{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_55134/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_55134","id":"gutenberg_55134","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55134","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Art","Category: History - European","Category: History - Modern (1750+)","Category: Journals","Category: Law & Criminology","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Chautauqua Institution -- Periodicals","Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle -- Periodicals"],"text":"THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n      _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE.\n        ORGAN OF THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._\n\n                 VOL. IV.      APRIL, 1884.      No. 7.\n\n\n\n\nChautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.\n\n\n_President_\u2014Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio.\n\n_Superintendent of Instruction_\u2014Rev. J. H. Vincent, D.D., New Haven, Conn.\n\n_Counselors_\u2014Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.; Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H.\nW. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C. Wilkinson, D.D.\n\n_Office Secretary_\u2014Miss Kate F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J.\n\n_General Secretary_\u2014Albert M. Martin, Pittsburgh, Pa.\n\n\n\n\nContents\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was created\nfor the HTML version to aid the reader.\n\n    REQUIRED READING\n    Readings from French History\n        IX.\u2014Louis XVI.                                        377\n        X.\u2014The Great French Revolution (1792-1796)            380\n        XI.\u2014Napoleon I. (1796-1814)                           381\n    Commercial Law\n        III.\u2014Agency                                           382\n    Readings in Art\n        I.\u2014Italian Painters and Paintings                     384\n    Sunday Readings\n        [_April 6_]                                           388\n        [_April 13_]                                          389\n        [_April 20_]                                          390\n        [_April 27_]                                          391\n    Selections from American Literature\n        Thomas Wentworth Higginson                            392\n        Henry James, Jr.                                      393\n        William Dean Howells                                  394\n        Charles Dudley Warner                                 394\n    United States History                                     395\n    Light at Eventide                                         397\n    The Cooper Institute                                      398\n    Green Sun and Strange Sunsets                             400\n    Anthony Trollope\u2019s Autobiography                          400\n    Sabbath Chimes                                            402\n    Eight Centuries with Walter Scott                         403\n    Geography of the Heavens for April                        405\n    Edgar Allen Poe                                           407\n    British and American English                              410\n    Still Young                                               412\n    The Gospels Considered as a Drama                         412\n    Prohibition in Maine                                      415\n    The Industrial Schools of Boston                          417\n    Echoes from a Chautauqua Winter                           419\n    C. L. S. C. Work                                          421\n    Outline of C. L. S. C. Readings                           422\n    Local Circles                                             422\n    Questions and Answers                                     425\n    Chautauqua Normal Course                                  426\n    Editor\u2019s Outlook                                          428\n    Editor\u2019s Note-Book                                        430\n    C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for April          432\n    Notes on Required Readings in \u201cThe Chautauquan\u201d           434\n    Talk About Books                                          436\n\n\n\n\nREQUIRED READING\n\nFOR THE\n\n_Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle for 1883-4_.\n\nAPRIL.\n\n\n\n\nREADINGS FROM FRENCH HISTORY.\n\nBy REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\nIX.\u2014LOUIS XVI.\n\nAbout twenty years of age, amiable, irresolute, of simple tastes and\nearnest piety, Louis XVI. succeeded to the throne at a time when these\nqualities of gentleness could avail but little against the crowning evils\nof the age, and when the supreme genius and iron will of a Cromwell or a\nNapoleon could alone have averted the destruction by which the state was\nmenaced. Signs of dissolution and prophecies of woe were already abroad.\nLong wars and the lavish expenditure of the last century and a half, had\nreduced the finances of the kingdom to a deplorable condition. The public\ncredit was at its lowest ebb. The treasury presented a deficit of forty\nmillions. The people, over-taxed, restless, half-savage, and dangerously\nintelligent, abandoned agriculture and sought a precarious subsistence by\nsmuggling and spoliation. A spirit of political and religious infidelity\npervaded the middle and lower classes. The throne had too long been\ndegraded by excess, and tarnished by scandal, to command the affection\nof the multitude. The nobles were scorned rather than reverenced, and\nnot even the ancient stronghold of terror remained. The clergy, by their\ncruelties, their ignorance, and their debaucheries had alienated the\ngreat body of the people, and brought down upon themselves the satire\nand indignation of the enlightened. In Voltaire, Rousseau, Montesquieu,\nand D\u2019Alembert, the new opinions had found their chief advocates and\nleaders. Before their sweeping censures Christianity, loyalty, tradition\nhad trembled, and sunk away. They were speedily reinforced by all the\nintelligence of the age. A host of distinguished men hastened to their\nsupport, and the innovators carried all before them\u2014leveling good as\nwell as evil, trampling upon much that was pure in their reckless hatred\nof that which was foul, and sapping the foundations of truth, mercy\nand chivalry, while compassing the necessary destruction of falsehood,\ndespotism, imposition and vice.\n\nTo the government of this crumbling edifice and this murmuring people\ncame Louis, with his good heart, his boyish timidity, and his woful\ninexperience. His queen, Marie Antoinette, was a daughter of Maria\nTheresa, fair, generous and impetuous. Surrounded by eager courtiers, and\nsaluted for the first time as king and queen, they fell upon their knees,\nand cried, weeping, \u201cOh God, guide us! Protect us! We are too young to\nreign!\u201d\n\nThe king\u2019s first act was to re\u00ebstablish the parliament, and place the\nfinancial department in the hands of the impartial and provident Turgot.\nUnfortunately for himself and the country, Louis suffered his mind to\nbe prejudiced against this able minister, and, dismissing him in 1776,\ngave his office to M. Necker, a less efficient but a less unpopular\npolitician. A war with England was now proposed by the king\u2019s ambitious\nstatesmen, who beheld at this juncture an opportunity of wresting from\ntheir ancient rival a large proportion of her foreign commerce. England\nand her American colonies were at variance. Not much more than a year\nhad elapsed since the great battles of Lexington and Bunker\u2019s Hill,\nand the American independence was but just declared. It now became the\nobvious policy of France to foment this war, to support the rebellious\ncolonists, and to transfer to the navies of Louis XVI. that maritime\nsuperiority which had so long been the bulwark of the English liberties.\nThe king, from motives of forbearance, was unwilling to commence this\nwar; but, being overruled by his ministry, signed a treaty of alliance\nwith the United States in the commencement of the year 1778. This treaty\nwas equivalent to a declaration of war, and the first important action\ntook place by sea off the isle of Ushant on the 27th of July. The fleets\nnumbered thirty sail each; not a ship was captured or sunk on either\nside; and the fortune of the day was indecisive. In the following year,\nan alliance with Spain doubled the naval strength of Louis XVI. The\nFrench and Spanish admirals united their fleets, and hovered about\nthe coasts of England without making any descent; whilst the Count\nd\u2019Estaings, with twelve ships of the line, took the islands of Granada\nand St. Vincent, and made an unsuccessful attack upon St. Lucia, which\nhad been lately conquered by the English. On the 16th of January, 1780,\nAdmiral Rodney, then on his way to the relief of Gibraltar, encountered\nand defeated a Spanish fleet commanded by Don Juan de Langara. He then\nsailed on, unopposed, to Gibraltar, and next proceeded to the West\nIndies. While there he thrice engaged with the Count de Guichen, who\nhad succeeded to the command of the French fleet. None of these actions\nwere productive of important results. The Count de Guichen was replaced\nin 1781 by the Count de Grasse, a man of great skill and courage, who\ndefeated the English admiral, Hood, on the 28th of April, and added\nTobago to the conquests of France. In this year another enemy rose\nagainst England. The Dutch declared war, and George III. was involved\nat one time, by sea and land, in four great contests, namely, with\nFrance, Spain, America and Holland. In the month of October, however,\nthe surrender of Yorktown by Lord Cornwallis virtually ended the contest\nbetween England and the United States; and the four European powers\nalone carried on hostilities. The month of April, 1782, was signalized by\na hard-fought and sanguinary engagement between the Count de Grasse and\nAdmiral Rodney. They met on the 12th, off the island of Dominique, with\nnearly equal forces, and the French were disastrously defeated with a\nloss of eight ships, a terrible sacrifice of life, and the captivity of\nthe Count de Grasse. England was not, however, destined to profit much by\nthe victory; for, as Admiral Rodney was sailing back with his well-won\ncaptures, a fearful storm arose, and most of the prizes were lost. Among\nthese was the _Ville de Paris_, a fine ship of 110 guns, lately presented\nto the king by the citizens of Paris. On the 13th of October, in the\nsame year, the fortress of Gibraltar was made the scene of a formidable\nassault, which failed utterly. The besiegers were commanded by the Duke\nde Crillon, an officer in the Spanish service; the Count d\u2019Artois,\nbrother to Louis; and the Duke de Bourbon. Negotiations for peace were\nnow commenced, and her late successes by sea enabled England to treat\nat a less disadvantage than might have been expected, considering the\ncircumstances of the war. The preliminaries were signed at Versailles on\nthe 20th of January, 1783. France restored to England all her conquests,\nwith the exception of St. Lucia, Tobago, the establishments on the river\nSenegal, and some trifling possessions in Africa and the East Indies.\nEngland relinquished all that she had captured. Spain acquired the island\nof Minorca.\n\nMore embarrassed than ever by the cost of the late war, the finances of\nFrance had now fallen into a worse state than before. The public debt\nwas increased. The people exasperated by a system of taxation which\nspared the wealthy and oppressed the poor, and imbued, moreover, with\nthose democratic principles which had found their way from America to\nFrance, became still louder in the expression of their discontent. M. De\nCalonne had by this time succeeded M. Necker. He was brilliant, fluent,\nready with expedients. Dreading the recriminations and plain-speaking\nthat must have attended a meeting of the States-general, this minister\nproposed to convene the Notables\u2014that is to say, an assemblage of\npersons gathered from all parts of the kingdom, and chiefly from the\nhigher ranks of society. This measure had been taken by Henry IV. and\nby Louis XIII.; it was not, therefore, without precedent, and much was\nhoped by the nation. They met, to the number of 137, in February, 1787.\nM. De Calonne laid before them the condition of the exchequer, and\nproposed to submit to taxation all the landed property of the kingdom,\nincluding that of the privileged classes. But he addressed an assembly\ncomposed almost exclusively of the privileged classes, and they would\nnot hear his arguments. On the 9th of April, finding his position\nuntenable, he resigned his office, and was succeeded by M. De Brienne.\nStill the notables refused to abate their ancient immunities, and were\nin consequence dissolved on the 25th of May. The absolute necessity\nof procuring money now compelled the king arbitrarily to register a\nroyal edict, which met with strong opposition from the parliament. This\nbody was then banished to Troyes, but again recalled in the month of\nSeptember. In 1788, M. de Brienne, weary of combating the difficulties\nof his office, resigned in favor of M. Necker. This gentleman, as the\nfirst act of his second ministry, proposed to convoke the states-general,\nand on the 5th of May, 1789, that august assembly filled the Hall de\nMenus in the Palace of Versailles. The king, in a brief speech, spoke\nhopefully of the present and the future, trusted that his reign might be\ncommemorated henceforth by the happiness and prosperity of his people,\nand welcomed the states-general to his palace. Unforeseeing and placid,\nhe beheld in this meeting nothing but the promise of amelioration,\nnor guessed how little prepared for usefulness or decision were its\ntwelve hundred. It soon became evident that the real strength of the\nstates-general lay in the commons. They formed the third estate, and\nnumbered as many members as the clergy and noblesse together. They took\nupon themselves to decide whether the deliberations of the Assembly\nshould be carried on in three chambers or one\u2014they covered their heads in\npresence of the king\u2014they constituted themselves the \u201cNational Assembly,\u201d\nand invited the clergy and aristocracy to join them. The timid sovereign\nsanctioned these innovations, and the Assembly proceeded to exercise its\nself-conferred functions. Supplies were voted for the army; the public\ndebt was consolidated; a provisional collection of taxes was decreed; and\nthe inviolability of the members proclaimed. In the meantime the nobles,\nheaded by the king\u2019s second brother, the Count d\u2019Artois, were collecting\nin the neighborhood of the court and capital such troops as they could\nmuster from every quarter of the kingdom. Necker was exiled, and it\nbecame evident that the king\u2019s imprudent advisers had counselled him to\nhave recourse to violence. Paris, long prepared for insurrection, rose\n_en masse_. Necker alone had possessed the confidence of the citizens,\nand his dismissal gave the signal for arms. Camille Desmoulins, a young\nand enthusiastic patriot, harangued the populace at the Palais Royal.\n\nThe guards, when called out to disperse the mobs, refused to fire. The\ncitizens formed themselves into a national guard. The foodless multitude\nattacked and pillaged in various quarters. The barriers were fired; and\non the 14th of July, this wild army appeared before the walls of the\nBastile. Stanch in his principles of military honor, the aged Marquis\nde Launay, then governor of the prison, refused to surrender, raised\nthe drawbridge, and fired upon the multitude. His feeble garrison,\nconsisting of eighty-two invalids and thirty-two Swiss, was menaced by\nthousands. The siege lasted four hours. The besiegers were joined by the\nFrench guards\u2014cannon were brought\u2014De Launay capitulated\u2014the drawbridge\nwas lowered, and the Bastile taken. Taken by a lawless sea of raging\nrebels, who forthwith massacred the governor, his lieutenant, and some\nof the aged invalids\u2014set fire to the building, and razed it to the\nground\u2014freed the few prisoners found in the cells\u2014garnished their pikes\nwith the evidences of murder, and so paraded Paris. From this moment the\npeople were supreme. The troops were dismissed from Versailles\u2014Necker was\nrecalled\u2014the king visited Paris, and was invested at the Hotel de Ville\nwith the tri-colored emblem of democracy.\n\nThen began the first emigration. The Count d\u2019Artois, the Prince of Cond\u00e9,\nthe Polignacs, and other noble and royal families, deserted in the\nmoment of peril, and from beyond the frontiers witnessed the revolution\nin ignoble safety. The king and his family remained at Versailles, sad\nat heart amid their presence-chambers and garden-groves, just four\nleagues from volcanic Paris. Hither, from time to time, during the few\ndays that intervened between the 14th of July and the 4th of August,\ncame strange tidings of a revolution which was no longer Parisian, but\nnational\u2014tidings of provincial gatherings\u2014of burning chateaux\u2014of sudden\nvengeances done upon unpopular officials, intendants, tax-gatherers, and\nthe like. It was plain that the First Estate must bow its proud head\nbefore the five-and-twenty savage millions, make restitution, speak well,\nsmile fairly\u2014or die. The memorable 4th of August came, when the nobles\ndid this, making an ample confession of their weakness. The Viscount de\nNoailles proposed to reform the taxation by subjecting to it every order\nand rank; by regulating it according to the fortune of the individual;\nand by abolishing personal servitude, and every remaining vestige of\nthe feudal system. An enthusiasm, which was half fear and half reckless\nexcitement, spread throughout the Assembly. The aristocrats rose in their\nplaces and publicly renounced their seignorial dues, privileges, and\nimmunities. The clergy abolished tithes and tributes. The representative\nbodies resigned their municipal rights. All this availed but little;\nand should have been done many months before to have weighed with the\nimpatient commons. The people scorned a generosity which relinquished\nonly that which was untenable, and cared little for the recognition\nof a political equality that had already been established with the\npike. The Assembly was at this time divided into three parties\u2014that\nof the aristocracy, composed of the greater part of the noblesse and\nclergy; that of the moderate party, headed by M. Necker; and that of the\nrepublicans, among whom the most conspicuous were Lafayette, Si\u00e8yes,\nRobespierre, and the great, the impetuous, the profligate Mirabeau. But\ntheirs was not the only deliberative body. A minor assembly, consisting\nof one hundred and eighty electors; a mass of special assemblies of\nmechanics, tradesmen, servants, and others; and a huge incongruous mob\nat the Palais Royal, met daily and nightly for purposes of discussion.\nThese demonstrations, and the extreme opinions to which they hourly\ngave rise, alarmed the little court yet lingering around the king. They\npersuaded him that he must have military assistance, and the troops were,\nunhappily, recalled to Versailles.\n\nThe regiment of Flanders and a body of dragoons came, and on the 1st of\nOctober the newly-arrived officers were invited to a grand banquet by\ntheir comrades of the royal body-guard. After the dinner was removed\nand the wine had begun to circulate, the queen presented herself\nwith the Dauphin in her arms, and her husband at her side. Cries of\nloyalty and enthusiasm burst forth\u2014their healths were drunk with drawn\nswords\u2014the tri-colored cockades were trampled under foot, and white ones,\nemblematic of Bourbon, were distributed by the maids of honor. The news\nof this fatal evening flew to Paris. Exasperated by the arrival of the\nsoldiery\u2014by the insult offered to the tri-color\u2014by the fear of famine\nand civil war\u2014the mob rose in fury, and with cries of \u201cBread! bread!\u201d\npoured out of Paris and took the road to Versailles. Here, sending\nmessages, threats, and deputations to the king and to the Assembly, the\nangry thousands encamped for the night, in inclement weather, round\nabout the palace. Toward morning a grate leading into the grand court\nwas found to be unfastened, and the mob rushed in. On they went, across\nthe marble court and up the grand staircase. The body-guards defended\nthemselves valiantly and raised the alarm\u2014the queen fled, half-dressed,\nto the king\u2019s chamber\u2014the \u201cliving deluge\u201d poured through galleries and\nreception-rooms, making straight for the queen\u2019s apartments. On this\nterrible day, Marie Antoinette was, above all, the object of popular\nhatred. Separated now from the revolutionists by the hall of the\n\u0152il-de-B\u0153uf, where the faithful remnant of body-guards had assembled\nto defend them to the last, the royal family listened tremblingly to\nthe battering of the axes on the yet unbroken doors. At this moment of\nperil came Lafayette, with the national guard of Paris, and succeeded\nin clearing the palace, in pacifying the multitude, and in rescuing,\nfor the time, the hapless group in the king\u2019s apartments. The mob, now\ndriven outside, demanded that Louis should show himself, and go to Paris\nwith his family. Refusal and remonstrance were alike useless. The royal\ncarriage was brought out, the king and his family took their places, the\nmob thronged round, and so, with the defeated body-guards in the midst,\nand some bloody trophies of the struggle carried forward upon pikes, the\nmournful procession went from Versailles to Paris. Lodged thenceforth in\nthe Tuileries, treated with personal disrespect, and subjected to all the\nrestrictions of imprisonment, Louis and his queen supported indignities\nwith dignity, and insult with resignation.\n\nOn the 4th of September, M. Necker relinquished his office. He had been\nso courageous as to oppose the decree of the 16th of June, by which all\ndistinctions of titles, armorial bearings, and other hereditary honors\nwere abolished. From having been the idol of the republicans he now\nfound himself dangerously unpopular, and so retired in safety to Geneva.\nDuring all this time the emigration of the noblesse went on. Assembling\nupon the German frontier toward the spring-time of the year 1791, they\nformed themselves into an army under the command of the Prince of\nCond\u00e9, and adopted for their motto, \u201cConquer or die.\u201d Fearful, however,\nof endangering the king\u2019s personal safety, they took no measures to\nstay the tide of rebellion, but hovered by the Rhine, watchful and\nthreatening. Soon the king and queen, their two children, and the\nPrincess Elizabeth, sister to the king, were the only members of the\nroyal family left in Paris. Flight had long been talked of and frequently\ndelayed; but at last everything was arranged, and Monday night, June 20,\n1791, was fixed for the attempt. Eluding the vigilance of the guards,\nthey stole out of the palace in disguise, and after numerous delays and\nmisapprehensions, during which the queen lost her way in the Rue de Bac,\nthey entered a hackney-coach driven by the Count de Fersen, and exchanged\nit, at the gate St. Martin, for a carriage and four. Thus, never pausing,\nthey passed Chalons, and arrived at St. Menehould. Here they were to\nhave been met by some cavalry, commanded by the Marquis de Bouill\u00e9; but\nthe time fixed for their arrival was so long gone by that the escort,\nweary of waiting, had given them up, and gone on to Varennes. Stopping to\nchange horses at St. Menehould, the king was recognized; and at Varennes,\nwithin reach of Bouill\u00e9\u2019s soldiers, he was stopped and questioned. The\nnational guard flew to arms\u2014an aid-de-camp came up in breathless haste,\nseeking the fugitives and bearing the decree of arrest\u2014the horses\u2019 heads\nwere turned toward Paris, and the last chance for life and liberty was\npast! After a return-journey of eight days, the king and his family\nre\u00ebntered the capital, and were received in profound silence by an\nimmense concourse. More closely guarded, more mistrusted than ever, he\nwas now suspended by the National Assembly from those sovereign functions\nwhich he had so long ceased to exercise or possess. In the meantime the\narticles of a new Constitution had been drawn up, and were publicly\nratified by the royal oath and signature on the 14th of September. The\nNational Assembly, having completed this work, dissolved itself on the\n30th, and the members of the new, or legislative assembly, took their\nseats on the 1st of October, 1791.\n\nAnd now the violences of late committed, and the anarchy existing not\nonly in Paris, but in all districts of France, had roused the indignation\nof Europe. Francis II., Emperor of Austria, entered into an alliance\nwith the king of Prussia, hostilities were threatened, and the Assembly\ndeclared for war, on the 20th of April, 1792. An invasion of the Austrian\nNetherlands was attempted; but the French soldiers fled upon the first\nsight of the Prussian columns, and General Rochambeau laid down his\ncommand. On the 25th of July, the Duke of Brunswick, who commanded the\nallies, issued a violent and imprudent manifesto, declaring himself\nauthorized to support the royal authority in France; to destroy the city\nof Paris; and to pursue with the extremity of military law all those who\nwere disposed to resist the policy of Europe. He at the same time put\nhis immense army in motion, and advanced over the frontier with 70,000\nPrussians and 68,000 Austrians and emigrant French. Perhaps no effort\non the part of his most eager enemy could have so injured the cause and\nperiled the safety of Louis XVI. The Assembly replied by fitting out an\narmy of 20,000 national volunteers, and giving the command to General\nDumouriez. Brunswick took Verdun and Longwy, and advanced toward the\ncapital, confident of victory; but, being met by the active and sagacious\nDumouriez, was forced to retreat. Verdun was won back again on the 12th,\nand Longwy on the 18th of October. An Austrian army, engaged in the siege\nof Lille, was compelled to abandon the attempt; and Custine on the Rhine\ntook possession of Tr\u00e8ves Spires, and Mayence. War having also been\ndeclared against the King of Sardinia, Savoy was taken; and the great\nvictory of Jemappes, won by General Dumouriez, on the 6th of November,\nsubjected the whole of the Austrian Netherlands, with the exception\nof Luxembourg, to the power of France. On all sides the national\ntroops repelled the invaders, resumed the offensive, and asserted the\nindependence of a victorious revolution.\n\nIn the meantime, enraged at this interference of the foreign powers,\nand fluctuating (according to the reports from the scene of war) between\napprehension and exultation, the Parisian mob and the extreme republican\nparty came to regard the king with increased enmity. He was named in the\nAssembly with violent opprobrium; the mob, incited to fury by Robespierre\nand his associates, demanded the abolition of the royal authority; and on\nthe 10th of August the palace of the Tuileries was attacked. The national\nguards, who had been appointed to the defence of the courtyards, went\nover to the insurgents, and pointed their cannon against the chateau.\nOnly the gallant Swiss were left, and they, overpowered by numbers and\nfighting gallantly to the last, were literally cut to pieces. The king\nand his family escaped to the National Assembly, and on the 14th were\nremoved to the old Temple prison. From this time the reign of terror may\nproperly be said to have begun. The chronicles of September are written\nin blood. Supreme in power as in crime, the party of the F\u00e9d\u00e9r\u00e9s, or Red\nRepublicans, secured the barriers, sounded the tocsin, and proceeded to\nclear the prisons by an indiscriminate massacre. Nobles and priests, aged\nmen and delicate women, all who were guilty of good birth, loyalty, or\nreligion, were slain without distinction. The inmates of the Abbaye, the\nConciergerie, the Carmes, La Force, and the Bic\u00eatre were all murdered,\nafter a hideous mockery of trial, at which neither innocence nor evidence\navailed. The head of the beautiful and hapless Princess de Lamballe was\nparaded about Paris on a pike, and displayed before the eyes of the\nwretched prisoners in the Temple, whose confidential friend and companion\nshe had been. Mademoiselle de Sombreuil only saved her father\u2019s life by\ndrinking a goblet of blood. Mademoiselle Cazotte flung herself between\nher father and the murderers. Instances of the sublimest resignation, of\nthe loftiest courage, are abundant amid the records of this appalling\nperiod. Thirteen thousand souls are said to have been sacrificed in Paris\nalone, and similar massacres were perpetrated at Orleans, at Rheims, at\nLyons, and at Meaux. On the 21st of September, the legislative assembly,\nhaving presided for the allotted space of one year, was succeeded by a\nnew body of representatives, chiefly consisting of the extreme republican\nparty, and known by the name of the National Convention. To abolish the\nstatutes of the kings, to leave the offices of government open to men of\nevery condition, to persecute the members of the more moderate faction,\nand to impeach the king before the bar of the convention, were among the\nfirst acts of the new government.\n\nOn the 11th of December, 1792, Louis, still placid and dignified,\nappeared before the tribunal of his enemies. He was accused of plots\nagainst the sovereignty of the people\u2014of intrigues with the European\npowers\u2014of tampering with Mirabeau, since dead\u2014in short, of everything\nthat might be construed into an effort for life, liberty, or prerogative.\nHis trial lasted for more than a month, and during that time he was\nseparated from his family. Hitherto Louis and his wife had at least\nshared their sorrows, and, by employing themselves in the education\nof the Dauphin, had beguiled somewhat of the tedious melancholy of\nprison life. Now it was over, and they were to meet but once again\u2014to\nbid farewell. On Christmas day the king drew up his will, and on the\nfollowing morning was summoned to the Convention for the purpose of\nmaking his defense. This paper was read by his counsel, and, at its\nconclusion, Louis spoke a few simple words relative to his own innocence\nand the affection which he had always felt toward his people. He was\nthen conducted back to the Temple, and the discussions went on till the\n15th of January, 1793, when it was resolved to put to the vote the three\ngreat questions of culpability, of the expediency of an appeal to the\npeople, and of the nature of the punishment to be inflicted. On Tuesday,\nthe 15th, the first two questions were put, and the replies recorded.\nBy all the king was voted guilty, and by a majority of two to one the\nappeal to the people was negatived. On Wednesday, the 16th, the question\nof punishment was in like manner propounded. The agitation of Paris was\nsomething terrible to witness. A savage mob gathered about the doors\nof the Assembly, heaping threats upon all who dared to be merciful.\nEven those who most desired to save the king became intimidated, and\nsome who had spoken bravely in his favor the day before now decreed his\ndeath. From Wednesday to Sunday morning this strange scene lasted. Seven\nhundred and twenty-one members, in slow succession, with trembling, with\nconfidence, with apologetic speech, or fierce enforcement, mounted the\ntribune one by one, gave in their \u201cFate-word,\u201d and went down to hear the\njudgment of their successors. Paine, the English democrat, entered his\nname on the side of mercy. Louis \u00c9galit\u00e9, Duke of Orleans, and father\nto the late Louis Philippe, had the unparalleled infamy to vote for\ndeath. Even the brave President Vergniaud, who had pleaded for Louis\nwith passionate earnestness only a day or two before, wavered in his\nallegiance at the last, and spoke the fatal word. At length, when all\nhad voted, death was found to be decreed by a majority of twenty-six\nvoices. The king\u2019s counsel appealed against the sentence; but the appeal\nwas rejected, and the Assembly recommenced voting, to fix the time of\nexecution. Death without delay\u2014death within four-and-twenty hours, was\nthe result. On Sunday morning, January the 20th, the messengers of the\nConvention told Louis he must die. A priest, a delay of three days, and\nan interview with his family, was all that he asked. They granted him\nthe first and last request; but the delay was refused. In the evening\nhe was permitted to see his wife, sister and children. They met in a\nchamber with glass doors, through which the municipal guards watched\nall the cruel scene. Falling into each other\u2019s arms, they were for\nsome time speechless with sorrow, and the conversation that ensued was\ninterrupted by cries and sobs. Then the king rose, promising to see\nthem again on the morrow, and so ended this agony of two hours. About\nmidnight, having recovered his serenity, and prayed with his confessor,\nthe Abb\u00e9 Edgeworth, he went to bed and slept soundly. Waking at five, he\nheard mass and received the sacrament. At eight the municipals summoned\nhim to execution, and, willing to spare the feelings of those whom he\nloved, he left without a second farewell. There was a silence of death\nupon all the city. Silent were the lines of soldiers\u2014silent the gazing\nmultitudes\u2014silent the eighty thousand armed men who guarded with cannon\nthe space around the scaffold. Through all these rolled the solitary\ncarriage, and to these the king, advancing suddenly as the last moment\ncame, said in an agitated voice, \u201cFrenchmen, I die innocent. I pardon\nmy enemies, and I hope that France.\u2026\u201d At this moment he was seized by\nthe executioners, the drums beat and drowned his voice, and in a few\nseconds he was no more. All at once the strange silence was broken\u2014the\nexecutioner upheld the severed head\u2014the shouts of the wild populace\nfilled the air\u2014and then they gradually cleared off, and the business of\nthe day went on in Paris as if no unusual thing had been done. Such was\nthe end of Louis XVI., a virtuous and well-intentioned sovereign, on the\n21st of January, 1793.\u2014_Edwards._\n\n\nX.\u2014THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTION (1792-1796).\n\nThe government, after the king (Louis XVI.) was deposed, was placed\nin the hands of the National Assembly\u2014or Convention, as it now called\nitself\u2014of deputies chosen by the people.\n\nThere is nothing but what is sad and terrible to be told of France for\nthe next four or five years, and the whole account of what happened would\nbe too hard for you to understand, and some part is too dreadful to dwell\nupon.\n\nThe short account of it is that, for years and years before, the kings,\nthe nobles, and some of the clergy too, had cared for little but\ntheir own pride and pleasure, and had done nothing to help on their\npeople\u2014teach, train, or lead them. So now these people were wild with\ndespair, and when the hold on them was a little loosened, they threw it\noff, and turned in furious rage upon their masters. Hatred grew, and all\nthose who had once been respected were looked on as a brood of wolves,\nwho must be done away with, even the young and innocent. The king, queen,\nhis children, and sister (Madame Elizabeth), were shut up in a castle\ncalled the Temple, because it had once belonged to the Knights Templar,\nand there they were very roughly and unkindly treated. A national guard\ncontinually watched them, and these men were often shockingly rude and\ninsulting to them, though they were as patient as possible. Great numbers\nof the nobles and clergy were shut up in the other prisons; and when news\ncame that an army of Germans and emigrant nobles was marching to rescue\nthe king, a set of ruffians was sent to murder them all, cutting them\ndown like sheep for the slaughter, men and women all alike. The family in\nthe Temple were spared for the time, but the emigrant army was beaten at\nJemappes; and the brave nobles and peasants who had risen in the district\nof La Vend\u00e9e, in hopes of saving them, could not make head against the\nregular French army, all of which had joined in the Revolution, being\nangered because no one not of noble birth could be an officer. All his\nfriends did for the king only served to make his enemies hate him trebly;\nand three men had obtained the leadership who seemed to have had a\nregular thirst for blood, and to have thought that the only way to make\na fresh beginning was to kill every one who had inherited any of the\nrights that had been so oppressive. Their names were Marat, Danton, and\nRobespierre; and they had a power over the minds of the Convention and\nthe mob which no one dared resist, so that this time was called the Reign\nof Terror. A doctor named Guillotin had invented a machine for cutting\noff heads quickly and painlessly, which was called by his name; and this\nhorrible instrument was set up in Paris to do this work of cutting off\nthe old race. The king\u2014whom they called Louis Capet, after Hugh, the\nfirst king of his line\u2014was tried before the Assembly, and sentenced to\ndie. He forgave his murderers, and charged the Irish clergyman, named\nEdgeworth, who was allowed to attend him in his last moments, to take\ncare that, if his family were ever restored, there should be no attempt\nto avenge his death. The last words of the priest to him were: \u201cSon of\nSt. Louis, ascend to the skies.\u201d\n\nThe queen and her children remained in the Temple, cheered by the piety\nand kindness of Madame Elizabeth until the poor little prince\u2014a gentle,\nbut spirited boy of eight\u2014was taken from them, and shut up in the lower\nrooms, under the charge of a brutal wretch (a shoemaker) named Simon, who\nwas told that the boy was not to be killed or guillotined, but to be \u201cgot\nrid of\u201d\u2014namely, tormented to death by bad air, bad living, blows and rude\nusage. Not long after, Marie Antoinette was taken to a dismal chamber\nin the Conciergerie prison, and there watched day and night by national\nguards, until she too was brought to trial, and sentenced to die, eight\nmonths after her husband. Gentle Madame Elizabeth was likewise put to\ndeath, and only the two children remained, shut up in separate rooms; but\nthe girl was better off than her brother, in that she was alone, with her\nlittle dog, and had no one who made a point of torturing her.\n\nMeanwhile the guillotine was every day in use. Cart-loads were carried\nfrom the prisons\u2014nobles, priests, ladies, young girls, lawyers, servants,\nshopkeepers\u2014everybody whom the savage men who were called the Committee\nof Public Safety chose to condemn. There were guillotines in almost every\ntown; but at Nantes the victims were drowned, and at Lyons they were\nplaced in a square and shot down with grape shot.\n\nMoreover, all churches were taken from the faithful. A wicked woman was\ncalled the Goddess of Reason, and carried in a car to the great cathedral\nof Notre Dame, where she was enthroned. Sundays were abolished, and\nevery tenth day was kept instead, and Christianity was called folly\nand superstition; in short, the whole nation was given up to the most\nhorrible frenzy against God and man.\n\nIn the midst, Marat was stabbed to the heart by a girl named Charlotte\nCorday, who hoped thus to end these horrors; but the other two continued\ntheir work of blood, till Robespierre grew jealous of Danton, and had\nhim guillotined; but at last the more humane of the National Convention\nplucked up courage to rise against him, and he and his inferior\nassociates were carried to prison. He tried to commit suicide with\na pistol, but only shattered his jaw, and in this condition he was\nguillotined, when the Reign of Terror had lasted about two years.\n\nThere was much rejoicing at his fall; prisons were opened, and people\nbegan to breathe freely once more. The National Convention governed more\nmildly and reasonably; but they had a great deal on their hands, for\nFrance had gone to war with all the countries round; and the soldiers\nwere so delighted at the freedom they had obtained, that it seemed as\nif no one could beat them, so that the invaders were everywhere driven\nback. And thus was brought to light the wonderful powers of a young\nCorsican officer, Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been educated, at a\nmilitary school in France, as an engineer. When there was an attempt of\nthe mob to rise and bring back the horrible days of the Reign of Terror,\nColonel Bonaparte came with his grape shot, and showed that there was a\ngovernment again that must be obeyed, so that some quiet and good order\nwas restored.\n\nSome pity had at last been felt for the poor children in the Temple.\nIt came too late to save the life of the boy, Louis XVII., as he is\nreckoned, who had for the whole ninth year of his life lain alone in\na filthy room, afraid to call any one lest he should be ill-used, and\nwithout spirit enough to wash himself, so that he was one mass of sores\nand dirt; and he only lingered till the 8th of June, 1795, when he died,\nthinking he heard lovely music, with his mother\u2019s voice among the rest.\nIn the end of the same year his sister was released, and went to Russia\nto join her uncle, who had fled at the beginning of the Revolution, and\nwas now owned by the loyal among the French as Louis XVIII.\n\nIn the meantime the French army had beaten the Germans on the frontier,\nand had decided on attacking their power in the north of Italy. Bonaparte\nmade a most wonderful passage of the Alps, where there were scarcely any\nroads but bridle-paths, and he gained amazing victories. His plan was to\nget all the strength of his army up into one point, as it were, and with\nthat to fall upon the center of the enemy; and as the old German generals\ndid not understand this way of fighting, and were not ready, he beat them\neverywhere, and won all Lombardy, which he persuaded to set up for a\nrepublic, under the protection of the French.\n\nAll this time, the French were under so many different varieties of\ngovernment, that you would not understand them at all; but that which\nlasted longest was called the Directory. People were beginning to feel\nsafe at last; the emigrants were coming home again, and matters were\nsettling down a little more.\u2014_Yonge._\n\n\nXI.\u2014NAPOLEON I. (1796-1814.)\n\nWhen Bonaparte had come back from Italy, he persuaded the Directory to\nsend him with an army to Egypt to try to gain the East, and drive the\nEnglish out of India. He landed in Egypt, and near Grand Cairo gained\nthe battle of the Pyramids, and tried to recommend himself to the people\nof Egypt by showing great admiration for Mahomet and the Koran. But his\nships, which he had left on the coast, were attacked by the English\nfleet, under Sir Horatio Nelson, and every one of them taken or sunk\nexcept two, which carried the tidings home. This was the battle of the\nNile.\n\nThe Sultan of Turkey, to whom Egypt belonged, fitted out an army against\nthe French, and Bonaparte marched to meet it half way in the Holy Land.\nThere he took Jaffa, cruelly massacred the Turkish garrison, and beat\nthe Sultan\u2019s army at Tabor: but Acre was so bravely and well defended,\nunder the management of a brave English sailor, Sir Sidney Smith, that\nhe was obliged to turn back without taking it. He led his troops back,\nsuffering sadly from hunger and sickness, to Egypt, and there defeated\nanother Turkish army in the battle of Aboukir. However, he there heard\nnews from home which showed him that he was needed. The French had,\nindeed, gone on to stir up a revolution both in Rome and Naples. The pope\nwas a prisoner in France, and the king of Naples had fled to Sicily; but\nthe Russians had come to the help of the other nations, and the French\nhad nearly been driven out of Lombardy. Beside, the Directory was not\nable to keep the unruly people in order; and Napoleon felt himself so\nmuch wanted, that, finding there were two ships in the port, he embarked\nin one of them and came home, leaving his Egyptian army to shift for\nthemselves.\n\nHowever, he was received at home like a conqueror; and the people of\nFrance were so proud of him, that he soon persuaded them to change the\nDirectory for a government of three consuls, of whom he was the first.\nHe lived in the Tuileries, and began to keep something very like the old\ncourt; and his wife, Josephine, was a beautiful, graceful, kind lady,\nwhom every one loved, and who helped very much in gaining people over to\nhis cause. Indeed, he gave the French rest at home, and victories abroad,\nand that was all they desired. He won back all that had been lost in\nItaly; and the battle of Marengo, on the 14th of June, 1800, when the\nAustrians were totally routed, was a splendid victory. Austria made peace\nagain, and nobody was at war with France but England, which conquered\neverywhere by sea, as France did by land. The last remnant of the French\narmy in Egypt was beaten in Alexandria, and obliged to let the English\nships transport them to France; and after this there was a short peace\ncalled the peace of Amiens, but it did not last long; and as soon as\nBonaparte had decided on war, he pounced without notice on every English\ntraveler in his dominions, and kept them prisoners till the end of the\nwar.\n\nHe had made up his mind to be Emperor of the French, and before declaring\nthis, he wanted to alarm the old royalists; so he sent a party to seize\nthe Duke d\u2019Enghien (heir of the princes of Cond\u00e9), who was living at\nBaden, and conduct him to Vincennes, where, at midnight, he was tried\nby a sham court-martial, and at six in the morning brought down to the\ncourtyard, and shot, beside his own grave.\n\nAfter this every one was afraid to utter a whisper against Bonaparte\nbecoming emperor, and on the second of December, 1804, he was crowned\nin Notre Dame, with great splendor. The pope was present, but Bonaparte\nplaced the crown on his own head\u2014a golden wreath of laurel leaves; and\nhe gave his soldiers eagle standards, in memory of the old Roman Empire.\nHe drew up an excellent code of laws, which have been used ever since\nin France, and are known by his name; and his wonderful talent did much\nto bring the shattered nation into order. Still, England would not\nacknowledge his unlawful power, and his hatred to her was very great. He\nhad an army ready to invade England, but the English fleet never allowed\nhim to cross the Channel; and his fleet was entirely destroyed by Lord\nNelson, at the great battle of Trafalgar, on the 21st of October, 1805.\n\nBut Napoleon was winning another splendid victory at Ulm, over the\nAustrians; and not long after, he beat the Prussians as entirely at Jena,\nand had all Germany at his feet. He was exceedingly harsh and savage\nto the good and gentle queen Louisa, when she came with her husband to\ntry to make better terms for her country, thus sowing seeds of bitter\nresentment, which were to bear fruit long after. The Russians advanced\nto the aid of Germany, but the battles of Eylau and Friedland made them\nalso anxious for peace. There never, indeed, was a much abler man than\nNapoleon; but he had no honor, honesty or generosity, and had very\nlittle heart amid all his seeming greatness. He made his family kings\nof conquered countries. His brother Louis was King of Holland; Jerome,\nof Westphalia, and the eldest brother, Joseph, King of Naples; but in\n1808, he contrived to cheat the King of Spain of his crown, and keep\nhim and his son prisoners in France, while Joseph was sent to reign in\nSpain, and General Murat, the husband of his sister Caroline, was made\nKing of Naples. The Portuguese royal family were obliged to flee away to\nBrazil; but the Spaniards and Portuguese would not submit to the French\nyoke, and called the English to help them. So year after year the Duke\nof Wellington was beating Napoleon\u2019s generals, and wearing away his\nstrength; but he still went on with his German wars, and in 1809, after\ntwo terrible battles at Aspern and Wagram, entered Vienna itself. Again\nthere was a peace; and Napoleon, who was grieved to have no child to\nleave his empire to, had the wickedness and cruelty to decide on setting\naside his good, loving Josephine, and making the Emperor Francis, of\nAustria, give him his young daughter, Marie Louise. In 1810, the deed was\ndone; and it was said that from that time all his good fortune left him,\nthough he had one little son born to him, whom he called King of Rome.\n\nHe set out with what he named the Grand Army, to conquer Russia; and\nafter winning the battle of Borodino, he entered Moscow; but no sooner\nwas he there than the whole town was on fire, and it burnt on, so that it\nwas not possible to stay there. Winter was just coming on, the Russian\narmy was watching everywhere, and he could only retreat; and the unhappy\nGrand Army, struggling in the snow, with nothing to eat, and beset by the\nenemy everywhere, suffered the most frightful misery. Napoleon left it\nin the midst, and hurried home; but no sooner had this blow been given\nhim, than the Germans\u2014the Prussians especially, to whom he had been\nso harsh\u2014rose up and banded together against him. France was worn out\nwith the long wars; and though Napoleon still showed wonderful skill,\nespecially at the battle of Leipsic, he was driven back, inch by inch,\nas it were, across Germany, and into France, by the Emperors of Austria\nand Russia and King of Prussia; for though each battle of his was a\nvictory, force of numbers was too much for him. He went to the palace of\nFontainebleau, and tried to give up his crown to his little son, but the\nAllies would not accept this; and at last, in the spring of 1814, he was\nforced to yield entirely, and put himself into the hands of the English,\nPrussian, Russian, and Austrian sovereigns. They decided on sending him\nto a little isle called Elba, in the Mediterranean Sea, where he was\nstill to be treated as a prince. His deserted wife, Josephine, loved him\nso much that she died of grief for his fall; but Marie Louise returned to\nher father, and did nothing to help him.\u2014_Yonge._\n\n\n\n\nCOMMERCIAL LAW.\n\nBy EDWARD C. REYNOLDS, ESQ.\n\n\nIII.\u2014AGENCY.\n\nAgency is one of the most common relations of individual to individual.\nIt is a delegation of power that few can avoid, in a greater or less\ndegree of importance. The wife who purchases goods for household purposes\nin her husband\u2019s name, is acting purely as his agent; and the clerk who\nsells the articles to her acts, in the transaction, as agent for the\nmerchant in whose employment he is.\n\nThe legal maxim, _Qui facit per alium, facit per se_, which we will make\nread here, \u201cWhat one does by another he does himself,\u201d is the essential\nidea of agency; that is, it places on sure foundation the question of\nresponsibility, at least, as to where it belongs. This is the whole\ndoctrine so far as responsibility or liability is concerned.\n\nThat it is particularly necessary in business life to have this\ndelegation of power, and this centralization of responsibility, needs\nno explanation. The publisher of this magazine could be a publisher only\nin imagination without it, for he would have no influence in his own\nsanctum, except with himself; and we should feel no security in dealing\nwith a company with no recognized and responsible manager.\n\nWe have to deal with a fixed fact. Agency exists. The owners of\nmagnificent stores, the stockholders in the railroad and steamship lines\nare all indebted to an army of agents whose active brains and eager\nefforts keep cars and steamers in motion, purchase and sell goods, and\nkeep the accounts of the business world in proper balance.\n\nHow is an agency established? Our readers probably could answer this\nquestion in part; try it and see if we are not right.\n\nWe must answer by remarking that it depends somewhat upon what is wanted\nof an agent. Thus, if one be possessed of real estate, situated in some\ndistant place, and is desirous of making a sale, and of selecting and\ncommissioning some one to represent him in such a transfer of property,\nthe appointment would be by a power of attorney, executed as described in\nour later article on real estate, \u201cto which reference is hereby made.\u201d\n\nTo represent another in ordinary business transactions one may act by\nvirtue of a written or verbal agreement. Thus, if A places goods in B\u2019s\nhands for the purpose of selling through B, this will be sufficient to\nconstitute an agency, and for the purposes of this business B is A\u2019s\nagent, and all would be protected in dealing with him in such capacity.\nA bookkeeper in the counting room of his employer is fairly presumed to\nhave authority to receipt bills, to pay bills, render accounts, and in\nsome cases to make purchases, particularly if such part by him done has\nbeen sanctioned by the merchant in the past. But he has no authority\nto sign his employer\u2019s name to notes, bills or checks unless specially\nauthorized.\n\nA minor, though not capable of being a party to a contract himself,\nmay do so for an employer, and thus be an agent, and his principal is\nresponsible for his acts in such capacity, unless they be _tortious_, or\nwrongs in themselves. There would obviously be no security for innocent\nparties in fixing upon any other solution of the question of liability,\nbecause if A permits B, though a minor, to act for him and thereby takes\nadvantage of his services in that capacity when they are favorable to his\ninterests, it would be inequitable for him to shift the responsibility\nwhen it becomes onerous.\n\nWhile the principal is responsible for the acts of his agent, when not\nbeyond the authority given, it is the duty of the agent to obey the\ninstructions of his principal. This he is always to do unless some\nunforeseen situation presents itself, which requires the exercise of a\ndiscretionary power and immediate action. And then, an agent would be\njustified in acting contrary to instructions, or without instructions\nonly when reasonable foresight and experience would approve of the\ncourse pursued by him. This for legitimate pursuits, our readers always\nremembering that an agent is not justified in doing an illegal or immoral\nact, and that, even though specially instructed so to do. The agency must\nbe apparent and known to exist, that third parties may know themselves\nto be dealing with one in such capacity, and that agents may not be\nmade to assume responsibilities which do not belong to them. This may\nbe accomplished by advertising in and transacting all business in the\nprincipal\u2019s name; or where the name of the principal is not necessarily\nmade use of in the course of the business, the fact of the agent\u2019s\nbusiness employment being known as such would doubtless be sufficient.\n\nA clerk having occasion, in the course of business, to sign his\nemployer\u2019s name to letters, in receipting bills and such routine\nbusiness, does it in this manner:\n\n                                                            E. E. EMMONS,\n                                                                 _Per S._\n\nWhere special authority is given to sign checks, notes and accept bills\nin his principal\u2019s or employer\u2019s name, the agent will add his own name,\nwith the word \u201cAttorney.\u201d\n\nIt must be remembered that an agency, so far as an agency transaction\nis concerned, must stand by itself, and not be associated with agent\u2019s\nprivate business; that principal\u2019s and agent\u2019s property should be kept\nentirely distinct.\n\nA commission merchant, although an agent so far as his dealings with his\nprincipal or consignor, is not such in relation to other parties, since\nhe does business in his own name, and is recognized as a merchant and not\nan agent, although his business may be largely a commission business.\nHe is bound to obey instructions of his principal or consignor, whom he\ncharges a percentage for the handling of the goods consigned, incidental\nexpenses, and, in cases where he assumes the indebtedness resulting from\nthe sales, an extra commission.\n\nSince mention has been made of commission merchants, we must\nindividualize once more, and mention brokers. A broker simply effects\na sale or purchase, as of merchandise or stocks. Unlike commission\nmerchants they neither have, for the purpose of effecting the one, nor\nacquire by the accomplishment of the other, absolute possession of the\nchattels bought or sold.\n\nIn whatever capacity as special agent for another, one is acting, he is\never bound to keep and render proper account of the business entrusted to\nhis care; to keep his principal properly informed regarding it; to use\ndue diligence in business; to treat the property of his principal with\nsame care and handle with same prudence, as a man of ordinary carefulness\nand forethought would his own. All this means only, that he should act\nwith ordinary skill, and should render to his principal fair and honest\nservice.\n\nWhat terminates the agency? Death or insanity of either party;\ncompletion of work undertaken; expiration of time agreed upon; by\nexpress declaration of either party at pleasure, the other having due\nnotification, and by such action acquiring a valid claim for whatever\ndamages result on account thereof.\n\n\nPartnership.\n\nIt is of constant occurrence that persons deem it advisable to unite\nthemselves together for the prosecution of some general or particular\nbusiness, paying their respects, by such act, to the old saw, \u201cIn union\nthere is strength.\u201d They agree by such an association to undertake\nthe business, which induced them to unite their efforts with the hope\nof attaining to better results. The partners may or may not equally\nparticipate in the activities of the business to be undertaken, and may\nor may not stand on equal footing so far as relates to the sharing of\nthe gains and losses. All of this is governed by their agreements at the\noutset, and its subsequent mutually agreed upon changes.\n\nLike other species of contracts, the conditions of partnerships may be\nagreed upon verbally, may be in writing, and may result by implication.\nOf the three, which? Regarding this and all other engagements, establish\na rule to which adhere rigidly. The rule: Have a thorough understanding\nwith all parties with whom you contract; reduce it to writing, and\nhave all interested parties sign. In this way the difficulties of\nmisunderstandings and convenient forgetfulness will be less troublesome.\nIt is worth all it costs to bear this precaution in mind.\n\nPartners assume different relations and responsibilities as regards the\npartnership and the business world. There are the ostensible partners\nwho boldly advertise themselves as such, and as such assuming the\nhazards incident to commercial enterprises; then the nominal partner who\nseeks to help a partnership by lending it his name, and thereby holding\nhimself out as a member of it and making himself liable to creditors for\npartnership debts, providing credit was given, because of his supposed\nconnection with the firm, as a regular partner; secret partners, who keep\ntheir names from the public, seeking by this means to avoid liability,\nbut at same time sharing with the other partners the profits arising from\nthe business. If such partnership becomes known to creditors, they may\nenforce collection of claims due from the partnership, as against the\nproperty of the secret partner; and the special partner, recognized by\nthe laws of some of the states, which limit his liability to the amount\nof his investment, on condition that he gives public notice of such\npartnership agreement in a manner prescribed.\n\nThe partnership is organized, the partners assuming such relation to\nthe partnership as they mutually agree upon, bearing in mind the above\ndescription of liabilities.\n\nThe element agency becomes quite conspicuous here, for each partner\nis an agent of the partnership and invested with plenary power to\nbind the other partners by his acts, when within the business sphere\nof the firm. It will be observed that we say in the line of the\ncopartnership business, because otherwise it would not be sanctioned.\nAs an illustration: A member of a partnership engaged in the flour\ntrade would not have authority to bind his partners, if he attempted to\ninvolve them in stock speculations, unless previous similar enterprises\nby him had been approved by them, in which case there might be a fair\npresumption that such authority existed. This leads us to the question of\nliability; and liable they are, each and every partner, unless by virtue\nof exception previously mentioned, exempted. Their individual property,\nin the event of there being insufficient partnership assets to liquidate\nthe indebtedness of the firm, must respond to the creditors\u2019 call.\n\nNow, since the acts of a partner may result in a manner disastrous to all\nassociated with him, it is his duty to act with all fidelity and perfect\ngood faith; to give his attention carefully to the business, acting as\nhis best judgment may advise for the benefit of all. While, however, a\nbreach of these obligations creates a liability for such misfeasance or\nwrong act as a partner may be guilty of, it does in no way affect outside\nparties, unless cognizant of and participating in same.\n\nGains and losses how shared? The object of our partnership is the hope of\ngain; its effect may be the realization of loss.\n\nThis question of division ought to be solved by reference to the articles\nof agreement, which should have expressed the whole partnership contract,\nand have been signed by all the partners. This not done? Well then, we\nsay, all should share in equal proportions the gains or losses, first\nmaking unequal investments equal by an allowance of interest on net\ninvestments, and equalizing individual ability and experience by allowing\neach partner that salary to which, measuring his services by comparison\nwith those rendered by other partners, he seems to be fairly entitled.