{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_55061/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_55061","id":"gutenberg_55061","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55061","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Journals","Category: Literature - Other","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Research Methods/Statistics/Information Sys","Category: Science - Biology","Category: Science - Chemistry/Biochemistry","Category: Science - Physics","Chautauqua Institution -- Periodicals","Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle -- Periodicals"],"text":"THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n      _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE.\n        ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._\n\n                VOL. V.       APRIL, 1885.        No. 7.\n\n       Officers of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.\n\n_President_, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. _Chancellor_, J. H. Vincent,\nD.D., New Haven, Conn. _Counselors_, The Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.;\nthe Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C.\nWilkinson, D.D.; Edward Everett Hale. _Office Secretary_, Miss Kate\nF. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. _General Secretary_, Albert M. Martin,\nPittsburgh, Pa.\n\n\n\n\nContents\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was created\nfor the HTML version to aid the reader.\n\n  REQUIRED READING FOR APRIL.\n  Aristotle                                                            373\n  Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics\n      Chemistry of Earth                                               375\n  The Circle of the Sciences                                           378\n  Sunday Readings\n      [_April 5._]                                                     382\n      [_April 12._]                                                    383\n      [_April 19._]                                                    384\n      [_April 26._]                                                    385\n  Easy Lessons in Animal Biology\n      Chapter I.                                                       385\n  Jerry McAuley and His Work                                           390\n  Ein Feste Burg Ist Unser Gott. Translation of Luther\u2019s Famous Hymn.  392\n  The Weather Bureau                                                   393\n  How to Win\n      Chapter II.                                                      396\n  Fortress, Palace and Prison                                          397\n  Geography of the Heavens for April                                   400\n  England and Islam                                                    402\n  The Art of Fish Culture\n      Part I.                                                          404\n  The Life of George Eliot                                             407\n  Arbor Day                                                            409\n  How to Work Alone                                                    411\n  Outline of Required Readings for April                               413\n  Programs for Local Circle Work                                       413\n  Local Circles                                                        413\n  The C. L. S. C. Classes                                              419\n  Questions and Answers                                                420\n  Editor\u2019s Outlook                                                     423\n  Editor\u2019s Note-Book                                                   425\n  C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for April                     427\n  Notes on Required Readings in \u201cThe Chautauquan\u201d                      429\n  Paragraphs from New Books                                            431\n  Talk About Books                                                     432\n  The Chautauqua University: What Are Its Claims?                      433\n  Special Notes                                                        434\n\n\n\n\nREQUIRED READING FOR APRIL.\n\n\n\n\nARISTOTLE.\n\nBY WILLIAM C. WILKINSON.\n\n\n    [The \u201cCollege Greek Course in English\u201d did not, for a reason\n    alluded to in the following paper, include Aristotle among the\n    authors represented. The readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN will be glad\n    to get some acquaintance with so great an ancient name through\n    this supplementary chapter from Prof. Wilkinson\u2019s pen.]\n\nPhilosopher, though he by eminence is ranked, Aristotle was, too,\nsomething of an encyclopedist. He traversed almost the whole circle of\nthe sciences, as that circle existed for the ancient world. But he was\nnot simply first a learner, and then a teacher, of what others had found\nout before him. He was also an explorer and discoverer. Inventor also he\nwas, if between discovery and invention we are to make a difference. He\nwas a great methodizer and systematizer of knowledge. He bore to Plato\nthe personal relation of pupil.\n\nThe history of Aristotle\u2019s intellectual influence is remarkable. That\ninfluence has suffered several phases of wax and wane, several alternate\noccultations and renewals of brightness. During a certain period of time,\ncovering several hundred years, he was, perhaps beyond the fortune of\nany other man that ever lived, the lord of human thought. We mean the\ntime of the schoolmen[1] so called. From near the close of the thirteenth\ncentury, until the era of the Reformation, Aristotle reigned supreme in\nthe schools of Christian theology, which is the same thing as to say that\nhe was acknowledged universal monarch of the European mind. The business\nof the schoolmen may be said to have been to state the dogmas of the\nchurch in the forms of the Aristotelian logic, and then to reconcile\nthose dogmas so stated, with the teachings of the Aristotelian philosophy.\n\nCuriously enough, the introduction of Aristotle to the doctors of the\nchurch was through the Mohammedan Arabs. These men had, during a term\nof centuries, been the continuers of the intellectual life of the race.\nWhile through the long night of those ages of darkness the Christian\nmind slept, the Arabian mind, waking, gave itself largely to the study\nof Aristotle. The Greek philosopher was posthumously naturalized a\nbarbarian; for Aristotle\u2019s writings were now translated from their\noriginal tongue into Arabic. In this Arabic version, the celebrated\nIbn Roshd (chiefly famous under his latinized name A-ver\u02c8ro\u00ebs) knew\nAristotle and commented on him. The Arabic commentaries of Averroes were\ntranslated into Latin, and the thought of Aristotle thus became once\nmore accessible to European students. Averroes (A. D. 1149-1198) himself\nwas of the Moors of Spain.\n\nFor centuries previous to the time when the son and successor of good\nHaroun al Raschid,[2] known at least by name to the readers and lovers of\nTennyson, collected at Bagdad all the scattered volumes of Greek letters\nthat his agents could find in Armenia, Syria and Egypt\u2014for centuries,\nwe say, previous to this, Aristotle suffered an almost complete arrest\nand suspension of intellectual influence. That man would have been a\nbold prophet who should then have predicted what a resurrection to power\nawaited the slumbering philosopher.\n\nStill earlier, however, than this, that is, during the interval between\nthe third Christian century and the sixth, Aristotle enjoyed a great\nvogue. He was studied and commented on as if all human wisdom was\nsummed up in him. The spirit of independent and original philosophy had\nperished, and whatever philosophic aptitude survived was well content to\nexhaust itself in expounding Aristotle. Aristotle\u2019s works became a kind\nof common Bible to the universal mind of the Roman empire. This was the\nperiod of the Greek scholiasts, so-called\u2014in more ordinary language,\ncommentators.\n\nTaking the reverse or regressive direction of history, we have thus run\nback to a point of time some six or seven centuries subsequent to the\npersonal life and activity of Aristotle. During the latter half of these\ncenturies, Aristotle\u2019s fame was gradually growing, from total obscurity\nto its great culmination in splendor under the scholiasts.\n\nBefore that growth began, the productions of Aristotle had experienced\na fortune that is one of the romances of literary history. The great\npupil of Plato had himself no great pupil to continue after his death the\nillustrious succession of Grecian philosophy. His writings, unduplicated\nmanuscripts they seem to have been, fell into the hands of a disciple,\nwho, dying, bequeathed them to a disciple of his own, residing in the\nTroad. To the Troad accordingly they went. Here, with a view to save them\nfrom the grasp of a ruthless royal collector of valuable parchments,\nthe family having these works in possession hid them in an underground\nvault, in which they lay moldering and forgotten one hundred and fifty\nyears! It was thus in all nearly two hundred years that Aristotle\u2019s\nthoughts were lost to the world. When at last it was deemed safe, the\nprecious documents were brought out and sold to a rich and cultivated\nAthenian. This gentleman, let us name him for honor, it was A-pel\u02c8li-con,\nhad unawares purchased his prize for a rapacious Roman collector. Sylla\nseized it, on his capture of Athens, and sent it to Rome. At Rome it\nhad the good fortune to be appreciated. One An-dro-ni\u02c8cus edited the\ncollection, and gave to the world that, probably, which is now the\naccepted text of Aristotle.\n\nBut, romantic as has been the succession of vicissitudes befalling his\nproductions and his fame, Aristotle is, in his extant writings, anything\nbut a romantic author. A less adorned, a less succulent style, than the\nstyle in which the Stagirite (he was of Stag\u02c8i-rus, in Macedonia) wrote,\nit would be difficult to find. Still it is a style invested at least with\nthe charm of evident severe intentness, in the writer, on his chosen aim.\nCicero, it is true, speaks of Aristotle\u2019s style in language of praise\nthat would well befit a characterization of Plato. But Cicero must have\nhad in view works of the philosopher other than those which we possess,\nworks written perhaps in the author\u2019s more florid youth. With this\nconjecture agrees the fact that a list of Aristotle\u2019s works, made by the\nauthorities of the renowned Alexandrian library, contains numerous titles\nnot appearing in the writings that remain to us attributed to Aristotle.\n\nAristotle was not, as Plato was, properly a man of letters. Or, if he did\nbear this character, the evidence of it has perished. What we possess\nof his intellectual productions exhibits the author in the perfectly\ndry and colorless light of a man of science. Even in those treatises\nof his in which he comes nearest to the confines of pure and proper\nliterature, his interest is rather scientific than literary. He discusses\nin two separate books the art of rhetoric and the art of poetry; but he\nconducts his discussion without enthusiasm, without imagination, in the\nseverely strict spirit of the analyst and philosopher. The text of the\ntwo treatises now referred to survives in a state of great imperfection.\nIndeed, the same is the case generally with Aristotle\u2019s works. Critics\nhave even surmised that, in some instances, notes of lectures, taken\nby pupils while the master according to his wont was walking about\nand extemporizing discourse, have done duty in place of authentic\nautograph originals supplied by the hand of Aristotle himself. The title\n\u201cPeripatetic\u201d (walk-about), given to the Aristotelian philosophy, was\nsuggested by the great teacher\u2019s habit, thus alluded to, of doing his\nwork as teacher under the stimulus of exercise on his feet in the open\nair.\n\nThe non-literary character of Aristotle\u2019s works has to a great extent\nexcluded him from the course of Greek reading adopted by colleges\u2014this,\nand moreover the fact that he occupies a position at the extreme hither\nlimit, if not quite outside the extreme limit, of the Greek classic age.\nStill he is now and then read in college; and at any rate he is too\nredoubtable a name among those names which in their motions were\n\n    \u201cFull-welling fountain-heads of change,\u201d\n\nnot to be an interesting object of knowledge to the readers of THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN.\n\nThe productions of Aristotle are numerous. The Alexandrian bibliography\nof him gives one hundred and forty-six titles of his works. Of the books\nthus catalogued not a vestige remains, except in an occasional quotation\nfrom them at the hands of some other ancient writer. The works commonly\nprinted as Aristotle\u2019s form an entirely different list. We give a few\nof the leading titles or subjects: \u201cOrganon,\u201d a collective name for\nvarious writings that made up a system of logic; \u201cRhetoric,\u201d \u201cPo-et\u02c8ics\u201d\n(art of poetry), \u201cEthics,\u201d \u201cPolitics,\u201d \u201cNatural Philosophy,\u201d \u201cBiology,\u201d\n\u201cMetaphysics.\u201d [This last word, which has acquired in modern use a\nvery distinct meaning of its own, was originally a mere meaningless\ndesignation of certain investigations or discussions entered into\nby Aristotle _after_ his physical researches. The preposition _meta_\n(after), and _physica_ (physics), give the etymology of the term.] The\ncomprehensive or, as we before said, encyclop\u00e6dic range of Aristotle\u2019s\nintellectual activity will to the observant reader be sufficiently\nindicated by this list of titles.\n\nFor his work in natural history, Aristotle was powerfully supported by\none of the most resplendent military geniuses that the world has ever\nseen, Alexander the Great. To this prince and warrior, when he was a lad,\nthe philosopher had discharged the office of private teacher. It would\nappear that either Aristotle was courtier enough, or young Alexander was\nman enough, to make this relation a pleasant one to the boy. For, in\nlater years, the conqueror of the world presented to his former teacher a\nround million of dollars to make himself comfortable withal. But who can\ntell which it was, gratitude for benefit received, or remorse for trouble\noccasioned, that prompted the _ex post facto_[3] royal munificence?\nPerhaps it was both\u2014a tardy gratitude quickened by a generous remorse.\n\nThe chief glory of Aristotle is to have at once invented and finished the\nscience of logic. For this is an achievement which may justly be credited\nto the philosopher of Stagirus. It would generally be conceded that,\nsince Aristotle\u2019s day, little or nothing substantial has been added to\nthe results of his labor in the field of pure logic. The name Or\u02c8ga-non\n(instrument) is not Aristotle\u2019s word, but that of some ancient editor\nof his works. It is a noteworthy name, as having dictated to Bacon the\ntitle to his epoch-making work, the _Novum Organum_ (the new method or\ninstrument).\n\nIt would not be easy to give an exhaustive account of Aristotle\u2019s\nproductions, and make the account attractive reading. We shall not\nundertake so impracticable a task. Let our readers accept our word for it\nthat Aristotle, though a justly renowned name in the history of thought,\nis not fitted to be a popular author.\n\nFrom his \u201cHistory of Animals\u201d we present a specimen extract that will\nperhaps with some readers go far toward confuting what we just now said.\nThere are, we confess, some things in this treatise that read almost\nas if they might belong to that truly fascinating book, \u201cGoldsmith\u2019s\nAnimated Nature:\u201d\n\n    \u201cThe cuckoo is said by some persons to be a changed hawk, because\n    the hawk which it resembles disappears when the cuckoo comes, and\n    indeed very few hawks of any sort can be seen during the period\n    in which the cuckoo is singing, except for a few days. The cuckoo\n    is seen for a short time in the summer, and disappears in winter.\n    But the hawk has crooked talons, which the cuckoo has not, nor\n    does it resemble the hawk in the form of its head, but in both\n    these respects is more like the pigeon than the hawk, which it\n    resembles in nothing but its color; the markings, however, upon\n    the hawk are like lines, while the cuckoo is spotted.\n\n    \u201cIts size and manner of flight is like that of the smallest kind\n    of hawk, which generally disappears during the season in which\n    the cuckoo is seen. But they have both been seen at the same\n    time, and the cuckoo was being devoured by the hawk, though this\n    is never done by birds of the same kind. They say that no one has\n    ever seen the young of the cuckoo. It does, however, lay eggs,\n    but it makes no nest, but sometimes it lays its eggs in the nests\n    of small birds, and devours their eggs, especially in the nests\n    of the pigeon (when it has eaten their eggs). Sometimes it lays\n    two, but usually only one egg; it lays also in the nest of the\n    hypolais,[4] which hatches and brings it up. At this season it is\n    particularly fat and sweet-fleshed; the flesh also of young hawks\n    is very sweet and fat. There is also a kind of them which builds\n    a nest in precipitous cliffs.\u201d\n\nThis morsel, our readers must consider, is not a very characteristic\nspecimen of the feast that, take all his works together, Aristotle\nspreads for his students. But it is as toothsome as any we could offer.\nIf it makes our readers wish for more, that is as friendly a feeling as\nwe could possibly hope to inspire in them toward Aristotle. We shall now\nlet them, in that mood, bid the great philosopher farewell.\n\n\n\n\nHOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.\n\nBY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D.D.\n\nDirector of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY OF EARTH.\n\nJohn B. Gough declares that a few kind words spoken to him, in a crisis\nof his life, saved him from ruin. He afterward carefully educated the\norphan daughters of the gentleman who uttered those words.\n\n\u201cWhy,\u201d you say, \u201cit was a little thing.\u201d \u201cYes, _little_ for him, but a\nbig thing for me.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: CRYSTALS OF ALUM.]\n\nThe importance of _many_ things depends upon the point of observation.\nTo a hypothetical astronomer on a distant star, this world would be\ntoo minute for observation. In that shining pathway of the heavens,\ncalled the \u201cmilky way,\u201d there have been discovered eighteen millions of\nstars, each hundreds of times larger than our earth; yet _our_ atom in\nimmensity is, just now, of marvelous interest to us. Indeed, it must be\nof interest to the highest intelligences, for such are the harmonies of\nGod\u2019s universe that the minutest planet is in many of its forces and laws\nrepresentative of the whole. So that our world is, in a sense, both a\nmicrocosm and a cosmo.\n\nLet us briefly consider some characteristics of the earth, from the\nstandpoint of the chemist.\n\nAll substances have been divided into two great classes, the inorganic\nand organic. The latter contains two subdivisions\u2014the vegetable and\nanimal world. Nature thus comprises three great sub-kingdoms, the\nmineral, vegetable and animal.\n\nA mineral is an inorganic body (that is, one in which no parts are formed\nfor special purposes), possessed of a definite chemical composition, and\nusually of a regular geometric form. It may seem at first glance that\nthe last part of this definition is not correct, but there is reason to\nbelieve that all mineral substances may, under favorable circumstances,\nassume crystalline forms. Water and air are minerals. Other liquids and\ngases are included in the term, but as we have had already something\nto say of these latter substances, we shall, for the purposes of this\narticle, use the word earth in the popular sense; namely, inorganic\nmatter, which at ordinary temperature is solid. All materials are\nclassified into\n\n\nELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS.\n\nBy an element is meant a substance which has never been resolved into\nparts, and conversely, one that can not be produced by the union of two\nor more substances. There is some difference of opinion as to their\nnumber. It is usually given as sixty-four. There are a great many\ncompounds. Nature seems to delight in surprising us by the simplicity of\nthe means employed in producing marvelous results. As the mind of Milton\ncombined the twenty-six letters of our alphabet to form \u201cParadise Lost,\u201d\nso the Infinite arranged and re-arranged the elements to form the sublime\npoem of creation. Fifty-one of the elements are metals, and thirteen\nmetalloids; gold is a familiar example of the former, and sulphur of the\nlatter. A few, like hydrogen and oxygen, are gases; two are liquids;\nquicksilver and bromine: the greater number exist as solids. But few\nof them are found native, _i. e._, chemically uncombined with other\nsubstances. In the fierce heat of former ages they were mixed as in a\nmighty crucible, and few escaped the power of affinities thus engendered.\nGold and copper are sometimes found pure, but even they, more frequently\nthan otherwise, exist fused with other substances.\n\nCompounds are of three classes\u2014acids, bases and salts. Sand is a specimen\nof the first, lime of the second, and clay of the third. _Fixedness_ is a\ncharacteristic of mineral compounds, yet they are by no means incapable\nof change; certain influences come in to promote it, of which the\nfollowing are the most important\u2014heat, solution, friction and percussion.\n\nTwo gases, oxygen and hydrogen, may remain side by side for years\nuncombined, but a single spark will cause them to rush together with\nterrific energy.\n\nIf the contents of the blue and white papers in a Seidlitz powder are\nmixed, no chemical action follows, but if dissolved separately in\nglasses of water, and then poured together, a violent effervescence\ntakes place. If a small amount of potassium chlorate and a _little_\npiece of sulphur be put together in a mortar, and then pressed by the\npestle, sharp detonations follow. Dynamite, which is nitro-glycerine\nmixed with infusorial earth, sugar or sawdust, is quite harmless when\nfree from acid, unless struck. The above instances illustrate the various\ninfluences that stimulate chemical combination. Almost all the crust\nof the earth is formed of three substances\u2014quartz, lime, and alumina.\nWherever we stand on the round globe, it is safe to say that one or all\nof these are beneath our feet.\n\n\nQUARTZ.\n\n[Illustration: QUARTZ CRYSTALS.]\n\nThis mineral comprises about one half the earth\u2019s crust. Its symbol\nis SiO\u2082, being a compound of silicon and oxygen, in the proportions\nindicated. It is very hard, easily scratching glass, of which it forms\nan important constituent, is acted upon by only one acid\u2014hydrofluoric;\nthis attacks it eagerly, as may be shown by the following interesting\nexperiment: Take a little lead saucer, or in the absence of this, spread\nlead foil carefully over the inside of an ordinary saucer, and in this\nplace some powdered fluor spar. This mineral is quite abundant in nature,\nand is always to be obtained, in the form of a powder, from dealers in\nchemicals. Have a pane of glass covered by a thin film of wax. Now trace\nupon this surface with a sharp point, anything you may desire, verse\nor picture. Pour into the saucer containing the fluor spar, sufficient\nsulphuric acid to make a paste. Place over this the plate of glass, with\nthe waxed side down, and let it remain for twenty-four hours. Remove the\nwax by heating, and on the glass you will find a perfect etching, the HF\nhaving removed the silica.\n\nThe same effect may be produced in a few moments by applying to the\nbottom of the saucer a moderate heat. Care should be taken not to inhale\nthe fumes, as they are highly corrosive.\n\nQuartz can be melted at a high temperature, and may be dissolved in\ncertain hot solutions. It is still a question in dispute, whether the\nnumerous quartz veins found in rocks were introduced there in melted\nform or in solution. Probably, sometimes in one state and sometimes in\nthe other. Any visitor to a glass manufactory can see how easily glass\nin a melted state is manipulated; and travelers often bring from the\ngeysers[1] fine specimens of silica called geyserite, derived from the\nmaterial held in solution in the hot water, and deposited on the edge of\nthe \u201cbasin.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: SIDE AND TOP VIEW OF THE REGENT OR PITT DIAMOND (REDUCED\nIN SIZE)\u2014CUT IN THE FORM OF THE \u201cBRILLIANT.\u201d]\n\nQuartz may be classified under two varieties\u2014the common and the rare.\nSand, pebbles, many conglomerates, all sandstone rocks come under the\nformer head. The old red sandstone described by Hugh Miller,[2] in which\nfossil fish are so abundant, and the new red sandstone of the Connecticut\nvalley, famous for its bird or reptile tracks, brought to light through\nthe labors of Dr. Hitchcock,[3] were formed of sand cemented together\nunder pressure by the peroxide of iron. There are many beautiful\nvarieties of the rarer forms of quartz. Not a few of these were known\nto the ancients, as may be seen by reading the twenty-first chapter of\nRevelations, where a number are mentioned in the description of the\nheavenly city. \u201cThe wall of it was of jasper, and the foundations of\nthe wall of the city were garnished with all manner of precious stones.\nThe first foundation was jasper; the second, sapphire; the third, a\nchalcedony; the fourth, an emerald; the fifth, a sardonyx; the sixth,\nsardius; the seventh, chrysolite; the eighth, beryl; the ninth, a topaz;\nthe tenth, a chrysoprasus; the eleventh, a jacinth; the twelfth, an\namethyst.\u201d\n\nAll of these excepting the sapphire, which is crystallized alumina, are\neither pure or mixed varieties of quartz, colored with some metallic\noxide. One of the most beautiful forms of these precious stones is\nthe agate, especially that kind called the onyx, which consists of a\nsuccession of opaque and transparent layers. When carved into gems, this\nis called the cameo. A wonderful carved cameo was in the Tiffany exhibit\nat the Centennial Exposition, valued at four thousand dollars. The\nseveral layers were so cut as to represent a man looking through the bars\nof his prison.\n\n\nLIME.\n\nAnother very plentiful substance in the earth is lime. It is chiefly\nfound in the form of three salts, the carbonate, sulphate and phosphate\n(CaCO\u2083) (CaSO\u2084) (Ca\u2083(PO\u2084)\u2082), respectively. The first is familiarly known\nas limestone. When crystallized, it appears as marble. The shades of\nmarble are due to the tinting of metallic oxides, and sometimes to the\npresence of fossils. The most beautiful marble is obtained from Carrara,\nItaly, which has long been famous for furnishing the material used for\nstatues. It is pure white. Pure black marble is found in some ancient\nRoman sculptures. Sienna marble is yellow. Italy furnishes one kind\nthat is red. Verd-antique is a mixture of green serpentine and white\nlimestone, while our beautiful Tennessee marble, used so profusely in the\nnew Capitol at Washington, is a blended red and white.\n\nCommon limestone is almost entirely the product of minute animals[4]\nwhich lived in early geologic times. Ages before the Romans drove piles\ninto the Thames, or the first hut was erected on the banks of the Seine,\nthese little creatures laid the foundations which underlie London and\nParis. They built the rocky barriers which gave to England the name\nAlbion, derived from the white cliffs along her shore. It is a suggestive\ncrumb of comfort for little folk, that the great tasks in the building of\nour earth have been performed by the smallest creatures.\n\nThe wide distribution of limestone is shown from the fact that it is\nfound to be an ingredient in almost all waters. It is readily dissolved,\nas is seen in the numerous caves which are found in limestone regions.\n\nWhen limestone is heated, the carbonic anhydride[5] is expelled, leaving\nquicklime. All are familiar with the manifold uses of this material.\nUnited with sand, it forms a silicate of lime, called mortar, which\nbecomes harder with age. In the old stone mill[6] at Newport, R. I.,\nwhich is of unknown antiquity, the mortar in some places actually\nprotrudes beyond the stones, showing it to be more durable than the rock\nitself. The catacombs of Rome were excavated in a very soft kind of\nlimestone, called calcareous tufa.\n\nSulphate of lime, also known as gypsum and plaster of Paris, is widely\ndistributed. One beautiful variety is called satin spar, and another\nalabaster.\n\nGreat quantities of sulphate of lime are quarried for use in the arts and\nfor agricultural purposes. Dr. Franklin was one of the first to discover\nits value in connection with crops, and is said to have sown it with\ngrain on a side hill, so that when the wheat sprang up, observers were\nsurprised to see written in gigantic green letters, \u201cEffects of Gypsum!\u201d\nI suspect he got the hint from Dr. Beattie, who sowed seeds so that their\nflowers formed the name of his son, to prove to the boy the existence of\na God, from evidences of design in nature.\n\n\nALUMINA\u2014Al\u2082O\u2083.\n\nThis material is found both alone and in combination with silica. It\nforms an important ingredient in alum. Crystallized, it furnishes some\nof our most rare and beautiful gems, the color of which depends upon the\nmetal combined with them.\n\nThe ruby is red, the emerald green, the topaz yellow, the sapphire blue.\n\nSlate rocks consist largely of this material, and clay is a compound\nof alumina with siliceous anhydride. Among the first earthy substances\nutilized by man was clay. We find remains of pottery even as far back\nas the stone age[7]. The ingenuity of man seems to have been displayed\nconstantly and successfully in the ceramic[8] art, the art of making\npottery. Note the accounts given by Prescott, in his \u201cConquest of Peru\nand Mexico,\u201d and the Cesnola collection of Cypriote remains[9] exhibited\nin the Metropolitan Museum in New York City.\n\nHistory is repeating itself by renewing the ancient enthusiasm for\ndecoration of china and earthen ware. Bricks made from clay are found to\nrival granite in durability, and surpass it in resistance to heat, as was\nproven in the great fires of Boston and Chicago. It will be observed from\nthe symbol of alumina that it is largely composed of the metal aluminum.\nIf this could be readily liberated from the oxygen with which it is\ncombined, the world would be immensely enriched.\n\nEvery clay bank or clayey soil contains it in great quantities. Next\nto oxygen and silicon, it is the most abundant element in the earth.\nNote its valuable properties. It is but two and one-half times heavier\nthan water, as bright and non-oxidizable as silver, malleable, ductile,\ntenacious, and can be welded and cast. Who will lay the world under\nobligation by doing with alumina what has been done with iron ores,\ncheaply liberate the oxygen?\n\n[Illustration: TESTING FOR IRON WITH A BORAX BEAD.\u2014THE COMPOUNDS OF IRON\nWITH BORAX GIVE A BOTTLE GREEN COLOR.]\n\nIn this brief enumeration of earth materials, we have intentionally\nomitted the forms of carbon. They constitute no insignificant portion\nof the earth\u2019s crust, but belong to the class of organic substances. We\nintroduce, however, an illustration showing one of the shapes in which\nis cut the diamond\u2014that most costly of all forms of matter,\u2014crystallized\ncarbon.\n\n\nTHE COMMON METALS.\n\nFirst in importance is iron. The fact already mentioned that its oxide is\nthe most common coloring matter in the mineral world will also indicate\nits wide dissemination.\n\nTrap rock, gneiss, even granite, sands, clays and other rocks all borrow\ntints from this source. Iron is never found native except in meteors.\nIt exists most abundantly in the form of three ores, the composition of\nwhich is as follows:\n\nBlack or magnetic oxide (Fe\u2083O\u2084), red oxide (Fe\u2082O\u2083), hydrated sesquioxide\n(Fe\u2082O\u20833H\u2082O). From all of these the oxygen is removed in a blast furnace,\nby the use of some form of carbon. As thus prepared, it is called\ncast-iron. Two other varieties are employed in the arts, wrought iron and\nsteel. The last differs from the first in having less carbon, and from\nthe second in having more. The general properties of this material are\ntoo well known to require description here. A single property of this\nsubstance alone has marvelously affected the commerce of the world; that\nis, the power first discovered in magnetic iron ore, of attracting iron,\nand pointing northward. The first compass, it is said, consisted of a\npiece of this metal placed on a cork floating on water.\n\nCopper seems to have been one of the few metals known to barbarous\npeoples. It is found pure, and in combination. Specimens obtained from\nthe Lake Superior region, in mines worked by the mound builders,[10] have\nled some to believe that they possessed the art of hardening copper.\nMalachite is a carbonate of copper, of a beautiful mottled green color,\nand is made into elegant ornaments. Some magnificent specimens were in\nthe Russian exhibit at the Philadelphia Exposition. It is found in great\nperfection in the Ural mountains.\n\nTin is obtained from its binoxide (SnO\u2082). It was known to the ancients.\nSome historians claim that the Ph\u0153nicians procured it long before the\ntime of Christ, from the mines of Cornwall, England. Until recently\nour country has seemed to be destitute of this valuable metal. Reports\nnow indicate that Dakota is destined to supply this deficiency. It is\na handsome metal, but little affected by oxygen, and capable of being\nrolled into thin sheets.\n\nZinc is found in two different ores: red oxide (ZnO) and zinc blende\n(ZnS), from which it can be separated by smelting, in much the same\nmanner as we obtain iron.\n\nLead constitutes the fifth of the common metals which are pre\u00ebminently\nuseful. It is found in the sulphide of lead (PbS), the sulphide being\nexpelled by roasting the ore. It forms numerous compounds, some of which\nare of great value. For example, lead carbonate (PbCO\u2083), the white lead\nwhich furnishes the most valuable ingredient of all paints.\n\n\nNOBLE METALS.\n\nThese are so called because they retain their brilliancy and are not\neasily affected by other substances. Three of them are specially\nimportant: gold, silver and platinum. Gold is mentioned in the second\nchapter of Genesis: \u201cand the gold of that land is good.\u201d Although\nconstituting an inconsiderable part of the earth, it is much more widely\ndistributed than many suppose, but often exists in such small quantities\nthat its production is not profitable.\n\nAustralia and California are the gold lands. It is found principally in\nthree situations: in sands which have been washed from the mountains,\nin little pockets in the rocks, and in veins of quartz. From the first\nit is separated by simply washing away the lighter materials, from the\nlast situation it is procured by quarrying the rock, crushing it with\nstamping machines, then washing with water to remove the pulverized\nquartz, and gathering up the powdered gold with quicksilver. The mercury\nis removed by vaporizing. Gold is nineteen times heavier than water,\nextremely ductile, and the most malleable of all substances. Silver is\nabundant in the mountains of the west. It is usually found in the form\nof black sulphide (Ag\u2082S) or horn-silver (AgCl). When unpolished it is\nperfectly white, and is called dead or frosted silver. All are familiar\nwith the properties of this attractive metal. Just now its producers in\nColorado seem to fear its displacement from its important position in the\ncoinage of the country. In nitrate of silver (AgNO\u2083) we have a material\nthat perpetuates the faces of our friends, many a goodly landscape, and\nmarvelous picture.\n\n[Illustration: MAGNET GATHERING IRON FILINGS.\u2014A MAGNET WILL ALSO ATTRACT\nNICKEL FILINGS.]\n\nPlatinum stands at the extreme limit of the elementary world in point of\nweight, being twenty-one and fifty-three hundredths times heavier than\nwater. Russia has almost a monopoly of the production of this metal. It\nis about the value of gold, and to the chemist is of immense importance,\non account of its high point of fusibility, which is over 4,000\u00b0. It is\nso ductile that it can be drawn out into wire so fine as to be invisible\nto the naked eye. This microscopic wire is used for centering the field\nof view in the finest telescopes.\n\n\nEARTH\u2019S CRUST AND CENTER.\n\nOur earth is called \u201cterra firma;\u201d it is regarded as the very embodiment\nof stability, but every waving outline, every hill and mountain peak,\nnot less than the rumbling of the earthquake, and the bursting forth of\nvolcanic fires, indicate that it has been, and may again be, the scene\nof mighty disturbances. Indeed, upon reflection, one wonders that we can\nlive on it at all. The temperature of the earth increases one degree for\nevery fifty feet as we approach the center. At this rate, at the depth\nof fifty miles the heat would be sufficient, according to Humboldt,[11]\nto melt the hardest rocks. Fifty miles is one one-hundred and sixtieth\nof the earth\u2019s diameter. It thus appears that if we should have a globe\nthree feet in diameter full of molten liquid, surrounded by a covering\nof infusible material _one eighth of an inch_ in thickness, that film of\nsolid matter would represent the earth\u2019s crust. Think of it!\n\n[Illustration: A \u201cLEAD TREE.\u201d\n\n_Ex._\u2014Place in a glass a dilute solution of acetate of lead; suspend in\nit a strip of zinc. Some of the lead will be precipitated in crystals\nupon the zinc. This is caused by the zinc taking a portion of the acetic\nacid, and thus forming a new compound called zinc acetate, thereby\nliberating some of the lead.]\n\nBesides, that awful, fiery sea within is subject to tides, currents and\nconvulsions that constantly threaten to disrupt and destroy this crust.\nIt is supposed that masses of water percolate through cracks and fissures\nuntil they reach the internal fires and are suddenly converted into\nsteam at an enormously high temperature, which gives it such tremendous\nexpansive force as to shake the globe itself. This action, combined\nwith the violent explosion of gases, creates the sublime and dreadful\nphenomena of\n\n\nEARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES.\n\nThe destruction of Lisbon and many other cities is matter of history. But\nlast year a charming city in the Mediterranean was destroyed in a few\nseconds, and the stricken inhabitants of Spain are still trembling with\nhorror at the recent shocks that have desolated their fair country.\n\nMan looks in vain elsewhere for such exhibitions of the power of chemical\nforces as are here displayed.\n\nLord Lytton[12] gives a most impressive description of an eruption of\nMount Vesuvius, in \u201cThe Last Days of Pompeii:\u201d\n\n\u201cIn proportion as the blackness gathered, did the lightnings around\nVesuvius increase in their vivid and scorching glare. Nor was their\nhorrible beauty confined to the usual hues of fire; no rainbow ever\nrivaled their varying and prodigal dyes. Now brightly blue as the most\nazure depth of a southern sky, now of a livid and snake-like green,\ndarting restlessly to and fro as the folds of an enormous serpent; now of\na lurid and intolerable crimson, gushing forth through the columns of\nsmoke, far and wide, and lighting up the whole city from arch to arch;\nthen suddenly dying into sickly paleness, like the ghosts of their own\nlife!\n\n\u201cIn the pauses of the showers you heard the rumblings of the earth\nbeneath, and the groaning waves of the tortured sea; or, lower still, and\naudible but to the watch of intensest fear, the grinding, hissing murmur\nof the escaping gases through the chasms of the distant mountain.\n\n\u201cSometimes the cloud seemed to break from its solid mass, and, by the\nlightning to assume quaint and vast mimicries of human or of monster\nshapes, striding across the gloom, hurtling one upon the other, and\nvanishing swiftly into the turbulent abyss of shade; so that, to the eyes\nand fancies of the affrighted wanderers, the unsubstantial vapors were as\nthe bodily forms of gigantic foes\u2014the agents of terror and death.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: TESTING FOR GOLD WITH PURPLE OF CASSIUS.\n\n_Ex._\u2014When gold is placed in a solution of Stannon\u2019s chloride and ferric\nchloride, a precipitate called Purple Cassius appears. Sometimes the\ncolor varies to brown or blue.]\n\nIt is claimed that there are about three hundred extinct volcanoes,\nand many facts indicate that the convulsions in the earth\u2019s crust are\nmuch less frequent than formerly, yet one can easily conceive of its\ndestruction by internal forces, when, as the poet has said,\n\n    \u201cThe cloud-capped towers, the gorgeous palaces,\n     The solemn temples, _the great globe itself_,\n     Yea, all which it inherit, shall dissolve,\n     And like the baseless fabric of a vision,\n     Leave not a wreck behind.\u201d\n\nRevelation clearly announces the destruction of the earth: \u201cIn the which\nthe heavens shall pass away with a great noise, and the elements shall\nmelt with fervent heat; the earth also and the works that are therein\nshall be burned up.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nTHE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES.\n\n\nMENTAL SCIENCE\n\nIs the mind\u2019s knowledge of itself, of its faculties, and states.\n_Psychology_ is now generally accepted as the most appropriate term to\nindicate that knowledge, and the studies that lead to its attainment. The\n_psyche_, as used by those ignorant of man\u2019s higher nature, means the\nvital principle supposed to animate all living bodies, whether of men or\nthe lower animals. It is, with them, the same as _life_, and is regarded\nas a result of the organizations they see, and not their cause. Others\nmore consistently hold that, even in the lowest sense, vital forces\nprecede, secure, and determine the organisms they animate; and that in\nthe case of man there is a nobler endowment, a superadded, distinct,\nself-conscious, personal intelligence. \u201cThere is a spirit in man, and the\ninspiration of the Almighty giveth him understanding.\u201d This _psyche_, or\nliving soul, is a distinct, spiritual existence, however closely, for a\ntime, allied with matter, and acting through bodily organs. It is capable\nof a separate existence, and while in the body, presents for our study\nphenomena peculiarly its own. Intellectual processes may be more subtle,\nand their analysis more difficult, than that of things external, because\nin the attempt the mind is, at once, subject and object, the observer and\nthe observed. And, moreover, when greatly excited, it does not submit to\nimmediate and direct investigation, as the effort at once arrests the\nexcited feeling, and lowers the temperature, so that the state can be\nanalyzed only as it is remembered. But, difficult of attainment as it is,\nthe science that discusses the mind, proposing to show all that is known\nor may be learned respecting it, certainly challenges the interested\nattention of all who desire to know themselves. Whatever may be thought\nof the substance, or immediate origin of the active, thinking soul,\nconsciousness affirms its presence, and its power to know and feel. When\nin a calm, thoughtful state, the phenomena are as real and as manifest\nas anything in physics or material things that are open to scientific\ninvestigation. By thorough introspection, the inquirer finds _himself_\nan invisible person, quite distinct from what is merely corporeal in\nhis belongings, and of which he at once says: It is I; a person or\nbeing that he not only distinguishes from all others, but also from his\nown mental acts and states that are not himself. It needs no argument\nto prove that the physical frame, made of such material substances as\ngases, salts, earths, and metals, the particles of which are constantly\nchanging, is not the man. It is not in the highest, truest sense, the\nbody. Every particle of that frame may pass away while the body still\nremains. The real body is that which retains its organic sameness, amidst\nthe incessant change of its materials. It is not the aggregation of gross\nsubstances, visible and tangible, but rather their connection and the\nlife that unites them, that constitute a human body. We need not hesitate\nto say this life is the gift of God to man, made in his own image, and\nin his purpose an endowment far higher than mere animal life. When it is\nwithdrawn, the organic structure built up as its earthly habitation is a\nruin, and its material elements are scattered, the dust returning to dust\nagain. Others may inquire for the \u201corigin of souls,\u201d asking questions\nover which many have wearied themselves in vain, we here only confess our\nfaith that the sovereign Lord, \u201cGod of the spirits of all flesh,\u201d has the\nrelation of Fatherhood to his human children.\n\nA perfect mental science would require first, the normal action of\nthe intellectual faculties to give phenomena, and then the accurate\nobservation, and orderly arrangement of the phenomena given. To have a\nstarting place there must be the feeling that we are, and can distinguish\nbetween ourselves and the mental acts of which we are capable. This\nconsciousness is the root of all our soul science, and without it there\ncould be no fruitful study of the human intellect. It is more than mere\nfeeling, as it implies that activity of mind by which a man distinguishes\nbetween his body and soul, the senses and their possessor. It is the\nself-conscious act of knowing what is within; and when the phenomena\nor state is presented, the knowledge is intuitive or immediate. No\nreasoning, or other mental process, is required. The soul confronts\nitself and its acts face to face, and knows them as they are. The\nendowment is natural and universal. Though a child at first may show no\nsign of the possession, it has the capacity, and if normally developed,\nsoon claims the right to be itself and not another. Like other human\npowers, this also is capable of culture, and may be raised to a state\nof higher activity and clearer discernment. This improved reflective\nconsciousness brings to view the more occult phenomena within, comparing\nand classifying things, that it may have a clearer, more discriminating\nknowledge of the facts considered.\n\nInterrogating this witness, each finds in himself a power to think and\nreason. That is, an _intellectual faculty_, by the exercise of which\nthere is intelligence, _memory_ to retain or recall things once known,\nand _imagination_, that creates and represents things that are not, as\nthough they were. These are distinct, though inseparable, faculties or\npowers. _Thinking_ is necessary to exact or well defined knowledge, and\nuntil our ready impressions and conceptions are penetrated with thought,\nand we discern their nature, grounds, and connections, we have no\nscience. Information may be received, facts committed to the memory, but\nif the treasures are jumbled together, and little thought given to either\ntheir analysis or orderly arrangement, they can be of but little value to\ntheir possessor. In its perceptions and sensations the mind is actively\nreceptive; and by thought this normal activity is intensified. One who\ndesires a correct knowledge of his own mind must connect his conceptions\nand impressions in some orderly manner, and think much. If there is an\naversion to this, or hindrances arise from the almost incessant demands\nof business or society, and a tendency to mental dissipation is noticed,\nwe may antidote the evil by mostly avoiding the popular light literature,\nand choosing, as the companions of our few leisure hours, standard works,\nin which are treasured the best thoughts of the world\u2019s great thinkers.\nThe intelligent study of the outer world, of nature, having the divine\nimpress on every feature, will also do much to cure the weakness that\nmany are ready to confess, to themselves at least. Nature does not\nthink\u2014has not reason, as man has, but the phenomena presented are full of\nreasons, the embodiments of God\u2019s thoughts, that are above ours, high as\nthe heavens are above the earth.\n\nThe _will_ is the controlling motive power, and decides the question of\ncharacter. A voluntary agent is responsible for his acts. Where there is\nconscious freedom, not only to _act_ as he wills, but to _will_ obedience\nto the dictates of conscience, character is possible. The freedom spoken\nof, and without which there can be no obligation or responsibility, is,\nof course, _human_ freedom. The will power is man\u2019s, not that of the\nbrute. The rational, voluntary agent, having conscience, moral ideas,\nsensibilities, and emotions, is, under law, blame- or praiseworthy, and\npersonally responsible for what he is and does. His involuntary acts, if\nsuch are committed, are without moral character. There are some things\nthat are not objects of his choice. When different ways of living are\npresented, he can freely choose which shall be his. But it is not given\nhim to choose whether he himself shall have a moral character. That is\ninevitable; and his only option in the matter is as to whether it shall\nbe good or bad.\n\n\nLOGIC.\n\nWhen the mind is employed in discriminating, arranging, judging, and\nreasoning, these several acts are all of a class, and are called rational\nor logical processes. Their importance can hardly be overestimated, as\nthus the reasoner gets assured possession of judgments or beliefs that\nare more or less general, and derives from them those that are particular\nand applicable in any exigency; or by the inductive method, from the\nparticular facts within his knowledge, arrives at general propositions,\nand securely rests in them as true. In many, perhaps in most cases,\nboth processes, the deductive and inductive, are used or implied. We\nunderstand phenomena or effects by their causes, and infer causes from\ntheir effects, explain the present by what has been, and anticipate the\nfuture by interpreting the past. We reason from what is seen to the\nunseen, from the facts of nature to nature\u2019s laws.\n\nSystems of logic, if judiciously arranged, are of much value, and should\nbe studied as guides and helps in our efforts to know the certainty\nof things. Method in reasoning is of much importance. But while\ncomparatively few understand the rules, or adopt the exact technical\nterms used by scientific logicians, others, using methods and terms of\ntheir own, think vigorously, and reason well. The powers employed by\nthe most thoroughly trained scholar and by the unlettered man may be\nequal, nor are their methods half so different as some suppose. Though\nthe latter forms no expanded syllogisms,[1] says nothing of \u201csubject,\u201d\n\u201cpredicate,\u201d or \u201ccopula,\u201d he as really has his premises, reasons from\nwhat he knows, and in many cases reaches his conclusions with about the\nsame feeling of certainty. The knowledge he gains does not differ from\nthat of those who are guided in their reasonings by the best rules that\nobservation and experience suggest. Some of those, who in this matter of\nlogic are a law unto themselves, not only reason well, but often very\nrapidly. Judgment is given so speedily on the presentation of the case\nthat it seems intuitive. There is but a step from the premises of an\nargument, securely laid in what is conceded in the statement, or what\nthey already know, to the conclusion that is legitimate, and they take it\nat once. Now, if this is true, and common sense reasonings often seem so\neasy, while those conducted by men of much science are often difficult\nand tedious, it may be asked what advantage, then, is there in the\nlogic of the schools? A sufficient answer is found in the fact that the\nthoroughly trained logician can solve problems the other never attempts.\nIn his processes the properties and relations observed are less obvious\nor more complicated than anything presented to the other. To apprehend\nthem clearly, closer attention must be given than most men, without\nsuch training, ever give or can give. And then, the conclusions of the\nready, rapid, though untrained, reasoner who investigates only common\nsubjects, are really less reliable, because more likely to be founded\non too superficial observations. The man of more science, and yet slower\nprogress, is expected to handle the more difficult problems, and subject\nall their elements to a sharper scrutiny.\n\n\nLANGUAGE\n\nIs intimately connected with thought, not only as its expression, but\nas an auxiliary. Thoughts always become clearer and more firmly fixed\nin the mind by being expressed. Though words are not thoughts, and,\ncarelessly uttered, may be quite meaningless, thoughts not only seek\nto embody, or clothe themselves in language, but our best thinking is\ndone in the use of words, uttered or unexpressed. Though there may be no\nsound for the ear nor symbol for the eye, the word inly spoken serves\nto fix the otherwise transient thought so that it can be afterward\nrecalled, and perhaps uttered, to stimulate the thinking of others. Hence\nthe importance of the study of language, of words and their syntax,\nas employed to express mental processes. Grammar is important as an\nintellectual science.\n\n\n\u00c6STHETICS.\n\nThe science of the beautiful is an important and delightful branch of\nstudy; the knowledge gained being mostly through immediate perceptions\nand sensible impressions. Beauty, wherever discovered, appeals to the\nsensibilities, and raises pleasant emotions. As a means of culture it\nelevates and refines. Communings with nature in her lovelier moods\nsubdue asperities, and inspire gentle, kindly dispositions, while\nthe beautiful creations of architecture, statuary, and painting, of\npoetry and music, fill the souls of discerning, susceptible persons\nwith indescribable pleasure. But though such emotions are frequently\nexcited, and seem familiar, they are of all our mental phenomena least\nunderstood, and most difficult to analyze. Some of our most common\nexperiences are, on examination, found the most inexplicable. All, in a\ngeneral way, know that beauty of form, proportion and color, wherever\nseen, excites pleasurable emotions. But our knowledge of sensations\nand emotions is generally, though direct and immediate, imperfect, and\ncan become thorough only when the first impression is retained, and\nthe higher faculties employed in studying its character and its cause.\nDr. Porter\u2019s[2] chapters on \u201cSense Perceptions\u201d are, on the whole,\nsatisfactory, and will help advance this branch of knowledge toward the\ndignity of a science. They give an analysis of beauty in objects that\naddress the senses, and also of the emotions it awakens. Thoughtful\nstudents confess their need of more help. The science has its charms,\nbut is still in its adolescence. Some things elementary are yet wanting,\nor known only by the names given them. Men talk of the \u201cline of beauty\u201d\nin architecture and sculpture, but do not yet know just what it is, or\nby what peculiarities it works on the sympathies of the beholder. We\nfeel the exquisite pleasure but do not know just wherein the charms\nof the music that most delights us, consist, nor how it awakens the\nfeeling it does. We can not tell just what it is in the poem we admire\nthat gives its rhythm, figures of speech and imagery such enchanting\npower. The literature on the subject is extensive. We have, as all who\nread Ruskin\u2019s[3] works know, a rich treasure of astute observations,\nwith keen, incisive criticisms, but yet no thorough analysis of all the\nmaterials necessary to complete the science of \u00c6sthetics.\n\n\nMORAL SCIENCE, OR ETHICS.\n\nThe science of duty, often called _moral_ as relating to customs or\nhabits of thought and action, discusses human obligations, or inquires\nwhat responsible voluntary agents ought to do, and why. Man has a moral\nnature; is so constituted, and placed in such relations that he feels\ncertain things to be right for him, and others wrong; he says: I ought\nto do this, and that I ought not. These words, or their equivalents,\nexpressive of obligation, can be traced in all languages of which we\nhave any knowledge, and they voice the common sentiment of the race.\nMen differ widely in their intelligence, and consequently in their\nability to discriminate with respect to acts or states that are purely\nintellectual. Their metaphysics may be cloudy and confused, so that their\njudgments on such matters will have neither agreement nor authority. But\nthe moral sense discovers moral qualities more clearly. Its decisions are\nprompt, and their authority is acknowledged. Speculative questions on\nthe subject are not all answered with the same agreement. If it is asked\n_why_ a thing is right, different persons may answer differently. One\nsays because it is useful; another because it is commanded by a higher\nauthority; and another because it accords with the fitness of things.\nThese are questions for the intellect and not for the moral sense. Its\nprovince is simply to decide whether the act or state is right or not,\nand there it stops. Whether the basis of the rectitude approved is in\nsome quality of the act itself, in an antecedent, or a consequent, may\nbe properly asked, and reasons assigned for the answers given. But such\nquestions are speculative, and the answers do not have, even when the\nbest are given, the force of a moral conviction. In saying a thing is\nright because it is right, we affirm our conviction of the fact, but\ntacitly confess we may not know all the reasons why. How the fact is\nknown is sufficiently explained by a reference to consciousness. We\nare so constituted that when moral qualities, in ourselves or others,\nare fairly presented and understood, there arise feelings of approval\nor condemnation, corresponding to that which excites them. Of such\nconvictions and emotions we are at once conscious, and can have no more\ncertain knowledge of anything than of what is thus felt. Connecting them\nwith their exciting cause, it, too, is known, not by any outward or\nsense perception, yet not less certainly by an inward moral sense, whose\ndecisions are promptly given, and with authority. There are frequent\noccasions for men to distinguish between what is right and what is\nmerely lawful. A villain, destitute of moral rectitude, who for his own\npleasure, or gain, robs society of its brightest jewels, spreading ruin\nand desolation through the community, may violate no statute, and escape\nlegal condemnation; but, though having no fear of the law or of the\ncourts, he is not less certainly a guilty man.\n\nConscience, as a faculty of the soul, differs but little from\nconsciousness. Both words are from the same root, and neither, in its\nprimary, etymological meaning, implies anything as to moral character.\nConsciousness is self-knowledge, the mind\u2019s recognition of its own state\nas it is; and that a man has a conscience, or capacity for passing moral\njudgment on himself, is a condition that makes character of any kind\npossible. Each word, however, has now an additional meaning, sanctioned\nby general usage. The former generally implies emotions of approval or\ndisapproval, and the latter that there is in the mind a standard of\naction, and a clear discrimination between right and wrong, with an\nimmediate feeling of responsibility, or obligatory emotions.\n\nThough thus richly endowed with intellect, sensibilities, and will, by\nnature capable of the highest mental activities, the structure of the\nsoul would be strangely incomplete if the religious element were wanting.\nBut it is not wanting. Man is a religious animal, and ever prone to\nworship. He has capacities that are not filled, longings unsatisfied,\nand must go out of himself for help and rest. Of all the sciences that\nconcern him most, no other is half so important as the science of God, an\ninfinite, all-wise, ever-present, personal God; our Creator, Redeemer,\nBenefactor. This science is transcendent, and confirmed by indubitable\nevidence. It satisfies and saves. \u201cThis is eternal life, to know the only\ntrue God, and Jesus Christ, whom he hath sent.