compiling what promises to be\na very interesting book of choice quotations. Our members are very much\nin earnest, and every meeting finds them all present.\u201d\u2014\u2014The history of\none of the circles at OLEAN, N. Y., has been sent us by its secretary:\n\u201cThe \u2018Whitney\u2019 circle (Baptist) was so named in honor of the venerable\nDr. Whitney, one of the fathers of the First Baptist Church. This circle\nwas organized in the fall of 1883, with a membership of thirty. This\nfall we have reorganized, with a membership that bids fair to double\nthat of last year. Each member, in alphabetical order, takes part in the\nexercises, and are nearly all active workers. Our meetings open with the\n\u2018Chautauqua Songs,\u2019 followed by the roll call, each member answering with\nan apt quotation from the readings. Our program then consists of a drill\non subjects gone over in the readings for the past two weeks. Two essays,\non subjects in harmony with the readings, are read each evening. We also\nhave interesting scientific experiments conducted by Dr. S. J. Mudge, a\nscientist of this city. We have introduced a novel feature called the\n\u2018Tug of War,\u2019 in which sides are chosen in spelling-down style, and\nquestions asked on a book which has been completed. Guesses at the Greek\nalphabet and Greek words are also features of our programs. We also\nobserve some of the memorial days. Last summer our superintendent, the\nRev. MacClymont, secured Chancellor Vincent to lecture for us. We invited\nthe M. E. circle, and had a splendid lecture. Taken altogether, we may\nsay our circle is in a prosperous and flourishing condition.\u201d\n\nThe KEYSTONE STATE is in no way behind New England and its EMPIRE\nneighbor this month in reports. From CONNELSVILLE, on the banks of the\nYoughiogheny, comes a hearty greeting to all C. L. S. C. classmates.\nIt is from the sturdy \u201cSpartans,\u201d of the class of \u201988. The circle,\norganized on Opening Day, numbered at its start twenty-four members.\nThe \u201cAthenian\u201d circle of \u201986 and the \u201cPansy\u201d circle of \u201987 proposed a\nconsolidation of forces; so large was the circle that a public meeting\nplace was necessary. The best talent of the city is in the circle, and\nto belong to its rank is a good recommendation wherever the circle is\nknown.\u2014\u2014At MOUNT PLEASANT, PA., a circle was formed in October consisting\nof fifty-one members, all but four of which belong to the class of \u201988.\nThey promise us a full report when fairly started in their work.\u2014\u2014A\nfriend at VERONA, PA., writes: \u201cOur name is the \u2018Verona Resolutes,\u2019 our\nage two months, our number fifteen. We owe our existence to the fact\nthat three of our new members attended Chautauqua Lake Assembly, and one\nMountain Lake Park Assembly, where they caught the C. L. S. C. fever,\nand upon returning home spread the disease until fifteen are found upon\nthe fever list. We are enjoying it, though, and hope our recovery will\nbe slow, if _recovery_ means loss of interest.\u201d\u2014\u2014WEST PHILADELPHIA has\na new circle\u2014the \u201cParsonage\u201d circle. They number six and promise to try\nto increase their list. No doubt their efforts will succeed, the present\ncircle being due to the efforts of three members who last year read\nalone.\u2014\u2014The _Elizabeth Herald_, of ELIZABETH, PA., contained recently\nthe following pleasant notice of the circle in that town: \u201cCHAUTAUQUA\nCIRCLE.\u2014This flourishing institution is pursuing a course of study and\nresearch and enjoying an exchange of ideas, which is a veritable reveling\nin intellectual and social pleasures, unknown to many of the community\nwhose congenial tastes and capabilities would, if properly directed\nand cultured, lead them to a sharing of these delights, so far above\nthe frivolities too common to young life. For instance, at the regular\nmeeting of this week, in addition to the regular quiz and discussion of\nthe set topics, the Milton Memorial Day was observed with services of\nan appropriate nature. The evening was a most pleasant one throughout,\nand after the regular program was concluded the members, loth to leave,\nremained, singing and talking in pleasant, informal fashion, for some\ntime.\u201d\u2014\u2014We are pleased to notice here, a kindly compliment to the\npresident of the flourishing circle of thirty at WASHINGTON, Professor\nLyon, of Washington and Jefferson College. Our friend says of him: \u201cIn\nour studies in chemistry, etc., we have the benefit of his knowledge and\nskill, and obliging disposition, for he always carries from the college\nto our rooms the apparatus needed for explanation and experiment.\u201d This\ncircle held a \u201csociable\u201d on the evening of December 11th, each member\ninviting a friend. It was an enjoyable affair and may be the means of\nadding members.\u2014\u2014In kind remembrance of Mary Vincent, the mother of\nChancellor Vincent, the members of the C. L. S. C. at PETERSBURG, PA.\nhave named their circle the \u201cMary Vincent\u201d circle\u2014a peculiarly fitting\ntribute, Mrs. Vincent having been well known and deeply honored by many\nChautauquans in that vicinity.\n\nThe CINCINNATI, OHIO, members of the S. H. G. held their yearly reception\nto the new class, in the pleasant parlor of the First Presbyterian\nChurch, in October. The \u201cIrrepressibles\u201d were right royally received. The\npresident of the society, Mr. J. G. O\u2019Connell, welcomed the class into\nthe society. The following were the toasts, to which hearty responses\nwere given: \u201cThe Class of \u201982;\u201d \u201cClass of \u201983;\u201d \u201cClass of \u201984;\u201d \u201cThe\nFounder of the C. L. S. C.\u2014Chancellor J. H. Vincent;\u201d \u201cChautauqua, the\nMecca of the C. L. S. C.;\u201d \u201cCincinnati Circles;\u201d \u201cChautauqua Music.\u201d The\nmusical part of the program was unusually fine. The collation was a part\nof the program in which every one present took part. The following are\nthe officers for the ensuing year: President, Mr. J. G. O\u2019Connell, \u201982:\nvice presidents: Class of \u201982, Mrs. M. J. Pyle; class of \u201983, Mrs. I. W.\nJoyce; class of \u201984, Miss Sarah Trotter; recording secretary, Miss Julia\nKolbe; corresponding secretary, Mr. M. S. Turrill; treasurer, Miss Selina\nWood. The society separated brimful of enthusiasm for the success of the\nC. L. S. C. Bryant\u2019s Day was celebrated by the Cincinnati circles at the\nThird Presbyterian Church. Mr. S. Logan presided. Among the excellent\nthings on the program were an essay on W. C. Bryant, by Mr. J. A.\nJohnson, a piano solo by Miss Belle Burnham, and a recitation, \u201cWaiting\nby the Gate,\u201d by Miss Nellie Allan. A union vesper service was held by\nthe circles at Grace M. P. Church, on the Special Sunday, November 9th.\nThe service was conducted by the Rev. Mr. Spohr, of Grace Church, and Dr.\nRidgeway, of Mount Auburn, gave a very fine address upon \u201cPraise.\u201d This\nbeing the \u201cGreek\u201d year in the C. L. S. C. course, the various circles\nhave added to their names that letter of the Greek alphabet which will\nindicate their rank in order of organization.\u2014\u2014The local circle of MOUNT\nPLEASANT, OHIO, came into existence in October of 1883. The circle has\nthe usual officers, and meets twice a month at the homes of the members.\nThe enrollment is nineteen, with a large average attendance. They have\nlocal talent enlisted, and the meetings are instructive and interesting.\nThe work of 1883 and 1884 was thoroughly accomplished.\n\nOne new circle enters the list this month from FRIENDSWOOD, IND. It\nis formed of twelve members\u2014enthusiastic and brave they must be, for\nthey report themselves as living in the country several miles apart.\nNot only are they overcoming the difficulty of regular meetings under\nthese circumstances, they are contemplating enlisting others in their\nwork.\u2014\u2014Another zealous INDIANA circle is at CORYDON. It is a year old,\nand believes itself to have done better work than any other circle in the\ncountry, an assertion that their method warrants, for they have adopted\nthe novel plan of a C. L. S. C. school, where one member is appointed to\nhear the lesson and every other comes prepared to recite. Our Corydon\nfriends gave a delightful Milton reception to over thirty guests.\u2014\u2014The\nC. L. S. C. local circle of FORT WAYNE began its fifth year\u2019s work on\nGarfield Day\u2014officers were elected, and seventeen new members added.\nThe subjects under consideration are conducted in a conversational\nmanner. One evening was devoted to chemistry, with highly interesting\nand successful experiments given by the leader, who is professor of\nscience at the M. E. College. They have held one \u201cSunday Evening Vesper\nService,\u201d which proved such an inspiration that they purpose having more.\n\u201cAt the age of five years,\u201d they write, \u201cwe are truly \u2018Irrepressible,\u2019\n\u2018Invincible,\u2019 and as firm and steady as old Plymouth Rock itself.\u201d\nAltogether \u201cwe are a live and enthusiastic circle, possessed with the\ntrue \u2018Chautauqua Idea.\u2019\u201d\n\nA letter received from a lady well known to readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN,\nMrs. E. J. Bugbee, says of a circle lately started at EVANSTON, ILL.: \u201cI\nam happy to report from this glorious Athens of the West a flourishing\ncircle of the C. L. S. C., organized on the first Monday evening in\nNovember, and numbering now between forty and fifty members. We have\nstarted out with an enthusiasm which we hope will not abate, and indeed\nwe do not expect it to do so under our present fortunate leadership.\nWe have for president Mr. Weeden A. Sawyer, of this place. He presides\nwith dignity and ease, and carries forward the business of the circle\nwith promptness and dispatch. We are also happy in our instructor, the\nRev. F. Clatworthy, pastor of the Baptist church of Evanston, who shows\nwonderful adaptation for this work, and is heartily in sympathy with\nthe Chautauqua Idea, and endeavors closely to follow out the plan for\nlocal circles.\u201d\u2014\u2014At HINSDALE, ILL., a circle was organized in the fall\nof 1882. The circle was conducted in a very informal manner, having but\none officer\u2014secretary\u2014\u201ceach member taking her turn as leader, and our\nexercises were merely the discussions of the past week\u2019s reading. In the\nfall of 1883 we again organized, this time admitting gentlemen, electing\na president and secretary, and taking to ourselves a name, \u2018The Alpha\nChautauqua Circle.\u2019 Our membership increased to eighteen. Meeting every\nMonday evening, our exercises were the same as during the preceding year.\nWe celebrated three of the memorial days, which proved not only pleasant\nand interesting, but very instructive. This last fall our Chautauquans\nwere so enthusiastic that the first meeting was called for September\n4th. We reorganized with only nine members; since then have admitted two\nmore. If it can be possible, our work this year seems more interesting\nthan ever. We continue to meet weekly, and have now decided to take one\ntext-book, or one month\u2019s reading in THE CHAUTAUQUAN at a time, finishing\none subject before taking up another; thinking thereby to obtain a better\nunderstanding of the same. Shall also use the questions and answers in\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN, said lessons to be conducted the same as a spelling\nmatch. The members respond to the roll call with appropriate quotations,\nthus far from Greek authors. We have been too busy to observe the\nmemorial days this year, otherwise than by quotations from the author in\nquestion. Two of our circle are members of the \u2018Pansy\u2019 class. One of our\nnumber graduated last year, who is now an honorary member of the local\ncircle, acting as critic; and we shall have one graduate this year.\u201d\n\nA genuine proof of good work is this bit of experience from TECUMSEH,\nMICH.: \u201cAt the beginning of this year,\u201d the president writes, \u201cwe members\nof \u201986 reviewed thoroughly our Greek history for the benefit of those\nof our circle belonging to the classes of \u201987 and \u201988. We were highly\ngratified with the proficiency of the class of \u201986. How well we remember\ntwo years ago the despondency of many of the members at the hard Greek\nwords, and now they pronounce them with ease and fluency. Any one would\nhave been convinced of the benefits of the C. L. S. C. who could have\nlistened to those reviews of Greek history.\u201d\u2014\u2014The Bryant memorial was\nvery pleasantly observed by the local circle of ESCANABA, MICH. Mrs. W.\nH. Tibbals, \u201986, invited the members to dinner at 6 o\u2019clock. Nine of the\nmembers were present. After the repast, at which each member present\nreceived as a souvenir a pallet painted by the hostess, the literary\nfeast was enjoyed. Select reading, \u201cEarly Life of the Author;\u201d selection,\n\u201cThe Rivulet;\u201d selection, \u201cThe Autumn Woods;\u201d essay, Bryant and his\nContemporaries; selection, \u201cThe Planting of the Apple Tree;\u201d selection,\n\u201cThe Crowded Street;\u201d essay, Bryant, the Poet; analytical study of the\n\u201cWest Wind;\u201d questions prepared by the president.\n\nSad news and a beautiful tribute to the C. L. S. C. come to us from\nWAUPAN, WIS., whence the secretary writes: \u201cOur C. L. S. C. opens this\nyear with added enthusiasm in its membership, and an increasing number.\nThe Bryant Memorial Day was observed in a fitting manner by sentiments,\nreadings, discussion, and a biographical sketch, all bearing upon the\ngreat poet. The selections and topics were in accord with our feelings,\nas we had just met with our first loss since organizing five years ago,\nin the death of one of our youngest and brightest members, Mrs. Jennie\nWeed Hinkley. As we review the life of our beloved sister, we can see\na symmetry and beauty of character that needed no further lights and\nshades. Our studies make us better mothers and housekeepers, better\nable to take our places in the prayer meeting, better able to guide our\nchildren, and to understand the work they do in the school room.\u201d\u2014\u2014The\n\u201cPansy\u201d class of SPARTA, WIS., also sends its greetings to all the\nmembers of the People\u2019s College. A friend telling the story of the\ncircle says: \u201cOur little Spartan class passed through the first year\nof its existence without a break in the circle, and profiting by the\nfavorable circumstances, observed among others, Shakspere Memorial Day\nwith more than the ordinary preparation, closing with a basket picnic,\nserved at the house of one of the members. This year, however, sickness\nhas overtaken two of the members, and one still remains an invalid;\nnevertheless, our progress has been steady. We have observed Bryant\u2019s and\nMilton\u2019s Days by interesting exercises.\u201d\n\nThe C. L. S. C. is coming well to the front this year in ST. PAUL, MINN.\nThe year was begun by a lecture from Dr. Vincent on Monday evening,\nOctober 6th, on the \u201cChautauqua Idea.\u201d This aroused the enthusiasm of\nthe old Chautauquans and brought in a large addition of new members.\nOn Thursday evening, October 23d, the \u201cPioneer\u201d circle was reorganized\nwith nineteen members, which have since become twenty-five. On Monday\nevening, November 3d (Bryant Day), the \u201cCanadian American\u201d circle was\nformed, with ten members. There have been at least four other circles\nformed, with a membership of about eighty. On the evening of November\n27th, Thanksgiving night, the \u201cPioneer\u201d circle held its regular meeting\nin the parlors of the First M. E. Church. All the other circles in the\ncity were represented, about eighty persons being present. Among the\nother visitors they were delighted to welcome Prof. J. L. Corning, of\nOcean Grove, N. J., a name well known to all Chautauquans. His address\non the C. L. S. C. at Ocean Grove and the Chautauqua University was both\ninstructive and enjoyable. The program was in celebration of both Bryant\nand Thanksgiving Days, and included essays on Bryant\u2019s life and works and\nthe origin of Thanksgiving day, with selections from Bryant\u2019s works and\nThanksgiving day poems. Altogether the evening was a very pleasant one.\nThey are making arrangements for forming a central circle somewhat after\nthe plan of the Toronto central circle and the Troy circle.\n\nThree new circles are reported this month from IOWA. At WAPELLO a circle\nof five members; at PARKERSBURG one of nine members; and at ELVIRA, one\nof ten. Each reports the work as a delightful revelation, and expresses\nthe hope that they may be able to largely increase their numbers.\u2014\u2014In\nthe fall of 1883 a circle was organized in MISSOURI VALLEY, IOWA. It\nconsisted of some fifteen members, some of whom, for want of time, failed\nto do the reading. During the past year a number of the members left the\ntown, one of whom\u2014President Sabine\u2014graduated in the class of 1884. Though\nthe class is scattered, several are doing the reading.\n\nWe are always particularly glad to hear from the BLUE GRASS STATE,\nperhaps because our friends there have not sent us frequent reports. This\nmonth a friend writes of the circle at HARDENSBURG: \u201cThe C. L. S. C. of\nthis place is prosecuting its work with unabating energy and zeal. We\norganized early in September, with eighteen members, that we might be\nentirely ready for Opening Day. However, there was so much severe illness\nin our town, and especially among some of the friends of our circle, that\nit was late in the Circle year before we did anything more toward having\na meeting. When at last through the Father\u2019s providence we were permitted\nto meet again, we found that nearly every member had \u2018read up\u2019 to date.\nWe meet on Tuesday evening of each week and carry out the program as\nfurnished for each week in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. We keep each memorial day.\u201d\n\nAnother Southern state to report is LOUISIANA. From LAKE PROVIDENCE this\nletter comes: \u201cWe have twenty-two members between fifteen and twenty-one\nyears old. We meet once a week; at roll call each answers by reciting,\n\u2018We study the Word and works of God,\u2019 \u2018Let us keep our Heavenly Father\nin the midst,\u2019 \u2018Never be discouraged.\u2019 We assign lessons from the C. L.\nS. C. course for each week as given by THE CHAUTAUQUAN. In our class\nthe member who is most attentive, whose conduct is best, who learns the\nlessons recited most thoroughly, is made president of the class. The\nplaces of vice president, secretary, etc., are filled in this way. The\nlessons which have been memorized by particular members, are learned at\ntheir recital by the other members who were not appointed to learn these\nlessons. In this way the work is done thoroughly, and for hours the\ninterest and enthusiasm do not cool; however, we change from one study to\nanother to prevent any from becoming monotonous. Nineteen members of our\ncircle are college students, but for the most of them this will be their\nlast year at school; so we are trying to fill them with the Chautauqua\nspirit of learning, morality, truth and Christian worth, that it may\nlinger with them and develop them through all the future into strong\nand true, noble and pure womanhood and manhood. Having established this\ncircle among the young, we are now working to originate one among the\ngrown. We talk of it a great deal in our social life; have induced eight\nto become members of the C. L. S. C., and hope to largely increase the\nnumbers.\u201d\n\nSPRINGFIELD, MISSOURI, sends the following interesting history: \u201cIn\nOctober, 1883, a wave of Chautauqua enthusiasm reached our beautiful city\nof the Ozarks. Through the influence of two or three energetic ladies,\nit resulted in the organization of the \u2018Queen City\u2019 circle of the C. L.\nS. C. The circle began with a membership of fifteen ladies, representing\neight religious denominations. Regular meetings were held once a week,\nall the memorial days kept, and the year\u2019s work finished in June. In\nOctober, 1884, our circle was reorganized with the same officers. Our\nmembers returned full of enthusiasm and ready for work. On Opening Day\nwe endeavored to lay before our new members and visitors\u2014having opened\nour doors to all interested\u2014the object, the magnitude and the blessing\nof the \u2018Chautauqua Idea.\u2019 Those interested, and others to whom the\n\u2018Idea\u2019 was entirely new caught the enthusiasm, and many applications for\nmembership were presented from both gentlemen and ladies. As the \u2018Queen\nCity\u2019 circle is a woman\u2019s circle exclusively, holding its meetings in the\nafternoon, it was thought best to organize another circle, to which both\nladies and gentlemen could be admitted. On Bryant\u2019s Day the new circle\nwas formed, with a membership of thirty-one. Their meetings will be held\non Tuesday evening of each week. It is the intention of the two circles\nto work together as closely as possible. The \u2018Queen City\u2019 circle meets\nonce a week in a pleasant parlor, which we owe to the courtesy of one\nof our members. We study the readings for the week thoroughly. Topics\nare assigned by our instruction committee a week in advance for special\nstudy, greater research and more thought being thus brought to bear upon\nthe lesson. Criticism upon pronunciation, inaccuracies of speech, etc.,\nis unsparingly given to all. We are trying to make thorough study of our\ntext-book on \u2018Parliamentary Practice,\u2019 and endeavor to observe all the\nrules of a deliberative body. Our work is both profitable and delightful,\nand I think it safe to say that our circle can never languish. Already\nthe \u201987s are living in joyful anticipation of the day when they will be\npermitted to pass beneath the Arches at Chautauqua.\u201d\u2014\u2014A word also comes\nfrom KANSAS CITY. There are six circles there, the oldest of which is\nthe \u201cKansas City\u201d circle, whose interest was so great that the weekly\nmeetings were kept up during last summer, without any vacation. October\n1st, they reorganized, with a membership of twenty-five. Two graduates\nare reading with this circle this year.\n\nA pleasant account of work done in the interest of the C. L. S. C. has\nreached our table from HIAWATHA, KANSAS. A graduate of the class of \u201984\nit comes from: \u201cI have talked C. L. S. C. to my friends until I have\ndeclared that it will soon be necessary for me to get a new tongue. I\nwent to our editor to-day and asked his assistance in spreading the work.\nHe has kindly consented to print whatever we wish. There are many things\nin THE CHAUTAUQUAN that would enlighten the people concerning the C.\nL. S. C.\u2014what it is, and what it is doing\u2014but the very ones who most\nneed this information do not take THE CHAUTAUQUAN. By the assistance of\nour editor we can bring this knowledge to the people. I tell my friends\nthat I can not help being enthusiastic on this subject, because I am an\n\u2018Irrepressible.