\nWhere capital and skill are equal, an equal sharing in the gains or\nlosses is equitable.\n\n\nDissolution.\n\nThe following conditions serve to dissolve a partnership:\n\nThe expiration of the time for which the partnership was organized;\nordinarily the completion of the business for the purpose of\naccomplishing which the partnership was formed;\n\nThe misfeasance of a partner; whenever a partner fails to act in harmony\nwith his associates, or disposes of his interest in the partnership\naffairs;\n\nBy the death of any one of the partners;\n\nBy decree of the court ordering the same;\n\nBy the consent of all the partners at any time.\n\nAfter the dissolution, a partner acts no longer for his former copartners\nto the extent of entering into or incurring new obligations. Each partner\nhowever has full power to collect debts due the firm, signing the firm\nname to receipts, and also to liquidate outstanding obligations of the\nfirm, unless by special agreement these powers are conferred on one\npartner alone. This is an arrangement which affects the partners only,\nthird persons being protected in a settlement with any member of a late\npartnership dissolved.\n\nAfter the business is wholly settled, all liabilities being paid, and not\ntill then, is a partner entitled to his share of the partnership funds.\n\nNotice of the dissolution of a partnership should be publicly given, it\nbeing necessary in the case of one or more retiring from the firm, in\norder to secure them from future liability. Individually this notice\nis given by mail to all with whom the firm has been dealing. This, in\naddition to ordinary publication of notice in newspaper, is sufficient.\n\n\nSALES\u2014Personal Property.\n\nA sale is the transfer of certain property from one to another for a\ncertain sum paid or to be paid, those being parties to it, to make it\nvalid, who are competent to enter into a contract.\n\nA sale effected entitles the purchaser to possession of the goods on\npayment of price agreed upon; or, if purchaser be given credit, at once,\nunless there be some special agreement to the contrary.\n\nIn the case of goods shipped to a purchaser who becomes insolvent before\nthey have been delivered, the vendor may order the carrier to hold them\nsubject to his (vendor\u2019s) order, thereby exercising a privilege given him\nby law, and called the right of stoppage _in transitu_.\n\nAll sales are not made with an actual knowledge on the part of the vendee\nof the quality of his purchase, some being by sample. Sales in this\nmanner give credence to the inference that the samples constitute a part\nof the goods sold, and therefore the goods must be of same quality as\nthe samples, else the vendor does not comply with the conditions of the\ncontract to which he is a party, and the purchaser may refuse to complete\nthe sale by acceptance of the goods.\n\nThe quality of goods sold must be as represented by the vendor, if he\nwarrants them by such representation, in order to secure a sale. In sales\neach one is supposed to be on his guard. \u201cLet the purchaser beware,\u201d is\nthe maxim. And if, without actual fraud, concealment or misrepresentation\non the part of the vendor, the vendee is deceived in a purchase because\nof poor judgment, he alone must suffer the consequences and take the\nloss. A warranty of an article puts the vendor under the necessity of\nmaking compensation to vendee, if the article is defective wherein\nwarranted.\n\nA purchase of stolen property gives to the purchaser no title as against\nthe true owner, or the one from whom the property was stolen, even though\nthe purchase be made in good faith, and for a full consideration. \u201cLet\nthe purchaser beware.\u201d\n\nThere is but one species of personal property to which this will not\napply, and that negotiable commercial paper.\n\nSome contracts regarding sales must be in writing, and signed by the\nparty to be charged, or his agent. What are they? See article on\ncontracts.\n\n\n\n\nREADINGS IN ART.\n\n\nI.\u2014ITALIAN PAINTERS AND PAINTINGS.\n\nThe present paper has been abridged from \u201cItalian Paintings,\u201d by Edward\nJ. Poynter, R. A., and Percy R. Head.\n\nItalian painting is divided into a number of schools, each of which has\nsome illustrious artist as its founder, and a train of skillful and exact\nworkmen following his methods. To study the style and methods of the\nmaster is to study the school. The most famous of these artists have been\nselected to represent the Art of Italy, the first of whom, the father of\nItalian painting, is\n\n\nGIOTTO.\n\nGiotto was born near Florence, in 1266. Employed as a boy in watching\nsheep, he is said to have been one day discovered by the artist Cimabue,\nas he was sketching one of his flock upon a stone. The painter, surprised\nat the promise shown by the boy, who was not more than ten years old,\ntook him to Florence, and made him his pupil. Giotto\u2019s earliest works\nwere executed at Florence, and at the age of thirty he had already\nattained such fame that he was invited to Rome by Pope Boniface VIII.,\nto take part in the decoration of the ancient Basilica of Saint Peter.\nThe _Navicella_ mosaic which he there executed, representing the\nDisciples in the Storm, is preserved in the vestibule of the present\nSaint Peter\u2019s. The famous story of \u201cGiotto\u2019s O\u201d belongs to this episode\nin his career. When the envoy sent by the pope to engage his services\nbegged for some drawing or design which might be shown to his holiness in\nproof of the artist\u2019s talent, Giotto, taking an ordinary brush full of\ncolor, and steadying his arm against his side, described a perfect circle\non an upright panel with a sweep of the wrist, and offered this manual\nfeat as sufficient evidence of his powers. The story shows the importance\nattached by a great artist to mere precision in workmanship, and teaches\nthe useful lesson that genius, unsupported by the skill only to be\nacquired by discipline and labor, is wanting in the first condition which\nmakes great achievements possible. This visit to Rome took place about\n1298; soon afterward we find Giotto engaged on his frescoes in the church\nof Saint Francis at Assisi, a series of allegorical designs illustrating\nthe saint\u2019s spiritual life and character. In 1306 he was working at the\nfine series of frescoes in the Arena Chapel at Padua, which represent\nthirty-eight scenes from the lives of the Virgin and of Christ. We here\nsee Giotto in the fulness of his powers; the incidents are treated with\na charming simplicity and sentiment for nature, and he rises to great\nsolemnity of style in the more important scenes. Important works by\nGiotto are found in many other places beside those mentioned above,\nincluding especially Naples, Ravenna, Milan, Pisa and Lucca. Perhaps\nthe finest are those which have been discovered of late years in the\nChurch of Santa Croce at Florence under coats of whitewash which happily\nhad preserved them almost intact; the \u201cLast Supper,\u201d in the refectory\nof the convent attached to the church, is in remarkable preservation,\nand is a magnificent example of the style of the time. The twenty-six\npanels which he painted for the presses in the sacristry of the same\nchurch are good illustrations of his method of treatment; natural and\ndignified with the interest concentrated on the figures; the background\nand accessories being treated in the simplest possible manner, and hardly\nmore than symbols expressing the locality in which the scene is enacted.\nGiotto was the first of the moderns who attempted portrait-painting with\nany success, and some most interesting monuments of his skill in that\nbranch of art have been preserved to us. In 1840, discovery was made,\nin the chapel of the Podest\u00e0\u2019s palace at Florence, of some paintings by\nGiotto, containing a number of portraits, among them one of his friend,\nthe poet Dante; the portraits being introduced, as was usual among the\nearly painters, and indeed frequent at all periods, as subordinate actors\nin the scene represented. Giotto was not only a painter; as a sculptor\nand architect he was also distinguished. Giotto died at Florence in\nJanuary, 1337, and was buried with public solemnities in the cathedral.\nHis style, though marked by the hardness and quaintness of a time when\nchiaro-scuro and perspective were very imperfectly understood, displays\nthe originality of his genius in its thoughtful and vigorous design, and\nshows how resolutely the artist relied, not on traditions, but on keen\nand patient observation of nature.\n\n\nFRA ANGELICO.\n\nThe earliest of the great fifteenth-century painters belongs in the\ncharacter of his works rather to the preceding century. The monk Guido\ndi Pietro of Fiesole, commonly called Fra Angelico from the holiness and\npurity which were as conspicuous in his life as in his works, was born\nin 1387 at Vicchio, in the province of Mugello. At the age of twenty he\nentered the order of the Predicants at Fiesole, and took the name of\nGiovanni, by which he was afterward known. His first art work was the\nillumination of manuscripts. Quitting the monastery in 1409, he practiced\nas a fresco-painter in various places until 1418, when he returned to\nFiesole, and continued to reside there for the next eighteen years. In\n1436 he again quitted his retreat, to paint a series of frescoes on the\nhistory of the Passion for the convent of San Marco in Florence. This\nwork occupied nine years, and on its completion Angelico was invited to\nRome. The chief work which he undertook there was the decoration of a\nchapel in the Vatican for Pope Nicholas V. In 1447 he went to Orvieto to\nundertake a similar task, but returned in the same year, having done only\nthree compartments of the ceiling, and leaving the rest to be afterward\ncompleted by Luca Signorelli. He then continued to reside in Rome, where\nhe died and was buried in 1455. The most striking characteristics of\nAngelico\u2019s art spring from the temper of religious fervor with which he\npracticed it. He worked without payment; he prayed before beginning any\nwork for the Divine guidance in its conception; and believing himself\nto be so assisted, he regarded each picture as a revelation, and could\nnever be persuaded to alter any part of it. His works on panel are very\nnumerous, and are to be found in many public and private galleries;\nof the finest of these are, a \u201cLast Judgment,\u201d belonging to the Earl\nof Dudley, and the \u201cCoronation of the Virgin\u201d in the gallery of the\nLouvre. After his death he was \u201cbeatified\u201d by the church he had served\nso devotedly\u2014a solemnity which ranks next to canonization; and Il Beato\nAngelico is the name by which Fra Giovanni was and is most fondly and\nreverently remembered. His style survived only in one pupil who assisted\nhim at Orvieto.\n\n\nLEONARDO DA VINCI.\n\nLeonardo da Vinci belonged to the Florentine school, the fifteenth\ncentury, of which he was the first great example. Leonardo was the son\nof a notary of Vinci, near Florence, and was born at that place in the\nyear 1452. He became the pupil of Andrea Verrocchio, the Florentine\nsculptor and painter, and progressed so rapidly that he soon surpassed\nhis master, who is said to have thereupon given up painting in despair.\nLeonardo\u2019s studies at this time ranged over the whole field of science\nand art; beside being a painter and a sculptor, he was a practiced\narchitect, engineer, and mechanician; profoundly versed in mathematics\nand the physical sciences; and an accomplished poet and musician. The\nfamous letter in which he applied to the Duke of Milan for employment,\nenumerates only a few of his acquirements; he represents himself as\nskilled in military and naval engineering, offensive and defensive, and\nthe construction of artillery, and as possessing secrets in these matters\nhitherto unknown; he can make designs for buildings, and undertake any\nwork in sculpture, in marble, in bronze, or in terra-cotta; and \u201cin\npainting,\u201d he says, \u201cI can do what can be done as well as any man, be\nhe who he may.\u201d He concludes by offering to submit his own account of\nhimself to the test of experiment, at his excellency\u2019s pleasure. He\nentered the Duke\u2019s service about the year 1482, receiving a yearly salary\nof 500 scudi. Under his auspices an academy of arts was established in\nMilan in 1485, and he drew round him a numerous school of painters. Of\nthe many works executed by Leonardo during his residence at Milan, the\ngreatest was the world renowned picture of the \u201cLast Supper,\u201d painted in\noil upon the wall of the refectory of the convent of Santa Maria delle\nGrazie. Whether it was the fault of the wall or the medium used by the\npainter, the great picture rapidly faded, and by the end of fifty years\nhad virtually perished. It is still shown, but decay and restoration have\nleft little of the original work of Leonardo. The best idea of it is to\nbe got from the old copies, taken while the picture was yet perfect; of\nthese the most valuable is the one executed in 1510 by Marco d\u2019Oggione,\nnow in the possession of the Royal Academy of London. His other important\nachievement, while at Milan, was a work of sculpture, which unfortunately\nperished within a few years of its completion. It seems to have occupied\nhim at intervals for eleven years, for the completed model was first\nexhibited to the public in 1493. All that we now know of it is from the\nnumerous sketches in the Royal Collection at Windsor. The model was\nstill in existence in 1501, after which nothing more is recorded of it.\nHe also at this time made a model for the cupola of Milan Cathedral,\nwhich was never carried out. In 1499 Leonardo left Milan and returned to\nFlorence. He received a commission in 1503 to paint the wall at one end\nof the Council Hall of the Palazzo Vecchio, the decoration of the other\nend being at the same time entrusted to Michelangelo. Leonardo\u2019s picture\nwas never completed, and Michelangelo\u2019s apparently never begun; but the\ncartoons for their two compositions, known respectively as the \u201cBattle of\nthe Standard\u201d and the \u201cCartoon of Pisa,\u201d excited the greatest admiration,\nand were termed by Benvenuto Cellini \u201cthe school of the world;\u201d both\nhave been lost or destroyed; all that we know of Leonardo\u2019s composition\nis gained from a drawing of it by Rubens in black and red chalk in the\ngallery of the Louvre, to which, though spirited enough, he contrived\nto impart the coarse Flemish character with which all his work is\ndisfigured. In 1514 Leonardo visited Rome, and was to have executed some\nwork in the Vatican, had not an affront put upon him by the pope given\nhim offence and caused him to leave Rome. He went to the King of France,\nFrancis I., who was then at Pavia, took service with him, and accompanied\nhim to France, in the early part of 1516. He was, however, weakened by\nage and in bad health, and did little or no new work in France. In a\nlittle more than three years\u2019 time, in May 1519, he died, at Cloux, near\nAmboise, at the age of sixty-seven.\n\nThose pictures of Leonardo, which we may regard with confidence as the\nwork of his own hand, fully justify the exceptional admiration with which\nhe has always been regarded. He was excessively fastidious in his work,\n\u201chis soul being full of the sublimity of art,\u201d and spent years over the\nexecution of some of his works. The painting of the portrait of Madonna\nLisa is said to have extended over four years, and to have been then\nleft incomplete. His mind also was at times equally bent on scientific\nmatters, and for long periods he was entirely absorbed in the study of\nmathematics. For these reasons he produced but few pictures; if, however,\nhe had left none, his drawings, which fortunately exist in large numbers,\nwould suffice to account for the enthusiasm which his work has always\nexcited. It is certain that we do not see his pictures in the state in\nwhich they left his easel; from some causes, unnecessary to discuss, they\nhave blackened in the shadows, and the colors have faded. Vasari praises\nbeyond measure the carnations of the Mona Lisa, which, he says, \u201cdo not\nappear to be painted, but truly flesh and blood;\u201d but no trace of these\ndelicate tints now remains.\n\nLeonardo was the author of many treatises, some of which only have been\npublished. The most celebrated is the \u201cTrattato della Pittura,\u201d still a\nbook of high authority among writings on art.\n\n\nMICHELANGELO BUONARROTI\n\nWas born at Castel Caprese, near Arezzo, in 1475. In 1488 he entered\nthe school of Ghirlandaio, the master giving a small payment for the\nboy\u2019s services. His precocious abilities soon attracted the notice\nof Lorenzo de\u2019 Medici, and until the death of that prince in 1492,\nMichelangelo worked under his especial patronage. His earliest drawings\nshow a spontaneous power which made Fuseli say that \u201cas an artist he\nhad no infancy;\u201d but for many years he confined himself almost entirely\nto sculpture; and some of his greatest achievements in that kind of art\nwere executed before he undertook his first considerable work with the\npencil. This was the \u201cCartoon of Pisa,\u201d finished in 1505, and intended as\na design for a mural picture to face that of Leonardo in the Council Hall\nat Florence. This cartoon is lost, but a copy in monochrome, containing\nprobably the whole of the composition, exists in England. During its\nprogress he had broken off to visit Rome, and execute some sculptural\nwork for the pope; and in 1508 he went to Rome again to begin the\ngreat achievement of his life, the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel. The\npaintings of the ceiling illustrate the Creation and the Fall of Man,\ntogether with other scenes and figures typical of the Redemption. The\nmiddle part of the ceiling is divided into nine compartments, containing\nthe \u201cCreation of Eve\u201d (placed in the center, as symbolizing the woman\nof whom the Messiah was born), the \u201cCreation of Adam,\u201d the \u201cTemptation,\nFall and Expulsion\u201d in one composition, the \u201cSeparation of Light from\nDarkness,\u201d the \u201cGathering of the Waters,\u201d the \u201cCreation of the Sun and\nMoon,\u201d the \u201cDeluge,\u201d the \u201cThanksgiving of Noah,\u201d and the \u201cDrunkenness\nof Noah.\u201d At the corners of the ceiling are four designs of the great\ndeliverances of the children of Israel, the Brazen Serpent, David and\nGoliath, Judith with the head of Holofernes, and the punishment of\nHaman. There are six windows on each side of the chapel; the lunettes\nwhich surround them, and the spaces above them, are occupied by groups\nof the ancestors of Christ. Between the windows, at the springing of\nthe vault, are colossal seated figures of the Prophets and Sibyls who\nforetold the coming of the Savior. They are arranged alternately as\nfollows:\u2014Jeremiah, Persian Sibyl, Ezekiel, Erythr\u00e6an Sibyl, Joel, Delphic\nSibyl, Isaiah, Cum\u00e6an Sibyl, Daniel, Libyan Sibyl; Jonah and Zachariah\nare placed one at each end of the chapel, between the historical\ncompositions at the angles of the ceiling. These single figures are\nthe most striking features of the design, and calculated skilfully to\nhelp the architectural effect. The side walls of the chapel, below the\nspringing of the vault, had already been decorated with frescoes executed\nby Sandro Botticelli, Cosimo Rosselli, Ghirlandaio, Luca Signorelli, and\nPerugino. Michelangelo\u2019s frescoes were finished toward the end of the\nyear 1512. Vasari\u2019s statement that he painted them all in twenty months\nwithout any assistance is undoubtedly exaggerated; it possibly refers to\nthe completion of the first half of the ceiling.\n\nFor the next twenty years Michelangelo did little or nothing in painting;\nbut in 1533, at the age of fifty-nine, he began the cartoons for the\nfresco of the \u201cLast Judgment\u201d on the wall behind the altar in the Sistine\nChapel. This celebrated composition is entirely of nude figures, no\naccessories being introduced to add to the terror of the scene. Each\nfigure throughout this vast composition has its appropriate meaning,\nand the power of design and mastery of execution are unsurpassed and\nunsurpassable. The picture was finished in 1541. Two frescoes in the\nneighboring Pauline Chapel, the \u201cConversion of Saint Paul,\u201d and the\n\u201cCrucifixion of Saint Peter,\u201d which were finished in 1549, were his last\npaintings. He had accepted, in 1547, the position of architect of Saint\nPeter\u2019s, stipulating that his services should be gratuitous. He continued\nto carry the building forward, altering materially the original design of\nBramante, until his death, which took place in February, 1564. His body\nwas taken to Florence, and buried in Santa Croce.\n\nAlthough the genius of Michelangelo has exercised a vast and widely\ndiffused influence over all subsequent art, yet this master, unlike\nRaphael, formed no school of his own immediate followers. It must be\nadmitted that Raphael owes him much, for he never found his full strength\nuntil he had seen Michelangelo\u2019s works at Rome, when his style underwent\nimmediate improvement. None of those who worked under Michelangelo dared\nto walk directly in his steps; there is in his style, as there was in\nthe character of the man himself, a certain stern individuality which\ngives the impression of solitary and unapproachable greatness. Of his\nassistants, the most eminent was Sebastiano del Piombo.\n\n\nRAFFAELLO SANZIO,\n\nAlways called Raphael, was born at Urbino in 1483. His father died\nwhen he was eleven years old, and the boy was placed by his uncles,\nwho became his guardians, with Perugino. His handiwork at this time\nis no doubt to be traced in many of Perugino\u2019s pictures and frescoes;\nand, as may be seen, he was an important coadjutor with Pinturicchio\nat Siena. The earliest picture known to be painted entirely by himself\nis a \u201cCrucifixion,\u201d in the collection of Lord Dudley, done at the age\nof seventeen, which closely resembles the style of Perugino. In 1504\nhe first visited Florence, where he enjoyed the friendship of Francia\nand Fra Bartholommeo, and made acquaintance with the works of Leonardo\nand Michelangelo\u2014new influences which considerably affected his style.\nWith the exception of short visits to Perugia, Bologna, and Urbino, he\nwas resident in Florence until 1508. In that year he went to Rome at\nthe invitation of Pope Julius II., and was for the rest of his life\ncontinually in the employment of that pontiff and his successor, Leo\nX. Raphael died on his birthday, the 6th of April, 1520, aged exactly\nthirty-seven years.\n\nRaphael\u2019s manner as a painter is divided into three styles, corresponding\nwith the broad divisions of his life\u2019s history. Unlike Michelangelo,\nwhose genius and individuality is stamped on the earliest works from\nhis hand, Raphael gained, as his experience of what had been done by\nhis contemporaries was enlarged, a deeper and further insight into his\nown powers. His first, or Peruginesque style, characterizes those works\nwhich he produced while still the companion of his master, before his\nfirst visit to Florence; of these pictures the most important are the\n\u201cSposalizio\u201d (or \u201cMarriage of the Virgin,\u201d) at Milan, and the \u201cCoronation\nof the Virgin,\u201d in the Vatican. His second, or Florentine, style covers\nthe four years from his arrival in Florence in 1504, to his departure for\nRome in 1508; here the manner of Fra Bartholommeo had great influence\nupon him; to this period belong the \u201cMadonna del Cardellino\u201d (\u201cof the\nGoldfinch,\u201d) in the Uffizi, \u201cLa Belle Jardini\u00e8re,\u201d of the Louvre, the\n\u201cMadonna del Baldacchino,\u201d in the Pitti (which was left incomplete by\nRaphael, and finished by another hand), and the \u201cEntombment\u201d in the\nBorghese Gallery, at Rome, his first attempt at a great historical\ncomposition. It is in his third, or Roman, style that Raphael fully\nasserts that sovereignty in art which has earned him the name of Prince\nof painters, and appears as the head of his own school, which, generally\ncalled the Roman School, might perhaps, as he collected round him\nfollowers from all parts of Italy, more fitly be termed the Raphaelesque.\nThis third period includes all his great frescoes in the Vatican, with a\nhost of easel pictures; for, short as Raphael\u2019s life was, his works are\nwondrously numerous, and our space permits mention of only a few of even\nthe most celebrated.\n\nIt has been questioned whether Raphael\u2019s art gained by what he learnt\nfrom Michelangelo, some critics affirming that his earlier style is\nhis best. This, however, must be considered to be entirely a matter of\ntaste. Most painters\u2014unless, like Fra Angelico, so entirely absorbed in\nthe mystical side of their art as never to change their style\u2014as they\ngain in power of expression, lose something of their youthful emotional\nfervor; and it is possible to assert that in the magnificent design of\nthe \u201cIncendio del Borgo\u201d the dramatic element is more in evidence than\nin the \u201cDisputa.\u201d But what is lost on the emotional and religious side\nis compensated for by the gain in power of representation; and it is\ndifficult to stand before the cartoon of \u201cThe Miraculous Draught of\nFishes,\u201d and not to confess that Giotto himself could not have imparted\na more implicit trustfulness and childlike belief in the power of the\nRedeemer to the look and gesture of St. Peter; and while the magnificent\nsimplicity of the youths drawing the net is conceived in an equal spirit\nof truthfulness to nature, the grandeur of style and the knowledge\ndisplayed in the drawing is so much pure gain on his earlier manner.\n\nThe Loggie, or open corridors of the Vatican, were also adorned by\nRaphael\u2019s scholars with a series of fifty-two paintings of Biblical\nsubjects from his designs; the whole series was known as \u201cRaphael\u2019s\nBible.\u201d\n\nIn 1515 he was commissioned to design tapestries for the Sistine Chapel;\nof the ten cartoons (distemper paintings on paper) for these tapestries\nthree have been lost; the other seven after many dangers and vicissitudes\ncame into the possession of Charles I. of England. They are perhaps the\nmost remarkable art treasures belonging to England, and are at present\nexhibited, by permission of Her Majesty, in the South Kensington Museum.\n\nAmong the greatest oil pictures of Raphael\u2019s third period may be\nenumerated the \u201cMadonna di Foligno\u201d in the Vatican; the \u201cMadonna della\nSedia\u201d in the Pitti Palace at Florence; the \u201cSaint Cecilia\u201d at Bologna;\nthe \u201cMadonna of the Fish,\u201d and the picture of \u201cChrist Bearing His Cross,\u201d\nknown as the \u201cSpasimo,\u201d in the splendid collection at Madrid; the\n\u201cMadonna di San Sisto\u201d at Dresden, which obtained for the artist the name\nof \u201cthe Divine;\u201d and finally the \u201cTransfiguration\u201d at the Vatican, the\nsublime picture on which his last working hours were spent, and which was\ncarried at his funeral before its colors were dry.\n\n\nTIZIANO VECELLIO,\n\nCommonly called by the anglicised form of his Christian name, Titian, was\nborn at Cadore, near Venice, in 1477. His studies in art began at the age\nof ten, under a painter named Zuccato, from whose studio he passed to\nGentile Bellini\u2019s, and from his again to that of his brother Giovanni.\nSpace forbids us to do more than indicate the chief landmarks in Titian\u2019s\nlong, eventful, and illustrious life. When his reputation as a great\nartist was new, before he was thirty years old, he visited the court of\nFerrara, and executed for the duke two of his earliest masterpieces, the\n\u201cTribute Money,\u201d now at Dresden, and the \u201cBacchus and Ariadne,\u201d in the\nNational Gallery of London. In 1516 he painted his great altarpiece, the\n\u201cAssumption,\u201d now removed from its church to the Accademia at Venice,\nand was at once placed by this incomparable work in the highest rank of\npainters. The \u201cEntombment\u201d of the Louvre was painted about 1523; and in\n1528 he executed another magnificent altarpiece, the \u201cDeath of St. Peter\nMartyr,\u201d in the church of SS. Giovanni e Paolo, which was destroyed in\nthe fire of 1867. In 1530 Titian was invited to Bologna, to paint the\nportrait of the Emperor Charles V.; and he is supposed by some writers\nto have accompanied the emperor shortly afterward to Spain. Owing to the\npatronage which Charles V. and his son Philip II. liberally conferred on\nthe artist, Madrid possesses a collection of his works second in number\nand importance only to the treasures of Venice. The \u201cPresentation in\nthe Temple,\u201d in the Accademia at Venice, dates from about 1539, and the\n\u201cChrist at Emmaus,\u201d in the Louvre, from about 1546. In 1545 he painted at\nRome the celebrated portrait of \u201cPope Paul III.,\u201d in the Naples Museum.\nTitian continued active in his art even up to the time of his death,\nwhich occurred in 1576, at the great age of ninety-nine. His style, as\nis to be expected, changed considerably in the course of his long life,\nand the pictures painted in his last years, though full of color, are\ninfirm in drawing and execution; in the full vigor of his powers he was\na draughtsman second to none, though never aiming at the select beauty\nof form attained by the Florentine school, and by Raphael. It was this\nthat led Michelangelo to say that, with a better mode of study, \u201cThis man\nmight have been as eminent in design as he is true to nature and masterly\nin counterfeiting the life, and then, nothing could be desired better\nor more perfect;\u201d adding, \u201cfor he has an exquisite perception, and a\ndelightful spirit and manner.\u201d\n\nThe splendid artistic power of Titian may perhaps be better discerned\nin his portraits than in the more ambitious works of sacred art. He\nstands unquestionably at the head of portrait painters of all ages and\nof all schools; not even Velasquez equaling him at his best. Beside\nreligious pictures and portraits he painted a great number of subjects\nfrom classical mythology. Among the most famous, beside the \u201cBacchus\nand Ariadne,\u201d mentioned above\u2014the pride of the English collection\u2014may\nbe named the \u201cBacchanals\u201d of Madrid, the two of \u201cVenus\u201d in the Uffizi,\nat Florence, the \u201cDanae,\u201d at Naples, and the often repeated \u201cVenus and\nAdonis,\u201d and \u201cDiana and Callisto.\u201d He is seen at his very best in the\n\u201cVenus\u201d of the Tribune, at Florence, perhaps the only work of his which\nhas escaped retouching, and in the exquisite allegory called \u201cSacred and\nProfane Love,\u201d at the Borghese Palace, at Rome. As a landscape painter,\nhe possessed a sentiment for nature in all its forms which had never\nbefore been seen, and his backgrounds have never been equaled since.\nThe mountains in the neighborhood of his native town, Cadore, of which,\nas well as of other landscape scenes, numerous pen and ink drawings by\nhis hand are in existence, inspired him, doubtless, with that solemn\ntreatment of effects of cloud and light and shade and blue distance for\nwhich his pictures are conspicuous.\n\nIt is unnecessary to deal with the school of painting which exists in\nItaly at the present day. It would be paying it too high a compliment\nto regard it as the legitimate successor of the art of those great\nepochs whose course we have tried to sketch. The modern Italian school\nis little more than an echo of the modern French. And seeing that\nthere is no principle clearer or more certain than this, that a great\nnational school of art can flourish only when it springs from a sane and\nvigorous national existence, it is not to be wondered at if a country\nso convulsed by the political passions and so vulgarized by the social\ntriviality and meanness of modern times, should be in this respect cast\ndown further than her more fortunate neighbors by the same causes which\nhave soiled even the best art of the nineteenth century with something of\ndilettantism and affectation.\n\n\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\nSELECTED BY THE REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\n[_April 6._]\n\nTHE EXPULSIVE POWER OF A NEW AFFECTION.\n\n    Love not the world, neither the things that are in the world. If\n    any man love the world the love of the Father is not in him.\u2014I.\n    John, ii:15.\n\nThere are two ways in which a practical moralist may attempt to displace\nfrom the human heart its love of the world\u2014either by a demonstration\nof the world\u2019s vanity, so that the heart will be prevailed upon simply\nto withdraw its regards from an object that is not worthy of it, or by\nsetting forth another object, even God, as more worthy of its attachment,\nso as that the heart shall be prevailed upon not to resign an old\naffection, which shall have nothing to succeed it, but to exchange\nan old affection for a new one. My purpose is to show that from the\nconstitution of our nature, the former method is altogether incompetent\nand ineffectual, and that the latter method will alone suffice for the\nrescue and recovery of the heart from the wrong affection that sometimes\ndomineers over it. After having accomplished this purpose, I shall\nattempt a few practical observations.\n\nLove may be regarded in two different conditions. The first is when the\nobject is at a distance, and then it becomes love in a state of desire.\nThe second is when its object is in possession, and then it becomes love\nin a state of indulgence. Under the impulse of desire, man feels himself\nurged onward in some path or pursuit of activity for its gratification.\nThe faculties of his mind are put into busy exercise. In the steady\ndirection of one great and engrossing interest, his attention is recalled\nfrom the many reveries into which it might otherwise have wandered; and\nthe powers of his body are forced away from an indolence in which it else\nmight have languished; and that time is crowded with occupation, which\nbut for some object of keen and devoted ambition, might have driveled\nalong in successive hours of weariness and distaste, and though hope does\nnot enliven, and success does not always crown this career of exertion,\nyet in the midst of this very variety, and with the alternations of\noccasional disappointment, is the machinery of the whole man kept in a\nsort of congenial play, and upholden in that tone and temper which are\nmost agreeable to it. Insomuch, that if through the extirpation of that\ndesire which forms the originating principle of all this movement, the\nmachinery were to stop, and to receive no impulse from another desire\nsubstituted in its place, the man would be left with all his propensities\nto action in a state of most painful and unnatural abandonment.\n\nA sensitive person suffers, and is in violence, if, after having\nthoroughly rested from his fatigue, or been relieved from his pain, he\ncontinues in possession of powers without any excitement to these powers;\nif he possess a capacity of desire without having an object of desire;\nor if he have a spare energy upon his person, without a counterpart,\nand without a stimulus to call it into operation. The misery of such\na condition is often realized by him who is retired from business, or\nwho is retired from law, or who is even retired from the occupations\nof the chase and of the gaming table. Such is the demand of our nature\nfor an object in pursuit, that no accumulation of previous success can\nextinguish it, and thus it is that the most prosperous merchant, and\nthe most victorious general, and the most fortunate gamester, when the\nlabor of their respective vocations has come to a close, are often\nfound to languish in the midst of all their acquisitions, as if out of\ntheir kindred and rejoicing element. It is quite in vain with such a\nconstitutional appetite for employment in man, to attempt cutting away\nfrom him the spring or the principle of one employment, without providing\nhim with another. The whole heart and habit will rise in resistance\nagainst such an undertaking. The else unoccupied female, who spends the\nhours of every evening at some play of hazard, knows as well as you, that\nthe pecuniary gain, or the honorable triumph of a successful contest, are\naltogether paltry. It is not such a demonstration of vanity as this that\nwill force her away from her dear and delightful occupation. The habit\ncan not so be displaced as to leave nothing but a negative and cheerless\nvacancy behind it\u2014though it may be so supplanted as to be followed up by\nanother habit of employment to which the power of some new affection has\nconstrained her. It is willingly suspended, for example, on any single\nevening, should the time that was wont to be allotted to gaming require\nto be spent on the preparation of an approaching assembly.\n\nThe ascendant power of a second affection will do what no exposition,\nhowever forcible, of the folly and worthlessness of the first, ever\ncould effectuate. And it is the same in the great world. You never will\nbe able to arrest any of its leading pursuits, by a naked demonstration\nof their vanity. It is quite in vain to think of stopping one of these\npursuits in any way else, but by stimulating to another. In attempting\nto bring a worldly man, intent and busied with the prosecution of his\nobjects, to a dead stand, you have not merely to encounter the charm\nwhich he annexes to these objects, but you have to encounter the pleasure\nwhich he feels in the very prosecution of them. It is not enough, then,\nthat you dissipate the charm by your moral, and eloquent, and affecting\nexposure of its illusiveness. You must address to the eye of his mind\nanother object, with a charm powerful enough to dispossess the first of\nits influence, and to engage him in some other prosecution as full of\ninterest, and hope, and congenial activity, as the former. It is this\nwhich stamps an impotency on all moral and pathetic declamation of the\ninsignificance of the world. A man will no more consent to the misery of\nbeing without an object, because that object is a trifle, or of being\nwithout a pursuit, because that pursuit terminates in some frivolous\nor fugitive acquirement, than he will voluntarily submit himself to\nthe torture because that torture is to be of short duration. If to be\nwithout desire and without exertion altogether, is a state of violence\nand discomfort, then the present desire, with its correspondent train of\nexertion, is not to be got rid of simply by destroying it. It must be\nby substituting another desire, or another line of habit or exertion in\nits place, and the most effectual way of withdrawing the mind from one\nobject, is not by turning it away upon desolate and unpeopled vacancy,\nbut by presenting to its regards another object still more alluring.\n\nThese remarks apply not merely to love considered in the state of desire\nfor an object not yet attained. They apply also to love considered\nin its state of indulgence, or placid gratification, with an object\nalready in possession. It is seldom that any of our tastes are made\nto disappear by a process of natural extinction. At least, it is very\nseldom that this is done by the instrumentality of reasoning. It may be\ndone by excessive pampering, but it is almost never done by the mere\nforce of mental determination. But what can not be thus destroyed may\nbe dispossessed, and one taste may be made to give way to another, and\nto lose its power entirely as the reigning affection of the mind. It is\nthus that the boy ceases, at length, to be the slave of his appetite,\nbut it is because a manlier taste has now brought it into subordination,\nand that the youth ceases to idolize pleasure, but it is because the\nidol of wealth has become the stronger, and gotten the ascendency\u2014and\nthat even the love of money ceases to have the mastery over the heart of\nmany a thriving citizen, but it is because drawn into the whirl of city\npolitics, another affection has been wrought into his moral system, and\nhe is now lorded over by the love of power. There is not one of these\ntransformations in which the heart is left without an object. Its desire\nfor one particular object may be conquered; but as to its desire for\nhaving some one object, or other, this is unconquerable. Its adhesion\nto that on which it has fastened the preference of its regards, can not\nwillingly be overcome by the rending away of a single separation. It can\nbe done only by the application of something else, to which it may feel\nthe adhesion of a still stronger and more powerful preference. Such is\nthe grasping tendency of the human heart, that it must have something\nto lay hold of\u2014and which, if wrested away, without the substitution\nof another something in its place, would leave a void and a vacancy\nas painful to the mind as hunger is to the natural system. It may be\ndispossessed of one object or of any, but it can not be desolated of all.\nLet there be a breathing and a sensitive heart, but without a liking and\nwithout affinity to any of the things that are around it, and in a state\nof cheerless abandonment, it would be alive to nothing but the burden\nof its own consciousness, and feel it to be intolerable. It would make\nno difference to its owner, whether he dwelt in the midst of a gay and\ngoodly world, or placed afar beyond the outskirts of creation, he dwelt\na solitary unit in dark and unpeopled nothingness. The heart must have\nsomething to cling to\u2014and never, by its own voluntary consent, will it\nso denude itself of all its attachments that there shall not be one\nremaining object that can draw or solicit it.\n\n\n[_April 13._]\n\nThe misery of a heart thus bereft of all relish for that which is wont\nto minister to its enjoyment, is strikingly exemplified in those who,\nsatiated with indulgence, have been so belabored, as it were, with\nthe variety and the poignancy of the pleasurable sensations that they\nhave experienced, that they are at length fatigued out of all capacity\nfor sensation whatever. The disease of ennui is more frequent in the\nFrench metropolis, where amusement is more exclusively the occupation\nof higher classes, than it is in the British metropolis, where the\nlongings of the heart are more diversified by the resources of business\nand politics. There are the votaries of fashion, who, in this way, have\nat length become the victims of fashionable excess, in whom the very\nmultitude of their enjoyments has at last extinguished their power of\nenjoyment\u2014who, plied with the delights of sense and of splendor even to\nweariness, and incapable of higher delights, have come to the end of all\ntheir perfection, and, like Solomon of old, found it to be vanity and\nvexation. The man whose heart has thus been turned into a desert can\nvouch for the insupportable languor which must ensue, when one affection\nis thus plucked away from the bosom, without another to replace it.\nIt is not necessary that a man receive pain from anything in order to\nbecome miserable. It is barely enough that he looks with distaste at\neverything\u2014and in that asylum which is the repository of minds out of\njoint, and where the organ of feeling as well as the organ of intellect,\nhas been impaired, it is not in the cell of loud and frantic outcries\nwhere you will meet with the acme of mental suffering. But that is the\nindividual who outpeers in wretchedness all his fellows, who throughout\nthe whole expanse of nature and society, meets not an object that has at\nall the power to detain or interest him; who neither in earth beneath,\nnor in heaven above, knows of a single charm to which his heart can\nsend forth one desirous or responding movement; to whom the world, in\nhis eye a vast and empty desolation, has left him nothing but his own\nconsciousness to feed upon\u2014dead to all that is without him, and alive to\nnothing but to the load of his own torpid and useless existence.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe hope that by this time you understand the impotency of a mere\ndemonstration of this world\u2019s insignificance. Its sole practical effect,\nif it had any, would be to leave the heart in a state which to every\nheart is insupportable, and that is a mere state of nakedness and\nnegation. You may remember the fond and unbroken tenacity with which\nyour heart has often recurred to pursuits, over the utter frivolity\nof which it sighed and wept but yesterday. The arithmetic of your\nshort-lived days, may on Sabbath make the clearest impression upon\nyour understanding, and from his fancied bed of death may the preacher\ncause a voice to descend in rebuke and mockery on all the pursuits of\nearthliness, and as he pictures before you the fleeting generations of\nmen, with the absorbing grave, whither all the joys and interests of\nthe world hasten to their sure and speedy oblivion, may you, touched\nand solemnized by his argument, feel for a moment as if on the eve of a\npractical and permanent emancipation from a scene of so much vanity.\n\nBut the morrow comes, and the business of the world, and the objects of\nthe world, and the moving forces of the world, come along with it, and\nthe machinery of the heart, in virtue of which it must have something\nto grasp, or something to adhere to, brings it under a kind of moral\nnecessity to be actuated just as before, and in utter repulsion toward\na state so unkindly as that of being frozen out both of delight and\nof desire, does it feel all the warmth and the urgency of its wonted\nsolicitations, nor in the habit and history of the whole man can we\ndetect so much as one symptom of the new creature, so that the church,\ninstead of being to him a school of obedience, has been a mere sauntering\nplace for the luxury of a passing and theatrical emotion; and the\npreaching which is mighty to compel the attendance of multitudes, and\nwhich is mighty to still and to solemnize the hearers into a kind of\ntragic sensibility, and which is mighty in the play of variety and vigor\nthat it can keep up around the imagination, is not mighty to the pulling\ndown of strongholds.\n\nThe love of the world can not be expunged by a mere demonstration of the\nworld\u2019s worthlessness. But may it not be supplanted by the love of that\nwhich is more worthy than itself? The heart can not be prevailed upon\nto part with the world by a single act of resignation. But may not the\nheart be prevailed upon to admit into its preference another, who shall\nsubordinate the world, and bring it down from its wonted ascendancy? If\nthe throne which is placed there must have an occupier, and the tyrant\nthat now reigns has occupied it wrongfully, he may not leave a bosom\nwhich would rather detain him than be left in desolation. But may he not\ngive way to the lawful sovereign, appearing with every charm that can\nsecure his willing admittance, and taking unto himself his great power\nto subdue the moral nature of man, and to reign over it? In a word, if\nthe way to disengage the heart from the positive love of one great and\nascendant object, is to fasten it in positive love to another, then it is\nnot by exposing the worthlessness of the former, but by addressing to the\nmental eye the worth and excellence of the latter, that all things are to\nbe done away, and all things are become new.\n\nTo obliterate all our present affections by simply expunging them,\nso as to leave the seat of them unoccupied, would be to destroy the\nold character, and to substitute no new character in its place. But\nwhen they take their departure upon the ingress of others, when they\nresign their sway to the power and the predominance of new affections,\nwhen, abandoning the heart to solitude, they merely give place to a\nsuccessor who turns it into as busy a residence of desire, and interest,\nand expectation as before\u2014there is nothing in all this to thwart or\nto overthrow any of the laws of our sentient nature\u2014and we see how,\nin fullest accordance with the mechanism of the heart, a great moral\nrevolution may be made to take place upon it.\n\nThis, we trust, will explain the operation of that charm which\naccompanies the effectual preaching of the gospel. The love of God, and\nthe love of the world, are two affections, not merely in a state of\nrivalship, but in a state of enmity\u2014and that so irreconcilable that they\ncan not dwell together in the same bosom. We have already affirmed how\nimpossible it were for the heart, by any innate elasticity of its own, to\ncast the world away from it, and thus reduce itself to a wilderness. The\nheart is not so constituted, and the only way to dispossess it of an old\naffection is by the expulsive power of a new one. Nothing can exceed the\nmagnitude of the required change in a man\u2019s character, when bidden, as he\nis in the New Testament, not to love the world; no, nor any of the things\nthat are in the world, for this so comprehends all that is dear to him in\nexistence as to be equivalent to a command of self-annihilation. But the\nsame revelation which dictates so mighty an obedience, places within our\nreach as mighty an instrument of obedience.\n\nIt brings for admittance, to the very door of our heart, an affection\nwhich, once seated upon its throne, will either subordinate every\nprevious inmate, or bid it away. Beside the world, it places before the\neye of the mind Him who made the world, and with this peculiarity, which\nis all its own\u2014that in the gospel do we so behold God, as that we may\nlove God. It is there, and there only, where God stands revealed as an\nobject of confidence to sinners\u2014and where our desire after Him is not\nchilled into apathy by that barrier of human guilt which intercepts every\napproach that is not made to Him through the appointed Mediator. It is\nthe bringing in of this better hope whereby we draw nigh unto God\u2014and to\nlive without hope is to live without God, and if the heart be without\nGod, the world will then have the ascendancy. It is God apprehended\nby the believer as God in Christ, who alone can disport it from this\nascendancy. It is when He stands dismantled of the terrors which belong\nto Him as an offended lawgiver, and when we are enabled by faith, which\nis his own gift, to see His glory in the face of Jesus Christ, and to\nhear His beseeching voice, as it protests good will to men, and entreats\nthe return of all who will, to a full pardon and a gracious acceptance\u2014it\nis then that a love paramount to the love of the world, and at length\nexpulsive of it, first arises in the regenerating bosom. It is when\nreleased from the spirit of bondage, with which love can not dwell, and\nwhen to the number of God\u2019s children, through the faith that is in Christ\nJesus, the spirit of adoption is found upon us; it is then that the\nheart, brought under the mastery of one great and predominant affection,\nis delivered from the tyranny of its former desires, and in the only way\nin which deliverance is possible. And that faith which is revealed to us\nfrom heaven, as indispensable to a sinner\u2019s justification in the sight of\nGod, is also the instrument of the greatest of all moral and spiritual\nachievements on a nature dead to the influence, and beyond the reach of\nevery other application.\n\n\n[_April 20._]\n\nThus may we come to perceive what it is that makes the most effective\nkind of preaching. It is not enough to hold out to the world\u2019s eye the\nmirror of its own imperfections. It is not enough to come forth with a\ndemonstration, however pathetic, of the evanescent character of all\nits enjoyments. It is not enough to travel the walk of experience along\nwith you, and speak to your own conscience and your own recollection of\nthe deceitfulness of the heart, and the deceitfulness of all that the\nheart is set upon. There is many a bearer of the gospel message who has\nnot shrewdness of natural discernment enough, and who has not power of\ncharacteristic description enough, and who has not the talent of moral\ndelineation enough, to present you with a vivid and faithful sketch\nof the existing follies of society. But that very corruption which he\nhas not the faculty of representing in its visible details, he may\npractically be the instrument of eradicating in its principle. Let him be\nbut a faithful expounder of the gospel testimony; unable as he may be to\napply a descriptive hand to the character of the present world, let him\nbut report with accuracy the matter which revelation has brought to him\nfrom a distant world, unskilled as he is in the work of so anatomizing\nthe heart, as with the power of a novelist to create a graphical or\nimpressive exhibition of the worthlessness of its many affections\u2014let\nhim only deal in those mysteries of peculiar doctrine, on which the best\nof novelists have thrown the wantonness of their derision. He may not be\nable, with the eye of shrewd and satirical observation, to expose to the\nready recognition of his hearers the desires of worldliness\u2014but with the\ntidings of the gospel in commission, he may wield the only engine that\ncan extirpate them. He can not do what some might have done, when, as if\nby the hand of a magician they have brought out to view, from the hidden\nrecesses of our nature, the foibles and lurking appetites which belong to\nit. But he has a truth in the possession, which, into whatever heart it\nenters, will, like the rod of Aaron, swallow up them all\u2014and unqualified\nas he may be, to describe the old man in all the nicer shading of\nhis natural and constitutional varieties, with him is deposited that\nascendant influence under which the leading tastes and tendencies of the\nold man are destroyed, and he becomes a new creature in Jesus Christ our\nLord.\n\nLet us not cease, then, to ply the only instrument of powerful and\npositive operation, to do away from you the love of the world. Let us try\nevery legitimate method of finding access to your hearts for the love of\nHim who is greater than the world. For this purpose, if possible, clear\naway that shroud of unbelief which so hides and darkens the face of the\nDeity. Let us insist on His claims to your affection, and whether in\nthe shape of gratitude or in the shape of esteem, let us never cease to\naffirm that in the whole of that wondrous economy, the purpose of which\nis to reclaim a sinful world unto Himself, He, the God of love, so sets\nHimself forth in characters of endearment, that naught but faith, and\nnaught but understanding are wanting, on your part, to call forth the\nlove of your hearts back again.\n\nAnd here let me advert to the incredulity of a worldly man; when he\nbrings his own sound and secular experience to bear upon the high\ndoctrines of Christianity, when he looks upon regeneration as a thing\nimpossible, when feeling as he does the obstinacies of his own heart,\non the side of things present, and casting an intelligent eye, much\nexercised, perhaps, in the observations of human life, on the equal\nobstinacies of all who are around him, he pronounces this whole matter\nabout the crucifixion of the old man, and the resurrection of a new man\nin his place, to be in downright opposition to all that is known and\nwitnessed of the real nature of humanity. We think that we have seen such\nmen, who, firmly trenched in their own vigorous and homebred sagacity,\nand shrewdly regardful of all that passes before them through the week,\nand upon the scenes of ordinary business, look on that transition of\nthe heart by which it gradually dies unto time, and awakens in all the\nlife of a new felt and ever growing desire toward God, as a mere Sabbath\nspeculation; and who thus, with all their attention engrossed upon the\nconcerns of earthliness, continue unmoved to the end of their days,\namongst the feelings and the appetites, and the pursuits of earthliness.\n\nIf the thought of death, and another state of being after it, comes\nacross them at all, it is not with a change so radical as that of\nbeing born again, that they ever connect the idea of preparation.\nThey have some vague conception of its being quite enough that they\nacquit themselves in some decent and tolerable way of their relative\nobligations; and that upon the strength of some such social and domestic\nmoralities as are often realized by him in whose heart the love of God\nhas never entered, they will be transplanted in safety from this world,\nwhere God is the Being with whom it may almost be said that they have\nhad nothing to do, to that world where God is the Being with whom they\nwill have mainly and immediately to do throughout all eternity. They\nadmit all that is said of the utter vanity of time, when taken up with\nas a resting place. But they resist every application made upon the\nheart of man, with the view of so shifting its tendencies that it shall\nnot henceforth find in the interests of time, all its rest and all its\nrefreshment. They in fact regard such an attempt as an enterprise that\nis altogether aerial, and with a tone of secular wisdom caught from the\nfamiliarities of every-day experience, do they see a visionary character\nin all that is said of setting our affections on the things that are\nabove, and of walking by faith, and of keeping our hearts in such a love\nof God as shall shut out from them the love of the world, and of having\nno confidence in the flesh, and of so renouncing earthly things as to\nhave our conversation in heaven.\n\nNow, it is altogether worthy of being remarked of those men who thus\ndisrelish spiritual Christianity, and, in fact, deem it an impracticable\nacquirement, how much of a piece their incredulities about the doctrines\nof Christianity are with each other. No wonder that they feel the work\nof the New Testament to be beyond their strength, so long as they hold\nthe words of the New Testament to be beneath their attention. Neither\nthey nor any one else can dispossess the heart of an old affection, but\nby the impulsive power of a new one, and, if that new affection be the\nlove of God, neither they nor any one else can be made to entertain it,\nbut on such a representation of the Deity as shall draw the heart of the\nsinner toward Him. Now, it is just their unbelief which screens from the\ndiscernment of their minds this representation. They do not see the love\nof God in sending His Son into the world. They do not see the expression\nof his tenderness to men, in sparing him not, but giving him up unto\nthe death for us all. They do not see the sufficiency of the atonement,\nor of the sufferings that were endured by him who bore the burden that\nsinners should have borne. They do not see the blended holiness and\ncompassion of the Godhead, in that He passed by the transgressions of\nHis creatures, yet could not pass them by without an expiation. It is\na mystery to them how a man should pass to a state of godliness from a\nstate of nature\u2014but had they only a believing view of God manifest in the\nflesh, this would resolve for them the whole mystery of godliness. As it\nis, they can not get quit of their old affections, because they are out\nof sight from all those truths which have influence to raise a new one.\nThey are like the children of Israel in the land of Egypt, when required\nto make bricks without straw\u2014they can not love God, while they want\nthe only food which can aliment this affection in a sinner\u2019s bosom\u2014and\nhowever great their errors may be, both in resisting the demands of the\ngospel as impracticable, and in rejecting the doctrines of the gospel as\ninadmissible, yet there is not a spiritual man (and it is the prerogative\nof Him who is spiritual to judge all men) who will not perceive that\nthere is a consistency in these errors.\n\n\n[_April 27._]\n\nBut if there be a consistency in the errors, in like manner is there\na consistency in the truths which are opposite to them. The man who\nbelieves in the peculiar doctrines will readily bow to the peculiar\ndemands of Christianity. When he is told to love God supremely, this\nmay startle him to whom God has been revealed in grace, and in pardon,\nand in all the freeness of an offered reconciliation. When told he\nshould shut out the world from the heart, this may be impossible with\nhim who has nothing to replace it\u2014but not impossible with him who has\nfound in God a sure and a satisfying portion. When told to withdraw his\naffections from the things that are beneath, this was laying an order of\nself-extinction upon the man who knows not another quarter in the whole\nsphere of his contemplation, to which he could transfer them\u2014but it were\nnot grievous to him whose view has been opened up to the loveliness and\nglory of the things that are above, and can there find, for every feeling\nof his soul, a most ample and delighted occupation. When told to look\nnot at the things that are seen and temporal, this were blotting out the\nlight of all that is visible from the prospect of him in whose eye there\nis a wall of partition between guilty nature and the joys of eternity\u2014but\nhe who believes that Christ has broken down this wall, finds a gathering\nradiance upon his soul, as he looks onward in faith to the things that\nare unseen and eternal. Tell a man to be holy\u2014and how can he compass such\na performance, when his alone fellowship with holiness is a fellowship of\ndespair? It is the atonement of the cross, reconciling the holiness of\nthe lawgiver with the safety of the offender, that hath opened the way\nfor a sanctifying influence into the sinner\u2019s heart, and he can take a\nkindred impression from the character of God now brought nigh, and now at\npeace with him.