{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_55251/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_55251","id":"gutenberg_55251","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/55251","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Essays, Letters & Speeches","Category: Health & Medicine","Category: History - Modern (1750+)","Category: Journals","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Chautauqua Institution -- Periodicals","Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle -- Periodicals"],"text":"THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n _A MONTHLY MAGAZINE DEVOTED TO THE PROMOTION OF TRUE CULTURE. ORGAN OF\n             THE CHAUTAUQUA LITERARY AND SCIENTIFIC CIRCLE._\n\n                 VOL. V.      JANUARY, 1885.      No. 4.\n\n\n\n\nOfficers of the Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle.\n\n\n_President_, Lewis Miller, Akron, Ohio. _Chancellor_, J. H. Vincent,\nD.D., New Haven, Conn. _Counselors_, The Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D.,\nthe Rev. J. M. Gibson, D.D.; Bishop H. W. Warren, D.D.; Prof. W. C.\nWilkinson, D.D.; Edward Everett Hale. _Office Secretary_, Miss Kate\nF. Kimball, Plainfield, N. J. _General Secretary_, Albert M. Martin,\nPittsburgh, Pa.\n\n\n\n\nContents\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Note: This table of contents of this periodical was created\nfor the HTML version to aid the reader.\n\n    REQUIRED READING\n    Temperance Teachings of Science; or, the Poison Problem\n        Chapter IV.\u2014The Cost of Intemperance                     183\n    Sunday Readings\n        [_January 4_]                                            186\n        [_January 11_]                                           186\n        [_January 18_]                                           186\n        [_January 25_]                                           187\n    Glimpses of Ancient Greek Life\n        Chapter IV.\u2014Public Life of the Greek Citizen             187\n    Greek Mythology\n        Chapter IV.                                              190\n    Studies in Kitchen Science and Art\n        IV.\u2014Apples, Peaches, Blackberries and Strawberries       194\n    Home Studies in Chemistry and Physics\n        Air\u2014Physical Properties                                  199\n    The Homelike House\n        Chapter I.\u2014The Hall                                      203\n    A Prayer by the Sea                                          206\n    Geography of the Heavens for January                         207\n    Yale College and Yale Customs                                208\n    New Zealand                                                  211\n    The Laureate Poets                                           212\n    The Bells of Notre Dame                                      215\n    The New York Custom House                                    215\n    The Christian Revolt of the Jews in Southern Russia          218\n    The Inner Chautauqua                                         220\n    Outline of Required Readings                                 221\n    Programs for Local Circle Work                               221\n    Local Circles                                                222\n    The C. L. S. C. Classes                                      227\n    Questions and Answers                                        229\n    The Chautauqua University: The Correspondence Schools        231\n    \u201cInvincible\u201d\u2014Class of \u201985                                    232\n    Editor\u2019s Outlook                                             233\n    Editor\u2019s Note-Book                                           235\n    C. L. S. C. Notes on Required Readings for January           238\n    Notes on Required Readings in \u201cThe Chautauquan\u201d              239\n    A Chapter of Blunders                                        242\n    Talk About Books                                             244\n    Special Notes                                                245\n    Sunday-School Normal Graduates, Class of 1884                246\n\n\n\n\nREQUIRED READING FOR JANUARY.\n\n\n\n\nTEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE; OR, THE POISON PROBLEM.\n\nBY FELIX L. OSWALD, M.D.\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\u2014THE COST OF INTEMPERANCE.\n\n    \u201cShall we sow tares and pray for bread?\u201d\u2014_Abd el Wahab._[1]\n\nIf we consider the manifold afflictions which in the after years of so\nmany millions of our fellowmen outweigh the happiness of childhood, we\ncan hardly wonder that several great thinkers have expressed a serious\ndoubt if earthly existence is on the whole a blessing. Yet for those\nwho hold that the progress of science and education will ultimately\nremove that doubt, it is a consoling reflection that the greatest of all\nearthly evils are avoidable ones. The earthquake of Lisbon[2] killed\nsixty thousand persons who could not possibly have foreseen their fate.\nIn 1282 an irruption of the Zuyder Sea overwhelmed sixty-five towns\nwhose inhabitants had not five minutes\u2019 time to effect their escape.