\u2019 A \u2018Pioneer\u2019 and an \u2018Invincible\u2019 moved to our town this\nfall. Beside these we have a few \u2018Progressives,\u2019 \u2018Pansies,\u2019 and \u2018Plymouth\nRocks.\u2019 We meet in one of the offices in the court house for our regular\nmeetings\u2014it being a more central point for all\u2014but I invited the circle\nto my home for a late meeting. I wished to show them the growth of\nthe Persian empire and Alexander\u2019s dominions as pictured on Adams\u2019s\n\u2018Synchronological Chart.\u2019 I bought one this summer at Chautauqua. Since\nmy return I made an easel for the chart of hard pine, open-mortised four\ncross-pieces, on two of which I fastened the chart, and chamfered the\nedges. The boards were \u2018in the rough\u2019 when I took them, but I smoothed\nthem, sand-papered and oiled them, then blackened the chamfered edges and\nvarnished the easel. Several carpenters have examined my work and all say\nmy joining is perfect and the work well done, and yet I never handled\ntools until I went to Chautauqua last summer and took instructions.\u201d\u2014\u2014A\nnew circle has been organized at HARTFORD, KANSAS. It consists of\nseventeen members, representing a variety of professions and employments.\nThe work has proven pleasant and profitable to them thus far.\n\nRight glad we are to hear from NEBRASKA. A breezy letter comes from\nthe circle at YORK, in which the writer tells us: \u201cWe have twenty-four\nmembers. We feel quite encouraged when we remember that we began last\nyear with only four. Nearly every meeting adds a new name to our roll.\nOur members are all enthusiastic and in earnest, preferring to let\nanything else go rather than miss one \u2018C. L. S. C.\u2019 I really think\nnothing less than a \u2018Nebraska blizzard\u2019 or cyclone would keep some of our\nmembers away. We pursued the Chautauqua plan of questions and answers\nlast year very successfully, and are proceeding in the same way this\nyear, although our programs vary according to the option of the leader.\nEach member leads in the order his name stands on the secretary\u2019s roll.\nIn this way the timid ones of our circle are brought out. We usually have\nwritten questions on the readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN; they are either\nhanded to the secretary to be read, or exchanged. We are fortunate in\nhaving a professor of our college as a member, and just now he is making\nthe study of chemistry very interesting and pleasant. We certainly do\nappreciate our C. L. S. C.\u201d\n\nWYOMING TERRITORY is the western limit of our circle travels for\nFebruary. At CHEYENNE, the \u201cJ. L. Taylor\u201d circle organized in 1883 has\nreorganized with a membership of twelve. The secretary writes: \u201cWhile we\nare all young people, having many daily duties and cares, our interest in\nChautauqua steadily increases, as we feel it broadens our outlook over\nthe world, and draws us nearer and nearer to our ideal of a higher life.\nWe hope to be able to report much good work done in the future\u2014as we feel\nthat we can not stop with only moderate endeavors.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nTHE C. L. S. C. CLASSES.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1885.\n\n\u201c_Press on, reaching after those things which are before._\u201d\n\n\nOFFICERS.\n\n    _President_\u2014J. B. Underwood, Meriden, Conn.\n\n    _Vice President_\u2014C. M. Nichols, Springfield, Ohio.\n\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Miss Carrie Hart, Aurora, Ind.\n\n    _Secretary_\u2014Miss M. M. Canfield, Washington, D. C.\n\n    _Executive Committee_\u2014Officers of the class.\n\n    Class badges may be procured of either President or Treasurer.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe badges for \u201985, ph\u0153nix-like, have risen from their ashes and can now\nbe furnished promptly.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPresident Underwood would be glad if circles composed of members of\nthe Class of \u201985 would inform him of their existence and send name of\npresident and secretary, that he may visit them when possible.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA Canadian classmate writes: \u201cI am prosecuting my studies in connection\nwith the C. L. S. C. all alone in a remote corner of our country, and\nfind my greatest pleasure in holding communion with the good and great of\nthe present and past ages. I am well pleased with the motto for our class\nand hope to be among those who verify its appropriateness by passing\nthrough the Gates next summer at Chautauqua.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne member of \u201985 writes: \u201cHaving just read the December column of \u201985\nin THE CHAUTAUQUAN, have concluded to show my enthusiasm by sending for\nour colors.\u201d We can all say amen to this: \u201cPlease place my name on the\nroll of the Invincibles, and may God for dear Jesus\u2019 sake help us all to\n\u2018Press on, reaching after those things which are before.\u2019\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAnother says: \u201cAlthough I was nearly fifty years of age when I commenced\nstudy in this way, yet am greatly interested and love it more and more. I\nhope to \u2018press on, reaching after those things which are before,\u2019 until I\ncan stand in the immediate presence of Him whom my soul loveth.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrom Kentucky comes this testimony: \u201cI am hoping to be able, literally,\nto \u2018pass through the Gates\u2019 next August and receive from Chancellor\nVincent my diploma. I was at Chautauqua in \u201983, and will not be content\ntill I go again. My interest and enthusiasm increase as the four years\ndraw to a close. During this time I have pursued my studies alone, having\nfailed entirely to form even a \u2018straight line\u2019 in my neighborhood, five\nmiles from Versailles. Although I would doubtless have enjoyed being\nconnected with a circle, I know that studying the course, even alone, has\nvery greatly benefited me. One of these benefits, and by no means the\nleast, has been the increasing and strengthening of my taste for solid\nreading.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nNEW YORK.\u2014\u201cI have often wished that I could express my gratitude for,\nand appreciation of, my C. L. S. C. studies and associations, but when\nI attempt it my list of adjectives seems all too meager and inadequate.\nSince taking up the course, life and all that pertains to it assume a\ndifferent aspect. I have gained an outlook which gives life a charm and\nattractiveness of which I had never dreamed. I had passed my forty-fifth\nyear when I comprehended the C. L. S. C. plan sufficiently to see that\nit was for such illiterate people as I. The benefits I have received are\npast computation.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOur Class Memorial to our loved alma mater must not be forgotten. We\nwant to prepare for a memorial, a present worthy our _name_ and _aim_.\nFifty-five (55) names have up to this time been sent to the treasurer,\nwith contributions to the class fund (some sending more than the amount\nrequested). That is but a small beginning of the hundreds to hear from.\n\n\nCLASS OF \u201986.\n\n\u201c_We study for light, to bless with light._\u201d\n\n\nCLASS ORGANIZATION.\n\n    _President_\u2014The Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Maine.\n\n    _Vice Presidents_\u2014The Rev. J. C. Whitley, Salisbury, Maryland;\n    Mr. L. F. Houghton, Peoria, Illinois; Mr. Walter Y. Morgan,\n    Cleveland, Ohio; Mrs. Delia Browne, Louisville, Kentucky; Miss\n    Florence Finch, Palestine, Texas.\n\n    _Secretary_\u2014The Rev. W. L. Austin, New Albany, Ind.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe officers of \u201986 send greeting to their classmates and co-workers.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe new class badge will soon be ready to send out. The color of the\nbadge remains the same, but the class emblem and motto will be added.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrom Colorado\u2014Durango\u2014comes this encouraging bit of class news: \u201cWe have\neleven members in our class and are pursuing our studies this winter with\nunabated interest. Belonging to the class of \u201986, we mean to be true\nto the name \u2018Progressives.\u2019 We hold our meetings every Monday evening,\nand follow the program laid out in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. There seems to be\na growing interest in the Chautauqua work, and we hope to have another\nclass organized in our little town before many months. The members of the\npresent class are busy workers, teachers, mothers and housekeepers, but\nthey have continued the course with increasing interest to this the third\nyear, and purpose finishing the full course.\u201d\n\n\nCLASS OF 1887.\u2014\u201cTHE PANSIES.\u201d\n\n\u201c_Neglect not the gift that is in thee._\u201d\n\n\nOFFICERS.\n\n    _President_\u2014The Rev. Frank Russell, Mansfield, Ohio.\n\n    _Western Secretary_\u2014K. A. Burnell, Esq., Chicago, Ill.\n\n    _Eastern Secretary_\u2014J. A. Steven, M.D., Hartford, Conn.\n\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Either Secretary, from either of whom badges may be\n    procured.\n\n    _Executive Committee_\u2014The officers of the class.\n\n    Class paper may be procured from Mr. Henry Hart, Atlanta, Ga.\n\nThe Canadian Pansies are doing good work in the promotion of the\nChautauqua Idea.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    The leaves swung lazily and slow,\n    The wind hummed low its reverie,\n    Chautauqua bells with loving chime\n    Pealed forth their sweetest melody.\n\n    Their quaint, weird music rolling on,\n    Mingling with heaven\u2019s azure ray,\n    Enwrapped the earth with bright, new joy;\n    It was our \u201cPansies\u2019\u201d natal day.\n\n    Remembrance fond brings back the hour\n    When on our breast the pansy blue\n    We placed, with earnest, fervent prayer\n    That to its trust we might be true.\n\n    Again, again, and yet again,\n    Our widening circle grew apace;\n    And pansies bloomed on every side;\n    North, South and West each claimed a place.\n\n    And now a year with hurried tread,\n    Has paced its tiny cycle round,\n    Girdled with moments richly spent\n    In wanderings on classic ground.\n\n    Methinks we scarce could well have crowned\n    The year agone with richer gems\n    Than these bright visions of the past,\n    Tho\u2019 culled from monarch\u2019s diadems.\n\n    A goodly company our band\u2014\n    Twice seven thousand now we claim;\n    And purpose with a royal love\n    Thro\u2019 every land to spread its fame.\n\n    Tinted is the horizon\u2019s rim\n    With wisdom\u2019s deep, ethereal blue,\n    Yet all may reach its shining goal,\n    If firm their trust and true.\n\n    E\u2019en though the path may rugged be,\n    And lengthening shadows bar the way,\n    Onward we\u2019ll press with firmer zeal,\n    Knowing success shall crown the day.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe New England Branch of the Pansy class held its reunion November 28th\nin the People\u2019s Church in Boston. The first hour, from one to two p. m.,\nwas spent in social enjoyment. Prof. Sherwin then introduced himself\nin one of his characteristic speeches and concluded by presenting the\nNew England president, the Rev. F. M. Gardner. He was unknown to many\nof the members, as he was elected on the last day of the Framingham\nAssembly, when many of the class had gone home. The president made an\nappropriate and pleasing address. The secretary, Miss Corey, then read\nher report. The pupils of the Boston Conservatory of Music, under the\ndirection of Prof. Sherwin, gave a delightful musical entertainment. At\nthe close of the musical program the Rev. J. W. Hamilton, pastor of the\nchurch, addressed the class in a very happy and interesting manner.\nA class poem was read by Miss Nell Robinson, of Lowell, Mass., which\nfinds its place in this Pansy column this month. After some business the\nmeeting was closed by singing a Chautauqua song. Nearly one hundred and\nfifty were present at this meeting. During the session the secretary\ncalled attention to the samples of class paper which had been sent on\nfrom Atlanta by direction of the committee appointed at Chautauqua last\nsummer. The samples met the approval of those present.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1888.\u2014\u201cTHE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.\u201d\n\n\u201c_Let us be seen by our deeds._\u201d\n\n\nCLASS ORGANIZATION.\n\n    _President_\u2014The Rev. A. E. Dunning.\n\n    _Vice Presidents_\u2014Prof. W. N. Ellis, Brooklyn, N. Y.; the Rev.\n    Wm. G. Roberts, Bellevue, Ohio.\n\n    _Secretary_\u2014Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAll items for this column should be sent to the Rev. C. C. McLean,\nJacksonville, Florida.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Class of \u201988 will undoubtedly increase its numerical strength at the\nFlorida Chautauqua, to be held at Lake De Funiak, February 10th to March\n9th, 1885.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMiss Ella Pearsall, the secretary, writes that in October a C. L. S. C.\nwas organized in Matteawau, New York, taking as its motto, \u201cLabor and\nProgress.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne from New Haven, Conn., writes objecting to our name, \u201cPlymouth Rock.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMrs. C. H. Pike, of New Haven, Conn., informs us that at one of their\nmeetings, they made successful experiments in chemistry, before a\ndelighted audience. Speaks well for our \u201988s.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. H. L. Brickett, of Linnfield Center, Mass., class \u201988, was\nappointed as a committee of one to confer with the granite companies of\nNew England in regard to a base of granite for the proposed new Hall of\nPhilosophy at Chautauqua, and has been successful in having donated one\nfrom the best granite, to be highly polished, bearing our name, monogram,\nmotto, and year of our class. It is valued at $100. We extend to him, in\nthe name of the \u201cPlymouth Rocks,\u201d the \u201988s, more than thanks.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. Dr. Dunning, of Boston, has consented to deliver the address at\nour first annual \u201cspread\u201d in August next.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nStationery and badges for \u201988 may be secured of Henry Hart, Atlanta, Ga.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nGood for \u201988. In the eight or ten circles found in St. Paul, Minn., about\nfour fifths of the members are of the class of \u201988.\n\n\n\n\nQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.\n\nQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cCOLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH,\u201d \u201cCHEMISTRY,\u201d\nAND \u201cHOW TO HELP THE POOR.\u201d\n\nBY A. M. MARTIN,\n\nGeneral Secretary C. L. S. C.\n\n\nI.\u2014TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cCOLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN\nENGLISH\u201d\u2014FROM PAGE 83 TO PAGE 187.\n\n1. Q. Who is foremost among Greek philosophers? A. Socrates.\n\n2. Q. Who is foremost of Greek philosophical writers? A. Plato.\n\n3. Q. What four works have been the fruit, direct or indirect, of Plato\u2019s\n\u201cRepublic?\u201d A. Cicero\u2019s \u201cDe Republica,\u201d St. Augustine\u2019s \u201cCity of God,\u201d\nSir Thomas More\u2019s \u201cUtopia,\u201d and Bacon\u2019s \u201cNew Atlantis.\u201d\n\n4. Q. In any just representation of Plato, who could not but be a very\nconspicuous figure? A. Socrates.\n\n5. Q. In the first extract given from Plato\u2019s \u201cRepublic,\u201d what does the\nspeaker, Glaucon, undertake to set forth for Socrates to overthrow?\nA. A notion which he avers to be current and accepted among men, that\ninjustice is better policy than justice.\n\n6. Q. From the discussion of the nature of justice and injustice, to what\ndoes Plato make a very unexpected passage? A. To that form of discussion\nwhich has given its name to the \u201cRepublic\u201d\u2014the ideal state.\n\n7. Q. Who has recently made a scholarly and adequate translation of\nPlato\u2019s entire works into English? A. Mr. Jowett.\n\n8. Q. How is the so-styled \u201cPlatonic love\u201d defined in the \u201cRepublic?\u201d A.\n\u201cA friend should use no other familiarity to his love than a father would\nuse to his son, and this only for a virtuous end, and he must first have\nthe other\u2019s consent.\u201d\n\n9. Q. What was the \u201cSocratic d\u00e6mon\u201d to which Plato alludes in his\n\u201cRepublic?\u201d A. A benign and beneficent influence\u2014a kind of divinity\nwithin him that governed the conduct of Socrates.\n\n10. Q. How is the Tim\u00e6us of Plato described? A. As of all the writings\nof Plato the most obscure and most repulsive to modern readers, while the\nmost influential of all over the ancient and medi\u00e6val world.\n\n11. Q. What are some of the other best known works of Plato? A.\n\u201cThe Laws,\u201d the \u201cSymposium,\u201d the \u201cPh\u00e6drus,\u201d the \u201cGorgias,\u201d and the\n\u201cParmenides.\u201d\n\n12. Q. What is the name of the dialogue in which Plato tells of the end\nof Socrates? A. The \u201cPh\u00e6do.\u201d\n\n13. Q. What was the sentence of antiquity in regard to Plato? A. That\nZeus, if he had spoken Greek, would have spoken it like Plato.\n\n14. Q. Who was a distinguished pupil of Plato? A. Aristotle, and in\ninfluence on human thought he equaled and rivaled his master.\n\n15. Q. How does our author state the difference between ancient tragedy\nand modern, in a single antithetical sentence? A. Modern tragedy presents\nreal life idealized; ancient tragedy presents an ideal life realized.\n\n16. Q. What did Greek tragedy have for its chief purpose? A. To teach.\n\n17. Q. How were Greek tragedies represented? A. By daylight, in the\nopen air, before assemblages that numbered their tens of thousands of\nspectators.\n\n18. Q. What is said of the dress of the actors? A. The actors wore masks\non their faces and buskins on their feet. Beside this they wore a kind of\nwig designed to make them look taller, and dressed with padding to make\nthem look larger.\n\n19. Q. Who were the three masters of Greek tragedy? A. \u00c6schylus,\nSophocles and Euripides.\n\n20. Q. When and where was \u00c6schylus born? A. In 525 B. C., in an Attic\nvillage near Athens.\n\n21. Q. In the present volume, from what tragedy of \u00c6schylus are\nselections presented? A. \u201cPrometheus Bound.\u201d\n\n22. Q. Who was Prometheus? A. A mythical being of superhuman rank, who\nstole fire from heaven and brought it to men. For this offense against\nZeus he was condemned to be chained alive to a rocky cliff in the\nCaucasus.\n\n23. Q. What other great tragic poet was contemporary with \u00c6schylus? A.\nSophocles.\n\n24. Q. From what masterpiece of Sophocles are the selections of the\npresent volume made? A. \u201c\u0152dipus Tyrannus, or \u0152dipus the King.\u201d\n\n25. Q. How is this tragedy considered by, perhaps, the majority of\nqualified critics? A. To be not only the best work of Sophocles, but the\n\u201cbright, consummate flower\u201d of all Greek tragedy.\n\n\nII.\u2014TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cCHEMISTRY\u201d\u2014FROM BEGINNING OF\nBOOK TO PAGE 84.\n\n26. Q. Of what does chemistry treat? A. All kinds of material substances.\n\n27. Q. What is said of the number of the various kinds of matter already\nexisting on our earth? A. The number is so great that the various kinds\nhave never been so much as counted, much less described, in any list or\nvolume.\n\n28. Q. Of what are all things known to chemists made up? A. A few simple\nsubstances, either existing alone or in richly various combinations.\n\n29. Q. What are called chemical elements, and what compounds? A. The\nsimplest substances when alone are called the chemical elements, or\nelementary substances; the things resulting when different elements are\nunited are called compounds.\n\n30. Q. What does the two-fold character of chemical study involve? A.\nFirst, the examination of elementary substances and their compounds.\nSecond, a consideration of the many general and special laws and forces\nwhich determine the various possible combinations.\n\n31. Q. How many elementary substances are there now generally recognized\nas such? A. Sixty-six.\n\n32. Q. About how many of the elements possess names that are familiar to\nordinary readers? A. About one sixth of them.\n\n33. Q. Of what two elementary substances is it probable that three\nfourths of our globe is composed? A. Of oxygen one half, and of silicon\none fourth.\n\n34. Q. What general name is given to most of the elements? A. Metals.\n\n35. Q. What symbol and what weight has each element? A. An atomic symbol\nand an atomic weight.\n\n36. Q. How is an atom of each elementary substance designated? A. By a\nsymbol, usually the initial letter of the native or Latin name of the\nsubstance.\n\n37. Q. What are three properties an elementary substance accepted as a\nmetal should possess? A. It must possess the property of existing in a\nsolid condition; it should possess the metallic luster; and it should\npossess the power and tendency to readily form a chemical union with\noxygen.\n\n38. Q. What are called binary and what ternary compounds? A. Compounds\nhaving only two kinds of elements are called binaries. Compounds having\nthree kinds of elements are called ternaries.\n\n39. Q. What four binary compounds are given as examples? A. Hydric\nchloride, sulphur di-oxide, sulphur tri-oxide, and plumbic oxide.\n\n40. Q. Under what two heads are the principal ternaries grouped? A. Acids\nand salts.\n\n41. Q. What are the two principal ternary acids used by chemists? A.\nNitric acid and sulphuric acid.\n\n42. Q. What is meant by the term atom? A. It is that portion of any kind\nof matter that is to human beings indivisible in fact.\n\n43. Q. With what invisible, occult power is each atom and each molecule\nendowed? A. A power called chemical affinity.\n\n44. Q. What are three of the peculiarities of chemical affinity? A.\nEach kind of atom has its peculiar chemical affinities. Each atom has\na certain equivalence or atom-fixing power. Chemical changes produce\nstriking results.\n\n45. Q. What is the most common way of producing hydrogen? A. By bringing\ntogether sulphuric acid and zinc.\n\n46. Q. What are some of the properties of hydrogen as a gas? A. It is\ncolorless, odorless, tasteless, and, bulk for bulk, it is the lightest\nsubstance known in nature.\n\n47. Q. What is the most interesting chemical property of hydrogen? A. Its\npower to unite with oxygen.\n\n48. Q. What is said of the uses to which hydrogen may be put? A. As an\nelementary gas it finds but few applications in the arts.\n\n49. Q. For what standards is hydrogen used by chemists? A. As the\nstandard of equivalence or atom-fixing power; the standard of atomic\nweight, and the standard of density for gases.\n\n50. Q. What did the remarkable lightness of hydrogen early suggest? A.