\n\nSeparate the demand from the doctrine, and you have either a system of\nrighteousness that is impracticable, or a barren orthodoxy. Bring the\ndemand and the doctrine together, and the true disciple of Christ is able\nto do the one through the other strengthening him. The motive is adequate\nto the movement, and the bidden obedience of the gospel is not beyond\nthe measure of his strength, just because the doctrine of the gospel is\nnot beyond the measure of his acceptance. The shield of faith, and the\nhope of salvation, and the Word of God, and the girdle of truth\u2014these\nare the armor that he has put on; and with these the battle is won, and\nthe eminence is reached, and the man stands on the vantage ground of\na new field and a new prospect. The effect is great, but the cause is\nequal to it\u2014and stupendous as this moral resurrection to the precepts of\nChristianity undoubtedly is, there is an element of strength enough to\ngive it being and continuance in the principles of Christianity.\n\nThe object of the gospel is both to pacify the sinner\u2019s conscience, and\nto purify his heart; and it is of importance to observe that what mars\none of these objects, mars the other also. The best way of casting out\nan impure affection is to admit a pure one; and by the love of what is\ngood, to expel the love of what is evil. Thus it is, that the freer the\ngospel, the more sanctifying the gospel; and the more it is received as\na doctrine of grace, the more will it be felt as a doctrine according to\ngodliness. This is one of the secrets of the Christian life, that the\nmore a man holds of God as a pensioner, the greater is the payment of\nservice that he renders back again. On the tenure of \u201cDo this and live,\u201d\na spirit of fearfulness is sure to enter; and the jealousies of a legal\nbargain chase away all confidence from the intercourse between God and\nman; and the creature striving to be square and even with his Creator,\nis, in fact, pursuing all the while his own selfishness instead of God\u2019s\nglory, and with all the conformities which he labors to accomplish, the\nsoul of obedience is not there, the mind is not subject to the law of\nGod, nor indeed under such an economy ever can be. It is only when, as\nin the gospel, acceptance is bestowed as a present, without money and\nwithout price, that the security which man feels in God is placed beyond\nthe reach of disturbance, or that he can repose in him, as one friend\nreposes in another, or that any liberal and generous understanding can\nbe established betwixt them\u2014one party rejoicing over the other to do him\ngood\u2014the other finding that the truest gladness of his heart lies in the\nimpulse of a gratitude, by which it is awakened to the charms of a new\nmoral existence. Salvation by grace\u2014salvation on such a footing is not\nmore indispensable to the deliverance of our persons from the hand of\njustice, than it is to the deliverance of our hearts from the chill and\nthe weight of ungodliness.\n\nRetain a single shred or fragment of legality with the gospel, and you\nraise a topic of distrust between man and God. You take away from the\npower of the gospel to melt and to conciliate. For this purpose, the\nfreer it is, the better it is. That very peculiarity which so many dread\nas the germ of Antinomianism, is in fact the germ of a new spirit, and a\nnew inclination against it. Along with the light of a free gospel, does\nthere enter the love of the gospel, which in proportion as you impair\nthe freeness, you are sure to chase away. And never does the sinner find\nwithin himself so mighty a moral transformation, as when under the belief\nthat he is saved by grace, he feels constrained thereby to offer his\nheart a devoted thing, and to deny ungodliness.\n\nTo do any work in the best manner, you would make use of the fittest\ntools for it. And we trust that what has been said may serve in some\ndegree for the practical guidance of those who would like to reach the\ngreat moral achievement of our text\u2014but feel that the tendencies and\ndesires of nature are too strong for them. We know of no other way by\nwhich to keep the love of the world out of our heart, than to keep in\nour heart the love of God\u2014and no other way by which to keep our hearts\nin the love of God, than building ourselves up on our most holy faith.\nThat denial of the world which is not possible to him that dissents from\nthe gospel testimony, is possible, even as all things are possible to him\nthat believeth. To try this without faith, is to work without the right\ntool or the right instrument. But faith worketh by love; and the way of\nexpelling from the heart the love that transgresseth the law, is to admit\ninto its receptacles the love which fulfilleth the law.\n\nConceive a man to be standing on the margin of this green world; and\nthat, when he looked toward it, he saw abundance smiling upon every\nfield, and all the blessings which earth can afford scattered in\nprofusion throughout every family, and the light of the sun sweetly\nresting upon all the pleasant habitations, and the joys of human\ncompanionship brightening many a happy circle of society\u2014conceive of\nthis as being the general character of the scene upon one side of his\ncontemplation; and that on the other, beyond the verge of the goodly\nplanet on which he was situated, he could descry nothing but a dark and\nfathomless unknown. Think you that he would bid a voluntary adieu to all\nthe brightness and all the beauty that were before him on earth, and\ncommit himself to the frightful solitude away from it? Would he leave\nits peopled dwelling places, and become a solitary wanderer through the\nfields of nonentity? If space offered him nothing but a wilderness, would\nhe abandon the homebred scenes of life and of cheerfulness that lay so\nnear, and exerted such a power of urgency to detain him? Would not he\ncling to the regions of sense, and of life, and of society?\u2014and shrinking\naway from the desolation that was beyond it, would not he be glad to keep\nhis firm footing on the territory of this world, and to take shelter\nunder the silver canopy that was stretched over it?\n\nBut if, during the time of his contemplation, some happy island of the\nblest had floated by; and there had burst upon his senses the light\nof its surpassing glories, and its sounds of sweeter melody; and he\nclearly saw that there a purer beauty rested upon every field, and a more\nheartfelt joy spread itself among all the families; and he could discern\nthere a peace, and a piety, and a benevolence, which put a moral gladness\ninto every bosom, and united the whole society in one rejoicing sympathy\nwith each other, and with the beneficent Father of them all. Could he\nfurther see that pain and mortality were there unknown, and above all,\nthat signals of welcome were hung out, and an avenue of communication was\nmade for him, perceive you not, that what was before the wilderness,\nwould become the land of invitation; and that now the world would be\nthe wilderness? What unpeopled space could not do, can be done by space\nteeming with beatific scenes and beatific society. And let the existing\ntendencies of the heart be what they may to the scene that is near and\nvisible around us, still, if another stood revealed to the prospect of\nman, either through the channel of faith, or through the channel of his\nsenses\u2014then, without violence done to the constitution of his moral\nnature, may he die unto the present world, and live to the lovelier world\nthat stands in the distance, away from it.\n\n\n\n\nSELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE.\n\n\nTHOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON.\n\n    Quiet and fair in tone; condensed to the last point, and still\n    perfectly clear; written in such pure English that the youngest\n    reader can understand, yet free from an affectation of baby talk,\n    which is often considered indispensable in children\u2019s books\u2014the\n    \u201cYoung Folks\u2019 History of the United States\u201d makes a refreshing\n    contrast to the kind of school book with which Abbott and Loomis,\n    and men of their stamp have inundated the country. Not that these\n    latter, in spite of bombast and dryness, may not have served a\n    purpose in their day and generation, no better men having come\n    forward heretofore, but that a more thoughtful and scientific age\n    demands better work.\u2014_Scribner\u2019s Monthly._\n\n\nCriticism on \u201cBack-Log Studies.\u201d\n\nIn \u201cBack-Log Studies\u201d there are, no doubt, some essentially inartistic\nthings\u2014some long episodes; for example, such as the \u201cNew Vision of Sin\u201d\nand the \u201cUncle in India,\u201d which are clearly inferior in texture to the\nrest, and not quite worth the space they occupy; but, as a whole, the\nbook is certainly a most agreeable contribution to the literature of the\nMeditative school. And it is saying a great deal to say this. To make\nsuch an attempt successful there must be a lightness of touch sustained\nthrough everything; there must be a predominant sweetness of flavor,\nand that air of joyous ease which is often the final triumph of labor.\nThere must also be a power of analysis, always subtle, never prolonged;\nthere must be description, minute enough to be graphic, yet never carried\nto the borders of fatigue; there must also be glimpses of restrained\npassion, and of earnestness kept in reserve. All these are essential,\nand all these the \u201cBack-Log Studies\u201d show. If other resources were\nadded\u2014as depth of thought, or powerful imagination, or wide learning, or\nconstructive power\u2014they would only carry the book beyond the proper ranks\nof the Meditative school, and place it in that higher grade of literature\nto which Holmes\u2019 \u201cAutocrat of the Breakfast Table\u201d belongs. Yet it may be\nbetter not to insist on this distinction, for it is Mr. Warner himself\nwho wisely reminds us that \u201cthe most unprofitable and unsatisfactory\ncriticism is that of comparison.\u201d\n\nIt is as true in literature as in painting that \u201cit is in the perfection\nand precision of the instantaneous line that the claim to immortality\nis made.\u201d The first and simplest test of good writing is in the fresh\nand incisive phrases it yields; and in this respect \u201cBack-Log Studies\u201d\nis strong. The author has not only the courage of his opinions, but he\nhas the courage of his phrases, which is quite as essential. What an\nadmirable touch, for instance, is that where Mr. Warner says that a\ngreat wood-fire in a wide kitchen chimney, with all the pots and kettles\nboiling and bubbling, and a roasting spit turning in front of it, \u201cmakes\na person as hungry as one of Scott\u2019s novels!\u201d Fancy the bewilderment of\nsome slow and well-meaning man upon encountering that stroke of fancy;\nhis going over it slowly from beginning to end, and then again backward\nfrom end to beginning, studying it with microscopic eye, to find where\nthe resemblance comes in, until at last it occurs to him that possibly\nthere may be a typographical error somewhere, and that, with a little\nrevision, the sentence might become intelligible! He does not know that\nin literature, as in life, nothing venture, nothing have; and that it\noften requires precisely such an audacious stroke as this to capture the\nmost telling analogies.\n\nThere occurs just after this, in \u201cBack-Log Studies,\u201d a sentence which\nhas long since found its way to the universal heart, and which is worth\nciting, as an example of the delicate rhetorical art of under-statement.\nTo construct a climax is within the reach of every one; there is not a\nFourth-of-July orator who can not erect for himself a heaven-scaling\nladder of that description, climb its successive steps, and then tumble\nfrom the top. But to let your climax swell beneath you like a wave of the\nsea, and then let it subside under you so gently that your hearer shall\nfind himself more stirred by your moderation than by your impulse; this\nis a triumph of style. Thus our author paints a day of winter storm; for\ninstance, the wild snow-drifts beating against the cottage window, and\nthe boy in the chimney-corner reading about General Burgoyne and the\nIndian wars. \u201cI should like to know what heroism a boy in an old New\nEngland farm-house, rough-nursed by nature, and fed on the traditions\nof the old wars, did not aspire to\u2014\u2018John,\u2019 says the mother, \u2018you\u2019ll\nburn your head to a crisp in that heat.\u2019 But John does not hear; he is\nstorming the Plains of Abraham just now. \u2018Johnny, dear, bring in a stick\nof wood.\u2019 How can Johnny bring in wood when he is in that defile with\nBraddock, and the Indians are popping at him from behind every tree?\nThere is something about a boy that I like, after all.\u201d\n\nI defy any one who has a heart for children to resist that last sentence.\nConsidered critically, it is the very triumph of under-statement\u2014of\ndelicious, provoking, perfectly unexpected, moderation. It is a\nrefreshing dash of cool water just as we were beginning to grow heated.\nLike that, it calls our latent heat to the surface by a kindly reaction;\nthe writer surprises us by claiming so little that we concede everything;\nwe at once compensate by our own enthusiasm for this inexplicable\nlowering of the demand. Like him! of course we like him\u2014that curly-pated,\nrosy-cheeked boy, with his story books and his Indians! But if we had\nbeen called upon to adore him, it is very doubtful whether we should\nhave liked him at all. And this preference for effects secured by quiet\nmethods\u2014for producing emphasis without the use of italics, and arresting\nattention without resorting to exclamation points\u2014is the crowning merit\nof the later style of Mr. Warner.\n\n\nHENRY JAMES, Jr.\n\n    Mr. Henry James, Jr., inherits from his father a diction so rich\n    and pure, so fluent and copious, so finely shaded, yet capable\n    of such varied service, that it is, in itself, a form of genius.\n    Few men have ever been so brilliantly equipped for literary\n    performance. Carefully trained taste, large acquirements of\n    knowledge, experience of lands and races, and association with\n    the best minds have combined to supply him with all the purely\n    intellectual requisites which an author could desire.\u2014_Bayard\n    Taylor._\n\n    As a story-teller, we know of no one who is entitled to rank\n    higher, since Poe and Hawthorne are gone, than Mr. James.\n    His style is pure and finished, and marked by the nicety of\n    expression which is so noticeable among the best French writers\n    of fiction.\u2014_Louisville Courier-Journal._\n\n    The \u201cPortrait of a Lady\u201d is a very clever book, and a book of\n    very great interest. We do not know a living English novelist who\n    could have written it.\u2014_Pall Mall Gazette._\n\n\nCarlyle\u2019s Letters to Emerson.\n\nCarlyle takes his place among the first of English, among the very first\nof all letter-writers. All his great merits come out in this form of\nexpression; and his defects are not felt as defects, but only as striking\ncharacteristics and as tones in the picture. Originality, nature, humor,\nimagination, freedom, the disposition to talk, the play of mood, the\ntouch of confidence\u2014these qualities, of which the letters are full, will\nwith the aid of an inimitable use of language\u2014a style which glances at\nnothing that it does not render grotesque\u2014preserve their life for readers\neven further removed from the occasion than ourselves, and for whom\npossibly the vogue of Carlyle\u2019s published writings in his day will be to\na certain degree a subject of wonder.\n\nCarlyle is here in intercourse with a friend for whom, almost alone among\nthe persons with whom he had dealings, he appears to have entertained a\nsentiment of respect\u2014a constancy of affection untinged by that humorous\ncontempt in which (in most cases) he indulges when he wishes to be kind,\nand which was the best refuge open to him from his other alternative of\nabsolutely savage mockery.\n\nIt is singular, indeed, that throughout his intercourse with Emerson he\nnever appears to have known the satiric fury which he directed at so\nmany other objects, accepting his friend _en bloc_, once for all, with\nreservations and protests so light that, as addressed to Emerson\u2019s own\ncharacter, they are only a finer form of consideration.\u2026 Other persons\nhave enjoyed life as little as Carlyle; other men have been pessimists\nand cynics; but few men have rioted so in their disenchantments, or\nthumped so perpetually upon the hollowness of things with the idea of\nmaking it resound. Pessimism, cynicism, usually imply a certain amount of\nindifference and resignation; but in Carlyle these forces were nothing if\nnot querulous and vocal. It must be remembered that he had an imagination\nwhich made acquiescence difficult\u2014an imagination haunted with theological\nand apocalyptic visions. We have no occasion here to attempt to estimate\nhis position in literature, but we may be permitted to say that it is\nmainly to this splendid imagination that he owes it. Both the moral and\nthe physical world were full of pictures for him, and it would seem to be\nby his great pictorial energy that he will live.\n\n\nAnthony Trollope.\n\nHis great, his inestimable merit was a complete appreciation of reality.\nThis gift is not rare in the annals of English fiction; it would\nnaturally be found in a walk of literature in which the feminine mind has\nlabored so fruitfully. Women are delicate and patient observers; they\nhold their noses close, as it were, to the texture of life. They feel\nand perceive the real (as well as the desirable), and their observations\nare recorded in a thousand delightful volumes. Trollope therefore, with\nhis eyes comfortably fixed on the familiar, the actual, was far from\nhaving invented a _genre_, as the French say; his great distinction is\nthat, in resting there, his vision took in so much of the field. And then\nhe _felt_ all common, human things as well as saw them; felt them in a\nsimple, direct, salubrious way, with their sadness, their gladness, their\ncharm, their comicality, all their obvious and measurable meanings.\n\n\nDu Maurier.\n\nHe is predominantly a painter of social, as distinguished from popular\nlife, and when the other day he collected some of his drawings into a\nvolume, he found it natural to give them the title of \u201cEnglish Society\nat Home.\u201d He looks at the \u201caccomplished\u201d classes more than at the\npeople, though he by no means ignores the humors of humble life. His\nconsideration of the peculiarities of costermongers and \u201ccadgers\u201d is\ncomparatively perfunctory, as he is too fond of civilization and of the\nhigher refinements of the grotesque. His colleague, the frank and as the\nmetaphysicians say, objective, Keene, has a more natural familiarity with\nthe British populace. There is a whole side of English life, at which du\nMaurier scarcely glances\u2014the great sporting element, which supplies half\nof their gayety and all their conversation to millions of her Majesty\u2019s\nsubjects. He is shy of the turf and of the cricket field; he only touches\nhere and there upon the river. But he has made \u201csociety\u201d completely his\nown\u2014he has sounded its depths, explored its mysteries, discovered and\ndivulged its secrets. His observation of these things is extraordinarily\nacute, and his illustrations, taken together, form a complete comedy of\nmanners, in which the same personages constantly re-appear, so that we\nhave the sense, indispensable to keenness of interest, of tracing their\nadventures to a climax. So many of the conditions of English life are\npicturesque (and, to American eyes, even romantic), that du Maurier has\nnever been at a loss for subjects. We mean that he is never at a loss for\npictures. English society makes pictures all round him, and he has only\nto look to see the most charming things, which at the same time have the\nmerit that you can always take the satirical view of them.\n\n\nWILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS.\n\n    He is equal as an artist to the best French writers. His books\n    are not only artistically fine, but morally wholesome.\u2014_Magazin\n    f\u00fcr die Literatur des Auslandes._\n\n    The great body of the cultivated public has an instinctive\n    delight in original genius, whether it be refined or sensational.\n    Mr. Howells\u2019s is eminently refined. His humor, however vivid in\n    form, is subtle and elusive in its essence. He depends, perhaps,\n    somewhat too much on the feelings of humor in his readers to\n    appreciate his own. He has the true Addisonian touch; hits his\n    mark in the white, and instead of provoking uproarious laughter,\n    strives to evoke that satisfied smile which testifies to the\n    quiet enjoyment of the reader. His humor is the humor of a\n    poet.\u2014_E. P. Whipple._\n\n    Mr. Howells has been compared to Washington Irving for the\n    exquisite purity of his style, and to Hawthorne for a certain\n    subtle recognition of a hidden meaning in familiar things. A more\n    thoroughly genial writer, certainly, we have not, nor one more\n    conscientious in the practice of his art.\u2014_Scribner\u2019s Monthly._\n\n\nThe Young Editor, from \u201cA Modern Instance.\u201d\n\n\u201cHullo!\u201d he cried, with a suddenness that startled the boy, who had\nfinished his meditation upon Bartley\u2019s trowsers, and was now deeply\ndwelling on his boots. \u201cDo you like \u2019em? See what sort of a shine you can\ngive \u2019em for Sunday-go-to-meeting-to-morrow-morning.\u201d He put out his hand\nand laid hold of the boy\u2019s head, passing his fingers through the thick\nred hair. \u201cSorrel-top!\u201d he said with a grin of agreeable reminiscence.\n\u201cThey emptied all the freckles they had left into your face\u2014didn\u2019t they,\nAndy?\u201d\n\nThis free, joking way of Bartley\u2019s was one of the things that made him\npopular; he passed the time of day, and would give and take right along,\nas his admirers expressed it from the first, in a community where his\nsmartness had that honor which gives us more smart men to the square\nmile than any other country in the world. The fact of his smartness had\nbeen affirmed and established in the strongest manner by the authorities\nof the college at which he was graduated, in answer to the reference\nhe made to them when negotiating with the committee in charge for the\nplace he now held as editor of the Equity _Free Press_.\u2026 They perhaps\nhad their misgivings when the young man, in his well-blacked boots, his\ngrey trowsers neatly fitting over them, and his diagonal coat buttoned\nhigh with one button, stood before them with his thumbs in his waistcoat\npockets, and looked down over his mustache at the floor, with sentiments\nconcerning their wisdom which they could not explore; they must have\nresented the fashionable keeping of everything about him, for Bartley\nwore his one suit as if it were but one of many; but when they understood\nthat he had come by everything through his own unaided smartness, they\ncould no longer hesitate. One, indeed, still felt it a duty to call\nattention to the fact that the college authorities said nothing of the\nyoung man\u2019s moral characteristics in a letter dwelling so largely upon\nhis intellectual qualifications. The others referred this point by a\nsilent look to \u2019Squire Gaylord. \u201cI don\u2019t know,\u201d said the \u2019Squire, \u201cas\nI ever heard that a great deal of morality was required by a newspaper\neditor.\u201d The rest laughed at the joke, and the \u2019Squire continued: \u201cBut\nI guess if he worked his own way through college, as they say, that he\nhain\u2019t had time to be up to a great deal of mischief. You know it\u2019s for\nidle hands that the devil provides, doctor.\u201d\n\n\u201cThat\u2019s true, as far as it goes,\u201d said the doctor. \u201cBut it isn\u2019t the\nwhole truth. The devil provides for some busy hands, too.\u201d\n\n\u201cThere\u2019s a good deal of sense in that,\u201d the \u2019Squire admitted. \u201cThe worst\nscamps I ever knew were active fellows. Still, industry is in a man\u2019s\nfavor. If the faculty knew anything against this young man they would\nhave given us a hint of it. I guess we had better take him; we shan\u2019t do\nbetter. Is it a vote?\u201d\n\n\nCHARLES DUDLEY WARNER.\n\n    Humor he has, and of the very highest order. It is as delicate\n    as Washington Irving\u2019s, and quite as spontaneous. But humor is\n    hardly his predominant quality. He has all the wit of Holmes,\n    and all the tenderness of Ik Marvel. He is often charmingly\n    thoughtful, earnest and suggestive.\u2014_San Francisco Bulletin._\n\n    There is only one other pair of microscopic eyes like his owned\n    by an American, and they belong to W. D. Howells. These two men\n    will ferret out fun from arid sands and naked rocks, and in one\n    trip of a league, less or more, over a barren waste, see and hear\n    more that is amusing and entertaining than the rest of the world\n    will discover in crossing a continent. Such men should do our\n    traveling for us.\u2014_Chicago Tribune._\n\n\nFrom \u201cBack-Log Studies.\u201d\n\nThe fire on the hearth has almost gone out in New England; the hearth has\ngone out; the family has lost its center; age ceases to be respected;\nsex is only distinguished by the difference between millinery bills and\ntailors\u2019 bills; there is no more toast-and-cider; the young are not\nallowed to eat mince pies at ten o\u2019clock at night; half a cheese is no\nlonger set to toast before the fire; you scarcely ever see in front of\nthe coals a row of roasting apples, which a bright little girl, with many\na dive and start, shielding her sunny face from the fire with one hand,\nturns from time to time; scarce are the grey-haired sires who strop their\nrazors on the family Bible, and doze in the chimney corner. A good many\nthings have gone out with the fire on the hearth.\n\nI do not mean to say that public and private morality have vanished\nwith the hearth. A good degree of purity and considerable happiness are\npossible with grates and blowers; it is a day of trial, when we are all\npassing through a fiery furnace, and very likely we shall be purified\nas we are dried up and wasted away. Of course the family is gone as an\ninstitution, though there still are attempts to bring up a family round\na \u201cregister.\u201d But you might just as well try to bring it up by hand as\nwithout the rallying-point of a hearth-stone. Are there any homesteads\nnow-a-days? Do people hesitate to change houses any more than they do\nto change their clothes? People hire houses as they would a masquerade\ncostume, liking, sometimes, to appear for a year in a little fictitious\nstone-front splendor above their means. Thus it happens that so many\npeople live in houses that do not fit them. I should almost as soon\nthink of wearing another person\u2019s clothes as his house; unless I could\nlet it out and take it in until it fitted, and somehow expressed my own\ncharacter and taste.\n\n\nFrom \u201cBeing a Boy.\u201d\n\nIt is a wonder that every New England boy does not turn out a poet, or a\nmissionary or a peddler. Most of them used to. There is something in the\nheart of the New England hills to feed the imagination of the boy and\nexcite his longing for strange countries. I scarcely know what the subtle\ninfluence is that forms him and attracts him in the most fascinating and\naromatic of all lands, and yet urges him away from all the sweet delights\nof his home to become roamer in literature and in the world a poet and a\nwanderer. There is something in the soil and in the pure air, I suspect,\nthat promises more romance than is forthcoming, and that excites the\nimagination without satisfying it, and begets the desire of adventure.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhat John said was, that he didn\u2019t care much for pumpkin pie; but that\nwas after he had eaten a whole one. It seemed to him then that mince\nwould be better. The feeling of a boy toward pumpkin pie has never been\nproperly considered.\u2026 His elders say that the boy is always hungry; but\nthat is a very coarse way of putting it. He has only recently come into\na world that is full of good things to eat, and there is on the whole\na very short time in which to eat them; at least he is told, among the\nfirst information he receives, that life is brief. Life being brief, and\npie and the like fleeting, he very soon decides on an active campaign.\nIt may be an old story to people who have been eating for forty or fifty\nyears; but it is different with a beginner. He takes the thick and thin\nas it comes\u2014as to pie, for instance. Some people do make them very thin.\n\n\n\n\nUNITED STATES HISTORY.\n\n\nSETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.\n\nThe most favorably situated, and, for its extent, the most valuable\nregion of the country was first settled by the Dutch, Hollanders and\nSwedes.\n\nFor some ten years there had been a trading post and small village on\nManhattan Island; and, in 1623 the \u201cDutch West India Co.,\u201d with a charter\ncovering the whole coast from the Strait of Magellan to Hudson\u2019s Bay,\nlanded a colony of thirty families at New Amsterdam.\n\nThe first colonists were mostly Protestant refugees from Belgium, who\ncame to America to escape the persecutions endured in their own country.\nA part of the colonists took up their abode at New Amsterdam; others went\ndown the New Jersey coast, and landed on the eastern shore of the Bay\nof Delaware. The same year a colony of 18 families ascended the Hudson,\nand located at or near Albany. This was the most northern post, and was\ncalled Fort Orange.\n\nA civil government was established for New Netherlands, in 1624,\nCornelius May being the first governor.\n\nIn 1626 Peter Minuit was appointed governor, and during his\nadministration he purchased of the native inhabitants the whole of\nManhattan Island, containing more than 20,000 acres, for forty dollars.\n\nSome settlements were also made on Long Island. The Dutch of New\nAmsterdam and the Pilgrims of New England were early friends, and helped\neach other. Both enjoyed a good degree of prosperity, and the population\nsteadily increased.\n\nFor more than ten years the Indians, with few exceptions, received the\nstrangers who came among them kindly and in good faith. When injured\nand wronged their resentment was kindled, and terribly did they avenge\nthemselves on their enemies. The first notable instance was at Lewistown,\non Delaware Bay, where Hosset, a governor of violent temper and little\nsagacity, seized and put to death a chief, who in some way offended him.\nThe tribe was aroused, and assailed the place with such violence that\nnot a man was left alive. When the next ship-load of colonists arrived,\ninstead of a thrifty town, and friends eagerly waiting to receive them,\nthey found but the bones of the slain, and the ashes of the homes that\nhad sheltered them. Afterward there was not, for many years, the same\nsense of security; and in 1640 New Netherlands became involved in a\ngeneral war with the Indians of Long Island and New Jersey, a war that,\non both sides, was far from honorable, and marked with treachery,\ncruelty, and murders most revolting. If the whites were surprised and\nmassacred by the Indians, there were as terrible massacres of Indians by\nthe whites, who were, too often, the aggressors. An impartial historian\nsays: \u201cNearly all the bloodshed and sorrow of those five years of war may\nbe charged to Governor Kief. He was a revengeful, cruel man, whose idea\nof government was to destroy whatever opposed him.\u201d For his headstrong\ncourse and cruelty he lost his position, and, to the great relief of the\ncolonists, who had suffered much on his account, sailed for England. But\nthe ship was wrecked on the coast of Wales, and the guilty governor found\na grave in the sea. He was succeeded by Peter Stuyvesant, a resolute\nman, of more ability than most who preceded him. He, for seventeen\nyears, managed the affairs of the colonists successfully. He conciliated\nthe savages, settled the boundaries of his territory, and enforced the\nsurrender of New Sweden, which became a part of his dominion. There was\nafterward some difficulty with the Indians, but more from a quarter\nwhence no danger was expected. Lord Baltimore, of Maryland, claimed,\nunder his charter, all the territory between the Chesapeake and Delaware\nBay. Berkley claimed New Sweden, while Connecticut and Massachusetts were\nequally aggressive on the territories adjacent to their lines.\n\nIn 1664 the unscrupulous king of England, Charles II., issued patents\nto his brother, the Duke of York, covering the territory called New\nNetherlands, and more beside. It was in utter disregard of the rights\nof Holland, and of the West India Co., who had settled the country. No\ntime was given for protest against the outrage. An English squadron soon\nappeared before New Amsterdam, and demanded the immediate surrender of\nthe country, and the acknowledgment of the sovereignty of England. No\neffectual resistance could be made, and the indignant old governor,\nhis council ordering it, had to sign the capitulation; and, on the 8th\nof September, 1664, the English flag was hoisted over the fort and\ntown. The Swedish and Dutch settlements likewise capitulated, and the\nconquest was complete. From Maine to Georgia, in every settlement near\nthe coast, the British flag was unfurled. This high-handed injustice,\nwhich robbed a sister state of her well earned colonial possessions, was\nbut slightly mitigated by the fact that the armament was insufficient to\nenforce submission without the shedding of blood. The capitulation was\non favorable terms, and with fair promises, that were never fulfilled.\nThe government was despotic, and the people were sorely oppressed. The\npolicy of the tyrannical governor was to tax the people till they could\ndo nothing but think how possibly to pay the amount assessed.\n\nIn 1673, England and Holland being at war, the latter sent a small\nsquadron to recover the possessions wrested from her in America. When\nthe little fleet appeared before New York, the governor was absent, and\nhis deputy, either from cowardice, or, knowing the people preferred to\nhave it so, at once surrendered the city, and the whole province yielded\nwithout a struggle.\n\nBut the re-conquest of New York by the Dutch, gave them no permanent\npossession, as the war was soon closed by a treaty of peace, in which all\nthe rights of Holland in America were surrendered.\n\nThe Dutch and Swedes again became subject to English authority. Popular\ngovernment was overthrown, and the officers appointed by the crown,\ndirectly or otherwise, with few exceptions, were unjust and tyrannical.\nTheir oppressive measures were met with resistance, and, so intense\nwas the hatred excited, that obstructions were thrown in the way of\neverything that was attempted. The people, when not repelling the attacks\nof the French and the Indians, or carrying the war into the territory\nof the invaders\u2014campaigns in which much was sacrificed and nothing\ngained\u2014were in a constant struggle with the royal governors, intent on\ncollecting the revenues and enriching themselves, but careless of the\nbest interests of the people.\n\n\nPENNSYLVANIA.\n\nIn 1681 William Penn, a man of convictions, who, with other Quakers, had\nsuffered persecution on account of his religious convictions, obtained a\ncharter with proprietary rights, for a large tract of American territory.\nGeographically its position was nearly central as regards the original\ncolonies, but at first somewhat indefinitely bounded. In the final\nadjustment of colonial limits it was made a regular parallelogram, a\nsmall addition being made to give access to Lake Erie, and a good harbor.\nThe average length is 310 miles; the width, 160 miles. In naming his\nterritory the proprietor modestly omitted any allusion to himself. He\nsuggested Sylvania, because of the extensive and almost unbroken forest.\nThe clerk prefixed \u201cPenn.\u201d From this he appealed to the king, who decided\nthe prefix should be retained; but, as a relief to the wounded modesty of\nthe Quaker, said it would be in honor of the Admiral, his friend, and the\ndeceased father of William. For whomever the compliment was intended, the\ncitizens of the commonwealth have always liked the name.\n\nThe liberal plan for the government of West New Jersey, previously\ndrawn up by Penn, was adopted, and the colonists encouraged to govern\nthemselves. The powers conferred on him personally were never used in\nselfishness, or to advance his personal interests, but only to further\nthe complete establishment of freedom, justice, and the best interests of\nthe people.\n\nTo the Swedes and others who had settled within his territory before\nhe took possession, he introduced himself in a way so conciliatory and\nassuring that their friendship was at once won. His first message as\ngovernor was an admirable document\u2014plain, honest, sensible in its every\nutterance. Its brevity allows it to be printed in full. \u201cMy friends, I\nwish you all happiness here and hereafter. These words are to let you\nknow that it hath pleased God, in his providence, to cast you in my lot\nand care. It is a business that though I never undertook before, yet God\nhath given me an understanding of my duty, and an honest heart to do it\nuprightly. I hope you will not be troubled at your change and the king\u2019s\nchoice; for you are now fixed at the mercy of no governor that comes to\nmake his fortune great. You shall be governed by laws of your own making,\nand live a free, and if you will, a sober, industrious people.\u2026\u201d\n\nBefore the proprietor\u2019s arrival, with three shiploads of Quaker\ncolonists, his deputy, as instructed, had respected the rights of all\nthe settlers, of whatever nationality or religious faith, and had been\nspecially careful to cultivate friendly relations, and form treaties\nwith the Indian tribes located in or near the territory. The offers\nof friendship, honestly made, were received in the same kindly spirit\nthat prompted them, and neither fraud nor violence was feared. Not long\nafter Penn came, a general council was called of the chiefs and sachems,\nanxious to see him of whom they had heard, and whose promises, reported\nto them, they had believed. He met them, with a few friends, unarmed as\nthey all were, and spoke kind words by an interpreter.\n\nIt was not his object to purchase lands, or to lay down rules to govern\nthem in trading, but honestly to assure the untutored children of the\nforest of his friendly purposes and brotherly affection.\n\nThe covenant then made, not written with ink, nor confirmed by any oath,\nwas sacredly kept. No deed of violence or injustice ever marred the peace\nor interrupted the friendly relations of the parties. For more than\nseventy years, during which time the province remained under the control\nof the Friends, the peace was unbroken. Not a war-whoop was heard, nor\nany hostile demonstration witnessed in Pennsylvania.\n\nIn December, 1682, a convention was held of three days\u2019 continuance, and\nall needful provision made for territorial legislation.\n\nThe generous concessions of the proprietor harmonized the views of the\nassembly, and the results of the convention were eminently satisfactory.\n\nAfter a month\u2019s absence, during which there was a visit to the\nChesapeake, and an amicable conference with Lord Baltimore, about the\nboundaries of their respective provinces, Penn returned, and busied\nhimself in locating and making a plot of his proposed capital. The\nbeautiful neck between the Schuylkill and Delaware was wisely chosen; the\nland purchased of the Swedes, who had begun a settlement there, and map\nof the city provided. Three or four cabins were the only dwellings on the\nsite, and the lines of the streets were indicated by marks on the trees.\nThus in the woods was founded Philadelphia, the City of Brotherly Love.\n\nFrom the inception of his American enterprise, Penn showed himself\na true philanthropist, not seeking his own aggrandizement, but the\ngood of others. The oppressed and persecuted trusted him and were\nnot disappointed. He promised them freedom, the love of which was a\nmaster passion with him, and the charter of their liberties dated at\nPhiladelphia, and adopted by the first General Assembly, was even more\ngenerous than they expected. He conceded all the rights of legislation\nto the representatives of the people, reserving for himself only the\nright to veto any hasty and objectionable enactments of the council.\nHis administration as executive met with much favor, and the tide of\nprosperity was for years unabated. Such was the condition of affairs\nin Pennsylvania when King James II. abdicated his throne. Penn, being\na friend of the Stuarts, and having received his liberal charter from\nCharles II., sympathized with the fallen monarch, and, though loyal,\nhad less confidence in William and Mary. For his sympathy and supposed\nadherence to the cause of the exiled king, he was persecuted, several\ntimes arrested and cast into prison. But investigations showed the\nsuspicions of disloyalty unfounded; and his rights, so unjustly and to\nthe great grief of his colonists, wrested from him, were fully restored.\nThe new sovereign was a Catholic, and his fellow-communicants, like\nother dissenters from the Establishment, had suffered much. His anxiety\nto restore to them all the immunities of citizenship disposed him to\nlisten to the logic and eloquence of the accomplished Quaker, who boldly\ncontended for the toleration of all creeds, and the unlimited freedom of\nconscience. His influence during these years, in keeping up the tide of\nimmigration to America, and especially to Pennsylvania, was something\nwonderful.\n\nIn 1699 he again visited his American colony, now grown into a state\u2014the\nincrease in population and all the resources of a prosperous community\nfar exceeding his expectations.\n\nIn 1701, having carefully and satisfactorily arranged all his affairs\nin America, Penn bade a final adieu to his many friends, and returned\nto England. He left them, largely through the influence of his teaching\nand example and spirit, at peace among themselves and with all their\nneighbors.\n\nAbout this time a measure was proposed in England that, if passed, would\nseriously affect the colonists in all parts of the country. The ministers\nformed the design of abolishing all the proprietary estates, with the\nview of establishing royal governments in their stead. The presence of\nPenn was greatly needed in England to prevent the success of this scheme,\nand not without much effort was the purpose defeated. It required a man\nof power and influence in the king\u2019s court to do it. From this time\nthe government, though still in Penn\u2019s right, was administered by his\ndeputies, some of whom disappointed him. John Evans, an ambitious man,\nand not true to the peace principles of the Friends, greatly troubled the\nprovince by purchasing military equipments, and attempting to organize\na regiment of militia. The council and citizens protested so strongly\nagainst his proceedings as irreconcilable with the policy of Penn, that\nEvans was removed from the office, and another appointed. His charge to\nthe deputies appointed had been, \u201cYou are come to a quiet land; rule\nfor him under whom the princes of this world will one day esteem it an\nhonor to govern in their places.\u201d Those who heeded the charge had peace\nand prosperity in their borders. As proprietor of his vast possessions\nin America, Penn was not faultless; but his mistakes bore an amiable\ncharacter. Conscious of his own integrity and freedom from cupidity,\nhe placed too much confidence in the untried virtue of others, and\nexposed inferior men in the way of temptation to dishonesty that they\nwere not able to resist. The rascality of his agent, Ford, whose false\naccounts involved the honest proprietor in debt to a large amount, well\nnigh accomplished his financial ruin. He was imprisoned, and after weary\nmonths of confinement was released by influential friends, who compounded\nwith the creditors in whose power the crafty agent had placed him.\n\nThe simplicity of his Quaker habits and enthusiasm for religion seemed\ninconsistent with his great influence in the corrupt court of the king,\nand he was suspected of acting a double part\u2014was thrice arrested, charged\nwith treasonable intentions, and as often acquitted. But the strain\nwas too great. His natural force abated, and the infirmities of age\ncame on him rapidly. His acquittal, and the complete vindication of his\ncharacter cast a bright light on the clouds, and its radiance gave a kind\nrelief for the six years of feebleness and suffering that remained after\nlife\u2019s mission seemed mostly accomplished. The attacks of enemies and\ncontemporary rivals are more readily condoned. But the abortive attempt\nof Lord Macaulay to asperse the character of the deceased governor, whose\nenterprise in the New World eclipsed all others, reflects little honor on\nthe name of the great historian. Certainly the great Quaker\u2019s record on\nthis side of the Atlantic can never be tarnished, and his principles of\nliberty and equality are better understood and appreciated by American\nfreemen.\n\nThe colonial possessions of Penn were bequeathed to his three sons, by\nwhom, and their deputies, the government was administered until the\nAmerican Revolution. Afterward, in 1779, the entire claim of the Penn\nfamily to the soil and jurisdiction of the state, was purchased by the\nlegislature for a hundred and thirty thousand pounds sterling. The early\nhistory of the Keystone state is one of special interest and pleasure.\nThe reader lingers over it because it recounts bloodless victories, and\nthe triumph of kindness and right over violence and wrong.\n\nWhen nations grow mercenary and grasping, the strong justifying their\naggressions and conquests by the false plea that success, and the\nprobable hereafter of the conquered races justify their assaults, the\nearly annals of Penn\u2019s state will stand a perpetual protest against\nfraud and violence, however successful for a time. Might does not make\nright, even when the highest civilization confronts the lowest barbarism.\nEven savages had rights that the most cultured Englishmen were bound to\nrespect.\n\nThe brotherhood of man includes those of lowest estate. So thought the\nfounder of the great state that bears his name. With his charter in\nhand he fearlessly plunged into the vast wilderness, saying, \u201cI will\nhere found a free colony for all mankind.\u201d The words had the true ring,\nand the asylum was opened for men of every nation who loved liberty and\nhated the oppressor\u2019s wrongs. And it was a most fitting thing that the\n\u201cbells of his capital should ring out the first glad notes of American\nindependence.\u201d\n\n\nGEORGIA.\n\nEvery philanthropist must take satisfaction in the founding of the\ncolony in Georgia; for, perhaps beyond any other, it had its origin\nin the spirit of pure benevolence. The unfortunate debtor in England\nwas by the laws liable to imprisonment; and thousands were, for this\ncause alone, languishing in prisons. The miserable condition of debtors\nand their desolate families, was at length thrust on the attention of\nParliament. In 1728 a commission was appointed to inquire into the state\nof the poor, and report measures of relief. The work was accomplished,\nthe jails thrown open, and the prisoners returned to their families.\nBut, though liberated, they and their friends were in no condition\nto maintain themselves respectably in the land of their birth. There\nwas a land beyond the sea where debt was not a crime, and poverty not\nnecessarily a disgrace. To provide somewhere a refuge for the poor\nof England, and the distressed Protestants of other countries, the\ncommission appealed to George II. for the privilege of planting a colony\nof such persons in America. A charter was issued giving the desired\nterritory to a corporation, for twenty-one years, _to be held in trust\nfor the poor_. In honor of the king the new province was named Georgia.\nThe high-souled philanthropist who initiated and went steadily forward\nin this enterprise was James Oglethorpe. Born a loyalist, educated at\nOxford, a high churchman, a soldier, a member of Parliament, benevolent,\ngenerous, full of sympathy, and far-sighted in comprehending the results\nof his enterprise, he sacrificed much, giving the best position of a life\nso full of energy and promise to the noble charity of providing homes\nfor the poor, under such conditions that the largest benefit could be\nreceived by them without any sense of degradation. Ridpath says: \u201cThe\nmagnanimity of the enterprise was heightened by the fact that he did\nnot believe in the equality of men, but only in the duty of the strong\nto protect the weak, and sympathize with the lowly. Oglethorpe was the\nprincipal member of the corporation, and to him the personal leadership\nof the first colony planted on the banks of the Savannah was naturally\nintrusted. His associations were with cultured people, and his refined\ntastes would be subjected to some crucial tests by the rude scenes in the\nwilderness, and his association with unlettered men. But he was not a man\nto shirk responsibility, and promptly determined to share the privations,\nhardships, and dangers of his colony.\n\n\u201cWith one hundred and twenty emigrants, in January, 1735, he safely\nreached the coast, proceeded up the river, and selected, for the site\nof his first settlement, the high bluff on which Savannah was built.\nThere, amidst the pines, was soon seen a village of tents and rude\ndwellings, the nucleus of the fine city, intended for the capital of a\nnew commonwealth, in which there would be freedom of conscience and no\nimprisonment for debt.\u201d\n\n    [End of Required Reading for April.]\n\n\n\n\nLIGHT AT EVENTIDE.\n\nBy E. G. CHARLESWORTH.\n\n\n    I met an old man in my way;\n    For many years the light of day\n    Had been to him but memory;\n    Poor, blind, half-deaf, and lame was he:\n    My heart was bent to sympathize,\n    I looked toward the dead closed eyes,\n    Hopeful, by some apt words, a light\n    To bring to mingle with his night.\n\n    A falling tide was on the sand.\n    Slowly, that he might understand,\n      I said,\n    \u201cThe ebbing tide, and then the flood;\n    The darkest hour, then the dawn;\n    Death, then\u2014\u2014\u201d\n    Some inner sun\u2019s streaks in his face\n    Shone on this image of his case,\n    And twice, with Faith and Hope\u2019s sunshine,\n    He brightly filled my shortened line\u2014\n    _Death, then the morn\u2014Death, then the morn!_\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFor though you might not be able to break or bend the power of genius\u2014the\ndeeper the sea, the more precipitous the coast\u2014yet in the most important\ninitiatory decade of life, in the first, at the opening dawn of all\nfeelings, you might surround and overlay the slumbering lion-energies\nwith all the tender habits of a gentle heart, and all the bands of\nlove.\u2014_Richter._\n\n\n\n\nTHE COOPER INSTITUTE.\n\nBy the REV. J. M. BUCKLEY, D.D.\n\n\nAmong the monuments and illustrations of the spirit of philanthropy\u2014the\nnoblest distinction between ancient and modern civilization\u2014the Cooper\nInstitute has stood for a quarter of a century, an object of interest\nproportionate to the intellectual and moral elevation of those who behold\nit.\n\nThe early struggles, great success and marked mental progress of its\nfounder, no less than a liberality as beautiful as it was then rare,\ninvest his life with a peculiar charm. Nor did he retain his possessions\nuntil death loosened his grasp, employing in beneficence only that which\nhe could no longer retain. Thus he became the ancestor of many who are\ntheir own executors. \u201cMay their tribe increase!\u201d To these qualities was\nadded a simplicity which made it impossible not to feel that Peter Cooper\nwas a kind of universal \u201cUncle.\u201d It pleased Almighty God in a providence,\nwhich was no strain upon faith, as it seemed pre\u00ebminently in harmony with\nthe sense of fitness, to allow him to live until he had seen the desire\nof his heart, and could not doubt either the perpetuity, the wisdom or\nthe success of his plans for promoting the welfare of the people. To\ncomparatively few philanthropists on so large a scale, has this privilege\nbeen vouchsafed; for most of them are old before their accumulations\njustify large responsibilities.\n\nThe death of Peter Cooper gave to New York the opportunity, which was\nitself a blessing, of showing by spontaneous tributes whose reflex\ninfluence strengthens every spring of virtue, counteracting the\nbarbarizing tendencies of the struggle for bread or riches or honors, and\nthe weakening effects of mere idleness and the prevailing distrust of\nhuman goodness, its estimate of disinterestedness. The opportunity was\nimproved, for never within the memory of the oldest inhabitant has the\ndeath of a private citizen evoked more tender exhibitions of respect and\naffection than that of the patriarchal Peter Cooper.\n\nIt is my purpose to describe this institution; to tell all about it, so\nthat those who read and have not seen may know what those who have seen\nare pleased to recall.\n\nOn the 29th of April, 1859, Peter Cooper executed a deed in fee simple of\nthe property known as the Cooper Institute without any reservation, to\nsix trustees, upon the conditions specified in the act of the legislature\nauthorizing the gift to be made, \u201cthat the above mentioned and desirable\npremises, together with the appurtenances and the rents, issues, income,\nand profits thereof shall be forever devoted to the instruction and\nimprovement of the inhabitants of the United States in practical science\nand art.\u201d\n\nThe location of the property and its dimensions are thus described by the\nfounder in his letter to the trustees accompanying the trust deed:\n\n    \u201cGENTLEMEN:\u2014It is to me a source of inexpressible pleasure, after\n    so many years of continued effort, to place in your hands the\n    title of all that piece and parcel of land bounded on the west\n    by Fourth Avenue, and on the north by Astor Place, on the east\n    by Third Avenue, and on the south by Seventh Street, with all\n    the furniture, rents and income of every name and nature, to be\n    forever devoted to the advancement of science and art in their\n    application to the varied and useful purposes of life.\u201d\n\nThat the spirit of Peter Cooper and the purposes which he had in this\nmunificent gift may be the more fully understood, and the reader may\njudge how near the trustees have come to fulfilling the same, I shall\nquote some salient passages from that unique letter. \u201cThe great object I\ndesire to accomplish by the establishment of an institution devoted to\nthe advancement of science and art is to open the volume of nature by\nthe light of truth\u2014so unveiling the laws and methods of Deity that the\nyoung may see the beauties of creation, enjoy its blessings, and learn\nto love the Being \u2018from whom cometh every good and perfect gift.\u2019 My\nheart\u2019s desire is, that the rising generation may become so thoroughly\nacquainted with the laws of nature _and the great mystery of their\nown being that they may see, feel, understand and know that there are\nimmutable laws designed in infinite wisdom, constantly operating for our\ngood\u2014so governing the destiny of worlds and men that it is our highest\nwisdom to live in strict conformity to these laws_.\u201d\n\nThe italics are his. Mr. Cooper felt a special interest in the\nadvancement of women; nor did this interest take a mere sentimental, much\nless an unpractical, form. It did not effervesce in honeyed compliments\nor futile denunciation of the existing state. It was thus expressed: \u201cTo\nmanifest the deep interest and sympathy I feel in all that can advance\nthe happiness and better the condition of the female portion of the\ncommunity, and especially of those who are dependent upon honest labor\nfor support, I desire the trustees to appropriate two hundred and fifty\ndollars yearly to assist such pupils of the Female School of Design as\nshall, in their careful judgment, by their efforts and sacrifices in the\nperformance of duty to parents, or to those that Providence has made\ndependent on them for support, merit and require such aid. My reason for\nthis requirement is, not so much to reward, as to encourage the exercise\nof heroic virtues that often shine in the midst of the greatest suffering\nand obscurity, without so much as being noticed by the passing throng.\u201d\n\nIn prescribing rules for the practice of debate, and the facilities\nfor the hearing of lectures, he says: \u201cTo aid the speakers, and those\nthat hear, to profit by these lectures and debates, I hereby direct to\nhave placed in the lecture room, in a suitable position, full-length\nlikenesses of Washington, Franklin and Lafayette, with an expression of\nmy sincere and anxious desire that all that behold them may remember that\nnotwithstanding they are dead they yet speak the language of truth and\nsoberness.\u201d\n\nHere follows a provision far in advance of his time, but now becoming\ncommon, if not popular: \u201cDesiring as I do that the students of this\ninstitution may become pre\u00ebminent examples in the practice of all the\nvirtues, I have determined to give them an opportunity to distinguish\nthemselves for their good judgment by annually recommending to the\ntrustees for their adoption such rules and regulations as they, on mature\nreflection, shall believe to be necessary and proper to preserve good\nmorals and good order throughout their connection with this institution.\u201d\n\nThe letter contains an account of the religious opinions which had taken\nan \u201cirresistible possession\u201d of his mind. These\u2014which may be inferred\nfrom the extracts made\u2014and the offer of ten thousand dollars additional,\nto the board of trustees, for which they were to draw at their pleasure,\nas fast as the same could \u201cbe wisely used to advance the interests of the\ninstitution,\u201d conclude this remarkable letter.\n\nMr. Cooper continued to assist the Institute in every possible way until\nhis death. In his will he bequeathed to it $100,000. Soon after his death\nhis children notified the trustees that \u201cin accordance with what they\nunderstood to be Mr. Cooper\u2019s final wishes, they would in a few months\ncontribute the sum of $100,000 in addition to the bequest of $100,000\ncontained in his will.\u201d\n\nThe trustees\u2014of whom not one has died in the long period of their\nservice, the only death being that of the President, Peter Cooper\u2014give\nthe following succinct statement of the principles upon which they\nproceeded in the execution of so weighty a trust. They say that they\nlaid down as the fundamental basis of their operations the following\nprinciples:\n\nFirst, that the details of the institution in all the departments should\nbe arranged with especial reference to the intellectual wants and\nimprovement of the working classes. And, second, that as far as might be\nconsistent with the first principle, all interference with the plans or\nobjects of other existing institutions in the city should be avoided.\nGuided by these principles the trustees arrived at the following broad\nscheme, as best calculated to instruct, elevate, and improve the working\nclasses of the city:\n\n1. Instruction in the branches of knowledge which are practically applied\nin their daily occupations, by which they support themselves and their\nfamilies.\n\n2. Instruction in the laws by which health is preserved and the sanitary\ncondition of families improved; in other words, in personal hygiene.\n\n3. Instruction in social and political science, by virtue of which\ncommunities maintain themselves, and nations progress in virtue, wealth\nand power.\n\n4. Instruction addressed to the eye, the ear, and the imagination, with\na view to furnish a reasonable and healthy recreation to the working\nclasses after the labors of the day.\n\nIn pursuance of these objects and in harmony with the above comprehensive\nprinciples the following departments are maintained at the present time\nin most effective operation:\n\n1. Free Reading Room and Library. Here between 430 and 440 periodicals\nare kept on file, and upward of 17,000 volumes are upon the shelves. In\n1883 the number of books used was 194,963, the number of patent office\nreports examined 8,324, and the number of visitors to the patent office\nroom 1,487. In all 559,707 persons visited the Free Reading Room and\nLibrary during 1883.\n\n2. Free Art School for Women. There were no less than 1,450 applications\nfor admission during the year, a number far in excess of the\naccommodations; 275 were admitted to the morning classes, of whom 202\nremained at the close of the term, and 160 received certificates. There\nare also a \u201cpay class\u201d for pottery painting in this department, and a pay\nclass for drawing in the afternoon; 43 were in the pottery class, and 221\nin the drawing class.\n\n3. Free School for Women in Wood Engraving. Thirty-two students were\nreceived during the year 1882, of whom 28 continued to the close of the\nterm.\n\n4. Free School of Telegraphy for Women. The number of applicants was 160,\nof whom 55 were admitted.\n\n5. Free Night School of Science. In this important department are classes\nin algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytical geometry, descriptive\ngeometry, differential and integral calculus, elementary mechanics,\nnatural philosophy, engineering, astronomy, elementary chemistry,\nanalytical chemistry, geology, mechanical drawing, oratory and debate.\nOne thousand one hundred and sixty-nine were admitted into the School\nof Science, 705 remained till the close of the year, and 405 obtained\ncertificates.