\nBut what are such calamities compared with the havoc of wanton wars,\nor the ravages of consumption and other diseases that are the direct\nconsequences of outrageous sins against the physical laws of God? The\ncruelty of man to man causes more misery than the rage of wild beasts\nand all the hostile elements of Nature, but the heaviest of all evils in\nour great burden of self-inflicted woe is undoubtedly the curse of the\npoison vice. The alcohol habit is a concentration of all scourges. In\nthe poor island of Ireland alone one hundred and forty million bushels\nof bread-corn and potatoes are yearly sent to the distillery. The\nshipment of the grain, its conversion into a health-destroying drug, the\ndistribution and sale of the poison, are carried on under the protection\nof a so-called civilized government. _Waste_ is not an adequate word for\nthat monstrous folly. If the grain farmers of Laputa[3] should organize\nan expedition to the sea-coast, and under the auspices of the legal\nauthorities equip an apparatus for flinging a hundred million sacks\nof grain into the ocean, the contents of those sacks would be lost,\nand there would be an end of it. The sea would swallow the cargo. The\ndistillery swallows the grain, but disgorges it in the form of a liquid\nfire that spreads its flames over the land and scorches the bodies\nand souls of men till the smoke of the torment arises from a million\nhomesteads. We might marvel at the extravagance of the Laputans, but\nwhat should we say if the priests of a pastoral nation were to slaughter\nthousands of herds on the altar of a national idol, and in conformity\nwith an established custom let the carcasses rot in the open fields till\nthe progress of putrefaction filled the land with horror and pestilence;\nif moreover, among the crowd of victims we should recognize the milch\ncows of thousands of poor families whose children were wan with hunger,\nand if furthermore the intelligent rulers of that nation should supervise\nthe ceremonies of the sacrifice, distribute the carcasses and calmly\ncollect statistics to ascertain the percentage of the resultant mortality?\n\nThe LOSS OF LIFE caused by the ravages of the alcohol plague equals the\nresult of a perennial war. The most belligerent nation of modern times,\nthe Russians, with the perpetual skirmishes on their eastern frontier,\nand their periodical campaigns against their southern neighbors, lose\nin battle a yearly average of 7,000 men. The average longevity of the\nCaucasian nations is nearly 38 years. Of their picked men about 45 years.\nThe average age of a soldier is now-a-days about 25 years. The death of\n7,000 soldiers represents therefore a national loss of 7,000 times the\ndifference between 25 and 45 years, _i. e._, a total waste of 140,000\nyears. Medical statistics show that in the United States alone the direct\nconsequences of intoxication cost every year the lives of six thousand\npersons, most of them reckless young drunkards, who thus anticipate\nthe natural term of their lives by about twenty years. But at the very\nleast, two per cent. of our population is addicted to the constant use\nof some form of alcoholic liquors. Prof. Neison, of the British General\nLife Insurance Company, estimates that rum-drinkers shorten their lives\nby seven years, beer-drinkers by five and one-half, and \u201cmixed drinkers\u201d\nby nine and one-half years. For the city of London, Sir H. Thompson\ncomputes that drinkers of all classes shorten their lives by six years.\nBut let us be quite sure to keep within the limits of facts applying to\nall conditions of life, and assume a minimum of four years. A total of\n4,120,000 years for the population of the United States is therefore a\nmoderate estimate of the annual life waste by the consequences of the\npoison vice! In other words, in a country of by no means exceptionally\nhard drinkers, alcohol destroys yearly thirty times as much life as the\nwarfare of the most warlike nation on earth. The first year of the war\nfor the preservation of the Union and the suppression of slavery cost\nus 82,000 lives. When the death list had reached a total of 100,000 the\nclamors for peace became so importunate that the representatives of our\nnation were several times on the point of abandoning the cause of the\nmost righteous war ever waged. Yet the far larger life waste on the altar\nof the Poison-Moloch continues year after year, and for a small bribe\nnot a few of our prominent politicians seem willing to perpetuate that\ncurse to the end of time. Among all the nations of the Christian world,\nwith the only exception of the Syrian Maronites,[4] the poison vice\nhas shortened the average longevity of the working classes by at least\nfive years. Political economists have calculated the consequent loss of\nproductive force, but there is another consideration which is too often\noverlooked. The progress of degeneration has reduced our life term so\nfar below the normal average that the highest purposes of individual\nexistence are generally defeated. Our lives are mostly half-told tales.\nOur season ends before the harvest time; before the laborer\u2019s task\nis half done he is overtaken by the night when no man can work. The\nsecret of longevity would, indeed, solve the chief riddle of existence,\nfor the children of toil could then hope to reach the goal of the\nvisible compensation which, on earth at least, is now reserved for the\nexceptional favorites of fortune. That hope is diminished by everything\nthat tends still further to reduce our shortened span of life, and beside\nincreasing the burdens of existence, the poison vice therefore directly\ndecreases the possibility of its rewards.