\nThe fitness of that gas for the inflation of balloons.\n\n\nIII.\u2014TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cHOW TO HELP THE POOR.\u201d\n\n51. Q. What is the aim of the book, \u201cHow to Help the Poor?\u201d A. To give a\nfew suggestions to visitors among the poor, and to lead all such visitors\nto attend the conferences which are now held weekly in almost every\ndistrict of our large cities.\n\n52. Q. What is one of the most direct commands in the Christian\nScripture? A. \u201cGive to him that asketh.\u201d\n\n53. Q. Why need there be no beggars in our American cities? A. Labor is\nwanted everywhere, especially educated labor; nowhere is the supply of\nthe latter equal to the demand.\n\n54. Q. What do the people crying continually \u201cgive to us\u201d really need? A.\nA chance to learn how to work, and sufficient protection in the meantime\nfrom the evils of idleness, drunkenness and vice.\n\n55. Q. What is \u201cout-door relief?\u201d A. It is the giving of money (or its\nequivalent) which is raised by taxing the people, if the applicants come\nunder certain rules and laws.\n\n56. Q. To what conclusion does Mr. Seth Low, of Brooklyn, N. Y., come\nin regard to \u201cout-door relief?\u201d A. That out-door relief, in the United\nStates as elsewhere, tends inevitably and surely to increase pauperism.\n\n57. Q. Of what three parts is the conference of a district composed? A.\nFirst, the district committee; second, the representatives of societies\nand officers; third, the visitors.\n\n58. Q. How does one writer state that the disciplining of our immense\npoor population must be effected? A. By individual influence; and this\npower can change it from a mob of paupers and semi-paupers into a body of\nself-dependent workers.\n\n59. Q. What does not, and what does visiting the poor mean? A. Visiting\nthe poor does not mean entering the room of a person hitherto unknown to\nmake a call. It means that we are invited to visit a miserable abode for\nthe purpose, first, of discovering the cause of that misery.\n\n60. Q. What does Dr. Tuckerman say of every child who is a beggar? A.\nEvery child who is a beggar, almost without exception, will become a\nvagrant and probably a thief.\n\n61. Q. What is the only just reason for taking children from their\nnatural homes? A. To lift them out of moral poverty. Material poverty,\nalone, is not sufficient cause.\n\n62. Q. What do the statistics of the Labor Bureau show in regard to\nhomeless young women in Boston? A. That there are twenty thousand\nhomeless young women in Boston whose wages average only four dollars per\nweek.\n\n63. Q. What is the first suggestion made for the better care of the aged?\nA. By patient study of each individual, and by ingenious experiment of\none plan after another, some fit occupation can often be found which\nshall bring both happiness and profit.\n\n64. Q. When does not private charity do its full part? A. While any\nother than almshouse cases are allowed to fall into the care of the city\nauthorities.\n\n65. Q. What does experience, as the opportunities for observation widen,\ninduce the writer to believe? A. That every human being can do something\nif he has a chance, and is intended to fill some gap in the universal\nplan.\n\n66. Q. What does Edward Denison say of the crime of begging? A. It does\nnot consist in the mere solicitation of alms. The gist of the offense is\nthe intention of preying upon society; and of this intent the asking alms\nis only evidence\u2014not proof.\n\n67. Q. What is the root of a very large proportion of the suffering of\nthe poor in the cities of America? A. Drunkenness.\n\n68. Q. What is one of the first duties of a visitor in entering a\ntenement house? A. To use his senses.\n\n69. Q. What knowledge means physical salvation, and thus a better\nprospect for understanding the spiritual? A. How to make even the\nsmallest home clean and attractive, and to get the largest return from\nevery dollar earned.\n\n70. Q. What is one of the earliest and most important topics which should\nengage the attention of the visitor? A. That of helping people to save.\n\n71. Q. What drives people into solitude? A. Trouble of any kind, and\nespecially any misfortune which has a tendency to lower a person in the\nsocial scale.\n\n72. Q. What is said of many of the poor who most deeply need visitors?\nA. They are lonely persons, and the fact of finding a friend at last is\nencouragement to them and the beginning of better times.\n\n73. Q. What is almost the only true help of the worldly sort which it is\npossible to give the poor? A. To teach them how to use even the small\nshare of goods and talents intrusted to them.\n\n74. Q. What truth has been made clear in regard to the expenditure of\nmoney and goods alone? A. That it does not alleviate poverty.\n\n75. Q. What has experience taught differently from the assertions that\ncertain evils can not be helped, and that we may as well let things\nalone? A. That evils can be helped, and to let things alone is to lend\nourselves to wrong.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY.\n\nCAN LANGUAGE BE TAUGHT BY CORRESPONDENCE?\n\nBY PROF. R. S. HOLMES, A.M.\n\n\nCan a language be taught by correspondence? Unhesitatingly, yes!\nExperience, though brief, gives warrant for the answer. The constantly\nincreasing number of advertisements appearing in journals of wide\ncirculation gives evidence that teachers at least believe instruction\nby this method both possible and profitable. It is in this belief that\nthe only danger to the system lies. Incompetency in this field must\nfail. It can be hidden by no outward show. No would-be teacher, with\ntext-book and printed question in hand, can parade before a class and\n_hear a recitation_. Only a teacher, a real teacher, can hope for success\nin this work, and that must come by methods entirely foreign to the\nordinary methods of the class-room. Born a teacher, not made; such must\nbe he who would successfully use the correspondence system in his work of\nteaching. Such teachers are rare, even in comparison with the multitudes\nof those who already fill the places in our hundreds of thousands of\nschools, and still more rare in the ranks of the throng which, filling\nthe avenues leading to them, is expectantly awaiting the constantly\noccurring vacancies. For this reason we have said that the growing demand\nfor correspondence schools constitutes their principal danger; for\npersons aware of this demand and allured by the hope of swelling moderate\nincomes, though they have no peculiar appreciation of the particular\nrequirements demanded to fit one for the work, will yet enter the lists\nas competitors in this field. The inevitable results must be failure by\nthe teacher, discouragement to honest and earnest students who can find\nno other means for acquiring education, distrust of the practicability\nof the system, and discredit for correspondence teachers as a class. To\navoid this, to provide only competent instructors, and to arrange and\nsystematize as broad and comprehensive a course of study as is furnished\nby an institution is one of the purposes of the Chautauqua University. In\nsuch a course languages, ancient and modern, must be taught, and must be\ntaught by correspondence, or not at all. But while it will be conceded\nthat instruction by correspondence is possible, in ordinary branches, yet\nthe honest inquirer will ask in view of the peculiarities surrounding the\nsubject of foreign languages, the question which begins this paper: Can a\nlanguage be taught by correspondence? Again we answer, unhesitatingly,\nyes! and in no dubious way, but with a measure of success fully equal to\nthat possible by oral instruction. The question of the time necessary\nto complete any given topic is not germane to this discussion. Yet in\npassing, it may be said, that of two persons who should be able to devote\ntheir whole time to study, one using oral and the other correspondence\nmethods, we see no reason why the first should have any advantage in\npoint of time required for the completion of any prescribed course of\nstudy.\n\nWe present four reasons in support of the answer we have so positively\ngiven:\n\nFIRST\u2014_The class of students seeking this instruction is more teachable\nthan can be easily found elsewhere._ Its members rank in earnestness and\nintensity of application with the best of those pursuing post-graduate\nor special courses in resident and special institutions. They are men\nalready in professional life, physicians, attorneys, pastors, journalists\nand teachers. They are men who, having long looked wistfully from a\ndistance at our great educational institutions without being able to\navail themselves of their advantages, suddenly find excellent educational\nadvantages brought to their very doors and offered on terms which\nthey can easily accept. They are young men and women who during their\nschool days felt the necessity of making the best use of their time,\nand acquired habits of steady application, of critical study, and of\neconomy in the use of spare moments; but whose school days were limited\nby unconquerable circumstances to the village academy or high school, or\neven to the less ambitious country district school. These classes are\neasier to teach than almost any other, since they are ready to do to the\nfullest extent the work which alone can make any teaching successful.\n\nSECOND\u2014_More skill is required in the work of preparing and assigning\nlessons than is ordinarily shown._ The art of assigning lessons should\nform a part in every scheme of pedagogical instruction. Unfortunately,\nthe methods with which most who have memories of the class room are\nfamiliar are worthy subjects for criticism. The recitation hour passes\nrapidly in question and answer over the technicalities of the text. The\nclosing moments are sufficient to direct a continuation of the advance\nreading, a review of previous lessons, and the assignment of certain\nportions from the grammar. There is no definite direction as to special\npoints to be examined; no provision for particular work in etymology, or\nanalysis, or comparison; no synthetic outline for the next day\u2019s thought;\nno aids to help the student to test his own work or to detect his own\nerrors before the next recitation assembly. Such methods or lack of\nmethods in the correspondence school would surely cause its failure. How\nto assign lessons becomes here the crucial test of the teacher\u2019s power.\nHe must so lay out the work to be done that the pupil whom he has never\nseen will be stimulated to effort and not grow discouraged; will be led\nfrom the world of the known at his feet, into the world of the unknown\nin which the teacher lives; will be allowed to make no misuse of time in\nunprofitable study; will be wisely directed in the acquirement of lexical\nand grammatical knowledge, and will be enabled to test his own work with\never increasing accuracy. Such a teacher can not fail of success in his\neffort to teach a language by correspondence.\n\nTHIRD\u2014_More care is required in the matter of interrogation._ Thorough\nmastery of the art of interrogation is an essential; almost priceless in\nany teaching\u2014here it is a _sine qua non_. The presence of teacher and\npupil in the class room makes questioning easy; the oral question is\nquickly given, quickly answered, and many questions may be used to elicit\na single truth, or to impress a single lesson. But the correspondence\nteacher is not so favored. His questions must be so framed that one, or\nat the most two, shall suffice. Again, the oral teacher through lack of\nmemory and long custom, may allow his questions to become a mere matter\nof routine, and daily tread the same monotonous round. We speak from\nmemory when we assert of a college class, that it became so familiar with\nthe questions asked during Greek hour in junior year, as to be able to\nanswer the coming question almost before its utterance. This will not do\nfor the correspondence teacher. His questions must be only such as his\nlesson directions have suggested; they must be committed to paper, in\nremorseless ink; they are to be subjected to scrutiny; they must not be\nobscure, or repetitious; and their range must be as wide as his students\u2019\nknowledge. Such questioning can not fail of success.\n\nFOURTH\u2014_More earnest and thorough study is required of the student._ He\nhas in a certain sense the work of two persons to perform, his own and\nhis teacher\u2019s; his own, in that he investigates and acquires as directed;\nhis teacher\u2019s, in that he must prove and test that which he has done and\nis doing, by efforts of memory, by work of comparison, and by strict\ngrammatical rule. He must recite to himself, ask of himself the questions\nwhich he must answer, and correct himself before finally his finished\nwork is returned to his teacher for revision.\n\nWe think we have made sufficiently plain the possibility of success in\nteaching a language by correspondence. The reasons seem to us conclusive.\nThat which remains to be said is even more potent. After all thinking,\nreasoning and objecting is done, after all testimony for or against\nhas been received the established fact remains, successful teaching of\nlanguages, ancient and modern, by correspondence alone, has been done\nwithin the years just past, is now being done, and will be yet more\neffectively and widely done with each advancing year.\n\nIn support of these statements, which we believe are true, we present a\ntestimonial from an experienced teacher, who has been and is a member of\nthe College of Modern Languages in the Chautauqua University. It is as\nfollows:\n\n\u201cI have been a member of the German class in the Chautauqua\nCorrespondence School of Languages for two years, and I consider\nthis plan of study, including the six weeks\u2019 instruction each year\nat Chautauqua, superior to any other. The method is not only more\ncomprehensive, it also advances the pupil much more rapidly, makes him\nmore thorough, broadens his culture, enables him to become familiar with\nhistory, with literature, with art, and better than all, teaches him how\nto acquire knowledge.\u201d\n\nWe add two statements of fact which can be verified as proofs of popular\nopinion regarding correspondence schools:\n\nFIRST\u2014That the Director of the Department of New Testament Greek in the\nChautauqua School of Theology has students to the number of almost four\nhundred who rely for instruction entirely upon correspondence lessons.\n\nSECOND\u2014That the Dean of the Department of Hebrew in the same institution\nhas under instruction by the same methods, in the different enterprises\nwith which he is connected, about seven hundred students. Could there be\nanything more significant?\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S OUTLOOK.\n\n\n\u201cMINOR MORALS.\u201d\n\nThe importance of good breeding can not be too diligently insisted upon.\nBut what is good breeding? This is hardly to be understood as synonymous\nwith good manners, though certainly involving them. Nor is it quite\nthe same thing as exemplary or agreeable behavior, though likely to\ninsure it. The latter is entirely the product of constant practice. Good\nmanners, polished behavior, are the fruit of long discipline\u2014perfection\nherein being reached only when these manners become habitual, natural,\ninstinctive.\n\nTrue courtesy, meanwhile, involves something deeper than mere manners\nor motions. It has its seat in the heart\u2014its root in the moral nature.\nFundamentally it consists in an inward kindly, neighborly, tender feeling\ntoward every one, an interest in, and a desire to promote everybody\u2019s\nwelfare. Genuine courtesy, in a word, is born of love, springs from a\nbenevolent disposition, a brotherly, chivalric impulse.\n\nBut what is good breeding? It consists in this inward principle of\ngood will, and the outward _habit_ of graceful demeanor combined\u2014it\nconsists in the aforesaid inward gracious impulse, rooted in the heart,\nand finding natural outward expression, or interpretation, through\nthat disciplined elegance of deportment of which I have spoken. To the\ninward impulse, or sentiment, duly awakened, the outward, educated\nhabit naturally, instinctively responds; and we have the deportment, or\ncarriage, of the truly polished or accomplished gentleman or lady.\n\nThese twin principles, the inward nurture and the outward culture or\ntraining, working together, underlie what in the highest sense is to be\nunderstood as good breeding.\n\nThe practical value of the accomplishment under consideration can\nnot well be overestimated. How charming, truly, this gentlemanly,\nlady-like conduct\u2014this kindly, graceful, genial way of carrying one\u2019s\nself socially. True courtesy, verily, is as delightful as a song. More\neloquent is it, we may say, than any oratory. It is a fine art. Better\nstill, it is Christian.\n\nIs it not at once a privilege and a duty to promote the pleasure of\nothers? As has just been suggested, how may we more effectually minister\nto the pleasure of others than by a charming behavior?\n\nBy cultivated, agreeable manners, moreover, we immensely enhance our\npersonal influence\u2014our power for good. A person of agreeable manners,\nby uniformly pleasing, will, naturally, always be popular\u2014have hosts\nof friends. While, whatever one\u2019s worth or attainments, we yet shun his\npresence if he be disagreeable or offensive in manner or speech; on the\nother hand, we instinctively covet the society of one who, in any way,\ndelights us.\n\nThe irresistible charm of polished manners, even when cultivated solely\nfor commercial purposes, is well illustrated by a remark said to have\nbeen made by Mr. Beecher concerning the clerks in the shops of Paris.\nThey were, he said, so polite and engaging in their attentions that his\nfirst impression always was that he must have met them somewhere before.\nAnd who has not, indeed, under the influence of the benign spirit, the\ngenial and engaging manners, the kindly and obliging offices of the\naccomplished tradesman, often felt his prejudices give way, his original\nintentions to purchase nothing yield, and, instead, a purpose gradually\nspring up in his mind to do just the opposite of what he originally\ndesigned?\n\nNothing can be more evident, therefore, than that this matter of manners\nand breeding is a no unimportant part of one\u2019s education, constituting,\ntruly, a no insignificant part of every true man\u2019s character. How\ngreatly, then, does that youth stand in his own light, who, for any\ncause, neglects his manners. The thoroughly courteous youth, other things\nequal, will surely win his way to success. Personally agreeable in all\nhis ways, he conciliates opposing prejudices, charms the indifferent, and\nmakes every one he meets his friend. The boorish man, on the contrary, as\ninevitably blocks his way to fortune by awakening, on the part of those\nwith whom he has to do, only sentiments of aversion and disgust.\n\nGirls, for some reason, seem to take more naturally and kindly to\ngraceful ways, to gentle courtesies, than boys. Young America, we think,\nis characteristically boorish, if not clownish. The boy of the period\nmanifestly places no adequate value on good manners. Doubtless this\nmatter of breeding\u2014this careful cultivation of a genial and amiable\ndeportment\u2014is sadly neglected in our day. The youth of our day should be\ntaught not only that rudeness and vulgarity never pay; but that while\nawkwardness is disagreeable and burdensome, the slightest approach to\nrowdyism is detestable and unpardonable.\n\nSome one has very happily represented good manners as \u201cminor morals.\u201d And\ncertain it is that vulgarity and vice are intimately related; that the\nlow, vulgar fellow will ever be found but a few removes from a positively\nvicious one.\n\nLove, refinement, social cultivation are all closely allied with\nrighteousness; these, always and everywhere, constitute the true\ngentleman and lady.\n\n\nTHE COUNCILS AT BALTIMORE.\n\nIt was a noteworthy fact that two of the three great religious bodies\nof this country were holding councils in the same city in the last days\nof 1884. The city of Baltimore enjoys the distinction of being both a\nCatholic and a Methodist city. The former is the older claimant, since\nit was founded by English Catholics; but Methodism, also founded by\nEnglishmen, has a Baltimore history which occasioned the centennial\nconference of last month. It was in Baltimore, Christmas 1784, that a few\ncircuit riders organized the Methodist Episcopal Church. It is doubtless\nthrough the effectiveness of that organization that Methodism holds its\nposition as the religious union of the largest _population_ embraced\nin any one organization in this country. The Catholics are ordinarily\nreckoned the most numerous, because they count population and Methodists\ncount only members; but taking the former basis as a common measure,\nthe various branches of Methodism are doubtless the most numerous;\nand it is probable that by the same tests the Baptists outnumber the\nCatholics. If the Presbyterian bodies could be counted together, and the\nLutherans and Congregationalists included, we should have a third great\nbody of Protestants which may possibly outnumber the Catholics. Two\nother communions, the Protestant Episcopal and the Unitarian, would be\nin the first rank of religious influence if we attempted to measure and\ncompare by this test. Taking account of members only, the most difficult\nproblem of religious statistics is to determine whether any religious\norganization is relatively increasing. The unattached population, and the\nindependent Protestant organizations, have been growing in numbers for a\nscore of years; and the Protestant communions can not count by population\nwithout including the same persons in more than one church. It is not\nsurprising that the Catholics most easily make an imposing array in the\nstatistical tables. The precise count is not important in this place. The\nCatholics and Methodists are large bodies of American Christians, and\nthey have some common features as well as some striking contrasts.\n\nBoth communions owe their success (if we take worldly measurement) to\ntheir vigorous management and subordination of their clergy for the\ngood of the common cause. A Methodist itinerant and a Catholic priest\nresemble each other very little, but they are alike in being men who are\n\u201csent,\u201d and who \u201cobey orders.