{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_55172/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_55172","id":"gutenberg_55172","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55172","summary":null,"tags":["Agnosticism","Category: History - Modern (1750+)","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Category: Science - Biology","Evolution"],"text":"EVOLUTION AND CREATION.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: CHIMPANZEES (Troglodytes).]\n\n\n[Illustration: GORILLAS (Troglodytes).]\n\n\n\n\n                        EVOLUTION AND CREATION:\n\n                                  BY\n\n                    HERBERT JUNIUS HARDWICKE, M.D.,\n\n        FELLOW OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, AND MEMBER OF\n      THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS OF EDINBURGH; FELLOW OF THE\n    LONDON MEDICAL SOCIETY; HONORARY FELLOW OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL\nSOCIETY OF LIVERPOOL, THE SOCIETY OF MEDICINE OF ATHENS, AND THE SOCIETIES\n OF DOSIM. MEDICINE OF PARIS AND MADRID; VICE-PRESIDENT OF THE MEDICAL\n   BRANCH OF THE MALTHUSIAN LEAGUE; LATE EDITOR OF \u201cTHE SPECIALIST.\u201d\n    HON. PHYSICIAN TO SHEFFIELD PUBLIC HOSPITAL FOR SKIN DISEASES,\n     AND TO SHEFFIELD AND SOUTH YORKSHIRE EAR AND THROAT HOSPITAL;\n HON. CONSULTING PHYSICIAN TO LEEDS PUBLIC HOSPITAL FOR SKIN DISEASES;\n             AUTHOR OF \u201cTHE POPULAR FAITH UNVEILED,\u201d ETC.\n\n  [Illustration: Decoration]\n\n    \u201c\u2018Learn what is true in order to do what is right\u2019 is the summing\n  up of the whole duty of man for all who are unable to satisfy their\n  mental hunger with the east wind of authority.\u201d\u2014Huxley.\n\n  [Illustration: Decoration]\n\n                       PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR.\n\n                                 1887.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nMany imperfections, as I anticipated, have been discovered in my\n\u201cPopular Faith Unveiled,\u201d some of importance and others of little\nconsequence; and many suggestions have been offered in all kindness by\nthose who have done me the honour of reading my work, for consideration\nin case I should issue another edition. The strongest of all the\narguments urged in favour of the real necessity for a second and\nrevised edition is that that part of the subject treated upon which\nrelated more particularly to the true origin of man was not dealt\nwith in a sufficiently exhaustive manner in the last work. This, of\ncourse, is a true charge: but it should be borne in mind that the\nmain object of the book was to expose the real nature of the popular\nsuperstition, and not to trace out the pedigree of man; and, moreover,\nto have entered fully into such subjects as the evolution of mind and\nmatter would have considerably augmented the bulk of the work, and\nconsequently have necessitated such an increase in the price as to have\nmade it prohibitory to a large number of thinkers, who have not too\nmuch spare cash to throw away. I therefore determined not to re-issue\nthe work in an amplified form, but to supplement it with a number of\npublished lectures (delivered here and in various other large towns)\nand articles, which should be ultimately brought out as an illustrated\nvolume.\n\nThese lectures, etc., some of which are re-prints from journals and\nsome of which I have myself printed in my leisure moments, I now\noffer to the public in book form, together with a number of figures,\nmaps, etc., illustrative of the subjects treated upon. \u201cMan\u2014Whence\nand Whither\u201d and \u201cEvolution of the God-idea\u201d are re-printed from\n_The Agnostic_; \u201cMan\u2019s Antiquity,\u201d \u201cEvolution of Mind,\u201d \u201cZodiacal\nMythology,\u201d \u201cIntellectual Progress in Europe\u201d and \u201cThe Annals of\nTacitus\u201d from the _Secular Review_; and \u201cThe Special Senses\u201d and \u201cThe\nBible\u201d from _The Agnostic Annual_: the remainder of the text, as before\nstated, has been printed by myself.\n\nI must acknowledge with gratitude my indebtedness to Mr. John Bennett,\nof Prince\u2019s Buildings, Dronfield, who has been kind enough to assist\nme by drawing the zodiacal signs, the Bacchanalian insignia, the\noriental and Egyptian zodiacs, Amen-Ra, Mafuca, Aidanill and the negro\nhead, the two hands, the Fuegans, the Australian (2), African and\nEuropean skulls, and Bo\u00f6tes, Virgo, Cetus, Aquarius and Sagittarius;\nand also to Mr. Wm. Gill Hall, of 66 Cecil Road, Sheffield, who has\nkindly drawn for me the single chimpanzee, the orang, the lemur, the\nface of the proboscis monkey, the moor monkey, the hairy couple from\nBurmah, the genealogy of man, the earth\u2019s section, and the ascent of\nmind. The remainder of the illustrations, with the exception of the\ntwo zincographs of the gorillas and chimpanzees (the frontispiece),\nhave been drawn by myself; and I must trust to the generosity of my\nreaders to overlook the amateur style of my productions, which, it is\nhoped, will be found sufficiently well done to serve the purpose for\nwhich they are intended. However amateur the illustrations may be in\nappearance, this I can truthfully say, that every sketch in the book\nis a faithful reproduction of the original. Some of the illustrations,\nhowever, have been derived from such gross originals that it has not\nbeen considered advisable, for many reasons, to reproduce the figures\nin their entirety; but wherever part of a figure has been modified by\nthe substitution of a symbolical or other device the fact has been\nnotified to the reader at the foot of the illustration.\n\nIn the course of the following lectures the opportunity has been seized\nto rectify some of the mistakes inadvertently committed in my \u201cPopular\nFaith Unveiled;\u201d but there are two errors in printing that have not yet\nbeen set right, and to which, therefore, I should now like to call\nattention. The first occurs on page 102, lines 9 & 10 from the bottom,\nwhere \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u2014_A.L.E.I._ should have been written \u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4\u2014_A.L.Y (or.I.)E.\n(El Yah), or_ \u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05d4\u2014_A.L.OU.E. (Eloh)_, etc. The next occurs on page\n109, line 6 from bottom, where _millions_ should read _thousands_.\n\nI have only now to frankly admit that during the last few years my\nviews as regards the theories of ultimate causation and the future\nstate have undergone some modification; that consequently I now regard\nthe line of argument adopted in support of the theory of a future state\nof consciousness on pages 5 & 6 of my above named work as a false one\nand the conclusions arrived at as consequently false also; and that\nrespecting the existence of a ruling power in the universe, I neither\naffirm nor deny such a condition, being contented with the knowledge\nthat I neither know nor apparently can ever know anything at all about\nthe matter, and recognizing, with Moleschott, the incontrovertible\ntruth that \u201cthere is nothing in our intellect which has not entered by\nthe gate of the senses.\u201d\n\n  H. J. H.\n\n  Purton Lodge, Sheffield.\n  January 1887.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n  LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.\n\n  EXPLANATORY NOTES.\n\n  ERRATA.\n\n  MAN\u2014WHENCE AND WHITHER?\u2014Nebular Hypothesis\u2014Formation of Earth\u2019s\n  crust\u2014Fossil remains in stratified rocks\u2014Pedigree of Man\u2014Pleistocene\n  and Neolithic Ages\u2014Spontaneous evolution of life\u2014Theories of existence\n  and ultimate causation\u2014Man\u2019s future state.\n\n  MAN\u2019S ANTIQUITY.\u2014Cave explorations\u2014British and continental\n  discoveries\u2014Glacial periods\u2014Tertiary upheaval and submergence in\n  Europe\u2014Tertiary fauna and flora\u2014Pleistocene ice age\u2014Pal\u00e6olithic\n  age\u2014Tropical origin of Man\u2014Neolithic age\u2014Shell-mounds and remains of\n  lake-dwellings\u2014Bronze and Iron ages\u2014Aryan invasion of Europe\u2014Historic\n  era.\n\n  EVOLUTION OF MIND.\u2014Universal life or motion\u2014Protoplasmic life\u2014Cell\n  life\u2014Origin of organs of sense\u2014Embryonic development\u2014Dawn of\n  infantile intellect\u2014Intellectual and emotional evolution in the\n  individual\u2014Corresponding development in the race\u2014Animals reflective\n  and emotional\u2014Language in man and animals.\n\n  THE SPECIAL SENSES.\u2014Evolution of.\n\n  EVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA.\u2014Dawn of intellect\u2014Earliest conception\n  of Deity\u2014Sun worship\u2014First human tribes\u2014Aryan mythology\u2014Vedic\n  system\u2014Brahmanism\u2014Hindu virgin and child-saviour\u2014Boodhism\u2014Western\n  Aryan mythology\u2014Zeus, Apollo, Prometheus, Hercules, Dionysos, &\n  Yao\u2014Central Aryan mythology\u2014Mazdeism\u2014Mithra\u2014Egyptian mythology\u2014Osiris,\n  Isis & Horus\u2014Amen-Ra, Mises\u2014Chinese mythology\u2014Semitic\n  mythology\u2014Akkadian and Chaldean myths\u2014Adonis, El, Yahouh\u2014Jewish\n  origin\u2014Bible gods\u2014Confucianism\u2014Mohammedanism\u2014Christianism.\n\n  ZODIACAL MYTHOLOGY.\u2014Ancient and modern zodiacs\u2014Precession of\n  equinoxes\u2014Deification of zodiacal signs and other celestial\n  bodies\u2014Savior-sun-god dramas\u2014Sacred numbers & symbols\u2014Ancient and\n  modern phallic worship\u2014Dionysia, Adonia & Agap\u00e6.\n\n  INTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE.\u2014Egypto-Greek or classic\n  era\u2014Alexander the Great\u2014The Alexandrian Ptolemies\u2014Essenian\n  revivalism\u2014Destruction of the Serapion\u2014Murder of Hypatia\u2014Christian\n  annihilation of science\u2014Birth of Mohammed\u2014The Koran\u2014Saracen\n  learning\u2014Tenth century scare\u2014Crusades\u2014Averroism\u2014Annihilation of\n  Saracen power\u2014Establishment of Inquisition\u2014Discovery of America\u2014Martin\n  Luther\u2014The Reformation\u2014Copernicus\u2014Revival of Arianism\u2014Murder of\n  Servetus\u2014Index Expurgatorius\u2014First newspaper\u2014Murder of Bruno\u2014Kepler\u2019s\n  laws\u2014Galileo\u2014Newton\u2019s theory of gravitation\u2014Discovery of Oxygen\u2014First\n  locomotive engine and screw steamer\u2014Telegraphy\u2014Christian Church\n  opposed to progress.\n\n  THE BIBLE\u2014Origin of Authorised Version\u2014List of Bible books\u2014Description\n  of MSS\u2014Ancient Hebrew language\u2014Invention of vowel-points\u2014Dates of\n  earliest Hebrew and Greek MSS.\n\n  ANNALS OF TACITUS.\u2014Abelard\u2014Arnold of Brescia\u2014Wicliffe\u2019s heresy and\n  trials\u2014Papal schism\u2014Jerome of Prague\u2014John Huss\u2014Triple Popedom\u2014Council\n  of Constance\u2014Search for old MSS\u2014Boggio Bracciolini, Niccolo Niccoli\n  & Lamberteschi\u2014The forgery\u2014Extracts from letters\u2014Discovery of \u201cThe\n  Annals.\u201d\n\n  CREATION AND FALL.\u2014Faith and reason\u2014Mosaic narratives\u2014Creation\n  opposed to science\u2014Genesis absurd and immoral\u2014Authorship of\n  Pentateuch\u2014Christianity a failure\u2014The real trinity\u2014Religious\n  hypocrites\u2014Morality not Christianity.\n\n\n\n\nLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.\n\n\n  _Frontispiece_\u2014Chimpanzees and gorillas.\n\n  Lemur and face of Proboscis Monkey (after Mivart).\n\n  Moor Monkey (after Mivart).\n\n  Chimpanzee (after Mivart).\n\n  Adult male Orang (after Mivart).\n\n  Mafuca and Aidanill (after Mivart), and Swaheli Negro (after Tylor).\n\n  Hands of Gorilla and Hammegh man (after Hartmann).\n\n  Natives of Tierra del Fuego.\n\n  The hairy family of Burmah.\n\n\n  _Man\u2014Whence and Whither?_\n\n  Genealogy of Man.\n\n  Section of Earth\u2019s crust.\n\n  Tertiary period in Europe.\n\n  Eocene seas.\n\n  Pleiocene seas.\n\n  Pleistocene submergence during temperate inter-glacial epoch.\n\n  Pleistocene Europe during post-glacial continental condition.\n\n  Skeleton of man.\n\n  Skeletons of gorilla and chimpanzee.\n\n  Outlines of the skulls of a chimpanzee, the Neanderthal man and a\n  modern European.\n\n  Outlines of the skulls of the Neanderthal man, a modern Australian\n  and the Engis man.\n\n  Australian, African and European skulls (after Tylor and Hartmann).\n\n\n  _Man\u2019s Antiquity._\n\n  Evolution of mind in man.\n\n  Am\u0153ba and Gasteropoda.\n\n\n  _Evolution of Mind._\n\n\n  _The Special Senses._\n\n  Androgynous Brahm.\n\n  Isis, Horus and fish.\n\n  Indranee and Indra; and Lakshmi and Vishnu.\n\n  Devaki and Kristna: and Parvati and Siva.\n\n  Amen-Ra (after Drummond).\n\n  Crucifixion of Kristna; Crux Ansata; Assyrian virgin Ishtar; Cyprian\n  virgin and child; Isis and Horus.\n\n\n  _Evolution of the God Idea._\n\n  Zodiacal Signs, showing the precession of the equinoxes.\n\n  Bacchanalian insignia.\n\n  Oriental Zodiac (after Sir Wm. Jones).\n\n  Egyptian Zodiac (after Sir Wm. Drummond).\n\n  Northern signs and extra-zodiacal constellations.\n\n  Southern signs and extra-zodiacal constellations.\n\n  Zodiacal line, or Ecliptic, showing the precession of the equinoxes.\n\n  Bo\u00f6tes, Adam, Joseph\u2014Virgo, Eve, Mary\u2014Cetus, Blasphemy.\n\n  Aquarius, John Baptist, Peter\u2014Sagittarius, Joseph, Philip.\n\n  God incarnate with man.\n\n  Phallic amulet and phallic lamp.\n\n  Votive offerings to god Priapus.\n\n  Phallic crux ansata and amulet.\n\n\n  _Zodiacal Mythology._\n\n  Vedic and Hindu Earths.\n\n  Greek Earth, and Pomponius Mela\u2019s cosmography.\n\n  Eighth and tenth century maps.\n\n  Fourteenth century maps.\n\n  Egyptian and Ptolemaic planetary system.\n\n  Planetary systems of Tycho Brahe and Copernicus.\n\n  The Iron Virgin\u2014inside view.\n\n  Ditto\u2014outside view.\n\n\n  _Intellectual Progress in Europe._\n\n  Sixth century MS. of Luke xx. 9, 10.\n\n  Fragmentary MS. from John\u2019s gospel.\n\n\n  _The Bible._\n\n\n\n\nEXPLANATORY NOTES.\n\n\nThe illustration of Brahm, the androgynous creator of the Hindus,\n\u201cis a copy of an original drawing made by a learned Hindu pundit for\nWm. Simpson, Esq., of London, whilst he was in India studying its\nmythology. It represents Brahm supreme, who in the act of creation made\nhimself double, _i.e._, male and female. In the original the central\npart of the figure is occupied by the triad and the unit, but far too\ngrossly shown for reproduction here. They are replaced by the _Crux\nAnsata_ [a cross and circle representing the male and female elements\nin nature]. The reader will notice the triad and the serpent in the\nmale hand, whilst in the female is to be seen a germinating seed,\nindicative of the relative duties of father and mother. The whole\nstands upon a lotus, the symbol of androgyneity. The technical word for\nthis incarnation is _Arddha Nari_.\u201d (Inman\u2019s \u201cAncient Faiths.\u201d)\n\nThe illustration of the god Siva, nursed by his virgin-wife-mother,\nParvati, requires some explanation. The right hand of the virgin makes\nthe symbol of the yoni (female principle) with the forefinger and\nthumb, the rest of the fingers typifying the triad. In the palm and on\nthe navel is a lozenge, emblematic of woman. In the infant\u2019s hand is\none of the many emblems of the linga (male principle), whilst under his\nfeet a lotus supports his body. The monkey is emblematic of the carnal\ndesire. The relationship existing between the mother and child was of a\ntwofold nature. The deities of the ancients were usually androgynous,\nand thus each of the members of the Hindu triad possessed two parts, a\nmale half and a female half, which he inherited from his androgynous\nparent Brahm, whose female principle brought forth the three essences,\nBrahma, Vishnu and Siva. Thus each god became the husband as well as\nthe son of the divine female principle, just as _Virgo_ of the zodiac\nwas both mother and wife of the sun-god of the annual revolution,\nmother at his birth at the winter solstice and wife at his ascension\nat the summer solstice. The female part or wife-mother of Siva was the\nvirgin goddess Parvati; of Vishnu, Lakshmi; of Krishna, Devaki; of\nIndra, Indranee; of Horus, Isis; etc.\n\nThe illustration of the amulet of the double _Crux Ansata_, represents\nthe female principle at the top in the shape of a ring (which has the\nsame meaning as the winged disc, cup, and shell, or _Concha Veneris_);\nthe male principle in full vigour on the right side in the shape of a\ncross (male organ of generation in the original); the unprolific male\nprinciple of infancy on the underneath side, also in the shape of a\ncross (infantine male organ in the original); and the act of generation\non the left side, in the shape of a clenched hand, with the thumb bent\nacross the back of the first finger.\n\nThe illustration of god incarnate with man represents the saviour of\nthe world\u2014\u03a3\u03a9\u03a4\u0397\u03a1 \u039a\u039f\u03a3\u039c\u039f\u03a5S\u00d4T\u00caR KOSMOU\u2014as a cross, or phallic symbol (an\nerect male organ in the original), which forms the beak on the head\nof a cock, the symbol of the rising sun, the whole resting on the\nshoulders of a man, symbolical of the incarnation of god and man.\n\nThe illustration of the amulet in Mr. Townley\u2019s museum represents the\nfemale principle at the top, in the form of a circle, under which\nis the victorious sun-god of the vernal equinox, in the shape of a\nbull\u2019s head with a cross or phallic symbol (erect male organ in the\noriginal) on either side of the mouth, the whole being emblematic of\nthe sexual union of the powers of heaven and earth, and the consequent\nregeneration of nature at the spring equinox.\n\nMafuca, whose portrait is given in the following pages, was a female\nape from the Loango coast, placed in the Dresden Zoological Gardens.\nHartmann, in his \u201cAnthropoid Apes,\u201d describes her as being \u201c120 cm.\nin height, reminding us in many respects of the gorilla. The face was\nprognathous; the ears were comparatively small, placed high on the\nskull, and projecting outwards; the supra-orbital arch was strongly\ndeveloped; the end of the nose was broad; and there were rolls of fat\non the cheeks.\u201d K. Th. von Siebold also classed her as a gorilla; but\nBolau and A. B. Meyer opposed this view; while Bischoff, judging by the\nstructure of the brain, thought she was a chimpanzee. Now it is pretty\ngenerally believed that she was either a cross between the gorilla and\nthe chimpanzee, or else a member of a distinct species of anthropoids\nintermediate between the gorilla and the chimpanzee. In Hartmann\u2019s\naccount of Mafuca we read that she was \u201ca remarkable creature, not\nonly in her external habits, but in her disposition.... She hardly\nobeyed anyone except Sch\u00f6pf, the director of the gardens, and when\nin a good humour she would sit on his knee and put her muscular arms\nround his neck with a caressing gesture.... Mafuca was able to use a\nspoon, although somewhat awkwardly; and she could pour from larger\nvessels into smaller ones without spilling the liquor. She took tea\nand cocoa in the morning and evening, and a mixed diet between whiles,\nsuch as fruit, sweetmeats, red wine and water, and sugar.... If she\nwas left alone for any time she tried to open the lock of her cage\nwithout having the key, and she once succeeded in doing so. On that\noccasion she stole the key, which was hanging on the wall, hid it in\nher axilla [arm-pit], and crept quietly back to her cage. With the key\nshe easily opened the lock; and she also knew how to use a gimlet. She\nwould draw off the keeper\u2019s boots, scramble up to some place out of\nreach with them, and throw them at his head when asked for them. She\ncould wring out wet cloths, and blow her nose with a handkerchief.\nWhen her illness began, she became apathetic, and looked about with a\nvacant, unobservant stare. Just before her death, from consumption, she\nput her arms round Sch\u00f6pf\u2019s neck when he came to visit her, looked at\nhim placidly, kissed him three times, stretched out her hand to him,\nand died.\u201d It may be added to this that Mafuca exhibited the greatest\ndecorum and modesty in the performance of all her daily and other\nnatural functions.\n\nAidanill, the hairless Australian, is a good specimen of a low type of\nhuman being; having a superciliary prominence greater than is usually\nfound amongst races of men, with a remarkably small cranial capacity\nand almost entire absence of frontal development. The skull, in fact,\ndiffers but little from that of Mafuca, given beneath it; and its owner\nbelonged to those races described on p. 14 of \u201cEvolution of Mind.\u201d\n\nThe Swaheli Negro is a good specimen of the dolichocephalic prognathous\ntype of head, considerably higher in intellectual capacity than that of\nAidanill.\n\nThe hands are intended to illustrate the close resemblance between\nthe hand of a gorilla and that of a man belonging to the Hammeghs\nof the Nubian Soudan. It will be observed that while the fingers of\nthe gorilla are webbed, the second and third fingers of the man are\nslightly webbed and his thumb and first finger very considerably\nwebbed.\n\n\n\n\nERRATA.\n\n\nMAN\u2014WHENCE AND WHITHER?\u2014Page 12, line 11 from top, for \u201cPal\u00e6olithic\u201d\nread \u201cPleistocene;\u201d and line 12 from top, for \u201con the earth\u201d read \u201cin\nEurope, for the human remains found in France clearly testify to the\nfact; and even in America his antiquity must be very great indeed,\u201d etc.\n\nEVOLUTION OF MIND\u2014Page 1, line 6 from top, for \u201cProtamnia\u201d read\n\u201cProtista.\u201d\n\nEVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA\u2014Page 25, line 17 from top, for \u03a3\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2 read \u0396\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2.\n\nINTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE\u2014Page 17, line 9 from top and line 7\nfrom bottom for \u201cPurgatorious\u201d read \u201cExpurgatorious.\u201d\n\nANNALS OF TACITUS\u2014Page 15, line 13 from top, for \u201cthat religion\u201d read\n\u201cthat the religion.\u201d\n\nCREATION AND FALL\u2014Page 6, last line, and page 7, last line but one, for\n\u201cmammals\u201d read \u201cplacental mammals.\u201d\n\n\n[Illustration: _LEMUR_\u2014_Half Ape_\u2014(_After Mivart_)]\n\n[Illustration: _FACE OF PROBOSCIS MONKEY_ (_After Mivart_)]\n\n\n[Illustration: _THE MOOR MONKEY_ (_After Mivart_)]\n\n\n[Illustration: _CHIMPANZEE_ (_Troglodytes_) (_After Mivart_)]\n\n\n[Illustration: _ADULT MALE ORANG_ (_After Mivart_)]\n\n\n[Illustration: SWAHELI NEGRO (_After Tyler_)]\n\n[Illustration: AIDANILL. HAIRLESS AUSTRALIAN. (_After Hartmann_)]\n\n[Illustration: MAFUCA\n_The Anthropoid Ape at Dresden_ (_After Hartmann_)]\n\n\n[Illustration: _Hand of a very aged male gorilla._ (_After Hartmann_)]\n\n[Illustration: _Hand of a Hammegh man from Roseres, Blue Nile._ (_After\nHartmann_)]\n\n\n[Illustration: NATIVES OF TIERRA DEL FUEGO.]\n\n\n[Illustration:\n   _Moung-Phoset The Son_\n   _Mahphoon The Mother_\n _THE HAIRY FAMILY OF BURMAH_\n _Exhibited at the Piccadilly Hall London in 1886_]\n\n\n\n\nMAN: WHENCE AND WHITHER?\n\n\nThe fables of the creation of nature and man by various fantastic and\nridiculous means, which have, for thousands of years, found favour with\nthe unthinking multitudes inhabiting the earth, and which even now\nare, one or other, firmly believed by the large majority of both the\nEastern and Western populations, must, ere long, gradually give way to\nthe truer and grander theory of Evolution, resulting from the study\nof the natural sciences. Priests, monks, and other interested people,\nbacked up by the enormous wealth which has accumulated to the various\nreligious creeds during the past centuries of darkness, ignorance, and\ngross credulity, will, no doubt, oppose all their tremendous forces\nagainst the new philosophy, thus, for a while, delaying the inevitable\nresult. But this condition of things cannot last long. Education is\ndoing, and will continue to do, its work, until, at length, falsehood\nand slavery will give place to truth and liberty.\n\nIn order to discover the origin of man, it is necessary to carry the\nmind back to a very remote period, and observe the mode of development\nof our planetary system; for, according to the theory of Evolution,\nthere were no starting points for particular forms in nature, the whole\nuniverse consisting of one continuous unfolding of phenomena.\n\nThe modern theory of the mode of development of our earth, as also\nof all other planets and suns, is the one known as the \u201cNebular\nHypothesis,\u201d which is the prelude to the great theory of Evolution, and\nwhich teaches us that the earth, the sun, the moon, the planets, and\nall the heavenly host are the effects or results of the condensation of\na nebulous vapour, which took place many millions of years ago, after\nhaving been diffused for an incalculable period of time throughout\nthe illimitable expanse of space. The cause of this nebulous vapour,\nor attenuated matter, is unknown to us, and will probably ever remain\nenshrouded in the profound mystery which at present envelopes it.\nBeyond this limit all is mere speculation or hypothesis; and the\nAgnostic philosopher and the man of science, humbly acknowledging\ntheir complete inability to solve this mighty problem of ultimate\ncausation, are content to leave further speculation in this direction\nto metaphysicians and poets.\n\nDuring many long ages this process of condensation of the nebulous\nvapour steadily continued, being controlled by the laws of gravitation\nand transformation, until, at length, a number of rotating spherical\nnebular masses were formed, in a state of high heat from the shock\nof their recently-united atoms, which spheres gradually cooled by\nradiation, consequently contracting and becoming possessed of a more\nrapid rotary motion, giving off from their equatorial regions large\nrings of vapour, which, in their turn, condensed and, under the\ninfluence of the same two laws, formed separate spheres for themselves.\nThis is the mode by which our planetary system was formed, as taught by\nLaplace and accepted by the scientists of to-day.\n\nThe earth, then, in common with other planets, may be said to have\npassed from the condition of a gaseous to a highly-heated fluid mass,\nand to have gradually become plastic, and moulded by revolution on its\nown axis to its present shape\u2014_i.e._, an oblate spheroid, or globe,\nflatter at the poles than at the equator, with a polar diameter about\ntwenty-six miles shorter than the equatorial diameter. This is the\nshape that all plastic bodies which rotate on their axes must assume,\nas we are clearly taught by mathematics.\n\nAssuming, then, that the earth was in a state of incandescence when it\nbegan to take a definite form, we shall at once see that the denser\nmaterials composing it would gravitate towards the centre, forming\na semi-plastic mass surrounded by an envelope of gases and watery\nvapour. The gases would be quickly disposed of in various chemical\ncombinations, and the watery vapour would be condensed and deposited in\ndepressions on the surface of the central mass as soon as it had become\ncooled sufficiently. The outer crust of this central, semi-solid mass\nwas soon converted, under the intense heat, into a hard, granite-like\nrock, which was continually subject to sudden upheavals, resulting\npartly from the violent escape of gases, and partly from water passing\nthrough fissures on the surface to the heated interior and giving rise\nto steam of great expansive power. In this manner great inequalities\nof the surface were, no doubt, produced, whose rugged edges, after\nthe lapse of a vast period of time, were gradually softened down by\nthe subsequent action upon them of air and water. This first rock\nformation is termed by geologists the Plutonic (from Pluto, monarch of\nhell), on account of its being the result of intense heat, and not,\nas is the case with all other rock formations, laid down in layers by\nwater. Whether the Plutonic rock forms a solid centre to our earth is\nmatter of uncertainty; but all are agreed that the internal heat of\nour planet, whether caused by the friction of the particles of a solid\nsubstance or by a molten fluid, is still, even in these later times,\nintense. In boring through the earth\u2019s crust, the average increase in\ntemperature for every fifty feet of descent, after the first hundred\nfeet from the surface, is one degree Fahr., which would give us, at a\ndepth of 125 miles, sufficient heat to melt most of the rocks. This\nintense internal heat has generated, in times long gone by, enormous\nforces, by which rocks of all ages have been raised and depressed,\ntwisted and distorted, broken and forced out of position, and forcibly\ncompressed, so as to eventually cause most important changes of surface\nlevel.\n\nThe next class of rock-formation is totally different from the\nPlutonic, or unstratified series, in that it is the result of the\nwear and tear of the surface when acted upon by air and water, and is\nlaid down, in the first instance, by water, as sediment. Water, in\nthe forms of seas, rivers, rain, and ice, has been the chief agent\nin the arrangement of all the stratified rocks, the determination\nof the earth\u2019s contour, the direction of valleys, and, in fact, the\nregulation of the whole physical geography of the visible portion of\nthe earth. With the help of this mighty agent, so soon as the earth\nhad become sufficiently cool to permit condensation to take place in\nits vapoury envelope, the ceaseless wear and tear of the Plutonic\u2014and,\nsubsequently, of all other\u2014rocks, which has accumulated so vast a\nmass of material, commenced. Large volumes of water were gradually\ndeposited, without intermission, until permanent seas and rivers had\nbecome established, and the new process of stratification, which was\nhenceforth destined to shape the crust of the earth and to provide the\nconditions of life, commenced to operate. This action is taking place\ndaily in rivers and seas, as we may observe at any time. On the tops\nof mountains the same action is in operation, though under different\nconditions, snow and ice splitting fragments from the rocks to be borne\naway as grit into the valleys by impetuous torrents and deposited\nin other places. Within the Polar circles ice on a grander scale is\nlevelling down the land; glaciers, covering thousands of square miles,\nare slowly sliding down the valleys, grinding their surfaces still\ndeeper\u2014forming sands, clays, and gravels, and forcing these down to the\nsea-shore; and icebergs, many miles in circumference, are carried by\ncurrents along coasts and against cliffs like huge ploughs, completely\naltering the face of the rocks beneath. This wear and tear results in\nthe formation of immense quantities of detritus, which is deposited in\nlayers at the bottom of seas and rivers, and consolidated by pressure,\nbeing frequently assisted by lime, iron, or silica as a cement. The\ncoarser-textured rock has been laid down in rapidly-moving, shallow\nwater; and the finer-textured in still, deep water. Thus, through many\nlong ages\u2014probably millions of years\u2014the surface of the earth underwent\ncontinual change from the constant deposition of stratified rock, each\nlayer of which completely buried beneath it the various life forms\nof the previous period, which circumstance enables us to ascribe to\nthe various members of the animal and vegetable kingdoms particular\ngeological periods; for fossilised remains of animals and vegetables\nhave been unearthed in the different layers of the stratified rocks,\nconclusively proving their existence on the earth at those periods.\n\nIn the Plutonic or unstratified rock-formation period there was,\nof course, no life upon the earth, the conditions necessary for\nsuch development not being present; but in the very earliest of the\nstratified formations we find evidence of the dawn of marine life,\nboth vegetable and animal. Geologists have divided the stratified rock\ninto three chief divisions, the Pal\u00e6ozoic (ancient life), or Primary;\nthe Mesozoic (middle life), or Secondary; and the Kainozoic (latest\nlife), or Tertiary. Each of these, again, has been subdivided into\nsmaller sections, according to the particular kind of deposit met with,\nthe particular places where the best examples are to be found, or the\nparticular life-forms existing. The Primary, the depth of which is\nunknown, is subdivided into seven periods\u2014viz.:\u2014\n\nLaurentian, consisting of highly metamorphosed (that is, changed in\nappearance from the original stratified rock character, owing to its\nproximity to the molten Plutonic rock) limestone, containing fossil\nremains of the Foraminifera, some of the first living organisms.\n\nHuronian, consisting of less highly metamorphosed sandstone, limestone,\netc., and containing fossil remains of lowly-organised molluscs\n(soft-bodied organisms).\n\nCambrian, consisting of slates, sandstones, and conglomerates,\nand containing fossil remains of sponges, sea-weeds, star-fishes,\nsea-lilies, lowly shell-fish, marine worms, and the first land plants.\n\nSilurian, consisting of slates, limestones, etc., and containing fossil\nremains of corals, chambered spiral shell-fish, crabs, sea-worms, and\nbony plates and scales of a low form of fish.\n\nDevonian, consisting of old red sandstone, shales, and coralline\nlimestone, and containing fossil land plants, fishes, belonging to\nshark, ray, and sturgeon families, and first fossil insect.\n\nCarboniferous, consisting of mountain limestone, coal, sandstone,\nironstone, clays, etc., and containing fossil scorpions, beetles, and\namphibians.\n\nPermian, consisting of new red sandstone, marls, magnesian limestones,\netc., and containing fossils of true reptiles.\n\nThe Secondary division is subdivided into three periods, viz.:\u2014\n\nTriassic, consisting of sandstone, limestone, and clays, and containing\nfossils of gigantic reptiles and first mammals (small marsupials).\n\nJurassic, or O\u00f6litic, consisting of limestones, coral rags, clays, and\nmarls, and containing fossils of bird-reptiles and several species of\nmarsupials.\n\nCretaceous, consisting of clays, sands, soft limestone, and lignites,\nand containing fossils of new bird-reptiles.\n\nThe Tertiary division is subdivided into four periods\u2014viz.:\u2014\n\nEocene (dawn of recent life), consisting of sandstone, limestone,\nsands, clays, marls, coral rags, and lignites, and containing fossil\nequine forms, birds, reptiles, bats, and marsupials.\n\nMeiocene (less recent life), consisting of arctic coal, limestone,\nsands, clays, and lignites, and containing fossil apes and marsupials.\n\nPleiocene (more recent life), the white and red crags of Britain,\ncontaining fossil apes, bears, and hyenas.\n\nPleistocene (most recent life), consisting of glacial accumulations of\nall kinds of earths, and containing fossil remains of apes and men,\nand implements of stone, bone, and horn, and later still of remains of\nlake-dwellings, shell-mounds, etc.\n\nThese different layers of stratified rocks have not always kept\ntheir proper positions with regard to each other in the order they\nwere originally laid down; but, owing to volcanic eruption, have\nfrequently intruded upon each other, so that, at first sight, it would\nsometimes appear as though the regular order of deposition had not\nbeen adhered to; but that this is not so has been made apparent by\ncareful investigation over large areas. The depth of the Secondary and\nTertiary is from twenty to twenty-five miles. We see, therefore, that\nthe first life-forms made their appearance as marine organisms in the\nLaurentian, or first stratified rock period; but whether the animal\nor the vegetable form first appeared, or whether both were developed\nfrom one primordial organism, it is impossible at present to say. In\neach successive layer of rock we meet with fossil remains of animal\nand vegetable life, which steadily develop into more highly organised\nforms, through the different periods, until, at last, they assume the\nexquisite phases we now behold around us. The vegetable kingdom was the\nfirst to exist upon the land, the first land-plant being found in the\nfossil state in the Cambrian layer, at the same time that marine animal\nlife was assuming the forms of worms, shell-fish, and star-fishes. In\nthe Silurian period the first vertebrate animals made their appearance\nin the form of lowly-organised fishes, from which, in the Carboniferous\nage, developed amphibious creatures, the first breathing animals,\nliving both in and out of water, and the progenitors of the large\nkingdom of land animals, including man.\n\nNow, if we take the pedigree of man, as arranged by Darwin and Haeckel,\nand compare it with this geological tree, we shall see how perfectly\nthe sister sciences of Paleontology and Biology corroborate each other.\nThe first form of life, says Haeckel, was the Moneron, a structureless\nalbuminous atom of bioplasm, not even possessing the structure of\na mere cell. We place this, which belongs to the primitive order\nProtozoa, in the Laurentian period, where we are told by geologists\nthat fossil foraminifera have been found. This promordial organism\ngradually developed into single nucleated cells, called Am\u0153b\u00e6, and\nthese again into masses of nucleated cells, called Synam\u0153b\u00e6. These\nsimple and multiple cell organisms we place in the next period,\nHuronian, in the strata of which geologists tell us have been found\nfossil remains of lowly organised molluscs, or soft-bodied animals.\nCiliata are the next forms of life, which consist of Synam\u0153b\u00e6, covered\nwith vibratile cilia. These gradually developed a mouth, becoming\nGastr\u0153ada, and afterwards Turbellaria, a low form of worm (Vermes),\nwith a mouth and alimentary canal; and are placed in the Cambrian\nperiod, in which stratum have been found remains of this kind of life.\nThe ascent continues through the transition stage of Scolecida to\nHimatega, or sack-worms, with their rudimentary spinal cords; from\nwhich gradually evolved Acrania, or the first vertebrate animals,\nwithout skulls, brains, central heart, jaws, or limbs; but with a true\nvertebral cord. This peculiar little animal was a lancet-shaped marine\nworm, akin to the lancelet or amphioxus of to-day. From these developed\nMonorrhini, or vertebrate hybrid worms and fishes, with skull, brain,\nand central heart, but no sympathetic system, jaws, or limbs, and with\na single nasal cavity (lampreys). These three forms are placed in the\nSilurian period, in which stratum have been found fossilised bony\nplates and scales of fishes and Annelides, or sea-worms.\n\nThe next forms of life to be developed, from the Monorrhini, were the\nSelachii (Amphirrhini), or true fishes, of the shark family, with two\nnasal cavities, swim-bladder, two pairs of fins, and jaws. From these\nevolved the Ganoidei, and thence all osseous fishes; and Dipnoi (mud\nfish), or hybrid fishes and amphibians, with both gills and lungs.\nThese little animals live during winter in water, when they breathe\nair dissolved in water through their gills; and during the summer in\nmud, when they breathe with their lungs. Both these are placed in the\nDevonian period, in which have been found fossil sharks, etc. The next\nforms are Sozobranchii, or amphibians with persistent gills, from which\nevolved Urodela, or amphibians with transitory gills, but persistent\ntails, and legs; allied to the salamander. These are placed in the\nCarboniferous period, in which have been found fossilised amphibians.\nWe next get Protamnia, or hybrid salamanders and lizards (frogs and\ntoads), with no gills or tails, but possessing an amnion and cloaca.\nThese represent the parent forms of the three great higher branches of\nvertebrates\u2014Reptilia, Aves (which evolved from reptiles), and Mammalia,\nand are placed in the Permian period, in which have been found\nfossilised amphibians and true reptiles. Monotremata (Promammalia) are\nthe next forms developed in our pedigree, the parent forms of the class\nMammalia; with cloaca, amnion, and marsupial bones; which are placed in\nthe Triassic period; and from which evolved Marsupialia, mammals with\namnion and marsupial bones, but no cloaca; allied to the kangaroo and\nopossum of to-day. This species we place in the Jurassic and Cretaceous\nperiods. From Marsupialia developed the large kingdom of Placentalia,\nwhich lose the marsupial bones and cloaca, and acquire a placenta, and\nwhich we divide into three main branches, according to the particular\nplacental formation. The first division we call Villiplacentalia (tufty\nplacenta), from which evolved Edentata (sloth, ant-eaters, and tertiary\nmonsters), Cetacea (marine placental mammals, such as whale, dolphin,\nporpoise, and sea-cow), and Ungulata (horse, cow, pig, rhinoceros, and\nhippopotamus). The second division we term Zenoplacentalia (ring-like\nplacenta), the earliest forms of which were Carnaria, or flesh-eaters,\nfrom which came Carnivora, or land beasts of prey (cats, dogs, bears,\netc.), and Pinnipedia, or marine beasts of prey (seal and walrus). The\nthird division we name Discoplacentalia (discoid placenta); and here\nwe find, as the first development, the Prosimi\u00e6, or tailed lemurs,\nquadrupeds with claws, and having the appearance of hybrid cats and\nmonkeys. All these are placed in the Eocene period, in which stratum\ngeologists have found fossilised placentals.\n\nFrom the discoplacental-mammal Prosimi\u00e6 evolved the following\nspecies\u2014viz., Prosimi\u00e6 of Madagascar (lemurs of to-day), with four feet\nand claws; Cheiroptera (bats); Rodentia (squirrels, mice, porcupines,\nhares); Insectivora (moles, shrew-mice, and hedgehogs); and Simi\u00e6,\nor quadruped monkeys, with two feet, two hands, nails, and tails. We\ndivide Simi\u00e6 into two classes, the Platyrrhini, or New World apes, with\nthirty-six teeth, tails, no cheek-pouches or callosities, and nasal\ncavities pointing outwards and divided by a thick septum (from which\ncame the American howlers, weepers, capuchins, and squirrel-monkeys);\nand the Catarrhini (Menocerca), or Old World apes, with thirty-two\nteeth (like man), tails, cheek-pouches, callosities, and nasal cavities\npointing downwards and divided by a thin septum (like man). These are\nplaced in the Meiocene period, in which have been discovered the first\nfossil apes. From the Catarrhini developed the tailed baboons and\nmacaques, with thirty-two teeth, cheek-pouches, and callosities; and\nthe Anthropoid\u00e6, with thirty-two teeth, but no tails, cheek-pouches,\nor callosities. These were evolved during the Pleiocene period. From\nthe anthropoid (man-like) apes we get three distinct divisions\u2014viz.,\nthe gibbon and orang families, with no tails or cheek-pouches,\nwalking partly on hind legs, and wandering in companies in India;\nthe chimpanzee and gorilla families of Africa, with no tails or\ncheek-pouches, no articulate speech, walking on hind legs only, living\nin companies in caves, and carrying their babes in their arms; and\nAlali, or ape-like men, commonly called the \u201cmissing links,\u201d who\nwere probably developed, during the Pleiocene period, in Lemuria, a\nsubmerged continent which formerly occupied the position of the Indian\nOcean; or in the districts of the Nile and Ganges.\n\nThese primitive ape-like men were the connecting links between men and\nthe apes, and are divided into two main branches\u2014viz., woolly-haired\nAlali, who migrated from Lemuria, west and south; and straight-haired\nAlali, who migrated from Lemuria, north, east, and south. Both\nthese branches had skulls of the same character as those of the\nchimpanzee and gorilla\u2014that is, they were dolichocephalic (long-headed)\nprognathous (prominent jaws), and also, like their ape brethren, were\ntroglodytes, or cave-dwellers. From the woolly-haired Alali evolved the\nPapuans of New Guinea and Tasmania, and the Hottentots of Africa, whose\ndescendants of to-day are but little removed in brain development from\nthe higher apes. They are dolichocephalic prognathous savages, with\nblack, hairy skins, long arms, and short, thin legs, with ill-developed\ncalves; are semi-erect, walk on hind legs, and have no true articulate\nspeech. A higher development of the woolly-haired Alali is the\nNegro, and higher still the Caffre, both of whom are dolichocephalic\nprognathous savages, with black, semi-hairy skins, and imperfect\narticulation. From the straight-haired Alali are derived the Australian\nnatives and the large family of Malays or Polynesians. The Australians\nmigrated south, and were dolichocephalic prognathous savages, with\nsmooth, dirty brown skins, and straight black hair. The lowest tribes\nof the present day have no true articulate speech. The Polynesians\nmigrated north and east, and were dolichocephalic prognathous\ntroglodytes (as the gorilla and chimpanzee), with clear, smooth brown\nskins, and true articulate speech. This branch split up into two large\nfamilies, the Mongolian or Turanian, and the Caucasian or Iranian.\nThe former covered Northern and Eastern Asia, Polynesia, and America,\nand were originally brachycephalic (broad-headed) prognathous men.\nThey subdivided into two distinct species, the Mongols of China,\nJapan, Lapland, Finland, and Hungary, who are brachycephalic, but not\nprognathous, with smooth, brownish yellow skin, and straight black\nhair; and the Mongols of America, who are mesocephalic (round-headed),\nbut not prognathous, with smooth red skins and straight black hair.\nThe Caucasian family covered Western Asia and most of Europe, being\nmesocephalic prognathous troglodytes (afterwards agriculturalists)\nwith smooth dark skins and long straight hair; and subdivided into\ntwo branches, the Semitic, of Arabia and Syria, and the Aryan or\nIndo-European; both of whom are mesocephalic, but not prognathous.\n\nIt is true that, so far, no fossil remains of Alali have been found,\nwith the exception of the Neanderthal skull; but it is equally true\nthat they may soon be discovered. It is only comparatively recently\nthat the other species have been found fossilised; and it must be\nrecollected that only a very small portion of the earth\u2019s crust has yet\nbeen explored, and that not the most likely for finding. No attempts\nhave been yet made to unearth the life-remains in the neighbourhood\nof the Indian Ocean, where it is believed man first evolved from his\nape-like ancestors. It does not, however, seem to me to be essentially\nnecessary that the \u201cmissing link\u201d be found in order to substantiate\nthe Evolution theory. There is so little difference between the higher\nanthropoid apes and man, compared with the enormous differences\nobserved between the earlier forms of life and the ape species, that\nthe sequence and continuity appear now conclusively settled to any\nreasonable observer. Comparative anatomists and embryologists both\ndeclare in favour of the theory of development of Darwin and Haeckel.\nIt is a fact beyond dispute that every human being commences his\nindividual existence as a tiny piece of structureless bioplasm, from\nwhich condition he passes through the Am\u0153ba stage to the Synam\u0153ba, and\nthence in regular order through each successive stage of development\nmarked in the genealogy given above, becoming worm, fish, and mammal\nin turn, and finally being born into the world as a member of the\nhuman family. Each of these lower forms also passes through all the\nspecies preceding it in precisely the same manner. This is one of the\nstrongest arguments in favour of Evolution. It is said that the power\nof speech possessed by man opposes a strong barrier to the theory;\nbut it has been shown clearly that other animals besides man can\nuse articulate sounds, which convey meanings to each other. Monkeys\ncertainly understand each other\u2019s chattering, and it is highly probable\nthat birds also understand each other\u2019s cries. It is true that the\nsounds made by animals are chiefly monosyllabic; but philologists\nnow tell us that the languages spoken by primitive races of men are\ncompounded of quite simple elements, perfectly within the grasp of an\nape\u2019s voice. Travellers, whose veracity and ability cannot be impugned,\nhave described long conferences held by monkeys, where one individual\naddressed the assembly at great length, fixing the attention of all\nupon himself, and quelling every disturbance by a loud and harsh\ncry, which was at once recognised and obeyed by the multitude. Is\nit credible that this should be purposeless? Is it not actually the\nexercise of speech?\n\nIs it not possible\u2014nay, even extremely probable\u2014that, under the\nirresistible pressure of civilised man, his immediate precursor may\nhave become extinct? All the human races that now tend to bridge the\ninterval between the highest man and the highest ape are fast becoming\nextinct under this very pressure. The gulf widens, and will widen.\nThe Caribs and Tasmanians have passed away, while the Australians,\nNew Zealanders, aboriginal Americans, Eskimo, and others, are fast\nfollowing in their wake, and this all in a comparatively short space\nof time. There is undoubtedly now a far greater physical and mental\ninterval between the Hottentot woman and such men as Gladstone and\nDarwin than between the Hottentot and an ape. It is a fact beyond\ndispute that man was not in such a high state of development ages gone\nby as at present. The earliest traces of man exhibit him to us in the\nPal\u00e6olithic, or old stone, age, as wild and living in caves, using only\nthe rudest stone implements with which to battle with the ferocious\nmonsters around him. His jaw was then prognathous, like the ape, and\nhis body large and powerful.\n\nIn the limestone caverns of France have been discovered the fossil\nremains of men who inhabited caves and belonged to the Pal\u00e6olithic,\nor early Pleistocene, period. Together with these troglodytes, or\ncave-dwellers, were rough, unpolished stone implements and weapons,\ndenoting a low state of civilisation. Other caves, in later strata,\ngive us lighter stone weapons, of better finish, and occasionally horn\ndart-points, such as would be used for catching smaller game. Numbers\nof skin-scrapers also were found, suggesting the idea that the people\nused the hides of animals for clothing, instead of going naked, as\ntheir ancestors. The hairy character of the body would be probably\ngiving place to a finer, smoother, and more delicate outer skin,\nwhich would necessitate clothing of some kind. Still later we find\nimplements altogether of flint, lancet-shaped, admirably-proportioned,\nand of three sizes, adapted for arrow, javeline, and lance points\nrespectively, and designed to be fitted to wooden and bone shafts.\nAfter these appear arrows and darts of deer\u2019s horn and bone, and stone\nand flint tools, which were used for making these arrows. We also find\nsuch implements as bone awls and needles for piercing and sewing skins,\narrow-heads furnished with barbs on each side, and harpoons barbed on\none side only.\n\nNow was man\u2019s intellect fairly on the swing; but still he was, as yet,\nonly in the Pal\u00e6olithic period, for not one polished implement nor\nfragment of pottery is found in their stations. They were surrounded\nby ferocious carnivora, which sometimes fell victims to their weapons.\nThe mammoth still tenanted the valleys, and the reindeer was the common\narticle of food. They were hunters, possessed of the rudest modes of\nexistence, and with but little of what is now called civilisation.\n\nIn Britain the troglodyte man was contemporary with the mammoth,\nrhinoceros, lion, and hyena, none of which existed in the later\nPleistocene era; but there have been no perfect skeletons found here\nlike those in France. Human _bones_, however, have been discovered in\nvarious deposits, together with the skeletons of long-extinct animals.\nThe best British human fossil is the portion of an upper jaw containing\nfour teeth, from Kent\u2019s Cavern. Hermetically sealed in stalagmite,\ndeposited on the floor of the cavern by water dropping from the roof,\nthis jaw lay _below_ the remains of extinct mammals; while beneath all\nwere bone and stone implements of human workmanship, equally firmly\nfixed in a natural limestone cement. Geology fixes the date of this\ntroglodyte at the early Pleistocene period, and it is beyond doubt that\nman existed at this remote period, or even earlier, in Europe, for the\nhuman remains found in France clearly testify to the fact; and even in\nAmerica his antiquity must be very great indeed, for a human skull was\nfound in the delta of the Mississippi beneath _four_ different layers\nof forest growth, which must have formed part of a living human being\n50,000 years since. The celebrated Neanderthal skull, of which so much\nhas been heard, certainly belongs to the mammoth age, if not earlier;\nand, if it represent a race, and not merely an individual, that race\nwould lie in a position intermediate between the lowest man and the\nhighest ape. It _may_ only represent a man of peculiar formation, as we\noften see men in the present day deformed or of eccentric build; and,\ntherefore, we cannot look upon it _positively_ as the \u201cmissing link.\u201d\nOne other similar find, however, would for ever settle the question,\nand proclaim to the world that the \u201cmissing link\u201d was, at last, found.\nIn capacity, the cranium is human, while the superciliary arches\nand the brow are distinctly ape-like. Professor Huxley sums up his\nexamination of this skull with the remark that \u201cthe Neanderthal skull\nis, of human remains, that which presents the most marked and definite\ncharacters of a lower type.\u201d\n\nFollowing the Pal\u00e6olithic era, or rude stone age, is the Neolithic,\nor new stone, age; and now we find man using polished weapons, making\npottery, using fire to warm himself with, and developing social\nmanners. Instead of living in caves, he lived in lake dwellings, with\nothers of his species, and gradually developed agricultural tastes.\nThis metamorphosis, we know from the fossil remains found deposited\nin various strata, occupied a long period of time, probably thousands\nof years; and even then we are left thousands of years before the\nhistorical era, which followed the bronze and iron ages. Compare these\nmen with those who lived in the Grecian and Egyptian eras, and again\ncompare these latter with ourselves, and the record is one of trial\nand failure through long ages, and of experiment crowned at last by\nattainment. Has not the invention of the steam-engine alone been a\nmeans of extending man\u2019s dominion in a marvellous manner? Think what\nhas been achieved through electricity! There has, undoubtedly, been a\ncontinued struggle from barbarism to civilisation, and the little we\nknow of the early history of man tells us that he lived the life of a\nwild beast, leaving no impression on the earth save one of the victims\nof his well-aimed stone or flint-pointed spear.\n\nSo much for the \u201cmissing link.\u201d There is one other point to be settled\nbefore we have completed the sequence of evolution, which commences\nwith the condensation of the nebulous vapour and terminates with the\ndevelopment of man; and that is the question of how life originated.\nWe have found that the first dawn of life was in the form of a simple\nspeck of bioplasm, void of any structure; and that this primordial\ngerm, which we call a Moneron, was developed in the earliest period\nof deposition of stratified rock at the bottom of the sea, and is now\nbeing constantly developed as of old. Now, if the theory of evolution\nbe not mere talk, this primordial germ must have been spontaneously\nevolved from inanimate matter, for the theory allows of no break,\nbeing a gradual unfolding of phenomena. We are told that there is no\nexperience in nature of such a development. Perhaps so; but that is no\nargument against it. There is no experience in nature of any special\ncreation either; so why fly to this alternative, which is the only\none presented to us, instead of adopting the theory which agrees so\nharmoniously with the whole evolutionary process? Why make this abrupt\nbreak in the chain of sequence? Does it not annihilate completely the\nwhole theory of evolution? It is not more wonderful that life should\nbe evolved from inanimate nature than that man should be evolved from\na structureless bioplasm. The continuity of evolution once broken, why\nmay it not be broken again and again?\n\nIf we are to accept the theory of evolution, we are bound to admit\nthat animate was evolved from inanimate matter. And the difficulty of\nthis admission is not, after all, so great as appears at first sight;\nfor who is to say whether such a condition really exists as inanimate\nmatter? It is a fact that every particle of matter in nature is in a\nstate of active motion; every molecule and atom is constantly active.\nAnd why is this not life as much as the animal or vegetable, though\nin a modified degree of development? Evolution, if it mean anything,\nshould admit this; and I will show you that it does not admit it\nonly, but absolutely declares that it is so. In the first place, it\nmust be recollected that Balfour Stewart, and all other physical and\nchemical scientists, declare that every thing in nature is composed of\nmolecules and atoms. The molecules are the smallest quantities into\nwhich any individual body or substance can be divided without losing\nits individuality. For instance, table-salt, or chloride of sodium, can\nbe divided and subdivided, until you get to the limit of subdivision,\nwhich is a molecule composed of chlorine and sodium in chemical\ncombination. Further subdivision annihilates its individuality as salt,\nand leaves us with the two elementary chemical atoms, chlorine and\nsodium, existing independently of each other. These atoms are incapable\nof further subdivision. In the same manner, the whole matter of the\nuniverse may be subdivided into molecules, which consist of atoms of\nsome two or more of about sixty-seven chemical elements in various\ncombinations. These atoms are the smallest separate particles of\nmasses of matter, and are separated from each other by what is termed\nhypothetical ether\u2014that is, the fluid ether we believe to be pervading\nevery portion of space. Each atom possesses an inherent sum of force,\nor energy. The well-established and universally-admitted theory of\nchemical affinity teaches us that these atoms are capable of attracting\nand repelling each other, and, therefore, also teaches us, by\nimplication, that they are possessed with definite inclinations, follow\nthese sensations or impulses, and have also the will and ability to\nmove to and from one another. This we are clearly taught by chemistry.\nThus every atom in the universe possesses sensation and will, pleasure\nand displeasure, desire and loathing, attraction and repulsion; and\nits mass is, moreover, indestructible and unchangeable, and its energy\neternal, as we are again taught by the theory of conservation of\nenergy and matter. These sentient atoms of universal matter, whose\naggregate energy is the great animating spirit of the universe, have\nthe power of uniting together in various chemical combinations to\nform molecules, or chemical unities, developing fresh properties in\nthe process, and forming the lowest conceivable division of compound\nmaterial substances, some atoms uniting to build up crystals and\nother inorganic masses, and others to develop the various organic or\nlife forms. The atoms of the ultimate molecules of both organic and\ninorganic bodies are identically the same. It depends entirely upon\nwhat particular combination of atoms takes place whether an organic or\ninorganic form is developed. The primordial life-form we have found\nto be simple homogeneous plasm, consisting of molecules, each of\nwhich is composed of atoms of five elements\u2014carbon, oxygen, nitrogen,\nhydrogen, and sulphur, differing not one iota from the molecules\nof inorganic bodies, except that it acquires the special power of\nreproduction, by virtue of the peculiar combination of its atoms, which\npower is wanting in the inorganic world, whose molecules are composed\nof similar atoms, but in different combinations. This is the only\ndifference between the organic, or life, world, and the inorganic, or\nlifeless, world\u2014life being, as compared with unlife, but the power\nof reproduction. As examples of this, we may take crystals, the most\nperfect development of inorganic nature, and the moneron, the least\nperfect development of organic nature; and the difference between them\nis almost _nil_, certainly less than between the parents and offspring\nin many life-forms. The crystal molecules are composed of elementary\nchemical atoms, as are the moneron molecules; but the former grow by\nparticles being deposited on particles externally, while the latter\ngrow by particles penetrating from without, or being absorbed into\nthe interior and becoming assimilated by the plasm, fresh molecules\nbeing evolved in the process, this special power of reproduction being\ngenerated by the peculiar combination of the atoms. This argument\nappears to me to be logically and scientifically sound, and disposes\naltogether of the notion of a break of continuity between the living\nand the unliving worlds, which is such a formidable difficulty to many\nminds. The plasm thus formed by the aggregation of life molecules\ngradually differentiates into protoplasm and nucleus, which together\nform a simple cell; and this cell partakes, by heredity, of the nature\nand properties of its parent form, and also, by adaptation to different\ncircumstances surrounding its existence, acquires fresh properties,\nwhich, together with the inherited properties, it transmits to its\nprogeny, thus evolving a still more complex form, inheriting the\nacquired and inherited properties of its parent, and again acquiring\nfresh properties; and so on, _ad infinitum_, through the various\nlife-forms we know have been developed in the pedigree of man and\nanimals, through Am\u0153b\u00e6, Synam\u0153b\u00e6, etc., as in the genealogy given above.\n\nIn the course of the development of different life-forms\nheredity\u2014which, in plain English, is unconscious memory generated\nin the first life-form and transmitted through all the different\nspecies\u2014is the sole factor in the preservation of the parent\nproperties; while adaptation to surrounding conditions and\ncircumstances, natural selection in the struggle for existence, and\nsexual selection in the struggle of the males for females are the\nprincipal factors in the differentiation of species.\n\nHaving traced man\u2019s pedigree according to the Evolution theory, from\nprimitive nebulous matter to his present commanding position, and found\nhim possessed with reason and the power of controlling and regulating\nthe forces of nature, our next inquiry is naturally for what purpose\nis he here and what will become of him eventually. Here we come to\nthe most difficult problem of all ages, which has baffled learned men\nof all nationalities, and which will probably never be satisfactorily\nsolved. Intimately connected with it is the almost as difficult\nproblem, How was the universe caused at all? There are eminent\nscientific men who think they can conclusively show that the universe\nexisted from eternity; others as positively assert that it must have\nbeen caused by a power outside and independent of itself; while others\nare equally convinced that it was self-created. But when we examine\ntheir arguments we find ourselves unable logically to accept any of\ntheir conclusions.