\n\nYet that result is almost insured by the LOSS OF HEALTH which all\nexperienced physiologists admit to be the inevitable consequence of the\nstimulant habit. Every known disease of the human system is aggravated by\nintemperance. The morbid diathesis, as physicians call a predisposition\nto organic disorders, finds an ally in alcohol that enables it to defy\nthe expurgative efforts of Nature. A consumptive toper will fail to\nderive any benefit from a change of climate. A dram-drinking dyspeptic\ncan not be cured by outdoor exercise. The influence of alcoholic tonics\ntends to aggravate nervous disorders into mental derangements. But\neven the soundest constitution is not proof against the bane of that\ninfluence. Before the end of the first year habitual drinkers lose that\nspontaneous gayety which constitutes the happiness of perfect health as\nwell as of childhood. The system becomes dependent upon the treacherous\naid of artificial stimulants, and the lack of vital vigor soon begins to\ntell upon every part of the organism. Alcohol counteracts the benefit\nof all the hygienic advantages of climate and habit, and it is doubtful\nif the effect of its continued influence could be equaled by the\nintentional introduction of contagious diseases. A medical expert might\ncollect the most incurable patients in the leper slums of Shanghai, in\nthe lazarettos[5] of Naples and the fever hospitals of Vera Cruz, and\ndistribute them in the cities of another country; yet a year after the\ndissemination of such diseases the hygienic condition of a temperate\nnation would be better than that of a drunkard nation after a year of the\nstrictest quarantine protection. In the sanitary history of the Caucasian\nnations alcohol has proved a worse plague than the Black Death.\n\nThe WASTE OF LAND and the WASTE OF LABOR must be considered together,\nin order to comprehend the total amount of the loss which the fourteen\nmost civilized nations inflict on themselves by the unspeakable folly of\ndevoting from 20 to 25 per cent. of their fertile area to the production\nof stimulating poisons. If the land thus abused were simply neglected, if\nit were abandoned to the weeds and tares, the laborers who now cultivate\nit in the interest of hell might employ their time in assisting their\nfriends and help them to cultivate better or larger crops on the soil of\nthe adjoining lands. If they should prefer to emigrate, their abandoned\nfields might be cultivated by their neighbors. Even children in the\nintervals of their play might plant cherry stones, and help the soil to\ncontribute to the welfare of the community. As it is, it contributes only\nto the development of diseases, vices and crimes. The productions of the\nland, the toil of the husbandmen, are not only utterly lost, but become a\ncurse to the population of the country. Starving Ireland devotes a third\nof her arable lands to the production of distillery crops. Spain begs\nwith one hand and with the other flings two-fifths of her produce to the\npoison vender. The statistics of the last census show that distilleries\ndevour every year 34,300,000 acres of our total farm produce; breweries,\n9,600,000; wine cellars, cider mills (not to mention tobacco factories),\nabout five millions more!\n\nThe old settlers of western Arkansas still remember the excitement caused\nby occasional raids of predatory Indians who used to cross the Texas\nborder and devastate the farms of the frontiersmen. Near Arkadelphia they\nonce burned three hundred acres of ripe corn, and half a dozen counties\njoined in the pursuit of the marauders. Imagine the blazing indignation,\nthe mass meetings, the general uprising of an outraged people, if the\nMormons should take it in their heads to burn three million acres of\nour grain crop. Yet the distillers not only burn up more than the\ntenfold amount, but fan the flames to kindle a soul and body consuming\nconflagration, and shriek about infringements of their privileges if a\nbold hand here and there succeeds in snatching a brand from the burning.\n\nThe WASTE OF REMEDIAL EXPENDITURE must be considered under a separate\nhead, for beside squandering their own resources, the votaries of the\npoison fiend waste those of their neighbors, who have to devise means\nfor mitigating the resulting mischief. The care of drunkards, _i. e._,\nof persons picked up in the streets in a state of life-endangering\nintoxication, costs our hospitals a yearly sum of $5,000,000. A list\nof the various diseases which can be traced to the direct or indirect\ninfluence of intemperance would require the enumeration of nearly all\nknown disorders of the human organism, but, though drunkards become a\nburden to their families oftener than to the charitable institutions of\nthe community, it has been ascertained that they constitute 30 per cent.\nof the inmates of such establishments as county infirmaries, charity\nhospitals, almshouses, poorhouses and lunatic asylums. Prisons proper,\nthat is, institutions for the cure of moral disorders, are filled with\npatients where derelictions in forty out of a hundred cases have been\ncommitted either under the immediate influence of intoxicating liquors,\nor as a consequence of such direct results of intemperance as loss of\nproperty, loss of credit, loss of moral or mental integrity. In 1870 the\nprisons of the United States cost the nation a yearly sum of $87,000,000.