\n\n6. The Free Night School of Art. Here is taught perspective drawing,\nmechanical drawing, architectural drawing, drawing from cast, form\ndrawing, industrial drawing, ornamental free hand, rudimental free hand,\nmodeling in clay. In this school were 1,797 pupils.\n\nIn addition to these departments a course of ten free lectures is given\nin the great hall on successive Saturday evenings for ten weeks. The\nlecturers are men of considerable eminence and generally specialists.\nProbably the most interesting ever delivered was the course by the\nfamous naturalist, the Rev. J. G. Wood, of London, England. This course\ncrowded the hall, and was concluded January 19th of the present year by a\nlecture, with illustrations, on \u201cThe Ant.\u201d\n\nThe term begins in the free Night Schools for Science and Art on the 1st\nof October, and closes term work in April. Applications for admission\nmust be made during the month of September on Tuesday, Wednesday,\nThursday, and Friday evenings, and on Thursday evenings afterward.\nEach applicant must be at least fifteen years old, and bring a letter\nof recommendation from his employer. Ladies are admitted to any of the\nclasses in the School of Science for which they are fitted, but not to\nthe School of Art. The regular course of study requires five terms, and\nto those who successfully complete it the Cooper medal and diploma are\nawarded.\n\nThe annual term in the Woman\u2019s Art School begins October 1st and ends May\n30th. Ladies desiring admission must apply in person or writing, and give\na written responsible reference as to character, fitness, and inability\nto pay for instruction. The ages are from sixteen to thirty-five years.\nPupils who do not exhibit proficiency after two months\u2019 trial will be\ndropped. The morning classes are reserved for those who do not pay.\nBut to meet the wants of those who wish to study as an accomplishment,\n\u201cpaying classes\u201d are organized for the afternoon. Lessons are given\nin elementary drawing from objects, cast drawing, life drawing, oil\npainting, engraving. Lessons of two hours in length are given three times\na week. Terms, $15 for thirty lessons.\n\nThe rules of admission to the Free School in Telegraphy for Women are\nthat the candidates shall present themselves for examination on the first\nTuesday in October. They will be examined in reading poor manuscript,\nwriting from dictation, penmanship and spelling. They must be at least\nsixteen years old, and _positively_ not over _twenty-four_.\n\nIn the report for 1882, published in May, 1883, Mrs. Carter the Principal\nof the Woman\u2019s Art School, says: \u201cOne hundred and twenty-six present\npupils are learning. Of these fifty-four are in the photograph classes,\nand eighteen in the engraving class. Twenty-six now in the school are\nteaching drawing, and three of these are in nineteen public schools in\nthis city. One young woman who left the art school in the winter teaches\ntwenty-five hours a week in eight public schools here at two dollars an\nhour.\u201d\n\nThe form of application to the Cooper Union includes name of applicant,\nresidence, age, occupation, name of employer, place of business.\nParents or guardians, in the case of minors, fill out the blanks, but\napplications must be made in person. It only remains to say that the\napplications are in advance of the capacity of the Institute, but that\nthe democratic principle of \u201cfirst come first served\u201d is rigorously\napplied. Applications do not hold over from one year to another, but must\nbe renewed. It is possible for persons from any part of the country to\navail themselves of the facilities here afforded. Board for gentlemen can\nbe obtained at very reasonable rates, not far from the Union. Two rooming\ntogether and lunching at restaurants can live well at a low rate. Ladies\nalso can procure board in Brooklyn, or in the suburban towns, or even in\nthe city itself, at a rate far below what is generally supposed possible.\n\nPassing the Cooper Institute, as the writer does nearly every day, he\nlooks with undiminished interest upon the young men and young women who\ngo in and out of the building; while to attend one of the lectures is a\npleasure far greater than that of merely listening. If it were possible\nto assemble in one place all who have been helped upward and onward here,\namong them would be found men and women now in the most influential\npositions, and the intelligence visible in the countenances of those who,\nthough still earning their bread by the sweat of the brow, are filled\nwith elevating thoughts, and are consciously members of the aristocracy\nof intellect, would be an ample reward to founder, trustees and teachers,\nfor all their work and labor of love. Nor is this all; these pupils will\ntransmit influences through their posterity to the end of time. Peter\nCooper, like Washington, Lafayette, and Franklin, still speaks \u201cwords\nof truth and soberness.\u201d He shakes hands with every aspiring young man,\nsaying: \u201cMy son, I will help you;\u201d with every young woman who cherishes\na high ambition: \u201cMy daughter, I have a deep sympathy with you.\u201d It is\nuseless to say, \u201cLong may his memory endure!\u201d It can not die.\n\nIn concluding this paper the writer must be permitted to express his\nsatisfaction that the sketch is to appear in a magazine called into being\nby an institution which on another principle, equally efficient and\nmuch more widely diffused in the sphere of its influence, promotes the\nadvancement of Science and Art by bringing them within the reach of all\naspirants, without distinction of race, sex, age, or previous condition\nof servitude.\n\n\n\n\nGREEN SUN AND STRANGE SUNSETS.\n\n\nDuring the first half of September, the sun in Ceylon and India, and also\nin the West Indies, presented at rising and setting the appearance of a\ngreen or greenish-blue disc. Even when at his highest the sun appeared\npale blue in Ceylon (from the other places no account of the sun\u2019s aspect\nat high noon has reached me). On September 2, at Trinidad, the sun looked\nlike a blue globe after five in the evening, \u201cand after dark,\u201d says\nthe report, \u201cwe thought there was a fire in the town, from the bright\nredness of the heavens.\u201d At Ongole, as the sun approached the horizon,\nhis disc passed from a bluish tinge to green, which became tinged with\nyellow as he approached the horizon. \u201cAfter he had set, light yellow and\norange appeared in the west, a very deep red remaining for more than an\nhour after sunset; whereas, under ordinary conditions, all traces of\ncolor leave the sky in this latitude,\u201d says the narrator, \u201cwithin half\nan hour after the sun disappears.\u201d These accounts, from both the eastern\nand western hemispheres, seem clearly to associate the green sun which\nattracted so much attention in the tropics early in September, with the\nremarkable sunsets seen in Arabia, in Africa (North and South), and\nthroughout Europe during October and November. For we see that whatever\nmay have been the explanation of the green sun, the phenomenon must have\nbeen produced by some cause capable of producing after sunset a brilliant\nred and orange glow, for a time much exceeding the usual duration of\nthe twilight afterglow. The occurrence of the afterglow, with the same\nremarkable tints and similar exceptional duration elsewhere\u2014though some\nweeks later\u2014shows that a similar cause was at work.\n\nTwo points are clear. First, the cause alike of the greenness of the\nsun and the ruddy afterglow was in the air, not outside; and, secondly,\nthe matter, whatever it was, which made the sun look green when he was\nseen through it, and which under his rays looked red, was high above the\nsurface of the earth. It can readily be shown, so far as this last point\nis concerned, that matter at a lower level than sixteen miles could not\nhave caught the sun\u2019s rays so long after sunset as the glow was seen. On\nthe other point it suffices, of course, to note that if some cause in the\nsun himself had been at work, the whole earth would have seen the green\nsun, while the afterglow would have found no explanation at all.\n\nAs to the actual cause to which both phenomena are to be ascribed, we\nmust, I think, exculpate Krakatoa from all part or share in producing\nthese strange effects. The appearance of a blue sun at Trinidad, followed\ntwo or three days later by a green sun in the East Indies, can not\npossibly be associated with the occurrence of an earthquake on the Javan\nshore a few days earlier. Beside, it must be remembered that we should\nhave to explain two incongruous circumstances; first, how the exceedingly\nfine matter ejected from Krakatoa could have so quickly reached the\nenormous height at which the matter actually producing the afterglow\ncertainly was; and, secondly, how having been able to traverse still air\nso readily one way, that matter failed to return as readily earthward\nunder the attraction of gravity. Again the explanation, which at first\nseems a most probable one, that unusually high strata of moist air, with\naccompanying multitudes of ice particles, caused the phenomena alike\nof absorption and of reflection, seems negatived\u2014first, by the entire\nabsence of any other evidence of extraordinary meteorological conditions\nin September, October and November last; and, secondly, by the entire\nabsence of any of the optical phenomena which necessarily accompany the\ntransmission of sunlight through strata of air strewn with many ice\nparticles.\n\nWe seem obliged then to adopt a theory, first advanced, I believe, by Mr.\nA. C. Ranyard, that the phenomena were caused by a cloud of meteoric\ndust encountered by the earth, and received into the upper regions of\nthe air, thence to penetrate slowly (mayhap not till many months have\npassed) to the surface of the earth. Mr. Ranyard calls attention to\nthe circumstance that probably the early snows of the winter 1883-\u201984\nwould bring down the advanced guard of such meteoric dust; and even as I\nwrite I learn that Mr. W. Mathieu Williams has followed the suggestion.\nHe carefully collected the snow which fell in his garden, eighty yards\nfrom his chimneys and half a mile from any to windward. Slicing off a\ntop film of the snow with a piece of glass he thawed it, and found a\nsediment of fine brownish-black powder. Ferrocyanide of potassium added\nto the snow-water produced no change of color, showing the absence of\niron in solution, nor was there any visible reaction on the black dust\ntill he added some hydrochloric acid. Then the blue compound indicating\niron was abundantly formed all round the granules, and presently, as\ntheir solution was effected, a bluish-green deposit was formed, and the\nwhole liquid deeply tinged with the same color. \u201cIt was not,\u201d says Mr.\nWilliams, \u201cthe true Prussian-blue reaction of iron alone, but just the\ncolor that would be produced by mixing small quantities of the cyanide of\nnickel (yellowish green) and the cyanide of cobalt (brownish white) with\na preponderating amount of Prussian blue.\u201d\n\nIf this explanation of the green sun and the extraordinary sunsets should\nbe confirmed, it appears to me that a most interesting result will have\nbeen achieved. Of course, it is no new thing that as the earth rushes\nonward through space she encounters yearly many millions of meteoric\nbodies, large and small; nor ought it to be regarded as strange that\nbeside these separate bodies, millions of millions in the form of fine\ncosmical dust should be encountered; but the actual evidence, derived\nfrom the behavior of sunlight (the red and yellow rays reflected and\nrelative superabundance of green and blue rays therefore transmitted),\nwould be an interesting and important addition to our knowledge of\nmatters meteoric.\u2014_The Contemporary Review._\n\n\n\n\nANTHONY TROLLOPE\u2019S AUTOBIOGRAPHY.\n\nBy W. W. GIST.\n\n\nA peep into a literary workshop is always interesting. There is\nalways some curiosity to know how a man of letters does his work.\nThis fascinating autobiography gives us a clear insight into Anthony\nTrollope\u2019s manner of study, and states many other facts that are\nintensely interesting.\n\nAnthony Trollope\u2019s parents were both of a literary turn of mind. His\nfather had no business capacity, and everything he attempted went wrong.\nHis mother and brother came to America and opened a bazar at Cincinnati,\nhoping to amass a fortune. This proved a failure, and upon returning to\nEngland, Mrs. Trollope wrote a book on America, which brought a fair\ncompensation. For years she supported the family by her pen. There is\nindeed something heroic in her watching by the bedside of her dying\nhusband and son, and writing her books during the intervals that the sick\ndid not demand her attention. Her first book was written when she was\nfifty years of age. She wrote in all one hundred and fourteen volumes.\n\nAnthony Trollope\u2019s school advantages were poor, and the trials of his\nchildhood were greater than those of the average youth. In 1834, at the\nage of nineteen, he entered the postal service and continued in it for\nthirty-three years, effecting many valuable reforms and proving himself\nan efficient government officer.\n\nHis literary work was done in such a manner as not to interfere in the\nleast with his duties as inspector of postoffices. Few men have the power\nof will to hold themselves to the rigid, exacting plan of study that he\nimposed upon himself. He hired a man to call him at 5:30 each morning,\nand his literary work was done between that hour and 8:30, before he\ndressed for breakfast. He did not, however, spend the whole of the three\nhours in writing. During the first half hour he read aloud what he had\nwritten the day before, so that his ear could detect any lack of harmony\nin expression, and that he might catch the spirit of his last day\u2019s work.\nCan anything be more systematic than his method of writing a book, as\ntold in his own language:\n\n\u201cWhen I commenced a new book I always prepared a diary, divided into\nweeks, and carried it on for the period which I allowed myself for the\ncompletion of the work. In this I have entered, day by day, the number\nof pages I have written, so that if at any time I have slipped into\nidleness for a day or two, the record of that idleness has been there\nstaring me in the face and demanding of me increased labor, so that the\ndeficiency might be supplied.\u2026 I have allotted myself so many pages a\nweek. The average number has been about forty. It has been placed as low\nas twenty, and has risen to one hundred and twelve. And as a page is an\nambiguous term, my page has been made to contain two hundred and fifty\nwords; and as words, if not watched, will have a tendency to straggle, I\nhave had every word counted as I went. In the bargains I have made with\npublishers, I have\u2014not, of course, with their knowledge, but in my own\nmind\u2014undertaken always to supply them with so many words, and I have\nnever put a book out of hand short of the number by a single word. I may\nalso say that the excess has been very small. I have prided myself on\ncompleting my work exactly within the proposed dimensions. But I have\nprided myself especially in completing it within the proposed time\u2014and I\nhave always done so. There has ever been the record before me, and a week\npassed with an insufficient number of pages has been a blister to my eye,\nand a month so disgraced would have been a sorrow to my heart.\u201d\n\nHe was not satisfied to hold himself rigidly to specified hours. Much\nof the time he wrote with his watch open before him, and his task was\nto complete a page every fifteen minutes. \u201cI have found that the two\nhundred and fifty words have been forthcoming as regularly as my watch\nwent.\u201d He seems to feel that the one only who has acquired a facile\nstyle can expect to produce a given quantity in a given time. \u201cHis\nlanguage must come from him as music comes from the rapid touch of the\ngreat performer\u2019s fingers; as words come from the mouth of the indignant\norator; as letters fly from the fingers of the trained compositor; as the\nsyllables tinkled out by little bells form themselves to the ear of the\ntelegrapher.\u201d\n\nIn comparing himself with the authors who follow no systematic method of\nwork, he says: \u201cThey have failed to write their best because they have\nseldom written at ease. I have done double their work\u2014though burdened\nwith another profession\u2014and have done it almost without an effort. I have\nnot once, through all my literary career, felt myself even in danger of\nbeing late with my task. I have known no anxiety as to copy.\u201d\n\nIn another connection he speaks of having three unpublished novels in\nhis desk, and adds: \u201cOne of these has been six years finished, and has\nnever seen the light since it was first tied up in the wrapper which now\ncontains it. I look forward with some grim pleasantry to its publication\nafter another period of six years, and to the declaration of the critics\nthat it has been the work of a period of life at which the power of\nwriting novels had passed from me.\u201d\n\nHis method in writing enabled him to produce books quite rapidly, and\nthis accounts in part for the unpublished works on hand. Only once did he\npermit a story to appear as a serial. In all other cases the story was\ncompleted before the printer saw any part of it.\n\nHe defends his habit of work as follows: \u201cI have been told that such\nappliances are beneath the notice of a man of genius. I have never\nfancied myself to be a man of genius, but had I been so I think I might\nwell have subjected myself to these trammels. Nothing, surely, is so\npotent as a law that may not be disobeyed. It has the force of the\nwater-drop that hollows the stone. A small daily task, if it be really\ndaily, will beat the labors of a spasmodic Hercules.\u201d\n\nHis duties as a government officer required him to travel a great\ndeal, and he soon learned to do much of his literary work while on his\njourneys. He wrote on a tablet while riding in the cars; one story was\nwritten while traveling on three different continents; \u201cLady Anna\u201d was\nwritten while making a voyage from Liverpool to Australia.\n\nAnthony Trollope had very positive views on the subject of criticism.\nEarly in his literary career he reached this conclusion: \u201cI made up my\nmind then that, should I continue this trade of authorship, I would have\nno dealings with any critic on my own behalf. I would neither ask for nor\ndeplore criticism, nor would I ever thank a critic for praise, or quarrel\nwith him, even in my heart, for censure.\u201d A critic of the _Times_ once\ncommended his books very highly. The critic afterward ventured to inform\nMr. Trollope that he was the author of the criticism. The blunt reply\nwas to the effect that he was under no obligations for the complimentary\nnotice.\n\nHe once censured a professional critic for accepting a handsome present\nfrom an author whose works the critic had commended. His idea was that\nthe man who has received a present for praising a book will not feel free\nto criticise adversely the next book by the same author. He states his\nviews at length on this point: \u201cI think it may be laid down as a golden\nrule in literature that there should be no intercourse at all between an\nauthor and his critic. The critic, as critic, should not know his author,\nnor the author, as author, his critic.\u2026 Praise let the author try to\nobtain by wholesome effort; censure let him avoid, if possible, by care\nand industry. But when they come, let him take them as coming from some\nsource which he cannot influence, and with which he should not meddle.\u201d\n\nHe once made an earnest plea that the critic\u2019s name should be appended to\nhis article, believing that this would make the writer more careful both\nof his censure and praise, and that the reader could determine the value\nof the criticism. On the subject of critical dishonesty he says: \u201cIf the\nwriter will tell us what he thinks, though his thoughts be absolutely\nvague and useless, we can forgive him; but when he tells us what he does\nnot think, actuated either by friendship or animosity, then there should\nbe no pardon for him. This is the sin in modern English criticism of\nwhich there is most reason to complain.\u201d\n\nAnthony Trollope thinks that it is wrong that a literary name should\ncarry so much favor with it. He says: \u201cI, indeed, had never reached a\nheight to which praise was awarded as a matter of course; but there were\nothers who sat on higher seats, to whom the critics brought unmeasured\nincense and adulation, even when they wrote, as they sometimes did write,\ntrash which from a beginner would not have been thought worthy of the\nslightest notice. I hope no one will think that in saying this I am\nactuated by jealousy of others. Though I never reached that height, still\nI had so far progressed that that which I wrote was received with too\nmuch favor. The injustice which struck me did not consist in that which\nwas withheld from me, but in that which was given to me. I felt that\naspirants coming up below me might do work as good as mine, and probably\nmuch better work, and yet fail to have it appreciated.\u201d\n\nMr. Trollope is undoubtedly right in his general statement. While as a\nrule literary productions stand on their merits, the name of Tennyson\nor some other writer of equal fame will insure the sale of an article\nwhich, if written by an unknown writer, would be promptly rejected. Young\nwriters need not complain of this. Distinguished names render articles\nmarketable, and give them a commercial value that publishers can not\nignore. To test the correctness of his theory, Mr. Trollope wrote two\nnovels anonymously, which were not received with favor.\n\nMr. Trollope\u2019s success in a pecuniary point of view was very slow.\nDuring the first ten years of his literary career he did not receive\ncompensation enough to buy the pens, ink and paper he used. Twelve years\npassed before he received any appreciable increase of salary from his\nbooks. From that time his compensation was good. His books brought him in\nall something like $350,000.\n\nThe chapter that he devotes to the English novelists of his day is very\ninteresting. He places Thackeray first, George Eliot second, and Dickens\nthird. Most readers would perhaps reverse this order. Of Thackeray\u2019s\ngreat work he says: \u201cI myself regard \u2018Esmond\u2019 as the greatest novel in\nthe English language, basing that judgment upon the excellence of its\nlanguage, on the clear individuality of the characters, on the truth\nof its delineations in regard to the time selected, and on its great\npathos.\u201d He pays a high tribute to Charlotte Bronte, and then adds:\n\u201c\u2018Jane Eyre\u2019 and \u2018Esmond,\u2019 and \u2018Adam Bede,\u2019 will be in the hands of\nour grandchildren, when \u2018Pickwick\u2019 and \u2018Pelham\u2019 and \u2018Harry Lorrequer\u2019\nare forgotten; because the men and women depicted are human in their\naspirations, human in their sympathies, and human in their actions.\u201d He\ncommends Wilkie Collins and Charles Reade quite highly, but thinks the\nlatter has no clear conception of literary honesty.\n\nMr. Trollope relates an amusing incident concerning one of his favorite\ncharacters. He was seated in a club room, when two clergymen entered\nand commenced to criticise his works. \u201cThe gravamen of their complaint\nlay in the fact that I introduced the same characters so often. \u2018Here,\u2019\nsaid one, \u2018is the archdeacon whom we have had in every novel he has\never written.\u2019 \u2018And here,\u2019 said the other, \u2018is the old duke whom he\nhas talked about till everybody is tired of him. If I could not invent\nnew characters, I would not write novels at all.\u2019 Then one of them\nfell foul of Mrs. Proudie. It was impossible for me not to hear their\nwords, and almost impossible to hear them and be quiet. I got up, and\nstanding between them, I acknowledged myself to be the culprit. \u2018As to\nMrs. Proudie,\u2019 I said, \u2018I will go home and kill her before the week is\nover.\u2019 And so I did. The two gentlemen were utterly confounded, and one\nof them begged me to forget his frivolous observations. I have sometimes\nregretted the deed, so great was my delight in writing about Mrs.\nProudie, \u2026 and I still live much in company with her ghost.\u201d\n\nMr. Trollope made a number of visits to the United States, and was in\nWashington at the time of the Mason and Slidell controversy. Mr. Sumner\nwas opposed to giving up the men. Mr. Seward\u2019s counsel prevailed with\nPresident Lincoln, and the men were released. He says that this \u201cwas the\nseverest danger that the Northern cause encountered during the war.\u201d He\ndescribes a visit to Brigham Young as follows:\n\n\u201cI called upon him, sending to him my card, apologizing for doing so\nwithout an introduction, and excusing myself by saying that I did not\nlike to pass through the territory without seeing a man of whom I had\nheard so much. He received me in his doorway, not asking me to enter, and\ninquired whether I were not a miner. When I told him that I was not a\nminer, he asked me whether I earned my bread. I told him I did. \u2018I guess\nyou\u2019re a miner,\u2019 said he. I again assured him that I was not. \u2018Then how\ndo you earn your bread?\u2019 I told him that I did so by writing books. \u2018I\u2019m\nsure you\u2019re a miner,\u2019 said he. Then he turned upon his heel, went back\ninto the house, and closed the door. I was properly punished, as I was\nvain enough to conceive that he would have heard my name.\u201d\n\nThis autobiography is a delightful book. The candor with which the writer\nspeaks of his own books, pointing out their defects and calling attention\nto their merits, the freedom with which he speaks of his early struggles,\nhis method of work, and his success, the spirit of fairness with which he\ncriticises his contemporaries\u2014all these reveal a mind healthy in tone,\nand call forth our hearty admiration.\n\n\n\n\nSABBATH CHIMES.\n\nBy PHEBE A. HOLDER.\n\n\n    O\u2019er the city\u2019s restless surges,\n      Heaving like the ocean tide,\n    Steals the night with hush of silence,\n      And the waves of toil subside.\n    Noiseless drops the soft, dark curtain,\n      While the mighty throbbings cease,\n    Starry eyes watch o\u2019er the city\n      Sleeping in the depths of peace.\n\n    Comes the morning fair and radiant,\n      Bathed in sunshine\u2014breathing balm,\n    Heaven\u2019s blue dome a benediction,\n      With its pure, unspotted calm,\n    Like Jerusalem, the golden,\n      Coming down to earth from heaven,\n    Clad in robes of bridal beauty\n      Seems this morn the Lord has given.\n\n    As I tread the streets, still peaceful,\n      Turning to the house of God,\n    Drinking in this wondrous beauty,\n      And this glory of the Lord,\n    Through the crystal air of morning\n      Ring the bells with mellow chime,\n    In a strain of sweetest music,\n      Hallowed as the Sabbath time.\n\n    Like the songs I heard in childhood,\n      Or a sainted mother\u2019s psalm,\n    Fell those chimes upon my spirit\n      With a holy, restful calm.\n    Like the tones of angel voices,\n      Sounding from seraphic choir,\n    Seemed this call our God to worship\n      In this holy house of prayer.\n\n    Still entranced I paused to listen\n      To the chiming, silvery, clear\u2014\n    When the thrilling strain had ended\n      Yet I waited\u2014fixed to hear;\n    While upon my listening spirit\n      Came a sense unfelt before,\n    Of our Lord\u2019s most precious blessing\n      In the Sabbath\u2019s holy power.\n\n    Coming like a guest from heaven\n      To our earthly, toil-worn lives,\n    A sweet influence, pure, uplifting,\n      To our struggling souls it gives.\n    Pointing with prophetic finger\n      To the perfect Sabbath rest\n    In the fair, Celestial City\n      Of the sainted and the blest,\u2014\n\n    As with angel voice it calls us,\n      Now to seek that home of light\n    Where the gates of pearl shall open\n      To the pure with garments white.\n    Day beloved! thy blessed service\n      In the temple of our God,\n    Draws us nearer\u2014ever nearer,\n      To our glorious, risen Lord.\n\n    Still that soft and mellow cadence\n      Lingers like a sacred charm,\n    Resting on my waiting spirit\n      With a touch of heavenly calm.\n    Like a sweet-toned voice still calling\n      From our home that is to be,\n    While from out its unseen glory\n      Floats celestial harmony.\n\n\n\n\nEIGHT CENTURIES WITH WALTER SCOTT.\n\nBy WALLACE BRUCE.\n\n\nQueen Elizabeth died March 24, 1602. James the Sixth, of Scotland, became\nJames the First of the United Kingdoms. According to ancient prophecy\nthe Scottish kings were to follow the Stone of Scone, which, it will be\nremembered, was removed to London by Edward the First. The prophecy was\nthree hundred years in being fulfilled. The same strange Nemesis of fate,\nwhich, in the last generation, placed the grandson of Josephine upon the\nthrone of France, handed the scepter of the haughty Elizabeth to the son\nof her unfortunate rival, Mary, Queen of Scots. But the good fortune\nof James only emphasizes the general misfortune of the Stuart family.\nHis ancestral record was not a cheerful retrospect. James the First of\nScotland was murdered. James the Second was killed by the bursting of a\ncannon. James the Third was privately slain. James the Fourth fell on the\ndisastrous field of Flodden. James the Fifth died of a broken heart. Mary\nwas beheaded. His father Darnley was murdered.\n\nCould he have foreseen the history of the next three generations\u2014the\nexecution of his son, Charles the First; the debauched reign of his\ngrandson, Charles the Third, after his return from exile; and the\nbanishment of James the Second, he would have found the outlook even more\nsad than the retrospect. The lines of the Stuart family did not fall in\npleasant places. Some writer has observed that they suffered for the\ncrimes of the Tudors. It may be that England had piled up a century of\nwrong which demanded atonement, but, without prejudice, the proverb was\nemphatically true, \u201cSufficient unto each reign was the evil thereof.\u201d\nIt must also be remembered that all Europe was in a ferment. The\ncelebrated Thirty Years\u2019 War was raging in Germany. Religious enthusiasm\nwas asserting its power in Britain. The English and Scotch people were\njealous of their political rights. The reign of a Scottish-born king,\nafter so many centuries of bitter hate, could not be entirely acceptable\nto the English race. Both sides accused the king of partiality. Needy\nlords and nobles poured down from the north, and London resembled our own\nNational Capital at the inauguration of a new president. The king was\nsupplicated in Court, in the street, on horseback, at every doorway; ay,\nthe very plate that contained his food was adorned with urgent request\nfrom some impatient relative of fifteenth or twentieth cousinship. As the\nCourt had removed from Edinburgh and Scotland it seemed that Edinburgh\nand Scotland had removed to the Court. The ancient prejudice between Scot\nand English broke out in street, palace and inn. These are the historic\nevents which preface the \u201cFortunes of Nigel,\u201d and the fray between the\nScottish servant and the \u2019prentice boys of London, at the opening of the\nvolume, strikes the keynote of universal discord.\n\nIt was a constitutional defect of James the First to be without money.\nAs Nigel, the Scottish lord, happened to need the loan which his father\nhad made to the king, he presented himself with the old fashioned\nassurance of a man justly demanding his rights, although at the hands of\na monarch. The king was incensed, but the young lord fortunately falls in\nwith George Heriot, the wealthy Scotch jeweler \u201cto His Majesty,\u201d whose\nprincely bequests still adorn the city of Edinburgh; but, unmindful of\ngood counsel, he gradually lapses from duty, becomes a murderer in what\nhe considers a matter of honor, is compelled to find refuge in Alsatia or\nWhitefriars, a sort of privileged den of iniquity. The portrayal of his\nexperience in this nest of outlaws is true to the London of 1620.\n\nIt is this blending of Scott\u2019s dramatic and descriptive power which\ngives even to his minor works an enduring value. We have, as it were, a\nphotograph of the great city as it appeared two hundred and sixty years\nago. We see the Strand, a quiet street, unlike the noisy thoroughfare\nof to-day, lined on the river-side with palaces and pleasure grounds\nreaching to the Thames. We see Whitehall, with its rich gates designed\nby Holbein, and stately court planned by Inigo Jones. We walk in the\npark with the courtly Duke of Buckingham, talk face to face with the\nking in the palace, on the chase, in the parlor of the wealthy Londoner;\nand at the close of the volume we feel that Scott has justly summed\nup his character in this striking paragraph of the fifth chapter: \u201cHe\nwas deeply learned, without possessing useful knowledge; sagacious in\nmany individual cases, without having real wisdom; fond of his power,\nyet willing to resign the direction of that, and himself, to the most\nunworthy favorites; a big and bold asserter of his rights and words, yet\none who tamely saw them trampled on in deeds; a lover of negotiations,\nin which he was always outwitted; and one who feared war, where\nconquest might have been easy. He was fond of his dignity, while he was\nperpetually degrading it by undue familiarity; capable of much public\nlabor, yet often neglecting it for the meanest amusement; a wit, though\na pedant; and a scholar, though fond of the conversation of the ignorant\nand uneducated. Even his timidity of temper was not uniform; and there\nwere moments of his life, and those critical, in which he showed the\nspirit of his ancestors. He was laborious in trifles, and a trifler where\nserious labor was required; devout in his sentiments, and yet too often\nprofane in his language; just and beneficent by nature, he yet gave way\nto the iniquities and oppressions of others.\u201d\n\n\u201cRokeby,\u201d a poem, comes next in historic order. The scene is laid at\nRokeby, near Greta Bridge in Yorkshire, and the date is immediately\nsubsequent to the great battle of Marston Moor, July 3, 1644. It was here\nthat the bold cavaliers learned a lesson never to be forgotten, at the\nhand of Puritan and Roundhead. The poem abounds with notable and vigorous\npassages. It throws light on the stormy years of the great Civil War; but\nso many of Scott\u2019s novels are related to this period that we must dismiss\nthe poem with a single quotation\u2014a tribute to the genius of Chaucer:\n\n    \u201cO for that pencil, erst profuse\n     Of Chivalry\u2019s emblazoned hues,\n     That traced of old in Woodstock bower\n     The pageant of the Leaf and Flower,\n     And bodied forth the tourney high,\n     Held for the hand of Emily!\n     Then might I paint the tumult broad,\n     That to the crowned abbey flowed;\n     Paint the dejected cavalier,\n     Doubtful, disarmed and sad of cheer;\n     And his proud foe, whose formal eye\n     Claimed conquest now and mastery;\n     And the brute crowd, whose envious zeal\n     Huzzas each turn of Fortune\u2019s wheel.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe Legend of Montrose\u201d takes us once more into the Highlands of\nScotland, where the same deadly feuds divide the clans which we witnessed\nin reading the \u201cFair Maid of Perth.\u201d The Northern Highlanders, under the\nleadership of Montrose, espouse the side of King Charles. The Western\nHighlanders, under Argyle, rally on the side of Parliament. The picture\nof these two leaders is admirably drawn, as well as the character of\ntheir bold followers, who seemed unconscious of hardship; who were\nnot only willing \u201cto make their couch in the snow, but considered it\neffeminate luxury to use a snow-ball for a pillow.\u201d\n\nThe principal character of the book is Captain Dalgetty. A critic in\nthe Edinburgh _Review_ complained that there was perhaps too much of\nDalgetty; that he engrossed too great a proportion of the work. But\nin the very next line he says that \u201cthe author has nowhere shown more\naffinity to that matchless spirit, who could bring out his Falstaffs and\nhis Pistols, in act after act, and play after play, and exercise them\nevery time with scenes of unbounded loquacity, without exhausting their\nhumor, or varying a note from its characteristic tone, than in his large\nand reiterated specimens of the eloquence of the redoubted Dalgetty.\u201d\nLike many of the Scottish soldiers the captain had served under Gustavus\nAdolphus, king of Sweden, and never lost his enthusiasm for the Lion\nof the North, the bulwark of the Protestant faith. Dalgetty is a rare\nspecimen of Scotch \u201ccanniness,\u201d willing to hire out to the side that\npaid the most, but true to his contract when made. To him war was a sort\nof drama, and he merely engaged himself as one of the \u201cstar actors.\u201d\nWe dismiss the captain with reluctance, and we imagine the reader will\nlikewise when he closes the volume.\n\nIn one of the last chapters Scott treats us to a specimen of the lofty\neloquence and undying hate of an old highland chief in his last words\nto his grandson: \u201cIn the thicket of the wilderness, and in the mist of\nthe mountain, keep thou unsoiled the freedom which I leave thee as a\nbirthright. Barter it neither for the rich garment, nor for the stone\nroof, nor for the covered board, nor for the couch of down\u2014on the rock or\nin the valley, in abundance or in famine\u2014in the leafy summer, and in the\ndays of the iron winter\u2014son of the mist! be free as thy forefathers. Own\nno lord\u2014receive no law\u2014take no hire\u2014give no stipend\u2014build no hut\u2014enclose\nno pasture\u2014sow no grain; let the deer of the mountains be thy flocks and\nherds\u2014if these fail thee, prey upon the goods of our oppressors\u2014of the\nSaxon and of such Gael as are Saxon in their souls. Remember those who\nhave done kindness to our race, and pay their services with thy blood,\nshould the hour require it. Farewell, beloved! and mayst thou die like\nthy forefathers, ere infirmity, disease, or age shall break thy spirit.\u201d\n\nRobert Aytoun in his poem on the \u201cExecution of Montrose,\u201d which occurred\na few years subsequent to our story, caught the true spirit of the Gael,\nin the Highlander\u2019s address to Evan Cameron:\n\n    \u201c\u2019Twas I that led the Highland host\n       Through wild Lochaber\u2019s snows,\n     What time the plaided clans came down\n       To battle with Montrose.\n     I\u2019ve told thee how the Southrons fell\n       Beneath the broad claymore,\n     And how we smote the Campbell clan\n       By Inverlochy\u2019s shore.\n     I\u2019ve told thee how we swept Dundee,\n       And tamed the Lindsey\u2019s pride;\n     But never have I told thee yet\n       How the great Marquis died.\n\n     A traitor sold him to his foes;\u2014\n       O deed of deathless shame!\n     I charge thee, boy, if e\u2019er thou meet\n       With one of Assynt\u2019s name\u2014\n     Be it upon the mountain side,\n       Or yet within the glen:\n     Stand he in martial gear alone,\n       Or backed by armed men\u2014\n     Face him, as thou wouldst face the man\n       Who wronged thy sire\u2019s renown;\n     Remember of what blood thou art,\n       And strike the caitiff down!\u201d\n\nBetween the \u201cLegend of Montrose\u201d and \u201cWoodstock\u201d stands a scaffold: a\nwindow is opened in the Palace of Whitehall; a brave but fickle king, who\nnever lost his dignity, and rarely kept a promise, walks forth attended\nby two executioners: he speaks but one word to his attendant, places his\nhead upon the block, and by the bravery of his death half atones for the\ncrimes and mistakes of his life. As to his private character historians,\nfor the most part, regard Charles the First as a brave, virtuous and\nreligious man; but he entertained \u201cextravagant ideas of the royal power,\nunsuitable to the time in which he lived.\u201d His attempt to establish a\nNational Church, to force upon the Presbyterians of Scotland the Common\nPrayer, and introduce a Liturgy similar to that used in England produced\nits logical result. The Star Chamber with its arbitrary arrests and\npunishments, and his idea of kingly prerogative, were not suited to\nthe temper of his people; and finally he alienated his best friends by\ndisregarding his word and most solemn contracts. The House of Commons,\nled by bold and determined men, asserted the supreme doctrine of liberty,\nso grandly emphasized one hundred years later in our Declaration of\nIndependence, that \u201cThe power of the king, like any other power in the\nConstitution, was limited by the laws; and was liable to be legally\nresisted when it trespassed beyond them.\u201d\n\nIt must also be remembered, before we read the story of \u201cWoodstock,\u201d that\nthe party which controlled the Parliament of England and finally brought\nthe king to the scaffold, was divided into two factions: Presbyterians\nand Independents. Among the Independents were Sir Harry Vane, John Milton\nand Oliver Cromwell. So much for the introduction to \u201cWoodstock,\u201d which\nopens with a picture showing the cavaliers crushed under the iron heel\nof Cromwell. The time of the tale is 1652; and the story begins with\na rather discordant service in the church or chapel of St. John. The\ndefaced walls and broken windows reveal the fanaticism or spite which too\noften attends the spirit of liberty. We are presented with a rude scuffle\nbetween a Presbyterian and Independent preacher in a pulpit formerly\nbelonging to the Established Church, in which the Independent preacher\nwins the victory; and the chapter is symbolic of the great struggle, not\nonly in the religious, but also in the political condition of Britain.\nThe incident is a fitting preface to the book, in which Independent,\nPresbyterian and Royalist are shaken together as in a kaleidoscope.\n\nThe story humorously gives us the old-time belief that Woodstock was\na haunted spot; and Scott refers in his preface to a book, printed in\nLondon in the year 1660, bearing the sombre title of \u201cThe Just Devil of\nWoodstock; or a true narrative of the several apparitions, the fights\nand punishments inflicted upon the rumpish commissioners sent thither to\nsurvey the manors and houses belonging to his Magestie.\u201d The sad story of\nthe fair Rosamond, murdered here by Queen Eleanor, was well calculated to\nmake the ghostly apparitions more real; at least, the place was tragic\nenough to impress the superstitious of that generation. But the great\nvalue of this novel, apart from the picture of the times, consists in\nthe portrayal of a living, breathing Cromwell; such a Cromwell as no\nhistory gives, but _the_ Cromwell who appears as the resultant of them\nall; a man of deep emotion, wary in council and unwavering in execution,\na man without a single grace of oratory, who, by the force of character,\nassumed and kept the leadership of the House of Commons; in whose\npresence the bravest men stood lost in fear and wonder. Or, as Scott\nbeautifully puts it: \u201cSo true it is, that as greater lights swallow up\nand extinguish the display of those which are less, so men of great,\ncapacious, and overruling minds, bear aside and subdue, in their climax\nof passion, the more feeble wills and passions of others; as, when a\nriver joins a brook, the fiercer torrent shoulders aside the smaller\nstream.\u201d\n\nThere is one other sketch which claims our attention\u2014that of the\ndisguised wanderer, Charles the Second, revered by Royalist, and pursued\nby the ruling party as an outcast. \u201cNo person on earth,\u201d Scott says,\n\u201ccould better understand the society in which he moved; exile had made\nhim acquainted with life in all its shades and varieties\u2014his spirits, if\nnot uniform, were elastic\u2014he had that species of Epicurean philosophy\nwhich, even in the most extreme difficulties and dangers, can in an\ninterval of ease, however brief, avail itself of the enjoyments of the\nmoment\u2014he was, in short, in youth and misfortune, as afterward in his\nregal condition, a good-humored but hard-hearted voluptuary, wise, save\nwhere his passions intervened, beneficent, save where prodigality\nhad deprived him of the means, or prejudice of the wish to confer\nbenefits\u2014his faults such as might have often drawn down hatred, but that\nthey were mingled with so much urbanity, that the injured person felt it\nimpossible to retain the full sense of his wrongs.\u201d\n\nDuring his wandering he was entertained for a time at the home of the old\nknight, Sir Henry Lee, proprietor of Woodstock. The attachment formed for\nthe old knight and his family affords Scott material for one of those\ndramatic descriptions in which he always so much delighted.\n\nIt was the 29th of May. All England sang. \u201cThe king enjoys his own\nagain.\u201d \u201cHe made his progress from Rochester to London, with a reception\non the part of his subjects so unanimously cordial, as made him say\ngaily, it must have been his own fault to stay so long away from a\ncountry where his arrival gave so much joy. On horseback, betwixt his two\nbrothers, the dukes of York and Gloucester, the restored monarch trode\nslowly over roads strewn with flowers\u2014by conduits running wine, under\ntriumphal arches, and through streets hung with tapestry. There were\ncitizens in various bands, some arrayed in coats of black velvet, with\ngold chains, some in military suits of cloth of gold, or cloth of silver,\nfollowed by all those craftsmen, who, having hooted the father from\nWhitehall, had now come to shout the son into possession of his ancestral\npalace. On his passage through Blackheath he passed that army, which, so\nlong formidable to England herself, as well as to Europe, had been the\nmeans of restoring the monarchy which their own hands had destroyed. As\nthe king passed the last files of this formidable host he came to an open\npart of the heath, where many persons of quality, with others of inferior\nrank, had stationed themselves to gratulate him as he passed toward the\ncapital.\n\n\u201cThere was one group, however, which attracted particular attention\nfrom those around, on account of the respect shown to the party by the\nsoldiers who kept the ground, and who, whether Cavaliers or Roundheads,\nseemed to contest emulously which should contribute most to their\naccommodation; for both the elder and younger of the party had been\ndistinguished in the Civil War.\n\n\u201cIt was a family group, of which the principal figure was an old man\nseated in a chair, having a complacent smile on his face, and a tear\nswelling to his eye, as he saw the banners wave on in interminable\nsuccession, and heard the multitude shouting the long-silenced\nacclamation, \u2018God save King Charles!\u2019 His cheek was ashy pale, and his\nlong beard bleached like the thistle down; his blue eye was cloudless,\nyet it was obvious that his vision was failing. His motions were\nfeeble, and he spoke little, except when he answered the prattle of his\ngrandchildren or asked a question of his daughter, who sat beside him,\nmatured in matronly beauty. A gigantic dog, which bore the signs of being\nat the extremity of canine life, with eyes dim, and head slouched down,\nexhibiting only the ruin of his former appearance, formed a remarkable\nfigure in the group.\n\n\u201cAnd now the distant clarions announced the royal presence. Onward came\npursuivant and trumpet\u2014onward came plumes and cloth of gold, and waving\nstandards displayed, and swords gleaming to the sun; and, at length,\nheading a group of the noblest in England, supported by his royal\nbrothers on either side, onward came King Charles. The monarch gazed an\ninstant on the party, sprung from his horse, and walked instantly up to\nthe old knight, amid thundering acclamations of the people, when they saw\nCharles with his own hand oppose the feeble attempts of the old man to\nrise to do him homage. Gently placing him on his seat\u2014\u2018Bless,\u2019 he said,\n\u2018father\u2014bless your son, who has returned in safety, as you blessed him\nwhen he departed in danger.\u2019\n\n\u201c\u2018Excuse me for having made you wait, my lords,\u2019 said the king as he\nmounted his horse. \u2018Indeed, had it not been for these good folks, you\nmight have waited for me long enough to little purpose. Move on, sirs.\u2019\nThe array moved on accordingly; the sound of trumpet and drum again rose\namid the acclamations; but the knight had relapsed into earthly paleness;\nhis eyes were closed and opened not again. They ran to his assistance,\nbut it was too late. The light that burned so low in the socket had\nleaped up and expired, in one exhilarating flash.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nGEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR APRIL.\n\nBy PROF. M. B. GOFF.\n\n\nTHE SUN.\n\nThe sun\u2019s light \u201cexceeds in intensity any that can be produced by\nartificial means, the electric light between charcoal points being the\nonly one that does not look absolutely black against the unclouded sun.\u201d\n\u201cThe heat thrown out from every square yard of the sun\u2019s surface is\ngreater than that which would be produced by burning six tons of coal\non it each hour. Now, we may take the surface of the sun roughly at\n2,284,000,000,000 square miles, and there are 3,097,600 square yards in\neach square mile.\u201d A little calculation will show how many tons of coal\nmust be burnt in an hour to represent the sun\u2019s heat.\n\nThere comes also from the sun chemical force, which separates carbon\nfrom oxygen, and turns the gas, which, were it to accumulate, would kill\nall men and animals, into the life of plants, thus preserving the animal\nand building up the vegetable world. Whether it can keep up this amount\nof light and heat throughout the \u201cendless ages,\u201d we have no means of\nknowing. We have, however, no evidence even during centuries of any loss\nof either, so that we may safely say that there will be an abundance of\nboth for all the time in which we are interested.\n\nOn the 25th of this month there will be a partial eclipse, beginning at\n1:00 p. m., Washington mean time, in longitude 82\u00b0 3.5\u2032 west, latitude\n59\u00b0 12.3\u2032 south. The greatest obscuration (about .75) will occur at\n2:46.4 p. m. in longitude 4\u00b0 26.7\u2032 east, latitude 70\u00b0 48.2\u2032 south; will\nend at 4:32.4 p. m. in longitude 12\u00b0 20.6\u2032 east, latitude 33\u00b0 6.7\u2032 south.\nAs it will be visible only in the extreme southern part of the western\ncontinent and in the south Atlantic Ocean, no importance is attached to\nits occurrence.\n\nThe most careless must have observed the increase in the amount of\ndaylight in the northern hemisphere since the 21st of last December. On\nthe first of the present month the sun rises at 5:43 a. m. and sets at\n6:25 p. m.; on the 30th it rises at 4:59 a. m. and sets at 6:55 p. m.,\nso that the increase in \u201cday\u2019s length,\u201d as we are accustomed to call it,\nwill be one hour and seven minutes. To set our time pieces, we must,\nwhen the sun is on the meridian, on the 1st, make them indicate 12:37 p.\nm.; on the 15th, 11:59.8 a. m.; on the 30th, 11:57 a. m. On the 1st day\nbreaks at 4:04; on the 30th at 3:09. In latitude 41\u00b0 30\u2032 north the sun\nwill, on the 30th, reach an altitude of 63\u00b0 33\u2032 above the horizon, the\nhighest for the month.\n\n\nTHE MOON\u2019S\n\nPhases for the month occur in the following order and time (Washington\nmean time): First quarter on the 2d at 4:09 p. m.; full moon on the 10th\nat 6:36 a. m.; last quarter on the 18th at 10:46 a. m.; new moon on the\n25th at 9:49 a. m. It is also on the meridian on the 1st, 15th and 30th,\nat 5:18 p. m., 3:38 a. m., 5:03 p. m. respectively. On the 2d it sets at\n12:41 a. m.; on the 15th rises at 11:23 p. m.; and on the 29th sets at\n11:28 p. m. It is farthest from the earth on the 13th at 1:30 p. m.; and\nnearest to the earth on the 26th at 3:42 a. m. In latitude 41\u00b0 30\u2032 north,\nits least elevation above the horizon is on the 15th, and its greatest\non the 28th; on the former date being 29\u00b0 48\u00bd\u2032, and on the latter 67\u00b0\n12\u00bd\u2032. There will also be a total eclipse, beginning on the 10th at 4:44\na. m., and ending at 8:33 a. m. The beginning of the part called \u201ctotal\u201d\ncontinues from 5:52 to 7:25 a. m., or one hour and thirty-three minutes.\nMagnitude nearly 1.5. As the moon sets in the neighborhood of Washington\nat about 5:30 a. m., only the first part and none of the \u201ctotality\u201d will\nbe there visible. Our neighbor, the moon, has one peculiar trait, which\nwe could wish belonged to all our friends. It never \u201cturns its back on\nyou.\u201d Cold it may be, and is often so called, but in darkest hours, and\nunder all circumstances, it presents its face to the earth. It may be\nonly politeness or etiquette, that causes it thus to act; but the fact\nremains. It may move a trifle, so that we can sometimes see more of it\nthan at others, but four-sevenths is the limit of its surface as seen by\nman. What may be on the other side has never been revealed. For aught we\nknow, there may be\n\n    \u201cSweet fields arrayed in living green,\n     And rivers of delight.\u201d\n\nBut the probabilities are strongly on the other side. So far as we can\ndiscover, no atmosphere is there to catch and hold the rays from the\nburning sun, and hence it seems that all must be cold and bleak and\nbarren. \u201cDistance lends enchantment to the view,\u201d and it were perhaps\nbetter that we should thus enjoy its mild light and gentle influence,\nthan cultivate a closer acquaintance.\n\n\nMERCURY.\n\nThe planet enjoying the distinction of being the nearest to the center of\nour system is too near the \u201cdazzling brightness\u201d to permit our finding\nout much about its physical constitution. We suppose, but do not know,\nthat it revolves on its axis. We guess that it has satellites, but no\none is certain that he ever saw one of them. We used to think it must be\na very warm planet; but now we think it might perhaps be a moderately\ncomfortable place for a mortal to reside. The fact is, what we do not\nknow about it is much more than what we do know; and what we know about\nit for this month is nearly as follows: On the 1st, 15th, 25th and 30th\nit will rise after the sun, and will not be visible to the unaided eye;\nbut on the same dates it will set at 6:32, 7:03, 8:37 and 8:35 p. m.,\nrespectively, and can therefore be easily seen after sunset from the 20th\nto the end of the month by anybody who will take the pains to look for\nit\u2014that is, within the latitude in which most of our readers live. It\nreaches its most easterly limit (20\u00b0 32\u2032) at 9:00 p. m. on the evening\nof the 25th, and approaches so much nearer to us during the month as to\ncause its diameter to appear nearly twice as large\u2014that is, to increase\nfrom 5\u2033 to 9\u2033. On the 21st at 2:00 a. m. it will be 4\u00b0 20\u2032 north of\nNeptune, and on the 26th at 5:55 p. m., 5\u00b0 47\u2032 north of the moon.\n\n\nVENUS,\n\nThe most friendly of our planets, who comes so close at times as to seem\nto be within \u201chailing distance\u201d (only twenty-five millions of miles), is\nstill our delight. She grows brighter and more beautiful as time moves\non. Her motion for the month is direct and amounts to 34\u00b0 16\u2032 3\u2033. Her\ndiameter shows an increase of 5.4\u2033. From our present acquaintance we\nlearn that she sometimes shines so brightly as to be visible in daylight\nto the naked eye, and at night, in the absence of the moon, to cast a\nshadow. When viewed through a telescope, she presents phases like the\nmoon; and in some respects she is very much like our earth. For example,\nher size is not more than 4 per cent. less, and her density and force of\ngravity must be nearly the same. Her days are supposed to be a little\nshorter than ours, and her years are known to be equal to 224\u2154 of our\ndays. On the 1st, 15th and 30th she will rise at 7:32, 7:25 and 7:26 a.\nm., and set at 10:04, 10:31 and 10:48 p. m., respectively. On the 2d, at\n11:00 p. m., she will be nearest the sun; on the 25th, at 11:00 p. m.,\n4\u00b0 13\u2032 north of Saturn; on the 28th, at 2:41 p. m., 7\u00b0 53\u2032 north of the\nmoon.\n\n\nMARS.\n\nOf this planet we have little to report. He continues his direct motion,\nwhich amounts to 9\u00b0 30\u2032 34\u2033. As he and the earth are getting farther\napart, his diameter (apparently) diminishes from 10\u2033 to 8\u2033. He rises on\nthe 1st, 15th and 30th at 12:27 p. m., 11:54 a. m., and 11:24 a. m.,\nand sets on the 2d, 16th, and May 1st at 3:09, 2:22, and 1:38 a. m.,\nrespectively. On the 4th, at 10:26 a. m., his position is 8\u00b0 10\u2032 north of\nthe moon, and on the 1st a little northeast of the nebula _Pr\u00e6sepe_ in\n_Cancer_.\n\n\nJUPITER\n\nContinues to be evening star, coming to the meridian on the 1st, 15th and\n30th, at 7:04, 6:13 and 5:20 p. m., and setting on the 2d, 16th, and May\n1st at 2:24, 1:32 and 12:38 a. m. His motion, which is direct, amounts\nduring the month to 4\u00b0 27\u2032 33\u2033. His diameter diminishes from 37.8\u2033 to\n34.6\u2033, an indication that our distance from him is increasing. On the 3d,\nat 1:52 p. m., he is 6\u00b0 north of the moon; and on the 14th, at 7:00 p.\nm., 90\u00b0 west of the sun.\n\n\nSATURN\n\nContinues his position not far from the bright star _Aldebaran_, in the\nconstellation Taurus, on the 1st being about 2\u00b0 53\u2032 west and 3\u00b0 32\u2032\nnorth, while on the 30th he will be about 30\u2032 east and 4\u00b0 7\u00bd\u2032 north\nof this star. His motion is direct and amounts to 3\u00b0 24\u2032. Diameter\ndiminishes from 16.2\u2033 on the 1st to 15.8\u2033 on the 30th. Setting at 10:47,\n9:59 and 9:09 p. m. on the 1st, 15th and 30th he will be evening star\nthroughout the month. On the 12th, at 11:00 p. m., is 4\u00b0 13\u2032 south of\nVenus, and on the 27th, at 1:56 p. m., 2\u00b0 19\u2032 north of the moon.\n\n\nURANUS,\n\nFormerly and still sometimes called Herschel, from the name of its\ndiscoverer, Dr. Herschel, has made but about one and one-fifth\nrevolutions about the sun, since its discovery in 1781, more than a\ncentury ago. It is now near the star _Beta Virginis_, and making a\nretrograde motion of about 56\u2032 30\u2033 in 30 days. Its diameter is 3.8\u2033. It\nrises at 4:53 p. m., 3:55 p. m. and 2:54 p. m. on the 1st, 15th and 30th,\nand sets at 5:09 a. m., 4:13 a. m. and 3:13 a. m. on the 2d, 16th, and\nMay 1st. On the 6th, at 6:27 a. m., it is 3\u00b0 27\u2032 north of the moon. Is\nevening star during the month.\n\n\nNEPTUNE\n\nIs evening star, setting at 9:24, 8:32 and 7:28 p. m. on the 1st, 15th\nand 30th, respectively. Its motion, 1\u00b0 2\u2032 37\u2033, is direct. Diameter, 2.6\u2033.\nOn the 21st, at 2:00 a. m., 4\u00b0 20\u2032 south of Mercury, and on the same day\nwill set about fifteen minutes later than said planet. On the 26th, at\n8:27 a. m., 44\u2032 north of moon.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nEARNESTNESS.\u2014Without earnestness there is nothing to be done in life; yet\neven among the people whom we call men of culture, but little earnestness\nis often to be found; in labors and employments, in arts, nay, even in\nrecreations, they plant themselves, if I may say so, in an attitude of\nself-defense; they live, as they read a heap of newspapers, only to be\ndone with them. They remind one of that young Englishman at Rome, who\ntold, with a contented air, one evening in some company, that \u201cto-day\nhe had despatched six churches and two galleries.\u201d They wish to know\nand learn a multitude of things, and not seldom exactly those things\nwith which they have the least concern; and they never see that hunger\nis not appeased by snapping at the air. When I become acquainted with a\nman my first inquiry is: With what does he occupy himself, and how, and\nwith what degree of perseverance? The answer regulates the interest I\ntake in that man for life.\u2026 I reverence the individual who understands\ndistinctly what he wishes; who unweariedly advances, who knows the means\nconducive to his object, and can seize and use them. How far his object\nmay be great or little, may merit praise or censure, is a secondary\nconsideration with me.\u2014_Goethe._\n\n\n\n\nEDGAR ALLAN POE.\n\nTHE LITERARY ISHMAEL.\n\nBy C. E. BISHOP.\n\n\nLess is known while more is written and disputed about Edgar Allan Poe,\nthan about any other character in American literature. In the narrative\nof his life there are gaps of months and years in which nothing can be\ntold of his whereabouts or acts; and as if to atone for this lack he is\nat other times credited with feats of ubiquity. There are also stories\nof a quixotic mission to fight for Greek independence, _a la_ Byron; of\nhis escapades in St. Petersburg; of enlistment in and desertion from\nthe United States army; of phenomenally protracted debauches, during\nwhich he threw off the most wonderful productions of his pen\u2014most of\nwhich stories, so far as can be shown now, were evolved from the inner\nconsciousness of those writers who, upon his death, \u201cwoke to ecstacy, the\nliving liars,\u201d to blacken his name.\n\nA general reason for this paucity of particulars may be found, perhaps,\nin Poe\u2019s enforced seclusion from the public by the exigencies of poverty\nduring much of his life, and the low rank of authors in the general\nestimation of the times; a special reason may be that Poe\u2019s literary\nexecutor and biographer, Dr. Griswold, to whom in his lifetime he had\nentrusted all the material he ever furnished any one, suppressed the\nfacts and substituted inventions, in order to assassinate the character\nof the dead poet. For twenty-six years Poe\u2019s body rested in an unmarked\ngrave, and his character was buried under a living heap of obloquy. When\nat last, in 1875, a few devoted women of Baltimore sought to redeem both\ntombs, nearly all the contemporary witnesses to his acts were dead. It\nwas not until twenty-six years after the event that Dr. Moran, who had\nattended Poe\u2019s last illness, broke silence and put to rest the story that\nhe died in the midst of a drunken debauch in the streets of Baltimore.