\n\nThe Atheist declares that the universe has existed from eternity, not\nhaving been produced by any other agency, and, therefore, without\nany beginning; which necessarily implies the conception of infinite\npast time\u2014an effort of which the human mind is quite incapable. The\nPantheist declares that the universe evolved out of potential existence\ninto actual existence by virtue of some inherent necessity; which\nis as unthinkable as the previous one, for potential existence must\nbe either something, in which case it would be actual existence,\nor nothing, which it could not possibly be. But admitting, for the\nsake of argument, the possibility of potential existence as nothing,\nstill we should have to account for its origin, which would involve\nus in an infinity of still more remote potentialities. The Theistic\ntheory of creation by external agency implies either formation of\nmatter out of nothing, which is inconceivable, or out of pre-existing\nmaterials, which leaves us under the necessity of showing the origin\nof the pre-existing elements, and, like the preceding theory, would\ninvolve us in an infinity of remote pre-existences. It also involves\nthe existence of a potentiality outside matter, which must either be\ncaused, which involves a prior cause, or uncaused, in which case it\nmust be either finite or infinite. If it be finite, it must be limited,\nand, consequently, there must exist something outside its limits, which\ndestroys the notion of its being a first cause. Therefore, it must be\ninfinite. Also, as first cause, it must be independent; for dependency\nwould imply a more remote cause. The first cause must, therefore, be\nboth infinite and absolute, which is an absurdity; for a cause can only\nexist in relation to its effect, and therefore cannot be absolute; and\nthe fact of its being infinite deprives us of the only means of escape\nfrom the difficulty, by showing the impossibility of its being first of\nall absolute and afterwards cause; for the infinite cannot become what\nit once was not.\n\nThus, then, we are driven to the conclusion that logic shows the\nTheistic conception of the origin of nature, equally as much as the\nPantheistic and the Atheistic, to be utterly impossible; but it must\nbe admitted that if, instead of matter, we substitute time and space\nin our consideration of this most important matter, the Atheistic\ntheory more nearly approaches the conceivable than either of the other\ntwo; for by no mental effort can we conceive the formation of time and\nspace either by external agency or inherent necessity. It is absolutely\nimpossible for us to conceive the idea of the non-existence of either\ntime or space.\n\nBecause the human mind cannot conceive the possibility of nature\nbeing produced by external agency, it does not follow that we are\nbound to admit the impossibility of the existence of an intelligence\ncontrolling nature\u2019s laws; for it is quite possible that such an\nexistence may be, though our finite minds cannot comprehend it. The\nAgnostic philosopher, although he cannot logically demonstrate the\nexistence of the Divine Being, yet declares that, inasmuch as this\nuniverse consists of existing phenomena, it is absolutely necessary\nthat there should be some cause adequate for the production of the\neffects manifested. By this process of reasoning he arrives at the\nconclusion that there exists a something controlling nature, which is\nutterly incomprehensible\u2014an ultimate reality, of which force and matter\nare alike merely the phenomenal manifestations. This ultimate reality,\nmoreover, is intelligent.\n\nWe cannot recall the wonders of the evolutionary development of the\nuniverse without at once seeing that there is purpose at the bottom of\nall, and that chance is no factor in the process. We cannot believe\nthat man is but a fortuitous concourse of atoms. Reason tells us\nclearly that we are here for a well-ordained purpose; but what that\npurpose is we cannot tell. The old notion that our destiny is to\nprepare ourselves here, to live again in our bodily forms, play harps,\nand sing halleluyah to all eternity, I regard as mere moonshine. Such\na fate would be to me far worse than annihilation. But that we have a\nfuture destiny of some sort I have no doubt. We know we must die, and\nthat when we die our bodily functions, including brain functions,\nwill cease to be performed. Are we, then, annihilated? The answer of\nscientists is decisively \u201cYes, so far as we are concerned as sentient\nindividual beings.\u201d Science teaches us that the three things which\nmake up consciousness, or man\u2019s mental side, are thought, emotion,\nand volition; that they are inseparably bound up with the brain and\nthe nervous system, whose functions they are; and that when the brain\ndies these functions cease. This is undeniable. Therefore, if there\nis any future existence, it is not one of consciousness. The power of\nmuscular movement is arrested at death, and, therefore, we must admit\nthat the power of thought, emotion, and volition ceases at death. Why\nshould the appearance be deceptive in one case and not in the other?\nIt is not the case of a separate entity in the body, but of a distinct\nfunction\u2014an effect which ceases with its proper cause. It is absolutely\ncertain, from the teaching of science, that the consciousness grows as\nthe brain and body grow, varies according to the standard of health in\nthe brain, and declines as the general vigour of the brain declines;\nand, therefore, we can but admit that it dies with the brain. We also\nlearn from Embryology that consciousness evolved by slow degrees from\nunconsciousness, and that once there was no thought in any of us. Even\nif science were to admit that man\u2019s consciousness continued after\ndeath, it would be equally rational to admit that animals also had a\nfuture consciousness; for it is quite clear we have slowly evolved\nfrom the lowest germ of animal life. Man\u2019s very attributes are found\nin a lower degree in animals, and yet it is the possession of his\nlofty attributes which he says entitles him to conscious immortality.\nThe intellectual qualities in animals differ from those in man only\nin degree, while in the possession of some of the highest moral\nattributes\u2014such as courage, fidelity, patience, self-sacrifice, and\naffection\u2014some of the lower animals, as the dog, the horse, and the\nant, far surpass him. Even among human beings themselves these higher\nqualities, mental and moral, exist in all degrees, from their almost\ntotal absence in the savage up to the mental and moral splendour of a\nBuddha, a Socrates, a Disraeli, or a Gladstone. Are all these lower\nanimals, savage men, and intellectual and moral geniuses, to have\nindividual conscious immortality? If, as some say, man only and not\nanimals are immortal, then the question naturally arises, When and how\ncame man so? If he was always immortal, so were animals. If he became\nimmortal later on, he must either have slowly acquired the gift, or it\nmust have been suddenly conferred upon him. In either case there must\nhave been a particular moment when he became immortal. Can we conceive\nof such a thing as the species being mortal one moment and immortal the\nnext? The question of _how_ he became immortal is still more difficult,\nas the question _why_, or for what merit, is wholly unanswerable.\nThen, again, science teaches us that animal life, of whatever form,\nwill vanish from the earth long before the inevitable decay of the\nplanet itself. Geologists tell us that, in obedience to a general law,\nall species have their term of living. They appear, and after a time\ndisappear. How absurd, then, to raise a question as to the conscious\nindividual immortality of the countless myriads of a species that shall\nitself have utterly vanished without leaving a trace!\n\nAre we, then, annihilated at death? Yes, as conscious individuals. We\nare bound to admit the force of all the arguments brought forward by\nscience against the theory of a future conscious existence; but these\narguments in no way affect the great problem of the \u201cego,\u201d or \u201cself,\u201d\nwhich exists in all of us, irrespective of consciousness, memory, or\nother brain function. A man may be unconscious, and yet live; therefore\nconsciousness is not necessary to life. When we ask ourselves whether\nwe shall be annihilated at death, we should first of all have a clear\ndefinition of the word \u201cwe\u201d before we reply. What are we? What am I?\nI am not consciousness, which is but a function of one of my organs,\nthe brain, and which merely enables me to know myself. Then what am\nI? I cannot conceive that I am anything but the energy or life-power\ndeveloped by the aggregation of my life-particles, which causes the\nvarious organs of my body to perform their functions, as cerebrating,\netc. The primordial germ of my body was a simple bioplasm, consisting\nof a combination of life-molecules, composed of energetic atoms.\nFrom these molecules evolved fresh molecules, which, under the laws\nof heredity and variation, acquired new properties; until, at last,\na complex organism became developed, possessing far higher powers\nthan those belonging to the primordial germ. As the development of\nspecies continued, higher forces became manifested; until, at last,\nthe condition of man was reached, and a life-power developed of a much\nhigher order than any previously known. This life-power, or human\nenergy, is the \u201cego,\u201d the \u201cself,\u201d the cause of the bodily functions,\nand is eternal. Kant declared there was a world unknown, independent\nof our conscious phenomenal world; and this we must admit to be true,\nfor we have already granted the existence of an unknown cause, of\nwhich force and matter are merely the phenomenal manifestations. It is\nthis outer world of unknown and invisible energy that the scientist\nfinds himself unable to deal with. The death of the body is simply\nthe cessation of cohesion, or dissolution of partnership, between the\nultimate atoms of the plasm life-molecules, by which dissolution the\nproperty called life ceases, and the atoms of the body assume their\noriginal condition, again containing their original sum of force. But\nwhat becomes of the huge force developed during the lifetime of the\nbodily organism? Does that vanish and become a thing of naught? My\nopinion is that this human force, which is the outcome of the complex\nunion of the ultimate atoms of the plasm life-molecules, and which is\nbut a phenomenal manifestation of the great incomprehensible cause of\nall phenomena, will, at the death of the body, be re-absorbed into the\ngreat animating spirit of the universe, and partake of the nature and\nproperties of the Unknown. This is but my opinion, from which many may\ndiffer. I merely offer it as an opinion, and in no way shut my eyes to\nthe great fact that man\u2019s destiny is a riddle as yet unsolved. We may\nsafely leave the matter to be dealt with according to the wisdom of\nthat unknown cause of all things, resting quite assured that we shall\nbe far better disposed of than we could possibly dispose of ourselves,\neven if we had the power. We must bow the head in a truly scientific\nspirit, and reply to the great question, \u201cI cannot tell.\u201d\n\n\u201cTo be or not to be? that is the question,\u201d says the immortal\nShakespeare; after which he sums up the whole argument in two short\nlines:\u2014\n\n    \u201cTo die, to sleep. To sleep? perchance to dream\u2014\n    Aye, there\u2019s the rub.\u201d\n\n\nPRINTED BY WATTS & CO., 17, JOHNSON\u2019S COURT, FLEET STREET, LONDON.\n\n\n\n\n                           GENEALOGY OF MAN\n\n                            Monera (Plasm)\n                                  \u2502\n                            Am\u0153b\u00e6 (Cells)\n                                  \u2502\n                            Synam\u0153b\u00e6 (Multiple cell-forms)\n                                  \u2502\n                            Ciliata\n                                  \u2502\n                            Gastr\u0153ada\n                                  \u2502\n                            Turbellaria (Vermes)\n                                  \u2502\n                            Scolecida\n                                  \u2502\n                            Himatega (Sack-worm)\n                                  \u2502\n                            Acrania (Vertebrata)\n                                  \u2502\n                            Monorrhini\n                                  \u2502\n                            Selachii (Pisces)\n                                  \u2502\n                   \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n                   \u2502                        \u2502\n               Dipnoi                    Ganoidei\n                   \u2502                        \u2502\n             Sozobranchii                Teleostei\n                   \u2502\n             Urodela\n                   \u2502\n             Protamnia\n                   \u2502\n             \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n        Reptilia                   Monotremata (Mammalia)\n             \u2502                          \u2502\n    \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510             Marsupialia\n  Aves         Reptilia                 \u2502\n                                   Placentalia\n\n\n                              Placentalia\n                                   \u2502\n          \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u253c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n          \u2502                        \u2502                       \u2502\n  Villiplacentalia            Zenoplacentalia      Discoplacentalia\n          \u2502                      Carnaria             Prosimi\u00e6\n          \u2502                 _______\u2502_____________          \u2502\n      \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510   |Carnivora  Pinnipedia|         \u2502\n      \u2502        \u2502       \u2502                                   \u2502\n  Edentata  Ungulata  Cetacea      \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n               \u2502                   \u2502        \u2502          \u2502         \u2502      \u2502\n               \u2502                Simi\u00e6   Prosimi\u00e6  Insectivora  Rodentia \u2502\n               \u2502                (Apes)  (Lemurs)                        \u2502\n               \u2502                   \u2502                            Cheiroptera\n               \u2502                   \u2514\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n       \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510             \u2502               \u2502\n  Solidungula   Ruminantia  Pachydermata    Catarrhini   Platyrrhini\n                                            Menocerca\n                                                \u2502\n                                          \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n                                     Tailed Baboons    Authropoid\u00e6\n                                       + Macaques     Man-like Apes\n                                                             \u2502\n                        \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2518\n                     Gibbon and     Chimpanzee       Alali\n                        Orang        Gorilla       (Ape-like Men)\n                                                       \u2502\n                                             \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n                                     Woolly-haired      Straight-haired\n                                           Alali             Alali\n                                             \u2502                 \u2502\n               \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u252c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2524          \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n             Papuan   Hottentot    Negro   Caffre   Polynesian   Australian\n                                  or Malay              \u2502\n                                                        \u2502\n                                 \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n                            Caucasian                      Mongolian\n                            or Iranian                    or Turanian\n                                 \u2502                            \u2502\n                           \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510          \u250c\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2534\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2500\u2510\n                        Aryan or    Semitic    Mongols          Mongols\n                    Indo-European             of China         of America\n\n\n                       SECTION OF EARTH\u2019S CRUST\n\nShowing the different Geological Strata and Biological Ascent\n\n  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |           |      |    Strata    | Fossils, Bones,    | Man\u2019s\n           |           |      |   Deposits   |    etc Found       |Ascent\n           |           |      +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |           | IRON | Recent Earth |Historic Era        |\n           |  RECENT   | AGE  |  Deposits    |Manufacture of Iron |Homo\n           |           |      |              | Articles           |Sapiens\n           |           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |           |BRONZE|Recent Earth  |Considerable advance|Homo\n           |           |AGE   |  Deposits    |in civilization.    |Cultus\n           |           |      |              |Manufactureof Bronze|\n           |           |      |              |  implements       |\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |POST-      |NEO-  |   Glacial    |Remains of Lake     |Homo\n           |PLEIOCENE  |LITHIC|   Deposits   |Dwellings. Manu-    |Semi-\n           |           |      |              |facture of Pottery |ferox\n  KAINOZOIC|QUATERNARY +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n  OR       |    OR     |PAL\u00c6O-|   Glacial    |Fossil Cave-men,    |Homo\n  TERTIARY |PLEISTOCENE|LITHIC|   Deposits   |Stone, bone, + horn |Ferox\n           |           |      |              |implements. Mammoth |\n           |           |      |              |Reindeer, Hy\u0153na, etc.|\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |PLEIOCENE  |White and Red Crags  |Apes, Bears & Hy\u0153nas|Alali\n           |           | of Britain          |                    |Anthro-\n           |           |                     |                    | p\u0153d\u00e6\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |MEIOCENE   |Arctic Coal,         |Marsupials,         |\n           |           |Limestone, Sands,    |Squirrels, Mastodon,|Meno-\n           |           |Clays, and Lignites  |Rhinoceros,         | cerca\n           |           |                     |Anthropomorphous    |Simi\u00e6\n           |           |                     |Apes                |\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |EOCENE     |Sandstone, Limestone,|Equine forms, Bats, |Prosimi\u00e6\n           |           |Sands, Clays, Marls, |Lemurs, Marsupials  |Placent-\n           |           |Lignites, Coral, Rag |                    |alia\n  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |CRETACEOUS |Clays, Sands, Soft   |Birds, Reptiles and |Marsup-\n           |           |Limestones, Lignites |Marsupials          |ialia\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n  MESOZOIC |JURASSIC   |Limestones, Coral    |Bird-reptiles,      |Marsup-\n  OR       |  OR       |rags, Clays, Marls,  |several Marsupial   |ialia\n  SECONDARY|O\u00d6LITIC    |Coal Lies at base    |species             |\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |TRIASSIC   |Sandstones,          |Gigantic Reptiles,  |Promamm\n           |           |Limestones, Clays    |Small Marsupials    |alia\n  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |PERMIAN    |Marls, Magnesian     |    Reptiles        |Protam-\n           |           |limestones, Conglomerates.|               |nia\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |CARBONI-   |Carboniferous limestone,|Scorpions,       |Urodela\n           |  FEROUS   |Coal, Ironstone,        |Spiders, Beetles,|Sozo-\n           |           |Sandstone, Clay, Shales |Flies, Amphibia  |branchii\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |DEVONIAN   |Old Red Sandstone,   |Fossil land plants, |Dipnoi\n           |           |Shales, Coralline    |Fishes, First       |Selachii\n           |           |Limestone            |fossil insect       |\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |SILURIAN   |Slates, Limestone,   |Corals, Spiral      |Monorrh-\n  PAL\u00c6OZOIC|           |Conglomerates,       |Shells, King-Crabs, |ini\n  OR       |           |Shales, Sandstones   |Plates & Scales of  |Acrania\n  PRIMARY  |           |                     |Fishes, Annelides   |\n           |           |                     |(sea-worms)         |\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |CAMBRIAN   |Slates, Limestone,   |Sea-weeds, Sponges, |Himatega\n           |           |Conglomerates,       |Star-fishes Sea-    |Turbell-\n           |           |                     |lilies, Shell-fish, |aria\n           |           |                     |First land plant   |Gastr\u0153ada\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |HURONIAN   |Partially Metamorphosed|Lowly organized   |Ciliata\n           |           |Limestone, Sandstone,  |Molluscs          |Synam\u0153b\u00e6\n           |           |Slates, and Conglomerates|                |Am\u0153b\u00e6\n           +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n           |LAURENTIAN |Highly Metamorphosed |Fossil Foraminifera |Monera\n           |           |Limestone            | (Protozoa)       |(Bioplasm)\n  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n  AZOIC    |PLUTONIC   |Molten Granite & Quartz |No life remains  |No life\n           |           |Partially or Wholly     |                 |\n           |           |Igneous. Base of all rocks|               |\n  \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n\n\n                      TERTIARY PERIOD IN EUROPE.\n\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | IRON AGE & HISTORIC ERA                 | BRITAIN\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | RECENT  | BRONZE AGE\u2014Homo Semi-cultus             |AN ISLAND\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | CLIMATE TEMPERATE\u2014Neolithic man         | LAND SINKING\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE\u2014Pal\u00e6olithic man  | CONTINENTAL\n  |         |                       & Neolithic man   | CONDITION\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | CLIMATE SLIGHTLY MILDER                 | LAND RISING\n  |         |   Pal\u00e6olithic and Neolithic man.        |\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | GLACIAL EPOCH OF MODERATE INTENSITY     |\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | PLEISTO-| CLIMATE TEMPERATE\u2014Pal\u00e6olithic man       | BRITISH\n  |  CENE   +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  |         | CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL\u2014Pal\u00e6olithic man    | ARCHIPELAGO\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  |         | CLIMATE TEMPERATE\u2014Pal\u00e6olithic man       |\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE                  | CONTINENT\n  |         |                                         | SINKING\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         | GLACIAL EPOCH OF GREAT INTENSITY        |\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  |         | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE\u2014Pal\u00e6olithic      | LAND RISING\n  |         |  men or Ape-men                         | IN NORTH\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+ ENGLAND,\n  |         |      | WEY- | CLIMATE COLD-TEMPERATE.   | FRANCE,\n  |         |      |BOURNE| Existence of Cromer       | SCOTLAND AND\n  |         |      |SANDS | Forest, Pal\u00e6olithic       | NORWAY\n  |         |      |      |  men or ape-men.          | UNITED\n  |         |NEWER +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         |      |NORWICH| CLIMATE WARM-TEMPERATE.  |\n  |         |      | CRAG | Sub-tropical fauna & flora|\n  |PLEIOCENE+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014-\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         |      |      |                           | CONTINENT\n  |         |      | RED  |CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL       | SINKING IN NORTH\n  |         |      | CRAG |                           | & WEST. EUROPE\n  |         |OLDER +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+ SEPARATED FROM\n  |         |      |CORAL-| Apes. Bears. Hy\u00e6nas.      | AMERICA & BRITAIN\n  |         |      |LINE  |   Sub-tropical flora.     | FROM NORWAY.\n  |         |      |CRAG  |                           | ENGLAND, IRELAND\n  |         |      |      |                           | & FRANCE UNITED\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         |      | CLIMATE SUB-TROPICAL             | CONTINENT\n  |         |UPPER | Antelopes. Gazelles. Tropical &  | RISING ON\n  |         |      |    Sub-tropical flora.           | SOUTH-EAST\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  | MEIOCENE|MIDDLE| Mastodon. Rhinoceros. Anthropo-  | OF BRITAIN\n  |         |      | morphous Apes. Sloths. Anteaters.| DENMARK &\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+ ENGLAND\n  |         |LOWER | Placental mammals. Very few      | UNITED\n  |         |      | Marsupials. Tropical flora.      |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  |         |      | CLIMATE TROPICAL                 |\n  |         |UPPER |    Anehitheres. Hy\u00e6nodon. Lemur. | EUROPO-\n  |         |      |   Tapir-like beasts.             | AMERICAN\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n  | EOCENE  |MIDDLE| Lion-like Carnivora.             | CONTINENTAL\n  |         +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+ CONDITION.\n  |         |LOWER | Marsupials. Reptiles. Birds.     |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\n\n\n[Illustration: EOCENE SEAS After Dawkins]\n\n\n[Illustration: PLEIOCENE SEAS After Dawkins]\n\n\n[Illustration: (After Lyell)\nPLEISTOCENE SUBMERGENCE DURING TEMPERATE INTER-GLACIAL EPOCH\n(South of England and France only submerged during the\n\u2014GLACIAL PERIOD OF SUBMERGENCE)]\n\n\n[Illustration: PLEISTOCENE EUROPE\nDURING POST-GLACIAL CONTINENTAL CONDITION After Dawkins]\n\n\n[Illustration: SKELETON OF MAN]\n\n[Illustration: SKELETON OF GORILLA]\n\n[Illustration: SKELETON OF CHIMPANZEE]\n\n\n[Illustration: Outlines of the skulls of a Chimpanzee, the Neanderthal\nman, and a modern European. After Lyell.]\n\n\n[Illustration: Outline of the skulls of the Neanderthal man, a modern\nAustralian, and the Engis man. After Lyell.]\n\n\n[Illustration: SIDE VIEW OF SKULLS (After Tyler)\n\n A. AUSTRALIAN (PROGNATHOUS).\n B. AFRICAN (PROGNATHOUS).\n C. EUROPEAN (ORTHOGNATHOUS).]\n\n[Illustration: AUSTRALIAN TYPE OF SKULL. (After Topinard.)]\n\n\n\n\nMAN\u2019S ANTIQUITY.\n\n\nWhen we reflect on the magnitude of the pre-Christian Alexandrian\nlibraries, as well as the magnificent appointments attaching to and\nlavish wealth expended upon the ancient University of the capital of\nthe Ptolemies, we seem almost unable to realise the fact that people\nof education and intellect, until quite lately, believed that all\nthis intellectual and literary magnificence had reached that pitch\nof excellence in the short space of less than four thousand years.\nIn this period of time it was believed that man had so far risen in\nintellectual capacity from the absolutely ignorant condition of the\nfirst pair as described in Genesis as to have reached that state of\nmental perfection possessed by the professors in the Alexandrian,\nAthenian, and Sicilian schools. We can see Professor Euclid pointing\nout on the blackboard how, the sides of a rectilinear polygon all\ntouching a circle, the area of the polygon is equal to the rectangle\ncontained by the radius of the circle and the semi-perimeter of the\npolygon; Professor Archimedes would be explaining the theory that, if\na force act upon a body, the measure of the force in absolute units\nis numerically equal to the time-rate of change of momentum and to\nthe space-rate of change of kinetic energy; Professor Eratosthenes\nwould be impressing upon his class the importance of the knowledge\nof the globular shape of the earth; and Professor Hipparchus would\nbe startling his hearers by stating that he would show them how the\nfailure of the sun to reach the same point in the same time in his\nannual circuit (according to the old geocentric theory) caused the\nvernal equinoxial sign to give place to the next zodiacal sign every\n2,152 years.\n\nHere was a galaxy of intellectual attainments indeed! With such\na picture before our eyes we are calmly asked to believe that so\nlittle time as less than four thousand years had been sufficient\nfor the building up of this vast intellectual edifice out of such\nrude materials as the man and woman of Eden, when the two thousand\nyears following have been productive of so little advancement,\nnotwithstanding the exquisite materials upon which to work that were\nleft for us by the Alexandrian and Athenian sages. We cannot believe\nso evident an absurdity to-day; and yet it is little more than half\na century since the whole of Christendom accepted without any doubt\nwhatever the old traditional statement of the Church that man had only\ninhabited this earth for rather less than six thousand years.\n\nHow is it, then, that we have believed the traditionary story for so\nlong and now reject it as absurd? People have believed the story of\nthe creation according to Genesis partly because it was dangerous\nto do otherwise and partly because there was no absolute proof to\nthe contrary. In 1774, however, a German of the name of Esper made a\ndiscovery which gave the finishing touch to the mortal wound inflicted\nupon the Christian and Jewish superstitions by the previous adoption\nof the Copernican system of astronomy; and, just as Copernicus, Bruno,\nKepler, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton drove the first half-dozen\nnails into the coffin of the Bible, so did this discovery of Esper\ndrive into it the first of the last half-dozen, the remaining five\nto be subsequently added by Darwin, Huxley, Lyell, Spencer, and\nCarpenter. The discovery made by J. F. Esper consisted of some human\nbones, mingled with remains of the Northern bear and other species\nthen unknown, which were lying in the famous cavern of Gailenreuth, in\nBavaria; and this was soon followed by the discovery, in 1797, by John\nFrere, at Hoxne, in Suffolk, of a number of flint weapons, mixed up\nwith bones of extinct animals, the whole being embedded in rocks. These\nand other similar discoveries made some sensation among scientific men,\nwhich resulted in the publication, in 1823, of Dr. Buckland\u2019s \u201cReliqui\u00e6\nDiluvian\u00e6,\u201d in which the author summed up all the facts then known\ntending to the establishment of the truth that man co-existed with\nanimals long since extinct. Immediately after this, in 1826, Tournal,\nof Narbonne, gave to the world an account of some discoveries he had\nmade in a cave in Aude (France), where he had found bones of the bison\nand reindeer, cut and carved by the hand of man, together with remains\nof edible shell-fish, which must have been brought there by some one\nwho dwelt there. A few years afterwards De Christol, of Montpellier,\ndiscovered human bones and fragments of pottery, mixed with the remains\nof the Northern bear, hy\u00e6na, and rhinoceros, in the caverns of Pondres\nand Souvignargues. In 1833 Schmerling found in the caverns of Engis and\nEnghihoul, in Belgium, two human skulls, surrounded by teeth of the\nrhinoceros, elephant, bear, and hy\u00e6na, on some of which were marks of\nhuman workmanship, and under which were flint knives and arrow-heads.\nTwo years afterwards Joly, a Montpellier professor, found in the cave\nof Nabrigas (Loz\u00e8re) the skull of a cave-bear, having upon it marks\nmade by an arrow, beside which were scattered fragments of pottery\nbearing the imprints of human fingers. Following upon these discoveries\nwere those made in 1842 by Godwin Austen at Kent\u2019s Cavern, near\nTorquay, consisting of animal remains and results of man\u2019s handiwork;\nand those made in 1844, by Lund, in the caves of Brazil, consisting of\nskeletons of thirty human beings, an ape, various carnivora, rodents,\npachyderms, sloths, etc. Kent\u2019s Cavern, in 1847, was again the spot to\nwhich all eyes were turned; for there McEnery had found, under a layer\nof stalagmite, the remains of men and extinct animals. This remarkable\ndiscovery was followed, in the same year, by the appearance of a work\nby Boucher de Perthes, of Abbeville, in which he described the flint\ntools, etc., found in the excavations made there and in the Somme\nvalley as far as Amiens. In 1857 the celebrated Neanderthal skull was\ndiscovered; and in 1858 Prestwich, Falconer, and Pengelly (Englishmen)\nfound more flint implements in the lower strata of the Baumann cave,\nin the Hartz mountains, at the same time that Gosse _fils_ obtained\nfrom the sand-pits of Grenelle various flint implements and bones of\nthe mammoth; while in the following year Fontan discovered in the cave\nof Massat (Ari\u00e9ge) utensils, human teeth, and bones of the cave-bear,\nhy\u00e6na, and cave-lion. Near Bedford, about the same time, Wyatt found,\nin the gravel-beds, flints similar to those found at Abbeville, and\nbones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, ox, horse, and deer;\nwhich discovery was soon followed by that of the celebrated human\nburial place at Aurignac, by Lartet, in 1860, in which were found human\nremains, together with bones of the bear, reindeer, bison, hy\u00e6na, wolf,\nmammoth, and rhinoceros, a number of flint and horn implements, and\nthe remaining ashes of fires. The world was at last induced to give\nsome heed to the new cry of man\u2019s extreme antiquity when Boucher de\nPerthes, of Abbeville, in 1863, discovered at Moulin-Quignon, at a\ndepth of fifteen feet, in a virgin argilo-ferruginous bed belonging to\nthe later Pleiocene or early Pleistocene period, the half of a human\nlower jaw-bone (which had belonged to an aged person of small stature),\ncovered with an earthy crust, by the side of which lay a flint hatchet,\ncovered with the same kind of crust; and not far from which were also\nburied, in the same bed, two mammoths\u2019 teeth. After this discovery\nscientific men generally subscribed to the new theory of the antiquity\nof man, and all seemed eager to pursue their investigations without\ndelay, the result being that we are now receiving, almost day by day,\nfresh evidence on the subject, and hope soon to arrive at a tolerably\naccurate conclusion as to the earliest date of man\u2019s appearance upon\nearth.\n\nLet us now look more closely at the discoveries made in the various\ncaves referred to above, and also see what advances had been made by\ngeologists in other directions during the same period, as well as what\namount of progress has been made during the last twenty years. Dr.\nSchmerling, the Belgian geologist and comparative anatomist, after\nexploring the Engis and other caves in the province of Li\u00e8ge, published\nan illustrated work, giving the results of his investigations, which\nwere highly interesting, and contributed largely to the establishment\nof the theory of man\u2019s antiquity. In these caves Schmerling found the\nbones of the cave-bear, hy\u00e6na, elephant, and rhinoceros, together with\nhuman bones, none of which gave any evidence of having been gnawed,\nfrom which circumstance it was inferred that these caves had not\nbeen the dwelling-places of wild beasts; and the fact that the bones\nwere scattered about without any order having been observed in their\ndistribution pointed to the conclusion that the caves had not been used\nas burying-places. Probably, therefore, these remains had been washed\ninto the caves from time to time, and had gradually become covered\nwith deposit, and thus protected and preserved. There were no complete\nskeletons found; but in the Engis cave were discovered the remains of\nat least three human beings, the skull of one being embedded by the\nside of a mammoth\u2019s tooth, and in such a state of disintegration that\nit fell to pieces on being moved; while the skull of another, an adult,\nwas buried, five feet deep, by the side of a tooth of a rhinoceros,\nseveral bones of a horse, and some reindeer bones. Besides the bones,\nthere were also discovered some rude flint implements, a polished bone\nneedle, and other products of man\u2019s industry, all embedded in the same\nlayer as the bones. It follows from these facts that man lived on the\nbanks of the Meuse at the same time as the rhinoceros, mammoth, hy\u00e6na,\nand cave-bear, extinct animals of the Pleiocene and early Pleistocene\nera.\n\nNot far from these caves are those of the Lesse Valley, in which Dupont\ndiscovered, in 1864, three different layers of human and other remains,\nthe lowest of which contained the bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, and\nother extinct animals, together with flint instruments of the rudest\ntype, instruments of reindeer horn, and a human lower jaw with a marked\nresemblance to the lower jaw of the higher apes. Another discovery at\nsome little distance away from these caves was made in 1857 in what\nis called the Neanderthal Cave, in the valley of the D\u00fcssel, between\nD\u00fcsseldorf and Elberfeld, which is important, not so much as an\nindication of the length of time that man has lived on the earth, as\nof the close resemblance existing between the skulls of human beings\nin the early Pleistocene era and the skulls of apes. The discovery\nconsisted of a human skull and a number of human bones, together with\nthe bones of the rhinoceros, which latter were subsequently unearthed.\nThe skull was of such a character as to raise the question of whether\nit was human or not, the forehead being narrow and very low and the\nprojection of the supra-orbital ridges enormously great. The long bones\nof the skeleton agreed with those of men of the present day in respect\nto length, but were of extraordinary thickness, and the ridges for the\nattachment of muscles were developed in an unusual degree, showing that\nthe individual was possessed of great muscular strength, especially\nin the thoracic neighbourhood. Drs. Schaafhausen and Fuhlrott pointed\nout that the depression of the forehead was not due to any artificial\npressure, as the whole skull was symmetrical, and that the individual\nmust have been distinguished by an extraordinarily small cerebral\ndevelopment as well as uncommon corporeal strength. Professor Huxley\nconsiders this Neanderthal skull to be the most ape-like one he ever\nbeheld, and Busk, a great authority, gives valuable reasons for\nsupposing it to be the skull of an individual occupying a position\nmidway between the man and the gorilla or chimpanzee. Huxley has\ncarefully compared the Engis and Neanderthal skulls, and his remarks\nupon them are given in their entirety in Lyell\u2019s \u201cAntiquity of Man.\u201d\nFrom these remarks we gather that the Engis skull was dolichocephalic\nin form, extreme length 7.7 inches, extreme breadth not more than 5.25\ninches, forehead well arched, superciliary prominences well but not\nabnormally developed, horizontal circumference 20\u00bd inches, longitudinal\narc from nasal spine to occipital protuberance 13\u00be inches, transverse\narc from one auditory foramen to the other, across the middle of the\nsagittal suture, 13 inches. The Neanderthal skull is so different\nfrom the Engis skull that Huxley says \u201cit [Neanderthal] might well\nbe supposed to belong to a distinct race of mankind.\u201d It is 8 inches\nin extreme length, 5.75 inches in breadth, and only 3.4 inches from\nthe glabello-occipital line to the vertex; the longitudinal arc is 12\ninches, and the transverse arc probably about 10\u00bc inches, but, owing\nto incompleteness of temporal bones, this could not be correctly\nascertained; the horizontal circumference is 23 inches, which high\nfigure is due to the vast development of the superciliary ridges; and\nthe sagittal suture, notwithstanding the great length of the skull,\nonly 4\u00bd inches. Huxley sums up his examination of the Neanderthal\nskull in these words: \u201cThere can be no doubt that, as Professor\nSchaafhausen and Mr. Busk have stated, this skull is the most brutal of\nall known human skulls, resembling those of the apes, not only in the\nprodigious development of the superciliary prominences and the forward\nextension of the orbits, but still more in the depressed form of the\nbrain-case, in the straightness of the squamosal suture, and in the\ncomplete retreat of the occiput forward and upward from the superior\noccipital ridges;\u201d and he then proceeds to clearly show that the skull\ncould not have belonged to an idiot. On the whole, the Engis skull more\nclearly approaches the Caucasian type, while the Neanderthal differs\nentirely from all known human skulls, being more nearly allied to the\nchimpanzee than to the human. Both these skulls belonged to individuals\nwho lived in the early Pleistocene era, the Engis being probably\nthe older of the two, and yet the Engis is the most like the modern\nEuropean skull, which tells us plainly that in those remote times there\nwere existing in Belgium and the surrounding districts two different\nraces of men, one highly advanced in brain evolution and the other in a\nwretchedly low condition of intellectual development. The Neanderthal\nskull probably formed part of an individual belonging to the tail-end\nof a semi-human race, while the Engis skull, in all probability,\nbelonged to an oriental immigrant belonging to a more advanced race. It\nmust be always remembered that scientific men have long since admitted\nthe truth of the theory that the differences in character between the\nbrain of the highest races of men and that of the lowest, though less\nin degree, are of the same order as those which separate the human from\nthe ape brain, the same rule holding good in regard to the shape of the\nskull.\n\nThe discoveries made in Kent\u2019s Cavern, in the year 1842 and again\nin 1847, led to a thorough investigation of the series of galleries\nforming the now celebrated Brixham Caves, near Torquay, and as early as\n1859 the labours of the explorers were rewarded by the discovery of a\nnumber of flint implements in the cave-earth or loam, _underneath_ the\nlayer of stalagmite, which were the work of men living in Pal\u00e6olithic\ntimes, prior to the existence of the reindeer, whose antlers were found\ndeposited _in_ the layer of stalagmite. Previous to this time, when\nMcEnery, in 1826, examined Kent\u2019s Cavern, he had stated that he had\nfound several teeth of _Ursus cultridens_, a huge carnivore belonging\nto Tertiary formations, but now extinct; and as this monster was first\nknown in Meiocene deposits in France, but had never been traced in any\ncavern or fluviatile Pleistocene deposits, although it had occurred in\nPleiocene formations, considerable excitement was caused on the score\nthat the flint implements lately found might possibly have belonged\nto Meiocene, or at latest early Pleiocene men. Further investigations\nwere accordingly commenced for the purpose of solving this problem,\nthe explorations being under the superintendence of Messrs. Vivian and\nPengelley; and in 1872 they at last came upon a fine incisor of _Ursus\ncultridens_ in the uppermost part of the cave-earth, which settled the\npoint as to man\u2019s existence at the same time with the extinct bear\nin England. The Kent\u2019s Cavern deposits are as follows:\u20141. Limestone.\n2. Black mould, containing articles of medi\u00e6val, Romano-British, and\npre-Roman date. 3. Stalagmite floor, from 16 to 20 inches thick,\ncontaining a human jaw and remains of extinct animals. 4. Black\nearth, containing charcoal and other evidence of fire, and also bone\nand flint instruments. 5. Red cave-earth, containing Pal\u00e6olithic\nimplements and bones and teeth of extinct animals, such as cave-lion,\nmammoth, rhinoceros, and hy\u00e6na, and including the tooth of the _Ursus\ncultridens_, or _Machairodus latidens_. 6. Second stalagmite floor,\nfrom 3 to 12 feet thick, covering bones of bears only. 7. Dark red\nsandy loam, containing bones of bears, three flint implements, and\none flint chip. The fact of the _Ursus cultridens_ being contemporary\nin England with man is of enormous interest to geologists and\nanthropologists, for it places the date of Pal\u00e6olithic man as far back\nas the Pleiocene age, instead of, as heretofore, in the Pleistocene.\n\nThe caves of the Dordogne Valley in south-western France have supplied\nus with some very good relics of a very remote period. They are\nsituated in rocks of Cretaceous age, and form shelters in which\nancient huntsmen used to find dwelling-places, leaving behind them\nrefuse-heaps and instruments of various kinds. In the Vez\u00e8re Caves,\nwhich are included in the Dordogne series, there is one of very\nancient date, Le Moustier, in which is a bed of sand having both above\nand below floors of a similar character, containing charcoal, flint\ninstruments, and other remains. The depth of this sandy bed is about 10\ninches, having the appearance of a river deposit; and, although many\nflint instruments have been found in it of a more ancient date than\nthose unearthed in the other caves, yet no worked bone instruments have\nbeen discovered. In another cave, the Langerie, bronze and polished\nstone objects have been found, together with various kinds of pottery,\nbelow which, and under masses of fallen rock, covered with Pal\u00e6olithic\nflints and sculptured bones and antlers of reindeer, a human skeleton\nwas discovered lying under a block of stone. In another cave, La\nMadeleine, was found a mammoth tusk, on which was rudely carved a\npicture of the animal itself, proving incontestably that cave-men\nlived here in mammoth times. In the Mentone cave Dr. Rivi\u00e8re, in 1872,\nsuddenly came upon the bones of a human foot, which caused him to make\na very careful examination of the deposit, the result being that he\nunearthed an entire human skeleton at a depth of 20 feet, surrounded by\na large number of unpolished flint flakes and scrapers, and a fragment\nof a skewer, about six inches long. No metal, pottery, or polished\nflint was found; but bones of extinct mammals were scattered about,\nthus suggesting a remote Pal\u00e6olithic antiquity. The skeleton is 5 feet\n9 inches high, the skull dolichocephalic, forehead narrow, temple\nflattened, and facial angle measuring 80 to 85 degrees; the teeth\nwere worn flat by eating hard food, and the long bones are strong and\nflattened.\n\nNo human bones have as yet been discovered in the deposit of the Somme\nvalley, where so many Pal\u00e6olithic flints have been found; but in the\nvalley of the Seine, at Clichy, Messrs. Bertrand and Reboux found, in\n1868, portions of human skeletons in the same beds where Pal\u00e6olithic\nimplements had been embedded. These bones were found at a depth of\nseventeen feet, and included a female skull of very inferior type,\nhaving enormously thick frontal bone and a low, narrow roof, slanting\nfrom before backwards. A very good specimen of human fossil is that\nknown as the \u201cDenise Fossil Man,\u201d comprising the remains of more\nthan one skeleton found in a volcanic breccia near Le Puy-en-Velay,\nin Central France. These bones have been very carefully examined by\nthe members of the French Scientific Congress, as also the deposit\nin which they were found, and the opinion arrived at is that the\nfossils are genuine and their age early Pleistocene. Another most\ninteresting specimen of ancient human remains is the skeleton found\nburied under four Cypress forests, superimposed one upon the other, in\nthe delta of the Mississippi, near New Orleans, at a depth of sixteen\nfeet. Dr. Dowler ascribes to this skeleton an antiquity of at least\n50,000 years, reckoning by the minimum length of time that must have\nelapsed during the formation of the deposits found and the sinking of\nthe four successive forest beds. In another part of the same delta,\nnear Natchez, a human bone, _os innominatum_, accompanied by bones\nof the mastodon and megalonyx, was washed out of what is believed\nto be a still more ancient alluvial deposit. Dr. Dickeson, in whose\npossession the said bone is now, states that it was buried at a depth\nof thirty feet, and geologists agree that its date is very early, some\nmaintaining that it is probably of a higher antiquity than any yet\ndiscovered.\n\nFrom these discoveries it is abundantly evident that man existed\non the earth contemporaneously with the mastodon and other extinct\nmammals belonging to the Pleiocene and early Pleistocene eras. There\nare, however, people who stoutly deny that this can be so\u2014at any rate,\nas regards Northern and Central Europe\u2014and who rank the discoveries\nat Moulin Quignon, Engis, Kent\u2019s Cavern, etc., with late Pleistocene\nremains. They maintain that the beds in which these relics were found\ncould not have been of Pleiocene or early Pleistocene formation,\ninasmuch as they lie _above_ the till and boulder-clay which form the\nglacial deposits of the time when Europe was an Arctic region\u2014that\nis to say, of late Pleistocene times. Therefore, they say, man\u2019s\nearliest existence in Europe was post-glacial or late Pleistocene.\nBut while the fact of the human remains having been discovered above\nthe boulder-clay appears to point to a post-glacial date, still\nthere is confronting us the perplexing anomaly of the contemporary\nexistence of extinct mammals belonging to a tropical fauna, which,\nif we accept this theory, involves the necessity of admitting that a\ntropical climate followed the last glacial epoch\u2014a condition of things\nthat we know never existed at all. The fact is there have been more\nperiods of glaciation than one, each being followed by the deposition\nof boulder-clays; and between the periods of intense Arctic cold\nthere were intervals of tropical or sub-tropical heat, when mammals\nbelonging to and requiring a tropical climate ventured as far north as\nthe north of England, to become extinct when the period of glaciation\nsupervened. The last glacial period, we know, extended its area of\ninfluence as far as the high peaks of Switzerland and Northern Italy,\ncompletely overwhelming the whole of Northern Europe as far south as\nthe latitude of 45\u00ba, and the whole of North America as far south as\nthe latitude of 40\u00ba; since when there has been a gradual diminution\nof cold until the present temperate climate supervened. Now, if it\ncan be positively ascertained that all the boulder-clays found in\nEngland and Northern Europe were deposited during and immediately\nafter this last glacial period, the date of man\u2019s first appearance\nin those districts, as far as we have as yet any evidence, must be\npost-glacial; but in such a case it would have been impossible that a\ntropical fauna and flora could have existed in the same localities,\nwhereas their remains have been abundantly found lying side by side\nwith the remains of Pal\u00e6olithic man. The conclusion we must draw is\nthat the boulder-clays found below the remains of Pal\u00e6olithic man could\nnot have been deposited after the last period of glaciation, but must\nhave followed some prior glacial condition, and that man existed in\nEngland and Northern Europe contemporaneously with extinct mammalia\nduring inter-glacial or pre-glacial times, when the climate of England\nwas tropical or sub-tropical\u2014that is to say, in middle Pleistocene or\nlate Pleiocene times. If man really existed in England in Pleiocene\ntimes, in favour of which view there appears to be strong evidence,\nhe would have been in all probability the companion of the extinct\ntropical mammalia found deposited in the Cromer Forest beds, and some\nof which belonged to Meiocene times. This forest was in existence at\nthe close of the Pleiocene era, and stretched from Cromer far away into\nwhat is now the German Ocean, uniting Norfolk and Suffolk to Holland\nand Belgium; but soon after the commencement of the Pleistocene period\nthe North Sea gradually swept over the old continent between Britain\non the west and Sweden, Denmark, and the Netherlands on the east, thus\nconverting the old forest at Cromer into the bed of the ocean, where\nthe stumps of the trees may now be seen embedded in deposit at very\nlow tide. Immediately after the disappearance of this forest the first\nperiod of glaciation commenced, from which moment until the close of\nthe glacial periods the alternations in temperature and surface level\nwere frequent and of enormous magnitude, the correct sequence of which\nchanges we have as yet no proper conception.\n\nIf we go back to the commencement of the Tertiary great division of the\ngeological periods, we shall find that, at the beginning of the Eocene\ndeposits, the Secondary cretaceous rocks had been upheaved from the\nbottom of the sea, and had become the dry ground of a large continent,\nof which the British Islands formed a part; so that Eocene fauna and\nflora in England had free communication with continental life. The\nrelative positions of land and water during this first Tertiary period\nwere as follows: The great continent spread from North America to\nEurope, uniting Canada, Greenland, Iceland, Faroes, Shetlands, Orkneys,\nIreland, and Britain (except south-east portion), with Scandinavia\nand Spitzbergen on the north-east, and with France (Brittany) and\nSpain on the south. There were three seas\u2014the North Sea, which, like\na wedge with its point downwards, separated Greenland, Iceland, and\nFaroes from Spitzbergen and Scandinavia; the South-Eastern Sea, which\nstretched from the top of Denmark to Boston in Lincolnshire, thence\nto Lyme Regis in Dorsetshire, and on to Cherbourg, covering the whole\nof the east and south-east of England; and the Atlantic, which was\nseparated from the North Sea by Iceland, Faroes, and intermediate\nlands, and from the South-Eastern Sea by the British Islands, Western\nFrance, and intermediate lands. These Eocene seas teemed with fish\nnow only found in more Southern latitudes; while the inland lakes and\nrivers abounded with reptilian life. On the land tropical flora and\nfauna flourished, among the former being palms, cypresses, and giant\ncacti, and among the latter, in Lower Eocene times, large numbers of\nmarsupial species, in the Middle Eocene also lion-like carnivora, and\nin Upper Eocene tapir-like animals, herds of Anchitheres (ancestors\nof the horse), Hy\u00e6nodon (ancestors of hy\u00e6na), and Lemurs. The Miocene\nperiod opened with a lower temperature than that of the Eocene, and\nwith a considerable difference of surface level in Denmark and on the\nSouth of England, the land having been upheaved to such an extent as\nto leave no part of the country under water, uniting Yorkshire with\nDenmark, and dividing the South-Eastern Sea into two portions, the\nNorthern one stretching from Schleswig as far as a few miles from\nthe present Lincolnshire coast and then back to the present mouth\nof the Scheldt; and the latter stretching from Boulogne-sur-Mer to\nHastings and Portland Bill, and back to Cherbourg. Otherwise the\nrelationship between land and water was much the same as in Eocene\ntimes. The climate of the Meiocene period was sub-tropical, and in\nthe lower strata were found placental mammals, but few marsupials; in\nthe middle beds remains of the mastodon, rhinoceros, anthropomorphous\napes, sloths, and ant-eaters; and in the upper layers antelopes\nand gazelles; but no mammalian species in any Meiocene deposit has\ncontinued to present times, all having become extinct. When we arrive\nat the Pleiocene age we have quite a different state of things; the\nAtlantic and North Seas gradually united together, thus separating\nEurope from Faroes, Iceland, Greenland, and North America; and on the\neast of Britain the North Sea slowly descended as far as the present\nmouth of the Thames, thus separating Britain from Norway, Denmark, and\nthe Netherlands; while the two Southern seas disappeared altogether,\nleaving a huge continent, the borders of which stretched from the\npresent west coast of Norway to Denmark, the Netherlands, across to\nEssex, central Norfolk (east Norfolk and Suffolk being part of North\nSea), and up to the Shetlands, at which point a turn was made south\nto a few miles west of present west coast of Ireland, and thence\nsouthward to a few miles west of present coast of Brittany, in France,\nthus leaving the British Isles, France, and the rest of Europe as one\nlarge continent. To accomplish these enormous changes, a very long\ntime was required, during which the climate was gradually becoming\nmore temperate, being in older Pleiocene times sub-tropical and in\nnewer Pleiocene warm-temperate; while the fauna and flora gradually\nbecame less tropical in kind. The older Pleiocene deposits are divided\ninto coralline crag and reg crag, while the newer Pleiocene consist\nof Norwich crags and Weybourne sands, on a level with which latter\nwas the Cromer forest, submerged by the North Sea during the earlier\nPleistocene period.\n\nAt this point commence those enormous alterations in the surface level\nand climate of this part of the world which produced such extraordinary\nresults, and during which man made his first appearance in Britain. At\nthe very commencement of the Pleistocene era the temperature in Britain\nwas lowered to such an extent as to produce a sudden disappearance\nof the semi-tropical fauna and flora: the land had reached the high\nelevation of 500 feet above the present level, joining Scotland and\nScandinavia, and there had appeared in the North Sea large blocks of\nice, which rapidly increased in size and quantity, and continually\npushed farther south, until at length, after a long lapse of time, the\nwhole of Northern Europe, Asia, and America as far as the latitude\nof about 45\u00b0 became like a huge ice-house, the Arctic cold driving\nall life before it to a more southern latitude, those forms which had\nlived in Britain during Meiocene and Pleiocene times being the first to\ndisappear on the earliest sign of the approaching cold, and the Arctic\nflora and fauna which took their place being afterwards compelled also\nto move southward, owing to the intense severity of the glaciation.\n\nWhen this state of things had lasted a very considerable time the\nclimate became milder, the melting ice deposited its boulder-clay, and\nthe high continent commenced to sink again to its former level, during\nwhich gradual submergence the climate became still warmer, until it\nat length reached a more than temperate mildness, at one time being\nalmost tropical. Still the land continued to sink, and this submergence\nlasted until the British part of the great continent had become a large\narchipelago of small islands, the surface of the land being upwards\nof one thousand feet below the present level. It has been calculated\nthat such a submergence would require at the least 88,000 years to\nbe completed; so that a general idea may be formed of the enormous\nperiods of time occupied by these glacial and inter-glacial epochs.\nWhile the British archipelago existed, another change of climate\ntook place, resulting in another glacial period, but probably not of\nsuch intensity as the previous one. At this period the upper boulder\nclay was deposited in the sea, to be afterwards upheaved above the\nsea level in Yorkshire and other places. After a long continuance of\nthis glaciation the land commenced to rise again and the climate to\nimprove, until, after a period of about 136,000 years (according to\ncareful computation), there was produced another continental condition,\nthe ground reaching about 600 feet higher than now, and the climate\nbecoming temperate once more. England, Ireland, Scotland, Scandinavia,\nDenmark, the Netherlands, France, and Spain once again formed a mighty\ncontinent, the climate of which was cold-temperate, becoming milder\nyear by year, and the elevation of which was gradually declining, as it\nhas continued to do until the present time, the British islands slowly\nbecoming once more separated from the continent of Europe. During the\nlast temperate continental condition Pal\u00e6olithic and Neolithic man\nlived in Britain, as is clearly proved by the evidence brought forward\nby various authors in support of the contention; but, as we have seen,\nPal\u00e6olithic man\u2019s remains discovered in the various deposits were\noften in the company of the bones of extinct mammals belonging to a\ntropical fauna, which species could not have existed in Britain with\nsuch a climate as that which followed the last period of glaciation,\nbut must have lived either in pre-glacial times, or, in other words, at\nthe end of Pleiocene or very beginning of Pleistocene times, or else\nin inter-glacial or mid-Pleistocene times; and whichever alternative\nbe adopted we are bound to fix the date of the Pal\u00e6olithic remains at\nthe same period. To fix their date in the very earliest of Pleistocene,\nor latest of Pleiocene times, would give them an antiquity of nearly\n300,000 years; to fix it in mid-Pleistocene times, during the temperate\nor inter-glacial period of submergence, would give them an antiquity\nof upwards of 170,000 years; and to fix it in post-glacial times would\ngive them an antiquity of probably 70,000 or 80,000 years at most. The\ninter-glacial theory would, on the whole, appear most likely to be the\ncorrect one, were it not for the fact that, during the inter-glacial\nperiod, this country was partially submerged, which would probably have\nprevented any communication in those times between the islands and\nthe mainland. We must, however, not forget that the great submergence\ncommenced during the first period of glaciation, and did not cease\nuntil the second period had been reached, so that the inter-glacial\nperiod of warmth would take place when England and Scotland were but\nlittle different from now in their relationship to the continent, and\nlong before the archipelago was formed. Whether it would have been\npossible under these conditions for Pal\u00e6olithic man to cross from the\ncontinent to the British islands we cannot say; but the probability is\nthat the distance to travel by water would have been far too great in\nsuch early times; in which case we have no alternative but to place the\ndate of man\u2019s earliest existence in England at the latest Pleiocene\nage, as indeed we are compelled to do by the fact that Pal\u00e6olithic\nimplements have been found in Kent\u2019s cavern side by side with teeth of\nthe extinct bear of that period, as well as by the discoveries made in\nthe Engis and other caves.