\nBy this time their cost probably amounts to a full hundred millions.\nThe magistrates of our city courts have to waste half their time on\nthe trial of drunkards. On the blackboards of our metropolitan station\nhouses \u201cD. D. C.\u201d after the name of a prisoner means So-and-So locked\nup for drunkenness and disorderly conduct; they have to abbreviate the\nspecification of that offense to save a little space for other memoranda.\nIf the indirect consequences of the poison vice could be traced through\nall their ramifications, it would be found that the suppression of that\nvice would relieve our cities from a burden equivalent to a full half of\nall their municipal taxes.\n\nThe MORAL LOSS is not confined to the direct influence of the\nbrutalizing poison. The liquor traffic defiles all participants of\na transaction which involves a sin against Nature, a crime against\nsociety and posterity, and an outrage against the moral instincts of\nthe veriest savage, for more than five thousand years ago the lawgivers\nof the Bactrian nomads[6] recorded their protest against the vice of\nintoxication. A drunkard who flees from the prohibitory laws of his\nnative place can not escape the voice of an inner monitor. The liquor\ndealer who points to his license is not the less conscious that he is an\nenemy of mankind, and that his servants eat the wages of a soul and body\ncorrupting vice. The lawgiver who can be bribed to connive at that vice\nnot only sins against the laws of political economy, but against Nature\nand the first principles of natural ethics, and forfeits his claim to the\nrespect of the community. Faith in the sanctity of the law, in the wisdom\nand integrity of the legislator, is the very corner-stone of public\nmorals, but that faith is incompatible with a system of legalized crime,\nand the lawgiver who consents to sanction the outrage of the poison\ntraffic undermines the basis of his authority, and thereby the authority\nof the law itself. It is wholly certain that larceny and perjury\ncombined do not damage the state the hundredth part as much as the curse\nof the poison vice; yet what should we think of the moral status of a\nlegislative assembly devising a plan to increase the national revenues\nby granting license to pickpockets and professional false witnesses?\nImagine a Titus Oates[7] offering his services on the public streets,\nand a chief justice compelling the courts to recognize the legality\nof his business, and protect him in the enjoyment of its emoluments!\nImagine Jack Sheppard[8] filching the weekly wages of a half-witted\nworking man, and flaunting a government license if the wife of his victim\nshould demand the restitution of the plunder. The absurdity of such an\narrangement might seem too glaring to imagine its possibility. Yet for\nthe same reason posterity may refuse to credit the records of our liquor\nsystem; for, translated into plain speech, the contract between the state\nand the rum vender means even this: \u201cOn condition of receiving a share in\nthe yearly profits of your business, I herewith grant you the right to\npoison your fellow-citizens.\u201d\n\nThe LOSS OF WEALTH, which some of the foregoing considerations will\nenable us to estimate, has increased with the progress of our national\ndevelopment in a way which in many respects has made that progress a\ncurse instead of a blessing. Thirty-five years ago our brethren in\nMaine had a hard fight against the champions of the liquor traffic, but\nthey had to deal with whiskey alone. Since then our foreign immigrants\nhave introduced ale, lager beer, and French high wines, and threaten\nto introduce _absinthe_[9] and opium. The poison vice has assumed the\nmagnitude of a pandemic plague. According to the statistics of the\nTreasury Department, the alcohol drinkers of the United States spent\nduring the last ten years a yearly average of $370,000,000 for whiskey,\n$53,000,000 for other distilled liquors, $56,000,000 for wine, and\n$140,000,000 for ale and beer. Together, $624,000,000 a year. Under the\nhead of liquors evading the revenue tax, Prof. W. Hoyle, of Manchester,\nadds 20 per cent. for Great Britain, Commissioner Halliday 15 per cent.\nfor the United States, and Dr. Bowditch 18 per cent. for the state of\nMassachusetts alone. Let us assume the minimum of 15 per cent. The total\ndirect cost of the poison vice (without including tobacco and other\nnarcotic stimulants) is therefore $705,000,000 a year. The indirect cost\neludes computation, except under the three following heads: 1. The loss\nof productive capacity, as revealed in the difference between the yearly\nearnings of a manufacturing community under the protection of prohibitory\nlaws or under the influence of the license system. 2. The inebriate\npercentage of patients in our public hospitals, and of convicts in our\nprisons. 