\u201d\n\n\nSOCIAL SCIENCE\n\nInvestigates, in an orderly, scientific manner, the principles of\nassociation, and whatever relates to the interests and improvement of\nmen in communities. It has its basis in psychology, as that science of\nthe soul reveals most clearly the elements of a _social_ nature. By\ninstinctive longings for sympathy and fellowship, men are drawn together,\nand readily consent to the restraints of society, whose earlier tacit\nagreements and maxims are at length formulated into rules and laws for\ntheir better government.\n\nCivil governments, incomplete at first, and encountering many hindrances,\noften progress but slowly, and sometimes even recede from vantage\nground that has been gained. Some known in history have made but little\nadvancement during the nineteenth century, and still fail to adjust their\npolitical machinery to the wants and demands of the people. They will\nhardly survive much longer without some promise of better progress in\nthe future. All really good governments are not equally good, and that\nis regarded best which secures the greatest liberty to the individual\ncitizen, consistent with the rights of others and the public security.\nThat end, when honestly proposed, may be, to some extent, secured under\nvery different charters or constitutions, and very much depends on the\nwisdom of the administration. When the governing power is in the hands\nof one man, and he irresponsible for his manner of exercising it, it\nis called an _autocracy_, or _despotism_. When vested in one person,\nwhose executive functions are exercised by ministers responsible to a\nlegislative assembly or parliament, it is a _constitutional monarchy_.\nIf the nobility, or a few principal men govern by a right, in some way\nclaimed, and conceded to them, it is an _oligarchy_, or an _aristocracy_.\nIf the power is in the hands of the people themselves, or their immediate\nrepresentatives, as in the United States, it is a _democracy_, or\n_republic_.\n\nSocial science embraces a wide range of subjects of more than ordinary\nimportance. It discusses both principles and facts, the principles that\nunderlie all social institutions, and the practical, economic regulations\nthat are wisely adopted in well ordered, prosperous communities. If\nthe institutions are established, its province is to examine theories,\ncollect, arrange, and generalize facts, that may have some bearing on\nany proposed corrective and reformatory measures. It scrutinizes public\ncrimes, penal codes, judicial decisions, and prison discipline, with\nwhatever else pertains to social life. It shows the relation of men to\nmen, of the ruler to the governed, of the employer to his employes,\nof the rich to the poor, the fortunate to the unfortunate, and by its\nexpositions instructs men how to act in their various relations. If the\nscience were much better understood, the dangerous classes would be less\ndangerous; and the troublesome problems of pauperism, the liquor traffic,\nMormonism, and the social evil, would be less appalling to average\nlegislators and judges.\n\nThe experience of ages shows that the ameliorating, helpful agencies\nand influences that lift communities up to higher levels, often operate\nsilently as the leaven, till the whole lump is leavened. In many tribes\nthe advance from savagery and the usurpation by irresponsible leaders,\nof absolute power toward complete civil liberty and personal rights,\nhas been slow. The change has come by means almost imperceptible, or by\nstruggles that seemed at the time fruitless. The improved condition of\nsociety does not bring entire security, or freedom from assault. The\nyoke once taken from the neck, and the heavy burdens from the shoulders,\nnew ideas of property, justice, and personal rights are developed. The\nspirit of enterprise is awakened, because each finds himself in the\nposition of affluence and influence, to which his talents, industry\nand self-denial entitle him. Men become competitors, and inequalities\nof condition are inevitable. Incompetence, idleness, and extravagance\nbring want and misery. Wealth and poverty exist side by side, the rich\ngrowing richer, and the poor poorer. Class distinctions become odious.\nCapital and labor, that should be allies, are often in conflict, to the\ngreat injury of both. There may be occasion for complaint against those\n\u201cwho oppress the hireling in his wages,\u201d and \u201cgrind the faces of the\npoor.\u201d But many are envious without cause, and suffer only the penalty\nof their idleness and extravagance, become enemies of the community, and\nare deaf to remonstrance if they see, or think they see, any way of\nrelieving themselves at the expense of those who have acted more wisely,\nand possess large estates. Here come in the functions of government,\nthat is of society, with its better notions of right and justice, and\npower to enforce them. True \u201csocial science,\u201d founded on the experience\nof ages, recognizes the necessity of government, the obligations of the\ncitizen, and the right of all to the property they have lawfully and\nhonestly acquired. It demonstrates that real progress is in the way\nof a safe conservatism, while it admits the possibility of change and\nimprovement, fully justifying the work of the reformer where reformation\nis needed. If existing institutions are inadequate because of some\nradical defect, have outlasted their usefulness, or become oppressive,\nrevolution may be demanded. But any government, though unjust and\ndespotic, is better than anarchy, and should be repudiated only when it\nis, under all the circumstances, possible to establish a better. When\nlegitimate authority is resisted in the spirit of lawlessness or efforts\nat revolution prompted by an evil ambition, the actors are guilty.\nThere have been many attempts, mostly abortive, to solve the problem\nof government, and reconstruct the social fabric. Some of them by good\nmen, whose schemes were simply theoretical and impractical; others by\nmalcontents and destructionists who mistake license for liberty. Plato,\na man of probity and justice, but lacking the wisdom of the statesman,\nprepared a constitution for a model republic, which had too many defects\nfor adoption; a republic with advantages for a select class, but slavery\nfor the masses doomed to manual labor, which was made despicable. More\nwrote his \u201cUtopia,\u201d[4] regarded by some as a kind of program for a\nneeded social reform. It had little influence with his countrymen, most\nof whom ranked it with works of the imagination, where it belonged,\nwhether so intended or not. Campanella,[5] a radical communist of Stilo,\nin Calabria, wrote his Utopia, called \u201cThe City of the Sun,\u201d a sensual\nparadise, in which there was to be a community of goods and of wives.\nFor more than a century socialistic and communistic publications were\nnumerous; many of them denouncing property as a sin, and advocating\nthe greatest license in the intercourse of the sexes. Rousseau, in his\ndiscourse on the \u201cOrigin and Grounds of Inequality Amongst Men,\u201d speaks\nwith approval of \u201ca state of nature,\u201d something like that among our\nAmerican Indians before they had any knowledge of civilization. He seems\nto have supposed there was no inequality, no vice, no misery, among\nuntutored savages, and advised those who could, to return to a state of\nnature.\n\nThe skeptical Owen,[6] and the philosophical Fourier,[7] more practical\nthan others, attempted to establish communities as models or examples of\nwhat could be accomplished on their theory, but failure attended their\nenterprises, or the communities were saved from utter disintegration by\nthe tacit admission of principles that were once disavowed.\n\nModern socialism, akin to communism, and in all its tendencies subversive\nof good government, declaims over the poverty and misery of the unhappy\nmasses, laments their insufficient shelter, food, and clothing, is\nsentimental on the subject of labor and wages, and seeks to rouse the\nabject sufferers to a sense of their sad condition. Its pictures of\nsuffering are in many cases not overdrawn, and the greatest efforts can\nhardly exaggerate the facts. But socialism is not \u201csocial science.\u201d\nIt is utterly and perversely unscientific; it discusses effects,\ncarefully leaving causes out of view; and would reform communities by\ncorrupting and debasing individuals. With a vague notion that every man\nhas a natural right to whatever he needs, it allows that the problem\nof equalization may be solved by violence, and thus all brought to a\ncommon level. The crimes against society, which have lately appalled us,\nare doubtless the result of the pernicious principles and teaching of\n\u201csocialistic reformers.\u201d But a reaction is sure to come, and the better\ninstincts of the race will yet destroy the corrupt tree whose fruit is\nevil.\n\n\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\nSELECTED BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\n[_April 5._]\n\n    Ecclesiastics 7:29: \u201cLo, this only have I found, that God hath\n    made man upright; but they have sought out many inventions.\u201d\n\nIf we should stand amid the uncovered treasures which mark the site of\nancient Nineveh or Babylon we would doubtless find in the objects, as\nthey are this moment, very much to engage our most interested attention.\nWe would regard with wonder and pleasure the specimens of beautiful\narchitecture, the evidences of human skill and industry which modern\nexploration has disclosed to view. And yet, full of interest as such an\noccupation would be, we could not prevent our minds from engaging in\nanother. Without any conscious exercise of will, our thought would revert\nto the day when these fallen structures stood in all their magnificence;\nwhen these halls, now filled with the sand of the desert, echoed to the\nstrains of music and to the voices of the noblest and greatest of the\nland; when through these arches, now crumbling, armies marched gaily to\nbattle, or returned in triumph, bearing the spoils of conquest. We would\nnot be insensible to the value of the columns and capitals, the statuary\nand tablets before our eyes, and yet the very grandeur of these ruins\nwould evoke the genius who would lead our thought by an irresistible\nconstraint to look upon the prior vision of those cities in the day of\ntheir pristine perfection.\n\nMy friends, we do stand amid ruins. We walk day after day amid shattered\ngreatness, in comparison with which the prized relics of Nineveh and\nBabylon, of Thebes, and Luxor,[1] and Troy, sink into insignificance.\nFar be it from me to underestimate the work of man, as we see him and\nknow him to-day, or as we read of him in the records of the past. I am\naware of what he is, and of what he has done. I am not insensible to his\nwork, and yet I declare that man, great as he is\u2014and he is great\u2014is in\ncertain respects not as great as he was. I mean that he is not what the\nprogenitor of the race was. And viewed in comparison with that primitive\ncondition\u2014that condition at creation\u2014man to-day, considered physically,\nintellectually, morally and spiritually, is a conspicuous instance of\nfallen grandeur\u2014not worthless and valueless\u2014far from that; but his\nperfection has departed; he is vastly inferior to what his great original\nwas. Realizing this, we can not fail to revert in thought to that early\nday, and seek to see what the greatness was from which we have fallen.\n\nBefore, however, we attempt to look upon that picture, it will be\nnecessary to establish and defend the theory of man\u2019s condition and\nhistory upon this earth, with which it is inseparably connected.\n\nA view of human history, which has been strongly advocated of late,\nis that our race began physically, intellectually, and morally at the\nlowest possible point. Some even maintain that the first men and women\nwere but the latest and highest developments of certain species of\nbrutes. But whether this phase of the theory of evolution be included\nin it or not, the essential idea of the view to which we refer is that\nthe progenitors of our race were the lowest kind of savages, in their\npowers and capacities, their tastes and pursuits scarcely distinguishable\nfrom the brutes around them, and that from this low beginning men have\ngradually come to the height of attainment and improvement which they\noccupy to-day. If this theory be true, the statement which we have made,\nand which we proposed to consider, is false. If such were the origin\nof our race, if the first men and women were in all the parts of their\nnature but a shade removed above the brutes of the forest and the field,\nof course we of to-day are in no respect their inferiors\u2014of course ours\nis not, as has been declared, a fallen race. We maintain, however, that\nthe theory which makes our race begin in a condition of barbarism and\nimbecility is untrue. I know that it is supported by eminent names; I\nknow, too, that it has been pressed upon public attention with much noisy\nand confident assertion; I know all this, and yet I declare that the\ntheory is unproven; more, I declare that it is untrue.\n\nLet us look at a few considerations which may shed the light of truth\nupon this matter of the primitive condition of mankind, and by this I\nmean the condition of those who succeeded Adam himself on the stage of\nthe world\u2019s history:\n\n1. We all know how long, in families which have lost position or power,\nthe memory of former greatness is cherished. You will find in your\ncharitable institutions, in the depths of poverty, and, perhaps, of\nwickedness, those who will tell you by the hour of the fortunes of\ntheir house in remote days, of the distinction which some ancestor, far\nremoved, conferred upon the name. Such memories are preserved with care,\nand transmitted from generation to generation, and they become more and\nmore precious as the descendants themselves have less and less honor of\ntheir own. The same principle operates with nations and with the great\ntribes of men, particularly when they have themselves sunk so low that\nthey are conscious of no ground of glorying in themselves. Now it is an\ninstructive fact that the traditions of all nations have more or less\nreference to a golden age, from which men have fallen. This is true in\nIndia, in China, in Egypt, among our own Indians, among the inhabitants\nof Central and South America\u2014wherever traditional knowledge is preserved.\nIt is a vague memory\u2014nevertheless a memory cherished by the race, handed\ndown through the ages, not of an era when humanized monkeys rejoiced\nin their promotion, but of a golden age, when men as gods dwelt upon\nthe earth. The only explanation of such a wide-spread tradition is that\nthere must have been a fact corresponding to it; there must have been a\nsubstance to cast this shadow over so many generations. Those who hold\nthat mankind began at the lowest point, can not satisfactorily account\nfor this tradition of the race.\n\n2. Not only tradition, but history sustains our position. If the true\nexplanation of man\u2019s condition to-day, in the civilized countries, is\nthat he has gradually raised himself from a state of absolute barbarism,\nwe certainly ought to have in the records of authentic history the\naccount of at least one nation, which, as matter of fact, before the eyes\nof the world, has done the same thing. But no such instance can be found,\nnot one of a people, entirely barbarous, lifting themselves unaided,\nto the higher plane of even a comparative civilization. Archbishop\nWhately[2] says: \u201cWe have no reason to believe that any community ever\ndid or ever can, emerge, unassisted by external helps, from a state of\nbarbarism unto anything that can be called civilization.\u201d And we may\nfollow the course of civilization from our own land back to western\nEurope, from western Europe to Italy, from Italy to Greece, from Greece\nto Egypt and the farther East, and still, as far as history takes us we\nsee the barren portions of the earth continuing to be barren\u2014continuing\nto bear only the wild fruits of barbarism, until the stream of knowledge,\nand culture, and civilization, is led to it from some other place.\nAnd that stream may be followed all the way back to the beginning of\nauthentic secular history, and in no one instance does the dry ground\nyield fruit and flower of itself. We maintain that the vivifying stream\nbegan to flow because there was in the beginning, in the East, a fountain\nfilled by God himself. Or, leaving the language of allegory, we assert\nthat if our race was utterly barbarous at the beginning, it never would\nhave risen from its barbarism, and authentic history can not adduce a\nsingle instance of a nation rising unaided from barbarism to overthrow\nthis position. Mankind, therefore, did not begin at the lowest point, or,\njudged by all the analogy of history, it would be there still.\n\n3. Again, the records, outside of the Bible, which have come down to us\nfrom early times, are few and imperfect, but the oldest of those which do\nremain indicate the existence of nations in a high state of civilization\nin the earliest periods of human history. In Egypt, China, Chaldea, these\nearliest records, whether monumental or written, bear evidence, not of\nuniversal barbarism in the previous ages, but of powerful and enlightened\nnationalities. Such a state of things is inconsistent with the theory\nwhich makes the history of our race a gradual development from a brutal\nand degraded beginning.\n\n4. Still further, the science of paleontology comes forward to prove\nthe same thing. There have been found in Belgium and in France, some\nhuman skulls and skeletons, unquestionably of very great antiquity.\nConcerning them one of the most competent of human judges, Principal\nDawson, of McGill University, Canada, says: \u201cThese skulls are probably\nthe oldest known in the world.\u201d But what sort of men do they indicate\nas living at that remote day? \u201cThey all represent,\u201d he says, \u201ca race of\ngrand, physical development, and of cranial capacity equal to that of the\naverage modern European.\u201d Further he says: \u201cThey indicate also that man\u2019s\nearlier state was the best, that he had been a high and noble creature\nbefore he became a savage. It is not conceivable that their great\ndevelopment of brain and mind could have spontaneously engrafted itself\non a mere brutal and savage life. These gifts must be remnants of a noble\norganization, degraded by moral evil. They thus justify the tradition of\na golden and Edenic age, and mutely protest against the philosophy of\nprogressive development, as applied to man.\u201d Again, he concludes from a\ncareful study of these remains: \u201cThe condition, habits and structure of\nPal\u00e6ocosmic[3] men correspond with the idea that they may be rude and\nbarbarous offshoots of more cultivated tribes, and therefore realize, as\nmuch as such remains can, the Bible history of the fall and dispersion\nof antediluvian men. We need not suppose that Adam of the Bible was\nprecisely like the old man of Cromagnon.[4] Rather may this man represent\nthat fallen yet magnificent race which filled the antediluvian earth with\nviolence, and probably the more scattered and wandering tribes of that\nrace, rather than its greater and more cultivated nations.\u201d\u2014_Nature and\nthe Bible, pp. 174-179._\n\n5. In addition to these arguments from tradition and history, and\nmonumental and written records, and an actual study of human remains,\nwhich experts pronounce to be older, probably, than the flood, we have\nevidence within ourselves. We are not unfamiliar with stories of children\nof noble, perhaps of royal, descent, who have been abducted and brought\nup among people of low tastes and habits. But ever and anon, in gesture\nor inclination or bent of life, the blood shows itself, and to an\nattentive eye tells of the gentler and loftier sphere from which it came.\nSo with us. Our consciousness reveals within us remnants of a former\ngreatness; aspirations which this world has never taught us, longings for\npeace and purity which we feel we ought to have, but which we know this\nworld never imparts. These things are the impress of the joys of that\ngolden age which all these centuries have been powerless to erase from\nthe souls of Adam\u2019s sons. Morally, we know we are not what we ought to\nbe; we are conscious of our degradation. As regards intellect, we retain\npowers which have, indeed, accomplished marvelous results; and yet, let\nsome abnormal stimulus affect the brain\u2014whether it be that produced by\nsudden excitement or passion, or that caused by powerful artificial\nagencies, and we see flashes of power yet in reserve which intimate what\nthis wondrous human mind may once have been. And physically, our frail\nbodies, quickly tired and quickly crumbling to dust, tell us daily that\nhere, at least, the theory of development from imperfection to perfection\nhas signally failed.\n\n\n[_April 12._]\n\nFrom these considerations we deem it evident that the theory of man\u2019s\ndevelopment from a primitive condition of barbarism is untrue. The\nvarious glimpses which we have been able to obtain of the early ages\nreveal man as in an advanced condition. To all this the representations\nof the Bible correspond. It is not the design of the inspired volume to\ngive a minute description of the customs, habits, knowledge, employments\nof the nations of the world. All that it says upon these subjects is\nincidental, yet no one in reading its accounts of those early times, and\nof the people then living, could possibly imagine that the men and women\nof whom it speaks were such as the rude Hottentot or the savage Caffre of\nto-day. The picture of man in the primitive times drawn from the Bible,\nis the same as that which is drawn from all these other sources; a being\nof physical and intellectual power; not a savage, not a barbarian, but an\nenlightened, capable, efficient man. How much he knew, how much he could\naccomplish, what acquaintance he had with the forces of nature, which\nwe are now beginning to understand, must be matters of conjecture. Sin\nhad commenced its blighting work, but we must remember that man in those\nearly days had inherited from the first man splendid powers, and probably\nvaried and extensive knowledge. His physical strength and his length of\ndays were still great, and doubtless in all respects, save morally and\nspiritually, he was even yet a magnificent creature, and a power upon the\nearth.\n\nStill, this was not the point which, in this discussion, we wished\nto reach. All this was the greatness of man after he had begun to\ndeteriorate, after the poison of sin had begun to do its certain\nand terrible work. This vision of primitive man in his physical and\nintellectual strength is the splendor which abides a little while in\nthe sky after the sun has set. Nevertheless, the sun had set, and there\nis a world-wide difference between this picture and that unto which\nwe would lead you\u2014the picture of that sun in its glory\u2014the picture of\nunfallen man\u2014the first man\u2014the perfect man. Now let us look upon it.\nThe long ages of preparation have rolled away and the earth is a garden\nof loveliness. Upon the splendors of its landscapes, the beauty of its\nlakes, the grandeur of its mountains and oceans, the sun looked down from\nhis pavilion in the sky by day, and the moon and the stars by night. The\nmagnificent domain waited in harmony and beauty for its inhabitants, \u201cAnd\nGod said, let us make man in our image, after our likeness.\u201d \u201cSo God\ncreated man in his own image: in the image of God created he him.\u201d \u201cAnd\nGod saw everything that he had made, and behold it was very good.\u201d\n\nIn the place of honor and dominion in that waiting world of beauty,\nenthrone a being who shall be the counterpart of those words of\ninfallible description\u2014a _man_, made in the image of God, and receiving\nthe unqualified commendation of his divine Creator. We may, without\ndanger of mistake, consider him to have been physically a being of\nmagnificent stature, and of matchless perfection of feature and form,\nwith a body ignorant of weakness or disease, free from the seeds of\nsickness and of death. That a change would afterward have been necessary\nto fit his body of flesh and blood for its immortality is possible, but\nsuch change would not have been what we understand by death. Age would\nnot have brought infirmity to him. Nature would have had no debt to pay\nto the grave.\n\nEnshrined in this perfect body as in a glorious temple was a mind\ncorresponding, doubtless, in excellence to its habitation and to the\nterms which describe its creation. Intellectually as well as morally,\nhe was created in the image of God. He was possessed of reason and of\nactual knowledge. When the various classes of animals were passed in\nreview before him, he had such an apprehension of their distinctive\ncharacteristics as to be able to give to them all appropriate names. And\nas he knew thus much of nature, how shall we limit his familiarity with\nher mysteries? And what shall we say of the powers of discernment, of\nintuition, of memory, of judgment, of the facility in working, of the\nunwearied and the unending delights and achievements of a mind made in\nthe image of God, and not yet marred or weakened by sin!\n\nBut the crowning glory of that first man, that which marks his distance\nfrom us more than any physical or intellectual superiority, is that in\nhis moral and spiritual nature he bore a likeness to his divine Creator.\nThis being, whose body knew no imperfection, whose mind was rich in its\npossessions, and mighty in its power to acquire and enjoy every kind\nof truth, was holy. No thought arose in that heart which could not be\npublished in heaven\u2014none which could mantle his cheek with the blush of\nshame, or cause his manly eye to drop in consciousness of wrong, or make\na ripple of disquiet in the sea of perfect peace which filled his soul.\nHis thoughts were God\u2019s thoughts. His loves, his wishes, his purposes,\nin harmony with God\u2019s, ascended and descended like the angels Jacob saw,\nin perfect and blessed communion between heaven and earth, and earth\nwas heaven begun. Of this world, with its abounding life, he was the\nacknowledged king. Within him was the consciousness of peace, and joy,\nand immortality. All about him was beauty, and amid the glories of his\nEden home, God himself condescended to walk with him and be his friend.\n\nSuch is a faint outline of the picture on which I would have you look\u2014the\npicture of man as he was in the beginning. Does not the sight justify the\nassertion that we are a fallen race? Does it not confirm the teaching of\nour text, that \u201cGod hath made man upright, but they have sought out many\ninventions?\u201d\n\nI need not delay to prove that this picture is not a representation of\nour present condition. Think of these frail physical existences, begun\nwith a cry, continued in pain and weakness, and extended with difficulty\nto their three score years and ten. Think of the ages through which the\nintellect of the most favored portion of the world has been struggling to\nits present attainments. Think particularly of the moral and spiritual\ncondition of the race, in comparison with that heavenly vision of\nGodlikeness which stands at the beginning of our history. I need not\ndelay then to prove that mankind has fallen. I will, however, ask you to\nremember when you reflect upon the sad disorders of the present state,\nupon the sorrows and weaknesses and wickednesses of men to-day, that God\ndid not thus create the progenitors of the race. If we see ruins about\nus and within us, let us remember that the temple as it was fashioned by\nthe supreme architect was perfect. Let us remember also the real and only\ncause of this terrible catastrophe. It was sin\u2014sin that always has ruined\nand always will destroy the beautiful, the pure, the true. Men did indeed\ngo from that height of exaltation into the depths of barbarism; it is\ntrue enough that the pages of remote history show us men living in caves,\nand almost reduced to the level of the brutes\u2014and sin led them there!\nMen did lose the moral beauty of our first parent; they did lose much of\nthe intellectual and physical strength which lingered for a season in\nhis immediate descendants\u2014and sin was the despoiler that remorselessly\nstripped from them those glorious robes! You and I might have been as\nAdam\u2014ignorant of sorrow and of suffering, and the world still an Eden\nabout us, but sin has cast us down.\n\nBut let us remember also, with infinite gratitude and hope, as we look\nupon that picture of primeval perfection which we have sought to restore,\nthat that condition may be regained. The crumbled arches, the fallen\nwalls, the shattered foundations of Nineveh\u2019s or Babylon\u2019s palaces\ncan never by any human skill be made to reproduce the glory that has\ndeparted, and yet the temple of man\u2019s Eden estate, though cast down with\na more fearful destruction, can be restored! Yea, made more glorious\nthan it was before, and established upon a foundation, so that through\nthe eternal ages it can never again be moved! Thanks be unto God, this\nis possible to us. Jesus Christ has come from heaven and has undertaken\nthe accomplishment of the stupendous task. Jesus Christ has promised to\neffect it for every one who will yield to his influences. And he can do\nit, for he is the Savior, he is the Redeemer, the buyer-back of that\nwhich was lost, and of nations and of regions as well as of individual\nsouls. \u2026 His spirit is the inspiration of the life which here is lived.\nThat is enough to lift up any place or any people. And just as certainly\nwill it lift up any human soul. Just as certainly will it redeem it from\nthe consequences of the race\u2019s fall. Not in this life, indeed, may we\nexpect to have again the perfection of power and the freedom from sorrow\nwhich our first parent had; but the work of bringing men back to all the\nblessedness which Adam enjoyed, with new elements of blessing added, will\nbe done\u2014yea, it is even now going on, through the power of an indwelling\nChrist in souls that are here to-day. Let us all take the loving and\nmighty hand which is extended for our uplifting; let us seek our\nbirthright, and though, through the first Adam our Paradise was lost, let\nus yield ourselves to the second Adam, by whom a better Paradise shall be\nregained.\u2014_The Rev. Dr. E. D. Ledyard._\n\n\n[_April 19._]\n\nMonarchs reign, but their dominion is merely external. They do not and\ncan not enter into the realm of the soul; but \u201cthere is another king,\none Jesus,\u201d whose right it is to sit enthroned in every heart, to direct\nevery conscience, and to have dominion over every thought and action.\nHave you given him the sovereignty of yourself?\n\nSin reigns, and that king, alas! holds sway in many\u2014I ought to say in\nthe vast majority of human souls. But he is an usurper; for \u201cthere is\nanother king, one Jesus,\u201d who is the rightful lord of the heart. Under\nwhich king are you? He who repudiates the royalty of Jesus over him is\nguilty of treason against the majesty of heaven, and is but courting his\ndestruction.\n\nDeath reigns, and day by day he is sweeping in new multitudes into his\nsilent realm. The mightiest and the meanest alike must yield to him\nwho is the terror of kings, no less than he is the king of terrors.\nAt one time he rides on the hurricane, and dashes the laboring vessel\nand the freighted souls within her on the roaring reef; at another he\ndrives through the city streets riding on his pestilential car, and\nspreads desolation round him. Now he careers upon the boiling flood, and\nsweeps whole villages before him into swift destruction; and again he\nleaps in the lightning-flash upon some devoted building, and kindles a\nconflagration that burns many in its flames. He laughs at men\u2019s efforts\nto elude his grasp; and as we look upon the settled countenance of the\nloved one whom we are preparing to lay in the grave, we are almost\ncompelled to own him conqueror. But no! \u201cthere is another king, one\nJesus,\u201d who is \u201cthe Resurrection and the Life,\u201d and \u201cwho hath abolished\ndeath and brought life and immortality to light by the Gospel.\u201d Let us,\nthen, be undismayed by this last enemy. He is a vanquished foe. Our Lord\nJesus has gone into his domain, and having conquered him there, has\nbrought him back with him to his palace, to be there the page who opens\nthe door for his friends into the chamber of his presence. Yes! as we\nstand by the remains of our Christian dead, and under the influence of\nsight are moved to speak of Death as king, we recall in another sense\nthan they were meant, but in a sense which faith recognizes as true, the\nwords \u201cThere is another king, one Jesus.\u201d\n\nParadoxical as it may seem, these two things always go together. Where\nChrist is owned as the sole sovereign, there his service is perfect\nfreedom; but where his supremacy is either ignored or given to another,\nthere comes the slavery of superstition, or the tyranny of priestcraft,\nor the cold domination of philosophy, and it is hard to say which of\nthese is the most degrading.\u2014_W. M. Taylor._\n\n\n[_April 26._]\n\nHe who would preach the Gospel with power must be himself a believer in\nthe Lord. The secret of true, heart-stirring eloquence in the pulpit is,\nnext after the power of the Holy Ghost, that which the French Abb\u00e9 has\nvery happily called \u201cthe accent of conviction\u201d in the speaker. Behind\nevery appeal that Paul made to sinners, there was the memory of that\nwonderful experience through which he passed on the way to Damascus;\nand therefore we are not surprised that he _so_ preached as either to\nsecure men\u2019s faith or to rouse their antagonism. But his conversion\nalone, without his Arabian revelations, would not have made him the\napostle he became. In the desert he met his Lord, and received from him\nmany important spiritual communications. There, too, he meditated on the\ntruths revealed to him, and poured out his heart in prayer for a thorough\nunderstanding of their meaning and a full realization of their power.\nThus he came back to Damascus, if not with a face glowing like that of\nMoses when he descended from Sinai, at least with a heart filled and\nfired with love to Him who had there unfolded to him the mysteries of the\nGospel. Now, what Paul thus received from the Lord has been given to us\nby evangelists and apostles in the New Testament Scriptures. Our Arabia,\ntherefore, will be the study and the closet in which we pore over these\nprecious pages, and seek to comprehend their many sided significance, as\nwell as to imbibe the spirit by which they are pervaded. He who would\npreach to others must be much alone with his Bible and his Lord; else\nwhen he appears before his people, he will send them to sleep with his\npointless platitudes, or starve them with his empty conceits. Get you\nto Arabia, then, ye who would become the instructors of your fellowmen!\nGet you to the closet and the study! Give your days and nights to the\ninvestigation of this book; and let everything you produce from it be\nmade to glow with white heat in the forge of your own heart, and be\nhammered on the anvil of your own experience!\u2014_W. M. Taylor._\n\n\n\n\nEASY LESSONS IN ANIMAL BIOLOGY.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nBiology is the science of life, the true doctrine concerning all living\nthings. Animal biology is that branch of the science which relates to\nanimals, as distinguished from plants. It tells of these animals what\nwe know about them, where and how they live, what food they eat, how it\nis received, and how they grow and multiply. Of all the sciences, this\nseems most extensive, having for its field a world of numberless forms,\nalike in that they all live, and have some characteristics in common,\nyet showing great diversity in their structure, appearance, and mode of\nlife. In this summary of facts we shall simply classify, or methodically\narrange in groups, according to their distinguishing peculiarities, the\nmembers of this vast family.\n\nThe animal kingdom is divided into the following sub-kingdoms, each\nof which is subdivided into classes. The following table shows these\ndivisions in their proper order, beginning with the lowest:\n\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM I\u2014_Protozoa_.           { Class I\u2014Monera.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Gregarinida.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Rhizopoda.\n                                        { Class IV\u2014Infusoria.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM II\u2014_Spongida_.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM III\u2014_C\u0153lenterata_.      { Class I\u2014Hydrozoa.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Anthozoa.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Ctenophora.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM IV\u2014_Echinodermata_.     { Class I\u2014Crinoidea.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Asteroidea.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Echinoidea.\n                                        { Class IV\u2014Holothuroidea.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM V\u2014_Vermes_.             { Class I\u2014Flat Worms.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Round or Thread Worms.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Rotifera.\n                                        { Class IV\u2014Polyzoa.\n                                        { Class V\u2014Brachiopoda.\n                                        { Class VI\u2014Annelid\u00e6.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM VI\u2014_Mollusca_.          { Class I\u2014Lamellibranchiata.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Gasteropoda.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Cephalopoda.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM VII\u2014_Articulata_.       { Class I\u2014Crustacea.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Arachnida.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Myriapoda.\n                                        { Class IV\u2014Insecta.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM VIII\u2014_Tunicata_.\n\n    SUB-KINGDOM IX\u2014_Vertebrata_.        { Class I\u2014Pisces.\n                                        { Class II\u2014Reptilia.\n                                        { Class III\u2014Aves.\n                                        { Class IV\u2014Mammalia.\n\n\nSUB-KINGDOM I.\n\n_Protozoa_ (first animals). These earliest formed animals are\ndistinguished for the simplicity of their structure. In some cases their\nanimal nature was long ago in doubt, and they were, for a time, put down\nas probably belonging to the vegetable kingdom. The border line between\nthe two has never been very definitely located. Biologists may fail to\ntell just what special quality distinguishes the minute animal from the\nmicroscopic plant. This is not wonderful, when it is remembered that\nmyriads of animals, known to be such, are so small that it requires a\nlens of strong magnifying power to discover them. Three thousand of them,\nplaced side by side, would make a line but little over an inch long.\n\nCLASS I.\u2014_Monera_ (single). These are the simplest forms of microscopic\naquatic animals. They are entirely homogeneous, and without any\ndeveloped organs; mere particles, of a jelly-like, but living, or\nlife-supporting substance, called protoplasm, or more properly, bioplasm.\nThis, all admit, is the physical basis of life, and the medium of its\nmanifestation, just as the conductor is a medium of manifestation\nof electricity. But is it not a stupid blunder to confound the mere\nmedium of its manifestation with the life itself? In neither case is\nthe recognized physical basis of the manifestation necessary to the\nexistence of that manifested by its means. Electricity exists without the\nconductor, and life may exist without the bioplasm.\n\nCLASS II.\u2014_Gregarinida_ (living in herds). Minute animals which are found\nin the intestines of the lobster, clam, and cockroach. They are worm-like\nin form, and of a very simple, cell-like structure, the only organ being\na nucleus.\n\nCLASS III.\u2014_Rhizopoda_ (root footed). The representative forms of this\nclass are the _Am\u0153ba_[1] and _Foraminifera_. The am\u0153ba is an indefinite\nlittle bit of bioplasm, as structureless as the monera, only that it\nis made up of two layers of the substance, has an apparent nucleus,\nand a contractile cavity within. These first animals vindicate their\nright to be recognized as such, by moving, receiving food, growing, and\nreproducing their kind. They move by a contractile force, throwing out\nat will processes of their soft bodies, to serve them as feet and arms.\nTrue, these are blunt, and without digits, but they answer the purpose.\nThey eat either by simple absorption, or by wrapping their soft bodies\naround the food, and holding it in the extemporized stomach till it is,\nin some way, assimilated.\n\nThe work of reproduction is carried on principally by self-division, and\nbudding. The animal rends itself into two or more parts, each having all\nthe elements of the whole, or it throws out buds that mature and drop\nfrom the parent mass, having the vital element, and a portion of the\nbioplasm, or medium necessary to its development.\n\n[Illustration: FORAMINIFERA, SHOWING ROOT-LIKE FEET.]\n\nThe _Foraminifera_ (perforated animals), of this class, have several\npeculiarities. The body is even more simple, being apparently without\nlayers or cavity. The processes thrown out as arms and legs are not\nblunt or massive, but long and slender. And, moreover, small as it is,\nit has the wonderful property of secreting about itself an envelope,\nwhose thin walls are built of the carbonate of lime. The delicate little\nstructures are often singularly beautiful. Some are monads, having but a\nsingle shell; others, by a process of budding add new cells or chambers,\noften in a spiral coil. These are marine shells, and their numbers in\nmany parts of the ocean are astounding. The bottom of the sea, for many\ndegrees on both sides of the equator, wherever examined by dredging, is\nfound covered with them, either still in their organic state, or ground\nby attrition to a fine lime dust. It is estimated that a single pound of\nthe sea bottom in some localities contains millions of them, and they are\nthe principal material of the chalk hills.\n\nCLASS IV.\u2014_Infusoria._ This class includes _Vorticella_ (wheel animals),\n_Flagellata_ (whip-shaped animals), _Tentaculata_ (having tentacles),\nand others. Their general characteristics do not differ widely from\nthose already mentioned. As the name imports, they are mostly found\nin vegetable infusions that have been exposed for some time, and are\ndirectly the product of invisible cells or animal germs that were\nfloating in the atmosphere till a lodgment was found favorable to their\ndevelopment. Those called _Vorticella_, to the eye seem simply mould on\nthe plant to which they are attached, but under the glass their animal\nqualities appear; and they multiply with amazing rapidity. Every drop\nof water from a stagnant pool is full of these animalcul\u00e6, of various\nshapes and dimensions, some of them constantly in motion, propelled\nby numerous cilia, or slender, hair-like appendages that fringe the\ncircumference, and are used as oars. Their whole organism, though\ndelicate, and having a thin membranous covering, is imperfect. There are\ntwo contractile openings, with a slight depression at the mouth, leading\nto a funnel-shaped throat, into which the nutritive substances descend.\n\n\nSUB-KINGDOM II.\n\n_Spongida_, or sponges, are especially worthy of mention. When much\nless was known of their nature and habits, they were classed with\nvegetables, but since their mode of reproduction has been discovered,\nthey are known to be animals. The sponge is formed of an aggregation of\nciliated cells, built together on a skeleton or framework of calcareous\nor silicious substance, that extends by slow external secretions as the\nanimal body grows. There is a central cavity toward which there are\nnumerous channels, from openings on the surface, through which water\nis continually received, and one through which it is discharged. The\nanimal part is a sensitive, gelatinous film, extending through the\ngrowing mass, and spreads out over the surface. It is perforated, in\nplaces, and adapts itself to all the sinuosities and intersections of\nthe canals that run in every direction. The little animals are provided\nwith exceedingly fine cilia that they keep in almost constant motion; no\none knows how, or for what, but it is supposed they thus sweep in the\nwater that circulates through all the channels and chambers formed for\nit. After death, the soft matter, like all animal tissues, decays, or is\ndried up; and by beating and washing, it and any calcareous substances\nare removed. The horny, elastic fibers are found so exquisitely connected\nabout the internal canals and cavities that water is freely admitted,\nor by pressure expelled. Sponges are found in every latitude, but are\nmore numerous and grow larger in warm climates. Those in our markets are\nmostly from the Bahamas and the islands of the Mediterranean. They are\nobtained by diving, often to great depths.\n\n\nSUB-KINGDOM III.\n\n_C\u0153lenterata_ (hollow intestines). These are radiate animals, have a\ndistinct digestive cavity, and always two layers of tissue in their\nwalls. They have minute sacs containing a fluid, and barbed filaments\ncapable of being thrown out as stings. The classes of the C\u0153lenterata\nare the _Hydrozoa_, _Anthozoa_, and _Ctenophora_. The best known\nrepresentative of the former is the fresh water _hydra_ (water animal).\nIt gives but slight evidence of a nervous system, has no stomach, or\ndigestive sac, but is a simple tube into which the mouth opens. The\nsensitive little body is in color and texture, to the casual observer\nmore like a plant than an animal. It is attached at one end to a\nsubmerged aquatic plant, while the mouth at the free end is provided with\ntentacles,[2] by which it feeds and moves. It buds, and also produces\neggs. The young hydra, when hatched or thrown off, attaches itself to\nplants, as did its parents. Some hydroids attach themselves to shells,\nand are supported by horny, branching skeletons, specimens of which are\nnumerous, and may be seen in almost any museum.\n\n[Illustration: HYDRA, SHOWING BUDS.]\n\nA second representative of this class is the jelly fish. It has a soft,\ngelatinous, circular body, that floats or swims on the surface in calm\nweather, with the mouth downward. Tubes radiate from the center to\nthe circumference that is fringed all around with pendant tentacles,\nsometimes of great length and of considerable contractile power. They\nare of various sizes, some quite small, others as much as eight feet in\ndiameter. They move about by flapping their sides, after the manner of\nopening and shutting an umbrella. When dried, the thin, filmy covering\nis very light. One variety, called _Lucernaria_, is found attached to\ngrasses along the Atlantic shore. But the ordinary jelly fish is free,\nand borne on the surface of the sea.\n\nThe _Anthozoa_ (flower animals) are small, but not microscopic animals,\nhaving a double cavity, the inner of which is the digestive sac. The\nbest known of the class is the _Actinia_ (rayed), or sea anemone, so\ncalled from its resemblance to a plant or flower of that name. The body\nis somewhat like a flower in shape. The disc has a central orifice, very\ncontractile, and surrounded with tubular tentacles of various forms,\nwhich it elongates, contracts, and moves in different directions. They\nare so many arms by which the animal seizes its prey, and when expanded\nfor the purpose, being tinted with brilliant colors, present an elegant\nappearance, and make vast fields of the ocean look like beautiful flower\ngardens. They feed voraciously on little crabs and mollusks, that\noften seem superior to themselves in strength and bulk, but they have\npower in their little tentacles to seize and hold their prey, and when\nthey engulf large bodies the stomach is distended to receive them; and\ntheir digestion is good. The purple sea anemone is very common on the\nsouthern shores of England, and one species, found on the shores of the\nMediterranean, is said to be esteemed a great delicacy by the Italians.\nAt night, or when alarmed, the animal draws in its arms, shuts the door,\nand seems but a rounded lump of flesh, a huge oyster without a shell. The\ncoral polyps (many footed), belonging to this class, are little folk,\nbut of importance from their well-earned reputation as reef builders.\nThey are very diminutive creatures, mere drops of animal jelly, often not\nlarger than the head of a pin, but their works show unmistakable evidence\nof life, and an organic structure. They live in communities, closely\nunited, but each, having a distinct individuality, by the sure process\nof secreting a portion of the calcareous matter within reach, prepares\nfor himself a house, as all his ancestors have done, and his neighbors\nare now doing. They build together, their foundations having strong\nconnections, and thoroughly cemented. There in his own little palace the\npolyp lives, his food being brought to his lips; and, having sent out a\nnumerous progeny to do likewise for themselves, there he dies. Life and\ndeath, as in all mundane communities, being in close proximity, the old\ndying, a new generation builds houses over their sepulchres.\n\n[Illustration: SEA ANEMONE.]\n\nThe great variety of corals seen in any extensive collection, some very\nbeautiful, others rough and unsightly, are from different branches of a\nvery extensive family. _Astrea_ (star shaped), from the Fiji islands, is\na kind of coral hemisphere, covered with large and beautiful cells.\n\n_Mushroom coral_ is disc shaped, not fixed or attached, and is the\nsecretion, not of many, but of a single huge polyp.\n\n_Brain coral_ is globular, and the surface irregularly furrowed or\ncorrugated.\n\n_Madrepora_ (spotted pores) _coral_ is neatly branched, the branches\nhaving pointed extremities ending in single minute cells.\n\n_Porites_, or sponge coral, is also branched, but the branches are not\npointed, and the surface smoother.\n\n_Tubipora_, or organ pipe coral, shows some very striking peculiarities.\nA section of the vast structures built by them resembles a collection\nof regular, smooth, red colored pipes, firmly bound together by cross\nsections.\n\nCoral rocks are of slow formation, but have attained prodigious\ndimensions; whole islands are of coral origin, and in some seas the\nconcealed rocks make navigation dangerous. The reefs are often 2,000 feet\nthick, though it is estimated that not more than five feet are added in a\nthousand years. The little architects were at work early.\n\n_Corallium rubrum_, or red coral, much sought after and precious, is\nshrub-like, of fine texture, and a beautiful crimson color. In a living\nstate its branches are said to be covered over with bright polyps, and\nthe skeleton receives a very fine polish. It is used for ornaments.\nProfessor Dana says: \u201cSome species grow in large leaves rolled round each\nother, like an open cabbage, and another foliated kind consists of leaves\nmore crisped, and of more delicate structure. \u2018Lettuce coral\u2019 would be a\nsignificant name; each leaf has its surface covered with polyp flowers.\nThe clustered leaves of acanthus and oak are at once called to mind by\nthis species.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: CORAL ISLAND.]\n\n_The Ctenophora_ (comb-bearing) are considered the highest of the\nC\u0153lenterata, having a more complex digestive apparatus, and better\ndeveloped nervous system. Their long tentacles, and comb-like cilia are\nused for swimming.\n\n\nSUB-KINGDOM IV.\n\n_Echinodermata_ (spiny skinned) have all their parts symmetrically\narranged about a central axis, a contractile heart, good digestive\norgans, and a peculiar system of radiating canals extending through the\norganism. They are a numerous family of exclusively marine animals, and\ntheir characteristics furnish an interesting study. Most naturalists\nmention four classes.\n\nCLASS I.\u2014_Crinoidea_, or sea lilies, now nearly extinct, are fixed to\nrocks, or the sea bottom, by what seems simply a stem, but is the body\nof the animal. At the top is the mouth, resembling an expanding bud\nor flower that opens upward, surrounded by long tentacles, or arms,\nnot unlike the sea anemone. It is supported by a calcareous skeleton\nconsisting of many members, stiff-jointed, crossing and interlacing with\none another. When living, the gelatinous animal partly envelops this\nframework.\n\nCLASS II.\u2014_Asteroidea_, or star fish, have a flat disc, five or more\nradiating arms extending some distance from the body at the center, and\ncontaining a part of the viscera. The mouth is where the arms meet, and\nopens downward. The upper surface is studded over with rough knobs,\nbetween which are the openings of many little tubes, for the passage\nof water into and out of the body. The round mouth is very dilatable,\nenabling it to receive large and solid objects for its food, which\nthere is no attempt to masticate. After the digestive organ is somehow\nwrapped around the shell fish on which it feeds, it is held in its firm\nembrace till the nutritive portion is disposed of, and then thrown out.\nThey are voracious eaters, devouring all kinds of garbage that would\notherwise accumulate along the shores, valuable as sea scavengers, though\ndestructive of living crustaceans and shell fish.\n\nCLASS III.\u2014_Echinoidea_ (hedgehog-like) are covered with spines which\nthey move either by the enveloping membrane or by small muscles properly\nsituated for the purpose. The thin, horny, and, when dry, very light\nskin is peculiar, in that it is composed of regularly shaped, pentagonal\nplates, arranged in radiating zones, every alternate plate perforated\nwith small holes; and among the spines, but capable of extending beyond\nthem, are little arms, provided at the end with forceps, probably for\nseizing their prey, or for ridding themselves of troublesome parasites.\nThese are also used for locomotion. They are less active than some others\nof the family, live near the shore among rocks, or under the seaweed,\nfeed on crabs, and are oviparous.[3]\n\nCLASS IV.\u2014_Holothuroidea_ (whole mouthed). They are elongated, like\na cucumber, and the head end terminates abruptly, the mouth being a\ncircular opening surrounded with feathery tentacles. They have remarkable\nmuscular power, by which they can disgorge the contents of the stomach,\nthrow off their tentacles, and even eject most of their internal\norgans, and survive the loss, afterward producing others, perhaps more\nsatisfactory or in a healthier condition. In tropical climates, they have\nbeen likened to the sea urchin, without a shell, but are proportionally\nlonger, and their axis horizontal.\n\n\nSUB-KINGDOM V.\n\n_Vermes_ (worms). Animals having head and tail composed of segments. The\ndigestive organ is tubular, and the nervous system a double chain of\nganglia[4] on the ventral[5] surface. There are six classes of vermes.\nThe animals differ greatly in appearance.\n\nCLASS I.\u2014_Flat worms_ are best known as the parasites that infest\nanimals, such as the liver fluke of the sheep, and the tapeworm. The flat\nworms pass through a very peculiar metamorphosis, some varieties taking\nas many as seven different forms.\n\nCLASS II.\u2014_Round or Thread Worms_ are represented by the pin worm and\n_Trichina_. The latter is the dangerous worm which finds its way into the\nhuman system from pork flesh, in which it is imbedded.\n\nCLASS III.\u2014_Wheel Animalcul\u00e6_, or _Rotifera_. A most interesting\nmicroscopic worm, abounding in fresh water and in the ocean. They will\nremain dried up for years, and then recover life. Their shapes are very\npeculiar.\n\nCLASS IV.\u2014_Moss Animals_, or _Polyzoa_, are the animals which form a\ncoral-like shell. They are abundant on the seashore, and are called sea\nmosses.\n\nCLASS V.\u2014_Lamp Shells_ (_Brachiopoda_). These worms are marine, and form\na bivalve shell, the valves being on either side of the body. The body\nhas long arms on one side of the mouth, which bear fringes; the motion of\nthe fringes draws food into the mouth. They are also used in respiration.\nBut few species of the Brachiopods are now living, though they were once\nvery plenty.\n\nCLASS VI.\u2014_Annelid\u00e6._ This last class includes the leeches, a flat worm,\nwhose body is divided into segments; the earth or angleworm, a familiar\nworm of many segments, and the marine worms. Each segment of the latter\nbears clusters of bristles, used in swimming.\n\n\nSUB-KINGDOM VI.\n\n_Mollusca_ (soft). General characteristics\u2014Mollusks, a numerous branch\nof the animal kingdom, are so called from the softness of their bodies,\nwhich usually have no internal skeleton or framework to support them.\nThey are covered with a tough, muscular skin, and generally protected\nby a shell. They have a gangliated nervous system, in some cases well\ndeveloped, the medullary[6] mass not enclosed in a cranium or spinal\ncolumn\u2014of which they are mostly destitute\u2014but distributed more or\nless irregularly through the body. They have hearts, and an imperfect\ncirculative system, the blood being pale or blueish. Some breathe in air,\nsome in fresh, more in sea water. Some\u2014both of those on land and those in\nwater\u2014are naked, others have a calcareous covering or shell. The larger\nmarine mollusks are often guarded by very strong, heavy shells. Some are\nviviparous, others oviparous, and multiply rapidly.\n\n[Illustration: SNAIL.]\n\nThree general, and many subdivisions are recognized. The total number of\nliving species is said to exceed twenty thousand, of which only a few can\nbe mentioned. The classes under this division are _Lamellibranchiata_,\n_Gasteropoda_, and _Cephalopoda_. The chief representatives of the first\nclass are all ordinary bivalves.\n\n_Ostrea_ (oysters) are well known bivalve mollusks. The shells are so\nirregular in surface and shape that it would be impossible, as it is\nunnecessary, to describe them. The animal itself is very simple in\nstructure, proverbially stupid, low in the scale of animal life, but\nhighly esteemed as a delicious article of food. They are found in almost\nall seas, and in water of from two to six fathoms, but never very far\nfrom some shore. They multiply so rapidly that, though the consumption\nincreases with the increase of population and the facilities for\ndistributing them, the supply is equal to the demand. Boston is mostly\nsupplied from artificial beds, and the flats or shallow bays in the\nvicinity of our maritime cities abound in such \u201cplants.\u201d Baltimore and\nNew York have each an immense local trade, and the oysters exported from\nthe Chesapeake Bay fisheries amount to about $25,000,000 annually.\n\nCLASS II.\u2014_Gasteropoda_ (stomach-footed). This class, including the great\nsnail family, is a very large division of terrestrial, air-breathing\nmollusks. Their light shells vary much in form; when spiral and fully\ndeveloped they have as many as five or six whorls, symmetrically\narranged. The shell can contain the whole body, but the animal often\npartially crawls out and carries the shell on its back. The locomotion is\nslow and accomplished by the contractile muscle of the ventral foot.\n\nCLASS III.\u2014_The Cephalopoda_ (head-footed) have distinctly formed heads,\nlarge, staring eyes, mouths surrounded with tentacles or feelers,\nsymmetrically formed bodies wrapped in a muscular covering; they have all\nthe five senses, and are carnivorous. This class is entirely marine, and\nbreathes through gills on the side of the body. The naked _Cephalopoda_\nare numerous, and furnish food for many other animals. Those living\nin chambered shells, once numerous, are now known principally by\ntheir fossils, the pearly _Nautilus_ (sailor) being their only living\nrepresentative. This has a smooth, pearly shell, and is much prized as\nan ornament. It is a native of the Indian Ocean, dwelling in the deep\nplaces of the sea, and at the bottom. The shell is too well known to\nneed description, and but few specimens of the living animal have been\nobtained.\n\n[Illustration: NAUTILUS.]