\n\nIn Southern Europe and the Southern States of North America the glacial\nepoch had little effect, so that man\u2019s age upon the earth in those\ndistricts will be better calculated than it can ever be here or in\nFrance and Belgium; and it will not be surprising if we learn before\nlong that man lived in the districts surrounding the Mediterranean\nSea in early Pleiocene times. This sea, it must be recollected, was\nalmost dried up during the early and middle Pleistocene periods, and\nthere was no communication between it and the Atlantic Ocean, so that\nEurope was connected both on the east and west with Africa, and was\nalso one continuous continent with Asia, there being then no Black\nSea and no Caspian Sea. The probability, therefore, is that man first\nbecame a rational being, parting with his ape-like characteristics,\nsomewhere in Southern Asia or Northern Africa, or, more probably still,\nin the now submerged continent of Lemuria, which once joined China,\nIndia, and Africa in one continental system; after which he emigrated\nin different directions, finding his way north-westwards over the\nEuropean continent as far as the very limit of the Franco-British\ncontinental system. At what period man first existed in the districts\naround the Mexican Gulf it is at present impossible to say; but the\nskull found in the Mississippi beds is calculated to be at least\n50,000 years old, and by some the date is fixed at 100,000 years,\nwhich would carry us back to middle Pleistocene times at least. Man,\ntherefore, most probably existed in Europe long before he had made\nhis appearance in the new world, although it is quite possible that\nfurther investigation may lead to the discovery of a still more\nancient stock than that to which the Mississippi skull belonged. How\nlong a time elapsed between the first appearance of Pal\u00e6olithic man\nin Northern Europe, and the subsequent advent of Neolithic man, it is\nat present impossible to say with any degree of certainty; but the\ninterval must have been of enormous length, for we find no traces of\npolished stone implements until the very close of the Pleistocene era\nduring the last Franco-British continental system. At this period man\nhad become much more civilised than his ancestors of the Pal\u00e6olithic\nage; his implements were more ornamental and better fitted for the\npurposes for which they were intended; his mode of life had become more\nsettled; and he had developed primitive industries. In the ancient \u201chut\ncircles\u201d found at Standlake and at Fisherton, near Salisbury, have\nbeen found instruments used for spinning and weaving, which date back\nto Neolithic times, also fragments of pottery and stones used for\ngrinding corn, side by side with the remains of domestic animals. From\nthis we conclude that Neolithic man was at this time a companion of\ndomestic animals, a keeper of flocks and herds, and an agriculturalist.\nHe very soon became, in addition to this, a miner, as is evident from\nthe remains found at Cissbury, on the South Downs, and at Grimes\nGraves, near Bandon, in Suffolk. Shafts had been sunk and galleries\ndug out of the ground in order to unearth a better kind of flint for\nmanufacturing useful implements; and in some of these galleries the\ntools of the workmen have been discovered, consisting of picks made out\nof stags\u2019 antlers, polished stone celts, chisels of bone and antler,\nand small cups made of chalk. With these and other primitive tools the\nflint had been worked out in several places, forming deep hollows in\nand near which were the remains of birds, sheep, goats, horses, pigs,\nand dogs, which evidently had served as companions to and food for\nthe miners. Canoes, hollowed out of large trees by the use of fire\nand axes, have also been discovered, together with huge paddles for\npropelling them; and numerous have been the discoveries of heads of\njavelins, arrows, and spears, which were probably used as weapons of\nwarfare, the population by this time having grown large and divided\nitself into small communities more or less at enmity with each other.\n\nSimilar progress was made by Neolithic man on the continent of Europe,\nas we know from the discoveries made in Switzerland. As early as 1829\nvery ancient piles had been discovered in the lake of Z\u00fcrich, which\nhave since been found to be the remains of primitive lake-dwellings,\ndating from Neolithic times. These peculiar habitations consisted of\nwooden houses built on platforms erected on a number of wooden piles\ndriven into the bottom of the lake, and were, no doubt, so constructed\nwith the view of protecting the small colony from the raids of wild\nbeasts and warlike people from other parts of the country. Most of\nthese lake-dwellings were burnt down, their charred remains sinking\nto the bottom of the lake, where they have been discovered together\nwith heaps of corn, pieces of woven and plaited cloth, mealing or\ngrinding stones, earthenware implements, nets and mats, and implements\nof stone, antler, and bone. Numbers of domestic and other animals\nwere kept in these dwellings, such as the dog, horse, pig, sheep, and\ncow; and fish appears to have been a regular article of consumption.\nSimilar discoveries have been made in Denmark by Professor Steenstrup\nand others, which show an equal advance in civilisation and culture\nduring early Neolithic times. Vast accumulations of refuse matter, in\nthe form of oyster-shells, fish-bones, and animal remains, have been\nfound near the shores of the Baltic, the whole being heaped up into\nmounds, evidently having formed public refuse-heaps for communities\nof settlers. Scattered about were also found polished stone axes, but\nno metal implements; while upon some of the stones were well-drawn\nengravings, pointing to a considerable advance in culture; and the fact\nthat the remains of the domestic animals prove them to be of southern\nand eastern origin suggests the probability that these settlers were\nimmigrants from the south-east of Europe, where we should expect\nconsiderable advance to have been effected in civilisation.\n\nIt is extremely probable and generally admitted that man became\ncivilised in oriental countries, and made his way northwards and\nwestwards, gradually covering the whole of Europe; so that we should\nexpect the races of Egypt, Persia, and India to be far more highly\ncultured than those who were establishing themselves in the west at\nthe same time. It would take a very long time indeed for people to\nspread themselves from Egypt and Persia over the whole of Europe, and\nduring all this time they would naturally, owing to their wandering\nhabits, advance in civilisation far more slowly than those who remained\nin their original homes. At the time, therefore, that Neolithic man\nhad become a settler in Europe and Britain we may fairly suppose that\nEgypt, Persia, and India were great, powerful, and prosperous states,\nwell advanced in civilisation and art, and, perhaps, even the tail-end\nof a mighty and prosperous civilisation that had preceded them long\nages before. It was probably from these highly-civilised centres that\nthe discovery of bronze was carried into Europe, which marked the\ncommencement of what is called the Bronze or Prehistoric Age, during\nwhich period the use of bronze implements almost entirely superseded\nthat of polished stone weapons.\n\nBefore the Bronze Age had fairly commenced the last of the Pleistocene\ndeposits had taken place, and the recent layers of earth had begun to\ndistribute themselves upon the older strata; but how long a time has\nactually elapsed since the completion of the Pleistocene stratification\nhas not been accurately ascertained. A rough approximation to the\nrelative length of the Pleistocene and Prehistoric periods may be\nobtained from the fact that the valleys were cut down by streams\nflowing through them as much as a hundred feet deep in the former\nperiod, while the work done by the rivers during the latter period is\nmeasured by the insignificant fluviatile deposits close to the adjacent\nstreams. We may, therefore, conclude that the Pleistocene era was,\nbeyond all calculation, of longer duration than the Prehistoric. It\nmust not be imagined from this that the Prehistoric period was a short\none, for there have been a series of changes in the fauna, and a series\nof invasions of different races of men into Europe, which must have\nrequired a very long time to have been brought about, judging from\nsimilar changes recorded in history.\n\nIt is believed that, soon after the commencement of the Bronze Age, an\nAryan stream of life poured over Europe from Central Asia, and finally\ninvaded England, driving out the old inhabitants and re-stocking the\ncountry with a host of Aryan Celts, who brought with them the knowledge\nof bronze manufacture. The defeated natives retreated to Ireland\nand the west of England and Scotland, and finally gave themselves\nup to their conquerors, whom they in future served as slaves. Thus\nwere annihilated the Neolithic men of Britain, and thus was the use\nof polished stone weapons superseded by that of bronze implements.\nThese Celtic invaders, like their conquered predecessors, lived upon\nthe flesh both of wild and domestic animals, as is evident from the\ndiscovery made in 1867 at Barton Mere, near Bury St. Edmunds, where\nbronze spear-heads were found in and around large piles and blocks\nof stone, together with vast quantities of the broken bones of the\nstag, roe, wild boar, hare, urus, horse, ox, hog, and dog, as well\nas fragments of pottery. Fire was produced by these men by striking a\nflint flake against a piece of iron pyrites, as is evident from the\ndiscovery of these articles in and around charred remains of fires;\nthus a great advance was made in this direction upon the habits of the\nolder inhabitants, who had only been able to procure fire by rapidly\nturning a piece of wood between their two hands, the point being fixed\nin a hollow on another piece of wood, so that the great friction which\nresulted produced heat sufficient to generate flame.\n\nFollowing the Bronze Age was the Iron Age, during which period the\nhistoric era commenced; and thus we have not only various discoveries\nto prove that iron gradually supplanted bronze, but history bears\nwitness to the same truth. The Homeric legends abound with feats\nperformed by heroes who wielded bronze and iron weapons; and from\nHesiod, who wrote nearly five hundred years before Herodotus, we learn\nthat iron had already superseded bronze among the Greeks, and that the\narch\u00e6ologists of his day recognised a distinct era of the past as the\nAge of Bronze. The probability is that the discovery of the mode of\nseparating iron from its ore and turning it into useful articles was\nmade in Asia, from whence it was afterwards introduced into Europe;\nfor we find that at the very first appearance of iron in Britain and\nFrance there were iron coins and iron ornaments in regular use among\nthe people, which articles were no doubt brought by invading tribes of\noriental people. In the early or prehistoric portion of the Iron Age\nthe practice of burying the dead at full length first became known in\nBritain, cremation having always been practised previously.\n\nHaving now arrived at historic times, our inquiry into man\u2019s antiquity\nneed not be further continued. For the searcher after truth there only\nnow remains the task of carefully considering the facts here brought\nforward and comparing the conclusions arrived at with the old orthodox\nstory of the creation of the world and man as found in the Bible. If\nthe story read in the Book of Nature be a true one, then man has lived\nupon the earth several hundred thousand years, and has passed from\na state of unconscious animal existence, through innumerable stages\nof savage, semi-savage, and civilised conditions, to his present\ncommanding position. If the story read in the so-called Book of God be\na true one, then the world and man were created less than six thousand\nyears ago. The reader must judge for himself which is the truth.\n\n\n\n\n                   PLAN OF EVOLUTION OF MIND IN MAN\n\n   INDIVIDUAL    INTELLECTUAL                                RACE\n   ASCENT        PRODUCTS            EMOTIONAL PRODUCTS      ASCENT\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 15 Yrs.    | Science           | Rational Emotion      | Homo Sapiens|\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 10 Yrs.    | Monotheism        | Melancholy & Ecstasy  | Homo Cultus |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 5 Yrs.     | Polytheism        | Reverence, Remorse    | Homo        |\n  |            |                   | & Courtesy            | Semi-Cultus |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 3-1/2 Yrs. | Fetishism         | Awe and               | Homo        |\n  |            |                   | Appreciation of Art   | Semi-Ferox  |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 3 Yrs.     | Superstition      | Avarice, Envy, Hate,  |             |\n  |            |                   | Hope, Vanity,         |             |\n  |            |                   | Mirth, Love of Beauty |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 2-1/2 Yrs. | Definite Morality |                       | Homo Ferox  |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 26 Mos.    | Judgment,         |                       | Alali       |\n  |            | Recollection &    |                       |             |\n  |            | Self Consciousness|                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 22 Mos.    | Speech            |                       | Semi-Human  |\n  |            |                   |                       |   Apes      |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 20 Mos.    | Concerted Action  |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 16 Mos.    | Knowledge of the  |                       |             |\n  |            | use of Simple     |                       |             |\n  |            | Instruments       |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 14 Mos.    | Articulation      |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 13 Mos.    | Indefinite        |                       | Anthropoid  |\n  |            | Morality          |                       | Apes        |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 8 Mos.     | True Reason       | Pride, Shame, Deceit, |Monkeys, Dogs|\n  |            |                   | Passion, Cruelty &    |             |\n  |            |                   | Ludicrousness         | & Elephants |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 6 Mos.     | Understanding     | Sympathy, Curiosity,  |Horses, Pigs |\n  |            |   of Words        | Revenge & Gratitude   | & Cats      |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 5 Mos.     | Dreaming          | Emulation,            | Birds       |\n  |            |                   | Jealousy, Joy, Grief. |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 4 Mos.     | Recognition       | Anger                 | Reptiles    |\n  |            |   of Persons      |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 15 Wks.    | Recognition       | Play                  | Insects     |\n  |            |   of Places       |                       | and Fishes  |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 14 Wks.    | Association       | Pugnacity             | Crustaceans |\n  |            |   of Ideas        |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 13 Wks.    | Conscious Memory  | Fear                  | Crustaceans |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 1 to 2     | Pain and Pleasure |                       | Vermes      |\n  | Mos.       |                   |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | 3 Wks.     | Consciousness     |                       | Higher      |\n  |            |                   |                       | Molluscs    |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | Birth      | Imperfect Sense   |                       | Lower       |\n  |            |   organs          |                       | Molluscs    |\n  |            | Primary Instincts |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | Embryo     | Non-Nervous       |                       | Am\u0153b\u00e6       |\n  |            |   Adjustment      |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n  | Germ       | Protoplasmic      |                       | Protoplasm  |\n  |            |   Motion          |                       |             |\n  +\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-+\n\n\n[Illustration: A creeping Am\u0153ba, or unicellular Protist that changes\nits form continually; with cell-nucleus in the middle, within which is\nthe nucleolus. After Haeckel.]\n\n[Illustration: Gastrula of a Gasteropoda (Gastr\u0153ada) After Haeckel.\nA. Ectoderm. B. Endoderm. C. Mouth. D. Gastric cavity.]\n\n\n\n\nEVOLUTION OF MIND.\n\n\nIt seems hardly credible that there should exist people who profess\nto accept the Darwinian theory of development of species in all\nits fulness, and yet reject the idea of the human mind having been\nevolved by slow stages from the primitive sense-organ of our lowliest\nancestors, the Protista. Such inconsistency seems almost puerile, and,\nwere it not for the fact that the admission of this truth would be the\nfinal blow at the various faiths of the world, we should not be called\nupon to-day to defend a position so utterly impregnable as that assumed\nby Haeckel and others in regard to the evolution of the human mind.\nWhen education has advanced further there will, we must hope, be less\nof this shutting of the eyes to obvious truths for the mere sake of\npropping up for a little while longer the belief in a batch of fairy\ntales and preposterous legends. As we look around us upon the wonderful\nobjects of nature we see everywhere animation and law; the heavens\nabove are full of life\u2014suns, planets, moons, and other celestial\nbodies incessantly moving to and fro, all bound in their courses by\nthe immutable laws of nature; the vast ocean, teeming with myriads\nof living beings, is incessantly rolling and roaring like some great\nmonster, but never exceeds the limits which nature has assigned to\nits action; and the whole face of the earth presents a constant scene\nof activity of some kind or other\u2014volcanoes discharging their molten\nfluid, huge glaciers grinding along the ground, monster rivers rushing\nforward with incessant roar, and the vegetable and animal kingdoms\nincreasing and multiplying at a marvellous pace. All this is life\u2014in\nfact, everything we see around us, of whatever form or shape, is life\nof some sort. The very ground upon which we stand is full of life,\neach particle of dust being held to its fellow particles by mutual\nattraction; and there is not a single atom of the earth\u2019s substance or\nof the whole universe that we can say is minus this property of life\nor activity; nothing in the universe that we know of ever remains for\none moment in a state of rest; everything is constantly moving, and\nevery particle of the whole contributes its own share to the general\nactivity which we term motion or life. The whole universe is a huge\nmanifestation of phenomena, which make up the sum-total of life or\nactivity. The sun rotating on its axis is one form of life; the moon\nsilently wandering round our planet is another form of life; the trees\nand animals growing and multiplying on the land are other forms; and\nevery lump of ore taken out of the ground and every paving stone in\nour streets are other forms of life. Every particle of every substance\nwhatever is in a state of continual motion, and therefore full of life.\nIn fact, it is this very motion or life that sustains matter; for\nmatter could not exist\u2014that is, its particles could not hold together,\nand thus form substance\u2014without the life, motion, activity, or whatever\nwe like to term the property which operates upon them and produces\nmutual cohesion.\n\nLife has always, therefore, been active in matter, and always will be,\nfor life or motion cannot be separated from matter; and, just as matter\nhas passed from a condition of homogeneity to one of heterogeneity,\nso has life done likewise. Life possesses infinite potentiality, and\nmanifests itself in an infinite variety of ways by means of different\ncombinations, which it brings about in the molecular atoms of universal\nmatter. It acts, for instance, upon a planet by causing its particles\nto hold together in one mass apart from other bodies of a similar or\ndissimilar character; it also acts upon what we unscientifically call\ninanimate nature by causing its particles to hold together, forming in\none case a stone, in another a metal, etc.; and it acts upon what we\nterm animated nature by causing its molecules to combine and procreate.\nThis power of attraction and cohesion of particles of universal matter\nis life, and it depends entirely upon what particular combination of\nthe molecular atoms of universal matter takes place whether a sun, a\nmoon, a planet, a stone, a crystal, a sponge, a tree, or a man be the\nresult. This much is certain, however, that not one of these bodies\ncan ever be produced except by an evolutionary process subject to the\nuniversal and unchangeable law which fixes the sequence.\n\nAnimal life, as distinct from all other life, is a comparatively late\ndevelopment or manifestation in the sequence of universal phenomena.\nThis world on which we live had existed as a compact body for millions\nof ages before life assumed the character of animal life; and so\ngradual was the process of evolution from the primal condition of\nhomogeneity, through all the manifold stages of life, until the\ncondition of animal life was reached, that it is impossible to fix\na particular moment when such life became manifest. So it is with\nevery stage of the evolutionary process; there are no starting-places\nfor particular species, the whole being one continuous unfolding of\nphenomena, without arrest of any kind.\n\nIt is equally impossible to fix a particular point or moment for the\nmanifestation of the crystal life as it is for that of the animal or\nthe vegetable life. All are but gradual unfoldings of the universal\npotentiality. Crystal life is the highest development of what is\npopularly but erroneously termed inanimate nature, and differs not one\niota from Moneron life, which is the lowest form of animal life, in\nits constituent elements, the only difference between the two being in\nthe mode of combination of the elementary particles composing each.\nThe crystal elements combine in such proportions as to cause the mass\nto hold together like other solid bodies, its bulk being increased by\nthe deposition of fresh particles upon its outer surface; while the\nMoneron elements combine in such a manner as to render the body soft\nand yielding, so that it can absorb nutriment from without to within\nand multiply by fission. The elements of both are identically the same:\nthe manner of combination causes the differences between them. Many\nlearned men declare that, if this were true, we ought to be able to\ntake the five elements\u2014viz., Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Carbon, and\nSulphur\u2014in the necessary proportions, and, by uniting them, form animal\nlife. This, they say, has been attempted, and the result has been\nfailure; therefore, animal life could not have been generated in that\nmanner, but must have been specially created at some particular moment.\nThis argument is absurdly unsound. These persons might just as well\nsay that, to substantiate the assertion that crystals are formed of a\ncombination of elementary molecules, we ought to be able to take the\nnecessary quantity of these elements, and, by uniting them together,\nform a crystal; and that, if this cannot be done, then crystals also\nrequire a special creation. The same argument for a special creation\nwill apply to every species of the animal, vegetable, and mineral\nkingdoms. Protoplasm is the lowest form of animal life, differing from\nthe highest form of mineral life only in the mode of combination of\nits elementary particles; but this difference causes the manifestation\nof fresh phenomena, in this case as in every other modification of a\nprevious state of nature, which gives it the appearance of possessing\na property that had not been possessed by any substance previously,\nwhereas, in truth, the apparently new property is but a further\ndevelopment of that previously possessed by inorganic bodies. In short,\nthe power of absorption possessed by the Moneron is simply one of the\nmany manifestations of that universal life or energy that is inherent\nin all matter, and has been so from all time; but it is a comparatively\nlate development, occurring at a particular period in the world\u2019s\nhistory, when the conditions necessary for such a development were\npresent. Before this period no such combination of molecular atoms took\nplace with the same result, simply because the necessary conditions of\ndevelopment were absent. In the same manner precisely there was a prior\nperiod when no such substance as a crystal existed, the conditions\nrequisite for the peculiar combination of molecular atoms to result in\nthe formation of a crystal having been absent.\n\nWhen the world had undergone sufficient evolutionary development there\ncame a time when such atmospheric and other conditions were present\nas to permit of a modification of the then existing substances and\nproperties, which resulted in the formation of the crystal; and,\nprecisely in the same manner, and for the same reason, a further and\nlater modification resulted in the formation of Protoplasm, which is\nthe earliest form of animal life. This little substance gradually\ndifferentiated into two distinct parts, by a nucleus being formed\nin the centre of the protoplasmic mass, and became possessed with a\npeculiar power of locomotion, which caused a still greater difference\nto exist between itself and its ancestral stock. This power of\nlocomotion, again, is but a modification of that life-power of which we\nhave spoken, and forms a stepping-stone between the molecular action\nof mineral substances and the mental wonders of the human being. The\ncrystal, in common with all other bodies in the mineral kingdom, always\npossessed this power of locomotion to a limited extent; every one of\nthe individual atoms which make up the whole substance has always had\nthe power of locomotion, for they all attract and repel each other and\neffect cohesions by their mutual attraction. This locomotive power\nunderwent such a modification when cell-life (Protozoa) was manifested\nthat not only were the constituent molecular atoms individually\npossessed of this power, as before, but the whole mass of the cell\nbecame endowed with the same property, just as a whole continent of\nfree people who have been in the habit of defending themselves singly\nagainst their enemies sometimes combine and co-operate with each\nother in the form of a republic, the function of the individual being\nassumed by the body as a whole. The little cellular organisms, which\nare called Am\u0153b\u00e6, possess this extended power of locomotion, and may be\nseen constantly moving about in the endeavour to locate themselves in\nthe brightest part of their dwelling place, frequently a little pond.\nThey are attracted by light, which clearly proves that they possess\na degree of sensory perception, although special sense-organs are of\ncourse wanting, the whole mass of the body being nothing more than a\nsingle cell composed of protoplasm and nucleus. These little cellular\norganisms soon unite with each other, forming small bodies composed of\nseveral cells in a state of cohesion (Synam\u0153b\u00e6), and on the surface of\nthese multicellular organisms are shortly afterwards thrown out minute\nthreads or ciliae, the first attempt at separation of sense-organs\nfrom the surface of the body. In these tiny Protozoa, those organisms\nwhich consist of one single cell only, the Am\u0153b\u00e6, as well as those\nconsisting of several cells in a state of union, the Synam\u0153b\u00e6, are\nable to perform all the functions of animal life\u2014cohesion, sensation,\nmotion, digestion, and reproduction; but, as the organism becomes more\nand more complex, these different functions are shared among several\ngroups of cells. This differentiation proceeds steadily stage by stage,\nuntil at last different senses are located in different parts of the\nbody, and we find animals possessing eyes, ears, noses, and mouths, one\norgan performing the function of sight, another that of hearing, and\nso on. All these organs of sense are but parts of the general nervous\norganisation of the body, which is _apparently_ absent in the Protista,\nbut existing potentially in the protoplasmic substance, as it also does\nin every other substance in the universe.\n\nThe ciliated multiple cell-organism, in course of time, becomes\ntransformed into a hollow body, having a wall composed of a single\nlayer of cells, and this again, by invagination, or folding of itself\nwithin itself, forms a double-walled cavity, or Gastrula, having an\nexternal opening like a mouth. These little animals, the Gastr\u0153ada,\nhaving an inner layer of cells (the endoderm), which carries on the\nnutritive and assimilative functions of the organism, and an outer\nlayer (the ectoderm), which forms the general motor and sense-organ of\nthe body, are the first animal organisms to possess a real sense-organ\nseparate and distinct from other parts of the body. From this epidermal\norgan of sense are developed, as higher forms of animal life make\ntheir appearance, the nerve-cells and sense-cells which form the whole\nnervous system.\n\nIn the fresh-water polyp, or Hydra, which is wanting in distinct\norgans of sense and nervous system, we find a remarkable sensitiveness\nto touch, warmth, and light, individual ectodermic neuro-muscular\ncells performing these functions, but a far greater sensibility being\nexhibited in the circle of fine prehensible tentacles surrounding the\nmouth than elsewhere. Here we have a marked attempt at localisation of\nsense-organs, and a manifestation of instinct, which makes the little\nanimal shrink from the touch.\n\nFrom the Hydr\u00e6 evolved the Medus\u00e6, which, instead of being dependent\nentirely on neuro-muscular cells like the parent forms, developed\nminute sets of nerves and muscles, by the use of which they became\nenabled to swim about easily and at their own will and pleasure. We get\nin this little animal the first appearance of real nerve function, or\nconductibility of stimulus along the nervous fibre to a muscle which it\ncauses to contract\u2014a totally different function to the contraction of\nthe whole body upon a stimulus being applied to it, as in the case of\nthe Hydr\u00e6.\n\nIn the worm forms, which evolve from the Gastr\u0153ada, we come across\nthe first attempt at special sense-organ formation, in the shape of\ndepressions on the integument of the body. The Himatega, or sack-worms,\npossess a rudimentary spinal cord, and were the parents of the first\ntrue vertebrates, organisms without skulls or brains, but with a true\nvertebral cord. These little vermiform animals, in addition to their\nrudimentary spinal cords, exhibited upon the surface of the body\nseveral small depressions, which answered the purpose of a set of\nspecial sense-organs, one tiny depression being set apart especially\nfor the perception of light waves, another for the perception of sound\nwaves, another for the perception of odours, etc.; and thus gradually\ncame about that wonderful evolutionary process by which bodies became\nendowed with more or less perfect special sense-organs.\n\nAs the animal kingdom developed into higher and higher forms of\nlife, and skulls and brains became the order of the day, the special\nsense-organs became possessed of larger powers, at the same time\nthat the whole nervous organisation assumed higher and more complex\nfunctions, resulting eventually in a very gradual unfolding of the most\nwonderful of all the latent potentialities of universal life\u2014the marvel\nof consciousness. This is the present climax of Nature\u2019s evolution, the\ngrandest and most awful achievement of that hidden and mysterious force\nwhich baffles comprehension, and beside which all things seen, heard,\nor felt pale into insignificance.\n\nTo point out the precise method of the evolution of mind, step by step,\nuntil the final climax of consciousness was reached, would require an\nabler pen than mine; therefore I shall be content to briefly notice\nthe different products of intellectual development in the order in\nwhich they are unfolded, showing the analogy between ontogenesis, or\nthe life-history of the individual, and phylogenesis, or that of the\nwhole race, not now as regards bodily, but only mental, evolution. We\nmust ever remember that the biogenetic law insists that the process\nof development in the race is reflected in miniature in the embryonic\nhistory of every individual. In other words, it is, beyond doubt, an\naccepted article of faith with biologists that the development of the\nindividual from the embryo _in utero_ to the full-grown man is an exact\ncounterpart of the development of the whole race from the primitive\nprotoplasmic atom, the lowly Moneron, to _homo sapiens_, equally in\nregard to mental as to bodily evolution.\n\nEvery human individual commences his term of separate existence\nas a tiny speck of protoplasm, and slowly advances through the\nphases of separate cell-life, multicellular existence, and the\ngastrula, vermiform, and pisciform stages, being finally born as a\npartially-developed member of the human family, from which moment\nhe grows rapidly to the perfection of the adult state, having\naccomplished, in the short period of about a score of years, precisely\nwhat his counterpart, the race, effected in many millions of years.\nDuring the period in which the individual dwells _in utero_ great\nand rapid modifications take place in the general construction of\nthe f\u0153tus; sensory perception makes its appearance very early, being\nfollowed quickly by the first attempt at differentiation of special\nsense-organs in the form of tiny surface depressions; the brain and\nspinal system gradually take shape and make ready for future action;\nand the little body slowly assumes a form suitable for separate\nextra-uterine existence. At the moment of birth the brain and special\nsense-organs are not yet developed to such a degree that they can\nproperly discharge the functions they are called upon to perform in the\nmature state; they have to advance gradually to perfection in harmony\nwith the growth of the whole body; and thus it is that a newly-born\nindividual does not see, hear, or exhibit signs of consciousness until\nsome time has elapsed from birth, although it is, at first, quite\nsensitive to cold and heat. If a lighted candle be held in front of\nthe eyes of a newly-born infant, and moved to and fro, it will be\nat once observed that the child is totally unconscious of it; and,\nif a gun be fired off in the room occupied by the child, the effect\nupon the infantile organism is _nil_; but, if the air of the room be\nallowed to cool, the effect will be at once perceived, for the muscles\nof the child will soon begin to contract, and his vocal bellows to\nact vigorously. Gradually, however, the sight, hearing, etc., become\nadjusted, and the infant begins to take notice of surrounding objects,\nuntil at about a month after birth pain and pleasure, the first\nindications of the dawn of the mental powers, manifest themselves.\nConscious, as distinguished from instinctive or non-conscious, memory\nappears to be exercised at about the thirteenth week, and to be\nimmediately followed by association of ideas, the recognition of places\nand persons, and dreaming. At the same time that these indications of\nintellectual development are manifesting themselves, a corresponding\nunfolding of the emotions is observed. Side by side with memory appears\nfear, followed by pugnacity, play, and, later, anger; while, still\nlater, about on a par with the first period of dreaming, or at about\nthe age of five months, are manifested emulation, jealousy, joy, and\ngrief. In about another month we notice that the child begins to\nunderstand words, while, on the emotional side, he evinces signs of\nawakening sympathy, curiosity, revenge, and gratitude, followed within\na couple of months by pride, shame, deceitfulness, passionateness,\ncruelty, and ludicrousness, which show themselves at the moment the\nchild appears to first exercise what we term true reason. From this\npoint we see rapidly unfolded the higher products of intellectual\ndevelopment, the first of which is morality of a very indefinite kind,\nwhich immediately precedes articulation at the age of about fourteen\nmonths, being closely followed by knowledge of the use of various\nsimple instruments, afterwards at the age of twenty months by concerted\naction, and still later by speech, which generally is effected at the\nage of two years, or rather earlier. Following quickly upon speech we\nobserve judgment, recollection, and self-consciousness manifesting\nthemselves, and, by the time the child has attained the age of two\nyears and a half, morality of a definite kind makes its appearance.\n\nTracing the child\u2019s development still further, we find the next\nimportant intellectual manifestation\u2014viz., superstition\u2014to take place\nat about three years of age, while concurrently the following emotional\nproducts appear\u2014avarice, envy, hate, hope, vanity, mirth, and a love of\nthe beautiful, which are followed, in the course of a few months, by\nawe and an appreciation of art. From this age to the condition of adult\nlife, the intellectual faculties develop according to the surroundings\nof the individual, while, on the emotional side, reverence, remorse,\nand courtesy make their appearance at about the age of five years, and\nmelancholy and ecstasy at about the tenth year.\n\nIn the foregoing ontogenetic mirror will be found the key to the\nunfolding of the great mystery of the evolution of mind in the animal\nkingdom. We have only to take the geological periods one after the\nother, and study the various life-forms found in each to see at once\nthat, with the race, the order of sequence in the appearance of the\nintellectual and emotional faculties is precisely the same as with the\nindividual. We may place the new-born infant intellectually on a par\nwith the lowly molluscs or the vermiform little animals which existed\nin the Cambrian period, in which little organisms probably pain first\nmade its entry upon the earth, followed by the appearance of pleasure,\nmemory (conscious), and association of ideas in the lowly crustaceans\nof the later Cambrian and early Silurian periods. With the spiders,\nfishes, and crabs of the later Silurian and Devonian periods we have\nbrought before us the faculty of recognising places of which these\nanimals are capable, which places them intellectually on a level with a\nchild of four or five months old.\n\nThe recognition of individuals next made its appearance in the reptiles\nof the Carboniferous and Permian epochs; while the birds of the O\u00f6litic\nand Cretaceous periods were the first to dream, and are thus placed on\nan intellectual level with a child of five or six months. The emotional\ndevelopment coincides with the intellectual, just as in the case of the\ninfant, for we find fear manifesting itself among the lower molluscs,\npugnacity among the crustaceans, play among spiders and crabs, anger\namong reptiles, and emulation, jealousy, joy, and grief among birds. We\nnow rise in the pal\u00e6ontological scale to the Tertiary period, and find\nin the Eocene age equine and other mammal forms, such as cats and pigs,\nwhich are capable of understanding words and signs, and among which we\nnotice a manifestation of sympathy, curiosity, revenge, and gratitude.\nIn the early Meiocene age we have monkeys, dogs, and elephants\nexhibiting the clearest signs of true reason, as may be observed at\nthe present day, and at the same time manifesting such emotional\nsigns as pride, shame, deceitfulness, passionateness, cruelty, and\nludicrousness, which places them on an intellectual par with the infant\nof less than a year old.\n\nIn the later Meiocene age we have anthropoid apes, which may be placed\non a level with one-year-old infants, and from which evolved apes\nof a higher order, which acquired the faculty of articulation, and,\nafterwards becoming more human, the knowledge of the use of simple\ninstruments, thus reaching the intellectual level of the child of\nfifteen months old. As the apes became more and more human in the\nlater Meiocene and early Pleistocene ages, they gradually acquired\nthe faculty of acting in concert and of speech; and when, having\narrived at that stage of development in which they partook more of\nthe character of savage man than human ape, judgment, recollection,\nself-consciousness, and, lastly, definite morality manifested\nthemselves, thus raising the ape-like man to the level of the child of\ntwo and a half years. In the lowest savages of to-day, as well as in\nthe old descendants of the ape-like men, superstition developed to a\nlarge extent at the same time that the emotional unfolding proceeded\nin the direction of avarice, envy, hate, hope, vanity, mirth, a love\nof the beautiful, and afterwards art appreciation, awe, reverence,\nremorse, courtesy, melancholy, and ecstasy, precisely as with the\nchild of from five to ten years of age. As the race improved,\nbecoming in turn semi-savage, semi-civilised, civilised, and cultured,\nthe intellectual powers, of course, developed similarly, until, at\nthe present day, we find men possessed of the most wonderful mental\ngrandeur, we might almost say, conceivable. But this would be saying\ntoo much, for we must not forget that, just as evolution has continued\nin the past from eternity, so will it continue in the future to\neternity; and who can tell to what heights the human mind may soar in\nthe future?\n\nLofty as is the human intellect at the present time, as compared with\nthe mental powers of those we have left far behind in the march of\nevolution, it is yet very far from being able to grasp many of the\ngreat problems of the universe, such as that of existence. Perhaps at\nsome future time, in millions of ages to come, these great questions\nmay be answered; but at present we know they baffle the wisest men,\nand continually remind us of the finite and limited character of our\nintellectual faculties.\n\nThis comparison of the mental development of the individual with that\nof the whole race is extremely interesting, and provides ample material\nfor thought. By such comparison, and by it alone, can the science of\npsychology ever be based on a sure and enduring foundation. It is all\nvery well for theologians and other biased people to declare that\nanimal intelligence has nothing in common with the reasoning powers\nof man; but let them honestly look at the facts as they are, thanks\nto the indefatigable energy and indomitable perseverance of lovers\nof science and truth, now presented to us. Candid observers cannot\nfail to notice that the difference between the intelligence of man\nand that of the lower animals is one only of degree, and not of kind.\nWhen we see the order of sequence being followed in the development\nof the individual so like that of the whole race, not only as regards\nthe bodily structure, but also as regards the mental functions, can\nwe help arriving at the conclusion that the one is but the epitome\nof the other, and that the superior intellect of man is but a higher\ndevelopment of the so-called instincts of the lower animals? Have we\nnot at the present day, among members of the human family itself,\nvarious degrees of intelligence, from the almost barren brains of the\nlowest races of savages to the brilliant mental achievements of a\nNewton or a Spencer?\n\nIt is beyond doubt that the intellectual superiority of civilised man\nover his savage brethren is due to the greater multiplicity of his\nobjects of thought, and it follows that savage man\u2019s intellectual\nsuperiority over the lower animals is due to the same cause. The\nactions of both have the same aim\u2014viz., the supplying of the wants\nof the physical nature and the gratifying of the desires aroused in\nthe mind. It is frequently asserted that man differs from the lower\nanimals in possessing the power of reflection; but this I hold to\nbe an exploded argument, and at variance with all recent teaching.\nDogs, elephants, and monkeys most certainly possess the faculty of\nreflection, and it is not difficult to find races belonging to the\nhuman family whose powers of reflection transcend hardly in the least\ndegree those possessed by the higher apes; while the difference\nbetween the reflective capacity of the lowest savage, which is of the\nsimplest conceivable kind, and that of the civilised European, which\nhas developed into genius, is enormous. Then, again, it is often\nsaid that only man is emotional; but one need only have an ordinary\nacquaintanceship with domestic animals to at once see the absurdity of\nthis argument, for dogs are frequently observed to laugh, to cry, to\nexpress joy and gratitude by their actions, and to betray feelings of\nshame and remorse; while horses and elephants have been observed to\npunish their cruel keepers in the most cunning manner and then to laugh\nat the poor fellows\u2019 discomfiture. As to the \u201cconscience argument,\u201d\nso frequently brought forward, by religionists especially, all I have\nto say here is that conscience, or the knowledge of the distinction\nbetween right and wrong, is not an inherent quality of the human mind,\nbeing merely a result of the operation of the reflective faculty aided\nby experience, as is quite evident from the fact that the ideas of\nmorality vary according to the age in which we live. The same may be\nsaid about the greatest of all the arguments against evolution\u2014viz.,\nthat of language; for, just as conscience is but a product of\nreflection and experience, so is language also. It is a mistake to\nimagine that the power of speech is possessed by man alone, and that\nhis language differs altogether from the cries and signals of the lower\nanimals, for such is not the case. Many animals possess the faculty of\nspeech, and human language differs from that of the lower animals only\nin its degree of development, and in no sense in its origin. Probably\nall language originated in interjection, or the \u201cinstinctive expression\nof the subjective impressions derived from external nature,\u201d as Mr.\nFarrar puts it. And, just as the reflective powers of the race were\ndeveloped and shone more brilliantly as each stage in the evolutionary\nmarch of intellect was passed, so did language pass from the simple\nmonosyllabic cries to the complex dialects of modern civilisation; and\nit is worthy of notice that, at the present day, or at any rate very\nrecently, there were races of savage men inhabiting this earth who\npossessed no language at all, and could not, on account of their mode\nof living, be placed on a higher intellectual level than the higher\napes; while we have the authority of the leading philologists of the\ntimes in support of the fact that the monosyllabic cries of some of the\nlower human tribes are quite within the grasp of the ape\u2019s voice.\n\nHuman beings have been discovered in wild and hitherto unexplored\nregions who have not the remotest idea of what we should term\ncivilisation. They lead a wandering and useless life, sleeping at\nnights, not in huts, nor in caves, but squatting among the branches of\ntall trees, where they are placed out of the reach of savage animals.\nThey do not appear capable of expressing their thoughts in sentences,\nbut make use of exclamatory grunts, which serve the purposes of speech\nquite sufficiently for their limited requirements; and their general\nappearance approaches to a remarkable extent that of the higher apes,\nin that they are almost completely covered with hair, possess a dirty\nbrown skin, short legs, long arms, and full abdomens, can pick up\nstones, sticks, etc., with their toes as well as their fingers, and\nshow few if any signs of intellectual powers. Let any one visit the\nZoological Gardens, in London, and carefully observe the apes exhibited\nthere, and then say whether there is a vast difference between some\nof them and the human beings who answer to the above description. One\nneed but visit the travelling menagerie of Messrs. Edmunds, and view\ntheir \u201cmissing link,\u201d an excellent sample of the chimpanzee troglodyte,\nto see that the difference between man and the lower animals is one\nonly of degree, quite as much as regards intellect as bodily form. I\nonce saw exhibited in the _Jardin d\u2019Acclimatation_, in Paris, a lot of\nPatagonian or Fuegan (I forget which) natives, who were very little\nsuperior intellectually to the chimpanzee. They were stark naked, in a\nwretchedly dirty condition, and appeared quite incapable of anything\nlike sustained mental effort. But these are by no means the lowest\namong the human species.\n\nIn conclusion, I need only re-state my opinion that all so-called\nliving things are but products of the development of protoplasm,\nwhether belonging to the animal or vegetable kingdoms; that this\nprotoplasm possesses the property of vitality, or the power of\nperceiving stimuli of various kinds and responding to them by definite\nmovements; that the phenomena of mind are but functional manifestations\nof this protoplasmic development; and that the highest intellectual\nproduct of the human mind exists and has existed from eternity in a\nstate of latent potentiality in every atom of protoplasm, as well as in\nevery particle of matter in the universe.\n\n\n\n\nTHE SPECIAL SENSES.\n\n\nAccording to the now almost universally (that is, among educated\nscientific people) accepted theory of Evolution, each living being upon\nthis earth is a result of a very slow process of development, which\ncommenced with a low form of life many millions of years ago, and has\nsince been operating continuously, becoming more and more complex, and\nimperceptibly attaining greater perfection as each fresh stage was\naccomplished. From the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from inorganic\nto organic, from Am\u0153ba to man, the evolutionary development has slowly,\nsteadily, and surely advanced step by step, in obedience to certain\nwell-defined laws. Yet it is impossible to discern in this slow process\nof evolution any well-marked difference between one particular species\nand the next of kin, although the difference becomes clearly apparent\nif we take two species separated from each other by considerable\ntime; just as it is impossible to detect any alteration in form and\nfeature between a child of six days old and the same child of seven\ndays old, while the change is very evident after the lapse of several\nweeks or months. If we were to photograph a human being regularly\neach day from the moment of its birth to the time of its decease at\nthe age of eighty, we should be unable to detect any real difference\nbetween the portraits on any two consecutive days; but the difference\nbetween the child of a week old and the young man of twenty years would\nbe enormous, as would be that between the full-grown youth and the\ntottering old man. As the human individual in its earliest condition\nof existence is not possessed of the same faculties as it afterwards\nenjoys as a more perfect development, so, in like manner, the species\nin its primal condition was wanting in the loftier qualities now\npossessed by the higher animals, such as consciousness, sight, hearing,\ntaste, smell, and touch, all of which have been gradually evolved\nas the various life-forms developed from lower and more simple to\nhigher and more complex kind. For instance, at a very early period of\nman\u2019s individual existence he possessed no brain, eyes, ears, mouth,\nor nose, and, therefore, was quite incapable of mentating, seeing,\nhearing, tasting, or smelling; but, as the organism very gradually\ndeveloped into a higher and more complex kind, these various organs\nmanifested themselves, and slowly arrived at such perfection as we\nfind in the human infant at birth. Precisely so was it with the race.\nThe lowly Moneron was of homogeneous structure, possessing neither\nparts nor kind, but gradually differentiating into nucleus and cell;\nits descendants, the Gastr\u0153ada, becoming possessed, by a process of\ninvagination, of an external layer of nucleated cells and an internal\nand more delicate layer, thus forming a hollow organism, or Gastrula.\nThis external cellular integument was the original sense-organ of the\nanimal kingdom, from which developed the organs of special sense.\nThough without nerve and special sense-organs, yet these little hollow\nGastr\u0153ada, and, in fact, their ancestors, the Am\u0153b\u00e6, which consisted\nof simple protoplasmic cells, each enclosing a nucleus, were possessed\nwith sensory perception, being influenced by light, and by variations\nof pressure and temperature. As the evolutionary process continued, and\nthe animal kingdom assumed higher forms, the original epidermal general\nsense-organ became converted into several special organs of sense, each\nspecialisation commencing with a simple depression upon the integument\nof the organism; numerous little epidermal nerves of perception were\nformed, which could perceive changes of pressure and of temperature,\nand some of which gradually became enabled to understand particular\ninfluences affecting them, such as those produced by a strong odour,\nlight-waves, and sound-waves. By adaptation, the extremities of these\nsense-nerves became expanded and enlarged, so as to enable them the\nbetter to understand the particular influences; and this expansion was\naccompanied by a corresponding depression on the integument, which\ncup-like formation afterwards became converted into an eye, or other\norgan of special sense, very imperfect in the invertebrate forms of\nlife, imperfect in the fish, more perfect in the amphibian, and still\nmore perfect in the mammal forms, such as apes and men. In short, the\nlife-history of the individual is an exact counterpart in miniature of\nthe life-history of the species up to the particular point reached by\nthe particular individual.\n\nThe order and mode of development is precisely the same in all animal\norganisms, and may be conveniently studied by placing a hen\u2019s egg in\nan incubating machine, and carefully watching it for the space of\nthree weeks. It will be observed that the eye, ear, nose, and mouth\nare not present at the commencement of the process, but make their\nappearance later on, about the third or fourth day of incubation, as\ntiny depressions on the integument, from which condition they gradually\ndevelop into perfect organs of special sense, as possessed by the\nfull-grown chicken; the eyes, which receive the impressions caused\nby light-waves; the ears, which receive those made by sound-waves;\nthe nose, by which odours are discerned; the mouth, which holds the\ntaste-organ; and the skin, which remains the organ of touch and\nperception of temperature. Now, when we consider for a moment these\nwonderful phenomena, we cannot help being struck by the remarkable\nmanner in which the animal kingdom has been slowly and steadily\nprogressing towards perfection, in spite of the enormous physical\ndifficulties encountered; and we cannot help coming to the conclusion\nthat, inasmuch as there was once a time when no animal existed having\neyes, ears, nose, or mouth, and, still later, a period when these\nspecial sense-organs existed in a very imperfect condition, it is\nhighly probable that in the future ages man, who now possesses special\nsenses of a high order, will acquire even still more highly-developed\nfaculties.\n\nIn congratulating ourselves upon the advance made by our own particular\nspecies over other members of the animal kingdom, we must never forget\nthat, although we can mentate, see, hear, smell, taste, and feel,\nwhile myriads of our lowly brethren can do none of these, we yet are\nincapable of solving the mighty problems of the universe with any\nor all of these organs without artificial aid. No man on earth has\never yet been able to solve the mighty problem of existence, in spite\nof his great intellectual powers. No man has ever yet been able to\nsee a millionth part of the wonders in the heavens above, or in the\nearth beneath, with his own unaided eye; but with the telescope and\nmicroscope new worlds have been opened out to him. We are as yet,\nundoubtedly, in but a transitory condition, the victims of an imperfect\norganisation, subject to a partially-developed brain and nervous\nsystem, and to five imperfect special senses. We must accept the\nsituation philosophically, and without grumbling, and do our best to\nmake good use of the senses we have, and leave the solution of problems\nwe are unable to solve to future races of men, who will be possessed of\nbetter materials with which to operate.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: \u201cTHE SUPREME SPIRIT IN THE ACT OF CREATION BECAME BY\nVOGA, TWO-FOLD, THE RIGHT SIDE WAS MALE, THE LEFT WAS PRAKRITI.\u201d\n(Brahma Vaivartta Puranu.)\n\nBRAHM THE HINDU ANDROGYNOUS CREATOR\nCopied from Inman\u2019s \u201cAncient Faiths\u201d.]\n\n\n[Illustration: ISIS, HORUS AND FISH\n\nFrom a photograph of a small bronze image in the Mayor collection\nof Browne\u2019s Museum, Liverpool. Copied from D^(r) Inman\u2019s \u201cAncient\nFaiths\u201d.]\n\n\n[Illustration: THE VEDIC VIRGIN, INDRANEE, WIFE-MOTHER OF SAVIOUR-GOD,\nINDRA. From Hislop\u2019s \u201cTwo Babylons\u201d.]\n\n[Illustration: THE HINDU GOD VISHNU, NURSED BY HIS VIRGIN WIFE-MOTHER,\nLAKSHMI. From Moore\u2019s \u201cHindu Pantheon\u201d.]\n\n[Illustration: DEVAKI AND CHRISTNA From Moore\u2019s \u201cHindu Pantheon\u201d.]\n\n[Illustration: THE HINDU GOD SIVA, NURSED BY HIS VIRGIN WIFE-MOTHER,\nPARVATI.   Copied from statuette in Liverpool museum.]\n\n\n[Illustration: AMEN-RA (After Drummond.)]\n\n\n[Illustration: CRUX ANSATA\nFound marked on the breast of an Egyptian mummy in the University\nCollege Museum, London.]\n\n[Illustration: THE ASSYRIAN VIRGIN ISHTAR\nFrom Rawlinson\u2019s \u201cAncient Monarchies\u201d.]\n\n[Illustration: CRUCIFIXION OF CHRISTNA\nFrom old Hindu engraving. After Higgins.]\n\n[Illustration: VIRGIN AND CHILD AT IDALIUM IN CYPRUS\n  After Rawlinson\n  (\u201cHerodotus\u201d)]\n\n[Illustration: ISIS AND HORUS THE EGYPTIAN VIRGIN AND SAVIOUR-GOD\n  From Rawlinson\u2019s \u201cHerodotus\u201d.]\n\n\n\n\nEVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA.\n\n\n\u201cKnowing his adopted land well, the Eastern does not require recondite\nvolumes to explain \u2018Dionysiak myths\u2019 or \u2018solar theories,\u2019 as the old\nfaiths are now called in the West. He sees these pervading the tales\nand epiks of East and West alike, just as Yahvism or Yahu-ism pervades\nthe Scriptures of Jews or Yahus\u2014that ever-familiar and expressive\nfaith-term by which alone Asia knows the \u2018Yahudean\u2019 race.\u201d While fully\nadmitting the true character of the old faith as here expressed, yet,\nwith all due deference to one of such acknowledged repute in the\nliterary world as Major-General Forlong, whose splendid work, entitled\n\u201cRivers of Faith\u201d (Preface, p. xxi.) contains the above paragraph, it\nmay be fairly urged that the educated few only, both among Easterns and\nWesterns, have hitherto been capable of discerning the vein of solar\nmyth which pervades all systems of religion; while the vast multitude\nof ignorant and credulous people even yet perceive, or think they\nperceive, the Divine handiwork in the particular sacred oracle to which\nthey firmly pin their faith. The Hindu supreme deity is known as Brahm,\nthe Persian as Ormuzd, the Mohammedan as Allah, and the Jewish and\nChristian as El, Elohim, Yahouh (or Jehovah), God, etc. Probably few\namong the many millions who worship these various deities know much or\nanything about their origin, innocently imagining that the Deity they\nbow allegiance to once manifested itself to some chosen individual,\nto whom it gave a revelation, the facts of which were handed down to\nposterity. They little dream of the vast cycles of time that have\nrolled past since the brain of man attained such a state of perfection\nas to enable it to evolve the idea of Deity. It is utterly impossible\nfor the human mind to grasp the enormous interval of time that has\nelapsed since primeval man emerged from the condition of unreasoning\nexistence to enter upon the bright dawn of intellectual activity, which\nhas developed into such mighty proportions as we behold to-day. Let\nus carry the mind back far beyond the Dark Ages, through the classic\nera, as far even as the very commencement of Egyptian history; and even\nthen we find ourselves but little nearer that remote period in which\nthe first spark of intelligence made its _deb\u00fbt_ upon the platform of\nlife. In imagination we may go still further back, and view the wonders\nof that ancient Asian civilisation which preceded that of the ancient\nEgyptians and Greeks, and which was probably derived very gradually\nfrom the earliest social conceptions of the Caucasian branch of the\nPolynesian primitive man. Still we are ages away from the period we\ndesire to arrive at; and even were we able to trace the human family\nback to that remote time when man could not be said to partake more of\nthe character of the human than the ape species, still we should even\nthen be unable to point to the precise moment when intellect shed its\nglorious rays upon the race, making bright, clear, and beautiful what\nbefore was dark, misty, and unmeaning. The ancient Prosimi\u00e6 gradually\nbecame Catarrhine apes, which, in their turn, as slowly assumed the\ncharacters of the Anthropoid\u00e6, and afterwards of ape-like men; but\nthe time required for this imperceptibly gradual process of evolution\nwas probably many hundred thousands of years, during which period,\nor perhaps even at a prior time the first intellectual spark became\nmanifest: how, when, or for what ultimate purpose it is apparently\nbeyond our power to devise.\n\nHow soon after the dawn of intellect the conception of Deity was\nevolved in the human brain it is equally impossible to say; but the\nprobability is that the date was a very early one, for it seems\nhighly probable that such a conception would be among the very first\nefforts of the mind, the materials necessary for the stimulation of\nsuch an effort being at hand at any moment. We can imagine our early\nfathers groping in the darkness of ignorance, with mental powers on\na par with those of the awakening minds of our own children, seeing\nbogies in every natural phenomenon, and tremblingly glowering at the\nspectra of their own imaginations. Having no experience of the past\nor knowledge of the future, they would indeed be in a most helpless\ncondition, relying entirely upon the instinctive capabilities they had\ninherited from their ancestors. By degrees, however, their various\nfaculties would be further awakened by impressions received from\nexternal objects; their wants would be multiplied in proportion to\ntheir intellectual development, causing them to manifest a desire\nfor industry; and their self-consciousness would arouse within them\na feeling of dignity and importance to which they had hitherto been\nstrangers. Thus gradually would the race cast off its animal and put\non its human clothes. The old plan of hand-to-mouth existence would be\nabolished by the newly-developed reason of man; the innumerable dangers\nwhich confronted him would undoubtedly stimulate him to approach his\nfellows with the object of establishing mutual aid and of co-operating\nfor their common welfare; and a feeling of confident superiority over\nothers of the animal kingdom would become apparent among them. Not only\nwould man\u2019s attention be arrested by the impending dangers of each\nday, the necessity of procuring sustenance for himself and family, and\nthe obvious advantages accruing from co-operation, but also by the\nconstantly-recurring natural phenomena, such as the rising and setting\nof the sun, moon and stars, the never-ending succession of day and\nnight, etc., as well as by the no less wonderful, and certainly more\nawful, occasional natural occurrences, such as lightning, thunder, and\nearthquake. He would be as much struck with wonder and amazement at the\none set of phenomena as with awe at the other. The returning sun-light\nwould each morning produce joy in his heart equally as much as the\ninevitable recurrence each night of darkness would produce a feeling of\nsadness, dread, and despair. We can easily imagine the long hours of\nhorror our first fathers must have passed through each night among the\nyells and howls of the savage monsters by which they were surrounded,\nand how they anxiously looked forward to the return of that glorious\norb which would bring back to them daylight, sunshine, warmth, and\nhappiness. What a boon it must have been to them! Can we wonder that\nthey should have regarded the sun with particular affection? It would\nhave been remarkable, indeed, had they not done so; and it is more\nthan probable that this daily re-appearance of the sun on the eastern\nhorizon was actually what prompted the first conception of deity. The\nvery oldest mythology with which we are acquainted appears strongly\nto bear out this theory, and, indeed, in every other mythological\nsystem we find the re-appearing sun to be one of the principal objects\nof devotion and affection. If we turn our gaze to that part of Asia,\nalong the banks of the Oxus, over which our Aryan ancestors wandered\nthousands of years before the time of the earliest Egyptian dynasty, we\nfind there a clue to the origin of the original conception of deity.