3. The loss sustained by the employers of agents, trustees,\nclerks, etc., addicted to the use of intoxicating liquors. The aggregate\nof these indirect losses we will assume to be only $350,000,000 a year,\nthough several political economists compute it as _equal to the direct\ncost_. Our estimate does not include the amount of rum-begotten distress\nrelieved by private charity, nor the rum percentage of undetected crime,\nnor yet the wholly incalculable value of the benefactions, reforms and\nimprovements _prevented_ by the use of intoxicating liquors among the\nupper classes. We can therefore be quite sure of understating the truth\nif we estimate the aggregate cost of the poison vice at $1,055,000,000\na year\u2014a yearly sum equivalent to the cost value of all our public\nlibraries, our church property, school property, steamboats, bridges, and\ntelegraphs taken together.\n\nProhibition would put a stop to one half of that prodigious waste. We\nwill not delude ourselves with the hope that the deep-rooted habit of\nthe stimulant vice could at once be wholly eradicated by any legislative\nmeasures whatever. For years to come 20 per cent. of the aggregate\nwould undoubtedly be devoured by liquor venders finding means to elude\nthe vigilance of the law. Fifteen per cent. would be spent on other\nvices. Fifteen per cent. more would probably be wasted for frivolous\npurposes\u2014innocent, as compared with the crime of the poison traffic, but\nstill on the whole amounting to a loss of national resources. The waste\nof the remaining fifty per cent. could be prevented by prohibition. In\nten years the saving of that sum and its application to useful purposes\nwould transform the moral and physical condition of our country. With\nfive billion dollars we could construct ten bridges over every one of our\nhundred largest rivers. We could build an international railroad of a\ngauge that would enable the denizens of snow-bound New England to reach\nthe tropics in twenty-four hours. We could realize Professor Lexow\u2019s\nproject of providing every large city with a system of free municipal\nrailways connecting the centers of commerce with the suburban homes of\nthe workingmen. We could make those suburbs attractive enough to drain\nthe population of the slums. We could counteract the temptations of the\ngrog-shops by providing the poor with healthier means of recreation; city\nparks with free baths, competitive gymnastics and zo\u00f6logical attractions\nfor the summer season, and reading rooms with picture galleries and\nmusical entertainments for the long winter evenings. We could employ\nhome missionaries enough for a direct appeal to every fallen or tempted\nsoul in the country. We could cover our hillsides with orchards and\nline our highways with shade trees; we could plant forest trees enough\nto redeem thousands of square miles in the barren uplands of the West.\nEach township in the country could have a free school, each village a\nfree public library; we could help the sick by teaching them to avoid\nthe causes of disease; we could prevent rather than punish crime; we\ncould teach our homeless vagrants the lessons of self-support, and found\nasylum colonies for the lost children of our great cities. And moreover,\nwe could increase the savings of the next decade by the endowment of\na National Reform College, with a corps of competent sanitarians and\npolitical economists, for the training of temperance teachers, with local\nlecturers, traveling lecturers, and free lecture halls in every larger\ncity of the country.\n\nOnly thus prohibition could be brought to answer its whole purpose, for\nwe should remember that the practical efficiency of all government laws\ndepends on the consensus of the governed. Without the co\u00f6peration of the\nteacher the mandates of the legislator fall short of their aim. But it is\nequally certain that in the field of social ethics the teacher can not\ndispense with the aid of the legislator, and that our lawgivers can not\nmuch longer afford to ignore that truth, for the penalty of the neglect\nalready amounts to the equivalent of the average yearly income of _seven\nmillion working people_. In the South a million men, women and children\nof farm laborers earn less than a hundred millions a year, _i. e._, $500\nfor every family of five persons. In the manufacturing districts of the\nNorth they would earn less than $200,000,000. We can therefore again be\nwholly certain of not overstating the truth, if we assert that in the\nUnited States alone the poison vice devours every year the aggregate\nearnings of more than _fourteen hundred thousand families_. In one dollar\nbank-notes of the United States Treasury, one billion dollars could be\npasted together into a paper strip that would reach up to the moon.\nStacked up in bundles, they would form a paper pile a hundred feet long,\nfifty feet wide, and fifty feet high.\n\nIf the equivalent of so many creature-comforts could be employed for\nthe benefit of the poor, it would almost realize the dreams of a Golden\nAge. But even if we could save it from the hands of the poison vender by\nburning it on the public streets, all friends of mankind would hail the\nconflagration as the gladdest bonfire that ever cheered the hearts of\nmen. For its flames would save more human lives than the perpetual peace\nof the millennium; it would prevent more crimes than the civilization of\nall the savages that infest the prairies of our border states and the\nslums of our large cities. Nay, it would save us from evils for which\nmankind has thus far discovered no remedy, for intemperance robs us of\nblessings which human skill is unable to restore.