\n\u201cThere was no smell of liquor upon his person or breath, and no delirium\nor tremor,\u201d says this tardy vindicator. It was 1878 (twenty-nine years\nlate) when Mrs. Weiss, of Richmond, told the story of his last visit to\nthat city, and contradicted Griswold\u2019s story of his engagement with Mrs.\nStalton, and his prolonged inebriety there. It was later still, when\nthe posthumous letter of Mrs. Whitman, of Providence, was published,\nsilencing the long-accepted tale of Poe\u2019s engagement to her, and his\ndisreputable conduct and intemperance the evening before they were to\nhave been married. Many chivalrous pens now\u2014alas! too late\u2014essayed his\ndefense; but his true history has not yet been written, and it probably\nnever will be. Dr. Johnson\u2019s summary of Butler\u2019s life almost literally\napplies to Poe\u2019s: \u201cThe date of his birth is doubtful, the mode and place\nof his education unknown, the events of his life are variously related,\nand all that can be told with certainty is that he was poor.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe persistent and palpably malignant efforts to damn him with some\ndrops of faint praise and some oceans of strong abuse,\u201d[A] have, indeed,\nproduced a reactionary tendency toward panegyric, since the angels rolled\nthe stone away from his tomb. The best any one can now do is to pity\nthe man and admire his works, and weigh probabilities. A careful view\nas well of his time as of his character and environment is necessary.\nPremising that I am not so presumptuous as to expect to add much to the\ngeneral fund of misinterpretation of his acts and misunderstanding of\nhis character, a brief summary of the less controverted features of this\nhistory is submitted.\n\nIn \u201cthat stray child of Poetry and Passion\u201d concentered hot Celtic\nand Southern blood, stimulated upon his father\u2019s side by drink, upon\nhis mother\u2019s by the artificial surroundings of an actress\u2019s life,\nand in both intensified by a runaway marriage, followed by a joint\n\u201cbarn-storming\u201d life. Himself an inter-act, his nursery was the green\nroom, his necessary nourishment narcotics. It is a sad thing to say, but\nprobably one of the few fortunate circumstances of his life was that\nhis parents died in his infancy\u2014one of his many misfortunes was to have\nbeen adopted and raised by a wealthy family (Mr. Allan\u2019s of Baltimore).\nHe was born in 1809, or 1811, in either Boston, Baltimore or Richmond,\nthrough all of which he, living, \u201cbegged his bread,\u201d _a la_ Homer. The\nAllans assiduously spoiled the child with unlimited money, indulgence\nand praise. It was easy, for he was rarely beautiful, affectionate,\nand precocious; he recited with marvelous childish effect, spun webs\nof imaginative stories, and composed rhymes. \u201cHe lisped in numbers,\nfor the numbers came,\u201d and when he was nine or ten years old his proud\nfoster-father seriously contemplated issuing a volume of his baby-verse,\nbut was dissuaded by the boy\u2019s tutor, who said he had conceit enough\nalready, and such additional celebrity would probably ruin his prospects.\n\nEdgar was schooled in England, at the University of Virginia, and\nat West Point, but he must have picked up independently of schools\nand school masters the varied culture which shows in his versatile\nwritings\u2014especially his acquaintance with science, psychology and\nliterature. At these schools he was distinguished alike for fast learning\nand fast living\u2014his easy absorption of the branches he liked, his utter\nrevulsion against those he did not like (mathematics, notably), for his\nliterary and critical tastes, athletic exercises, and the lavishness with\nwhich he scattered his guardian\u2019s money. These characteristics won him\nthe jealousy of his plodding classmates, distinction at the university,\nexpulsion from West Point, and quarrels with his foster-father.\nOver-indulgence by parents produced the usual result of disrespect and\ningratitude in the youth; and the marriage of Mr. Allan to a second wife,\nand the birth of heirs to his estates brought about a final separation\nand a disinheritance of the adopted son, and so Edgar, at about his\nmajority age, was thrown on his own resources. He chose literature as his\nprofession, and doomed himself to poverty, anguish, professional jealousy\n(especially strong among authors), triumphs, defeats, ruin and insanity.\n\nPoe\u2019s real d\u00e9but in letters was in 1833, when (\u00e6tat 24) he won a prize of\na hundred dollars offered by the proprietor of _The Saturday Visitor_,\nBaltimore, for the best story. Better than the money, the contest brought\nhim the friendship of the judges, and about a year later the editorship\nof _The Southern Literary Messenger_, Richmond, at ten dollars a week.\nThe intervening year is one of the blanks.\n\nThe Richmond editorship marks a turning point in Poe\u2019s career. He made\nthe fortune of the _Messenger_; married (\u201935) his cousin, Virginia\nClem; and first began that line of work which is, in my opinion, its\ndistinctive feature, as it certainly proved to be decisive of his\ndestiny\u2014to-wit: criticism. He published in some issues as much as thirty\nor forty pages of book reviews. They created a tempest; for, rare as is\nhis imagery and wonderful as is his imagination, Poe\u2019s distinguishing\nmental characteristic is analysis. He is more logician than poet, more\nmetaphysician than romancer.\n\nPoe subsequently (\u201937-\u201938) edited the _Gentlemen\u2019s Magazine_, and then\n_Graham\u2019s Magazine_, both in Philadelphia, and in \u201944 we find him in\nNew York, employed on the _Mirror_, the journal of the poets N. P.\nWillis and George P. Morris. In Philadelphia he did the best work of\nhis life in romance and criticism. Here, too, he made the acquaintance\nof his evil genius, Dr. Griswold. Poe believed that Griswold supplanted\nhim from the editorship of _Graham\u2019s_; G.\u2019s subsequent enmity, while\nprofessing friendship, was of the unforgiving nature that often comes of\nthe consciousness of having inflicted a secret wrong on another. The only\nother causes of disagreement between them alleged are that Poe criticised\nGriswold\u2019s book in a lecture, and that Griswold attempted to buy a\nfavorable criticism from Poe\u2019s pen. But they were outwardly friendly,\nafter a reconciliation, till Poe\u2019s voice and pen were beyond the power\nof response. The work of detraction had preceded Poe to New York, for Mr.\nWillis writes of this engagement:\n\n    \u201cWith the highest admiration for his genius, and a willingness\n    to let it alone for more than ordinary irregularity, we were led\n    by common report to expect a very capricious attention to his\n    duties, and occasionally a scene of violence and difficulty. Time\n    went on, however, and he was invariably punctual and industrious.\n    To our occasional request that he would not probe too deep in a\n    criticism, or that he would erase a passage colored too highly\n    with his resentments against society and mankind, he readily and\n    courteously assented\u2014far more yielding than most men, we thought,\n    on points so excusably sensitive. Through all this considerable\n    period we had seen but one presentment of the man\u2014a quiet,\n    patient, industrious, and most gentlemanly person, commanding the\n    utmost respect and good feeling by his unvarying deportment and\n    ability.\u201d\n\nIn 1845 appeared the work on which Poe\u2019s poetic fame most depends, that\npoem in which he wedded Despair to Harmony, \u201cThe Raven.\u201d It marks the\nacme of his life, also; his star declined rapidly thereafter. His wife,\nwho bore the hereditary taint of consumption, was in a decline; care and\nanxiety on that account, and his own ill health, took away his ability\nto write and he was without means of support. He was driven to ask loans\nfrom one or two friends, and by a fatality such as he sometimes made to\ndrive his fictitious characters upon their worst expedients, he chose Dr.\nGriswold as one of them. \u201cCan you not send me five dollars?\u201d he pleaded\nwith G.; \u201cI am ill and Virginia is almost gone.\u201d This and one or two\nother such letters Griswold published, in connection with his slanders\non Poe\u2019s character, to give his attack the cover of friendly sincerity.\nSomething was published in New York papers regarding the distress of the\nPoes, and a lady friend (Mrs. Shew) visited them at Fordham. The worst\nwas confirmed.\n\n    \u201cThere was no clothing on the bed\u2014which was only straw\u2014but a\n    snow-white spread and sheets. The weather was cold, and the sick\n    lady had the dreadful chills that accompany the hectic fever of\n    consumption. She lay on the straw bed, wrapped in her husband\u2019s\n    great coat, with a large tortoise-shell cat in her bosom. The\n    wonderful cat seemed conscious of her great usefulness. The coat\n    and the cat were the sufferer\u2019s only means of warmth, except as\n    her husband held her hands and her mother her feet.\u201d\n\nMrs. Poe died January 30, 1847. Captain Mayne Reid, the novelist, who\nvisited often at her house, thus describes her:\n\n\u201cNo one who remembers that dark-eyed, dark-haired daughter of the South;\nher face so exquisitely lovely; her gentle, graceful demeanor; no one who\nhas ever spent an hour in her society but will endorse what I have said\nof this lady, who was the most delicate realization of the poet\u2019s ideal.\u201d\n\nAnother said: \u201cShe had large, black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of\ncomplexion which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes,\nand her raven hair gave her an unearthly look. One felt that she was\nalmost a disrobed spirit.\u201d\n\nAfter this Poe\u2019s decline was rapid. He was ill for a long time, and\nnever quite recovered his mental balance. In the autumn of this year he\nvisited Mrs. Shew, his benefactress. She says that at this time, under\nthe combined influence of her gentle urgency, a cup of tea and the sound\nof neighboring church bells, he wrote the first draft of \u201cThe Bells.\u201d She\nadds:\n\n    \u201cMy brother took Poe to his own room, where he slept twelve\n    hours and could hardly recall the evening\u2019s work. This showed\n    his mind was injured\u2014nearly gone out for want of food and from\n    disappointment. He had not been drinking and had only been a\n    few hours from home. Evidently his vitality was low, and he was\n    nearly insane. I called in Dr. Francis (the old man was odd but\n    very skilful), who was one of our neighbors. His words were, \u2018He\n    has heart disease and will die early in life.\u2019 We did not waken\n    him, but let him sleep.\u201d\n\nSince I began writing this paper I have heard recited in a company of\nliterary people an account of Poe\u2019s staggering into a stranger\u2019s house at\nmidnight, calling for a pen and dashing off \u201cThe Bells;\u201d then falling\ninto a drunken stupor on the library table. It was evidently believed\nby the narrator, despite Mrs. Shew\u2019s circumstantial and more rational\naccount.\n\nDuring these dark days, as indeed during all Poe\u2019s adult life, Mrs. Clem\nwas his guardian angel. The poet Willis touchingly draws this picture of\ndevotion:\n\n    \u201cIt was a hard fate that she was watching over. Mr. Poe wrote\n    with fastidious difficulty, and in a style too much above the\n    popular level to be well paid. He was always in pecuniary\n    difficulty and, with his sick wife, frequently in want of the\n    merest necessaries of life. Winter after winter, for years,\n    the most touching sight to us in this whole city has been that\n    tireless minister to genius, thinly and insufficiently clad,\n    going from office to office with a poem or an article on some\n    literary subject to sell\u2014sometimes simply pleading in a broken\n    voice that \u2018he was ill,\u2019 whatever might be the reason for his\n    writing nothing\u2014and never, amid all her tears and recitals of\n    distress, suffering one syllable to escape her lips that would\n    convey a doubt of him, or a complaint, or a lessening of pride\n    in his genius and good intentions. Her daughter died a year and\n    a half since, but she did not desert him. She continued his\n    ministering angel, living with him, caring for him, guarding him\n    against exposure, and when he was carried away by temptation,\n    amid grief and the loneliness of feeling unreplied to, and\n    awoke from his self-abandonment prostrated in destitution and\n    suffering, begging for him still. If woman\u2019s devotion, born with\n    a first love and fed with human passion, hallows its object, as\n    it is allowed to do, what does not a devotion like this\u2014pure,\n    disinterested and holy as the watch of an invisible spirit\u2014say\n    for him who inspired it.\u201d\n\nBy this test, Poe\u2019s was always a pure nature, for he inspired respect,\npity and regard in every woman he came in contact with. It was a reflex\nsentiment, for Poe revered woman, and there is not in all his writings an\nimpure suggestion or an indelicate word.\n\nThe rest of the history is one of occasional indulgence in intoxicants\nand rarely intermitting mental aberration. It is to him during these last\nmonths of his unhappy career that the least charity has been extended.\nHe conducted a courtship of three ladies at once, making to each like\nfrantic protestations of love, the same despairing appeals to each to\nbecome his savior from some dreadful impending fate. In June, \u201949, he\ndeparted for Richmond, for what purpose is unknown. In Philadelphia\nhe appeared the subject of a hallucination that he was pursued by\nconspirators, and had his mustache taken off for the sake of disguise.\nIn Richmond he remained until the latter part of September, writing some\nand renewing old acquaintances. During these three or four months he was\ntwice known to be overcome and in danger of his life from drink; he was\ncredited with having been almost continuously \u201cin a state of beastly\nintoxication\u201d during the whole time. Mrs. Weiss thinks that this was one\nof the brightest and happiest seasons of his life; if so, it was light at\nits eventide. The return voyage is shrouded\u2014that is the fit word\u2014shrouded\nin mystery and controversy.\n\nThis seems to be true\u2014that he was taken up unconscious in Baltimore at\ndaybreak, taken to a hospital, and died there at midnight of the same day\n(October 7, 1849). It is also known that he left Richmond by boat on the\nevening of the 4th, he then being sober and cheerful. In proper course\nhe must have arrived in Baltimore the night of the 5th or morning of the\n6th; he was himself then, for he removed his trunk to a hotel. There was\nthus left less than twenty-four hours in which for him to travel to Havre\nde Grace and back, miss the New York connection, vote eleven times in the\nBaltimore city election, go through the \u201cprolonged debauch,\u201d fall into\nthe delirium, and lapse into the comatose state in which he was found\u2014as\ndescribed in most of his biographies; and he immediately thereafter is\nfound to have no smell of liquor about him, no tremor, and is conversing\nrationally when roused to consciousness.\n\nThe event was announced by Griswold in the _Tribune_ with this brutal\nbluntness:\n\n\u201cEdgar Allan Poe is dead. This announcement will startle many, but few\nwill be grieved by it. He had few or no friends.\u201d But the _Southern\nLiterary Messenger_ said: \u201cNow that he is gone, the vast multitude of\nblockheads may breathe again.\u201d Griswold simply elected himself mouthpiece\nof that host.\n\nOn Poe\u2019s supersensitive organization stimulants told with fearful effect.\nMrs. Clem said \u201cA single cup of coffee would intoxicate him.\u201d N. P.\nWillis explained the vagaries and sins of Poe by supposing him to be\npossessed of two antagonistic spirits, a devil and an angel, each having\ncomplete mastery of him by turns. But, says Willis, \u201cWith a single glass\nof wine his whole nature was reversed, the demon became uppermost and,\nthough none of the usual signs of intoxication were visible, his will was\npalpably insane. He easily seemed personating only another phase of his\nnatural character, and was accused accordingly of insulting arrogance and\nbad heartedness. It was a sad infirmity of physical constitution which\nputs it upon very nearly the ground of temporary and almost irresponsible\ninsanity.\u201d\n\nThat these lapses were infrequent, instead of almost continuous, we\nhave plenty of testimony from those who were much with him as business\nassociates and inmates of the same house. \u201cI have never seen him\notherwise than gentle, generous, well-bred and particularly refined,\u201d is\na certificate of one who was intimate in the family, which was confirmed\nby many witnesses of different periods and places. The poet Swinburne was\nprobably right in declaring that Poe\u2019s inebriety was \u201cthe _effect_ of a\nterrible evil, rather than its _cause_.\u201d That evil lay not alone, perhaps\nnot chiefly, in his inherited and educated predisposition to indulgence\nand his morbidness of mentality; but in the character and consequences of\nhis chiefest literary work.\n\nIt is a hard enough lot, under the best circumstances and in the best\ntimes, to live by the pen. The characteristics as well of Poe\u2019s genius\nas of his times made that lot a doom for him. The rewards of authorship\nwere on an eleemosynary scale (Poe received only $10 for \u201cThe Raven,\u201d and\n$10 a week as editor-in-chief of a magazine: the _North American Review_\nthen paid only $2 a page for matter); literary taste was unformed and,\nworst of all, the market was drugged and cheapened and the best public\nappreciation perverted by a silly school of writer who had arisen\u2014similar\nto the \u201cDella Crusca School\u201d which a few years before had infested\nliterature in England. Their lucubrations were both barren of ideas\nand bad in style. It was the lollipop stage of our literature. Now Poe\npossessed in high degree two parts which, when addressed to criticism,\nwould most offend these callow writers, to-wit: The musical sense of\nlanguage, and marvelous analytical powers. The most obvious quality of\nhis poetic style is its rhythm. The musical ear led him to adopt refrains\nand euphonious syllables, like \u201cNever more,\u201d \u201cLenore,\u201d \u201cbells,\u201d and to\ndwell on their cadence; it made a bad composition distract him as a\ndiscord does a sensitive musician. For him divine harmonies lay in the\nrelation of words to each other, as if they had been notes.\n\nCoupled with this, to him, uncomfortable sensitiveness to verbal\nsounds, was his almost superhuman power of dissecting thought\u2014extremely\nuncomfortable to others, even to the best of writers. Thus gifted with a\nmental touch equally for the substance of language and the substance of\nthought which language struggles to give birth to; possessed of the power\nof an eager and a nipping sarcasm and an infernal courage, fortified\nwith extensive reading and a retentive memory, Poe became a scourge to\nmediocrity, imitation, sham and pretense. There could not have been a\nmore critical time for such a man to attempt a livelihood at letters;\nthere could not have been a man better fitted to work havoc among the\nessayists and poetasters of the day, to compel literary reform and to\nbring misfortunes on himself. \u201cHe elected himself chief justice of the\ncourt of criticism and head hangman of dunces,\u201d says Stoddard. \u201cHe hated\na bad book as a misdemeanor.\u201d Burton, proprietor of the _Gentleman\u2019s\nMagazine_, remonstrated with Poe against the severity of some of his book\nreviews. \u201cYou say,\u201d said he to Poe, \u201cthat the people love havoc; I think\nthey love justice.\u201d One adds, \u201cPoe thought literary justice meant havoc\nwith such mediocrity as then flourished.\u201d To the cause of pure literature\nhe thus devoted his life with example, with precept and with destructive\nforce. He was the Wendell Phillips of American literature. He did a work\nthat was necessary to be done in behalf of American literature. He pulled\ndown upon his own head and theirs, the sham temple which the little\nscribbling Philistines had erected.\n\nSo it is not to be wondered at that \u201che contrived to attach to himself\nanimosities of the most enduring kind,\u201d as the _Messenger_ declared. It\nbecame Poe against the whole literary world of America in a very short\ntime\u2014for he had unstinted praise for no one. It is doubtless due to\nthe influence of this army of foes that he lost in succession all his\neditorial situations and was impoverished. There were other enemies as\nunscrupulous as Griswold. One of these put in successful circulation the\ntheory that Poe, by cruelty, deliberately caused the death of his wife in\norder to get the inspiration for \u201cThe Raven,\u201d and the story may still be\nmet on its rounds, notwithstanding the fact that the poem was written two\nyears before she died. (Amiable human nature delights in contemplation\nof human monsters.) She declared on her death-bed that her life had been\nshortened by anonymous letters slandering and threatening her husband.\nPerhaps it was to meet this story that he wrote that curious analysis\n(\u201cThe Philosophy of Composition\u201d) of the mechanical and prosaic methods\nby which he constructed \u201cThe Raven.\u201d\n\nThe critical instinct, coupled with an impulsive temperament, high ideals\nof perfect performance and a powerful pen, is a fatal gift to any man.\nThe path of such a one will be strewn with the tombs of friendships\nwhich he has stabbed, many and many a time unconsciously; his life will\nbe haunted with vain regrets for words gone past recall, carrying with\nthem consequences he did not reckon upon, hurting those he loves, missing\nthose he aimed at. His way leads steadily through bitter animosities,\nbitterer remorse and, bitterest of all, isolation from his fellows, who\nshall clothe him with a character foreign, antagonistic and repulsive to\nhis better nature. If he be not possessed of an o\u2019ermastering will, a\nthick skin and a healthy, cheerful temper it leads to morbidness, gloom\nand despair.\n\nPoe was not of that will and temper. He was affectionate, sociable and\nsupersensitive to coolness of manner in others. A rebuff was a stab to\nhim, hatred a calamity. It is said his early life was clouded by the\nstigma put on him by his parents\u2019 theatrical associations and his own\ndependence on charity; and that when a lad he wept many wild nights\nat the grave of a lady who had spoken kindly to him and become the\nconfidante of his boyish sorrows and hopes. So with this nature and with\nhis devastating pen in hand he traced that descent into the living tomb.\nIf from its gloom he sometimes sought \u201crespite and nepenthe\u201d in drink\nit is not to be wondered at; he was often tempted to suicide. He once\nsolemnly protested: \u201cI have no pleasure in stimulants. It [indulgence\nin drink] has been in the _desperate attempt to escape from torturing\nmemories\u2014memories of wrong, and injustice and imputed dishonor_\u2014from a\n_sense of insupportable loneliness_ and a dread of some strange impending\ngloom.\u201d\n\nI fancy he tried to typify this unhappy mission that had come to blast\nhis life in that poem in which he \u201cwedded despair to harmony.\u201d \u201cThe\nRaven\u201d was a \u201cgrim, ghastly, ominous messenger from the night\u2019s Plutonian\nshore\u201d that settled on the bust of Pallas, goddess of wisdom, even as\nthat critical impulse had settled upon his genius. His soul never was\nlifted from the shadow. He was himself, of that fell work, the\n\n    \u2014\u201cUnhappy master, whom unmerciful disaster\n    Followed fast and followed faster.\u201d\n\nAnd why did he not stop the war on the literati and pseudo-authors?\nWho can tell? He \u201cwasn\u2019t practical.\u201d He lacked some of Falstaff\u2019s\n\u201cinstinct.\u201d He was not good and sweet. He wasn\u2019t well-balanced; he was\nan Eccentric. Pity the Eccentric\u2014the man who knows himself called and\nchosen to a cause, whether by the necessities of his own nature or\nby divine impulse\u2014if, indeed, this and that be not the same. Whether\nthat cause be warring upon high injustice, exposing hypocrisy in high\nplaces, reforming an art, lifting up the lowly\u2014anything that sets a man\napart to a purpose other than self-seeking, brings him ingratitude,\nmisinterpretation, isolation and many sorrows. Hamlet called to set right\nthe out-of-joint times would rather, if he had dared, have taken his\nquietus with a bare bodkin than face this life of heart-ache, oppressors\u2019\nwrongs, law\u2019s delays to correct the wrongs, and the spurns that patient\nmerit of the unworthy takes. The greatest of Eccentrics became a stranger\nunto his brethren, was despised and rejected of man, a man of sorrows and\nacquainted with grief; even His chosen disciples when He tried to purify\nthe holy places from the profanation of greed misunderstood him; \u201cthe\nzeal of his house hath eaten him up,\u201d sneered they.\n\nEdgar A. Poe\u2019s personal appearance matched his genius. Let those who saw\nhim tell it: \u201cHe was the best realization of a poet in features, air\nand manner that I have ever seen, and the unusual paleness of his face\nadded to its aspect of melancholy interest.\u201d \u201cSlight but erect of figure,\nof middle height, his head finely modeled, with a forehead and temples\nlarge and not unlike those of Bonaparte; his hands as fair as a woman\u2019s;\neven in the garb of poverty \u2018with gentleman written all over him.\u2019 The\nhandsome, intellectual face, the dark and clustering hair, the clear and\nsad gray-violet eyes\u2014large, lustrous, glowing with expression.\u201d \u201cA man\nwho never smiles.\u201d \u201cThose awful eyes,\u201d exclaimed one woman. \u201cThe face\ntells of battling, of conquering external enemies, of many a defeat when\nthe man was at war with his meaner self.\u201d He was both much sinned against\nand much sinning. But he was not a monster, nor an ogre. He was only a\npoet and an Eccentric.\n\n    No farther seek his merits to disclose,\n    Nor draw his frailties from their dread abode.\n\n[A] Davidson.\n\n\n\n\nBRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH.\n\nBy R. A. PROCTOR.\n\n\nThere are many points in which English and American speakers and writers\nof culture differ from each other as to the use of certain words and as\nto certain modes of expression.\n\nIn America the word \u201cclever\u201d is commonly understood to mean pleasant and\nof good disposition, not (as in England) ingenious and skilful. Thus,\nthough an American may speak of a person as a clever workman, using the\nword as we do, yet when he speaks of another as a clever man, he means,\nin nine cases out of ten, that the man is good company and well-natured.\nSometimes, I am told, the word is used to signify generous or liberal. I\ncan not recall any passages from early English literature in which the\nword is thus used, but I should not be surprised to learn that the usage\nis an old one. In like manner, the words \u201ccunning\u201d and \u201ccute\u201d are often\nused in America for \u201cpretty\u201d (German _niedlich_). As I write, an American\nlady, who has just played a very sweet passage from one of Mozart\u2019s\nsymphonies, turns from the piano to ask \u201cwhether that passage is not\ncute,\u201d meaning pretty.\n\nThe word \u201cmad\u201d in America seems nearly always to mean \u201cangry;\u201d at least,\nI have seldom heard it used in our English sense. For \u201cmad,\u201d as we\nuse the word, the Americans say \u201ccrazy.\u201d Herein they have manifestly\nimpaired the language. The words \u201cmad\u201d and \u201ccrazy\u201d are quite distinct in\ntheir significance as used in England, and both meanings require to be\nexpressed in ordinary parlance. It is obviously a mistake to make one\nword do duty for both, and to use the word \u201cmad\u201d to imply what is already\nexpressed by other and more appropriate words.\n\nI have just used the word \u201cordinary\u201d in the English sense. In America\nthe word is commonly used to imply inferiority. An \u201cordinary actor,\u201d\nfor instance, is a bad actor; a \u201cvery ordinary man\u201d is a man very much\nbelow par. There is no authority for this usage in any English writer\nof repute, and the usage is manifestly inconsistent with the derivation\nof the word. On the other hand, the use of the word \u201chomely\u201d to imply\nugliness, as is usual in America, is familiar at this day in parts of\nEngland, and could be justified by passages in some of the older English\nwriters. That the word in Shakspere\u2019s time implied inferiority is shown\nby the line\u2014\n\n    Home keeping youths have ever homely wits.\n\nIn like manner, some authority may be found for the American use of the\nword \u201cugly\u201d to signify bad-tempered.\n\nWords are used in America which have ceased to be commonly used in\nEngland, and are, indeed, no longer regarded as admissible. Thus, the\nword \u201cunbeknown\u201d which no educated Englishman ever uses, either in\nspeaking or in writing, is still used in America in common speech and by\nwriters of repute.\n\nOccasionally, writers from whom one would expect at least correct grammar\nmake mistakes which in England would be regarded as very bad\u2014mistakes\nwhich are not, indeed, passed over in America, but still attract less\nnotice there than in England. Thus, Mr. Wilkie, who is so severe on\nEnglish English in \u201cSketches beyond the Seas,\u201d describes himself as\nsaying (in reply to the question whether Chicago policemen have to use\ntheir pistols much), \u201cI don\u2019t know _as_ they have to as a matter of\nlaw or necessity, but I know they do as a matter of fact;\u201d and I have\nrepeatedly heard this incorrect use of \u201cas\u201d for \u201cthat\u201d in American\nconversation. I have also noted in works by educated Americans the use of\nthe word \u201cthat\u201d as an adverb, \u201cthat excitable,\u201d \u201cthat head-strong,\u201d and\nso forth. So the use of \u201clay\u201d for \u201clie\u201d seems to me to be much commoner\nin America than in England, though it is too frequently heard here also.\nIn a well-written novelette called \u201cThe Man who was not a Colonel,\u201d the\nwords\u2014\u201cYou was\u201d and \u201cWas you?\u201d are repeatedly used, apparently without\nany idea that they are ungrammatical. They are much more frequently heard\nin America than in England (I refer, of course, to the conversation of\nthe middle and better classes, not of the uneducated). In this respect it\nis noteworthy that the writers of the last century resemble Americans of\nto-day; for we often meet in their works the incorrect usage in question.\n\nAnd here it may be well to consider the American expression \u201cI guess,\u201d\nwhich is often made the subject of ridicule by Englishmen, unaware of\nthe fact that the expression is good old English. It is found in a few\nworks written during the last century, and in many written during the\nseventeenth century. So careful a writer as Locke used the expression\nmore than once in his treatise \u201cOn the Human Understanding.\u201d In fact,\nthe disuse of the expression in later times seems to have been due to\na change in the meaning of the word \u201cguess.\u201d An Englishman who should\nsay \u201cI guess\u201d now, would not mean what Locke did when he used the\nexpression in former times, or what an American means when he uses it in\nour own day. We say, \u201cI guess that riddle,\u201d or \u201cI guess what you mean,\u201d\nsignifying that we think the answer to the riddle, or the meaning of what\nwe have heard, may be such and such. But when an American says, \u201cI guess\nso,\u201d he does not mean \u201cI think it may be so,\u201d but more nearly \u201cI know\nit to be so.\u201d The expression is closely akin to the old English saying,\n\u201cI wis.\u201d Indeed, the words \u201cguess\u201d and \u201cwis\u201d are simply different forms\nof the same word. Just as we have \u201cguard\u201d and \u201cward,\u201d \u201cguardian\u201d and\n\u201cwarden,\u201d \u201cGuillaume\u201d and \u201cWilliam,\u201d \u201cguichet\u201d and \u201cwicket,\u201d etc., so we\nhave the verbs to \u201cguess\u201d and to \u201cwis.\u201d (In the Bible we have not \u201cI\nwis,\u201d but we have \u201che wist.\u201d) \u201cI wis\u201d means nearly the same as \u201cI know,\u201d\nand that this is the root-meaning of the word is shown by such words as\n\u201cwit,\u201d \u201cwitness,\u201d \u201cwisdom,\u201d the legal phrase \u201cto-wit,\u201d and so forth.\n\u201cGuess\u201d was originally used in the same sense; and Americans retain\nthat meaning, whereas in our modern English the word has changed in\nsignificance.\n\nIt may be added, that in many parts of America we find the expression \u201cI\nguess\u201d replaced by \u201cI reckon,\u201d and \u201cI calculate\u201d (the \u201cI cal\u2019late\u201d of\nthe _Biglow Papers_). In the South, \u201cI reckon\u201d is generally used, and\nin parts of New England \u201cI calculate,\u201d though (I am told) less commonly\nthan of yore. It is obvious from the use of such words as \u201creckon\u201d and\n\u201ccalculate\u201d as equivalents for \u201cguess,\u201d that the expression \u201cI guess\u201d\nis not, as many seem to imagine, equivalent to the English \u201cI suppose\u201d\nand \u201cI fancy.\u201d An American friend of mine, in response to the question\nby an Englishman (an exceedingly positive and dogmatic person, as it\nchanced), \u201cWhy do Englishmen never say \u2018I guess?\u2019\u201d replied (more wittily\nthan justly), \u201cBecause they are always so positive about everything.\u201d But\nit is noteworthy that whereas the American says frequently, \u201cI guess,\u201d\nmeaning \u201cI know,\u201d the Englishman as freely lards his discourse with the\nexpression, \u201cYou know,\u201d which is, perhaps, more modest. Yet, on the other\nside, it may be noted, that the \u201cdown east\u201d American often uses the\nexpression \u201cI want to know,\u201d in the same sense as our English expression\nof attentive interest, \u201cIndeed?\u201d\n\nAmong other familiar Americanisms may be mentioned the following:\u2014\n\nAn American who is interested in a narrative or statement will say, \u201cIs\nthat so?\u201d or simply \u201cSo!\u201d The expression \u201cPossible!\u201d is sometimes, but\nnot often, heard. Dickens misunderstood this exclamation as equivalent\nto \u201cIt is possible, but does not concern me;\u201d whereas, in reality, it is\nequivalent to the expression, \u201cIs it possible?\u201d I have occasionally heard\nthe exclamation \u201cDo tell!\u201d but it is less frequently heard now than of\nyore.\n\nThe word \u201cright\u201d is more frequently used than in England, and is used\nalso in senses different from those understood in our English usage of\nthe word. Thus, the American will say \u201cright here\u201d and \u201cright there,\u201d\nwhere an Englishman would say \u201cjust here\u201d or \u201cjust there,\u201d or simply,\n\u201chere\u201d or \u201cthere.\u201d Americans say \u201cright away,\u201d where we say \u201cdirectly.\u201d\nOn the other hand, I am inclined to think that the English expression\n\u201cright well,\u201d for \u201cvery well,\u201d is not commonly used in America.\n\nAmericans say \u201cyes, sir,\u201d and \u201cno, sir,\u201d with a sense different from that\nwith which the words are used in England; but they mark the difference\nof sense by a difference of intonation. Thus, if a question is asked to\nwhich the reply in England would be simply \u201cyes\u201d or \u201cno\u201d (or, according\nto the rank or station of the querist, \u201cyes, sir,\u201d or \u201cno, sir,\u201d), the\nAmerican reply would be \u201cyes, sir,\u201d or \u201cno, sir,\u201d intonated as with us in\nEngland. But if the reply is intended to be emphatic, then the intonation\nis such as to throw the emphasis on the word \u201csir\u201d\u2014the reply is \u201cyes,\n_sir_\u201d or \u201cno, _sir_.\u201d In passing, I may note that I have never heard an\nAmerican waiter reply \u201cyessir,\u201d as our English waiters often do.\n\nThe American use of the word \u201cquit\u201d is peculiar. They do not limit the\nword, as we do, to the signification \u201ctake leave\u201d\u2014in fact, I have never\nheard an American use the word in that sense. They generally use it as\nequivalent to \u201cleave off\u201d or \u201cstop.\u201d (In passing, one may notice as\nrather strange the circumstance that the word \u201cquit,\u201d which properly\nmeans \u201cto go away from,\u201d and the word \u201cstop,\u201d which means to \u201cstay,\u201d\nshould both have come to be used as signifying to \u201cleave off.\u201d) Thus,\nAmericans say \u201cquit fooling\u201d for \u201cleave off playing the fool,\u201d \u201cquit\nsinging,\u201d \u201cquit laughing,\u201d and so forth.\n\nTo English ears an American use of the word \u201csome\u201d sounds strange\u2014viz.,\nas an adverb. An American will say, \u201cI think some of buying a new house,\u201d\nor the like, for \u201cI have some idea of buying,\u201d etc. I have indeed heard\nthe usage defended as perfectly correct, though assuredly there is not an\ninstance in all the wide range of English literature which will justify\nit.\n\nSo also, many Americans defend as good English the use of the word \u201cgood\u201d\nin such phrases as the following:\u2014\u201cI have written that note good,\u201d for\n\u201cwell;\u201d \u201cit will make you feel good,\u201d for \u201cit will do you good;\u201d and in\nother ways, all equally incorrect. Of course, there are instances in\nwhich adjectives are allowed by custom to be used as adverbs, as, for\ninstance, \u201cright\u201d for \u201crightly,\u201d etc.; but there can be no reason for\nsubstituting the adjective \u201cgood\u201d in place of the adverb \u201cwell,\u201d which\nis as short a word, and at least equally euphonious. The use of \u201creal\u201d\nfor \u201creally,\u201d as \u201creal angry,\u201d \u201creal nice,\u201d is, of course, grammatically\nindefensible.\n\nThe word \u201csure\u201d is often used for \u201csurely\u201d in a somewhat singular way, as\nin the following sentence from \u201cSketches beyond the Sea,\u201d in which Mr.\nWilkie is supposed to be quoting a remark made by an English policeman:\n\u201cIf policemen went to shooting in this country, there would be some\nhanging, sure; and not wholly among the classes that would be shot at,\neither.\u201d (In passing, note that the word \u201ceither\u201d is never pronounced\n_eyether_ in America, but always _eether_, whereas in England we seem to\nuse either pronunciation indifferently.)\n\nAn American seldom uses the word \u201cstout\u201d to signify \u201cfat,\u201d saying\ngenerally \u201cfleshy.\u201d Again, for our English word \u201chearty,\u201d signifying\n\u201cin very good health,\u201d an American will sometimes employ the singularly\ninappropriate word \u201crugged.\u201d (It corresponds pretty nearly with our word\n\u201crude\u201d\u2014equally inappropriate\u2014in the expression \u201crude health.\u201d)\n\nThe use of the word \u201celegant\u201d for \u201cfine\u201d strikes English ears as strange.\nFor instance, if you say to an American, \u201cThis is a fine morning,\u201d he is\nlikely to reply, \u201cIt _is_; an elegant morning,\u201d or perhaps oftener by\nusing simply the word \u201celegant.\u201d It is not a pleasing use of the word.\n\nThere are some Americanisms which seem more than defensible\u2014in fact,\ngrammatically more correct than our English usage. Thus, we seldom hear\nin America the redundant word \u201cgot\u201d in such expressions as \u201cI have\ngot,\u201d etc., etc. Where the word would not be redundant, it is generally\nreplaced by the more euphonious word \u201cgotten,\u201d now scarcely ever heard in\nEngland. Yet again, we often hear in America such expressions as \u201cI shall\nget me a new book,\u201d \u201cI have gotten me a dress,\u201d \u201cI must buy me that,\u201d and\nthe like. This use of \u201cme\u201d for \u201cmyself\u201d is good old English, at any rate.\n\nI have been struck by the circumstance that neither the conventional,\nbut generally very absurd, American of our English novelists, nor the\nconventional, but at least equally absurd, Englishman of American\nnovelists, is made to employ the more delicate Americanisms or\nAnglicisms. We generally find the American \u201cguessing\u201d or \u201ccalculating,\u201d\nif not even more coarsely Yankee, like Reade\u2019s Joshua Fullalove; while\nthe Englishman of American novels is almost always very coarsely\nBritish, even if he is not represented as using what Americans persist\nin regarding as the true \u201cHenglish haccent.\u201d Where an American is less\ncoarsely drawn, as Trollope\u2019s \u201cAmerican Senator,\u201d he uses expressions\nwhich no American ever uses, and none of those Americanisms which, while\nmore delicate, are in reality more characteristic, because they are\ncommon, all Americans using them. And in like manner, when an American\nwriter introduces an Englishman of the more natural sort, he never makes\nhim speak as an Englishman would speak; before half a dozen sentences\nhave been uttered, he uses some expression which is purely American.\nThus, no Englishman ever uses, and an American may be recognized at once\nby using, such expressions as \u201cI know it,\u201d or \u201cThat\u2019s so,\u201d for \u201cIt is\ntrue;\u201d by saying \u201cWhy, certainly,\u201d for \u201cCertainly;\u201d and so forth. There\nare many of these slight but characteristic peculiarities of American and\nEnglish English.\u2014_\u201cKnowledge\u201d Library._\n\n\n\n\nSTILL YOUNG.\n\nBy ELLEN O. PECK.\n\n\n    The fleeting years, the changing scenes,\n    The light and shade that intervenes\n    \u2019Twixt now and youth\u2019s rejoicing teens\n      Have come and gone so silently.\n    Tho\u2019 much from out my life is drawn\n    Of love and trust I leaned upon\n    I never thought my youth was gone,\n      But laughed at time defiantly,\u2014\n\n    Until I met with those I knew\n    When life\u2019s first romance burst to view,\n    Whom long ago I bade adieu,\n      And scanned their faces eagerly;\n    Alas! I read the fatal truth\n    That time indeed with little ruth\n    Had claimed the beauty of their youth,\n      And dealt with them most meagerly.\n\n    Amid the brown locks shone the gray,\n    And lines of care on foreheads lay,\n    And so, I read my fate to-day,\n      From their faces cheerlessly\u2014\n    What I\u2019d not read upon my own,\n    That youth, with time, had surely flown,\n    And I with them had older grown;\n      The truth\u2014I take it fearlessly.\n\n    And with a sigh o\u2019er vanished years,\n    (I have no time to give to tears)\n    I near life\u2019s noontide without fears,\n      Bearing its burdens silently;\n    No happy song I leave unsung,\n    A deeper life within has sprung,\n    And so my heart forever young,\n      Still laughs at time defiantly.\n\n\n\n\nTHE GOSPELS CONSIDERED AS A DRAMA.\n\nLecture by David H. Wheeler, LL.D., President of Allegheny College,\ndelivered in the Amphitheater, Chautauqua, N. Y., August 23d, at 2 p. m.\n\n\nLet me begin by saying that my subject is not theological, and it will\nsave us trouble if we remember it. Let me say in the second place that\nmy subject is not the stage, but a book. I shall not discuss the drama\nas it is related to the stage, but the drama as a form of literature.\nThe theologian may find some comfort in the reflection that if God makes\na book it must be the best book. By the drama we mean simply the best\ntelling of a story. The gospels as God\u2019s book may therefore be regarded\nas necessarily the best told story in the world. But a few things may be\nprofitably said with regard to the relations of the drama with the stage.\nFirst, this general one, that the stage was a contrivance for ages and\ntimes when men could not read; and that ever since men learned to read,\nthe stage has been passing into shadow. An illustration of that may be\nfound in the fact that in the sixteenth century, the age of Shakspere,\nthere were probably one thousand men who went to the theater to one man\nwho could read a book; whereas, in our time, there are a hundred thousand\nmen who read books to one man who frequents the theater. The stage, in\nother words, is an effete institution. It is therefore an institution\nwhose death does not carry with it the death of the drama; for, along\nwith the death of the stage, there has come an enlargement of the scope\nof the drama. No important story was ever put upon the stage, or could\nbe. The stage is too narrow for a great theme; therefore all the themes\nof all the plays are necessarily narrow themes\u2014a few incidents grouped\nabout a character, or grouped about a single characteristic of human\nnature. We have need in the world to tell stories that are larger,\nthat require an ampler stage for their development; that deal not only\nwith single principles, and single men, but with many principles and\nvast masses of men\u2014that concern not for a moment, or an hour, and a\nsingle epoch of human life, but concern vast reaches of time and vaster\ninterests of humanity. And so it has come to pass that in our modern\ntimes, our poetry\u2014our epic poetry and our dramatic poetry\u2014the two highest\nforms of literary art, have undergone a great transformation. The poem\nhas become a novel. The epic has passed into this form; and the drama has\nbecome history. Carlyle says that it is the business of the poet to write\nhistory.\n\nWe make distinction between prose and poetry, but we ought to remember\nthat with regard to epic poetry, and dramatic poetry, both are to\nbe expressed either in verse or prose, and that versification is an\naccident. There may be epic poems in prose; and, as the freest form,\nprose has become the prevailing form, and poetry is, more and more, as\nthe world grows older, confined to the lyric jingle. Poetry, in the\nold sense, soon will pass, and the drama has passed into unversified\npoetry. Milton made a great change by adopting blank verse, and Shakspere\nhad started us on the same road. In our age the great works of poetic\nlanguage may be expected to be produced in what is technically prose. The\nepic poem may also be dramatically constructed, so that we may have the\nprose epic under form of the drama.\n\nLet me call attention to the fact that we are fortunate in speaking a\ntongue, the imperial language, in which Shakspere practically killed the\nold Aristotelian unities. He wanted a dramatic form in which to tell the\nstory of the fall of Julius C\u00e6sar, and the story of English history. He\nhad to discard the old unities of time and place. The only Aristotelian\nunity that remains in our English literature is that of subject. The\nsubject of a dramatic action, or an epic story, must have unity. There\nmust be one action having a beginning, a middle, and an end; and there\nmust be a constant, regular, orderly, striking, impressive advance from\nthe beginning to the end.\n\nNow we come to consider whether the gospels ought to be regarded as a\ndrama. In the first place, we are familiar with the custom of commenting\non and praising the literary merits of the gospel. We say how sweet\nand fluent and intelligible is the language in which it is written.\nWe understand that portions of it reach the heights of sublimity,\nparticularly the seventeenth chapter of John. We are familiar with the\nfact that its English is so beautiful that there are men among us to rise\nand complain if we interfere with a word in it. We are familiar with the\nidea that the gospels have literary merits of a very high order. But we\nhave been accustomed, as a rule, to regard these things in detail rather\nthan as a whole. Now, when I say that they may be regarded as dramatic,\nI mean the highest literary merit crowns them as a whole. Their story is\ntold in a dramatic form. No story ever told under the sun was so well\ntold as is this story of the life, death, resurrection and ascension of\nthe Lord Jesus Christ. I must treat this topic illustratingly, for my\nsole purpose is to get an idea before you. Look, then, at the idea of\ndramatizing history. It is said that Lord Marlborough read only Shakspere\nfor English history. He found that the dramatist had put his conceptions\nof the actions and characteristics of leading men in English history in\nsuch an effective way, that, whether he was right or wrong, he had fixed\nthe national estimate of these characters\u2014had typed them forever. What\nShakspere says a man was, the English people will go on thinking him to\nhave been. These characters give us, on a small scale, the purpose and\neffect of the dramatization of history. When Shakspere did his work,\nlittle historical study had been done. English critical history dates\nfrom after his time. But without the help of critics he conceived and\ntyped groups of characters, and he had such power of placing himself in\nthe center of things and working out the characteristics, that he really\nconstructed English history by the dramatic method. He had pitifully few\nmaterials, but historians who have come after him have found his types\nvery faithful, and have been content to work out the details, accepting\nthe pictures Shakspere had hung up before the eyes of the nation.\nShaksperean English characters can not be much changed by ever so much\nstudy. This is only an illustration of the triumph which the dramatic\nform may win. Another most important distinction is the one between the\ntheatrical and the dramatic. We can best understand it by looking at\nthe common significance of the words. By \u201ctheatrical\u201d we mean something\nfalse, fictitious, showy, with no reality behind it.\n\nWhen a human action is theatrical it is insincere and false to the facts.\nOn the other hand, when you use the word \u201cdramatic,\u201d you mean something\nentirely different. You mean to praise the thing and not condemn it.\nWhen the two Senators from New York suddenly resigned their position in\n1881\u2014you remember it\u2014the friends of these men spoke of their action as\ndramatic, and their enemies characterized their action as theatrical;\none to praise, the other to blame. An incident like that draws the line\nbetter than a definition. The word \u201cdrama\u201d has won a place outside of\nthe stage\u2014and it more and more separates itself from the stage, and\nbecomes a word descriptive of the best told story. In such a story there\nmust be reality. It must be a story so put together that the meaning\nleaps out as the story goes on, and the mind takes hold of the meaning\neasily and fully\u2014so that the whole meaning flashes on the understanding.\nYou all know the power of a good story teller. You all know that every\nneighborhood has some man who can grasp an incident and tell it so that\nit comes strikingly before the mind. This power of narrative is at once\nepic and dramatic. This village story teller is a miniature Milton and\nShakspere. The arrangement of a drama is systematic; and moves to a\nclimax with full force. In order to a dramatic arrangement it is not\nnecessary that the characters should be combined, as in the form of a\nplay; it is only necessary that the story should be told in the most\neffective way, so that its meaning will flash clear and strong on the\nunderstanding. The gospels are told in this way; and it is the only\npossible way in which their story could reach the understanding. If we\nconsider the gospels from this point of view, there are several things\nto attract our attention. One of them is the universality of the human\nnature which is brought out in the gospel. If you take up a picture book,\nor a fashion book of a hundred years ago, you are interested in a certain\nway in studying the characters, and discovering that the people dressed\nin a way very different from the present mode. You study the strange\ndresses with interest, but at the same time with a kind of feeling that\nthese people were not just like yourself. Your point of observation in\nthe fashion-plate presents you with nothing but unlikeness to yourself\nand your contemporaries. It is a strange world to you.\n\nNow, what the fashion-plate is, a great part of literature is. It is\nsomething which gets old, out of fashion, outworn, when it is a hundred\nyears old. People live largely upon a contemporaneous literary diet. The\nmost of the literature for each generation is produced by itself, and\ntherefore the human nature of it, like the dresses of the fashion-plate,\nis in a little while out of date, and seems old. I am not as old as I\nlook to be, but I have seen several kinds of literary fashions come and\ngo. I have known men to be famous, producing a book nearly every month,\nwhose name would now be strange, and there are few here who have thought\nof them for a long time. Other books have taken their places. They were\nnovels, stories, histories, and even poems, but they have gone out of\ndate, because the human nature they dealt with was a temporary and\npassing human nature\u2014that of a fashion-plate. And the same effect must\nattend most of the novels being written in our day, because there is a\npassion upon us for this sort of living detail, this sort of temporary\nbook.\n\nThere is so little of permanent universal human nature in an ordinary\nnovel of the period, that when you are done with it you have learned\nbut very little about man. The great defect with this class of books is\nthat they do not deal with universal human nature, and it is the power\nof Shakspere that he deals largely with universal human nature. And\nhere we discover the likeness that reigns there. We recognize ourselves\nand our neighbors. We have struck one of the old lines of humanity,\nand are acquainted with the people we meet. They wear togas, we wear\ntrousers; but we know each other for brothers. The defect of Shaksperean\nhuman nature very soon appears when you lay it down along side of the\ngospels. You have a little universal human nature in Shakspere, in the\ngospels you have almost nothing else but universal human nature. If you\nask yourselves why we are interested in certain incidents that occurred\nnearly two thousand years ago, in a foreign land, that occurred in\nconnection with a people for whom we have nothing but antipathy, what\nwill be the answer? Why are we interested in this old history lying back\nthere in a world that had almost nothing like our world except men,\nand the eternal rocks, and the ever flowing streams? Why, belting the\ngreen earth, should we find men everywhere singing about this passage\nin human history? What is the charm of it that reaches human nature so\nwidely? Undoubtedly there is much charm in the delightful truth which it\ncontains; more in the delightful power behind it, but much also in the\nfact that when we open these gospels we find ourselves in the presence of\nmen and women like ourselves, in the presence of human nature, undying,\neternally the same. In any of these passages you find yourself suddenly\nreminded of yourself. You feel in every throb of a human heart in the\ngospels something which allies the old heart with yourself.\n\nAnother proof of the dramatic quality of the gospels lies in the fact\nthat the details all work out into one picture, and each trait resembles\nthe whole. What I mean here I shall try to make clear. The Righi is a\nmountain made up of pudding stones. It is a great egg-shaped mass that\nleaps up out of the plain, rising thousands of feet in the air, and is\ncomposed altogether of these pudding stones. At different points up its\nrugged sides, masses have been broken off by the action of the ice,\nand if you examine them you will find that the fragments resemble the\nwhole. Break up one of them into the finest pieces, and each bit will\nstill resemble the whole. In any fragment of the vast mass you have a\npicture of the whole mountain. Now this is true of the highest dramatic\nproduction, that every piece and every incident is a picture of the\nwhole. This highest dramatic perfection is found only in the gospels.\nYou find hints of it elsewhere. Many of you have read the story of\n\u201cMiddlemarch,\u201d the most perfect piece of art produced in the way of a\nmodern novel. The art lies first in the dramatic conception, for it has\na theme, and the theme runs clear through, and the climax leaps out of\nthe theme. This theme is worked out through a principal character. In\nher history the general lesson is impressively taught. But the art does\nnot end there, each one of the characters is a picture of the heroine in\nlittle. The same story is repeated over and over again, in the different\ncharacters. It is a story of human failure, of the way in which a great\nhuman purpose, and high aspirations, growing in a youthful mind, may be\ndispersed and destroyed as human life goes on to its conclusion. It is a\nlesson of failure, and the failure of the principal character is repeated\nin the subordinate characters.\n\nTake another illustration from Shakspere: \u201cJulius C\u00e6sar\u201d is his best\ndrama, not the best play, for it does not act well on the stage, as it\nlacks singleness and simplicity; nevertheless it is, I think, Shakspere\u2019s\nmost complete play, his most dramatic piece, and the reason is this: His\nsubject is large and is developed on the principle I am laying down. The\nplay is narrow, both in \u201cMacbeth\u201d and \u201cOthello.\u201d In \u201cJulius C\u00e6sar\u201d it is\nlarge. The subject may be named the weaknesses of great men. The play\nis constructed so as to develop the weaknesses of Julius C\u00e6sar, and of\nall the rest of the characters grouped about him. The story told in the\ndeath of Julius C\u00e6sar is told also in the death of all the parties in\nthe terrible failure of them all. But you must mark that in this case\nwe have an extremely narrow purpose as compared with the gospels. In\nthe gospels you can begin anywhere, and preach the whole gospel from\nany incident. Take the case of the Prodigal Son, and you have the whole\nstory of the gospel in that short compass. Take up the case of the man\ndescribed as the \u201cfather of the child,\u201d crying, \u201cI believe,\u201d and you have\nit over again. It is over and over again, from the beginning to the end,\nthe pieces all conspiring to the grand result. It is achieved not by\nordinary art. The story teller has seen or heard or conceived something,\nand he goes through a mass of details. The gospels have nothing of that\nsort. They tell you in a few words what they have to say of the woman\nof Samaria, or the maniac of Gadara, or of her who loved much and was\nforgiven much. Names are dispensed with, details, places of residence,\nall the tricks by which the ordinary story teller succeeds. This story\nsucceeds by pure force of an infinite truth behind it.\n\nAnother characteristic of drama is a kind of consistency between the\nbeginning and the end, a kind of logical order in which it moves, and\nthis is illustrated in the gospels by the fact which must always be\nborne in mind, that the task is one of supreme difficulty. The author\nof the gospels has to tell the story of the Incarnation of God\u2019s son. A\nstory in which there are human and divine actors, in which there is both\nnature and the supernatural. It requires vast dramatic power. I have\nsuggested, yet I may more definitely repeat it, that the human earth on\nwhich you tread is not that of old Palestine, or Galilee, or Jerusalem.\nIt is a real universal, a human earth. There is not a bit of purer\nrealism than the gospels. Take up this story, walk with these men. Down\nby the lake you find the Gadarene crying among the tombs. You see the\nstranger landing and healing him. You stand down by the boat and hear the\npoor man begging Jesus to allow him to go with him. You see these human\nfigures. Look into it a little, and there the man stands where he has\nstood almost two thousand years, listening to the words of the Master\ncompelling him to go away. The meaning of it you understand, for the case\nis before you. On this solid human earth, this real human nature, this\nrealistic character which makes you feel the heart beat, and smell the\nreal earth, all is combined with something else, with the supernatural.\nThere have been writers who have carried us into wonderland. We were\nglad to be there, and we traveled along delighted with the scenery and\nwith the companions created by the imagination. The gospels do not do\nthis. This solid earth beneath your feet is not more real than the\nheavens that bend over it. Human reality is combined with heavenly, and\nyou are continually going to and fro between the earth and the sky. The\nnatural and the supernatural are so run together that you feel no shock\nin passing from one to the other. You have men and angels, divine power\nand human power, associated together. The warp of earth is woven into the\nwoof of heaven until it is one piece of cloth of gold. The gold of the\nskies is braided into the earthly so perfectly I defy any man to take\nthem apart with consistency or success. This is the beauty and perfection\nof dramatic success. The divine and the human are blended in Christ so\nthat you are puzzled to tell whether it is a man or a God who speaks and\nworks. The blending of the human about him, in him, through him, all this\nis an effect utterly beyond human art. The story goes straight home to\nthe human heart. The time will never come when it will not be a dear and\nsweet old story to the souls that hear it. Edward Eggleston once told me\nthat when he was lecturing in some strange corner of the earth, where\nculture in the pulpit was comparatively rare, after the lecture one of\nthe men said, \u201cI wish you would come here and preach for us. Our minister\npreaches the funeral of Jesus Christ twice a Sunday, fifty-two Sundays\nin the year.