\nAmong these early people were composed the hymns of the _Rig-Veda_,\nwhich are probably the earliest records of any race, and in which we\nfind personified the phenomena of the heavens and earth, the storm, the\nwind, the rain, the stars, etc. The earth is represented as a flat,\nindefinite surface, existing passively, and forming the foundation of\nthe whole universe; while above it the luminous vault of heaven forms a\ndwelling place for the fertile and life-giving light and a covering for\nthe earth below. To the earth the Aryans gave the name of Prihovi, \u201cthe\nwide expanse;\u201d the vault of heaven they called Varuna, \u201cthe vault;\u201d\nwhile the light between the two, in the cloud region, they named Dyaus,\n\u201cthe luminous air,\u201d \u201cthe dawn.\u201d Varuna and Prihovi, in space, together\nbegat Agni, the fire-god, the sun in heaven and life-giver of the\nuniverse; and Soma, the ambrosial deity of earth, god of immortality,\nfertiliser of the waters, nourisher of plants, and quickener of the\nsemen of men and animals. In these hymns frequent mention is made of\nthe joy experienced at the return of dawn, and of the saddening effect\nproduced upon the mind by the ever-recurring twilight which ushered\nin the dark and dreary night. We meet with incantations expressive\nof the wildest excitement at the welcome appearance of the dawn-god,\nDyaus, which heralded the approach of the sun-god, Agni, who is led up\nto the summit of his ascension, or bosom of Varuna, by the conquering\ngod of battle, Indra, the defeater of the evil powers of darkness;\nand we find the most pathetical appeals both to Agni and Indra to\nremain longer over the earth, and co-operate with Soma in replenishing\nnature, instead of sinking into the twilight, or shades of evening, to\nbe slain by Vritra, \u201cthe coverer,\u201d and tormented in the darkness of\nnight by Ahi, the dragon, and other cruel monsters. This is precisely\nthe drama we should expect to find depicted in the earliest writings\nof man; is the root of all future religious ideas; and is still to be\nfound pervading almost every modern religious faith. It is a beautiful\nrepresentation of the earliest yearnings and fears of our forefathers;\nand, though the picture is now and then almost effaced by numerous\nsubsequent additions of mythological lore, yet the original conception\nremains indelibly depicted in the religions of the present day,\nfurnishing us with the key to the study of comparative mythology.\n\nIt will be necessary, in order to compare, with any degree of accuracy,\nthe mythological systems which subsequently developed from this\nprimitive conception of a ruling power, to glance at the mode of\ndistribution of the various branches of the earliest human family;\nand in doing so we must ever keep in mind the more than probable fact\nthat that portion of the earth\u2019s surface which is now covered by\nthe Indian Ocean once formed a large equatorial continent, uniting\nthe east coast of Africa with Arabia, India, Ceylon, and the Malay\nPeninsula. Instead of the rivers Tigris and Euphrates emptying their\nwaters into the Persian Gulf, and the Indus into the Arabian Sea, it\nis highly probable that these rivers united to form one large estuary,\nwhich emptied itself into the ocean on the south of the now submerged\ncontinent of Lemuria. It is equally probable that the large rivers,\nGanges and Brahmapootra, likewise found an outlet south of a line drawn\nfrom Point de Gall to Singapore. On this submerged continent, and on\nthe shores of these long-lost streams, it is supposed man evolved\nfrom the anthropoid apes, in the early Pleiocene, or perhaps even in\nthe later Meiocene, geological period of the world\u2019s history. The\ntransition stage in the pedigree of man between the Anthropoid\u00e6 and\ntrue men\u2014that is to say, between man-like Catarrhine apes and beings\npossessing a larger proportion of the characteristics of the human\nthan of the ape species\u2014is known to Anthropologists by the name of\nAlali, or ape-like men. These wild and ill-formed savages wandered\nabout in bands along the banks of these monster rivers, passing their\ntime in hunting their less fortunate brethren of the animal kind. In\ncourse of time they multiplied and spread over the entire continent,\nkilling all such monsters as interfered with their safety or comfort,\nand gradually dividing and sub-dividing into families and races,\neach acquiring, under the influence of the two laws of selection\nand adaptation, peculiarities and characteristics not common to the\nremainder. One branch wandered away to the west and south, becoming the\nprogenitors of the South African races; another found its way to the\neast and south, to people Australasia; while a third struck out towards\nthe north, overrunning Malaya, Burmah, and Southern India. This last\nbranch, which we term the Malay, or Polynesian, subdivided into two\ndistinct families\u2014the Mongolian, or Turanian, the progenitors of the\nancient Chinese, Ural Turks, Akkadians, and Finns; and the Caucasian,\nor Iranian, the first human inhabitants of South-Western Asia. Of these\nIranians one stream, it is supposed, found its way to the banks of the\nNile, and became, in course of time, a distinct and powerful Egyptian\nrace; another, the Semitic, followed the direction of the Persian\nGulf, and settled in Arabia and along the banks of the Euphrates;\nwhile a third, which we call the Aryan or Indo-Germanic, covered\nIndia, Afghanistan, and Northern Persia, gradually extending along the\nnorthern shores of the Black Sea into Europe.\n\nNow, as already stated, the earliest known records of any race are the\nhymns of the _Rig-Veda_, composed among the Aryans of Northern Persia,\nprobably from earlier traditions handed down to them from the older\nIranian stock, or even from the still earlier Polynesians; and it is\nremarkable that in all ancient mythological records, as well as on\nmonumental inscriptions, the same vein of solar myth as is found in the\n_Rig-Veda_ is clearly traceable beneath the accumulated mythological\nlore of future ages. The main idea in all mythologies seems to have\nbeen that of a saviour-deity conquering the evil genius of night, or\nwinter, and bringing back the day, or summer, to replenish the earth.\nAs already stated, Indra was to the Aryans of the early Vedic period\nthe saviour-god who, with his companions, Vishnu and Rudra, leads\nforth Agni, the god of celestial and terrestrial fire, to the bosom\nof Varuna, where his influence operates upon Soma, the fertilizer of\nearth. A conqueror from early morn to mid-day, Indra\u2019s power grows\nweaker as the evening approaches, until at last the twilight yields him\nup to Vritra, who slays him, after which he is tormented by Ahi, the\ndragon, for the remainder of the night. This drama was probably derived\nfrom the original Iranian stock, and as probably underwent considerable\nmodification before being finally committed to writing as a cultus by\nthe Aryans; and, therefore, we should expect to find some resemblance\nbetween the Aryan, Semitic, and Egyptian mythological systems. This is\nprecisely what we do find on carefully comparing these three oldest\nof all known mythologies, though, as will be seen further on, each\naccumulates such a vast quantity of fresh mythological matter that the\noriginal conception is considerably obscured, and in each the original\ndeities become in course of time so mixed up with one another that it\nis almost impossible to separate their individual characteristics.\n\nAlthough Agni was said to have been begotten by the conjunction in the\nair of Varuna and Prihovi (Prithivi), all the principal gods, or Devas,\noriginally conceived as the phenomena and power of heaven, were called\nthe children of Dyaus and Prihovi, Agni and Indra being considered\nthe two chief of the twelve Devas. Dyaus, Prihovi, and their progeny\nafterwards became endowed with moral qualities, and were looked upon as\ncreators and governors of the world; and as time wore on the original\nVedic deities gradually gave place to purely solar deities: the sun\nwas called Surya, and differed from Agni, who was god of terrestrial\nand celestial fire\u2014sun, lightning, and altar fire in one, the soul\nof universe, and mediator between the gods and men; Surya was also\nSavitri, the quickener, who in the early morn rouses the sleepers, and\nin the evening twilight buries them again in sleep; he is also Vishnu,\nthe companion of Indra, who traverses the celestial space in three long\nstrides; he is Pushan, the nourisher and faithful guide of men and\nanimals; and he is Yama, who traverses the steep road to death and the\nshades. Thus the gods multiplied\u2014the original supreme deity, Varuna,\nwho was one with Indra, though different from him, giving place to a\nmultitude of solar deities, children of Dyaus, the great dawn-god or\nday-father.\n\nAs the old Vedic language became lost to the people there arose a\ncustom of setting apart certain individuals to faithfully preserve the\nold and sacred records, and thus arose the priestly caste of Brahmans,\nwhose duties consisted in transcribing the sacred hymns of the\n_Rig-Veda_ and preserving the knowledge of the sacred language in which\nthey were first written. The great day-father, Dyaus, now received the\nname of Brahma, the magic power, and Prajapeti, the lord of creatures,\nand was endowed with three divine energies\u2014Agni (fire), Vayu (air),\nand Surya (the sun), which together formed a subordinate triad. Soma\nbecame associated with the moon; Asura became the demon of hell, which\nwas peopled with tormenting monsters; Indra and Vishnu became blended\nwith Surya; and Rudra was converted into Siva and identified with\nAgni. As Brahmanism progressed the principal worship on the shores\nof the Ganges gradually centred round Vishnu, who was supposed to\nundergo periodically a number of Avataras, or incarnations, by means\nof which he rescued fallen man from the fate awaiting him. These\ndescents to the lower world were very frequent, and appear to have\nhad some connection with the zodiacal constellations; for we find the\nincarnation at one time taking place as a man, at another as a fish, at\nanother as a lion, and so on.\n\nThe most ancient of the Avataras was probably the incarnation of\nKrishna, the Indian Hercules, who was mentioned in the Vedic writings\nas \u201cKrishna, the son of Devaki,\u201d and in whose honour festivals were\nkept, at a very early period, similar to those connected with the\ncultus of Bacchus. Megasthenes found the worship of Krishna prevailing\nalong the shores of the Ganges at the beginning of the third century\nbefore our era, and described it as the worship of Hercules. This\nincarnate offspring of the ancient sun-god, Vishnu, was said to have\nbeen born at Mathura, a place situated between Delhi and Agra, and to\nhave acted the part of a saviour of the world and a mediator between\nthe gods and men. Soon after his birth his life was sought by the\nreigning tyrant, Kamsa, who feared for the safety of his throne, which\nnecessitated the removal of Krishna to a place of safety. Arriving\nat manhood, this young divinity slew the serpent Kaliya, and sported\nwith the Gop\u00ees, or female cowherds, among whom he had been brought up.\nHe was fond of wine, Bacchanalian revels, and sensualities, though\nconsidered to be immaculately holy, and resigned to his fate, which was\nto suffer death in order to relieve the earth of the burden of a proud\nrace. For this purpose he was incarnated in the womb of his mother,\nDevaki, and for this purpose he lived and died.\n\nIn the mountainous regions away from the Ganges the cultus of Siva was\nthe more prevalent, Vishnu being considered of secondary importance;\nbut, as sects gradually were formed out of the ancient religion, one\nparty preferring this deity and another that, an attempt was made,\nwhich eventually proved successful, to re-unite the various religious\nparties and re-instate the principal gods in their original places.\nThe ancient orthodoxy was brought into sympathy with the new religion\nin a very curious manner, by making Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva a trinity\nof essences or attributes of the supreme Brahm, each a supreme god in\nitself, and each equal with the others in importance; Brahma being\nspecially the creator, Vishnu the redeemer or preserver, and Siva the\ndestroyer. At times Krishna was added to the new trinity as a fourth\nfigure; but this was an innovation which found little favour, inasmuch\nas Vishnu and Krishna were the same god, the one but the incarnation of\nthe other. Thus the old idea of Prajapeti, or Brahma, with the three\ndivine energies\u2014Agni (fire), Vayu (air), and Surya (the sun)\u2014were\nrevived in a manner as a new trinity of essences of the supreme deity,\nunder other names; and the arrangement thus concluded has continued\nin use to this day with the orthodox Hindus. We find, therefore,\nthat, despite the accumulation of fresh myths, which grew larger as\ntime wore on, the original conception of the constant necessity for\na divine saviour was never lost, and that, as the approach of night\nin the Vedic system was followed by the torments of the shades, and\nthe powers of darkness were destroyed by the re-appearance of the\ndawn-god, so also the approaching extinction of the people under a\nwicked tyrant was followed by the misery which preceded the appearance\nof the saviour-god, Krishna. In fact, every myth that occurs in the\nreligions of India is built out of this original idea of the powers of\nlight being overcome by the powers of darkness and finally rescued by a\nredeeming god. In later times, as the science of astronomy became more\npopular and better understood, not only was the daily apparent course\nof the sun the source from which myths were fabricated, but his annual\napparent march through the zodiacal signs was also drawn upon for the\ncreation of more imposing and elaborate dramas; and in this manner\nwere produced the fables containing allusions to the two crucifixions,\nor passage of the sun across the equator at the vernal and autumnal\nequinoxes, and the rites of baptism when the sun was passing through\nthe sign Aquarius, and fasting during the period of the sun\u2019s transit\nthrough Pisces, etc.\n\nThe religion of Boodhism is an offshoot of the Brahman system, having\noriginated in the so-called incarnation of Vishnu, Gautama Boodha,\nwhose powerful personality has left an indelible impress upon the\nreligion. This remarkable man lived about the end of the sixth century;\nbut the real history of Boodhism does not commence until about the\nmiddle of the third century before our era. The doctrines taught\nby this great reformer were brotherly love, self-sacrifice, and an\neternal Nirvana as the consummation of all bliss. The doctrine of\nthe transmigration of the soul was still maintained; but a state of\nNirvana, or absolute non-existence, was declared to be the deliverance\nfrom the endless succession of re-births for those who, by their\npurity of life and heart, merit such a blissful end. Admitting that\nmen were born in different castes, determined by their good or evil\ndeeds in a prior existence, Boodha yet declared that all might attain\nthe highest salvation, and that none, not even those of the highest\ncaste and most sacred offices, could do this without having regard\nto the well-being of all his fellow creatures. The authority of the\nVedas was rejected by the Boodhists, as also the whole dogmatic system\nof the Brahmans; and in their place was substituted a higher moral\nteaching, a more equitable relationship of men, and a wide-spreading\nsystem of communism. This reformation of ancient dogmatic faith was not\ndestined to last long uncorrupted, for the monasteries established by\nthe Boodhists for the purpose of affording an asylum to the poor and\ndestitute soon became infested with religious fanatics\u2014Jainas, as they\nwere called, some of whom went naked, while others robed themselves in\nwhite linen. These ascetic monks looked forward to Nirvana as their\nfinal goal, practised the most severe austerities, received confession,\nadministered priestly absolution, and kept regular feast and fast days;\nbut they discountenanced the growing custom of worshipping relics\nwhich was finding favour with other Boodhist sects. Thus gradually the\nprimitive Aryan conception of a ruling power developed into a huge\nsystem of dogmatism, monachism, and ritual in the countries south and\neast of the Indus, as far even as the confines of the country of the\ngreat Mongol race, whose religion is as yet but little known to us,\nalthough it bears strong marks of having been originally derived from\nthe same source as that from which came the Vedic system.\n\nHaving glanced somewhat cursorily at the religious development of\nthe Eastern Aryan peoples, we will now turn to the Western Aryans,\nand observe the manner in which the old Vedic myth was perpetuated\nin Western Europe, leaving the Central Aryans, or that branch which\nremained in and around Persia and Western Afghanistan, for subsequent\nconsideration; for, in this central district, the Mongol Akkadians and\nthe Semites intermingled so frequently with the Aryans that a very\nintricate mythological system gradually came into operation in some\ndistricts, bearing resemblance to the Vedic, the Semitic, and the\nMongolian mythologies.\n\nThe Western branch of the great Aryan family, after penetrating into\nSouthern Europe, became the progenitors of the ancient Pelasgi, the\nearliest known inhabitants of Greece, and through them transmitted\nthe original Aryan myth to their successors, the Hellenes. Homer, in\nhis \u201cIliad\u201d and \u201cOdyssey,\u201d written at latest B.C. 900, well describes\nthe religion of the Acheans, who inhabited Hellas for centuries prior\nto B.C. 1000, and long before the supremacy of the Dorians; and, in\nthis description, as well as in that of Hesiod\u2019s \u201cTheogony,\u201d written\nimmediately afterwards, there is exhibited a remarkable similarity\nto the old Vedic system, the very name of the supreme deity being\nclearly derived from an Aryan source, and that root being the identical\nexpression used to designate the Vedic Dawn God. From Dyaus Pitar,\nthe Day Father or Dawn God of the Aryans, the Greeks derived their\nZeus Pater, from whence we get Dios, Theos, the Latin _Deus Pater_,\n_Dies Pater_ and Jupiter, and the French _Dieu_. Zeus was supreme\ngod, high above all others, having unlimited power, and living up\nin the vault of heaven, surrounded by the inferior and subordinate\ndeities, who together formed his Olympian court. Instead of being\nnature powers, these gods were endowed with freedom of action, subject\nto pain and pleasure, and depended for their sustenance upon food.\nThe supremacy of King Zeus was firmly established; he presided over\ncouncils of the gods to deliberate great matters, and was not bound\nor fettered by any recognised restraint. With Athena and Apollo, he\nformed a supreme triad, himself being the head, Athena the reason or\nwisdom of the Divine Father, and Apollo the mouth, revealer of his\ncounsel, and loving son, who is always of one will with his father.\nWith Apollo was closely associated Prometheus, the great benefactor and\nliberator of the race of man, who, according to that beautiful tragedy\nof \u201c\u00c6schylus,\u201d brought salvation to the world in spite of Jupiter,\nhis father and torturer, by whom he was crucified on a rock, where\nhe remained in fearful anguish until liberated by Hercules. Here we\nfind the old Vedic saviour redeeming the world from the darkness and\nmisery of night or winter, the same drama precisely as that described\nin connection with the Eastern Aryan mythology. In both instances the\napparent daily and annual ascension and decline of the sun is depicted:\nin the one case it rises again after its period of defeat in winter, or\nnight, as the sun-god Indra, afterwards Surya, and still later Krishna;\nwhile in the other case it resuscitates the earth as Prometheus, the\nbenefactor of mankind. Just as Prometheus was but the Greek counterpart\nof the Hindu Krishna, so also were Apollo, Hercules, Iao, and Dionysos\nprecisely the same. Each was the new-born sun, bringing back light and\nglory to suffering humanity; and each passed through the very same\nperiods of power, decline, and misery before being born again.\n\nZeus was the sun-god _par excellence_, residing on the summit of\nOlympus, or in the highest part of the heavenly vault, during the\nsummer months, when he was called Olympian Zeus, and down in Hades\nduring the winter period, when he was known as the Stygian Zeus; and\nthus the oracle of the Klarion Apollon taught that the supreme God was\ncalled, according to the seasons of the year, Hades, Zeus, Helios, and\nIao. Apollo and Prometheus, although saviour sun-gods, representing\nthe new-born sun victorious over death and winter, were yet one with\nZeus, and merely repetitions of the same character under different\nnames. So, in like manner, Hercules was not only son of Zeus, but Zeus\nhimself, and may be traced right through the complete annual circuit\nin his twelve labours, from Hades to Olympus, and from Olympus to\nHades again. Dionysos was, in reality, not an Aryan deity, but of\nEgyptian origin, having been introduced into Greece at a very early\ntime, either from Egypt, where he was worshipped as Mises, or, more\nprobably, from Ph\u0153nicia, where he was worshipped under the name of I\u0113s,\nwhich accounts for the fact that hero personifications of Dionysos in\nlater times were accorded the designation of Iesous, (\u0399\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, or in\ncapitals \u0399\u0397\u03a3\u039f\u03a5\u03a3\u2014Latin _Jesus_), the Greek form of I\u0113s (\u0399\u03b7\u03c2, or in\ncapitals \u0399\u0397\u03a3). This Egyptian saviour sun-god became later the popular\ngod Bacchus of the Romans, just as Apollo had been the popular Greek\ndivinity, and was thus described by Macrobius: \u201cThe images or statues\nof Bacchus represent him sometimes under the form of a child, sometimes\nunder that of a young man, at other times with a beard of a mature man,\nand, lastly, with the wrinkles of old age, as the Greeks represent\nthe god whom they call Baccapee and Briseis, and as the Neapolitans\nin Campania paint the god whom they honour under the name of Hebon.\nThese differences of age relate to the sun, who seems to be a tender\nchild at the winter solstice, such as the Egyptians represent him on\na certain day [December 25th], when they bring forth from an obscure\nnook of their sanctuary his infantine image, because, the day being\nthen at the shortest, the god seems yet to be but a feeble infant:\ngradually growing from this moment, he arrives, by degrees, at the\nvernal equinox, under the form of a young man, of which his images\nat that time bear the appearance; then he arrives at his maturity,\nindicated by the tufted beard with which the images which represent him\nat the summer solstice are adorned, the day having then taken all the\nincrease of which it is susceptible. Lastly, he decreases insensibly,\nand arrives at his old age, pictured by the state of decrepitude in\nwhich he is portrayed in the images.\u201d\n\nYao, Iao, or Adonis was of Semitic origin, although widely worshipped\nin Greece, and generally identified with Zeus, whose Semitic\ncounterpart he really was, although himself a saviour sun-god. Yao,\nto the Ph\u0153nicians and Chaldeans, was as Zeus and Prometheus to the\nGreeks, and represented the whole annual circuit, though he was always\ncalled by the Greeks specially the god of the autumn, on account of his\nhaving, at that period, to part from his lover, Aphrodite (Venus), for\nsix months; and thus there was usually a certain melancholy attached to\nhis worship, the oracle of the Klarion Apollon terming him the darling\nor tender Yao (\u0399\u03b1\u03c9), god of the autumn.\n\nAs the Greek power and civilisation declined and the Roman advanced,\nthe god Yao, like his counterpart I\u0113s, became one of the most popular\nof the Roman deities, being worshipped under the name Adonis in every\ncity of Italy; and the mythological horizon became crowded with gods\nand demi-gods of every description, until, at length, it became a very\ndifficult matter to determine who was a god and who was not worthy\nof that distinction; for the Roman Emperors were invariably deified,\nas well as others of less degree. The old Aryan drama, however, was\npreserved throughout in the worship of the principal gods, and has even\nbeen perpetuated in the reformed religion of the Semitic communistic\nenthusiast, Yahoshua, which became, soon after the commencement of our\nera, the popular religious system of the whole of Europe.\n\nWe have now to deal with the Central Aryans, or Eranians; and, in doing\nso, must bear in mind that, while the Eastern Aryans, or Hindus, and\nthe Western Aryans of Europe, were almost altogether uninfluenced for\nmany centuries by the mythologies of surrounding tribes of other and\ndistinct families of the human race, this was far from being the case\nwith the Eranians, who were almost entirely cut off from their Western\nbrethren; and, although still in comparatively close contact with the\nEastern Aryans, were yet completely wedged in between the Turanian\nUrals on the north, and the great Semitic stream of life on the south\nand west. Such being the case, it is at once apparent that the religion\nof the Eranian people would quickly lose many of its distinctive\nAryan marks and acquire many Turanian and Semitic characteristics.\nBactria, in Eastern Eran (Persia), appears to have been the ancient\nbirth-place of this semi-Aryan religion, which afterwards developed,\nunder the influence of that great reformer, Zoroaster (Zarathustra),\ninto the cultus called Mazdeism, or Parsism. From the Avesta, the\nsacred writings of the Parsis, written in the old Zend language, we\nderive considerable knowledge of Mazdeism. Ahura Mazdao (Ormazd), the\nall-wise spirit, is supreme god, far above all gods, being creator of\nthe world, god of light and truth, existing from the beginning, and\neternal. Inferior to him are Mithra, god of light; Nairyo Sanha, god of\nfire; Apan Napat, god of water; Haoma, god of the drink of immortality;\nand Tistrya, the dog-star god. The chief goddess of fruitfulness was\nAnahita, who in later time became an important deity in association\nwith the worship of Mithra, the son of Ormuzd. Mazdeism also recognised\na god of evil, Ahro Mainyus (Ahriman), who, with the evil Devas,\ninhabit the under-world, and oppose Ormuzd on every occasion; the world\nlying between the two kingdoms of righteousness and evil, ruled over\nrespectively by Ormuzd and Ahriman. This dualism is the most marked\nfeature of Mazdeism, and runs through the whole religion, being found\nin every myth, and giving rise to the most hideous conceptions of\nmorality. In the cosmogony of the Parsis the great creator, Ormuzd,\nafter making a perfect world and introducing a perfect pair of human\nbeings, is defeated by the wicked Ahriman, who creates evil, and\nseduces the man and woman to sin, thus placing in opposition to each\nother upon this earth the two forces, good and evil. To avoid the\ninfluence of this evil force, and to gain that of the good power, was\nthe great aim of all true Mazda-worshippers; and the means whereby\nthis much-desired end could be attained was the fire-god, Nairyo\nSanha, to whom constant supplications were made for this purpose. So\ngreat was the influence of Ahriman upon human beings that the god of\nlight, Mithra, was promised as a saviour to come upon the earth and\nrescue his people from the power of evil, his mission being to avenge\nhis father\u2019s defeat by the god of the under-world, after doing which\nhe would ascend to his father and become one with him for ever. The\nMagi, or Mithraitic priests of the \u201cblack art,\u201d or \u201chidden science of\nastrology,\u201d are thus addressed in the \u201cZend-Avesta\u201d:\u2014\u201dYou, my children,\nshall be first honoured by that divine person who is to appear in the\nworld; a star shall be before you to conduct you to the place of his\nnativity; and when you have found him, present to him your oblations\nand sacrifices, for he is indeed your lord and an everlasting king,\u201d\nmeaning that after the constellation of the virgin came to the eastern\nline of the horizon, as it did at twelve o\u2019clock at midnight, between\nDecember 24th and December 25th, in the period immediately following\nthat in which the words were written, the great star, _Vindemiatrix_,\nin the virgin\u2019s elbow, would, on January 6th, begin to shine, pointing\nout to the astrologers, or Magi, her exact situation, who would then\nknow that the birth of the god-light of the new revolution had taken\nplace, and that by his re-appearance he would declare himself to be\nthe everlasting ruler of the universe. Consequently, for centuries\nafter this time the image of the god-light Mithra was presented to the\npeople for adoration every year on December 25th, soon after midnight,\nin the shape of a newly-born male child, brought from the recesses of\nthe sacred grotto, or mystic cave of Mithra. Another image, supposed\nto be the same deity fully grown, was said to die, and was carried\nto the tomb after death by the priests, who chanted solemn hymns and\ngroaned. After pretending to mourn for three days, the sacred torch, or\nemblem of new life, was lighted, and the priests exclaimed, \u201cReassure\nyourselves, sacred bands of initiated; your god is restored to life;\nhis pains and sufferings procure your salvation.\u201d This took place at\nthe vernal equinox, and the people responded: \u201cI salute you, new light;\nI salute you, young bridegroom and new light.\u201d\n\nLike the old Aryan scheme, this Mithra myth was derived from the\nconstellations, having reference to the decline of the year in autumn,\nthe defeat of the sun by the powers of darkness (or winter), and the\nrebirth and ascension of that grand luminary in the spring of the\nyear. Mithra was \u201cspiritual life contending with spiritual darkness,\nand through his labours the kingdom of darkness will be lit with\nheaven\u2019s own light: the eternal will receive all things back into his\nfavour; and the world will be redeemed to God. The impure are to be\npurified, and the evil made good, through the mediation of Mithras,\nthe reconciler of Ormuzd and Ahriman. Mithras is the good; his name is\nLove. In relation to the Eternal he is the source of grace; in relation\nto men he is the life-giver and mediator. He brings the Word, as Brahma\nbrings the Vedas from the mouth of the Eternal\u201d (Plutarch, \u201cDe Iside\net Osiride \u201d). The close connection of the later Eranians with the\nChaldeans no doubt gave the former facilities for studying the Akkadian\nastronomy; and, therefore, it is fair to presume that the phenomenon\nof the precession of the equinoxes was well understood by them, which\nwould account for the fact that Mithra is always represented in\nearlier times under the figure of a bull, and afterwards under that\nof a lamb. The reason of this is that, prior to about B.C. 2,200, the\nvernal equinoxial sign was the zodiacal figure of the bull (_Taurus_);\nwhile, after that period, the figure of the lamb or ram (_Aries_) took\nits place; and as the saviour sun-god Mithra was the personification\nof the new annual sun, born in the December constellation, crossing\nthe equator in March, and thereby conquering the powers of evil or\ndarkness, he was invariably represented by the figure of that zodiacal\nconstellation which happened to be at the vernal equinoxial point at\nthe time.[1]\n\nHaving thus briefly glanced at the religious cults of the three\nbranches of the great Aryan family, and found the very same religious\nconception of a divine and incarnate saviour, redeeming the universe\nfrom the powers of darkness and evil, running through each mythological\nsystem, we cannot help coming to the conclusion that, inasmuch as the\nsaviour-myth was developed into its full proportions long after the\nseparation of the families took place, and inasmuch as the development\nfollowed similar lines in each separate case, there must have been\nsome common guide, and that guide was the unwritten word of nature as\nexpressed in the heavens above.\n\n[1] _Vide_ my \u201cPopular Faith Unveiled.\u201d\n\nLeaving the Aryan stream, and turning back to that division of the\ngreat Iranian family which migrated to the valley of the Nile, and\nwhich we call the Egyptian, we find a very similar religious system\nin vogue among them from the very earliest times, as existed among\nthe Aryans. The first settlers in Egypt carried with them, no doubt,\nthe primitive religious conceptions of their Iranian fathers, which\nwere derived from a contemplation of the various phenomena of nature,\nas previously stated; and it is highly probable that, at a very\nearly period, they gave considerable attention to the movements of\nthe heavenly bodies, for from monumental inscriptions, unearthed in\nmodern times, which geologists inform us must have lain _sub terra_\nfor several thousands of years, we learn that the Egyptians, at that\nremote time, well understood the theory of the precession of the\nequinoxes, placing the zodiacal constellation of the bull at the vernal\nequinoxial point in the period prior to about B.C. 4300, and that of\nthe ram in the period immediately following. It is probable, therefore,\nthat hundreds of years before this time these primitive men of the\nNile were engaging themselves with the study of astronomy, and using\neffective astronomical instruments, which indicates a high state of\ncivilisation; and this is further borne out by the fact that, at the\ncommencement of the first Egyptian dynasty, about the year B.C. 5000,\nwhen Menes reigned over Egypt, there was every appearance of a very\nadvanced civilisation that had lasted for centuries. From the \u201cBook\nof the Dead\u201d and the Prisse Papyrus (most of the former written at\nlatest prior to B.C. 4000, and the latter very soon after) we derive a\ntolerably accurate notion of the mythological system of the Egyptians\nduring the first portion of the Old Empire, and probably many hundreds\nof years previously; while, from the writings of Herodotus, Diodorus,\nPlutarch, and Manetho, we learn the progress the religion made during\nthe 4,000 following years.\n\nThe \u201cBook of the Dead\u201d treats principally of the refining processes\nthrough which the spirits of dead people passed in the under-world,\nor Cher Nuter, before being purified sufficiently to inherit a state\nof bliss and become spirits of light (Chu) to be absorbed into the\nsun at the point where it is born, and taken within it to An, the\ncelestial Heliopolis. Before the time of Menes the religion of Egypt\nwas animistic, blended with a vague kind of sun-worship, the supreme\ndeity being, at Thinis-Abydos, the ancient capital, called Osiris, the\ngod of gods, son of Seb, god of earth, and Nu, goddess of the heavenly\nocean, and grandson of Ra. Osiris was the sun-god of the daily and\nannual circle, who enjoyed his spouse, Isis, the great mother, during\nthe summer months and the daytime, after which he was overcome by the\nevil Set-Typhon and his wife Nephthys, and tortured in the under-world,\nuntil released by his son Horus, the conqueror sun-god, who rose into\nthe upper world as the avenger of his father\u2019s defeat, and liberated\nthe soul of Osiris from torture, to be absorbed by, and for ever shine\nforth in the constellation _Orion_, as the soul of Isis shines for\never in _Sirius_. At Heliopolis, An, On, or Para, the city of the sun,\nRa was worshipped as supreme god, who as Tum, the hidden god, fought\nthe demon of darkness, the serpent Apap, in Amenti, and who rose\nagain from the under-world as Harmachis. Later, when Menes reigned as\nthe first monarch of the Old Empire (_circa_ B.C. 5000), Memphis, or\nMennefer, was the capital city, in which Phtah was worshipped as the\nsupreme god or creator of the world (called Sekru, the slain god, when\nin the lower world), together with Ma, goddess of righteousness, and\nImhotep, the chief of priests, whose name signified \u201cI come in peace,\u201d\nand who formed the third part of a kind of trinity, with Phtah and\nMa. All these, and other minor deities, such as deified kings, etc.,\nwere represented on earth by incarnations in the shape of animals, Ra,\nOsiris, and Phtah, the supreme gods, being manifested in the sacred\nbull Apis, representing the sun at the vernal equinoctial point in\nthe zodiacal constellation _Taurus_. During six dynasties these gods\nwere worshipped peacefully, their incarnations and religious rites\nbeing protected by the kings; but about the year B.C. 3800 the kingdom\nappears to have dropped to bits, its religion to have been mixed up in\na most confused manner, and its people divided into a number of small\nnationalities, with separate kings and separate laws; until, at length,\nthe whole country was once more united under the reigning monarchs of\nthe eleventh dynasty (Second Empire), whose capital was Thebes, and\nwhose popular deity was Amen, the hidden god, called also Amen-Ra, to\nsignify that he was not only the sun-god in the under-world, but also\nthe rising and conquering sun-god of the early morn and spring of the\nyear. In fact, Amen was the sun-god of the whole revolution, the Theban\nYao, one with his father Osiris in the mid-day and mid-summer, one\nwith his counterpart Horus at the early morn and spring of the year,\nand one with Tum in the darkness of night and winter; just as Zeus of\nthe Greeks was Zeus Amen (Jupiter Ammon), Olympian Zeus, Zeus Yao, and\nStygian Zeus, according to the season of the year.\n\nBetween the Middle Empire and the New Empire another catastrophe\noccurred to the Egyptians, in the form of an invasion of the Hyksos, or\nshepherd kings of Arabia, who overran the whole country, destroyed the\ntemples, and levied heavy tribute on the people, eventually settling\ndown for four centuries as Kings of Egypt, adopting many of the native\ncustoms, and introducing many Semitic deities and observances. At\nlast the Hyksos were driven forth, and the New Empire commenced with\nthe eighteenth dynasty; but a considerable difference was now found\nto exist in the religion of the country, partly on account of the\nintroduction of Semitic rites, and partly owing to the change that\nhad taken place at the vernal equinoctial point, by the precessional\nmovement of the zodiacal constellation _Taurus_. The vernal equinoctial\npoint was now (B.C. 2000) in the sign _Aries_, and therefore the\nprincipal deities should be no longer represented as incarnate bulls,\nbut as incarnate rams. Accordingly, we find that after this date the\nbull-god Apis, or Serapis, gradually fell into disrepute; and Amen,\nwho was now the supreme and representative god, was worshipped as an\nincarnate ram, being depicted as a man wearing ram\u2019s horns.\n\nAnother mode of worshipping the young sun-god, born at the winter\nsolstice, December 25th, was that known as the Mysteries of the\nNight, or Passion of Osiris, at which an idol of the infant Horus, or\nAmen, called also the Holy Word, was presented to the people in its\nmother\u2019s arms, or exposed to view in a crib for the adoration of the\npeople by the priests, who were, according to Adrian, called Bishops\nof Christ (\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2, the anointed one); and when King Ptolemy, B.C.\n350, asked the meaning of the custom, he was informed that it was a\nsacred mystery. During these mysteries, which took place annually,\nbread, after sacerdotal rites, was mystically converted into the body\nof Osiris, to be partaken of by all the faithful, who were called\nChristians; and an idol representing the body of the god, stretched on\na cross within a circle, was placed upon the mystic table for adoration\nand praise.\n\nThe winter solstitial point is really December 21st; but the ancients\nalways kept the festival of the birth of the sun-god on December 25th,\nbecause at twelve o\u2019clock, midnight between December 24th and 25th the\nuppermost stars in the constellation _Virgo_ made their appearance\nabove the horizon, being the first indication of the birth of the\nnew sun, which had taken place exactly three days and three nights\npreviously. This gave rise to the popular superstition that the new\nsun-god was born of a virgin, from whose womb he had been trying to\nextricate himself for the space of three days and three nights. From\nthis the idea prevailed that the sun-god underwent similar periods of\nstruggle also at the summer solstice and the two equinoctial points;\nand thus arose the legend of the two crucifixions, the one at the\nvernal equinox, when the sun in _Aries_ crossed the Equator and was\ncrucified as the \u201cLamb of God\u201d on March 21st, commencing the ascension\nto heaven on March 25th; and the other at the autumnal equinox, when\nthe sun in _Libra_ (the balance of justice) crossed the Equator and was\ncrucified as the \u201cJust Man\u201d on September 23rd, descending to hell for\nthree days and three nights, after which he emerged into the shades\nuntil born again at the winter solstice.\n\nA very popular deity of the Lower Nile was Mises (drawn from water),\nthe sun-god of wine and mirth, who was born on Mount Nyssa (Sinai),\nand was found as a babe in a box floating on the Red Sea, and who, by\nmeans of his magic wand, took his army dry-shod through the Sea and\nthe rivers Orontes and Hydaspes, drew water from rocks, and caused the\nland through which he passed to flow with milk, wine, and honey. He was\ndepicted with a ram\u2019s horn on his forehead, being the personification\nof the new-born sun delivering the world from the powers of darkness,\nand was afterwards worshipped in Ph\u0153nicia as I\u0113s, in Greece as Dionysos\n(\u0394\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd\u03c5\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2], God of Nyssa), son of Zeus, and in Rome as Bacchus. The\ntemples dedicated to this sun-god were, in the time of the Greek kings\nof Egypt, very gorgeous, the mystic table having upon it, not only the\ninfant in its cradle, the transubstantiated bread, and the Osirian\ncrucifix, but also a bleeding lamb, the emblem of the sun-god at the\nvernal equinox, over which was placed the Ph\u0153nician name of Mises, I\u0113s,\nin Greek capitals (\u0399\u0397\u03a3]), surrounded by the rays of glory, to signify\nthat he was the risen and crucified sun-god, and one with Horus and\nAmen-Ra.\n\nTurning to the third great division of the Iranians\u2014viz., the Semites,\nwho migrated to the Valley of the Euphrates, we find a more or less\ncomplicated religious system, varying in accordance with the amount of\nintercommunication which took place between the Semites and the tribes\nbelonging to the Aryan, Mongolian, and Egyptian families. The earliest\nSemitic settlement was in the district stretching from the Euphrates to\nthe Red Sea and Mediterranean, and their religion was, at first, one of\npure animistic polyd\u00e6monism, varying enormously in details of drama in\nthe different tribes, but exhibiting in all common characteristics.\n\nAll early Semitic peoples worshipped the sun-god, Shamsh, and all\nwere moon, planet, and star-worshippers to a very large extent; but,\nas the race became divided into Northern and Southern Semites, a\ndistinct difference gradually arose between the religious cults of\nthe two branches. The Southern, or Arab, tribes, on account of their\nmore isolated situation, retained the original Semitic mythology,\nworshipping the sun as their chief god, Shamsh, the moon as his\nconsort, and the stars and planets as inferior gods and goddesses, the\n_Pleiades_ being objects of special homage. Shamsh was father of all,\nand disappeared to the under-world at night to rest in slumber until\nawakened into activity in the morning as Yachavah, his son, who became\none with his father.\n\nThe Northern Semites, on penetrating, at a later period, the borders of\nMesopotamia, came in contact with a powerful and advanced civilisation,\nwhich had been already established by the Akkadian branch of the\nNorthern Mongolian family, and thus the original Semitic religion\nbecame very much modified by the introduction into it of many of the\nMongol, as well as some also of the Aryan, myths.\n\nVery little is known of the Akkadian mythology; but it is pretty\ncertain that they were, at a very early period, acquainted with the\nscience of astronomy, and that the Chaldeans, their successors, who\nwere a mongrel race, partly Akkadian and partly Semitic, invented the\ncuneiform writing to take the place of the old Mongolian hieroglyphic\ncharacters. From what we know of the religion of the old Mongol\nChinese empire prior to 1200 B.C., it was a kind of spirit-worship,\nthe Shang-ti, or supreme spirit, being Thian (Heaven), who, in\nco-operation with Heu-thu (earth), produced everything. Man, according\nto this cultus, had two souls, one of which ascended after death to\nheaven, while the other descended into the earth, both being absorbed\nrespectively into Thian and Heu-thu.\n\nThe Akkadians, who were but a branch of the same race as the\nprogenitors of the ancient Chinese, also worshipped spirits, the\ngreatest of whom was Ana (the highest heaven), the next Mulge (the\nhidden heaven in the interior of the earth), and the third Ea, the\ngod of the atmosphere and of moisture. After these came an inferior\ngroup\u2014Uru-ki, the moon-god; Ud, the sun-god; and Im, the wind-god.\nThe spirits were divided into good and bad, which were constantly at\nwar with each other; and thus was introduced into the religion of the\nsemi-Semitic Chaldeans the dualistic notion of good and evil existing\nin conflict throughout all time.\n\nThe Northern Semites may be conveniently divided into four distinct\nnations\u2014viz., the Chaldeans (Babylonians and Assyrians), who were\npartly Semitic and partly Akkadian, the Aram\u00e6ans, the Canaanites,\nand the Ph\u0153nicians. These peoples soon became acquainted with the\nastronomical learning of the Akkadians, and were taught the wonderful\nphenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes; and it is highly\nprobable that the fact of the vernal equinoctial sign having changed\nshortly before B.C. 2000 from that of the Bull to that of the Ram or\nLamb had much to do with the changing of the old Semitic name Shamsh\nto that of El, as a designation of the sun-god, El (\u05d0\u05dc) being the old\nChaldean word for Ram.\n\nOwing to the mixed character of the Chaldean nation, their religion was\na peculiar blending of the Akkadian and Semitic mythologies, El Ilu, or\nIlah, being their chief deity; but, instead of sinking into the lower\nworld each night for peaceful slumber, as the older Shamsh had done, he\nbecame the victim of the wicked demons, who tormented him all through\nthe dark hours, until he was avenged by his son Yachavah, who thereby\nbecame the conqueror and saviour god, one with his father Ilu, and yet\ndifferent. To a great extent the religion of the purely Semitic tribes\nof the north was affected by this Chaldean myth; but there arose many\npoints of difference between them. The Assyrians worshipped El under\nthe name of Asur, their national deity, the Babylonians converting the\nname into Bel; while the pure Semites worshipped him as Bel and Baal in\nthe west, and as Al in the south. Out of the story of El and Yachavah\nwas fabricated the great Adonis myth of the Chaldeans, which became\nso popular in future times among all the Semites except the Arabs of\nthe south, who retained the original character of the supreme Shamsh,\nEl or Al (afterwards Allah), and his son Yachavah, afterwards Yahouh.\nThis Adonis drama, as originally conceived, was that El reigned in\nsupreme power and glory in the highest heaven, enjoying the delights\nof his spouse Istar, but that in the autumn the wicked gods of winter\novercame him, separating him from his lover, and tormenting him all\nthrough the winter months, until in the spring he conquered the evil\ndemons as Adon, the beautiful youth, who is restored to his mourning\nIstar. The worship of Adonis, or Adon was generally adopted by all\nthe Northern Semites, the god becoming eventually the most popular\ndeity of the Semitic people, being known as Yao (\u0399\u0391\u039f of the Greeks)\nto the Phoenicians, Yahoo (\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5) to the Canaanites, and Tammuz to the\nAram\u00e6ans, while his lover Istar became the Phoenician Ashtoreth. I\u0113s,\nthe god of wine, and Greek Dionysos, was another saviour sun-god\nworshipped largely by the Ph\u0153nicians; but was most probably of Egyptian\norigin, being identical with Mises, the Egyptian Bacchus. As already\nstated, the Southern Semites of Arabia retained, in common with their\nEthiopian brethren, the old and simpler worship of the supreme god El\nand his son Yahouh, although, owing to their propinquity to Egypt,\nmany strange inferior deities had been introduced into Arabia from\nthat country, which resulted, in much later times, in the formation\nof various religious sects, each having a particular tribal deity, or\npatron god, though all recognising El as supreme. One of these tribes,\nwith Yahouh as their tribal god, on which account they were called\nYahoudi, having left their native Arabian home, penetrated far into\nthe country of the Northern Semites, learning from the Canaanites,\nPh\u0153nicians, and Babylonians the strange legends of the Northern Semitic\ndeities, including the Adonis myth; and, after wandering about for many\nyears, one large portion of their tribe settled in the delta of the\nNile, while the remainder crossed the desert of Syria and approached\nthe confines of Babylonia, finally settling in the barren and rocky\ninterior of Syria, and making the spot where now stands the small\ntown of El-Khuds (Jerusalem) their headquarters. During their long\nwanderings they became acquainted not only with the various Semitic\nmyths of the north, but also with the Babylonian and Persian legends,\nand incorporated a quantity of strange deities and customs into their\nown rude and primitive religion, thus manufacturing a very complicated\nand weird system of mythology.\n\nThe date of the Yahudean migration into Syria was certainly not earlier\nthan about B.C. 250, despite the declaration of interested parties\nthat these people were known as Israelites and Jews for centuries\nbefore that time. The following quotation from Major-General Forlong\u2019s\n\u201cRivers of Faith\u201d is worth reproducing on this point:\u2014\u201cThe first\nnotice of the Jews is, _possibly_, that of certain Shemitic rulers of\nthe Aram, paying tribute about 850 B.C. to Vool-Nirari, the successor\nof Shalmaneser of Syria, regarding which, however, much more is made\nby Biblicists than the simple record warrants. This is the case also\nwhere Champollion affirms that mention is made on the Theban temples\nof the capture of certain towns of the land we call Judea, this being\nthought to prove the existence of Jews. Similar assumption takes\nplace in regard to the hieratic papyri of the Leyden Museum, held to\nbelong to the time of Rameses II.; an inscription read on the rocks\nof El-Hamamat, and the discovery of some names like Chedorlaomer in\nthe records of Babylonia; but this is all the \u2018evidence\u2019 as to the\nexistence of ancient Jews which has been advanced, and the most is\nmade of it in Dr. Birch\u2019s opening address on \u2018The Progress of Biblical\nArch\u00e6ology,\u2019 at the inauguration of that Society. The only _logical_\nconclusion justifiable, when we give up the _inspiration_ theory, is\nthat Arabs and Syro-Phenicians were known to Assyrians and Egyptians,\nand this none would deny. Indeed, we readily grant with Dr. Birch that,\n\u2018under the nineteenth and twentieth Egyptian dynasties, the influence\nof the Armen\u0153an nations is distinctly marked; that not only, by blood\nand alliances, had the Pharaohs been closely united with the princes\nof Palestine and Syria, but that the language of the period abounds\nin Semitic words, quite different from the Egyptian, with which they\nwere embroidered and intermingled.\u2019 Could it possibly be otherwise? Is\nit not so this day? Is a vast and rapidly-spawning Shemitic continent\nlike Arabia not to influence the narrow delta of a river adjoining\nit, or the wild highlands of Syria to its north? Of course, Arabs, or\nShemites, were everywhere spread over Egypt, Syria, and Phenicia, as\nwell as in their ancient seats of empire in Arabi Irak (Kaldia), and on\nthe imperial mounds of Kalneh and Kouyunjik, _but not necessarily as\nJews_. I cannot find that these last were anything more than possibly a\npeculiar religious sect of Arabs, who settled down from their pristine\nnomadic habits, and obtained a _quasi_ government under petty princes\nor sheks, such as we have seen take place in the case of numerous\nArabian and Indian sects.\u201d\n\nAgain, the author of \u201cRivers of Faith\u201d remarks: \u201cNo efforts, say the\nleaders of the Biblical Arch\u00e6ological Society, have been able to find,\neither amid the numerous engravings on the rocks of Arabia Petrea or\nPalestine, _any save Phenician inscriptions_\u2014not even a record of\nthe Syro-Hebrew character, which was once thought to be the peculiar\nproperty of Hebrews. \u2018_Most of those inscriptions hitherto discovered\ndo not date anterior to the Roman Empire_\u2019 (Dr. Birch, President of\nSoc, op. cit., p. 9). \u2018Few, if any, monuments (of Jews) have been\nobtained in Palestine\u2019 or the neighbouring countries of any useful\nantiquity, save the Moabite Stone, and the value of this last is all\nin favour of my previous arguments on these points. At the pool of\nSiloam we have an \u2018inscription, _in the Phenician character_, as old\nas the time of the kings.... It is incised upon the walls of a rock\nchamber, apparently _dedicated to Baal, who is mentioned on it_.\u2019 So\nthat here, in a most holy place of this \u2018peculiar people,\u2019 we find\nonly Phenicians, and these worshipping the Sun-God of Fertility, as\nwas customary on every coast of Europe, from unknown times down to the\nrise of Christianity. The Biblical Arch\u00e6ological Society and British\nMuseum authorities tell us frankly and clearly that no Hebrew square\ncharacter can be proved to exist till after the Babylonian captivity,\nand that, \u2018at all events, _this inscription of Siloam shows that the\ncurved or Phenician character was in use in Jerusalem itself under the\nHebrew Monarchy, as well as the conterminous Phenicia, Moabitis_, and\nthe more distant Assyria. No monument, indeed,\u2019 continues Dr. Birch,\n\u2018of greater antiquity, inscribed in the square character (Hebrew), has\nbeen found, _as yet, older than the fifth century_, A.D.; and the coins\nof the Maccabean princes, as well as those of the revolter Barcochab,\nare impressed with _Samaritan_ characters.\u2019\u201d As to the Moabite Stone,\nI would refer my readers to a little work entitled \u201cAn Inquiry into\nthe Age of the Moabite Stone,\u201d by Samuel Sharpe, the celebrated author\nof \u201cThe History of Egypt,\u201d in which will be found abundant evidence to\nprove that the inscription on the Stone is a forgery of about the year\nA.D. 260.\n\nApart from the history contained in the books of the Old Testament,\nthere is absolutely no record of the Jews as an independent people,\nexcept that contained in the writings of Josephus (about A.D.\n100); and, although that author may be tolerably trustworthy when\nrelating matters near to his own time, yet in his description of\nJewish antiquities he evidently, as he himself asserts, rests only\non tradition. For instance, he alone records the story of Alexander\nentering the holy place at Jerusalem and offering sacrifice on the\naltar; but Arrian, in his \u201cAnabasis of Alexander the Great,\u201d where he\nspecially treats of the life and actions of this great conqueror, says\nnot one word about such a place as Jerusalem, or about such a story\nas that recorded by Josephus. Curtius, who wrote a far more detailed\naccount of the life and conquests of Alexander, mentions neither\nJerusalem nor the story of Alexander and the holy place. Herodotus,\nabout B.C. 430, when narrating the two raids of the Scythians through\nSyria, as far as Egypt, says not a word about any Jews. Xenophon, who\nwrote 150 years after they were said to have returned from Babylon, or\nabout B.C. 386, appears to have been unconscious of their existence,\nonly mentioning the Syrians of Palestine. Neither did Sanchoniathon,\nCtesias, Berosus, nor Manetho even once mention them as a nation.\nDiodorus also, when writing of the siege of Tyre by the soldiers of\nAlexander, neither mentions the Jews as a nation nor Jerusalem as\ntheir chief town. In fact, we have no account of them at all, except\nthat contained in the Old Testament and that in the writings of\nJosephus, until we find them subject to the Romans, under Antiochus\nEpiphanes, about B.C. 165, when in all probability they had just\nsettled down into a dependent nation, having been driven into Syria\nby the Babylonians, whose fertile valleys these Arabian nomads had\nattempted to colonise. Being surrounded on all sides by nations whose\nreligions so very far surpassed their own in development, it did not\ntake long for the Yahoudi (afterwards called Jews) to become affected\nby the mythological dramas of their neighbours; and, in carefully\nexamining the mythical records of their tribe, we find that they very\nsoon became acquainted with, and in some cases offered worship to,\nalmost all the purely Semitic and Chaldean, as well as to a few of\nthe Egyptian, deities. Their principal god always remained as before,\nEl (\u05d0\u05dc) signifying the zodiacal sign _Aries_, the heavenly ram and\nfirst of the twelve zodiacal figures. Combined with Yah (\u05d9\u05d4), the\nabbreviation of Yahouh (\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4), their tribal deity, it formed a compound\nword, Eloh (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05d4), or Elyah (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4, the \u05d5 and \u05d9 being interchangeable),\nthe plural of which was Elohim (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd), a word used frequently in the\nBible to signify the supreme God. Bearing in mind the fact that the\nfables of the Bible are not actual history, but merely so many accounts\nof the ever-recurring phenomena of the sidereal heavens, and that in\nthe various saviour myths the vernal equinoxial sign, or saviour sign,\n_Aries_, was looked upon as the supreme god, who housed the new-born\nsun on his first appearance in the upper world, just as in the present\nday the song of praise on Easterday is \u201cWorthy is the lamb who was\nslain (crucified) to receive the power and bring back salvation to\nthe world,\u201d the meanings of these names of the supreme deity become\napparent at once. All the words\u2014and, in fact, almost every divine\nname found in every divine record\u2014signify the sun in one or other of\nthe divisions of his annual or daily apparent march, or else one of\nthe divisions itself. El signifies the first and saviour sign of the\nzodiac, the celestial ram, and is always used when the winter period\nis referred to, because from the autumnal to the vernal equinox the\nsun-god, Yahouh, is separated from the ram, El, which remains god of\nthe lower world, until again united with its spouse, the sun, at the\nvernal equinox, becoming the ram-sun-god, El-Yah or Eloh, whose plural\nis Elohim, the ram-sun-gods, from the vernal to the autumnal equinox,\nwhen the sun and _Aries_ are together for six months. At a later time,\nwhen the old Bacchus worship was revived at Alexandria in the person\nof the young Semitic Yahoshua, who was named Iesous, we have a good\nillustration of this when the sun-god, in his agony at being separated\nfrom the ram at the autumnal equinox or crucifixion, exclaimed: \u201cEloi,\nEloi, lama sabachthani?\u201d\u2014\u201cMy ram, my ram, why hast thou forsaken me?\u201d\nIn, I believe, every instance in which the plural word, Elohim, is used\nin the Bible the reference is to the summer half of the year, from the\nvernal to the autumnal equinox, when El and Yah are together. We meet\nwith El\u2014in its Babylonian form, Bel; in its Aram\u00e6an forms, Bel and\nBelus; and in its Phenician form, Baal\u2014frequently in the Bible, and\noften in combination with other deities, as El-Shaddai and Bel-Shaddai\n(\u05d1\u05e2\u05dc\u05e9\u05d3\u05d9), signifying the \u201cbreasted ram,\u201d or the ram at the vernal\nequinox, the period of suckling.[2] Other forms of the same divine name\nwere Baal-Berith, god of the equinox or covenant (_co-venire_, to come\ntogether, as when the ecliptic crosses the equator at the two equinoxes\nor crucifixions); Baal-Yah and El-Yah, rendered in the authorised\nversion respectively Bealiah and Elijah, when in reality they signify\nthe god Yahouh, or ram-sun-god; El-Yah also does duty for Joel; Elishah\nsignifies the saviour ram; Eliakim, the setting ram; Eleazar, the\ncreating ram; Samuel, the god of fame, or famous ram; Daniel, the\nram judge; and Israel, the struggle with El. The Phenician Hercules\nwrestled with Typhon (the sun at the meridian) in the sand, just as\nIsrael or Jacob wrestled with Elohim in the dust\u2014Hercules, like Jacob,\nbeing wounded in the thigh; and the Canaanites knew the Greek Hercules,\nwho wrestled with Zeus, by the name of Ysrael.\n\n[2] El not only signified a ram, but also a lamb, or any other kind of\nsheep. The vernal equinoxial sign, for instance, of the Persians was a\nlamb, while that of the Egyptians was a ram.