\n\nThe following facts as to the physical organization and habits of\nthis interesting species of univalves are gleaned from the American\nCyclop\u00e6dia, and given for those who have not access to any extensive work\non the subject; they were mostly copied for the Cyclop\u00e6dia from Professor\nOwen\u2019s celebrated memoir, and the \u201cProceedings of the Linn\u00e6an Society of\nLondon:\u201d\n\nThe posterior portion of the body containing the viscera is soft, smooth\nand adapted to the anterior chamber of the shell; the anterior portion is\nmuscular, including the organs of sense and locomotion, and can be drawn\nwithin the shell. The mantle is very thin behind, and prolonged through\nthe calcareous tube of the occupied chamber as a membranous siphon,\nand through all the divisions of the shell to the central nucleus;\non the upper part of the head is a broad, triangular, muscular hood,\nprotecting the head when retracted and used as a foot for creeping at the\nbottom of the sea, with the shell uppermost. \u2026 The mouth has two horny\nmandibles, like the beak of a parrot reversed, the lower overlapping\nthe upper, moving vertically, and implanted in thick, muscular walls.\n\u2026 There are ninety tentacles about the labial processes and head. The\ninternal cartilaginous skeleton is confined to the lower surface of\nthe head, a part of the cephalic nervous system being protected in a\ngroove on its upper surface, and the two great muscles which fasten the\nbody to the shell are attached to it. The funnel is very muscular and\nis the principal organ of free locomotion, the animal being propelled\nbackward by the reaction of the ejected respiratory current against the\nwater before it. \u2026 The nautilus, though the lowest of the Cephalopods,\noffers a nearer approach to the vertebrate animals than does any\nother invertebrate, in the perfect symmetry of the organs, the larger\nproportion of muscle, the increased bulk and concentration of the nervous\ncenters in and near the head, and in the cartilaginous cephalic skeleton.\nThe mature nautilus occupies but a small part of the shell, the parts\nprogressively vacated during its growth are one after another partitioned\noff by their smooth plates into air tight chambers, the plates growing\nfrom the circumference toward the center, and pierced by the membranous\nsiphon. The young animal before the formation of these chambers can not\nrise from the bottom of the sea, but the older ones come to the surface\nby the expansion and protrusion of their bodies producing a slight vacuum\nin the posterior part of the chamber unoccupied, and, some say, by the\nexhalation of some light gas into the other deserted chambers. They\nrise in the water as a balloon does in the air, because lighter than\nthe element surrounding them. They float on the surface with the shell\nupward, and sink quickly by reversing it. By a nice adjustment, in the\ncompleted structure, between the air chambers and the dwelling chamber,\nthe house and its inhabitant are nearly of the same specific gravity as\nwater. \u2026 In parts of the Southern Pacific, at certain seasons of the\nyear, fleets of these little ships are carried by the winds and currents\nto the island shores, where they are captured and used for food.\n\n[Illustration: ARGONAUT.]\n\n_The Paper Nautilus_, or argonaut, secretes a thin, unchambered shell in\nwhich its eggs are carried; has tentacles or arms with which it crawls\non the bottom, and swims backward, usually with the back down, squirting\nwater through its breathing funnel. The argonaut differs from the true\nnautilus in having larger arms of more complicated structure, with sucker\ndiscs, and partially connected by a membrane at the base. It has an ink\ngland and sac, for its secretion. It has a great number of little cells,\ncontaining pigment matter of different colors, whose contractions and\nexpansions give it a remarkable power of rapidly changing its tints.\nThere is no internal shell, and it is ascertained that the external shell\nis peculiar to the female, and is only an incubating and protective nest\nfor the eggs. The eggs are attached to the involuted spire of the shell,\nbehind and beneath the body of the female. From the fact that the animal\nhas no muscular or other attachment to its shell, and has been known,\nafter quitting it, to survive sometime without attempting to return, the\nargonaut has been supposed to be a parasitic occupant of the cast off\nshell of another, but is now pretty clearly proved to be the architect\nof its own shell, which it also repairs when broken by the agency of\nits palmated arms. It is said the argonaut rises to the surface, with\nthe shell upward, turning it downward when it floats on the water; by\ndrawing the six arms within the shell and placing the palmated ones on\nthe outside, it can quickly sink. This explains why the animal is so\nseldom taken with the shell. The shell is flexible when in water, but\nvery fragile when dry. The largest known specimen is in the collection of\nthe Boston Society of Natural History; it is 10 by 6\u00bd inches. For a full\naccount of this animal see \u201cProceedings of the Boston Society of Natural\nHistory,\u201d vol. v, pp. 369-381.\n\n    _End of Required Reading for April._\n\n\n\n\nJERRY McAULEY AND HIS WORK.\n\nBY COLEMAN E. BISHOP.\n\n\nExtremes of life meet in a great city. \u201cMan, the pendulum betwixt a\nsmile and tear,\u201d here swings between the utmost extremes of squalor and\nsplendor, misery and enjoyment, sin and virtue. That conflict between\ngood and evil\u2014old as the human soul, its arena\u2014is waged nowhere as\nfiercely as here, where life is intense and assailable souls are legion.\nYou have to go but a little below the surface of city life to find a\nworse than Dante\u2019s \u201cInferno;\u201d and if that were the whole story, if there\nwere no compensating charities, one would feel it a mercy to call down on\nthe city the desolation, and the peace of Sodom.\n\nBut, thank God! there _are_ those redeeming, reforming influences to give\none new hope for civilization, new faith in humanity, or new faith in\ndivine grace. Its missions and charities are the sunny side of New York.\nThere are over one hundred and thirty established missions in the city,\nwith a million and a half of dollars permanently invested, beside the\nother millions required to support them; and the eleemosynary and relief\ninstitutions of New York outshine the charities of all other cities,\nproportioned to numbers. Some liberal, devout souls seem to be looking\nafter every conceivable phase of suffering and sin, and if the devil\nseems generally to be getting the advantage, let us believe that it is\nbecause his antagonists are not more numerous, rather than because he is\nany smarter or attends more strictly to business. Indeed, the ingenuity\nof some of the foes of sin, might put to confusion the proverbial\noriginality of the great adversary. Of these exceptional efforts, perhaps\nthere is none more unique than the work of the late Jerry McAuley, nor\none that has wrought so great results with so little human aid; nor one\nto which the Christian believer can point as a testimony of divine agency\nwith greater confidence.\n\nYet, a thoughtful study of the man and his work will reveal the rationale\nof it, and help us to understand why it took hold of a certain class\nin the way it did; that is, why he proved so exact a means to that\nexact end. The characteristics and training that made Jerry McAuley\na successful criminal made him, when his nature and purpose had been\ntransformed, a successful missionary. The son of a counterfeiter, he was\neducated in the worst streets and dens, graduated a tippler and petty\nthief in his boyhood, and took his degrees of gambler, drunkard, burglar\nand wharf rat; and at the age of nineteen was convicted and sentenced\nto fifteen years\u2019 imprisonment. Short and inglorious career of sin! To\nbe followed by a long and glorious one of righteousness, and crowned at\nlast with a triumphant death in faith! Here for seven years he hardened\nunder perfunctory gospel ministrations and prison discipline, until at\nthe right time Orville Gardner, known as \u201cAwful Gardner, the Reformed\nPrize-fighter,\u201d found Jerry and led him to that change which he always\ncalled his \u201ctransformation.\u201d He was pardoned out, only to meet the\nkilling, chilling reception that society gives to one who has passed the\nbars. Now followed seven years of struggles for an honest life. Only his\nsoul and its Maker know what these were. At one time he relapsed into\nhis old ways, but he was sought and reclaimed by agents of the Howard\n(\u201cFive Points\u201d) Mission. Strange, is it not, that good people are so much\nmore alert to recall the fallen than to aid the struggling and keep the\nrescued secure? Why is it that interest in the unfortunate is deferred\ntill interest seems useless?\n\nJerry now conceived the plan of a mission to people of his own old\nlife, men and women tempted in all points like unto himself. He applied\nfor advice and help to one or two clergymen and some wealthy church\nmembers, only to meet with mortifying coldness or refusal. We can\nreadily understand this caution, considering McAuley\u2019s antecedents and\nqualifications. He could hardly read and write his own name. Churches are\nso fiercely criticised that they have to be very chary about espousing\nunpromising enterprises. It was a _natural_ caution if not a _Christian_\ncharity; worldly if not spiritual wisdom. Besides, are there not still\nthings that He hides from the wise and prudent, and reveals unto babes?\nAt length, McAuley found men able and willing to help, and with their aid\nhe opened his Water Street Mission, in 1872. This situation is one of the\nworst in the lower part of the city, in the \u201cBloody Eighth Ward,\u201d the\nhaunt of river thieves, sailors and abandoned women of the lowest degree.\nIt was a \u201crum start,\u201d indeed, to the denizens of Water Street when one of\ntheir leaders was graduated from prison to prayer meeting; and by scores\nthey \u201ccame to scoff, and remained to pray.\u201d This mission was a success\nfrom the start, and to-day remains in full tide of beneficent operation.\n\nTwo years ago Jerry was able to carry out his long-entertained desire to\n\u201cdo something for up-town sinners\u201d by the establishment of the \u201cCremorne\nMission.\u201d It was a more daring undertaking because it had to do with more\nrespectable sinners. He said it was a mistake to speak of those in the\ngutter as \u201chard cases;\u201d their pride and reliance are gone, and they are\nnot likely to be affronted or resistant when told they need a Savior; the\nprosperous and successful are the hard hearted; as you ascend the scale\nin means, intelligence and pretension, the harder the sinner becomes.\n\nOn West Thirty-Second Street, just off Third Avenue, was the infamous\nCremorne Gardens, one of the most dangerous because _not_ one of the\nlowest resorts of abandoned men and women. In this vicinity are many\nhouses of ill repute of the higher rank; gamblers and sporting men have\ntheir \u201crunways\u201d in that part of the city. Jerry \u201ccarried the war into\nAfrica\u201d by leasing a building next the \u201cCremorne Garden,\u201d so that in all\nrespects the sad satire of DeFoe was and is reversed,\n\n    \u201cWherever God erects a house of prayer\n     The Devil always builds a chapel there;\n     And \u2019twill be found upon examination\n     The latter has the larger congregation.\u201d\n\nThe passenger by the elevated railroad, or one of the several street car\nlines that converge at the intersection of Sixth Avenue and Broadway,\nmay see any evening a brilliant prismatic sign of \u201cCremorne Garden,\u201d and\nseemingly just above it this more brilliant legend:\n\n    JERRY MCAULEY\u2019S CREMORNE MISSION.\n\nHe will reach the Mission first, as he approaches this strange\nconjunction of stars; Jerry said he wanted the Lord to have the first\nchance at a sinner when he could.\n\nThe doors are open night and day, and some one is always there to welcome\nthe visitor. A \u201cprotracted meeting\u201d is held here all the year, and all\nthe years, around. Going in, you stand in a long, narrow hall, with high\nceilings modestly decorated; an aisle down the middle flanked by rows of\noaken settees terminates at a low platform on which are chairs, a cheap\ndesk, and a grand piano. The place seats five or six hundred. The hall\nis brilliant with electric lights, and the walls are illustrious with\nsuch Scripture quotations as, in the words of one of the converts, have\nbeen found most apt to \u201cfetch \u2019em\u201d\u2014_i. e._, sinners. By the platform are\nconspicuous notices that speeches are limited to one minute each, a rule\nthat is easily enforced in the case of the converts, because they have\nonly facts to tell, and do not seem to be in love with that sweetest\nmusic on earth, the sound of their own voices. \u201cOne minute each,\u201d Jerry\nwould say: \u201cDon\u2019t be too long; cut off both ends and give us the middle;\nyou need not get mad, as some people have done, if I ring this bell.\u201d\n\u201cAll right,\u201d replied one easy speaker; \u201cIf I get long-winded pull me down\nby my coat tails;\u201d whereat all laughed heartily, as they frequently do.\n\nJerry McAuley\u2019s method, first and last, was unique, but simple and very\neffective. Testimonies are the great reliance. They teach salvation by\nobject lessons, prove the truth of conversion by concrete examples.\nThere is no argument, no exhortation, no didactics, no theological\ndisquisition. What need of these in the presence of these living\nexamples? A man stands up and says: \u201cFor twenty years I was a common\ndrunkard and thief. Five years ago I found Christ here. I have not\ntouched a drop nor stolen a thing since.\u201d McAuley was won by _proof_. He\nsaid: \u201cIt was a testimony that brought me. I was \u2018sent up\u2019 for fifteen\nyears and six months; I listened to preaching there for over seven years,\nbut I was still unmoved. Then a man came along who gave his experience.\nHe had been a wicked man. That man told just my history; but he was\nsaved, and since there was hope for a desperate man like him, I knew\nthere was hope for me. And there was! Now you have heard the biggest\ndebtor to grace that is in the room, let the next heaviest debtor follow\nme.\u201d Others were won by the undeniable transformation of Jerry. These\nthings were irresistible. Men describe the effect on themselves of these\nliving witnesses:\n\n    \u201cThe Bible reading and the prayer did not have any effect upon\n    me, but the testimonies of some who had been, as I could not help\n    admitting to myself, just as I then was, did affect me. I felt\n    that I was in the same boat as they had been in. The conviction\n    of my state forced itself upon me, whether I wanted to think of\n    it or not.\u201d\n\n    \u201cI came to this meeting three weeks ago. I was drunk when I came\n    in here, but drunk as I was, those testimonies, such as you\n    have heard to-night, reached me, and I went forward to those\n    chairs. There I gave my heart to Christ after serving the devil\n    forty-seven years.\u201d\n\n    \u201cWhen I first heard the testimonies here I thought those who\n    spoke had great impudence to tell all about their past lives, but\n    by and by I felt that they were describing my case. Then, as they\n    told how Jesus saved them, I felt I needed to be saved.\u201d\n\n    \u201cAs testimony after testimony was given I would say to myself:\n    that\u2019s me, that\u2019s me.\u201d\n\n    Another said that the prayer and Bible reading did not affect\n    him, but the testimonies were \u201clike shot after shot fired at him.\u201d\n\nThese effects are driven home and clinched by direct personal efforts\nwith penitents, by attentions that follow them to their homes or shops,\nor into evil haunts, by relief and creature comforts\u2014in a word, by an\ninterest vigilant, ceaseless, and tender as divine love, because inspired\nby it.\n\nAs the method is peculiar, the atmosphere of the meeting is. One familiar\nwith ordinary devotional meetings, and, more, with revival efforts,\ncan not fail to notice here the contrast. Speaking is uniformly in an\nordinary tone, and in a conversational, matter-of-fact manner\u2014an effect\nthat is heightened by the use of phrases common in the resorts where some\nof the converts learned their vernacular. And prayer is specially subdued\nand low toned\u2014the more impressive and reverential on account of it.\n\nThen, one feels the momentum of the exercises and the tone of\ncheerfulness and joy that prevail. There is none of that exhortation\nto \u201cimprove the precious time;\u201d none of that dismal bewailing of\nspiritual barrenness and besetting doubts, fears and temptations, which\nsometimes make devotional exercises mechanical and dreary, and furnish\nstumbling-blocks to young believers. These converts do not dwell much on\ntheir _enjoyment_ of religion; albeit, they do one and all give thanks\nwithout ceasing for their deliverance. One notes, too, the absence of\ncant, of quotations and set phrases; everything is original. There\nis little exhortation of others. In short, like Bartimeas, they know\n\u201cWhereas I _was_ blind, _now_ I see;\u201d and unlike the blind man, they\nknow who worked the miracle.\n\nIt was the founder and leader of the two missions who gave all this\ntone to their services. He was of a medium height and slender, with a\nheavy, wiry moustache, keen eyes, a nervous temperament, energetic,\nquick-witted, sympathetic; one readily caught good feeling and\nconfraternity from his presence. He would flash out at a hymn, a text, or\na testimony, with a bit of experience. Before two sentences had passed\nhis lips he probably would leap down from his place on the platform,\nsaying, humorously: \u201cI can\u2019t talk up on that stage,\u201d and go down the\naisle as if to hold pleasant converse with his audience. It was a strange\n_melange_ of earnestness, experience, humility and wit, with not the\nleast attempt at eloquence, and apparently no study of effects. He\ndescribes one case of conversion:\n\n    \u201cThis man had come into the meeting with his head about twice the\n    usual size, and his eyes as red as a red-hot poker. You could\n    have squeezed the rum out of him. He asked me to pray with him,\n    but I hadn\u2019t much faith in the man, but that\u2019s just where God\n    disappointed me. I was deceived. The man meant business.\u201d\n\nThe missions are supported entirely by voluntary contributions left in\nthe boxes by the door. Sometimes these run low. One night Jerry asked\nall who were glad to be there to hold up their hands. All hands up.\n\u201cNow,\u201d said he, \u201cwhen you take your hands down put them way down\u2014down\ninto your pockets, and fetch something out to put in the boxes by the\ndoor.\u201d He said, that to run a mission successfully required \u201cgrace, grit\nand greenbacks.\u201d I fancy considerable of his influence was due to his\nknowledge of the secret hearts, the personal experiences of his auditors;\nhe was like a priest at confessional, when out of meeting. There are no\n_verbatim_ reports of his talks extant, and if there were they would give\nthe reader no proper idea of the man, because the grotesqueness of his\nlanguage would probably be the most striking feature of them. He must\nhave been heard to be understood, and even then I think he could not have\nbeen understood save by those whose experience and modes of life gave\nthem the touchstone.\n\nSister Maggie is a typical convert. At one of the Cremorne missions a\nSunday-school worker from the East Side told of his class of fifteen\nstreet boys and girls. \u201cI asked them,\u201d he said, \u201chow many of them drank\nbeer, and all promptly put up their hands. I asked how many thought it a\nbad practice, and only four or five responded. I then told them of the\nevils that drink led to, and cited them numerous examples within their\nknowledge, and finally asked how many of them would resolve never to\ndrink any more beer. About half of them kept their hands down, and in a\nway that showed they meant business.\u201d\n\nThis discouraging incident brought to her feet, on the platform, a tall,\nthick-set, strong-featured woman. She spoke with a strident, energetic\nvoice, a Bowery accent, and a manner to which all thought of shrinking or\nembarrassment was a stranger. It was Sister Maggie. She said, as nearly\nas I recall the words: \u201cThis teaching children beer-drinking is the\nbeginning of all the deviltry. I was passing a dive yesterday and I saw a\nlittle kid come out with a pail of beer that she had been sent for, and\nno sooner was she outside the door than the pail went to her head. That\u2019s\nthe way I used to do, and learned to drink and steal at the same time.\nBut God can help us to reclaim even beings so badly educated. He helped\nme, and there can\u2019t be a worse case on the East Side. There is not a dive\nover there that I haven\u2019t been drunk in. Brother S. knows how often I\nhave drank with him at old C.\u2019s dead-house (rum-shop). Sixteen years ago\nI was a leper, a confirmed sot. If you had seen me you would not have\nbelieved that I could have been saved. Christians said I was too far\ngone; they said there was not enough woman left in me to be saved. I had\nhad the jim-jams twicet. [Laughter.] The first time I had \u2019em I thought\nmy back hair was full of mice\u2014oh, that was awful! [More laughter.] I was\njust getting over the tremens when I first come in here. I was a walking\nrag-shop, and if you\u2019d a seen me you\u2019d give me plenty of room on the\nwalk. I staggered in and sat down on the very backest seat. Now they let\nme sit up here on the platform. What d\u2019ye think of that? God helped me,\nand he has helped me now for sixteen years, and I am going through. I am\nhappy. I have friends and good clothes, and more than all, I have _a good\nhome_, and that is what I never knew before.\u201d\n\nAt the mention of the word \u201chome,\u201d all the woman\u2019s instinct asserted\nitself, and for the first time her voice softened, and her manner melted;\nshe sobbed, and sat down.\n\nI can give no complete idea of the effect of this, because the reader\ncan know nothing of the surroundings, the antecedents of the speaker and\nof many of her listeners, and the keen rapport that ties them together.\nThese worshipers are a class and an organization by themselves; they have\nno church affiliations, and their worship is _sui generis_; many of them\nwere outcasts of society in former years, they stand alone since their\nreformation, and they are drawn close together in their isolation. True,\nthere are many among them who were always respectable members of society;\nmany who since their conversion here have joined churches; there are\nrichly dressed and cultured-looking people scattered in these audiences;\nbut the fact remains that the genius and distinctive _personnel_ of the\nmeetings are of the order of which Jerry McAuley and \u201cSister Maggie\u201d and\ntheir ministrations are representatives.\n\nI know of no religious exercises better calculated to inspire the\ntrue religious feelings of faith, charity, humility, gratitude, and\nrejoicing\u2014the distinguishing marks of the original Christian following.\nBut they differ from the noisy demonstrations which sometimes are\ntaken for \u201cprimitive Christianity,\u201d as they do from the cold and\nconventional worship which advertises itself in brownstone structures and\ndouble-barred mahogany pews. If one wants to get a breath of vigorous\nfaith and wholesome humility, he should attend the Sunday evening\nservices at one of the McAuley Missions.\n\nJerry McAuley died suddenly, but not unexpectedly, last September. His\nfuneral, held at the great Broadway Tabernacle, was one of the largest\never seen in this city, and was attended by hundreds of abandoned\ncharacters who had been reclaimed through his instrumentality, and who\nwere probably never inside of a church before, and may never be again.\nWomen with painted faces, but with tears in their eyes and bits of crape\nfastened at their throats or arms, stood with downcast heads beside other\nwomen who, under other circumstances, would have shunned them. Thus\ndid all classes testify to the power of simple faith and devotion in a\npoor, uncultured outcast. Over the platform in his chapels are his last,\ncharacteristic words:\n\n    \u201cIT\u2019S ALL RIGHT.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe workman dies, but the work goes on.\u201d There is no calculating the\npower and extent of the influences this humble worker has set in motion.\nBeside the hundreds of living examples of his labor here, the seed has\nscattered to the four winds of heaven, and sprung up in various forms to\nbless the world\u2014in other cities and other lands. The Missions publish\n_Jerry McAuley\u2019s Newspaper_, which, extensively circulated, especially\nin prisons and \u201cthe slums\u201d of cities, carries the glad tidings of the\ntestimonies to do a silent and unknown work. An affecting feature of the\nprivate work of these converts is their efforts to hunt out and reclaim\nmissing boys and girls. Letters are received from agonized parents, from\ndistant points as well as the city, imploring the help of missionaries to\nfind these estrays; and their efforts are often successful.\n\nI close with one example of this radiating, ramifying influence: Michael\nDunn was an English thief by inheritance, for his parents were thieves,\nand as he expresses it, \u201che had thieving on the brain.\u201d He had spent the\ngreater part of thirty-five years in different prisons, and continued\nthe same life after coming to this country. One evening an unconverted\nman sent him into the McAuley Mission as a joke, but it proved to Dunn a\nblessing, for he found a Savior, and the desire for stealing was all cast\nout. He was moved to undertake that most important work, the provision\nof a home for refuge and work for his brother ex-convicts. After many\ntrials and difficulties he finally established the Home of Industry, No.\n40 Houston Street, New York, where many lost men who were a terror to\nsociety, have been made honest Christian citizens, and are working to\nsave others. Nor did the work stop here. In the autumn of 1883, Dunn was\ncalled to San Francisco, California, to open a similar Home in that city,\nwhere his labors are as successful as they were in New York.\n\n\n\n\nEIN FESTE BURG IST UNSER GOTT.\n\nTRANSLATION OF LUTHER\u2019S FAMOUS HYMN.\n\n    Our God\u2019s a fastness sure indeed,\n      A trusty shield and weapon;\n    He helps us free in every need\n      That unto us may happen.\n          The old wicked foe\n          Now in earnest doth go,\n          Deep wiles and great might\n          In his fell store unite,\u2014\n        The earth holds not his fellow.\n\n    By strength of ours is nothing done,\n      Full soon are we dejected!\n    But on our side\u2019s a champion\n      By God himself elected.\n          And who may that be?\n          Christ Jesus is he,\n          The Lord God of Hosts!\n          All gods else are vain boasts,\n        Our camp is in his keeping.\n\n    Though demons rage both far and near\n      And gape our souls to swallow;\n    Not all too great shall be our fear;\n      Success our steps shall follow.\n          The prince of this world,\n          Though threats he hath hurled,\n          To us can do nought,\n          For if to judgment brought\n        One word declares his sentence.\n\n    To let the word stand they are fain,\n      And small thereby their merit;\n    He dwells among us on the plain\n      With gifts and with his spirit.\n          What though they take life,\n          Goods, name, child, and wife,\n          We need not rebel\u2014\n          No profit those to hell,\n        While ours must be the kingdom.\n\n\n\n\nTHE WEATHER BUREAU.\n\nBY OLIVER W. LONGAN,\n\nOf the War Department.\n\n\nIn an article on the \u201cWar Department\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December,\nmention was made of the weather observations by the Signal Corps of\nthe army. This novel service\u2014novel both in its character and in its\nassignment to a military department\u2014was commenced in 1870, under a\nresolution of Congress, approved February 9th of that year, which\nrequired the Secretary of War \u201cTo provide for taking meteorological\nobservations at the military stations in the interior of the continent,\nand at other points in the states and territories of the United States,\nand for giving notice on the northern lakes and on the sea coast, by\nmagnetic telegraph and marine signals, of the approach and force of\nstorms;\u201d and in June, 1872, the provisions of the service were extended\nto include \u201cthe agricultural and commercial interests\u201d of the country.\nThe plan of organization and the superintendence of the service were\nimposed upon the chief signal officer of the army, then General Albert J.\nMyer,[A] to whose memory the signal and the weather services are living\nmonuments.\n\nIf failures are of value in guiding succeeding attempts in the same\nline, General Myer had the advantage of a number, both in this country\nand Europe, but attributing those failures to a want of proper agents\nrather than to mistakes of method, and being thoroughly imbued with the\nidea that efficient service from a body of men employed in the same\nenterprise can be obtained only by enrolling them under the oath of\nenlistment as subjects of military discipline, he could adopt all the\nmethods of operation which had already been tried by others, and, uniting\nwith them his own, could undertake the work with a confidence in men as\nmuch as in measures, and make sure progress over the same road that had\nbeen too difficult for others to travel. The signal service, which had\nbeen organized by him as a special and distinct department of the army,\nwas well prepared to operate the most important agent in the work, the\nmagnetic telegraph, and it has constructed its lines over a great extent\nof country not yet reached by civilization, connecting frontier military\nposts with each other and with the lines owned and operated by private\ncompanies.\n\nThe office division first established under the law of Congress, which\nhas been mentioned, was called by the appropriate but too extensive name\nof \u201cDivision of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce,\u201d\nbut great works which have been proved and not found wanting may, like\ngreat men, afford to adopt simpler titles without loss of favor, or if\nthey will not do so voluntarily, such titles will be fashioned for them\nand fastened to them by the people, who have not time to regard the\nofficial proprieties that would hold them off at a respectful distance\nby an appearance of gravity of demeanor or by an impressive name, so the\noffice has come to be familiarly known as the \u201cWeather Bureau,\u201d and the\nofficials in charge have accepted the designation without objection. It\ndetracts nothing from the appreciation of the work they accomplish in\ngiving information\u2014premonitory\u2014of wind and rain, heat and cold, frost and\nsnow, river flood and ocean tide, and much more of interest and value\nday by day\u2014yes, and night by night as well\u2014for the inhabitants of this\ncontinent, and in adding to the knowledge of meteorology which is eagerly\nsought by the scientists of the world.\n\nThe service contemplated by Congress was at first intended\u2014if we may\njudge by the language of the law\u2014only to benefit persons interested in\nthe commerce upon the great lakes and the ocean. Then the agriculturists\nwere permitted to take share in the advantage afforded by a prevision\nof the weather. But we are all too greatly interested personally in the\nkind of weather expected to-morrow or the next day not to seek to profit\nby the work done for those engaged in special business when there may\nbe great gain for us as individuals without robbery of their peculiar\nrights. Our interest moves us to speech almost unconsciously, as we meet\nour friends by the way and tell them, what they already know as well as\nwe, about the kind of weather then prevailing, or express our hopes or\nfears for what soon will be. Work and play are sources of profit and\npleasure, according to the influences of the weather, and the signs of\nolden time are numberless, to which we give our confidence, whether they\ncome from the beasts of the field, or the fowls of the air, or the fishes\nof the sea, or are indications based upon a correct philosophy, well\nknown but not well understood. The masses of the people will not give up\ntheir attachment to these signs, nor for the old-fashioned almanac which\ntheir fathers consulted for their weather predictions, but now that they\nhave the aid of a great government institution conducted by men who study\nthe weather as a science, and who have patiently held out to them the\nbenefit of their investigations until the good natured skepticism and the\nraillery of the multitude who dubbed the genius of the weather service\n\u201cOld Probabilities,\u201d has all been banished and has given place to full\nfaith and credit, they ought to acknowledge, and no doubt do, that their\npersonal wants in this respect have been recognized, and they will take\ninterest in the methods by which they are met and satisfied.\n\nEvery feature of the signal service has been brought into requisition\nand use for the work of weather observations and storm warnings, and\nthe original bureau seems to have been so wholly absorbed in the new\none that the corps will be known, except perhaps in official circles,\nonly by its operations in this special field, until war shall call for\nthe more frequent use of the flags and rockets and lights, by the aid\nof which a great part of the rapid communication pertaining to the\nbusiness of warfare is carried on. The _personnel_ of the corps comprises\na chief signal officer (brigadier-general), twelve second lieutenants,\none hundred and fifty sergeants, thirty corporals, and three hundred\nand twenty privates. Prior to 1878 there were no signal officers in the\nregular establishment except the chief, but in that year authority was\ngiven to appoint two second lieutenants annually from the sergeants, and\nthe selection for these appointments is made by competitive examination.\nOfficers are assigned to duty with the corps by detail from the regiments\nof the army, and after a course of instruction return to their proper\nstations, and are succeeded by others. A few civilians are employed in\nthe office in Washington city, in various capacities, including that of\nprofessional scientist and instructor, but the great work of observation\nis done by the army force, so called because every member of it is\nready at any moment to lay aside his special duties and take up arms\nfor any emergency. The pay of the officers is that of their grade in\nthe army: $5,500 per annum for a brigadier-general; $1,400 for a second\nlieutenant, with an increase of ten per centum after each five years\nof service, until the increase reaches forty per centum (after twenty\nyears\u2019 service), when no more is added. (This increase, called longevity\npay, is not given to any officer above the rank of colonel.) As the\ngovernment is supposed to furnish a habitation of a certain number of\nrooms for each commissioned officer, there is quite an augmentation\nof the pay when the duty requires a station where there are no public\nquarters, as is the case in most of the service for the weather bureau,\nand commutation is paid. The pay of the enlisted men varies according to\ntheir rank and station of duty, but is based upon the army pay table. The\npay of a sergeant, including all allowances, averages monthly within a\nfew cents of the following amounts: At a military post where quarters and\nrations are provided in kind, $40; at an observing station, $80; at the\noffice in Washington city, $100; that of a corporal $25, $65, and $85;\nthat of a first class private $22, $62 and $82, and a decrease of four\ndollars for a second class private, the respective stations being those\nmentioned for the sergeant. The great difference in the pay of the same\nman at different places is made by the \u201cextra duty pay,\u201d and commutation\nof allowances (rations, quarters, fuel and clothing) when they can not\nbe furnished in kind. The entrance into the service is by an enlistment\nof five years. Every man must pass a rigid examination into his physical\nand educational qualifications. The service presents advantages not\nfound in any other branch of the army. The inducements attract a well\neducated class of men, many of them graduates of colleges, who find in\nthe scientific part of the work at least, a congenial pursuit.\n\nThe school of instruction is at Fort Myer (formerly Fort Whipple), a\nmilitary station in Virginia, on the bank of the Potomac river, nearly\nopposite Washington city. The course embraces the drill and discipline\nof the soldier, the code of signals, the construction and operation of\ntelegraph lines, the use of meteorological instruments, and the method\nof taking observations. The central office in Washington occupies an\nordinary looking brick building of uncertain age, half a square west of\nthe War Department building. It was originally two two-story dwelling\nhouses, but has received an additional story and \u201cMansard\u201d roof, and has\nbeen fitted for its present use. The plain and dingy exterior escapes\ncritical notice by the display of the mysterious looking machinery\nand fixtures upon the roof. An immense arrow (anemoscope), with broad\nfeather-tip end, turns its point ever \u201cin the wind\u2019s eye,\u201d and is\nimitated by two smaller ones at a lower elevation. Several sets of\nspinning instruments of various sizes stand in different places. These\nare the anemometers for measuring the velocity of the wind. The part of\neach visible from the ground is simply a vertical rod with four branches\non the top, each branch having a hemispherical shaped cup upon its outer\nend, so placed as to catch the wind in its convex side. The force of the\nwind gives the cups a rotary motion in a horizontal plane, which causes\nthe vertical rod to revolve and record by connecting mechanism and dials\nthe velocity of the wind in miles per hour. Near the center of the roof\nmay be seen a vessel with a funnel shaped top into which the rain falls\nand is measured to ascertain the depth in inches, of which accurate\nrecord is kept. Close by is a framework supporting a small cage-like\nstructure with lattice sides and tight roof, within which are hung the\nthermometers, barometers, and other instruments consulted regularly at\nintervals, to ascertain the temperature, pressure, and humidity of the\natmosphere. These fixtures and instruments are used for the purpose\nof obtaining indications of the weather, and for the instruction of\n\u201cObservers,\u201d and serve as well for standards by which instruments to\nbe sent to other places may be tested. Only a portion, however, of the\nbusiness of the office is done in the building mentioned, a number of\nothers in the vicinity being occupied for the several departments of the\nwork.\n\nThe central office is connected by telegraph with stations in the\nprincipal cities of the country, at the sea and lake ports, and at points\nalong the Atlantic and gulf coasts, uniting with stations of the United\nStates Life Saving Service, for it is there that the work of greatest\nvalue, the saving of human life, is done. The number of stations is\nlimited only by the amount of money provided by Congress for their\nmaintenance. The top of Pike\u2019s Peak and the summit of Mount Washington\nboth contribute their share of upper air phenomena, and the lowest\nvalleys in the interior give up their secrets of the atmosphere at its\ngreatest depth. What an ocean it is, with its surface which we are told\nis a certain number of miles above us, and its bottom, which we know is\nunder our feet, its shoreless currents, some as gentle as the breath of\nan infant, others more fierce and swift than the whirlpool rapids of\nNiagara. To learn of these currents their force and direction, whence\nthey come and whither they go, the laws to which they are subject, has\nbeen the fascinating study of amateur meteorologists and the pursuit of\nmen of professional attainments in science for many years. But their\ndiscoveries were of little practical value before Professor Morse, on a\nMay day forty years ago, sent over a telegraph wire between Washington\nand Baltimore, his first message in the form of a question which since\nhas been answered in wonders by the same agent then employed, and the\nsame now used to send warning of the coming storm, whose swift wings have\nno other rival.\n\nThe weather stations are distinguished under a classification made by a\nspecial service performed at each, and are known as telegraph, printing,\ndisplay, special river, cotton region, and sunset stations. A number of\nthem may have all the special features indicated by the different names,\nwhile others may have but the one feature which gives it its place in the\nclass. The last mentioned are so called, not, as the name may possibly\nsuggest, because they are located away off toward sundown, but because of\nthe special observation taken at the time of sunset which affords so good\nan indication of the probable weather for to-morrow. It recalls the fact\nthat the Jews were reminded more than eighteen hundred years ago of their\nhabit of observation in this particular, which was a rebuke for their\nfailure to read \u201cthe signs of the times.\u201d A great number of reports are\nreceived at the Weather Bureau weekly and monthly, by mail from volunteer\nobservers, from medical officers at military posts, from agricultural and\nscientific societies, and at regular times from meteorological societies\nin the old world, but as none but the telegraphic reports have more than\na relative connection with the work of weather indications for which we\nare looking day after day, it is sufficient for the purposes of this\narticle to simply mention the fact that there are several hundred of\nthese mail reports from which record of permanent and daily increasing\nvalue is made for study and information of the climate in various\nsections of the country.\n\nThe station service necessarily commenced under the disadvantage of\nhaving no observers of experience, but there was only one way to get\nthem, and the beginning of the work was the commencement of the education\nof the men who were to perform it. At this time there is not only the\ncourse of instruction at Fort Myer, but men as assistants at stations\nare perfecting themselves to occupy the places of those who have become\nmasters in the profession, or to take charge of new places. The telegraph\nstations number about one hundred and fifty, and at each one is an\n\u201cObserver Sergeant,\u201d with one or more assistants. Their equipment in\ninstruments is similar to that which has been mentioned in connection\nwith the central office, viz.: For ascertaining the temperature of the\nair; the weight or pressure and relative humidity of the atmosphere;\nthe direction, force, and velocity of the wind; and the depth of the\nrainfall; also at river stations for taking the temperature of the water,\nand for measuring its rise or fall; and at display stations signal\nflags and lanterns are included. The observers take the record from\ntheir instruments at regular intervals every day and night, Sundays and\nholidays included. There are three of these observations\u2014taken at 7:00\na. m., 3:00 p. m., and 11:00 p. m., Washington time\u2014telegraphed to the\ncentral office. Those taken at other hours are not telegraphed unless\ncalled for, but are recorded and enter into the weekly and monthly mail\nreports. The dispatch is in cipher, which permits the sending of a long\nmessage in from five to twelve words, giving pressure, temperature,\ndirection, and velocity of wind, depth of rain or snow fall, appearance\nand movement of clouds and any special meteorological phenomena present,\nand adding from river and coast stations the stage of water in the\nrivers and the ocean swell. By preconcerted arrangements with telegraph\ncompanies, the reports pass over the wires without delay or interruption,\nand all reach the central office within about forty minutes after the\nobservations are taken. They are at once translated and entered upon\ngraphic charts\u2014outline maps of the United States\u2014on which each station is\nmarked by its geographical location. By the use of symbols and figures\nall the meteorological conditions of each locality are exhibited, and\nso perfect is the system of arrangement for reporting and drafting\nthat in less than two hours from the time the record was taken by the\n\u201cObservers,\u201d the officer who is to make the weather predictions has all\nthe reports before him in the central office.\n\nThe ever-changing conditions of weather are in a manner photographed,\nand serve as guides for the work which immediately follows the making\nup of the charts. First the \u201csynopsis\u201d of conditions is made up, then\nthe predictions or \u201cindications\u201d of the kind of weather expected, and\nthe places where storm warnings are to be shown are determined, and\nin the form of a bulletin they are telegraphed to all parts of the\ncountry as the \u201cPress Report,\u201d to observing stations to be reproduced\nand furnished to local papers, posted in public offices and mailed to\npostmasters for exhibition in their offices, several hundred postoffices\nin some instances being supplied from one station. They are also placed\nin railroad stations and distributed from trains at points along their\nlines. Thus the people are advised of the kind of weather prevailing over\nthe district of country in which they live, and informed of the changes\nthat may be expected within twenty-four or forty-eight hours.\n\n\u201cObservers\u201d at their several stations publish in connection with the\n\u201cindications\u201d telegraphed from the central office, the conditions\nprevailing in their own localities, and in large cities where weather\nmaps are hung in the rooms of boards of trade, merchants\u2019 exchange,\nor other important offices, they place or change the symbols used to\nindicate the conditions at all the stations, as they receive them from\nreports passing them to the central office or repeated from the latter.\n\nThe development and progress of all storms are as clearly delineated upon\nthe charts prepared in the central office as it is possible for sensitive\ninstruments to reveal them, and special attention is given to indications\nof high winds approaching the coasts. Orders are sent by telegraph to\nthe maritime stations within a region likely to be visited by dangerous\nwinds, and a \u201ccautionary signal\u201d\u2014a square white flag with a square red\ncenter by day, or a red-center light by night\u2014is displayed, remains out\nuntil notice is received from the central office that the danger has\npassed. This signal is used as the storm approaches. As the general\ndirection of storms upon the Atlantic coast, or approaching it, is\neasterly or northeasterly, and the direction of the wind is circular and\nopposite to the motion of the hands upon a watch, with an inward tendency\ntoward the \u201cstorm center,\u201d as the storm departs from a station the wind\nwill probably blow from the north or west, and a \u201ccautionary off-shore\nsignal,\u201d a square white flag with square black center above the red\nflag, by day, or a white light above the red by night, may be ordered.\nSpecial record of the velocity of the wind is made at the stations when\nstorm signals are ordered, and if it reaches twenty-five miles an hour\nthe display of the signal is regarded as \u201cjustified.\u201d These signals have\nbecome a necessity, and the occasions are exceedingly rare in which a\nvessel will leave port with one in sight until the captain or master has\nfirst made inquiry at the station for \u201cparticulars.\u201d Coasting vessels are\ndependent in a great measure upon them; if they pass a station with the\nstorm-signal displayed, they frequently escape encountering destructive\ngales by putting into the nearest port until the danger has passed.\n\nThe coast telegraph lines connecting the signal and the life saving\nstations have been constructed by the government, and are operated by the\nsignal corps. The weather stations are equipped for making connections\nwith the main line at any point, and many instances may be found recorded\nin the official reports, of shipwrecks on the coast to which relief has\nbeen brought in a very few hours by the prompt action of \u201cObservers\u201d\nopening telegraphic communication from a point abreast the wreck, direct\nto the central office in Washington, and sending information to be\nrepeated, with the weight of official authority, to the nearest port from\nwhich steamers could be sent to the rescue. A vessel in distress, or in\nneed of any information, if in possession of the international code of\nmarine signals\u2014a number of nations have adopted the American code\u2014may\ncommunicate with the shore stations. By this code a number of small flags\nof various shapes and colors, used singly or together, answer to certain\nwords and sentences, and these being translated into other languages,\nconvey from the American or Englishman to the Frenchman, German, or\nSpaniard the question or answer desired, as plainly as an affirmative nod\nof the head from one to the other would mean yes.\n\nThe river reports are an important feature of the service. The\ntemperature of the waters, surface and deep, taken regularly, makes\na record for the benefit of those engaged in the propagation of food\nfishes, which is becoming an important government work. The stage of\nwater taken in connection with the reports of rainfall and temperature of\nthe atmosphere in their influence upon deep beds of snow and ice-locked\nstreams affords ground for warnings, when needed, to persons engaged in\nany river traffic, or exposed to floods upon the banks.\n\nThe \u201cwaves\u201d of temperature have become as real to us as those upon\nthe ocean, and the prosecution of very many kinds of business, or the\ntransportation of perishable produce is guided by the reports of the\nWeather Bureau, as it foretells the coming of heat or cold. The interior\nof the country will no doubt soon have the benefit of signals, as well\nas \u201cbulletins.\u201d A large, white flag, with a square black center, is now\ndisplayed at stations in advance of an expected \u201ccold wave,\u201d and before\na great while we may expect the \u201climited express\u201d upon the different\nrailroads will be made the bearer of signals to forewarn the inhabitants\nof the country through which it passes of the change of weather rapidly\nfollowing its track. The possibilities of the service seem to be\nunlimited, but the most careful watchfulness of the \u201cObservers,\u201d and\nthe keen vigilance of the officers who direct them have not yet brought\nthe elements to reveal all their movements. Sometimes, as a wary foe,\na storm will steal in between the sentinels, or descend from the upper\nair, and gathering all its strength into one narrow channel, will drive\ndestruction through town and country, and leave behind it evidences of\npower which we can hardly credit, except by sight.\n\nOne of the many specimens exhibited in the National Museum at Washington\nis a section of a young oak tree four inches in diameter, with a pine\nboard, one inch thick, four inches wide at one end, and twelve inches\nwide at the other, which has been driven through the tree more than\nhalf its length (eight feet, the label states), and is now held as in a\nvise, the tree above and below the board being unbroken. This has been\ndeposited in the Museum as an evidence of the force of the wind in a\ntornado that visited the vicinity of Wesson, Mississippi, April 22, 1883.\n\nThe progress of work in the Weather Bureau has been first toward\nencompassing great interests in the fields indicated by law, then to\ntake up the smaller needs pertaining to individual benefit and pleasure,\nand as time passes and the service widens there will be personal contact\nthat will give an intimate knowledge and impression of its value which\nnarrative can not.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[A] Died at Buffalo, New York, August 24, 1880.\n\n\n\n\nHOW TO WIN.\n\nBY FRANCES E. WILLARD,\n\nPresident National W. C. T. U.\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nLast month, taking the Past for a background, I tried to picture the\nopportunity which the Present holds up before the daughters of America.\nLet me now, for a brief space, coming freshly from the field of active\nservice, where banners wave and squadrons wheel, try to talk about the\nconditions of success, in this wonderful battle of life. First, then,\nI would give this not at all startling bit of advice: _Keep to your\nspecialty_; to the doing of the thing that you accomplish with most of\nsatisfaction to yourself, and most of benefit to those about you. Keep\nto this, whether it is raising turnips or tunes; painting screens or\nbattle pieces; studying political economy or domestic receipts; for, as\nwe read in a great author who has a genius for common sense: \u201cThere is\nnot one thing that men ought to do, there is not one thing that ought\nto be done, which a woman ought not to be encouraged to do, if she has\nthe capacity for doing it. For wherever there is a gift, there is a\nprophecy pointing to its use, and a silent command of God to use it.\u201d\nSuch utterances as these are assertions of the \u201cnatural and inalienable\nrights\u201d of the individual as such. They are deductions of the Christian\nphilosophy which regards you and me, first and chiefly, as human beings,\nand makes the greatest possible account of personal identity. In all ages\nthere have been minds that saw this truth. The intellects which towered\nlike Alpine peaks above the mass of men, were the first to reflect its\nblessed light. Two thousand years ago, Juvenal made the heroine of a\nfamous \u201cSatire\u201d say to the hero: \u201cI like our Latin word for _man_, which\nequally includes your sex and mine. For you should not forget that, in\nall things highest, best, and most enduring in our natures, I am as much\na man as you are.\u201d The sun of truth looms high above the far horizon in\nour day, and even the plains of human thought and purpose are glowing\nwith the light of this new inspiration. \u201cPersonal value,\u201d \u201cpersonal\ndevelopment,\u201d these will be the noontide watchwords, \u201cwhen the race out\nof childhood has grown.\u201d Only yesterday I heard a fashionable butterfly,\nin the surroundings of a luxurious home, saying with sudden enthusiasm:\n\u201cOf one thing I am sure; every woman that lives is bound to find out what\nis the very best thing she can do with her powers, and then she\u2019s bound\nto do it.\u201d In creating each of us with some peculiar talent, God has\ngiven us each \u201ca call\u201d to some peculiar work. Indeed, the time is almost\nhere when the only call that will be recognized as valid, in any field,\nmust involve in him who thinks he hears it, both adaptation and success.\nEach one of us is a marvelous bundle of aptitudes and of capacities. But,\njust as I prefer the active to the passive voice, I prefer to put the\naptitudes first in my present inventory. Besides, the world has harangued\nus women on our capacities, from the beginning, and it is really\nrefreshing to take the dilemma of our destiny by the other horn, at last!\nCivilization (by which I mean Christianity\u2019s effect on the brains and\nhands of humanity), wonderfully develops and differentiates our powers.\n\nAmong the Modocs there are but four specialties\u2014assigned with remarkable\nfairness, in the proportion of two for the squaws and two for the braves.\nThe last hunt and fight; the first do the drudgery and bring up the\npappooses. Among the Parisians, on the contrary, the division of labor is\nalmost infinite, so that the hand perfectly skilled in the most minute\nindustry (as, for instance, in moulding the shoestrings of a porcelain\nstatuette), needs no other resource to gain a comfortable livelihood.\nAmong the Modocs, skins are about the only article of commerce. Among\nthe Parisians, evolution has gone so far in the direction of separating\nemployments formerly blended, that you can not buy cream and milk in the\nsame shop.\n\nBy some unaccountable perversion of good sense, the specialties of\nhuman beings who are women, have been strangely circumscribed. But they\nwere _there_, all the same, and now, under the genial sun of a more\nenlightened era, they are coming airily forth, like singing birds after\na thunder storm. And wonderfully do they help some of us to solve the\ntoughest of all problems: _What is life for?_\n\nLet us see. Lift the cover of your sewing basket; there are thimble,\nscissors, spools of thread, and all the neat outfit needful to a\nseamstress, but minus the needle they have no explanation and no\nefficiency. Unlock your writing desk: what are paper, ink, and\nsealing-wax, without the pen? They are nothing but waste material and\ntoys. So it is with you and me. We have no explanation that is adequate;\nwe have no place in the work-box and portfolio of to-day; no place in the\ngreat humming hive of the land we live in, save as some predominating\naptitude in each of us explains why we are here, and in what way we are\nto swell the inspiring song of voluntary toil and beneficent success.\nSuppose that here, and now, you proceed to take an \u201cinventory of stock,\u201d\nif you have not been thoughtful enough to do that already. Made up as\nyou are, what is your _forte_, your \u201cspecialty,\u201d your \u201cbest hold,\u201d as\nmen phrase it? Be sure of one thing, at the outset: The great Artificer,\nin putting together your individual nature, did not forget this crowning\ngift, any more than he forgets to add its own peculiar fragrance to the\narbutus, or its own song to the lark. It may not lie upon the surface,\nthis choicest of your treasures; diamonds seldom do. Miners lift a\ngreat deal of mere dust, before the sparkling jewel they are seeking\ngladdens the eye. Genius has been often and variously defined. I would\ncall it _an intuition_ of one\u2019s own best gift. Rosa Bonheur knew hers;\nCharlotte Cushman recognized hers; George Eliot was not greatly at a loss\nconcerning hers. As for us, of less emphatic individuality, sometimes we\nwait until a friend\u2019s hand leads us up before the mirror of our potential\nself; sometimes we see it reflected in another\u2019s success (as the eaglet,\namong the flock of geese, first learned that he could fly, when he\nrecognized a mate in the heaven-soaring eagle, whose shadow frightened\nall the geese away); sometimes we come upon our heritage unwittingly, as\nDiana found Endymion, but always it is there, be sure of that, and \u201clet\nno man take thy crown.\u201d As iron filings fall into line around a magnet,\nso make your opportunities cluster close about your magic gift. In a land\nso generous as ours, this can be done, by every woman who reads these\nlines. A sharpened perception of their own possibilities is far more\nneeded by \u201cour girls\u201d than better means for education. But how was it in\nthe past? If there is one thought which, for humanity\u2019s sake, grieves\nme as no other can, it is this thought of God\u2019s endowment bestowed upon\nus each, so that we might in some especial manner gladden and bless the\nworld, by bestowing upon it our best; the thought of his patience all\nthrough the years, as he has gone on hewing out the myriad souls of a\nwayward race, that they might be lively stones in the temple of use and\nof achievement, and side by side with this, the thought of our individual\nblindness, our failure to discern the riches of brain, heart and hand,\nwith which we were endowed. But most of all, I think about the gentle\nwomen who have lived, and died, and made no sign of their best gifts,\nbut whose achievements of voice and pen, of brush and chisel, of noble\nstatesmanship and great-hearted philanthropy, might have blessed and\nsoothed our race through these six thousand years.\n\nThere is a stern old gentleman of my acquaintance, who, if he had heard\nwhat I have felt called upon to say, would have entered his demurrer,\nin this fashion: \u201cThat\u2019s all fol-de-rol, my friend; a mere rhetorical\nflourish. If women could have done all this, why didn\u2019t they, pray\ntell? If it\u2019s in it\u2019s in, and will come out, but what\u2019s wanting can\u2019t\nbe numbered. You can\u2019t pull the wool over my eyes with your vague\ngeneralities. I went to the Centennial; I saw Machinery Hall, and what\u2019s\nmore for my argument (and less for yours), I saw the \u2018Woman\u2019s Pavilion,\u2019\ntoo.\u201d\n\nHe would then proceed to ask me, with some asperity, if I thought that\nany of my \u201cgentle myriads\u201d could have invented a steam engine? Whereupon\nI would say to him, what I now say to you, \u201cmost assuredly I think so;\nwhy not?