\u201d The case seemed to me to be an exceedingly sad one until I\nbegan to ask myself, of what man that ever lived could it be said they\npreached his funeral sermon twice a Sabbath for fifty-two Sundays in\nthe year, and the story still had such freshness that the people would\ncome out and hear it? What other thing was ever so well done that a fool\nmight talk about it, and still a certain amount of interest attach to it\ndespite the poor telling? Here lies one of the uses of the dramatic power\nof the gospel. When a man of humble attainments has it to tell, he has\nonly to follow the book to make it an interesting story. The moment he\nstrikes a real point of interest, the attentive soul feels that that is\nwhat it came for, and, what is better, that it is said to him. In short,\nthe enduring power of this story lies in great part in this fact. The\nconsistency between the beginning and the end and the logical order of\nthings, comes out in a thousand powerful ways. For instance, the peculiar\ntruth that reappears in the words which are sculptured on Shakspere\u2019s\ntomb.\n\nTake the same thought as it reappears\u2014the same thought slightly turned\nover\u2014as it is repeated in \u201cMiddlemarch,\u201d or in that best human version of\nall, that of Watts:\n\n    \u201cPrinces, this clay must be your bed,\n       In spite of all your towers;\n    The tall, the wise, the reverend head,\n       Must lie as low as ours.\u201d\n\nYou will find the thought, in good and bad versions, everywhere. Do you\nwish to take this thought fresh from the fountain? Come to the temple,\nwhere the disciples, accustomed to nothing great in art, fresh from\nGalilee, stand gazing in admiration at the glory of the great edifice and\none of them cries out: \u201cMaster, behold these stones; and what manner of\na building is this?\u201d And listen to the Master as he says: \u201cThere shall\nnot remain one stone upon another,\u201d and you have the fountain head of all\nthese streams running down into our poetry.\n\nMark the wonderful consistency, and the wonderful movement of this\nstory\u2014consider it as a drama. You may regard the gospels as beginning at\nthat moment when suddenly there was with the angel a great company of the\nheavenly hosts, appearing to the shepherds as they watched their flocks\nby night. It practically ends when the disciples, after the ascension,\nreturned to Jerusalem with great joy, and were continually in the temple\nsinging the song which began in angel mouths and ends in human mouths.\nThe purpose of the story was to sing that angelic music into the human\nheart.\n\nIn conclusion: What inferences may be drawn from the statements I have\nmade? Certainly not that the gospels have attained their success because\nthey are a drama. They had to have the truth to succeed. They have the\ntruth, and that has given them success. It behooved that Christ should\nsuffer and rise from the dead the third day. And this behooving lies in\nsomething very deep in our nature. We believe that these gospels are\ninspired; that the authors were moved by the Holy Ghost; and it seems to\nme to be a necessary inference that the story should be well told; and\nwell told means dramatically told. If it be true that the gospels sweep\na larger circle and involve a greater work than was ever attempted by a\nhuman brain, if it be true that you can put a million of Shaksperes into\ntheir compass and still have an abyss of art unfilled, then you have an\ninference, an argument, in the line of the evidences of Christianity\nthat has never been attempted. And that is that the best told, most\ndramatically told story, the story of the visit of God\u2019s son to the\nearth, of his life, death, resurrection and ascension, must have been\ntold by God himself. No human pen can be eloquent enough, no heart wide\nenough, no intellect could penetrate into the human heart deeply enough,\nto produce these gospels. In the literary perfection of the gospel there\nlies an evidence of the truth, of the divine authorship of the gospels,\nwhich in time to come, when all men read and think, will weigh perhaps\nmore than any other kind of argument that has been drawn upon to this\nhour.\n\n\n\n\nPROHIBITION IN MAINE.\n\nBy the HON. NEAL DOW.\n\n\nThe policy of license to the liquor traffic had been the uniform practice\nof the civilized world since the reign of Edward VI., of England, when\nit was first established. Since that time, in England, there have been\nmore than four hundred and fifty separate acts relating to the traffic,\neach of them being a vain attempt to improve upon all that had gone\nbefore, in the hope, if not in the expectation, of diminishing in some\ndegree the tremendous evils coming from it. For the last twenty years\nthere has been no session of Parliament, I think, at which there have not\nbeen several separate bills introduced, relating to that matter; at some\nof them, these bills have been in number, from eight to ten, sometimes\neven twelve. When our fathers first came over the waters to this western\nworld, they brought with them the policy of license, because at that time\nno other had been attempted or thought of.\n\nIn 1820 Maine was separated from Massachusetts and set up housekeeping\nfor herself, bringing with her, as a part of her outfit, the policy of\nlicense, which had been brought over in the \u201cMayflower\u201d by the Pilgrim\nFathers, and established in Plymouth colony in the first years of its\nexistence. By the peculiar industries of Maine the people were led into\nthe habit of the excessive use of strong drink. All our people living\na little way back from the sea coast were engaged in the lumbering\nbusiness. We had vast forests of invaluable pine, whence Maine was and\nis called the \u201cPine Tree State.\u201d The people through all the winter\nseason were living in camps in the woods, engaged in felling the trees\nand transporting them to the water courses, by which they would be taken\nto the innumerable saw mills which crowded the falls on almost all our\nstreams. In the camps, away from home influences and home restraints,\nthe \u201clumbermen\u201d indulged freely in strong drink, which was a large and\nindispensable part of their rations.\n\nOn the breaking up of the streams in the spring, these men were engaged\nin \u201cdriving river,\u201d as it was called, i. e., following the \u201cdrives\u201d of\nlogs, many, many miles down all the water courses to the \u201cbooms,\u201d whence\nthey were impounded and secured ready for the saw mills which were kept\nin operation through the year, often running night and day. On these\ndrives many of the men were often in the icy water more or less all day,\ndislodging the logs from rocks or shallows, by which they were stopped\nin their course down stream. In all this laborious and trying work, the\nmen used rum freely and largely, as the universal custom was in those\ndays. In those old times I have seen our great rivers covered for miles,\nfrom shore to shore, with innumerable logs, so closely packed as almost\nto hide the water from view. Many \u201criver drivers\u201d were following along\non either shore to prevent the logs from \u201clodging,\u201d and to \u201cstart\u201d all\nthat had been \u201cgrounded.\u201d At night I have seen these men in great numbers\naround their camp fires, wild and boisterous, under the influence of\nliquor, like so many Comanche savages just home from the war path, with\nmany scalps hanging at their belts. On many of these drives the men\nwould be engaged for weeks, with rum as the most important part of their\nration. On the return of these men to civilized life a large part of them\nwould spend in a week, in a drunken carouse, all the wages paid them for\ntheir winter\u2019s work, without regard to wife and children at home.\n\nThe saw mills in Maine were on a very large scale, and were in great\nnumbers. There were great masses of men engaged in them, all using rum\nfreely and in immense quantities. I have heard it said that two quarts\na day to each man was the regular allowance. While all these men\u2014in\nwhatever department working\u2014earned large wages, they were not at all\nbenefited by that, because they spent all in rum, except a miserable\npittance doled out to the wretched wife and children.\n\nThe transportation of this \u201clumber\u201d to the West Indies\u2014the principal\nmarket for it\u2014was a very great industry; it was called the \u201cWest India\nTrade.\u201d Great numbers of vessels were engaged in it, running from all\nour principal ports which had direct communication with the vast system\nof saw mills on all our streams. The returns for this lumber were mostly\nWest India rum and molasses, to be converted into New England rum, at\nour numerous distilleries. All along our sea coast great numbers of our\npeople were engaged in the mackerel and cod fisheries; there were a\ngreat many vessels employed in that industry, the products of which were\nmostly sent to the West Indies in the lumber ships, the returns for which\nwere also \u201crum and molasses!\u201d I have heard men say who were owners of\ntimber lands and of saw mills\u2014\u201coperators\u201d on a large scale, and owners\nof West India traders\u2014that Maine was never a dollar the richer for all\nthese great industries. The returns were mostly in rum, and in molasses\nconverted into rum, so that our boundless forests of invaluable timber\nwere literally poured down the throats of our people in the form of rum.\nThe result of all this was that Maine was the poorest state in the Union,\nconsuming the entire value of all its property of every kind in rum, in\nevery period of less than twenty years.\n\nI have run hastily over this account of the condition of Maine in the old\nrum time to show that our people, according to the general opinion on\nthis subject, were most unlikely to adopt a policy of prohibition to the\nliquor traffic, which was spread everywhere all over the state, and was\nintimately interwoven into all the habits and customs of the time. All\nover the state there was a general appearance of neglect and dilapidation\nin houses, barns, school houses, farms, churches. By their habits of\ndrinking a great many of our people were disinclined to work, and many\nof them were unfitted for it. It used to be said that three-fourths of\nthe farms were mortgaged to the town, village and country traders, all of\nwhom kept in stock liquors of all sorts as the most important and most\nprofitable part of their supplies.\n\nA few men in Maine resolved to change all that by changing the law by\nwhich the liquor traffic was licensed, and by substituting for it the\npolicy of prohibition. This was supposed to be a great undertaking,\nas in fact it was. An indispensable preparatory step was to change\npublic opinion, on which all law is supposed to be founded. To do this\nmeetings were held all over the state\u2014not only in the larger towns,\nbut in villages and in all the rural districts. There was hardly a\nlittle country church or town house or roadside school house where we\ndid not lay out before the people the fact that the liquor traffic was\ninconsistent with the general good; that it was in deadly hostility to\nevery interest of nation, state and people. In our missionary work about\nthe state, traveling in our own carriages in summer, and in our own\nsleighs in winter, we took with us large supplies of tracts relating to\nthe liquor traffic and its results. These were prepared for the purpose,\nand were distributed freely at all our meetings, and we threw them out to\nthe people as we passed their houses, and as we met them on our way; and\nto the children as we passed the country school houses. In this way, by\npersistent work, we changed the public opinion upon the matter and fired\nthe hearts of the people with a burning indignation against the liquor\ntraffic, by which they were made poor and kept poor.\n\nThis work was continued for several years without intermission; we had a\ndefinite object in view, and that was to overthrow the liquor traffic, to\noutlaw it, to put it under the ban, and to drive it out as a pestilent\nthing, the whole influence of which was to spread poverty, pauperism,\nsuffering, wretchedness and crime broadcast among the people, at the same\ntime that no possible good came from it. In due time we made earnest\napplication to the legislature for a law of prohibition, but our prayers\nwere not heeded. We were regarded as having no rights which politicians\nwere bound to respect, and we were treated with small courtesy. We soon\ntook in the situation, and addressed ourselves at once to the only\ninstrumentality through which we could possibly succeed\u2014that is, the\nballot box. We sent in great numbers of petitions to the legislature, but\nwe were beaten by more than two to one. At the next election we swept the\nState House clear of almost every man who had voted against us; we did\nthis irrespective of all party ties and affiliations.\n\nTo the legislature thus elected we sent no petitions; we went there in\nperson, with a bill all prepared, and offered it as one that would be\nacceptable to temperance men. It was on Friday, the 30th of May, 1851,\nthat we did this. We had a public hearing in the Representative Hall on\nthe afternoon of that day. Saturday, the 31st of May, was to be the last\nday of the session. The committee voted unanimously to accept the bill as\nit was, with no change whatever. It was printed on Friday night and laid\nupon the desks of the members the next morning. Immediately after the\nmorning hour it was taken up for consideration.\n\nNow this was the situation on that Saturday morning. The liquor traffic\nwas a lawful trade in Maine, as it was throughout the civilized world.\nThere were liquor shops, wholesale and retail, all over the state, with\nlarge stocks of liquor for sale, as there are now in all our states,\nwhere the traffic is yet prosecuted by authority of law, and under its\nprotection. The bill lying upon the members\u2019 desks proposed to change\nall that; it forbade the trade absolutely; it declared that there was\nno property in intoxicating liquors kept for unlawful sale; that such\nliquors so kept, or supposed to be so kept, should be seized on complaint\nand warrant, or on sight, without warrant, and should be confiscated and\ndestroyed, unless the claimant could show to the satisfaction of the\ncourt that they were not intended for sale. They might be seized wherever\nseen; on railway cars, on steamboats, or in transitu by any other mode\nof transportation; they might be hunted like wild and dangerous beasts,\nand like them, if resistance was offered, they might be destroyed upon\nthe spot. If it be decided that the liquors are kept for unlawful sale,\nthe party is sentenced, in addition to the loss of the liquor, to a fine\nof one hundred dollars and costs, and on the second conviction, to the\nsame fine and to imprisonment at hard labor for six months. And it was\nexpressly provided that no action should be had or maintained in any\ncourt in the state for the recovery of intoxicating liquors nor for the\nvalue thereof. The liquor traffic was put by that bill outside the law,\nbeyond its protection, and was denounced as an enemy to the state and\npeople\u2014utterly inconsistent with the public welfare.\n\nOn that Saturday this extraordinary measure, such as had never been heard\nof in the world before, with no change whatever, was passed through all\nits stages to be enacted, and on Monday, at nine o\u2019clock in the morning,\nit was approved by the Governor, and from that moment it was the law,\nbecause the act provided that it should take effect when signed by the\nexecutive. All the stocks of liquors in the state were then liable to\nbe seized and destroyed, but the local authorities allowed the parties\nhaving them in possession a reasonable time in which to \u201csend them away\nto other states and countries where they could be lawfully sold;\u201d and\nthis was done. There was a hasty departure of these liquors from all\nparts of the state. It was not an appeal to the legislature by petitions\nthat accomplished this wonderful overturn in the status of the liquor\ntraffic in Maine, it was simply and only because the people put their\nwill in relation to it into the ballot box. There is no other way in\nwhich it can be done in any other states, or in the nation. This movement\nagainst the liquor traffic is now, as it was then, a far more important\npolitical question than any other, more important than all others\ncombined, to every interest of the nation, state, and people. What has\nbeen the result of this legislation?\n\n\u201cIn some places liquor is sold secretly in violation of law, as many\nother offences are committed against the statutes, but in large\ndistricts of the state, the liquor traffic is nearly or quite unknown,\nwhere formerly it was carried on like any other trade.\n\n                                                \u201cSIDNEY PERHAM,\n                                                     \u201cGovernor of Maine.\u201d\n\n\u201cI can and do, from my own personal observation, unhesitatingly affirm\nthat the consumption of intoxicating liquors in Maine is not to-day\none-fourth so great as it was twenty years ago; in the country portions\nof the state the sale and use have almost entirely ceased. In my opinion\nour remarkable temperance reform of to-day is the legitimate child of the\nlaw.\n\n                                                  \u201cWM. P. FRYE,\n                       \u201cM. C. of Maine, and ex-Att\u2019y Gen\u2019l of the State.\u201d\n\n\u201cI have the honor unhesitatingly to concur in the opinions expressed in\nthe foregoing by my colleague, Hon. Wm. Frye.\n\n                                                    \u201cLOT M. MORRILL,\n                                                          \u201cU. S. Senate.\u201d\n\n\u201cI concur in the foregoing statements; and on the point of the relative\namount of liquors sold at present in Maine and in those states where a\nsystem of license prevails, I am very sure from personal knowledge and\nobservation that the sales are immeasurably less in Maine.\n\n                                                    \u201cJ. G. BLAINE,\n                                \u201cSpeaker U. S. House of Representatives.\u201d\n\n\u201cI concur in the statements made by Mr. Frye. Of the great good produced\nby the Prohibitory Liquor Law of Maine, no man can doubt who has seen its\nresult. It has been of immense value.\n\n                                                      \u201cH. HAMLIN,\n                                                          \u201cU. S. Senate.\u201d\n\n\u201cWe are satisfied that there is much less intemperance in Maine than\nformerly, and that the result is largely produced by what is termed\nprohibitory legislation.\n\n                                          \u201cJOHN A. PETERS, M. C of Maine.\n                                          \u201cEUGENE HALE, M. C. of Maine.\u201d\n\n\u201cI fully concur in the statement of my colleague, Mr. Frye, in regard to\nthe effect of the enforcement of the liquor law in the state of Maine.\n\n                                            \u201cJOHN LYNCH, M. C. of Maine.\u201d\n\nThese certificates are from both Senators and all the Representatives of\nMaine in Congress.\n\nThese statements are indorsed by many mayors and ex-mayors of cities, and\nmany other officials in every part of the state; by General Chamberlaine,\nex-Governor and President of Bowdoin College, and by many clergymen in\nevery county in the state.\n\nThe convention of Good Templars resolved, \u201cThat by the operation of\nthe Maine law in this state, the traffic in intoxicating liquors has\nbeen greatly diminished, and that the happy effects of this change are\neverywhere apparent, and that the quantity of liquors now sold in this\nstate can not be one-tenth as much as it was formerly.\u201d\n\nThe State Conventions of the Republican party of Maine have always\nadopted resolves relating to this matter. I have some of them before me\nnow.\n\nRepublican State Convention of 1878: \u201cTemperance among the people may\nbe greatly promoted by wise prohibitory legislation, as well as by all\nthose moral agencies which have secured us beneficent results; and it\nis a source of congratulation that the principle of prohibition, which\nhas always been upheld by Republicans, is now concurred in by so large\na majority of the people that it is no longer a party question, the\nDemocrats having for several years declined to contest and dispute\nit.\u201d 1879: \u201cWe recognize temperance as a cause which has conferred\nthe greatest benefits on the state, and we sustain the principle of\nprohibition which in its operation has so largely suppressed liquor\nselling, and added incalculably to the sum of virtue and prosperity among\nthe people.\u201d 1880: \u201cExperience has demonstrated the wisdom of the policy\nof prohibition as an auxiliary of temperance, and as contributing to the\nmaterial wealth, happiness and prosperity of the state; and we refer with\nconfidence and pride to an undeviating support of the same as one of the\ncardinal principles of the Republican party of Maine.\u201d\n\nThere was no election in 1881, and no convention, but the resolve of 1882\nis:\n\n    \u201cWe refer with confidence and pride to the general result of\n    the Republican party in support of the policy of prohibiting\n    the traffic in intoxicating liquors, the wisdom and efficiency\n    of which legislation in promoting the moral and material\n    interests of Maine have been demonstrated through the practical\n    annihilation of that traffic in a large portion of the state;\n    and we favor such legislation and such enforcement of law as\n    will secure to every portion of our territory freedom from that\n    traffic. We further recommend the submission to the people of a\n    prohibitory Constitutional amendment.\u201d\n\nSuch is the latest authoritative and comprehensive testimony to the\nactual results of prohibition in Maine. Similar testimonies could easily\nbe obtained from the most influential sources in every part of the state.\nEvery brewery and distillery has been suppressed. Molasses, which is yet\nimported into the state in large quantities, is no longer converted into\nrum, but is used exclusively for domestic purposes, while a large part of\nit is converted into sugar by improved processes. The share of Maine of\nthe national drink bill would be about $13,000,000, but I am far within\nthe truth in saying that one million will cover the cost of all liquors\nsmuggled into the state in violation of law. From the poorest state in\nthe Union, Maine has become one of the most prosperous, and it has gained\nimmeasurably in many other ways from the policy of prohibition.\n\n\n\n\nTHE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS OF BOSTON.\n\nBy E. E. HALE.\n\n\nI.\n\nIt was the morning after the funeral. Aunt Fanny had tried to make the\nbreakfast seem cheerful to the children, or at least tolerable. She had\nherself gone into the kitchen to send up some trifle a little out of the\nway for the family meal. She talked to the children of the West, of the\nways in which her life in Wisconsin differed from their lives in Boston.\nAnd Aunt Fanny succeeded so far that George passed his plate for oatmeal\na second time, and little Sibyl did not ask leave to go before her aunt\nhad poured out her second cup of coffee.\n\nAunt Fanny made the breakfast as long as she could. Then she folded her\nnapkin slowly, and led the children into the other room for morning\nprayer. They read the last chapter of Proverbs, and then all knelt down\nand said the Lord\u2019s Prayer. Then Aunt Fanny took Nahum\u2019s hand and took\nlittle Sibyl on her lap, and she said to all four of the children, \u201cIt is\nvery hard for us all, dear children, but I must tell you all about what\nthe plans are. I have a letter from Uncle Cephas, and you know I had a\nlong talk with Mr. Alfred after he came here yesterday. We will not break\nup here yet.\u201d\n\n\u201cOh, I am so glad of that,\u201d said poor, sturdy Belle, who generally said\nso little.\n\n\u201cNo, we will not break up here yet. In the spring we will all go to\nWisconsin, and you shall learn to like my home at Harris as much as you\nlike Roxbury.\u201d So spoke Aunt Fanny, as cheerfully as she could. And not\ndaring to wait a reply, she hurried on: \u201cSee here, Uncle George writes\nthat I may stay till late in March, or early in April, if I think best,\nbut that then we must all be ready to go on.\u201d\n\nYou must know that the four children were orphans. Their father had died\nin April, and now, in the middle of December, their mother had died. Aunt\nFanny had been with them for the last month. But she knew, and they knew,\nthat their pleasant home was to be broken up forever.\n\n\u201cAnd now,\u201d she said, \u201cwe must all see what we have to do this winter, to\nbe ready for Wisconsin. Belle and Sibyl, you may come up stairs with me,\nand we will look through your clothes and the boys\u2019. I must not be lazy\nthis winter, and I will have it for my morning work to put everything in\norder.\u201d\n\nAnd when they came up stairs, and this business like, energetic Belle\ntook their frocks and underclothes from the drawers, Aunt Fanny was\nindeed surprised. The girl was grave beyond her years; so long had her\npoor mother been ill, and so much of the care of the family had fallen\non her. \u201cI should think you were an old housekeeper,\u201d said Aunt Fanny,\nin admiration, as Belle explained how she had mended this, and, on the\nwhole, determined to retain that. And when Belle took her into the little\nroom which she called the \u201csewing room,\u201d and showed her drawers, and even\nshirts for the boys, which she had under way, Aunt Fanny squarely told\nher that she was quite her own equal in such management.\n\n\u201cHow did ever come to be such a thorough seamstress?\u201d said she. \u201cDear\nMary has been sick so long that I had somehow imagined that such things\nas these must slip by.\u201d\n\n\u201cOh! of course mamma told us everything. But you know we learn this at\nschool.\u201d\n\n\u201cI do not know any such thing,\u201d confessed Aunt Fanny, promptly.\n\n\u201cOh, yes,\u201d said Belle, \u201cwe learn more or we learn less. But so soon as I\nfound I could help mamma about it I went into the advanced class. There\nwe learned to cut shirts and to make them. I can make a shirt now as\nwell as anybody,\u201d said the girl, laughing. \u201cBut of course I do not in\npractice.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhy of course?\u201d persisted Aunt Fanny.\n\nBelle opened her eyes as much as to say, \u201cHow little these people in\nWisconsin know.\u201d But she did not say so in words, she only said: \u201cOh,\nI can buy my collars and wristbands and fronts ready made a great deal\ncheaper than I can make them, if my time is worth anything. And you must\nnot laugh, Aunt Fanny, but papa said my time is worth a good deal.\u201d\n\nAunt Fanny did not laugh. She smiled very kindly, and drew Belle to her\nand kissed her.\n\n\u201cYou see, the boys run the machine for me, and Sibyl can do perfectly\nwell any plain sewing we need. We do not think a set of shirts such\na very heavy job,\u201d said the little matron, quite unconscious of the\namusement she was giving Aunt Fanny.\n\n\u201cDo you mean that every girl in Boston learns to do this?\u201d\n\n\u201cWhy yes, if she goes to a public school. She learns it, or she may. I\nthink perhaps she might shirk a good deal. But if the teacher sees you\nare interested, and you do as well as you can, she helps you on. I know\na great many girls who have made dresses for their friends. And I know\nthere are girls who went directly to dress-makers from schools, and\nearned good wages at once. Some girls, you know, have a gift for cutting\nand fitting.\u201d\n\n\nII.\n\nIt must be confessed that Aunt Fanny went down stairs a little relieved\nin mind after this talk with Belle. Here was one, at least, of her little\ncharges, who would be worth her weight in the new home to which they\nwere to be transferred. As the boys came in from school, she had another\nsuch lesson. She asked Nahum who would be a good man to whom to send her\ntrunk, which needed some repair. The boy gave her his views, and then\nasked what she wanted to have done. Aunt Fanny explained that in coming\non she had, wisely or not, left the dress tray of her trunk at home. In\ngoing back she was sure she would need a tray, and she must have a new\none made.\n\n\u201cIs that all?\u201d said Nahum. \u201cI should never send to Sage\u2019s for that.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat would you do?\u201d asked Aunt Fanny.\n\n\u201cI should make the tray myself,\u201d said Nahum, quite unconsciously. \u201cWhen\nBelle made her famous visit to Swampscott, she found that that trunk\nshe has now would not take in some dandy-jack hat she wanted to carry.\nAnd I made a new tray for her.\u201d So he brought his aunt to the \u201ctrunk\ncloset,\u201d dragged out Belle\u2019s trunk, and showed her a neat tray, made of\nwhite-wood, and very perfectly fitted. \u201cIs that good enough?\u201d asked the\nboy.\n\nOf course it was good enough, and Aunt Fanny explained that she had not\nknown that Nahum was fond of tools.\n\n\u201cOh, I might have been as fond of tools as of candy,\u201d said Nahum. \u201cBut\nthat would not have come out for much. I learned to handle tools at\nschool.\u201d\n\n\u201cSchool!\u201d said Aunt Fanny.\n\n\u201cYes, they wanted to try it at the Dwight, where I was. So they got some\nbenches put into the Ward Room, which is in their building, and is only\nused by the voters twice a year. They had a first rate teacher, Mr.\nBatchelder. We had one lesson a week. They would not let us go on unless\nwe kept up in the regular school lessons. So it made the fellows spur up,\nI tell you, because we all liked the shop, though that was extra.\u201d\n\n\u201cHow many lessons have you had?\u201d said Aunt Fanny.\n\n\u201cOh, I was in the first class, and so I had only one year\u2019s course. It\nwas eighteen lessons. The first day we tried to strike square blows with\nthe hammer. Some of us did not strike very square, I tell you. All the\nbeginning with nails came the first day. The last lesson was \u2018planing and\nsquaring, marking, making tenon, making mortise, and fastening mortise\nand tenon.\u2019 I wrote a letter to another fellow, and I copied it from the\nschool regulations.\u201d\n\nSo Nahum went out to his own work shop in the shed, which, as it\nhappened, Aunt Fanny had never seen before, because Nahum kept it under\nhis own key. In the afternoon the tray was made.\n\n\u201cThis will make you no end of comfort in Wisconsin, Nahum.\u201d\n\n\u201cBut if I am to do carpenter work, really,\u201d said the boy, \u201cI ought to go\nto the Technology.\u201d\n\nHe meant to the Institute of Technology.\n\n\u201cWould you like to go there?\u201d\n\n\u201cOf course I would. Why, if I went there I could make the frame of my own\nhouse, and raise it, if the neighbors would help.\u201d\n\nNor was the boy wrong. And his Aunt Fanny and Uncle Asaph determined he\nshould go, and go he did. He spent three months of that winter there,\nfour days of every week; and worked steadily eight hours a day. Still it\nwas different from what it would have been had he gone to a carpenter as\nan apprentice. For then he would have had to do whatever the carpenter\nwas doing; and he would have had to take his chance for instruction. But\nat the Technology he had regular teachers and regular practical lessons.\nOf course he needed practice, and in the long run, it is only practice\nwhich makes a first rate workman. But at the end, he had seen every\nimportant part of a good carpenter\u2019s work done, he knew why it was done,\nand had had a hand in the doing of it.\n\nThe Institute of Technology is not a public school as the Dwight School\nis, where Nahum had picked up his elementary instruction; and for his\nlessons here they had to pay thirty dollars. But when, the next summer,\nall the barns on his uncle\u2019s farm in Harris were carried fourteen miles\nby a tornado, and Nahum found himself directing the framing of a new\nbarn, and doing half the work, he and his aunt thought that those thirty\ndollars had been well invested.\n\nShe took very good care that George should go into the carpenter\u2019s class\nat the Dwight School while they staid in Boston. He would not have been\nobliged to go. No scholar took this course, excepting as an extra, but\n_he_ took it because he wanted to. And, as Nahum had said, they were\nobliged to keep in good standing in their other studies.\n\nAs for little Sibyl, Aunt Fanny judged, after full consultation with\nher confidential adviser, Belle, that Sibyl had better stay where she\nwas\u2014at the Grammar School. Aunt Fanny went down and made a state call on\nMiss Throckmorton, the teacher of the school, and also saw Miss Bell,\nthe sewing teacher. She explained to them that while she did not want\nto break any school rules, she should be well pleased to have as much\nattention as possible given to Sibyl\u2019s sewing. Miss Bell was really\npleased with the attention. She said a good many parents did not seem to\ncare anything about it. But if Sibyl would really give her mind to it,\nshe would see that she was able, before she left them in the spring, to\ncut and fit a frock for Aunt Fanny or for her sister. And before they\nwent to Wisconsin, it proved that Miss Bell was as good as her word to\nher little friend, and Sibyl made a very pretty dress for Aunt Fanny,\nbefore she left school.\n\n\nIII.\n\nAs Aunt Fanny herself made her inquiries into these practical matters,\nshe resolved to try an experiment, which she would have laughed at when\nshe left Wisconsin. She was asked to a lunch party of ladies one day, and\nwas a little amused and a little amazed at first, when she observed how\nmuch they said about what they had to eat. Aunt Fanny had been trained\nto a little of the western ridicule of Boston, and had supposed that a\nbubble rechauff\u00e9e or a fried rainbow was the most material article that\nanybody would discuss. And here these ladies were volubly telling of the\nmerits of oysters in batter and oysters in crumbs\u2014of one and another way\nto serve celery\u2014in a detail which Aunt Fanny found quite puzzling, and,\nindeed, quite out of place in the manners to which she had been bred,\nwhich had taught her never to criticise what was on the table.\n\nPerhaps her silence showed her surprise. This is certain, that all of a\nsudden a very pretty and gay Mrs. Fr\u00e9chette turned round and said, \u201cHere\nis Mrs. Turnbull, horrified because we talk so much of what we eat. Dear\nMrs. Turnbull, it is not what we eat, it is the cooking we care for.\nYou must know we have all been to the Cooking Schools\u2014all who are not\nmanagers.\u201d\n\nAunt Fanny confessed that she had been puzzled a little, and Mrs.\nFr\u00e9chette and Mrs. Champernom, her hostess, explained. In point of fact\nthis very lunch had been cooked, \u201cFrom egg to apple,\u201d as the Romans would\nsay, by Mrs. Champernom and her two daughters. It may be worth while,\ntherefore, to give the bill of fare:\n\n                        Raw Oysters on the shell.\n                            Bouillon in cups.\n                   Scalloped Lobster in its own shell.\n                   Quails on Toast, with White Sauce.\n                     Sweet Breads, with Green Peas.\n                           Capons, with Salad.\n              Ice Creams.      Frozen Pudding.      Jelly.\n                           Fruit.      Coffee.\n\nHow good cooks the mother and daughters had been before, they did not\nexplain. But these particular results were due to their training at the\nCooking School. They had made the rolls as well.\n\n\u201cI came out of it so well,\u201d said Mrs. Champernom, laughing, \u201cand Mary\nFlannegan approved the results so well, that when I told her and Ellen\nFlynn, my waiter girl, that if they liked to go to the cooks\u2019 class,\nwhich is a class for special instruction to servant girls, I would pay\nhalf, they both consented to go; Mary Flannegan to keep Ellen Flynn\ncompany, and to see that she was not taught wrong. The cooks\u2019 class is\ntwelve lessons, and costs three dollars each. I shall pay a dollar and\na half for each of them, and as Ellen Flynn is a bright girl, I shall\nhave four good cooks in the house instead of three. For really,\u201d she\nsaid, \u201cthere is nothing that Hester and Maria can not do. They went down\nto the beach with their father and the boys, and for a week they cooked\neverything that was eaten. They made the boys wash the dishes.\u201d\n\nThis started Aunt Fanny herself. She found there were four classes she\ncould attend:\n\n1. The Cooks\u2019 Class, for people who had some experience. Twelve lessons\nwould have cost three dollars.\n\n2. The Beginners\u2019 Class of twenty lessons, for which she must pay eight\ndollars. Here she would be trained to make bread, and to prepare the\nordinary dishes for family use at breakfast and dinner and supper.\n\n3. The Second Class, also of twenty lessons, but more advanced. Here\nshe must pay twelve dollars. But here more elegant dishes, what Mrs.\nFr\u00e9chette called \u201ccompany dishes,\u201d were part of the program.\n\n4. What Mrs. Fr\u00e9chette called \u201cThe Swell Course.\u201d Here every lady paid\nfifteen dollars for her twenty lessons. _Per contra_, they had what they\ncooked, and very jolly parties they seemed to make, when they dared ask\ntheir friends to their entertainments.\n\nAunt Fanny was a good housekeeper, but she thought she should like to\nastonish her friends at Harris with some of the best seaboard elegancies,\nso she and Belle entered the \u201csecond class.\u201d And pleasant and profitable\nthey found it.\n\n\nIV.\n\n\u201cSibyl, my dear,\u201d said Aunt Fanny one morning, \u201cI have only just found\nout that you and Belle make my bed. You need not do it again; I always\nmake it at home, and I should have done it here, but you have been too\nquick for me.\u201d\n\n\u201cWe shall not give you a chance, Aunt Fanny; we shall not let you.\u201d\n\n\u201cBut when do you do it, you little witches; you are always at breakfast\nand at prayers; and when I go up into my room, it is all in order. I\nsupposed Delia did it while we were at breakfast.\u201d\n\nThen, with much joking, it was made clear that every day, while Aunt\nFanny saw George and Nahum off, and spoke to the butcher in the kitchen,\nSibyl and Belle slipped up stairs, and \u201cdid\u201d her room.\n\n\u201cThat is a piece of your dear mother\u2019s training,\u201d said Aunt Fanny, as she\npatted Sibyl\u2019s head.\n\n\u201cAs it happens, it is, Aunt Fanny,\u201d said Belle. \u201cBut dear mamma said even\nshe got points from Miss Homans, and I am sure Sibyl and I both learned\nthe reasons of some things at the Kindergarten that we did not know\nbefore.\u201d\n\n\u201cReasons for making a bed,\u201d said Aunt Fanny. \u201cWhy, you do not tell me\nthat you learn to make beds at school.\u201d\n\n\u201cWe did not, because mamma had taught us. But the kitchen Kindergarten\nwas such fun that we liked to go; and if you like to see it, we will take\nyou.\u201d So Aunt Fanny was taken to see that very pretty sight. And she\nunderstood at once, how even very little children can be taught housework\nthoroughly, and taught to like it too. Each child had a doll\u2019s bed to\nmake, and to unmake; and each child, in unison with thirty or forty\nothers, made it and unmade it, singing little songs and going through\nother such exercise as made the thing amusing, while it was methodical.\nIn the same way each child set a baby house table with the most perfect\nprecision, and swept a floor, and dusted a room. It was play to them, but\nthey learned what they never forgot, as Aunt Fanny had occasion to see\nevery day in the neat order of her dear brother\u2019s orphaned household.\n\nThus was it that it happened that when Aunt Fanny took home in April her\nlittle flock of orphans, she did not bring to their wholly new life four\nmere cumberers of the ground.\n\n    NOTE.\u2014In preparing this little sketch of \u201cIndustrial Education in\n    Boston,\u201d at Dr. Flood\u2019s request, I have selected what seem to me,\n    on the whole, the most important branches of such education for\n    illustration. It has not seemed advisable to introduce too much\n    detail.\n\n    1. The instruction in sewing is given in all public schools to\n    all girls.\n\n    2. The instruction in carpenter work has been attempted only in\n    two public schools. A central school is now to be established,\n    where classes of volunteers from the different grammar schools\n    will be received. The full course described, of eight hours a\n    day, for four days a week, of thirteen weeks, is one of the\n    Technology courses, and there is a fee for instruction.\n\n    3. The Cooking Schools are under the direction of a society for\n    that purpose. It also maintains Normal Classes for teachers of\n    cooking. Different churches and charitable societies maintain\n    free cooking classes, and free carpenter classes.\n\n    4. Drawing is taught in all public schools.\n\n    5. Schools of design and of carving are maintained by different\n    societies.\n\n    I have confined myself to instruction which is to a certain\n    extent training in handiwork, and in this I have not included\n    musical or other artistic performance.\n\n\n\n\nECHOES FROM A CHAUTAUQUA WINTER.\n\nBy REV. H. H. MOORE.\n\n\nNow that winter is gone and the time for the singing of birds is near,\nthe readers of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, especially those who have spent a summer\nat this place, will inquire: \u201cHow does Chautauqua appear in autumn, with\nflowers withered, trees naked, and not a robin or thrush to be seen or\nheard? What a contrast must be the sudden change from a summer world to\nthe wild desolations of a semi-Arctic winter!\u201d and perhaps it seems to\nthem that the place was dead and buried beneath a monument of snow and\nice. A feeling of chilliness comes over them, and possibly they half\nresolve never to visit these groves again. Pity, and possibly a prayer\nare indulged for the poor unfortunates resident here. Lonesome things,\nshut up in the woods, how can they stand it? With all respect and due\nthanks for good intentions, we will excuse the pity, that it may be\nbestowed where it is more needed, and will be better appreciated. If\ncontentment, good cheer, and the elements of good society can be found\nanywhere, it is at Chautauqua.\n\nLet man\u2019s environments, duties and responsibilities be what they may,\nif his mind and heart are in harmony and sympathy with them, he is\nsatisfied, and at rest.\n\nIf Chautauqua is stirring and rosy and beautiful in summer to all people,\nto a nature that can appreciate it it is gorgeous, savage, grand and\nthoughtful in winter. At the one season we float carelessly along in\nthe midst of scenes of sunshine, loveliness and gaiety; at the other\nwe are more, alone with God, we commune with the stars, and become\nfamiliar with the sterner aspects of life. The change from one season\nto another is simply turning over a leaf in the book of nature, and\nreceiving additional instruction, but of equal value. To our astronomers,\nthe heavens, whenever they could be seen, have presented an aspect of\nsurpassing beauty. Just after sunset in the west, Venus, from beyond\nthe sun has been seen climbing toward the zenith, and is now rapidly\napproaching the earth, dropping down between it and the sun; we have\nswept by fiery Mars, which has been nearly over our heads during the\nwinter; further to the east, Jupiter and Saturn have held high court;\nover the southern heavens has swept Sirius, the brightest star to be\nseen; to the north and northwest, Vega, the largest of the stars yet\nmeasured, has been steadily looking down upon us, and to crown all,\nOrion, the most magnificent of the constellations has illumined the\nsouthern sky.\n\nJanuary was a month of storms, and often did we contrast its desolations\nwith the excitement of a summer Assembly, but such was our satisfaction\nwith the present that we were in no haste for a change. The wild, weird\nelements of the season interested us; the opportunity afforded for\nreading, rest and recuperation was what was needed, and we felt that\nthese things could not be too long continued. What, have the beautiful\nlake ice-locked for months, and used as a public highway? Listen day and\nnight to the moaning and howling of the winds as they swept through\nthe branches of the naked trees, often threatening to tear them up by\nthe roots? Live weeks together without sight of the sun by day, or of\na star by night? Yes, for all these things accorded with each other,\nand with the general aspect of nature. The music was of a _class_, and\neach note was in harmony with the general movement of the grand anthem.\nWhen nature had savagely arrayed itself in frost and snow and cloud and\ntempest, hiding the earth and filling the heavens, had the sun put in an\nappearance what a ghastly display would it have made! But in the midst\nof this desolation the snow-birds appeared, and they were beautiful,\nfor they were the flowers of the season. We realized that the power of\nharmony could be heard in a tempest as well as in a seraph\u2019s song. It is\nthe extreme of folly to waste a winter watching for the coming of spring.\nThe soul that is free from shams and is a pure part of nature itself, is\nattuned to the real and the true, and accepts the nature that is as the\nbest, and would resolutely resist a change.\n\nOur snow storm continued about twenty-eight days, and its coming was\nheralded by the play of lightning and the music of thunder. It never\nceased to be a pleasure to watch the falling of the snow; to see the\ncuriously wrought crystals drift out of the sky down among the branches\nof the trees, filling the air till it seemed mantled in white\u2014a new\ncreation. As an aid to the expression of our feelings we read the poem of\nEmerson. We quote a few lines:\n\n    \u201cCome see the north wind\u2019s masonry,\n     Out of an unseen quarry evermore\n     Furnished with tile, the fierce artificer\n     Curves his white bastions with projected roof.\n     Round every windward stake, or tree, or door,\n     Speeding, the myriad-handed, his wild work\n     So fanciful, so savage, naught cares he\n     For number or proportion. Mockingly\n     On coop, or kennel he hangs Parian wreaths.\n     A swan-like form invests the hidden thorn,\n     Fills up the farmer\u2019s lane from wall to wall\n     Maugre the farmer\u2019s sighs; and at the gate\n     A tapering turret overtops the work,\n     And when his hours are numbered, and the world\n     Is all his own, retiring, as he were not,\n     Leaves when the sun appears, astonished Art\n     To mimic in slow structures, stone by stone\n     Built in an age, the mad wind\u2019s night work\n     The frolic architecture of the snow.\u201d\n\nHad the storm completed its work in a day, the snow at Chautauqua would\nhave been from six to ten feet deep; but as it extended over the most of\na month, changing occasionally into rain, it became so packed that at no\ntime was it more than three feet deep. On some of the buildings, where\ntwo roofs met at right-angles it was six or eight feet deep at the angle.\nBut we suffered no inconvenience from the long storm. Our stalwart young\nmen, with heavy teams and strong-built snow-plows, kept the streets open\nto all parts of the grounds. For a short time, as our greatest trouble,\nin common with other places, we were a little vexed because of the\nirregularities of the mail.\n\nBut in our safe retreat we could but think of the time when this immense\nmass of snow would melt away, perhaps attended by falling rain, and of\nthe suffering which the floods would cause in the valleys below. Our\ngravest apprehensions have since been more than realized. As the snows\ndisappeared the waters of the lake began to rise, and the low lands about\nAshville, the Narrows, Griffiths, and other places were flooded, and the\narea of the lake was sensibly enlarged. The upper dock at Chautauqua\nstood out at least two rods in the lake, and in the baggage room, by\nactual measurement, the water stood fourteen inches deep. As the stage of\nwater was unprecedented, we intend to sink a stone at high water mark as\na monument of the phenomenal flood of the year 1884.\n\nUp to the 15th of January the game laws permit our fishermen to take\nwith spear pickerel from the lake, through the ice, and the time was\nwell improved, but with poor success. An almost air-tight house, about\nfour feet square, is placed on the ice where the water is from twelve to\nfifteen feet deep. Brush and snow are packed about the base of the house,\nand not a ray of light is allowed to enter; then the fisherman, closely\nshut inside, can see into the clear water, but the fish cannot catch a\nglimpse of anything in the house. Having thus taken all the advantages\nto himself, he keeps a decoy chub moving about in the water, and as the\npickerel comes in sight to seize its prey, it is saluted with the deadly\nspear. One year ago tons of pickerel were taken from the lake, and many\nof them were shipped to distant cities as rare luxuries; but this has\nbeen a very unfavorable season, for which all Chautauquans should be\nthankful. During the legal fishing season, the wind was in the north,\nand at such times, the fishermen say, the fish keep in deep water, and\nwill not \u201crun.\u201d However, some were taken, and those left we may troll for\nduring the August Assembly.\n\nWhen the ice in the lake was at its best, the Assembly ice house and many\nindividual houses were filled, and in that respect we are prepared for a\nlong, hot summer, and for supplying the wants of the thousands of people\nwho may visit the place in July and August.\n\nLate last autumn, quite a company of old Chautauquans repaired to Florida\nto spend the winter; but fifty-nine families remained, and some that left\nus have returned, so that the place is blest with the elements of good\nsociety. The Sabbath services are largely attended; a choir of excellent\nsingers adds much to the interest of the occasion. The average attendance\nat the Sunday-school was about ninety-six during the winter. It is\nthoroughly manned and well supplied with lesson helps. The assistant\nsuperintendent, A. P. Wilder, deserves much credit for the prosperity\nof the school. The social and devotional exercises of the church are\nspiritual, and special attention is given by competent teachers to the\nreligious education of the children. Thus an intelligent and Christian\nclass of people are keeping watch and ward of Chautauqua interests in the\nabsence of the Assembly authorities.\n\nThe local C. L. S. C. is under the direction of Mrs. Sarah Stephens, a\nlady graduate, who brings to her duties, ability, culture, and the ardor\nof woman\u2019s heart. She follows closely the prescribed course of study, and\nby the general circulation of written questions, endeavors to reach and\ninterest the entire community. The meetings are held Tuesday evenings, in\nthe chapel, and are largely attended by enthusiastic students. Most of\nthe people here live at their leisure, and much of their time is given to\nreading and study. I have noticed that subjects discussed at the C. L. S.\nC. meetings often come up for further examination in shops, stores, on\nthe street, and in the family, and these discussions I judge go far to\nfix in the mind the subjects discussed. At any rate they are a splendid\nsubstitute for the empty or slanderous gossip which is bred in minds that\nhave nothing else to do.\n\nThe Good Templars hold their meetings on Friday night and occasionally\nfavor the public with a lecture. Sometime in the winter, under the\nauspices of the order, an oyster festival was given which brought\ntogether a large crowd. The evening was devoted to feasting, music,\ngossip and addresses. It was really an enjoyable occasion, without any\ndiscount. The addresses were so well received as to elicit, in miniature,\nthe \u201cChautauqua salute.\u201d\n\nTo accommodate the little folks who were not able to go outside the gates\nto the public school, Miss Carrie Leslie has kept a private school, and\ngiven entire satisfaction.\n\nNot much has been done during the winter in the way of building and\nimprovements. Late in autumn, A. Norton, Esq., commenced the erection of\na fine cottage, at the corner of Vincent and Terrace Avenues, which is\nnow nearing completion. He is building a private cottage for a permanent\nhome, and will expend upon house and lot from $2,500 to $3,000. The Rev.\nFrank Russell, D. D., of Mansfield, Ohio, has under way a unique cottage,\na little back of the Amphitheater, which, when completed, will present a\nfine appearance. The prospect from his upper verandas will be the widest\nand best on the grounds, away from the lake.\n\nThe Sixby store, embracing dry goods, groceries, drugs, and hardware,\nunder the management of the gentlemanly and accommodating Mr. Herrick,\nhas been open during the winter, and has done a good business.\n\nWe have had some sickness and one death since the Assembly. Mr.\nCrossgrove, a very good man, came here some two years ago, the victim of\nconsumption, and passed away in September last, leaving a widow and other\nfriends to mourn their loss.\n\nThe first notes of preparation for the next Assembly have been heard. The\nappointment of Mr. W. A. Duncan as superintendent of grounds gives entire\nsatisfaction. A modification of policy in some respects is anticipated,\nwhich will reduce expenses and work general improvement.\n\nWe feel that we are nearing the time when a large group of boys will\nbe on the ground, receiving an education according to the _enlarged_\nChautauqua Idea.\n\nI am here interrupted by the tolling of our bell, reminding us of\nLongfellow, and one of our Memorial Days.\n\nChautauquans everywhere should know that the Chautauqua Vesper Service\nis read every Sunday eve, and that all these Chautauqua interests and\npeculiarities are cared for from one Assembly to another. Chautauqua\nis not a six weeks summer affair, but in spirit, and to some extent in\nform, it lives through all the months of the year, and twelve months are\nnone too many for the full development of all its interests. Again am I\ninterrupted, this time to attend a wedding at the parsonage, and here\nshall close this survey of Chautauqua in the winter season.\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. WORK.\n\nBy REV. J. H. VINCENT, D.D., SUPERINTENDENT OF INSTRUCTION.\n\n\nWill local circles please report to Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N.\nJ., as well as to THE CHAUTAUQUAN? Please attend to this.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPersons desiring graduates\u2019 badges in the C. L. S. C. should address Mrs.\nRosie M. Baketel, Methuen, Mass., as she has now entire charge of Mrs.\nBurroughs\u2019 business.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe _Saturday Union_, published in Lynn, Mass., contains a C. L. S. C.\ncolumn. The number for February 2 has an original Chautauqua song, and\na column and a half of questions and answers in Political Economy. The\nquestions are by Rev. R. H. Howard, A.M. This is an advance movement, and\nwill undoubtedly help our cause.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWill all members take notice not to send letters, postals or papers to me\nat Hartford, Connecticut? My personal postoffice address is Drawer 75,\nNew Haven, Conn.; Miss Kimball\u2019s address is Plainfield, N. J. Letters\naddressed to me at Plainfield are forwarded.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe _Alma Mater_, the new bi-monthly to be sent to all recorded members\nof the C. L. S. C. at Plainfield, N. J., will contain original answers\nby Dr. William M. Taylor, of the Broadway Tabernacle, New York City;\nDr. John Hall, Fifth Avenue Presbyterian Church, New York City; John\nWanamaker, Esq., of Philadelphia; Dr. R. M. Hatfield, of Chicago, Ill.;\nDr. Joseph T. Duryea, of Boston, and Prof. J. W. Dickinson, of Boston,\nwritten expressly for this number of the _Alma Mater_, to the following\nquestion: \u201cWhat advice do you give to a person who has had but little\nschool opportunity since he or she was fifteen years of age\u2014a person\nbusy in mechanical, commercial or domestic duties much of the time, who\ncomplains of a very poor memory, and desires to improve it\u2014how may such\nperson improve the memory?\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. Dr. A. M. Fairbairn, principal of Airedale College, Bradford,\nEngland, who was announced to give a course of lectures on the \u201cHistory\nof Philosophy\u201d at Chautauqua last summer, but who was detained at home\nby business connected with the college, writes to Dr. Vincent under date\nof January 29, 1884, as follows: \u201cI intend, all well, to be with you in\nAugust; the latter part of the month will be most convenient for me. The\nsubjects the same as before stated. Sincerely yours, A. M. Fairbairn.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPersons desiring copies of the Chautauqua Songs or of the Sunday Vesper\nService may procure them of Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J., at the\nrate of $2.00 per 100 copies each, postage paid.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere are some members of the class of 1887 who have not yet returned\nthe blank form of application. Such blank should be filled at once and\nforwarded to Miss K. F. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe badge of the C. L. S. C. furnished by Mr. Henry Hart is not in any\nsense an official badge, nor does the C. L. S. C. receive any percentage\nfrom the sale of the same. This has been offered, but not accepted. The\nbadges furnished by Mr. Hart are very beautiful. This is all that the\nofficers of the C. L. S. C. can say.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Alma Mater_ is the name of our new bi-monthly communication to be sent\nfrom the C. L. S. C. office at Plainfield to all members of the Circle\nwhose annual fees are paid. The first number will contain some valuable\nhints on \u201cMemory,\u201d \u201cThe Laws of Memory,\u201d etc., by prominent educators.\nThe second number of _Alma Mater_ will contain a very ingenious study\nin English\u2014a series entitled \u201cWhere the every-day words come from.\u201d\nCommunications to the members of the Circle which have heretofore been\nprinted separately, as well as the memoranda, will be published in the\n_Alma Mater_. All members whose names are recorded at Plainfield, and\nwhose annual fees are paid, will receive _Alma Mater_.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTo all recorded members whose annual fees are paid will be forwarded\nin March an envelope containing a _petite_ calendar for \u201984, a most\nhumorous, brilliant and effective tract on evolution entitled \u201cSaw-mill\nScience,\u201d a copy of the \u201cSunday Vesper Service,\u201d specimens of the new and\nbrilliant C. L. S. C. envelopes, and a copy of the little tract entitled\n\u201cMemorial Days.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Our Alma Mater._\u2014The contributions to this magazine are copyrighted, and\nare not designed for publication anywhere else than through this medium.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA correspondent kindly criticises a statement in the \u201cOutlines of Roman\nHistory,\u201d on page 68, in which it speaks of Polycarp as being in Rome\nin 240. Assuming that this is 240 A. D., he says: \u201cNow what Polycarp do\nyou mean? Not the disciple of John, who was afterward Bishop of Smyrna,\nfor, according to Prof. R. W. Hitchcock, the church historian, and other\nexcellent authorities, Polycarp suffered martyrdom between the years\n166 and 167 A. D.\u201d We referred the question of our critic to an expert\nin such matters, and this is the reply: \u201cIn all the authorities I find\nmention of but one Polycarp, the Disciple of John and Bishop of Smyrna,\nand his death is given as either 168 or 169, but they add that it is\nuncertain. As to the Polycarp mentioned by your critic, I feel sure that\nthere is a mistake, and Polycarp of Smyrna is meant, who did visit Rome\nduring the controversy about the celebration of Easter, probably about\n140 A. D. With dates it is easy to make a slip of a century, and probably\nthis was the trouble in this case; certainly there is no mention of a\nPolycarp in Rome as late as 240.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Chautauqua University is gradually developing its courses of study.\nThe preparatory and college courses in German, French, Latin, Greek and\nEnglish are already announced. A practical department has also been\nrecognized, and a corresponding class in connection with a technical\nschool for draftsmen and mechanics is now in full working order. The\nlesson papers prepared by Profs. Gribbon and Houghton are divided into\neight series of about twelve lessons each, treating upon the following\ntopics: First series, free-hand drawing; second, mechanical drafting;\nthird, fourth and fifth, geometry applied to carriage construction;\nsixth, miscellaneous problems in carriage construction; seventh, review\ntables useful in carriage construction; eighth, miscellaneous lessons.\nYoung men, apprentices, journeymen, and others desiring to take this\ncourse, should correspond at once with George W. Houghton, Esq.