\n\nBaal-gad (\u05d1\u05e2\u05dc\u05d2\u05d3) was the god of Fortune, Gad being a Babylonian deity\nrepresenting fortune, which was placed at the foot of Hermon for public\nworship. From this deity G D (\u05d2\u05d3) are derived the English words God\nand Good, the German Gott and Gut, the Danish and Swedish Gud, and\nthe Wesleyan Methodist Gawd. Baal-Peor was the Phallic deity (_Deus\nVulv\u00e6_), god of the opening, worshipped largely by the Hebrews, who, as\nGeneral Forlong points out, \u201chad a strong solo-phalik fire-and-serpent\ncult. They all had Baal, Nebu, and Peor on their high places; Yachavah\nor Yahu\u00ea, the \u2018Grove,\u2019 or Asherah [Ashtoreth] and fire in their\ncentral groves.\u201d Baal Zephon was the god Typhon; Baal Hermon was\nanother name for Gad, god of Fortune; Baal Hazor was the god Hathor;\nand Baal Hamon (\u05d1\u05e2\u05dc\u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05df) was the god Amen, or Jupiter Ammon. The word\nYahouh, in various terminal forms, was frequently used to designate\nthe sun at different times and seasons\u2014as Joseph, the lamented Yah;\nJehu, Yahouh himself; and, according to Gesenius, Jehozabad, Yeho the\ngiver; Jehohanan, Yeho is good; Jehoiada, Yeho is knowing; Jehoshua,\nor Joshua; Jehoshaphat; Jehoiakim; Hoshea; Zedekiyah, etc. Yahoshua\n(Joshua) was the Canaanitish name for the Phoenician Y\u0113s or I\u0113s, and\nEgyptian Mises, and became in Latin Josue, or Jesus, according to\nwhether the Romans referred to the Phenician or Canaanitish Bacchus,\nwhose histories, though similar in the main, differed considerably\nin details. The Egyptian Mises became also the Jewish law-giver and\nleader, Moses, and is described in Ex. xxxiv. as being horned like\nBacchus (_vide_ my \u201cPopular Faith Unveiled\u201d). The Adonis myth occurs\nover and over again in fragments throughout the Bible, the Babylonish\nname Adon frequently being found in that form (\u05d0\u05d3\u05df), in its Hebrew\nrendering Adonai (\u05d0\u05d3\u05e0\u05d9), and occasionally in its Aram\u00e6an form of\nTammuz. It occurs alone, as in Psalm cx. 1, \u201cYahouh said to Adonis, sit\nat my right hand;\u201d in Isaiah vii. 14, \u201cTherefore our Adonis himself\nshall give you a sign;\u201d and in conjunction with Yahouh, as in Isaiah\nvii. 7, \u201cThus saith Yahouh, our Adonis,\u201d and numerous other places. It\nalso occurs with different terminations, to signify different forms and\npositions of the sun-god\u2014as Adoniyah or Adonijah, Adonis is Yahouh;\nAdoni-zedek, the liberated Adonis; Adoni-bezek, the rising Adonis; etc.\nThe old Semitic sun-god Shamsh remained, as of old, the Hebrew \u05e9\u05de\u05e9\n(Shemosh), signifying the sun; and his Greek _alter ego_, Hercules, the\nsun-hero, was not forgotten either, for we find a very poor attempt\nto reproduce him in the history of Samson. Moloch, Dagon, and other\nSemitic deities are also introduced into the Jewish Scriptures. There\nis one other deity frequently met with which must now be named, and\nthat is the Egyptian Amen\u2014the Zeus Amen (\u0396\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2 \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u00b7) of the Greeks,\nand the Jupiter Ammon of the Romans. This god Ammon (\u05d0\u05de\u05df or \u05d0\u05de\u05d5\u05df)\nwas worshipped by the Jews as the equal in power to, and the very\ncounterpart of, Yahouh, and was called by the very same names by which\nhe was known to the Egyptians\u2014viz., the hidden god, true and faithful\nwitness (which epithet gave origin to the Greek adverb, \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd, truly),\nand saviour of the world, or regenerator of nature. In Isaiah xlv. 15\nwe read, \u201cTruly thou art the hidden god of Israel, the saviour;\u201d and,\nagain, in chapter lxv. 16, \u201cHe who blesses himself on earth shall bless\nhimself by his god Ammon (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05d0\u05de\u05df); and he who sweareth in the earth\nshall swear by the god Ammon, because the former troubles are delivered\nto oblivion, and because they are hidden from mine eyes.\u201d This hidden\nor occult god, Ammon, or Amen, is frequently addressed in the Psalms\nand other places, and is there identified with Yahouh and Adonis. In\nPsalm xxvii. 8, 9, we read, \u201cSeek ye my face. My heart said to thee,\nThy face, O Yahouh, will I seek. O hide not thy face from me;\u201d and\nPsalm x. 1, \u201cAnd why standest thou so far off, Yahouh, and hidest thy\nface in the needful time of trouble?\u201d Psalm lxxxix. 46 says, \u201cYahouh,\nhow long wilt thou hide thyself?\u201d Verses 49, 50, \u201cO our Adonis, where\nare thy loving kindnesses of old, which thou swearest to David in thy\ntruth?\u201d and verse 52, \u201cBlessed be Yahouh for evermore (who is) Ammon,\neven Ammon.\u201d In Isaiah i. 15 we also read, \u201cWhen ye spread forth your\nhands I will hide myself from you; yea, when ye make many prayers I\nwill not hear you.\u201d We find the same god also in the New Testament\nScriptures of the later Christian sect of Eclectic Egyptian Jews. In\nthe Apocalypse, for instance, the word \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd is rendered \u201cAmen\u201d in the\nauthorised version, and is sometimes met with as a Greek noun, \u1f49 \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\n(never heard of in the classics), when it is rendered \u201cthe Amen,\u201d\nwhich senseless rendering is no doubt intended to conceal the real\nand obvious meaning. In Rev. i. 18 we read, \u201cI am he that liveth and\nwas dead, and behold I, Ammon, am alive for evermore,\u201d the word \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\nbeing rendered \u201cAmen;\u201d and in chap. iii. 14, \u201cThese things saith Ammon\n[\u201cthe Amen\u201d in the authorised version], the true and faithful witness,\nthe beginning of the creation of God.\u201d As the celestial ram or lamb,\n_Aries_, Amen is again mentioned in chap. xiii. 8, \u201cThe lamb which has\nbeen slain from the foundation of the world\u201d\u2014that is, each year at the\nvernal equinox, when the occult god rose from his hiding-place in the\nlower hemisphere to bring salvation to the world.\n\nThis concludes the examination of the old sun-myth religions; but there\nare yet three very important religious systems to be dealt with\u2014viz.,\nConfucianism, Mohammedanism, and Christianism.\n\nConfucianism took its birth in the sixth century B.C., at a time\nwhen the old solar myth was very extensively believed in China and\nthe neighbouring countries, and was, strictly speaking, a system of\nmorality and conduct. Its author, Confucius (Kong-fu-tse), was born\nB.C. 550, in Lu, a province of China, and at a very early age commenced\nto preach a higher and purer morality among the Chinese people, many\nof whom became regular followers of the young reformer, and followed\nhis good example by likewise teaching the people at every favourable\nopportunity. He was strongly opposed to all false show, hypocrisy, and\ndeceit, and abhorred the life of a hermit as unnatural and mischievous.\nHe preferred not to speak of heaven as a personal being, as was the\nhabit of his countrymen, but was exceedingly fond of quoting its\nexample as the preserver of order, frequently alluding to its commands,\nordinances, and purposes. He attached no value to prayer, preached the\ndoctrine that good and evil are rewarded on the earth by prosperity and\nadversity, and expressed his disbelief in special revelations to men.\nThe canonical books of the Confucians are known as the five _Kings_\n(the historical _Shu-King_, the psalms of the _Shi-King_, and the\nritual of the _Li-ki_, the chronicles of the _Tshun-tsiew_, and the\nmagical _Yi-King_), and the three volumes containing the remarkable\nand benevolent utterances of the master Confucius himself\u2014viz., the\n_Lun-yu_, the _Ta-hio_, and the _Tshung-yung_. In the _Ta-hio_ occur\nthose celebrated and beautiful moral passages which have so justly\nimmortalised the name of Confucius. The one is the 24th moral: \u201cDo\nunto another what you would he should do to you, and do not to another\nwhat you would should not be done to you. Thou needest this law alone;\nit is the foundation and principle of all the rest.\u201d The other is the\n53rd moral: \u201cAcknowledge thy benefits by return of other benefits,\nbut never avenge injuries.\u201d Notwithstanding the great persecution of\nConfucians in b.c. 212, by the Ts\u2019in rulers, and other smaller attempts\nto destroy the new system of morality in favour of the sun-gods, the\nmoral code of Confucius was publicly permitted to be used in A.D. 57,\nand since the seventh century has almost entirely taken the place of\ngod-worship, a few only of the more uneducated classes still professing\nto worship Fo-hi.\n\nMohammedanism, or Islamism, the reformed faith of Arab polytheists,\narose in the sixth century of our era. Mahomet, or Mohammed, was a\nyoung religious enthusiast, a camel-driver of Mecca, who determined\nto uproot the idolatry and superstition of the Arab tribes, and was\nsingularly successful in his arduous undertaking. He had a powerful\naversion to all kinds of priestcraft, sacrifices, and superstitious\nordeals, and boldly preached the unity of God, declaring that \u201cthere\nis but one God, and Mahomet is his prophet.\u201d Of all the religions\nof the world, perhaps none has been more successful than this; and,\ncertainly, not one ever spread so rapidly over the face of the earth.\nIn less than 100 years after the decease of the prophet the Khalifs\nof Islamism were masters of the whole of Northern Africa, Spain, and\npart of France, besides a great portion of Asia; which vast territories\nthey retained possession of for about 600 years, encouraging the while\nphilosophical and scientific studies, establishing libraries, schools,\nand universities, and otherwise benefitting the human race. At the\npresent day upwards of 100,000,000 people embrace this faith, whose God\nis Allah, the great unity, whose prophet is Mahomet, and whose Bible is\nthe Koran.\n\nWe now come to Christianism, that widely-spread faith, whose cradle was\nAlexandria, whose nursery was Rome, and whose workshop was Europe. The\nfounder of this religion, if he ever lived at all, about which there is\nconsiderable doubt, was a young ascetic monk belonging to the Essenes\u2014a\nSyrian branch of the large order of Therapeut\u00e6\u2014whose headquarters were\nin Alexandria. His name was Yahoshua ben Pandira and Stada; he was born\nabout B.C. 120, in the reign of Alexander Jann\u00e6us; and he preached the\ndoctrines of Confucius, declaring publicly that the priests were liars\nand hypocrites, and inculcating communistic and socialistic theories.\nHe gained many lowly followers, who followed him about preaching in the\nopen air, and begging their bread from day to day, and, at last, was\npublicly executed for his seditious conduct.\n\nAt the same time a remarkable mental revolution was taking place in\nGreece and Egypt, the natural homes of mythology; the University of\nAlexandria and the Academic Groves of Athens were fast sending to the\nright-about-face the old superstitions, much to the dismay of the\npriests and religious fanatics, who were driven to their wits\u2019 end to\nknow how to counteract this dangerous tendency of the age towards\ninfidelity and science. The idea struck them of utilising for their\npurpose the new sect of religious reformers, who lived according to\nthe teaching of the young socialist, Yahoshua; they boldly declared\nthat this man was, when on earth, an incarnate deity, and proceeded\nto attribute to him all the miraculous performances that had been\npreviously imputed to the sun-god Bacchus; and commenced forthwith\nto prepare their documentary evidences ready for the ignorant and\ncredulous multitudes. A new sect of the Therapeut monks of Alexandria\ncame into existence, called Eclectics, whose mission was to collect\nall that was good and useful in the religions of their neighbours, and\ncommit them to manuscript for the use of their monasteries and the\npriestly class generally. It did not take long to fabricate a very\nimposing story of the young man Yahoshua, whom they now called Iesous\n(\u0399\u03b7\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2, a name used by the Greeks to signify a hero personification\nof the sun-god Bacchus, the Ph\u0153nician \u0399\u03b7\u03c2), Greek being at that time\nthe prevailing language of Lower Egypt. The performances of the ancient\nsun-gods of Egypt, Persia, Arabia, India, Greece, Ph\u0153nicia, and Italy\nwere recalled to the minds of these Eclectic monks, by diligent search\namong their old musty MSS., and, after carefully and judiciously\ncollating the fables, they were enabled to clothe their new Iesous, or\nJesus, with all the leading characteristics of these various deities.\nHe was born of a virgin at midnight between December 24th and December\n25th, as were all the sun-gods: his birth, like that of Mithra and that\nof Krishna, was foretold: a star pointed out the place of his nativity,\nas in the case of Mithra: his birth-place was a manger in a stable, as\nin the case of Hercules; or, according to another account, a cave, as\nin the case of Mithra and Horus: he cured the sick, as did \u00c6sculapius:\nhe fasted in the wilderness, as did Buddha: he performed miracles, as\ndid Bacchus, Hercules, and others: he turned water into wine, as did\nthe Egyptian Bacchus, and as was done at the Bacchanalian orgies: he\nwas crucified, as were also Krishna, Osiris, and Prometheus: he rose\nfrom the dead after having been in the grave three days and three\nnights, as did all the sun-gods: he descended to hell, as did all the\nsun-gods: he was called Saviour (\u03a3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1, Gr., and Saot\u00e8s, Egyp.) and\nLamb of God (_Agnus Dei_), as were all the sun-gods (\u0396\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2 \u03a3\u03c9\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1, Mises\nSaot\u00e8s, etc.); Amen, as was Jupiter Ammon (\u0396\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2 \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd); Christ, or the\nAnointed (\u03c7\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2), as was Osiris; Son of God, as were Plato\u2019s Logos\n(\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2), Bacchus, Mithra, and Horus; Holy Word (of Plato and Philo), as\nalso was Horus; God of Love, as were Adonis, Mithra, and Krishna; Light\nof the World, as were all the sun-gods; and, like his _alter ego_,\nKrishna, The Resurrection, The Incarnate, The Beginning and the End,\nExisting before All Things, Chief of Prophets, and Messenger of Peace:\nhe was the incarnation of one third of a trinity, as were also Horus,\nKrishna, and Plato\u2019s Logos: his day was called the Day of the Sun: his\nfollowers were called Christians, and his priests Bishops of Christ,\njust as were those of Osiris: his priests absolved sins, received\nconfessions, and practised celibacy, as did the priests of Bacchus,\nAdonis, Mithra, Krishna, Buddha, etc.: his feast was called the Lord\u2019s\nSupper and the Mystery of the Night, as were those of Bacchus, Adonis,\nand Osiris: these suppers became, in course of time, obscene midnight\norgies, as did those of Bacchus and Adonis: at these suppers the\ninsignia over the table were the letters \u0399 \u0397 \u03a3 (the Ph\u0153nician name\nof Bacchus, in Greek capitals), surrounded by the rays of light and\nsurmounted by a crucifix and a bleeding lamb, precisely as was the case\nwith the Bacchanalian orgies: at the Lord\u2019s Supper bread and wine were\ntransubstantiated into the body and blood of Jesus, exactly as was done\nin the case of Bacchus and Osiris: and lights were used at these feasts\njust as they were at the Bacchanalian orgies.\n\nThese fables were carefully compiled together, attributed to various\nimaginary authors, and finally issued to the people as an appendix,\nor New Testament, to the volume of the old Jewish Scriptures, or Old\nTestament. Thus were gathered together by the Alexandrian Eclectics\nthe principal essentials of all the old mythological cults, and thus\ncame into existence the huge and powerful system of religion called\nChristianism, which has been the great curse of Europe for well nigh\ntwo thousand years. From the brutal murder of Hypatia, in a Christian\nchurch, by the fanatical mob of a Christian bishop, down to the last\npoor wretch burnt alive at the stake by the orders of the Church of\nJesus, the story of Christian infamy is not relieved by one bright\nspot. Humanity stands aghast, and shudders at the hideous tale of crime\nwhich the history of Christian Europe unfolds. It is one long wail of\nanguish, poured forth by suffering man, finding relief only in the\nsilence of the grave\u2014that stronghold of peace within which neither\ngod, devil, priest, nor tyrant can wreak their diabolical vengeance\nfurther. How terrible have been the sufferings of poor Humanity under\nthe ghastly shadow of the Cross is beautifully expressed in Shelley\u2019s\n\u201cQueen Mab,\u201d in the dialogue between the spirit of Ianthe and the Fairy\nQueen:\u2014\n\n  SPIRIT.   I was an infant when my mother went\n    To see an Atheist burned. She took me there:\n    The dark-robed priests were met around the pile\n    The multitude was gazing silently;\n    And as the culprit passed with dauntless mien,\n    Tempered disdain in his unaltering eye,\n    Mixed with a quiet smile, shone calmly forth:\n    The thirsty fire crept round his manly limbs;\n    His resolute eyes were scorched to blindness soon;\n    His death-pang rent my heart! the insensate mob\n    Uttered a cry of triumph, and I wept.\n    Weep not, child! cried my mother, for that man\n    Has said, There is no God.\n\n  FAIRY.   There is no God!\n    Nature confirms the faith his death-groan seal\u2019d:\n    Let heaven and earth, let man\u2019s revolving race,\n    His ceaseless generations, tell their tale;\n    Let every part depending on the chain\n    That links it to the whole, point to the hand\n    That grasps its term! Let every seed that falls,\n    In silent eloquence unfold its store\n    Of argument: infinity within,\n    Infinity without, belie creation;\n    The exterminable spirit it contains\n    Is Nature\u2019s only God; but human pride\n    Is skilful to invent most serious names\n    To hide its ignorance.\n                              The name of God\n    Has fenced about all crime with holiness,\n    Himself the creature of his worshippers,\n    Whose names and attributes and passions change,\n    Seeva, Buddh, Foh, Jehovah, God, or Lord,\n    Even with the human dupes who build his shrines,\n    Still serving o\u2019er the war-polluted world\n    For desolation\u2019s watchword; whether hosts\n    Stain his death-blushing chariot wheels, as on\n    Triumphantly they roll, whilst Brahmins raise\n    A sacred hymn to mingle with the groans;\n    Or countless partners of his power divide\n    His tyranny to weakness; or the smoke\n    Of burning towns, the cries of female helplessness,\n    Unarmed old age, and youth, and infancy,\n    Horribly massacred, ascend to heaven\n    In honour of his name; or, last and worst,\n    Earth groans beneath religion\u2019s iron age,\n    And priests dare babble of a God of peace,\n    Even while their hands are red with guiltless blood,\n    Murdering the while, uprooting every germ\n    Of truth, exterminating, spoiling all,\n    Making the earth a slaughter-house!\n\nThere is no God! What, then, caused this mighty universe? To be caused\nimplies a cause, certainly; and that cause must, in the very nature of\nthings, be adequate for the production of the effect manifested. But,\ninasmuch as cause and effect are but relative terms, the cause could\nnot exist independently of the effect, and _vice vers\u00e2_. Therefore, as\nfar as the human mind is capable of mentating, the universe could not\nhave been caused. It is, therefore, eternal. What that inherent power\nof matter is that hides itself so mysteriously behind the phenomena of\nnature we cannot tell, farther than that, being the inherent property\nof eternal matter, it also is eternal. This point is the limit of\nthe human understanding, beyond which it is apparently impossible\nat present for the mind of man to soar. In the words of Mr. Herbert\nSpencer, \u201cthere is a power behind humanity and behind all things; a\npower of which humanity is but a small and fugitive product; a power\nwhich was, in the course of ever-changing manifestations, before\nhumanity was, and will continue through all other manifestations when\nhumanity has ceased to be.\u201d This power, of which matter and motion,\nthought and volition, are but the phenomenal manifestations, and which\nregulates the varied movements of those myriads of stellar systems\ninterspersed throughout the infinity of space\u2014this exhaustless power\nof life and energy is to the human mind, as at present constituted,\nunknowable. Call it Law; call it Gravity; call it the Mysterious\nUnknown; but call it not God, that word which has brought so much\nbitter anguish to humanity, and which blighted the beauty of nature,\ncausing hate where love should be, and tears to fall where smiles\nshould gladden the heart of man. Whether or not the mind of man in\nfuture ages will be able to lift the veil that at present lies between\nhim and the Great Unknown time alone can tell.\n\nAt present we are at the mercy of an imperfectly-developed nervous\norganisation, with its five special senses, which, though very far\nsuperior to the lowly nervous development of our remote ancestors\nof millions of centuries back in the history of life, is perfectly\ninadequate for the solution of the great problem of existence. But\na time will probably arrive in the dim and misty future when other\nand more important senses will be evolved within the human frame,\nwhich may bring man nearer the elucidation of this greatest of all\nmysteries. Meanwhile let us apply ourselves boldly to the uprooting of\nthe old Upas tree of religious faith\u2014that pernicious development of the\ngod-idea that has been the constant blight of all ages, stifling reason\nby fostering blind faith and gross credulity, robbing the race of all\nthat is noble, manly, and honest, by the propagation of those canker\nworms, hypocrisy and cant, and retarding the temporal salvation of man\nby the substitution of the vain and foolish theory of future rewards\nand punishments.\n\n\n_Printed by Watts & Co., 17, Johnson\u2019s Court, Fleet Street, London,\nE.C._\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: ZODIACAL SIGNS\n\n  LIBRA        A\n  VIRGO        B\n  LEO          C\n  CANCER       D\n  GEMINI       E\n  TAURUS       F\n  ARIES        G\n  PISCES       H\n  AQUARIUS     I\n  CAPRICORNUS  J\n  SAGITARIUS   K\n  SCORPIO      L\n\n  A  Earth\u2019s position at Vernal Equinox B.C.      4340.\n  B    \"         \"     \"    \"      \"      \"       2188.\n  C    \"         \"     \"    \"      \"      \"         36.\n  D    \"         \"     \" Winter Solstice  \"       4340.\n  E    \"         \"     \"    \"      \"      \"       2188.\n  F    \"         \"     \"    \"      \"      \"         36.\n  G    \"         \"     \" Autumnal Equinox \"       4340.\n  H    \"         \"     \"    \"        \"    \"       2188.\n  I    \"         \"     \"    \"        \"    \"         36.\n  J    \"         \"     \" Summer Solstice  \"       4340.\n  K    \"         \"     \"    \"      \"      \"       2188.\n  L    \"         \"     \"    \"      \"      \"         36.\n]\n\n\n[Illustration: INSIGNIA ON THE WALLS IN THE TEMPLES OF BACCHUS]\n\n\n[Illustration: ORIENTAL ZODIAC. After Sir W^(m) Jones.]\n\n\n[Illustration: ANCIENT EGYPTIAN ZODIAC FROM THE TEMPLE OF ISIS DENDERA\nAfter Sir Wm. Drummond.]\n\n\n[Illustration: NORTHERN SIGNS AND EXTRA-ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS.\nB.C. 36 to A.D. 2116.]\n\n\n[Illustration: SOUTHERN SIGNS AND EXTRA-ZODIACAL CONSTELLATIONS.\nB.C. 36 to A.D. 2116.]\n\n[Illustration: _B.C. 4340 TO B.C. 2188._]\n\n[Illustration: _B.C. 36 TO A.D. 2116._]\n\n\n[Illustration: _ZODIACAL LINE OR ECLIPTIC. B.C. 2188 TO B.C. 36._]\n\n\n[Illustration: Bo\u00f6tes  Adam  Joseph the Carpenter\n\nVirgo  Eve  V. Mary\n\nCetus  Blasphemy]\n\n\n[Illustration: Aquarius  John the Baptist.  Peter.\n\nSagittarius.  Joseph son of Jacob.  Philip of Bethsaida.\n\nJ. BENNETT.]\n\n\n[Illustration: \u03a3\u03a9\u03a4\u0397\u03a1 \u039a\u039f\u03a3\u039c\u039f\u03a5\n\nGOD INCARNATE WITH MAN\n\nCOPY OF CELEBRATED BRONZE IN THE VATICAN \u03a3\u03a9\u03a4\u0397\u03a1 \u039a\u039f\u03a3\u039c\u039f\u03a5]\u2014SAVIOUR OF THE\nW0RLD\n\nTaken from Payne Knight\u2019s \u201cPriapus Worship.\u201d\n\nA Cross, the Phallic symbol, has been substituted for the male organ\nerect of the original.]\n\n\n[Illustration: AMULET IN TOWNLEY\u2019S MUSEUM\n\nRepresenting the sexual union of the bull-sun-god, or Active principle\nof generation, with the Passive, or female principle of nature or earth.\n\nCrosses have been here substituted for the erect male organs of the\noriginal.]\n\n[Illustration: PHALLIC LAMP\n\nFound buried in London.\n\nBoth figures are copied from \u201cPriapus Worship\u201d.]\n\n\n[Illustration: VOTIVE OFFERINGS TO GOD PRIAPUS\n\nI. The god\u2019s assistance was sought on behalf of a couple, PRIMINUS and\nMENTILA, who were probably childless. Found in Roman camp at Adel,\nYorkshire, and now in Leeds Philosophical Society\u2019s museum.\n\nII. Found in Roman camp at Westerford Fort, Scotland, upon the wall of\nAntoninus.\n\nIII. Found on one of the gateways of Hadrian\u2019s wall, in the Roman camp\nat Homesteads, Northumberland.\n\nThe above are taken from \u201cPriapus Worship\u201d.]\n\n\n[Illustration: AMULET FORMING DOUBLE CRUX ANSATA\n\nFrom \u201cPriapus Worship\u201d. Two Crosses are here substituted for the male\norgans of the original.]\n\n[Illustration: ANCIENT AMULET\n\nCopied from one in the British Museum.\n\nA Cross is here substituted for the male organ of the original as shown\nin \u201cPriapus Worship\u201d.]\n\n\n\n\nZODIACAL MYTHOLOGY.\n\n\nTo us of the nineteenth century, who have our national institutions for\nthe discovery and propagation of scientific truths, thus being saved\nthe trouble of investigating for ourselves, having only to open a book\nto see when the next eclipse of the sun will take place, or whether\nthe Easter holidays fall later, or earlier than usual, it seems almost\nincredible that there once existed races of men who devoted almost\nall their time to the study of astronomy; but such is nevertheless\nthe fact; and when we consider the different conditions under which\nsociety existed in very remote times from what we are now subject to,\nwe shall at once see that it was not altogether a pleasure, but in\nfact a stern necessity, that impelled the people of those early times\nto make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the various natural\nphenomena taking place around them day after day, month after month,\nand year after year. In those days, when writing was either altogether\nunknown or limited entirely to a few, and when such things as almanacks\nand encyclopedias were not the order of the day, people had to trust\nto their own knowledge of the movements of the heavenly bodies and the\nproperties and uses of plants, etc., for the successful carrying on of\ntheir daily pursuits, which were then principally of an agricultural\nnature. Instead of watches and clocks, the people had only the sun in\nheaven to tell them the hours of the day; instead of monthly almanacks,\nthey had the moon for their guide; and, instead of annual calendars to\nmark the commencement of the seasons, they had only the stars above to\nteach them the proper times to till their lands and sow their grain.\nConsequently, it was absolutely necessary that they should be well\nacquainted with all the movements of the heavenly bodies; and we need\nonly glance at the earliest records of the human race to find that\nthey were more or less full of astronomical allusions\u2014in fact, that the\nprincipal study which engaged the attention of primitive man was the\nstudy of the starry heavens.\n\nIn my lecture on \u201cThe Evolution of the God Idea\u201d I have already pointed\nout how the earliest religious conceptions arose from this study; and\nin my \u201cPopular Faith Unveiled\u201d I have endeavoured to show that, in\nnaming the constellations, the ancients adopted the wise device of\ngiving to groups of stars the names of the particular earth productions\nor earth phenomena that happened to take place at the time when such\nstar groups made their appearance in the heavens. Now, it is a very\nremarkable fact that in those ancient countries of which we have any\nexact knowledge the heavenly bodies received very similar and, in many\ninstances, identical names, which is just what we should expect if the\nabove theory of the naming be correct. Take the zodiac, for example,\nwhich is the line of the apparent annual circuit of the sun, and we\nfind that in Egypt, India, Persia, and Greece it was divided into\ntwelve portions of 30 degrees each, the whole circuit consisting of\n360 degrees; and the equivalent signs bore a wonderful similarity to\neach other. In the old Indian zodiac published in the \u201cPhilosophical\nTransactions\u201d of 1772 the signs are as follows, commencing at the\nvernal equinoxial point:\u2014Ram, Bull, Man with two shields, Crab, Lion,\nVirgin, Balances, Scorpion, Bow and Arrow, Monster with goat\u2019s head\nand fish\u2019s hindquarters, Urn, Fish. In the Indian zodiac published by\nSir W. Jones they are as follows:\u2014Ram, Bull, Youth and Damsel, Crab,\nLion, Virgin in a boat, holding an ear of rice-corn, Man holding the\nbalances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with a bow and arrow, Monster\nwith antelope\u2019s head and fish\u2019s hindquarters, Man carrying a water-pot\non his shoulder, Two Fishes. The ancient Persian zodiacal signs were:\nLamb, Bull, Twins, Crab, Lion, Ear of Corn, Balances, Scorpion, Bow,\nGoat, Pitcher of Water, Two Fishes. In the zodiac depicted on the\nceiling of the Egyptian temple of Isis at Dendera the following are\nthe signs:\u2014Ram, Bull, Twins, Beetle, Lion, Virgin holding an ear of\ncorn, Balances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with bow and arrow, Monster\nwith goat\u2019s head and fish\u2019s hindquarters, Man pouring water from two\nwater-pots, Two Fishes. In Kircher\u2019s Egyptian zodiac the signs are:\u2014Man\nwith ram\u2019s horns, Bull, Twins, Hermes with head of an Ibis, Lion,\nVirgin holding an ear of corn, Man holding the balances, Man with\nserpents for legs and having a serpent twisted round his body, Centaur\nshooting with bow and arrow, Monster with goat\u2019s head and fish\u2019s\nhindquarters, Man with an urn from which water was falling, Woman with\nfish\u2019s tail. Ancient Greek zodiacs had the following signs:\u2014Ram, Bull,\nTwins, Crab, Lion, Virgin, Balances, Scorpion, Centaur shooting with\nbow and arrow, Goat with fish\u2019s hindquarters, Canobus with his pitcher\nof water, Two Fishes. The Romans followed the Greeks, and these signs\nhave since remained unchanged in all modern zodiacs, being now known\nunder the following names:\u2014Aries, the ram; Taurus, the bull; Gemini,\nthe twins; Cancer, the crab; Leo, the lion; Virgo, the virgin; Libra,\nthe balances; Scorpio, the scorpion; Sagittarius, the centaur-archer;\nCapricornus, the goat-fish; Aquarius, the water-bearer; Pisces, the\nfishes.\n\nEach of these signs corresponds with a particular portion of the year,\nvarying according to the slow movement known as the precession of the\nequinoxes, by which all the signs are moved forward very slightly\nyear by year, at the rate of one degree in 71 or 72 years, until, at\nthe end of about 2,152 years, a whole sign has moved forward into the\nposition previously occupied by the sign immediately preceding it.\nThis is caused by the failure of the sun to reach the same point in\nthe same time in his apparent circuit each year; and thus it happens\nthat, in a period of rather less than 26,000 years, each sign will have\nmoved completely round the zodiacal band. Now, by careful calculation\nit has been found that the vernal equinoxial point coincided with the\nfirst degree of Aries about 28,000 years ago, with the first degree\nof Libra about 17,000 years ago, with the first degree of Taurus B.C.\n4,340, with that of Aries B.C. 2,188, and with that of Pisces B.C.\n36; so that, at the present time, the vernal equinoxial point is\nreally occupied by the sign of the fishes, although, for astronomical\npurposes, the sign of the ram is always placed in that position, and\nwill, for the future, always be considered as the first sign of the\nzodiac, no matter what sign may really occupy that position. Thus there\nis now what is called a fixed zodiac, which never changes, and which\nis an arbitrary arrangement made for scientific purposes, and a real\nzodiac whose figures move steadily and slowly year by year, until at\nthe end of rather more than two thousand years the vernal equinoxial\npoint is occupied by the sign immediately following the one which\noccupied it during that period of time.\n\nAlthough now the fixed zodiac is an established fact, such an\narrangement was undreamed of by the ancients, who regulated their\nalmanacks from the actual sign at the time occupying the vernal\nequinoxial point; so that between the years 4340 B.C. and 2188 B.C.\nthe sign of the bull was the first and chief sign of the zodiac, while\nduring the two thousand years following\u2014that is, until 36 B.C.\u2014the\nsign of the ram or lamb took its place. The vernal equinox falls on\nMarch 21st each year, at which time the sun, having ascended from its\nlowest point of declination (December 21st), arrives at that portion\nof its annual course at which the equator and the ecliptic cross each\nother; and thus during the period when the sign of the bull was the\nvernal equinoxial sign the sun was said to be in _Taurus_, while in\nthe following period, when the sign of the ram took the place of that\nof the bull, the sun was said to be in _Aries_. In order to understand\nthoroughly the apparent annual march of the sun round our earth, it\nwill be necessary to observe the actual double motions of our earth\nround the sun and upon its own axis. Let us suppose that we are again\nin the period when the sun was in _Aries_ at the vernal equinox; on the\n21st of March our earth, in travelling round the sun (annual motion),\nhas reached a point at which the sun is placed between us and the first\nstars of _Aries_, which are then, of course, invisible, because when\nthe sun is visible it is daytime\u2014that is, the part of the earth on\nwhich we stand is opposed to the sun, which renders all the stars in\nthat part of the heavens invisible; but, as the earth continues to turn\nupon its axis (daily motion), we gradually lose sight of the sun, and\nas the darkness closes around us the stars upon the opposite side of\nthe heavens become visible; so that, when the sun is in _Aries_, or any\nother sign, that sign is always invisible to us, and at night we see\nthe sign that occupies the opposite side of the zodiac. Day after day,\nas the earth continues to move round the sun, a few more stars in the\nsign _Aries_ are covered, until at the end of a month the sun reaches\nthe next sign, _Taurus_; and the opposite signs, which we see at night,\nhave also moved on to the same extent. Thus at noon on March 21st the\nsun is at its highest daily ascension, south of the zenith, or highest\npoint of the heavens, obliterating by its effulgence the first stars\nof the sign _Aries_, through which it is apparently about to pass, and\nat midnight following the opposite sign, _Libra_, is seen at the same\ndistance from the nadir, or highest point of the darkened heavens;\nwhile a month later, when the sun at noon is in _Taurus_, the sign\n_Scorpio_ is seen at the opposite point at midnight; and so on through\nall the signs, one month being occupied by the passing of the sun\nthrough each sign, so that it passes through _Aries_ in March, _Taurus_\nin April, _Gemini_ in May, _Cancer_ in June, _Leo_ in July, _Virgo_ in\nAugust, _Libra_ in September, _Scorpio_ in October, _Sagittarius_ in\nNovember, _Capricornus_ in December, _Aquarius_ in January, _Pisces_\nin February. This was precisely what occurred in the zodiac during the\nyears from B.C. 2188 to B.C. 36; but in the period of two thousand\nyears immediately preceding this, owing to the precession of the\nequinoxes, the order was changed, so that _Taurus_ was the sign of\nMarch, _Gemini_ of April, and so on, each sign being a month earlier;\nwhile at the present time _Pisces_ is the sign of March, and each other\nsign one month later than when _Aries_ was at the vernal equinoxial\npoint. Each of these signs occupies 30 degrees of the zodiac, the\nwhole twelve making up 360 degrees, which is the total length of the\nimaginary sphere of the heavenly vault; and the ancients again divided\neach of these signs into three portions of ten degrees each, called\ndecans making 36 decans for the complete zodiacal circle. When the\nsun was passing through a sign the astrologers publicly proclaimed\nthe exact moment of its entry upon the first decan, which they called\nthe upper room, the whole sign being called the house of the sun; the\nsecond decan they called the middle or inner room, and the third the\nlower room. On each side of the zodiacal band there are also a number\nof what are called extra-zodiacal constellations, which never vary\ntheir position with regard to the zodiacal signs, the constellations on\neither side of _Aries_ always rising and setting at the same time with\nthat sign, those on each side of _Taurus_ doing likewise, and so on\nthrough all the signs.\n\nAs the various astronomical figures became endowed by the ancients with\ndivine honours, each of these signs became associated with a number of\nromantic stories, until at length the struggles, victories, and defeats\nof the gods were told in such a variety of ways that sufficient lore\nexisted to fill, if written down, whole libraries. The zodiacal signs\nwere all gods of great importance; the planets were gods, the sun was\na god, the moon was a goddess, and the extra-zodiacal constellations\nwere either gods or heroes; but all were not of equal importance, and,\nowing to the constant changing of positions, some were powerful and\nvictorious at one time and weak and dying at another. The chief deity,\nwhich to the Aryans was Dyaus, the day-father, became in later times a\nconcentrated essence of all the gods, and was supposed to undergo all\nthe vicissitudes to which they were subjected; but, inasmuch as the\nnew-born sun was the life of the world, bringing back happiness, and\nthe vernal equinoxial sign was the one at which his influence began to\nbe felt, these two deities were looked upon as god _par excellence_, a\ndual deity, separate yet conjoined, and of equal power and authority.\nSo, when the bull was the vernal equinoxial point, the sun-in-_Taurus_\nwas supreme god; and when the ram, or lamb, was the vernal equinoxial\npoint the sun-in-_Aries_ was supreme God; and, although it was only\nin March that the sun was at the vernal equinoxial point, yet the\nbull-god, for two thousand years prior to B.C. 2188, was always\nsupreme, and the ram-god (in Egypt) or lamb-god (in Persia) after that\ndate. On leaving the vernal equinoxial sign the sun passed into the\nnext in order; but, although then not actually in conjunction with\nthe chief sign, it yet was but slightly removed from it, the distance\ngrowing larger as each fresh sign was occupied; and never were the\nsun and the principal sign actually separated from each other in the\nzodiac, so as to pass into opposite hemispheres, until the autumnal\nequinoxial point was crossed, after which the sun passed successively\nthrough all the winter constellations, being separated for the space\nof six months from the sign of the vernal equinox. Therefore the six\nsummer signs were accounted specially bountiful and holy, the sign of\nthe vernal equinox being the head and chief of the six, while the six\nwinter signs were accounted less holy, but quite as powerful for evil\nas the others were for good.\n\nFrom this was formed the main drama of all subsequent mythological\nsystems, the groundwork of which was, briefly, as follows:\u2014The\nsaviour-sun-god was born at the winter solstice, and ascended to\nthe vernal equinox, where he was united with the bull, becoming the\nbull-god, and in aftertime with the ram or lamb, becoming the ram-god\nor lamb-god: after crossing the equator at the spring covenant, or\ncoming together of the equator and ecliptic, he ascended to the summit\nof the heavens, becoming the lion-god, at the height of his power, and\nthen descending again to the autumnal covenant, or equinox, to pass\nthrough the winter or scorpion signs, alone, and mourning the loss of\nthe vernal equinoxial sign, which was torn from him at the autumnal\nequinox. This simple narrative received numerous embellishments in\nafter times, according to the fancy of the astrologers and priests,\nwho, in many cases, contrived to make out of it a beautiful poem or a\nsublime allegorical drama.\n\nIn describing the entry of the sun upon any particular sign the ancient\nastrologers were in the habit of referring, not only to the sign\nitself and to its decans, but also to the accompanying extra-zodiacal\nconstellations, as well as to the visible zodiacal signs and\nextra-zodiacal constellations of the opposite hemisphere. For instance,\nduring the period of the lamb\u2019s supremacy (B.C. 2188 to B.C. 36) the\nposition of the stars at the moment of the commencement of the annual\napparent march of the sun round the zodiac was as follows:\u2014The first\nstars of the zodiacal sign _Capricornus_ were at the winter solstitial\npoint, December 21st, and invisible to the eye, being directly south of\nthe zenith at noon, the extra-zodiacal constellations _Picis Australis_\non the south, and _Aquila_ on the north, being on either side of it,\nand the zodiacal signs _Sagittarius_ in front and _Aquarius_ behind,\naccompanying it in its march; while on the opposite side of the\nzodiac, at midnight, was seen, directly to the south of the nadir, the\nsign _Cancer_, in which were the _Pr\u00e6sepe_, or stable of Augias; the\n_Io-sepe_, cradle of Jupiter or manger of Jao; and the _Aselli_, or two\nasses; on the east the sign _Virgo_ was just about to appear above the\nhorizon; on the western horizon was the sign _Aries_, above which, and\ncrossing the equator, was the extra-zodiacal constellation _Orion_,\nwith the three large stars in his belt; and immediately below which was\nthe sea monster _Cetus_, just sinking below the horizon. In proclaiming\nthe birth of the sun at Christmas, therefore, the astrologers would\nmake mention of all these points; and, consequently, the more prominent\nand interesting of them would become impressed more or less upon the\nminds of the people, to be converted in after times into various\nfantastic and romantic fables, as the manufacture of gods out of these\nastronomical phenomena proceeded.\n\nThe principal astronomical features of this annual sun-birth were,\ntherefore, as follows:\u2014The birth took place in the house of the goat,\nexactly opposite to which were the manger of Jao and the stable of\nAugias, between two asses; at the same moment the virgin was about to\nappear above the eastern horizon; the lamb was, as it were, hurling\nthe sea monster _Cetus_ below the western horizon; and the three\nbrilliant stars, called the three kings, in the belt of _Orion_, were\nshining above the lamb, on the opposite horizon to where, after the\nlapse of sixteen days (January 6th), would appear that brilliant star\n_Vindemiatrix_, the Virgin by that time having risen sufficiently high\nabove the horizon for that orb, which is situated in her elbow, to be\nseen at midnight.\n\nAll the subsequent fables concerning the birth of a saviour-god were\nbut modifications of this. Mithra, Krishna, Horus, Bacchus, Jesus,\nand, in fact, all the sun-gods, were born on December 25th, at\nmidnight; and the stories related of each bore a marked resemblance\nto each other. The real birthday of the sun-god was December 22nd,\nat the first hour; but it was always reckoned from the same time on\nDecember 25th, because at that moment, and not before, the first stars\nof _Virgo_ appeared above the horizon, which was the sign by which it\nbecame known that the birth had actually taken place three days and\nthree nights previously. This gave rise to a popular notion that the\nsun-god struggled for that length of time at each of the solstitial and\nequinoxial points, and accounts for the fable of the two crucifixions\nwhen the sun-god, in crossing the equator in March and September, was,\nfor three days and three nights, in torture before he finally ascended\nto heaven in the one case, and descended to hell in the other.\n\nThe Christian myth of the birth and death of the saviour-god, although\nnow considerably amplified and converted into a long history, was\noriginally, no doubt, of a much simpler form, and, probably, of the\nfollowing nature:\u2014Jesus, the sun-god, was born at midnight, between\nDecember 24th and December 25th, his mother, _Virgo_, having been three\ndays and three nights in the agony of childbirth; the virgin, not\nbeing allowed to enter the house of the goat, being on the opposite\nside of the zodiac, was obliged to seek refuge in the stable of Augias\n(_Cancer_), and place her baby in the manger of Jao, at which moment\nthe lamb of god, _Aries_, hurled into the abyss the great monster of\nevil, or _Cetus_; the three kings in the belt of _Orion_, perceiving,\non January 6th, the great star _Vindemiatrix_ rise in the east,\nwhich was their guiding star, made obeisance to the new-born god\nand disappeared below the horizon, going down by the west, instead\nof returning by the east, or way they had come. Growing from this\nmoment, the young sun-god commenced his journey towards the city of\ngod, the summer solstice, at the top of the hill, or height of annual\nascension, meeting at the outset _Aquarius_, the man with the pitcher\nof water, or John the Baptist, with whom he remained for a time; after\nwhich he entered upon the season of fasting, or the sign _Pisces_,\nthe fishes, and prepared by austerities for the coming feast of the\nPassover, or coming together (covenant) of the ecliptic and equator,\nwhen he would be crucified\u2014that is, be placed cross-wise on the two\nlines (ecliptic and equator). After this he entered into the sign,\n_Aries_, the lamb, having been shown the way by the man with the\npitcher of water, _Aquarius_, and partook of the feast in the upper\nroom or first decan, immediately after which he was crucified as the\nlamb of god\u2014that is, passed the crossing of the equator and ecliptic\nin the sign of the lamb. For three days and three nights he struggled\nin the tomb, or suspense, and then ascended into heaven, accompanied\nby the lamb, passing the signs _Taurus_ and _Gemini_, saying to the\ntwins that he could stay with them but a little while, and where he\nwas going they could not go (John xii.), and finally reaching the\ncity of heaven, Jerusalem, or _Cancer_, passing over the two asses\n(_Aselli_) at the entrance to it. Here, on the top of the mount, or\nat the height of his annual ascension, he had another three days and\nthree nights of tribulation, struggling with the devil, the heavenly\nserpent, who had led or preceded him up the mount, but who left him as\nsoon as he arrived at the top; for _Serpens_, at this point, returns\nwhile the sun commences his descent towards the autumnal crucifixion.\nPassing into _Leo_, he was transfigured on the mount\u2014that is, became\nmore resplendent than ever, after which he entered _Virgo_, where the\nseductions of the lady sorely tempted him, for being offered the juice\nof the autumn grape he drank copiously with the damsel until none was\nleft; whereupon she suggested that he should turn water into wine, but\nhe resisted further temptation, exclaiming, \u201cWoman, what have I to do\nwith thee?\u201d and pursued his course towards the autumnal equinox, where\nhe passed into _Libra_ and crossed the equator and ecliptic again,\nor, in other words, was crucified in Egypt as the \u201cjust man,\u201d being\nat length separated from _Aries_ for six months, which caused him to\nexclaim in grief, \u201cMy ram! my ram! why hast thou forsaken me?\u201d After\nthree days\u2019 and three nights\u2019 struggle he descended into hell, the\ntomb, or the dark regions, to be born again at the winter solstice\nas before; after which he would reconquer the powers of evil, or the\nwinter signs, and again become the lamb of god, \u201cslain from the\nfoundation of the world\u201d (Rev. xiii. 8) the Amen, or Jupiter Ammon, of\nthe Apocalypse, at which moment he exclaims, \u201cI am he that liveth and\nwas dead, and behold I, Amen, am alive for evermore\u201d (Rev. i. 18), and\n\u201cThese things saith Amen, the true and faithful witness, the beginning\nof the creation of God\u201d (Rev. iii. 14). The winter period, commencing\nwith _Libra_, was called by the ancients the period of scorpions,\nbecause _Scorpio_ was the principal sign of the period, and next after\nthe equinoxial sign; Egypt (see Rev. xi. 8), because, that being the\nmost southerly country then known, the sun appeared to descend into it\nat that time of the year; and Sodom, Gomorrah, etc., because it was a\nperiod of evil. The sea-monster, _Cetus_, is the same that is referred\nto in Rev. xiii. as blasphemy, with a mouth like a lion, feet like a\nbear, and leopard-like marks on its forequarters, and whose number was\ndeclared to be 666, which figure being made up of \u05e1 60, \u05ea 400, \u05d5 6, and\n\u05e8 200, stands for the word \u05e1\u05ea\u05d5\u05e8, Setur, the concealed one, the Latin\nequivalent of which is _Cetus_. This was probably something like the\noriginal Christian myth, which, as time wore on, became converted into\nthe absurd story presented to us in the four Gospels.\n\nThe story of Adonis being separated from his darling Venus for six\nmonths, and being afterwards re-united to her in love for another six\nmonths, was fabricated from the same source; as also were the legends\nof Osiris and Horus, Vishnu and Krishna, Ormuzd and Mithras, Jupiter\nand Apollo, Jupiter and Bacchus, and Jupiter and Hercules. The cult\nof Bacchus, indeed, was almost a _fac simile_ of those of Jesus and\nAdonis, the three being but representations in different countries of\nthe very same drama. The twelve labours of Hercules were no more than\nthe passage of the sun through the twelve signs of the zodiac, just as\nthe twelve patriarchs, the twelve tribes, the twelve stones, and the\ntwelve apostles were the twelve signs themselves. In my \u201cPopular Faith\nUnveiled\u201d I have pointed out the reasons for thinking the twelve sons\nof Jacob and the twelve apostles to be the twelve zodiacal signs; but I\nmay here state that, on re-consideration, I am inclined to modify the\norder maintained there in regard to the twelve sons of Jacob (p. 122)\nby changing the places of Benjamin and Zebulun, the former being, in\nmy present opinion, the sign _Gemini_, and the latter _Capricornus_;\nand as to the twelve apostles, I may here supply an omission made in\nthe same work, by stating that Andrew (p. 198) represents _Aries_, of\nMarch, being always depicted with a \u00d7, which forms the angle made by\nthe crossing of the equator and ecliptic on March 21st. The mystic\nnumber seven was derived from the summer signs of the zodiac, including\nthe two equinoxial signs, which were called the pillars of the temple,\nthe vault of the summer heavens being the temple itself. Thus arose\nthe allusions to the seven trumpets, the seven candlesticks, the seven\nchurches, and the seven seals in the Apocalypse, each of which was a\nsummer zodiacal sign; and here I may again supply an omission in my\n\u201cPopular Faith Unveiled\u201d (p. 246) by stating that the church of Smyrna\nrepresented _Virgo_, of August, in which month bundles of myrrh were\nalways offered to the sun, the word \u03a3\u03bc\u03c5\u03c1\u03bd\u03b1 signifying \u201cmyrrh.\u201d\n\nBesides mystic numbers, there were a number of mystic symbols in use\namong the ancients, by which the great and important phenomena in\nnature were kept constantly before the eyes of the people. The chief\nand most widely known symbol is the cross, representing the ascending\nsun bringing back fresh life to the world at the vernal equinox; but\nthe cross was by no means the only symbol of this important occurrence;\ntrees, torches, the male organs of generation, or phallus, and\nvarious animals were frequently used for the same purpose\u2014in fact,\nthe symbolical worship of the ancients assumed gigantic proportions,\nalmost every conceivable device being seized upon to render homage to\nthe great re-fertiliser of the earth. No one of the religious cults was\nfree from a large admixture of what is known as phallic worship\u2014that\nis, worship of the fertilising principle; and it was a common custom\nfor people to swear by their generative organs, as being the most\nsacred things on earth, representing the divine energy in a state of\nprocreative activity. Thus we find in Psalm lxxxix. 49 the following\nwords (literally translated): \u201cO my Adonis, where are thy endearments\nof old, which thou swearedst for the sake of love by thy phallus, O\nAmmon?\u201d The Hebrew letter \u05ea was the sign of the cross, or phallus,\nwhich was also used by the Ph\u0153nicians, being derived from the Arabic\n\u05ea\u05f1], the sybol of the life-giver. This passage evidently had reference\nto the violent death of Adonis, who, at the autumnal equinox, was\nattacked by a wild boar, which tore away his generative organs and\nrendered him consequently impotent, until he was born again, when he\nacquired fresh powers and grew in beauty and stature, ready to re-unite\nwith Venus at the spring equinox.\n\nOn the mithraitic monuments the spring equinox is represented by\nlighted and elevated torches, trees covered with leaves, entire bulls,\nand young men holding lighted torches; while the autumnal equinox is\nrepresented by a hydra, or long serpent, a scorpion, reversed and\nextinguished torches, trees loaded with autumn fruits, a bull with\nits generative organs torn away, and old men holding reversed and\nextinguished torches. The Rev. G. W. Cox, M.A. and scholar of Trinity\nCollege, Oxford, in his \u201cMythology of the Aryan Nations,\u201d says: \u201cThe\nmale and female powers of nature were denoted respectively by an\nupright and an oval emblem, and the conjunction of the two furnished\nat once the altar and the ashera, or grove, against which the Hebrew\nprophets lifted up their voice in earnest protest.... In the kingdom\nboth of Judah and Israel the rites connected with these emblems assumed\ntheir most corrupting form. Even in the temple itself stood the Ashera,\nor the upright emblem on the circular altar of Baal-Peor, the Priapos\nof the Jews, thus reproducing the Linga and Yoni of the Hindu. For this\nsymbol the women wove hangings, as the Athenian maidens embroidered the\nsacred peplos for the ship presented to Athene at the great Dionysiac\nfestival. Here, at the winter solstice, they wept and mourned for\nTammuz, the fair Adonis, done to death by the boar.... Here, also,\non the third day, they rejoiced at the resurrection of the lord of\nlight. Hence, as most intimately connected with the reproduction of\nlife on earth, it became the symbol under which the sun, invoked with\na thousand names, has been worshipped throughout the world as the\nrestorer of the powers of nature after the long sleep or death of\nwinter.\u201d\n\nThis symbol was from the earliest times venerated as a protecting\npower, and Jacob, on his journey to Laban, slept under its protecting\ninfluence: placed erect\u2014sometimes as a tree, at others as a cross, and\noften as a phallus\u2014and resting on a crescent, the modified form of the\nyoni, this symbol set forth the marriage of heaven and earth; and in\nthe form of a serpent, representing life and healing, it was worshipped\nby the Egyptians and Jews. In the book of Genesis the phallic tree is\nintroduced, where it is called the tree of knowledge of good and evil.\nFrom Plutarch we learn that the Egyptians represented Osiris with the\norgan of generation erect, to show his generative and prolific power,\nand that he was the same deity as the Bacchus of the Greek mythology\nand the first begotten love (\u0395\u03c1\u03c9\u03c2 \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2) of Orpheus and Hesiod.\nIn an excellent work entitled \u201cDiscourse on the Worship of Priapus,\u201d\nby Richard Payne Knight, there are a number of plates illustrating the\nmode in which this phallic worship was carried on by the ancients,\nsome of which are very curious and well worth the trouble of studying\ncarefully. One plate represents a celebrated bronze in the Vatican,\nwith the male organs of generation placed on the head of a cock, the\nemblem of the rising sun, supported by the neck and shoulders of a man,\nthe whole being emblematical of god incarnate with man, and on the\nbase of which are inscribed the words \u03a3\u03a9\u03a4\u0397\u03a1 \u039a\u039f\u03a3\u039c\u039f\u03a5, \u201cSaviour of the\nworld.\u201d Another figure on the same plate represents an ornament in the\nBritish Museum, consisting of a male organ with wings and the foot of\na man suspended from a chain. Another plate shows two representations\nof the god Pan, one with the organ erect, the symbol of power, or\nspring, the other with the organ in a state of tumid languor, and\nloaded with the productions of the earth, the symbol of the results of\nprolific efforts. Both these last are copies of bronzes in the museum\nof C. Townley. On another plate is a copy of another of Mr. Townley\u2019s\ntreasures, representing the incarnation of deity, in the shape of a\nman having sexual intercourse with a goat, the emblem of the new-born\ndeity at the winter solstice, to which is appended the following note\nby Mr. Payne Knight: \u201cAt Mendes a living goat was kept as the image\nof the generative power, to whom the women presented themselves naked,\nand had the honour of being publicly enjoyed by him. Herodotus saw the\nact openly performed (\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b5\u03c0\u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03be\u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd), and calls it a prodigy\n(\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2). But the Egyptians had no such horror of it; for it was to them\na representation of the incarnation of the deity, and the communication\nof his creative spirit to man. It was one of the sacraments of that\nancient church, and was, without doubt, beheld with that pious awe and\nreverence with which devout persons always contemplate the mysteries of\ntheir faith, whatever they happen to be.\u201d This figure represented the\nhuman male symbol as incarnate with the divine, instead of the divine\nmale incarnate with the human, as in the well-known one found among the\nruins of Herculaneum and kept concealed in the Royal Museum of Portici.\nIt is unnecessary to describe the whole of the interesting plates which\nillustrate Mr. Knight\u2019s work, copies of all of which I have carefully\ntaken.\n\nThere is abundant evidence in ancient authors as to the prevalence\nof this worship of the generative organs, and all agree as to the\nreal meaning of the symbol. In every part of the then known world the\nconquering sun bringing back life to the world at the spring equinox\nwas represented in some phallic form or other, either as a cross, a\nphallus, a tree, a serpent, a goat, a bull, a torch, or some other\ndevice emblematic of the sexual union of the powers of heaven with\nmother earth. The cross was the most commonly used phallic symbol,\nand was generally of the following form\u2014\u2625, the \u043e being the emblem of\nthe earth, or female organ, and the T that of the sun, or fecundating\nprinciple, the combination forming a _crux ansata_, which was worn as\na charm by devout people. This was converted into a simple cross, in\nwhich form, as well as in many others, it is found on ancient temples\nof the most remote periods, as well as at the corners of roads, where\nit evidently was used as a sign-post, as well as a religious symbol.\nAmong the paintings found at Pompeii there are some in which the god\nPriapus is represented as a Hermes, on a square pedestal, with an\nenormous phallus; and others in which he is represented with the usual\nprominent feature, and, in addition, with a long stick in his hand to\npoint out the way to travellers. Herodotus thus describes a festival in\nEgypt:\u2014\u201cThe festival is celebrated almost exactly as Bacchic festivals\nin Greece. They also use, instead of phalli, another invention,\nconsisting of images a cubit high, pulled by strings, which the women\ncarry round to the villages. The virile member of these figures is\nscarcely less than the rest of the body, and this member they contrive\nto move. A piper goes in front, and the women follow, singing hymns in\nhonour of Bacchus.\u201d\n\nAmong the royal offerings to the god Amen by Rameses III. in the great\nHarris Papyrus are loaves (called \u201cTaenhannur\u201d) in the form of the\nphallus.[3] In the Pamelia the Egyptians exhibited a statue provided\nwith three phalli; and in the festivals of Bacchus, celebrated by\nPtolemy Philadelphus, a gilt phallus, 120 cubits high, was carried in\nprocession. St. Jerome tells us that, in Syria, Baal-Peor, the Hebrew\nPriapus, was represented with a phallus in his mouth; and in Ezekiel\nxvi. 17 we find the Jewish women manufacturing silver and golden phalli.\n\n[3] \u201cPrimitive Symbolism,\u201d by Hodder M. Westropp.\n\nAccording to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, the worship of Bacchus was\nimported into Greece by Melampus, who taught the Greeks the mysteries\nconnected with phallic worship; and Plutarch says that \u201cnothing, is\nsimpler than the manner in which they celebrated formerly in my country\nthe Dionysiaca. Two men walked at the head of the procession; one\ncarried an amphora of wine, the other a vine branch; a third led a\ngoat; a fourth bore a basket of figs; a figure of a phallus closed the\nprocession.\u201d\n\nTertullian tells us that that which in the mysteries of Eleusis is\nconsidered as most holy, concealed with most care, and only explained\nto the initiated at the last moment, is the image of the virile member.\nThe festival of Venus, held at Rome in the beginning of April each\nyear, was in honour of the sexual union of the powers of heaven and\nof earth. The Roman ladies led a cart, in which was a huge phallus,\nto the temple of Venus, outside the Colline gate, and there presented\nthe member to the sexual part of the goddess. Spring was, indeed, the\nspecial season for phallic processions, as we learn from a passage of\n\u201cIamblichus de Mysteriis,\u201d given by Mr. Westropp: \u201cWe say the erection\nof the phalli is a certain sign of prolific power, which, through this,\nis called forth to the generative energy of the world; on which account\nmany phalli are consecrated in the spring, because then the whole world\nreceives from the gods the power which is productive of all generation.\u201d\n\nIt is sufficiently obvious that the return of the sun to the vernal\nequinoxial sign each year, or the union of the active and passive\nprinciples, formed the cornerstone of the various religious systems,\nand that this marriage, as it were, of heaven with earth, occurring\neach springtime, and bringing with it such a train of good results,\ngave rise to the most sacred institutions and rites, which to us may\nappear disgusting, but which, to the ancients, were looked upon with\nthe greatest awe and veneration.