\u201d Their personal choices and well-being are\nsubordinated to a service and devotion. They alike resign at the doors\nof the temple their rights to serve and please themselves. It may be\nsaid that all Christians should do this; but this self-surrender is to\nthe priest and the itinerants _objective_ as well as _subjective_. It\nmeans that they go where they are sent by a human authority which they\nidentify with the divine will. They are sacrificed to the general good;\nthey suffer that others may rejoice\u2014always under an external and visible\nauthority. Another point of resemblance is the _practical_ liberty of\nlaymen in both churches. Theoretically the Catholic and the Methodist\nlaymen are both bound to considerable service and duties. Methodism began\nin a rigor of religious duties which makes one wonder how John Wesley\nmissed founding a new Catholic order of world-renouncing priests and\nlay brothers. Catholicism is theoretically even more rigorous. In the\nprogress of this century, both laities have achieved more liberty than\nis good for them; the priest and the itinerant serve and sacrifice for\nall. A bright-eyed Methodist editor called attention some years ago to\nthe fact that his church tolerates no heresy in ministers and pays little\nattention to the doctrinal vagaries of its laymen. It is doubtless true\nof both Catholics and Methodists; though neither church is prepared to\nmake any admission of the sort or ever will be. The theory in each case\ncalls for sound believing; and it is probably a just judgment which says\nthat liberty is the atmosphere required for the growth of sound faith.\n\nAnother point of resemblance between Catholic and Methodist is that both\ncommunions have had a great mission to preach to the poor; and that they\nhave preached to such effect that large numbers of their poor have become\nrich, not so obviously in faith as in worldly goods. We mean not to\nsneer, but to put our finger on the _objective_ reality which lies before\nus. He is a careless man who fails to see that Methodism and Catholicism\nhave produced industry, thrift, temperance and wealth in classes of\npeople who were miserably poor at the outset. The fact has long been\nunderstood of Methodists; a special fact has obscured this large one\namong Catholics. There has been a steady inflow of poverty from the Old\nWorld and the Catholics have received into their communion a very large\nportion of this poverty. Their needy have been most abundantly recruited\nand continue to be. But at the same time their poor have grown wealthy\nall over the land. The Puritan farmer is disappearing in New England and\nthe Irish Catholic is taking his place. Wealthy Catholics abound in all\nthe large cities.\n\nThere are many points of contrast between the two communions. We suggest\na single one, still looking at externals and not at creeds. While\nMethodism has for a quarter of a century been one of the most influential\nfactors in politics\u2014not at all as a machine, but altogether as an\ninfluence\u2014Catholicism has during the same period almost lapsed out of\nsight as a political element. This resulted from the foreign character\nand training of the majority of the priests and people, and from wise\navoidance of occasions of odium by the Catholic prelates. We suggest this\ncontrast without drawing any inferences from it. For the near future,\nit is safe to predict a change on the Catholic side. Their Baltimore\ncouncil will, by force of associations which are full of significance,\ntend to produce change. In Baltimore the Catholic may properly remember\nhis claims to be and live an American of the Americans. That church has\nhad a vast body of foreigners to naturalize; it has done the work under\nan array of obstacles which seemed too formidable to be overcome. It is\na near day when the Americanism of the Catholics of this country will\ncome to the proof of its quality and value. At Baltimore the thoughtful\npriest must have been moved to remember what claims he has on the country\nand what claims the country has on him. We shall as a people suffer some\nbitter trials and humiliations if the Catholics are not to be genuine\nAmericans and ardent patriots. They are too many to be neutral or hostile.\n\n\nA POOR MAN\u2019S MOTOR.\n\nThe labor problem has not yet received a solution. Its central difficulty\nis to secure to workmen a fair share of the blessings of life. No one\nsupposes that, taking the world together, they do now receive a fair\nshare. In this country, workmen have fared uncommonly well; but there is\na belief, resting on some facts, that the actual rewards of labor, as\nmeasured in the blessings of life, are rapidly declining, and must go\non declining under the existing industrial system. Some theories on the\nsubject are no longer tenable. The workman\u2019s theory that capital robs him\nis not sound. Money, once worth ten per cent., has fallen to three per\ncent. for perfectly safe loans; when higher interest is paid, it is paid\nfor conducting the business of lending (as in banks) or for risks of the\nloans. The government can borrow a thousand and more millions at two and\none-half to three per cent.\u2014and this shows what a hard time of it capital\nis having. The risks of manufacturing probably bleed labor; but the\nbleeding is not in the form of which the workman thinks. It is not profit\nbut loss which drives the lancet in to the hilt. Political economists\nhave shown (and they are entirely unanimous) that the high profits\nproduce a competition which brings down profits. Capital is cheap; large\nprofits can be made only in conditions which are monopolistic.\n\nOur system of industrial exchange has one very weak place, called\n_credit_. This credit is a hole in the net through which industrial gains\nare dropped into the bottomless sea; and the system is so fixed upon us\nthat there is no hope of reform in our day. To pay when we buy more and\nmore offends something in our make-up. A wise man proposed that one, two\nand five dollar bills be abolished, in order that we might circulate, as\nthe French do, a large amount of silver. A member of Congress immediately\namended the suggestion thus: \u201cNo. Put this silver in the United States\nTreasury, and let us use \u2018silver notes.\u2019\u201d We insist upon having even a\ncredit money, and object to \u201cthe trouble\u201d of handling coin. This refined\nand transcendental sentiment, or taste, or \u00e6stheticism about coin runs\nthrough us. The man who always pays, as well as the sneak who never pays\nif he can avoid it, says, \u201cCharge it,\u201d when he buys goods. Goods are\nsold by the manufacturer to the jobber on credit; the jobber sells to\nthe wholesale houses on credit; the wholesale dealers sell to retailers\non credit; the retailers sell to consumers on credit. It is within the\nmark to say, that more is lost in these four credit traps than capital\ngets\u2014much more. It is not, in fact, the capitalist, but the well-dressed\nand the shabbily-dressed thieves who cheat and rob labor.\n\nAt first sight, the reader will wonder how the losses of the four\ncredits come home to labor. We reply: they are merely the aggregate\nof the risks incurred in making staple goods\u2014all other risks being\ninsignificant in such manufacturing. The order of things is like this:\nwhat the jobber loses the manufacturer loses by the failure of the\njobber. The jobber loses what the dealers between him and the consumers\nlose. Not quite all, perhaps, for the capitals of the dealers must be of\nsome worth; but the consumer has, in the end, to pay all these losses,\nand the result is an enhanced price. In other words, a bale of goods\nstarts out with a burden of risk which grows as it travels, and adds to\nthe cost of goods so much that the consumer can not buy as much as he\nneeds. The from 250 to 300 or more failures each week tell a part of the\nworkman\u2019s trouble; another vast body of his losses does not go to record\nat all. It is the fifty-cents-on-a-dollar compromise system between\nwholesalers and retailers.\n\nWorkmen ought to get what consumers pay, less three per cent. on capital\nand about as much more for risk of ordinary kinds and a fair cost of\nhandling goods. We maintain a system of extraordinary risks, called a\ncredit system, which consumes two or three times as much as capital. It\nis plain that workmen can not get (we write of such staples as cotton\ncloth) pay for lost goods. Wherever they are lost, the sums lost can not\nreach labor. We do not enter into the details of this argument; we have\nsuggested reasons for believing that a cash system would stop one of the\ngreat leaks of the industrial system.\n\nThere are other great wastes in the existing forms of industrial\nmanagement which, like the credit system, come out of the bones and blood\nof the workman. We pass them by to suggest that the industrial system\nhas gone wrong, and can never go right, under the empire of steam. Steam\nis a centralizer. It concentrates industry, and by packing laborers into\na small compass _enhances the cost of living_ and enlarges the area of\nlosses on sales and of distress in hard times. And to go at once to our\nsolution of the labor problem, we will describe it as decentralization.\nA writer in _MacMillan\u2019s Magazine_ suggests that electric motors may\nprove to be the decentralizing force. Of course, it is not in the power\nof any material agent to effect great changes except as it co\u00f6perates\nwith our inclinations. The expensiveness of steam machinery co\u00f6perated\nwith our inclination to congregate in cities. We have congregated there.\nThe larger half of our growth is in towns. The result is dear food, dear\nrent, pestilential diseases, moral degradation. When we grow sick of the\nexperiment of building a modern Babel, our inclinations may co\u00f6perate\nwith a motor energy which is plebeian and democratic. Let us suppose,\nthen, that a workman can make any of the innumerable small articles which\nhave iron or steel for a material. This workman has his bits of machinery\nand tools in his house. They do not cost more than a carpenter\u2019s chest\nof tools. He has the skill; he has the tools; he wants power. But a\nneighbor tells him that he can buy in quart or gallon cans stored-up\nelectricity, and by a little contrivance, which may cost fifty cents, he\ncan attach his machinery to this democratic motor and be an independent\nworkman, with all the advantages of machinery. He can make all these iron\nand steel contrivances in the middle of a prairie and sell them to his\nneighbors for cheap food and cheap rent. The _divisibility_ of electric\npower may make it the poor man\u2019s friend. You can not buy five cents\u2019\nworth of steam; there is now no reason to doubt that electric power may\nbe sold in five-cent packages if there is a demand for it in such form.\nThere is a vast aggregate of small manufacturing. Of course there are\ngreat industries to which our solution would not apply; but if half the\nlaborers of the country could work profitably, each man by himself,\nin his own house\u2014just as cobblers work\u2014then the strain on the large\nindustries, such as iron and steel making, would be so far reduced that\nworkmen in those branches would probably command, permanently, excellent\nwages.\n\nThis article aims to do nothing more than to open a window of hope. We\nshall need to change a great deal; but the poor man\u2019s motor will probably\nhelp us to change. A good many monopolies have grown up because steam\nfavored their growth; others are the fruits of general ignorance. Under\nthe sway of ignorance, the trade-mark becomes a tyrant, a grasping\nmonopolist. For example, there are no patents on sewing machines, but\nmachines of certain firms, wearing a certain trade-mark, command a\nmonopoly price. Any good mechanic can build a good sewing machine for ten\ndollars. There might be men in every town engaged in supplying the local\nwants in the matter of sewing machines. No large factories, no heavy\ntransportation bills, no eloquent traveling agents would be needed. There\nare thousands of things to which the same rule will apply when there is\na poor man\u2019s motor and such a diffusion of intelligence that the poor\nman can make, and people will buy, the home-made articles. The empire of\nthe trade-mark will disappear when the motor and the intelligence come\nalong, and both seem to be coming. It will not be necessary\u2014if the motor\narrives\u2014to herd people together like cattle, or to transport goods long\ndistances. The workmen will carry their kits of tools to the villages and\nlive independently and cheaply in the midst of their customers. Is this a\ndream? But why should it not come true?\n\n\nREFORMED CRIMINALS.\n\nThe French government is considering a proposition to restore the custom\nof deporting criminals. It is remarkable that the practical argument on\nthis subject is decidedly favorable to this system. The argument against\nit is a sentimental one. The unsettled question about punishments for\nother than capital offenses is, how to secure the reform of criminals.\nUnder the best managed prisons, reform of a lasting kind is rare. The\nbest management seems to succeed until the prisoner is set at liberty.\nThen the reformed man finds himself an object of suspicion to orderly\npeople and of special interest and sympathy to the criminal classes.\nThe former will not employ him and the latter will. The result is, in\nmost cases, that he relapses into crime. Perhaps there is some hope that\nthe better classes may improve in their habits; but unless they do, it\nis well nigh useless to reform criminals in prison. The poor men who\ncome out into an unsympathetic world which does not believe in their\nreformation, and in which unreformed ex-convicts are numerous enough to\nkeep the general distrust of their class alive, have nothing like a fair\nchance to begin the world over again. If there were any hope that prisons\ncould be perfected so as to reform all convicts, public prejudice could\nbe broken down; but it is too much to expect that the general public will\nacquire a habit of distinguishing between good and bad ex-convicts. This\nis the difficulty for which no device has yet been found which will take\nit out of the path of humanitarian prison discipline. No faith is more\nstable than that which, among the public at large, affirms the total\ndepravity of _some_ men; especially of ex-convicts.\n\nTurning to penal colonies, experience is most favorable to the belief\nthat it opens the road to reform. The reports on the British penal\ncolonies are especially cheerful from this point of view. The majority\nof the criminals sent abroad during three centuries reformed their\nlives. Australia ought to be the most disorderly country on the globe,\nif deporting criminals to a colony could produce a bad society. But\nnotwithstanding the fact that England sent a large criminal population to\nthat colony, Australia is one of the most orderly and respectable of the\nEnglish dependencies. The only possible explanation is that the official\nreports are true, and that the convicts did actually reform. If Botany\nBay did not reform them, the honest opportunities of that vast island\ndid co\u00f6perate with their good purpose and promote their reform. England\ndeported criminals from 1597 to 1867\u2014a period of 270 years. During the\nWar of Independence she suspended deportation and enrolled her convicts\nin the armies sent to subjugate us. In 1838 more than 100,000 criminals\nhad been sent to Australia. An official report sets forth that in 1850\nan enumeration of ex-convicts in Australia accounted for 48,600, and\nthat all of them except an insignificant fraction were living honestly.\nBut it will be said that Australia protested against the continuance of\nthe system. This is not the exact fact. In dealing with the question,\nthe English government threw upon the Australians all the expense of the\nsurveillance of the deported criminals. The colonial government demanded,\nmost righteously that England should pay this bill of expense; but\nrather than pay it the English Parliament chose to abolish the system of\ndeportation. The colonists did make sentimental objections to receiving\nconvicts, but they did so on the ground that the cost of watching the\ncriminals of England was unjustly thrown upon them. A French writer\nremarks that in this case, as in the quarrel with us, the money question\nwas allowed to prevail over statesmanship. The British ex-convict is\nworse off than our own because there are fewer opportunities for men\nunder the reproach of prison service.\n\nThe French proposition to resort again to penal colonies, or rather\nto dumping ship-loads of criminals on new and undeveloped countries,\nsuggests the seriousness of the question. Every French colony will\nobject to receiving the vicious cargoes of humanity; but the objections\nwill lose their violence if the home government shall send a proper\nproportion of French gold with each cargo. The testimony on the subject\nseems to show that if the transported men are such as to give signs of\nreal reform, ninety-five per cent. of them will make good citizens. The\nopen country, the new moral scenery, the necessities of that new world,\nconspire with good resolutions to maintain reformed habits. What shall\n_we_ do with our reformed prisoners? It is not improbable that in a few\nyears England will imitate France and restore the system of deportation.\nWhy should not we make an experiment? Alaska, at least, might safely be\nused for the purpose. It would not be difficult to devise a system under\nwhich the best class of reformed men should be offered land and a small\noutfit in some remote corner of our country. By selecting the best, and\nmaking their removal voluntary, we might save to society the larger part\nof the men whom our prisons reform. We do not wish to disguise the fact\nthat, however remote the place, the men who have lived by crime and\nescaped punishment would endanger the virtue of the ex-convict. But the\ncriminal classes do not flow to the farthest frontiers except in scanty\nstreams; and the Alaskan territory is as yet as safe as a wilderness can\nbe. Some scheme of the sort is worth the devising. We are making little\nheadway under our present best systems, simply because the ex-convict has\nno chance. Can he be given a fair chance?\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S NOTE-BOOK.\n\n\nThe Civil Service Reform League\u2014and every reform is dependent upon an\norganization\u2014has addressed a letter to President-elect Cleveland, asking\nhim what he proposes to do about removals from office. Mr. Cleveland\nanswers, with full information, that he believes in the doctrine of civil\nservice reform. We think that the practical application of the letter to\nthe civil service will make a real and safe basis for judgment. Till we\nsee this, we deem it wise not to express an opinion.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe old \u201cLiberty bell,\u201d which was on exhibition during the Centennial at\nPhiladelphia, has been taken to the New Orleans Exposition in charge of\na committee. The council of Philadelphia passed a resolution authorizing\nits removal from Independence Hall for that purpose.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOur national Congress is the subject of a shameful scandal, and the\nworst feature of it is, our Senators and Representatives know it, but\nfail to correct it themselves. It is this: By figures prepared by the\nPublic Printer, it appears that during the last four congresses nearly\nsix hundred speeches have been published in the \u201cCongressional Record\u201d as\na part of the debates and proceedings of Congress, but not one of them\nwas ever delivered in the House of Representatives. Here is a number of\nprinted but undelivered speeches of Senators. This is an unnecessary\nexpense entailed on the government. It is a falsehood and makes the\n\u201cRecord\u201d a lie, for you can not tell by reading it what has been said\nor done in Congress. Senator Vest has introduced a resolution into the\nSenate to abolish the practice, but it is still an open question whether\na body of men who do such things will have the moral courage to vote\ntheir undelivered speeches out of the \u201cRecord.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOur readers will find the article by General John A. Logan, elsewhere\nin this impression, full of interesting and very remarkable statements\nconcerning rudimentary education in the different states. We think\nhis points concerning the common schools in the Southern states will\nbe a surprise to many people. Another article on the subject from the\nGeneral\u2019s pen will appear in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for March.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA number of _Bradstreet\u2019s_, issued in the latter part of December, shows\nthat at that time the whole number of men out of employment in the\nUnited States, because the establishments had shut down, and by reason\nof strikes, etc., was 316,000, or thirteen per cent. of the whole number\nemployed in 1880, which was 2,452,749.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nConcerning General B. F. Butler, it is announced that he has signed an\nagreement with a publishing house to write his political reminiscences,\nin two volumes, for which he is to receive $50,000 in cash and a royalty\nbeside. The advent of Messrs. Blaine and Butler into the literary world\nis suggestive. It is altogether probable that both of these men regard\nliterary fame, when compared to political favor, as a more substantial\nand enduring quantity, and believe that their names will live longer\nin literature than in politics. Of course, there may be other motives\nprompting them, but to some men _fame_ hath its peculiar charms.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIt was a surprise and sorrow to Christian people to learn that the\nmanagement at New Orleans had decided to keep the Exposition open on the\nSabbath. The very liberal\u2014perhaps we ought to say lax\u2014ideas about the\nobservance of the Sabbath which prevail throughout the country deserve\nserious thought. Certainly to extend opportunities for making sight\nseeing and pleasure seeking part of the day\u2019s work should be emphatically\ndiscouraged.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne of Chautauqua\u2019s staunchest friends and most devoted workers, the Rev.\nS. McGerald, has entered a new field of work. In a recent issue of the\nBuffalo _Christian Advocate_ we find his name announced as the future\neditor of that paper. Mr. McGerald\u2019s new and important position is sure\nto be well filled. He has the hearty good wishes of all Chautauquans in\nhis new enterprise.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Indians of Arizona made an exhibit at the recent fair of that\nterritory, which ought to open the public mind to the degree of\ncivilization which some Indians have attained, and suggest, as well, the\npossibility of such civilization for all Indians. The first premium for\nthe best modern plow displayed was awarded them, and to show their taste\nfor the antique as well as the modern, it may be mentioned that a wooden\nplow was displayed which was an exact counterpart of those used 2,000\nyears ago in the valley of the Nile.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere is no doubt of it\u2014the cause of much human failure and misery is\ninsomnia. Mr. Gladstone has found the only panacea in Christendom which\nprevents and cures this dread disease, and he gave the secret to the\nworld recently, when he said: \u201cI never allow business of any kind to\nenter my chamber door. In all my political life I have never been kept\nawake five minutes by any debate in Parliament.