\u201d And I would ask, in turn, if my old friend had studied history\nwith reference to the principle that, as a rule, human beings do not rise\nabove the standard implied in society\u2019s general estimate of the class\nto which they belong. Take the nations of Eastern Europe and Western\nAsia; \u201ccivilized\u201d nations, too, be it remembered; study the mechanic\nof Jerusalem, the merchant of Damascus and Ispahan; in what particular\nare the tools of the one or the facilities of commerce familiar to the\nothers, superior to those of a thousand years ago? Surely, so far as\noriental inventions are concerned, they have changed as little as the\nmethods of the bee or the wing-stroke of the swallow. We hear no more of\nman\u2019s inventiveness in those countries than of woman\u2019s. Why should we,\nindeed, when we remember that both are alike untaught in the arts and\nsciences which form the basis of mechanical invention? They are inspired\nby no intellectual movement; no demand; no \u201cmodern spirit.\u201d It is not\n\u201cin the air\u201d that _men_ shall be fertile of brain and skilled of hand as\ninventors there, any more than it is here that women shall be, and where\nboth knowledge and incentive are not present, achievement is evermore a\nminus quantity. None but a heaven-sent genius, stimulated by a love of\nscience, prepared by special education and inspired by the _prestige_ of\nbelonging to the dominant sex, ever yet carved types, tamed lightning\nor imprisoned steam. Besides, in ages past, if some brave soul, man or\nwoman, conscious of splendid powers, strove to bless the world by their\nfree exercise, what dangers were involved! Was it Joan of Arc? the fagot\nsoon became her portion; or Galileo? on came the rack; or Christopher\nColumbus? the long disdain of courtiers and jealousy of ambitious\ncoadjutors followed him; or Stephenson? his fetter was the menace of\nthe law; or Robert Fulton? he faced the sarcasm of the learned and the\nmerriment of boors. Even for the most adventurous inventors of to-day\n(as the aeronaut experimenters), what have we but bad puns and insipid\nconundrums, until he wins, and then ready caps tossed high in air and\nfame\u2019s loud trumpet at his ear\u2014when death\u2019s cold finger has closed it up\nforever.\n\nTimes are changing, though. The world grows slowly better and more\nbrotherly. The day is near when women will lack no high incentive to\nthe best results in every branch of intellectual endeavor and skilled\nworkmanship. Not a week passes but from the Patent Office comes some\nfavorable verdict as to woman\u2019s inventive power. Wisdom\u2019s goddess deems\nherself no longer compromised because places are assigned us in her\nbanquet hall. \u201cThe world is all before us where to choose,\u201d and I, for\none, appeal from the \u201cWoman\u2019s Pavilion\u201d of the first, to that which shall\nillustrate the second hundred years of this republic.\n\n\n\n\nFORTRESS, PALACE AND PRISON.\n\nBY EDITH SESSIONS TUPPER.\n\n\nIt is believed by many that the Tower of London is, as its name would\nseem to indicate, but a single lofty pile, while in reality it is a vast\ncollection of grim towers and frowning bastions; a great walled town in\nthe heart of busy London.\n\nThe Tower, or the White Tower, built in the time of the Conqueror, is\nsurrounded by twelve smaller towers\u2014Bloody, Bell, Beauchamp, Devereux,\nFlint, Bowyer, Brick, Martin, Constable, Broadarrow, Salt and Record. In\nturn, these are environed by the ballium walls and bastions, and the moat\nguarded by Middle, Byward, St. Thomas, Cradle, Well and Devlin towers.\n\nAs one descends Tower Hill, the eye takes in the whole immense and\nhoary mass, fit emblem of the stormy and tempestuous times in which\neach separate tower arose. Like black shadows of the past casting their\ngloom over the present, rise the lofty turrets above the roofs of modern\nbuildings. Sternly they look down upon throbbing London, each with its\nown history, each with its own awful secrets locked in its stony breast.\n\nAmid the terrific conflict of the days when the Norman was trampling the\nSaxon under foot, the Tower, the Great Tower, or the White Tower, as it\nwas variously called, arose.\n\nWilliam the Conqueror caused it to be built as a fortress for himself\nin case his Saxon subjects might rebel against his hard and iron rule.\nAmong the ecclesiastics who possessed the richest sees of those days was\nGundulph, bishop of Rochester, who was also a fine military architect.\nTo him the Conqueror gave the commission to build his New Fortress in\n1079-80. Gundulph selected the site just without the city then, and to\nthe east, on the northern side of the Thames. The tower is quadrangular\nin shape, one hundred and sixteen feet from north to south, ninety-six\nfrom east to west, ninety-two feet in height, and its external walls\nare fifteen feet in thickness\u2014an imposing and superb specimen of Norman\narchitecture. It is three stories high, not counting the vaults. There\nare some slight traces remaining of the grand entrance on the north side,\nbut visitors enter by modern doors on both the north and south sides.\n\nIn the northeast corner of the White Tower is a massive staircase,\nconnecting the three stories. The column around which the stairs wind is\na remarkable and well preserved specimen of ancient masonry. A wall seven\nfeet in thickness runs north and south, which divides the tower from base\nto summit. Another wall extending east and west subdivides the southern\nportion into unequal parts, forming in each story one large and two\nsmall rooms. The smallest division on the ground floor is called Queen\nElizabeth\u2019s Armory, being filled with armor and trappings of her day. On\nthe north side of this room, one is shown a cell formed in the thickness\nof the wall, ten feet long and eight wide, receiving no light save from\nthe entrance. In this dark and dismal room was imprisoned for twelve long\nyears the gay and brilliant courtier, Sir Walter Raleigh, on suspicion\nmerely of being implicated in a plot to place the Lady Arabella Stuart,\nthe niece of the unfortunate Queen of Scots, on the throne of England.\nThis ill-fated lady also perished in the tower, her reason having been\ndethroned by her long and cruel captivity. In the year she died, Sir\nWalter was released and sent to South America to search for gold mines;\nreturning unsuccessful he was remanded to the Tower, and beheaded in\n1618 to please the Spaniards. James First wished to gain their favor,\nas his son Prince Charles was to be married to the Infanta. Raleigh\u2019s\nbravery and valor had been too often directed against the Spaniards for\nthem not to exult over his cruel fate. In this wretched and gloomy cell,\nit is said, he wrote his \u201cHistory of the World.\u201d In the center of this\narmory are various instruments of torture; about the room are stands of\nweapons, halberds, battle axes, maces and bills, and military instruments\nfor cutting the bridles of horses; at the end of the room is a figure on\nhorseback, representing Queen Bess. Her dress is copied from an ancient\nportrait, and she is attended by officers and pages. Just back of these\nfigures hangs a very old picture of St. Paul\u2019s cathedral. But the most\nterribly fascinating objects in this room are the block, the headsman\u2019s\nhideous, grinning mask and the original axe. With horror the visitor\nlooks upon the block, dented here and there where the executioner\u2019s\nnervous blows struck wide of the mark, and upon the ponderous axe, whose\nblade has cleft the necks of so many royal and noble victims.\n\nOne is glad to leave this chamber of horrors and go above into St.\nJohn\u2019s Chapel, which is considered one of the finest specimens of Norman\narchitecture left in the kingdom. It terminates in a semi-circle, and\nthe twelve enormous pillars are arranged in similar fashion. These\npillars are united by arches which admit the light into the nave from\nthe windows. In the reign of Henry III. three immense windows of stained\nglass were added to the chapel. It is not known at what time or from what\ncause it ceased to be used for religious purposes. A large room directly\nabove, on the third floor, was used as a council chamber by the kings,\nwhen they held their court in the Tower. It was in this room that the\ninfamous Richard, Duke of Gloucester, ordered Lord Hastings to instant\nexecution in front of St. Peter\u2019s Chapel.\n\nThis room is now used as a depository for small arms, and the arrangement\nof weapons in the form of various flowers is wonderful and artistic, the\nentire ceiling being covered by curious and intricate combinations of\nthese arms.\n\nEncircling the great White Tower, as has been said, is a row of twelve\nsmaller towers. Perhaps the one first in interest is that directly\nopposite the Traitor\u2019s Gate, and rightly named, known as the Bloody\nTower. It is rectangular in form, being the only one of that shape in the\ninner ward. It closely joins Record or Wakefield Tower on the west. Its\ngrand gateway was built in the reign of Edward III., and is the entrance\nproper to the inner ward. The massive portcullis gives signs of immense\nage. It was in this tower in 1483, that the most infamous order of the\nhateful Gloucester, the murder of the innocent princes, the children of\nEdward IV., was consummated.\n\n    \u201cThe tyrannous and bloody act is done\u2014\n     The most arch deed of piteous massacre\n     That ever yet this land was guilty of.\u201d\n\nThe little victims are supposed to have been buried at the foot of the\nstaircase in the White Tower, but a strange mystery surrounds their fate.\n\nJoining Bloody Tower is the tower next in size to the Great or White\nTower, known as the Record Tower, from its having been for many centuries\nthe depository for the records of the nation, and Wakefield Tower, from\nthe imprisonment there of the Yorkists, after the victory of Margaret of\nAnjou, the Amazonian queen of the good but weak Henry VI., at Wakefield,\nin 1460. This victory gave the House of Lancaster the ascendency for\na short time. The next year the Yorkists were successful, Henry was\nremanded to the tower, and was soon after found dead, murdered by\nGloucester\u2019s command, it is supposed.\n\n    \u201cWithin the hollow crown\n     That rounds the mortal temples of a king\n     Keeps death his court; and there the antic sits,\n     Scoffing his state and grinning at his pomp;\n     Allowing him a breath, a little scene,\n     To monarchise, be fear\u2019d and kill with looks;\n     Infusing him with self and vain conceit,\n     As if this flesh which walls about our life\n     Were brass impregnable; and humor\u2019d thus,\n     Comes at the last, and with a little pin\n     Bores through his castle wall\u2014and farewell, king!\u201d\n\nWakefield Tower is very ancient, having been built in the time of William\nRufus, in 1087.\n\nOn the opposite side of the inner ward looms up the gloomy and famous\nBowyer Tower, so named from its having been the residence of the Master\nProvider of the King\u2019s Bows. In a dungeon-like room of this tower,\n\u201cfalse, fleeting, perjured Clarence,\u201d younger brother of Edward IV., was\ndrowned in a butt of Malmsey. Together with the detestable Gloucester,\nhe stabbed the young son of Henry VI. in the field at Tewkesbury, but\nretribution was swift. He soon incurred the displeasure and jealousy of\nhis royal brother, and perished in this wretched manner.\n\n    \u201cO Brackenbury, I have done these things\n     That now give evidence against my soul\u2014\n     For Edward\u2019s sake, and see, how he requites me.\u201d\n\nBut a short distance from the Bowyer is the Brick Tower, which acquires\na mournful interest from the fact that tradition has assigned this as\nthe prison of the martyr of ambition, the lovely Lady Jane Grey. Fuller\nsays of her that at eighteen she possessed the innocence of childhood,\nthe sedateness of age, the learning of a clerk, and the life of a saint.\nGentle, modest and retiring, fond of her studies and books, little\ndreamed she of her short-lived honor and cruel fate. Forced upon the\nthrone by the insatiable ambition of Northumberland, she ruled for ten\ndays. It is asserted that Mary wished to spare her cousin\u2019s life, but\nthat Wyatt\u2019s rebellion so alarmed her that she determined to make an\nexample of Lady Jane and her boy husband, Guildford Dudley.\n\nNot only her piety, grace and beauty excite our admiration, but also her\nsublime heroism, which caused her to refuse to bid her young lover and\nhusband farewell, lest the parting should unman him. Dudley was executed\non Tower Hill, and the same day the lofty spirit of his wife joined his.\n\n    \u201cNow boast thee, death; in thy possession lies\n     A lass, unparallel\u2019d.\u201d\n\nNext to the Brick is the Jewel or Martin Tower, where the crown jewels\nwere formerly kept. They are now preserved in the Record Tower. On the\nwall of the Martin Tower we saw inscribed the name of Anne Boleyn. It is\nsaid that one of the unfortunate gentlemen who lost their heads on her\naccount traced it there. Diagonally across the inner ward rises the Bell\nTower, thus named from the alarm bell which crowned it. This was the\nprison of Princess Elizabeth during her enforced stay in the tower. Some\nlittle children used to bring her flowers here, until it came to the ears\nof Mary, who forbade this innocent service.\n\nOnly a short walk from Bell loom up the frowning walls of Beauchamp\nTower, than which there is no more interesting place in the entire\nenclosure. Its architecture is of the reign of John and Henry III. Its\nname is derived from Thomas De Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick, imprisoned\nhere during the reign of Richard II. This tower is in the center of the\nwestern side of the inner ward, and in a half circle projects from the\nstrong ballium walls, and is two stories in height. Its walls are covered\nwith inscriptions made by different prisoners; some indicative of their\nmental agony during their captivity; many, indeed the most, expressing\nChristian fortitude and pious resignation to their hard lot.\n\nThe first name noticed is that of Marmaduke Neville, near the entrance.\nHe was one of the Nevilles, Earls of Westmoreland, and was implicated in\na plot to place Mary Stuart upon the throne during Elizabeth\u2019s reign. In\nthe southern recess is shown an inscription in old Italian: \u201cDispoi che\nvoie la fortuna che la mea speranza va al vento pianger, hovolio el tempo\nper dudo; e semper stel me tristo, e disconteto. Wilim: Tyrrel, 1541.\u201d\nThe mournful burden of which comes like a sigh of despair from out the\npast, \u201cSince fortune hath chosen that my hope should go to the wind to\ncomplain, I wish the time were destroyed; my planet being ever sad and\nunfavorable.\u201d Alas, unhappy one! Your words no doubt were but the echo of\nmany sad hearts that found the times were indeed out of joint.\n\nOver the fireplace is a beautiful and touching inscription: \u201cQuanto plus\nafflictionis pro Christo in hoc s\u00e6culo, tanto plus glori\u00e6 cum Christo in\nfuturo. Arundell, June 22, 1587,\u201d which being interpreted is, \u201cThe more\naffliction for Christ in this world, the more glory with Christ in the\nnext.\u201d\n\nThis was written by Philip Howard, Earl of Arundel, whose devotion to\nthe Romish church during Elizabeth\u2019s reign, brought so much odium upon\nhim, and made for him so many enemies that he at last resolved to leave\nhis country, friends, and his wife, to whom he was devotedly attached,\nand go into voluntary exile for his better safety. He informed the Queen\nin a most pathetic letter of his intention, designing she should not\nreceive it until he was well out of way, but by some freak of fortune,\nthe letter fell into the hands of his foes, and he was seized as he was\nsetting sail from the coast of Sussex. He was sent to the Tower and kept\na close prisoner for forty years, when worn out with his long and cruel\nconfinement and sorrow he died, realizing at the end, we hope, the truth\nof the touching words he traced upon his prison walls.\n\nThere are several interesting inscriptions made by Arthur and Edmund\nPoole, great-grandsons of the Duke of Clarence. These young gentlemen\nwere also accused for conspiring for Mary Stuart, adjudged traitors, and\npined away their lives in hopeless captivity. Well might the White Rose\nof Scotland have said with Helen of Troy:\n\n    \u201cMany drew swords and died; where\u2019er I came,\n     I brought calamity.\u201d\n\nOne inscription reads:\n\n    \u201cIHS. A passage perillus maketh a port pleasant. Ao. 1568. Arthur\n    Poole, \u00c6 sue 37, A. P.\u201d\n\nA passage perilous indeed, hadst thou, poor soul; God grant thou madst a\nfair haven at last.\n\nAnother contains these words:\n\n    \u201cIHS. Dio semine in lachrimis in exultatione meter. \u00c6. 21, E.\n    Poole, 1562.\u201d \u201cThat which is sown by God in tears is reaped in\n    joy.\u201d\n\nIn all the inscriptions left by these ill-starred gentlemen, there\nbreathes the same spirit of noble and pious submission.\n\nThe greatest interest clusters about one little word, supposed to have\nbeen traced by the hand of one to whom that name was sacred. Directly\nunder one of the Poole autographs is the word \u201cIANE,\u201d supposed to have\nbeen the royal title of Lady Jane Grey, written there by her husband,\nLord Dudley, who was confined in this tower. Scarcely can the eyes be\nrestrained at this touching reminder of the fate of those two unhappy\nchildren, the victims of circumstance and greedy ambition.\n\nIn the corner next the Beauchamp is the Devereux Tower, named from the\nbrilliant Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, the chivalric soldier and\ncourtier, first a petted favorite, then a victim of Queen Elizabeth.\nHis story is one of thrilling and fascinating interest. Meteor-like he\nflashed through his court and army life, and after gaining the zenith of\nhis power, sank as suddenly as he had risen. It is said that he was one\nof the many with whom the royal and fickle spinster coquetted, and that\nhe really touched her haughty heart. The government of Ireland was in his\nhands, but enemies at court plotted his overthrow. He in turn plotted\nagainst these foes and rashly attempted to cause their removal. He was\narrested and arraigned in Westminster Hall for high treason, pronounced\nguilty, and doomed to the block.\n\nElizabeth had a terrific struggle between revenge and affection, but the\nbaser passion got the victory, and the accomplished general, statesman,\nand courtier trod the same hard road to death that so many knew full well.\n\n    \u201cI have reached the highest point of all my greatness!\n     And from that full meridian of my glory,\n     I haste now to my setting: I shall fall\n     Like a bright exhalation in the evening,\n     And no man see me more.\u201d\n\nThe towers of the outer ward are comparatively of but little interest,\nwith the exception of St. Thomas\u2019s Tower or the Traitor\u2019s Gate. This is\na large, square building over the moat, the outside of which is guarded\nby two circular towers, which exhibit specimens of the architecture of\nthe time of Henry III. The gate through which state prisoners entered the\nTower is underneath this building.\n\nThe rain was falling drearily on the day we visited the Tower. Somber\nand heavy skies looked sullenly down on the gloomy scene. Thoughts as\nsomber and heavy weighed down our minds as we stood before the Traitor\u2019s\nGate; thoughts of countless numbers that had gone in at that gate never\nto come forth again. In the clang of those iron portals behind them they\nheard their death knell. The royal, the noble, the illustrious, the\npious passed under these frowning battlements, leaving behind grandeur,\nbrilliancy of courts, dreams of glory, home, friends, all that makes life\nsweet, to receive in exchange, the dungeon, the scaffold, the block, the\naxe.\n\nThey who entered there left hope indeed behind.\n\nThrough this gate went Elizabeth, expecting naught but death; dreaming\nlittle of the hour when all England should lie within the hollow of her\nwhite hand. Under these portals three short years after she issued from\nthe Tower in all the full flush of her pride and triumph, received by\nlords and dukes, amid the blare of trumpets, and peal of bells and roar\nof guns. Elizabeth\u2019s hapless mother, Anne Boleyn, returned to the Tower.\nNo nobles in her train now; no burst of music; no chime of bells nor roar\nof artillery; alone, save with her jailers; her fair fame blackened; her\ntriumphs, glories\u2014all shrunk to this little measure. The husband she had\nstolen from another, in turn lured from her, wearied of her, longing to\nbe rid of her, hurrying her to her fearful doom with brutal haste.\n\n    \u201cA dream of what thou wast; a garish flag,\n     To be the aim of ever dangerous shot;\n     A sign of dignity, a breath, a bubble;\n     A queen in jest only to fill the scene.\n     \u2026\n     Where is thy husband now?\n     \u2026\n     Who sues and kneels and says God save the queen?\n     Where be thy bending peers that flattered thee?\n     Where be the thronging troops that followed thee?\n     \u2026\n     For one being sued to, one that humbly sues;\n     For queen, a very caitiff crowned with care;\n     Thus hath the course of justice wheeled about\n     And left thee but a very prey to time;\n     Having no more but thought of what thou wert,\n     To torture thee the more, being what thou art.\u201d\n\nWhat thoughts must have chased each other in lightning rapidity through\nthe mind of beautiful, brilliant, witty Anne Boleyn, during those\nshort seventeen days she passed in the Tower before she was led out to\nexecution. What experience of life had she not compressed into those\nthree little years of usurpation, during which she spurned \u201cheads like\nfoot balls,\u201d laughed, danced, and jested away her poor, butterfly life?\nWhat remorse must have been hers when the sad, pale face of Katharine\narose before her! What unspeakable anguish when the coquettish features\nof Jane Seymour swam before her weeping eyes!\n\nOn the 19th of May, 1536, when hedge and field were bursting into bloom,\nwhen birds sang and soft breezes played, when all nature must have\nbreathed of beauty, hope and life\u2014Anne Boleyn went forth the second time\nfrom the Tower to receive her crown; not this time an earthly diadem,\nglittering with jewels, but the thorny crown of martyrdom. Not in cloth\nof gold and blazing with gems, but in sable robes went she to this\ncoronation, and her only salute was the dull boom of the cannon which\nannounced to the royal ruffian waiting at Richmond that he was free.\n\nThe Tower of London has been used not alone for a fortress and prison,\nbut also for a palace. All of the kings from William to Charles II. held\noccasional court in the Tower. A palace occupied a space in the inner\nward, between the southwest corner of the White Tower and the Record,\nSalt and Broadarrow Towers. The queens had a suite extending from the\nLanthorn to the southeast of the White Tower. And near the Record Tower\nwas a great hall which demanded forty fir trees to repair it at the time\nof the marriage festivities of Henry III. and Eleanore of Provence.\n\nWhen Edward the Black Prince took prisoner King John of France, he lodged\nhis royal captive in this palace, and King John gave an entertainment for\nhis captor in this great hall. The beautiful Elizabeth of York, daughter\nof Edward IV., and queen of Henry VII., resided for a time in this\npalace, and passed from thence to her coronation. Sixteen years later\nshe lay in state twelve days in the royal chapel in the White Tower,\nwhere her knights and ladies kept solemn vigil beside her bier. What an\nimpressive scene it must have been! The windows all ablaze with lights,\nand an illuminated hearse holding the royal dead.\n\nQueen Mary held court in the Tower directly after she had defeated\nNorthumberland and the Dudleys. The ancient custom of a state procession\nfrom the Tower to Westminster was observed for the last time at the\ncoronation of Charles II.\n\nVery near the Devereux Tower is a plain, unpretentious building\u2014the\nchapel of St. Peter Ad Vincula. It is small, having but one nave and one\nside aisle, and is quite without ornamentation. But marvelous interest\ninvests it. Here Lady Jane was buried; here the body of poor Anne Boleyn\nwas thrust into an old chest and hastily interred in the vaults; here\nlies the dust of Northumberland, Thomas Cromwell, Somerset, Surrey, and\nEssex, teaching the terribly solemn lesson that ambition, talents, fame,\nform no sure bulwark against death.\n\n    \u201cTo-morrow, and to-morrow, and to-morrow\n     Creeps in this petty pace from day to day,\n     To the last syllable of recorded time;\n     And all our yesterdays have lighted fools\n     The way to dusky death. Out, out, brief candle.\u201d\n\nJust in front of this chapel is the spot on which the scaffold was built;\nthe spot where the best blood of England flowed like water; the spot\nwhich mars the escutcheon of the Tudors with an ineffaceable stain; the\nspot where Englishmen first looked upon the spectacle of the blood of\ntheir countrywoman flowing beneath the blows of a foreign headsman. Here\nfell the heads of two of the wives of Henry VIII.; here the hapless Lady\nJane was despatched, and the gallant Essex met his death by orders of\nHenry\u2019s daughters, fit representatives of their father; here was enacted\nthat revolting scene, the butchery of the venerable mother of Cardinal\nPole, the Countess of Salisbury. She was sister of the Earl of Warwick,\nand daughter of the murdered Clarence. Her only crime seems to have been\nher royal blood. When brought out to execution, she refused to lay her\nhead on the block, saying haughtily, \u201cSo do traitors use to do, and I\nam no traitor.\u201d The sequel is almost too sickening to be rehearsed. The\nexecutioner pursued his victim around the scaffold, striking at her with\nhis axe, and finally dragged her by her white hairs to the block. Thus\nmiserably perished the last of the Plantagenets.\n\nHeavier fell the rain and wilder blew the wind as we slowly took our\nway toward the outer entrance to the Tower. In the patter of the rain\nupon the stone flagging beneath us, we seemed to hear the footsteps of a\ncountless, headless throng; in the slow drip, drip of the raindrops from\nthe gloomy walls, the drip, drip of warm life blood trickling down and\nebbing away; borne on the wail of the wind there seemed to come sighs of\nanguish, moaning voices long since silenced, voices from out a dreadful\npast, voices that cried aloud for vengeance. And as the great gates of\nthe Tower clanged behind us, in a tremendous peal of thunder, there\nseemed to come an answering voice from heaven, \u201cVengeance is mine, I will\nrepay.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nGEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR APRIL.\n\nBY PROF. M. B. GOFF,\n\nWestern University of Pennsylvania.\n\n\nTHE SUN,\n\nWith its immediate attendants, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, etc., has\nbeen the \u201ctheme of our discourse\u201d for the last eighteen months. Except\nan occasional reference to one of the planets as being located near\nsome fixed star, or in some constellation, little has been said about\nthe 3,391 \u201cfixed\u201d stars, visible to the naked eye, many of which are\nlocated on maps of the heavens, just as villages, cities, mountains,\nrivers and plains are located on maps of the earth; nor of the somewhere\nbetween 30,000,000 and 50,000,000 which are visible only through powerful\ntelescopes, and whose distances from the sun are so great as to make that\nof Neptune appear like a little walk \u201cacross lots\u201d to visit a neighbor.\nNor is it proposed now to enter upon such an extensive subject, except\nso far as may be necessary to present a single thought. As we know, our\nsun is a bright body, whose light and heat (so great is their power) we\ncan hardly estimate. Both these qualities render it visible to us and\nmake us realize its presence. The other bodies, as Mars, Jupiter and the\nMoon are seen only by reflected light, and were they as distant as the\nfixed stars, would not be at all visible. These 30,000,000 to 50,000,000\nstars must be suns. How many satellites has each? We do not know, for\nthey can not be seen. Suppose each had as many as our sun. Then instead\nof 30,000,000 to 50,000,000 of heavenly bodies, we have within reach of\nthe telescope from 240,000,000 to 400,000,000. How many are outside of\nthese? No man can number them. We shall have to wait till our minds can\ngrasp the infinite. Are these millions of bodies standing still, or are\nthey in motion? Does our sun stand still and permit us to go around him\nonce every year, or is he, and are we along with him, making our way\nthrough other vast multitudes and moving around some other central orb?\nObservation proves that the sun is only a sergeant in a great army of\ngenerals, and marches his squad in an appointed way to their assigned\nduties. How do we know? The records of patient watchers for centuries\nreveal the fact. \u201cIf we suppose the sun, attended by planets, to be\nmoving through space, we ought to be able to detect this motion by an\napparent motion of the stars in a contrary direction, as when an observer\nmoves through a forest of trees, his own motion imparts an apparent\nmotion to the trees in a contrary direction. All the stars would not\nbe equally affected by such a motion of the solar system. The nearest\nstars would appear to have the greatest motion, but all the changes of\nposition would appear to take place in the same direction. The stars\nwould appear to recede from that point of the heavens _toward_ which\nthe sun is moving, while in the opposite quarter the stars would seem\nto crowd more closely together.\u201d Proceeding upon this principle, Sir\nWilliam Herschel was in 1783 enabled to announce that the observed proper\nmotion of a large portion of the stars could be accounted for on the\nsupposition that the sun was moving toward the constellation _Hercules_.\nLater investigations not only established the fact that the sun moved,\nbut that it was moving nearly toward the star _Rho_, in _Hercules_,\nand Struve estimated its motion at about five miles per second; though\nProfessor Airy places it at about twenty-seven miles per second. It is\nalso highly probable that its motion is not in a straight line, but in\nobedience to the same laws that govern the motions of its own satellites,\nit with other suns revolves about a center located nearly in the plane\nof the Milky Way, and with an orbit so great \u201cthat ages may elapse\nbefore it will be possible to detect any change in the direction of its\nmotion.\u201d Meantime, finite beings are interested in knowing how its light\nand heat affect their interests, and how these qualities may be made\nmost profitable to mankind. For ourselves, we must at present be content\nto know that on the 1st our sun has reached a point 4\u00b0 48\u2032 north of the\nequator, and that by the 30th he will be 14\u00b0 58\u2032 north, an increase in\nnorthern declination of 10\u00b0 10\u2032, and, as a consequence, our daylight will\nbe increased about one hour and thirteen minutes, and the time \u201cfrom\nearly dawn to dewy\u201d twilight will be seventeen hours and thirty-five\nminutes. On the 1st sunrise occurs at 5:43 a. m., sunset, 6:24 p. m.;\non the 16th, sunrise, 5:19, sunset, 6:40; on the 30th, sunrise, 4:59,\nsunset, 6:54.\n\n\nTHE MOON.\n\nThe phases for the month are as follows: Last quarter, 7th, at 9:34 a.\nm.; new moon, 15th, at 12:43 a. m.; first quarter, 21st, at 6:12 p. m.;\nfull moon, 29th, at 1:06 a. m. Rises on the 1st, at 8:38 p. m.; sets on\nthe 16th, at 8:28 p. m.; rises on the 30th, at 8:21 p. m. In latitude\n41\u00b0 30\u2032 north, least elevation on the 6th, and equals 30\u00b0 20\u2032; greatest\nelevation on the 19th, equals 66\u00b0 44\u2032 29\u2033.\n\n\nMERCURY\n\nWill be an evening star during the month; it will have a direct motion\nof 12\u00b0 25\u2032 59\u2033 up to the 17th, after which, to the end of the month, a\nretrograde motion of 5\u00b0 22\u2032 11\u2033. On the 8th, at 2:00 a. m., will be at\nits greatest eastern elongation (19\u00b0 26\u2032); on the 16th, at 11:55 a. m.,\nwill be 6\u00b0 21\u2032 south of the moon; on the 17th, at 5:00 a. m., will be\nstationary; on 27th, at 10:00 p. m., will be in inferior conjunction with\nthe sun\u2014that is, will be between the earth and sun; and next day, at 1:00\np. m., will be 1\u00b0 42\u2032 north of Venus. A few days before and after the 8th\nmay be seen as a pale, light star, near the western horizon. Its times of\nrising and setting are as follows: On the 1st, rises at 6:21 a. m., sets\nat 7:51 p. m.; on the 16th, rises at 5:50 a. m., sets at 8:00 p. m.; on\n30th, rises at 4:53 a. m., sets at 6:29 p. m. Diameter increases from\n6.4\u2033 to 11.8\u2033.\n\n\nVENUS,\n\nLike Mercury, will be evening star throughout the month, and near the\n28th the two will keep \u201cclose company,\u201d but will so completely hide\nthemselves in the light of \u201cOld Sol\u201d as to be entirely indifferent to the\ngaze of the \u201cvulgar crowd.\u201d On the 1st Venus rises at 5:34 a. m., and\nsets at 5:34 p. m., being just twelve hours above the horizon; on the\n16th, rises at 5:19 a. m., sets at 6:09 p. m.; on 30th, rises at 5:06 a.\nm., sets at 6:42 p. m. Diameter diminishes during the month two tenths of\na second; motion, 34\u00b0 38\u2032 45\u2033 eastwardly; on the 14th, at 3:00 p. m., six\nminutes north of the moon.\n\nMARS\n\nHas a direct motion of 21\u00b0 13\u2032 16\u2033, and his diameter increases two tenths\nof one second. On the 14th, at 12:27 a. m., 12\u2032 south of the moon. On the\n1st, rises at 5:29 a. m., sets at 5:25 p. m.; on the 16th, rises at 4:56\na. m., sets at 5:24 p. m.; on the 30th, rises at 4:27 a. m., sets at 5:23\np. m.; on the 14th, at 12:27 a. m., twelve minutes south of moon.\n\n\nJUPITER\n\nMay well be called this month the \u201cRuler of the Night.\u201d From twilight\ntill near the dawn his broad face looks condescendingly upon our little\nworld, and by his example cheerily bids us \u201cpursue the even tenor of our\nway.\u201d Jupiter rises on the 1st at 2:26 p. m., sets next morning at 4:02\na. m.; on the 16th, rises at 1:24 p. m., sets on 17th at 3:02 a. m.;\nrises on 30th, at 12:29 p. m., and sets next morning at 2:07 a. m. Before\nthe 21st, retrograde motion amounts to 36\u2032 26\u2033; after that date to end of\nmonth, direct motion equals 8\u2032 42\u2033; diameter diminishes three seconds,\nfrom 40.4\u2033 to 37.4\u2033. On 21st, at 3:00 p. m., stationary; on 23d, at 2:05\np. m., 4\u00b0 37\u2032 north of the moon. It might be observed in passing that as\na mean result of five years\u2019 observations at the Dearborn Observatory,\nChicago, the time of Jupiter\u2019s rotation has been discovered to be greater\nby three seconds than was supposed in 1879.\n\n\nSATURN\n\nSets at the following times: On the 1st, at 11:49 p. m.; on 16th, at\n10:57 p. m.; on the 30th, at 10:09 p. m.; is, therefore, an evening star,\nand will remain so till the 18th of June. On the 18th, at 8:20 p. m.,\n4\u00b0 1\u2032 north of the moon. Diameter diminishes from 16.6\u2033 to 16\u2033. Makes\na forward (direct) motion of 3\u00b0 2\u2032 30\u2033. For observation, this month is\npreferable to May. Can be found a little northwest of _Zeta_, in the\nconstellation _Taurus_.\n\n\nURANUS,\n\nUnlike Saturn, retrogrades nearly one degree of arc during the present\nmonth, and shines from early eve to break of day, rising on the 1st at\n5:18 p. m., and setting on the 2d at 5:22 a. m.; on the 16th, rising at\n4:17 p. m., and setting next morning at 4:21; and on the 30th, rising at\n3:19 p. m., and setting May 1st at 3:23 a. m., and can be seen all night\nby those who know where to find him (a little southwest of _Eta_, in the\nconstellation _Virgo_). On 26th, at 12:16 a. m., 1\u00b0 17\u2032 north of moon.\n\n\nNEPTUNE,\n\nNot only the father of waters, but water himself, scarcely visible at\nbest, \u201changs out\u201d all day, rising soon after the sun, and setting as\nfollows: On the 1st, at 9:36 p. m.; on the 16th, at 8:40 p. m.; on the\n30th, at 7:46 p. m. Has a retrograde motion of 58\u2032 16\u2033; and on the 16th,\nat 8:42 p. m., is 2\u00b0 13\u2032 north of the moon.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe have now passed the boundary of the first century of our existence as\nan independent nation. We are as a people engaged in a confused struggle\nwith the problem of our own national self-consciousness. We want to know\nwhat is the spirit that is in us as a nation. We must know this in order\nto be properly master of ourselves and of our destiny. We must know this\nin order to know our place in universal history.\u2014_George S. Morris._\n\n\n\n\nENGLAND AND ISLAM.\n\nBY PRESIDENT D. H. WHEELER, D.D., LL.D.\n\n\nWithin two years there have been three prophets in Egypt. Arabi Pasha is\nin exile; Chinese Gordon is dead; El Mahdi, the mysterious voice in the\nSoudan wilderness, mutters his prayers in the mosque of Khartoum. England\nbombarded Alexandria; Arab loss in dead perhaps 5,000. Then England\nfought and conquered Arabi in the open field, captured him, and sent him\ninto exile; Arab loss in dead perhaps 7,000. Next there is trouble on the\nRed Sea, and another English army killed perhaps 9,000 Arabs. And last\na battle or series of battles in the heart of the Soudan; Arab loss in\ndead perhaps 12,000. Probably not less than 30,000 have been slaughtered\nby Englishmen in less than two years. English loss, a few hundreds. The\nbutchers have been liberally rewarded; one soldier has become a \u201clord;\u201d\npromotions and extra pay and pensions have fallen in a silvery shower\non \u201cour brave fellows\u201d in Egypt. Only one Englishman got nothing. He\ndisappeared one day in the desert, and his dromedary was said to carry\nthe destiny of England; and perhaps it did. He was a soldier seeking\npeace at the meeting place of the Niles. Chinese Gordon entered Khartoum\nin triumph, and almost at once there rose a cry: \u201cWe must rescue Gordon.\u201d\nThen came the long delayed march of an army in search of the English\nprophet at Khartoum; then the butcheries, called battles of Metemneh, and\nwhat not. And then in the last days of January there was a slaughter,\nnot this time by Englishmen in person, and perhaps 5,000 more Moslems\nperish by Moslem steel in the sack of Khartoum. Then a wail rises on\nevery breeze in Christendom; \u201c_Alas! alas! Gordon is dead!_\u201d The story of\nhis death is a parable: \u201cStabbed in the back while leaving his house.\u201d\nMake the \u201chouse\u201d stand for England, and the knives that pierced him the\nindecisions, tergiversations, and infidelities of an English ministry\nwith a great Christian statesman at its head. The world has supped full\nof the horrors of that kind of Christian statesmanship. We have believed\nin it; we have hoped that it meant something, even in those bloody\nEgyptian campaigns.\n\nWe are nearly at the end of our confidence. It is not merely the shade\nof Disraeli which calls mockingly for explanations; the world that\nbelieved in Gladstone when Disraeli was playing at fantastic military\nstatesmanship, wants to know why Christian statesmanship in Egypt has, in\na short time, spilt almost as much blood as was shed by one army in that\nAmerican conflict which Mr. Gladstone thought so cruel and so useless.\nWe can not even condone Mr. Gladstone\u2019s offense against civilization\nby saying that it has been a less bloody assault on humanitarian ideas\nand plans than Disraeli\u2019s was; for Gladstone has butchered twenty men\nto Disraeli\u2019s one. There has, in fact, been nothing so bloody in this\ncentury\u2014I mean no such large butchery by a small army. Ten years of such\nstatesmanship would fill the Nile valley with human bones. It is high\ntime to call for a full explanation. What does Mr. Gladstone mean? What\ndoes he expect to accomplish? If he has intended something exalted and\nnoble, which we should wish to believe, it is time to say so with the\nbreadth of statement and accuracy of detail by which he obtained renown.\nThe personal question stands at the front, because England is governed by\none man. It is a happiness of Englishmen that they are able to know whom\nto blame when things go wrong. Mr. Gladstone is the head of a government\nfor whose acts and failures to act he is perfectly responsible. What\nEngland does in Egypt Gladstone does. It is the one governmental luxury\nof the English people\u2014they know exactly who governs them. Mr. Gladstone\nhas not been compelled to do this or that by parties or circumstances. If\nhe turns butcher in the Delta, on the Nile, or on the Red Sea, he alone\ndoes it, and he does it because he chooses to do it. For, at any moment,\nhe can shift disagreeable duties to another; three lines in the form of\na resignation will relieve him of the burden of responsible government.\nSo long as he remains at the head of the English ministry he is the man\nwho shoots down Arabs by the thousand. In this country politicians have\ndivided, dispersed and destroyed responsibility to such an extent that\nthe people know not whom to blame for evil events. It is a devil\u2019s art,\nfrom whose manipulations England has by some special favor of heaven\nescaped. There the ghosts of murdered men and things can \u201cshake\u201d their\n\u201cgory locks\u201d at the Prime Minister; and he may not reply:\n\n    \u201cThou canst not say I did it.\u201d\n\nMany of us have expected Mr. Gladstone to retire when each of these\nbloody episodes in Egypt has begun. His retention of power may be\nexplained as an old man\u2019s insane appetite for office, or as the surrender\nof a statesman to the logic of a situation. The first explanation we\nrespect Mr. Gladstone too much to accept; the second is embarrassed by\nthe absence of a clearly defined policy. We should understand Disraeli;\nbut he would help us to understand him by making distinct proclamation\nof his purpose to govern and bless the Moslem world. He would have\nbutchered less, but he would have planted an imperial stake on every\nbattle-field. We should have known that he meant conquest and dominion.\nThere would have been no meaningless carnage. A humanitarian war is a\ndifficult conception; but it is not impossible to conceive of wars that\nproduce beneficent results. We could conceive of the subjugation of Islam\nto British sway, and rejoice to see the Soudan like India, slowly but\nsurely rising into civilization under English rule. But an army thrusting\ndown no imperial stakes, going home after each slaughter to be paid,\npromoted and f\u00eated, is not doing work which opens any vistas of smiling\npeace and advancing light. It is only a bloody carnival. No petty cabinet\ndifferences, no outcry of public opinion, no Jingoism in the army or the\nroyal family, no temporary exigencies of party, no domestic dangers nor\nforeign rivalries can explain and justify the responsible man\u2019s conduct.\nMr. Gladstone\u2019s garments are dripping with Moslem blood, and the world\ncan not find an explanation which explains.\n\nIt seems to the spectators that England is doing the one thing she\nshould most carefully avoid doing. She is uniting Islam, and teaching\nIslam how to make war. In each new campaign the Soudanese are better\narmed, fight with better method, and kill more Englishmen. England is\ntraining them into sturdy and disciplined soldiers. A Moslem victory\nis proclaimed in every Arab tent, and in every Indian village. Such a\nvictory is not merely a victory for El Mahdi; it is a hope for the whole\nMoslem world. Moslem defeats travel less swiftly, and mean only a delayed\nvictory. What fierce resolutions are begotten in Moslem bosoms by Mr.\nGladstone\u2019s campaigns of butchery, we can easily imagine. Meanwhile,\nChristendom can only say: \u201cPremier of England, your garments are soaked\nwith blood; and, may God forgive you, the blood is not your own. We can\nnot understand you, but we are painfully certain that you are arousing\nall Islam against us.\u201d Meanwhile, the ancient spears are giving place\nin the Prophet\u2019s armies to repeating rifles, and Krupp guns may soon\nguard every height along the Nile. Islam is strong in numbers. There\nare 75,000,000 of Soudanese, with a very large proportion of men just\ncivilized enough to make terrible soldiers. It may happen some day that\na military leader will arise in the front of this vast army, and that\nan effeminate Europe may find that its military science has gone over\nto the Moslems. Probably no one man\u2019s policy could effect its transfer\nmore rapidly than Mr. Gladstone\u2019s. When that dark wave of the Moslem\nmillions is gathered into conquering masses by a capable leader, it\nwill have mighty winds of religious enthusiasm behind it, and plenty of\nroom before it. The southern and eastern shores of the Mediterranean\nwould be swept clean of the petty European military establishments in a\nmonth. Morocco, larger than France, holds at least half of the western\ngate of the Mediterranean, while the Turk holds the eastern gate; and a\nmonth\u2019s campaign might convert that sea into a Moslem lake, and leave its\nItalian, French, and Spanish and Greek shores to be ravaged again as in\nthe crusading centuries, by Moslem piracy and brigandage. The one thing\nthe Arab can learn thoroughly is the art of war. He was once great on\nthe sea. That man may exult too soon, who, remembering the leviathans of\nthe deep which destroyed Alexandria, trusts Europe\u2019s safety to the great\nnavies of Europe. Islam has some great ships in the Bosphorus, and is\nrapidly learning where the great ships grow. It is true that if splendid\nleadership does not arise, Islam may continue to bleed and die in vain;\nbut wars produce great soldiers as regularly as oaks bear acorns. There\n_is_ danger. Ten years of Gladstoneism in the Nile valley would make the\ndanger a terrible reality. Christendom should rise up and condemn the\nbloody education which England is imparting to Islam.\n\nMeanwhile, Germans and Frenchmen are in the armies of the Prophet,\nteaching the rude but vigorous men of the desert how to use arms of\nprecision with deadly effect. In the process of creating a terrible\nperil for Europe, greed, personal ambition, and national jealousies are\ncontributing to perfect the lessons in modern warfare which England is\ngiving to Islam. No doubt it is true that a great man is needed to weld\ntogether the forces of Islam. But why should no strong man be expected\nto arise in a race so rich in warlike memories? When the Prophet is\nonce crowned with the diadem of military success, there is an army\nof Mohammedans in India wearing the queen\u2019s uniform, there are vast\nresources at Constantinople ready to fall from the helpless hands of the\nSultan; there are millions of soldiers who require no pay, and have no\nscruples about the rights of private property. If one gives rein to his\nimagination, he is soon in a world of awful possibilities. There are\ntwo hundred millions of Mohammedans waiting for a leader to restore the\nglories of Islam.\n\nThe relations of England to Islam are logically and historically\nfriendly. England has a Moslem army in India, and has long protected the\nhead of Islam at Constantinople, from the consequences of his vices,\nextravagances and follies. The Indian mutiny had a religious source, but\nthis was denied, and the spring covered up so successfully that, until\nMr. Gladstone attacked Disraeli\u2019s policy in the name of Christianity\n(such as it is) in Bulgaria, England had successfully encountered the\ndifficulties of her position as a Christian power ruling directly and\nindirectly half the Moslem world.\n\nDoes Mr. Gladstone foresee an \u201cirrepressible conflict\u201d between England\nand Islam? Is he instinctively bringing on a conflict which will be\nthe less perilous the sooner it comes? Will history add to his rare\ngood fortune by making him glorious as the beginner of a defense of\nChristendom which he has never dreamed of organizing? Disraeli\u2019s\nconception followed logic and history. He made a Christian queen empress\nof India, and he contemplated with composure a time when the descendant\nof Victoria should be born in India, and be reared in the faith of\nMohammed, the center of the British empire having gone to its proper\nplace. Against such ideas Christian England revolted. Is Mr. Gladstone\nreversing centuries of history and setting the Moslem and Christian\nworlds by the ears again? If he is moving on that line, his armies should\nconquer and hold Egypt and the Soudan, the Nile and the Red Sea, the\nancient Delta and its modern canal, with the grip England once laid on\nNorth America. The audacity of the conquest would provoke diplomatic\ncriminations; but it were easier far to face them than to answer the hard\nquestions which are provoked by fruitless slaughter in Moslem lands.\nEngland is only the heart of the British empire. A quiet and gentle\nEngland is a possible dream; but the empire is war, conquest, dominion,\nat the expense of weak peoples. The empire can not survive the definitive\nabandonment of an imperial policy. The empire must dominate by force or\nfall to pieces.\n\nIt is not worth while to seek in the history of the Egyptian debt, and\nthe \u201cgrasping disposition of the English bondholders,\u201d for the key of the\npresent situation. Those who make a religion, or at least a philanthropy,\nof heaping abuse on bondholders anywhere and everywhere, are the least\nreasonable of Christians. It is not a crime to deny ourselves, save\nmoney and lend it to others. To refuse to pay debts freely contracted is\nnot the first of virtues or the best of policies. The bondholders are\ncommonly poor people who have saved a little by pinching themselves,\nand have bought bonds for the holy purposes of family forethought.\nRepudiated debts are baptised in the self-renouncing spirit which is at\nthe heart of our religion, and repudiators make war on the foundations of\ncharacter and society. In so far as England protects her money lenders,\nshe protects her noble middle class, whose honest thrift lies at the\nfoundation of her wealth. It is among the strangest perversions of\nfeeling that prodigals and prodigal governments should get the sympathy\nof mankind. Let England foreclose her mortgage on Egypt, and the honest\nworld will thank her for abolishing one nest of spendthrifts. Much is\nsaid of the miserable Egyptian peasants, from whom the taxes to pay\ninterest are wrung with every form of despotic oppression. Let us not be\ndeceived by such false-toned appeals for sympathy. The fellaheen of the\nNile are oppressed irrespective of the bondholders. Arabi or El Mahdi\nwould maintain the oppressive systems if they were in power. If there\nwere no bondholders, the backs of the miserable fellaheen would smart\nunder the lash of the oppressor. The despotism is Egyptian, not English.\nEnglish rule would gradually emancipate the oppressed classes. Nowhere,\nnot even in Ireland, has England conquered a people without improving\nthe condition of the poor. The interest on debts which she surrenders in\nthe valley of the Nile does not go to the relief of the peasants; it is\nsquandered in the harems of Cairo and Alexandria. The issue is strictly\nbetween the splendid, many-concubined lords in Egypt and the honest and\nself-denying people who have lent honest money on the faith of England.\n\nWhich way, then, will events march? Toward a war between Islam and\nChristendom, or back to the old imperial policy of England? It would\nseem that the world\u2019s hope lies in a restoration of the ancient policy\nof the British empire. The events of 1885 in Moslem land will be full\nof interest, perhaps pregnant with destiny. A larger English army,\nperhaps 25,000 men, will soon be in Egypt. It will probably face a\nbetter trained foe. There will be more English graves in Egypt. To\nwhat end? The London _Times_ says: \u201cGordon must be avenged.\u201d England\nrepeats the cry. But what end will the vengeance serve? And what if\nArabi Pasha and the Emirs killed in the late battles, and the 30,000\nto 40,000 Moslems slain, should be avenged? Soon or late\u2014if she does\nnot attempt it too late\u2014England must return to her historical policy\nand stand among Christian powers the foremost ally of the sons of\nMohammed. It is the inexorable logic of her greatness. Let us shut\nour eyes upon the horrible vision of the new crusades, as useless as\nthe old and far bloodier. Christendom can hope for no more fortunate\ndisposition of Mohammedanism than that it should be locked fast in the\niron arms of the British empire; and on the other hand the failure of\nthe British empire would involve the greatest possible disasters for\nChristendom. Many foolish things have been promised in the name of\n\u201cmanifest destiny.\u201d Perhaps destiny is never so manifest that it may be\nread off by uninspired prophecy; but there is no other Power which seems\nfitted to play England\u2019s imperial r\u00f4le; and it does not appear how the\nprogress and happiness of mankind can go forward without such an imperial\nforce as England has been for two centuries. While we deprecate the\neffects of the Jingo spirit which Disraeli fostered, and repudiate the\nindifference to the progress of Christianity which the Hebrew statesman\nscarcely concealed, we can not look with complacency upon changes of\nBritish policy which would disintegrate the empire. Let England\u2019s\ndrum-beat go round the earth with the sun; for the sunrise of progress\nand civilization will awaken wherever that martial music falls upon the\near of mankind.\n\n\n\n\nTHE ART OF FISH CULTURE.\n\nBY PROF. G. BROWN GOODE.\n\n\nPART I.\n\nWhen any portion of the earth is colonized by civilized man, an era\nof change and readjustment at once begins. The untilled plain, the\nprimeval forest, the bridgeless river, the malaria-breathing swamp, and\nthe jungle\u2014lurking place for beasts of prey\u2014are all obstructions which\nmust be removed from the highway of social and industrial progress.\nUntil a new environment had been created, the colonists of Virginia\nand New England were like helpless children, compared with the Indians\nwhom they had come to disinherit. The hills were soon cleared, and the\nwater-courses dried up, swamps were drained, and lakes were made in the\nvalleys, the plains were plowed and planted with exotic vegetation, and\ngreat regions of land were entirely changed in character by irrigation\nand the use of manure. The New World has in two centuries become in\nvery truth a new world, for its physical features have been entirely\nreconstructed. The aboriginal man retreated before the advancing strides\nof civilization, and has now been practically exterminated, at least east\nof the Mississippi River.\n\nThe manner in which the man of European descent has eliminated and\nreplaced the son of the soil is fairly typical of changes which have\noccurred in the animal and vegetable life of the continent. Bear,\nmoose, caribou, deer, wolf, beaver, and all other large animals have\nbeen entirely destroyed in many parts of the country, and the time is\nnot far remote when they will exist among us only in a state of partial\nor entire domestication. The prairie chicken once reared its brood\nin Massachusetts, but is now never seen east of the Alleghenies. The\nalligator is fast being exterminated in Florida and Mississippi, and the\nbuffalo is now rarely to be seen except in captivity. The sea cow of the\nnorth Pacific, the great auk of New England and Newfoundland stand with\nthe dodo, the moa, and the zebra in the list of animals which have become\nextinct within the memory of man, and the list will continue to increase.\nA similar story might be told for birds, reptiles, and plants. The\nrattlesnake is retreating to the mountain tops, the turkey, the pigeon,\nthe woodpecker and hosts of others are disappearing, the medicinal plant\nginseng, once so important in the Alleghenies, is almost a rarity to\nbotanists.\n\nThe aboriginal animals and plants go. They are replaced by others,\nwhich in that struggle for existence which plays so important a part in\ndetermining careers for plants and animals, have become particularly\nwell fitted to be man\u2019s companions. The clover, the ox-eye daisy, the\nbuttercup, the thistle, the mullein, the dandelion, followed the European\nto America, and with them the broad-leaved plantain, which, as every one\nknows, the Indians called \u201cthe white man\u2019s foot,\u201d because it sprung up at\nonce in every meadow where the soles of his shoes had touched. With these\ncame the European mouse, the rat, the cat, the dog. The browsing herds of\ndeer and buffalo were replaced by oxen, horses and sheep, and the greedy,\nquarrelsome, impertinent sparrow was permitted to drive out the native\nbirds which many of us would have been glad to keep as relics of the old\ndispensation.\n\nNot less important in many regions have been the changes in the life in\nthe waters. In many of our streams and lakes the fish, formerly abundant,\nhave been entirely exterminated. Sometimes, perhaps we may charitably say\nusually, this has been the result of ignorance, but often, I fear, it may\nbe ascribed to recklessness or cupidity.\n\nFishes may be grouped, according to their habits, into two\nclasses\u2014resident and migratory. Representatives of each of these classes\nmay be found both in fresh water and in the sea. Among resident fresh\nwater fishes may be mentioned the perch, the catfish, suckers and dace,\nthe pike and pickerel, the black bass. Resident sea fishes are typified\nby the flounders, cod, sheepshead, blackfish and sea bass, which are\nfound near the shore in winter as well as summer. In cold climates,\nresident fishes always retreat in winter into deeper water to avoid the\ncold, and if they can not get beyond its reach they subside into a state\nof torpidity or hibernation, in which all the vital functions are more or\nless inert. The carp, and many other kinds of fish, at this time, burrow\ninto \u201ckettles\u201d or holes in the mud in the bottom of the pond, where they\nremain for months. A hybernating fish may be frozen solid in the middle\nof a cake of ice, and emerge when thawed out, unharmed.\n\nMigratory fishes, on the other hand, are those which wander extensively\nfrom season to season. There are migrating fish in the sea, which, like\nthe mackerel, the bluefish, the menhaden and the porgy come near our\nnorthern coasts only in the summer, and in winter retreat to regions\neither in the south or far out at sea unknown; others, like the smelt and\nthe sea herring, which retreat northward in summer and only appear in\nquantity on the Atlantic coast of the United States in the colder months\nof the year.\n\nThen there are migratory fishes which live part of the year in the\nrivers. Such are the shad and the river-herrings or alewives, which leave\nthe sea in the spring and ascend to the river heads to spawn, and the\nsalmon, which does likewise, to spawn in the brooklets in November and\nDecember. Still more remarkable is the eel, which breeds in the sea,\nwhere the male eels always remain, while the young females, when as large\nas darning needles, ascend in the spring to inland lakes and streams,\nthere to remain, until, after three or four years, they are grown to\nmaturity, when they descend to salt water, to reproduce their kind and\ndie.\n\nThere are also migratory fish in fresh water, like the white fish, the\nsalmon, trout, and the siscowet, which live in the abyssal depths of the\ngreat lakes and swim up into the shallows and creeks in winter to spawn\ntheir eggs, and the brook trout and dace, which for a similar purpose\nascend from the pools and quiet meadow stretches to the pebble-paved\nripplets near the spring sources of the brooks in which they live.