\n\nIt was not to the generative organs that the ancients offered\nhomage, but to the principles represented by them\u2014to the active and\nprocreative power of the god of nature, the prolific ram-sun, at\nthe spring equinox, and to the passive and recipient mother-earth,\nthe womb of nature, from which we all emanate and to which we all\nreturn. It is, however, reasonable to imagine, with the Rev. G. W.\nCox, that \u201cit is clear that such a cultus as this would carry with\nit a constantly-increasing danger, until the original character of\nthe emblem should be as thoroughly disguised as the names of some of\nthe Vedic deities when transferred to Hellenic soil.\u201d Indeed, it is\nmatter of history that these rites, which were held so sacred by the\nEgyptians, were turned to the basest and most wicked purposes in after\ntimes by the worshippers of Bacchus, Adonis, and other deities. The\nBacchanalian mysteries and secret rites called _Dionysia_, or Supper\nof the lord Dionysos, were publicly denounced by the Roman authorities\nat the commencement of our era, as were also the _Adonia_, or Suppers\nof the lord Adonis, and the Love Feasts, _Agap\u00e6_, or Suppers of the\nlord Jesus. From Gibbon we learn that the early Christians were in the\nhabit of committing at their Love Feasts the most unnatural crimes\nwith sisters, mothers, and others, as is also clearly testified by\nJustin Martyr, Athenagoras, Tertullian, and Minucius Felix; and Livy\u2019s\naccount of similar practices indulged in by the Bacchanalians at their\n_Dionysia_ leaves no doubt as to their participation in these horrors.\nSo widely spread was this phallic worship that, within one hundred\nyears of the present time, it was openly followed in some parts of\nEurope, as appears from a letter of Sir William Hamilton, K.B., British\nMinister at the Court of Naples, to Sir Joseph Banks, Bart., President\nof the Royal Society. Accompanying the letter the writer sends an\namulet worn by women and children of Naples and the neighbourhood as\nornaments of dress, which they imagine will be a preservative against\n_mal occhii_ (\u201cevil eyes\u201d), or enchantment. It represents a hand\nclenched, with the point of the thumb thrust between the index and\nmiddle finger, on one side, and a male organ erect on the other side,\nwith a ring, or female organ, above, and a flaccid male organ and\nscrotum beneath, the whole in the form of a cross. The letter is so\nremarkable that it is worth while reproducing a considerable portion of\nit, as it appears in Mr. Knight\u2019s work.\n\n\u201cThe following is the account of the F\u00eate of St. Cosmo and Damiano,\nas it was actually celebrated at Isernia, on the confines of Abruzzo,\nin the kingdom of Naples, so late as in the year of our Lord 1780. On\nthe 27th of September, at Isernia, one of the most ancient cities of\nthe kingdom of Naples, situated in the province called the Contado di\nMolise, and adjoining to Abruzzo, an annual fair is held, which lasts\nthree days. The situation of this fair is on a rising ground, between\ntwo rivers, about half a mile from the town of Isernia; on the most\nelevated part of which there is an ancient church, with a vestibule.\nThe architecture is of the style of the lower ages; and it is said\nto have been a church and convent belonging to the Benedictine monks\nin the time of their poverty. This church is dedicated to St. Cosmus\nand Damianus. One of the days of the fair the relics of the saints\nare exposed, and afterwards carried in procession from the cathedral\nof the city to this church, attended by a prodigious concourse of\npeople. In the city, and at the fair, _ex-voti_ of wax, representing\nthe male parts of generation, of various dimensions, some even of the\nlength of a palm, are publicly offered to sale. There are also waxen\nvows, that represent other parts of the body mixed with them; but of\nthese there are few in comparison of the number of Priapi. The devout\ndistributors of these vows carry a basket full of them in one hand,\nand hold a plate in the other to receive the money, crying aloud, \u2018St.\nCosmo and Damiano!\u2019 If you ask the price of one, the answer is, _Pi\u00f9\nci metti, pi\u00f9 meriti_\u2014\u2019The more you give, the more\u2019s the merit.\u2019 In\nthe vestibule are two tables, at each of which one of the canons of\nthe church presides, this crying out, _Oui si ricevina le Misse, e\nLitanie_\u2014\u2019Here Masses and Litanies are received;\u2019 and the other, _Oui\nsi riceveno li Voti_\u2014\u2019Here the Vows are received.\u2019 The price of a mass\nis fifteen Neapolitan grains, and of a litany five grains. On each\ntable is a large basin for the reception of the different offerings.\nThe vows are chiefly presented by the female sex; and they are seldom\nsuch as represent legs, arms, &c., but most commonly the male parts\nof generation. The person who was at this f\u00eate in the year 1780, and\nwho gave me this account (the authenticity of every article of which\nhas since been fully confirmed to me by the Governor of Isernia), told\nme also that he heard a woman say, at the time she presented a vow,\nlike that which is represented in Plate I., Fig. I., _Santo Cosimo\nbenedetto, cosi lo voglio_\u2014\u2019Blessed St. Cosmo, let it be like this;\u2019\nanother, _St. Cosimo, a te mi raccommendo_\u2014\u2019St. Cosmo, I recommend\nmyself to you;\u2019 and a third, _St. Cosimo, ti ruigrazio_\u2014\u2019St. Cosmo, I\nthank you.\u2019 The vow is never presented without being accompanied by\na piece of money, and is always kissed by the devotee at the moment\nof presentation. At the great altar in the church another of its\ncanons attends to give the holy unction, with the oil of St. Cosmo;\nwhich is prepared by the same receipt as that of the Roman Ritual,\nwith the addition only of the prayer of the Holy Martyrs, St. Cosmus\nand Damianus. Those who have an infirmity in any of their members\npresent themselves at the great altar, and uncover the member affected\n(not even excepting that which is most frequently represented by\nthe _ex-voti_); and the reverend canon anoints it, saying, _Per\nintercessionem beati Cosmi, liberet te ab omni malo, Amen_. The\nceremony finishes by the canons of the church dividing the spoils, both\nmoney and wax, which must be to a very considerable amount, as the\nconcourse at this f\u00eate is said to be prodigiously numerous.\u201d\n\nAt the present day phallic symbolism is perpetuated in our church\nsteeples, in the crosses and circles on our altars and prayer-books,\nin the pictures of the lamb holding a cross within a circle on our\nchurch windows, in the cross-buns eaten at the paschal feast, in the\nEaster eggs, and in various other ways; while the Pyramids of Egypt\nand the Luxor obelisks\u2014one in London, one in Paris, and one in St.\nPetersburg\u2014form a connecting phallic link between the ancient Egyptians\nand ourselves. The sphynx has been said by some to be a phallic figure;\nbut I do not subscribe to this view at all, holding the opinion that\nit is simply a union of two zodiacal signs, July and August of the\nfixed zodiac. It appears to me that at a very remote time, when the\nsign _Virgo_ was about to be supplanted at the vernal equinox by the\nnext sign, _Leo_\u2014somewhere about fifteen thousand years ago, or rather\nlater\u2014the priests or astrologers hit upon the idea of placing the head\nof _Virgo_ upon the shoulders of _Leo_, thus manufacturing a new kind\nof figure, which, on account of its partaking of the dual nature of the\nthen most prominent of the gods, became very popular, and was depicted\nin various forms and in many parts of the country. This may also have\nbeen the _modus faciendi_ of _Capricornus_ and _Sagittarius_, if we\ncan imagine a still earlier period when the zodiac was so different\nfrom the present form as to have signs represented by a fish, a goat, a\nhorse, and an archer respectively.\n\nNext to the vernal equinoxial sign the ancients held the winter\nsolstitial sign in the greatest veneration, and consequently the\ngoat was a very sacred animal and occupied a prominent place in all\nsymbolical mythologies. It was from this point that the Egyptians\ncalculated their new year, although the Persians always reckoned theirs\nfrom the vernal equinox; and it was on December 21st that the Egyptians\nfixed the creation of the world, which gave origin to the fable of a\ngoat having been the creator, thus accounting for the fact of the\nearly copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch commencing with the following\nwords: \u201cAt the commencement the goat (\u05d4\u05e2\u05d6) renovated the heavens and\nthe earth\u201d (Genesis I. 1). Here we meet with a very good example of the\npatchwork style in which the Bible was compiled. In Egypt the new year\nreckoned from December 21st, and the creation was supposed to date from\nthe same time of the year, and consequently in all records emanating\nfrom the Nile district the celestial goat was honoured for the occasion\nwith the chief godship; but in Persia the new year commenced on March\n21st, the date of the creation being fixed at the same point of the\nzodiac, so that the chief godship was assigned to the celestial lamb\nor ram and its five fellow signs of the summer hemisphere. Therefore,\nas the Hebrews derived their creation fable from the Persians, using\nalso the Egyptian mythology with which to embellish their newly-made\ncosmogony, the two fables became mixed somewhat in the minds of these\nignorant wanderers, the consequence being that in some of their MSS.\nthe creation was said to have been the act of the goat (\u05d4\u05e2\u05d6), while\nin others it was attributed to the ram-sun, Elyah (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4), or the six\nsummer signs commencing with the ram-sun, and called on that account\nthe Elohim (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd), this word being the plural form of Eloh (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05d4) or\nElyah (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4), a compound word made up of Yah (\u05d9\u05d4), the Hebrew name for\nthe sun-god, and El (\u05d0\u05dc), the celestial lamb or ram.\n\nNot only were the three principal signs\u2014the bull, the ram, and the\ngoat\u2014held in great veneration by the Egyptians, but all the zodiacal\nsigns were worshipped in various degrees; indeed, each figure of the\nzodiac can be easily assigned to one of the principal gods of Egypt,\nas they were known prior to B.C. 2188. The ram was Amen, the Egyptian\nJupiter, called Zeus Amen (\u0396\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2 \u0391\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd) by the Greeks and _Jupiter Ammon_\nby the Romans, who was represented with a ram\u2019s head and horns. The\nbull was Apis, or Serapis, worshipped as a living bull, the incarnation\nof the principal deity at the vernal equinox. The twins were the Greek\nCastor and Pollux, who were worshipped by the Egyptians under similar\nnames. The crab was Anubis, the Egyptian Mercury. The lion was Osiris,\nRa, or Phthah, according to the district and age, the sun-god at the\nheight of his power at the summer solstitial point, June 24th. The\nvirgin was Isis, the beloved of Osiris. The balances were included\nwith the scorpion, the two being worshipped as Set-Typhon, Tum, or\nSekru, according to the district and age, the sun-god at the autumnal\nequinox, suffering defeat at the hands of the powers of darkness.\nThe centaur-archer was the Egyptian Hercules. The goat was Pan, or\nMendes. The water-bearer was Horus, the avenger of his father\u2019s defeat,\nborn December 21st, and a conqueror on March 21st; also Mises, the\nEgyptian Bacchus, who, being the sign of the sun-god\u2019s birth, leads the\ntwelve signs out of the land of bondage, and institutes the feast of\ncommemoration at the sign of the lamb, whose horns he wears; and also\nHarmachis. The fishes are Oannes, the Egyptian saviour-fish, who, when\nthat sign was at the winter solstitial point, saved the world as the\nnew-born sun.\n\nThese twelve signs of the zodiac were, in fact, the twelve principal\ngods of all races; the seven summer signs, including the two equinoxial\nsigns, being the seven specially sacred gods, inhabiting the upper\ntemple of the most high god, which was the vault of the summer\nheavens, supported by the two pillars of the equinoxes or covenants.\nAlmost every race had temples divided into upper and lower courts or\nrooms, the upper one being the residence of their chief gods; and\nthese temples were originally meant to represent the universe, having\nan upper hemisphere, governed by the good principle, and a lower\nhemisphere, governed by the bad principle, this idea being frequently\nfurther represented by a closed ark or chest, representing the lower\nor dark hemisphere, upon which sat the chief deity, representing the\ngood principle of the upper hemisphere. The Egyptians, according to\nPlutarch, enclosed the body of Osiris in an ark every year at the\nautumnal equinox, when the sun was in _Scorpio_, which was a rite\nemblematical of the annual death of the sun-god of summer; and the\nJews, it will be remembered, suffered defeat at the hands of the\nPhilistines, immediately after they had taken the ark out of Shiloh,\nwhere it had been deposited, the word Shiloh being the name of a\ntiny group of stars in the sign _Scorpio_. The movable temple of the\nHebrews, or tabernacle, as described in Exodus, is the best example we\nhave of this representation of the universe, being described in such\nminute detail as to betray its meaning to the dullest mind. It was\ndivided into two portions\u2014the lower or outer portion, and the upper or\ninner portion, the holy of holies, where dwelt the Hebrew chief tribal\ngod, Yahouh, or Yah, sitting upon the ark of the covenant, representing\nthe winter part of the heavens between the two covenants or equinoxes.\nOn each side of Yah was a cherub, or monster with four faces (or,\naccording to some, with four bodies)\u2014one like a bull, another like a\nman, a third like an eagle, and the last like a lion, as we find fully\ndescribed by Ezekiel (chap. i.). In my \u201cPopular Faith Unveiled\u201d (pp.\n131, 174, and 247) I have attributed these heads (or bodies) to the\nfour zodiacal signs of ascension after the vernal equinox, that like\na bull to _Taurus_, that like a man to _Gemini_, that like an eagle\nto _Cancer_, and that like a lion to _Leo_; but, according to Sir W.\nDrummond, in his \u201c\u0152dipus Judaicus,\u201d they correspond with the signs\nat the four quarters of the sphere\u2014viz., the man to _Aquarius_, the\nox to _Taurus_, the lion to _Leo_, and the eagle to _Scorpio_, this\ncalculation being based on the supposition that the cherubim were\nfirst introduced during the period prior to B.C. 2188, when _Taurus_\nwas the vernal equinoxial point, while mine supposes _Aries_ to have\nbeen the chief zodiacal sign. Which calculation is right the reader\nmust decide for himself, after carefully studying the reasons given\nfor both conclusions. Clement of Alexandria, in his \u201cStromata,\u201d says\nof these cherubim: \u201cEach of them has six wings, whether they typify\nthe two bears, as some will have it, or, which is better, the two\nhemispheres.... Both have twelve wings, and thus through the circle of\nthe zodiac, and of self-marrying time, they typify the world perceived\nby the senses.\u201d The table in the temple was symbolical of the earth,\nas we learn from Clement of Alexandria again, when he says: \u201cThe\ntable, as I think, signifies the image of the earth; it is sustained by\nfour feet, answering to the summer, autumn, spring, and winter.\u201d The\nshew-bread was placed on the table in front of Yah, and was divided\ninto twelve pieces, typical of the twelve signs, as we find stated in\nEx. xxv. 22 and 30 (literally translated): \u201cAnd I will hang [or be\ndeposited] there, set [or sitting] before thee; and I will talk to thee\nfrom above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubim, which are\nupon the ark of the testimony ... and thou shalt set shew-bread always\nupon the table in front of me.\u201d The candlesticks, with three branches\non each side and one in the centre, having seven lamps burning on them,\nrepresented the seven summer signs, including both the equinoxial ones.\nJosephus tells us that the candlesticks were divided into seventy\nparts, answering to the seventy decans of the seven signs. The veil\nof the temple was of blue, purple, and scarlet, and represented the\natmospheric vault of heaven tinged, as it frequently is, by the sun\u2019s\nrays. The pomegranates represented the fixed stars. The dress of the\nhigh priest was ornamented with 566 bells, corresponding with the days\nof the sidereal year, with two bright emeralds and twelve precious\nstones, which, according to Clement of Alexandria, represented the sun\nand moon and the twelve signs of the zodiac.\n\nSufficient has been said to leave no doubt as to the real meaning of\nthe tabernacle and its appurtenances, and, I think, to establish the\ntruth of what I have previously stated\u2014viz., that the ancient religions\nwere of astronomical origin and abounding in symbolical rites and\nceremonies. It only remains for me now to repeat what I have maintained\nbefore in other essays\u2014that the Christian religion of to-day,\nalthough modified by time and circumstances, having been considerably\nmanipulated so as to be brought within touch of modern requirements, is\nnothing more or less than a rehash of the Egyptian, Persian, Hindu, and\nPh\u0153nician mythologies\u2014an old worn-out faith, in fact, dressed in gaudy\nand attractive garments.\n\n\n[Illustration: THE EARTH OF THE VEDIC PRIESTS.]\n\n[Illustration: HINDU EARTH.]\n\n[Illustration: THE EARTH OF THE LATER GREEKS. B.C.]\n\n[Illustration: POMPONIUS MELA\u2019S COSMOGRAPHY.\n1^(st) Century. Heathen.]\n\n[Illustration: CHRISTIAN MAPS OF THE WORLD IN the 10th. Century.]\n\n[Illustration: CHRISTIAN MAP OF THE WORLD IN THE 8th. Century.]\n\n[Illustration: MAP OF MARCO POLO End of 14th. Century.]\n\n[Illustration: COSMOGRAPHY OF S^(t) DENIS Mid 14th. Century]\n\n[Illustration: EGYPTIAN PLANETARY SYSTEM]\n\n[Illustration: PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM]\n\n[Illustration: TYCHO BRAHE\u2019S PLANETARY SYSTEM]\n\n[Illustration: COPERNICAN SYSTEM]\n\n[Illustration: THE IRON VIRGIN. Inside View.\n\nThe unbeliever or heretic was placed upright inside the virgin, and\nthe doors were closed so that the spikes penetrated the victim\u2019s eyes\n& chest, after which the body was dropped through the floor into the\nriver Pegnitz.]\n\n[Illustration: THE IRON VIRGIN. Outside View.\n\nFixed in a vault cut out of the rock beneath the Nuremberg Town Hall,\nin Bavaria, and used as an instrument of torture by the Christian\nChurch.]\n\n\n\n\nINTELLECTUAL PROGRESS\n\nIN EUROPE.\n\n\nNo scientific student or observer of nature will have failed to notice\nthat all phenomena around him are ever in a condition of progressive\nchange, ever advancing from the simple to the complex, and ever\nconforming to specific laws. Just as the world in which we live has\ngradually developed from a condition of nebulous vapour to its present\ncomplex form, and just as man has evolved from a simple molecule of\nprotoplasm by wonderful and manifold stages to his present commanding\nposition, so have civilisation, trade, politics, arts, literature, and\nscience all been slowly and gradually evolved from the primitive mind\nof prehistoric man. A continual change has ever been going on from the\nsimple to the complex, from the homogeneous to the heterogeneous, from\nthe imperfect to the more perfect. This continual progress has been in\noperation during all time, and will proceed in the future as of old,\nleaving the present day far behind in its march, as the present day has\nleft behind it the past.\n\nIn considering the evolution of reform, or progress of civilisation,\nwe are necessarily limited to a comparatively late period in man\u2019s\nhistory, for many thousands of years had passed away, during which time\nman had gradually established himself as a social animal, before any\ntrustworthy records appeared to throw light in future ages upon the\nprimitive condition and habits of the human family. From the patient\nand persevering studies of scientific men, we are now in possession of\na number of facts which lead us to the conclusion that primitive man\nfirst lived the life of a wild beast, inhabiting caves, and devoting\nall his energies to battling with the ferocious monsters around him.\nFrom this condition he developed into a more civilised being, becoming\nan agriculturalist, afterwards a manufacturer of stuffs and hardware,\nand still later a member of an organised state. These changes probably\noccupied hundreds of thousands of years, compared to which enormous\nlapse of time the period embraced between the Egypto-Greek or classic\nera and the present moment is a mere speck on the face of time. We are\nnow tolerably well acquainted with the civilisation of the ancient\nEgyptians and Greeks, which had existed for many centuries before\nthe time of Aristotle, and which some four or five centuries before\nour era had commenced its entry upon the wide field of scientific\ndevelopment which followed the conquest of Persia by Alexander the\nGreat. These civilisations, which for centuries had been bound up\nwith the vain superstitions connected with the legion of divinities\nof Olympus, of Memphis, and of Thebes, were gradually casting off the\nyoke of ignorance, and becoming more acquainted with the majesty of the\noperations of nature. Philosophers began to publicly declaim against\nthe Olympian absurdities, and to ridicule the notion of miracles or\nprodigies; traditions began to be doubted and were fast being cast\naside; Zeus and his court were ceasing to command respect; and the\npriests were often publicly insulted. The Ionian gods of Homer, as well\nas the Doric of Hesiod, appeared likely to be quickly committed to\nthe darkness of oblivion. Powerful and influential resistance was, of\ncourse, opposed to the wave of progress and reason; the philosophers\nwere branded as Atheists and their followers persecuted rigorously;\nEuripides was declared a heretic, and \u00c6schylus narrowly escaped being\nstoned to death for blasphemy. So great was the opposition offered\nto the movement that the philosophers would undoubtedly have been\nsilenced for some time to come had it not been for the sudden military\nexpedition against the Persians. Alexander, with his 38,000 Macedonian\nsoldiers, having crossed the Hellespont, B.C. 334, proceeded to\nsubjugate the imperious monarch of Persia, and, after successfully\nconquering Asia Minor and Syria, completely defeated the Persian army\nled by King Darius, and took possession of the great city of Babylon.\n\nThis war engrossed the attention of all classes at home, so that the\nphilosophers were enabled to prosecute their studies unmolested. It\nalso in many other ways was a means of furthering the scientific\nefforts of that and of future ages. For the first time the Macedonians\nbeheld the ebbing and flowing of the tides; they discovered and\nexamined the Chaldean astronomical instruments, and learnt their\ncalculations, extending over several thousand years; and they observed\nthe Chaldean division of the zodiac into twelve portions, and of\nthe day and night into twelve hours each. The particulars of these\nthey sent home to Aristotle. What a field was here opened out for\nGreek speculation! The Chaldeans had detected the precession of the\nequinoxes, and were well acquainted with the causes of eclipses; they\nprinted from a revolving roller, on which they had engraved cuneiform\nletters; they possessed magnifying instruments; and were, in fact,\nthe tail-end of a mighty and advanced Accadian civilisation which\nhad been in existence for thousands of years. Not satisfied with\nthese achievements, the conquering Alexander next subdued the ancient\nmonarchy of Egypt, learnt the great feat of the Pharaohs\u2014viz., the\ncircumnavigation of Africa by the Cape of Good Hope and the pillars of\nHercules, and founded the celebrated city of Alexandria. He died at\nBabylon B.C. 323, after which his huge empire was divided among his\ngenerals; his half brother, Ptolemy Soter, who had been governor of\nEgypt during Alexander\u2019s lifetime, taking possession of that country,\nand establishing his seat of government at the new city of Alexandria.\n\nThis period marks the commencement of European civilisation. Owing to\nthe excellent government adopted by Ptolemy, large numbers of Arabians,\nJews, and Greeks were induced to take up their residence at Alexandria,\nwhich quickly became the centre of learning and first commercial\ncity of the whole known world, and the resort of people of all\nnationalities. The celebrated museum, which was commenced by Ptolemy\nSoter and completed by his successor, Ptolemy Philadelphus, contained a\nlibrary, which grew so largely that 400,000 volumes were soon acquired\nby it, and a daughter library, containing 300,000 volumes, built at the\nSerapion, or Temple of Serapis. Books were freely bought, transcribers\nengaged, apartments set aside, at the king\u2019s expense, for the residence\nof Greek philosophers and students, and four faculties established,\nfor literature, mathematics, astronomy, and medicine, including\nnatural history. There were also in connection with the university\nbotanical and zoological gardens, an astronomical observatory, with\nspheres, globes, parallactic rules, etc., and an anatomical theatre\nfor the dissection of dead bodies. It was here that Euclid produced\nhis celebrated geometrical demonstrations, which are at this day used\nin our schools. Here also Archimedes proclaimed his method for the\ndetermination of specific gravities, and invented the theory of the\nlever. Here Eratosthenes daily taught that the earth was a globe, and\ndetermined the interval between the tropics. The earth was described\nas possessing imaginary poles, axis, equator, arctic and antarctic\ncircles, equinoxial points, solstices, climate, etc. Hipparchus taught\nthe precession of the equinoxes, catalogued the stars, and adopted\nlines of latitude and longitude in describing the situations of places.\nThus science progressed under the wise and beneficent rule of the\nPtolemies.\n\nBut a dark cloud was already looming in the distance, which was\ndestined to develop into a fierce storm, the effect of whose fury was\nfelt for centuries afterwards. Julius C\u00e6sar, in B.C. 30, defeated\nCleopatra, then Queen of Egypt, and added that country to the Roman\ndominions, the museum and larger library being entirely destroyed\nduring the siege of Alexandria. From this time learning and science\nbegan to decline. Numerous religious sects arose around Alexandria,\nthe old mythologies were revived, and the priests once more gained\ninfluence. The temples of Jupiter Ammon and Apollo in Egypt, of Adonis\nand Ies in Ph\u0153nicia, of Dionysos in Greece, and of Bacchus in Rome,\nwere again filled to overflowing, and miracles were performed in\nabundance. In the short space of about fifty years all the work of the\nPtolemies appeared to have been undone, and the world once more given\nup to darkness, superstition, and ignorance, the popular frenzy being\nkept up by a number of ascetic monks, called Therapeut\u00e6, who inhabited\nthe hills around Alexandria, the desert and rocky plains of Arabia\nPetr\u00e6a, and the barren hills of Syria, and travelled about the country,\npreaching in the open air to the ignorant and credulous multitudes.\nMatters progressed favourably for the revivalists for a short time;\nbut there had shortly before occurred a circumstance which proved to\nbe, for us, the most important event in the world\u2019s history, and which\nconsiderably modified the Therapeut programme.\n\nAccording to ancient records, it appears that a monk, of the ascetic\norder of Essenes, called Yahoshuah (Joshua) ben Pandira, was born\nin Syria, in the fourth year of the reign of Alexander Jann\u00e6us, or\nabout B.C. 120; and, being educated in Egypt, under the supervision\nof Yahoshuah-ben Perachia, soon made himself specially obnoxious to\nthe priests by his heterodox teaching. From the exceedingly scanty\ninformation to be obtained from the historical writers of the time,\nit appears that this young man had, in addition to his knowledge of\nEgyptian sorcery, a large acquaintance with the sublime and moral\nteachings of Confucius, for whose memory he appears to have had a\nprofound respect. Observing the despicable manner in which the priests\nmanipulated their sacred offices for their own advantage, robbing the\npoor and credulous people of their hard earnings and indulging in all\nkinds of immoralities, this young man boldly attacked these human\nparasites in the public places, calling them liars and hypocrites,\npreaching Socialistic and Communistic doctrines, and declaring that\nthere was but one law necessary for man\u2014viz., the golden rule of\nConfucius, \u201cDo unto another,\u201d etc. The wrath of the priests knew no\nbounds; a council was called to consider the matter, and the bold\nreformer was, it is said, sentenced to death for his noble efforts on\nbehalf of suffering humanity. Whether or not this young man ever lived,\nor whether he was merely an ideal creation of the fanatical minds of\nthese therapeut monks, suggested by necessity, it is impossible to say\npositively; for there are no really trustworthy records from which a\nsafe conclusion can be deduced. It is, however, probable that such a\nman did actually exist, for it is not likely that, had he been but\nan idea, the fact of his having declared one law to be sufficient\nfor man\u2019s moral guidance would have been included among the fabulous\nperformances afterwards attributed to him, as such a declaration was\ndestructive of all priestcraft; besides which, we are told in the\nBabylonian Gemara to the Mishna that Yahoshua, \u201cson of Pandira and\nStada,\u201d was stoned to death as a wizard in the city of Ludd, or Lydia,\nafter which he was crucified on a tree on the eve of the Passover,\nabout B.C. 70, which was the punishment generally inflicted on\npreachers of heresy and sedition. Whether he had an actual existence\nor was but an idea, it is an undisputed fact that his name has been,\nduring the past eighteen hundred years, a household word, and that the\nwhole face of European history has been moulded by the various sayings\nand doings fabulously attributed to him.\n\nThe reason of this is as follows. The therapeut monks of Alexandria,\nwho flourished in the first and second centuries of our era, in\nattempting to revive the old mythological systems, and thus to deprive\nscientists and philosophers of their late rapidly-increasing power,\nwere at a great disadvantage, owing to the length of time that had\nelapsed since the wonderful feats of the gods had been performed. They\nwell understood the absolute necessity of keeping alive in the memories\nof the people the older miraculous events by the performance of fresh\nwonders in their own day; but the difficulty they had to encounter was\nin finding suitable individuals for the occasion. The Syrian Essene\nmonk, who had infected a great number of the lower classes of society\nby his heretical and revolutionary teachings, which, at first sight,\nappeared likely to be damaging to the cause of the priesthood, was\nquickly requisitioned by these astute monks for the great purpose\nthey had in view\u2014viz., the reproduction on earth of the popular god\nBacchus, the Greek Dionysos, and Ph\u0153nician Ies. They boldly declared\nthat this man was, when on earth, an incarnate deity, and proceeded to\nattribute to him all the wonderful performances that had previously\nbeen imputed to the young sun-god Bacchus, such as miraculous birth\nfrom a virgin, resurrection from the grave three days after death,\nascension to heaven, etc.; and, finally, gave him the Ph\u0153nician name\nof Bacchus, Ies, in its Greek form Iesous\u2014Greek being, at that time,\nthe prevailing language around Alexandria. The new religion gradually\nspread from Egypt over the European provinces of the Roman empire,\nand soon became such a great political power in the State that the\nincarnate fiend and Emperor Constantine, in A.D. 312, was induced\nto place himself at its head, and use its increasing influence to\nfurther his own wicked projects. The new Church, by this act, gained an\nenormous power; its priests became arrogant, the philosophers were even\nmore persecuted than before, and learning was fast approaching its end.\nThe only scientific work which the Church retained was the \u201cSyntaxis\u201d\nof Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer, which taught that the earth\nwas the fixed centre of the universe, around which all other heavenly\nbodies rotated. It also treated of the precession of the equinoxes,\nthe milky way, and the distances of the various bodies in the heavens\nfrom the earth; but, as the geocentric theory was clearly taught in\nconformity with the Bible records and the religious convictions of the\npeople, this system was gradually adopted by all classes of society,\nand became the recognised authority on astronomy.\n\nA furious and important controversy about this time broke out between\nArius, the leader of those who retained the original belief in the\nmanhood of Jesus, and Athanasius, the leader of the Christians, who\ndeclared him to be divine, which culminated in the celebrated Council\nof Nicea, A.D. 325, at which it was decided that he was actually god.\nFrom this moment not only Arians, but all others who refused to believe\nin the god Jesus, were savagely persecuted, until, at last, science\nand learning received their death-blow by the destruction of the\nSerapion, under the order of the Emperor Theodosius, and the murder of\nHypatia at Alexandria. This philosopher was in the habit of lecturing\non mathematics at the university, and was so popular that the jealousy\nof Cyril, Bishop of Alexandria, was aroused; she was seized by his\nfanatical followers as she was going to her lecture-room, stripped\nnaked, dragged into a Christian church, and there brained by the club\nof Peter the Reader, in A.D. 414.\n\nJustinian next ordered the teaching of philosophy to be discontinued\nat Athens, and closed all the schools. The sciences were made to\nconform to Genesis, which was declared to be the only true account of\nthe origin of nature; and the earth was declared to be flat, the sky\nspreading over it like a dome\u2014or, in the words of St. Augustine, like\na skin\u2014in which all the bodies moved to give light to man. Lactantius\ndeclared the globular theory to be heretical. \u201cIs it possible,\u201d he\nsaid, \u201cthat man can be so absurd as to believe that the crops and the\ntrees on the other side of the earth hang downwards, and that men have\ntheir feet higher than their heads? If you ask them how they defend\nthese monstrosities, how things do not fall away from the earth on\nthat side, they reply that the nature of things is such that heavy\nbodies tend towards the centre, like the spokes of a wheel, while light\nbodies, as clouds, smoke, fire, tend from the centre to the heavens\non all sides. Now, I am really at a loss what to say of those who,\nwhen they have once gone wrong, steadily persevere in their folly,\nand defend one absurd opinion by another.\u201d St. Augustine also said\nthat \u201cit is impossible there should be inhabitants on the opposite\nside of the earth, since no such race is recorded by Scripture among\nthe descendants of Adam;\u201d and again: \u201cIn the day of judgment men on\nthe other side of a globe could not see the Lord descending through\nthe air.\u201d Thus perished all the grand work effected by the Ptolemies.\nScience was annihilated, progress arrested, and the dark ages had\ncommenced, which lasted until the time of Luther and Copernicus,\nin the commencement of the sixteenth century. Throughout this long\nand dreary period the most cruel enormities were practised upon\nunoffending people; the Church became gorged with wealth; the clergy\ngave themselves up to all kinds of lust and debauchery; relics were\nsold, dispensations bartered; and no one\u2019s property or person was safe.\nProgress was, however, only arrested for a time.\n\nAbout the year 570 Mohammed was born in Arabia, and in 610 he declared\nto the world that he had been commissioned by the angel Gabriel to\npreach the unity of god. He appears to have been a very remarkable\nreligious enthusiast, who believed himself in his divine mission,\nand was eminently successful in his arduous undertaking. Idolatry was\nquickly abolished among the Arabs, and replaced by the religion of\nMohammed. On the death of the prophet his successors as vigorously\npursued the course he had entered upon. Ali, the general of Khalif\nOmar\u2019s army, in A.D. 637, captured Jerusalem and conquered Syria in the\nname of the one true god and his prophet Mohammed. The Khalif rode from\nMedina to Jerusalem upon a red camel, and, as he entered the conquered\ncity, issued the following proclamation: \u201cIn the name of the most\nmerciful God. From Omar Ebno\u2019l Alchit\u00e2b to the inhabitants of \u0152lia.\nThey shall be protected and secured, both in their lives and their\nfortunes; and their churches shall neither be pulled down nor made use\nof by any but themselves.\u201d Sophronius, the chief Christian priest,\nhaving invited the conqueror to pray in a Christian church, received\na polite refusal, Omar contenting himself with kneeling on the steps\noutside, so that his followers might not have any excuse for seizing\nthe edifice or otherwise annoying the conquered Christians. The Khalif\nand his followers then pressed northwards, conquered the Roman Emperor\nHeraclius, sent a fleet to the Hellespont, defeated the Roman fleet,\nand laid siege to Constantinople, then called Byzantium. Egypt was\nnext conquered, the remnants of the Serapion destroyed, and the whole\nof North Africa added to the dominions of the Khalif. Spain was then\nseized upon, and the entire country, as far north as the Loire, annexed\nto the growing empire. In 732 Charles Martel succeeded in stopping the\nSaracen foe at Poictiers and driving him back to Spain, thus relieving\nthe anxiety of the Church, which was now becoming intense. In 846 a\nMussulman fleet sailed up the Tiber, menaced Rome, and carried away\nSt. Peter\u2019s altar to Africa, the Christian empire being saved from\nfurther trouble only by the Mohammedan power being divided into three\nKhalifates.\n\nAccording to the Koran, the earth was a square plane, on the edges of\nwhich rested the heavenly vault, divided into seven stories, in the\ntopmost of which dwelt god in his omnipotence. This theory, however,\nwas quickly given up by the learned Saracens, Al-Mamun declaring it\nto be unscientific, and asserting that the earth was globular, with\na circumference of about 24,000 miles, which was not far wrong. In\n661 the Khalif Moawyah encouraged this new teaching, and ordered the\nwritings of the Greek philosophers to be translated into Arabic. In\n753 the Khalif Almansar recommended the study of astronomy, medicine,\nand law at Bagdad; and his grandson, Haroum-al-Raschid, ordered that\nevery mosque should have a school attached to it, and established\na large library at Bagdad for the use of learned men. The sciences\nof chemistry and geometry were revived, and algebra invented by the\nSaracens. At Cairo the Fatimist Library became the wonder of the\nworld; and the great library of the Spanish Khalifs had 600,000\nvols., its catalogue alone occupying 44 vols. Gibbon tells us that\nthey \u201cdiffused the taste and the rewards of science from Samarcand\nand Bokhara to Fez and Cordova, and that the vizier of a sultan\nconsecrated a sum of two hundred thousand pieces of gold to the\nfoundation of a college at Bagdad, which he endowed with an annual\nrevenue of fifteen thousand dinars.\u201d The first medical college in\nEurope was founded by the Saracens at Salerno in Italy, and the first\nastronomical observatory was erected by them at Seville in Spain. The\nstreets in Spain were lighted, baths were erected, and total abstinence\nuniversally practised. Thus we see that, while the power of the Church\nwas gradually steeping central Europe in darkness, ignorance, and\nwretchedness, progress was on the march again in Western Asia, Africa,\nand Spain. During this period, however, there were not wanting in\nEurope bold men who attempted a revival of philosophy; but these were\nquickly suppressed by the Church. In A.D. 800 there appeared a man\nin Britain called John Erigena, who, having read Aristotle\u2019s works,\nadopted his views and attempted to reconcile them with the Christian\nreligion. There were also many Christian divines who had crossed the\nMediterranean to study philosophy secretly from Mohammedan doctors.\nErigena declared that every living thing evolved from something that\nhad previously lived; that each particular life-form was but a part of\ngeneral existence or mundane soul; and that all life must be eventually\nre-absorbed in deity. The Church became infuriated and alarmed at this\nheretical barbarian, who taught the pernicious doctrines of emanation\nand absorption, and steps were immediately taken to suppress him.\n\nDuring the period of quiet which followed a certain priest of\nThuringia, Bernhardt by name, created a great sensation in central\nEurope by declaring that the end of the world was fast approaching;\nthat the prophecy contained in the twentieth chapter of Revelation\nwould be fulfilled on December 31st, in the year 1000\u2014or possibly\nimmediately before that time\u2014when the devil would be unbound; and that\nunutterable calamity or annihilation would come upon the world. The\nclergy quickly followed suit, and as the fearful day approached every\nchurch and cloister in Europe resounded with the frantic appeals of\nthe monks and priests for their flocks to prepare for the awful doom.\nEurope was turned upside down; business was suspended; kings, princes,\nsenators, nobles, and peasants all alike left their occupations to\nseek refuge in some holy sanctuary against the coming event. As the\ndread moment approached there was not a church or convent in Europe\nthat was not crowded to suffocation, the people imagining that, if\nthey were found at the last moment in some consecrated place, their\nchances of being saved would be better. Hundreds and thousands of these\npoor wretches never had opportunity of obtaining the coveted shelter,\nhaving been bereft of their reason under the awful excitement of the\nhour. Amid prayer, faintings, hysterical screaming, and chanting of\nchoirs\u2014priests, monarchs, and beggars all huddled together anyhow\u2014the\nclock struck twelve, and dead silence prevailed. Gradually the people\nroused themselves from their stupor to find themselves the victims of\na cruel hoax. Strange to say, not any attempt was made to punish those\nwho had produced such a melancholy state of things. Kings and nobles\nhad endowed monasteries and churches with lands and wealth, which they\nbelieved would soon be of so little use to them, and became suddenly\npenitent, assuming the monk\u2019s shirt of hair, and otherwise showing\nevidence of their piety and humility. William of the Long Sword, Duke\nof Normandy, Hugh Duke of Burgundy, Hugh Count of Arles, the Emperor\nHenry II., all renounced their wealth and position to become monks.\nNobles had left lands and castles to the Church, the deeds being drawn\nup by monks and witnessed by prelates and sovereigns, as though no\nday of reckoning was at hand, the form being invariably as follows:\n\u201cSeeing that the end of the world is now approaching, and that every\nday accumulates fresh miseries, I, Baron \u2014\u2014 (or King \u2014\u2014), for the\ngood of my soul, give to the monastery of \u2014\u2014,\u201d etc. The Church, which\nbefore was poor, now became gorged with wealth, and the ignorance and\ncredulity of the people secured the treasures to the now powerful\nprelates.\n\nDuring this period of excitement and terror the number of pilgrimages\nto the Holy Land had enormously increased, so much so that the Saracen\nmasters of Jerusalem, with the view of putting a stop to the now\ntroublesome and inconvenient influx of Christians to the Holy City,\ncommenced to persecute the pilgrims, thus creating a very great\nill-feeling against themselves throughout Europe. Peter the Hermit,\na monk of Amiens, took up the cause of his ill-treated brethren, and\nforthwith commenced to preach a holy war against the Saracens of\nSyria, Pope Urban II. and his priests promising absolution from all\nsin to those who took up arms against the Infidel. A vast multitude\nof rabble from all parts of Europe soon started on their march to\nthe Holy Land, being divided into three large armies, one led by\nWalter the Penniless, another by Peter the Hermit, and the third\nby Gottschalk, a monk. The armies gave themselves up to unheard-of\niniquities, spreading poverty and misery on all sides in their march,\nbraining all who refused to give up their provisions and property to\nthem, and, at last, arriving in Constantinople footsore and diseased,\nhaving left two-thirds of their comrades to die of starvation on the\nroad. Crossing over into Syria, they met the Saracen foe, who quickly\nput an end to their sufferings by annihilating the whole lot. Seven\nother Crusades followed, one composed altogether of children, who,\nthe priests declared, were to be the inheritors of the Holy Land, it\nbeing now apparent that full-grown men were too sinful to conquer the\nInfidel. The army of children was accordingly shipped off to destroy\nthe Saracen foe, but never reached Palestine, the boys having been\nsold as slaves, and the girls drafted into Turkish harems. When, at\nlast, Acre surrendered to the Crusaders under Richard C\u0153ur de Lion,\nthe leniency displayed by the Khalif Omar in his capture of Jerusalem\nin 637 was repaid by 2,700 Saracen hostages being brutally beheaded\noutside the city walls for the sport of the Christian soldiers. All\nthis time Europe was in a constant state of agitation and alarm, which\nwas further intensified by the revival in 1180 of the doctrines of John\nErigena by the Saracen philosopher Averroes, who boldly preached them\nin Spain, making converts in all directions, among whom was the great\nJewish writer, Maimonides, who had been held by the Jews in the highest\nesteem, and considered second only in wisdom to Moses.\n\nUnder the tolerant and liberal rule of the Saracens Averroism made\ngreat progress in Spain, where Mohammedans, Christians, and Jews were\npermitted to live peaceably together, and where philosophical theories\nwere openly and fearlessly taught; but a day of reckoning was at hand.\nOn the death of the Caliph Hakem, Almansor usurped the throne, and, in\norder to secure his position, entered into a secret treaty with the\northodox section of the Mohammedans, thus establishing a Church and\nState party of enormous power, which culminated in the expulsion of\nAverroes from Spain and the suppression of the study of philosophy.\nThus were crushed again philosophy and progress in 1198. The Christians\nof Italy, Germany, and France followed suit, ordering all Averroists\nto be seized and punished, and shortly afterwards extending the order\nalso to Jews and Mohammedans. From the accession of Almansor dates the\ndownfall of the Mohammedan power in Spain and the commencement of the\nfearful persecutions of Infidels by the Christian Church, which has\nleft such a dark blot upon the pages of European history.\n\nThe Saracen power in Europe was annihilated by Ferdinand and Isabella,\nand the Inquisition established by Pope Innocent IV. in 1243. For\ntwo hundred years it seemed as though philosophy and progress were\nindeed dead, so relentlessly did the Church persecute all heretics and\ndenounce all scientific studies. But an occurrence took place in 1440\nwhich completely turned the tide of events. In that year the art of\nprinting was introduced into Europe by the Venetians, who had learnt\nit from the Chinese; and in 1469 it was carried to France, and from\nthence to all the great cities of the continent. At first the Church\npaid little heed to the innovation; but it soon became apparent that\na dangerous medium had been introduced for intercommunication of the\npeople and their governments, which must lessen the need and importance\nof a religious medium. Books were only allowed to be published under\nthe supervision of the ecclesiastical authority, and heavy penalties\ninflicted upon all who attempted to circulate any heretical works. The\nwritings of Averroes, Maimonides, and other heretics, were ordered to\nbe burnt, the doctrines taught by them being declared blasphemous and\nsubversive of all good government. The leading and most learned Jews\nand Mohammedans in Spain and Southern France were avowed Averroists,\nand did not shrink from preaching their doctrines in the public\nthoroughfares; and the infection was extending so rapidly that the\nChurch feared that a great calamity would overtake the orthodox\nfaith unless some steps were taken to put a stop to the heresy. The\nInquisition, which had been found so effective in silencing heretics\nin France, was now utilised for dealing with the Jews and Moors. A cry\nwas made in Castile by the orthodox Christians for the establishment\nof the Inquisition in Spain, which was immediately taken up by all\nhaters of progress; and so great was the influence brought to bear by\nthe Dominican monk and arch-fiend, Torquemada, upon the Queen Isabella\nthat the Pope was petitioned for a bull, which was issued in 1478,\nfor the detection and suppression of heresy in Spain. The Christian\nmonster, Torquemada, proved himself a worthy agent of the Inquisition,\nburning at the stake in eighteen years about 10,220 persons of both\nsexes. Dispensations from the operation of the Inquisition were sold\nby the Pope to such as could afford to purchase them; and in 1492 all\nunbaptised Jews, old or young, were ordered by Torquemada to leave\nSpain within four months, and to leave behind them all those effects\nthey could not sell in the meantime. These poor wretches swarmed in\nthe roads in their thousands, rending the air with their piteous\ncries, the Christian Spaniards being forbidden to render assistance\nunder penalty of torture. The consequence was that hundreds and\nthousands of men, women, and children died by the wayside from hunger,\nthirst, and fatigue. In 1502 a further order was issued at Seville\nfor the Spaniards to drive out of their country every Infidel they\ncould hear of, no matter what the nationality might be. The Moors\nwere particularly indicated in the document, one clause stating that\nit was justifiable to kill Mohammedans on account of their shameless\ninfidelity. The consequence was that, in a marvellously short space\nof time, there was not a Mohammedan to be found on the European side\nof the Straits of Gibraltar. In spite of the precautions made use of\nby the Christians for the prevention of the study of philosophy and\nthe acquirement of knowledge, the news of the discovery of America by\nColumbus, in 1492, very soon found its way all over Europe, producing\nthe most intense sensation, for the discovery came as a terrific\nblow to the Church and its inspired Bible. To make matters worse, in\n1522 Magellan sailed completely round the world, thus demonstrating\nconclusively that the earth was a globe.\n\nMatters appeared to be going wrong with the Church, in spite of the\nrecent bloody triumphs of the Inquisition; and the clergy and laity\nwere not slow to notice the turn events were taking. Martin Luther,\na young Augustinian monk, in particular, took advantage of the\nunsettled state of the mind of Europe to make a furious onslaught\nagainst the Pope and the Church. Having been told by Cajetan that he\nmust \u201cbelieve that one single drop of Christ\u2019s blood is sufficient to\nredeem the whole human race, and the remaining quantity that was shed\nin the garden and on the cross was left as a legacy to the Pope, to\nbe a treasure from which indulgences were to be drawn,\u201d this young\npriest declared he never would accept such a doctrine, and commenced\nforthwith to preach openly against the sale of indulgences, declaring\nthat the Church must stand or fall on the Bible, which taught no such\ndoctrine. The orthodox clergy, on the contrary, declared that the\nBible derived its authority from the Church, and not the Church from\nthe Bible, and demanded that Luther should be arrested for heresy. In\n1520 the Pope excommunicated the bold monk, who, in return, defiantly\nburnt the Papal bull, for which he was ordered to appear before the\nImperial Diet at Worms, when he deliberately refused to retract.\nThe views of the reformer quickly spread through Switzerland and\nGermany, Pope Leo thundering forth his anathemas upon all who joined\nthe dangerous movement, until, at length, after many bloody wars and\nhorrible massacres, such as the slaughter of the Huguenots, etc.,\nthe Reformation was firmly established, and the Bible became, to the\nReformed Church, the only guide to morals and duty. At first, the Pope\nsullenly submitted to what appeared to be the inevitable; but soon\nit became apparent that, in order to keep any authority at all over\nthe people, some plan would have to be adopted to curtail the growing\ninfluence of the Reformed Church. Accordingly, Pope Paul III., in 1540,\nestablished the Society of Jesus, the members of which order were sent\nabroad all over Europe for the purpose of secretly undermining the\ninfluence of the Reformers. Three years afterwards, as if to counteract\nthe evil designs of the Jesuits, there appeared on the scene the\ncelebrated work of Copernicus, which was destined for ever to demolish\nthe geocentric theory of Ptolemy, and to establish the heliocentric\nphilosophy, which taught that the sun was the centre of our system,\nand that all the planets, including our earth, revolved in regular\norder round it, and which, of course, called forth a volley of abuse\nfrom the Vatican, the theory being declared heretical and its author\nanathematised. The effect of all this was to cause quite a revolution\nin thought among the learned of Europe, which gave rise to another\nschism in the Church, departure being this time from the ranks of the\nReformers.\n\nArianism was once more revived by a number of people, who maintained\nthat the doctrine of the Trinity was un-Scriptural, and that Jesus was\nbut a man like themselves, though endowed with great authority from\ngod. The orthodox and reformed Churches both alike were alarmed at this\nturn of events, and co-operated to suppress the new heresy, denouncing\nall philosophical studies, and branding the Unitarians as Infidels.\nThe upshot was that Servetus was burnt to death at the stake by the\norder of the Trinitarian Calvin, and a check was thereby given to the\npropagation of the Arian doctrines. It is satisfactory to note that\na Unitarian College now stands upon the very spot where Servetus was\nmurdered.\n\nAgain progress was arrested, and this time it seemed as though a mortal\nblow had been dealt at all acquirement of knowledge, for shortly\nafterwards, in 1559, Pope Paul IV. established the Congregation of\nthe Index Expurgatorius for the purpose of examining all books and\nmanuscripts intended for publication, and of deciding whether the\npeople should read them. The usual counterpoise, however, quickly made\nits appearance, proving once more that progress cannot be arrested for\nlong.\n\nIn 1563 the first newspaper was produced in Venice, which again set the\nball of intellect rolling along, never more to be stopped by priest\nor prince. The new Copernican philosophy was now accepted by many\nlearned men, among whom even were some of the priesthood. Giordano\nBruno, an Italian Dominican monk, among others, embraced these truths,\nand was not afraid to openly teach them, for which daring act he\nwas soon obliged to seek refuge in Switzerland, where he prosecuted\nhis studies for some time in peace. The fiends of the Inquisition,\nhowever, soon discovered his whereabouts and drove him into France,\nthen into England, and then back to Germany; in the end arresting him\nat Venice. He was taken thence to Rome, publicly accused of teaching\nthe plurality of worlds, and burnt at the stake by the Inquisition in\n1600. Eighteen years after the murder of this noble Italian, Kepler,\nof W\u00fcrtemberg, published his \u201cEpitome of the Copernican System,\u201d in\nwhich he demonstrated for the first time that all the heavenly bodies\nare bound in their courses by various laws. This work, like those\nof Copernicus and Bruno, was prohibited by the Congregation of the\nIndex Purgatorius, and Kepler himself declared a dangerous infidel.\nStill, in spite of the fury of the priesthood, Catholic and Reformer\nalike, the study of the sciences made rapid strides, and in 1632 the\nvenerable Galileo published his \u201cSystem of the World,\u201d in which he\nmaintained the accuracy of the Copernican theory. For this daring\ndisregard of the Church\u2019s warnings he was summoned to Rome and brought\nbefore the Inquisition, accused of having taught that the earth moves\nround the sun. The poor old man was compelled to kneel on the floor\nof the court, place his hand on the Bible, and recant, after which he\nwas incarcerated in the prison of the Inquisition, where, ten years\nafterwards, he died. Still science progressed, and was considerably\naided by the rapid increase in the number of newspapers throughout\nEurope. In 1631 the _French Gazette_ was established, and, soon after,\nnewspapers appeared in all important cities, much to the discomfiture\nof the Church, whose power was now more seriously imperilled than ever.\nConfidence was gradually becoming established, and Descartes dared,\nin 1680, to make an attempt to analyse the mind, declaring that the\nnecessity of universal doubt was the only starting-point of all true\nphilosophy. He was followed, six years later, by Newton, who published\nhis \u201cPrincipia,\u201d in which he demonstrated the grand truth which has\nimmortalised his name\u2014viz., that all bodies attract each other with\nforces jointly proportionate to their masses, varying universally as\nthe squares of their distances. Thus was established the great law\nof universal gravitation, which marks an epoch in the intellectual\ndevelopment of man. Owing to the constantly-recurring feuds between the\nLutherans, Calvinists, and Catholics, this great discovery passed for\na while almost unnoticed; but it soon became apparent that the final\nblow had been given to the old theory of divine intervention in the\nmovements of the universe, and that learned men of all countries were\nrapidly embracing the Newtonian theory of irreversible laws.\n\nIt was, however, now too late for the Church to interfere, for all\nclasses were quickly becoming impressed with the grand theory of\ngravitation, which was destined for ever to remain the most wonderful\ndiscovery of man; and, although the clergy still continued to\nanathematise all scholars and scientists, the study of nature was\npursued with rapidly-increasing enthusiasm, as though to make up for\nlost time. In 1690 Locke, the physician and philosopher, published his\n\u201cEssay on the Human Understanding,\u201d in which he declared all human\nknowledge to be the result of experience, thus entirely upsetting the\nold theory of intuition. Twenty years later Leibnitz published his work\nentitled \u201cTheodic\u00e9e,\u201d in which he endeavoured to solve the difficult\nproblem of existence of evil in the world under the moral government\nof Deity. These two rival philosophers soon became the leaders of\nphilosophic thought in their respective countries; but barely thirty\nyears had passed away before an iconoclast appeared, in the person\nof David Hume, who cut away the ground ruthlessly from beneath their\nfeet. His \u201cTreatise on Human Nature,\u201d published in 1739, upset all\nthe philosophical systems of the past, replacing them by the great\ntheory of causation, which was soon accepted by every philosopher and\nscientist. Kant followed in 1781 with his \u201cCritique of Pure Reason,\u201d in\nwhich he submitted matter to analysis, and declared it to be possessed\nof inherent force.\n\nThe other sciences were also joining in the march of progress.\nChemistry was fast becoming a settled science; Priestley\u2019s discovery\nof oxygen, in 1774, had created a great sensation; Cavendish shortly\nafterwards, in 1783, discovered the constitution of water; and\nLavoisier, in 1789, summarised the combined researches of these two\nchemists and himself in his \u201cElements of Chemistry,\u201d which at once was\nrecognised as the standard work on the subject. Astronomy had, since\nNewton\u2019s discovery of gravitation, assumed a more settled condition,\nbut was destined to further modification by the enunciation of the\nnebular hypothesis by Laplace, who commenced to publish his bulky work,\n\u201c Mecanique Celeste,\u201d in 1799.\n\nThe nineteenth century opened with progress, as it were, on the gallop.\nIn 1804 the first locomotive engine was started in England, at the same\ntime that the first screw steamer was run at New York. It is needless\nto enumerate all the inventions of scientific men during the century,\nwhich are so well known to every one. Suffice it to say that, in a\nmarvellously short space of time, the whole face of Europe has been\nchanged. Railways cross each other at all points, like a huge network;\ntelegraph wires link together as one place all important centres of\npopulation; public buildings are protected from nature\u2019s freaks by\nlightning conductors; lighthouses dot the whole length of our coasts;\nthe penny postage conveys our thoughts to and fro throughout the\nlength and breadth of the land; a free press ventilates our grievances\nand enlightens our minds; hospitals and dispensaries minister to the\nsick and maimed wherever we go; and the Habeas Corpus Act endows each\nwell-disposed individual with freedom and liberty. What a metamorphosis\nto be effected in so short a time!\n\nThe lesson we learn from such a cursory glance as this necessarily is\nat the intellectual progress of Europe during the last two thousand\nyears is full of the deepest meaning. We cannot help being struck by\nthe dogged manner in which the Christian religion has opposed all\nprogress, ruthlessly murdering in cold blood any who dared to suggest\nthat the now-established and universally-accepted theories might\npossibly possess some little of the truth. Every new scientific truth\nor discovery has been denounced by the Church, every great benefactor\nto the human race persecuted and hunted to death by the sleuth-hounds\nof bigotry and intolerance, and every European war or massacre hatched\nout of religious differences. To this very day the Church, though\nrobbed of all its old power to inflict evil and misery, persists in its\ndenunciation of all scientific discoveries; and not one of the numerous\nsects which at present divide the Christian Church is exempt from\nthis charge. Hegel, Bunsen, John Stuart Mill, R\u00e9nan, Huxley, Darwin,\nTyndall, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Carpenter, Herbert Spencer, Emerson,\nHaeckel, Schopenhauer, Victor Hugo, and, in short, all the leaders\nof thought of our century, have incurred the bitter hostility of the\nvarious Christian sects; and yet what a heirloom the works of these men\nform for the coming generation!\n\nThe discovery of the power of chloroform and ether to relieve pain was\ndenounced by the Church because it was proposed to apply it to the\nrelief of the agony of childbirth, the natural inheritance of woman\nunder the divine curse of Eden; the abolition of slavery was also\nopposed by these human parasites because the practice was ordered in\nthe Bible; and it is well known how the priests of the Church utilised\nfor their own purposes those abominable texts of the Old Testament,\n\u201cThou shalt not suffer a witch to live,\u201d and \u201cNeither shalt thou\ncountenance a poor man in his own cause.