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nNow that Mark Twain is attempting to become his own publisher, it may be\nof interest to read the record of his occupations. He has been in turn,\npractical printer, steamboat pilot, private secretary, miner, reporter,\nlecturer and book-maker. Should he succeed in his publishing scheme,\nhe may start a fashion among successful writers which will be hard on\npublishing houses.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA winter resort where the thermometer falls frequently to 40\u00b0 below zero,\nis fully launched at Saranac Lake, in the Adirondacks. The hotels are\nreported full, and prices of lots have gone up with the usual nimbleness\nwhich characterizes embryo resorts. If peculiar, this new fashion may\nserve as a blessing to the idle and half sick people who are apt to\npatronize fashionable resorts by bringing into use many vigorous and\nhealthful winter sports.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe wonderful Fish River caves, discovered last year in New South Wales,\nhave been given a new name by the government of that country, and will\nhenceforth be known as the Jenolan caves. Astonishing discoveries are\nreported to have been made there recently. Our own Kentucky wonder begins\nto dwindle before the reports of these new subterranean palaces and\ngardens.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA reading people we know ourselves to be, but it is rather astonishing to\ndiscover that we publish twelve times as many daily papers as the United\nKingdom. _The Athen\u00e6um_ calls attention to the fact that while the United\nStates has one daily paper to every 10,000 inhabitants, the English have\none to every 120,000. It would be gratifying if we could feel sure that\nthe quality stood in the same ratio.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe work of the Chautauqua University is attracting attention far and\nwide. In a recent issue of the _Irish Christian Advocate_, published in\nBelfast, we notice in answer to a correspondent\u2019s query, as to \u201cWhat is\nthe Chautauqua University?\u201d a long and enthusiastic article upon the\nplan. The adaptation of the \u201cChautauqua Idea\u201d to all people and all\ncountries is very wonderful.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA lady is said to have recently offered $50,000 to the Boston school\nauthorities, to be devoted to the filling of the teeth of children whose\nparents were too poor to employ dentists. Should she devote her money\nto the purchase of tooth brushes and toothpicks, and employ a police of\nteeth, who would compel their daily use by children from babyhood up, she\nwould confer an inestimable benefit upon future generations.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrances Power Cobbe, well known to the readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN,\nconcludes her powerful article on \u201cA Faithless World,\u201d in the December\nissue of _The Contemporary Review_, with these strong words: \u201cWe have\nbeen told that in the event of the fall of religion, \u2018life would remain\nin most particulars and to most people much what it is at present;\u2019 it\nappears to me, on the contrary, that there is actually _nothing_ in life\nwhich would be left unchanged after such a catastrophe.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA wise thing is being done in London. A series of popular lectures upon\nthe subject of precautions\u2014national, local and personal\u2014to be taken\nagainst cholera, has been begun. Now that the menace of this dread\ndisease hangs over our own country, it would be a sensible plan for\ncities and villages to provide a similar course of instruction. It could\nbe easily arranged, too.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe are happy to extend congratulations to a well known contributor to\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN, Mr. C. E. Bishop. Mr. Bishop was married in Buffalo,\nDecember 31st, to Miss Emma Mulkins, of that city. As the former editor\nof the Jamestown (N. Y.) _Journal_, of the Buffalo _Express_, and at\npresent of _The Countryside_, of New York, as an editorial writer on _The\nAssembly Herald_, as the author of \u201cPictures in English History,\u201d and of\nfrequent entertaining articles in our columns, Mr. Bishop is widely and\nfavorably known.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe assignee\u2019s sale of the stock of imported books and fine art\npublications of Mr. J. W. Bouton, of New York, is now advertised. It\nis a real shock to know that this rare collection must be sacrificed.\nFor years his rooms have been a resort for book lovers, and a liberal\neducation to the loiterers about his counters. Perhaps there is no\ncollection in America, outside of the libraries, the sale of which would\ncause such general regret.\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR FEBRUARY.\n\n\nCOLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH.\n\nArticles on Plato may be found in the following works: Plato\u2019s\n\u201cRepublic,\u201d De Quincey; \u201cPlato,\u201d Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica; Smith\u2019s \u201cGreek\nand Roman Biography,\u201d at the beginning of the various editions of his\nworks; Mahaffey\u2019s \u201cClassical Greek Literature;\u201d M\u00fcller\u2019s \u201cLiterature of\nAncient Greece;\u201d \u201cAgainst the Atheists,\u201d _Christian Examiner_, vol. xl,\np. 108; \u201cLife of Plato,\u201d _Methodist Quarterly_, vol. xx, p. 368; \u201cOn the\nImmortality of the Soul,\u201d _Christian Repository_, vol. xxii, p. 507;\n\u201cPlatonism,\u201d _Baptist Quarterly_, vol. i, p. 22; \u201cEthical Philosophy,\u201d\n_American Church Repository_, vol. xxii, p. 175.\n\nP. 86.\u2014\u201cCicero,\u201d etc. The \u201cDe Republica\u201d was a dialogue on what is\nthe best form of the state; the \u201cCity of God\u201d treats of the body of\nChristians in distinction from the City of the World, or those out of the\nchurch. St. Augustine wrote this book after the sack of Rome by Alaric to\nanswer the assertion that the destruction of the country was a punishment\nfor the desertion of the pagan deities; \u201cUtopia\u201d is the story of an\nimaginary land supposed to have been discovered by a companion of Amerigo\nVespucci, where the laws were perfect; the \u201cNew Atlantis\u201d was an island\nin the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, where Bacon represents himself to\nhave been shipwrecked, and where he found societies for cultivating art\nand the sciences.\n\nP. 96.\u2014\u201cD\u00e6mon.\u201d \u201cThis demon or genius of Socrates, which was not\npersonified by himself, was regarded by Plutarch as an intermediate being\nbetween gods and men, by the fathers of the church as an evil spirit,\nby Le Clerc as one of the fallen angels, by Ficino and Dacier as a\ngood angel, and by later writers as a personification of conscience or\npractical instinct, or individual tact.\u201d\n\nP. 98.\u2014\u201cOrigen.\u201d (185?-254?) This eminent writer of the early church\nfathers made an effort to reconcile Platonism with Christianity, and in\nhis commentaries on the Scriptures used the allegorical method almost\nentirely. \u201cThe literal sense is always secondary; and the critic never\nfails where it is possible to find in the simplest fact or the plainest\nexhortation some hidden meaning.\u201d\n\nP. 99.\u2014\u201cLemma.\u201d When in demonstrating a proposition a second proposition\nis introduced and assumed as true, or demonstrated for immediate use, it\nis called a _lemma_.\n\nP. 100.\u2014\u201cOneida Community.\u201d A society founded at Oneida, New York State,\nby one John Humphrey Noyes, a perfectionist. He introduced into this\ncommunity his peculiar views, persuading them to practice a community of\nwomen and of goods, to allow women equal business and social privileges\nwith the men, and to live in a \u201cunitary home.\u201d\n\nP. 104.\u2014\u201cSilenus.\u201d An attendant of Bacchus. He is represented as a very\nugly old man, fat, with a bald head and pug nose, and always intoxicated.\nGenerally he rode an ass or was carried by the satyrs. Silenus was also\nrepresented as an inspired prophet. When drunk and asleep he was in the\npower of mortals who could compel him to sing and prophesy by surrounding\nhim with chains of flowers.\n\nP. 105.\u2014\u201cMarsyas.\u201d See C. L. S. C. Notes, page 57 of THE CHAUTAUQUAN for\nOctober.\n\n\u201cCorybantian reveler.\u201d So called from the Corybantes, the priests of\nCybele in Phrygia. They celebrated her worship in the wildest, most\nfrenzied dances. The drum and cymbal accompanied this dance.\n\nP. 107.\u2014\u201cBrasidas.\u201d The most famous of the Spartan leaders in the\nPeloponnesian War. After taking many Athenian cities in Macedonia he\nwas killed at Amphipolis, where he defeated Cleon. He was honored by the\ninhabitants as a hero.\n\n\u201cNestor.\u201d An aged Greek hero of the Trojan war, whose wisdom and advice\nwere considered equal to the gods. \u201cAntenor\u201d held a position among the\nTrojans similar to that of Nestor among the Greeks. His advice, however,\nwas not followed by his countrymen, and he offered to deliver the city to\nthe Greeks. Upon the capture of Troy he was spared by the victors.\n\nP. 108.\u2014\u201cBoreas.\u201d The North Wind was fabled to live in Thrace. The\nallusion here is to the story that he carried away Orithyia, the daughter\nof the king of Attica, for his wife.\n\n\u201cAgra;\u201d the demus south of Attica was called Agra. It contained two\ntemples; one to Diana, the other to Ceres.\n\n\u201cTyphon.\u201d A monster born of Tartarus and G\u00e6a, who attempted to revenge\nthe overthrow of the Titans. His head reached to heaven, his eyes poured\nforth flame, and serpents were twined about his body. Jupiter killed him\nwith lightning.\n\nP. 109.\u2014\u201cAgnus Castus,\u201d or the \u201cchaste tree,\u201d the name given to a plant\nnative to the Mediterranean countries, which became associated with the\nidea of chastity, it is said, from the similarity of the name _agnus_ to\nthe Greek word _chaste_. Grecian matrons strewed their couches with its\nleaves during the feast of Ceres, and in the convents of Southern Europe\na syrup made of its fruit was used by the nuns.\n\n\u201cAchelous.\u201d A river god\u2014a son of Oceanus\u2014from the earliest times\nworshiped generally throughout Greece. At one time he took the form of\na bull in a fight with Hercules, who conquered him and took one of his\nhorns. This horn the Naiads afterward changed into the horn of plenty.\n\nP. 118.\u2014\u201cSunium.\u201d The promontory forming the southern extremity of\nAttica; a town of the same name stood upon it.\n\nP. 121.\u2014\u201cSwan\u2019s Utterance.\u201d Referring to the fable told of the swan, that\nit sings its sweetest song at death\u2014\u201cthe sweetest song is the last he\nsings.\u201d Thus in \u201cOthello,\u201d \u201cI will play the swan and die in music.\u201d\n\nP. 127.\u2014The chapter on \u00c6schylus may be supplemented by the following\nreadings: \u201cTheory of Greek Tragedy,\u201d De Quincey; M\u00fcller, Mure, and\nMahaffy on \u00c6schylus, in their histories of Greek Literature; Talfourd\u2019s\n\u201cTragic Poets of Greece,\u201d from \u201cHistory of Greek Literature;\u201d Symond\u2019s\n\u201cStudies of the Greek Poets,\u201d _Christian Examiner_, Vol. xliii, p. 140;\n_Contemporary Magazine_, Vol. iii, p. 351; _Biblia Sacra_, Vol. xvi, p.\n354; _North American Review_, Vol. lxvii, p. 407.\n\nP. 129.\u2014\u201cCyprid.\u201d A poem, author unknown, called Cyprid or _Cypria_,\n\u201ceither because the author came from Cyprus, or because it celebrated the\nCyprian goddess, Aphrodite, and detailed from the commencement her action\nin the Trojan war.\u2026 The poem was an introduction to the \u2018Iliad,\u2019 telling\na vast number of myths and leading the reader from the first cause of the\nwar up to the tenth year of its duration. It is easy to see that such a\nvast subject, loosely connected, must have failed to afford the artistic\nunity which underlies the course of the \u2018Iliad.\u2019\u201d\n\n\u201cLittle Iliad.\u201d A poem by Lesches, a Lesbian. It relates the complete\nstory of the sack of Troy, from the contest of Achilles to the fall\nof Troy. The \u201cCompetition for the Arms,\u201d we have had in the \u201cIliad.\u201d\n\u201cPhiloctetes\u201d was the chief archer of the Greeks, having been instructed\nby Hercules in the use of the bow. On the voyage to Troy he was bitten\nby a snake and left on the island of Lemnos. In the tenth year of the\nwar the oracle declared the city could not be taken without the arrows\nof Hercules. Philoctetes was brought, and having slain Paris, the city\nwas taken. \u201cNeoptolemus,\u201d a son of Achilles, was one of the warriors that\nthe oracle declared necessary for the capture of Troy. He was one of the\nheroes concealed in the wooden horse. \u201cEurypylus\u201d who came from Ormenion\nto Troy, played a prominent part in battle, slaying many Trojans; he\nwas wounded by Paris. \u201cUlysses Mendicant,\u201d the story of the wanderings\nof Ulysses. \u201cLac\u00e6na,\u201d the Laced\u00e6monian woman, referring to Helen.\n\u201cIllii-persis,\u201d treats of the plundering of Troy after the capture, and\n\u201cApoplus,\u201d of the sailing away of the ships. \u201cSinon.\u201d After the wooden\nhorse was finished, Sinon mutilated his body and allowed himself to be\ncaptured by the Trojans. He told them that he had been maltreated by his\ncountrymen, and that if they (the Trojans) would drag the horse into the\ncity they would conquer the Greeks. After the Trojans had followed his\nadvice he let the Greeks out of the horse. \u201cTroades,\u201d the Trojans.\n\nP. 134.\u2014\u201cTrilogy.\u201d A set of three dramas. Each one is in itself complete,\nbut the three are related, one event following or growing out of another,\nas in Shakspere\u2019s Henry VI.\n\nP. 137.\u2014\u201cNew made kings.\u201d This allusion will be explained by reading the\nstory of Cronos and Zeus on page 77 of THE CHAUTAUQUAN for November.\n\nP. 144.\u2014\u201cSweet Muse-Mother.\u201d See page 73 of \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d\n\nP. 145.\u2014\u201cMantic.\u201d Prophetic; derived from the Greek word for prophetic.\n\nP. 152.\u2014\u201cProtagonist.\u201d One who fills the leading part in a drama, and\nhence in any enterprise.\n\nP. 153.\u2014\u201cEttrick Shepherd.\u201d A name given to the Scottish poet, James\nHogg. His home was in the Ettrick forest, and when a boy he had been\na shepherd. The reference here is to the articles he contributed to\nthe series of papers which appeared in _Blackwood_ between 1822 and\n1835, called Noctes Ambrosian\u00e6, and which were principally written by\nChristopher North.\n\nP. 154.\u2014\u201cSophocles.\u201d In connection with the chapter on Sophocles the\nfollowing readings may be used: \u201cClassical Writers,\u201d an essay on his\nlife and writings by Campbell; Talfourd\u2019s \u201cHistory of Greek Literature,\u201d\nchapter on \u201cThe Tragic Poets of Greece;\u201d Symond\u2019s \u201cStudies of the\nGreek Poets;\u201d _Baptist Quarterly_, Jan. 1877; Mahaffy\u2019s \u201cHistory of\nClassical Greek Literature;\u201d Mure\u2019s \u201cCritical History of the Language and\nLiterature of Ancient Greece;\u201d an account of the performance of \u201c\u00c6dipus\nTyrannus,\u201d at Harvard in May, 1881, will be found in _The Century_,\nNovember, 1881; _Harvard Register_, April, 1881; Boston _Sunday Herald_,\nMarch 27, 1881; New York _Evening Post_, April 22, 1881.\n\nP. 173.\u2014\u201cAb\u00e6an.\u201d From Ab\u00e6a, a town of Phocis, where stood a very ancient\ntemple and oracle of Apollo.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY.\n\nP. 13.\u2014The abbreviations used in the atomic symbols are taken from the\nLatin or Greek names, and when these differ from the English there seems\nto be no correspondence between the name of the element and its atomic\nsymbol; as _Au_ for gold.\n\nHydrogen is the lightest form of matter known, and the weight of its atom\nis taken as the unit of the system of weights. In the table the numbers\nin the column of atomic weights give the weight of one atom of each\nsubstance as compared with one atom of hydrogen. For instance, an atom of\naluminum is twenty-seven times as heavy as an atom of hydrogen.\n\nA-lu\u02c8mi-num; Br\u014d\u02c8m\u012dne; Caesium (k\u0113\u02c8si-um); Cerium (se\u02c8ri-um); Chlorine\n(kl\u014d\u02c8r\u012dne); Chr\u014d\u02c8mi-um; Di-dyn\u02c8i-um; Er\u02c8bi-um; Flu\u02c8or-\u012dne; G\u0103l\u02c8l\u012d-um;\nHy\u02c8dro-gen; Glu-cinum (glu-s\u012b\u02c8num); I-rid\u02c8\u012d-um; I\u02c8o-d\u012dne; Lan\u02c8tha-num;\nLith\u02c8\u012d-um; Manganese (mang\u02c8a-neze\u02cc); M\u014fl-yb-d\u0113\u02c8num; N\u012b-o\u02c8bi-um;\nN\u012b\u02c8tr\u014d-gen; Os\u02c8mi-um; Pal-l\u0101\u02c8d\u012d-um; Phos\u02c8ph\u014f-rus; Plat\u02c8\u012d-num, or\nPla-t\u012b\u02c8num; Po-tas\u02c8s\u012d-um; Rh\u014d\u02c8d\u012d-um; Ru-bid\u02c8i-um; Ru-th\u0113\u02c8n\u012d-um;\nScan\u02c8d\u012d-um; Se-l\u0113\u02c8n\u012d-um; Strontium (stron\u02c8sh\u012d-um); Tan\u02c8ta-lum;\nTel-lu\u02c8ri-um; Thal\u02c8li-um; Tho\u02c8ri-um; T\u012b-ta\u02c8ni-um; Tung\u02c8sten; U-r\u0101\u02c8ni-um;\nVa-n\u0101\u02c8di-um; Yt-ter\u02c8bi-um; Zir-c\u014d\u02c8ni-um.\n\nP. 19.\u2014\u201cGuyten de Morveau,\u201d gw\u0113\u02c8ton d\u0115h mor\u02c8v\u014d. (1737-1816.) A French\nchemist. He suggested a new nomenclature which was adopted by Lavoisier,\nand wrote a \u201cDictionary of Chemistry.\u201d\n\nP. 33.\u2014The symbols are to be read by calling the letters and the small\nnumbers one after the other, in the order in which they occur. If a\ncompound contains an element which requires two letters to express it,\nthe latter one, always a small letter, as on page 35, AgNO\u2083, it is to\nbe read in the same way, with a shorter pause between the A and g than\nbetween the other letters, as A-g\u2014N\u2014O-\u2083. Ag and O\u2083 might be compared to\nwords of two syllables. The number always belongs to the letter which it\nfollows.\n\nP. 60. \u201cSir Humphrey Davy.\u201d See C. L. S. C. Notes, page 59 of vol. v of\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\u201cBiot,\u201d Jean Baptiste (b\u0113\u02c8\u014d\u02cc). (1774-1862.) A French savant. His fame\nrests upon his mathematical, physical, and astronomical writings. Biot\u2019s\ndescription of Cavendish, translated from the French: \u201cThe richest of all\nlearned men, and probably, also, the most learned of all rich men.\u201d\n\nP. 63.\u2014\u201cLa Trappe.\u201d A Benedictine convent in France, famous for the\nausterity of its monks, founded in the twelfth century.\n\n\u201cVan Helmont.\u201d (1577-1644.) A Flemish physician, chemist, and\nphilosopher. He attempted a reform in medicine, but his system was\nso mingled with mysticism that it is not of much practical value. He\nsucceeded, however, in introducing much exactness into science.\n\n\n\n\nNOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN \u201cTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u201d\n\n\nHOW ENGLISH DIFFERS FROM OTHER LANGUAGES.\n\n1. Perhaps this absurdity, and the complications it involves, may be\nbetter illustrated by the following few lines from one of DeBertrand\u2019s\nnovels. (They might be found in a dozen others.)\n\n\u201cMadame,\u201d dit il, \u201cil y a l\u00e0 une [feminine] personne qui demand M. le\nBaron.\u201d\n\n\u201cQuelle [feminine] est cette [feminine] personne?\u201d\n\n\u201cC\u2019est un [masculine] monsieur,\u201d etc.[I]\n\nThus, it will be seen, both feminine and masculine articles must be used\nto designate the same object; and a person must be spoken of as feminine,\nalthough the person is a man; the reason being that _personne_, the\n_word_, is feminine.\u2014_Richard Grant White._\n\n[I] \u201cMadame,\u201d said he, \u201cthere is a person without who asks for\nthe Baron.\u201d\n\n\u201cWho is this person?\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is a gentleman,\u201d etc.\n\n2. For contrary to apparently reasonable assumption, the history of\nlanguage shows that minute and highly wrought grammatical forms are the\nsigns, or at least the accompaniments, not of advanced civilization\nand high culture, but of a rude and savage condition of society. The\nfurther we penetrate the obscure of antiquity, the more grammar we find.\nThe oldest language known to us, the Sanskrit, is the most complex and\nelaborate in its grammar; the youngest, English, is, to all intents and\npurposes, grammarless; and Sanskrit grammar is at least four thousand\nyears old. My readers will now see why it was that I said the minute\nforms and complicated grammatical relations of the Greek language are\nnot the signs of a high development of language, but were relics of\nbarbarism.\u2014_Richard Grant White._\n\n3. \u201cGalore,\u201d g\u0101-lore\u02c8. Plenty, abundance.\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\n1. \u201cFuller,\u201d Thomas. (1608-1661.) An English author and divine. \u201cThe\nstyle of all his writings is extremely quaint and idiomatic, in\nshort, simple sentences, and singularly free from the pedantry of his\ntimes.\u201d\u2014_American Cyclop\u00e6dia._\n\n2. \u201cRobert Hall.\u201d (1764-1831.) An English writer and preacher of the\nBaptist church. When he was eleven years of age his teacher said that he\ncould not keep up with the boy. No man in modern times ranked higher as\nan orator.\n\n3. \u201cGoulburn.\u201d (1818-\u2e3a.) An English clergyman. He was in 1859 head\nmaster of the Rugby School, in 1866 was made Dean of Norwich. He was a\nvoluminous and popular writer.\n\n4. \u201cBascom,\u201d Richard H. (1796-1850.) An American clergyman, bishop of the\nMethodist Episcopal Church, South. His works comprise sermons, addresses\nand lectures.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY.\n\n1. Transcriber\u2019s Note: This note was omitted in the original. Wikipedia\nhas to say: \u201cIn general in ancient Greece, each state, city or village\npossessed its own central hearth and sacred fire, representing the unity\nand vitality of the community. The fire was kept alight continuously,\ntended by the king or members of his family. The building in which this\nfire was kept was the Prytaneum, and the chieftain (the king or prytanis)\nprobably made it his residence.\u201d\n\n2. \u201cLavoisier,\u201d l\u00e4\u02c8vw\u00e4\u02c8ze-\u0101\u02cc. See Appleton\u2019s \u201cChemistry,\u201d pages 19, 21\nand 118. He was condemned to death by a revolutionary tribunal at Paris\non a frivolous charge brought against him as one of the farmers of the\ntaxes during the Reign of Terror.\n\n3. \u201cPhlogiston,\u201d flo-jis\u02c8ton. Stahl supposed it to be pure fire, fixed\nin combustible bodies in order to distinguish it from fire in a state of\nliberty.\n\n4. \u201cMagnesium.\u201d A shining, almost silver-white metal. When heated it may\nbe rolled out into very thin, long strips resembling ribbons, which will\nburn with an intense light. In burning it produces magnesium oxide or\nmagnesia, which falls as a fine white powder.\n\n5. \u201cDr. Priestly.