\n\nHaving, in a general way, classified fish according to their habits, we\nare in a position to consider the manner in which man has succeeded in\nexterminating them. As a general rule, fish deposit their eggs in shallow\nwater, and the time of egg-laying is very closely dependent upon the\ntemperature of the water. The eggs of a fish are, as every one knows,\nenclosed in two sacs, or ovaries, which are situated close to the walls\nof the abdominal cavity, and separated from the water by thin walls of\nskin and flesh, rarely, even in the largest fish, more than a sixteenth\nof an inch in thickness. Experiment has shown that the temperature of\nthe blood in the abdomen of a fish deviates very little from that of the\nwater in which it is floating. Experiment has also shown that as soon\nas the water has reached a certain degree of warmth, variable with each\nkind of fish, the eggs are sure to be laid within a very few hours. This\nbeing the case, it usually happens that great schools of fish always\ncongregate together at one time upon the spawning grounds. Since the\nspawning grounds of many kinds of fish are in shallow water, and the fish\nare at that time most easily caught, it happens that many of the most\nextensive fisheries are carried on in the spawning season. The delicious\nlittle smelts which our neighbors in Maine and New Brunswick send us by\nthe hundred car-loads each winter, packed in little boxes of snow, are\nalways full of eggs\u2014so are the lake white fish, when they are caught, and\nthe shad, and the Potomac herrings, and the cod, and the mullet, and the\nherring, and in early spring the mackerel.\n\nNow consider how easy it is, taking these fish so much at a disadvantage,\nto diminish their numbers, simply by catching them. The man who catches\na spawning cod destroys anywhere from 5,000,000 to 7,000,000 of eggs, a\nspawning halibut at least 2,000,000, a shad from 50,000 to 2,000,000. Is\nnot the American breakfasting on broiled shad roe a modern representative\nof him who killed the goose which laid the golden egg? When we consider\nthat the yearly catch of mother-fish along the New England coast does\nnot fall short of ten to fifteen millions of individuals, we may gain an\nadequate idea of the destruction of fish life by the fisheries.\n\nStill it is not necessary to be alarmed at these figures. They are\npresented simply in illustration of the immense possibilities of\ndestruction when the fisheries are carried on at the spawning season. As\na matter of fact, cod are just as abundant along our coasts as they ever\nwere, and it has not yet been demonstrated that any kind of sea fish has\never been diminished in numbers by hook and line fishing or by netting\nthem at a distance from the shore.\n\nSome kinds of fishes, however, enter narrow bays and estuaries to spawn,\nand if they are there recklessly destroyed, the local supply at least\nmay be permanently interfered with. This has apparently been the case\nwith certain species in Narragansett Bay, Rhode Island. For instance,\nthe scuppaug or porgy has been seriously diminished in numbers in\ncertain seasons, years ago; the supply will probably be replenished from\nadjoining waters by the reparative tendencies of nature, if this indeed\nhas not already been done. So, too, the halibut has been exterminated\nin Massachusetts, where it was once so abundant as to be regarded as a\nnuisance by the fishermen. It is in the inland or freshwater fisheries,\nhowever, that the work of extermination has been thorough, and here, from\nthe nature of the case, the work once accomplished, it is beyond the\npower of nature to remedy the damage. If I could take the reader with\nme next May to one of the many little streamlets of Cape Cod, flowing\nsouthward into Nantucket Sound, I could show him a scene which he would\nnever forget. The little rill has been encased at bottom and sides with\nplanks, so that it flows for a mile or two, down to its junction with the\nsea, in a straight trough not over fifteen inches wide, and a foot in\ndepth. At a convenient level place a shed has been built over the trough,\nand in the floor is a kind of cistern, through which the waters of the\nbrook flow as it goes on its course. In the shed stand two men, each\nwith a great scoop of netting, with which they labor, dipping the fish\nout of the cistern as they fill it, swimming up the trough from the sea.\nSeveral barrels are taken out every day, and in some of these streams one\nor two thousand barrels always reward a season\u2019s work, the brook being\nthe property of the township, and the privilege of fishing being sold at\nauction for the benefit of the public. Dip! dip! dip it is all day long,\nand as the little alewives are tumbled into barrels and carts, the eye of\nthe practiced observer notes the plump sides and the brilliant iridescent\ncoloring of the silvery scales, which indicate that the fish are loaded\nwith a precious burden of eggs, to deposit which in the pond at the head\nof the stream is the motive which leads them to press forward so blindly\ninto the trap men have set for them.\n\nIn these enlightened days the town laws generally require that the brooks\nshall be unobstructed for one or two days each week, and so a few fish\nget by the barriers and are allowed to perpetuate their kind. In the\npast, however, many excellent \u201cherring brooks\u201d have been completely\ndeprived of their fish.\n\nThis illustrates how completely man has the destinies of river fish\nunder his control. Suppose that instead of a fish house with movable\nbarriers, an impassable dam had been built. Of course the fish would\nhave been locked out, and their kind exterminated in that immediate\nregion. This is precisely what has happened in almost every river and\nstream on the Atlantic coast of the United States. Shad and salmon were\nformerly abundant in every river of New England\u2014and shad and alewives\nin every considerable stream south to Florida. Now, they are excluded,\neither entirely or in great part from the waters in which they once\nswarmed in great schools. Take, for instance, the Connecticut River. In\ncolonial days, salmon were there in immense numbers. All summer long\nthey were swimming up from the sea to the headwaters of the river, to\nMassachusetts, New Hampshire, and Vermont, where they deposited their\neggs in the cool, clear rapids of the main river and its tributaries.\nThey were so abundant that the shad fishermen used to require their\ncustomers to take one salmon with every shad, and, as the hackneyed\nold story goes, the apprentices were accustomed to stipulate in their\npapers that they should not be required to eat salmon above three times\na week. In 1798 a dam was built across the river at Miller\u2019s Falls.\nNext year many salmon were seen at the base of the dam, the following\nyear a smaller number, and in less than ten years salmon had entirely\ndisappeared from the Connecticut. Not a salmon was seen in those waters\nuntil seventy years later, when, in 1871, a single artificially bred fish\nwas caught at Saybrook. I could show you a map prepared by an associate\nof mine, in which the present and former limits of the shad are shown,\nand you would see how they once ranged clear up into the mountains, far\nup the Susquehanna into New York State, up the Connecticut into New\nHampshire and Vermont, and how now, in many rivers, they are confined to\nvery restrictive stretches at the river mouths.\n\nThe dams operate in still another way. We have considered hitherto only\ntheir influence upon the sea fish which ascend the rivers to spawn.\nTheir effect upon the resident fish is quite as baneful. As the suckers,\nand the bass, and the cat fish, and dace, and trout, grow large, they\nnaturally go down stream in search of deeper water and wider pools, where\nthey get more room and better food. If they luckily escape the baskets\nand traps set for them in every dam, they never can get back. The streams\nare gradually sifted out and left tenantless.\n\nLittle need be said of the manner in which ponds are drained dry in\norder to get all the fish in them, in which immense seines are hauled\nin little lakes, clearing out everything, great and small, of the use\nof explosives, lime, or _cocculus indicus_, in the work of wholesale\ndestruction. The fact stands undisputed and undisputable, that in many\nparts of the United States the native fish are actually exterminated, and\nthe mud turtles, muskrats and fresh water clams left as sole occupants.\nEven the harmonious bull-frog has been devoured by man, and only his\ndiminutive cousins, the cricket frogs and hylas left\u2014the aquatic choir\ncan henceforth perform only soprano and contralto songs, unless the fish\nculturist finds some way of bringing back the basso whose obligatos we\nonce admired.\n\nOysters, scallops, and lobsters are going the same way. Although they\nlive in free waters, they are stationary in their habits, and wholesale\ngathering will soon complete the work of extermination so recklessly\nbegun. The forthcoming census reports on the fisheries will show\nconclusively the need of immediate protection.\n\nWhat is the remedy for these great evils? One hundred thousand men are\nactively engaged in the fisheries of the United States, and at least\none fiftieth of the entire population of the country are, to a large\nextent, dependent on the fishery industry. Fish is the poor man\u2019s food,\nfor unlike any other food product it may be had for the taking. A fish\nswimming in the water has cost no man labor. There floats four pounds of\nsavory shad, fifty pounds of nutritious sturgeon, a hundred barrels of\nwhale oil; there lies a bushel of oysters, or a barrel of sponges. They\nare God\u2019s gift, and man has only to gather them in, and possibly submit\nthem to a very simple process of preparation, to be the possessor of a\nvaluable piece of property. If the matter can be properly regulated, good\nfish ought to be sold in every town and village for two thirds or half\nthe price of beef and pork. As it is, poor fish often cost more than beef\nand pork, and in many localities good fish can not be had at any price.\nIt is a great problem in political economy, and one which we are, as yet,\nfar from thoroughly understanding.\n\nWe are confronted with the question, What can be done to neutralize these\ndestructive tendencies?\n\nThere are evidently three things to do.\n\n1. To preserve fish waters, especially those inland, as nearly as\npossible in their normal condition.\n\n2. To prohibit wasteful or immoderate fishing.\n\n3. To employ the art of fish breeding.\n\n    _a._ To aid in maintaining a natural supply;\n\n    _b._ To repair the effects of past improvidence, and\n\n    _c._ To increase the supply beyond its natural limits, rapidly\n    enough to meet the necessities of a constantly increasing\n    population.\n\nThe preservation of normal conditions in inland waters is comparatively\nsimple. A reasonable system of forestry and water purification is\nall that is required, and this is needed not only by the fish in the\nstreams, but by the people living on the banks. It has been shown\nthat a river which is too foul for fish to live in is not fit to flow\nnear the habitations of man. Obstructions, such as dams, may, in most\ninstances, be overcome by fish ladders. The salmon has profited much by\nthese devices in Europe, and the immense dams in American rivers will\ndoubtless be passable, even for shad and alewives, if the new system of\nfish-way construction devised by Col. McDonald, and now being applied on\nthe Savannah, James, and Potomac, and other large rivers, fulfills its\npresent promises of success.\n\nUp to the present time, however, although much ingenuity and expense\nhave been lavished upon fish-ways by the various state fish commissions\nof this country, there has been little practical outcome from their use.\nOur dams are too high, and the shad and alewives, which we are especially\ndesirous to carry over these obstructions, do not seem to take kindly to\nthe narrow, tortuous defiles of the fish ladders.\n\nThe protection of fish by law is what legislators have been trying to\neffect for many centuries, and we are bound to admit that the success of\ntheir efforts has been very slight indeed. Protective legislation rarely\nsucceeds. The statute books of each state are crowded with laws which no\none understands, least of all the men who made them, and which the state\ngovernments are powerless to enforce. Every one remembers Whittier\u2019s\ngrand old hero, Abraham Davenport, the Connecticut statesman, who, \u201con\na May day of that far old year 1780,\u201d when the earth was shrouded in\ndarkness, and he and all his colleagues in the State Assembly felt that\nthe judgment day had come, stood up, \u201calbeit with trembling hands and\nshaking voice, and read an act to amend an act to regulate the shad and\nalewife fisheries\u201d\u2014and then went on to rebuke those around for their\nfearfulness and desire to leave the post of duty. Connecticut is as\nmuch at a loss now as then to know how to regulate her shad and alewife\nfisheries. Under a republican form of government, restrictive laws are\nnot popular, and money would never be voted to enforce such laws, which,\nwithout an extensive police force, would be powerless. Some one has\nsagely remarked that the salmon is an aristocratic fish, which can only\nthrive under the shadow of a throne. Many states now have laws protecting\nfresh water fish in the breeding season, and numerous game protective\nassociations are laboring with some success for their enforcement. Sales\nof fish out of season are also successfully prevented in certain city\nmarkets.\n\nThe attempts to regulate the fisheries at the mouths of rivers, so that\nspawning fish may be allowed free passage for a few hours, generally from\nSaturday evening to Monday morning, are meeting with but little success.\n\nMaryland and Virginia attempt to some extent the protection of their\noyster beds, and the former state keeps up an expensive police\norganization. The oyster law is founded in ignorance, however, and the\nchief effort being to keep away fishermen from other states, for the\nbenefit of their own, there are small results except frequent quarrels\nand occasional bloodshed.\n\nConnecticut is making the experiment of giving to individuals personal\ntitle to submerged land, to be used in oyster culture, and this,\nperhaps, is the wisest step taken. Oyster production must soon cease to\nbe a free grabbing enterprise, and be placed upon the same footing as\nagriculture, or the United States will lose its beloved oyster crop, and\nin this country, as in England, a fresh oyster will be worth as much as\na new-laid egg. Great Britain has, at present, two schools of fishery\neconomists, the one headed by Professor Huxley, opposed to legislation,\nsave for the preservation of fish in inland waters, the other, of which\nDr. Francis Day is the chief leader, advocating a most strenuous legal\nregulation of the sea fisheries. Continental Europe is by tradition\nand belief committed to the last named policy. In the United States,\non the contrary, public opinion is generally antagonistic to fishery\nlegislation, and our Commissioner of Fisheries, after carrying on for\nfourteen years investigations upon this very question, has not yet\nbecome satisfied that laws are necessary for the perpetuation of the\nsea fisheries, nor has he ever recommended to Congress enactment of any\ndescription. Just here we meet the test problem in fish culture. Many of\nthe most important commercial fisheries of the world, the cod fishery,\nthe herring fishery, the sardine fishery, the shad and alewife fishery,\nthe mullet fishery, the salmon fishery, the whitefish fishery, the smelt\nfishery, and many others, owe their existence to the fact that once a\nyear these fishes gather together in closely swimming schools, to spawn\nin shallow water, on shoals, or in estuaries and rivers. There is a large\nschool of _quasi_ economists, who clamor for the complete prohibition of\nfishing during spawning time. This demand demonstrates their ignorance.\nDeer, game birds, and other land animals may easily be protected in the\nbreeding season, so may trout and other fishes of strictly local habits.\nNot so the anadromous and pelagic fishes. If they are not caught in the\nspawning season, they can not be caught at all. I heard a prominent fish\nculturist recently advocating before a committee of the United States\nSenate, the view that shad should not be caught in the rivers, because\nthey came into the rivers to spawn. When asked what would become of our\nimmense shad fisheries if this were done, he said that doubtless some\ningenious person would invent a means of catching them at sea.\n\nThe fallacy in the argument of these men lies in the supposition that\nit is more destructive to the progeny of a given fish to kill it when\nits eggs are nearly ripe, than to kill the same fish eight or ten months\nearlier.\n\nWe must not, however, ignore the counter argument. Such is the\nmortality among fish that only an infinitesimal percentage attain to\nmaturity. M\u00f6bius has shown that for every grown oyster upon the beds of\nSchleswig-Holstein, 1,045,000 have died. Only a very small percentage,\nperhaps not greater than this, of the shad or the smelt ever come upon\nthe breeding grounds. Some consideration, then, ought to be shown to the\nindividuals which have escaped from their enemies and have come up to\ndeposit the precious burden of eggs. How much must they be protected?\n\nHere the fish culturist comes in with the proposition \u201c_that it is\ncheaper to make fish so plenty by artificial means that every fisherman\nmay take all he can catch, than to enforce a code of protective laws_.\u201d\n\nThe salmon rivers of the Pacific slope, and the shad rivers of the east,\nand the whitefish fisheries of the lakes, are now so thoroughly under\ncontrol by the fish culturist, that it is doubtful if any one will\nventure to contradict his assertion. The question now is, whether he can\nextend his domain to other species.\n\nLegislation and fish-ways, then, are, as yet, of little practical\nimportance. Actually, they repeat the proverbial act of the clown who\nlocked the stable door after his horse had been stolen. No one makes laws\nor builds fish-ways until he is of the decided opinion that the fish are\npretty nearly gone.\n\nArtificial fish culture seems to offer the only remedy for the evils\nwhich have been described.\n\n[TO BE CONTINUED.]\n\n\n\n\nTHE LIFE OF GEORGE ELIOT.\n\n\nThere is now and then a biography so written that the reader is able to\nbecome intimately acquainted with the subject, to feel after reading that\nhe has had a personal contact, and has formed a friendship which is warm\nand living. Such \u201cLives\u201d are rare. Most works of this kind are so biased\nby the interpretations of the author, so full of facts and opinions that\nthe reader loses all feeling of companionship in reading; he closes the\nbook, knowing much about the subject, but rarely understanding him. A\nbook which presents a man or woman in that personal way which makes a\nfriendship through the medium of the book possible, confers a great gift\nupon the reading public.\n\nThe peculiar fitness of Mr. Cross\u2019s \u201cLife of George Eliot\u201d[B] for giving\nus a new friend, must be attributed to the really remarkable taste and\nskill of his editing. The work bears the mark of a reverential hand. It\nis an _In Memoriam_ whose only object has been to lay before the world a\nmemory too strong and precious to be kept secret. But no such a biography\ncould have been given the world had it not been for the peculiar nature\nof George Eliot herself. The material for this \u201cLife\u201d grew out of two\nstrong elements in her character: the affectionate and persistent\nfriendship which led her to reveal herself so fully to those she loved\nin her letters, and that constant introspection which made her journal\noften a mirror of her inner life. These materials make up the book, which\nis largely a study of her character, and, too, of her character as she\nunderstood it. She has verily written her own life. The interpretation\nremains for the readers.\n\nIt would have been possible for Mr. Cross to have given much information\nabout her character which he has withheld, her opinions and much of her\nconversation; but he has wisely given the world only what she herself\nchose to reveal to her friends.\n\nThe story begins early. The first revelations in character are the\nstrongest; the happiness and misery of the future life are revealed in\nthe childhood traits. The earliest revelations which we find in George\nEliot\u2019s life are of affection and ambition; either, if strong enough to\nbecome a passion, drives its possessor along a thorny path until it is\nitself mastered, and where both exist in a nature, continual collision\nmust occur between them. Before each is satisfied there must be a life\nstruggle of the keenest sort. Such a struggle was presaged for Marian\nEvans very early. She herself tells how, when she was but four years\nof age, she played on the piano, of which she did not know a note, in\norder to impress the servant with a proper notion of her acquirements\nand generally distinguished position. As eager, too, she was for love as\nfor recognition. In her reminiscences of her early life most vividly\nshe portrays her earliest passion\u2014one very common among affectionate\ngirls\u2014her love for her brother. \u201cShe used always to be at his heels,\ninsisting on doing everything that he did.\u201d When his first boyish\ncraze took possession of him in shape of a pony, and she found it was\nseparating them, she was nearly heart broken. Impressible, eager for work\nand ambitious for knowledge, she began life under an emotional pressure,\nwhich drove her into incessant distress lest those she loved should\nfail her, and which brought her devotion to her loved ones in constant\ncollision with her ambition. At twenty-one, writing to a very intimate\nfriend, she said: \u201cI do not mean to be so sinful as to say that I have\nnot friends most undeservedly kind and tender, and disposed to form a\nfar too favorable estimate of me, but I mean I have no one who enters\ninto my pleasures and griefs, no one with whom I can pour out my soul.\u201d\nEight years after this, having lost her father, she went abroad for a\nfew months\u2019 residence, and her letters home were full of eager longing\nfor their sympathy and restless fear lest they should forget her. No\nchange in her life diminished this feeling. She became an editor of the\n_Westminster Review_, and while overwhelmed with manuscripts and proofs\nshe wrote: \u201cYou must know that I am not a little desponding now and then,\nand think that old friends will die off, and I shall be left with no\npower to make new ones again.\u201d Undoubtedly this feeling tended to make\nher morbid in her younger days, and consequently dwarf her power. It\nis an important study of her life to trace the gradual melting of this\ndisposition, and the final growth into a healthy happiness. When quite\npast the heyday of her life, she wrote a friend of her girlhood: \u201cI am\none of those, perhaps, exceptional people whose early childish dreams\nwere much less happy than the outcome of life,\u201d and again, but four years\nbefore her death: \u201cI have completely lost my _personal_ melancholy. I\noften, of course, have melancholy thoughts about the destinies of my\nfellow creatures, but I am never in the mood of sadness, which used to\nbe my frequent visitant, even in the midst of external happiness; and\nthis, notwithstanding a very vivid sense that life is declining, and\ndeath close at hand.\u201d This release from morbidness had two causes. She\nhad taught her strong, affectional nature to find satisfaction in that\ncommonplace, but little understood duty, loving her neighbors, and she\nhad learned to enjoy things on their own account. The first article in\nthis creed of happiness became George Eliot\u2019s religion. She had abandoned\nher belief in the Christian religion when twenty-one years of age. She\ncould not believe fully, and she was too independent and too reliant upon\nher own mind to conform to a religion she did not believe. The steps she\ntook did not destroy the religious sense in her life. The earnestness\nwhich led her to write at nineteen, \u201cMay the Lord give me such an insight\ninto what is truly good, that I may not rest contented with making\nChristianity a mere addendum to my pursuits, or with tacking it as a\nfringe to my garments;\u201d which induced her to consider the novel and even\noratorio as dangerous to spiritual development still remained, though\nwithout form. She was intensely in earnest, but it was many years before\nher love for mankind became a religion to her. A less strong character\nwould have become flippant or scornful under this loss; hers only became\nmore serious. She seems never to have forgotten what she had abandoned.\n\nThough radically differing from most of her friends on religious\nquestions, she never was uncharitable. \u201cOf all intolerance, the\nintolerance calling itself philosophical is the most odious to me,\u201d she\nwrote, and she lived out this opinion, in no way allowing the widest\ndiversity to separate her from her friends. Her sympathy and charity\nindeed seem to increase, even if the breach in their opinion widened.\n\nThis habit of thought and feeling resulted in much personal moral\nbenefit. \u201cMy own experience and development deepen every day my\nconviction that our moral progress may be measured by the degree in which\nwe sympathize with individual suffering and individual joy.\u201d\n\nAs she grew older, she comforted herself with the thought that \u201cwith that\nrenunciation of self which age inevitably brings we get more freedom\nof soul to enter into the life of others.\u201d She tried for \u201ca religion\nwhich must express less care for personal consolation and a more deeply\nawing sense of responsibility to man, springing from sympathy with that\nwhich of all things is most certainly known to us, the difficulty of the\nhuman lot.\u201d This was the great lesson in her growth toward happiness. A\nsecondary step was her appreciation of the value of things in themselves.\nIt is a serious obstacle to the happiness of women, that in the main they\ncare for exterior life only as it is of value in the personal life. A\nbook is dear because a friend has read or recommended it. This verse is\nfine from association; this strain of music because they heard it in a\ncertain connection. Take the _personal_ out of Art and Nature, and too\noften women care little for them. George Eliot learned to appreciate and\nlove things for their own value. Music, to which she was from childhood\ndeeply susceptible, she cultivated thoroughly, and no fine rendering of\n_good_ music ever was missed by her. She took the true, high view of\nlife, which declares that from every good all possible enjoyment should\nbe gained. Art was very dear to her, and we find in these quotations\nfrom her journal, notes on all the leading galleries of Europe, but in\nthe very midst of her art studies she drops this comment, after noting\na sight she had had of the snow covered Alps: \u201cSight more to me than\nall the art in Munich, though I love the _art_ nevertheless. The great,\nwide-stretching earth, and the all-embracing sky\u2014the birthright of us\nall\u2014are what I care most to look at.\u201d\n\nBut it would have been impossible for even her deep love for mankind,\nher fine enjoyment of the good and beautiful, to have completed her\nlife. These things satisfied her affections, but there was another\nquality we have mentioned as prominent in her life: it was her ambition.\nAt twenty she wrote despondently: \u201cI feel that my besetting sin is the\none of all others most destroying, as it is the faithful parent of them\nall\u2014ambition, a desire insatiable for the esteem of my fellow-creatures.\u201d\nWhatever she did, was done with all her might. Her mother died early,\nand she became housekeeper. Her struggles with the knotty questions\nof housewifery kept her in a constant worry, but she would do things\nright\u2014whether it be currant jelly or a German translation. The same\nperfection marked her novels. Her progress was soon marked; it\nrecommended her to people of standing, and gradually she had a circle of\nfriends\u2014people of strong minds and much culture\u2014about her. Eager to do\nsomething, a way opened to her in 1844, when she was twenty-five years\nold. It was to translate into English a work of the German philosopher,\nStrauss. She did it, and what was better, did it well. Five years later\nshe writes: \u201cThe only ardent hope I have for my future life is to have\ngiven me some woman\u2019s duty.\u201d The ambition to excel is already bending\nto the stronger emotion of affection. For a long time she worked, eager\nand anxious, but nothing seemed to open. In 1851 she went to London as\nassistant editor of _Westminster Review_, and here most satisfactory\nopportunities for culture opened. She formed lasting friendships with\nHerbert Spenser, Harriet Martineau, Florence Nightingale, and indeed with\nall the people worth knowing, who filled London in the \u2019fifties. But her\nediting left no opportunity to do that special work to which she was\nlooking, and which she did not understand. She wrote many reviews and\nessays. This writing was a sort of safety valve for her intellect, but it\nwas not until September, 1856, that the new era began in her life. It was\nwhen she began to write fiction. The popular idea of fiction as stories\nwhich will do to kill time, but which for serious reading are quite\nuseless, was not the idea of George Eliot. A nature so intensely serious,\nso anxious for noble work, could not content itself with trivial story\ntelling; she did not aim at that, but at studies of life. As she finely\nwrites to Mr. John Blackwood, who became her publisher: \u201cMy artistic bent\nis directed not all to the presentation of irreproachable character, but\nto the presentation of mixed human beings, in such a way as to call forth\ntolerant judgment, pity, and sympathy. And I can not step aside from\nwhat I _feel_ to be _true_ in character.\u201d And again: \u201cI should like to\ntouch every heart among my readers with nothing but loving humor, with\ntenderness, with belief in goodness.\u201d The story of her great success\nis familiar\u2014her books are well known. In rapid succession she sent out\n\u201cScenes of Clerical Life,\u201d \u201cAdam Bede,\u201d \u201cThe Mill on the Floss,\u201d \u201cSilas\nMarner,\u201d \u201cRomola,\u201d \u201cFelix Holt,\u201d \u201cThe Spanish Gypsy,\u201d \u201cMiddlemarch,\u201d\n\u201cDaniel Deronda,\u201d and \u201cTheophrastus Such.\u201d Her convictions about how\nshe should work were intense. She wrote and _lived_ her story, and once\nwhen urged to re-write a tale, replied that she could no more re-write\na book than she could live over a year in her own life. Her novels are\nthe embodiment of what she had felt, written that they might strengthen\nothers. The conscientiousness with which she labored made her work\nsometimes most painful to her. Despondency lest she should fail, fear\nlest she had misinterpreted a character, depression lest this chapter\nshould fall below a preceding in merit, tortured her in succession, but\nshe worked because she believed she had found her place, and to do her\nbest for mankind was her religion. The slow-growing nature struggling\nwith eager desire for human love, and with a mastering ambition,\nnot often reaches so ripe a stage as did hers. The rigid system of\nself-culture which she pursued through her life was the outgrowth of her\nambition and of her intense interest in things, an interest which we have\nnoticed as being one of the leading elements in her happiness. Reading,\nstudy, conversation, observation, writing, travel, were in turns employed\nin her course of self-discipline. She read incessantly, and _thoroughly_.\nNotice this list of books, the work of one month, and that when she was\nnearly fifty years of age: First book of \u201cLucretius;\u201d sixth book of\nthe \u201cIliad;\u201d \u201cSamson Agonistes;\u201d Warton\u2019s \u201cHistory of English Poetry;\u201d\n\u201cGrote,\u201d second volume; \u201cMarcus Aurelius;\u201d \u201cVita Nuova,\u201d vol. iv; chapter\none of the \u201cPolitique Positive;\u201d Guest on \u201cEnglish Rhythms;\u201d Maunce\u2019s\n\u201cLectures on Casuistry.\u201d Few months fell below this in reading, and this,\ntoo, while she was writing, seeing people, conversing, and suffering, for\nshe had the misfortune to know, as she says, that \u201cone thing is needful:\na good digestion.\u201d\n\nAs a life of earnest purpose, of continued struggle for a high living, of\ndeepest desire to make the most of everything, and for everybody, there\nis none more marked than that of George Eliot. Non-conformity to the\nreligion and the law in which we believe, must sadden her life for all,\nbut an honest student of her character must, after reading this \u201cLife,\u201d\naccord to her what she herself never failed to give to the erring\u2014charity.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[B] George Eliot\u2019s Life, as related in her Letters and Journals. Arranged\nand edited by her husband, J. W. Cross. In three volumes. New York:\nHarper & Brothers.\n\n\n\n\nARBOR DAY.\n\nBY THE HON. B. G. NORTHROP, LL.D.\n\n\nRecent spring floods and the diminished flow of rivers in summer have\ncalled public attention to the cause and the remedy as never before. At\nthe opening of the last session of Congress, its attention was called\nto the subject of Forestry, for the first time in any presidential\nmessage. Bills for the protection and extension of forests are now\nbefore Congress, and before many state legislatures. The last census\npresents striking facts which prove this to be a question of both state\nand national importance. The recent action of the national government\nshows a new appreciation of forestry. The marvel now is, that the general\ngovernment did not earlier seek to protect its magnificent forests, once\nthe best and most extensive in the world. Their importance to the nation\nwas little understood. Even after a century of reckless waste, the United\nStates government still owns 85,000,000 acres of timber\u2014a mere fraction\nof what has been cut, or burned, without a thought of reproduction.\nThe Forestry Division of the United States Department of Agriculture,\nthough organized but six years ago, has already spread much valuable\ninformation before the country by its reports and by those of its special\nagents, commissioned to investigate the forests of the country and the\nmeans of their protection and extension. Ex-Governor R. W. Furnas, of\nNebraska, for example, investigated the forests of California, Oregon,\nWashington Territory, and the western slope of the Rocky Mountains. His\nofficial reports on the stealing and reckless destruction of those timber\nlands, and also in regard to the new and extensive timber growing on the\ntreeless plains of Nebraska, were of great public interest. The reports\nof Dr. F. B. Hough of New York, and F. B. Baker, of Kansas\u2014also agents of\nthe United States Forestry Division\u2014have been extensively circulated and\nstill more widely summarized in the press.\n\nThe National Forestry Congress is another index of the growth of popular\ninterest on this subject. A large volume of the proceedings of that\nassociation at its meeting in Montreal was officially published by\nthe Dominion of Canada. The best papers given at its three subsequent\nmeetings have been published by the United States Department of\nAgriculture. The subject has been ably discussed in State Agricultural\nReports, and many state and local associations have been formed to\nfurther this interest. The passage of the Timber Culture Act has greatly\nincreased the area of planted woodland.\n\nBut of all these agencies no one has awakened so general an interest in\nagriculture as the appointment of Arbor Day, by governors of states, by\nlegislatures, and by state, county and town superintendents of schools.\nThe plan of Arbor Day is simple and inexpensive, and hence the more\nreadily adopted and widely effective. In some states the work has been\nwell done without any legislation. The best results, however, are secured\nwhen an act is passed requesting the Governor, each spring, to recommend\nthe observance of Arbor Day, by a special message. The chief magistrate\nof the state thus most effectually calls the attention of all the people\nto its importance, and secures general and concerted action. _How_\nforests conserve the water supplies and lessen floods is aside from the\ntopic of this paper. While the fact of the increase of spring freshets\nis everywhere admitted, and scientists agree as to the cause, the\npopular disbelief of the true theory is the great hindrance to remedial\naction. The bills for the protection of the Adirondack forests, in the\nlegislature of New York, in 1884, failed by reason of the opposition of\nthe lumbermen, and the common doubt and denial of the benefits of forests\nin the conservation of the rainfall. I often met the same skepticism in\nthe Ohio valley, even among the sufferers from the flood disasters. They\nwere attributed to the extensive use of tile drains. But both in 1883\nand 1884, these floods occurred when the ground was frozen deep, and the\ndrains were therefore inoperative.\n\nThat so simple a cause as forest denudation should produce such\ndisastrous results seems at first incredible. It is only when the vast\nareas contributing to a single river are considered, that the proof of\nthe forest theory seems clear. Take the Ohio River, for illustration. The\narea drained by it is 214,000 square miles, or twenty-two times as much\nas that which in Vermont, New Hampshire, Massachusetts and Connecticut\nis drained by the Connecticut River; an area which includes portions of\nNew York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, West Virginia, Virginia,\nNorth Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Kentucky.\nThe length of the Ohio is about 1,000 miles, and that of its ten leading\ntributaries nearly 4,000, and that of the many minor affluents as much\nmore. The smallest influences working over such immense regions, and\nultimately combining in one stream, may enormously swell its volume.\nAs the destruction of forests has been going on for centuries, the\nremedy must be the work of time, for it must include slow processes\nand agencies, each _separately_ minute, which become important when\nmultiplied by myriads and extended over broad areas. Arbor Day has proved\nsuch an agency.\n\nA brief history of Arbor Day will show its aims. The surprising results\nalready accomplished promise a still broader influence in the near\nfuture. The plan originated with ex-Governor J. Sterling Morton, the\npioneer tree-planter of Nebraska. He secured the co\u00f6peration of the State\nBoard of Agriculture, some thirteen years ago, when the Governor was\ninduced to appoint the second Wednesday in April as a day to be devoted\nto economic tree-planting. By pen and tongue, as editor and lecturer,\nwith arguments from theory and facts from his own practice, Mr. Morton\nsucceeded in awakening popular enthusiasm in this work, in which he was\nably seconded by Ex-Governor Furnas, of Nebraska, who has long served as\nForest Commissioner for the United States Department of Agriculture.\n\nIn Nebraska a remarkable interest was awakened in the observance of\nher first Arbor Day, and over 12,000,000 trees were planted on that\nday. That enthusiasm was not a temporary effervescence. Each successive\nGovernor has annually appointed such a day by an official proclamation,\nand the interest has been sustained and even increased from year to\nyear. The State Board of Agriculture annually awards liberal prizes to\nencourage tree-planting. Hence Nebraska is the banner state of America\nin this work, having, according to official reports, as I am informed\nby ex-Governor Furnas, 244,353 acres of cultivated woodland, or more\nthan twice that of any other state. The originator of Arbor Day is now\nrecognized as a public benefactor, and hence, during the last campaign,\nas a candidate for Governor, ran some three thousand ahead of his party\nticket. Though at first aiming at economic tree-planting, Nebraska now\nobserves Arbor Day in schools. The example of Nebraska was soon followed\nby Kansas, which had over 120,000 acres of planted woodland. The Governor\nof that state issues an annual proclamation for Arbor Day, and it is\nobserved by teachers and scholars and parents, in adorning both school\nand home grounds.\n\nFour years ago the legislature of Michigan requested the Governor\nto appoint an Arbor Day. Such an appointment has been repeated each\nsucceeding April. For the last three years a similar day has been\nappointed by the Governor of Ohio. Many schools, especially those of\nCincinnati and Columbus, fitly kept the designated day. No man in this\ncountry has had a better opportunity of observing the influence of Arbor\nDay in schools than Superintendent Peaslee, who, after a trial of three\nyears, says: \u201cThe observance of Arbor Day is the most impressive means\nof interesting the young in this subject. Should this celebration become\ngeneral, such a public sentiment would lead to the beautifying by trees\nof every city, town, and village, as well as the public highways, church,\nand school grounds, and the homes of the people. If but the youth of Ohio\ncould be led to plant their two trees each, how, by the children alone,\nwould the state be enriched and beautified within the next fifty years.\nBy our Arbor Day observance the importance of forestry was impressed\nupon the minds of thousands of children who then learned to care for and\nprotect trees. Not one of those 20,000 children in Eden Park on Arbor Day\ninjured a single tree.\u201d\n\nWest Virginia furnishes another illustration of the influence of\nobserving Arbor Day in schools. In the face of many difficulties, State\nSchool Superintendent Butcher appointed an Arbor Day in schools in April,\n1883. Without waiting for any legislative or gubernatorial sanction,\nsolely on his own responsibility, he invited the school officers,\nteachers, parents, and pupils on the designated day to plant trees on\nthe grounds of their schools and homes. He made the April number of\nhis _School Journal_ an \u201cArbor\u201d number, and circulated it gratuitously\nover the State. The results exceeded his expectations. It started good\ninfluences on _minds_ as well as grounds. This great success prompted\na similar observance last April, for which greater preparations were\nmade, with still better results. When called to advocate this measure In\nvarious parts of West Virginia last spring, I found the people and the\npress most responsive in encouraging this practical movement. On the day\nafter the celebration, the papers of Wheeling, for example, commended\nthe work in such terms as the following: \u201cArbor Day was gloriously\ncelebrated yesterday, and was a splendid success. All\u2014the oldest and the\nyoungest\u2014evinced the liveliest interest. Arbor Day will be one of the\ninstitutions of our schools.\u201d\n\nAt the annual meeting of the State Teachers\u2019 Association of Indiana,\nheld in December, 1883, a kindred plan was recommended and unanimously\nadopted, and an efficient committee appointed to carry it out. The State\nBoard of Horticulture heartily endorsed the measure. After a statement\nof the plan, the State Board of Agriculture invited me to prepare a\nresolution in its favor, which they promptly adopted. Governor Porter\nreceived my suggestions with special interest, and said the measure\nshould have his cordial support. He soon after gave it his official\nsanction, and issued a proclamation to the teachers and people of the\nstate, in which he predicted that the appointed day would be a memorable\none, and \u201cthe beginning of a movement for a much more extended system\nof tree-culture, and the restoration of the varieties of trees, useful\nand beautiful, which have been so recklessly sacrificed that nature\ncries aloud for redress,\u201d closing by calling on \u201cthe teachers to do all\nin their power to make Arbor Day a day of the most ardent and inspiring\ninterest.\u201d State School Superintendent Holcombe gave his personal and\nofficial influence heartily to this work. The lectures given by his\ninvitation on this subject were fully reported by the press, for the\nnewspapers of Indiana cordially co\u00f6perated in this movement. These\ncombined influences secured the general observance of the appointed day,\nand the results were most gratifying. Such combined agencies in nearly\nevery state of the Union would promise similar results.\n\nAt the last annual Convention of the State Teachers\u2019 Association of\nWisconsin, the presentation of Arbor Day in schools led to the adoption\nof a resolution in favor of such an observance, and to the appointment\nof an efficient committee to carry out the plan. At the National\nEducational Association held in Madison, Wisconsin, with an attendance of\nover five thousand, a resolution recommending the observance of Arbor Day\nin schools in all our states was unanimously adopted. Such a day has been\nobserved with great interest in some of the provinces of Canada.\n\nThe American Forestry Congress, which includes the leading arborists of\nCanada and the United States, adopted, at my suggestion, the following\nresolution: \u201cIn view of the wide-spread results of the observance of\nArbor Day in many states, this Congress recommends the appointment of\nsuch a day in all our states and in the provinces of the dominion of\nCanada,\u201d and appointed a committee, consisting of the Chief of the\nForestry Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, the\nState Superintendent of Schools of West Virginia, and myself to secure\nthe general adoption of this plan, and especially Arbor Day in schools.\nAs chairman of that committee, I have already presented this subject to\nthe Governors of many states, and the proposition has met a favorable\nresponse.\n\nIt may be objected to Arbor Day, or to any lessons on forestry in\nschools, that the course of study is already overcrowded, and this fact\nI admit. But the requisite talks on trees, their value and beauty, need\noccupy but two or three hours. In some large cities there may be little\nor no room for tree-planting, and no call for even a half-holiday for\nthis work, but even there such talks, or the memorizing of suitable\nselections, on the designated day, would be impressive and useful. The\nessential thing is to _start_ habits of observation and occupation with\ntrees, which will prompt pupils in their walks, or when at work, or at\nplay, to study them. The talks on this subject, which Superintendent\nPeaslee says were the most interesting and profitable lessons the pupils\nof Cincinnati ever had in a single day, occupied only the morning of\nArbor Day, the afternoon being given to the practical work. Such talks\nwill lead our youth to admire trees, and realize that they are the\ngrandest products of nature, and form the finest drapery that adorns this\nearth in all lands. Thus taught, they will wish to plant and protect\ntrees, and find in their own happy experience that there is a peculiar\npleasure in their parentage, whether forest, fruit, or ornamental\u2014a\npleasure which never cloys, but grows with their growth. Like grateful\nchildren, trees bring rich filial returns, and compensate a thousand fold\nfor all the care they cost. This love of trees, early implanted in the\nschool, and fostered in the home, will make our youth practical arborists.\n\nThey should learn that trees have been the admiration of the greatest\nand best men of all ages. The ancients understood well the beauty as\nwell as the economic and hygienic value of trees. The Hebrew almost\nvenerated the palm. It was the chosen symbol of Judea on their coins,\nand was graven on the doors of the Temple as the sacred sign of justice.\nThe Cedar of Lebanon was justly the pride of the Jews, and became to\nthem the emblem of strength and beauty. The Egyptians, Greeks, and\nRomans were proficients in tree-planting. Hence Thebes, Memphis, Athens,\nCarthage, Rome, Pompeii and Herculaneum, as their ruins still show,\nhad their shaded streets or parks. Two thousand years ago, the richest\nRomans maintained a rural home, as does the wealthy Londoner, Viennese,\nor Berliner to-day, and their ancient villas were lavishly adorned. The\nParadise of the Persians was filled with trees and roses. This taste for\nbeautiful gardens was transplanted from Persia to Greece, and the Greek\nphilosophers held their schools in beautiful gardens, or groves. The\ndevastations of parks, the destruction of shade trees, the neglect of\npublic streets and private grounds, the decay of rural tastes, and the\nutter slight of home adornments, were clearer proofs of the great relapse\nto barbarism than the vandalism which destroyed the proud monuments of\nclassic art and literature.\n\nArbor Day has already initiated a movement of vast importance in eight\nstates. In tree-planting, the beginning only is difficult. The obstacles\nare all met at the outset, because they are usually magnified by the\npopular ignorance of this subject. It is the first step that costs\u2014at\nleast, it costs effort to set this thing on foot, but that step once\ntaken, others are sure to follow. This very fact that the main tug is at\nthe start, on account of the inertia of ignorance and indifference, shows\nthat such start should be made easy, as is best done by an Arbor Day\nproclamation of the Governor, which is sure to interest and enlist the\nyouth of an entire state in the good work. When the school children are\ninvited each to plant at least \u201ctwo trees\u201d on the home or school grounds,\nthe aggregate number planted will be more than twice that of the children\nenlisted, for parents and the public will participate in the work.\n\nTree-planting is fitted to give a needful lesson of forethought to\nthe juvenile mind. Living only in the present and for the present,\nyouth are apt to sow only where they can quickly reap. A meager crop\nsoon in hand, outweighs a golden harvest long in maturing. They should\nlearn to forecast the future as the condition of wisdom. Arboriculture\nis a discipline in foresight\u2014it is always planting for the future.\nThere is nothing more ennobling for youth, than the consciousness of\ndoing something for future generations, something which shall prove a\n_growing_ benefaction in coming years. Tree-planting is an easy way of\nperpetuating one\u2019s memory long after he has passed away. The poorest can\nin this way provide himself with a monument grander than the loftiest\nshaft of chiseled stone which may suggest duty to the living, while it\ncommemorates the dead. Such associations grow in interest from year to\nyear and from generation to generation. By stimulating a general interest\nin tree-planting among our youth, Arbor Day will yield a rich harvest\nto future generations. George Peabody originated the motto, so happily\nillustrated by his munificent gifts to promote education: \u201cEducation\u2014the\ndebt of the present to future generations.\u201d We owe it to our children\nto leave our lands the better for our tillage and tree-planting, and\nwe wrong ourselves and them, if our fields are impoverished by our\nimprovidence.\n\nArbor Day in school has led youth to adorn the surroundings of their\nhomes, as well as of the schools, and to extensive planting by the\nwayside. How attractive our roads may become by long avenues of trees!\nThis is beautifully illustrated in many countries of Europe. In France,\nfor example, the government keeps a statistical record of the trees along\nthe roads. The total length of public roads in France is 18,750 miles, of\nwhich 7,250 are bordered with trees, while 4,500 are now being, or are\nsoon to be, planted. Growing on lands otherwise running to waste, such\ntrees are grateful to the traveler, but doubly so to the planter.\n\nThe influence of Arbor Day in schools in awakening a just appreciation\nof trees, first among pupils and parents, and then the people at large,\nis of vast importance in another respect. The frequency of forest fires\nis the greatest hindrance to practical forestry. But let the _sentiment_\nof trees be duly cultivated, first among our youth, and then among the\npeople, and they will be regarded as our friends, as is the case in\nGermany. The public need to learn that the interests of all classes are\nconcerned in the conservation of forests. Through the teaching of their\nschools this result was long since accomplished in Germany, Switzerland,\nSweden, and other European countries. The people everywhere realize the\nneed of protecting trees. An enlightened public sentiment has proved\na better guardian of their forests than the national police. A person\nwantonly setting fire to a forest would there be looked upon as an\noutlaw, like the miscreant who should poison a public drinking fountain.\n\n\n\n\nHOW TO WORK ALONE.\n\nBY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\nNot all members of the \u201cC. L. S. C.\u201d can enjoy the benefits of a local\ncircle. Some live in the country, or in remote parts of the city. They\ncan not get out at night, through lack of company, or because the house,\nthe boys, or the baby must not be left alone; the local circle is not\nunder wise direction, and is unprofitable; or it may be that the only\naccessible local circle is a close corporation, and is \u201cinaccessible.\u201d\nFather or husband objects to the time wasted, or the long walk, or\nsomething else. So the student is solitary. Whatever is done must be done\nalone.\n\nThis is not an unmixed evil, because it may develop power in the student,\nor drive him or her to find associates at home, associates who are not\nenrolled in Plainfield as \u201cregulars,\u201d and some of whom are quite too\nyoung to be enrolled at all. No deprivation in this world that does not\nmake a place for some other unsought, unexpected blessing.\n\nI purpose to offer a few hints to these solitary readers, who may, I\ntrust, find much profit out of the restrictions of providence, and do\ntheir work well even though it be done alone. On the blank pages of\nyour necessity you may make records of your own, worth more to you than\nvolumes of other people\u2019s print.\n\n1. Although alone, remember that you are associated with a great Circle\nnumbering thousands and tens of thousands of members. You are not alone,\nbut one of many. This thought helps you. It sets currents of sympathy in\nmotion. It annihilates distance. It fills the very air about you with\ncompanions with whom you are in sweet fellowship, although you have\nnever seen them. They are a great cloud of witnesses. They march under\nthe same banner; put their names on the same great record book in the\ncentral office; read the same pages; sing the same songs; answer the same\nquestions; recite the same mottoes; observe the same memorial days; and\nturn with tender hearts to the same heavens, under the mystic spell of\nthe vesper hour; experience the same longings after true culture, and\nhave hearts full of sympathy for their fellow-students everywhere. This\nthought of oneness in work gives feelings of kinship and companionship.\nThe solitary student in the little room\u2014kitchen, sitting room, library,\nor bed chamber\u2014is surrounded by thousands of fellow-students. They seem\nto look over the page with you. They seem to whisper words of good will\nand faith, and some of them, I assure you, are royal people. They would\ngive you such greeting, if they had opportunity, as would make you proud\nand glad of your connection with the Circle. Indeed, solitariness is\nimpossible to the thoughtful member of the C. L. S. C.\n\n2. This sense of fellowship is increased, and a helpful stimulus given\nto the solitary worker, by reflecting on the character of the great\nfraternity of which you are a part. We now enroll more than seventy\nthousand members. Perhaps twenty-five thousand have practically given\nup the readings. Only fifty thousand remain with us. Many thousands\nof readers are connected with local circles who have never joined as\n\u201cregulars\u201d at the central office in Plainfield, N. J. There are thousands\nwho are reading a part of the course, but who neither belong to the local\nnor general circle. I believe that these non-recorded and irregular\nreaders make up for the lapsed thousands, so that to-day we have nearly\nor quite seventy thousand people doing all or a part of the required\nreading. This, therefore, becomes a great institution. Its territorial\nextent is as vast as its numerical strength. There are \u201cC. L. S. C.s\u201d\nin all parts of the world. Our office records contain names from India,\nChina, Japan, the Sandwich Islands, and many other outlying regions,\nwhile the list in Canada and on the Pacific coast runs up among the\nthousands. In every state and territory members are to be found.\n\nAnd who are these with whom you, my solitary student, are associated?\nThey represent every calling in life, and almost every grade, social and\nintellectual. Here are lawyers, judges, physicians, clergymen, doctors of\ndivinity, college graduates, literally by the thousand, who seek through\nour course to review the studies of other and earlier years. Here are\nseminary and high school graduates, and people old and young who dropped\nout of the grammar school when they were too young to understand their\nfolly in doing so. Here are business men, mechanics and farmers who\nhave been prospered, and who covet now a measure of culture to fit them\nfor society, that their money may gain for them and their families more\nthan a mere social recognition. Here are mothers good and true, who do\nnot want to part hands with sons and daughters as they enter the higher\nschools, but who propose by our course of reading to keep in the literary\nand scientific world where their children are to be at home. Here are\npeople of \u201clow degree,\u201d who toil for bread, with lengthened hours of\nservice, that they may help those who are dependent upon them. They are\nin shops and kitchens, and have souls that would put honor into palaces.\nThey want outlook as they go weighted down through busy and weary years.\nThey do not expect always to be slaves to society and circumstance. There\nis blood-royal in every heart-beat, and power to hold princedoms in some\nnear future. So, despised of men who live, they hold converse through\nbooks with gifted and kingly souls who, though dead, yet live, and who\nwork in other kingly souls. There are many of these disguised princes and\nprincesses in your Circle.\n\nHere too are sufferers in homes of bereavement and pain, where arms are\nempty and hearts are full, where love calls but receives no answer, where\ndisease binds the body but leaves the mind free to grieve over its loss;\nwhere lack of work gives place to temptation, and renders occupation of\nsome sort a moral and religious necessity; where worldliness, that makes\nthe soul barren, needs thoughtfulness to moisten, beautify and fructify\nthe life.\n\nIn such great and gracious companionship you sit down for solitary study.\nDismiss the thought, therefore, that this is solitude. Reach out your\nsoul to greet the currents of invisible and loving influence that pour in\nupon you from every quarter.\n\n3. Select and furnish your Chautauqua corner. Do not be too anxious\nto have it harmonize with other corners of the room. Put shelves for\nyour books \u201crequired\u201d and for \u201creview.\u201d On the lowest shelf pile THE\nCHAUTAUQUANS. On the wall put up the motto cards, the list of memorial\ndays, the Chautauqua calendar, the photograph or engraving of the Hall\nof Philosophy, and such other Chautauqua views as you approve. Put up\nbusts or engravings of the great leaders\u2014Homer, Cicero, Dante, Milton,\nGoethe. Somewhere place a picture of Bryant, the earliest distinguished\nfriend of the C. L. S. C. By gradual additions fill the Chautauqua corner\nwith pictures and bookshelves, busts and mottoes, all in the line of\nyour reading, until the other corners and the intervening walls shall be\nfilled with reminders of Chautauqua and the world of literature, science\nand art it represents. And if somehow you can place on the wall that\nmatchless engraving representing the great Master with his two disciples\non the way to Emmaus, you will, in a sense, sanctify your room, and set\nforth most effectively, the aim, scope and spirit of the great Chautauqua\nmovement. In such a room, or in such a corner, can students be solitary?\n\n4. You will greatly increase your power by systematic habits. One may\n\u201cread up\u201d at any time, but the regular daily reading which renders\nunnecessary what is called \u201creading up,\u201d is much the better way. It\nrenders the work comparatively light; it makes the C. L. S. C. a help\nto other less congenial work of the day into which it falls like a\nrefreshing shower. It forces life into a system which always expedites\nand lightens labor. It schools the will. It brings lower duties into\nproper subjection to the higher. It is every way better to do each day\u2019s\nwork as each day comes. Thus working alone, but systematically, one keeps\nthe hand in and does not lose grasp, taste or delight.