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere are many persons who are taking up the Chautauqua Spare-minute\nCourse, which is a course of readings, short, practical, simple,\nattractive, in biography, history, literature, science, and art. This\ncourse is printed in twenty-one Home College Series and in two numbers\nof the Chautauqua Text-Book Series. They cost in one package $1.00, sent\nby mail. The reading in this course can be carried along steadily, and,\nafter a while, one who has prosecuted the course will find himself well\nalong in the C. L. S. C.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe following pleasant little domestic picture comes from New Hampshire:\n\u201cI can not thank you enough for what the C. L. S. C. has done for us all.\nYou should see us some evening now. We sit around the table, every one\ninterested in some C. L. S. C. books. Even my little boy of seven years\nwill tease me to read aloud to him, and nearly every evening this month\ngets his dumb-bells, and wants to go through gymnastics with me.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMembers must not return memoranda to the Plainfield office until all the\nreading for the year has been completed.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA White Seal will be given all graduates of \u201984 who read the following:\n\u201cThe Hall in the Grove,\u201d \u201cHints for Home Reading,\u201d and the following\nnumbers of the \u201cHome College Series\u201d (price 5 cents each): No. 1, Thomas\nCarlyle; 2, Wm. Wordsworth; 4, Longfellow; 8, Washington Irving; 13,\nGeorge Herbert; 17, Joseph Addison; 18, Edmund Spenser; 21, Prescott; 23,\nWm. Shakspere; 26, John Milton. Address Phillips & Hunt.\n\n\n\n\nOUTLINE OF C. L. S. C. READINGS.\n\nAPRIL, 1884.\n\n\nThe Required Readings for April include the second half of Prof. W. C.\nWilkinson\u2019s \u201cPreparatory Latin Course in English,\u201d Chautauqua Text-Book\nNo. 16\u2014Roman History and the Required Readings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_First Week_ (ending April 8).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Latin Course\u201d from \u201cFifth\nBook,\u201d page 167 to the first paragraph on page 202.\n\n2. Readings in French History in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n3. Sunday Readings for April 6 in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Second Week_ (ending April 15).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Latin Course\u201d from the\nfirst paragraph on page 202 to the \u201cGeorgics\u201d on page 236.\n\n2. Readings in Art in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n3. Sunday Readings for April 13 in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Third Week_ (ending April 22).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Latin Course\u201d from the\n\u201cGeorgics,\u201d page 236 to the middle of page 272.\n\n2. Readings in Commercial Law and American Literature in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n3. Sunday Readings for April 20 in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Fourth Week_ (ending April 30).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Latin Course,\u201d from the\nmiddle of page 272 to the end of the volume.\n\n2. Readings in United States History in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n3. Sunday Readings for April 27 in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\n\n\nLOCAL CIRCLES.\n\n\nNow that Longfellow\u2019s Day is gone, we have no Memorial Day until April\n23rd. So many and so delightful are the ways of celebrating Shakspere\u2019s,\nthat it is to be hoped that every circle will do something extra. To\nread from Shakspere, to have an essay on his life, another on his\ncharacteristic as a writer, and a scene from a play, all followed by an\nelaborate supper, is the usual order. Do something new this time. Try\nShaksperean tableaux\u2014an evening of them, with music, is delightful. If\nthe expense of the \u201cproperties\u201d needed for successful tableaux is too\nheavy, dispense with the supper, and let the cost of butter, sugar, eggs,\nthe meats and fruits, be contributed for buying an apparatus which, once\nowned, will always be ready for use. Get Mr. George W. Bartlett\u2019s little\nbook on parlor plays, published by Dick & Fitzgerald, New York, and with\nlittle expense you will be able to prepare an excellent arrangement for\nthe tableaux which in Shakspere are \u201cas thickly strewn as leaves in\nVallambrosa.\u201d Or, if you wish to be strictly literary, take one character\nas Hermione, or Portia, or Cornelius, and read everything that has been\nsaid on it. Study one character thoroughly. Try a Shaksperean carnival.\nDo something fresh. Do not fall into the danger of wearing out the\npleasure of Memorial Days by monotony of program. There are an infinite\nvariety of means for brightening and freshening, not only special\noccasions, but the ordinary ones as well. One of the most entertaining\ndevices we have had comes in a breezy letter from =Titusville, Pa.=, a\nplace about fifty miles from Chautauqua, where there is an excellent\ncircle of fourteen members. Our friend writes: \u201cWe make it a point to\ncommit our text-books to memory and recite from them; but aim to bring\nin all the outside information possible, and to present and draw out\nideas suggested by our books, rather than simply to recite over what we\nhave been reading in them. In Greek history we found Adams\u2019s Historical\nchart very useful. By close study of various authorities we extemporized\na model of Athens, on a round table with green spread. My writing desk\nserved as the Acropolis, and paper bunched up under the cloth, as Mars\u2019\nHill, the Pnyx, etc. Out of the children\u2019s blocks we erected the various\nbuildings, while Noah\u2019s wife, clad in gilt paper, and mounted on a\nspool, rose in calm majesty from behind the Propylea. A slate frame,\nwith pasteboard porch on one side, decorated with paintings, represented\nthe Agora and Stoa Poecil\u00e9, and in the street of the Tripods a cologne\nbottle received great admiration as the choragic monument of Lysicrates.\nWavy strips of paper suggested the rippling Ilyssus and C\u00e9phisus, while\na wall of brown paper encircled the whole. Outside the city limits,\nunder the shadow of Lycabettus (brown paper with clay coating on the\nsummit,) on one side, and about a mile out on the other, flower pots with\ndrooping vines brought to mind the classic groves of Aristotle and Plato;\nwhile the street leading through the Ceramicus to the Academic shades\nof the latter, was lined on either side with chalk pencil monuments\nto the illustrious dead! This attempt met with so much favor that I\nwas prevailed upon to repeat it, substituting for the blocks cardboard\nmodels quite characteristic of the Parthenon, Erechtheum, etc., while the\nTheater of Dionysius, the Odeum of Jupiter, Cave of Pan, steps to the\nPropylea, and the Bema of the Pnyx, were done in clay. The hard names,\nin this way, soon became familiar, and each object served as a sort of\npeg upon which to hang a good amount of Grecian history and mythology.\nAfter reading, as a sort of finish, Mark Twain\u2019s account of his midnight\nvisit to Athens, we were quite possessed with the fancy that we, too, had\nbeen actual sight-seers in that wonderful city.\u201d Everybody that reads\nthis will undoubtedly feel as we do, that we would like to go back and\nread Greek history over again, for the sake of building up Athens; but\nwhy can we not utilize the idea when we read the voyage of \u00c6neas this\nmonth in the \u201cPreparatory Latin Course\u201d? And when we come to English\nhistory why not build a London? Plans like the above for interesting\ncircles must be supplemented by plans for keeping the members at work, a\nmatter especially difficult in large circles. In a late issue we called\nattention to the program plan used at =Union City, Ind.= The secretary\nhas kindly sent us an outline of their method, which we are sure will\nbe useful: \u201cWe prepare and have printed a neat program for four months,\ngiving the places and times of holding meetings, specifying the different\nexercises, with those who are to carry them out. These programs cost each\nof us about fifteen cents each, and enable us to have about five apiece.\nEach person knowing his duty, prepares for it from the beginning and no\nexcuse for non-performance of duty is left except unavoidable absence,\netc. Our experience for this year renders it certain that the circle can\nno longer get on well without our printed programs.\u201d\n\nAlong with the plans and suggestions come cheery reports of how the\ncircles everywhere are growing and spreading. Mrs. Fields, the secretary\nof the Pacific coast C. L. S. C., writes us: \u201cIt has been quite negligent\nin the secretary of this branch not to have reported long ere this the\ngrowing interest and increased numbers of Chautauquans on this coast,\nand especially in California. Perhaps one reason of this remissness has\nbeen the very fact that every mail has brought to the aforesaid secretary\nletters of inquiry concerning C. L. S. C., which must be answered\nsometimes quite at length; or applications for membership, which must\nbe acknowledged, registered and forwarded to headquarters; or letters\nfrom faithful old members with words of cheer and renewal of fees, all\nof which certainly should be replied to in the secretary\u2019s most cordial\nstyle. We have five hundred and forty new members this year and two\nhundred old members have renewed their allegiance. If, as is generally\nthe case, the old members continue to renew to the very end of the year,\nwe may hope for a list of nearly a thousand names before next July, as\nthe record of this year\u2019s students.\u201d\n\nThe circle at =Knoxville, Tenn.=, Monteagle Assembly, in which we all\nbecame so interested by their rousing letter in THE CHAUTAUQUAN of\nNovember last, has written us a characteristic bit of experience, which\nwe quote: \u201cThe dark, rainy nights of January are rather discouraging, but\nwe keep at work. One rainy night, on our arrival at the parlors we found\nno light, and out of a membership of thirty-three but three were present.\nWe had one visitor, whose words I quote: \u2018I had no idea they would hold\na meeting, but they were not at all disconcerted. The whole program,\nprayer, minutes, lesson and music, was carried out as though the number\npresent was fifty instead of three.\u2019 The result? The _visitor_ became a\n_member_, saying, \u2018that\u2019s the kind of society I wish to join.\u2019 I wish to\nstate, however, that so small an attendance is quite exceptional.\u201d\n\nAnother circle whose history offers us some wise suggestions is that\nof =Syracuse, N. Y.=, the home of the new secretary of the Chautauqua\nAssembly, Mr. W. A. Duncan. Indeed, Mr. Duncan has the honor of having\nfounded this circle, which dates back to the inauguration of the C.\nL. S. C. The city has fine public schools and its university is well\nknown for its able professors and superior apparatus; the circle has\nbeen wise enough to use the material within its reach. It secured Prof.\nRollins, of the high school, as its first leader; for three years he\nconducted a circle of fifty. His successor, the Rev. Mr. Mundy, brought\nto them a large knowledge of art, gained by travel and study. When\nthey came to science, again they chose a leader particularly fitted by\ntaste and profession to lead them through geology and astronomy. This\nplan of selecting leaders who are skilled in certain studies is very\nadvantageous. The enthusiasm and knowledge of a specialist in a branch\nmust always remain superior to that of the one who has only given a\nlittle attention to the subject. In spite of excellent leaders and\nearnest members, their numbers did fall off a little last year. A class\ngraduated and they did not secure new members to supply the deficiency.\nThe plan they followed for a re-awakening was excellent. Returning from\nChautauqua last summer they held a public meeting and explained the plan\nof the C. L. S. C. and its benefits. That night brought them several\nnew names. Then they secured Dr. Vincent for the next week to give\nthem a sketch of the aims and methods of the organization. At the next\nregular meeting the secretary received the names of forty-two members\nof the class of \u201987. The circle is certainly to be congratulated for\nits proximity to so much local talent and still more for its enterprise\nin utilizing it so diligently. The neighboring circle of =Troy, N. Y.=,\ncontinues to maintain its enviable standing under the leadership of Rev.\nH. C. Farrar. His indomitable energy and perseverance are felt along all\nthe lines. The plan of presenting subjects in three minute essays is\nbeing tried with interest and profit at their monthly meetings.\n\nAll of the old circles show a steady growth. At =Claremont, N. H.=,\n\u201cMinerva Circle,\u201d organized a year ago with a membership of ten, has\ngrown to twenty; the \u201cAtlantis,\u201d of =Lynn, Mass.=, commenced its second\nyear in October last with a membership of eighteen, an increase of ten;\nthe year-old circle of =Pittsfield, Mass.=, has gained thirty members\nsince its organization in February of 1883.\n\nSince 1881 a little \u201cPentagon\u201d of ladies has been meeting in =Greenwich,\nCt.= A member writes of their circle: \u201cAlthough composed of particularly\nbusy people, we have the conviction that we have been patient over our\nhindrances, punctual in attendance and persevering in the work. We have\nrun the scale of questions and answers, topics, essays and memorial\nreadings, but prefer, on the whole, the conversational plan as being best\nadapted to bring out individual thought.\u201d\n\n=Cambridgeboro, Pa.=, has an interested circle of twelve members, and\n=Blairsville=, of the same state, reports twenty, with a prospect of an\nincrease.\n\n=New London, Ohio=, claims that their circle, organized one year ago last\nSeptember, and now numbering twenty, might with propriety be called the\nincomparable.\n\nAt =Hennepin, Ill.=, there is a circle of fourteen ladies now reading the\nsecond year of the course.\n\nA lady writes from =Marion, Ind.=: \u201cWe have great reason to congratulate\nourselves upon the deep and constantly growing interest felt in our\ncircle, and which is plainly manifested not only by our own members,\nbut by those who do not belong, away off here in the very center of\nHoosierdom.\u201d This \u201cdeep and growing interest\u201d is the unfailing result of\nearnest work in the C. L. S. C., and how can it be otherwise when the\nidea continually develops new phases? The experience of the circle at\n=Little Prairie Ronde, Mich.=, that \u201ceach year the C. L. S. C. unfolds\nnew beauties, awakens new incentives for more earnest action, calls\nto the foremost the very best of kindliness and cheer, and incites to\ndiligence, research and thought,\u201d is universal.\n\nThe \u201cCentenary Circle,\u201d of =Minneapolis, Minn.=, has long been a leading\none. It is by no means lagging\u2014a late letter reports them as fifty\nstrong\u2014their graduates reading the seal courses, the Memorial Days all\ncelebrated, and a big delegation contemplating a visit this summer to\nChautauqua. That, has a genuine ring, particularly the reading for seals\nby graduates. Hold on to your reading habits.\n\nThe first and only circle to report an observance of College Day was\nthe \u201cAlden,\u201d of =Marshalltown, Ia.=, where it was recognized by a\nlarge gathering of Chautauquans and their friends. Marshalltown has\nbeen faithful in reporting all their meetings. They have the western\nenterprise, but we believe =Sioux Falls, Dak.=, ranks first in that\nquality. The following explains why: \u201cWe have an interesting circle\nhere. We hold meetings weekly, and they are interesting and profitable.\nWe purpose to double or treble our circle next year. We have sent you\nreports of our circle for THE CHAUTAUQUAN, but you have failed to notice\nus. We have decided to _Flood_ you with letters till you notice the C.\nL. S. C. in the largest and most beautiful city in southeastern Dakota.\u201d\nWe shall only be too glad to receive such stirring letters.\n\nA few circles have reported lectures. From =Seward, Neb.=, where there is\na circle of sixteen, the secretary writes that they have had a lecture\non Emerson, a reading by Prof. Cumnock, Chautauqua\u2019s favorite of last\nyear, and that they are expecting others. =Salt Lake City, Utah=, had the\npleasure of hearing Bishop Warren last fall in his lecture on \u201cThe Forces\nof the Sunbeam.\u201d The circle in this city numbers thirty-seven, and is\ncomposed of ministers, teachers, business men and housekeepers; that they\nhave caught the spirit of our work is very evident, for they write us\nthat many of their number have in joyful anticipation the time when the\nlong distance that separates them from home and friends shall be paved\nover, and they shall be permitted to join the number of those who pass\nbeneath the Arches of Chautauqua.\n\nWe have received this month (February) reports of thirty new local\ncircles. =Salem Depot, N. H.=, has organized a circle of fifteen members;\n=West Medway, Mass.=, one with a membership of a dozen; =Somerville,\nMass.=, has a class of thirty-five reading the course, fifteen of\nthem have joined the C. L. S. C. as members of the class of \u201987; two\nvillages of Massachusetts, =Amesbury= and =Salisbury=, have united their\nmembers in one organization. Their membership at present is twenty-one,\nconsisting mostly of beginners of 1887, a few of 1885 and 1886, and of\nlocal members. At =Madison, Conn.=, there is a circle which traces its\norganization to the interest of a lady who had taken up the reading\nalone. She writes: \u201cJanuary last I began the work of the C L. S. C. and\nfinished the year alone, but decided that another year should find a\ncircle in our village, if my powers of persuasion were worth anything. I\nhad no difficulty in forming a small circle, some members of which have\nsince basely upbraided me for not telling them of it before.\u201d They have\nnamed their circle after the pleasant and capable office secretary of the\nC. L. S. C., the \u201cK. F. K. Circle,\u201d and true to their allegiance, suggest\nthat the local circles ought to see to it that she and her aids have a\nbuilding which could have C. L. S. C. suitably inscribed on _any_ part of\nits front, instead of meekly abiding in a hired house. Some day we may\nexpect this.\n\n=New Haven, Conn.=, the home of Dr. Vincent, organized, in October\nlast, \u201cThe Woolsey Circle,\u201d so called in honor of their eminent fellow\ntownsman, ex-President Woolsey, of Yale College.\n\nA new circle called \u201cWashington Heights\u201d is reported from =New York City=.\n\nAt =Bethel, N. Y.=, they started off last October with thirty members,\nwhile from =Buffalo=, same state, a friend writes: \u201cWe have a wide awake\ncircle here, the membership of which has increased from six to twenty\nsince October 1st, when the circle was organized.\u201d This circle has found\n\u201creview evenings\u201d of great service to them. After finishing a subject\nthey devote one evening to a review, securing a leader competent to\nanswer all their questions and settle their disputes; thus for the review\nof Biology they secured Dr. Kellicott, of the Buffalo Normal School,\nwho kindly answered all questions, and with the aid of his microscopes,\nexplained much that before had been obscure.\n\nFrom =Lisle, N. Y.=, we have word of a circle of nine.\n\n=North East, Pa.=, has a newly organized circle, among whom are several\nyearly visitors at Chautauqua; =Newville=, of the same state, reports a\nflourishing circle of nine members; from the class of \u201987 in =Allegheny,\nPa.=, we have received the program of the services held by them on\nFebruary 10, special Sunday. It is particularly good. This circle is\nfollowing one plan which deserves more attention from all circles. They\nare giving a good deal of attention to singing the Chautauqua songs,\ndevoting a portion of each evening to practice.\n\n=Plainfield, N. J.=, the place which enjoys the honor of being \u201cthe\nheadquarters of the C. L. S. C.,\u201d was without a local circle for several\nyears, though many individual readers have pursued the course. Last fall\nthe Rev. Dr. J. L. Hurlbut invited those who wished to form a local\ncircle to meet at his residence. The result was a houseful of people,\nand a circle which has met fortnightly since, and now numbers forty-five\nmembers. A friend writes us from there: \u201cWe allow no \u2018associate members\u2019\n(persons not connected with the general C. L. S. C.) and none who will\nnot attend regularly and take active part. For every meeting Dr. Hurlbut\nprepares a program of fifteen topics selected from the fortnight\u2019s\nreading, and assigned to the various members. The program is printed by\nthe \u2018hectographic process,\u2019 and distributed to all the members at the\nmeeting in advance of its date. We take a recess in the middle of the\nevening\u2019s exercises for social enjoyment and conversation, and afterward\ngenerally listen to a vocal or instrumental solo, and a reading from one\nof the members. At the close of the evening the critic dispenses his\ndelicate attentions, his motto being \u2018with malice toward all, and charity\ntoward none.\u2019 On Sunday evening, February 10, we held the Chautauqua\nVesper Service in one of the largest churches, filled with an audience\nwhich participated in the responses. We regard our relation to the C. L.\nS. C. as among the most pleasant, and our circle as one of the best in\nthe land.\u201d\n\n=Camden, N. J.=, has also recently formed the \u201cBradway Circle\u201d of\nthirty-two members. This circle has a novel way of managing its session,\nwhich may furnish a suggestion to some one wanting a new idea. After\ntheir general exercises and transaction of business they separate into\ntwo classes for the study of some subject selected at the previous\nmeeting by the members of the class. After devoting about half an hour\nto the separate classes, they again unite into one general class for the\ndiscussion of some topic.\n\nWe are very glad to welcome into our midst two new circles from the\nSouth, one at =Salem, N. C.=, of thirty-eight members, and another at\n=Atlanta, Ga.= At the January meeting of the Salem circle the exercises\nwere on \u201cGermany,\u201d and as most of the members understand the language\nof that country, part of the exercises were in German. A very pleasant\nfeature of their program was an account of the customs, traits and people\nof the country as they appeared to one of the members who had lately\ntraveled through that land.\n\nOur space forbids our giving long accounts of the new circles in the\nWest. In =Illinois= there is a new class of thirteen at =Janesville=,\nand another at =Jacksonville=, a place famous among its neighbors as\n\u201cthe Athens of the West.\u201d It contains no less than five excellent\ninstitutions of learning, and yet they find a place for the C. L. S.\nC. At =Litchfield, Mich.=, is another new circle, and from the college\ntown of =Appleton, Wis.=, the president writes: \u201cIt was considered\nimpracticable at first, in view of college and other literary societies\nin the town, to start a C. L. S. C. These objections soon vanished. We\nhave a most enthusiastic circle of thirty-eight members, including two\ncollege professors and wives, a physician, a clergyman and wife, and\nseveral graduates of this and other colleges.\u201d =Iowa= reports three\nnew circles. From =Fairchild= the secretary writes: \u201cWe have a most\nenthusiastic circle of twenty-five members. At our opening in October we\nthought one meeting a month sufficient, but as we warmed up we multiplied\nthem by two, and last week we doubled them again, so that now we meet\neach week. You see this interest compounds more rapidly than that on most\nother investments.\u201d If one still imagines that the C. L. S. C. is in any\nsense denominational in its tendency, let him read the experience of one\nof the members of the new class at =Grundy Center, Ia.=: \u201cI had a little\nprejudice once against the course, as I thought that it would naturally\nrun into Methodist channels; but I have outgrown that. As a matter of\nfact, of our fifteen enrolled members eight are Presbyterians and four\nCongregationalists; but as members of the C. L. S. C. we are entirely\nunconscious that we belong to any denomination.\u201d At =Belle Plaine,\nIa.=, there is a circle of fifteen ladies; at =Clarksville, Mo.=, one\nnumbering fourteen. Kansas reports two new circles, one at =Wyandotte=,\nwhere in a month they increased from four members to twenty-one; and\nanother of twenty members at =Sabetha=, including the professor of the\nhigh school, and the teachers in the community. =York, Neb.=, has lately\norganized a circle of fifteen members.\n\n\n\n\nQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.\n\nFIFTY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON PREPARATORY LATIN COURSE IN ENGLISH\u2014FROM\nPAGE 167 TO END OF BOOK.\n\nBy A. M. MARTIN, GENERAL SECRETARY C. L. S. C.\n\n\n1. Q. Of what is the Fifth Book of \u201cC\u00e6sar\u2019s Commentaries\u201d mainly one\nunbroken record? A. Of disasters to C\u00e6sar\u2019s armies, barely retrieved from\nbeing irreparable.\n\n2. Q. With what episode does this book begin? A. The last expedition, on\nC\u00e6sar\u2019s part, to Great Britain.\n\n3. Q. After C\u00e6sar\u2019s return to Gaul, what did the poor harvests compel him\nto do with his legions for the winter? A. To distribute them to different\npoints.\n\n4. Q. What chance did this seem to offer to the natives? A. To fall on\nthe Roman camps simultaneously and overpower them one by one.\n\n5. Q. By whom was one legion commanded that was destroyed by the Gauls\nunder Ambiorix? A. By Titurius Sabinus.\n\n6. Q. What lieutenant of C\u00e6sar again encounters the Nervii, and is with\ndifficulty rescued by C\u00e6sar? A. Cicero, a brother of the great orator.\n\n7. Q. With what account is the Sixth Book largely occupied? A. With an\naccount of the ineffectual efforts of C\u00e6sar to capture Ambiorix.\n\n8. Q. In the narrative of the Seventh Book, who becomes the head of\nthe last and greatest confederate revolt of Gaul against Rome? A.\nVercingetorix.\n\n9. Q. After the final defeat and surrender of Vercingetorix, what was his\nfate? A. He was taken to Rome and there beheaded.\n\n10. Q. By whom was the Eighth Book of the \u201cCommentaries\u201d written? A. By\nAulus Hirtius, one of C\u00e6sar\u2019s lieutenants.\n\n11. Q. What does this book relate? A. The incidents of the last Gallic\ncampaign.\n\n12. Q. How did C\u00e6sar raise his legions and wage war? A. On his own\nresponsibility. His wars were mostly personal wars, and had no sanction\nof government.\n\n13. Q. What do Cicero\u2019s writings form? A. What has been finely called a\nlibrary of reason and eloquence.\n\n14. Q. What is the amount of reading in \u201cCicero\u2019s Orations\u201d required for\nentrance at most colleges? A. The four orations against Catiline, and two\nor three others variously chosen.\n\n15. Q. From what oration of Cicero does our author first give an extract?\nA. His oration for Marcus Marcellus.\n\n16. Q. What was the occasion of this oration? A. The pardon by C\u00e6sar of\nMarcellus, who had fought for Pompey against C\u00e6sar in the civil war, and\nwas now living in exile.\n\n17. Q. What gave rise to Cicero\u2019s orations against Catiline? A. The\nCatiline conspiracy, which contemplated the firing of Rome and the death\nof the Senate, as well as the personal and political enemies of the\nconspirators.\n\n18. Q. How many are there of these orations against Catiline? A. Four.\n\n19. Q. Where were the first and last delivered? A. In the Senate.\n\n20. Q. Where were the second and third delivered? A. In the Forum, to the\npopular assembly of citizens.\n\n21. Q. What English clergyman and author has written a tragedy entitled\n\u201cCatiline\u201d? A. George Croly.\n\n22. Q. What is the subject of the fourth speech delivered in the Senate?\nA. The disposal of the conspirators then in custody.\n\n23. Q. By what name are fourteen of Cicero\u2019s other orations known? A. The\n\u201cPhilipics.\u201d\n\n24. Q. Against whom were the \u201cPhilipics\u201d directed? A. Mark Antony.\n\n25. Q. What was the fate of Cicero? A. He was assassinated by the command\nof Antony.\n\n26. Q. Next to the \u201cIliad\u201d of Homer, and hardly second to that, what is\nthe most famous of poems? A. The \u201c\u00c6neid\u201d of Virgil.\n\n27. Q. When and where was Virgil born? A. In 70 B. C., at Andes, near\nMantau, northern Italy.\n\n28. Q. What is the first of the three classes of poems of which Virgil\u2019s\nworks consist? A. Bucolics or Eclogues\u2014pastoral poems.\n\n29. Q. What is the most celebrated of these minor poems? A. Pollio,\nsupposed to have been the poet\u2019s friend in need.\n\n30. Q. What famous imitation of the Pollio did Pope write in English? A.\n\u201cMessiah,\u201d a sacred Eclogue.\n\n31. Q. What is the second class of Virgil\u2019s poems? A. Georgics, or poems\non farming.\n\n32. Q. Whom does our author consider in many important respects the best\nof all of Virgil\u2019s English metrical translators? A. The late Professor\nJohn Conington, of Oxford, England.\n\n33. Q. Name two other English translators of the \u201c\u00c6neid\u201d? A. John Dryden\nand William Morris.\n\n34. Q. Name two American translators of the \u201c\u00c6neid\u201d? A. C. P. Cranch and\nJohn D. Long.\n\n35. Q. Of what set deliberate purpose is the \u201c\u00c6neid\u201d? A. A Roman national\nepic in the strictest sense.\n\n36. Q. Who was \u00c6neas? A. The son of Venus by the Trojan shepherd Anchises.\n\n37. Q. Seven years after the fall of Troy for what purpose did \u00c6neas and\nhis companions embark from Sicily? A. To found a new Troy in the west.\n\n38. Q. In the first book of the \u201c\u00c6neid,\u201d where was the fleet conveying\n\u00c6neas and his companions driven? A. To the coast of Carthage.\n\n39. Q. By whom were the Trojans received with generous hospitality? A.\nDido, the Carthaginian queen.\n\n40. Q. With what are the third and fourth books of the \u201c\u00c6neid\u201d\nprincipally occupied? A. With the relation by \u00c6neas to Queen Dido of his\nprevious adventures and wanderings, including an account of the siege and\nfall of Troy.\n\n41. Q. To what is the fourth book devoted? A. To the sad tale of Dido and\nher fatal passion for her guest.\n\n42. Q. What is the course of \u00c6neas in this affair? A. He ruins Dido, and\nunder the cover of night deserts Carthage with his ships.\n\n43. Q. What is the fate of Dido? A. She commits suicide, ending her\nsorrow on the funeral pyre.\n\n44. Q. With what is the fifth book largely occupied? A. With an elaborate\naccount of games celebrated by the Trojans on the hospitable shores of\nSicily, in honor of the anniversary of the death of Anchises, the father\nof \u00c6neas.\n\n45. Q. What is the principal matter of the sixth book? A. An account of\n\u00c6neas\u2019s descent into Hades.\n\n46. Q. By whom is \u00c6neas accompanied as guide on his visit to the lower\nworld? A. By the Sibyl at Cum\u00e6.\n\n47. Q. What does Anchises, the father of \u00c6neas, relate to his son in\nElysium? A. The name and quality of the illustrious descendants who\nshould prolong and decorate the Trojan line.\n\n48. Q. How many books of the \u00c6neid are usually read by students in\npreparation for college? A. Six.\n\n49. Q. Of what is an account given in the remaining six books? A. The\njourney of \u00c6neas from Cum\u00e6 to Latium, and his adventures there.\n\n50. Q. With what episode does the poem close? A. The death of Turnus, a\nrival chief, in single combat with \u00c6neas.\n\n\n\n\nCHAUTAUQUA NORMAL COURSE.\n\nSeason of 1884.\n\n\nLESSON VII.\u2014BIBLE SECTION.\n\n_The History of The Bible._\n\nBy REV. J. L. HURLBUT, D.D., AND R. S. HOLMES, A.M.\n\n_I. General Periods._\u2014Bible history, according to the common chronology,\nwhich we accept, but do not indorse as correct, embraces the events of\n4100 years. This may be divided into six general periods, as follows:\n\n_1. The Period of the Human Race_, from the creation of man B. C. 4004 to\nthe call of Abraham, B. C. 1921. During this period the whole race comes\nunder consideration.\n\n_2. The Period of the Chosen Family_, from the call of Abraham B. C. 1921\nto the exodus from Egypt, B. C. 1491. During this period the family of\nAbraham forms the only subject of the history; hence it might be called\nthe period of the Patriarchs.\n\n_3. The Period of the Israelite People_, from the exodus 1491 to the\ncoronation of Saul, B. C. 1095; the period of the Theocracy.\n\n_4. The Period of the Israelite Kingdom_, from the coronation of Saul,\nB. C. 1095, to the captivity at Babylon, B. C. 587; the period of the\nMonarch.\n\n_5. The Period of the Jewish Province_, from the captivity at Babylon, B.\nC. 587, to the birth of Christ, B. C. 4; a period of foreign rule during\nmost of the time.\n\n_6. The Period of the Christian Church_, from the birth of Christ, B. C.\n4, to the destruction of Jerusalem, A. D. 70.\n\n_II. Subdivisions._\u2014The general periods may be subdivided as follows:\n\n1. The Human Race into\u2014(1) the early race 4004 B. C. to the dispersion B.\nC. 2234; (2) the dispersed race, 2234 to 1921.\n\n2. The Chosen Family into\u2014(1) The journeyings of the Patriarchs 1921, to\nthe descent into Egypt, 1706; (2) the sojourn in Egypt, 1706-1491.\n\n3. The Israelite people into\u2014(1) The wandering in the wilderness, from\nthe exodus, 1491, to the crossing of the Jordan, 1451; (2) the settlement\nin Canaan, from 1451 to the death of Joshua, 1426; (3) the rule of the\nJudges, from 1426 to 1095.\n\n4. The Israelite kingdom into\u2014(1) The age of unity, from 1095 to the\ndivision, 975; (2) the age of division, from 975 to the fall of Samaria,\n721; (3) the age of decay, from 721 to the captivity, 587.\n\n5. The Jewish Province into\u2014(1) Chaldean rule, from 587 to the return\nfrom captivity, 536; (2) Persian rule, from 536 to Alexander\u2019s conquest,\n330; (3) Greek rule, 330 to the revolt of Mattathias, 168 B. C.; (4)\nMaccabean rule, the period of Jewish independence, from 168 to 37 B. C.;\n(5) Roman rule, 37 B. C. to 4 B. C.\n\n6. The Christian Church into\u2014(1) The preparation, from the birth of\nChrist, B. C. 4, to the baptism of Christ, A. D. 26; (2) The ministry of\nJesus, from A. D. 26 to the ascension A. D. 30; (3) Jewish Christianity,\nfrom the ascension to the conversion of Paul, A. D. 37; (4) Transition,\nfrom Jewish to Gentile, from A. D. 37 to the council at Jerusalem, A.\nD. 50; (5) Gentile Christianity, from A. D. 50 to the destruction of\nJerusalem A. D. 70.\n\nIII. We notice next a few of the great events in the periods, beside\nthose already named at their beginning and ending:\n\n1. In the period of the human race\u2014(1) The Fall; (2) The Translation of\nEnoch; (3) The Deluge.\n\n2. In the period of the chosen family\u2014(1) The Covenant with Abraham; (2)\nThe Selling of Joseph; (3) The Enslavement of the Israelites.\n\n3. In the period of the Israelite people\u2014(1) The Giving of the Law; (2)\nThe Conquest of Canaan; (3) Gideon\u2019s Victory.\n\n4. In the period of the Israelite kingdom\u2014(1) The Building of the Temple;\n(2) Elijah\u2019s Victory on Carmel; (3) The Destruction of the Assyrian Host\nat Jerusalem.\n\n5. In the period of the Jewish Province\u2014(1) The Fiery Furnace; (2)\nEsther\u2019s Deliverance; (3) Ezra\u2019s Reformation.\n\n6. In the period of the Christian Church\u2014(1) The Preaching of John the\nBaptist; (2) The Transfiguration; (3) The Crucifixion; (4) The Death of\nStephen; (5) The Journeys of Paul.\n\nIV. We connect with each period, the names of its most important\n_persons_:\n\n1. With the first period, Adam, Enoch, Noah.\n\n2. With the second period, Abraham, Jacob, Joseph.\n\n3. With the third period, Moses, Joshua, Gideon, Samuel.\n\n4. With the fourth period, David, Elijah, Hezekiah.\n\n5. With the fifth period, Daniel, Ezra, Simon the Just, Judas Maccabeus,\nHerod the Great.\n\n6. With the sixth, John the Baptist, JESUS CHRIST, Peter, Paul.\n\n\nLESSON VIII.\u2014THE GOLDEN AGE OF BIBLE HISTORY.\n\nThis lesson deals with Israel at the time of the Empire. Lack of space\nforbids more than a general outline. Israel\u2019s history is familiar to\nevery reader of the Bible. Egypt, the Desert, and Canaan; Slavery,\nTraining and War; these words give their geography and history till\nJoshua\u2019s death. The Theocracy follows; then the kingdom under Saul and\nDavid, and then the Empire, or the Golden Age under Solomon the peaceful.\nWe call it the Golden Age because:\n\n_I. It was the time of their widest dominion._\u2014(_a_) For centuries the\nIsrael of possession was not the Israel of promise. Read Deuteronomy\n11th chapter, verse 24, for the promise, and the first chapter of Judges\nfor the possession. (_b_) The people were bound by no national feeling.\n\u201cEvery man went to his own inheritance.\u201d The last verse of Judges is a\nvivid picture of disunion. Under such a condition there could be no such\nthing as wide and powerful dominion. (_c_) Under David and Solomon the\npromised boundaries were reached. See 1st Kings, 4:21. Let the student\nfind the extreme northern and southern limits of the Empire of Solomon.\n(_d_) Immediately after Solomon came disruption, and the loss of portions\nof the Empire, which were never regained. Read the history of Jeroboam\nand Rehoboam and their successors.\n\n_II. It was the time of their greatest national wealth, and individual\nwelfare._\u2014(_a_) Read 1st Kings, 10:14-23. (_b_) Read 1st Kings, 4:20\nand 25. Brief as is the record in each of these references, there can\nbe no doubt as to the fact recorded. There is no such picture suggested\nelsewhere, either before or after this period.\n\n_III. It was the time of the production of the finest portion of their\nliterature._\u2014The second book of Samuel, which we have, Ruth, and a large\nportion of the Psalms, and all the wonderful writings of Solomon belong\nto this period. This last and greatest king of all Israel seems to have\nmade very large additions to the literature of the people. See 1st Kings,\n5:32-33.\n\nLet us note some of the causes of this power and prosperity:\n\n_I. The growth of the people._\u2014The people are said, in Solomon\u2019s reign,\nto have numbered five millions, or five hundred to every square mile.\nCompare with our present population. The army was of vast numbers. See\nJoab\u2019s report, 2d Samuel, 24:9.\n\n_II. The character of the king._\u2014He was (_a_) a statesman; he ignored\ntribal lines; he recognized the value of extended commercial relations;\nhe opened intercourse with foreign nations, 1st Kings, 4:34; he made a\npowerful foreign alliance, 1st Kings, 9:16; he built a navy, 1st Kings,\n9:26; he attended personally to the affairs of his kingdom, 2d Chron.,\n8:17; he fortified his outposts, 1st Kings, 9:17-19; he centralized\nthe religious worship by building the magnificent temple at Jerusalem;\nhe built permanent buildings for the seat of the nation\u2019s capital.\n(_b_) _A lover of Liberal Arts._\u2014He was a poet himself, 1st Kings 4:32.\nLiterature affords nothing more gorgeous in imagery than the Song\nof Songs; he was famed for his conversational powers; he engaged in\nconversational controversies with the most noted of his time\u2014see his\nriddles as preserved in Proverbs 6:6, and 30:15-16-18; he was a lover of\narchitecture\u2014witness his building; he was a lover of music, inherited\nfrom his father, and the musical service of the temple was one of its\nmost attractive features.\n\n_III. The character of his court._\u2014All his counselors were men of note.\nLet the student see what he can find from the Bible as to the worth of\nhis high priest, Zadok; his nearest friend, Zabud; his chief priest,\nAzariah, son of Zadok; his captain of the guard, Azariah, son of Nathan;\nhis general in chief, Benaiah; his historian, Jehoshaphat; and his grand\nvizier, Ahishar.\n\n_IV. David\u2019s work._\u2014This was (_a_) a widely extended kingdom; (_b_) a\ncentralized government; (_c_) peace with all the world. His son\u2019s name,\n_Solomon_, _Shelomoh_, _Peace_.\n\n_V. The country\u2019s external relations._\u2014(_a_) By Ezion-Geber a water route\nwas opened to the far east. Traces of this commerce with India can be\nfound in their language. See Stanley, \u201cJewish Church,\u201d Vol. I.\n\n(_b_) By Damascus, a land route to the far interior highlands.\n\n(_c_) By the Mediterranean traffic with Spain\u2014in ships of Tarshish.\n\n(_d_) By Tyre, commerce with Ph\u0153nicia.\n\n\nSUNDAY-SCHOOL SECTION.\n\nLESSON VII.\u2014THE TEACHING PROCESS.\u2014ADAPTATION.\n\nThere are certain heresies of common speech. One is, that a man can be\nonly what he is born to be. Apply it to the teacher\u2019s art and it is a\nheresy. The majority of men and women can become teachers if only they\nwill be at pains to become familiar with the secrets of the science,\nstudy with care the best models in books, and as often as may be come\ninto contact with the best living teachers. There is such a thing as\n_the teaching process_. We outline some needful steps in that process.\n_The first is adaptation._ By it we do not mean the adaptation of the\nlesson to the pupil; that belongs to the teacher\u2019s preparation. We\nmean _adaptation of the teacher to the pupil_; such a coming together\nof teacher and pupil as shall cause them to agree, be in harmony, _fit\nto_\u2014that is, be adapted to each other. This adaptation must be,\n\n1. _In the matter of knowledge._ The teacher knows much more than the\npupil. His knowledge is his treasury. From it he draws in his work as a\nteacher. That which he draws must be fitted to his pupil\u2019s want, else\nit is valueless. He must therefore learn what the pupil knows, and\nwork along the line of that knowledge. In such a process they become\ncompanions, and the teacher can lead the pupil almost at will. With\nadaptation of knowledge\u2014progress: without it\u2014nothing.\n\n2. _In the matter of personality._ The teacher and pupil who meet but\nonce each week, must meet on the plane of a common personality, or\ntheir meeting will be vain. This is something finer than adaptation of\nknowledge to knowledge. It is adaptation of heart to heart. It makes\nteacher and pupil for the time of their intercourse in class absolutely\none. Teacher and pupil forget that either one or the other, no matter\nwhich, is either rich or poor, well or ill dressed, old or young,\ngraceful or awkward, wise or ignorant, clever or stupid, and remember\nonly that each is the other\u2019s hearty friend. This is one of the highest\npossible acquirements of the teacher\u2019s art, and the one who possesses it\nhas the gift of soul-winning.\n\n3. _In the matter of thought._ As the former is the secret of\nsoul-winning, this is the secret of soul-feeding. The average scholar is\na poor thinker. He thinks that he thinks, but his is not his teacher\u2019s\nthinking. It is the ploughing of the ancients. It only scratches the\nsurface of the soil: and the human heart is too hard and barren to be\nmade productive of divine fruit by any such process. This essential goes\ndeeper than the other two. Its burden is to answer how shall the pupil\nbe brought to think on Bible themes as the teacher thinks. This is the\nteacher\u2019s most difficult problem. Its solution is possible through\ncommunity of thought, or an adaptation of the teacher\u2019s way of thinking\nto the pupil\u2019s way of thinking.\n\nThe three essentials enumerated are possible,\n\n1. Through a close and intimate acquaintance with the pupil. (_a_)\n_Socially_; (_b_) _religiously_; (_c_) _literarily_; (_d_) _in business\nrelations_; (_e_) _Biblically_. Let the student give a reason why\nknowledge in these particulars would bring teacher and pupil together.\n\n2. Through personal sympathy with the pupil in (_a_) cares; (_b_) hopes;\n(_c_) fears; (_d_) temptations; (_e_) joys; (_f_) pursuits. Let the\nstudent give an illustration showing how adaptation of person to person\ncould be produced by such sympathies.\n\n3. Through occasional study with the pupil of the appointed Bible\nlesson\u2014to show how (_a_) to select the most available part for study;\n(_b_) to arrange it harmoniously; (_c_) to outline it; (_d_) to show its\nrelations to other scriptures; (_e_) to trace its historic connections;\n(_f_) to understand its obscure allusions or phrases. Let the student\nshow that adaptation of thought to thought or mutuality of thought would\nresult from such study.\n\n\nLESSON VIII.\u2014THE TEACHING PROCESS\u2014APPROACH.\n\nA second needful step in the teaching process is _approach_: not the\napproach of teacher to pupil simply, _but of the teacher to the lesson_\nin the act of teaching. This can therefore be no part of the teacher\u2019s\npreparation. For this step there is no uniform law. Each teacher\u2019s\napproach must be his own. What is successful with one will not be\nwith another. An exact copying of methods will be of no avail unless\ncircumstances are exactly alike.\n\nApproach may occupy a large or small portion of the time allotted for\nteaching. A teacher may be twenty-nine minutes of his half hour making\nhis approach, and in the remaining one minute flash the lesson straight\ninto the center of the pupil\u2019s soul. A teacher may reach his lesson in\none minute and spend the whole remaining time in pressing it home to his\npupil\u2019s hearts.\n\nImagine a Sunday-school hour. Picture: A new teacher for the first time\nwith a class. Boys\u2014six; age, fourteen years; unconverted; one dull, one\nstubborn, one restless, the rest mischievous. Opening exercises finished;\nlesson read; superintendent announces \u201cThirty minutes for the lesson.\u201d\nThe teacher alone with the class; four things press on that teacher with\na mighty force:\n\n1. _Self I._ Untaught in teaching, and the center for a circumference of\neyes.\n\n2. _Need._ The power of the word _must_ was never felt before so fully.\nHere is a lesson to be taught, and the thoughts in the teacher\u2019s mind can\nonly shape themselves into these two words: \u201c_I must_.\u201d\n\n3. _Immediateness._ _Now._ Minutes become small eternities, while the\ncordon of eyes draws closer. \u201c_I must now, at once, teach_ this lesson,\u201d\nbut\n\n4. _How?_ After all it becomes a mere question of knowledge. There are\nthree elements which enter in to make the answer\u2014\n\n1. How to prepare for the lesson work, making necessary a study of the\n(_a_) necessity, (_b_) nature, and (_c_) methods of preparation.\n\n2. How to plan the conduct of the lesson, a step which costs (_a_)\nearnest thought, (_b_) fixed purpose, (_c_) persistent effort, and (_d_)\npatient prayer.\n\n3. How to perform. This makes necessary a fertile brain and a ready tact.\nThe actual step-taking on the line of a well-prepared plan consists\nin (_a_) using good illustrations; (_b_) in attracting attention to\nnoticeable things in the text; (_c_) in exciting curiosity to find things\nnot on the surface; (_d_) in asking right questions; (_e_) in using\nelliptical readings; (_f_) in working out topical outlines; (_g_) in\nconcert responses, and (_h_) in map drawing.\n\nAll these are steps toward the real lesson which the teacher would bring\nto his class.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S OUTLOOK.\n\n\nFOUNDER\u2019S DAY.\n\nWe have received the following document, which will, we have no doubt,\nmeet a hearty response among members of the C. L. S. C. everywhere:\n\u201cThe Counselors of the C. L. S. C., acting in this instance without the\nknowledge of the Superintendent of Instruction, but in consultation\nwith President Miller and Secretary Martin, propose that, in honor of\nJOHN H. VINCENT, the 23rd of February, the anniversary of his birth, be\ndesignated \u2018Founder\u2019s Day,\u2019 and as such be entered on the calendar of\nthe organization for future observance by the members, as one of their\nMemorial Days. Signed by Counselors J. M. Gibson, William C. Wilkinson,\nLyman Abbott, Henry W. Warren, and approved by President Lewis Miller\nand Secretary A. M. Martin.\u201d With this came a letter stating that at\nthe banquet of the New England graduates of the C. L. S. C., held in\nBoston on Saturday, February 23, it was announced that the Counselors had\ndecided unanimously to adopt the resolution. We believe we are not wrong\nin saying that members of the C. L. S. C. everywhere will be heartily\npleased with this honor conferred on Dr. Vincent. Indeed, we predict that\nthere will be a universal lament because the Counselors did not adopt the\nmeasure long enough before February 23rd to have made it possible for the\ncircles to have celebrated this year instead of being obliged to wait\nuntil February 1885.\n\nThere are many reasons why this measure is peculiarly acceptable to the\nmembers of the C. L. S. C. The majority of our readers feel that in this\ncourse of reading they are personally indebted to Dr. Vincent for a plan\nwhich has been of infinite service to them. They know, too, that he is\ntheir friend, thoughtful of their interests, mindful of their trials and\nhindrances. They will heartily rejoice in the new Memorial Day as that of\na personal friend and benefactor, and will celebrate it with the peculiar\ndelight and enthusiasm with which we love to honor our friends. There\nare more powerful reasons for observing the day than this feeling of\nlove and gratitude. The days we do celebrate are in memory of men whose\nwritten thoughts are leavening the world. We delight to honor them for\ntheir thoughts. We honor Dr. Vincent for the strong thoughts which he has\nwrought into acts. There are many minds capable of brilliant ideas, of\nphilanthropic plans; but there are few capable of carrying them out, of\nmaking them active agencies in society. It is this ability to make a plan\na reality, to prove it, which is a distinguishing characteristic of Dr.\nVincent\u2019s mind. He has that rare gift, first-class organizing ability.\nA course of reading planned for those who wanted to read, but did not\nknow what to undertake, had been often tried, on a small scale, before\nthe C. L. S. C. was organized, but to extend such a course to the world\nat large was a new idea, and to most minds one entirely impracticable.\nThe magnitude of such an undertaking would have staggered any man but\none of the broadest sympathies and largest organizing powers. As Dr.\nVincent had both of these qualities, he did not hesitate to undertake the\norganization, especially since he had the prestige of Chautauqua, with\nits wonderful history, behind him, and Lewis Miller, Esq., his friend and\nco-laborer, to lend a helping hand in the great work. A purely unselfish\nenterprise is always treated skeptically by the world at large. The flaws\nin the C. L. S. C. have been persistently pointed out. Steady sustained\nenthusiasm in the face of such difficulties is the quality of a hero, and\nit has been with this unfailing faith and interest that Dr. Vincent has\nmet every doubt or complaint. Very much of the success of the C. L. S.\nC. is due to this one characteristic in its founder. His warm sympathies\nand broad humanity, joined to his mental ability and enthusiasm, make\nhim a typical nineteenth century hero; a man whom the world delights to\nhonor, and whom the readers of the C. L. S. C. will be glad to remember\nby celebrating Founder\u2019s Day.\n\n\nPOLITICAL METHODS.\n\nWith quite sufficient reason, the public mind has long been disturbed by\nour political tendencies. This dissatisfaction does not arise from the\nfact that in matters of principle and public policy, intelligent people\nthink we are on dangerous roads. In what are called questions, such as\nthose of banks, tariffs, coinage of silver, payment of the national debt,\netc., etc., it may be that the majority would prefer changes of policy;\nbut there is a conviction abroad that we are as a people free to change\nin these matters if we really and earnestly desire new policies which\nwe are able to define. Our feeling of apprehension springs from the\nknowledge that our political methods are bad, undemocratic and dangerous,\nand from a fear that the fountains of public life are being defiled by\nthe wicked spirit of \u201cpractical politics.\u201d It is not easy to corrupt the\nmoral sense of such a people as ours. The level of intelligence is high,\nand patriotic impulses are strong in us. And yet we have gone down some\nsteps. At the end of the war, men physically wrecked refused to take\npensions; they would not take pay for a religious self-sacrifice. Now,\nmen who came out of the army without a scratch and are still sound in\nhealth swear falsely to obtain pensions. These greedy seekers of pensions\ndid not dream fifteen years ago that they could sink so low. Any one of\nthem would then have said: \u201cWhat, is thy servant a dog, that he should\ndo this thing?\u201d Their fall is directly traceable to the corruption of\nthe civil service, to the fact that in the theory of our public life,\nbounties should be given to men who handle political organizations\nsuccessfully. Salaries for civil service are bounties to be had by\nscrambling for them, or by earning them in the service of Party.\n\nThe theory of \u201cpractical politics\u201d converts the salaries paid for\npublic service into a pool which parties are organized to secure for\ndistribution among the sergeants, corporals, lieutenants, captains,\ncolonels and generals of the order. \u201cWhat are we here for,\u201d cried a\ndelegate in the Republican National Convention of 1880, \u201cif we are not\nafter the offices?\u201d That indignant question expressed the very heart\nof the practical politicians. A party, in his view, is an organization\nto get offices. And as much of its work is, in the same view, secret,\ndirty and wicked work, he believes that the party should be under the\nstrict control of \u201cbosses.\u201d Each town should have its leader, all the\ntown leaders should be under the control of the county leader, and county\nleaders should obey the state \u201cboss\u201d\u2014and the edifice should be crowned\nwith a national committee of \u201cbosses.\u201d This committee the politicians\nstruggled to create by the famous theory of \u201cthe courtesy of the Senate.\u201d\nThat theory made the President the clerk of the party\u2019s Senators in each\nstate. It gave Senator Conkling the vast Federal \u201cpatronage\u201d of New York\nto distribute at his will. The edifice was not crowned; the Senatorial\n\u201cboss\u201d system went down in the terrible struggle of the spring of 1881.\nOur readers know that history. We do not recall it to reproach anybody.\nSenator Conkling was the victim of a theory that he ought, under the rule\nof \u201cthe courtesy of the Senate,\u201d to be President within the state of New\nYork. The theory is silent now; it will rise again if the people do not\ndisestablish political machines in towns, cities, counties and states.\n\nTurning to a more gloomy side of the subject, we observe that there has\nbeen a vast increase in the amount of money spent in politics. Thousands\nof persons are, while we pen these lines, living on the patrons who hire\nthem and send them forth to \u201cmould public opinion\u201d\u2014or in the choicer\nphrase of the men themselves, \u201cto set things up.\u201d It is the business\nof this perambulating political machine to invent and distribute lies,\nto purchase useful sub-agents, to promise funds for the election day\nbribery. The floating vote increases each year, and four-fifths of this\nvote is a corrupt vote\u2014the voters stand about the market place waiting\nuntil some man shall hire them. We tolerate and smile at all this\nbusiness\u2014except the concealed bribery\u2014and this tolerance of ours is the\nsign that the malarious atmosphere of \u201cpractical politics\u201d is beginning\nto weaken our moral sense. If we are still in full vigor, this year will\nprobably afford us a large number of opportunities to wreck the local\npolitical machine\u2014without distinction of party. Reform will have to begin\nby disestablishing local machines and bruising with conscience votes the\nmen who corrupt the popular verdict with money.\n\n\nWENDELL PHILLIPS.\n\nWe are glad, though at a late hour, to pay, with many others, our tribute\nto the ability and worth of Wendell Phillips, and to review his life\nand work. Glad to do this, for his life was clean and clear, the kind\nmen love to honor; his work was that of the philanthropist and patriot.\nHe had entered his seventy-third year, having been born November 29,\n1811, in a house which is still standing on the lower corner of Beacon\nand Walnut streets, Boston. He came from one of Boston\u2019s aristocratic\nfamilies; for several generations the Phillipses were well known, rich\nand influential. His father, John Phillips, was chosen first mayor\nof Boston in 1822, in a triangular contest, with Harrison Gray Otis\nand Josiah Quincy as rival candidates. Young Phillips had the best of\neducational advantages. He prepared for college at the famous Boston\nLatin School; entered Harvard in his sixteenth, and graduated in his\ntwentieth year. One of his classmates was the historian Motley, a man,\nlike Phillips, of handsome person, of courtly manners, and high social\nposition. From college Phillips passed to the Cambridge Law School, from\nwhich he graduated in 1833, and the following year he was admitted to the\nbar. But he was not long to follow the law.\n\nThe public career of this man whose name is known in every land, dates\nfrom a certain illustrious meeting held in Faneuil Hall, Boston, in 1837.\nIt was an era of great excitement. In Congress, John Quincy Adams, the\nundaunted, was presenting petitions for the abolition of slavery, in the\nmidst of the howls and execrations of the friends of the institution.\nElijah I. Lovejoy had been murdered by a pro-slavery mob at Alton,\nIllinois, while defending his printing press. Two years before, Boston\nhad witnessed the mobbing of Garrison. Phillips himself was a witness of\nthe spectacle, and the following year he joined the American Anti-Slavery\nSociety. A meeting was called in Faneuil Hall by Dr. Channing and other\nfriends of freedom to express indignation over Lovejoy\u2019s murder. That\nmeeting will long live in history. Jonathan Phillips, a second cousin\nof Wendell, presided. Dr. Channing and others spoke. At length, the\nAttorney-General of the State, James T. Austin, took the platform and\ndelivered a speech in direct opposition to the sentiments which had been\nexpressed. It was not without effect. The people cheered as the speaker\ndeclared that Lovejoy died as the fool dieth, and placed his murderers\nby the side of the men who destroyed the tea in Boston Harbor. The\nmeeting, designed to be one of indignation for the murder of Lovejoy,\nbid fair to turn into a meeting of approbation. But Wendell Phillips was\nthe next speaker, and he had not spoken long before the tide was again\nreversed. This, his first public plea for free speech, human freedom and\nequal rights, was wonderfully effective. It carried the audience and\nestablished at once the speaker\u2019s fame as the foremost orator of the\nanti-slavery cause.\n\nFrom this time on, until in those years of blood the shackles were struck\nfrom the slaves of America, Phillips was a man of one work. He lived for\nthe cause of abolition. His motto might have been: \u201cOne thing I do.\u201d By\nthe side of Garrison he stood, in full sympathy with his ideas. His name\nhas long been the synonym of extreme radicalism. He held, with Garrison,\nthat the constitution was \u201ca league with hell,\u201d and would not vote, or\ntake an oath to support the iniquitous document. In the years before the\nwar of the rebellion, he freely advocated a dissolution of the Union; but\nwhen the war came, he was found a stanch defender of the Union cause. In\nthat band of once execrated, but now honored abolitionists, who \u201cprepared\nthe way of the Lord,\u201d there may have been others who did as effective\nwork as Wendell Phillips; but he was the incomparable orator, gifted with\neloquent speech to a degree unapproachable. Stories of his power over\nan audience will long be told. Delightedly the people have listened to\nhis silver tongue and chaste diction when he spoke upon purely literary\nthemes; the lyceum in our land had no more popular lecturer. But he\nwill live in our history as the matchless abolitionist orator. Since\nthe death of slavery he has been a prominent worker in different reform\nmovements, and the advocate\u2014as it seems to us\u2014of certain vagaries, but\nhis fame is inseparably connected with the colored race, of whose rights\nhe was the devoted, unselfish, and fearless champion. His private life\nwas singularly simple, sweet and beautiful. His wife, an invalid of\nmany years, his devotion to whom was beautiful indeed, survives him;\nand an adopted daughter, Mrs. Smalley, wife of the well known newspaper\ncorrespondent, is also left to mourn his loss.\n\n\nFLOODS.\n\nIn this country and in England the ravages of high waters have become\na matter of much seriousness and alarm. Nor have we failed to observe\nthat in recent years the floods have been far greater and more numerous\nthan they were a generation ago. This is due, we are told, to the\nclearing away of the forests, allowing the water to rush, unhindered by\nthe undergrowth and fallen leafage, into the rivers, thus causing their\nsudden swell and overflow.\n\nThe serious and practical question is how to avert, in some degree at\nleast, the frequent wholesale destruction of life and property, as has\nbeen experienced in the exposed districts during the last few years. It\nis mere nonsense to talk as some have done of condemning the flooded\ndistricts as dangerous and unfit for human habitation. Any one acquainted\nwith the human family knows how little it is restrained by the motives\nof fear or danger in choosing its dwelling-place. Men will build their\nhouses where the ashes of muttering volcanoes fall on their roofs,\nand with the knowledge that underneath their foundations lie their\npredecessors buried by former eruptions. How absurd, then, to talk of\nabandoning as places of human dwelling those great valleys, the most\nfertile, and in many other ways the most highly favored on the continent.