\n\n\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\nSELECTED BY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\n[_January 4._]\n\nThink of God as your constant benefactor\u2014that he made you, that he\nsustains you in every moment of your existence\u2014that, to express yourself\nwith the simple energy of inspiration, in him you live, and move, and\nhave your being\u2014that in all the joys which are scattered over the\npilgrimage of life, we see nothing but the kindness of God always\nexerting itself in our favor, and meeting us in every direction\u2014that\nthough we seldom look beyond the creatures which surround us, it is God\nwho reigns in these creatures and makes them subservient to his most\nwise, his most gracious, his most benevolent purposes; that though in\nthe hey-day of youth we are carried along the tide of gayety without\ncare and without reflection, it is God who gives to the spirit of man\nall its cheerfulness; that though we stop short in our gratitude at the\nbenefactor who relieved and at the friend who supported us, it is God\nwho reigns over the constitution of the mind, and could by a single word\nof his power make every companion abandon us, and every friend look upon\nus with an altered countenance; that though I call the house in which I\nlive my own, and find in the endearments of my family my repose and my\nhappiness, it is God who gave me my home, who spreads security around\nit, and fills it with all its charities; that though my path in society\nbe dignified by the homage and civility of my acquaintances, it is God\nwho reigns in the human breast and administers all the delight of social\nintercourse; that though my eye expatiates in rapture on the landscape\naround us, it is the living God who beautifies the scene, and gives it\nall its magnificence and all its glory; in short, that everything we\nenjoy is a gift; that in whatever quarter happiness is met with, a burden\nof obligation and dependence lies upon us; that we have nothing which\nwe did not receive\u2014that our all is suspended on God, and that to him we\nowe all the praise, all the gratitude, all the obedience. Now will any\nman who is acquainted with the movements of his own breast, say that\nthis praise and this obedience are actually given? Are not the pleasures\nof life often tasted without acknowledgment? Is not the conduct of life\noften proceeded in without any reference to the will and authority of\nhim who is the author of it? Is not the mind in a state of habitual\nestrangement from God, his existence absent from our reflections, and his\nsuperintendency as a judge and as a lawgiver absent from our principles?\nGo to whatever quarter you please for happiness, there is no escaping\nthe conclusion that God is the giver of it, in his pervading energy\nwhich gives effect and operation to all things. You can not fly out of\nhis presence, nor repair beyond the limits of his sovereignty.\u2014_From Dr.\nChalmers._\n\n\n[_January 11._]\n\nOf all the impossibles which ever were attempted, there is none so wild\nand so irrational as to attempt an independence upon God. It is in virtue\nof him that you are held together. He measures out to you every moment of\nyour existence. He gives you not merely the air you breathe, but he gives\nyou the faculty of breathing. He provides for you not merely the external\ngoods which are scattered around you in such bounteous profusion, but\nit is he who furnishes you with the capacity of enjoying them. You talk\nof the pleasures of the world, and fly to them as your refuge and your\nconsolation against the displeasure of an offended Deity, but think that\nit is only by a continuance of his unmerited favor that you have these\npleasures to fly to. He can take them away from you; or, what perhaps\nis a still more striking demonstration of his sovereignty, he can make\nthem no longer pleasures to you. He reigns within as well as without you.\nTo him you owe not merely what is external, but to him you owe the taste\nand the faculty which enjoys it. He can pervert these faculties. He can\nchange your pleasures into disgust. He can derange the constitution of\nthe inner man, and make you loathe as tasteless and unsatisfying what\nyou at present indulge in with delight or look forward to with rapture.\nHe is all in all. The whole of our being hangs upon him, and there is no\ngetting away from his universal, from his ceaseless, from his unexcepted\nagency. Now, do the Almighty the same justice that you would do to an\nearthly benefactor; measure the extent of his claims upon you by the\nextent of his benefits; think of the authority over you which, as your\nCreator and as your constant preserver, he has a right to exercise; think\nof your perpetual dependence, and that all around you and within you, for\nevery moment and particle of your existence is upheld by God; and tell\nme, if either in the thoughts of your hearts or in the actions of your\nlife you come up to the demand which his justice and his authority have a\ntitle to prefer against you?