\n\n5. Though compelled to work alone, make casual contacts with others\nafford opportunities for drawing them out, for finding out what they\nknow, or for corroborating your own views. Ask questions. Elicit\nopinions. Start conversation. Try to tell what you know or think. Tell\nyour children. Tell your neighbors. As you interest them, you set them in\nsearch of knowledge, which finding, they will later on report to you, and\nyou thus give them a start in lines of self-improvement.\n\n6. This setting others at work in quest of knowledge for you is a most\npracticable way of getting knowledge and doing good to the finders\nthereof.\n\nWrite out ten different questions, and give one to each of ten young boys\nand girls of a high school, for example. They will ransack libraries,\nconsult teachers, find out and report what you want to know, and be\nimmensely helped by the knowledge found and the service rendered. Though\nalone, you need not work alone.\n\n7. Practice talking to yourself about the things you have read. Put facts\nand dates into sentences. Now and then write out these sentences, or\nspeak them off. Recite a lesson to yourself every day. Make a speech with\nyourself as audience. Put facts into recitative lullabies, by which you\nsing baby to sleep. Don\u2019t do too much of all this, lest it weary you,\nbut do a little of this sentence-framing and solitary speech-making, and\nnursery-crooning every day. You will then have a local circle of you,\nand yourself and your own soul. Now one\u2019s self makes very good society\nsometimes; there are so many powers and voices and thoughts and projects\nin a single soul.\n\n8. Lift your soul up to its height, now and then, and breathe a thought\nof the heart that may grow into a prayer as you recall the great Circle\nof which you are a member. Think in silence of their multiplied and\nvaried circumstances, perils, temptations and necessities. Think of the\ndisheartened, the bereaved, the suffering, the doubting; those who have\ngreat power, but do not know how to use it; those who are sick of sin and\nworldliness, and do not know how to get into the path of holiness and\npeace. Think of all these, and then pray. Let your heart swell toward God\nin sympathy and longing.\n\nThus will you find in your solitude the presence of the Spirit invisible\nand eternal, whose name is love, and whose home is heaven, and whose\nchildren are the lowly and meek and devout, who love souls\u2014the world full\nof souls\u2014and who daily bear them in tender sympathy to the throne.\n\nThey who do these things can not be alone.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIf it were not for my love of beautiful nature and poetry, my heart would\nhave died within me long ago. I never felt before what immeasurable\nbenefactors these same poets are to their kind, and how large a measure,\nboth of actual happiness and prevention of misery they have imparted to\nthe race. I would willingly give up half my fortune, and some little of\nthe fragments of health and bodily enjoyment that remain to me, rather\nthan that Shakspere should not have lived before me.\u2014_Lord Jeffrey (from\na letter to Lord Cockburn, 1833)._\n\n\n\n\nOUTLINE AND PROGRAMS.\n\n\nOUTLINE OF REQUIRED READINGS FOR APRIL.\n\n_First Week_ (ending April 8).\u20141. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapters XVIII, XIX and XX.\n\n2. \u201cHistory of the Reformation,\u201d from page 1 to 27.\n\n3. \u201cThe Circle of the Sciences,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Sunday Readings for April 5, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Second Week_ (ending April 15).\u20141. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapters XXI and XXII.\n\n2. \u201cHistory of the Reformation,\u201d from page 27 to 55.\n\n3. \u201cHome Studies in Chemistry and Physics,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Sunday Readings for April 12, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Third Week_ (ending April 22).\u20141. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapter XXIII.\n\n2. \u201cHistory of the Reformation,\u201d from page 55 to 88.\n\n3. \u201cEasy Lessons in Animal Biology,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Readings in _Our Alma Mater_.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for April 19, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Fourth Week_ (ending April 30).\u20141. \u201cChemistry,\u201d chapters XXIV, XXV and\nXXVI.\n\n2. \u201cHistory of the Reformation,\u201d from page 88 to 117.\n\n3. \u201cAristotle,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Readings in _Our Alma Mater_.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for April 26, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\n\n\nPROGRAMS FOR LOCAL CIRCLE WORK.\n\n\nFIRST WEEK IN APRIL.\n\n1. Essay\u2014Easter.\n\n2. Selection\u2014\u201cAll Fool\u2019s Day.\u201d By Addison.\n\n3. A Paper on the Life of Martin Luther.\n\nMusic.\n\n4. Fifteen Minutes\u2019 Talk on the Cause of the Present Troubles in the\nSoudan.\n\n5. Character Sketch\u2014General Gordon.\n\n6. Debate\u2014Resolved, that dynamite is more productive of evil than good.\n\n\nSECOND WEEK IN APRIL.\n\n1. Selection\u2014\u201cMartin Luther.\u201d From Robertson\u2019s \u201cHistory of Charles V.\u201d\nFound also in Chambers\u2019s \u201cCyclopedia of English Literature.\u201d\n\n2. A Paper on the Inquisition.\n\n3. Recitation\u2014\u201cThe Prisoner of Chillon.\u201d\u2014By Byron.\n\n4. Character Sketch\u2014John Knox.\n\nMusic.\n\n5. Essay\u2014The Vegetation of the Carboniferous Period.\n\n6. A General Talk on Socialism.\n\n7. Critic\u2019s Report.\n\n\nTHIRD WEEK IN APRIL.\n\n1. Essay\u2014The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.\n\n2. Recitation\u2014\u201cRobinson of Leydon.\u201d\u2014By O. W. Holmes.\n\n3. Character Sketch.\u2014William of Orange.\n\nMusic.\n\n4. A Paper on Mount Cenis.\n\n5. Selection\u2014\u201cThe Chambered Nautilus.\u201d By O. W. Holmes.\n\n6. Conversation on New Books.\n\n7. Questions and Answers for the month in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\nSHAKSPERE DAY.\n\nMusic.\n\n1. Roll call\u2014Quotations from Shakspere.\n\n2. A Paper on the Life and Times of Shakspere.\n\nMusic.\n\n3. The Story of \u201cThe Tempest.\u201d\n\n4. Recitation\u2014\u201cPerseverance.\u201d Selected from \u201cTroilus and Cressida,\u201d Act\nIII., scene 3; beginning, \u201cTime hath, my lord, a wallet,\u201d etc.; ending,\n\u201cOne touch of Nature makes the whole world kin.\u201d\n\n5. Essay\u2014Characteristics of Shakspere\u2019s Women.\n\nMusic.\n\n6. Analysis of \u201cWinter\u2019s Tale.\u201d\n\n7. Court scene in \u201cMerchant of Venice,\u201d Act IV., scene 1; beginning, \u201cIs\nyour name Shylock?\u201d ending with the exit of Shylock.\n\nThe plan followed by many Shakspere clubs would afford a fine\nentertainment. They assign the characters in any one of the plays (that\nof \u201cJulius C\u00e6sar\u201d being exceptionally fitting for an evening of this\nkind) to the different members of the circle, who read the parts assigned.\n\nTo hold a Shakspere carnival would be a very interesting way in which to\ncommemorate the day. Let each one come dressed in costume to represent\nany one of Shakspere\u2019s characters and personate that character throughout\nthe evening.\n\n\n\n\nLOCAL CIRCLES.\n\n\nC. L. S. C. MOTTOES.\n\n\u201c_We Study the Word and the Works of God._\u201d\u2014\u201c_Let us keep our Heavenly\nFather in the Midst._\u201d\u2014\u201c_Never be Discouraged._\u201d\n\n\nC. L. S. C. MEMORIAL DAYS.\n\n1. OPENING DAY\u2014October 1.\n\n2. BRYANT DAY\u2014November 3.\n\n3. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014November, second Sunday.\n\n4. MILTON DAY\u2014December 9.\n\n5. COLLEGE DAY\u2014January, last Thursday.\n\n6. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014February, second Sunday.\n\n7. FOUNDER\u2019S DAY\u2014February 23.\n\n8. LONGFELLOW DAY\u2014February 27.\n\n9. SHAKSPERE DAY\u2014April 23.\n\n10. ADDISON DAY\u2014May 1.\n\n11. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014May, second Sunday.\n\n12. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014July, second Sunday.\n\n13. INAUGURATION DAY\u2014August, first Saturday after first Tuesday;\nanniversary of C. L. S. C. at Chautauqua.\n\n14. ST. PAUL\u2019S DAY\u2014August, second Saturday after first Tuesday;\nanniversary of the dedication of St. Paul\u2019s Grove at Chautauqua.\n\n15. COMMENCEMENT DAY\u2014August, third Tuesday.\n\n16. GARFIELD DAY\u2014September 19.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe difficulty of holding a circle together is sometimes very great. Not\na little thorough study of the needs and natures of the members must tax\nthe leader who would hold a circle which has no interest in its work.\nAt RICHMOND, MAINE, our friends have experienced this difficulty. A\ncircle of fifteen was formed in January, 1884, but did not continue its\nmeetings. The lukewarmness of a few broke the interest of all; but ten\nof the members did their reading apart. These ten took matters into their\nown hands last fall, and now Richmond has a \u201cMerry Meeting\u201d circle, of\ntwenty-two members, interested and promising.\n\nNASHUA, NEW HAMPSHIRE, has a Chautauqua circle. It has been in existence\nfor two years past, with varying fortunes. Last fall, when reorganized\nfor the season, it consisted of ten ladies, but now numbers fourteen.\nThough this number is less than one half that of the last year, the\ninterest and enthusiasm are much greater. The weekly meetings are\noccasions of great interest and instruction. They follow, with frequent\nmodifications, the program arranged in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, making the roll\ncall and question box regular features. The only difficulty with which\nthey meet is that they are all so busy that they can scarcely prepare for\neach program. They also derive much pleasure and profit in observing the\nmemorial days. The circle is called the \u201cRaymond\u201d circle, in honor of the\nRev. B. P. Raymond, president of Lawrence University, Appleton, Wis.,\nfounder of this branch.\n\nThe \u201cAthenian Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle\u201d of WEST\nENOSBURGH, VT., has entered upon its first year in the Chautauqua\ncourse. Although in its infancy, it shows a great deal of interest and\nenthusiasm. The circle was organized September 29, 1884. The officers\nare president, vice president and secretary. The circle began with eight\nmembers and has increased to thirteen. One of the most interesting\nexercises of this circle is the pronouncing match, each person being\nallowed to try once; if he misses he sits down. The words for the next\nmatch are the names of the sixty-six elements in chemistry.\n\nOur travels through MASSACHUSETTS this month furnish much interesting\ncircle news. The \u201cStar\u201d circle, in FOXBORO, reorganized in October\nwith twenty-eight members, which includes all the graduates with one\nexception. They believe there in once a C. L. S. C. always a C. L. S.\nC. The weekly meetings are reported in the local paper, and more are\ninquiring about the work than in previous years. One reason may be\nthat they are but eighteen miles from the \u201cHall on the Hill,\u201d which\nis in process of erection in South Framingham.\u2014\u2014The \u201cHenry M. King\u201d\ncircle, connected with the Dudley Street church, BOSTON, was organized\nin November, and has twenty-five members. Of these the larger part are\ngentlemen, not of leisure, but business men, who bring with them into the\nbi-weekly meetings the same energy and perseverance that characterize a\nsuccessful business enterprise. These are certainly the ones who might\nwith a good show of reason say: \u201cNo time.\u201d But on the contrary they\n_have_ time, not only for the regular work, but for the preparation of\npapers requiring much time and research.\u2014\u2014At NORTH ATTLEBORO the new\n\u201cBryant\u201d circle is four months old, and numbers twenty-six members. They\nopen the meetings with reading Scripture lessons and singing Chautauqua\nsongs. Roll call is responded to by quotations from a standard author,\nfollowed by essays, recitations, blackboard exercises, questions,\ndiscussions, etc., as the committee of instruction has arranged. The\nsecretary writes: \u201cIf we are not great, our hopes are.\u201d\u2014\u2014\u201cProfit as well\nas enjoyment we are getting from our studies,\u201d says a member of the\ncircle at NORTH WEYMOUTH. This organization is a circle of \u201983, and has\nhad time to thoroughly test the course. They have had recently a pleasant\nmemorial service, and have been favored with chemical experiments\nby a chemist.\u2014\u2014Pleasant notes of the work at WEST MADFORD have been\nsent us by the secretary: \u201cThrough the influence of one sturdy little\nlady, six or eight people met together last October and talked up the\nfeasibility of the C. L. S. C. They elected a president and secretary,\ndrew up a few by-laws, and are now in good running order. They meet\nonce in two weeks. Their membership was limited to twenty, which was\nquickly reached. The opinion of these members seems to be that this\ncircle is as good, if not better, than any reported in your magazine.\nWe all work with a will, cull the best from the programs given for the\nlocal circles, and add original ideas. Each member, in the order of his\nenrollment, makes out the program. This gives each one an opportunity\nto do his share, as well as to add his own ideas. We think this feature\nmuch superior to the general mode of allowing the \u2018chair\u2019 to prepare all\nprograms.\u201d\u2014\u2014AMESBURY has a circle of unusual strength. We have been so\nfortunate as to receive a letter which gives an account of a delightful\nentertainment held by them in December. Our friend says: \u201cThinking\nperhaps you might like to hear from us once again, we are glad to write\nyou of our pleasant and prosperous winter of literary work, brought about\nby the grand C. L. S. C. movement. Our meetings are held on the second\nand fourth Tuesday of each month, the programs comprise essays, music,\nreadings and conversation, and are social and very delightful, showing\na marked improvement on our \u2018feeble beginning\u2019 a year ago. Two new\ncircles have been formed this winter, one, the \u2018Delphic,\u2019 having forty or\nmore members. On the 18th of December we held our first public meeting\nin honor of \u2018Our Poet\u2019s\u2019 (Mr. John G. Whittier) birthday, to which we\ninvited the \u2018Delphic\u2019 circle, also the \u2018Thursday Evening Club,\u2019 an older\nliterary society of Amesbury, and other friends, about three hundred in\nall. Members from the three circles took part in the program, which had\nbeen carefully prepared. We were greatly pleased to receive from Mr. W.\nC. Wilkinson a paper entitled \u2018Whittier at the Receipt of Customs,\u2019 which\nwas read to us by his friend, the Rev. P. S. Evans, of Amesbury. As Mr.\nWhittier, owing to a previous engagement, could not be present with us,\nresolutions were drawn up and sent to him, as follows:\n\n    \u201c\u2018DEAR MR. WHITTIER;\u2014The three literary circles, together with\n    a goodly company of the citizens of Amesbury as their invited\n    guests, are met to celebrate the return of your birthday. We\n    have talked together of all that you have done and suffered in\n    the cause of freedom and of truth. We have listened to many of\n    your words, rendered by living voices. We have looked at your\n    \u2018counterfeit presentment\u2019 as it has hung before us covered with\n    evergreen\u2014our New England laurel. Because you were not with\n    us in person, to receive them, we desire to send you our most\n    hearty congratulations on the completion of your seventy-seventh\n    year. We rejoice that after your \u201cThirty Years\u2019 War\u201d you have\n    been spared to enjoy so many years of peace, and that in the\n    prolonged \u201cIndian Summer,\u201d the \u201cHalcyon\u201d days of your life, you\n    are receiving a well deserved tribute of reverence and affection.\n    We think ourselves happy to have known you, not merely as a poet,\n    but as a citizen, a neighbor, and a friend.\n\n    \u201c\u2018We feel we can not better voice our sentiments than by\n    retaliating upon you the words you once so fitly spoke of one who\n    has been a co-laborer with you in the cause of humanity\u2014the mild\n    \u201cAutocrat of the Breakfast Table.\u201d\n\n        \u201c\u2018\u201cThe world may keep his honored name,\n           The wealth of all his varied powers;\n           A stronger claim has love than fame,\n           And he himself is only ours.\u201d\u2019\n\n    \u201c\u2018In the name and by the request of three hundred citizens of\n    your own village.\u2019\n\n\u201cTo which Mr. Whittier responded with the following charming letter:\n\n                               \u201c\u2018OAK KNOLL, DANVERS, 12 MO., 23, 1884.\n\n    \u201c\u2018MY DEAR FRIEND:\u2014Thy kind letter in behalf of the literary\n    associations of Amesbury and Salisbury has just been received,\n    and I hasten to express my thanks for the generous appreciation\n    of my life work by \u201cmine own people,\u201d who know the man as well\n    as the writer. That I am neither a prophet myself, nor the son\n    of a prophet, may account perhaps for the rather remarkable fact\n    that I am not without honor in my own country. I scarcely need\n    say that among the many kind testimonials of regard which, on\n    the occasion of my birthday, have reached me from both sides of\n    the water, none have been more welcome than that conveyed in thy\n    letter. If the praise awarded me is vastly beyond my due, I am\n    none the less grateful for it.\n\n    \u201c\u2018I know too well my own deficiencies and limitations, but my\n    heart is warm with thankfulness to the Divine Providence which\n    so early led me to consecrate the ability given me to the cause\n    of heaven, freedom, and the welfare of my fellowmen. The measure\n    of literary reputation which has come to me is as far beyond my\n    expectation as my desert, and I am glad to share the benefit of\n    it with my home friends and neighbors. With thanks to thyself\n    personally, and to those whom thee represents, I am, very truly,\n    thy friend,\n\n                                                \u201c\u2018JOHN G. WHITTIER.\u2019\u201d\n\nThe \u201cCrescent\u201d circle, of WAKEFIELD, grew out of a meeting held last\nSeptember, and addressed by Mr. Fairchild, of Malden, in the interest\nof the Chautauqua movement. A circle was formed as a result of their\nmeeting. About twenty members are now recorded on the books, although\nmore than that proposed at first to join. The meetings are quite\ninteresting, the programs being varied.\u2014\u2014The \u201cAlpha,\u201d of UXBRIDGE, is a\nnew name on the books. This cutting from a recent letter is suggestive\nof their spirit: \u201cWe start with six members only, but all are _very_\nenthusiastic. We propose to do thorough work. Our object is improvement\nand genuine culture. We shall use the best means to bring in others to\nreap with us the golden harvest, and not be selfishly content with \u2018our\nset.\u2019\u201d\u2014\u2014There are in FALL RIVER about sixty members of the C. L. S. C.,\nbut the \u201cAmity\u201d circle is the first organization in the city. It at\npresent numbers only thirteen members. A larger number certainly ought\nto be in the organization. The \u201cAmity\u201d will undoubtedly soon bring them\nin.\u2014\u2014From PITTSFIELD a friend writes: \u201cI am happy to report to you a\nconstantly increasing interest in the C. L. S. C. work in Pittsfield.\nOur circle reorganized in October for another year\u2019s work. To the\nleadership of our efficient president, the Rev. Geo. Skene, we owe our\npresent prosperity. We have now sixty-four members, twenty-three of\nwhom belong to Class \u201988. We have one graduate, our president, who took\nhis diploma at Chautauqua last summer. We also have one member of Class\n\u201985, making five classes represented in our circle. Our meetings are\nfull of interest, and the attendance is excellent, the smallest number\npresent at any meeting this year being twenty-five. Programs are arranged\nby a board of seven managers, who serve for three months. Singing,\nprayer, roll call, with responses by quotations and reading of minutes\nof last meeting, always form the opening exercises. We have also used\nthe Chautauqua vesper service, and enjoyed it. Our pastor has had the\nSunday vesper service several times, and we have found it very enjoyable\nin both church and circle. We have had, too, experiments in chemistry,\nillustrating some of the articles on that subject in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. As\nanother specialty we have had \u2018pronunciation of Greek names,\u2019 conducted\nas the old fashioned spelling matches. This proved highly entertaining,\nas well as instructive. We have recently changed our name to \u2018Bryant\nChautauqua Circle.\u2019 We think it particularly appropriate, as Cummington,\nthe birthplace of Mr. Bryant, and where he spent much of his life, is\nsituated only twenty miles from this town. Another circle has been formed\nhere since November, taking as a president one of the members of our\ncircle. They have at present thirty members. On Monday evening, February\n2d, Dr. Vincent gave a lecture, both circles attending, and after the\nlecture a joint reception was given him. It is expected that arrangements\nwill soon be made for occasionally holding union meetings. Thus the C.\nL. S. C. prospers in Pittsfield. We find that here, as elsewhere, the C.\nL. S. C. is promoting the best interests of the people.\u201d\u2014\u2014For several\nyears the two or three members of the C. L. S. C. in MARSHFIELD have been\naccustomed to meet weekly for reading, study and conversation, but they\nnever dignified the gathering by the name of a local circle. Within a\nfew months they have organized under the name of the \u201cWebster\u201d circle,\ninasmuch as they are the nearest members of the C. L. S. C. to the home\nand burial place of that great statesman. They meet once in three weeks,\nand have a membership of eight or ten, including representatives of\nnearly every class.\n\nThe \u201cPhelps\u201d local circle, of NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, of the C. L. S. C.,\nstarted in November with five Chautauquans, and now numbers twenty-six,\nwith a number of others who are reading. So far they have kept very\nclosely to the Greek part of the course, and in the meetings have had a\nnumber of map exercises, which they find very interesting.\u2014\u2014WEST WINSTED,\nof the same state, has a year-old circle, from which we have had our\nfirst letter: \u201cOur local circle numbers sixty, thirty of whom are regular\nmembers of the central Circle. Nearly all of these members belong to the\n\u2018Pansy\u2019 class, and are loyal to it. We have never labored under great\ndifficulties, always having had good meetings. We have a most efficient\nlady president, to whom, in a large degree, the success of our circle is\ndue. Early in the fall of 1883 a few enterprising men and women sent for\nthe books for the year and commenced reading, hardly daring to hope that\na circle would be formed. Our village is not lacking in literary circles,\nhaving an almost countless number of different kinds, and for this very\nreason it seemed that another one would not meet with success, but at the\nfirst call nearly forty responded. We organized our circle that night and\ncontinued the meetings during the year, taking up the work in essays,\nquestions and readings, and observing, as far as possible, the memorial\ndays, by appropriate exercises. This year we reorganized in October, and,\nif possible, have had more interesting meetings than last year. Some of\nour members who have a long distance to walk in order to attend have\nproved themselves filled with the Chautauqua enthusiasm by their regular\nattendance, whatever the condition of the weather. At our last meeting\nwe had chemistry for the topic, and devoted the evening to experiments,\nhaving twenty or more, nearly all of which are given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\nWe have had sometimes, in addition to the regular literary work of the\nevening, a personation of some author given by a member, the remaining\nmembers guessing the author personated. One feature of our program for\nJanuary 20th was a match, similar to an old-fashioned spelling match,\nupon the questions on \u2018Preparatory Greek Course\u2019 in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for\nOctober and November. From the fact that new members join our ranks\nat almost every meeting, we are encouraged in the feeling that though\npopularity is not the winning feature, the good \u2018Idea\u2019 has taken deep\nroot.\u201d\n\nA RHODE ISLAND friend writes from WARREN: \u201cTo the numerous reports from\nlocal organizations, I am pleased to add a few lines from the \u2018Delta\u2019\ncircle, organized last October, in this part of \u2018Little Rhody.\u2019 It\nconsists of nineteen \u2018regular\u2019 and four \u2018local\u2019 members, assembling on\nthe second and fourth Monday evenings of each month. Our president and\nvice president are enthusiastic Chautauquans, respectively of the classes\nof \u201986 and \u201987, the remainder belonging to the class of \u201988. Our programs\nare arranged by \u2018the committee of instruction\u2019 during the intermission,\nand reported to the circle before its adjournment each evening. In the\narrangement of these great help is rendered by those published in THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN. Our memorial days have been pleasantly observed, and we\nshall shortly have a Sunday evening vesper service. We also intend to\nhave a supper, the cooking of which is to be \u2018_\u00e0 la_ CHAUTAUQUAN.\u2019 While\nwaiting for the Chautauqua songs our president has carefully prepared by\nhektograph, for our use, both notes and words of several selected from\nhis copy, and we are delighted with the harmonies. Should we discover\nany new departure that would be helpful to local circles, we shall write\nagain.\u201d\n\nAlmost as numerous reports reach us this month from the \u201cEmpire State\u201d\nas we received last; several are of circles hitherto unknown to our\ncolumns. The \u201cDeKalb\u201d circle, of BROOKLYN, is one of these. It was\norganized in the fall of 1883, with fifteen members. Since that time the\nmembership has increased to twenty-six.\u2014\u2014At BATAVIA a local circle was\nformed in October last, and consists of about fifty members. These are\nmostly beginners in the Chautauqua course, with a few who will finish\nnext year. They have done some good work in the way of essays, readings\nand experiments, and hope to do more. The work upon Greece has been made\nparticularly interesting, from the fact that the leader, the Rev. C.\nA. Johnson, has described so faithfully many of these landmarks of the\npast as seen by him in recent years.\u2014\u2014In October, 1884, a new C. L. S.\nC. was organized at WHITESTOWN. It is called the \u201cHestia\u201d circle, and\nhas fifteen enthusiastic members, all ladies. At one meeting leaders are\nappointed to conduct the exercises on the various readings at the next\nmeeting, having as many different leaders as there are different subjects\nin the readings for the week. The leaders are appointed in alphabetical\norder, so each member is required to lead in some exercise as often as\nonce in every three or four weeks.\u2014\u2014The \u201cLakeside\u201d circle, of FAIR HAVEN,\nis to be counted \u201cone of us.\u201d Many readers have been at Lakeside, but the\ncircle is a new organization. Thus far the work has been, most of it,\non the Greek course; they take the questions in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, have\nessays on the leading characters, selections, questions, discussions,\netc. The president drew for them a large map of Greece, which was a great\nhelp in fixing the position of the different places in their minds\u2014an\nadmirable plan, which more presidents would do well to follow.\u2014\u2014A\ndelightful circle of seventeen exists in the pleasant city of ROME.\nUnfortunately, they have recently lost their president, a gentleman of\nscholarly taste, to whom the success of the first two years of their life\nwas largely due.\u2014\u2014At LITTLE GENESEE there is an enthusiastic circle of\nsixteen members. At each circle one of the members presents a program\nfor the next session, every member taking his turn in the order in which\nhis name stands on the secretary\u2019s book. Although not formally made a\nrule, it is understood that no member shall refuse to undertake any work\nassigned on the program. Chautauqua songs, roll call, and \u201cQuestions and\nAnswers\u201d from THE CHAUTAUQUAN are the standard features of the programs.\nEssays, discussions, select reading, questions, etc., furnish variety,\nand conversation is always in order. At the last circle the responses\nwere to be from \u201cKitchen Science.\u201d The responses assumed form, as well as\nexpression, and a bountifully spread table gave opportunity for practical\ntests of kitchen science.\n\nAt LATROBE, PENNSYLVANIA, a C. L. S. C. was properly organized, and went\nearnestly to work October 1, 1884, with twenty-five members. It being the\nfirst Chautauqua circle in the place some difficulties had to be overcome\nbefore getting rightly started. The circle is now under good progress,\nand doing a good work. They have enjoyable monthly meetings, where a\nregular program is carried out, consisting of readings, recitations,\nmusic, etc. The benefit gained by the members is far beyond expression.\nBoth old and young are alike profited and pleased with the readings.\nOctober 22, 1884, the circle was called to mourn the sad death of Miss\nAlice Newcomer, one of their most beloved members.\u2014\u2014A very interesting\nvariation from the usual response by roll call has been introduced into\na program of the HARRISBURG circle. It is that each person respond by\nmentioning some one important event which has occurred in the past month.\nThis circle sends a very skilfully prepared program.\u2014\u2014At BERWICK the C.\nL. S. C. pursues the plan of study laid down in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, finding\nit admirably adapted to complete the required reading in the given time.\nA friend telling of their prosperity says: \u201cWe have lost a few members by\nremovals, and one or two have withdrawn, after a year\u2019s study, but the\nbackbone and sinew of the circle remain, and the body is growing vigorous\nand symmetrical. At the dawn of the Chautauqua year we were compelled\nto part with our learned and valued preceptor, Prof. L. H. Bower, who\nwas called to the Dickinson College Preparatory School. The circle, with\nappropriate ceremony, presented him with a copy of \u2018Knight\u2019s Illuminated\nPictorial Shakspere,\u2019 in eight volumes, as a token of their appreciation\nof his services. His talented brother, Prof. A. V. Bower, was elected to\nsucceed him as president of the circle, and the change was made without\nany friction whatever. We congratulate ourselves upon being members of\nthe Class of \u201986.\u201d\n\nThe outlook which a friend from MARYLAND sends of the new circle at\nFREDERICK is very encouraging: \u201cThrough the energy of a lady of the\nMethodist church we have organized a C. L. S. C. local circle under\nthe name of \u2018Mountain City.\u2019 We organized November 24, 1884, with nine\nmembers, elected a president, vice president, secretary and treasurer. We\nare glad to say we now have thirteen members, and hope soon to increase\nthis number. We have enthusiastic meetings every week at the homes of the\nmembers; read in the circle some of THE CHAUTAUQUAN required readings,\nand carry out as far as practicable the programs for local circles, and\nexpect to observe all memorial days.\u201d\n\nWe have just received a very encouraging report from the MADISONVILLE,\nOHIO, circle which was organized last year. They have twenty-five\nmembers, all of whom take a great interest in the circle. The committee\nof instruction, composed of the officers, has a full program prepared\nfor each meeting. Two ministers of the town belong and take an active\npart. Miscellaneous questions have been introduced, and beside a question\non the lesson, each member is required to bring one on outside matters.\nAll questions remaining unanswered are distributed, to be answered at\nthe following meeting. There is no doubt that if the interest in the\ncircle still continues there will be a second circle started in the town\nnext year.\u2014\u2014At DEFIANCE a local circle was organized October 1st, with\na membership of twenty, all of whom belong to the general Circle of\nthe C. L. S. C. The president is the Rev. B. W. Slagle, pastor of the\nPresbyterian church in the town. They have prepared special programs\nfor the memorial days, which have proved very delightful, as well as\ninstructive. There is a good prospect of doubling the membership by next\nyear.\n\nThe annual report of the work of Calvary church, DETROIT, MICHIGAN, for\nlast year, includes an account of the work done by the \u201cCalvary\u201d circle,\na society which has been made a part of the church organization. From\nit we learn that the society has thirty-three active members. They have\nheld twenty-two meetings; the programs have included\u2014essays, 36; select\nreadings, 28; music\u2014instrumental pieces 21, vocal pieces 17; general\ntalks, 4; debates, 2. The regular CHAUTAUQUAN review questions have\nbeen taken up at each meeting. There has been a great deal of interest\nmanifested in the meetings and a disposition on the part of officers and\nmembers to make them a success; every one who has attended them has been\nbenefited, not only in the improvement of his or her mind, but also in\nsome degree morally.\n\nINDIANA reports two circles: the \u201cWide Awakes,\u201d of MOSCOW, a circle\nof four, and the \u201cLaconia,\u201d of GUMFIELD. Some five years ago, when\nthe \u201cChautauqua wave\u201d was moving westward, it reached Gumfield in a\nmodified form. Eight persons began taking THE CHAUTAUQUAN, but did\nnot perfect an organization; only one of the number matriculated and\nkept up the required reading. In the fall of 1882 they began the work\nvigorously, organizing a promising circle. As time advanced their\ninfluence gradually widened and extended, until this year there are over\ntwenty enthusiastic Chautauquans enrolled at the Plainfield office. The\n\u201cLaconia\u201d meets weekly, and has endeavored to make thoroughness one of\nthe characteristics of its work. It is composed entirely of housekeepers,\nbut they feel more than compensated for sacrifice of time by inspiration\nreceived from the reading and study. Most memorial days have been\nobserved. By this means the public has become interested in the C. L. S.\nC., and a similar society has been organized among the young people.\n\nOne of the most enthusiastic circles of ILLINOIS is a quartette of\n\u201cIrrepressibles,\u201d at NOKOMIO. The circle had the novel experience of\ngraduating in a body at Chautauqua last August. Now they are working more\nvigorously than ever, trying to cover their diplomas with seals.\u2014\u2014ELGIN\nhas four large circles, the result of the \u201cAlpha\u201d circle, an organization\nformed in December, 1883, with six members. Last fall this society\nincreased its numbers to nine, and most zealous has been their work. A\nsad loss recently befell them in the death of one of the charter members,\nMiss Mary Warde.\u2014\u2014The circle at SULLIVAN, was organized in October, with\na membership of eleven\u2014one \u201cProgressive\u201d and ten \u201cPlymouth Rocks.\u201d They\nmeet once a week at the homes of the members. The president appoints\nthe members in turn to act as leaders, and the circle is composed\nof enthusiastic workers. Seven members visited New Orleans in the\nholidays, and two are spending this month in the \u201cCrescent City.\u201d\u2014\u2014From\nPROPHETSTOWN a friend writes: \u201cWe are a modest bouquet of \u2018Pansies,\u2019\ncounting only seven, but we feel the charm of the Chautauqua Idea, and\npropose to \u2018Neglect not the gift that is in us.\u2019 One of our number, Mrs.\nAmelia K. Seely, passed \u2018beyond the gates\u2019 December 15, 1884. We sadly\nmiss her cheery presence and unfailing interest in the work.\u201d\u2014\u2014Wednesday,\nJanuary 21st, was a \u201cred-letter\u201d day for the Chautauquans of HINSDALE.\nTheir usual enthusiasm was raised to a high key by the long-looked-for\nvisit to their suburb of Chancellor Vincent, who made a stop of two hours\non his way to Aurora. He was received by the class, who were out in full\nforce, at the residence of the secretary. A lunch was served, and the\ntime was most agreeably and profitably spent in conversation upon topics\nof interest connected with the C. L. S. C.\n\nThe \u201cOak Branch\u201d circle was organized at OAKFIELD, WISCONSIN, in\nNovember. There are only seven members, and all are busy people, but they\nare zealous and interested in the work, and thankful that they may enjoy\nthe benefits of the C. L. S. C. They meet once in two weeks, their circle\nbeing conducted similarly to others which have been reported in THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN.\n\nThe \u201cCentenary\u201d local circle, of MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA, writes us: \u201cOur\ncity boasts no less than twelve circles, but Centenary, the pioneer\ncircle, still lives, and while our members are about one half what they\nwere when ours was the only one in the city, we are going on quietly and\npromptly with all our work, and expect to furnish ten graduates for the\nclass of \u201985. We have our cottage engaged for the coming Assembly at\nChautauqua, and hope to send a good delegation next summer. We have some\neight or nine members of the class of \u201988, and several representatives of\nclasses of \u201986 and \u201987.\u201d\u2014\u2014At SPRING VALLEY, a circle of seventeen members\norganized last fall, the president being from the class of \u201984, but the\nmembers from \u201988. The interest in the circle is decidedly increasing.\n\nThe friends of THE CHAUTAUQUAN in IOWA have been unusually kind this\nmonth. The following brief clippings from their letters give an excellent\noutlook on the work there: \u201cA circle was organized at AFTON, in October\nlast, consisting of eleven regular and fifteen local members. Although\nnearly a month behind in organizing, we intend continuing our society\nthrough July, so as to be able to commence the next year at the regular\ntime. In making out our program for local circle work we usually\nfollow the one given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and find it a great help, but\noccasionally vary our exercises to adapt it to peculiar circumstances.\nThe average attendance is good, and most of the members seem to take\nquite an interest. We hope the society will prove of lasting benefit to\neach member.\u201d\u2014\u2014\u201cThrough the energetic efforts of our village doctor,\nthere was started last October a C. L. S. C. circle at LE GRAND, and\nwe feel worthy of mention in your columns. The circle consists of\neleven members of the great Circle, and four or five local members. We\nappoint a new teacher for each book. We are learning much, and very much\nenjoy the circles. We have chosen for our name \u2018Philohellemon.\u2019\u201d\u2014\u2014\u201cThe\n\u2018Ladies\u2019 Chautauqua Reading Circle,\u2019 of SIOUX CITY, IOWA, has seventeen\nmembers. We organized in October, 1884. Our society is full of earnest\nenthusiasm. We meet once a week, following with slight variations the\nprograms suggested in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Chemistry is a favorite study,\nmade specially interesting by the fact that a gentleman familiar with the\nsubject gives us lectures with illustrative experiments.\u201d\u2014\u2014The \u201cKelly\nHumboldt\u201d circle, of HUMBOLDT, was reorganized last fall with renewed\nenergy and vigor. About fourteen new members were admitted. \u201cOur circle\nbeing now so large (numbering about twenty-six) as to almost require\ndividing, next season we intend organizing one in the adjoining town,\njust half a mile from here; then those living in that vicinity can\nwithdraw from our circle to their own, leaving room for more to join\nus. To say that we enjoy our study, would be saying but very little; we\ncan hardly wait for Monday evening to come, so anxious are we to meet\nand discuss the topics prepared for us. The programs arranged in THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN are a great help to us, although we vary them a little,\ngenerally opening by prayer and music; then, as a sentiment, we each\ngive a current event of the week. We observe all the memorial days,\nand are now making extensive preparations to hold a public meeting in\nthe church on Longfellow\u2019s day. So that we may not be confused with\nthe other \u2018Humboldt\u2019 circle, we have, in honor of the originator, Miss\nMary Kelly, named our circle the \u2018Kelly Humboldt\u2019 C. L. S. C.\u201d\u2014\u2014WAPELLO\nhas the \u201cQui Vive\u201d circle, which enjoys the work. It was organized in\nSeptember, 1884, and is composed almost entirely of members of the class\nof \u201988.\u2014\u2014In a recent letter from BURLINGTON, we find some entertaining\nnews from still another Iowa friend: \u201cYou always have something in the\nlocal circle column from Iowa. You know Iowa has two great staples, corn\nand Chautauquans, and we think you would surely be glad to hear of our\nflourishing circle, as well as others of the thousands of Chautauquans.\nOur circle was organized for the year\u2019s work on Garfield day. We have the\nbest circle we ever had, and are conceited enough to think there are no\nbetter ones anywhere. Our president is a busy lawyer. Indeed, our circle\nis composed of the busiest people in the town. We meet _regularly_ and\n_promptly_ every Monday evening. Burlington is a city of seven hills.\nThen you understand what regular meetings are here, for the circle is\ncomprehensive and takes in all the hills. Our chemistry lessons are\ntaught by a practicing physician who is a thorough chemist and teaches\nintelligently and enthusiastically. We have the willing co\u00f6peration of\nmany of the educated people of the city, and when necessary for either\nour own advancement, or more perfect instruction on a topic, we find\nthem ready to give us an address or essay. Our most enthusiastic members\nare graduates of colleges, or advanced academies. We recognize each\nmemorial day. One of our daily papers freely makes any announcement we\nhave to make, and aids us all it can. I can not undertake to tell you the\ngood our circle is doing for us individually. Some of us, deprived of\nearly advantages, can not be too thankful for the C. L. S. C. It is an\ninfluence for good that enters into our everyday life, and overbalances\nand counteracts some of the _other_ influences that every soul must\nencounter.\u201d\n\nWith an excellent program of a regular meeting has come to us a notice\nof a circle at HATBORO, TENNESSEE. The secretary says: \u201cWith great\npleasure I report a local circle in our little town. We started with\ntwo members; we now enroll thirteen. We all are deeply interested,\nand think the Chautauqua Idea a grand one. We call ourselves \u2018Golden\nFlower\u2019 (Chrysanthemum) local circle, and our badges are clusters of\nchrysanthemums.\u201d\n\nFrom GREENVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA, come very cheering reports: \u201cOur\ncircle was organized in the fall of 1883, and we are therefore of the\n\u2018Pansy\u2019 order. We have twelve members, six young ladies and six young\nmen. Most of the members are college graduates, and take the course to\nkeep bright in their studies. We adhere, with occasional changes, to the\nfollowing order of business: First, roll call and reading of minutes;\nsecond, examination of question box, in which each member is required to\ndeposit at least three questions, bearing directly on the subjects for\nthe time in the regular course; third, an essay; fourth, reading by two\nmembers appointed by the president; fifth, twenty minutes allowed for\ninformal discussion of the lessons. We of course celebrate the memorial\ndays with appropriate ceremonies. Some additional interest is given by\nhaving some extra literary entertainment. A Dickens party we had recently\nwas very enjoyable. The book we selected was \u2018Our Mutual Friend.\u2019 Each\nmember represented one of the leading characters in the book. Besides\nwe acted several scenes, which added much to the enjoyment. We are all\nenthusiastic in our interest in Chautauqua, and fully determined to\nfinish the course.\u201d\n\nAt ATLANTA, GEORGIA, there is a circle of fifteen in West End, the\nlargest suburb of Atlanta. The Rev. H. C. Crumley, a pastor of the city,\ndeserves the credit of founding this organization.\n\nA very kindly and graceful courtesy has been extended to those\nChautauquans visiting New Orleans, by the \u201cLongfellow\u201d circle, of that\ncity. It is an invitation prettily framed, which has been hung in the\nChautauqua alcove. The placard reads:\n\n                               C. L. S. C.\n\n                                GREETING\n                OF THE LONGFELLOW CIRCLE OF NEW ORLEANS.\n\n    _To any and all Fellow-Chautauquans who may be visiting The\n    World\u2019s Industrial and Cotton Centennial Exposition, we offer a\n    cordial invitation to attend the meetings of our Local Circle,\n    which are held every Tuesday afternoon, at five o\u2019clock, at No.\n    393 South Rampart Street, corner of Erato Street._\n\n    _Also, we extend a like invitation to all Resident Chautauquans\n    to join our Circle, wishing to awaken renewed interest in the\n    Great Movement._\n\n    O. F. GROAT, Secretary.\n    J. HASAM, Cor. Sec\u2019y.\n    K. L. RIGGS, President.\n\n    NEW ORLEANS, January 26, 1885.\n\nA very encouraging report of the circle at EUREKA SPRINGS, ARKANSAS, has\nreached us: \u201cWe organized the Eureka Springs Chautauqua Literary and\nScientific Circle October 1st, 1884. Our circle has about thirty members,\nhalf of whom are reading the books. We follow the programs given in THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN. A great many spectators attend. Everybody is interested\nin our circle. We are talking of establishing a lecture course at this\nplace for the summer months, probably in July, in the interest of the\nChautauqua Circle. We always have between 4,000 and 6,000 people here,\nin the summer many more. We have very suitable grounds, near the purest\nwater in the place. Our town is easy of access from Missouri and Kansas,\nas well as from other parts of this State. So far as known, we are the\nonly organized Chautauquans in this State. Probably many persons are\nreading the course at different places, but we know of no circle.\u201d\n\nFrom CLARKSVILLE, MISSOURI, a lady writes: \u201cThis Pansy bed by the \u2018Father\nof Waters\u2019 has much for which to be thankful: Fifteen earnest workers\ncompose our number. We are all teachers and scholars, by turns. We\nattempt as much thoroughness as practicable in the readings, brought out\nby recitations and conversation. We carry out some parts of the programs\nin THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Some of the Pansies hope to be transplanted for a\ntime to Chautauqua in \u201987.\u201d\n\nOTTAWA, KANSAS, circle was organized in time for the October work, with\na membership of fourteen. \u201cOur circle has increased, until now we are\ntwenty-eight in number. Our meetings, held twice a month, are both\npleasant and profitable, each member faithfully doing his part. We\nrespond to roll call by quotations or class mottoes. We find the programs\nin THE CHAUTAUQUAN quite beneficial. The essays, recitations and music\nform a pleasing variety. We adopted the question match, also the question\nbox, and find these not only amusing but profitable. This month we will\ntry some of the chemical experiments in connection with a lecture. We are\nall looking forward to the Sunday-school Assembly, which meets here in\nJune, and to the meetings of the circle conducted by the Rev. Hurlbut.\nThe spirit of the C. L. S. C. is spreading, and we hope to report a large\ncircle to you next year.\u201d\n\nA friend writes from SEATTLE, WASHINGTON TERRITORY: \u201cI notice in your\nJanuary number a communication from Mr. K. A. Burnell, in which he\nstates that at Seattle and Tacoma he found but a single reader and one\nfamily reading the Chautauqua course, a statement from which one might\ninfer that he was indeed so much under the \u2018shadow of Mount Tacoma\u2019 as\nto obscure his vision. There are at Seattle as many as forty readers,\nat least, who have been pursuing the Chautauqua course of study since\nOctober last. There are three regularly organized circles in this place,\nholding weekly meetings, and a general semi-monthly meeting in which\nthe members of all the circles join. One of the circles, named \u2018Alki,\u2019\nhas a membership of sixteen. This circle has the honor and advantage\nof numbering among its members a noted linguist and scientist in the\nperson of Dr. John C. Sundberg. Considerable interest is being awakened\nthroughout the whole of the Puget Sound country in the Chautauqua\nreadings, and it would not be surprising if, in another year, the regular\nChautauquans in this section of country are numbered by hundreds.\u201d\n\nThe \u201cWashakie\u201d circle, of EVANSTON, WYOMING, was organized on the 10th\nof last October. The names of twenty-six members have been enrolled.\nStarting late, they were behind with their studies until lately,\nconsequently the program for each week as laid down in THE CHAUTAUQUAN\nwas not followed. The meetings, however, have been very interesting.\nThe leaders appointed for the different subjects on each evening came\nwell prepared. Essays on Milton, Burns, and others, have been read.\nProf. Halleck, of the public schools, has delivered short lectures on\nthe scientific subjects. Prof. Capen has given experiments in chemistry.\nMusic, and recitations from the classic authors by a fine elocutionist,\nhave rendered the meetings more entertaining. The enthusiasm has grown\nwith the year.\n\nThe first circle that was regularly organized in PORTLAND, OREGON,\nwas that established by the Y. M. C. A., last October. This circle is\ncomposed of about twenty members. The other two circles which have joined\nthe class of \u201988 are those connected with the Taylor Street and Grace\nMethodist Episcopal Churches. The latter was organized during the month\nof December, and is composed of about twenty-five members, who seem to be\nnow deeply interested in their work. The former is the largest circle in\nthe State, composed of about forty active and progressive young men and\nwomen, who are now deeply interested in their studies, and a notable fact\nof this circle is that there is no restraint in thought by the members,\nas is often the case where freedom of opinion is withheld, thus repelling\nthe progress of the meeting. The able secretary of their circle deserves\ngreat credit for the time and trouble he has exercised performing that\noffice, and volunteering to assume all responsibility with regard to\nbooks, dues, and pamphlets. The Rev. G. W. Chandler, the efficient\npresident, is the originator of this circle. Their efforts and untiring\nenergies have made this circle most interesting, and have brought into\nit some of the best scholars in the State. By perseverance and thorough\nstudy, with the watchword \u201cForward,\u201d they are determined to ever press\nonward and upward in this grand work, and receive their reward.\n\n\n\n\nTHE C. L. S. C. CLASSES.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1885.\u2014\u201cTHE INVINCIBLES.\u201d\n\n\u201c_Press on, reaching after those things which are before._\u201d\n\nOFFICERS.\n\n    _President_\u2014J. B. Underwood, Meriden, Conn.\n\n    _Vice President_\u2014C. M. Nichols, Springfield, Ohio.\n\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Miss Carrie Hart, Aurora, Ind.\n\n    _Secretary_\u2014Miss M. M. Canfield, Washington, D. C.\n\n    _Executive Committee_\u2014Officers of the class.\n\n    Class badges may be procured of either President or Treasurer.\n\nThe members of the Chautauqua circles have now a third of a year only\nin which to finish their readings and fill out their papers for the\ncurrent year. So far as we have been able to learn, a much larger number\nof persons have been pursuing the C. L. S. C. course this year than\nhave been in the ranks during any previous corresponding period. Those\nconnected with journalism, in looking over their exchanges, rarely pick\nup a local paper that does not have some reference to the doings of a\nlocal Chautauqua circle. Then it has been discovered that those who read\nthe Chautauqua books and periodicals have been led to go beyond the\nlines, and to search for intellectual treasures in \u201cpastures new\u201d\u2014in\nbooks, reviews, public journals of character and excellence, and, also,\nto seek association with people of culture. Indeed, it is pleasantly and\nencouragingly apparent that the Chautauqua system is becoming, from month\nto month, broader, deeper, more far-reaching in its wholesome and really\npowerful influence, in promoting moral as well as intellectual culture.\n\nThe members of the Class of 1885 should bear these facts in mind, and\naccept the special degree of responsibility involved. Let this class be\nnot only the best, but the largest that has ever passed within the Golden\nGate on Commencement day! Why should it not be three thousand strong? If\nwe begin now, in April, to make our plans and preparations, perhaps we\ncan all \u201cget there,\u201d and present a solid phalanx of honest, thorough,\nintelligent and aggressive Chautauquans, marching toward and through\nthe Gate and into the Hall, with banners and songs, that will promise\nlargely and grandly for the moral and mental improvement of thousands of\ncommunities throughout the land.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201cWhat would be the result if we report to Miss Canfield our intentions to\nbe at Chautauqua to receive our diplomas, and something should happen to\nprevent?\u201d\n\nThe only result would be that those who expected you would be as sadly\ndisappointed as you would be in not being able to come. The fact that you\nintended to come and were detained by good cause would be accepted, and\nyou would \u201cstand excused,\u201d and would receive your diploma in good time.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMISSOURI.\u2014As one of the \u201cInvincibles,\u201d I would add my testimony with\nothers of Class \u201985 as having received pleasure and benefit beyond\ncomputation in pursuing the C. L. S. C. course. I commenced alone, but\nafter a few months succeeded in organizing a circle for \u201986, which keeps\nup a large membership, persistent and thorough in study, with rigid class\ndrill; also remembrance of memorial days.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\u2014What a well-spring of joy is the C. L. S. C. in the homes\nof those who have not enjoyed the advantages of a liberal education! The\nstudents born of this great movement are rising up all over this great\nland with blessings for the founder of this happy Circle. I am reading\nalone, as there are no members near me, but at some little distance I\nhave interested some bright young friends of mine in the work, and I am\nglad to know that they are so much pleased with it.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1886.\u2014\u201cTHE PROGRESSIVES.\u201d\n\n\u201c_We study for light, to bless with light._\u201d\n\nCLASS ORGANIZATION.\n\n    _President_\u2014The Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Maine.\n\n    _Vice Presidents_\u2014The Rev. J. C. Whitley, Salisbury, Maryland;\n    Mr. L. F. Houghton, Peoria, Illinois; Mr. Walter Y. Morgan,\n    Cleveland, Ohio; Mrs. Delia Browne, Louisville, Kentucky; Miss\n    Florence Finch, Palestine, Texas.\n\n    _Secretary_\u2014The Rev. W. L. Austin, New Albany, Ind.\n\nThe new badge, bearing the motto and emblem of the class, is now ready\nto be sent out. The design meets hearty approval. The cost, including\npostage, will be 15 cents. For badges, address the president or the\nsecretary.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe New England branch of the class will have superior headquarters at\nthe Framingham Assembly in July. This important section of \u201986 have plans\nand arrangements in view that will insure a most pleasant and successful\nclass gathering at the Assembly.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1887.\u2014\u201cTHE PANSIES.\u201d\n\n\u201c_Neglect not the gift that is in thee._\u201d\n\nOFFICERS.\n\n    _President_\u2014The Rev. Frank Russell, Mansfield, Ohio.\n\n    _Western Secretary_\u2014K. A. Burnell, Esq., 150 Madison Street,\n    Chicago, Ill.\n\n    _Eastern Secretary_\u2014J. A. Steven, M.D., 164 High Street,\n    Hartford, Conn.\n\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Either Secretary, from either of whom badges may be\n    procured.\n\n    _Executive Committee_\u2014The officers of the class.\n\n    Class paper may be procured from Mr. Henry Hart, Atlanta, Ga.\n\nThe attention of the members of \u201987 is called to the letter by Mrs. Alden\nin the March number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, page 353.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPresident Russell had charge of the Sunday-school Normal Department\nat the Florida Chautauqua, Lake de Funiak, and is one of the Board of\nManagers.\n\nAt Milton, Mass., recently, the representatives of the Class of \u201987 had a\ntable at a church fair and cleared over $100.\n\nIt is our painful duty to record the death of two members of the Class\nof 1887: Miss Mary Dayton, of Binghamton, N. Y., and Mrs. Lou L. Dunn,\nof Bonham, Texas. The deepest sympathy not only of the class, but of all\nmembers of the C. L. S. C. is with the sorrowing friends.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTO NEW ENGLAND \u201987S.\u2014The second mid-year reunion of New England \u201987s will\nbe held on Friday, April 3d, in Union Congregational Chapel, Stewart\nStreet, Providence, R. I. The business meeting will be held at half-past\none o\u2019clock p. m.; the literary and musical entertainment at two o\u2019clock.\nA social reunion will precede and follow the regular exercises. Will\nall New England members of \u201987 please make a special effort to attend\nthis reunion? Providence Chautauquans are enthusiastic, and will\ndoubtless strive to make this meeting thoroughly enjoyable. Let us, by\nour presence, show our appreciation of their efforts. Our Providence\nclassmates have kindly offered to meet at the station any strangers who\nwill communicate the hour of their arrival to Miss Nellie F. Crocker, 6\nKepler Street, Providence.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1888.\u2014\u201cTHE PLYMOUTH ROCKS.\u201d\n\n\u201c_Let us be seen by our deeds._\u201d\n\nCLASS ORGANIZATION.\n\n    _President_\u2014The Rev. A. E. Dunning, D.D., Boston, Mass.\n\n    _Vice Presidents_\u2014Prof. W. N. Ellis, 108 Gates Avenue, Brooklyn,\n    N. Y.; the Rev. Wm. G. Roberts, Bellevue, Ohio.\n\n    _Secretary_\u2014Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Miss M. E. Taylor, Cleveland, Ohio.\n\n    All items for this column should be sent, in condensed form, to\n    the Rev. C. C. McLean, St. Augustine, Florida.\n\nThe \u201cChautauqua Quartette,\u201d Avon, Indiana, organized December 5, 1884,\nwrites: \u201cWe are four country girls, living two to three miles apart, but\nhold weekly meetings, alternately, at our homes.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn Harlem, N. Y., is a class of seven, organized October 1, 1884. The\nsecretary writes: \u201cEach member in turn takes charge, assigning lessons\nand questioning the class.\u201d In addition to the required study they take\nsome prominent author, giving biography and quoting from works.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrom Portland, Maine, we learn that they have a large and interesting\ncircle, meeting semi-monthly.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe \u201cCastalian,\u201d of Philadelphia, ten members, was organized October,\n1884. This circle thinks too many members make each other timid, and\ntherefore advocates many circles of few members. They are fortunate in\nhaving a president who makes chemical experiments.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA flourishing circle of fifty members was organized in Batavia, New York,\nOctober, 1884.