\u201d See \u201cChemistry,\u201d page 118. (1733-1804.) An eminent\nEnglish divine and philosopher. His partiality to the French Revolution\nexcited the English against him, and in one of the riots his home,\nlibrary and manuscripts were destroyed by the fire kindled by an angry\nmob. His later home was in Northumberland, Pa. He wrote between seventy\nand eighty volumes on history, literature, theology and science.\n\n6. In a few volcanic districts steam escapes from the earth, which\ncontains small quantities of boric acid. These vapors are condensed into\nwater, which is again evaporated and the acid crystallized out. When this\nacid is mixed with alcohol and the solution set on fire it burns with a\ngreen flame. See \u201cChemistry,\u201d page 157.\n\n7. \u201cCorpuscles of the blood.\u201d Minute particles, both red and white,\nexisting in the blood, which can be seen under a microscope. In the human\nspecies the red corpuscles are thick and circular. They are so small that\nYoung says it would take 255,000 of them to cover a surface of a square\ninch. They are elastic and pliant, so that they can pass through blood\nvessels having a smaller diameter than themselves. The white corpuscles\nare more globular than the red, and contain more fat, and have the power\nof changing their form. These spontaneous changes have been thought by\nsome scientists a proof that they are microscopic animals. But this is\nscarcely a sufficient reason for admitting that they are animalcul\u00e6, as\nthe muscles of a body, when separated from it, often manifest apparently\nspontaneous movements.\n\n8. Phosphoric acid is always produced by burning phosphorus in air\nor oxygen. The experiment may be performed as follows, but before\nundertaking it see page 167 of the \u201cChemistry,\u201d and note with how much\ncare it must be handled: Place a fragment of carefully dried phosphorus\nin a small cup on a stand in the middle of a large plate, ignite it by\na hot wire, and place over it a bell-glass. White fumes will fill the\nglass and aggregate into small particles, which will fall to the plate,\npresenting the appearance of a miniature snow storm.\n\n9. Barium is a yellow, lustrous, malleable metal. It is used in\nfireworks, for the green color it gives off in burning.\n\n10. \u201cBayberries.\u201d The plant, called also wax myrtle, is a low, crooked\nshrub found throughout the United States, especially near the sea coast.\nIt grows to a height of from three to eight feet. The naked flowers\nappear in April and May, in clusters, of which from four to nine ripen\ninto dry berries. Plantations of them have long been cultivated in\nEurope, and they have been raised in Algeria. For many years they have\nbeen an article of commerce. A bushel of the berries will yield from four\nto five pounds of wax.\n\n11. \u201cStrontium.\u201d It takes its name from Strontian, in Scotland, where it\nwas first observed as a carbonate. It is a pale yellow metal, harder than\nlead. If strontium carbonate be dissolved in nitric acid and mixed with\ncombustible substances it will burn with a beautiful carmine red flame,\nand for this purpose is much used in fireworks.\n\n12. \u201cSodium.\u201d See \u201cChemistry,\u201d page 67. It is a lustrous, silver-white,\nsoft metal. When thrown upon water, if it be prevented from moving, or\nif the water be warm, it ignites, burning with its characteristic yellow\nflame.\n\n13. Extinguishing flame by carbon di-oxide. See \u201cChemistry,\u201d page 218.\n\n14. \u201cLignite.\u201d Also called brown coal. It is the most imperfectly\nmineralized form of coal. In some instances plants are so little changed\nthat they can easily be classified by the structure of the leaves and the\nfruit. The fiber has become so impregnated with bitumen that it burns\nwith its peculiar flame and smoke. The jet so much used in jewelry is\na black variety of lignite, very compact in texture, and taking a high\npolish.\n\n15. \u201cKohinoor,\u201d koh\u02cc-i-noor\u02c8 (mountain of light). This famous stone\nis now in possession of Queen Victoria. It was obtained before the\nChristian era in one of the mines of Golconda, and passed to successive\nsovereigns of India until it was borne away by a Persian conqueror in the\nearly part of the eighteenth century. In 1813 it was bought back by the\nruler of Punjaub. When Punjaub was annexed to the East India Company\u2019s\nterritory it was surrendered to the Queen of England. It is said to have\nweighed about 900 carats originally, but by cutting to have been reduced\nto a weight of nearly 279 carats. By recutting it was again reduced so\nas to weigh 186 carats, and at this time was shown (1851) at the Great\nExhibition. Since that time it has been again recut, for the third time,\nand now weighs 123 carats, and is estimated at $600,000. For the other\n\u201cParagons\u201d see \u201cChemistry,\u201d page 204. It is questioned whether the\n\u201cGrand Mogul\u201d is a pure diamond. The largest undoubted diamond is the\n\u201cOrloff,\u201d in the scepter of the Emperor of Russia. It weighs 194\u00be carats.\nThe \u201cRegent\u201d or \u201cPitt\u201d is thought to be the purest and most perfect\nbrilliant in Europe. It weighs now 136\u00be carats, but its original weight\nwas 410 carats, and the fragments split off when it was cut were valued\nat some thousand pounds. It was placed in the hilt of the sword of state\nby Napoleon I. The \u201cGrand Duke\u201d belongs to the Emperor of Austria, and\nweighs 134 carats. The \u201cStar of the South,\u201d found in Brazil, weighs 124\ncarats. The \u201cSancy\u201d weighs only 53\u00bd carats. It belongs to the Emperor of\nRussia.\n\n16. \u201cGolconda.\u201d An ancient city and fortress of India, once the\nmetropolis of the kingdom of Golconda. It is renowned for its diamonds,\nwhich are, in truth, only cut there.\n\n17. \u201cThe Dark Continent.\u201d Africa, so called because so little has been\nknown of it through all history; but through the zeal and enterprise of\nmodern explorers we are led to hope that \u201cthe day is not far distant when\nthe secret places of this land of mystery will be penetrated by the light\nof science and civilization.\u201d\n\n\nTEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE.\n\n1. \u201cMalice prepense.\u201d Malice aforethought, deliberately and previously\nplanned.\n\n2. \u201cProfessor Newman.\u201d See C. L. S. C. Notes in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for\nNovember 1884, page 115.\n\n3. \u201cCardinal Manning.\u201d (1808-\u2e3a.) An English Roman Catholic cardinal,\nthe author of several works. He is the son of the late William Manning,\nmember of Parliament, and governor of the Bank of England. He was\neducated at Oxford, as a member of the Church of England. In 1857 he\njoined the Catholics, and was ordained priest. In 1865 he was nominated\nby the pope Archbishop of Westminster, and in 1875 he was made cardinal,\nan office next in rank to that of pope. He is one of the most prominent\nmen in London, and the leading representative of the Roman Catholic\nChurch in England.\n\n4. \u201cThugs.\u201d A set of robbers and assassins who lived in India, and\nworshiped the goddess Kali. They roamed over the country in bands, and\nput to death by strangulation any traveler whom they met. The British\ngovernment has exterminated them.\n\n5. \u201cLeibnitz.\u201d See notes on the \u201cArt of Speech\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for\nNovember, 1884.\n\n6. \u201cLord Palmerston.\u201d (1784-1865.) A British statesman. He succeeded Lord\nAberdeen as prime minister in 1855, and retired in 1858, on account of\nthe defeat of a bill introduced with reference to the attempted murder of\nNapoleon III. by Orsini. In 1859 he was again made premier and held the\npost until his death.\n\n7. \u201cLoch Fyne.\u201d An inlet of the sea on the western coast of Scotland,\nrunning into Argyle for about forty miles, with an average width of five\nmiles. The town of Inverary stands near its head.\n\n8. \u201cHomberg.\u201d A town in Prussia, noted for the gambling which was\nextensively carried on there formerly, but which was suppressed by the\nPrussian government in 1870.\n\n\u201cBaden,\u201d or \u201cBaden-Baden.\u201d A German watering place situated on the Oos,\nat the foot of the Black Forest. It was formerly celebrated for the\ngaming tables found in the _Conversationshaus_, which was the principal\nresort for visitors. The licenses for gambling expired in 1872, and\nhave not since been renewed. Those who have read \u201cDaniel Deronda\u201d will\nremember that it was at Baden that Deronda first saw Gwendolen Harleth,\nwhen she was engaged in gambling. The description of the persons gathered\nround the long tables is very interesting and vivid, and gives a good\ninsight into fashionable life at Baden in those days.\n\n9. \u201cLord Brougham.\u201d (1779-1868.) Lord Chancellor of England. He took\na strong stand on the side of the suppression of the slave trade, and\nfavored Roman Catholic emancipation, and labored earnestly in the cause\nof popular education. As an orator he was second only to Canning.\n\n\nKITCHEN SCIENCE AND ART.\n\n1. \u201cAlkaloid.\u201d The name given to those extracts of vegetables which will\nunite with acids to form salts.\n\n2. \u201cCaffeine,\u201d caf-f\u0113\u02c8ine. The alkaloid of coffee; the same extract of\ntea is called th\u00e9ine. It is present in coffee to the extent of one per\ncent.; in tea from two to six per cent. It can be extracted by using\nacetate of lead. It has a bitter taste, and acts powerfully upon the\nsystem when taken in doses of from two to ten grains, causing palpitation\nof the heart, confusion of the senses, and sleeplessness.\n\n3. \u201cTheo-bromine.\u201d The alkaloid of chocolate, extracted in the same\nmanner as from tea or coffee.\n\n4. \u201cThea viridis,\u201d the\u02c8a vir\u02c8\u012d-dis. (Green tea.) The name given to that\nspecies of tea plant formerly supposed to yield green tea.\n\n5. \u201cCamilliace\u00e6,\u201d cam-mil\u02ccli-\u0101\u02c8ce-e. An order of plants comprising\ntrees or shrubs with alternate, simple, feather-veined leaves, and\nregular flowers.\n\n6. \u201cLoblolly bay.\u201d A tree found in the Southern States, growing to the\nheight of from thirty to eighty feet, having long, narrow leaves, and\nlarge, white flowers, about two inches across, and resembling the single\ncamellia.\n\n7. \u201cStuartia.\u201d Catesby. A shrub having deciduous leaves, and large,\nfragrant, white flowers.\n\n8. \u201cTannin.\u201d The astringent principle contained in a great variety of\nplants, which renders them capable of combining with skins of animals to\nform leather.\n\n9. \u201cTurmeric,\u201d tur\u02ccme\u02c8ric. A name given to the tuber-like root of\na plant found in Asia. As prepared for commerce the roots are of the\nsize of the little finger, and two or three inches long, of a yellowish\ncolor. They have an odor like ginger, and an aromatic taste. They form an\norange-yellow powder, which is used in dyeing. Prussian blue is prepared\nfrom prussic acid, potassium, and a solution of sulphate of iron. Gypsum\nis a native sulphate of lime, that, when calcined, forms plaster of Paris.\n\n10. \u201cCaper.\u201d The caper bush is a native of the south of Europe; it is\na climbing shrub which flowers all summer. The buds are gathered every\nmorning, and preserved in vinegar and salt. They have an agreeable\npungency of taste. \u201cPekoe.\u201d The young leaf buds of a kind of tea known as\nthe pekoe, which is the choicest of black teas, are gathered as early as\nApril, and sometimes mixed with other teas, to flavor them.\n\n11. \u201cCaseine,\u201d c\u0101\u02c8se-ine. An organic compound allied to albumen, found in\nmilk. It may be coagulated and separated from the milk by the application\nof rennet.\n\n12. \u201cCibber,\u201d sib\u02c8ber. (1671-1757.) An English poet, appointed to be poet\nlaureate in 1730. He figures in the \u201cDunciad.\u201d See THE CHAUTAUQUAN, vol.\nv, page 213.\n\n13. \u201cWaller.\u201d (1605-1687.) An English poet.\n\n14. \u201cCoffea Arabica,\u201d cof-fe\u02c8a A-ra\u02c8bi-ca.\n\n15. \u201cRubiace\u00e6,\u201d ru-bi-a\u02c8se-\u0113. An order of herbaceous plants of which\nthere are three or four hundred species; abounding chiefly in the\nnorthern hemisphere and upon the mountains in the tropics.\n\n16. \u201cBouvardias.\u201d A class of autumn and winter blooming house plants in\nthe northern climates. Leaves regular; flowers appear in clusters, and\nare something like the honeysuckle in form. They vary in color from a\npure white to a deep scarlet.\n\n17. \u201cKoran.\u201d The sacred book of the Mohammedans, and their chief\nauthority, also, in political, military, and ethical matters.\n\n18. \u201cCaffeone.\u201d A fragrant, volatile oil contained in coffee.\n\n19. \u201cSterculiace\u00e6,\u201d ster\u02cccu-li-a\u02c8se-\u0113. Large trees or shrubs, with\nsimple or compound leaves, and flowers like those of the mallow, except\nthat the anthers turn outward.\n\n20. \u201cMahernia,\u201d usually called _Mahernia odorata_, is an exotic flowering\nshrub cultivated in conservatories, mostly for its rich fragrance.\n\n\nHOUSEHOLD BEVERAGES.\n\n1. \u201cMade-over tea.\u201d In Chinese tea houses, large jars are kept, into\nwhich the dregs of all the tea that has been used are thrown. These\nexhausted leaves are dried, carefully rolled again, and thrown upon\nthe market for a second sale. It is said this tea is easily detected\nif coloring matter has been used, but when re-rolled without, only a\nchemical analysis can disclose the fraud.\n\n2. \u201cReliable.\u201d Much fault has been found by critics with this word. It\nis claimed that it has no right to a place in our language. _Able_ or\n_ible_ is a suffix which, added to the stem of a transitive verb, gives\nan adjective which may be defined by placing the word _able_ before the\npassive infinitive of the verb whose stem has been used; for example:\ntolerable, able to be tolerated; admissable, able to be admitted;\ndeniable, able to be denied, etc. But reliable means able to be relied\n_upon_. The preposition has to be supplied. The proper form of the\nadjective would be the awkward word, \u201crelionable,\u201d or \u201creliuponable.\u201d The\nword is favored in the dictionaries, but trustworthy is preferable.\n\n3. \u201cCosey.\u201d A wadded cap made to fit the tea-pot closely, and thus hold\nin the aroma and the heat.\n\n4. \u201cCaf\u00e9 au lait,\u201d c\u00e4-f\u0101 \u014d l\u0101.\n\n\nHUXLEY ON SCIENCE.\n\n1. \u201cAliases.\u201d The plural of alias (\u0101\u02c8le-as). Meaning another name, an\nassumed name.\n\n\nTHE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES.\n\n1. \u201cNapier,\u201d na\u02c8pe-er, John. (1550-1617.) An English mathematician.\n\u201cLogarithms\u201d are numbers so related to natural numbers that the\nmultiplication and division of the latter may be performed by addition\nand subtraction, and the raising to powers and the extraction of roots\nby the multiplication and division of the former. They are arranged in\ntables which can be readily understood and used, and they save enormous\ncalculations and labor.\n\n2. \u201cKepler,\u201d Johann. A German astronomer.\n\n3. \u201cMercator\u2019s Chart.\u201d In all the charts in use before Mercator\u2019s, curved\nlines were drawn representing the meridians and parallels. A vessel which\nfollowed these lines always receded too far from the equator, and, if\nland did not intervene, would describe a spiral course and finally reach\nthe pole. Mercator constructed a map as follows: A line, AB, was drawn\nrepresenting the equator, and was divided into 36, 24 or 18 equal parts\nfor meridians at 10\u00b0, 15\u00b0, or 20\u00b0 apart, and the meridians were then\ndrawn through them perpendicular to AB. The distance of the parallels and\nthe tropics, and the arctic circles were marked from the equator on the\nsides, and these points joined by straight lines. The map does not give a\nnatural representation, as the polar regions are immensely exaggerated.\nThe distortions in the form of the countries and the relative distances\nof places are rectified by making the degrees of latitude increase\nproportionably to those of longitude.\n\n4. \u201cQuadrant.\u201d Quadrants were used for surveying, making astronomical\nobservations, and, in navigation, for determining the meridian altitude\nof the sun, and from that the latitude of the observer. They were made of\na great variety of form and size to suit their several uses. The interest\nattaching to them at the present time is chiefly historical, as they have\nbeen superseded by the sextant and the full circle.\n\n\u201cDavis.\u201d An eminent English navigator of the latter part of the sixteenth\ncentury.\n\n\u201cHadley,\u201d John. An English mathematician of the early part of the\neighteenth century. An intimate friend of Newton.\n\n\n\n\nTALK ABOUT BOOKS.\n\n\nThat most remarkable poem of the Orient, the \u201cRub\u00e1iy\u00e1t\u201d[J] of Omar\nKhayy\u00e1m, has recently had the rare fortune of receiving from translator,\nartist and publisher an almost perfect treatment. Its translation places\nit among English classic poems, its illustration and make-up among\nAmerican classic art books. This poem, very imperfectly known among us,\nis the work of a Persian astronomer and poet, Omar Khayy\u00e1m, or Omar the\nTent-Maker, a native of Naishap\u00far, in Khorassan. He was born in the\nlatter half of the eleventh century, and became a favorite of the rulers\nof the realm. His life was, so goes the chronicle, \u201cbusied in winning\nknowledge of every kind, and especially in astronomy, wherein he attained\nto a very high pre\u0113minence. Under the Sultanate of Malik Shah, he came to\nMerv and obtained great praise for his proficiency in science, and the\nSultan showered favors upon him.\u201d Omar was an honest thinker; he refused\nthe hollow mysticism of the times, and framed a system which approaches\nEpicureanism. His views of life, his fruitless search for Providence, his\nsad conclusion,\n\n    \u201cI came like water, and like wind I go,\u201d\n\ntogether with his final refuge in the wine cup, with the command\n\n    \u201cDrink, for you know not whence you came nor why,\n     Drink, for you know not why you go, nor where,\u201d\n\nare the subjects of his \u201cRub\u00e1iy\u00e1t,\u201d or quatrains. In the original these\nverses have no connection. The translator, Mr. Edward Fitzgerald,\nselected those which seemed to him most suitable, and arranged them\ninto a sort of eclogue. This translation met with a hearty reception.\nMr. Fitzgerald had been fortunate enough to make Omar Khayy\u00e1m much more\nlucid and entertaining than Omar had made himself. An interpretation\nof the poem was undertaken in May 1883, by Elihu Vedder. The interest\nin the elegant volume just issued by Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co.,\ncenters, of course, about these illustrations. There is not a line of\nthe poem but what takes a new and powerful meaning under his treatment.\nIndeed, it seems as if in many cases the verses were but a key-note, the\ndrawing the completed strain. The artist seems to have been inspired\nby the same sense of mystery, sadness, and final devotion to pleasure\nwhich influenced the author. His idea of Omar\u2019s philosophy is most\nbeautifully represented in the picture called \u201cOmar\u2019s Emblem.\u201d In it life\nis represented by a whirling stream, upon which the mortal, under the\nform of a rose, has floated in. Along the stream the leaves are scattered\nhere and there, while crushed and half petalless the rose floats into\noblivion. This whirl of life surrounds what we may suppose to be the\nemblem which incessantly confronted Omar\u2019s mind\u2014a human skull; upon this\nis perched a singing nightingale\u2014a sign of the music which in spite of\nthe mockery of existence the poet always heard, and in which he found\nthe sole relief for living. The pictures include a wealth of suggestion\nwhich only diligent and sympathetic study discloses. They show surprising\nfancy and versatility, while at the same time the finish of each is most\nperfect.\n\nAmong the handsome books of the year must be classed Cassell\u2019s new\nedition of \u201cAtala,\u201d[K] Chauteaubriand\u2019s charming romance of Indian life\nand love. Though the story is far from filling our modern ideas of a\nnovel, it is one of those rare, pure love tales which never loses its\nhold upon us. It will always keep its place with \u201cUndine\u201d and \u201cPaul and\nVirginia.\u201d The present edition contains illustrations by Gustave Dor\u00e9,\nwhich, though inferior in some respects to later works by him, are still\nvery beautiful pictures. Only a few of the illustrations of the \u201cAtala\u201d\nshow that weird power and strong imagination for which Dor\u00e9 is so famous,\nbut what we miss there is quite made up by the interest we feel in his\nconceptions of American scenery, of which he knew nothing except from\ndescription. These conceptions, if sometimes very incorrect, are still\nfull of exuberant fancy. The binding and letter-press of the volume are\nsuperior, making a most charming gift book.\n\nThe \u201cProse Writings of William Cullen Bryant,\u201d[L] edited by Parke Godwin\nwill meet with a cordial welcome from all readers of good literature.\nThey appear in two volumes, and properly belong to a set called \u201cThe\nLife and Works of William Cullen Bryant,\u201d forming the fifth and sixth\nvolumes of the set. It was the thought of the editor at first to publish\nentire the orations, addresses, and various letters of Mr. Bryant,\nbut careful consideration led him to think that this would extend the\nwork beyond desirable limits; so it was confined to a few selections\nfrom the various departments in which the author displayed his power.\nVolume V of the set, or I of the \u201cProse Writings,\u201d contains several\n\u201cLiterary Essays,\u201d \u201cNarratives,\u201d and \u201cCommemorative Discourses\u201d on\nCooper, Irving, Halleck, and Verplanck. Volume II contains \u201cSketches of\nTravel,\u201d \u201cOccasional Addresses,\u201d comprising those on Shakspere, Scott,\nBurns, Goethe, Schiller, and many others; and \u201cEditorial Comments and\nCriticisms.\u201d The selections are all timely and well adapted to catch the\nreader\u2019s fancy and interest. There can scarcely fail to come to one,\nhowever, who is the possessor of these books, a feeling of regret that\nthe editor did not follow his original intention and give more of the\nwritings of the author. The wish to have at hand the complete works of\nthe great American, and to have them in as attractive a form as that in\nwhich Mr. Godwin has arranged them is strong enough to far outweigh his\nunjustifiable fear of making too voluminous a collection.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[J] Rub\u00e1iy\u00e1t of Omar Khayy\u00e1m, the Astronomer-Poet of Persia.\nRendered into English verse by Edward Fitzgerald, with an accompaniment\nof drawings by Elihu Vedder. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1884. Price,\n$25.\n\n[K] Atala. By Chauteaubriand. Translated by James Spence Harry.\nIllustrated by Gustave Dor\u00e9. Introduction by Edward J. Harding. Extra\ncloth, full gilt, $5.00: full Morocco, extra, $10. New York: Cassell &\nCo. 1884.