\u2014_From Dr. Chalmers._\n\n\n[_January 18._]\n\nWhat then, art thou, O, my God; what, I ask, but the Lord God? For who is\nLord but the Lord? or who is God save our God? Most high, most excellent,\nmost potent, most omnipotent, most piteous and most just; most hidden\nand most near; most beauteous and most strong; stable, yet contained\nof none; unchangeable, yet changing all things; never new, never old,\nmaking all things new, yet bringing old age upon the proud, and they\nknow it not; always working, yet ever at rest; gathering, yet needing\nnothing; sustaining, pervading, and protecting; creating, nourishing,\nand developing; seeking, and yet possessing all things. Thou lovest, and\nburnest not; art jealous, yet free from care; repentest, and hast no\nsorrow; art angry, yet serene; changest thy ways, leaving unchanged thy\nplans; recoverest what thou findest, having yet never lost; art never\nin want, while thou rejoicest in gain; never covetous, though requiring\nusury (Matt. xxv:27).\u2026 Thou payest debts, while owing nothing; and when\nthou forgivest debts, losest nothing. Yet, O my God, my life, my holy\njoy, what is this that I have said? And what saith any man when he speaks\nof thee? Yet woe to them that keep silence, seeing that even those who\nsay most are as dumb!\n\nOh! how shall I find rest in thee? Who will send thee into my heart to\ninebriate it, so that I may forget my woes, and embrace thee, my only\ngood? What art thou to me? Have compassion on me, that I may speak. What\nam I to thee, that thou demandest my love, and unless I give it thee art\nangry and threatenest me with great sorrows? Is it, then, a light sorrow\nnot to love thee? Alas! alas! tell me of thy compassion, O Lord my God,\nwhat thou art to me: \u201cSay unto my soul, I am thy salvation.\u201d So speak\nthat I may hear. Behold Lord, the ears of my heart are before thee; open\nthou them, and \u201csay unto my soul, I am thy salvation.\u201d When I hear, may I\nrun and lay hold on thee. Hide not thy face from me. Let me die, lest I\ndie, if only I may see thy face.\n\nCramped is the dwelling of my soul; do thou expand it, that thou mayest\nenter in. It is in ruins, restore thou it. There is that about it which\nmust offend thine eyes; I confess and know it, but who will cleanse\nit? or to whom shall I cry but to thee? Cleanse me from my secret\nsins, O Lord, and keep thy servant from those of other men. I believe,\nand therefore do I speak; Lord, thou knowest. Have I not confessed my\ntransgressions unto thee, O my God; and thou hast put away the iniquity\nof my heart. I do not contend in judgment with thee, who art the truth;\nand I would not deceive myself, lest my iniquity lie against itself. I\ndo not, therefore, contend in judgment with thee, for \u201cif thou, Lord,\nshouldst mark iniquities, O Lord, who shall stand?\u201d\n\nO Lord God, grant thy peace unto us, for thou hast supplied us with\nall things; the peace of rest, the peace of the Sabbath, which hath no\nevening. For all this most beautiful order of things, \u201cvery good\u201d (all\ntheir courses being finished), is to pass away, for in them there was\nmorning and evening.\n\nBut the seventh day is without any evening, nor hath it any setting,\nbecause thou hast sanctified it to an everlasting continuance; that\nwhich thou didst after thy words, which were very good, resting on the\nseventh day, although in unbroken rest thou madest them, that the voice\nof thy Book may speak beforehand unto us, that we also after our works\n(therefore very good, because thou hast given them unto us) may repose in\nthee, also in the Sabbath of eternal life.\u2014_From St. Augustine._[1]\n\n\n[_January 25._]\n\nNow tell me, Christians, have you hitherto understood it, and do you\nstill understand it, in this manner? Let each candidly examine himself\nin the presence of God. Where is the ambitious man, who, looking on\nhis ambition as the wound of his soul, desires in good earnest to be\nthoroughly cured? Where is the voluptuous man, who, truly afflicted at\nhis unhappy situation, wishes efficaciously, and as his sovereign good,\nto be freed from his passion? Where is the avaricious man, who, ashamed\nof his injustice, sincerely and from his heart detests his iniquity?\nWhere is the woman, who, listening to religion, hath a horror of vanity,\nand thinks of extirpating her self-love? From what passion, from what\nvicious and ruling inclination hath this divine Savior as yet delivered\nyou? By what, then, do you know him to be a Savior? And if he be a\nSavior, by what mark do you pretend to know that he is yours? What hath\nhe by your own means performed in your regard? Now, as I perceive that\nyou are so ill disposed, should I not prevaricate, did I declare to you\nhis coming as a cause of joy? And to speak as a faithful minister of\nthe Gospel, ought I not to tell you, what in fact I tell you? Undeceive\nyourselves, and bewail your woeful situation, for, while enamored with\nthe world, you obstinately persist in such criminal dispositions, though\nthe Savior be born, no more advantage accrues to you from his sacred\nbirth, than if he were not born.\u2026\n\n\u2026 Hath this spirit of truth been hitherto a spirit of truth for us?\u2026\nWhatever profession we may make of being, as Christians, the disciples\nof the spirit of truth, are we really persuaded of the truths of\nChristianity? Hath he made us relish them? Hath he given us a sincere\nand efficacious disposition to put them in practice? We adore these\ndivine truths in speculation; but do we conform our conduct to them?