\n\nThe Rev. J. D. Gillilan, of Toocle, Utah, writes that \u201chere among the\nMormons a class of three is formed; one of the number was a Mormon\nwhen he joined the circle, but has since united himself with the M. E.\nChurch.\u201d There is a flourishing circle in Salt Lake City.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe \u201cWilkesbarre\u201d circle, of Wilkesbarre, Pa., was organized October,\n1884, with sixty members. This circle meets every alternate week, each\nmember responding to roll call with a quotation from the \u201creadings.\u201d A\nphysician makes fine experiments in chemistry.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA circle has been organized in Topeka, Kan., with thirty members. The\nsecretary says: \u201cMost of us are busy girls, figuring as teachers, office\nand store clerks, but find time to take the reading course thoroughly,\nand hope to graduate with the 88s.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nKANSAS.\u2014\u201cI am well pleased with our class motto and name. I am a sculptor\nby profession and wish a higher aim, a sculptor of life, for I have\ncaught that angel vision. I am pursuing my studies with energy and\nenthusiasm, and life to me is more pleasant since I have taken up the\ncourse. Whenever I feel vexed and comfortless I only need to read over\nChancellor Vincent\u2019s articles in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for encouragement.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrom Buffalo, Pa., a friend says that \u201c_all_ dislike the Class name, and\ndesire it changed.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nToronto, Canada, raises a protesting voice against our name, saying, \u201cI\nam well aware of the fact that the name stands on history\u2019s page as a\nsynonym for grand and noble qualities, but I am forced nevertheless to\nobject to it on account of its \u2018fowl\u2019 association. Could we not have a\nname _unwinged_, _unplumed_, and of no marketable value.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne of the \u201988s, who is reading alone, tells us, \u201cIn the study of the\npast four months I have received more instruction and enjoyment than in\nany amount of the general reading done in the same number of years.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201cVincent\u201d circle, of Portland, Maine, sends us an interesting program of\na meeting held January 16th. A most exquisite Plymouth Rock engraving\ngraces its first page.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201cLongfellow\u201d circle, of Eastern Promontory, Portland, Maine, sends us\ntheir constitution and by-laws, including the names of its 103 members.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nKANSAS.\u2014I am pursuing the course alone, and feel that I need the stimulus\nof outside aid and correspondence. Since my school days were over my\nreading has been of too miscellaneous a character to result in the profit\nit should have done. I am enjoying the Greek History and the Preparatory\nCourse very much. My husband has been brushing up his knowledge of the\nGreek language, and comes to my assistance occasionally, so it is a\nsource of profit to him as well. Even my eleven-year-old boy has caught\nthe spirit, and begs me to mark all the battles for him to read, and is\nlearning the Greek alphabet. I am pleased with the name of our class\u2014\u201cThe\nPlymouth Rocks.\u201d My ancestors were among those that landed on the bleak\nold Rock, and I know something of the sturdy perseverance and uprightness\nof their character. I can only hope that the \u201cmantle\u201d of those old\npilgrims will fall upon us as \u201cPlymouth Rocks,\u201d and that, like them, we\nmay grow strong in wisdom and goodness.\n\n\n\n\nQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.\n\nBY A. M. MARTIN,\n\nGeneral Secretary C. L. S. C.\n\n\nI.\u2014SEVENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cSHORT HISTORY OF THE\nREFORMATION.\u201d\n\n1. Q. What is the Reformation? A. It is that great religious and\nintellectual revolution which marks the boundary line between the Middle\nAges and the Modern Period.\n\n2. Q. What was the first aim of the reformers, and which proved a total\nfailure? A. The purification of the church within itself, and by its own\nservants.\n\n3. Q. What was the next step, and one which succeeded? A. To withdraw\nfrom the fold, and establish an independent confession, and a separate\necclesiastical structure.\n\n4. Q. Who planted the first seeds of Protestantism in France? A. The\nParis reformers.\n\n5. Q. Who were three prominent Paris reformers? A. D\u2019Ailly, Gerson, and\nCl\u00e9manges.\n\n6. Q. What was the most obvious cause of the failure of the Paris\ntheologians? A. They never withdrew from the Roman Catholic Church, or\ntook steps to establish a separate ecclesiastical organization.\n\n7. Q. How did the Mystics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries\narise? A. As a spiritual reaction against the supremacy of the scholastic\nphilosophy.\n\n8. Q. What was the central scene and native country of the most notable\nreformatory Mystics? A. Germany.\n\n9. Q. What four names are prominent among the early Mystics of Germany?\nA. Eckart, Ruysbroek, Suso, and Tauler.\n\n10. Q. Who were the two most notable members of the school of St. Victor?\nA. Hugo and Richard.\n\n11. Q. What was the chief of important general movements, without\nconnection with prominent characters, in progress to hasten the approach\nof reform? A. In the field of intellectual progress, was the revival of\nliterature, which took the name of Humanism.\n\n12. Q. In this revival, what were the studies, as distinguished from the\ntheological themes which had long held sway in all the universities and\nlearned circles of Europe? A. They were purely human and literary.\n\n13. Q. Who were three prominent champions of the new Humanism? A. John\nReuchlin, of Germany, Erasmus, of Rotterdam, and Thomas More, of England.\n\n14. Q. What three councils were formal acknowledgments, on the part\nof the Roman Catholic Church, of the evils within its pale, and the\nnecessity of relief from them? A. The councils of Pisa, Kostnitz, and\nBasel.\n\n15. Q. With what bitter controversy did the fourteenth century open? A. A\ncontroversy between the church and the leading civil rulers. It was the\nold question of authority\u2014whether pope or king was the supreme head.\n\n16. Q. Why was the Avignon papacy popularly called by the Romanists\n\u201cThe Babylonian Captivity?\u201d A. From the light in which it was held as\nan ecclesiastical calamity, and from its continuance of nearly seventy\nyears\u2014from 1309 to 1377.\n\n17. Q. Although the three councils failed of their prime object, what\nfact did they reveal to the world? A. The fact that no prospect for\nreform could exist in any new council.\n\n18. Q. What way was it now clear was the only one open for improvement?\nA. The independence of the individual reformer.\n\n19. Q. What now became the theater for the Reformation? A. Central\nGermany.\n\n20. Q. Who responded to the universal aspiration for a leader to guide\ninto new and safe paths? A. Martin Luther.\n\n21. Q. When and where was Luther born? A. In Eisleben, Saxony, November\n11, 1483.\n\n22. Q. What wealthy lady befriended Luther in youth, and gave him the\nadvantages of an excellent teacher? A. Ursula Cotta.\n\n23. Q. After finishing his course at the University of Erfurt, what did\nLuther then do? A. He bade the world farewell, and in 1505 entered the\nAugustinian cloister as a monk.\n\n24. Q. In 1508 to what place was Luther called as professor? A. To\nWittenberg.\n\n25. Q. After two years in Wittenberg to what city did he make a visit? A.\nRome.\n\n26. Q. What effect did this visit have upon Luther? A. He took with him,\nwhen he left Rome, an abhorrence of the superstition and immorality of\nthe church at its fountainhead, which never left him.\n\n27. Q. In what bill of charges did Luther subsequently arraign the\nchurch? A. His ninety-five theses, directed principally against the sale\nof indulgences.\n\n28. Q. In an \u201cAddress to the Nobles of the German People\u201d what did Luther\ndeclare which led to his excommunication by the pope? A. That the time\nhad come when Germany ought to cast off allegiance to Rome, to start out\non an independent religious and national life, and take care of its own\ninterests.\n\n29. Q. Before what body was Luther summoned, where his doctrines were\ncondemned, and the sentence of ban and double ban pronounced against him?\nA. The Diet of Worms.\n\n30. Q. To what place was Luther taken for safety after leaving Worms? A.\nTo the Wartburg Castle, where he remained for eight months.\n\n31. Q. About how many separate writings appeared from the pen of Luther?\nA. About one hundred and twenty, among them a translation of the Bible.\n\n32. Q. To whom did Luther commit the task of formulating a systematic\ntreatment of doctrine? A. To his nearest friend, Melancthon.\n\n33. Q. Of what do the annals of literature and theology not furnish\na more beautiful illustration than we find in the case of Luther and\nMelancthon? A. Of the manner in which a great work can be performed by\nthe combined action of two men.\n\n34. Q. To what were the labors of Melancthon directed, in the great\ncause of reform? A. To the improvement of the methods of study in the\nuniversity of Wittenberg. He urged the students to the fountain-heads\nof truth, and placed before them the Bible as the only source of real\nknowledge.\n\n35. Q. What five princes of Saxony were devoted friends of the new\nmovement for the liberation of the conscience? A. George, Maurice,\nFrederick the Wise, John, and John Frederick.\n\n36. Q. Who was the leader of the new movement in Switzerland? A. Ulric\nZwingli.\n\n37. Q. Into what did the religious conflict in the eastern cantons of\nSwitzerland grow? A. Into an appeal to arms, that resulted in civil war.\n\n38. Q. What followed the battle of Cappel, where Zwingli was killed? A.\nThe peace of Cappel, which declared that each canton should decide its\nreligion for itself.\n\n39. Q. What name is most prominent in connection with the Reformation in\nFrench Switzerland? A. John Calvin.\n\n40. Q. What work did Calvin publish in 1536, which became the doctrinal\nstandard for all the Reformed Churches of the Continent and Great\nBritain? A. \u201cThe Institutes of the Christian Religion.\u201d\n\n41. Q. By what great reformer was the work, left unfinished by Calvin at\nhis death, taken up? A. Beza.\n\n42. Q. In the history of the Reformation, what honor belongs to\nEngland? A. That of having discovered the need of a universal religious\nregeneration in Europe.\n\n43. Q. In whom did the beginnings of reform in England center? A.\nWyckliffe, who was born about 1324.\n\n44. Q. What were Wyckliffe\u2019s greatest services to the coming Reformation?\nA. First, his translation of the New Testament, and afterward the whole\nBible, into English.\n\n45. Q. What was a striking feature of the English Reformation, from the\noutside? A. Its political character.\n\n46. Q. What three names are prominent in the first period of the English\nReformation? A. Colet, Sir Thomas More, and Cranmer.\n\n47. Q. What was the most powerful single agency in bringing about the\nEnglish Reformation? A. The publication of the Bible in the language of\nthe people.\n\n48. Q. What followed the ascension of Mary to the throne of England? A.\nA violent persecution of the Protestants, during which, it is estimated,\nabout eight hundred persons were burned at the stake.\n\n49. Q. What faith did Elizabeth, the successor of Mary, recognize as\nnational? A. Protestantism.\n\n50. Q. From what sect did the puritan Pilgrims of America come? A. The\nBrownist sect.\n\n51. Q. Who was the first Protestant leader in Scotland? A. Patrick\nHamilton. He suffered martyrdom.\n\n52. Q. Who was the natural successor to Hamilton? A. John Knox. By the\ntime of his death the triumph of the Scotch Reformation was complete.\n\n53. Q. What was the chief aim of the Brothers of the Common Life, a\nsociety of the Netherlands, founded in 1384? A. To improve the morals of\nthe people, and looked intently upon a thorough reform.\n\n54. Q. What preparation was there for the Reformation in the Netherlands?\nA. In no land was there such a complete and popular preparation for the\nReformation as in the Netherlands.\n\n55. Q. What character did the Reformation assume in the Netherlands? A. A\npolitical character.\n\n56. Q. What order against all sympathy with the Protestant cause was\nmade binding upon the Netherlands? A. The Edict of Worms.\n\n57. Q. Who, of Rotterdam, belongs to the front rank of reformers? A.\nErasmus.\n\n58. Q. How alone was Erasmus important as a Reformer? A. As a profound\nand versatile scholar.\n\n59. Q. What is one of the most unpleasant chapters in the history of the\nReformation? A. The unfraternal relationship between Erasmus and Luther.\n\n60. Q. From what did the real danger to the French Protestants come?\nA. From a firm alliance between the authorities at Rome and the French\nthrone.\n\n61. Q. What were the Protestants in France called? A. Huguenots.\n\n62. Q. What great massacre of the Protestants took place in France on the\n24th of August, 1572? A. The Massacre of St. Bartholomew.\n\n63. Q. By whom were the Italians prepared to give hearty credence to the\nnew doctrines of the Reformation? A. Savonarola.\n\n64. Q. What causes led to the failure of the Reformation in the Spanish\nPeninsula? A. Protestantism was largely a measure of scholars and\nthinkers, while the persistent energy of the Spanish authorities,\nreinforced from Rome, made thorough work of suppression.\n\n65. Q. In what was the groundwork of Protestantism in the three\nScandinavian countries\u2014Sweden, Denmark, and Norway\u2014already laid? A. In\nthe dissatisfaction of the people with the prevailing order of civil and\necclesiastical government.\n\n66. Q. Into what two Scandinavian countries was the Reformation\nintroduced and formally adopted? A. Sweden and Norway.\n\n67. Q. Who was the great reformer of Bohemia? A. John Huss.\n\n68. Q. As what did his followers afterward become known, under\nZinzendorf? A. As the United Brethren.\n\n69. Q. What was the political effect of the Reformation? A. To elevate\nthe people to a thirst for liberty, and a higher and purer citizenship.\n\n70. Q. Of what did the Reformation become the mother? A. Of republics.\n\n71. Q. To what does the American Union owe a large measure of its\ngenesis? A. To the European struggle for reform.\n\n72. Q. What was one of not the least benefits conferred upon the world by\nthe Reformation? A. The promotion of learning.\n\n73. Q. What sprang up throughout Germany, as an immediate fruit of the\nReformation? A. Universities.\n\n74. Q. By what celebration have the memories of the Reformation been\nrecently renewed? A. By the celebration on November 11, 1883, of the four\nhundredth anniversary of the birth of Luther.\n\n75. Q. How was the day observed? A. With becoming festivities in all the\nProtestant countries of the world.\n\n\nII.\u2014TWENTY-FIVE QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cCHEMISTRY,\u201d FROM PAGE 157 TO\nTHE END OF THE BOOK.\n\n76. Q. What are some of the most important uses of borax? A. In the\nmanufacture of porcelain, and in other of the industrial arts, and as a\nremedial agency in medicine.\n\n77. Q. In addition to the well known substances sodium and oxygen, what\nelement does borax contain? A. A special and peculiar element, called\nboron.\n\n78. Q. What are two of the most important sources of borax? A. Borax\nLake, in California, and the borax lagos in Tuscany.\n\n79. Q. What element constitutes about eighty per cent. of our atmospheric\nair? A. Nitrogen.\n\n80. Q. As a simple and uncombined substance, by what is nitrogen\ncharacterized? A. By extreme inactivity. It does not burn; it does not\nsupport combustion; it can not be made to enter into chemical union with\nother substances, except by specially devised and circuitous processes.\n\n81. Q. Of what is nitrogen a constituent? A. Of a very large number of\ncompounds, which are themselves often characterized by a high degree of\nactivity.\n\n82. Q. What are two important compounds of nitrogen? A. Ammonia gas and\nnitric acid.\n\n83. Q. In addition to oxygen and nitrogen what are some of the other\nsubstances always present in atmospheric air? A. Vapor of water, carbon\ndi-oxide, and ammonia gas; minute quantities of a vast multitude of other\ngaseous substances; and it is likewise charged most of the time with\nstill more minute quantities of solid dust materials of various kinds.\n\n84. Q. To what do the principal explosives owe their activity to a very\nlarge degree? A. To the presence of nitrogen in them.\n\n85. Q. What are the four explosives of chief importance? A. Gunpowder,\nthe fulminates, gun cotton, and nitro-glycerine.\n\n86. Q. What are the three principal constituents of gunpowder? A.\nPotassic nitrate, charcoal, and sulphur.\n\n87. Q. Why is phosphorus a most interesting chemical element? A. Because\nof its exceptional chemical properties, the very important part it plays\nin the chemistry of animal and vegetable life, and its employment in the\nfriction match.\n\n88. Q. In what country is the manufacture of friction matches carried on\nto a very large extent? A. In Sweden; and that country, it is now stated,\nproduces about seventy-five per cent. of all the matches made in the\nworld.\n\n89. Q. What is probably the most familiar and representative form of\ncarbon? A. That known as charcoal.\n\n90. Q. How is lamp-black produced? A. It is a product of the imperfect\ncombustion of substances like oil, tar, resin, and the like, which are\nvery rich in carbon.\n\n91. Q. What are two well known compounds of carbon? A. Anthracite coal\nand bituminous coal.\n\n92. Q. Of what origin do both of these combustibles, when carefully\nstudied, show distinct evidences? A. Of their vegetable origin.\n\n93. Q. What is the diamond? A. It is nearly pure carbon, crystallized.\n\n94. Q. What are some of the other natural forms in which carbon is found\nin large quantities? A. In petroleum, marble, and limestone.\n\n95. Q. When combined with oxygen alone, what two compounds only does\ncarbon form? A. Carbon mon-oxide and carbon di-oxide.\n\n96. Q. What is the material on which the manufacture of illuminating gas\nis based? A. Bituminous coal.\n\n97. Q. In the distillation of coal for the manufacture of gas, what three\ndistinct classes of substances are produced? A. Solids, which are left\nin the retorts; liquids, which are condensed in the various coolers; and\ngases, which pass on to the gas holder.\n\n98. Q. What coloring matters are obtained from the liquids produced by\nthese processes? A. Alzorine, affording Turkey red and other colors, and\nthe well known analine colors.\n\n99. Q. To what quantity does silicon exist in our globe? A. In a quantity\nequal to about one fourth its entire weight, including its atmospheres\nand its oceans.\n\n100. Q. What is the principal earthy matter of our planet? A. The\ncompound of silicon and oxygen, existing either alone in the form of\nsand, quartz crystal, and similar minerals, or else in combination with\nother well known abundant earth materials, such as oxides of calcium,\nmagnesium, and aluminum.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S OUTLOOK.\n\n\nPUBLIC MEN IN LITERATURE.\n\nUntil recently Americans have had good grounds for complaining that\ntheir public servants were almost a minus quantity in literature. The\ncomplaint had an especially sharp edge in view of the fact that at an\nearlier period our Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Adams, and others,\nhad been among the foremost writers of the country; and it was still\nfurther aggravated by the contrast we seemed to present to France,\nEngland, and Germany, where a public man is usually also a literary man.\nThe rule in France is that an eminent politician is an author, and the\nmost distinguished statesmen and princes have written books. Even Louis\nNapoleon wrote a book on C\u00e6sar, and one of the best accounts of our late\nwar is the stately volumes of Count de Paris. In England, the rule is the\nsame. The queen herself takes pride in the books she has produced. John\nBright is almost alone in having no literary tastes, but his speeches\nwill long survive in the volumes they will fill. Disraeli and Gladstone,\nBulwer and Macaulay, Fawcett and Dilke, are only a few contemporary names\nin along list of distinguished statesmen who have excelled as writers\nfor periodicals and as producers of books. In this country, from about\n1830 to 1880, our public men wrote little. Benton\u2019s \u201cThirty Years,\u201d\nWebster\u2019s speeches, and Sumner\u2019s orations, and some other less famous\nworks, do indeed redeem the half century; but when we have said all that\ncan be said in praise of exceptions, the rule seems to have been that an\nAmerican politician was not a writer, and a phrase of contempt attributed\nto an eminent Senator expresses the feelings of our politicians against\n\u201cthem literary fellers\u201d in a form which is full of a significance from\nwhich we prefer to turn away our ears. Too many of our public men have\ndespised literature, and justified literature in returning the sentiment\nwith interest.\n\nWe are entering upon a happier period. The American statesman is\nreturning to authorship. It is a wholesome change. Mr. Blaine\u2019s history\nwill occur to many readers as an illustration. It is hardly less\nnoteworthy that his late associate on the Republican ticket has written\nfor THE CHAUTAUQUAN able papers on a public question which is a living\nissue. A very long list might be made of public men who are in good\nfame as writers. The witty S. S. Cox will at once occur to all our\nmemories, and another eminent Democrat is said to be writing a history\nof his times. General Grant finds relief from the terrible strain of his\nfinancial misfortunes in writing the history of his battles. We have\nemployed some of our most gifted authors as diplomats; as, for example,\nMotley, the historian, James Russell Lowell, the poet and literary\ncritic, and George P. Marsh, the man of universal knowledge; but it may,\nprobably will, come to pass that some of their stamp will more and more\nappear in our public life at home. We have kept poets, philosophers, and\nnovelists alive by giving them clerkships in Custom Houses. Nathaniel\nHawthorne, Howells, \u201cIk Marvel\u201d (Donald G. Mitchell), and others, rose\nto the dignity of consulships. Francis Lieber was tolerated in a Custom\nHouse clerkship in New York. We are probably coming to the time when such\nmen may be members of Congress and shape the legislation of the country.\nLiterary men are usually the most practical of men; that they are\ndreamers of impossibilities is the strangest of our popular delusions. A\nfew exceptions have been carelessly considered as making the rule for the\nclass. The sort of practicality\u2014tempered by philosophy\u2014which the literary\nman brings to affairs is what our public life most needs. All clean\nknowledge is a light where it abides, and the value of unclean knowledge\n(such as some practical politicians boast themselves in), is a forlorn\nminus quantity.\n\nThe advantages to be anticipated from the increase of the literary spirit\nin our public men are too numerous to be here set forth in detail. A\nfew suggestions must suffice for our present purpose. In the first\nplace, public men are experts, and have therefore valuable knowledge to\nimpart. We are all well aware that General Grant knows important things\nabout his battles which other men do not know. It is equally true that\nany clerk in a department, or any member of Congress has an intimate\nacquaintance with many concernments of considerable moment. A man who has\nserved ten years in Congress could instruct and please us all if he had\nthe art of describing the methods of law making. It is not a pleasant\nfact that the writing of a book on \u201cCongressional Government,\u201d which\nis at once philosophical and entertaining, should have been left to a\ncollege professor; nor is it pleasant to feel that the author of this\nbook, Professor Woodrow Wilson, is probably the last man whom Baltimore\nwill think of sending to Congress. The men who see the meaning of\nthings and connect them with principles, and align them with historical\nprecedents, are needed in Congress to give it dignity and character. In\nshort, we ought to send our best men to Congress, and we are approaching\nan era when \u201cbest men\u201d will generally be possessed of literary tastes\nand habits. Our public life is rich in materials for useful books and\nentertaining novels. Most of these materials lie neglected because we\nsend inferior men to our public work. Another distinct advantage will be\nfound in the preservation of many bright men whom we send to Congress\nfrom rusting out of intellectual brightness and becoming mere political\nworkers. The majority of men sent to Congress are college men; they have\nhad some literary tastes and habits. They have often been journalists.\nThe public opinion which hedges them in converts them into office hunters\nand office peddlers, and consumes their lives in routine and political\nanxiety, to the detriment of all generous and aspiring manhood. The man\nwhose brain work, in periodicals and books, will secure his position\nbefore his constituents, is a man saved.\n\nThe change which is going on is mainly the work of the enterprising\nmanagers of periodicals. Most good literary work in our day first\nreaches the public in periodicals. Much excellent work is found only in\nperiodicals. The editors have discovered that there is valuable matter\nto be had by encouraging public men to write. Our articles by General\nLogan, for example, contain a view of a great question which is best\nseen in all its aspects by a public man who has seen all sides of it in\na Congressional committee. Many similar articles have in recent years\nappeared in literary periodicals. An invitation to present his views to\nthe public through such a periodical as THE CHAUTAUQUAN is a challenge\nto candor and a stimulus to thoroughness. The work done educates the\nstatesman while it informs the people. It creates an intelligent sympathy\nbetween public servants and those whom they serve. It carries on that\nform of education in which light and wisdom are put into the first place,\nwhile turgid bombast and self-seeking buncombe are rendered odious to the\npeople whom they have deceived.\n\n\nTHE DECLINE OF SPIRITUALITY IN THE CHURCH.\n\nAmong the unpleasant reflections which the reading of Bishop Hurst\u2019s\n\u201cHistory of the Reformation\u201d will be apt to awaken in many minds is\nthat there has been a great decline in the spirituality of the church.\nIn those days religious earnestness was at its maximum; we seem to be\npassing through a period when it is at a minimum. How far the seeming is\naccurate, it may not be easy to determine; but appearances are against\nthe modern church. All our religious services lack in spirituality.\nThe lack is in the sermon, the song, the prayer. Family religion has\n_apparently_ little of the intense power of the former days. The\nconversation of Christians is less frequently on religious subjects.\nWe are carefully weeding out of familiar speech the old references to\nProvidence, Death and Judgment. We fall into silence when one among us\nintroduces such themes. Religious feeling and expression have disappeared\n_from the surface_ of our life in a most astonishing way. We are not\nmade, the unconverted are not made, to feel the force and warmth of\nreligious conviction. The sermons are logical, literary and cold; if\nthere be warmth, it seems to be rather intellectual than religious. The\nmore able religious editors complain that they can not get written for\nthem articles which are at once readable and spiritual; while other\neditors condemn any articles of that type as savoring of a \u201cdreary\nreligiosity;\u201d and others say that the expression of religious experience\nhas \u201chopelessly gone into the keeping of cranks and weak-headed and\nmorally-unsound persons.\u201d One man says: \u201cI can imagine nothing sweeter\nto hear than religious experience ought to be; but when I listen to it\nI hear either out-worn phrases or senseless fanaticism; and these have\nbeen driven from the respectable churches and are monopolized by ignorant\negotists in the out-of-the-way corners of the country.\u201d\n\nA partial explanation of the facts lies in the statement just quoted. But\nit is very partial. Why should fanatical zeal kill genuine earnestness?\nIf we think and feel earnestly in religion, why do we not talk of what\nis burning in our hearts, as the fathers did, in language of our own?\nA round of set phrases does denote vacancy of spirit, but the earnest\nspirit is not banished from our heart by the formalism of another\u2019s\nspeech. It may be pleaded for us that we are in a transition state;\nthat the Reformation did develop a form of earnestness, and that our\nearnestness can not work in that harness and is reverently silent because\nappropriate speech is wanting. But why do not hundreds of ministers\nwho have all gifts of intellect utter spiritual thought and emotion?\nWhy are they forever dealing rather with opinions than facts of the\nspiritual life? We ask such questions in no censorious spirit; they\nare pressed home to many anxious hearts, and the wonder grows whether\nmodern Christianity is tongueless respecting its experience because it\nis backslidden and even skeptical. We could frame, as has often been\ndone, explanations; but we still doubt whether they really explain. The\nspiritual activity is of all inner motions the one least likely to lose\nall power to express itself.\n\nIt is true that a vast body of believers have the spirit of giving\nand of work. They make noble offerings, they teach the children in\nSunday-schools, they make sacrifices of time and ease and money to carry\non churches. In these things no former generation had so glorious a\nrecord. It is probably true that this vast body of believers contains\nas large a proportion as any Reformation body of persons who would die\nfor their faith. It can not be said of such a body of persons that faith\nis not in it. Making all allowances for conventionality and religious\nfashion, there remains proof enough that the modern church believes. Nor\ncan we doubt its spiritual poverty. It is poor in the divine life. This\nstate of things can not last. We are in a condition where faith must fail\nif love does not come to the rescue. The greatest of all revivals may\nbe at the door. The church wants nothing but vital godliness\u2014experience\nof divine things. It has so much of zeal, benevolence, self-sacrifice,\nphilanthropy, that we can not so much as hint at despair. Is it possible\nthat some of our philanthropies are too consuming and exhaust us? If we\nwill stop to think and take account of ourselves, we shall probably find\nthat we lack spirituality because we do not want it. That discovery may\nbe the one thing needed to arouse us to strenuous spiritual endeavor.\n\n\nTHE SHAKSPEREAN ANNIVERSARY.\n\nThe fourth century of Shakspere will be remembered either as the century\nof Shaksperean skepticism or as the one in which the play-actor was\nstripped of Bacon\u2019s clothes and reduced to his proper condition of\nplay-actor. That we can so much as entertain this latter thought proves\nthat the skepticism has made considerable progress. We do not believe\nthat Bacon wrote the Shaksperean plays; but we are obliged to pay to\nthose who do believe it such respect as is paid to Strauss with his\ntheory that Jesus is a mythical person. Another Shaksperean year is\ncompleted on the 23d of April, and its most significant event is an\nincrease of skeptics. We are doubtless to have a thorough sifting of the\nfacts and a large debate. No lover of the great dramas need regret the\ndiscussion. It will provoke the study of them and enlarge their fame.\nThey are the great dramas of the world. No others equal them in breadth\nand fervor. Whatever stimulates the study of them must be useful to the\nhigher forms of literature. One way of looking at the subject of the\nauthorship of these plays is to regard the question as of no absolute\nimportance. The plays are what they are, whoever wrote them; just as the\nHomeric poetry does not lose a line through the Homeric skepticism. It\nis an audacious thing to attack Shakspere as a wearer of another man\u2019s\nclothes, after three centuries of his renown. He lived in the public eye.\nAll London knew him. Some envied and sneered, but none doubted him until\nsome three hundred years after his birth; if there were doubts they were\nso feeble that nothing came of them. Is it the function of the press and\nthe reporter\u2014making great and small seem alike\u2014which has made Shaksperean\nskepticism almost respectable, if not entirely so? Whatever be the cause,\n\u201cthe news\u201d spreads that Bacon wrote our Shaksperean works, and the debate\nis growing into bulk, if not into a serious concernment. We are not a bit\ntouched with the skepticism; it seems to us unreasonable, beyond ordinary\nmeasure in unreason; and yet we must recognize the growth of the new\ntheory of the authorship of our glorious drama.\n\nThe change next to the foregoing in importance which marks the fourth\nShaksperean century is the new way in which the great mass of his\nadmirers come to know and enjoy him. He has passed from the stage to the\nstudy, the parlor, the school-room. He is acted a little; he is read\na great deal. In his first and second centuries he was known almost\nexclusively through the stage; in his third, the stage and the book\ndivided about equally the office of making him known; in the fourth,\nShaksperean acting has become insignificant in comparison with the\ngeneral reading and teaching of Shakspere. His works are coming to be\nstudied in all high schools, academies and colleges. Shakspere is in\nnearly all libraries, be they large or small. One may almost say that he\nis at home in nearly every house where English is read. There is hardly\na town in the country which does not boast at least one well-established\n\u201cShakspere Club.\u201d Year after year the members meet weekly to read and\ntalk over the merits of the one writer who never tires them. The scholars\nof all lands know him in the printed page; all the great tongues have\nbooks of criticism in which he occupies a conspicuous place. One view\nof this transition from the stage to the study and the school is that\nShakspere was always too large for the theater. It was in the largest\nsense impossible to act his plays. All acting narrowed and misrepresented\nhim. The larger field of the book is his proper home. He gains by the\nliberty and healthfulness of the modern environment. The two changes\nwhich we note will bear on each other. Too many persons are coming to\nknow what and how Shakspere wrote to permit any star-chamber of criticism\nto settle the authorship of these plays in darkness and secrecy; the\npower to form a judgment is being created in the minds of the great jury\nwhose verdict will probably kill off the Shaksperean skepticism. We\ndo not believe it will survive to 1964, the end of Shakspere\u2019s fourth\ncentury.\n\n\nART IN THE UNITED STATES.\n\nIf it is _possible_ for this nation to become artistic in tastes and\nhabits, we shall not fail. There is no branch of special education more\nenthusiastically advocated and patronized. Of course the end in view will\nrequire more advocacy and more patronage\u2014a great deal more\u2014but we are\ndoing so much that the necessary more will doubtless be done. It should\nbe remembered too, that if blood tells in the matter of art culture we\nhave no lack of blood drawn from the artistic nations. Flemings, Germans,\nItalians, Spaniards, and even Greeks, come to New York in large numbers;\nand if Anglo-Saxon blood were condemned as unartistic by inevitable\nnatural incapacity, we should still be able to produce great artists in\nabundance\u2014if method, zeal, and patronage could do this thing. We will not\nprophesy; let us wait and see. It is understood, of course, that much,\nperhaps most of our art, is industrial. We need to educate a large corps\nof designers for useful goods, which are also ornamental; and this type\nof artist is so well rewarded when he displays inventive faculty that we\nare likely to surpass all other peoples in this department of work. It\nis not easy to separate completely in our thinking this branch of art\nfrom that which aims only at artistic pleasure. A design for goods may\nbe perfect art, and satisfy all the requirements of the \u00e6sthetic sense.\nBut it is obvious that decorative art is very close to industrial art in\nnature and purpose. And the purpose has always been condemned by high\nart, for it looks straight at the sale of the goods at good prices.\n\nIt is complained every year in New York, when the art exhibitions come\non for criticism, that the pecuniary motive for work, and the avidity of\nartists for good sales, depress the imagination of the lovers of good\nwork. In substance, then, our trouble as to art\u2014that we are a commercial\nrace\u2014seems to get into the schools and infect their atmosphere. The evil\nis not that success is rewarded; but that success is not possible to an\nartist who thinks always of his reward. Art, like religion, requires\na spirit of self-renunciation. Success in art is not possible to one\nwho consumes his energy in thinking about the sale of his pictures. To\nbecome rich by art one must be first willing to starve to death in the\nservice of art truth. We are not demanding such sacrifices; we are only\nsuggesting that without the spirit of them the pure art of this country\nwill not attain the eminence which our enthusiasm seeks to reach.\n\n\u201cSordid treatment\u201d of themes is inevitable in the sordid atmosphere\nwhich, we are told, is breathed in all our circles of art. Besides,\nthe museums are founded by good natured people who are poor guides and\ndirectors and yet must control, because they are patrons. One art journal\ndeclares that enough energy has in the last five years been expended in\nbehalf of art to have given it a firm establishment. It adds that most\nof this energy has been wasted. Art students and art teachers and art\ninstitutions and publications multiply, but they do not give us high\nart. We read this complaint and recall the story of the oil-king in\nwestern Pennsylvania who ordered the teacher of his daughter to \u201cbuy her\na capacity, without regard to expense.\u201d If art comes to us to stay it\nwill come by a slow change of thought, feeling, and aspiration. It is\nprobable that this change has begun; let us hope that it will ripen to a\ngracious and mellowed maturity. The art-life will find ample room in our\nhospitable civilization, if it can acquire the courage to live its own\nlife and escape being a parasite on the robust body of our commercial\nlife.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S NOTE-BOOK.\n\n\nThe force of the \u201cChautauqua Idea\u201d is not abating; on the contrary it\nworks its way into new homes and distant fields\u2014for instance, we have the\nC. L. S. C. Class of 1888, which commenced to form last July, and now\nnumbers about 20,000 members. The \u201cFlorida Chautauqua,\u201d in Florida, is a\nnew plant, and now our C. L. S. C. friends in Canada are raising a fund\nof $50,000 with which to purchase and furnish grounds near Niagara Falls,\nfor an Assembly after the Chautauqua fashion.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMany prominent Chautauqua workers are at the Florida Chautauqua now in\nsession at Lake de Funiak. Among them are the Rev. Frank Russell, Mrs. G.\nR. Alden (Pansy), the Rev. A. A. Wright, Dean of the Chautauqua School of\nTheology, Prof. W. D. Bridge, Prof. W. F. Sherwin, Mrs. Juvia C. Hull,\nthe Rev. S. G. Smith, D.D., the Meigs-Underhill Combination, Prof. C.\nE. Bolton, Mrs. Emily Huntington Miller, Dr. O. P. Fitzgerald, Prof.\nR. L. Cumnock, Wallace Bruce, Hon. John N. Stearns, Col. G. W. Bain,\nMrs. Emma P. Ewing, Hon. Lewis Miller, etc. Many prominent lecturers,\nsingers and readers as yet not known publicly at Chautauqua, are at this\nSouthern Chautauqua, or on the program for the closing week. Dr. Gillet,\nin preparing the royal feast of four weeks\u2019 continuance, has subsidized\nthe country generally for his purposes, and all prominent denominations\nare tributary thereto. Nearly or quite all the departments (save the C.\nS. L.), known at Chautauqua, are in successful operation. The Assembly\nalready takes high rank in design and desire, and professors, lecturers,\nreaders, singers, helpers, are among the very best. No Assembly in the\nland starts off with a more brilliant outlook, or with such strong\nfinancial backing.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn our December issue we called attention to the effort being made to\nestablish an Assembly in Canada, at Niagara. The plan is developing\nvery satisfactorily. The proposition involves the acquirement from\nthe Dominion Government of the piece of land known as Paradise Grove,\ncontaining about eighty acres, situated upon the bank of the Niagara\nRiver just outside the town of Niagara. The company which holds the lease\nhas signified its willingness to consent to a transfer. Toronto is also\nthoroughly aroused to the importance of the movement, so much so that at\na very largely attended public meeting called in February to discuss the\nmatter the citizens pledged themselves almost unanimously to give a bonus\nof ten thousand dollars to the company. In addition to this promises of\nstock subscriptions have been made of at least as much more. It is easy\nto see that, if carried out, this project will prove a great boon to the\nold town. Already a large number of persons on both sides of the line\nhave signified their intention to erect cottages and make it their summer\nhome.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Chautauqua Circle has just added a new and important branch to the\nmany into which it is already divided. This is an art \u201ccircle,\u201d to be\ncalled the Chautauqua Society of Fine Arts, in which it is proposed to\ngive lessons in drawing and painting by correspondence. Every branch of\nart will be taught, from elementary drawing to oil-painting. The plan is\na thoroughly practical one, and will be carried out in the best interests\nof the fine arts. Mr. Frank Fowler has been appointed director, and\nMessrs. R. Swain Gifford, Thomas Moran and Will H. Low will act as a\ncommittee of award. The course of study will extend over two years, at\nthe end of which time diplomas will be given and prizes awarded for the\nbest work in the different classes. The membership fee is fifty cents a\nyear. Application for circulars and further information should be made to\nMiss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWith the fall of Khartoum, the death of General Gordon, the Irish\ndynamiteurs and their explosions in London, together with the land\ntroubles in Ireland, a growing dissatisfaction with the Gladstone\nministry, and the threatening aspect of Russia, England has enough of\nperplexing questions on hand to keep her Queen, Ministry and Parliament\nemployed for an indefinite period of time. To be an English politician\nto-day is to have unrivaled opportunities for strong and vigorous action.\nApropos of the Soudan trouble our readers will find the article by Dr.\nWheeler, on England and Islam, in this impression, both spirited and\nprofitable reading.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nRoller skating is now claiming the attention of, first, physicians, who\nseem to be divided in their verdict as to the injurious physical effects\nof the exercise; second, of clergymen and laymen in the churches, who\nobject to the \u201crink\u201d on account of the associations, quite as much as\nthe doctors do to the skating; third, of economists. In a railroad car\nbound west recently, we overheard a conversation between two cattle\ndrovers on the \u201cRoller Rink,\u201d one of whom held up a paper named the\n_Rink and Roller_, the organ of the new sport. These two men discussed\nthe financial side of \u201croller skating,\u201d one insisting thus: \u201cA boy will\nchop wood for seventy-five cents a day, or work at the bench for that\namount, and then spend fifty cents in the evening for himself and girl\nto attend the rink; they keep it up; what\u2019s the good; it is a craze.\u201d\nRinks are being built in all our towns and cities, but it will come to an\nend like every craze. Some will be injured physically\u2014perhaps some will\ndate a moral lapse to an unfortunate acquaintance made in the promiscuous\ncompany; while all who go will spend their money. _What is the profit?_\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe venerable Mr. George Bancroft, having passed his eightieth birthday,\nstill preserves his physical vigor and looks like one of the patriarchs\nof Washington. His mind is active and retains its strength, though now\nenjoying a much needed respite from literary work. Mr. Bancroft has\nfinished his \u201cHistory of the United States,\u201d which has been a long and\nlaborious task. Some new historian must appear, who can live in the midst\nof political changes, and like this great man, preserve an impartial\njudgment, as a historian, to continue Bancroft\u2019s standard history of the\nUnited States.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe closing act of President Arthur\u2019s term of office was one of simple\njustice to a worthy man. The following note explains it all:\n\n    TO THE SENATE OF THE UNITED STATES\u2014I nominate Ulysses S. Grant,\n    formerly General Commanding the armies of the United States, to\n    be General on the retired list of the army, with full pay of such\n    rank.\n\n                                                     CHESTER A. ARTHUR.\n\n    Executive Mansion, March 4, 1885.\n\nCongress had passed an act which made it possible that General Grant\ncould be placed on the retired list. The Senate by a unanimous vote\nconfirmed the President\u2019s nomination.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe number of books and periodicals supported on a given subject, is\na good sign of its interest to the public. Following this indication\nwe conclude that the public interest in sports and amusements is fully\ndouble what it was a year ago. A tabulated statement of the publications\nof 1884, compared with the books issued in 1883, gives the works on\nsports in the two years as twenty-two in 1883 to fifty-one in 1884. This\nsuggestive comparison is but one of many signs that we are awakening to\nthe absolute necessity of healthful exercise, if we would lead useful\nlives ourselves, and would propagate a sturdy race.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nEvery summer many ladies and gentlemen engaged in educational work make\na vacation tour to the Old World. Those having such intentions for the\ncoming summer will perhaps accept a few words of advice. In order to\neconomize your time and derive the full benefit of your trip abroad, the\nbest thing to be done is to join a party, the management of which is\nin the hands of an experienced traveler. The question naturally arises,\nWhere is there a party formed in which we will find most advantages for\nthe money expended? We do not hesitate in saying that we can recommend no\nbetter than Professor de Potter\u2019s parties, organized each year in Albany,\nNew York, and which have the reputation of being ably conducted.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere is going on in the newspapers just now a very suggestive contest\nover the spelling of a word. Shall it be dynami_teur_ or _ter_? Both\nforms have reliable followings, though no reasons have been advanced for\neither termination. The word is a good example of several interesting\nfeatures of word-making. It illustrates how each new development in\nhistory requires a vocabulary, and how the vocabulary is formed from the\nfacts involved. Further, the difference in the termination shows how\neach word must have its period of instability before usage selects the\nform which shall be permanent. This Irish agitation has, by the way,\nintroduced several new words into the language.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe Americans believe very firmly in ourselves. But sometimes we can not\nhelp wondering if this vigorous, athletic government of ours, and these\ngrowing institutions, seem to others a success. It will be gratifying to\nread Mr. Matthew Arnold\u2019s opinion of us: \u201cA people homogeneous, a people\nwhich had to constitute itself in a modern age, an epoch of expansion,\nand which has given to itself institutions entirely fitted for such an\nage and epoch, and which suit it perfectly\u2014a people not in danger of war\nfrom without, not in danger of revolution from within\u2014such is the people\nof the United States. The political and social problem we must surely\nallow that they solve successfully.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLast year women were for the first time admitted to the Oxford University\nexaminations. Since they have been allowed to hear certain college\nlectures, and are now finally admitted to the classes. It is a surprising\nconcession, but it is the course of the future. Women in England have\nproven conclusively their ability to cope with university studies.\nThey have zealously and quietly improved each added liberty. This last\nrecognition comes as the inevitable effect of a law which works through\nall human affairs, viz.: a demand creates a supply.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPresident Arthur closed his term of service with the confidence and\nrespect of the American people. He performed the difficult task of\nfilling the highest office in the government with prudence and ability,\nwhen, in fact, he was not the choice of the people for the place, but it\nfell to his lot in the order of a mysterious providence. Among the Vice\nPresidents who have succeeded to the presidency Chester A. Arthur will\nbe honored in history as a wise statesman, faithful to the people whom\nhe served. President Cleveland\u2019s administration is the dawn of a new\npolitical era in the country, but we believe that he will make a safe\nPresident.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere has been recently organized in New York State a State Forestry\nAssociation. President White, of Cornell University, has accepted the\npresidency. The society proposes to make a vigorous effort to arouse the\npeople to the necessity of laws which shall preserve their forests from\nthe lawless destruction which has robbed thousands upon thousands of\nacres in the Adirondacks of their wealth of timber. Such a society is,\nwithout doubt, the only means by which a proper sentiment can be aroused.\nThe cause of the wholesale depredations has been lack of thought. As one\nof the lumbermen put it: \u201cIt all comes to this\u2014it was because there was\nnobody to think about it, or do anything about it. We were all busy, and\nall to blame. But I could do nothing alone, and my neighbor could do\nnothing alone, and there was nobody to set us to work together on a plan\nto have things better; nobody to represent the common object. Why did not\nyou come along to talk to us about it years and years ago?\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA look through a railroad guide shows a list of names which are a sad\ncriticism on our refinement. Think of going down to posterity as born in\nsuch a place as You Bet, Red Hot, Fair Play, Muddy Creek, Looking Glass,\nLone Star, or Saw Tooth. These undignified, ill-sounding names are very\ncommon, and in the new portion of the country it seems to be a matter\nof pride to invent absurd names. A gentleman who had the misfortune to\nreside in a town which bore one of these unmelodious names recently\nsaid to us: \u201cI am actually ashamed to register myself when traveling,\nas from \u2018Goose Creek,\u2019 and for years I have had my mail sent to a town\nthree miles away rather than endure the sight of that odious name on my\nletters.\u201d There are ways of changing these names, and in the interest of\ngood taste it should be done.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn spite of the difficulties in his way, the Rev. Sheldon Jackson has\nsucceeded in getting into his Industrial Training School for Indian Boys\nand Girls at Sitka, Alaska. Not the least of these difficulties has been\ngetting lumber for the building. Here is the story as he writes us:\n\u201cSince coming here last August, I sent a crew of three Indians in a canoe\na round trip of 400 miles along the coast, with a letter to a saw mill.\nThe trees were felled, the logs were sawed up, a schooner chartered to\nbring the lumber, and in due time 100,000 feet of lumber was rafted from\nthe schooner on the beach, through the surf, carried on men\u2019s shoulders\nto the building site, a three story building 130x50 feet in size erected,\nand so far completed that we were able to move into it the first week\nin January. I have also in the same time organized a church of seventy\nmembers, of whom sixty are natives, received on confession of faith and\nbaptism. These converts are largely the fruit of the work of Mr. Austin,\none of our teachers.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. H. M. Bacon, D.D., pastor of the Central Congregational Church,\nToledo, Ohio, in a recent article on \u201cOur English Tongue,\u201d in which he\nquotes Richard Grant White\u2019s statement in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for December,\nthat \u201cThis modern English, which is the youngest, is also the greatest\nlanguage ever spoken,\u201d mentions several valuable confirmations of this\nopinion. Among them is the tribute of Jacob Grimm, the learned German\nlexicographer, who says: \u201cIn wealth, good sense, and closeness of\nstructure, no other language at this day spoken, not even our German,\ndeserves to be compared to it\u201d (the English). He also calls attention\nto similar opinions expressed by the late Baron Humboldt, and by Guizot,\nand recalls the fact that once when the Academy of Berlin offered a prize\nfor the best essay on a comparison of fourteen of the ancient and modern\ntongues, the prize was awarded to a writer who had given the first place\nto the English.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOn the 23d of February the Washington Monument was formally dedicated at\nWashington, D. C. Thirty-six years have elapsed since its corner stone\nwas laid. Of the Senate which attended the ceremonies on that occasion\nbut nine are still living, and since that date the most trying years of\nour national life have been passed. Though the delays in completing the\nwork have been annoying, now that it is complete, it is gratifying to\nknow that the monument is in every way worthy of its object. Indeed, we\nhave no hesitancy in pronouncing it the most beautiful structure in the\nnation\u2019s capital. An obelisk of light gray stone, at a distance it looks\nlike a clearly defined cloud lying against the sky. Its great height (555\nfeet) is not realized, so perfect is the proportion. The location of the\nmonument has been criticised. It stands on a Government reservation,\nadjacent to the Potomac River, and directly facing the Capitol. The land\nis low, and many believe it was a serious mistake not to have placed the\nobelisk on Capitol Hill. We can not agree with them. The advantage of\nhaving the monument on public grounds, where the view of the entire shaft\nwill never be obstructed, is much greater than a higher location with an\nobstructed view would have been. Then, too, this site was one approved\nby Washington himself for a monument which, in 1783, the Continental\nCongress voted to be erected to him. Of course \u201cgoing to the top\u201d is,\nand will be, one of the chief features of sight seeing in Washington.\nEvery half hour the steam elevator in the monument carries a crowded\nload to the top, allowing them ten minutes for looking around before the\ndescent. The stairway is not yet open to the public, and even if it were\nmost people would hesitate before undertaking to mount its 900 steps. The\ninterior of the shaft is lighted by incandescent electric lights. Not the\nleast interesting feature of the monument is the number of marble tablets\npresented by different states and institutions, and which are being\ninserted in the inside walls. Several of these have considerable artistic\nand historic value.\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR APRIL.\n\n\nSHORT HISTORY OF THE REFORMATION.\n\nThere is so much reading on the Reformation, and it is so well known and\neasily accessible that it seems almost unnecessary to give a list of\nsupplementary readings. But among so many books it is hard to choose, so\nwe append the names of a few, thinking we may perhaps help some to decide\nwhat to read. In order to enjoy this little \u201cHistory of the Reformation\u201d\nin the required course, one ought to read many larger ones. \u201cHistory\nof the Reformation.\u201d By G. P. Fisher. $3.00; D\u2019Aubigne\u2019s \u201cHistory of\nthe Reformation;\u201d Burnet\u2019s \u201cReformation in England;\u201d \u201cHistory of the\nChristian Church.\u201d By W. W. Blackburn. $2.50; Motley\u2019s \u201cRise of the Dutch\nRepublic.\u201d $6.00; \u201cProtestantism.\u201d By De Quincy. \u201cShort Studies.\u201d By J.\nA. Froude. \u201cHistory of the Rise of the Huguenots.\u201d By Henry M. Baird.\n$3.50; \u201cJohn Knox.\u201d By Thomas McCrie. $2.00; \u201cMartin Luther and his\nWork.\u201d By J. H. Treadwell. $1.00; \u201cThe Massacre of St. Bartholomew.\u201d By\nHenry White. $1.75; \u201cSch\u00f6nberg-Cotta Family.\u201d By Mrs. Charles. $1.00;\n\u201cThe Martyrs of Spain.\u201d By Mrs. Charles. $1.00; \u201cSavonarola.\u201d By W.\nR. Clarke. $1.50; \u201cRomola.\u201d By George Eliot. (Treats of the times of\nSavonarola); \u201cChristians and Moors of Spain.\u201d By Miss Yonge. $1.25.\n\nP. 3.\u2014\u201cCouncil of Constance.\u201d A council of the Roman Catholic Church,\nopened in 1414, and closed in 1418. In its earlier sessions the doctrines\nof Wycliffe were examined and condemned. John Huss was also condemned and\nexecuted, as was Jerome, of Prague. The council was called to consider\nmeasures to remedy the division arising in the church from the long\nresidence of the popes at Avignon, and the consequent desire on the part\nof the French for a national church. See page 89 in the \u201cShort History.\u201d\n\n\u201cJulian, the Apostate.\u201d (331-363.) A Roman emperor, the nephew of\nConstantine the Great. Immediately upon his accession he openly avowed\nhis abandonment of Christianity, but he published an edict which granted\nperfect liberty to all sects and all religions. He, however, excluded\nChristians from civil and military offices, and compelled them to\ncontribute toward sustaining pagan temples. He permitted the Jews to\nrebuild their temple at Jerusalem, and published a large volume against\nChristianity.\n\nP. 4.\u2014\u201cMedici,\u201d m\u0101\u02c8de-che. A distinguished Florentine family appearing in\nhistory since the close of the thirteenth century.\n\nP. 5.\u2014\u201cd\u2019Ailly,\u201d d\u0101\u02c8ye; \u201cJohn Chartier Gerson,\u201d sh\u00e4r-te-\u0101 zhair-so\u207f\u1d4d.\n\nP. 6.\u2014\u201cNicholas Cl\u00e9manges,\u201d cl\u0101-manj; \u201cGallican Church.\u201d The name given\nto the Catholic Church in France.\n\n\u201cFather Hyacinthe.\u201d Charles Loyson, a French pulpit orator, born in\n1827. At the age of twenty-two he was ordained a priest. He was\nhighly educated. Suspicions as to his doctrines were awakened, and he\nwas summoned to appear before the pope, but cleared himself. Shortly\nafter some speeches of his gave offense, and he was ordered to change\nhis manner or be quiet, but he paid no heed. He was soon forbidden to\npreach, and threatened with excommunication. In 1869 he visited America,\nwhere he was warmly welcomed by many Protestants, but he declared he\nhad no intention of leaving the Catholic Church. He protested against\nthe doctrine of the pope\u2019s infallibility, and defended the right of the\nclergy to marry. In 1870, on his return to France, the pope relieved him\nof his monastic vows, and he became a secular priest. In 1872 he was\nmarried to an American lady. He is now pastor of a church in Paris, a\nsort of independent Catholic church.\n\nP. 7.\u2014\u201cHuguenots,\u201d h\u016b\u02c8g\u0113-nots. The name applied to the French Reformers.\nIts origin is uncertain, some asserting that it was derived from one of\nthe gates of the city of Tours, named Hugons, where the Protestants held\ntheir first assemblies. Others say it came from the name of their first\nleader, Hugues.\n\nP. 8.