\nFor fertility of soil and beauty of situation, the valleys of the Ohio\nand Mississippi may safely challenge the world.\n\nNeither will it do to say that by heeding the warnings given by the\nSignal Service Department much of these calamities can be averted. The\nService published its warnings to the people of the Ohio valley a week\nin advance of the recent floods, but no attention was paid to them. And\nthough the time is coming when the statements of meteorological science\nwill command general confidence, still it will not suffice to avert the\ngreat loss of life and property. Men are not easily warned, and besides\nthere is the impossibility in many cases, of providing against danger and\nloss, even though warning has been received.\n\nSince it is now too late in the Ohio and Mississippi valleys for the\nmethod at present being discussed, with reference to the waters of the\nHudson, viz.: To spare the Adirondacks, there is nothing left but to\nrefer this important subject to the State and National Committees on\n\u201cLevees and other Improvements against Destructive Floods.\u201d Nor do we\nhave to look long for encouraging examples of this mode of prevention.\nA large part of Louisiana is habitable and cultivable only through the\nprotection afforded by hundreds of miles of levees. For six centuries\nHolland has shown to the world what can be done by this method of\nprotection. Her whole North sea coast and a hundred miles of the Zuyder\nZee is provided with dikes, her constant safeguard from inundation.\nBefore the dikes were built in the thirteenth century, a single flood\ndestroyed 80,000 lives. At an annual expense of $2,000,000, those rich\nlands yielding their luxuriant pastures and crops of hemp and flax, are\ndefended from the waters.\n\nWe are persuaded that this is the only solution of the flood problem in\nthis country. Whether partial or entire, it should be attempted without\ndelay. In the light of recent experience government can not begin its\nwork too soon. The vast amount of property swept away during the last\ndecade would have gone no little way in defraying the expense of dikes\nas solid and sufficient as those of Holland. Add the amount given by\nCongress for the relief of the suffering districts, together with the\namount given in benevolence and sympathy for the same purpose, and the\nsum is much increased. By procrastination we may expend in the above\npainful manner treasure equal to the whole cost of the needed protection\nbefore the work is begun. Let us hope that the year will not pass without\ndecisive action by the government.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S NOTE-BOOK.\n\n\nA party is reported in Ohio claiming to organize C. L. S. C. local\ncircles, taking collections, etc. Now be it known that no agents for such\npurposes are appointed by the Chautauqua authorities. Such self-appointed\nagents are likely to be swindlers. Our workers render their services\nvoluntarily. We appoint no agents.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nGeneral Gordon\u2019s proclamation of freedom for slave-holding and\nslave-dealing in the Soudan has created a great surprise. It is even\nsuggested that his religious enthusiasm has toppled over into insanity.\nPerhaps we can not hope to understand the case. But we need not\nmisunderstand the facts. Slavery was never practically abolished in that\ncountry. Even in Egypt it continues to exist. General Gordon has not\nre\u00ebstablished slavery. Starting from that fact, we may easily reach the\ninference that the heroic and simple-minded Gordon has merely done away\nwith one of the pretexts by means of which corrupt Egyptian officials\nplundered the natives. Slavery can not be abolished by slave-traders, and\ntheir ways of enforcing any law which naturally renders it odious and\ndespicable.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nJohn Ruskin is not always exactly level with common sense, but perhaps\nhe is nearly right in saying \u201cNever buy a copy of a picture. It is\nnever a true copy.\u201d It would probably be much wiser in people who pay\nconsiderable sums for copies of old paintings if they spent their money\nupon inferior original works by living artists. We have come to a place\nwhere the tide should turn in favor of our own young artists; and we\nbelieve the turn in the tide is not far ahead.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe weather prophets have let us alone this winter. But on the Pacific\ncoast a sidewalk philosopher has tried to explain the cold weather of\nthe sunset slope. He says that an earthquake off the coast of Japan\nhas filled up the Straits of Sunda, and so diverted the warm current\nthat should flow to the coast of Oregon. This is an improvement upon\nthe last prophet, who regulated the weather astrologically\u2014by studying\nthe positions of the stars. The new man comes back to the earth and\nis chiefly at fault in his facts. We welcome him in the room of the\nastrologer of last year.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201cRuined by speculation.\u201d They have to keep that \u201chead\u201d standing in the\nnewspaper offices. The last case which has fallen under eye is that of a\nbank in Philadelphia, whose manager speculated in tin. When a bank fails,\nor a trustee betrays a trust, we always ask: \u201cWhat did he speculate in?\u201d\nThe story is trite. We know of nothing better to write than the laconic\nadvice of General Clinton B. Fisk: \u201cDON\u2019T!\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSir James Caird was part of a commission to study the causes of the\ngreat famine in India in 1876-7, and has written a book on the subject.\nThe trouble of course is that the farmers are poor, their methods bad,\nand that population keeps ahead of the food supply. One mode of relief\nis emigration. This reminds us that Charles Kingsley, who studied the\nHindoo laborers in the West Indies, wrote very enthusiastically of their\nqualities. Will the Hindoos come into our own South, and what will come\nof it? In the West Indies, Kingsley says that negro and Hindoo lived and\nworked together peacefully. We may not like it, but that side of the\nworld is top-heavy with humanity, and steam will go on distributing the\npeople among the less crowded nations.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhat is money worth in this country? The discussions at Washington, and\nthe prices of government bonds, seem to show that it is worth between\ntwo and three per cent., and there is not much doubt that a hundred-year\ngovernment bond bearing only two per cent. would sell at par. An incident\nin New York City confirms this opinion. A recent call for bids on city\nbonds bearing three per cent. interest, and payable in five years or\nthirty, at the will of the city, was answered by bids for six times the\namount required at from par up to 103\u2153. If short New York threes are at\na premium, a long government two would be worth par. Why, then, it will\nbe asked, do _we_ pay from six to ten per cent. in different parts of the\ncountry? The answer is that _risk_ and superintendence of _short loans_\nmakes the difference. The real value of money is found by taking for a\nmeasure long loans, in which there is absolutely no risk. The _Times_ of\nNew York expresses the opinion that thirty-year threes of that city would\nsell at 115.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA correspondent of the New York _Evening Post_ furnishes some interesting\nincidents in the life of Joel Barlow, the father of American epic\npoetry. Redding, Conn., was the early home of Barlow, and the visitor\nis shown the house in which the poet constructed his commencement poem\nin 1778. It is said that Barlow\u2019s one romance was a common one among\ncollege students. He fell in love with a sweet girl whom he privately\nmarried soon after graduation. He served as a chaplain in the Continental\narmy, but at Redding he is best remembered as the promoter of several\nindustrial enterprises designed to promote the welfare of the town.\nBarlow was not a great father of our epic, but his sons have, perhaps,\nnot greatly surpassed him.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe enthusiasm of science, in alliance with the passion of boys for\nkilling birds, is making trouble in Massachusetts. The taxidermists\nwant birds to stuff, and average boys want to slay birds. The law is\nloose, and any boy can get a license to kill birds in the service of\nscience. The dead birds are oftener eaten than stuffed. The song birds\nand insectivorous birds are rapidly diminishing. Of course the boys rob\nthe nests of the birds and kill the young in the nests. There is a period\nin a boy\u2019s life when he loves such work. Maine has abolished the system\nof licensing taxidermists, in consequence of the wholesale slaughter of\nbirds that went on under that system.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere is no doubt that the tobacco habit, or any other bad habit, can\nbe more easily overcome with the aid of prayer than without it. But\nthere are two objections to a common way of stating the case. The first\nis that many tobacco users have ceased using it without the aid of\nprayer. The second objection is that there is danger of teaching that\nmen cannot reform bad habits without _special_ divine help. The word\nwe spell c-a-n-t has two meanings, and both are present in the plea of\nhelplessness. It is understood, of course, that God helps men who help\nthemselves; that is the reason why a wicked farmer can raise good crops\nby being a good agriculturist, though he is a bad sinner.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nCongress is struggling with a foreign copyright bill. The bill is a\nbungling one and really opens the American market to free trade in\nbooks. This _may_ be desirable, but it is well to keep distinct measures\nin different baskets. The free book question belongs in the tariff\nbill. International copyright means putting a foreign author on a level\nwith the home author. We ought to do it without delay, but we need not\nconfer any favors on foreign publishers in a copyright bill. We have\ninternational patent-right, but we did not think it necessary when we\nprotected the foreign inventor to put the foreign maker of the inventor\u2019s\nmachines under shelter of the \u201cFree List.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nJohn Bright is still the most vigorous handler of a rhetorical club in\nall England. In the course of the great debate, last month, in the House\nof Commons, the Tories of high birth were badly represented by two or\nthree orators of their rank. Mr. Bright crushed them fine by saying that\n\u201cthe brothers and sons of dukes use language more virulent, more coarse,\nmore offensive and more ungentlemanly than is heard from a lower rank of\nspeakers.\u201d We suspect that the sentence is the reporter\u2019s, not Bright\u2019s;\nbut the rebuke which he administered made a sensation which reminded\nEnglishmen of the days when he described the political \u201cCave of Adullam\u201d\nand its inhabitants.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Prussian Chamber of Deputies recently debated the question of\ndueling, especially in the universities. A critical member began it\nby complaining of the idleness, drinking, gaming and dueling of the\nstudents. The curiosity which the debate brought to light is the fact\nthat though dueling is forbidden by law, it has powerful friends in the\nChamber and the government. Germany has forbidden the barbaric custom;\nbut young Germans grow up in the belief that dueling is manly, and their\nseniors remember that they had the same disease in the universities. The\nGerman people are very sensitive to foreign criticism on this point;\nand probably the other civilized nations will by and by ridicule German\ndueling out of existence.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nCuriosities of speech are always interesting, and it is a delightful\nbusiness for grammatical people to scold their neighbors. The New York\n_Tribune_ has had a bout with a few score correspondents on the duties\nof the neuter verb between subject and predicate; which must it agree\nwith? The _Tribune_ says with the real subject; the other folks say there\nare two subjects, and that the verb must agree with the last. All the\nmalcontents quote \u201cThe wages of sin is death.\u201d The _Tribune_ has three or\nfour answers; its best is that _death_ is the true subject; its second\nbest is that wages used to be singular. In \u201cThe Contributors\u2019 Club\u201d of\nthe _Atlantic Monthly_, another class of errors is discussed, such as the\ndropping of _h_ in _which_ and _when_, a common thing in and around New\nYork, and the suppression of _r_ in many words. The English say _lud_, we\nsay _lawd_. While just touching this interesting topic we call attention\nto a Meadville eccentricity. It is the rising inflection at the end of\nquestions, such as, \u201cIs he _sick_?\u201d Can any reader tell us whether this\nlocution (or rather inflection) is a localism only?\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThere is a lamentably large number of illiterates in the United States.\nLet us reduce the number as fast as possible. But let us stop assuming\nthat the spelling book will rub the Decalogue into the conscience. Our\nimmediate troubles and dangers come from literates who are as bright as\nlightning, and almost as destructive. We shall not get moral education by\nway of the spelling book. The statistical proof that we do is defective.\nWe may count up the illiterate rogues in prison with much satisfaction,\nif we forget that the literate rogues are too smart to be caught and\ncaged. Moral character does not result from intellectual training. Thirty\nyears ago we had this straight, and taught that an educated bad man was a\nmuch more dangerous beast than an uneducated bad man.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA few kind-hearted people have for several years conducted a crusade\nagainst horse-shoes. They claim that the horse-shoe is a piece of\nunprofitable cruelty. They furnish examples and drive their own horses\nunshod. Among their examples is this: \u201cIn Africa, a horse working in\na post-cart does, barefoot, over hard ground, twenty-four miles in\ntwo hours.\u201d One view is that our horse-shoeing bill would pay off the\nnational debt in a few generations. It is rather remarkable that these\nreformers do not receive more attention. We hope they will soon get the\ngeneral ear; hence this note.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPresident Eliot, of Harvard, in a recent address, makes a suggestion\nwhich is likely to arrest attention. The clergy are likely to have\na monopoly of classical education, perhaps of liberal education, if\npresent tendencies are not overcome. One of these tendencies is to give\ncandidates for the ministry a monopoly of Greek study in colleges.\nPresident Eliot thinks that increased and more thorough study of English\nmay help in resisting the tendency toward purely mechanical education.\nEnglish study of a thorough sort requires and promotes classical\nstudy. We add our thought that real liberal education is a fruit of\nstudy _after_ the school-boy discipline, and that a classical revival\nand an English literature revival are both clear possibilities of the\nChautauquan organization and methods. The most thorough study, with the\nbest helps, is within the plan of our university.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSalmi Morse was last year at this time struggling to exhibit his \u201cPassion\nPlay\u201d in New York. The religious feeling of the country won a conspicuous\nvictory in defeating the purpose of Mr. Morse. Near the end of last month\nthe dramatist drowned himself in the East river, and an actress whose\nrelations to him were questionable, is trying to gain notoriety by a\ntheory that a rejected suitor of hers murdered Mr. Morse. There are a\ndozen good morals in the story.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFrederick Douglas having at 70 married a white wife, the public has\nhad to listen to a great many homilies on the general subject of\ninter-marriage among races. We are not about to add another to the long\nlist of sociological essays. We suggest two things: First, it is best to\nleave the whole matter to individuals. Therefore, the laws which forbid\nmarriage between whites and blacks should be repealed. Second, the real\nevil\u2014if there be one\u2014is scarcely touched by the prohibitive laws. As\nMr. Douglas puts it: It is permitted to white men to beget children by\ndark-skinned mothers, provided they do not marry these mothers of their\ncopper-colored children. The nobler of two ignoble white men\u2014the one who\nmarries the black mother of his children\u2014should be left in peace until we\ncan invent some means of punishing the ignoble wretch who does not marry\nher. The former is a very rare man; the growing lights in the African\nface show us that the other men are numerous.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nEverybody has heard of the \u201cGreat Eastern\u201d steamship, an eighth of a mile\nlong and thirty feet under water. The great ship was a failure, and after\nan unsuccessful pursuit of genteel occupations for many years, she has\ngone to Gibraltar to be used as a coal hulk. If any sailor ever loved\nthis leviathan, he will feel \u201cthe pity of it\u201d in this unromantic end;\nand most of us feel a touch of sadness in reading the story.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe honors paid to the dead Arctic explorers in New York, on Washington\u2019s\nbirthday, lost none of their significance by the association. The flags\nwere at the peak in honor of the father of his country, in the morning;\nin the afternoon they dropped to half-mast in memorial mourning for the\nheroes of the ill-fated \u201cJeannette.\u201d To young eyes seeing both memorial\nhonors, the spectacle must have been inspiring\u2014as showing that the paths\nto glory are still open to heroic souls. The booming guns, the wistful\nand reverent throngs, the military tramping along the streets, all had\nthe same cheering lesson. We do not measure men or honor them by success;\nfor utter failure heroically faced we have the funeral pageant and the\nhistoric record. We are not at all interested in the North Pole. We\nsoberly think the Arctic exploration business a foolhardy one. But we\nforget our indifference, and our sober judgment, when we meet the cold\ncorpses of those who have vainly fought the cruel North\u2014and say, \u201cWell\ndone; like heroes you died; like heroes you shall be buried.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn the graduating list published in the February CHAUTAUQUAN, the name\n\u201cJ. Van Alstyne,\u201d from New Jersey, should be Wm. L. Van Alstyne, Jr.;\nalso the name Emily Hancock, which appears under New York, should be\nunder Indiana, and \u201cMrs. John Romeo,\u201d of New York, should read Mrs. John\nRomer.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA correspondent kindly calls our attention to two errors in THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN for February. We \u201cstand corrected.\u201d Whittier\u2019s birthday comes\non December seventeenth, instead of the sixteenth, as stated on page 302,\nand there are thirty-eight states in the Union, not thirty-nine.\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR APRIL.\n\n\nPREPARATORY LATIN COURSE.\n\nP. 174.\u2014\u201cHavelock.\u201d (1795-1857.) A British soldier who in 1823 was\nsent to India. He served in the Burmese war, in the Ava campaign, in\ntwo invasions of Afghanistan, and in 1856 in a war with Persia. On his\nreturn to Bombay he was sent to Calcutta to aid the British in the\nSepoy rebellion. After raising the siege of Cawnpore, he started toward\nLucknow, where the garrison was closely beset. Havelock was two months in\nfighting his way to the city, and when there, the relievers and garrison\nhad to stand a siege until the arrival of Campbell with forces. Havelock,\nhowever, lived only a few days after succor came, being worn out by\nsickness and hardships. The arrival of Campbell has been celebrated in a\ntouching and popular poem\u2014\u201cThe Relief of Lucknow.\u201d\n\nP. 177.\u2014\u201cArdennes.\u201d See \u201cNotes\u201d on page 185 of THE CHAUTAUQUAN for\nDecember.\n\nP. 180.\u2014\u201cHector.\u201d The chief hero of the Trojans in the war with the\nGreeks, the eldest son of Priam, king of Troy. Having slain Patroclus,\nthe friend of Achilles, the latter was aroused to revenge, and came out\nto fight. Hector remained bravely without the walls until he saw his\nenemy, when he took to flight, but he was finally pierced with Achilles\u2019\nspear, and his body dragged into the camp of the Greeks. Hector was the\nstay of the Trojans. He is represented by Homer as a man of all virtues,\nand is claimed to be the noblest conception of the \u201cIliad.\u201d\n\nP. 184.\u2014\u201cBoll of grain.\u201d The Scotch formerly used a measure called the\nb\u014dll, or _bole_. Its capacity varied with the article measured. A boll of\nwheat or beans held four bushels; of oats or potatoes, six bushels.\n\n\u201cCevennes,\u201d s\u0101-ven\u02c8. A mountain range of France, separating the valleys\nof the Garonne and the Loire from those of the Saone and the Rhone.\n\nP. 187.\u2014\u201cSanta Scala,\u201d or the holy staircase, called also Pilate\u2019s\nstaircase, is a flight of twenty-eight marble steps in a little chapel of\nRome. They are said to be the steps which Christ passed up and down in\ngoing before Pilate, and that, like the Holy House at Loreto, they were\ntransported by angels to their present position. Multitudes of pilgrims\ncrawl up this staircase, kissing each step as they go. It is related\nof Luther that wishing to obtain the indulgence promised by the pope\nfor this devout act, he was slowly ascending the steps when he suddenly\nheard a voice exclaiming, \u201cThe just shall live by faith alone.\u201d He was so\nterrified by his superstitious folly that he at once fled from the place.\n\nP. 190.\u2014\u201cAulus,\u201d au\u02c8lus hir\u02c8ti-us.\n\nP. 194.\u2014\u201cProtagonist,\u201d pro-t\u0103g\u02c8o-n\u012dst. The first or leading actor in a\ndrama.\n\nP. 196.\u2014\u201cObsolescence,\u201d \u014fb-so-l\u0115s\u02c8cence. The going out of style, becoming\nold, obsolete.\n\nP. 202.\u2014\u201cLucius Catilina,\u201d l\u016b\u02c8ci-\u016ds cat\u02c8i-li\u02ccna.\n\nP. 205.\u2014\u201cSpurius M\u00e6lius,\u201d spu\u02c8ri-us m\u00e6\u02c8li-us. A rich plebeian who in the\nfamine at Rome in B. C. 440 bought up corn to distribute to the poor.\nHis liberality won him the favor of the plebeians, but the hatred of\nthe patricians. In the following year he was accused of a conspiracy\nagainst the government. Having refused to appear before the tribunal when\nsummoned, Ahala, the master of the horse, rushed out with an armed band\nand slew him.\n\n\u201cOpimius.\u201d A patrician, the leader of his party in the proceedings\nagainst Caius Gracchus in 120 B. C. Through his violence some three\nhundred people were slain after the death of Gracchus.\n\n\u201cSaturnius.\u201d A demagogue who in B. C. 102 was elected tribune of the\nplebs. He allied himself with Marius and his party and won much favor by\nhis popular measures. He was twice re\u00eblected, but the third time it was\nfeared that his colleague, Glaucia, who had held office during each of\nhis tribunates, would be defeated. The friends had the rival candidate\nmurdered. This act caused a reaction against Saturnius, and the senate\nordered that he and his associates should be slain. Marius endeavored\nto save his friend, but the mob pulled the tiles from the senate house,\nwhere the parties were concealed, and pelted them to death.\n\nP. 220.\u2014\u201cMinucian Colonnade.\u201d A portico built about 100 B. C. by the\nconsul Minucius, in memory of the triumph which he received after waging\na successful war against the Thracians.\n\n\u201cPan.\u201d In Grecian mythology, a god who watched over flocks and herds; was\nthe patron of hunters, bee-keepers and fishermen, and the inventor of a\nshepherd\u2019s flute. He is represented with horns, goat\u2019s beard, feet and\ntail, and often as playing on the flute. The Romans worshiped him under\nthe name of Faunus.\n\nP. 221.\u2014\u201cLupercalia,\u201d l\u016b\u02c8per-c\u00e4-li-a. Lupercus was a name applied to\nPan, and a feast given in honor of the god by the Romans was called\n_Lupercalia_.\n\n\u201cTarquinius,\u201d tar-quin\u02c8i-us. Surnamed _Superbus_, was the last of the\nRoman kings. Though he was cruel and tyrannical, he is said to have\ngreatly increased the power of the city. Brutus, his nephew, was aroused\nagainst the royal family because of an outrage committed upon his wife\nby Tarquin\u2019s son. He stirred up popular feeling against the king,\nand succeeded in driving him from Rome. Consular government was then\nsubstituted for the monarchy.\n\n\u201cSpurius Cassius,\u201d spu\u02c8ri-us cas\u02c8si-us. A famous Roman of the fifth\ncentury. He was three times consul. In his last consulship he passed a\nlaw which provided that the patricians should receive only a portion\nof the public lands, and that the rest should be divided among the\nplebeians. The next year he was accused of aiming at regal power and was\nput to death.\n\n\u201cManlius.\u201d Consul in 392 B. C. In 395 he defended the plebeians against\nthe higher classes, but was accused of aiming at kingly power, and\nwas thrown into prison. The plebs showed such indignation at this that\nManlius was liberated. He only became bolder in his support of the\npeople, and in the following year was accused of treason, condemned, and\nthrown from the Tarpeian rock.\n\nP. 228.\u2014\u201cDante,\u201d d\u0103n\u02c8te. (1265-1321.)\n\n\u201cInferno,\u201d in-fer\u02c8no; \u201cPurgatorio,\u201d pur-g\u00e4-to\u02c8re-o; \u201cDivina Commedia,\u201d\ndee-ve\u00e9\u02c8n\u00e4 com-me\u02c8dee-\u00e4.\n\nP. 230.\u2014\u201cMincius,\u201d min\u02c8ci-us. A river of northern Italy emptying into the\nPo, a little below Mantua, which is situated on an island in the middle\nof a lagoon formed by the river.\n\nP. 232.\u2014\u201cBucolic,\u201d bu-c\u014fl\u02c8ic; \u201cEclogues,\u201d \u0115k\u02c8logs.\n\n\u201cDactylic hexameter,\u201d dac-tyl\u02c8ic hex-\u0103m\u02c8e-ter. A verse of poetry\nconsisting of six feet, parts, or measures (hexameter means of six\nmeasures), the first four of which may be dactyls, that is feet of three\nsyllables, one long and two short; or spondees, feet of two syllables,\none long and one short: the fifth must be a dactyl, and the sixth a\nspondee.\n\n\u201cTheocritus,\u201d the-\u014fk\u02c8r\u012d-tus. Was born in Syracuse about 250 B. C. He is\nknown as the creator of pastoral poetry. About thirty poems by him are\nstill extant, and several epigrams.\n\nP. 234.\u2014\u201cSibyl,\u201d s\u012db\u02c8yl. A name given by the Greeks and Romans to several\nwomen who were supposed to have been able to foretell, to avert trouble,\nand to appease the gods. Some writers mention four Sibyls, others ten.\nThe most famous of all was this Cum\u00e6an Sibyl, and to her the Romans\ntraced the origin of the \u201coracles.\u201d It is fabled that she offered to sell\nto one of the Tarquins nine books, but the king refused. Going away she\nburnt three, and then offered the six at the same price. Being refused\nagain she destroyed a second three, and at her first price the king\nfinally took those remaining. These were carefully preserved, but burnt\nin B. C. 83. A new compilation was made by consulting the various oracles\nof the world. The \u201cSibyline oracles\u201d mentioned here are in eight books,\nand were collected after the second century; they consist of a mixture of\nheathen, Christian and Jewish poems.\n\nP. 235.\u2014\u201cLucina,\u201d lu-ci\u02c8na. The goddess who was supposed to preside over\nthe birth of children.\n\n\u201cTiphys,\u201d ti\u02c8phys. The pilot of the \u201cArgo.\u201d He died before the ship\nreached Colchis. For the story of the \u201cArgo\u201d see Grecian history.\n\nP. 236.\u2014\u201cFates,\u201d or Parc\u00e6, were mythological beings who cared for human\nlife.\n\n\u201cLinus.\u201d The personification of the dirge.\n\n\u201cCalliope.\u201d The muse of epic poetry. She usually appears with a stylus\nand a wax tablet.\n\nP. 237.\u2014\u201cHesiod,\u201d he\u02c8s\u012d-od. Greek epic poet; 800 B. C.\n\n\u201cIambic pentameter.\u201d A verse of five feet (pentameter), or ten syllables.\nEach foot is an iambus; that is, is composed of one short and one long\nsyllable.\n\n\u201cAlexandrine,\u201d \u0103l\u02ccex-\u0103n\u02c8dr\u012dne. A verse composed of twelve syllables,\nnamed from a French poem on Alexander.\n\nP. 238.\u2014\u201cCeres.\u201d The Demeter of the Romans, the goddess who presided over\ngrain and the harvest.\n\n\u201cFauns.\u201d The rural divinities of the Romans. They were supposed to have\nintroduced the worship of the gods and agriculture. They are represented\nas possessed of horns, and having the figure of a goat below the waist.\n\n\u201cCourser\u2019s birth.\u201d The reference is to the creation of the horse by\nNeptune. It is said that Neptune and Minerva (Athene) contested for the\nhonor of naming Attica. The gods decided that it should be the one who\nshould give the most useful gift to man. Neptune struck the ground with\nhis trident and the horse appeared. Athene created the olive tree; the\nlatter received the honor.\n\n\u201cPallas.\u201d A name frequently given to Athene.\n\n\u201cCypress.\u201d The cypress was sacred to Pluto, the god of the lower world.\n\nP. 239\u2014\u201cThule.\u201d The land which in the time of Alexander the Great was\nbelieved to be the northernmost part of Europe.\n\n\u201cFasces,\u201d f\u0103s\u02c8s\u0113z. An emblem of authority among the Romans. It was an ax\ntied up in a bundle of rods.\n\n\u201cBalance.\u201d The constellation Libra, or the Scales. It lies in the Zodiac\nbetween the Virgin and the Scorpion.\n\n\u201cElysium,\u201d e-l\u012dz\u02c8\u012d-um. A dwelling place for the good after death.\n\n\u201cProserpine,\u201d pro-ser\u02c8pine. The daughter of Ceres, who was carried off by\nPluto, to Hades. Her mother, discovering that Jupiter had given consent\nto the abduction, withdrew from Olympus, and did not allow the earth to\nbring forth fruit. Jupiter tried to dissuade her, but failing, sent for\nProserpine. She returned, but as she had eaten in the lower world could\nnot remain all the time on earth, but was obliged to spend one-third of\nthe year with Pluto.\n\nP. 254.\u2014\u201c\u00c6olus,\u201d \u00e6\u02c8o-lus. The god of the winds.\n\n\u201cSarpedon,\u201d sar-pe\u02c8don. A son of Jupiter and a prince of Lycia. He was an\nally of the Trojans in the Trojan war, but was slain by Patroclus, the\nfriend of Achilles.\n\n\u201cSimois.\u201d One of the prominent rivers in the country of Troy.\n\nP. 255.\u2014\u201cOrontes,\u201d o-ron\u02c8tes. A Lycian leader and ally of the Trojans;\n\u201cAletes,\u201d a-l\u0113\u02c8-tes; \u201cAbas,\u201d a\u02c8bas; \u201cAchates,\u201d a-cha\u02c8tes.\n\nP. 258.\u2014\u201cHarpalyce,\u201d har-pal\u02c8y-ce. A Thracian princess whose mother died\nin her infancy. She was trained to outdoor exercise and sports, and on\nthe death of her father she turned robber. She lived in the woods and was\nso fleet that not even horses could overtake her.\n\nP. 262.\u2014\u201cAmaracus,\u201d a-mar\u02c8a-cus. The sweet marjoram or feverfew.\n\nP. 263.\u2014\u201cAcidalian.\u201d Venus was sometimes called _Acidalia_, from a well,\nAcidalius, in Greece, where she used to bathe with the Graces.\n\nP. 264.\u2014\u201cDemodocus.\u201d In Ulysses\u2019s wanderings, after the fall of Troy, he\nwas thrown on the island of Scheria, where the king of the people, the\nPh\u00e6acians, honored him with feasts, at which Demodocus, a minstrel, sang\nof the fall of Troy.\n\nP. 266.\u2014\u201cDanaan,\u201d dan\u02c8a-an. Danaus, the name from which this word is\nderived, was a former king of Argos.\n\nP. 270.\u2014\u201cThessander,\u201d thes-san\u02c8der.\n\n\u201cSthenelus,\u201d sthen\u02c8e-lus. The friend of Diomede, under whom he commanded\nthe Argives in the Trojan war.\n\n\u201cAcamas,\u201d a\u02c8ca-mas. A son of Theseus.\n\n\u201cPelides,\u201d pe-li\u02c8des. A name given to Achilles, whose father\u2019s name\nwas Peleus. The \u201cyouthful heir\u201d here spoken of was Neoptolemus, son of\nAchilles.\n\n\u201cMachaon,\u201d ma-cha\u02c8on. The surgeon of the Greeks in the Trojan war. He was\nthe son of \u00c6sculapius, the god of the medical art. Machaon was a warrior\nas well as a doctor, and with his brother led thirty ships to Troy.\n\n\u201cMenelaus,\u201d men-e-la\u02c8us. The king of Laced\u00e6mon, and husband of Helen.\n\n\u201cEpeus,\u201d e-pe\u02c8us.\n\nP. 288.\u2014\u201cDis.\u201d A contraction of Dives, a name given sometimes to Pluto,\nand hence to the lower world.\n\nP. 289.\u2014\u201cPhlegethon,\u201d phleg\u02c8e-thon. A river of liquid fire flowing\nthrough Hades.\n\n\u201cOrcus.\u201d Another name for Hades, or for Pluto.\n\n\u201cTartarus,\u201d tar\u02c8ta-rus. Like Orcus and Dis, Tartarus is sometimes used\nsynonymously with Hades.\n\n\u201cAcheron,\u201d a\u02c8cher-on. The name of a river of the lower world, flowing,\naccording to Virgil, into the Co-cy\u02c8tus.\n\nP. 290.\u2014\u201cCharon,\u201d cha\u02c8ron.\n\n\u201cTreen.\u201d An obsolete plural of tree.\n\nP. 291.\u2014\u201cPalinurus,\u201d pa-li-nu\u02c8rus. He had been the pilot of \u00c6neas\u2019s ship,\nbut fell into the sea and was murdered on the coast of Lucania, by the\nnatives.\n\n\u201cCerberus,\u201d cer\u02c8be-rus. The dog that guarded the entrance to Hades.\n\nP. 293.\u2014\u201cMarpesian,\u201d mar-pe\u02c8si-an. Derived from Marpessa, a mountain in\nParos, from which the Parian marble was taken.\n\nP. 294.\u2014\u201cHecate,\u201d he\u02c8ca-te. An ancient divinity, the only Titan which\nJupiter allowed to retain power. She was thought to rule in heaven, earth\nand hell; this three-fold power led to her being sometimes represented\nwith three heads.\n\n\u201cGnosian,\u201d gno\u02c8si-an. From Gnosus, or Cnosus, an ancient city of Crete.\nThe adjective is used here as equivalent to Cretan.\n\n\u201cRhadamanthus,\u201d rha-da-man\u02c8thus. The brother of King Minos, of Crete. His\njustice through life led to his being made a judge in the lower world.\n\n\u201cTisiphone,\u201d ti-siph\u02c8o-ne. One of the Fates.\n\nP. 295.\u2014\u201cHydra,\u201d hy\u02c8dra. A monster which formerly lived in a marsh in\nthe Peloponnesus. It had many heads, one of which being cut off was\nimmediately succeeded by two new ones. It was slain by Hercules.\n\n\u201cAloeus,\u201d a-lo\u02c8e-us. The son of Neptune; the sons here referred to were\nof enormous size and strength. When but nine years of age they threatened\nthe Olympian gods with war. Apollo destroyed them before they reached\nmanhood. \u201cSalmoneus,\u201d sal-mo\u02c8ne-us.\n\n\u201cLevin,\u201d l\u0115v\u02c8in. An obsolete word for lightning.\n\nP. 296.\u2014\u201cLapith.\u201d A race living in Thessaly.\n\n\u201cPirithous,\u201d pi-rith\u02c8o-us. The King of the Lapith\u00e6. He descended to the\nnether world in order to carry off Persephone, but was seized by Pluto\nand fastened to a rock with Theseus, who had accompanied him. Theseus was\nafterward released by Hercules, but Pirithous remained.\n\n\u201cIxion,\u201d ix-i\u02c8on. The father of the above. Having committed a murder on\nearth for which he was never purified, Jupiter took pity on him, purified\nhim, and took him to heaven, where he tried to win the love of Juno.\nFor his ingratitude he was sent to Hades, and fastened to a perpetually\nrolling wheel.\n\nP. 297.\u2014\u201cTeucer,\u201d teu\u02c8cer. The first king of Troy.\n\n\u201cIlus.\u201d The grandfather of Priam, and the founder of Ilion or Troy.\n\n\u201cAssaracus,\u201d as-sar\u02c8a-cus. The great-grandfather of \u00c6neas.\n\n\u201cDardany,\u201d or Dardania, was a region adjacent to Ilium, lying along the\nHellespont. It was named from Dardanus, the son-in-law of Teucer.\n\nP. 298.\u2014\u201cEridanus,\u201d e-rid\u02c8a-nus. A river god.\n\n\u201cMus\u00e6us,\u201d mu-s\u00e6\u02c8us. A mythological character, the author of various\npoetical compositions and of certain famous _oracles_.\n\nP. 300.\u2014\u201cProcas.\u201d One of the fabulous kings of Alba Longa.\n\n\u201cNumitor,\u201d nu\u02c8mi-tor. The grandfather of Romulus and Remus.\n\n\u201cCapys.\u201d \u201cSilvius.\u201d Mythical kings of Alba Longa.\n\n\u201cGabii,\u201d ga\u02c8bi-i. In early times a powerful Latin city near Rome.\n\n\u201cNomentum,\u201d no-men\u02c8tum. A Latin town, about fourteen miles from Rome.\n\n\u201cCollatia,\u201d col-la\u02c8ti-a. A Sabine town. \u201cCora.\u201d An ancient town in\nLatium. \u201cBola.\u201d A town of the \u00c6qui. \u201cInuus.\u201d Usually written Inui\nCastrum. A town on the coast of Latium.\n\nP. 301.\u2014\u201cInd.\u201d The country of the Indus.\n\n\u201cGaramant,\u201d gar\u02c8a-mant. The most southernly of the known people of Africa.\n\n\u201cAlcides,\u201d al-ci\u02c8des. A name given to Hercules.\n\n\u201cErymanthus,\u201d e-ry-man\u02c8thus. A lofty mountain of Arcadia, the haunt of\nthe boar which Hercules killed.\n\n\u201cLerna.\u201d A marsh and river not far from Argos, where Hercules killed the\nHydra.\n\nP. 302.\u2014\u201cDecii,\u201d de\u02c8ci-i. \u201cDrusus,\u201d dru\u02c8sus. \u201cTorquatus,\u201d tor-qua\u02c8tus.\nFamous Roman leaders in the early days of the Republic.\n\n\u201c\u00c6acides,\u201d \u00e6-ac\u02c8i-des. A name given to the descendants of \u00c6acus, among\nwhom were Peleus, Achilles and Pyrrhus.\n\nP. 303.\u2014\u201cFeretrian,\u201d fer-re\u02c8tri-an. A name given sometimes to Jove. It\nis probably derived from the verb to strike, as persons taking an oath\ncalled on Jove to strike them if they swore falsely.\n\n\n\n\nNOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN \u201cTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u201d\n\n\nFRENCH HISTORY.\n\nP. 377, c. 1.\u2014\u201cVoltaire,\u201d vol-t\u00ear\u02c8. (1694-1778.) French author.\n\n\u201cRousseau,\u201d Jean Jacques, roo\u02ccs\u014d\u02c8. (1712-1778.) French philosopher and\nwriter.\n\n\u201cMontesquieu,\u201d m\u014fn\u02c8t\u0115s-k\u016b\u02cc. (1689-1755.) French jurist and philosopher.\n\n\u201cD\u2019Alembert,\u201d d\u00e4\u02c8l\u014fn\u02ccb\u00ear\u02cc. (1717-1783.) French mathematician.\n\nP. 377, c. 2.\u2014\u201cMaria Theresa,\u201d ma-r\u012b\u02c8a te-ree\u02c8s\u00e4. (1717-1780.) Empress of\nGermany and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia.\n\n\u201cTurgot,\u201d t\u00fcr\u02ccgo\u02c8. (1727-1781.) At the time of his appointment to the\ncontrol of finance, Turgot had won a fine reputation by his papers on\npolitical economy, tolerance in governing, and like subjects. He at once\nundertook to carry out his views, abolishing all taxes save those on\nland, doing away with compulsory labor for the state, the privileges of\ntrading corporations and the like; this made him very unpopular among the\nfavored classes, and Louis was forced to dismiss him.\n\n\u201cNecker,\u201d n\u0115k\u02c8er. (1732-1804.) Necker\u2019s policy was to restore order and\nconfidence. He restrained the prodigality of the court, cut down the\nexpenses of the government, regulated taxes, and laid the foundation\nof the Bank of France. After his final withdrawal from France, Necker\nlived in Geneva, where he wrote several essays. It is said that on the\naccession of Bonaparte to power he attempted to obtain the position of\nminister of finance, but was rejected.\n\n\u201cUshant,\u201d ush\u02c8ant. The largest of the Ouessant Isles, off the coast of\nthe department of Finisterre in France.\n\n\u201cD\u2019Estaings,\u201d d\u0115s\u02cct\u0103n\u02c8. (1729-1794.) He was brought up to military\nservice, was twice taken prisoner by the English but released, and in\n1763 was appointed lieutenant-general of the navy. D\u2019Estaings was sent\nto the United States in 1778, where he planned attacks on New York and\nNewport, but was unsuccessful in both. After the campaign in the West\nIndies he co\u00f6perated with the Americans in an attack upon Savannah, but\nwas wounded.\n\n\u201cGranada,\u201d \u201cSt. Lucia,\u201d \u201cSt. Vincent.\u201d Three islands of the Windward\ngroup of the West Indies.\n\n\u201cLangara,\u201d l\u00e4\u02c8g\u00e4-r\u00e4. (1730-1800.)\n\n\u201cDe Guichen,\u201d deh-g\u0113\u02c8shon\u02cc. (1712-1790.) A French naval officer, made\nlieutenant-general in 1779. The next year after the victory here given he\nwas defeated by the English.\n\n\u201cDe Grasse,\u201d deh gr\u00e4s. (1723-1788.) Count de Grasse served in the\nAmerican war, and in 1781 aided Washington and Lafayette in the capture\nof Cornwallis.\n\n\u201cHood.\u201d (1724-1816.) He entered the navy at sixteen. In 1780 he was\nmade second in command in the West Indies. The year after his defeat he\ndefeated De Grasse and was made a baron. In 1793 he commanded the English\nin the Mediterranean against the French, and in 1796 was made a viscount.\n\n\u201cTobago,\u201d to-b\u0101\u02c8go. An island of the Windward group of the West Indies.\n\nP. 378, c. 1.\u2014\u201cVille de Paris.\u201d The city of Paris.\n\n\u201cCrillon,\u201d kre\u02c8yon\u02cc. (1718-1796.) A lieutenant-general in the Seven\nYears\u2019 War, and afterward captain-general of Spain.\n\n\u201cSenegal,\u201d sen\u02c8e-gawl\u02cc. A river of western Africa.\n\n\u201cCalonne,\u201d k\u0103\u02cclon\u02c8. (1734-1802.) Calonne had been a law student and a\ncourtier, when appointed to succeed Necker. After his dismissal he went\nto London, where he wrote many able political and financial tracts.\n\n\u201cBrienne,\u201d bre\u02cc\u00ebn\u02c8. (1727-1794.) Brienne was an archbishop and a member\nof the academy when he succeeded Calonne.\n\nP. 378, c. 2.\u2014\u201cEn Masse.\u201d In a body.\n\n\u201cDesmoulins,\u201d d\u0101\u02ccmoo\u02ccl\u0103n\u02c8. (1762-1794.) A schoolmate of Robespierre, and\na partisan of the Revolution. He was called the \u201cAttorney-General of the\nlamp post,\u201d for his share in street mobs.\n\n\u201cLaunay,\u201d l\u014d\u02c8na. He was massacred immediately after the capture of the\nplace.\n\n\u201cCond\u00e9,\u201d k\u014fn\u02c8d\u0101\u02cc (1736-1818); \u201cPolignac,\u201d po\u02c8l\u0113n\u02ccy\u00e4k\u02cc; \u201cNoailles,\u201d no\u02c8\u00e4l;\n\u201cSeignioral,\u201d seen\u02c8yur-al. Lordly, kingly; belonging to a seignior.\n\nP. 379, c. 1.\u2014\u201cSi\u00e8yes,\u201d se-y\u0101s\u02c8. (1748-1836.) At the beginning of the\nRevolution Si\u00e8yes wrote a pamphlet which placed him at the head of the\npublicists. He was a member of the Assembly, of the Convention, and in\n1799 of the Directory. When the new r\u00e9gime began he was one of the three\nconsuls, but soon after lost his influence, which he never regained.\n\n\u201cRobespierre,\u201d ro\u02c8bes-peer. (1758-1794.) He was educated for the law, and\npracticing, when in 1789 he was sent to the States-General. His radical\ndemocratic views gained him a prominent place. He afterward was a member\nof the Assembly, and in 1792 was elected to the Convention. He became the\nleader of one party there, and was instrumental in bringing on the Reign\nof Terror, of which he was the acknowledged head. His cruelty at last\nturned the people against him, and he was guillotined in 1794.\n\n\u201cMirabeau,\u201d m\u012dr\u02c8a-b\u014d. (1749-1791.) He was descended from a family of high\nrank, but was passionate and uncontrolled. Until 1788 his life was spent\nin all sorts of employments and intrigues. At that time he made up his\nmind to enter French politics, and succeeded in getting himself elected\nto the States-General of 1789. In 1791 he was elected president of the\nNational Assembly, but died soon after, a victim to excess.\n\n\u201c\u0152il-de-B\u0153uf,\u201d eel-deh-b\u016df.\n\nP. 379, c. 2.\u2014\u201cChalons,\u201d sh\u00e4\u02ccl\u014dn\u02c8; \u201cMenehould,\u201d m\u0101\u02ccn\u0101\u02c8h\u014d.\n\n\u201cBouill\u00e9,\u201d boo\u02c8y\u0101. (1739-1800.)\n\n\u201cVarennes,\u201d v\u00e4\u02c8ren\u02cc.\n\n\u201cRochambeau,\u201d ro\u02c8sh\u014fn\u02ccb\u014d. (1725-1807.) A French marshal. In early life\nhe fought in several minor campaigns. In 1780 he was sent to the United\nStates with 6,000 men, and the next year fought at Yorktown.\n\n\u201cDumouriez,\u201d d\u00fc\u02ccmoo\u02c8re-\u0101. (1739-1823.) After the battle of Jemappes, the\nconvention being jealous of Dumouriez\u2019s loyalty to the Bourbons, summoned\nhim to their bar. He refused to go, and was obliged to spend the rest of\nhis life in exile.\n\n\u201cVerdun,\u201d v\u0115r\u02c8dun; \u201cLongwy,\u201d l\u014dng\u02ccve\u02c8.\n\n\u201cCustine,\u201d k\u00fcs\u02cct\u0113n\u02c8. (1740-1793.)\n\n\u201cJemappes,\u201d zhem-map.\n\nP. 380, c. 1.\u2014\u201cF\u00e9d\u00e9r\u00e9s,\u201d f\u0101\u02c8d\u0101\u02ccr\u0101\u02cc; \u201cAbbaye,\u201d \u0103-b\u0101\u02c8; \u201cConciergerie,\u201d\nkon\u02cccer\u02c8ja\u02ccre\u02cc; \u201cCarmes,\u201d k\u00e4rm; \u201cBic\u00eatre,\u201d be\u02c8c\u0101tr\u02cc. The names of famous\nFrench prisons.\n\n\u201cLamballe,\u201d l\u014fn\u02ccb\u00e4l\u02c8. (1749-1792.)\n\n\u201cSombreuil,\u201d s\u014fn\u02ccbrul\u02c8. The sister of an officer prominent in support of\nthe Royalists.\n\n\u201cCazotte,\u201d k\u00e4\u02c8zot\u02cc. Jacques Cazotte, her father, was a French poet.\n\nP. 380, c. 2.\u2014\u201c\u00c9galit\u00e9,\u201d \u0101-g\u0103\u02c8le-t\u0101.\n\n\u201cVergniaud,\u201d ver\u02ccyne-\u014d\u02c8. (1759-1793.)\n\nP. 381, c. 1.\u2014\u201cMarat,\u201d m\u00e4\u02c8r\u00e4. (1744-1793.) Before the Revolution Marat\nhad practiced medicine. In 1789 he gained great popularity among the\nRevolutionists by his journal, _The Friend of the People_. After his\nelection in 1792 to the Convention and the formation of the triumvirate\nwith Danton and Robespierre, he wielded great power by his decisive\nopinions.\n\n\u201cDanton,\u201d d\u00e4n\u02ccton\u02c8. (1759-1794.) He was a lawyer by profession. At the\nbeginning of the Revolution he became a popular leader and orator. When\nthe supreme power fell into the hands of the triumvirate Danton was\nelected minister of justice, thus having chief control of the city.\nAfterward he was elected to the Convention, where he became a prominent\nleader, but excited the jealousy of Robespierre. The latter triumphed in\nthe contest for the first rank, and Danton was guillotined. Lamartine\nsays of him: \u201cNothing was wanting to make Danton a great man, except\nvirtue.\u201d\n\nP. 381, c. 2.\u2014\u201cCorday,\u201d kor\u02ccda\u02c8. (1768-1793.)\n\nP. 382, c. 1.\u2014\u201cAboukir,\u201d \u00e4-boo-keer\u02c8.\n\n\u201cTuileries,\u201d t\u00fc-eel-r\u0113. A royal palace of Paris.\n\n\u201cD\u2019Enghien,\u201d d\u014fn\u02cc-g\u0103n\u02c8. (1772-1804.) \u201cEylau,\u201d \u012b\u02c8lou; \u201cFriedland,\u201d\nfr\u0113d\u02c8land.\n\n\nCOMMERCIAL LAW.\n\nP. 384, c. 1.\u2014\u201cMisfeasance,\u201d mis-f\u0113\u02c8zans. A wrong act.\n\nP. 384, c. 2. \u201cIn transitu.\u201d On the passage.\n\n\nREADINGS IN ART.\n\nP. 384, c. 2.\u2014\u201cCimabue,\u201d che-m\u00e4-boo\u02c8\u0101. (1240?-1302?) Called \u201cthe father\nof modern painting.\u201d\n\nP. 385, c. 1.\u2014\u201cNavicella,\u201d n\u0103v-i-cel\u02c8la. The name of the mosaic, meaning\nthe little ship.\n\n\u201cAssisi,\u201d as-see\u02c8see. A picturesque town of central Italy, chiefly noted\nas the birthplace of St. Francis, who founded the Franciscan order of\nmonks.\n\n\u201cPodest\u00e0,\u201d po-des-t\u0101\u02c8. In 1207 the chief executive power of Florence was\nput into the hands of a single officer called the _podesta_; hence the\nreference is to the chief magistrate\u2019s palace.\n\n\u201cChiaro-scuro,\u201d chi-\u00e4\u02ccro-\u014fs-cu\u02c8ro. The effective distribution of lights\nand shades in a picture.\n\n\u201cGuido di Pietro,\u201d gwee\u02c8do de pe-a\u02c8tr\u014d.\n\n\u201cFiesole,\u201d fyes\u02c8o-l\u0101. A town of Italy, near Florence.\n\n\u201cVicchio,\u201d vek\u02c8kee-o; \u201cMugello,\u201d mu-gel\u02c8l\u014d.\n\nP. 385, c. 2.\u2014\u201cOrvieto,\u201d or-ve-\u0101\u02c8to. A town of central Italy, not far\nfrom Perugia.\n\n\u201cLuca Signorelli,\u201d lu\u02c8ca s\u0113n-yo-rel\u02c8lee. (1439-1521.) An Italian painter,\na nephew of Vasari. His frescoes are his most noteworthy pieces.\n\n\u201cScudi,\u201d sk\u014do\u02c8dee. The plural of scudo, an Italian coin used in Italy and\nSicily, and worth about 96 cents.\n\n\u201cSanta Maria delle Grazie,\u201d s\u00e4n\u02c8t\u00e4 m\u00e4-ree\u02c8\u00e4 del\u02c8l\u0101 gr\u00e4t\u02c8se-\u0101.\n\n\u201cMarco d\u2019Oggione,\u201d mar\u02c8co d\u014dd-go\u02c8n\u0101. (1470-1530.) A pupil of Leonardo. He\nmade two copies of \u201cThe Last Supper\u201d\u2014his most important works.\n\nP. 386, c. 1.\u2014\u201cCloux,\u201d clou; \u201cAmboise,\u201d almost \u014fnb\u02c8w\u012bz\u02cc. A town on the\nLoire, in western central France.\n\n\u201cVasari,\u201d v\u00e4-s\u00e4\u02c8ree. (1512-1574.) A pupil of Michaelangelo, and a\nsuccessful painter. His fame rests on his \u201cLives of the most excellent\nPainters, Architects and Sculptors,\u201d one of the most valuable books ever\nwritten on the subject.\n\n\u201cTrattato,\u201d etc. Treatise on painting.\n\n\u201cCastel Caprese.\u201d k\u00e4s-tel\u02c8 k\u00e4-pres\u02c8\u0101; \u201cArezzo,\u201d \u00e4-ret\u02c8so.\n\n\u201cGhirlandaio,\u201d g\u0115r-l\u00e4n-d\u00e4\u02c8yo. (1451-1495.) A painter famous for his\ninvention. His chief works, \u201cThe Massacre of the Infants\u201d and \u201cThe Death\nof St. Francis\u201d are still preserved in the Sistine chapel.\n\n\u201cFuseli,\u201d f\u016b\u02c8seh-le. (1742-1825.) A celebrated historical painter.\n\n\u201cMonochrome,\u201d m\u014fn\u02c8o-chr\u014dme. A painting with a single color.\n\nP. 386, c. 2.\u2014\u201cSandro Botticelli,\u201d bot-te-chel\u02c8lee. (1440-1515.) An\neminent Italian painter. His frescoes in the chapel of the Vatican are\nhis most powerful works.\n\n\u201cCosimo Rosselli,\u201d ro-sel\u02c8lee. (1439-1506.)\n\n\u201cPerugino,\u201d p\u0101-roo-jee\u02c8n\u014d. (1446-1524.) The master of Raphael. He\nreceived his name, \u201cThe Perugian,\u201d from the work which he did at Perugia,\nwhere there still exist some of his best frescoes.\n\n\u201cRaffaello Sanzio,\u201d r\u00e4-f\u00e4-\u0115\u02c8l\u014d s\u00e4n\u02c8ze-o; \u201cPinturicchio,\u201d\np\u0113n-too-r\u0113k\u02c8ke-o. (1454-1513.)\n\nP. 387, c. 1.\u2014\u201cFrancia,\u201d fr\u00e4n\u02c8ch\u00e4. (1450-1533?) A celebrated Italian\npainter.\n\n\u201cFra Bartholommeo,\u201d bar\u02c8to-lo-m\u0101\u02cc\u014d.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFor help in pronouncing the Italian names which are so numerous in this\npaper, we give a set of simple rules for Italian vowels and consonants.\n\n_A_ like _a_ in father.\n\n_E_ like _e_ in met, more prolonged and open at the close of a syllable.\n\n_I_ like _ee_ in feet.\n\n_O._ Pronounce _roll_ and stop on the middle of the word, and it is\nprecisely the Italian _o_.\n\n_U_ like _oo_ in root.\n\n_C_ or _g_ followed by _a_, _o_ or _u_, as in English, but followed by\n_e_ or _i_, _c_ has the sound of _ch_ as in cherry, and _g_ is like _g_\nin gem.\n\n_Gn_ is like _ni_ in poniard.\n\n_Gl_ as in English, except before _i_, when it has the sound of _ll_ in\nbrilliant.\n\n_S_ at the beginning of a word has the hissing sound, as between two\nvowels, or followed by _b_, _d_, _r_ or _v_, is pronounced like _z_.\n\n_Sc_, followed by _e_ or _i_, like _sh_.\n\n_Z_ like _dz_ in words which have _z_ in the English word; like _tz_ when\npreceded by _l_ or _r_, or followed by two vowels, and in nouns ending in\n_zzo_.\n\nSingle consonants are generally soft; double consonants are pronounced in\none sound, but stronger and more marked than when single.\n\n\nSELECTIONS FROM AMERICAN LITERATURE.\n\nP. 393, c. 2.\u2014\u201cEn bloc.\u201d In a lump.\n\n\u201cGenre.\u201d A style; a peculiar kind or species.\n\n\u201cDu Maurier,\u201d d\u00fc m\u014d\u02c8re-a. An English caricaturist who for over twenty\nyears has been connected with _Punch_.\n\n\n\n\nTALK ABOUT BOOKS.\n\nMost indefinite ideas exist among even very well informed people\nconcerning the Soudan and its tribes. What is the Soudan? Who people it?\nWhat does England want of it? Such questions are worrying many heads,\nand there has been a general search for information. A very timely book\nto those interested, is \u201cThe Wild Tribes of the Soudan.\u201d[B] The author,\nso late as December, 1881, started on a trip of exploration and sport\nthrough the Bas\u00e9 country\u2014a small part, it is true, of the Soudan, but the\npeople, customs and country serve as reliable examples. The experiences\nof this company of sportsmen with the people, their adventures and\ndangers, furnish us with much useful information about a people in whom\nwe are all just now interested. The book is furnished with excellent maps.\n\nThe erudition embraced in Dr. Winchell\u2019s digest[C] of Cosmical Science\nexhausts the contributions of the French, German and English languages,\nand is simply enormous. As the author _con amore_ has made this subject\nthe study of an average lifetime, his personal contributions of\noriginal thought constitute a large part of the book. It is written in\na calm, judicial spirit and incisive style, and increases in strength\nand interest to the close. The universe of matter is the field of\nobservation, and starting with the principles which are worked out before\nour eyes on this planet, the mechanism of the solar system is subjected\nto analysis in regard to the order of its structure and final destiny.\nHe then passes into the stellar universe, and finds evidence that the\nsame kinds of substances are there, subject to the same laws, and tending\nto the same results. The speculative reasoning of the volume of course\ncovers much space, but the trustworthy information obtained is all that\ncould be expected; in fact, all that is known to science. We know of no\nother book which gives to the mind so clear a view of the incomparable\nvastness of the universe, and the _rationale_ of its existing as does\nthis. The conclusion reached is, that the surface of our moon is made up\nmostly of the craters, cinders, and lava-beds of spent volcanoes. All\nthe other planets, the sun included, are tending in the same direction\nand destiny. In the stellar world other systems of sun and planets have\nreached this goal of desolation; others are on the way, and new systems,\noriginating in nebul\u00e6, are taking on form and order. When a cycle is once\ncompleted by a system its career is ended forever and ever. On the whole,\nthis is one of the most instructive and fascinating volumes we have read\nfor a long time.\n\n\u201cOregon\u201d[D] is one of a series of volumes entitled \u201cAmerican\nCommonwealths,\u201d edited by H. E. Scudder. The monograph was furnished\nby W. Barrows, D.D., and is both well written and carefully edited.\nThe subject of the narrative and the sources from which the materials\nwere drawn may have somewhat affected the style of the writing, which\nis exuberant and picturesque. Suppository details are suggested with\na freedom that shows a desire to make the account impressive without\nlessening its historical value. The most valuable part is given to the\nquestion of national right, and the long struggle of England and America\nfor possession. Americans who found fault with the Ashburton-Webster\ntreaty as conceding too much, while Oregon was left out, should read this\nbook.\n\n\u201cArius The Libyan\u201d[E] is a historical romance, and one of the very best\nof the class. It deals vigorously with early ecclesiastical matters, and\ndraws, with consummate skill, some well known prominent characters of the\nthird and fourth centuries. Its literary merits are of a high order, and\nwhether we do or do not accept the doctrines as true, and the estimates\nof the characters introduced as just, all will confess the story is well\nplanned, and told with great power. Constantine is sketched as a very\nable, far-seeing, but intensely selfish and unscrupulous politician, a\nman evilly ambitious, and the lust of power his ruling passion. He and\nthe bishops he influenced completely secularized the Church, left the\ncommon primitive Christianity, and established a politico-ecclesiastical\ninstitution intended to conserve the interests of the empire. The book\nis thoroughly self-consistent, and all the characters, good and bad, are\nwell sustained.\n\nThere are few women in the country who do not know something of Mary A.\nLivermore, who directly or indirectly have not been influenced by her\nearnest pleas for strong, self-reliant, womanly living among women. When\nshe began her lectures several years ago, she was ahead of her time, but\npublic sentiment has made rapid strides, and is fast gaining pace with\nher. The need of physical culture, of higher education, of practical\ntraining for women is acknowledged on every side, and has never been more\nclearly shown than by Mrs. Livermore in her lectures. The hope that these\nlectures might have a wider influence by publication has led to their\nbeing put into book form, under the title of \u201cWhat Shall we Do With our\nDaughters?\u201d[F]\n\n\u201cMexico and the Mexicans\u201d[G] is a very readable book; not specially\nfascinating in style, but of substantial value. It is modest in\npretentions, as real worth usually is. Promising only a narrative of\npersonal observations and experiences, the writer has managed to collect\nfrom reliable sources much information concerning the country, its\npeople and institutions, that will be of interest to American freemen\nand philanthropists. We like it as a clever, matter-of-fact book, whose\nauthor, fitted for the work assumed, does not attempt fine writing, or\nthe role of delineator. Not much attention is given to the religious\nphase of society. In a single paragraph of ten lines, respectful mention\nis made of the fact that the American Board has a station at Monterey,\nand that the Baptists have some zealous missionaries in the same region.\nIn the capital, Roman Catholic institutions alone seemed worthy of\nnotice. A longer stay and closer observation would have discovered\nProtestantism established there also.\n\n\u201cGreat Events of History\u201d[H] is a well written, readable book from the\npen of W. F. Collier, LL.D. It presents important facts succinctly, yet\nwith sufficient fullness, and so clearly that the memory can easily\nretain them. It presents the great events from the commencement of\nthe Christian era to the present century in _eight periods_, without\nconfusion, and so clearly as to give assured possession of the facts,\nwhile much is done to lessen the labor of the learner, and sweeten the\ntoil that to many is irksome. The geographical appendix will prove very\nuseful, as the kindred studies of history and geography are pursued with\nbest advantage when taken in connection.\n\n[B] The Wild Tribes of the Soudan. An account of Travel and Sport,\nchiefly in the Bas\u00e9 country. By F. L. James, M.A., F.R.G.S. New York:\nDodd, Mead & Co.\n\n[C] World-Life, or Comparative Geology. By Alexander Winchell, LL.D., of\nthe University of Michigan. S. C. Gregg & Co., Chicago. 1883.\n\n[D] Oregon, the Struggle for Possession. By William Barrows. Boston:\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. 1884.\n\n[E] Arius, The Libyan. An Idyl of the Primitive Church. New York: D.\nAppleton & Co. 1884.\n\n[F] What Shall we Do with our Daughters? Superfluous Women, and other\nlectures. By Mary A. Livermore. Boston: Lee & Shepard. 1883.\n\n[G] Mexico and the Mexicans; or Notes of Travel in the Winter and Spring\nof 1883. By Howard Conkling. With illustrations. New York: Taintor\nBrothers, Merrell & Co. 1883.\n\n[H] Great Events of History. By W. W. Collier, LL.D. New York: Nelson &\nSons.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    [Illustration: ROYAL BAKING POWDER\n\n    Absolutely Pure.]\n\n    This powder never varies. A marvel of purity, strength and\n    wholesomeness. More economical than the ordinary kinds, and can\n    not be sold in competition with the multitude of low test, short\n    weight, alum or phosphate powders. _Sold only in cans._ ROYAL\n    BAKING POWDER CO., 106 Wall Street, New York.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes:\n\nObvious punctuation errors repaired. Accents corrected and made\nconsistent.\n\nPage 387, \u201cBartolommeo\u201d changed to \u201cBartholommeo\u201d (Fra Bartholommeo had\ngreat influence)\n\nPage 399, \u201cearning\u201d changed to \u201clearning\u201d (pupils are learning)\n\nPage 414, \u201csomthing\u201d changed to \u201csomething\u201d (combined with something else)\n\nPage 417, \u201cSybil\u201d changed to \u201cSibyl\u201d (and Sibyl can do perfectly well)\n\nPage 424, \u201cIn\u201d changed to \u201cIt\u201d (It contains no less than five)\n\nPage 427, \u201cwel\u201d changed to \u201cwell\u201d (a well-prepared plan)\n\nPage 430, \u201cgovernnent\u201d changed to \u201cgovernment\u201d (the prices of government\nbonds)\n\nPage 431, \u201csocialogical\u201d changed to \u201csociological\u201d (the long list of\nsociological essays)\n\nPage 432, \u201chired\u201d changed to \u201chad\u201d (had the rival candidate murdered)\n\nPage 435, \u201cprisoners\u201d changed to \u201cprisons\u201d (The names of famous French\nprisons)\n\nPage 435, \u201cpoinard\u201d changed to \u201cponiard\u201d (like _ni_ in poniard)\n\nPage 436, \u201cof\u201d added (The subject of the narrative)","title":"The Chautauquan, Vol. 04, April 1884, No. 7","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":81886}