\u201d\n\nThe Middle Ages bear attestation to the fidelity of the priesthood to\ntheir sacred oracles. Have not two honest citizens of London quite\nlately undergone one whole year\u2019s imprisonment for the grave sin of\nridiculing the notion of the Hebrew and Christian gods being other\nthan creations of man\u2019s imagination? This very lecture will probably\nbe the means of bringing down the wrath of the priesthood\u2014State Church\nand Nonconformist alike\u2014upon its author. And why? Are the facts\nuntrue? Just the reverse. The writer, historian, or pseudo-scientist\nwho writes volumes of falsehoods for the purpose of propping up for\na short time longer priestcraft and tyranny will assuredly fare well\nat the hands of these insinuating gentlemen of the cloth; but let\nthe man who dares to write the honest, unvarnished truth beware!\nHis fair name, his business, and his social and family ties will be\nundermined and destroyed in an incredibly short space of time. All\nhonor, therefore, be given to those brave ones who have dared to stand\nbefore the world and speak out the truth in the cause of humanity! They\nhave done their share in helping forward the march of intellect, in\nstifling superstition, and in uprooting ignorance. The state of Europe\nto-day, as compared with its condition two thousand years since, is\noverwhelming evidence of the continual progress of civilization, which,\nin spite of the opposition from its old enemy, the Church, in the past\nand, to a limited extent, in the present, has proved to the world that\nit must, of necessity, continue for all time as one of the great and\nimmutable laws of Nature.\n\n\n\n\nGENESIS I. 1, according to authorised Hebrew version, with final\nletters, but without vowel points and breathings.\n\n                     \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd\u05d5\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5\n\n\u201cIn the beginning the ram (or lamb)-sun-gods (or the good gods)\nrenovated (reorganized or re-started) the heavens and the earth.\u201d\n\nThis refers to the commencement of the Persian new-year, at the vernal\nequinox, _Aries_, the ram or lamb.\n\n\nGENESIS I. 1, according to the Samaritan Pentateuch, transcribed into\nante-Masoretic, or original Hebrew, as written before the invention of\nthe five final letters.\n\n                      \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05d4\u05e2\u05d6\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05de\u05d5\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e6\n\n\u201cIn the beginning the goat renovated the heavens and the earth.\u201d\n\nThis refers to the commencement of the Egyptian new-year, at the winter\nsolstice, _Capricornus_, the goat.\n\n\n[Illustration: Fac Simile of fragmentary MS. of sixth century (Luke\nXX.9.10.), written in Greek and partially covered with Syrian writing\nof 10^(th) century.\nCopied from \u201cSecular Review,\u201d of March 27 1886.]\n\n\n[Illustration: Small fragment from John\u2019s Gospel, taken from the Cotton\nManuscript.]\n\n\n\n\nTHE BIBLE.\n\n\nThere is probably no book on earth that has ever had anything like\nso large a circulation as that which is known as the Bible; and yet\nfew among the many millions who possess a copy ever think of asking\nthemselves the question, \u201cWhere and how did it originate?\u201d They are\nsatisfied with the _ipse dixit_ of their parson that it \u201ccame from\nGod.\u201d That may be sufficient to satisfy the unthinking multitude, but\nit does not suffice for thinking people, who prefer to follow the\ndictates of their reason rather than rest on the mere word of a man or\na number of men who are paid to preach that the Bible is the word of\nGod, and whose incomes would cease if their followers thought otherwise.\n\nWhat is this Bible? Where did it come from? Let us see. As we now\nhave it, it consists of a number of books, which are divided into two\nmain portions, the Old and the New Testaments, the former being made\nup of the five books said to have been written by Moses under God\u2019s\ninspiration, and called the Pentateuch, and a number of historical,\npoetical, and prophetic writings; and the latter consisting of four\nnarratives of the life of Jesus, called the Gospels, a narrative of\nthe Acts of the Apostles, a number of letters, and the Vision or\nRevelation of one John. The number of books which make up the Bible\nhas varied from time to time, according to the fancy of the age; but\nabout 360 years since a Council of Protestants determined that a number\nof hitherto received sacred writings were not the \u201cWord of God,\u201d and\nfinally decided that only those now included in the authorised version\nwere of divine origin. Before that time the following books had formed\npart of the Bible\u2014viz., Tobit and Judith, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus,\nBaruch, Epistle of Jeremiah, Song of the Three Children, Susanna, Bel\nand the Dragon, and Maccabees, all of which are considered canonical at\nthe present time by the Roman Catholic Church. Besides these writings\nthere are a large number of others that have, at different times,\noccupied positions of honour in this ever-varying compilation, but\nwhich are now almost forgotten by pious divines, and entirely unknown\nby their credulous and ignorant dupes.\n\nDr. Dupin, Professor of Philosophy at the Paris University, and one of\nthe most pious and learned Christian writers of his time, gives a list\nof over 150 books that have, from time to time, been held sacred, and\nsaid to have formed part of the \u201cWord of God,\u201d as follows:\u2014\n\n\n OLD TESTAMENT.\n\n _Books now Considered Canonical by Jews and Christians._\n\n  The five Books of Moses.\n  The Book of Joshua.\n  The Book of Judges.\n  The Book of Samuel, or the first and second Books of Kings.\n  The third and fourth Books of Kings.\n  Isaiah.\n  Jeremiah.\n  Ezekiel.\n  The Twelve Minor Prophets.\n  The Book of Job.\n  The Hundred and Fifty Psalms.\n  The Proverbs of Solomon.\n  The Ecclesiastes.\n  The Canticles.\n  Daniel.\n  The Chronicles.\n  Esdras, divided into two Books.\n\n _Books Received as Canonical by some Jews and Rejected by Others._\n\n Esther, Ruth.\n\n _Books Excluded from the Jewish Canon, and Reckoned as Apocryphal by\n some of the Ancient Christians, but Allowed as Canonical of late by\n the Church of Rome._\n\n Baruch, Tobit, Judith, the Book of Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, the two\n Books of the Maccabees.\n The Song of the three Children in the Fiery Furnace.\n The History of Susanna.\n The History of Bel and the Dragon.\n\n _Books that are Excluded from the Canon without Apparent Reason._\n\n The Prayer of Manasseh, inserted in the Apocrypha.\n The third and fourth Books of Esdras (ibid).\n The third and fourth Books of Maccabees, in the Septuagint Bible.\n The Genealogy of Job, and his Wife\u2019s Speech, at the end of the Greek\n text of the Book of Job.\n The 151st Psalm, at the end of the Greek Psalms.\n A Discourse of King Solomon, at the end of the Book of Wisdom.\n The Preface before the Lamentations of Jeremiah, in the vulgar Latin\n and Greek text.\n\n _Other Apocryphal Books of the same Nature, which are Lost._\n\n  The Book of Enoch.\n  The Book of the Assumption of Moses.\n  The Assumption, Apocalypse, or Secrets of Elias.\n  The Secrets of Jeremiah.\n\n _Books Full of Fables and Errors, which are Lost._\n\n  The Generation, or the Creation of Adam.\n  The Revelation of Adam.\n  Of the Genealogy, or of the sons and daughters of Adam.\n  Cham\u2019s Book of Magic.\n  A Treatise, entitled Seth.\n  The Assumption of Abraham.\n  Jetsira, or concerning the Creation ascribed to Abraham.\n  The Book of the Twelve Patriarchs.\n  The Discourses of Jacob and Joseph.\n  The Prophecy of Habakkuk.\n  A Collection of the Prophecies of Ezekiel.\n  The Prophecy of Eldad and Medad.\n  The Treatise of Jannes and Jambres.\n  The Book of King Og.\n  Jacob\u2019s Ladder, and several other Tracts.\n\n\n NEW TESTAMENT.\n\n _Books Owned as Canonical at all times and by all Christians._\n\n  The Four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.\n  The Acts of the Apostles.\n  Thirteen Epistles of St. Paul.\n  The First Epistle of St. Peter.\n  The First Epistle of St. John.\n\n _Books Questioned, but afterwards Admitted by the Church as Canonical._\n\n  The Epistle to the Hebrews.\n  The Epistle of St. James.\n  The Second Epistle of St. Peter.\n  The Second and Third of St. John.\n  The Epistle of St. Jude.\n  The Apocalypse, or Revelations of St. John, which was a long time\n  before it was admitted as Canonical.\n  The history of the angel and the agony of our Saviour related (Luke\n  xxii.).\n  The end of the last chapter of St. Matthew\u2019s Gospel.\n  The history of the woman taken in adultery, related in the eighth\n  chapter of St. John\u2019s Gospel.\n  The end of St. John\u2019s Gospel.\n  The passage concerning the Trinity, taken out of the fifth chapter of\n  the First Epistle of St. John.\n\n _Apocryphal Writings which are not Full of Errors._\n\n  The letter of Jesus Christ to Abgarus.\n  The letter of the Blessed Virgin.\n  The Gospel according to the Egyptians.\n  The Gospel according to the Hebrews.\n  Additions to the Gospel of St. Matthew and St. Luke, in the Cambridge\n  Manuscript.\n  The Proto-Evangelicum of St. James.\n  The Gospel of Nicodemus.\n  The Ancient Acts of Paul and Thecla.\n  The Epistle of the Laodic\u00e6ans.\n  The Epistle of St. Paul to Seneca.\n  The Epistle of St. Barnabas.\n  The Liturgies of St. Peter.\n  The Liturgies of St. Mark.\n  The Liturgies of St. James.\n  The Liturgies of St. Matthew.\n  The Canons and Constitutions of the Apostles.\n  The Treatise of Prochorus.\n  The Books of St. Linus.\n  The Treatise of Abdias.\n  The Acts of the Passion of St. Andrew.\n\n\n _Books Full of Errors; almost all of them Lost._\n\n  The Gospel of St. Peter.\n  The Gospel of St. Thomas.\n  The Gospel of St. Matthias.\n  The Gospel of St. Bartholomew.\n  The Gospel of St. Philip.\n  The Gospel of Judas Iscariot.\n  The Gospel of Thadd\u00e6us.\n  The Gospel of Barnabas.\n  The Gospel of Truth by the Valentinians.\n  The Gospel of Perfection by the Gnostics.\n  The Gospel of Eve by the Gnostics.\n  A Book concerning the Infancy of Jesus Christ.\n  A Treatise concerning the Birth of our Saviour, the Virgin Mary, and\n  her Midwife.\n  A Treatise concerning the Virgin\u2019s Lying-in, and the questions she\n  asked.\n  A Treatise of the Nativity of the Virgin Mary, cited by St. Jerome.\n  The Apocryphal Treatise of the Life of the Virgin, cited by St.\n  Gregory Nysene.\n  Another Apocryphal Book on the Virgin, cited by Faustus.\n  The Writings of Jesus Christ about Miracles.\n  The Acts of St. Peter.\n  The Acts of St. Paul.\n  The Acts of St. Andrew.\n  The Acts of St. John.\n  The Acts of the Apostles.\n  The Acts of St. Philip.\n  The Acts of St. Thomas.\n  The Doctrine, Preaching, and Itinerary of St. Peter.\n  The Rapture of St. Paul.\n  The Memoirs of the Apostles.\n  The Lots of the Apostles.\n  The Itinerary of the Apostles.\n  The Treatise concerning the Priesthood of Jesus Christ.\n  The Apostolical Tract.\n  The Treatise of the Death and Assumption of the Virgin.\n  The Apocalypses or Revelations of St. Peter.\n  The Revelations of St. Paul.\n  The Revelations of St. Thomas.\n  The Revelations of St. Stephen.\n  The Revelations of the Great Apostle.\n  The Revelations of Abraham.\n  The Revelations of Seth.\n  The Revelations of Noriah.\n\nIn addition to those already named there were a number of lost books\nreferred to and quoted from by the authors of the various canonical\nbooks, such as:\u2014\n\n  The Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers xxi. 14).\n  The Book of the Covenant (Exodus xxiv. 7).\n  The Book of Jasher, or the Upright (Joshua x. 13, 2 Samuel i. 18).\n  The Book of the Acts of Solomon (1 Kings xi. 41).\n  The Book of the Chronicles of the Kings of Israel (1 Kings xiv. 19,\n  and eighteen other places in the Books of Kings; also 2 Chron. xx. 34\n  and xxxiii. 18).\n  The Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings xiv. 29, and twelve\n  other places in the Books of Kings).\n  The Book of Samuel the Seer (1 Chronicles xxix. 29).\n  The Book of Nathan the Prophet (1 Chronicles xxix. 29).\n  The Book of Gad the Seer (1 Chronicles xxix. 29).\n  The Chronicles of King David (1 Chronicles xxvii. 24).\n  The Book of Nathan the Prophet (2 Chronicles ix. 29).\n  The Prophecy of Ahijah the Shilomite (2 Chronicles ix. 29).\n  The Visions of Iddo the Seer against Jeroboam the son of Nebat (2\n  Chron. ix. 29).\n  The Book of Shemaiah the Prophet (2 Chronicles xii. 15).\n  The Book of Iddo the Seer concerning Genealogies (2 Chronicles xii.\n  15).\n  The Story of the Prophet Iddo (2 Chronicles xiii. 22).\n  The Book of the Kings of Judah and Israel (2 Chronicles xvi. 11, and\n  six other places in the same Book).\n  The Book of Jehu (2 Chronicles xx. 34).\n  The Memoirs of Hircanus (mentioned in 1 Maccabees).\n  The Books of Jason (mentioned in 2 Maccabees ii.).\n  The Acts of Uriah (mentioned in 2 Chronicles xxvi. 22).\n  Three thousand Proverbs of Solomon (mentioned in 1 Kings iv. 32).\n  A thousand and five Songs (mentioned in ibid).\n  Several other volumes by the same author (mentioned in ibid).\n  The Prophecy of Jeremiah, torn in pieces by Jehoiakim (cited in\n  Jeremiah xxxvi.).\n  Another Prophecy of his upon the city of Babylon (mentioned in\n  Jeremiah li.).\n  Memoirs or descriptions of the same author (mentioned in 1 Maccabees\n  ii.).\n  The Prophecy of Jonah (mentioned in the Book of Jonah).\n\nWe can readily imagine what trouble our pious ancestors must have\nexperienced in deciding which of these writings really emanated from\nthe ghost of God and which were fraudulent productions, for the style\nin which most of them were written rendered it almost impossible\nto decipher them: written on rough skins, in ink which had become\nobliterated by age, many of them had fallen into the hands of monks and\nother rogues, who appeared to have suffered severely from _caco\u00ebthes\nscribendi_, and who recorded events connected with their own persons\nor surroundings over the original writing, like a lady \u201ccrosses\u201d her\nletters, so that the whole manuscript became a complete jumble. In\nmost cases the original or ground language was Hebrew or Greek in\nill-formed and continuous capitals, undivided into words, and without\naccents, points, or breathings, while the \u201ccrossing\u201d was in Arabic,\nLatin, or some other different dialect, badly written and accompanied\nwith ink spots and senseless dashes. Out of this heterogeneous mass of\nscribblings the pious divines of the Reformation period compiled our\nauthorised version of the Bible, the translation into English being\nmade, in the case of the Old Testament, from the modern Hebrew text,\nand in that of the New Testament from Beza\u2019s fifth edition of the Greek\ntext.\n\nThere are three different versions of the complete Old Testament\u2014viz.,\nthe Hebrew, the Greek Septuagint, and the Latin Vulgate, and two\nSamaritan versions of the Pentateuch, one written in Aram\u00e6n and the\nother in Arabic. The MSS. of the Hebrew version are all written in\nmodern or Masoretic Hebrew, which dates from about the year 1,000\nA.D. The original language of the Hebrews, which was derived from the\nEgyptians and afterwards modified by contact with the Chaldeans, was\nvery different from that we are accustomed to read to-day in Hebrew\nBibles: instead of each word being separated from its neighbour, and\nvowel points being subscribed to assist in the reading, sentences,\nparagraphs, and even pages were written as though the whole formed\nbut one long word; and, considering that the Hebrew alphabet consists\nof consonants only, the absence of the vowel points and final letters\nafterwards introduced rendered the meaning of the writer most\nobscure. For instance, the first verse of Genesis would have been\nwritten as follows in ancient Hebrew, but in letters more nearly\napproaching the cuneiform type, \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea\u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05de\u05d5\u05d0\u05ea\u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e6. The\nequivalent letters in English are (reading from right to left, as in\nHebrew) TS.R.A.H.T.A.V.M.Y.M.SH.H.T.A.M.Y.H.L.A.A.R.B.T.Y.SH.A.R.B\nand the translators tell us that they signify, \u201cIn the beginning God\ncreated the heavens and the earth.\u201d Now, as they stand, it is utterly\nimpossible to pronounce the words; and, even supposing that vowels\nwere added, this could be done in such a variety of ways that hundreds\nof different pronunciations might result; so also might the sense\nbe varied by many different renderings. Suppose we wrote down the\nauthorised translation, using consonants only, and leaving entirely\nout the vowels, the result would be as follows (reading from left to\nright, as in English), NTHBGNNGGDCRTDTHHVNSNDTHRTH, which would be\nentirely unpronounceable unless we added vowels; and, by adding vowels\nindiscriminately, a variety of renderings would result. The absurdity\nof a written language composed only of consonants is thus made very\napparent. This difficulty opposed itself to the Jewish priests, and\nwas obviated by the introduction of vowel points, the manufacture of\nfive final letters, and the division of sentences into words according\nto the arbitrary rendering of the introducers of the vowel points; so\nthat now we possess a Hebrew language which may be, and probably is, as\nunlike the ancient Hebrew dialect as chalk is unlike cheese.\n\nBy slightly altering the vowel points of a sentence or a word,\nthe whole sense may be entirely destroyed; and that this has been\nfrequently enough done requires no proof here, for it has been\nabundantly shown elsewhere. Certain priests have attempted to prove\nthat the vowel points and final letters were in use in Ezra\u2019s time;\nbut it is now generally admitted by scholars that they were inventions\nof the middle ages. Hear what the learned Christian Dupin, Doctor of\nthe Sorbonne, says:\u2014\u201cThe Hebrew alphabet is composed of twenty-two\nletters, like those of the Samaritans, Chaldeans, and Syrians.\nBut, of these letters, _none are vowels_, and, in consequence, the\npronunciation cannot be determined. The Hebrews have invented _points_,\nwhich, being put under the letters, answer the purpose of vowels.\nThose vowel-points serve not only to fix the pronunciation, _but also\nthe signification of a word, because, many times, the word being\ndifferently pointed and pronounced alters the meaning entirely_. This\nis the consideration which has made the question as to the antiquity\nof the points of so much importance, and has, consequently, had such\nelaborate treatment. Some have pretended that these points are as\nancient as the Hebrew tongue, and that Abraham made use of them. Others\nmake Moses the author of them. But the most common opinion among the\nJews is that, Moses _having learnt of God the true pronunciation of\nHebrew words_, this science was preserved in the synagogue by oral\ntradition till the time of Ezra, who invented the points and accents\nto fix the meaning. Elias Levita, a German Jew of the last generation,\nand deeply learned in Hebrew grammar, has rejected this opinion, and\ncontended that the invention of points took place in much more recent\ntimes. He ascribes the invention to the Jews of Tiberias and to the\nyear 500 A.D., and alleges that the invention was not perfected till\nabout the year 1040 A.D., by two famous Maserites, Ben-Ascher and\nBen-Naphtali.\u201d\n\nHear, also, what the learned and pious Dr. Prideaux says:\u2014\u201cThe sacred\nbooks made use of among the Jews in their synagogues have ever been,\nand still are, _without the vowel-points_, which could not have\nhappened had they been placed there by Ezra, and had, consequently,\nbeen of the same authority with the letters; for, had they been so,\nthey would certainly have been preserved in the synagogues with the\nsame care as the rest of the text.\u201d He then goes on to say that no\nmention is made of the points in either the Mishna or Gemara, and\ncontinues: \u201cNeither do we find the least hint of them in Philo-Jud\u00e6us\nor Josephus, who are the oldest writers of the Jews, or in any of the\nancient Christian writers for _several hundred years after Christ_.\nAnd, although among them Origen and Jerome were well skilled in the\nHebrew language, yet in none of their writings do they speak the least\nof them. Origen flourished in the third, and Jerome in the fifth,\ncentury; and the latter, having lived a long while in Jud\u00e6a, and there\nmore especially applied himself to the study of the Hebrew learning,\nand much conversed with the Jewish rabbis for his improvement herein,\nit is not likely that he could have missed making some mention of\nthem through all his voluminous works, if they had been either in\nbeing among the Jews in his time, or in any credit or authority with\nthem, and that especially since, in his commentaries, there were so\nmany necessary occasions for taking notice of them.\u201d The Doctor then\ndeclares that after the Babylonish Captivity \u201cthe Hebrew language\nceased to be the mother tongue of the Jews,\u201d Aram\u00e6n, as we know, being\nthe dialect of Jud\u00e6a at the time of Herod.\n\nWe may, then, safely fix the date of our earliest Hebrew MS. at a\nlater period than 1000 A.D., for there does not exist one single\nante-Masoretic or unpointed Hebrew MS. of the Bible. The Greek\nSeptuagint was also written in Greek capitals, without accents and\nbreathings and without divisions between the words, and continued thus\nuntil the eighth century, when accents and breathings came into use,\nwhich were followed, in the tenth century, by small letters, as we have\nthem now in our Greek Bibles. The very same may be said about the New\nTestament MSS., all of which are written in continuous Greek capitals.\n\nThe oldest MS. of the New Testament is the Codex Sinaiticus,\ndiscovered by Tischendorf at the convent of St. Catherine, on Mount\nSinai, in 1859, and supposed to belong to the fourth century. The\nCodex Vaticanus is also supposed to belong to the fourth century,\nand was first published at Rome by Vercellone, in 1858. The Codex\nAlexandrinus, containing both Old and New Testaments, is supposed\nto belong to the fifth century, and was first published by Woide,\nin 1786, and afterwards by Cowper, in 1860. Of the Old Testament it\ncontains, besides the canonical and most apocryphal books found in\nour editions, the third and fourth books of the Maccabees, Epistle of\nAthanasius to Marcellinus (prefixed to the Psalms), and fourteen hymns,\nthe eleventh in honour of the Virgin. Ecclesiasticus, the Song of the\nThree Children, Susannah, and Bell and the Dragon do not appear. Of the\nNew Testament there is, in addition to the received books, the First\nEpistle of Clement to the Corinthians and part of the Second. The Codex\nEphraemi is supposed to belong to the fifth century, and was published\nby Tischendorf in 1843. The Codex Bez\u00e6 is a Gr\u00e6co-Latin MS., said to\nbelong to the sixth century, and first published by Kipling, in 1793,\nand afterwards by Scrivener, in 1864. All these MSS. are written in\ncontinuous capitals, so badly formed, and so jumbled together, as to be\nalmost illegible.\n\nAccording to the showing of those most interested in proving the\nantiquity of sacred writings, the very earliest MS. cannot lay claim\nto an earlier date than the fourth century; and, if the authors to\nwhom the Church has attributed the various writings in the Bible wrote\nthe said records, it is clear that the latest originals must date\nfrom the first century. But the originals do not anywhere exist, and\nconsequently it is utterly impossible for anybody to know who wrote\nany one of the books of the Bible, which is, therefore, a compilation\nof anonymous writings, and, as such, is of no authority whatever. So\nfar from being a divinely-inspired record, it is, as we have seen,\na product of the cunning and ingenuity of knaves and fanatics, who\ndeserve credit for only one thing, and that is that they managed to\nmake any sense whatever out of the wretched scribble and scrawl from\nwhich they derived their information.\n\n\n\n\nTHE\n\n\u201cANNALS\u201d OF TACITUS.\n\n\nOne of the darkest epochs in the history of Christianity is that period\nwhich commenced with the annihilation of the Saracen power in Europe\nand the establishment of the Inquisition by Pope Innocent IV. in 1243,\nand continued until about the end of the fifteenth century. The ghastly\nhorrors perpetrated by the Christian Church at this time against\nunoffending people are too well known to need any reproduction here,\nand may be found fully detailed in Rule\u2019s \u201cHistory of the Inquisition,\u201d\nDraper\u2019s \u201cConflict,\u201d and other similar works. My purpose just now is\nnot to follow in detail these wicked and cruel abominations connected\nwith the Christian superstition, but to study carefully the various\ncircumstances surrounding the sudden appearance, in the early part of\nthe fifteenth century, of so many MSS. purporting to have been written\nby the ancients. Among these manuscripts were the so-called \u201cAnnals\nof Tacitus,\u201d which have since become so celebrated on account of the\nreference made by the author in his fifteenth book to the persecution\nof the early Christians by Nero. It has long been suspected by learned\nscholars that these \u201cAnnals,\u201d and in particular the passage relating\nto Nero\u2019s persecution of Christians, were never written by Tacitus;\nbut, owing to the danger usually incurred in giving expression to\nopinions so detrimental to the interests of the Church, no one ventured\nuntil quite lately publicly to state his doubts as to the genuineness\nof these celebrated writings. It is now, however, pretty generally\nadmitted among such scholars as do not make their honour subservient to\ntheir interests that the author of the \u201cHistory\u201d and the author of the\n\u201cAnnals\u201d were not the same person, and that the latter, moreover, were\nnot written until many centuries after the death of Tacitus.\n\nTo find out who was the real author of these \u201cAnnals,\u201d and how they\nbecame associated with the name of Tacitus, it will be necessary to\nglance at the condition of the Christian Church during the period\nreferred to above; and in doing so none but authors of the highest\nrepute will be consulted.\n\nFor some time after the establishment of the Inquisition in 1243 the\nChurch had been able to suppress, to a very large extent, the growing\ntendency of the age towards the acquirement of knowledge: by the rack,\nthe stake, and the gibbet, by torture, by fire, and by the knife, she\nhad relentlessly pursued her horrid and diabolical career, hoping by\nthese means to preserve the faith and silence her enemies. To a large\nextent it is admitted she was successful; but in remote places the\nspirit of inquiry lived and grew in spite of her: Abelard, the first\nFreethinker, had well sown his seeds in France; Arnold of Brescia had\nleft to his brethren in Italy a scheme of reform which was destined to\ntake practical shape in the autumn of 1870; and Wicliffe had preached\nfrom his chair at Oxford doctrines which could not fail ere long to\nhave their effect upon the intellect of England. This bold Yorkshireman\ndid not scruple to publicly declare that the mendicant friars who were\ncommissioned by the Pope to travel over England and grant absolution\nand indulgences to the people were a pack of thieves and sensualists,\nthat the clergy were indulging in open wickedness, that the indulgences\nof the Pope were a manifest blasphemy, and that the priesthood had no\nright to deprive the people of the right to search the Bible. He even\nwent so far as to speak of the Pope as \u201cAntichrist, the proud worldly\npriest of Rome, and the most cursed of clippers and purse-kervers.\u201d\nFrom the pulpit of his little church at Lutterworth he openly preached\nagainst the authority of the Pope in England, and declared that Christ\nhad given no temporal lordship to the popes and no supremacy over\nkings. The Pope and the Sacred College very naturally resented this\nbehaviour, and ordered copies of Wicliffe\u2019s works to be sent forthwith\nto Rome for inspection, the result being that three bulls were drafted\non May 22nd, 1377, and despatched to England, one being addressed\nto Simon Sudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, and William Courtenay,\nBishop of London, another being addressed to the King, and the third\nto the University of Oxford. These bulls expressed the surprise of his\nHoliness that such a fearful heresy had not been at once suppressed,\nand commanded that immediate steps should be taken for silencing the\nauthor of it. He was to be apprehended and shut up in prison until the\nfurther orders of the Pope arrived; and all proofs and evidence of his\nheresy were to be sent by special messenger to Rome without delay.\nThese bulls, however, arrived too late to be of much use. Already\nWicliffe had been brought to trial before the Bishop of London and his\ncourt at St. Paul\u2019s, with a result not at all to the liking of his\nHoliness or any of his pious followers, as he very soon discovered.\n\nOn February 19th, 1377, Courtenay sat in Our Lady\u2019s Chapel in St.\nPaul\u2019s, surrounded by Church dignitaries, to hear the accusation\nagainst the reformer, a large and excited crowd, favourably disposed\ntowards Wicliffe, howling outside the doors. Suddenly a disturbance\ntook place inside the chapel, caused by Lord Percy and John of Gaunt\nforcing their way towards the reformer; the Bishop and his court were\nscandalised, and immediately called upon the intruders to withdraw;\nbut, instead of doing so, Percy quietly turned to Wicliffe and politely\nrequested him to be seated, whereupon Courtenay became furious and\nyelled out: \u201cHe must and shall stand; it is unreasonable that one on\nhis trial before his ordinary should sit.\u201d High words followed; the\nmob outside was in a state of fury, and the bishops and clergy were\nterrified. The end soon came, for John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster,\nstepping in front of the Bishop, shouted: \u201cAs for you, who are growing\nso arrogant and proud, I will bring down the pride, not of you alone,\nbut that of all the prelacy in England,\u201d and then declared that in a\nfew moments he would drag him out of the court by the hair of his head.\nThis brought matters to a climax; the mob burst into the chapel, the\nBishop and clergy fled, and the reformer was set free. The greatest\nconsternation prevailed among the clergy upon the news of this outrage\nbeing carried through the country, and for several weeks secret\ndeliberations were carried on for the purpose of devising some good\nplan for restoring the visibly decreasing prestige of the clerical\nparty.\n\nAt last the three bulls arrived from Rome, but were, as we have seen,\ntoo late in the field; for not only had the trial of Wicliffe turned\nout a failure, but the King had in the meantime died, and the Oxford\ndoctors had almost all sided with the reformer. Still, the Church\ndetermined to punish Wicliffe, who was summoned to appear before\nSudbury, Archbishop of Canterbury, in Lambeth Chapel, to answer charges\nof heresy and insubordination; but this trial proved as unfortunate for\nthe clergy as the former one, for another angry mob besieged the chapel\nand demanded the release of the reformer, in addition to which Sir\nLewis Clifford arrived in haste from the Queen to forbid the bishops\npassing any sentence upon Wicliffe. This was indeed a surprise for\ntheir reverences, who precipitately left the chapel and reached their\nhomes in the best way they could. All this had a great effect upon\nthe minds of the people both in England and on the Continent; for the\nPope and his satellites had not only been attacked, but, what was more\namazing, they had suffered an unparalleled defeat; and the probability\nwas that the discontented of France and Italy would follow the example\nof the English reformer and attempt to put into practice the theories\nof Arnold and Abelard. The times certainly looked black for the Church;\nbut an event happened shortly afterwards which added still more to the\ngeneral dismay of the clericals, and was near being the end of the\nPapacy.\n\nPope Gregory XI. died on March 27th, 1378, at the Vatican, where he had\narrived shortly before from his beautiful residence at Avignon; and\nthe Italian clergy, fearing that the next pope would also take up his\nresidence in France, determined to exert every effort to place upon the\nvacant chair of St. Peter an Italian who would be likely to remain at\nthe Vatican. At this time the sacred college consisted of twenty-two\ncardinals, twelve of whom were French, so that it would have been\nan easy matter for the French majority to elect a French pope; but\nthe clamour, not only of the clergy, but of the laity of Rome, was so\ngreat that the majority did not avail themselves of their opportunity,\nand allowed the Archbishop of Bari, a Neapolitan, to be nominated and\nunanimously elected to the vacant see, under the title of Urban VI. Not\nmany weeks passed away before the French majority began to repent their\nhaste, and ended by publicly excommunicating Pope Urban VI., calling\nhim apostate and antichrist, and electing in his stead, on September\n21st, Robert of Geneva, under the title of Clement VII. The Italian\nbishops and clergy stood by the Pope of their choice, who resided at\nthe Vatican, while the French bishops and clergy bowed allegiance only\nto their Pope, who took up his residence at the old papal palace at\nAvignon; and thus it happened that for the first time in the history\nof the Church there were two popes at the same time, each pouring\nforth his anathemas at the other, and each declaring himself to be\nthe divinely-ordained vicar of Christ on earth. Owing to this schism,\nWicliffe was allowed to preach his heresy without let or hindrance, for\nthe whole of Europe was in a constant ferment, and the bishops could\nill bestow time upon such an insignificant person when two such lofty\nindividuals were attracting the attention of both clergy and laity.\n\nFor forty years these rival popes and their successors carried on a\nperpetual warfare, both with the sword and the pen, Pope Urban being\nsucceeded in turn by Pope Boniface IX., Pope Innocent VII., and Pope\nGregory XII., and Pope Clement by Pope Benedict XIII. During this time\nthere were not wanting men who were bold enough to turn to account this\npapal schism in the interest of reform. Wicliffe was working silently\nbut steadily in England, and actually had the audacity to render the\nBible in the vulgar tongue, so that the people could read it in the\nchurches, the thing of all others that the popes and the cardinals\ndreaded, for they well knew that, as soon as the Bible was read and\nunderstood, the authority of the Church would gradually wane, and\neventually cease to exist at all. In vain did the popes thunder forth\ntheir curses upon Wicliffe\u2019s venerable head, for was not the whole\nof Europe at that very time discussing more or less fiercely the very\nquestion as to which of the two holy ones was really Pope? Of what use\nwas it that he of Avignon denounced Wicliffe, when half of Christendom\ndenied his right to the papal chair? He of Rome was in precisely the\nsame position, so that the high-sounding anathemas fell but lightly on\nthe old reformer; but it was far otherwise with the heretical teachings\nwhich called forth the papal curses; for they were carried into the\nmost remote corners of Europe, causing quite a sensation among the\nhitherto loyal servants of the Church. Jerome of Prague, in the year\n1400, just sixteen years after Wicliffe\u2019s death, carried across the\nchannel a large assortment of Wicliffe\u2019s writings, and immediately\ncommenced to carry on the work of the great reformer in Europe,\nchallenging the doctors of Paris and Vienna on his way home. Uniting\nwith John Huss, a Professor of Prague University, he attacked with\ngreat violence the Papacy, declaring that the very fact of the head of\nthe Church being split into two was sufficient to destroy for ever the\nnotion of papal infallibility. Things had now arrived at such a pass\nthat the doctors of the Sorbonne in Paris made a desperate attempt to\nsettle the difficulty. For fifteen years past they had been urging\nthe two popes to resign simultaneously, so that one successor to both\ncould be unanimously elected, and the dispute thus settled; but neither\nparty would yield an inch. At last, in 1409, driven to desperation by\nthe effect produced by Wicliffe\u2019s writings, and by the bold preaching\nof Huss and Jerome, the Council of Pisa deposed both popes, and\nelected a third\u2014viz., Balthazar Corsa, who assumed the title of Pope\nJohn XXIII. and took up his residence at Bologna. The two deposed\npontiffs, however, refused to recognise the decree of the Council, the\nconsequence being that, instead of there being two popes, there were\nthree. This strengthened the position of Huss and Jerome, who said: \u201cIf\nwe must obey, to whom is our obedience to be paid? If all three are\ninfallible, why does not their testimony agree? And if only one of them\nis the most Holy Father, why is it that we cannot distinguish him from\nthe rest?\u201d The Bolognan Pope declared the Roman Pope to be a heretic,\na demon, and antichrist; the Roman Pope entertained similar views about\nhis holy brother of Bologna; and both stigmatised the Avignon Pope as\nan impostor and schismatic; while his Holiness of Avignon had as much\naffection for his two holy brethren as they had for him.\n\nAnother Council was held at Constance in 1418, at which all three\nHolinesses were deposed, excellent precautions being at the same\ntime taken to ensure the proper carrying out of the sentences. Otho\nColonna was then elected to the chair of St. Peter, as Martin V., and\nthe schism at last put an end to. But at what a cost had this schism\nbeen kept up for forty years! People had begun to seriously question\nthe right of the popes to claim infallibility; many were now in the\nhabit of daily reading the Bible, and some had even dared to search\nancient authors for fuller information respecting the establishment of\nChristianity. Unless these three ulcers were immediately cauterised and\neffectively effaced, the Church must fall from its high position, as\nthe holy ones at the Vatican well knew. Accordingly, the Inquisition\nwas brought into service of the Pope, to put a stop to the insolence\nof those who dared to assail the dogma of infallibility, and who had\nbeen guilty of the blasphemy of reading the Bible. Huss and Jerome\nhad already been burnt at the stake. In addition to this, large sums\nof money were offered for freshly-discovered MSS. of the ancients, in\norder that all the evidence it was possible to collect together might\nbe available in case of emergency. These means were very effectual;\nfor troublesome people, who had inquiring minds or who had learnt to\nread and write, were quickly despatched to a happier land by the agents\nof the Inquisition, while the money offered for newly-discovered MSS.\nacted like magic in causing old musty writings to turn up in every\ndirection.\n\nWhile the Council of Constance was being held for the purpose of\nelecting one pope, and one only, to sit in the chair of St. Peter,\nHenry Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester, second son of John of Gaunt, Duke\nof Lancaster, happened to pass through the town, and took advantage\nof the opportunity thus offered him to attend the sittings, where he\nmade the acquaintance of many, among whom was Boggio Bracciolini,\none of the Papal Secretaries. A friendship soon sprang up between\nthe two, which resulted in Bracciolini returning to England with\nBishop\u2014afterwards Cardinal\u2014Beaufort, in the autumn of 1418. After a\nyear or two spent with Beaufort, the late Secretary became dissatisfied\nwith his lot, complaining bitterly in his letters to his friend,\nNiccolo Niccoli, of the many unfulfilled promises of the Cardinal. At\nlast he was offered, and duly accepted, a small living of 120 florins a\nyear, which he soon afterwards exchanged for one worth \u00a340 a year, and\nhaving fewer duties attached to it, which gave him more leisure time\nfor study, and, consequently, made him considerably happier, for his\npassion for studying ancient authors was as intense as his knowledge of\nthe classic languages was profound.\n\nIn a very short time, however, he became again dissatisfied with his\nlot, and begged the Cardinal to supply him with an honorary canonry, so\nthat he might visit Italy and prosecute his studies, at the same time\nthat he drew a snug little salary from England. He was not successful,\nfor the Cardinal probably had many such applications, and found more\nsuitable objects upon which to bestow his favours.\n\nJust at this time the rage for finding old MSS. increased enormously,\nowing to the large sums of money given by the Vatican to the lucky\nfinders, who, as a rule, were simply villains of the monk type and the\nmost impudent forgers. Bracciolini, whose passion for money was even\ngreater than his passion for knowledge, bitterly bewailed his fate,\nand longed for an opportunity to turn his wits to account, and thus\nsecure some of the fine prizes which were being so lavishly bestowed\nby his Holiness upon indigent Italian and Hungarian monks. While he\nwas despairing of any such good fortune turning up he unexpectedly\nreceived from Piero Lamberteschi of Florence, agent to Cosmo de Medici,\nan offer which greatly gratified him, and which he could plainly\nsee emanated in the first instance from his old friend Niccoli. The\nnature of this offer was, for obvious reasons, kept strictly secret;\nbut, from a perusal of some of the letters which passed between\nBracciolini and Niccoli, no doubt now exists that it was really a\nproposal that Bracciolini should enter into retirement and forge an\nintroduction to the \u201cHistory\u201d of Tacitus, for which work he would\nbe paid 500 gold sequins, equivalent to upwards of \u00a310,000. Niccoli\nstrongly urged his friend to accept the offer, and Bracciolini, in\nreply, \u201cthinks he will follow his advice;\u201d but the venture was such\na daring one that 500 sequins appeared to him insufficient; so he\nwrote again to Niccoli about this \u201csuggestion\u201d and \u201coffer\u201d made by\nLamberteschi, who, he states, \u201cwill endeavour to procure for me in\nthree years 500 gold sequins. If he will make it 600, I will at once\nclose with his proposal. He holds forth sanguine hopes about several\nfuture profitable contingencies, which, I am inclined to believe, may\nprobably be realised; yet it is more prudent to covenant for something\ncertain than to depend on hope alone.... I like the occupation to\nwhich he has invited me, and hope I shall be able to produce something\n_worth reading_; but for this purpose, as I tell him in my letters,\nI require the retirement and leisure that are necessary for literary\nwork.\u201d An arrangement was eventually arrived at, and it was definitely\nsettled that Bracciolini should leave England and go to Hungary, in\nwhich country it was popularly believed were to be found lost literary\ntreasures. Still, Bracciolini had his doubts about the due payment of\nthe money, and, as he was about to give up a living in England, he was\nanxious to have some security for the money promised by Lamberteschi,\nfor we find him writing to Niccoli as follows: \u201cYou know well how I\nprefer liberty and literary leisure to the other things which the vast\nmajority hold in the highest estimation and make the objects of their\nambition.... If I were to see that I should get that which our friend\nPiero expects, I would go not only to the end of Europe, but as far\nas the wilds of Tartary, especially as I should have the opportunity\nof paying attention to Greek literature, which it is my desire to\ndevour with avidity, were it but to avoid those wretched translations,\nwhich so torment me that there is more pain in reading than pleasure\nin acquiring knowledge.\u201d He then wrote: \u201cIf I undertake a journey\nto Hungary, it will be unknown to everybody but a few, and down the\nthroats of these I shall cram all sorts of speeches, since I will\npretend I have come from here [England].\u201d\n\nApparently matters were soon satisfactorily arranged; for, from this\ntime, Bracciolini commenced to prepare for his forgery. He made good\nuse of the library of Cardinal Beaufort, and searched everywhere for\nold writers from whom he could gather information respecting the old\nRoman empire; and, finally, made arrangements for quitting England. In\na letter to Niccoli, dated London, July 17th, 1420, he says that he\nhas \u201cskimmed over Aristotle during the spring of the year, not for the\npurpose of studying him then, but reading and seeing what there was\nin each of his works.\u201d He had found that sort of \u201cperusal not wholly\nunprofitable, as he had learnt something every day, superficially\nthough it might be, from understanding Aristotle in his own language,\nwhere he found him in the words of translators either incomprehensible\nor nonsensical.\u201d It was arranged between the three friends that\nBracciolini should repair at once to Italy, where consultations could\nbe held frequently, \u201cto deliberate fully what was best to be done;\u201d so,\nafter vainly attempting to dispose of his living, Bracciolini finally\ndeparted for France, _en route_ for Italy. Before doing so, however,\nhe wrote to Niccoli, expressing his fear that the forgery he had\nundertaken was too great a toil for him, but declaring his intention\nto proceed at all hazards. He says: \u201cI want you to have no distrust;\ngive me the leisure and the time for _writing that history_, and I\nwill do something you will approve. My heart is in the work, though I\nquestion my powers ... I have not for four years devoted any attention\nto literature, nor read a single book that can be considered well\nwritten\u2014as you may judge from these letters of mine, which are not what\nthey used to be; but I shall soon get back into my old manner. When I\nreflect on the merits of the ancient writers of history, I recoil with\nfear from the undertaking, though, when I consider what are writers\nof the present day, I recover some confidence in the hope that, if I\nstrive with all my might, I shall be inferior to few of them.\u201d A few\ndays afterwards he wrote his last letter from England to Niccoli on\nJune 25th, 1422, still expressing fear about the ultimate result, and\nespecially the payment: \u201cIf Lamberteschi would only place something\ncertain before us, which we could adopt or approve,\u201d he wrote; and \u201cHow\nheartily I hope that Lamberteschi will do what would be agreeable to us\nboth.\u201d\n\nArrived in Rome, Bracciolini was offered and accepted the post of\nPrincipal Secretary to the Pope, and, consequently, did not go, as\npreviously arranged, to Hungary, but set himself to work instead,\nexamining the old MSS. in the Vatican Library, for which he had ample\ntime, as his new post was almost a sinecure. He also wrote to his\nfriend Niccoli on May 15th, 1423, asking him to forward to him without\nthe least delay all his notes and extracts from the various books which\nhe had read; after receiving which he commenced in earnest his labour.\nHe had not worked long, however, before he discovered what an arduous\ntask he had undertaken, and again fear overcame him lest he should find\nhimself unequal to the effort; but, pulling himself together again, he\ndetermined once more to keep up his courage and persevere to the end,\nthe gold sequins probably acting as a stimulus to him.\n\nWriting to his friend Niccoli on October 8th, 1423, he says that \u201c\nbeginnings of any kind are arduous and difficult;\u201d and continues: \u201cWhat\nthe ancients did pleasantly, quickly, and easily, is to me troublesome,\ntedious, and burdensome.\u201d In another letter to Niccoli, dated Rome,\nNovember 6th, 1423, he begs his friend to make every effort to procure\nfor him some map of Ptolemy\u2019s \u201cGeography,\u201d and not to forget Suetonius\nand the other historians, above all Plutarch\u2019s \u201cLives of Illustrious\nMen.\u201d\n\nFor upwards of three years after this period Bracciolini shut himself\nup with his papers, extracts, maps, etc., and worked steadily and\nlaboriously at his task, and, at the end of that time, had completed\nthe first instalment of his forgery. The next part of the process was\nto find a suitable place in which the forged MS. could be _discovered_;\nconsequently, Bracciolini and Niccoli put their heads together in\nconsultation, finally settling upon Hirschfeldt, a small Saxon town\non the borders of Bohemia, which was celebrated for an old abbey of\nthe Benedictine monks. Bracciolini had accidentally met with one of\nthe monks from this place in Rome, and had managed to place this man\nunder an obligation to him; so, finding that he was needy, ignorant,\nand stupid, he determined to make use of him for producing his MS. to\nthe public. Speaking of this monk in one of his letters to Niccoli, he\nsays: \u201cThe good fellow, who has not our attainments, thought that we\nwere equally ignorant of what he found he did not know himself.\u201d To\nthis ignorant fellow he gave a long list of books that he wished him\nto hunt up in the Abbey library, including a copy of Tacitus, telling\nhim to send a full description of each as soon as found. The object\nof this was to find out whether the Abbey possessed a copy of Tacitus\nin the oldest writing possible, which could be used as a guide to the\ntranscriber of the forgery; and the reason of giving such a long list\nwas to throw the monk off the scent.\n\nWith all their precautions, however, their scheme was all but\ndiscovered in the summer of 1427, for we find Bracciolini, on September\n25th of that year, writing to Niccoli that, \u201cwhen Tacitus came, he\nwould keep it a secret; that he knew all the tittle-tattle that was\ngoing on\u2014whence it came, through whom, and how it was got up; but that\nhe need have no fear, for that not a syllable should escape him....\nI hear nothing of the Tacitus that is in Germany. I am expecting an\nanswer from the monk.\u201d From this it would appear that the monk had not\nyet supplied the information about the books; but, in the following\nOctober, Niccoli had forwarded to Bracciolini an old copy of Tacitus\nthat he had become possessed of. Bracciolini, however, returned it at\nonce, saying that it was so badly damaged as to be illegible to an\nordinary transcriber, and continuing: \u201cTake care, therefore, that I\nhave another, if it can be done; but you can do it, if you will strive\nyour utmost.... You have sent me the book without the parchment. I know\nnot the state of mind you were in when you did this, except that you\nwere as mad as a March hare. For what book can be transcribed if there\nbe not the parchment? Have a care to it, then, and also to a second\nmanuscript; but, above all, keep in mind the vellum.\u201d After a while the\nparchment arrived, together with an old copy of Tacitus that could be\neasily read by a transcriber; and then all was silence again for about\na year. During this period the old monk was busily engaged transcribing\nthe forged writings into very ancient characters, using the old copy of\nTacitus supplied by Niccoli as an example of style, the forgery being\nintended as an introduction to the \u201cHistory.\u201d\n\nOn September 11th, 1428, Bracciolini was evidently becoming impatient\nwith the work, for he wrote to Niccoli as follows: \u201cNot a word of\nCornelius Tacitus from Germany; nor have I heard thence any further\nnews of his work.\u201d Then, again, he writes February 26th, 1429: \u201cThe\nHirschfeldt monk has come without the book, and I gave him a sound\nrating for it. He has given me his assurance that he will be back again\nsoon, for he is carrying on a suit about his abbey in the law courts,\nand will bring the book. He made heavy demands upon me; but I told him\nI would do nothing for him until I have the book; I am, therefore,\nin hopes that I shall have it, as he is in need of my good offices.\u201d\nThe book at length arrived, and Bracciolini wrote to Niccoli that, so\nfar as he was himself concerned, everything was \u201cnow complete with\nrespect to the _Little Work_, concerning which he would, on some future\nopportunity, write to him; and, at the same time, send it to him to\nread, in order to get his opinion of it.\u201d\n\nSo the forgery was complete, and there can be no doubt that Bracciolini\nfrom this date was a rich man, living in his own villa at Valdarno in\nTuscany. The forged writings were handed over to Cosmo de Medici in\nreturn for 500 gold sequins, according to arrangement, and remained\nin the Library at Florence ever after. It was not, however, published\nbefore 1468, when Johannes de Spire produced what are now known as the\nlast six books of the \u201cAnnals\u201d of Tacitus, which he declared had been\ncopied from an (imaginary) original in St. Mark\u2019s, Venice, but which\nwe now know were really copied from the forgery of Bracciolini, in\npossession of the Medicis at Florence.\n\nWhat are now known as the first six books of the \u201cAnnals\u201d did not make\ntheir appearance until 1514, and most probably had also been forged\nby Bracciolini immediately after he had finished the last six books.\nThe delight of the clergy at the sudden and unexpected discovery of\nthese hitherto altogether unknown writings knew no bounds; for they\nnow possessed the most precious heathen testimony to the sufferings\nof the early Christians on account of their religion, which would\nform a valuable addition to the evidence in course of collection by\npious monks intended to show forth clearly and indisputably the divine\norigin of Christianity. The wily Pope knew well enough the enormous\nvalue of such a record as this; for it was quite evident that a vein\nof scepticism was permeating every class of society, in spite of the\nvigilance of the Inquisitioners.\n\nThe reformers who succeeded Wicliffe, Jerome, and Huss had been waxing\nbolder day by day, and had even repulsed a large army sent against\nthem by his Holiness and led by Cardinal Cesarini and a host of German\nprinces, since which they had boldly and openly preached against the\npapal supremacy, and were in many districts publicly distributing\ncopies of the writings of Aristotle and Averroes. The Church and the\nPapacy were thus in real and imminent danger, for hitherto the people\nhad believed whatever the priests had told them, whereas now they\nappeared determined to investigate the whole matter themselves and\nto dispense with the services of the priestly mediator. At such a\ntime the discovery of the \u201cAnnals\u201d came as a windfall to the Church;\nevery one apparently accepting them as having been originally written\nby Tacitus; and every author, from this time forward, quoted them\nrepeatedly. The strangest thing about the affair is that no one even\nthought of questioning the genuineness of the writings, especially\nwhen it must have been well known that not one historian or writer,\nfrom the time of Tacitus, who lived in the first century, down to\nthe end of the fifteenth century, when the \u201cAnnals\u201d (so-called for\nthe first time by Beatus Rhenanus in 1533) were discovered, had ever\nonce quoted or even referred to them; not even Christian writers had\nas much as once noticed them, which they could not have failed to do\nhad such valuable evidence of the sufferings of their brethren really\nexisted. Besides the \u201cAnnals\u201d other MSS. were produced by pious\nmonks and passed off as ancient writings, until at length the Vatican\nand other papal libraries were literally swarming with them; but all\nthese writings paled into insignificance before such a record as the\n\u201cAnnals,\u201d which was destined henceforth to be the chief evidence in\nsupport of Christianity. Together with the passages in the writings\nof Josephus, which were forged beyond doubt by Eusebius, Bishop of\nC\u00e6sarea, and the doubtful letter of the younger Pliny to the Emperor\nTrajan, which time most assuredly will prove to be as great a forgery\nas the other two, the Church had now heathen testimony in abundance to\nprove that the religion was divinely instituted and that many suffered\ndeath in defence of it. Neither Averroism nor Arianism could shake this\ntestimony, which would be a powerful prop to the religion for centuries\nto come. It remained for Dr. Lardner and others, in the commencement of\nlast century, to expose the forgery in Josephus; to the present century\nhas been reserved the honour of unveiling the real authorship of the\nforged \u201cAnnals\u201d of Tacitus; and to future searchers after truth is left\nthe duty of discovering the real perpetrator of the forged letter which\nhas hitherto been known as from Pliny to Trajan.\n\nIf any one should still doubt that Bracciolini forged the \u201cAnnals,\u201d\nlet me recommend him to carefully read a work entitled \u201cTacitus and\nBracciolini,\u201d and published by Messrs. Diprose & Bateman, of Lincoln\u2019s\nInn Fields, London, in which will be found the most convincing proofs\nthat Bracciolini, and no other than he, was the real author of the\nwork. In that able indictment, from which I have drawn extensively\nfor this essay, the writings and peculiarities of both Tacitus and\nBracciolini have been most carefully detailed, with the result that\nno one can help arriving at the conclusion that one person could\nnot have written both the \u201cHistory\u201d and the \u201cAnnals;\u201d that Tacitus\ncould not possibly have written the \u201cAnnals,\u201d owing to chronological\ndifficulties; and that suspicion points so forcibly to Bracciolini as\nthe author that it almost amounts to positive proof.\n\nWhat I have endeavoured to show is (1) that, owing to the teachings of\nAbelard, Arnold, Wicliffe, Jerome, Huss, and other fifteenth-century\nreformers, the authority of the Church and the very existence of\nChristianity were seriously menaced; (2) that, on account of the\nfailure of the Inquisition to stem the current of scepticism, large\nsums of money were offered for the discovery of ancient writings which\nwould bear testimony to the divine authority of the Church and the\ndivine establishment of Christianity; (3) that, in consequence of this\nbribe, shoals of writings were forged by needy monks and scholars,\nand attributed to ancient authors; and (4) that among these forgeries\nwere the \u201cAnnals\u201d of Tacitus, which were composed by Bracciolini and\nre-written by the Hirschfeldt monk in a style as nearly as possible\nlike a very old copy of the \u201cHistory\u201d of Tacitus, which was supplied to\nhim as a guide.\n\n\n\n\nCREATION AND FALL.\n\n\nThe one great differential mark between man and the brutes is\nhis higher development of brain power, by which he is enabled to\ndiscriminate between right and wrong, or good and evil, and thus to\nimprove his bodily and social condition. The individual who obstinately\nrefuses to avail himself of the great mental power within him not only\ndeprives himself of the greatest pleasure in life, but also allows\nhimself to sink to the level of the brutes from which he evolved,\nexhibiting at the same time a gross want of gratitude to the being\nwho endowed him with so lofty an attribute. On the other hand, he who\ncultivates his mental faculties, and uses them for his own improvement\nand advancement, and also that of his fellows, fulfils the highest\nmission of man, and continually shows his deep gratitude to his\nmysterious benefactor.\n\nTo think is the grandest faculty of man. To think logically and\nwell ought to be his noblest aspiration. To prevent, by any means\nwhatever, the individual from exercising his right to think, and from\ngiving expression to his thoughts, is a direct outrage upon the great\nauthor of us all, upon the individual himself, and also upon the\nwhole human race. The greatest thinker of modern times, John Stuart\nMill, says, \u201cThe peculiar evil of silencing the expression of an\nopinion is that it is robbing the human race, posterity as well as the\nexisting generation; those who dissent from the opinion still more\nthan those who hold it. If the opinion is right they are deprived of\nthe opportunity of exchanging error for truth; if wrong, they lose\nwhat is almost as great a benefit, the clearer perception and livelier\nimpression of truth, produced by its collision with error. No one can\nbe a great thinker who does not recognise that, as a thinker, it is\nhis first duty to follow his intellect to whatever conclusions it may\nlead. Truth gains more even by the errors of one who with due study\nand preparation thinks for himself, than by the true opinions of those\nwho only hold them because they do not suffer themselves to think ...\ncomplete liberty of contradicting and disproving our opinion is the\nvery condition which justifies us in assuming its truth for purposes of\naction; and on no other terms can a being with human faculties have any\nrational assurance of being right.\u201d\n\nWe claim the right to think upon any and every subject, and also to\nexpress our thoughts before the world, in spite of the menace held out\nto us by those whose interests conflict with any honest expression of\nopinion. There is no tribunal but that of reason to which we possibly\ncan submit any theory or proposition. To talk of faith as opposed to\nreason is to speak without seriously thinking. Such faith is but a\nweird phantom that haunts the irresolute and credulous unthinker, but\nwhich really has no existence at all. A man may say that he believes\nsomething entirely opposed to reason, but he deceives himself, for it\nis quite impossible to believe what does not appear to the mind to be\nin accordance with reason. Such a man accepts, but does not believe.\nWe have faith in the existence of the island of Otaheite, although\nwe have never been there ourselves. Geographers tell us that such an\nisland exists on the other side of the world; and we have full faith\nin such an existence, because it is in accordance with reason. But if\nwe were told that the king of Otaheite had never been born, but had,\nlike Topsy, \u2018grow\u2019d,\u2019 or that he and his subjects, instead of talking,\ncrowed like cocks, or brayed like donkeys, we should not believe it,\nbecause it would be contrary to reason. Sensible and thoughtful people\nwill, therefore, not accept anything as truth that does not accord with\nreason and I ask you tonight to follow me in my endeavour to submit the\ntwo important dogmas of my lecture to the test of reason, in the full\nbelief that you are as anxious as myself to arrive at a reasonable and\ntrue conclusion regarding them.\n\nThe doctrines of the creation and fall are, as it were, the foundations\nupon which the huge superstructure of Christianity has been founded.\nTake away these fundamental doctrines, and the whole fabric totters\nto the ground; for without a fall there can be no possible need for a\nredemption, and the etceteras of the religion, such as the miraculous\nconception and ascension, baptism, and the eucharistic feast, vanish\ninto thin air as vain imaginations and things of naught.