\n\n[L] Prose Writings of William Cullen Bryant. Edited by Parke\nGodwin. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1884.\n\n\nBOOKS RECEIVED.\n\nEuphrasia and Alberta. Poetic Romances. By John Ap Thomas Jones.\nPhiladelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1884.\n\nFrench Conversation. By J. D. Gaillard. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1885.\n\nJournal of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, held\nin Philadelphia, May, 1884. Edited by the Rev. David S. Monroe, D.D. New\nYork: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe.\n\nThe Life of John Howard Payne. Author of Home, Sweet Home. With\nillustrations. By Gabriel Harrison. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co.\n1885.\n\nElements of Geometry. By Eli T. Tappan, LL.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co.\n1885.\n\nElements of English Speech. By Isaac Bassett Choate. New York: D.\nAppleton & Co. 1884.\n\nThe Life of the Rev. Philip William Otterbein. By the Rev. A. W. Dewey,\nA. M. With an introduction by Bishop J. Weaver, D.D. Dayton, Ohio: United\nBrethren Publishing House. 1884.\n\nThe Children of the Bible. By Fannie L. Armstrong. With an introduction\nby Frances E. Willard. New York: Fowler & Wells Co., Publishers. Price,\n$1.\n\nOutlines of Metaphysics. By Herman Lotze. Translated and edited by George\nT. Ladd. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1884.\n\nAppleton\u2019s Chart Primer. By Rebecca D. Rickoff. New York: D. Appleton &\nCo. 1885.\n\nThe A B C Reader. By Sarah F. Buckalew and Margaret W. Wells. New York:\nA. Lovell & Co.\n\nThe Philosophy of Ralph Cudworth. By Charles E. Lowry, A. M. New York:\nPhillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. 1884.\n\nElements of Calculus. By James M. Taylor. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1884.\n\nNotes on Ingersoll. By the Rev. L. A. Lambert. Buffalo, N. Y.: Buffalo\nCatholic Publication Company. 1884.\n\nThe Methodist Year Book for 1885. Edited by W. H. De Puy, D.D., LL. D.\nNew York: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe.\n\nOne Little Rebel. By Julia B. Smith. New York: Phillips & Hunt.\nCincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. 1884\n\nThe Story of the Resurrection. By William H. Furness, D.D. Philadelphia:\nJ. B. Lippincott & Co. 1885.\n\nSquare and Compass. By Oliver Optic. With illustrations. Boston: Lee and\nShepard. New York: Charles T. Dillingham. 1885.\n\nFriends in Feathers and Fur. For Young Folks. By James Johannot. New\nYork: D. Appleton & Co. 1885.\n\n\n\n\nSPECIAL NOTES.\n\n\nAmong the many beautiful things which art and taste and money combined\nto furnish for the holidays nothing surpassed the Christmas cards of L.\nPrang & Co. In design, coloring and finish it is difficult to see how\nthey could be improved. It will interest those of our readers who expect\nto visit the New Orleans Exposition to know that all Messrs. Prang &\nCo.\u2019s former prize cards and the frames, with consecutive proofs of a\nreproduction, have been sent to the Massachusetts department at New\nOrleans by special invitation of the State Commission. The collection of\nprize designs recently exhibited in New York and Boston by Mr. L. Prang\nis now, by special invitation, shown in the Art Institute in Chicago,\nand, in response to a similar request made by the managers of the Museum\nof Fine Arts at St. Louis, this collection of paintings will be sent to\nthat city later on.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe banquet of the C. L. S. C. Alumni, which was to have been in Boston\nin February, will be held at Lake View, Wednesday, July 22. The committee\ndecided upon this change when it was found that Chancellor Vincent,\nProfessors Hurlbut and Holmes, also Prof. Sherwin, could not be present\nin February.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nImportant to members of the Class of 1888. The first article on \u201cHow to\nmake Home Beautiful,\u201d which was published in _Alma Mater_ No. 2 last\nyear, will be mailed to all members of the class of 1888, during the\npresent year, 1884-5. We were unable to have this article reprinted in\ntime to accompany _Alma Mater_ No. 3, which was sent last month to all\nmembers of the C. L. S. C.\n\n                                                           J. H. VINCENT.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe last copy of _The Outlook_ published by the class of 1884 appeared in\nDecember. It contains much news of interest to the class, the class list\nof graduates as made up to November 1st, including 1,387 names, and the\neditor\u2019s farewell. _The Outlook_ has been a faithful and zealous advocate\nof the interests of the \u201cIrrepressibles.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPeople of all denominations loved and honored Bishops Simpson and Asbury\nof the M. E. Church. At the recent centennial celebration of that church\na fitting souvenir to these two noble men was displayed in the form of\nmedallions, on which were embossed the heads of the two bishops. These\nmedallions were mounted in a leather case lined with satin. It forms a\nbeautiful object for any one\u2019s collection of souvenirs.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201982 CLASS MOTTO.\u2014Members of the Pioneer class are reminded that the\nselection of a motto was remitted to a committee. Any member prepared to\nmake a suggestion in the matter is invited to send it to Lewis C. Peake,\nDrawer 2,559, Toronto, Canada. The general feeling of the class was that\nthe motto should be in English.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUA MUSICAL READING CLUB is a new department of Chautauqua\nwork. The course has been thoughtfully arranged in consultation with many\namong the most cultured musicians in the land, and is of such recognized\nmerit that, with the hearty approval of the faculty, it has been adopted\nin the New England Conservatory of Music at Boston. Information may be\nobtained concerning the C. M. R. C. by addressing W. F. Sherwin, Director\nC. M. R. C., Boston, Mass.\n\n\nC. L. S. C. GRADUATES.\n\nThe following list of graduates of the Class of 1884 appears according to\nstates. It has been prepared with care by the office secretary, Miss Kate\nF. Kimball.\n\nPersons whose names are marked * have died since graduation.\n\n\n_Maine._\n\n    Allen, Mrs. Almira L.\n    Beale, Miss Annie C.\n    Beck, the Rev. Charles A.\n    Bruce, Mrs. Eveleen\n    Buck, Mrs. F. R.\n    Estes, Miss Eva M.\n    Fletcher, Mrs. Sarah F.\n    French, Mrs. Emma M.\n    Grant, Mrs. Nellie\n    Hobart, Mrs. Augusta A.\n    Longfellow, Miss Mary O.\n    Lunt, Miss Mary K.\n    Page, Mrs. Geo. N.\n    Palmer, Mrs. Maria B.\n    Reynolds, Mrs. Mary J.\n    Robinson, Mrs. Frances H. B.\n    Sanborn, Miss Gulielma P.\n    Skinner, Miss Sarah E.\n    Varney, Miss Clara B.\n    Woodbury, Mrs. Mae B.\n\n\n_New Hampshire._\n\n    Avaun, the Rev. J. M.\n    Baker, Miss Nellie M.\n    Beckwith, the Rev. Geo. A.\n    Cleworth, Mrs. Cleora B.\n    Emerson, Miss Hattie E.\n    Farwell, Mrs. Marion L.\n    James, Mrs. Lizzie B.\n    Lane, John G.\n    Lewis, Mrs. Hannah E.\n    Moore, George W.\n    Pettengill, Miss Selina D.\n    Russell, Mrs. Helen I.\n    Senter, Miss Nella M.\n    Shepherd, Miss Betsey B.\n    Stiles, Miss Nellie\n    Worthley. Mrs. Emma L.\n\n\n_Vermont._\n\n    Clark, Mrs. Mary W.\n    Clark, Miss Susan E.\n    Farnham, Mrs. Roswell\n    Farr, Miss Hattie J.\n    Howell, Mrs. Elsie S.\n    Lovejoy, Miss Martha H.\n    Merrill, the Rev. Charles H.\n    Merrill, Mrs. Laura B.\n    Read, Miss Keziah H.\n    Sheldon, Mrs. Charles F.\n    Stedman, Miss Clara M.\n    Streeter, Miss Emilie E.\n    Thomas, Mrs. H., Jr.\n    Wires, Mrs. Eveline W.\n\n\n_Massachusetts._\n\n    Alexander, Miss Harriet I.\n    Allis, Miss Mary L.\n    Alvord, the Rev. Augustus\n    Anderson, William E.\n    Baber, Miss Eliza M.\n    Baber, Miss Fannie\n    Bacon, Mrs. Leora A.\n    Baker, Samuel E.\n    Ball, Miss Nettie\n    Ball, Miss Minnie L.\n    Ball, Miss Carrie E.\n    Batchelder, Miss Harriette S.\n    Blackmer, Miss Nellie E.\n    Blackmer, Miss Mary L.\n    Blake, Miss Evelyn A.\n    Blanchard, Frederic W.\n    Blanchard, Miss Isabel I.\n    Blanchard, Walter A.\n    Blodgett, Miss Maria L. C.\n    Borden, Miss Helen M.\n    Borden, Mrs. Harriet A.\n    Bosworth, Miss Mary E.\n    Bowers, George N.\n    Boyd, Miss Margaret W.\n    Bradford, Mrs. Helen M.\n    Bradford, Lemuel B.\n    Bridges, Mrs. Jennie L. C.\n    Brigham, Miss Mary M.\n    Brigham, Miss Helen F.\n    Brooman, Mrs. L. G.\n    Brown, Miss Nellie M.\n    Brown, Miss Lottie E.\n    Burgess, Miss Lucy A.\n    Burnett, Mrs. Hattie C.\n    Burns, Miss Mirriam A.\n    Buswell, Mrs. Clara L.\n    Caffin, Miss Mabel B.\n    Candlin, the Rev. Joseph\n    Candlin, Mrs. Ruth E.\n    Chapman, Mrs. Lizzie C.\n    Chapman, Miss Eva\n    Chase, Charlie S.\n    Chauncey, Mrs. Mary C.\n    Cheever, Miss Lizzie H.\n    Chenery, Miss Hattie M.\n    Cheney, Miss A. Oreanna\n    Clutia, Mrs. S. P.\n    Coburn, Mrs. S. A.\n    Cochran, Miss Emma A.\n    Cogswell, Miss Kate A.\n    Colesworthy, William G.\n    Coombs, Miss J. Fannie\n    Cowan, Mrs. P. D.\n    Crane, Miss Mary L.\n    Crosby, Miss Sarah J.\n    Cummings, Miss Mary E.\n    Cummings, Mrs. Ada A.\n    Cushing, Mrs. Mary H.\n    Cushing, the Rev. John R.\n    Davis, Miss Emma A.\n    Davis, Mrs. Mial\n    Delano, Mrs. Emma L.\n    Delva, Mrs. K. Augusta\n    Dennis, Miss Georgette E.\n    Dimick, Mrs. Lizzie G.\n    Doane, Mrs. Clara J.\n    Doty, Mrs. Julia C.\n    Douglass, Miss Mary\n    Drew, Miss Fidelia\n    Eastland, Miss Georgiana\n    Eaton, Mrs. Belle M.\n    Eaton, Mrs. Daniel W.\n    Eldridge, Mrs. Vesta K. F.\n    Ely, George W.\n    Ely, Miss Josephine L.\n    Emerson, Miss Mary J.\n    Fairbanks, Mrs. Lydia L.\n    Fairchild, Mrs. Maria H.\n    Fay, Mrs. Abby B.\n    Fay, Miss Anna B.\n    Fay, George E.\n    Fay, Miss Anna C.\n    Fisher, Mrs. Angie B.\n    Fiske, Miss Ella A.\n    Flanders, Mrs. Elvira W. C.\n    Floyd, 2d, David\n    Fraser, Mrs. Daniel F.\n    Freeman, Miss Emma F.\n    Freeman, Miss Annie E.\n    French, George B.\n    Frye, Charles H.\n    Fullarton, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Gardner, Mrs. Sarah A.\n    Gill, Mrs. M. F.\n    Goodwin, Miss Annie A.\n    Goodwin, Miss Lucy B.\n    Grant, Miss Mary\n    Grant, Miss Martha\n    Greenwood, Miss Nellie\n    Grout, Mrs. Ellen L.\n    Gustin, Mrs. Ellen G.\n    Hadley, Miss Amanda M.\n    Hall, the Rev. A. J.\n    Hammond, Miss Jennie S.\n    Hancock, Mrs. Warren\n    Harrington, Francis M.\n    Harrington, Miss Ada L.\n    Harrington, Mrs. Mary L.\n    Harris, Miss Sarah G.\n    Hawley, Miss Emily E.\n    Hayward, Miss Nellie A.\n    Hayward, Mrs. Susan C.\n    Hersey, Miss Lizzie M.\n    Hersey, Miss Ellen M.\n    Hewins, Miss Emeline\n    Higgins, Miss Sarah B.\n    Hildreth, Mrs. Kate B.\n    Hitchcock, Mrs. Nellie E.\n    Hodges, Mary A.\n    Holway, Mrs. Susan B.\n    Holway, Miss Sadie O.\n    Houghton, Miss Mary J. W.\n    Howard, Henry F.\n    Howard, Mrs. Mary C.\n    Howard, Mrs. Louisa B.\n    Hull, Miss Abby F.\n    Hutchinson, Miss Cora F.\n    Inman, Mrs. Edna M.\n    Irving, Charles H.\n    Irving, Mrs. Sarah M.\n    Johnson, the Rev. Charles T.\n    Jones, Addison W.\n    Jones, Mrs. Sophronia B.\n    Jones, Miss Eva G.\n    Keene, Mrs. Fannie S.\n    Kendall, Miss Amanda M.\n    Kimball, Edward A.\n    Kimball, Mrs. Elsie E.\n    King, Mrs. Laura C.\n    Kinsman, Miss Mary L.\n    Kneil, Miss Emily G.\n    Knight, Joseph K.\n    Ladd, Mrs. Rebecca E.\n    Lawrence, Miss Mary M.\n    Lee, Mrs. Elizabeth R.\n    Leonard, Mrs. Kate H.\n    Leonard, Miss M. Fanny\n    Leonard, Miss Anna R.\n    Lewis, Miss Lizzie M.\n    Light, Charles F.\n    Light, James B.\n    Light, Mrs. Ellen E.\n    Lindsay, Miss Florence\n    Litchfield, Mrs. Isabelle W.\n    Little, Mrs. William C.\n    Lloyd, Miss Mary A.\n    Manning, John M.\n    Manning, Mrs. J. M.\n    Merriam, Miss Susan M.*\n    Marsh, the Rev. Francis J.\n    Marston, Mrs. Carrie M.\n    Marston, Luther M.\n    Matthews, the Rev. Henry\n    McClure, Miss Louisa\n    McGeoch, W. Stanley\n    McKeil, Miss Jessie\n    Meriam, Miss Effie J.\n    Mills, Mrs. Jeannette R.\n    Mitchell, Miss Elizabeth L.\n    Moore, Miss Ella F.\n    Moreland, Miss Mary L.\n    Morse, Miss Nannie M.\n    Morse, Miss Mary E.\n    Murdock, Mrs. Lucretia Y.\n    Norris, Mrs. Chas. S.\n    Ordway, Miss Myra A.\n    Owen, George A.\n    Packard, Miss Helen M.\n    Parker, Mrs. Anna E.\n    Partridge, Miss Deborah A.\n    Patterson, Miss Etta M.\n    Peabody, Daniel D.\n    Pease, Miss Alice N.\n    Peppeard, Miss Augusta\n    Phelps, Miss Emily E.\n    Pike, Arthur G.\n    Pike, Miss Emily C.\n    Pike, Miss Sarah A.\n    Pike, Mrs. Azelia M.\n    Platts, Mrs. Annie M.\n    Plummer, Mrs. Amanda H.\n    Prescott, Miss Emma L.\n    Price, Miss Lotta A.\n    Purington, Miss M. Emma\n    Pynchon, Mrs. Charlotte E.\n    Radford, Mrs. Anna M.\n    Randall, Mrs. Lucy A.\n    Ranger, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Ray, Miss Hattie C.\n    Richardson, the Rev. Wellen N.\n    Richardson, Mrs. Helen L.\n    Richardson, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Richardson, the Rev. W. G.\n    Ring, Miss Martha D.\n    Robinson, Mrs. J. G.\n    Rockwood, Miss Susie A.\n    Rodliff, Miss Anna I.\n    Rolfe, Mrs. Helen M.\n    Rooke, Mrs Emma E.\n    Ross, William E.\n    Ross, Miss Helen V.\n    Ruggles, Miss Olive\n    Ryan, Miss Mary E.\n    Safford, Mrs. Henry G.\n    Safford, Miss Eliza\n    Sargent, Mrs. Hannah E.\n    Scales, Miss Sarah E.\n    Severance, Miss Millie I.\n    Shattuck, Miss Clara L.\n    Sherman, Mrs. Clara A.\n    Sill, Miss Frances A.\n    Skene, the Rev. George\n    Skinner, Miss Mary S.\n    Skinner, Miss Maria S.\n    Skinner, Miss Abbie A.\n    Smith, Miss Effie\n    Spalding, Mrs. Edward L.\n    Sprague, Miss Flora H.\n    Stafford, Mrs. B. F.\n    Stanley, Mrs. Susan C.\n    Stevens, Ira W.\n    Stone, Henry R.\n    Stone, Mrs. H. H. P.\n    Stone, Miss Ellen K.\n    Struthers, Miss Mary S.\n    Sykes, Miss Jennie E.\n    Taylor, Mrs. Marie E.\n    Taylor, Miss Nellie M.\n    Thayer, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Thing, Miss Addie L.\n    Thompson, Mrs. Helen A. B.\n    Thompson, Mrs. Lydia M. E.\n    Thompson, Mrs. Mary C.\n    Thurber, Mrs. Lizzie M.\n    Trask, Robert D.\n    Trask, Mrs. Achsa E.\n    Traversee, Mrs. Marietta\n    Traversee, Miss Mary E.\n    Trow, Miss Lizzie F.\n    Varnum, Miss Hannah\n    Wadsworth, Miss Jennie E.\n    Walker, Jefferson C.\n    Warren, Mrs. M. W.\n    Watson, Mrs. Thomas A.\n    Wentworth, Mrs. A. L.\n    Wheeler, Miss Lizzie J.\n    White, Mrs. Emma C.\n    White, Miss Ellen M.\n    Whitney, Mrs. Ella M.\n    Whitney, Mrs. F. W.\n    Whitney, Miss Nellie S.\n    Willey, Miss Nellie M.\n    Williams, Charles W.\n    Williams, Albert P.\n    Wilson, Miss Emily J.\n    Wood, Miss Alice A.\n    Woodbury, the Rev. Webster\n    Woodbury, Mrs. Webster\n    Woodward, Miss Clara O.\n\n\n_Rhode Island._\n\n    Aldrich, Mrs. Marcia A.\n    Aldrich, Mrs. David L.\n    Armington, Miss Harriet A.\n    Barber, Miss Arabel E.\n    Barney, Mrs. Sarah F.\n    Brownell, Miss Ella W.\n    Dexter, Mrs. W. W.\n    Fiske, Dr. Elmer S.\n    Fitz, William E.\n    Goodier, the Rev. Erastus W.\n    Goodier, Mrs. Lizzie M.\n    Kendall, Miss Emma F.\n    Kendrick, Mrs. Phebe E.\n    Kendrick, John E.\n    Langworthy, Miss Hattie G.\n    Leavitt, Mrs Abbie G.\n    Leavitt, Miss Charlotte E.\n    Lee, Mrs. Nellie\n    Lewis, Miss Eugenia L.\n    Mason, Mrs. Ella K.\n    Nason, Mrs. Medora T.\n    Nye, John M.\n    Nye, William H.\n    Owen, Miss Hannah A.\n    Paine, Miss Lydia A.\n    Potter, Mrs. Sarah M.\n    Puffer, Mrs. Emma L. S.\n    Steere, Miss Rachel\n    Stevens, Miss Mary\n    Sullivan, James J.\n    Vars, John\n    White, Miss Ella E.\n\n\n_Connecticut._\n\n    Baldwin, Miss Lotte A.\n    Beman, Miss Emma\n    Bidwell, Mrs. Emma W. B.\n    Bradley, Miss Sarah L.\n    Brewer, Miss Ellen M.\n    Bridge, the Rev. Wm. D.\n    Bridge, Mrs. Mary S. H.\n    Buffett, Miss Mary E.\n    Bushnell, Miss Sarah M.\n    Bushnell, Mrs. Margaret A.\n    Caulkins, Miss Abbie A.\n    Cowles, Miss Catherine M.\n    Cowles, Miss Elizabeth A.\n    Davies, John C.\n    Davies, Mrs. Lois F.\n    De Forest, Miss Emily M.\n    Fenn, Willis I.\n    Fowler, Miss Hattie E.\n    Gilbert, Miss Anna L.\n    Gillespy, Miss Estelle\n    Griswold, Miss Corinth\n    Harrison, Oscar G.\n    Hawley, Miss Mary F.\n    Huntington, Frederick L.\n    Hurd, Wilbur F.\n    Jones, Mrs. Andrew F.\n    Kirtland, Miss Grace E.\n    Lathrop, Mrs. R. S.\n    Loomis, Miss Jane E.\n    Lowry, Miss Minnie B.\n    Merriam, Mrs. Etta M.\n    Morton, Jas. H.\n    Porter, Miss Ida A.\n    Scranton, Miss Emma A.\n    Seward, Miss Hattie E.\n    Smith, Miss Lillian B.\n    Stanton, Miss Julia E.\n    Stone, Mrs. Sarah A.\n    Sturtevant, Mrs. Annie E.\n    Treat, Miss Susie C.\n    Treat, Miss Emily A.\n    Underwood, Miss Clara B.\n    Underwood, Mrs. Clara A.\n    Vaill, Miss Nellie E.\n    Warriner, Charles H.\n    Whitmore, Miss Clara L.\n    Witter, Miss Ruth\n    Wooster, Mrs. Kate A.\n\n\n_New York._\n\n    Adams, Miss Valeria N.\n    Allen, Miss Susie\n    Allen, Miss Mary E.\n    Allen, the Rev. Walter O.\n    Andrews, Mrs. Annie M.\n    Anoski, Miss Rose L.\n    Atchinson, Miss Harriet L.\n    Babcock, Miss Mary F.\n    Bailey, Miss Carrie A.\n    Baker, Mrs. E. J. L.\n    Baldwin, Miss Frances A.\n    Baldwin, Clair H.\n    Barbour, Miss Mary E.\n    Barker, Miss S. Emma\n    Barnes, Miss Alice E.\n    Bartholomew, Mrs. Tillie C.\n    Baxter, Miss Helen A.\n    Benedict, Mrs. Calphurnia N.\n    Benjamin, Miss Nettie D.\n    Bennett, Edward N.\n    Bickley, Mrs. Lizzie H.\n    Biddle, the Rev. William T.\n    Billings, Mrs. Mary S.\n    Bliss, Miss Nettie G.\n    Bond, Miss Bessie\n    Bourne, Miss Elma A.\n    Brainard, Miss Emma C.\n    Briggs, Miss Carrie E.\n    Brown, Mrs. Esther E. C.\n    Brown, Miss Elizabeth\n    Brown, Miss Helen\n    Brown, Mrs. J. S.\n    Brown, Miss Teresa\n    Brown, Miss Alice J.\n    Brown, John S.\n    Brown, Mrs. Helen M.\n    Brown, Miss Edith M.\n    Brown, Mrs. C. K.\n    Buell, Miss Elizabeth C.\n    Camp, Miss Elizabeth B.\n    Carpenter, Miss Hannah M.\n    Carr, Miss M. Jennie\n    Carson, Mrs. Charles H.\n    Carter, Miss Maggie A.\n    Cash, Mrs. Adella\n    Caswell, Miss Hattie C.\n    Chapin, Miss Ida E.\n    Chappell, Mrs. Hattie F.\n    Clark, Charles E.\n    Clark, Miss Delia H.\n    Clark, Edwin J.\n    Clark, Lizzie\n    Clark, Miss Mary W.\n    Clinton, Miss E. Eloise\n    Coe, Miss Lottie A.\n    Colby, John E.\n    Colby, Mrs. Lucy J.\n    Cook, Mrs. Mary D.\n    Cowles, Miss Kittie M.\n    Coy, Mrs. W. Henry\n    Crane, Edward J.\n    Crannell, Miss Julia W.\n    Curtis, Mrs. Julia M.\n    Curtis, Miss Fanny\n    Dailey, Charles J.\n    Dearstyne, Miss E. Louise\n    Dempster, Mrs. Mary J.\n    Deverell, Miss Sarah A.\n    Dobbin, Miss Lizzie G.\n    Donaldson, Mrs. Mary F.\n    Douglass, Miss Martha B.\n    Driver, Mrs. Ida M.\n    Dunn, Miss Mary S.\n    Durfee, Miss Annie E.\n    Edge, Miss Elizabeth\n    Edmonds, Miss Lottie E.\n    Ellis, Miss Jennie L.\n    Farman, Miss Mattie E.\n    Fisher, Edward L.\n    Fisher, Miss F. Eugenie\n    Fletcher, Miss Minnie A.\n    Foote, Miss Ellen E.\n    Foote, Miss Frances A.\n    Fox, Miss Rosalie M.\n    Frost, Miss Libbie E.\n    Gail, Mrs. Henrietta S.\n    Gammans, Mrs. Etta B.\n    Gaston, Miss Mary C.\n    Gere, Justus T.\n    Gillespie, Miss Emily T.\n    Gillespy, Miss Edith\n    Graybiel, Miss Sara N.\n    Green, Mrs. Carrie A.\n    Greene, George E.\n    Greene, Miss Emma C.\n    Gregory, Miss Libbie\n    Griffin, Miss Olivia A.\n    Gunton, Mrs. Henrietta M.\n    Hahn, Miss Hattie E.\n    Hampton, Miss Jennie S.\n    Handshaw, James E.\n    Hannum, Mrs. Ida\n    Harrington, Miss Sarah D.\n    Harrington, Mrs. Adelaide L.\n    Harris, Miss Lucinda\n    Hartwell, Miss Mary H.\n    Hathorn, Ira B.\n    Haviland, Mrs. C. W.\n    Hawley, Miss Mary T.\n    Hearn, the Rev. George\n    Hendrickson, Mrs. Adeline\n    Highriter, Miss F. Maria\n    Hitchcock, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Holden, Alexander M.\n    How, George V.\n    Hope, Mrs. Mary B.\n    Hopkins, Miss Susie C.\n    Hopkins, Miss Annie W.\n    Hopkins, Miss Hattie E.\n    Houck, Miss Kate A.\n    Huff, Mrs. Anna E.\n    Hull, Miss Eliza J.\n    Hunsicker, Miss Ida M.\n    Ingraham, Miss S. E.\n    Ipsen, Miss Alicia L.\n    Jenks, Miss Mary E.\n    Johns, Miss Dora\n    Johnson, Mrs. S. Lizzie\n    Jones, Miss Cora M.\n    Judd, Mrs. Ellen M.\n    Kellogg, Miss Lottie R.\n    Kendall, Miss Clara E.\n    Kent, Miss Annabelle\n    Kibbey, Mrs. Louisa\n    Kibbey, Samuel\n    King, Mrs. Olie C.\n    King, Clarence\n    Kinsley, Fred. A.\n    Kinsman, Miss Jeannie E.\n    Kipp, Miss Alice R.\n    Knight, Miss Jane\n    Labagh, Miss Maria C.\n    Lamson, Miss Eva S.\n    Lapham, Mrs. Geo. P.\n    Lathrop, Miss Carrie\n    Lathrop, Miss Ella M.\n    Latimer, the Rev. E. Herman\n    Lent, William J.\n    Loveridge, Miss Grace C.\n    Luther, Stephen\n    Lyon, Miss Mary L.\n    Mackey, Miss Florence A.\n    Mallette, Miss Mary E.\n    Manrow, Milton\n    Marley, William J.\n    Mathews, Mrs. Candace P.\n    Matthews, Andrew J.\n    Melven, Emmett S.\n    Miller, Charles E.\n    Milliman, Robert L.\n    Milliman, Mrs. Susan F.\n    Miner, George G.\n    Mogg, Mrs. Jennie A.\n    Moore, Mrs. Philena B.\n    Morrison, Miss Mary L.\n    Morrison, Miss Emma F.\n    Martin, Wilbor A.\n    Newton, Miss Lura\n    Nichols, Miss Nancy M.\n    Noble, Miss Grace A.\n    Northup, Miss Ella A.\n    Ogden, Mrs. Florence W.\n    Olney, Miss Minnie M.\n    Parker, Mrs. Sabine E.\n    Parmelee, Miss Lizzie F.\n    Pease, Miss Ettie E.\n    Phyfe, Archibald B.\n    Pindar, Miss Rose E.\n    Pond, Miss Martha\n    Pratt, Miss Lettie C.\n    Rhoda, Mrs. Ella A.\n    Rice, Mrs. Maggie C.\n    Rice, Mrs. Clara E.\n    Rockwell, Mrs. Ada E.\n    Rockwell, the Rev. Lyman E.\n    Ross, Mrs. Mary E. K.\n    Rowel, Miss Eliza L.\n    Rowell, Miss Ida E.\n    Sammons, Charles\n    Sanford, Miss Frances E.\n    Seely, Mrs. Hannah\n    Schellinger, Miss M. Amelia\n    Sheldon, Miss Emma J.\n    Shumway, Mrs. A. Adda H.\n    Silliman, Miss Mary A.\n    Simmons, Mrs. Jennie E.\n    Slada, Miss Emma D.\n    Slada, Miss Mary M.\n    Slattery, John T.\n    Sleeper, Charles W.\n    Smallbone, Miss Emma J.\n    Smith, Mrs. Maria A.\n    Sotham, Miss Mary E.\n    Spooner, Marvin L.\n    Spooner, Mrs. Lina A. H.\n    Stanley, Miss Jennie B.\n    Stevens, Mrs. Jennie\n    Stilson, Miss Alice M.\n    Stone, Miss Nellie M.\n    Stone, Miss Addie H.\n    Stoutenburgh, Miss Mary E.\n    Tackitt, Miss Ellen\n    Thomas, Mrs. Maria L.\n    Terry, Mrs. Armenia M.\n    Terry, C. L. Emory\n    Tompkins, Mrs. Elizabeth S.\n    Torr, Miss Lizzie E.\n    Torry, Miss Grace\n    Trowbridge, Miss Helen R.\n    Trowbridge, Miss Augusta E.\n    Vail, Mrs. Horton\n    Vail, Horton\n    Van Cruyningham, Daniel\n    Van Cruyningham, Mrs. M. E.