\u2014\u201cDominican Order.\u201d An order founded by St. Dominic, in 1216; \u201cJohn\nRuysbroek,\u201d rois\u02c8brek.\n\nP. 12.\u2014\u201cWittenberg,\u201d vit\u02c8ten-bairg. A town in Prussia, in which there\nis an immense bronze statue of Luther, and not far from it one of\nMelancthon. It is the seat of a great university.\n\n\u201cSt. Victor.\u201d A monastery in Paris.\n\nP. 13.\u2014\u201cOrigen.\u201d (185-253.) One of the fathers of the church, noted for\nhis unwearied diligence and life of self-denial. For two years, during\nthe persecution under Maximin, he lay concealed in a friend\u2019s house, and\nhere wrote his \u201cHexapla.\u201d In the Decian persecution he was imprisoned and\nsubjected to extreme torture. Many of his valuable writings have been\nlost.\n\n\u201cAlexandrian school.\u201d A name applied to the philosophers of Alexandria in\nthe second century. It aimed to harmonize all philosophy and all religion.\n\nP. 14.\u2014\u201cThomas \u00e0 Kempis. (1379-1471.) A German writer, a prior in the\nmonastery of Mount St. Agnes.\n\n\u201cKaisersheim,\u201d k\u012b\u02c8zers-h\u012bme\u02cc; \u201cRheinfeld,\u201d r\u012bne\u02c8felt; \u201cPfaffenheim,\u201d\np\u00e4f\u02c8fen-hime.\n\nP. 17.\u2014\u201cBoccaccio,\u201d bok-kat\u02c8cho. (1313-1375.) An Italian novelist, and\nfriend of Petrarch; \u201cChrysoloras,\u201d kris-o-lo\u02c8ras.\n\nP. 18.\u2014\u201cPa-l\u00e6-ol\u02c8o-gus;\u201d \u201cBes-s\u0101\u02c8ri-on.\u201d\n\nP. 19.\u2014\u201cArgyropylus,\u201d ar-ghe-rop\u02c8oo-los; \u201cLas\u02c8ca-ris;\u201d \u201cChalkondylas,\u201d\nkal-kon\u02c8de-las; \u201cGemistus Pletho,\u201d je-mis\u02c8tus ple\u02c8tho; \u201cMoschopylus,\u201d\nmos-kop\u02c8y-lus; \u201cGasperinus,\u201d g\u00e4s-p\u00e4-ree\u02c8nus; \u201cAurispa,\u201d ow-r\u0113s\u02c8p\u00e4;\n\u201cPoggius,\u201d poj\u02c8us; \u201cPerothes,\u201d per\u02c8\u014d-t\u0113s; \u201cPolitianus,\u201d po-lish\u02c8\u0101-nus.\n\nP. 20.\u2014\u201cHierarch.\u201d One who rules or has authority in sacred things.\n\nP. 21.\u2014\u201cVulgate Bible.\u201d One of the oldest Latin versions of the\nScriptures. So called from its common use in the church. The Catholic\nChurch claims this to be the only authentic translation.\n\n\u201cGuizot,\u201d g\u0113\u02ccz\u014d\u02c8. (1787-1874.) A French historian.\n\n\u201cReuchlin,\u201d roik\u02c8lin. (1455-1522.)\n\nP. 23.\u2014\u201cBordeaux,\u201d bor-d\u014d\u02c8; \u201cAvignon,\u201d \u0103-v\u0113-nyo\u207f\u1d4d.\n\nP. 27.\u2014\u201cEisleben,\u201d ice\u02c8la-ben.\n\nP. 28.\u2014\u201cEisenach,\u201d \u012b\u02c8zen-n\u00e4k.\n\nP. 30.\u2014\u201cScala Santa,\u201d sacred staircase. A staircase in the church and\npalace of the Lateran, so called because Christ was said to have ascended\nand descended it. This magnificent building was used as the residence of\nthe popes, from 312 till their removal to Avignon in 1309. The staircase,\naccording to tradition, belonged to the house of Pilate, and was brought\nto Rome by the mother of Constantine. It is composed of twenty-eight\nmarble steps, which have been covered by order of the popes with a\ncasing of wood. The wood has several times had to be replaced, having\nbeen worn through by the knees of ascending pilgrims. This staircase was\npreserved from the fire which destroyed the building in 1308. The Lateran\nwas rebuilt, to be again burned in 1360. It was restored in 1364, and\ncompletely modernized in 1559. This church has always been the cathedral\nof the bishops of Rome, and takes precedence of all other churches in the\nCatholic world.\n\nP. 32.\u2014\u201cSchlosskirche,\u201d schlus\u02c8keer-ka. The church belonging to a castle;\n\u201cMos-cel\u02c8la-nus.\u201d\n\nP. 33.\u2014\u201cBull.\u201d An edict of the pope, sent to the churches over which he\nis head, containing some decree or decision.\n\n\u201cHapsburg.\u201d Originally a castle in Switzerland. It gave its name to the\nimperial house of Austria.\n\nP. 35.\u2014\u201cFrederick the Wise.\u201d Frederick III., elector of Saxony.\n\nP. 37.\u2014\u201cZwickaw,\u201d tswik\u02c8kow. A city in Saxony.\n\nP. 43.\u2014\u201cAugsburg Confession.\u201d The first Protestant confession of faith.\n\n\u201cConvention at Smalcald,\u201d sm\u00e4l\u02c8k\u00e4lt. A confederation of the Protestants\nheld in 1531, in which they were secretly aided by England and France.\n\nP. 45.\u2014\u201cMelancthon,\u201d me-lank\u02c8thon; \u201cPforzheim,\u201d pforts\u02c8hime;\n\u201cT\u00fc\u02c8bing-en;\u201d \u201c\u0152colampadius,\u201d \u0115k\u02cco-l\u0103m-p\u0101\u02c8d\u012d-us.\n\n\u201cTerence.\u201d (B. C. 195-159.) A Roman comic poet.\n\nP. 50.\u2014\u201cUlrich von Hutten,\u201d ool\u02c8rik fon hoot\u02c8en; \u201cSi-king\u02c8en;\u201d \u201cCranach,\u201d\nkr\u00e4\u02c8n\u00e4k.\n\nP. 51.\u2014\u201cZwingle,\u201d tswin\u02c8gle.\n\nP. 52.\u2014\u201cWittenbach,\u201d vit\u02c8ten-b\u00e4k; \u201cGlarus,\u201d gl\u00e4\u02c8roos. A canton of\nSwitzerland; \u201cEinsiedeln,\u201d \u012bne\u02c8ze-deln.\n\nP. 53.\u2014\u201cMariolatry,\u201d m\u0101-r\u00ed-ol\u02c8a-try. The worship of the Virgin Mary.\n\nP. 54.\u2014\u201cHelvetic Confession.\u201d This differed materially from the Lutheran\nonly in holding that Christ was not bodily present in the eucharist.\n\nP. 57.\u2014\u201cViret,\u201d v\u0113-r\u0101; \u201cFroment,\u201d fr\u014d-mo\u207f\u1d4d; \u201cFarel,\u201d f\u00e4-rel.\n\nP. 58.\u2014\u201cBourges,\u201d boorzh; \u201cAngoul\u00eame,\u201d a\u207f\u1d4d-goo-laim.\n\n\u201cPsychopannychia,\u201d s\u012b-k\u014d-pan-nik\u02c8i-a.\n\nP. 59.\u2014\u201cTillet,\u201d til-l\u0101; \u201cMartianus Lucanius,\u201d mar-she-\u0101\u02c8nus lu-ca\u02c8ni-us;\n\u201cCourault,\u201d coo-r\u014d.\n\nP. 61.\u2014\u201cNeuenburg,\u201d noi\u02c8en-boorg. A town in Germany.\n\nP. 62.\u2014\u201cBucer,\u201d boo\u02c8tser. (1491-1551.)\n\nP. 64.\u2014\u201cLausanne,\u201d l\u014d-zan\u02c8.\n\nP. 66.\u2014\u201cArchbishop of Canterbury.\u201d This archbishop is the primate or\nruling officer in the national Church of England, the first peer of the\nrealm, and member of the privy council. It is he who places the crown\nupon the king.\n\nP. 67.\u2014\u201cLambeth Palace.\u201d The town residence of the Archbishop of\nCanterbury. It stands on the Thames River, and is surrounded by gardens\ntwelve acres in extent.\n\nP. 68.\u2014\u201cOchino,\u201d o-k\u012b\u02c8no; \u201cFagius,\u201d f\u00e4\u02c8ge-\u014fos; \u201cAnne Boleyn,\u201d ann bul\u02c8len.\n\nP. 72.\u2014\u201cFroschover,\u201d frosh\u02c8o-vair.\n\nP. 78.\u2014\u201cAct of Uniformity.\u201d An act enforcing observance of the English\nChurch service. Severe penalties were enforced against any one who should\nconduct religious service in any other way than that prescribed by the\nBook of Common Prayer.\n\nP. 80.\u2014\u201cCardinal Beatoun,\u201d b\u0113\u02c8tun. Usually written Beaton. (1494-1546.)\nA persecutor of the Protestants. On the death of King James, he\nconceived the idea of seizing the government, and forged a will of the\nking\u2019s, naming himself as successor, but he was prevented from carrying\nout his plan and was imprisoned for a time. He was shortly afterward\nre\u00ebstablished in his ecclesiastical administration. His enemies seeing no\nrelease from his terrible persecutions put him to death.\n\nP. 84.\u2014\u201cGerard Groot,\u201d j\u0115-rard\u02c8 gr\u014dt; \u201cFlorentius Radewin,\u201d\nflo-ron\u02c8she-us r\u00e4\u02c8de-win; \u201cHerzogenbusch,\u201d hairts-\u014d\u02c8gen-boosh.\n\nP. 85.\u2014\u201cYuste,\u201d yoos\u02c8t\u0101.\n\n\u201cInquisition.\u201d This was a court established for the purpose of examining\nand punishing heretics.\n\nP. 87.\u2014Luther\u2019s doctrine concerning the will was that it has no \u201cpositive\nability in the work of salvation, but has the negative ability of ceasing\nits resistance under the general influence of the Spirit in the Word and\nSacraments.\u201d\n\nP. 88.\u2014\u201cMomus.\u201d In Greek mythology the god of mockery and censure. He is\nrepresented as raising a mask from his face.\n\nP. 89.\u2014\u201cVaudois,\u201d vo-dw\u00e4.\n\nP. 90.\u2014\u201cSorbonne,\u201d sor-bun. A school of theology in Paris, founded in\n1253, by Robert de Sorbonne, whence its name. The members were divided\ninto fellows and commoners. The former were selected for their eminent\nlearning, and took the position of teachers. The commoners were chosen\nfrom among those receiving instruction, after a severe ordeal, and\nwere supported by the college, but had no voice in its government. They\nceased to be members when they graduated as doctors. No member of any\nreligious body was allowed to enter this order. The large lecture halls\nof the institution were opened free of all charges, to all poor students,\nand the professors were directed never to refuse instruction to such.\nStudents who had money were required to pay regular fees. The school was\nwithout a rival all through the Middle Ages. Its controlling power was\nfelt everywhere. It was frequently appealed to in disputes between the\ncivil power and the papacy. It opposed the claims of Henry VIII. for\na divorce from Catharine; condemned the doctrines of Luther and other\nreformers, and declared that Henry III. had forfeited his crown. It was\nsuppressed in 1789, and its buildings are now used by the University of\nFrance.\n\n\u201cMeaux,\u201d m\u014d; \u201cAngers,\u201d \u00e2\u207f\u1d4d-zh\u0101; \u201cPoictiers,\u201d pw\u00e4-ty\u0101.\n\nP. 91.\u2014\u201cGallic Confession.\u201d This was essentially Calvinistic in its\nimport, as were also the system of government and method of discipline\nadopted. They were, however, modified somewhat, to suit a church\u2014not like\nthat at Geneva, in union with the state, but antagonistic to it.\n\n\u201cBourbons.\u201d This line of kings in France began with Henry IV. Six of his\ndescendants in direct line occupied the throne after him. The Louises\nXIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVIII., and Charles X. The last representative of\nthis line was the Count de Chambord, who died in 1883. There is a younger\nbranch known as the Orleans branch.\n\n\u201cGuises,\u201d gheez. A branch of the ducal family of Loraine, which took a\nprominent part in the civil and religious wars in France.\n\nP. 95.\u2014\u201cS\u00e4-vo-n\u00e4-ro\u02c8l\u00e4,\u201d \u201cBrescia,\u201d br\u0101\u02c8sha.\n\nP. 98.\u2014\u201cChardon de la Rocette,\u201d shar-do\u207f\u1d4d d\u0115 l\u00e4 r\u014fh-sh\u0115t; \u201cBrucioli,\u201d\nbroo-cho\u02c8lee; \u201cMarmochini,\u201d mar-mo-kee\u02c8nee; \u201cTeofilo,\u201d t\u0101-o-fee\u02c8lo.\n\nP. 99.\u2014\u201cMauricha,\u201d m\u00e4-r\u0113\u02c8ka; \u201cDella Rovere,\u201d del\u02c8l\u00e4 r\u014d-v\u0101\u02c8r\u0101; \u201cCherbina,\u201d\nsher-bee\u02c8na; \u201cGonzago,\u201d gon-z\u00e4\u02c8g\u014d; \u201cCa-raf\u02c8fa;\u201d \u201cPaschali,\u201d pas-ca\u02c8l\u0113e.\n\nP. 100.\u2014\u201cPaolo di Colli,\u201d p\u00e4-o\u02c8lo d\u0113 col\u02c8lee; \u201cGratarole,\u201d gr\u00e4t-\u00e4-r\u014d\u02c8lee;\n\u201cCor-r\u00e4\u02c8do;\u201d \u201cTeglio,\u201d t\u00e4\u02c8gl\u0113-o.\n\nP. 103.\u2014\u201cVives,\u201d v\u0113\u02c8vace; \u201cPonce de la Fuente,\u201d p\u014dn\u02c8th\u0101 d\u0101 l\u0101 fwen\u02c8t\u0101;\n\u201cEnzinas,\u201d en-z\u0113\u02c8nas; \u201cValladolid,\u201d v\u00e4l-y\u00e4-d\u014d-leed\u02c8; \u201cVarelo,\u201d v\u00e4-r\u0101\u02c8lo;\n\u201c\u00c6gidius,\u201d \u0113-gid\u02c8\u0113-us.\n\nP. 104.\u2014\u201cHernandez,\u201d her-nan\u02c8d\u0101; \u201cBoborguez,\u201d b\u014d-bor\u02c8g\u0101.\n\nP. 110.\u2014\u201cCyriace,\u201d si-r\u0113\u02c8\u00e4-see.\n\nP. 116.\u2014\u201cDollinger,\u201d dol\u02c8ling-er. A learned Catholic theologian, born at\nBamberg, in 1799. He has published a church history, and several other\nworks.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY.\n\nP. 169.\u2014The formula (N\u2082O\u2082) shows that two atoms of nitrogen have united\nwith two atoms of oxygen to form a molecule of nitrogen di-oxide. The\nformula Cu (NO\u2083)\u2082 shows that one atom of copper has united with two\nmolecules, each composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of\noxygen, to form one molecule of cupric nitrate. In like manner Fe\u2082\n(NO\u2083)\u2086 indicates that two atoms of iron have united with six molecules,\neach composed of one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of oxygen, to form\none molecule of ferric nitrate.\n\nP. 173.\u2014\u201cRefractive power\u201d of water. When a ray of light strikes the\nsurface of a new medium, a portion of it is turned out of its original\ncourse or refracted. This gives rise to some well-known effects. When any\nobject is placed in water and viewed obliquely it looks to be nearer the\nsurface than it is, because the light in passing from the denser medium\ntakes a direction more inclined to the horizontal, and an object always\nappears directly in line with the ray of light entering the eye.\n\nP. 178.\u2014\u201cCr\u00e9cy,\u201d kres\u02c8se. This battle took place August 26, 1346, between\nthe English under Edward III. and the French under Philip VI. It is said\nthat Edward had six pieces of artillery. Artillery had probably not been\nused in the field before this time.\n\nP. 182.\u2014\u201cTrin\u02cci-tro-c\u0115l\u02c8lu-lose.\u201d\n\nP. 185.\u2014\u201cMont Cenis,\u201d m\u014d\u207f\u1d4d s\u016dh-n\u0113. This tunnel under the Alps is in\nreality some sixteen miles from Mont Cenis, whose name it bears. The\nfirst mine was fired in 1857, and for four years the piercing was done\nby hand; the need of a quicker method led to the invention of a machine\ndrill\u2014a perforating machine worked by compressed air. The work was\ncarried on by day and night, from both sides of the mountains, until the\ntwo bodies of workmen met, December 26, 1870. The tunnel was opened for\nrailway travel September 17, 1871. Its length is nearly eight miles, and\nthe cost of the tunnel was $15,000,000.\n\n\u201cSt. Got\u02c8hard.\u201d This tunnel is also through the Alps. The length is nine\nand one fourth miles. Its construction was begun in 1872, and it was\ncompleted in eight years.\n\nP. 189.\u2014\u201cPhosphorus ne-cro\u02c8sis.\u201d The latter term is derived from a Greek\nword, meaning to make dead, to mortify, and is a disease which attacks\nbony tissues, as gangrene effects the soft parts. \u201cThe acid fumes\nthrown off from phosphorus in the various processes of making matches,\nfrequently cause among the people employed a terrible disease, which\nattacks the teeth and jaws.\u2026 Its natural course is to rot the entire jaw\nbone away.\u201d\n\nP. 190.\u2014\u201cAl-l\u014ft\u02c8ro-p\u012dsm.\u201d Dana says allotropism is \u201cthe property of\nexisting in two or more conditions which are distinct in their physical\nor chemical relations. Thus, carbon occurs crystallized in octahedron,\nand other related forms, in a state of extreme hardness, in the diamond;\nit occurs in hexagonal forms, and of little hardness, in black lead; and\nagain occurs in a third form, with entire softness, in lamp-black and\ncharcoal. In some cases one of these is peculiarly an active state, and\nthe others a passive one. Thus, ozone is an active state of oxygen, and\nis distinct from ordinary oxygen, which is the element in its passive\nstate.\u201d\n\nP. 194.\u2014\u201cChemicking,\u201d kem\u02c8ik-ing.\n\nP. 203.\u2014Translation of French sentence: \u201cThis last virtue I believe it\nstill to possess, if the husband is rich enough to buy the jewel which\nhis wife is ambitious to own.\u201d\n\nP. 217.\u2014\u201cBoussingault,\u201d boo\u02ccs\u0103n\u02c8go\u02cc; Jean Baptiste. A noted French\nchemist of this century.\n\n\n\n\nNOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN \u201cTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u201d\n\n\nARISTOTLE.\n\n1. \u201cSchoolmen.\u201d Philosophers and divines who in the middle ages adopted\nthe principles of Aristotle and dwelt much upon abstract speculation.\nScholasticism was a philosophy of dogmas. \u201cIts elements were doctrines\nwhich the authority of the church made indisputable,\u201d and which were\nlooked upon as absolute truth. Facts in nature were set aside and an\nartificial, logical scheme developed. Scholiasts thought experiment only\nfit to follow and illustrate theories.\n\n2. \u201cHaroun-al-Raschid,\u201d Aaron the Just. (765-809.) The caliph who raised\nBagdad to its greatest splendor, and whose reign was looked upon as the\ngolden era of the Mohammedan nation. He reigned twenty-three years and\nperformed the pilgrimage to Mecca nine times. He is famous as the hero of\nthe Arabian tales. Tennyson wrote of him in his \u201cRecollections of Arabian\nNights.\u201d\n\n3. \u201cEx post facto.\u201d A Latin expression, meaning an after act or thing\ndone afterward. An _ex post facto_ law is a law enacted after the\ncommission of a crime, for the purpose of being enforced upon the person\nhaving committed the crime, who could not be held a criminal, or at least\na criminal in the same degree, until after the enaction of the law. All\nsuch laws are forbidden by the constitution of the United States.\n\n4. Transcriber\u2019s Note: This note (presumably \u201cHypolais.\u201d) was omitted\nin the original. _Hippolais_ is a scientific genus of tree warblers.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY.\n\n[ERRATA.\u2014A few typographical errors in articles of this series have\nescaped correction. Page 254, change \u201c300,000,000\u201d to 3,000,000; for\n\u201calcohol,\u201d thirty-third line, page 325, substitute paraffine; same page,\neighth line, second column, use not for \u201cbut;\u201d in \u201cexperiment,\u201d same\ncolumn, use heat for \u201csensation,\u201d and in next to the last line of the\narticle change \u201ctopics\u201d to optics.\u2014_Prof. J. T. Edwards._]\n\n1. \u201cGeysers,\u201d g\u012b\u02c8sers. Intermittent hot springs, found in different\nparts of the world. Those of Iceland are the best known. More than one\nhundred of these springs are there found, within a space of two miles.\nThe geysers of the Yellowstone are the most wonderful ever discovered.\nThe country lying between latitude 43\u00b0 and 47\u00b0 north, and longitude 110\u00b0\nand 114\u00b0 west, is dotted with groups of springs. Some of them, when in\naction, send up columns of water to a height of 200 feet.\n\n2. \u201cHugh Miller.\u201d (1802-1856.) A British geologist. He was by trade\na stone mason, but he devoted all his leisure hours to study. Soon\n\u201cdetecting the wonders of the fossil world\u201d in the quarries in which he\nworked, he made them the special subject of his thought, and soon became\nan eminent geologist. He published many works, most of them bearing on\nthis subject. He worked so incessantly, taking little sleep or exercise,\nthat his mind was on the verge of giving way. Realizing this with terror,\nhe took his own life. A note left for his wife read as follows: \u201cA\nfearful dream rises upon me. I can not bear the horrible thought.\u201d\n\nThe old red sandstone is the name given to the rock in Great Britain\nformed in the Devonian age, or age of fishes. Its thickness is in some\nparts 8,000 to 10,000 feet. It includes sandstone, marlytes of red and\nother colors, and some limestone.\n\nThe sandstone of the Triassic period, which includes the latest\nformations of the earth\u2019s crust, is also characterized by fossils, and is\noften red in color; hence the name, new red sandstone, has been applied\nto it.\n\n3. \u201cDr. Hitchcock.\u201d (1793-1864.) An American geologist and author.\n\n4. \u201cMinute animals.\u201d The carbonate of lime which is found in rocks is\nmost of it formed directly of shells, corals, and other animal remains.\nThese little creatures take their stony-like structures from the water\nor from their food through the power of secretion, just as man forms his\nbones, and after their death they are given over to be made into rocks.\nThe great extent and thickness of the limestone rocks of the earth give\nsome idea of the amount of life that flourished there in past time.\n\n5. \u201cAnhydride.\u201d For definition see \u201cChemistry,\u201d page 151.\n\n6. \u201cOld Stone Mill.\u201d It is asserted by some antiquaries that this\nstructure was built by the Northmen, 500 years before Columbus landed on\nthese shores. Its purpose, as well as its origin, has been a theme of\nmuch discussion. Its present appearance is that of a large round tower\novergrown with vines.\n\n7. \u201cThe Stone age.\u201d One of the divisions of prehistoric time. In this age\nmen were not acquainted with the use of metal and fashioned their rude\nimplements exclusively out of stone.\n\n8. \u201cCeramic,\u201d se-ram\u02c8ic.\n\n9. \u201cCesnola collection.\u201d Cesnola was an American soldier and\narch\u00e6ological explorer, born in Italy in 1832. He served in the Crimean\nwar, and in the civil war, was for a long time in Libby Prison. At the\nclose of the war he was sent as consul to Cyprus. Having his attention\nattracted by some fragments of terra cotta and some coins, he began\nmaking excavations in search of relics. He met with such rewards that he\ncontinued his work for three years, employing hundreds of men. Among his\ndiscoveries were statues, lamps, vases, coins, glassware, gold ornaments,\nbronzes, and inscriptions, in all about 13,000 articles. This remarkable\ncollection is now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York.\n\n10. \u201cThe mound builders.\u201d The race of people found in America by its\nfirst settlers had clearly been preceded by a race of higher type and\nattainments. Relics proving this have been discovered throughout the\nMississippi valley. Earthworks are their principal testimony, of which\nmany thousands have been found in Ohio alone. These mounds vary in size\nand shape, but are always regularly formed, sometimes being square,\nsometimes round, hexagonal, octagonal, or truncated. They are ascended by\nspiral paths, and frequently contain skeletons. Sometimes the earthworks\nare thrown up so as to represent in outline men and animals, and appear\nas huge \u201cbas-reliefs on the surface of the ground.\u201d\n\n11. \u201cHumboldt,\u201d Baron von. (1769-1859.) A German naturalist, the most\ndistinguished scholar of the nineteenth century. After a thorough\neducation, under the best masters in different universities, he\ndetermined to devote himself to finance as a business, and familiarized\nhimself with everything pertaining to this calling. He changed his career\nand wished to engage in practical mining. And again he went through\nwith a full preparation for this work. He was sent to explore several\nmining districts, and made many experiments to discover the nature of\nfire-damp. Later he made a great scientific expedition which only led the\nway to others, until he had visited as a scientist almost every land. He\nis distinguished for the comprehensiveness of his researches. During his\ntravels he made astronomical, botanical and magnetic researches, measured\nelevations, investigated the nature of the soil, and the thermometrical\nrelations; he also collected herbariums, and founded the new science of\nthe geography of plants. Of his numerous published works, \u201cKosmos\u201d has\nperhaps attracted public attention most widely. It has been without an\nequal in giving an impulse to natural studies.\n\n12. \u201cLord Lytton,\u201d Sir Edward George. Earle Lytton, son of General\nWilliam Earle Bulwer, born in 1805. Upon his succeeding to the vast\nestates of his mother, the heiress of the Lyttons, he by royal license\nassumed this name, writing it after his own. He is the author of several\nworks, mostly of fiction.\n\n\nTHE CIRCLE OF THE SCIENCES.\n\n1. \u201cSyllogism.\u201d Every argument, to be valid, must be placed in regular\nlogical form, which consists of three propositions, two called the\n_premises_, and the third the _conclusion_. The conclusion follows from\nthe premises, so that if the former are true, the conclusion must be.\nFor example: Major premise\u2014It was not lawful to scourge a Roman citizen;\nminor premise\u2014Paul was a Roman citizen; conclusion\u2014Therefore, it was not\nlawful to scourge Paul.\n\n2. \u201cDr. Porter.\u201d An American scholar and author, born in 1811. The\neleventh president of Yale College.\n\n3. \u201cRuskin,\u201d John. (1819-\u2e3a.) An English author. He has given much\nattention to the study of art, many of his numerous books being written\non that subject.\n\n4. \u201cUtopia.\u201d See THE CHAUTAUQUAN for February, 1885.\n\n5. \u201cCampanella.\u201d (1568-1639.) An Italian philosopher. He was suspected\nof joining a conspiracy against the Spanish government, was put to the\nrack, and finally imprisoned in Spain. Later he was transferred to the\ninquisition at Rome. On gaining his liberty he went to France. He was\nfamous for undermining other systems of philosophy rather than for\nestablishing one of his own.\n\n6. \u201cOwen,\u201d Robert. (1771-1858.) An English social reformer. He lived for\na few years in Scotland, where he advocated his theory of communism,\nan absolute equality in all rights and duties. By the aid of his large\nfortune he was enabled to distribute great numbers of tracts explaining\nhis views, and these soon won him a large following. He was, however,\nopposed and attacked on all sides. In 1823 he came to the United States,\nbought 20,000 acres of land in Indiana, intending to found his community\nthere, but the scheme proved a failure and he returned to England. He\nspent the rest of his life as a traveler, advocating his views both by\nhis books and public lecturing.\n\n7. \u201cFourier,\u201d (foo-ri-\u0101) Charles. (1772-1837.) A French writer on social\nscience.\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\n1. \u201cThebes and Luxor.\u201d Thebes was a celebrated Egyptian city, formerly\nthe capital of Upper Egypt. Its ruins are among the most magnificent in\nthe world, and comprise what form now nine villages, among which Luxor is\none. The large and costly palaces of the Luxor quarter were founded by\nAmenophis III., and from here was taken the obelisk which stands in Place\nde la Concorde in Paris.\n\n2. \u201cArchbishop Whately.\u201d (1787-1863.) An English prelate. He was for some\nyears a professor at Oxford, and in 1831 was consecrated archbishop of\nDublin. He was the author of many important works.\n\n3. \u201cPa\u02ccl\u00e6-o-cos\u02c8mic.\u201d Pertaining to the ancient universe.\n\n4. \u201cOld Man of Cromagnon.\u201d \u201cIn the _Reliqui\u00e6 Aquitanic\u00e6_, by Messrs.\nLartet and Christy, there is a full account of the arch\u00e6ology of the\nold Stone age, as exhibited in the south of France, especially in the\ncaves in the valley of Cro-Magnon. \u2026 Bones of the reindeer are abundant,\nand the co-existence of man with this animal in latitudes so much lower\nthan its present habitat implies a certain degree of elevation above\nsavages, as not only food, clothing and implements, but materials for\nornamentation were obtained from it. The domestic economy of these\nearlier races is shown by their hearths, boiling stones, rough hammers,\nand hollow, dish-like pebbles. \u2026 M. Pruner-Bey, from the examination of\nskeletons found in the cave of Cro-Magnon maintains that the crania of\nthe reindeer age belong to a double series, one approaching the Lapp and\nthe other the Finn of the present day. He concludes that they had massive\nbones, long, flat feet, comparatively short arms and long forearms, with\npowerful muscles, greatly developed jaws, widely opened nostrils, and\nwere of unbridled passions.\u201d\n\n\nANIMAL BIOLOGY.\n\nPRONUNCIATION OF NAMES IN TABLE.\n\nPro-to-zo\u02c8a, mo-ne\u02c8ra, greg-a-rin\u02c8i-da, rhiz-op\u02c8o-da, in-fu-s\u014d\u02c8ri-a,\nspon-g\u012d\u02c8da, c\u0153(k\u0113)len\u02c8te-r\u0101-ta, hy-dro-zo\u02c8a, an-tho-zo\u02c8a,\nmad-re-po\u02c8ra, po\u02c8rites, tu\u02ccbi-p\u014d\u02c8ra, cor-ral\u02c8le-um, ru\u02c8brum,\ncte(te)-noph\u02c8o-ra, e-chin\u02cc(kin)o-derm\u02c8a-ta, cr\u012b-noid\u02c8e-a, as-ter-oid\u02c8e-a,\ne-chen(ken)-oid\u02c8e-a, hol\u02c8o-thu-roid\u02cce-a, ver\u02c8m\u0113s, ro-tif\u02c8e-ra,\npol-y-zo\u02c8a, brach\u02cc(brak)-i-op\u02c8o-da, an-nel\u02c8i-d\u00e6, mol-lus\u02c8ca,\nla-mel\u02ccle-bran(g)-chi(ki)-\u0101\u02c8ta, gas-ter-op\u02c8o-da, ceph(sef)-a-lop\u02c8o-da,\nar-tic\u02c8u-l\u0101\u02c8ta, crus-ta\u02c8c\u0113(se)-a, a-rach\u02c8(rak)-ni-da, myr-i-op\u02c8o-da,\ntu-ni-c\u0101\u02c8ta, ver-te-br\u0101\u02c8ta, pis\u02c8-c\u0113s(s\u0113s), a\u02c8v\u0113s.\n\n1. \u201cAm\u0153ba.\u201d This little animal is known to microscopists under the name\nof proteus, from the rapid and continuous changes of shapes which it\npresents to their notice.\n\n2. \u201cTentacles.\u201d Processes usually slender and thread-like, proceeding\nfrom the head of invertebrate animals, such as insects, snails and crabs,\nbeing used for the purpose of feeling, prehension or motion.\n\n3. \u201cOviparous.\u201d An adjective applied to all animals which produce eggs,\nas distinguished from _viviparous_, producing young in the living state.\n\n4. \u201cGanglia.\u201d Collections of nerve cells, from which nerve fibers are\ngiven off in different directions. They are thought to be the organs in\nwhich all action originates.\n\n5. \u201cVentral surface.\u201d The surface of the body opposite the back. The back\nis called the dorsal surface.\n\n6. \u201cMed\u02c8ul-la-ry.\u201d Consisting of marrow. The fibrous nervous matter of\nthe brain contains nerve tubes, within which is a layer of thick, fluid,\nhighly refractive matter, called the medullary layer.\n\n\n\n\nPARAGRAPHS FROM NEW BOOKS.\n\n\nPORTRAITS FROM CARLYLE.\u2014If Carlyle had taken to the brush instead of\nto the pen he would probably have left a gallery of portraits such as\nthis century has not seen. In his letters and journals, reminiscences,\netc., for him to mention a man is to describe his face, and with what\ngraphic pen and ink sketches they abound. Let me extract a few of them.\nHere is Rousseau\u2019s face, from \u201cHeroes and Hero Worship:\u201d \u201cA high but\nnarrow contracted intensity in it; bony brows; deep, straight-set eyes,\nin which there is something bewildered looking\u2014bewildered, peering with\nlynx-eagerness\u2014a face full of misery, even ignoble misery, and also of an\nantagonism against that; something mean, plebeian there, redeemed only by\n_intensity_: the face of what is called a fanatic\u2014a sadly _contracted_\nhero!\u2026\u201d\n\nHere we have Dickens in 1840: \u201cClear-blue, intelligent eyes; eyebrows\nthat he arches amazingly; large, protrusive, rather loose mouth; a face\nof most extreme _mobility_, which he shuttles about\u2014eyebrows, eyes,\nmouth, and all\u2014in a very singular manner while speaking. Surmount this\nwith a loose coil of common-colored hair, and set it on a small, compact\nfigure, very small, and dressed \u00e0 la D\u2019Orsay rather than well\u2014this is\nPickwick.\u201d\n\nHere is a glimpse of Grote, the historian of Greece: \u201cA man with straight\nupper lip, large chin, and open mouth (spout mouth); for the rest, a tall\nman, with dull, thoughtful brows and lank, disheveled hair, greatly the\nlook of a prosperous Dissenting minister.\u201d\n\nIn telling Emerson whom he shall see in London, he says: \u201cSouthey\u2019s\ncomplexion is still healthy mahogany brown, with a fleece of white hair,\nand eyes that seem running at full gallop; old Rogers, with his pale\nhead, white, bare, and cold as snow, with those large blue eyes, cruel,\nsorrowful, and that sardonic shelf chin.\u201d\n\nIn another letter he draws this portrait of Webster: \u201cAs a logic-fencer,\nadvocate, or parliamentary Hercules, one would incline to back him, at\nfirst sight, against all the extant world. The tanned complexion; that\namorphous, crag-like face; the dull black eyes under their precipice of\nbrows, like dull anthracite furnaces, needing only to be _blown_; the\nmastiff mouth, accurately closed; I have not traced as much of silent\n_Berserkir rage_, that I remember of, in any other man.\u201d\u2014_From John\nBurroughs\u2019s \u201cFresh Fields.\u201d_\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSCOTT AT WORK.\u2014I never can forget the description Sir Adam Fergusson\ngave me of a morning he had passed with Scott at Abbottsford, which at\nthat time was still unfinished, and swarming with carpenters, painters,\nmasons, and bricklayers, was surrounded with all the dirt and disorderly\ndiscomfort inseparable from the process of house-building. The room they\nsat in was in the roughest condition which admitted of their occupying it\nat all; the raw, new chimney smoked intolerably. Out-of-doors the whole\nplace was one chaos of bricks, mortar, scaffolding, tiles, and slates.\nA heavy mist shrouded the whole landscape of lovely Tweed side, and\ndistilled in a cold, persistent and dumb drizzle.\n\nMaida, the well beloved stag-hound, kept fidgeting in and out of the\nroom. Walter Scott every five minutes exclaiming, \u201cEh, Adam! the puir\nbeast\u2019s just wearying to get out;\u201d or, \u201cEh, Adam! the puir creature\u2019s\njust crying to come in;\u201d when Sir Adam would open the door to the raw,\nchilly air for the wet, muddy hound\u2019s exit or entrance, while Scott with\nhis face swollen with a grievous toothache, and one hand pressed hard to\nhis cheek, with the other was writing the inimitably humorous opening\nchapters of \u201cThe Antiquary,\u201d which he passed across the table, sheet\nby sheet, to his friend, saying, \u201cNow, Adam, d\u2019ye think that will do?\u201d\nSuch a picture of mental triumph over outward circumstances has surely\nseldom been surpassed. House-builders, smoky chimney, damp draughts,\nrestless, dripping dog, and toothache form what our friend Miss Masson\ncalled a \u201cconcatenation of exteriorities,\u201d little favorable to literary\ncomposition of any sort; but considered as accompaniments or inspiration\nof that delightfully comical beginning of \u201cThe Antiquary,\u201d they are all\nbut incredible.\u2014_From Mason\u2019s \u201cTraits of British Authors.\u201d_\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPARADISE FOUND.\u2014Could it once be proven that the Arctic terminus of\nthe earth has always been the ice-bound region that it is, and which\nfor thousands of years it has been, it would of course be useless to\nentertain for a moment the hypothesis that the cradle of the human\nrace was there located. Probably the popular impression that from the\nbeginning of the world the far North has been the region of unendurable\ncold has been one of the chief reasons why our hypothesis is so late\nin claiming attention. At the present time, however, so far as this\ndifficulty is concerned, scientific studies have abundantly prepared the\nway for the new theory.\n\nThat the earth is a slowly cooling body is a doctrine now all but\nuniversally accepted. In saying this we say nothing for or against\nthe so-called nebular hypothesis of the origin of the world, for both\nfriends and foes of this unproven hypothesis believe in what is termed\nthe secular cooling or refrigeration of the earth. All authorities in\nthis field hold and teach that the time was when the slowly solidifying\nplanet was too hot to support any form of life, and that only in some\nparticular time in the cooling process was there a temperature reached\nwhich was adapted to the necessities of living things. On what portion\nof the earth\u2019s surface, now, would this temperature first be reached? Or\nwould it everywhere be reached at the same time? \u2026 We asked the geologist\nthis question: \u201cIs the hypothesis of a primeval polar Eden admissible?\u201d\nLooking at the slowly cooling earth alone, he replies: \u201cEden conditions\nhave probably at one time or another been found everywhere upon the\nsurface of the earth. Paradise may have been anywhere.\u201d Looking at the\ncosmic environment, however, he adds: \u201cBut while Paradise may have been\nanywhere, the _first_ portions of the earth\u2019s surface sufficiently\ncool to present the conditions of Eden life were assuredly at the\nPoles.\u201d\u2014_From Warren\u2019s \u201cParadise Found.\u201d_\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSEPARATION OF DE LONG AND MELVILLE.\u2014De Long verbally directed both of\nus to keep, if possible, within hail, and reiterated his orders in case\nof separation: \u201cMake the best of your way,\u201d said he, \u201cto Cape Barkin,\nwhich is eighty or ninety miles off, southwest true. Don\u2019t wait for me,\nbut get a pilot from the natives, and proceed up the river to a place of\nsafety as quick as you can; and be sure that you and your parties are all\nright before you trouble yourselves about any one else. If you reach Cape\nBarkin you will be safe, for there are plenty of natives there winter and\nsummer.\u201d Then addressing me particularly, he continued: \u201cMelville, you\nwill have no trouble in keeping up with me, but if anything should happen\nto separate us, you can find your way in without any difficulty by the\ntrend of the coast-line; and you know as much about the natives and their\nsettlements as any one else.\u201d This was our last conversation in a body.\n\nSo when De Long waved me permission to leave him, I hoisted sail, shook\nout one reef, and as we gathered way the boat shot forward like an arrow,\nand the spray flew about us like feathers. Heretofore we had been running\ndead before the wind on our southwest course for the land, but the heavy\nsea and lively motion of the boat caused the sail to jibe and fill on\nthe other tack, whereupon we would broach to and ship water. For this\nreason I hauled up the boat several points, or closer to the wind, and\nour condition at once improved. Now that we were separated I resolved\nto concern myself directly with the safety of my own boat; so that when\none of the men said that De Long was signaling us, I told him he must be\nwrong, and further directed that no one should see any signals now that\nwe were cast upon our own resources.\n\nWhen last seen, the second cutter was about one thousand yards astern of\nus, the first cutter probably midway between, and there is no doubt in my\nmind that she then foundered. A conversation with the only two surviving\nmembers of the first cutter (Nindemann and Noras) has confirmed me in\nthis belief; for they witnessed the scene as I have described it, and\nstate that it was the general opinion of DeLong\u2019s crew that I had shared\nthe same fate simultaneously with Chipp.\u2014_Melville\u2019s \u201cIn the Lena Delta.\u201d_\n\n\n\n\nTALK ABOUT BOOKS.\n\n\nThere can scarcely be a sadder story than that of the loss of the\nJeannette and the subsequent search for DeLong and his party. No event of\nrecent years has caused more horror in the public mind and led to more\nurgent expostulation against further Arctic exploration. We believe,\nhowever, that as a better knowledge of the aim and value of these\nundertakings grows on the public, censure will be removed. Certainly\na careful reading of Melville\u2019s \u201cIn the Lena Delta\u201d[C] produces this\nresult. The book is perhaps more full of horror than most readers\nimagine, but after reading there can be but one opinion; terrible as it\nall is, it has been worth the suffering. It is worth while to have died\nbravely in carrying out orders. The unflinching resolution of those men\nplaces them among the heroes of modern history. You can not help feeling\nthat there is a wonderful amount of unusual heroism in the story. The\nJeannette expedition has furnished a much needed lesson on the nobility\nof endurance. The results to our knowledge of these regions have been\nconsiderable, the people of Siberia, the Russian exile, the homes and\ncustoms of various tribes are more fully explained to us in Melville\u2019s\nnotes than elsewhere; again, no future exploration will be open to equal\ndangers.\n\nWe have never experienced a greater shock in our book reviewing than that\nwhich came to us when, on turning from Melville\u2019s description of the\nArctic regions, we were told that Paradise had been found[D]\u2014at the North\nPole. It will be a long time before the public mind with its present\nideas of the Pole will be willing to consent to this conclusion, even if\nPresident Warren is able to advance still more skillful arguments than\nhe yet has in proof of his theory. And the arguments are skillful. He\nhas quoted high authority to prove that Eden conditions once existed on\nevery portion of the earth, and first of all at the Pole; he has done his\nbest to remove our prejudices against a night of six months by showing\nthat not more than \u201cfour fortnights\u201d is the probable length of the night\nthere; he shows us that pal\u00e6ontology teaches that life first began at\nthe polar regions, and quotes the mythical lore of Egyptian, Assyrian,\nBabylonian, Buddhist, Greek, and Roman, to support his theory. The\nhypothesis is certainly entertaining, and this attempt at demonstrating\nit contains some very probable arguments.\n\nA book bearing the title \u201cPersonal Traits of British Authors\u201d[E] is\nsufficient of itself to win the attention and awaken the interest of\nall book lovers, but when, on turning its leaves, it is found that\nthese traits have been noted and given to the world by other authors,\nthe desire to know what they are is doubled. What great men think and\nsay about other great men is a matter of interest to all well informed\npersons. That pardonable, commendable curiosity to know \u201cwhat about\u201d\nearth\u2019s gifted ones, that lurks in human hearts, has a sort of double\nchance to satisfy itself with such an arrangement as this. The persons\nof whom this book treats are seven in number: Scott, Hogg, Campbell,\nChalmers, Wilson, DeQuincey, and Jeffrey. In a tabulated form all the\nleading events of their lives are given. Several pages are devoted to\nsketches of each one, all filled with exquisite little pen pictures,\ndrawn by master hands at widely differing periods, and from widely\ndiffering scenes in life, giving the greatest contrasts in attitudes,\nwords, and expression. Indeed, one has hard work sometimes to make\nhimself believe they were intended to represent the same person. It would\nbe difficult to find a finer collection of character studies than Mr.\nMason has given in this volume.\n\nThere is considerable probability in the suggestion which Mr. Lang makes\nin his \u201cCustom and Myth.\u201d[F] He has attempted to find the key to myths\nin customs which have prevailed among early tribes, in opposition to\nthose scholars who find their solutions in the names which they claim\nwere once applied to objects, and of which the original meaning has been\nlost. The essays are made valuable by a great deal of material gathered\nevidently by much research in the lore of remote tribes, but they are\nsingularly unsatisfactory. The work is loosely done. The solutions are\nmere suggestions, although such interesting suggestions that one feels\nloath to give up the search without more work. In some cases the myths\npresented simply show that similar tales exist in many nations. Until Mr.\nLang does more work on this entertaining theory he must not expect a very\nwide following.\n\nA good work on English cathedrals has for a long time been in demand. The\ninterest in architecture which recent years has developed, the increase\nin travel and the large scale on which the English people have carried on\nthe restoration of their cathedrals have made such a work necessary. \u201cThe\nCathedral Churches of England and Wales\u201d[G] quite fills the demand. A\nbook of superior make up, a very handsome parlor book, indeed, it is yet\nfull of information. Thirty-five cathedrals are described, and so fully\nillustrated as to give very satisfactory ideas of the leading features of\neach. The articles, written in an encyclopedic style that seems slightly\nout of place in the company of such illustrations, paper, and letter\npress, are historic and architectural, concerning themselves very little\nwith poetic associations and fine descriptions. They are, however, all\nthe more useful for that.\n\nTwo little books, helpful to all persons and bearing comfort for stricken\nhearts, and for those weary with the burdens of life, are to be found\nin \u201cMeditations on Life, Death and Eternity.\u201d[H] They are like friends\nto whom one would turn for companionship. The books were translated and\ncompiled from the larger work of a distinguished German writer, and were\narranged in their present form at the request of Queen Victoria, who\nprizes them very highly, as the original was a great favorite of the\nPrince Consort.\n\nThat Mr. Barnes fully accomplished what he set out to do when he produced\nthe \u201cHand-Book of Bible Biography,\u201d[I] a brief examination of the work\nwill satisfy any one. His aim was to produce a book that would be\ncomplete as to names, that should contain all the facts, and that should\nbe within the means of all Bible students. Each biography is a story\ncomplete in itself, with many illustrations and maps.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n[C] In the Lena Delta. A narrative of the search for Lieutenant Commander\nDe Long and his companions. Followed by an account of the Greely Relief\nExpedition and a Proposed Method of Reaching the North Pole. By George W.\nMelville. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885.\n\n[D] Paradise Found. The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. By\nWilliam F. Warren, S. T. D., LL D. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 1885.\n\n[E] Personal Traits of British Authors. By Edward T. Mason. New York:\nCharles Scribner\u2019s Sons. 1885.\n\n[F] Custom and Myth. By Andrew Lang, M.A. New York: Harper & Brothers.\n1885.\n\n[G] The Cathedral Churches of England and Wales. Cassell & Company. New\nYork: 1884. Price, $5.00.\n\n[H] Meditations on Life, Death and Eternity. By Johann Heinrich Daniel\nZschokk\u00e8. Translated by Frederika Rowan. New York: Phillips & Hunt.\nCincinnati: Cranston & Stowe.\n\n[I] Hand-Book of Bible Biography. By the Rev. C. R. Barnes, A.B. New\nYork: Phillips & Hunt. Cincinnati: Cranston & Stowe. Price, $2.25.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY.\n\nWHAT ARE ITS CLAIMS?\n\nBY PROF. R. S. HOLMES, A.M.\n\n\nWe shall be careful in what we say to make no claim for the\ncorrespondence system of teaching, as against any other. We claim for it\nsimply a place as a co-laborer in the work of education. Lest any one\nshould be misled by any utterances we may have made, or may hereafter\nmake, and think that here was cast up a royal road over which one\ncould pass with flying feet to the goal of educational culture, and\nenter it, to find only a narrow path, rough, stony, and filled with\ndifficulties, we wish to plainly state what we claim for this system of\ninstruction. Lest any one should conceive that the need for university\nand college has passed, and that results can be obtained by a home\ncorrespondence-university course, as good or better than can be obtained\nfrom actual college residence, we wish to plainly state what we do not\nclaim. It may place our positive claims in a stronger light, if we set\nthem forth against what we do not claim, as a background. Accordingly,\nour first statements will be negatives, as follows:\n\n1. We do not claim that the correspondence system of teaching is the\nsuperior of oral teaching;\n\n2. Nor that it is destined to supersede oral teaching;\n\n3. Nor that it has wrought or will work any revolution in educational\nmethods;\n\n4. Nor that it can compete with oral teaching, on anything like equal\nterms;\n\n5. Nor that by this method, years of study in classroom, under able,\nliving teachers are made unnecessary;\n\n6. Nor that it uses newer and better methods of instruction than are used\nin the classroom;\n\n7. Nor that it is freer from defects than other existing systems;\n\n8. Nor that a class, school, college, or university, dependent for its\nentire work upon pen, paper and post, should be sought by the student in\npreference to established resident institutions;\n\n9. Nor that it is without serious disadvantages, even to the student most\nfavorably circumstanced;\n\n10. Nor, finally, that it is able to teach all branches of study without\nother than postal facilities.\n\nWe might carry this line of disclaimer farther, but are persuaded\nthat enough has been said to enable us to make our claims for the\ncorrespondence system, without danger of being misunderstood. Still\nfurther, we desire the power of voice and pen, as far as it may reach,\nto be felt on the side of the college and university. To all who can go\nto college, our word is most emphatically\u2014go; and having gone, stay; let\nnothing come between you and the completion of the course. Still further,\nwe will say to such as are so limited by circumstances as to feel\nunable to devote the requisite time, means, and presence, to a college\ncourse, \u201cIf possible, let not circumstance compel you, but do you compel\ncircumstance, till the desired way shall open; and this though years be\noccupied in the struggle. The goal is worth the race.\u201d\n\nHere, then, we present what we claim for the correspondence system of\nteaching:\n\n1. We claim that the majority of those who are likely to avail themselves\nof this system, are men and women of mature mind, and hence are able to\nmake the very best use of whatever advantages are offered them;\n\n2. That the majority of those who are likely to avail themselves of the\nadvantages we offer, are actuated by an earnest purpose to obtain an\nadvanced education, by _any_ means which are available to them;\n\n3. That wise direction through correspondence, by competent and\nexperienced teachers, is calculated to produce better results than can be\nexpected ordinarily from unaided individual effort;\n\n4. That teaching by correspondence can be successfully applied to a\ncourse of study so wide and comprehensive that one who masters it will\nsecure a culture that would be rightly called liberal;\n\n5. That this system of teaching is therefore entitled to a place, as\nassociate, in the ranks of the teaching systems of the age;\n\n6. That as a system, it is no untried experiment, but has been so tested\nthat it can point to tangible results with no fear of discomfiture if\nthese results be examined;\n\n7. That it requires determined effort, and calls for rigid\nself-discipline, to insure success;\n\n8. That it tends to form critical habits of study;\n\n9. That it tends to produce self-reliance, and to develop individuality\nin methods of study;\n\n10. That it affords marked opportunity for deliberation, and so fosters\nthe judicial habit in study;\n\n11. That it tends to systematize and render methodical all habits,\nwhether of study or of life;\n\n12. That opportunities for _mal-application_ are reduced to a minimum;\n\n13. That its possibilities are such as to warrant corporate effort to\nextend its advantages to those who would be otherwise deprived of any\nadvanced educational opportunities;\n\n14. That such a corporation is entitled to be called a School of Liberal\nArts;\n\n15. That it allows tests of the student\u2019s acquirement, as rigid as can be\ndesired by the highest standard of educational excellence;\n\n16. That the student who has submitted to such tests, and successfully\nborne them, is entitled to the reward of a diploma and a degree;\n\n17. Finally, that the corporation or institution which can prepare the\nstudent for such an ordeal is entitled to confer such diploma and degree.\n\nThe claims which we have now presented are sufficient to show the\nspirit and belief which have led to the incorporation of the Chautauqua\nUniversity. We have attempted to state them logically, clearly, and\nforcibly. There is in them no element of disputation.\n\nWe appeal to a vast, an eager and earnest constituency. To know, only\nto know, is the earnest cry of multitudes of our fellows. Lament for\nlack of early opportunities, and consequent self-depreciation, is the\nundertow that sweeps to ruin the possibilities of many a life. High\npurposes and noble ambitions have been thwarted on life\u2019s threshold by\nthe cruel limitations of circumstance. Mistaken views of life\u2019s best\naims, in days when opportunities were possible, have been dispelled\nwhen the opportunities have long been left behind. To each of these\nclasses the Chautauqua University brings the correspondence system of\nteaching, and says: for you, it is possible to supplement the lack of\nearly years; for you, to realize your ambitions, even within the bond by\nwhich circumstance has bound you; and for you, in the new light which\nexperience has given, to see other opportunities for obtaining that\nculture which, years ago, you neglected and passed by.\n\n\n\n\nSPECIAL NOTES.\n\n\n    THE ACADEMY OF LATIN AND GREEK,\n    Summer Term of Six Weeks.\n\n    TO THE CHANCELLOR OF CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY:\n\n    _My Dear Doctor Vincent_:\n\n    It gives me great pleasure to be able to offer this summer, at\n    Chautauqua, a course in Latin and Greek of unusual merit. Of the\n    assistant teachers, Mr. Otto is already favorably known to our\n    pupils of last summer, and to many correspondence students as\n    an energetic and thorough teacher. Dr. Bevier will be a great\n    acquisition for Chautauqua. He was graduated from Rutgers with\n    first honors, having also during his course won honors in Latin\n    and Greek at the inter-collegiate contest. After graduation he\n    studied at Johns Hopkins University (which conferred on him the\n    degree Ph.D.), and then continued his studies in Europe. He was a\n    student at the American School at Athens, Greece, and is now an\n    enthusiastic and successful teacher.\n\n    Although our session in Latin last year began a week late, and we\n    suffered from other disadvantages, I believe our numbers in Latin\n    reached a total unparalleled in the history of Chautauqua.\n\n    What was, however, especially gratifying, was the improved\n    quality of scholarship manifested by students.\n\n    For this summer we offer the following course:\n\n    1. ROMAN LAW (using the Institutes of Justinian) with\n    information. Not only every lawyer, but every teacher of Latin\n    to-day should familiarize \u201c_thon_\u201dself with Roman law, lying, as\n    it does, _at the base of Roman civilization_.\n\n    2. THE LATIN OF THE EARLY CHURCH FATHERS.\u2014Recent publication and\n    discussion have rendered so prominent the influence of the early\n    Latin Fathers on church doctrine that _every clergyman_, present\n    or prospective, will do well to examine this question for himself.\n\n    3. COMPARATIVE PHILOLOGY.\u2014(Every student preparing to enter\n    either of these three classes should at once communicate with\n    the principal, that there may be no delay at the opening of the\n    session, in securing apparatus.)\n\n    4. PLATO.\u2014Apology and Crito, Tyler\u2019s Ed. (Appletons.)\n\n    5. CICERO.\u2014_De Natura Deorum_, Stickney\u2019s Ed. (Ginn, Heath & Co.)\n\n    6. HOMER.\u2014Odyssey.\n\n    7. VIRGIL.\u2014\u00c6neid.\n\n    8. HORACE.\u2014Chase\u2019s Ed. (Eldridge & Bro\u2019s.)\n\n    9. CICERO.\u2014Orations.\n\n    10. XENOPHON.\u2014Anabasis.\n\n    11. C\u00c6SAR.\u2014_De Bello Gallico_ (two hours per day).\n\n    12. BEGINNERS IN GREEK. Harkness\u2019s Text-Book, last ed.\n    (Appletons.)\n\n    13. BEGINNERS IN LATIN (THREE HOURS PER DAY BY THE INDUCTION\n    METHOD).\n\n    \ud83d\udd99 Latin students must have the \u201cHand-Book of Latin Synonyms.\u201d\n    (Ginn, Heath & Co.)\n\n    I hope you will give us at Chautauqua zealous students, who\n    will concentrate their work on Latin and Greek, but especially\n    two classes: TEACHERS of Latin and Greek, and those who are\n    absolutely BEGINNERS. A clear-headed student who doesn\u2019t know a\n    word of Latin, can, by devoting six weeks to it, secure FIVE\n    HOURS per day (_Beginners_ and _C\u00e6sar_) or ONE HUNDRED AND FIFTY\n    HOURS in six weeks\u2014quite as much time as the average school gives\n    in one year.\n\n    It is thought that teachers of Latin and Greek will find not only\n    the method of value, but also the inspiration which indubitably\n    does arise when teachers gather.\n\n                           Your ob\u2019t servant,\n\n                                         EDGAR S. SHUMWAY, Principal.\n\n    RUTGERS COLLEGE, February 23, 1885.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe C. L. S. C. Correspondence Department, though not often heard from\npublicly, is doing an important work. Several hundred students are\nenrolled upon its books, and the work is being prosecuted this year\nwith renewed vigor. An Illinois lady writes: \u201cHaving enjoyed and been\nbenefited by the letters of my C. L. S. C. correspondent, I very much\nwish to continue that branch of the work this year. We followed no\nspecial plan, but the letters I received encouraged and strengthened\nme, and kept me from falling by the wayside. I love the C. L. S. C. and\nam proud to say I have gained for it some members. In my judgment the\nCorrespondence Circle is grand, good and beneficial.\u201d From New Hampshire\ncomes the following: \u201cI tender hearty thanks to the originator of the\nCorrespondence Circle. The frequent letters of my two correspondents are\na continual stimulus. The sympathetic words, the exchange of essays, the\ncomparing of work done, I find very helpful, while the questions of my\nbright girl correspondent have led me to search for and find many items\nof information I should have otherwise neglected.\u201d These and many similar\nletters received from members of the Correspondence Department show how\nhelpful this work is proving to many isolated members of the Circle, shut\nout from all other means of communication with their fellow students.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrom a circle in Connecticut numbering five members comes the suggestion\nthat Local Circles be put in communication with each other, the\ncorrespondence to be carried on, of course, through the respective\nsecretaries. There is no reason why a correspondence of this sort should\nnot prove both interesting and valuable, as it will serve to increase the\nfeeling of fraternity among local circles, give opportunities for the\nexchange of programs, the discussion of difficulties, and in other ways\nmake the circles of practical benefit to each other.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMembers of the C. L. S. C. or local circles wishing to join the\nCorrespondence Department should report to the office of the C. L. S. C.\nat Plainfield, N. J.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe list of C. L. S. C. graduates in the Class of \u201984 has been lengthened\nby the following names:\n\n    Daniels, Mrs. Margaret P. S.    New York.\n    Longee, Mrs. Mary P.            New Hampshire.\n    McConnell, Edward B.            Pennsylvania.\n    Smith, Miss Anna                Michigan.\n    Van Ingen, M. Gertrude          New York.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nCommunications intended for the \u201cLocal Circles\u201d of THE CHAUTAUQUAN should\nbe sent directly to our office. Any circle which has not reported this\nyear we should be glad to have do so at once.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes:\n\nObvious punctuation errors repaired.\n\nPage 388, \u201cII\u201d changed to \u201cIV\u201d (Class IV.)\n\nPage 389, \u201ccarniverous\u201d changed to \u201ccarnivorous\u201d (they have all the five\nsenses, and are carnivorous)\n\nPage 398, \u201cFate\u201d changed to \u201cGate\u201d (Traitor\u2019s Gate)\n\nPage 398, \u201cTewksbury\u201d changed to \u201cTewkesbury\u201d (in the field at Tewkesbury)\n\nPage 403, \u201cahd\u201d changed to \u201cand\u201d (and have bought bonds)\n\nPage 405, \u201cextirminated\u201d changed to \u201cexterminated\u201d in two places (and\ntheir kind exterminated / the native fish are actually exterminated)\n\nPage 406, \u201cextirmination\u201d changed to \u201cextermination\u201d (extermination so\nrecklessly begun)\n\nPage 406, \u201ctheir\u201d changed to \u201cthe\u201d (the narrow, tortuous defiles)\n\nPage 407, \u201cneans\u201d changed to \u201cmeans\u201d (by artificial means)\n\nPage 408, \u201cMariner\u201d changed to \u201cMarner\u201d (Silas Marner)\n\nPage 413, \u201cEaser\u201d changed to \u201cEaster\u201d (1. Essay\u2014Easter.)\n\nPage 424, \u201cmake\u201d changed to \u201cmade\u201d (which has made Shaksperean skepticism\nalmost respectable)\n\nPage 429, \u201cwith\u201d added (two atoms of nitrogen have united with two atoms\nof oxygen)\n\nPage 429, \u201chydrogen\u201d changed to \u201coxygen\u201d (The formula Cu(NO\u2083)\u2082 \u2026 three\natoms of oxygen)","title":"The Chautauquan, Vol. 05, April 1885","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":78705}