\n\nIt cannot be too clearly and forcibly insisted upon that no fall\nnecessitates no redemption, for the proposition is self-evident, and\nthus incapable of contradiction. If, therefore, we find the story of\nthe creation and fall, as given to us in the first three chapters\nof Genesis, to be credible and reasonable, then our duty, upon\nanother occasion, will be to examine the evidence for and against the\nsubsequent theories of the religion, in order to discover whether they\nalso are credible and reasonable. If, on the other hand, we find the\nstory to be incredible and absurd, it will be our duty to reject the\nwhole Christian scheme that has emanated from it. Our business at the\npresent time is with these fundamental doctrines of creation and the\nfall, and our sole object is the elucidation of the truth, no matter\nwhether it should be palatable or not to our minds. No sensible man\ncan desire to retain that which is not true, for no system that is not\nfounded on truth can be of any permanent service to the human race, but\nmust on the contrary produce most pernicious results.\n\nHaving thus clearly explained my premisses, I shall now proceed to the\nexamination of the first three chapters of Genesis, and shall divide\nmy text into the two natural divisions suggested in the authorised\nversion. The first chapter and first three verses of the second chapter\ncontain what is known as the Elohistic narrative, so called on account\nof the deity being throughout designated Elohim\u2014\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd, the plural of\nEloh (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d5\u05d4), or Elyah (\u05d0\u05dc\u05d9\u05d4), a compound word made up of El (\u05d0\u05dc), a\nram, and Yah (\u05d9\u05d4), an abbreviation of Yahouh (\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4), the future tense\nof the verb Hahouh (\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4), to be. Eloh literally means \u2018the ram will\nbe,\u2019 and is used to signify the ram-sun, the sun-god, or the sun in\nthe zodiacal sign _Aries_, at the vernal equinox; the plural form,\nElohim, being used to signify the ram-suns, or the six summer months of\nthe year, in which the ram and the sun are together, from equinox to\nequinox. El signifies ram, or god, alone, or without the sun, in the\nwinter period, and is always used to designate the evil principle, the\nwicked god, or the winter period, in contradistinction to Eloh, the\nram-sun of the vernal equinox, and Elohim, the ram-suns of the summer\nmonths, the good principle, or the good gods. In this first narrative\nof the creation Elohim is rendered \u2018God\u2019 in the authorised version,\nthough in other parts of the Bible it is rendered \u2018gods,\u2019 \u2018men,\u2019 or\n\u2018angels.\u2019 The remainder of the second and the third chapters contain\nthe second, or Jehovistic narrative, so called on account of the deity\nbeing designated throughout, Yahouh, or Jehovah (so pronounced by\nChristians) Elohim (\u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05dd), rendered in the authorised version\n\u2018the Lord God.\u2019 That these two accounts were not written by one person\nwill become clear enough as we proceed in our examination, in which the\nrendering of the authorised version will be strictly adhered to.\n\nAccording to the first narrative, god (Elohim) created the heavens and\nthe earth and all they contain in six ordinary days, and rested from\nhis work on the seventh day. It has been asserted by some zealous but\nnot over scrupulous Christians that days of twenty four hours\u2019 duration\nwere not meant by the writer, but that the word \u05d9\u05d5\u05dd (day) signifies an\nenormous lapse of time; but it is quite clear to anyone with average\nintelligence that an ordinary day was meant, or else there would have\nbeen no use in saying that the evening and the morning were the first\nday. Moreover, we are distinctly told in Exodus XX. 10, 11, that we\nare to keep the seventh day as a holiday, \u201cfor in six days the Lord\nmade heaven and earth, the sea and all that is in them, and rested the\nseventh day.\u201d We therefore have here the creation of the world, with\nday and night, but no sun, in one day, which we must admit at once is\nan absurdity, for it is beyond all doubt scientifically proved that\nthis world could never have existed for one moment without the sun\nround which it revolves, and our common sense tells us plainly that\nwithout a sun there could never have been days and nights, or evenings\nand mornings.\n\nOn the second day we are told that god created the firmament, and\ncalled it heaven, and that this firmament separated the waters above\nfrom those below, which clearly proves that the writer had no other\nconception of the universe than that it was limited above to the height\nof the clouds, and bounded below by the earth itself. The third day\nwas set apart for the gathering together of the waters into seas and\nrivers, and for the creation of the vegetable kingdom, which again is\ncontradictory of all known scientific facts, for there was still no\nsun in existence. At last, on the fourth day, the sun was created, as\nalso the moon and stars, all being placed in the firmament, between\nthe clouds and the earth, for the sole purpose of acting as lamps and\nmarking time for this world. The writer evidently imagined that the\nonly object of the heavenly orbs is to light up this world, to divide\nour day from our night, and to limit our seasons, being, apparently,\nignorant of the fact that our days and seasons are regulated by the\nmotions of the earth itself, quite irrespective of the movements of the\ncelestial bodies. He was also clearly under the impression that the sun\nwas, after our earth, the largest body in the universe, the moon being\nnext, and the stars the smallest; whereas the sun is five hundred times\nlarger than the earth and all the planets and their moons put together;\nwhile the earth is about forty nine times larger in bulk than the moon;\nand some of the stars are immensely larger than our sun, and all of\nthem, moreover, suns themselves.\n\nIt is sufficiently evident from this account that the world had been in\nexistence for three days and three nights before the sun was made, and\nthat vegetation had in the meantime been produced, which is, we know,\nan absurdity. There are some ingenious individuals who have declared\nthat this is quite possible, for there are, they say, lights that are\nunconnected with the sun, and that the writer evidently alluded to\nthese faint glimmerings; but I assert confidently that, leaving out of\nthe question the light derived from the stars, so far as we know from\nscience, there is no light known which is not either directly produced\nfrom the sun, or a reflection of the sun\u2019s light from some other object.\n\nOn the fifth day were created fishes, birds, and mammals in the form\nof whales. Now there has been so far no creation of land animals\nexcept birds, and yet the writer declares that whales were made, being\nclearly quite ignorant of the fact that whales are not true fishes, but\nmammals, belonging to the sub-kingdom Mammalia, to which belong also\nhorses, cows, apes and men. Whales were not evolved until long after\ncreeping animals, such as lizards, serpents, etc., and took to the\nwater again after having been, in the parent form, long accustomed to\ndry land, just in the same manner as did the walrus, porpoise, sea-cow,\ndolphin and seal, all of which are mammals. It was not until the next\n(sixth) day that creeping animals were created, according to Genesis,\nand yet we know well enough that they slowly evolved from molluscs, or\nsoft-bodied animals, at a very early period, ages before such species\nas whales and cattle existed. On the very same day, according to the\nnarrative, god formed an androgynous, or hermaphrodite man, having two\nsexes, and being the fac-simile of himself. Many ancient races believed\nthat their god was androgynous, and no doubt the writer of this account\nheld the same opinion, regarding the good principle of the summer\nmonths, or Elohim, as a bi-sexual and reproductive deity. If this be\nnot the correct view of the matter, it would be interesting to know\nwhich of the two sexes the god of Genesis partakes of.\n\nOn the seventh day god rested from his work; but we do not find any\nrecord of his having done anything to cause fatigue, except giving\nutterance to his fiat day by day.\n\nThis story is so palpably absurd as to need no argument to prove it so,\nwere it not for the fact that certain crafty persons, seeing the utter\nimpossibility of reconciling it with science and reason, have seen fit\nto invent new interpretations of the original, in order to give it an\nappearance of truth. One sect maintains that the days were epochs, and\nnot ordinary days, which, if it were true, would merely augment the\ndifficulty by making the earth to have existed, with vegetation, for\nages instead of days, without the sun; but we have already seen that\nthis theory will not hold ground for a moment.\n\nAnother more cunning class of religionists have propounded the\nhypothesis that the whole story is meant to be an epitome of what\noccurred at the origin of the universe and life, and that ordinary days\nwere really meant, and purposely utilised to epitomise long periods of\ntime, as was customary with ancient writers, who frequently availed\nthemselves of poets\u2019 licence in this manner. This theory is _prim\u00e2\nfacie_ a plausible one, and has, no doubt, satisfied many restless and\nthoughtless spirits amongst us; but in reality it differs but little,\nif at all, from the preceding hypothesis, both leaving us in much the\nsame position. They declare that the very same order is maintained in\nthe narrative as that adopted by scientists; that both agree that the\nearth was formed first, and then, in the following order, vegetation,\nfishes, birds, beasts of the field, and man. We know well enough,\nhowever, that the sun is absolutely necessary for the existence of the\nvegetable kingdom; that birds did not appear before reptiles and worms,\nbut long after them; and that placental mammals made their appearance,\nnot before creeping animals, and kangaroos, opossums and others of the\nmarsupial species, but many ages after them.\n\nIn direct contradiction of this fable in Genesis, we learn from science\nthat our solar system once existed in a condition of highly attenuated\nnebulous vapour; and that in the course of millions of years this huge\nchaotic mass of matter, with its sum of force or energy, subject alike\nto the laws of gravitation and transformation, gradually condensed, and\nbecame moulded into cosmic order, forming in process of time a number\nof rotating spherical nebular masses, in a state of intense heat, owing\nto the shock of their recently united atoms. These spheres gradually\ncooled by radiation, consequently contracting and becoming possessed\nof a more rapid rotary movement, throwing off from their equatorial\nregions large rings of vapour, which in their turn also condensed, and,\nunder the influence of the same two laws, formed separate spheres for\nthemselves. Thus gradually came into existence our sun, planets and\nmoons.\n\nIn the course of time, as our earth cooled down, large volumes of\nwater were precipitated on the surface, causing an enormous wear and\ntear of the now solid rock of the earth\u2019s crust, which eventually gave\nrise to depositions of various kinds of earth grits, in layers, one\nabove the other; which strata have been divided by geologists into\nperiods, according to various peculiarities observed in the course\nof their deposition. In the earliest of these periods, owing to the\ngradual change that took place in the relative proportions of the\natmospheric gases, and to the great decrease in temperature, a peculiar\ncombination of the molecular atoms of the earth\u2019s substance took place,\nwhich resulted in the formation of an albuminous substance, called\nprotoplasm, possessing the power of absorption, assimilation, and\nreproduction by fission, or, in other words, developing the property\ncalled life. Under the influence of the laws of heredity and selection\nthis primordial germ of life gradually developed into higher and\nstill higher organic forms of existence, from Am\u0153b\u00e6 to Gastr\u0153ada, or\nmolluscs with mouths; next to Vermes, or worm life; then to Vertebrata,\nor back-boned animals; through fishes; amphibians, living both in\nand out of water; reptiles, from which eventually evolved birds; and\nmarsupials; up to placental mammals, such as whales, quadrupeds, apes\nand men. The gradual evolution of these species occupied many millions\nof years before the date of the creation in Genesis (B.C. 4004),\nduring which period the face of the earth underwent manifold and great\nchanges.\n\nNow, in the name of common sense and reason, does this hypothesis\nagree with and corroborate, as it is said to do by some divines, the\n1st Bible story of creation, in any manner at all? I maintain that the\nman who replies in the affirmative does an injustice to his reasoning\nfaculties and outrages the common sense of his fellows. The theory of\ncreation is absolutely opposed to that of evolution on every point.\n\nNow let us examine the second narrative, as given in the second and\nthird chapters of Genesis. Here we have a direct contradiction of the\nstory in the first chapter; for we are told that god created the earth,\nthe heavens, vegetation and man, but not woman, all in one day. We are\nalso told that there had been no rain upon the earth, and yet that\n\u201cthere went up a mist from the earth,\u201d which we know is impossible.\n\u201cBut,\u201d say the orthodox, \u201ceverything is possible with god.\u201d The reply\nof the evolutionist is, \u201cCan god, then, make a stick with one end\nonly?\u201d God next planted a garden, in which he placed his newly made\nman, after giving him instructions to eat of every tree within it,\nexcept the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, the fruit of which\nwas not to be touched, and the penalty of disobedience being instant\ndeath. Then, in fresh contradiction of the first narrative, beasts of\nthe field and birds were created, after man; after which Adam, the\nman, named them all; but how he acquired the power of speech necessary\nfor such a feat is not recorded. For absurdity the next part of the\nnarrative exceeds all that has preceded it. God created cattle and\nbirds in abundance, but yet could not manufacture a suitable partner\nfor the man; so he adopted the strange device of taking from Adam\u2019s\nbody, while he slept, one of his ribs, with which he made a woman. Now\nit must strike every thoughtful man and woman that this act was the\nvery acme of stupidity, for surely it would have been far easier to\nhave created the woman at once by another fiat, or to have created a\nspare rib with which to make the woman. To attribute such conduct to\nthe great author is surely the height of irreverence.\n\nIt is quite evident that both these stories were not written by one\nauthor, and that both cannot be true, for they totally contradict each\nother, and are written in quite different styles, the deity himself\nbeing differently designated in each. We are told by certain parties\nthat if we do not believe these stories we shall most certainly be\nroasted for all eternity; and indeed the New Testament distinctly bears\nout this fearful fiat. According to this, every man in the whole world\nwho has been unfortunate enough to hear these two accounts read, and\nwho is endowed with sufficient intelligence to discriminate between a\npop-gun and an elephant, will inevitably perish; for it is impossible\nfor any sane man to believe two such contradictory statements. It is\nnot within the power of any man to do so. You might just as well demand\nof a man that he must believe that a brick and a pan-cake are identical\narticles. He could not do so, no matter how hard he tried.\n\nCompared with these fables, how ennobling, grand and sublime is the\ntheory of evolution. We behold the great and mysterious energy of\nuniverse operating in a manner calculated to inspire our minds with\nwonder, awe and admiration. The truly marvellous development of\nourselves from a chaotic nebula of attenuated matter, through all the\nvaried and manifold stages of existence, with their beautiful and\nuseful properties, is indeed an overwhelmingly convincing evidence of\nthe existence of an omniscient and omnipotent, although absolutely\ninscrutable author; and I doubt much whether anyone ever approached\nthis subject with an honest desire to be guided by reason in his search\nfor truth, who did not experience this profound reverence for the\nunknown author. Can we believe that these two narratives in Genesis are\nalso calculated to inspire such a sentiment in the minds of those who\nare fairly well educated and amenable to reason? What kind of a deity,\nthink you, is this god of Genesis? The concluding portion of the 2nd\nnarrative will at once inform us.\n\nThis story is well known to all of us, and is a very remarkable one,\nfor we learn from it the startling fact that the serpent, or devil, was\nthe greatest benefactor to the human race, and, moreover, truthful;\nwhile god was the greatest enemy the race ever had, and was guilty of\nfalsehood and treachery. God placed this man and woman in the garden,\nin front of a very strong temptation, pointed out the temptation to\nthem, and threatened them with instant death if they yielded to it.\nThis god is supposed to be omniscient, and therefore knew well enough\nbefore he placed them there that the poor creatures would fall on the\nvery first temptation. Can we conceive more glaring injustice and\ndiabolical cruelty than this? Now the serpent knew very well that they\nwould not die if they ate the fruit, but that, instead, they would\nbecome wise; and eventually he persuaded them to eat. Who spoke the\ntruth, god or the devil? Did the man and woman die on the day they ate\nthe fruit? Far from it. That day, were there any truth at all in the\nnarrative, would have been the grandest day ever known to man; for by\nthe eating of that fruit was made known to him the difference between\ngood and evil, that he might be able to seek the one and avoid the\nother; his benefactor being the serpent, or devil, the circumventor and\nconqueror of god.\n\nBut notice further on how impotent this so-called almighty deity really\nwas. He exclaimed in fear, \u201cBehold, the man is become as one of us\n[which was precisely what the devil predicted] to know good and evil,\nand now, lest he put forth his hand and take also of the tree of life\nand live for ever, therefore the Lord God sent him forth from the\ngarden.\u201d Now how easy it would have been for an omnipotent creator to\nhave annihilated his own work, and thus cleared the way for a fresh\nstart. It would be interesting to know who the \u201cwe\u201d were that the\nwriter refers to, if not an androgynous deity or a multitude of gods or\ngoddesses.\n\nWhat was the consequence of this sin of Adam and Eve? Every man and\nevery woman ever born upon this earth is guilty of this sin, and will\neternally burn in hell fire, says the Christian church, unless they\nbelieve that this circumvented god became a man, lived on this earth,\nand died the death of a criminal, in order to give satisfaction to\nhimself for the outrage committed on his divine majesty by three\nof his creatures. The countless myriads of human beings who have\ninhabited this earth during the six thousand years (according to Bible\nchronology) that the world has existed, are all and each under this\nfearful curse, although they had no more to do with Adam\u2019s sin than the\nman in the moon, and had no power to prevent it. These people have been\nbrought into the world, whether they liked it or not, and are subject\nto this penalty, the enormous majority of them being inevitably doomed\nto eternal torment; for there have lived many millions of people who\nnever even heard of the Bible, its gods or its scheme of redemption.\nWe may go farther and declare that all are inevitably doomed, for\nwe cannot conceive that anyone can believe such a story as that of\nthe fall. No one will venture to assert that infants and idiots can\nbelieve anything, therefore there is no hope for these unfortunates,\nwhatever chances there may be for others.\n\nAs the expression of the infantile imagination of primitive man, after\nemerging from his brute ancestry, and commencing to exercise more fully\nhis reasoning faculties, these fables are easily understood; but as\nthe writings of men who had been inspired by the almighty power to\nrecord a true account of the origin of nature and man for the use of\nothers, they must be at once rejected by all reasonable and thoughtful\npeople as gross absurdities. We can easily understand how the mind\nof primitive man pondered over the strange mixture of good and evil\nin the world, just as the awakening mind of a child would do to day;\nhow the mystery would be explained by the analogy of the celestial\nmovements; and how, as the result of the infantile reasoning, the good\nprinciple became associated with the mental conception of a venerable\nold gentleman, who planted a garden, and performed the principle part\nin the drama just described from the third chapter of Genesis.\n\nTho whole story bears the strongest marks of being the production of\nan infantile intellect. The simple manner in which the writer tells us\nthat the man and woman sewed fig leaves together and made aprons for\nthemselves is sufficient evidence of this. We cannot believe that Adam\nand Eve went through the many processes necessary for the production\nof the needles and thread, with which to sew their leaves together.\nThen the conversation between god, as he took his stroll in the garden\nin the cool of the evening, and Adam and Eve, is just what we should\nexpect from the crude imaginations of our early ancestors; as also is\nthe manner in which the man placed the blame on the woman, and she in\nher turn upon the serpent. The curse, too, is precisely in the same\nstyle; first the serpent, then the woman, afterwards the man, and\nlastly the earth itself being brought under the divine anathema. No\nless apparent is the absurdity of the writer stating that Adam called\nhis wife Eve \u201cbecause she was the mother of all living,\u201d when there\nwere then no other human beings in existence; and declaring that god\nmade coats and breeches (see \u201cBreeches Bible\u201d) of skins, when as yet\ndeath had not entered into the world. Such fables cannot be accepted as\ntrue history by the intellect of the nineteenth century.\n\nThat we suffer for the sins of our fathers is unfortunately too true;\nbut that we shall eternally frizzle for them I declare, without\nthe least hesitation, to be a vile falsehood and an insult to our\nintellects. The vices and diseases of our ancestors are undoubtedly\nreproduced in ourselves, as are their good deeds and lofty sentiments;\nand we again transmit these properties to our offspring. We have, in\nfact, the power of rendering happy or miserable those who follow us,\nand making the general state of society somewhat better or worse.\nOur great mental attributes were not surely evolved within us for no\npurpose, and to lie dormant, but that we should exercise them and use\nthem for the moral and social improvement of ourselves and our fellows.\nBut to imagine that we shall suffer again in some other condition of\nexistence, because of our fathers\u2019 sins, is the height of insanity.\n\nRespecting the authorship of these fables, we are told that the book\nwhich contains them, as well as the other four books of the Pentateuch,\nwere written by Moses, under the inspiration of what is called the holy\nghost; but when we examine these books we find that this is without\ndoubt false, for it is not possible for any man to record his own death\nand burial, and the lives of a succession of prophets who lived after\nhim, as is done in the last chapter of Deuteronomy. Then, again, in the\nseventh chapter of Genesis clean and unclean beasts are mentioned in\nconnexion with the ark fable, whereas, according to the Bible, clean\nand unclean beasts were not declared such until 600 years after Moses\nis said to have died; which proves that Genesis was not written before\nthat late period. The town of Dan is also mentioned in the fourteenth\nchapter, which town had no existence until 331 years after the recorded\ndeath of Moses. In chap. XXXVI. a list is given of all the kings that\nreigned over Edom \u201cbefore there reigned any king over the children of\nIsrael,\u201d proving once more that this book was not written until long\nafter kings had reigned over Israel. Numerous other passages might be\nquoted to show that Moses could not have written the books that are\nascribed to him. To cut the matter short, however, we are told in the\n2nd apocryphal book of Ezra that he and his clerks wrote all the books\nof Moses; and in Chronicles and Kings that Shaphan discovered the\nwritings in an old chest.\n\nWe find, therefore, not only that these fables of the creation and\nfall are not true records, but that it is not known who wrote them,\nalthough suspicion attaches to one Ezra; and yet we are expected to\nhang our chances of salvation upon them. We are handed these books\nand told by a priest that they were originally derived from god. Now\ninstead of believing the man, and taking no pains to find out what the\nvolume really contains, as is unfortunately the habit of most people,\nour duty is clearly to investigate the matter, and try to find out\nwhether that priest speaks the truth or not, whether he has any sort\nof interest in making us believe the volume to be the word of god, or,\nassuming that he himself honestly believes it to be so, whether he is\na sufficient authority on the point. Let us, for instance, take the\ncase of a stranger to the Christian faith, one who never heard of the\nBible or its gods, and who meets a Christian priest in the backwoods\nof America. The holy one informs the stranger that he possesses a book\nwhich has been written by god, through the medium of the inspired\nminds of a number of holy men. Would you consider the stranger to be a\nman of sound mental faculties if he at once accepted the word of the\nparasite, and shaped his whole career according to the teaching of that\nbook? Most assuredly not. The most natural thing for the stranger to\ndo would be to stare in amazement at the saint, and wonder whether he\nwas quite right in his mind. Observing that the priest was really in\nearnest, and apparently of sane mind, he would parley with him, asking\nwhere he procured his book from; who were the very holy parties who\nhad been inspired to write it; when and where they lived; and who knew\nanything about them: in short he would demand from the unctions one his\ncredentials before believing such an astounding assertion as that god\nwrote a book. The replies would be after this fashion. The book was\nderived in the first instance from a publisher\u2019s shop, where it had\nbeen printed with lead type and black ink, from another printed copy,\nwhich had been printed from another copy, and so on back to the first\nprinted edition, which was copied from a translation of various Hebrew\nand Greek \u2018originals.\u2019 It was about two thousand years, he would say,\nsince some of these \u2018originals\u2019 were written, and the remainder were\nsupposed to be of much earlier date; but who the actual writers were\nhe could not tell, although it was beyond doubt they were guided by\ngod\u2019s inspiration, for it was so declared in the writings themselves,\nwhich had never yet been doubted, except by a few naughty men who were\nnow in hell. Do you think this would be good enough for the stranger?\nOf course not. Then, in the name of common sense, why should we accept\nthese Bible books without enquiry? To accept any anonymous writings in\nblind faith as being the production of particular individuals, without\ncorroborative evidence, is the act of a fool, not of a wise man. A\nsensible person will make some enquiry about them before accepting them.\n\nUnfortunately for ourselves it is only lately that people have been\nwise or bold enough to use their reasoning faculties in these matters,\nthe consequence being that the ordinary mind is now almost unequal to\nthe task of unravelling the net which has been so cunningly spun around\nsociety by the Christian church. A careful investigation of the matter,\nhowever, leads to the inference that about B.C. 250 or 300 the Jewish\nchief priest Ezra, assisted by a number of clerks, commenced to form\na national history out of the various legends they had picked up in\ntheir long wanderings, soon producing what are now known as the books\nof Judges (from the 3rd chap.), Samuel, Kings and Chronicles, which,\ntogether with the poems and incantations of various men of the tribes,\nthey set forth as the divinely inspired history of their people. Not\nlong afterwards the Persian system of creation, and story of the fall\nof man were committed to manuscript, and adapted to the requirements\nof the Jewish people by the substitution of their race in place of the\nChaldeans as the chosen people of god; and thus were produced the books\nof the Pentateuch, with Joshua, and the two first chapters of Judges.\nThis explains why the stories of the creation, fall, flood, tower of\nBabel, etc., are never mentioned in any of the books of the Bible after\nGenesis for the space of about a thousand years; why in all the books\nfrom Joshua as far as II. Kings the name of Moses is never met with,\nthe most remarkable man in the whole Jewish history; and why such\nnames as Adam, Eve, Seth, Cain, Abel, Enoch, Noah, Shem, Ham, Japhet,\nAbraham, Isaac and Jacob never occur again after Genesis till the time\nof the so-called return from Babylon.\n\nThe real meaning of the Chaldean and Jewish stories of the creation and\nfall, which were derived originally from the constellations above, it\nwould take too long here to unfold, but the riddle has been explained\nin my \u201cPopular Faith Unveiled,\u201d to which those who desire to further\npursue the subject are referred.\n\nFor nearly two thousand years Christianity, based on these fables of\nthe creation and fall, has had an unfettered career throughout Europe,\nits avowed object being to bring salvation to men in the next world,\nand to teach the doctrines of love, forbearance, humility and charity\nwhile in this world. Respecting the bringing of salvation to men in\nthe next world, we cannot well determine to what extent the religion\nhas been successful; but with regard to its earthly mission it has\nsignally and utterly failed. The two thousand years have passed away\nand still the evils surrounding us continue, and are even intensified;\npoverty, misery, immorality and tyranny exist as of old, in spite\nof the promise to the church that she should be helped, even to the\nend, by the divine power. So far from love, charity, forbearance\nand humility being inculcated by the church, we find the followers\nof the meek and lowly one occupying high and lucrative offices, one\ndeclaring himself the vice-regent of god on earth, and others, in our\nown country, being in receipt of salaries ranging from fifteen and\nten thousand pounds annually to two or three hundred, driving their\ncarriages, sporting livery servants and cockades, stiling themselves\nas Reverend, Very Reverend, Venerable, Most Reverend Father in God,\nRight Honorable and other titles expressive of superior quality of\nmake; and all in a constant state of warfare amongst themselves. One\ncannot take up a daily paper without seeing an instance of clerical\nintolerance, hatred, envy or malice. The Romanist damns the Protestant;\nthe churchman rides the high horse over the dissenter, and would like\nto deprive him of what is vulgarly considered to be decent burial; the\nevangelicals denounce the high church party; the nonconformist bodies\nare all at constant war with each other on points of doctrine; and\nwhile all are eaten up with pride, egotism, selfishness, greed and\nmutual hatred, each sect declares itself to be the genuine teacher of\nlove, forbearance, humility and charity.\n\nAs a body the church has from the first opposed all progress. As early\nas the year 414 Bishop Cyril\u2019s mob brained the learned Hypatia in a\nChristian church, for the heinous crime of teaching mathematics. The\nPope and his pious court attempted to prevent the art of printing\nbecoming known in Europe. Copernicus was excommunicated for the sin\nof announcing the grand truth that the earth revolves round the sun.\nGalileo rotted in the prison of the Inquisition for daring to say\nthat the earth rotates on its axis. Bruno was burnt at the stake for\ndeclaring his belief in the Copernican philosophy. Newton\u2019s theory of\ngravitation was denounced by the church. Descartes, Kepler, Locke,\nLaplace and Darwin all were abused and insulted by the holy ones for\ntheir heretical writings, which have brought us such blessings. The\nchurch opposed the abolition of slavery, both here and in America, the\nbishops in the House of Lords applauding king George when he said that\nslavery was a useful institution because it was taught in the holy\nBible, and the southern States of the Union appealing to the \u2018word of\ngod\u2019 in justification of their cruelty. The burning of witches, taught\nin the Bible, was vigorously encouraged by the church; and the cruel\nhorrors of the Inquisition are too well known to need description. All\nmeasures of reform in our own country have been opposed by bishops and\nnobles together; the church and the state having aided each other in\ntrampling on the people\u2019s rights, and enslaving both their minds and\nbodies. In spite of the present very apparent poverty and misery, the\npeople are exhorted by the church to increase and multiply, being told\nthat it is a blessed thing to have one\u2019s quiver full, and that it is\nwicked to listen to those who preach conjugal prudence, small families,\nand social thrift. In short the Christian religion has entirely failed\nin its mission, being a standing menace to all progress, and a cause of\nunceasing animosity all over Europe.\n\nDo we imagine that all the priests and ministers of the Christian\nchurch believe the fables of the creation and fall? I would stake my\nexistence on it that if we were to cut off their salaries there would\nbe barely half a dozen parsons in each denomination who would stick to\ntheir soul-saving business. Their trinity is supposed to consist of god\nthe father, god the son, and god the holy ghost; but if we represent\nthe first by the letter l, the second by s, and the third by d, we\nshould be much nearer the mark. \u00a3. s. d. is the Christian trinity, and\npew rents, tithes, etc., the means by which the one thing needful is\nkept up. Ten million pounds sterling are annually spent in supporting\nthe clergy of the established church alone, while poverty, wretchedness\nand crime confront us at every turn. The struggling workers of this\ncountry, not content with having to contribute towards the payment of\n\u00a329,000,000 annually, as interest on the national debt resulting from\naccumulated religious war charges, are foolish enough to spend more\nthan a third of this amount in keeping a host of state-made drones,\nwho oppose all progress, drain the hard earnings from the workers,\nand assume haughty airs towards their poor dupes. In the face of the\ndepressed state of our trade, and the poverty and misery around us, it\nis appalling to think of the enormous quantity of money that annually\ndrifts into the pockets of these human parasites, both episcopalian and\nnonconformist alike.\n\nWe know well enough that the large majority of those laymen who profess\nto believe the fall and redemption scheme do not really believe it at\nall, but play the part of the believer in order to serve their own\nprivate interests. The laity may be divided into four classes:\u20141st,\nthose few honest and sincere men who deceive themselves by imagining\nthat they can really believe such unreasonable doctrines, and who\nattempt by their means to do what could be done so very much better\nwithout them. 2nd, those who are deficient in education and mental\npower, and who will accept anything the priest tells them, no matter\nhow absurd. 3rd, those who have some little education but very little\nbrain power, and who consider themselves very important members of\nsociety, when in reality the world does not know them even by name.\nThey resent in their little minds the silent affront offered to them\nby their fellows, who, they think, ought to know their superior worth;\nand they look around for a little church or chapel, where the stream of\nintellect is sufficiently thin to allow of their feeble mental power\nbeing perceived. They join, take a leading part in the performances,\ncarry the collecting box, open pew doors, hand hymn-books to strangers,\nand are happy in the consciousness of their importance, being gazed\nat Sunday after Sunday by an admiring congregation. Were these folk\nobliged to do their religious work under cover of masks, their names\nbeing at the same time studiously concealed from the congregation,\nthe race of pew openers, box carriers, etc., would soon die out; but\nas it is, vanity, egotism and pomposity yet keep the race alive. The\nfourth class consists of sharp business men, with plenty of brains and\nfair average education, who join a church with a large congregation,\nand adopt the particular creed in vogue there, as a means of pushing\ntheir business, by assuming a mien of pious \u201crespectability.\u201d These\nare the men, devoid of all honour, who forfeit their manhood at the\nshrine of hypocrisy, and who ought more particularly to be shewn up\nin their true colors. Without these four classes the religion of the\nfall and redemption scheme would soon become a thing of the past. No\nmention has been made of the ladies, who, according to some rude and\nungallant people, look forward to the lord\u2019s day as one on which they\ncan display their new bonnets, procure food for another week\u2019s gossip,\nor hold sweet communion with the unmarried curate\u2014all for Jesus. It is\nunnecessary to say that this may not be true, and that a higher and\nnobler motive may prompt the ardent zeal of the fair sex.\n\nDo not believe the parsons when they tell you that your souls are in\njeopardy for rejecting the Christian doctrines; the truth is that\ntheir incomes are in danger, not your souls. Take care not to follow\ntheir evil advice that it is a blessed thing to have your quiver full,\nand that the lord loves a cheerful giver. Have small families, being\ncareful to bring into the world only as many as you can decently\nprovide for, so as to give them a fair chance in the world; and let\nyour creditors and your saving-banks, and not your lord, have your\nspare cash\u2014your lord being but another name for your parson. When they\ntell you that you must take no thought for the morrow, and must not lay\nup treasure on earth, where moths and rust corrupt, and where thieves\nbreak through and steal, give them the cold shoulder, insure your life\nin some sound office, and leave the laws of the country in which you\nlive to take care of the thieves, and their reverences to look after\nthe moths and rust.\n\nIt will, no doubt, be urged that Christianity has done, and is doing\na great good in the world. This I emphatically deny. I readily admit\nthat some good has been effected in the name of Christianity, but deny\nthat the fall and redemption religion has been the cause. The same\namount of good would have resulted with any other religion, and much\nmore with no religion at all. All the good that has ever been effected\nin the world has emanated from lofty individual minds; but as chance\nhas had it, the majority of these men in the past have been Christians,\nsimply because that religion has prevailed in Europe for nearly two\nthousand years. In the present day this is not the case; and it is a\nfact beyond contradiction that all the leaders of thought of our time\nare men who have rejected the fables of the creation and fall as given\nin Genesis, together with the consequent redemption scheme, as false\nand vain. John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, Tyndal,\nCarpenter, Huxley, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ralph Waldo Emerson, R\u00e9nan,\nVictor Hugo, Schopenhauer, Haeckel, and in fact every other modern\nleader of thought, have rejected the orthodox faith; and yet we look\nforward to the future with bright hope, expecting a steady progress\nin man\u2019s general welfare. Even when Christians themselves in days\nlong gone by, attempted to introduce any useful reform, their church\ninvariably persecuted them, as for instance Copernicus, Galileo,\nBruno, Luther, etc.; and the only Christian priest who ever propounded\nany theory which was calculated to be a lasting boon to society was\nMalthus, who declared that over population was the great cause of all\nmisery, and that until people were taught conjugal prudence it was\nuseless to attempt to ameliorate their social condition. This friend\nof humanity was bitterly denounced by the church, and to this day his\nfollowers are held in contempt, notwithstanding that the Malthusian\nprinciples are now endorsed by the leading social scientists, and that\nit is as clear as the sun at noon day that within the short space of 45\nyears the present population of this country\u2014now about 36,000,000\u2014will\nhave doubled itself. The people now cannot support themselves, so how\nthey will manage when the population is 72,000,000 it is hard to say.\nWhat with over population and land monopoly the future has indeed some\nterrible social evils in store for us.\n\nIndividual Christians undoubtedly have done something towards\nmaking their fellows happy, but not so Christianity, as witness the\nInquisition and other enormities of the middle ages. But do the Jews,\nUnitarians and Infidels of to day do nothing for their fellows? What\nabout Sir Moses Montefiore, who rejects the atonement? Have not the\nAgnostics just founded the Whitminster College for purely secular\neducation? And what do we not owe to those heterodox scientists just\nmentioned? It is the fashion with some people to give the name of\nChristianity to the morality of this century; but this very ingenuous\nattempt to clothe one of the most immoral of the world\u2019s religions with\nthe garment of righteousness carries no weight for the scholar and the\nhistorian. There is as much difference between the morality of to day\nand the genuine Christian religion as there is between the north and\nsouth poles. The two are the exact antitheses of each other. The real\nreason that the human race has in the last hundred years so rapidly\nadvanced in intellectual qualities and moral progress is not because it\nhas become more Christian in its character but because it has gradually\nshaken off the yoke of Christianity piece by piece. The whole Mosaic\ncosmogony, with its flat earth theory, creation of man, etc., as taught\nin Genesis, has been destroyed by Copernicus, Newton, Laplace and\nDarwin; slavery has been abolished; witches are no longer burnt at\nthe stake; polygamy is discountenanced; and human sacrifice, murder,\nrapine, theft and personal assaults are no longer justified. All these\nimmoralities are distinctly and prominently taught in the Christian\nBible, but have been expunged from the moral code of this century.\nWere Christianity now dead instead of dying the same amount of good\nwould accrue to the race as before; and, judging from past history,\nthere would be a very vast decrease in the opposition that has for two\nthousand years been offered to progress.\n\nThe question after all is not what Christianity has done, but whether\nor not its story is a true one. As already stated, if the creation and\nfall stories are not true the whole scheme of Christianity, with its\ngod-man and its sacraments, is a fraud and a delusion. No religion that\ncannot bear the test of reason, and be maintained on a public platform\ncan be founded on truth. If the Christian story be true there is no\nneed for the holy ones to secure themselves behind the fortifications\nof \u2019coward\u2019s castle\u2019 every Sunday to preach their doctrines; the open\nplatform being a more suitable place from which to propagate the truth.\nBut what are the facts? The man who dares to submit the religion to the\ntest of reason, or even to discourse publicly upon evolution or any\nother scientific theory that is likely to interfere with the steady\nflow of bullion into the collection box, is denounced from the pulpit,\nthe holy ones branding him as a dangerous infidel, and using all the\nmeans in their power to blacken his character and to insidiously\nundermine his business. The challenge to debate is never accepted.\n\nThe question before us is a momentous one. Creation or Evolution? Moses\nor Darwin? We cannot follow both.\n\n\n\n\nWORKS BY DR. H. J. HARDWICKE.\n\n\n_Demy 8vo., pp. 202, price 10/-_\n\nMEDICAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICE IN ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD.\n\n\u201cThis book contains a fund of information.... The whole is preceded by\nan introduction, which is worth the attention of all persons taking a\nbroad interest in medical education.... Some weaknesses in home and\nforeign regulations are lightly passed over, and it may well be that\nsuch a mass of statement will, on experience, be found to be defective\nat points. But we accept it gratefully, as an attempt to supply a very\ngreat want, and we commend some of the reflections of the author on the\ndefects of our own system to all whom it may concern.\u201d\u2014_Lancet._\n\n\u201cHere the reader will find information respecting the educational\nbodies, examinations, and medical laws of every civilised state, and he\nwill also come to the humiliating confession that though there exist\na good many time-honoured institutions in the United States, and an\nanxiety to put matters on a scientific footing in others, yet farther\nsouth the condition of medicine is as bad as can possibly be imagined.\u2019\n... But the authorities, and not Dr. Hardwicke, are responsible for\nthis, and we cordially thank him for his decidedly useful addition to\nour knowledge of medical education in other countries.\u201d\u2014_Medical Press\nand Circular._\n\n\u201cA good deal of information will be found in a useful book entitled,\n\u2018Medical Education and Practice in all Parts of the World,\u2019 by Dr. H.\nJ. Hardwicke.\u201d\u2014_British Medical Journal._\n\n\u201cA book which ought to cut the ground from beneath all bogus\ndiploma-dealers.\u201d\u2014_Medical Times and Gazette._\n\n\u201cThis volume, extending to 202 pages, with double columns, really\ncontains the information which the title-page promises. It must have\ncost the author a great amount of trouble. It is a useful guide for all\nentrants to the profession, those especially who contemplate settling\nin foreign parts. It will do good also indirectly by letting those\nschools whose education is defective see what other schools are doing,\nand so be the means of stimulating them to aim at higher things. To\nbe informed, for example, that medical teaching in Japan is already\ntreading on the heels of some of our British schools cannot fail to do\ngood.\u201d\u2014_Edinburgh Medical Journal._\n\n\u201cDr. Hardwicke\u2019s book will prove a valuable source of information to\nthose who may desire to know the conditions upon which medical practice\nis or may be pursued in any or every country of the world, even to the\nremotest corners of the earth. The work has been compiled with great\ncare, and must have required a vast amount of labour and perseverance\non the part of its author.\u201d\u2014_Dublin Medical Journal._\n\n\u201cThis work supplies a want long felt.... The chief value of Dr.\nHardwicke\u2019s volume, to students, is in the information he gives\nconcerning the rules of practice in other countries, and the\npossibilities opened up of making a livelihood in them.... To teachers\nthe manual will be invaluable; it will not only inform them of usages\nabroad, but enable them to glean many useful hints to aid the conduct\nof their own classes here. We commend the work as a most admirable\n_resum\u00e9_ of the state of medical education and practice in the\nworld.\u201d\u2014_Students\u2019 Journal._\n\n\u201cThis opportune and very useful work ... gives exact and in some\ninstances complete information of the requirements, curriculum, &c.\nfor obtaining a diploma in every part of the world.... Some idea of\nthe labour undertaken by the author may be gathered from the fact that\nthe index contains nearly five hundred references.... The book will\nbe a mine of reference for medical legislators, and will doubtless\ncolour the provisions of the new Medical Act so clamorously demanded\nin England, and of the Act to which we are about to commit ourselves\nhere.\u201d\u2014_Australian Medical Journal._\n\n\u201cA great deal of useful and convenient information is contained in this\nwork in regard to the subjects of which it treats, and the information,\nas a rule, seems to be fairly accurate and reliable. The part devoted\nto the United States opens with the Philadelphia _Record\u2019s_ full\naccount of the bogus traffic in that city. The position assigned to\nthis narrative is, perhaps, unnecessarily prominent, but we do not\nthink the exposure of those vile practices can be too minute or widely\ncirculated. This diploma traffic, whether carried on in Pennsylvania,\nNew York, or Massachusetts, was and is a disgrace to us, and we may as\nwell acknowledge it.\u201d\u2014_Boston Medical and Surgical Journal_, U. S.\n\n\u201cThe want of such a book has been long felt by all who take any\ninterest in medical education, and is specially needed at the\npresent time, when the attention of our government has been called\nto certain abuses, and it is about to introduce reforms. The book is\na most exhaustive one, and deserving the attention of all who are\nin any way interested in the advancement of medical education and\nreform.\u201d\u2014_American Specialist._\n\n\u201cThis book, which extends to 202 closely-printed pages, with double\ncolumns, is undoubtedly the remarkably comprehensive treatise promised\nby the title. The labour of the undertaking must have been indeed\ngreat, and the author must possess a rare knowledge of his subject\nto be able to condense such a huge mass of information into a single\nvolume of 202 pages. We can strongly recommend the work as being the\nonly complete treatise on the subject. No portion of the whole world\nhas been omitted, and the author is to be congratulated on the very\nsatisfactory result of his eminently difficult task.\u201d\u2014_Family Doctor._\n\n\u201cThis work is a valuable manual, of interest not only to medical\nmen, but also to the literary public, who evince at the present day\nso much enthusiasm in studying the intellectual condition of other\nnations, chiefly, no doubt, from magazine articles. Medical legislation\nis, as experience amply proves, one of the latest developments of\ncivilisation.... Let us, for instance, glean from Dr. Hardwicke\u2019s\nbook facts as to the condition of medicine in some parts of the\nSpanish-American republics.... Let us turn to civilised countries\nwhere medical teachers keep step with \u2018the march of intellect.\u2019 ...\nWe have still much to learn from Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, yet it\nis undeniable that the general social and intellectual position of\nthe medical profession is as high in these islands as abroad, where\ntechnical education is in many respects better. It is by the young\ndoctor, who finds the profession over stocked in his own country, that\nDr. Hardwicke\u2019s manual will be found particularly valuable.\u201d\u2014_Athen\u00e6um._\n\n\u201cThose who are about to engage in medical study will do well to consult\nDr. Hardwicke\u2019s \u2018Medical Education and Practice,\u2019 as an exact knowledge\nof the relative value of the innumerable medical qualifications would\noften prevent much after annoyance.\u201d\u2014_Westminster Review._\n\n\u201cIn this book, says the author, \u2018will be contained the conditions under\nwhich a medical practitioner may practise his profession, and the\nrequirements for the medical degree at the universities and medical\ncorporations in almost all the civilised countries of the world.\u2019 This\npromise is kept.... It contains much information not easily accessible,\nand likely to be useful.\u201d\u2014_Chemist and Druggist._\n\nJ. & A. CHURCHILL, 11 New Burlington St., London, W.\n\n\n_8vo. 192 pages, Price 2/6._\n\nHEALTH RESORTS AND SPAS OF EUROPE.\n\n\u201cWe have never yet seen anything that quite equalled the delicious\nbrevity of Dr. Hardwicke\u2019s remarkably curt and incisive little\nhand-book. In the brief space of 184 pages he introduces us to all\nthe health-resorts and spas of the entire eastern hemisphere, from\nEngland to Egypt, and from Madeira to St. Moritz. We are bound to\nadmit that, so far as it is possible to test his information by the\nlight of personal experience, his short paragraphs are thoroughly\nup to date, even as regards the smallest and most insignificant\nwatering-places.\u201d\u2014_Pall Mall Gazette._\n\n\u201cContains, in addition to chapters on the climatic and hygienic\ntreatment of disease, and the properties and uses of various mineral\nwaters, succinct accounts, in alphabetical order, of the different\nhealth-resorts and spas of Britain and of the continent of Europe.\nThe exposure, the elevation, the range and limit of temperature, and\nother amenities of each watering-place, are briefly described; in many\ncases also an analysis is given of the constituents and properties\nof the various chalybeate and other springs. In short, a great mass\nof information, such as invalids are most in quest of, is found in\ncondensed and handy form.\u201d\u2014_Scotsman._\n\n\u201cContains some valuable knowledge of the climatic treatment of\ndiseases, of which all should avail themselves. The usefulness of such\na book must appear evident to those who experience the power of climate\nover the human constitution. It should be bought and studied and will\ndoubtless give beneficial advice.\u201d\u2014_Brighton Gazette._\n\n\u201cOught to be welcomed by the large number of invalids whose daily\navocation, as the author justly remarks, consists almost entirely in\nbattling against their formidable foes, \u2018weather and insalubrity.\u2019\nDr. Hardwicke has some highly useful observations on the different\nstages of consumption.... The chapter on the properties and uses of\nwater is also full of excellent hints.... Spa life on the continent is\ngraphically described.... A carefully compiled index greatly enhances\nthe value of this work, which is not to be judged merely by its\nsize.\u201d\u2014_Liverpool Mercury._\n\n\u201cThe author gives some very practical remarks on the properties and\nuses of water, hygienic ablutions and baths, and treats of mineral\nwaters and spa life. Succeeding chapters give brief but evidently\ncareful and authentic accounts of the leading health resorts and spas\nof Europe.\u201d\u2014_Yorkshire Post._\n\n\u201cThe introductory chapters on the treatment of disease by climate,\nthe properties and uses of water, and on mineral waters and spa\nlife, contain some valuable advice, which invalids will do well to\ntake. Dr. Hardwicke\u2019s work does really supply a want felt by many\npersons.\u201d\u2014_Sheffield Independent._\n\n\u201cA great deal of information is conveyed, and the avoidance of\ntechnicalities will be an additional recommendation.\u201d\u2014_Bristol Mirror._\n\n\u201cA very handy little manual ... stating clearly and concisely the\nadvantages and disadvantages of the various health resorts and\nspas.\u201d\u2014_Sussex Daily News._\n\n\u201cThe ordinary reader will find this little volume far more interesting\nthan is usually the case with books dealing with medicine or medical\nmatters. The subject is one of very great importance, and the author\ndeals with it in a way that will be fully appreciated by non-medical\nreaders. He avoids technicalities, and places before us the salient\npoints very clearly and concisely.\u201d\u2014_Rotherham Advertiser._\n\n\u201cThis little volume will be welcomed as a guide to the many health\nresorts in Europe.... The book should have a large demand, for it\ncontains a great deal of information in a little space.\u201d\u2014_Doncaster\nGazette._\n\n\u201cWill be found very useful by everyone whose health requires either\nchange of air or the use of mineral waters.\u201d\u2014_Barnsley Independent._\n\n\u201cAs a hand-book to any sufferer desirous of knowing in a general way\nwhich are the baths most likely to suit his particular complaint, this\nvolume will be useful.\u201d\u2014_Bradford Observer._\n\n\u201cMany useful hints may be derived from this little book, for which\nvaletudinarians will be thankful.\u201d\u2014_Christian World._\n\nW. H. ALLEN & CO., 13 Waterloo Place, London, S.W.\n\n\n_8vo., cloth bound, Price 5/-_\n\nHISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE MANORS OF PATTINGHAM AND WORFIELD.\n\n\u201cVery complete, and must have been a work of very great\nlabour.\u201d\u2014_Salopian and West Midland Monthly Illustrated Journal._\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_Price 5/-8vo., cloth bound._\n\nGUIDE TO EUROPEAN UNIVERSITIES.\n\n\u201cFor those who contemplate studying abroad, this guide will prove of\ngreat use.\u201d\u2014_Lancet._\n\n\u201cThis little book is a guide to the medical department of the various\nuniversities in France, Germany, Belgium, Holland, Switzerland,\nItaly and Austria.... Most complete.... Those who intend visiting\nany continental university should first of all read this very useful\nguide.\u201d\u2014_Family Doctor._\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3\u00bdd._)\n\nCREATION AND FALL.\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3\u00bdd._)\n\nMAN\u2014WHENCE AND WHITHER?\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3\u00bdd._)\n\nINTELLECTUAL PROGRESS IN EUROPE\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3\u00bdd._)\n\nEVOLUTION OF THE GOD IDEA\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_8vo., price 3d._ (_post free 3\u00bdd._)\n\nGENUINE LIBERALISM.\n\nPublished by the author.\n\n\n_Demy 8vo., pp. 274, price 5/6._\n\nTHE POPULAR FAITH UNVEILED.\n\n\u201cWe cannot do better than recommend all friends of independent thought,\nand, to use Milton\u2019s phrase, \u2018unlicensed printing,\u2019 to repay the\nauthor\u2019s energy by writing to him for the volume, which they will find\nintelligent and fearless in an eminent degree, while it evinces a by no\nmeans common acquaintance with the science of comparative religion. The\nbasis of Dr. Hardwicke\u2019s theory and arguments about the popular faith\nis the zodiacal origin of religious myths, and there is no doubt he is\nin agreement with the greatest authorities so far as the broad lines\ngo.\u201d\u2014_Westminster Review._\n\n\u201cDr. Hardwicke treats the extensive and difficult subject of the\nevolution of Christianity from pre\u00ebxisting religions with great\nboldness and candour from the purely theistic and anti-dogmatic\nstandpoint.\u201d\u2014_The Scotsman._\n\n\u201cIt is an exceptionally valuable book to Freethinkers.... The work\naffords evidence of scholarly attainment and well-directed research,\nand should occupy a place in the library of every intelligent\nanti-Christian.\u201d\u2014_Secular Review._\n\n\u201cThe result of this bold measure is more than creditable ...\nconsists of a careful examination of the Biblical records, full of\nsuggestion.\u201d\u2014_The Freethinker._\n\n\u201cIn a manner at once searching and succinct it proves the Bible to be\nlittle else than an effete old almanack, conceived in the earliest\ndawn of thought, when man glowered tremblingly at the spectra in his\nown brain, naming them heaven or hell, god or devil, as they produced\npleasure or pain.\u201d\u2014_The Agnostic_, Dallas.\n\n\u201cA scholarly examination of the various legends that make up what is\ncalled the Christian religion.... A very valuable contribution to the\nhistorico-scientific freethought literature of the period.\u201d\u2014_Lucifer,\nthe Light-bearer_, Kansas.\n\n\u201cA better book than this we have scarcely noticed in our columns. It is\nthe result of laborious researches and a deep erudition on the part of\nthe author.\u201d\u2014_The Anti-Christian_, Calcutta.\n\nPublished by the Author, Sharrow, Sheffield.\n\n\n_8vo., price 1/-_\n\nVOX HUMANA;\n\nOR THE ART OF SINGING FROM A MEDICAL POINT OF VIEW.\n\n\u201cThis _multum in parvo_ is a remarkably cheap and thoroughly exhaustive\npamphlet.... The subject is well dealt with, and contains a large\namount of very valuable information.\u201d\u2014_Family Doctor._\n\n\u201cContains a large amount of very valuable information and advice. Dr.\nHardwicke has treated his subject not only ably, but in a manner which\nmust interest all who peruse his pamphlet.\u201d\u2014_Rotherham and Masbrough\nAdvertiser._\n\n\u201cJust the kind of work to place in the hands of vocalists, or would-be\nvocalists.\u201d\u2014_Sussex County Herald._\n\n\u201cA perusal of the doctor\u2019s remarks, with reasonable attention thereto,\nwould result in a vast increase of really good voices.\u201d\u2014_Eastbourne\nGazette._\n\n(Remainders only from the Author.)\n\n\n_8vo., price 1/-_\n\nSKIN ERUPTIONS;\n\nTHEIR CAUSES AND PREVENTION.\n\n\u201cWill be found very useful reading. It will be especially valuable to\nthose who have any family predisposition to skin disease, as there\nare given a number of very useful hints concerning the preservation\nof the skin in a healthy condition. There are also contained many\ngood suggestions for keeping school-children free from skin diseases\nof an infectious or contagious nature. We recommend Dr. Hardwicke\u2019s\nproduction as a very cheap and useful treatise.\u201d\u2014_Family Doctor._\n\n\u201cThrows considerable light upon diseases of the skin, and points out\nthe general laws of health which should be observed to prevent such\ndiseases manifesting themselves.\u201d\u2014_Lincolnshire Chronicle._\n\n\u201cThis recognised authority on skin diseases has produced a tractate\nwhich appears to be the condensation and essence of much observation\nand practical experience.\u201d\u2014_Sussex County Herald._\n\n\u201cAnyone may understand the treatise, and there is much in it that will\ntend to correct many mistakes on the subject treated upon.\u201d\u2014_Eastbourne\nGazette._\n\n(Remainders only from the Author.)\n\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTranscriber's Notes\n\n Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. Variations\n in hyphenation and ligatures have been standardised but all other\n spelling and punctuation remains unchanged.\n\n The Errata have been implemented.\n\n Minor re-arrangement of the charts \"GENEALOGY OF MAN\" have been made\n to improve clarity and fit.\n\n Italics are represented thus _italic_.\n\n The following corrections have been made to the list of books in the\n chapter THE BIBLE:\n\n Books Excluded from the Jewish Canon, and Reckoned as Apocryphal by\n some of the Ancient Christians, but Allowed as Canonical of late by\n the Church of Rome. The from added.\n\n Books that are Excluded from the Canon without Apparent Reason. The\n from added.\n\n The Preface before the Lamentations of Jeremiah, in the vulgar Latin\n and Greek text The original read \"The preace ...\" changed to preface.","title":"Evolution and creation","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":80930}