\n    Van Ness, Miss Lottie R.\n    Viele, Miss Ada L.\n    Wadsworth, Mrs. Carrie K.\n    Walley, William\n    Warner, Mrs. Jane R.\n    Weimert, Miss Kittie\n    White, Mrs. Harriet H.\n    Wight, Miss Martha A.\n    Williams, Mrs. Franc S.\n    William, Miss Emma J.\n    Williamson, Matthew D.\n    Willis, Mrs. C. C.\n    Willis, Charles C.\n    Winspear, Miss Clara J.\n    Wood, Mrs. James M.\n    Wood, Miss Lizzie\n    Wooden, Miss Emily S.\n    Wooden, Miss Loretta E.\n    Wooden, Miss Laura E.\n    Westcott, Mrs. Addie L.\n\n\n_New Jersey._\n\n    Anderson, Miss Elizabeth\n    Baldwin, Miss Lizzie\n    Blanchet, Mrs. Mary C.\n    Brackin, Miss M. Fannie\n    Carty, Miss Kate\n    Davis, Miss Mary H.\n    Delano, Miss Laura C.\n    Dilts, Miss Ella V.\n    Dunn, Miss Clara I.\n    Ewing, Miss Olive M.\n    Fortner, Miss Sarah E.\n    Gokey, Miss Delia\n    Hall, Miss Helen F.\n    Hedden, Mrs. L. O.\n    Hoemer, George P.\n    Holbert, Mrs. Frances B.*\n    Huyler, Adam\n    McKay, Mrs. Mary H.\n    Mead, Miss Margaret H.\n    Morehouse, Miss Hattie A.\n    Norris, Miss Alice L.\n    Parker, Ellis\n    Peet, Dr. Gilead\n    Riker, Miss Grace H.\n    Rittenhouse, Miss Ada F.\n    Rogers, Miss Hannah D.\n    Smith, Miss Abbie T.\n    Spring, Edward A.\n    Stevenson, Miss Georgiana\n    Taylor, Mrs. Agnes C.\n    Thompson, Miss M. Reba\n    Weeks, Miss Mary F.\n    Wegmann, Miss Bertha B.\n    Woolston, Miss Ray B.\n    Woolston, Miss Beulah D.\n\n\n_Pennsylvania._\n\n    Alcorn, Miss Lettie E.\n    Alcorn, Miss Alice M.\n    Allen, Elisha M.\n    Allison, Miss Louisa\n    Arnett, Miss Aroline\n    Baker, Miss Ida A.\n    Bar, Miss Irene\n    Beatty, Mrs. Agnes B.\n    Beatty, Mrs. Julia S.\n    Beers, Mrs. Celia H.\n    Bethune, John T.\n    Bolard, Mrs. Jennie E.\n    Bradley, Miss Mary S.\n    Braham, Miss Isabella H.\n    Brisbin, Miss Florence\n    Buchanan, Mrs. M. Josephine\n    Buehler, Mrs. Anna F.\n    Burrows, Mrs. Lizzie M.\n    Cernea, Miss Anna T.\n    Clark, Norman H.\n    Closson, James H.\n    Clark, Mrs. Harriet R.\n    Cooke, Mrs. Cordelia H.\n    Copeland, Miss Irene\n    Copeland, J. Renwick\n    Cox, Miss Ettie A.\n    Crosby, Miss Lizzie C.\n    Dale, Mrs. Elizabeth C.\n    Dampman, Miss Lizzie B.\n    Davidson, Miss Anna\n    Dewey, Mrs. Martha J.\n    Dickinson, Levi S.\n    Dickson, Miss Maggie A.\n    Dorand, Miss Emma A.\n    Du Bois, Mrs. Ella R.\n    Dunham, Mrs. Helen\n    Eaton, Mrs. S. J. M.\n    Ely, Miss Alice K.\n    English, Miss Ellen R.\n    Evans, Miss H. Louise\n    Farley, Mrs. H. N.\n    Fellows, Mrs. Sarah\n    Findlay, Peter\n    Finley, Miss May A.\n    Fishburn, Miss Lizzie E.\n    Fisher, Miss Mate E.\n    Frescoln, Oscar P.\n    Frew, William A.\n    Frysinger, Edward\n    Furst, Miss M. Katie\n    Gail, Miss Emma B.\n    Gardner, Lot\n    Gerould, Miss Flora E.\n    Gyger, Miss Hannah\n    Harris, Edward F.\n    Henry, Miss Elizabeth\n    Hill, Miss Zelia\n    Hill, Miss Ella\n    Hill, Miss Mattie J.\n    Horner, Miss Mary A.\n    Hostetter, Miss Venetta E.\n    Howe, Miss Cora\n    Hubbard, Miss Mary A.\n    Humphriss, Mrs. Mary I.\n    Hunter, Le Roy M.\n    Ingram, Miss Almeda R.\n    Jackson, Mrs. Amanda A.\n    Jones, Harry L.\n    Kelly, Miss M. Emma\n    Ladd, Miss Anna A.\n    Lawrence, James A.\n    Leavitt, Mrs. Walter\n    Little, Miss Ettie E.\n    Love, Miss Myrtle L.\n    Marsh, Mrs. G. D.\n    Marsh, George D.\n    Mason, Edwin T.\n    McElroy, Mrs. Jennie\n    McFarland, Mrs. Caroline\n    McIntire, Miss Annie M.\n    Miller, George W.\n    Miller, Miss Emily A.\n    Moford, Miss H. Mary\n    Morrow, Miss Mary B.\n    Myton, Thomas W.\n    Neal, Mrs. H. N.\n    Nevin, Miss Laura\n    Oglevee, the Rev. Jesse A. B.\n    Oudry, Miss Katie E.\n    Paxson, Miss Sallie B.\n    Pearson, Miss Hulda A.\n    Pettit, Miss Harriet L.\n    Purdy, Mary E.\n    Reineke, Miss Carrie W.\n    Reineke, Miss Minnie E.\n    Renn, Miss Jennie W.\n    Ross, Mrs. Mary M. F.\n    Rowland, Frank S.\n    Sabin, the Rev. Edward N.\n    Sammons, Miss Fannie B.\n    Sammons, Miss Martha L.\n    Sargent, Mrs. R. H.\n    Schooley, Miss Jennie C.\n    Scott, Miss Mary I.\n    Scott, Albert O.\n    Scott, Frank H.\n    Selkregg, Mrs. I. V.\n    Sheldon, Willard M.\n    Siegfried, Miss Stella\n    Smith, Miss Clara L.\n    Smith, Christopher W.\n    Smith, Miss Emma C.\n    Smith, Miss Kate F.\n    Smith, Mrs. Lou M.\n    Smith, Miss Ella M.\n    Smith, Mrs. Annie M.\n    Spaulding, F. W.\n    Starkweather, Miss Arvilla H.\n    Steele, Herbert\n    Stoever, Mrs. Laura M.\n    Stoever, Miss Sue E.\n    Stone, Mrs. C. E.\n    Straub, Miss Effie T.\n    Strong, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Strong, Henry A.\n    Tracy, Mrs. Edith E. P.\n    Tracy, Mrs. Malie\n    Tracy, Malie\n    Trosh, Nathaniel F.\n    True, Miss Mary E.\n    Tryon, Mrs. George W.\n    Tryon, Miss Arabella\n    Thomas, Miss Ada F.\n    Warner, Mrs. A. A. H.\n    Wilson, Mrs. Ida G.\n    Wood, Collin\n\n\n_Delaware._\n\n    Cahall, Joseph L.\n\n\n_Maryland._\n\n    Bayne, Lawrence P.\n    Markell, Miss Virginia H.\n    Parkhurst, Miss Alice S.\n    Rawlings, Joshua S.\n    Rodgers, Mrs. Amy C.\n    Sadtler, Miss M. Adelaide\n    Smyth, Miss Lizzie K.\n\n\n_District of Columbia._\n\n    Blodgett, Carrie A.\n    Coakley, Miss Rosetta E.\n    Darby, Miss Susan C.\n    Dudley, Frederick E.\n    Hall, Mrs. Jennie B.\n    Johns, Miss Jessie C.\n    McKinney, Miss Mary E.\n    Meacham, Miss Annie M.\n    Nalle, Mary\n    Parke, Miss Caroline E.\n    Patterson, Miss Emma\n    Pumphrey, Miss Cora A.\n\n\n_Virginia._\n\n    Alexander, Wellington G.\n    Hatcher, Mrs. Charles\n\n\n_West Virginia._\n\n    Barnes, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Carter, Miss Sarah P.\n    Clohan, Miss Elizabeth\n    Forman, Israel\n    Fowler, Miss Emma A.\n    Glass, Miss Annie V.\n    Pierpoint, Miss A. Pierrie\n    Reppetto, Miss Mary D.\n    Riheldaffer, the Rev. Wm. G.\n    Turner, Miss Adela\n\n\n_North Carolina._\n\n    Small, the Rev. J. B.\n    South Carolina.\n    Harris, Mrs. Kittie S.\n\n\n_Kentucky._\n\n    Cox, Miss R. Aussie\n    Cragg, Mrs. Mattie\n    Gunn, Miss Frances A.\n    Heazlitt, Clarence W.\n    Ruttle, Miss Eliza J.\n    Winall, Miss Vina\n    Winall, Miss Belle\n    Winall, Miss Eva\n    Tennessee.\n    Allen, Mrs. Mattie E.\n    Bain, Daniel Hiram\n    Fleece, Mrs. Mary T.\n    Scott, F. N.\n    Shearer, J. L.\n    Tadlock, Mrs. Clara M.\n    Thomas, Miss Anna W.\n    Treadwell, Miss Annie D.\n\n\n_Arkansas._\n\n    Allen, Everett F.\n    Colwell, Mrs. Emma R.\n    Lyon, Miss Hattie J.\n    Vaughan, Mrs. Myra\n\n\n_Louisiana._\n\n    Armstrong, Miss Frances L.\n\n\n_Georgia._\n\n    Brooks, Miss Addie M.\n    Steele, Miss Carrie J.\n    Thompson, Miss Mary H.\n\n\n_Alabama._\n\n    Kennedy, Miss Annie\n    Leslie, Mrs. Sara McC.\n    Watkins, Mrs. Lizzie E.\n\n\n_Mississippi._\n\n    Moore, Miss Cora L.\n    Parker, Mrs. Bettie\n    Row, Miss E. Evelyn\n    Steele, Dr. N. C.\n    Townes, Miss Julia G.\n    Winter, Miss Kate E.\n\n\n_Ohio._\n\n    Aldcroft, Miss Ella\n    Alexander, Miss Cora E.\n    Allan, Miss Nellie\n    Alward, Miss Alice J.\n    Armstrong, Mrs. Mary H.\n    Armstrong, Mrs. Permelia B.\n    Austin, Miss Florence\n    Barnett, Miss M. Alma\n    Beiler, the Rev. Samuel L.\n    Beiler, Mrs. Anna F.\n    Bell, Mrs. Alice\n    Bell, J. W.\n    Beyerly, Mrs. Julia H.\n    Binkley, Miss Laura A.\n    Brown, Mrs. J. H.\n    Bunker, Miss Stella N.\n    Bunker, Miss Clara\n    Burge, Miss Zelma\n    Burner, G. Washington\n    Burt, Mrs. Nellie C.\n    Burt, Miss Harriet C.\n    Caldwell, Mrs. Sarah E.\n    Cameron, Miss M. Amelia\n    Chamberlain, Miss Fanny P.\n    Chamberlain, Charles W.\n    Chamberlain, Mrs. Charles W.\n    Chancellor, Mrs. Lida B.\n    Chandler, Miss Anna\n    Chidlaw, Miss Mary I.\n    Clemans, the Rev. Francis M.\n    Clemans, Mrs. Sarah I.\n    Colby, the Rev. Henry F.\n    Crossley, Mrs. Cecelia S.\n    Dayton, Mrs. James\n    Deming, Miss Sophronia O.\n    De Veny, Miss Belle M.\n    Dietz, Will. C.\n    Dimmick, Mrs. Hannah A.\n    Elcock, Miss Lucy A.\n    Facer, Miss Fannie R.\n    Faulkner, Mrs. Amelia H.\n    Ferriss, Frank E.\n    Freeman, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Fries, Miss Emmabel\n    Gee, Samuel A.\n    Giboney, Mrs. S. H.\n    Goodrich, the Rev. Ira B.\n    Goodrich, Mrs. Adaline C.\n    Gough, Mrs. Sadie H.\n    Grafing, John C.\n    Guthrie, Miss Sarah I.\n    Haight, Miss Louise J.\n    Hammond, Mrs. Mary W.\n    Hankins, Mrs. Mary J.\n    Hart, Miss Mary P.\n    Hayward, Miss Josephine A.\n    Hicks, Miss Bella C.\n    Highlands, John S.\n    Hinckley, Mrs. Augusta V.\n    Hine, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Humphrey, Dr. Elwin\n    Hussey, Elroy E.\n    Kattenhorn, Miss Mary\n    Kattenhorn, Miss Ella\n    Keagey, Miss Carrie L.\n    Kellogg, J. A.\n    Kelly, Mrs. Carrie M.\n    Kidder, Miss Mary I.\n    Lee, Mrs. Dr. E. B.\n    Loomis, Mrs. Letitia E.\n    Loomis, Elisha S.\n    Loudin, Mrs. Harriet C.\n    Mann, Miss M. Maud\n    Mansfield, Mrs. Howard\n    March, Miss Lizzie G.\n    McFarland, Mrs. Mary D.\n    McKitrick, Mrs. Addie A.\n    Minor, Mrs. J. A.\n    Moore, the Rev. John W.\n    Morse, Miss Belle G.\n    Morgan, Mrs. Mary D.\n    Morgan, Miss Lizzie\n    Munson, Miss Nellie\n    Murphy, Miss Marian A.\n    Nash, Miss Harriet A.\n    Parish, Miss Nettie A.\n    Park, Mrs. Maria B.\n    Park, Mrs. J. D.\n    Parmelee, Mrs. Anna J.\n    Parsons, Mrs. Lucinda M.\n    Parsons, Mrs. Josie L.\n    Patten, Charles E.\n    Pearce, Miss Selina P.\n    Pickett, Daniel D.\n    Powers, Miss Minnie\n    Randall, Mrs. Rebecca R.\n    Reed, Miss Myrta\n    Reed, Cornelius A.\n    Rice, Miss Frances M.\n    Richards, Miss Emily S.\n    Robison, Miss Kate R.\n    Ruckenbrod, Miss Maggie\n    Saumenig, Miss Emily B.\n    Schenck, Miss Claribel\n    Scott, Miss Katie\n    Scott, Miss Fannie\n    Sherrard, Walter P.\n    Shields, Miss Sarah E.\n    Sloane, Miss Jeannette M.\n    Smith, Miss Ione L.\n    Smith, Miss Mary I.\n    Snyder, Franklin E.\n    Spillard, Mrs. Willa H.\n    St. John, Mrs. M. P.\n    Taylor, Mrs. Annette H.\n    Taylor, Miss Ellen E.\n    Taylor, Royal\n    Thompson, Mrs. Ella P.\n    Thorne, Miss Lizzie B.\n    Trotter, Miss Sarah\n    Walker, Mrs. Mary P. S.\n    Walker, Miss M. Augusta\n    Webb, Mrs. Dora V.\n    Wheelock, Mrs. Estelle C.\n    White, Miss Jennie\n    White, the Rev. Levi\n    White, Miss Fannie E.\n    Whipple, Mrs. J. C.\n    Wilcox, Mrs. Hannah E.\n    Williams, Miss Etta C.\n    Willis, Miss Laura B.\n    Winter, Mrs. Laura C.\n    Winter, the Rev. William W.\n    Young, Miss Mary E.\n    Zartman, Miss Essie H.\n    Zuck, the Rev. William J.\n    Zuck, Mrs. Jessie M.\n\n\n_Indiana._\n\n    Alcott, Mrs. Ellen P.\n    Baldwin, John J.\n    Barry, Mrs. Fannie W.\n    Berg, Mrs. Mattie V.\n    Bettis, Mrs. Mary P.\n    Boughman, Melancthon A.\n    Bowen, Miss Loretta V.\n    Busick, Mrs. Kate M.\n    Clark, Miss Florence\n    Crawford, Mrs. Jennie R.\n    Daggett, Miss Angelia\n    Denison, Mrs. Aurilla A.\n    Dunn, Temple H.\n    Ellis, Miss Grace\n    Fitch, Miss Ida A.\n    Fosdick, Miss Sophie H.\n    Fosdick, Benajah S.\n    Foster, Miss Madge\n    Francis, Mrs. May\n    Gooding, Mrs. Mary M.\n    Goodman, Miss Clara M.\n    Hackleman, Miss Indiana\n    Hagenbook, Allen M.\n    Hammond, Mrs. Angie L.\n    Harter, Miss Mary C.\n    Hascall, Miss Julia E.\n    Hedden, Miss Theodosia E.\n    Howard, Mrs. Cinderella J.\n    Hudson, Mrs. H. S. B.\n    Jackson, Miss Nellie M.\n    Jamieson, Mrs. Hattie H.\n    Jones, Miss S. Ella\n    Kauffman, Jacob S.\n    Lambert, Miss Lottie A.\n    Lambert, Miss Tillie\n    Lesley, Mrs. Edith\n    Matheny, Miss Eva\n    Matheny, Miss Mattie\n    Maxwell, the Rev. John A.\n    Maxwell, Mrs. Alice W.\n    McCauley, Miss Rose\n    Milburn, Miss Nellie F.\n    Mitchell, Miss Marcia\n    Moffit, Mrs. Rebecca A.\n    Morrill, Miss Annie\n    Morse, Mrs. Florence S.\n    Newhouse, Mrs. Mary R.\n    Ogg, Robert A.\n    Ogg, Mrs. Louise H.\n    Perkins, William H.\n    Pickett, Miss Ella M.\n    Power, Miss Ella\n    Powers, Mrs. R. B.\n    Ratliff, Dr. Barclay\n    Roberts, Mrs. Lizzie M.\n    Robertson, Miss Margaret\n    Robinson, Mrs. Elvira T.\n    Sabine, Miss Nettie W.\n    Semans, Mrs. Sarah W.\n    Sexton, Miss Ruby\n    Shane, Miss Lizzie\n    Smith, Miss Lilian G.\n    Smith, Miss Laura\n    St. John, Hermon F.\n    Stoy, Mrs. L. R.\n    Swope, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Taylor, Miss Emily\n    Towers, Mrs. Bel K.\n    Town, Mrs. Laura L.\n    Town, the Rev. Salem B.\n    Townsend, Mrs. Elizabeth B.\n    Vail, Mrs. Arvilla Z.\n    Wilkes, John H.\n    Wilmuth, Mrs. Lydia P.\n    Zent, Miss Ida M.\n\n\n_Illinois._\n\n    Bartlett, Mrs. Helen A.\n    Black, Mrs. Addie L.\n    Blake, Miss Ellen M.\n    Blakeway, Miss Ada M. A.\n    Blakeway, Miss Ella R. M.\n    Brophy, Dennis P.\n    Brown, Mrs. Mary L. S.\n    Burpee, Miss Minnie L.\n    Chamberlain, Miss Orra N.\n    Colby, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Conley, Mrs. V. C. M.\n    Day, Miss Clara C.\n    Douglass, Miss Alberta N.\n    Dubois, Mrs. Sarah T.\n    Dunn, Mrs. Frances L.\n    Earle, Clarence A.\n    Eastburn, Mrs. Dora M.\n    Enoch, Miss Emma A.\n    Fairbanks, John\n    Fairbanks, Mrs. Carrie H.\n    Gay, Miss Hannah P.\n    Gregory, Mrs. Sue F.\n    Gridley, Mrs. Annah B.\n    Gunn, Miss Jessie\n    Hanaford, Mrs. Melvina\n    Hart, Mrs. Ida B.\n    Hart, Samuel R.\n    Harvey, Mrs. Lucia M.\n    Hayes, Mrs. Dr. R. F.\n    Holmes, Mrs. Melanie G.\n    Kay, Mrs. Ella M.\n    Leal, Miss Sarah M.\n    Lobaugh, Mrs. Sarah C.\n    Mayo, Miss Carrie P.\n    McMurray, Miss Mary E.\n    McReynolds, Mrs. Abbie M.\n    McSween, Mrs. Helen\n    Mitchell, Walter\n    Moir, Mrs. Jessie G.\n    Moore, Mrs. Stata M.\n    Norris, Mrs. Nellie R.\n    Overman, Miss Myra\n    Palmer, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Pells, Miss Louise\n    Pickering, Mrs. Ida O.\n    Price, Miss Jennie\n    Rea, Mrs. Lucia G.\n    Read, Mrs. Frank\n    Rinaker, Mrs. Clarissa K.\n    Robinson, Miss Bessie M.\n    Rowland, Mrs. Hattie W.\n    Scott, Miss Kate M.\n    Scoggin, Miss Libbie\n    Spear, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Sprouse, Miss Jennie G.\n    Swanzey, Miss Clara J.\n    Tunnicliff, Mrs. Sarah A.\n    Turnbull, Mrs. Lizzie E.\n    Vining, Mrs. Letty W.\n    Walker, Mrs. D. T.\n    Wallace, Mrs. J. F.\n    Willey, Mrs. Agnes H. C.\n\n\n_Michigan._\n\n    Alford, Miss Caroline P.\n    Barlow, Mrs. Hannah M.\n    Barrows, Mrs. Hattie A.\n    Barrows, Mrs. Agnes C.\n    Bedell, Mrs. Mary B.\n    Benjamin, Miss Lillian\n    Benjamin, Miss Anna\n    Benjamin, Mrs. M.\n    Borden, Miss Harriet E.\n    Brown, Miss Kate\n    Brown, Miss M. Viola\n    Chapman, Mrs. Olivia E.\n    Churchill, Miss Frances A.\n    Clark, Mrs. Ettie A.\n    Clay, Mrs. Hattie E.\n    Coe, Miss Lovisa M.\n    Cooley, Miss Mary L.\n    Cooley, Miss Lottie I.\n    Coville, Mrs. Mary E. H.\n    Field, Miss Dencie L.\n    Flewelling, Mrs. F. E.\n    Frost, Mrs. Nellie J.\n    Furman, Mrs. Libbie T.\n    Gannon, Joseph M.\n    Goodyear, Mrs. Emma J.\n    Hill, Frank J.\n    Hills, Mrs. Mary M.\n    Holmes, Mrs. E. F.\n    Hoover, Miss Cora J.\n    Hough, Mrs. Tena W.\n    House, Dr. Robert B.\n    Johnston, Miss Janet H.\n    Kent, Mrs. Clara E.\n    Lathrop, Mrs. Chas. A.\n    Lilley, Miss Mary A.\n    Lincoln, Charles A.\n    Lincoln, Mrs. M. J.\n    Love, Miss Sara\n    Lutze, Mrs. Mary M.\n    McCartney, Mrs. F.\n    McDonald, Miss Anna\n    McElwee, the Rev. Samuel J.\n    McElwee, Mrs. Anna B.\n    Mellen, Miss Ellen E.\n    Owen, Miss Lucy A.\n    Pack, Miss Josephine\n    Paton, Mrs. Sarah B.\n    Pearce, Miss Abbie\n    Peacock, Miss Frances E.\n    Perrin, Mrs. Henry W.\n    Pickell, Mrs. C. W.\n    Queal, Miss Helen\n    Ramsay, Mrs. W. W.\n    Roe, Miss Genevieve B.\n    Russell, Miss Nellie J.\n    Sinclair, Miss Jane S.\n    Smith, Miss Lora A.\n    Spangler, Mrs. W. P.\n    St. John, Mrs. Etta\n    Stocum, Mrs. C. W.\n    Switzer, Mrs. Anna M. L.\n    Van Fleet, Miss Mary E.\n    Van Slyke, Miss Julia\n    Wilcox, Mrs. Martha H.\n    Wilks, Mrs. Emily M.\n    Wolf, Miss Anna E.\n    Wilcox, Joshua L.\n\n\n_Wisconsin._\n\n    Algard, Mrs. Phebe M.\n    Baker, Miss Eva J.\n    Bovee, Mrs. Victoria\n    Chase, Miss Hattie\n    Coleman, Mrs. Edwin\n    Dougherty, Miss Nettie M.\n    Gates, Miss Laura\n    Grannis, Mrs. E. H.\n    Holden, Mrs. Hattie L.\n    Hooley, Miss Emma E.\n    Kennedy, Miss Catherine\n    Kutchin, Mrs. Hattie S.\n    Lucas, Miss Stella\n    McLean, Mrs. M. F. K.\n    Oddy, Mrs. Lydia A.\n    Shepard, Mrs. Mary S.\n    Shumway, Mrs. Clara E. C.\n    Steele, the Rev. John\n    Wheeler, the Rev. Bert E.\n    Wick, Gustave\n\n\n_Iowa._\n\n    Banta, Mrs. Lillie E.\n    Bell, the Rev. William E.\n    Benedict, Miss Ella G.\n    Bennett, Mrs. Lizzie\n    Brindell, Mrs. Anna R.\n    Brown, the Rev. Henry\n    Buckley, Miss Eunice L.\n    Clarke, Mrs. Kate F.\n    Cort, the Rev. William C.\n    Cutter, Miss Valona J.\n    Day, Mrs. Eliza C.\n    Gaylord, Mrs. Mary J. L.\n    Greene, Miss Hattie\n    Harvey, Miss Carrie L.\n    Hooley, Miss Annie J.\n    Hooley, Miss Mattie F.\n    Huston, Mrs. Mary S.\n    Hyde, Miss Maie E.\n    Jones, Mrs. R. D.\n    Keen, Mrs. Mary T.\n    Key, Mrs. Sarah\n    Kellum, Miss Alma J.\n    Louthan, Mrs. Florence A.\n    Lukens, Miss Lucie E.\n    Mack, Miss May\n    McCarn, Mrs. Carrie E.\n    McCartney, Mrs. Lura J.\n    McMeans, Miss Mattie\n    Melvill, Mrs. Martha E.\n    Millard, Miss Nellie P.\n    Nagel, Mrs. Sadie E.\n    Palmer, Miss Nirma E.\n    Pollock, Miss Annie L.\n    Ritchey, Mrs. Ella L.\n    Robinson, Mrs. Marianna W.\n    Robinson, Mrs. M. E.\n    Scales, Miss Lena F.\n    Snyder, Mrs. D. B.\n    Tallman, Mrs. Catharine M.\n    Wadsworth, Mrs. Mary B.\n    Wegener, Miss Alice\n    Wilcox, Miss Rhoda M.\n\n\n_Missouri._\n\n    Albin, Miss Emma C.\n    Allen, Mrs. N. L.\n    Bennett, Alfred\n    Exly, the Rev. Frank\n    Miller, Charles W.\n    Parker, George A.\n    Russell, Miss Sarah F.\n    Watson, Miss Eva\n    Wayman, the Rev. John\n    Sabin, L. Willis.\n\n\n_Minnesota._\n\n    Brannan, Mrs. Carrie M.\n    Cole, Miss Jennie\n    Jerman, Mrs. Sara M.\n    Mendenhall, Miss Minnie E.\n    Scofield, Miss Persis E.\n    Stone, Mrs. J. W.\n    Taylor, Mrs. C. W.\n    Terwilligar, the Rv. Michael D.\n    Terwilligar, Mrs. Hester A.\n    Viall, Mrs. Florence M.\n\n\n_Dakota Territory._\n\n    Garner, Jacob A.\n    Hoffman, Miss Lizzie C.\n    Moyer, Mrs. S. J.\n    Moyer, Sanford J.\n    Potter, Mrs. V. A.\n    Smith, Miss Maria T.\n    Squier, Mrs. Cora M.\n    Yost, Mrs. Julie H.\n\n\n_Nebraska._\n\n    Anderson, Mrs. Deborah L.\n    Dada, the Rev. William B.\n    Folden, the Rev. Andrew T.\n    Hamlin, Miss Lou E.\n    Howe, Miss Annette A.\n    Lemon, Mrs. Nora H.\n    Martin, Miss Nellie\n    Parrotte, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Perry, Miss Mary S.\n    Sargent, Mrs. Iola N.\n    Smith, Miss Lucy E.\n    Smith, the Rev. Charles L.\n    Warren, Miss Mary E.\n    Whitney, Miss Clara\n\n\n_Nevada._\n\n    Leete, Benjamin F.\n    Simpson, Mrs. Elda A.\n\n\n_Kansas._\n\n    Blythe, Mrs. Julia H.\n    Conklin, Isaac J.\n    Dudley, Mrs. Carrie A.\n    Elliott, Mrs. Mary E.\n    McFarland, Mrs. Tillie S.\n    Moll, Miss Eva M.\n    Moss, Mrs. Laura S.\n    Parker, Mrs. W. F.\n    Patrick, Miss Emma M.\n    Reed, Mrs. Emily G.\n    Smith, Fayette A.\n    Torrington, Mrs. Mary M.\n    Wallace, Miss Jennie\n    Weightman, Mrs. Annie M.\n\n\n_Colorado._\n\n    Crawford, Hugh C.\n    Freeman, Mrs. Lillie S.\n    Layton, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Lovejoy, Miss Jennie G.\n    McGonigal, Mrs. E. Belle\n    Reaugh, Mrs. Lottie E.\n\n\n_Idaho._\n\n    Yarington, Miss Stella\n\n\n_Washington Territory._\n\n    Ames, Mrs. Jennie P.\n    Barrow, Mrs. M. R.\n    Horton, Dexter\n    Pratt, William G.\n\n\n_Oregon._\n\n    Churchill, Frank H.\n    Grider, Mrs. Mary A.\n    Kern, Mrs. Sarah M. K.\n\n\n_California._\n\n    Anderson, Dr. C. L.\n    Bailey, Mrs. C. P.\n    Barber, Mrs. Emma F.\n    Baright, Mrs. Frances E.\n    Blake, Miss Alice S.\n    Brothers, Miss Carrie R.\n    Calhoun, Miss Clementine H.\n    Call, Miss Mattie C.\n    Call, Miss Mary A.\n    Carter, Miss Lou A.\n    Dawson, Mrs. Eloise J.\n    Drum, Mrs. Mary L.\n    Dryden, Mrs. S. Helen\n    Eckley, Emma\n    Field, Mrs. Mary H.\n    Franklin, Mrs. Belle O.\n    Frazee, Miss H. M.\n    Haight, Mrs. Elvira E.\n    Hammond, Miss Hulda A.\n    Harrison, Miss Elbertina C.\n    Hathaway, Mrs. Alice V.\n    Hesser, Mrs. Mary E.\n    Mantz, Mrs. E. F.\n    McKelvy, the Rev. Charles\n    Mock, Miss Clara E.\n    Nusbaum, Mrs. Lucretia J.\n    Osgood, Miss Jennie\n    Phillips, Mrs. Hattie W.\n    Read, William E.\n    Rogers, William\n    Selby, Miss Mattie K. A.\n    Shafter, Mrs. Helen S.\n    Shattuck, Mrs. E. M.\n    Shuey, Mrs. Lillian H.\n    Shuey, M. M.\n    Thomas, Mrs. Flora M.\n    Thomasson, Mrs. Martha E.\n    Warring, Hattie B.\n    White, Miss Nellie F.\n    Whitney, Mrs. Julia A.\n    Wilcox, Miss Gussie M.\n    Wilson, Miss Mary E.\n\n\n_Canada._\n\n    Beer, Mrs. Rachel M. L.\n    Beswick, Miss Emma\n    Coleman, Mrs. Caroline\n    Collins, John R.\n    Courtright, Mrs. Gertrude S.\n    Curry, Mrs. Catharine\n    Dudman, Miss Sarah A.\n    Dunspaugh, Mrs. Leonora C.\n    Farquhar, Miss Mary L.\n    Freeland, Mrs. Andrew\n    Griffith, Mrs. Lucinda P.\n    Gurney, Edward, Jr.\n    Gurney, Mrs. Mary F.\n    Henderson, Miss Frances M.\n    Henderson, the Rev. William\n    Henderson, Miss Jennie\n    Hooper, Mrs. H. T.\n    Horsey, Miss Maria\n    Horsey, Miss Heppie\n    Jackson, Miss Eliza J.\n    James, David\n    Kerr, Mrs. Jennie\n    Langlois, Miss Ida M.\n    Leake, Miss Annie\n    Lemon, Miss Emily J.\n    Longard, Charles H.\n    Lucas, Mrs. Hattie J.\n    McDonald, the Rev. C. D.\n    Millar, James E.\n    Murray, Mrs. Almey J.\n    Murray, Dr. Sydney S.\n    Orr, William H.\n    Platt, Mrs. Harriet L.\n    Scott, the Rev. Charles T.\n    Strickland, John R.\n    Thurlow, Mrs. Isaac E.\n    Watson, Miss Georgiana\n    Woodside, Mrs. Jane\n\n\n_Hawaiian Islands._\n\n    Coleman, Mrs. Hattie A.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes:\n\nObvious punctuation errors repaired.\n\nPage 252, \u201cprobation\u201d changed to \u201cpromotion\u201d (that of dignity and\npromotion)\n\nPage 273, \u201c110.3\u201d changed to \u201c110.3 per cent.\u201d (is equivalent to 110.3\nper cent. of)\n\nPage 292, \u201cDurengo\u201d changed to \u201cDurango\u201d (From Colorado\u2014Durango\u2014comes)\n\nPage 305, \u201cEpisopal\u201d changed to \u201cEpiscopal\u201d (the Methodist Episcopal\nChurch)\n\nPage 306, \u201cInforma-\u201d changed to \u201cInformation\u201d (Information may be\nobtained)\n\nPage 309, \u201cIlltnois\u201d changed to \u201cIllinois\u201d (section heading: Illinois.)\n\nPage 310, \u201cOwen, Miss Lucy A.\u201d moved to correct place in alphabetical\nlist: from between Peacock and Perrin, to between Mellen and Pack.","title":"The Chautauquan, Vol. 05, February 1885","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":82649}