\nWe speak of them perhaps with eloquence and enthusiasm; but are our\nmorals correspondent with our words? We give lessons to others upon that\nhead; but are we ourselves fully convinced of them? Do we believe with\na steadfast and lively faith that, to be Christians, it is our duty not\nonly to carry our cross, but to place our glory in it? That, to follow\nJesus Christ, we must internally renounce not only all things, but even\nourselves? That, to belong to him, not only must we not indulge the\nflesh, but must crucify it? That, to find grace before God, we must not\nonly forget injuries received, but return good for evil? Do we firmly,\nand without hesitation, believe all these points of the Evangelic\ndoctrine? And can we bear witness to ourselves that we believe them as\nfully and constantly in heart as we openly confess them in words? The\nApostles, the moment they received the Holy Ghost, were ready to lay\ndown their lives for the truth; are we ready, I do not say to lay down\nour lives but to destroy our irregular passions? According to this rule,\nis there room to believe that the spirit of truth hath undeceived us\nwith respect to a thousand errors which occasion all the misdeeds in the\nworld? That he hath disabused us of I know not how many maxims which\npervert us?\u2026 If he hath done nothing of all this, what proof have we\nthat we have received him? And if we have not received him, whom have\nwe to blame for it but ourselves?\u2026 Preserve us from so great and fatal\nan irregularity, O Divine Spirit! and, to that intent, make us know the\nthings thou didst teach the Apostles. Grant that at last we may become\ntruly thy disciples; and be to us not only a Spirit of Truth, but a\nSpirit of Holiness.\u2014_From Bourdaloue._[2]\n\n\n\n\nGLIMPSES OF ANCIENT GREEK LIFE.\n\nSelected from J. P. Mahaffy\u2019s \u201cOld Greek Life.\u201d\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\u2014PUBLIC LIFE OF THE GREEK CITIZEN.\n\nThe aristocracy of the older Greek society was one based on the exclusive\nowning of land, and of civic rights, and was not marked by titles, but\nby the name of the clan. Thus at Athens an Alcm\u00e6onid[1] was respected\nmuch as the member of an old Scottish clan is now by his fellows. But\npoverty injured the position of the old Greek more than that of the\nScotchman. In the aristocratic days all work in the way of trade or\nbusiness was despised by the landed gentry, and idleness was called the\nsister of freedom. The pursuit of a trade often disqualified a man for\npolitical rights, and in any case deprived him of all public influence.\nThis feeling did not die out even in the complete democracies of later\ndays, and there was always a prejudice in the Greek mind against trades\nand handicrafts, because they compelled men to sit at home and neglect\nthe proper training of the body by sports, and the mind by society.\nMercantile pursuits were also objected to by Greek gentlemen, but on\ndifferent grounds. It was considered that the making of profits by retail\ntrading was of the nature of cheating, and the life of a merchant in any\nGreek city not his own was always one of dependence and fear, for nowhere\nwere aliens treated with real justice and liberality. Thus even the poor\ncitizen of Athens, living by the small pay (nine cents daily) given him\nfor sitting on juries, and performing other public duties, looked down\nwith contempt upon the rich tradesman, who was confined all day to a\nclose dark shop, or still worse, did his work in the hot atmosphere of\na furnace. Consequently the greater part of the shops in Athens, and\nmost of the trades were in the hands of licensed aliens who paid certain\ntaxes to the state, and by making large profits recouped[2] themselves\nfor the risk of being persecuted and plundered by the citizens in days\nof danger and distress. These people may be compared, as to their social\nand political position, with the Jews in the middle ages, who lived all\nthrough the cities of Europe without civic rights, or landed property,\nmerely by trade and usury. They were despised and persecuted, but still\ntolerated as useful, and even necessary, by the governments of those\ndays. Rich capitalists, on the contrary, who were able to manage a large\nbusiness through an overseer and a number of slaves, were not at all\ndespised, even though their ways of making profits were sometimes very\nshameful. But any free man who was compelled by poverty to perform this\nmanual labor was held little better than a slave. There were certain\nprivileged classes in Homer\u2019s day, such as the leech,[3] the seer, the\nbard, and the cunning worker of brass. So in later days the sculptor and\nthe sophist were in some respects considered good society, but still the\ngaining of money by giving up their time to others told very seriously\nagainst them.\n\nA great part of the ordinary clothing and breadstuffs was prepared by the\nslave within the Greek house. The principal tradesmen who supplied the\nother necessaries of life were the architect, who was often a great and\nimportant person\u2014indeed, the only tradesman very honorably mentioned;\nunder him masons, carpenters, and cabinet-makers. There were potters, who\nmust have been a very large body, considering the great demand for their\nwares, as neither glass nor wooden vessels were much used. So there were\nseparate makers of lamps, jewelry, weapons of war, musical instruments.\nThere were a few weavers, and hardly any tailors\u2014as the forms of dress\nwere perfectly simple, and the fashions did not change\u2014but many bleachers\nand dyers of clothes. The making of shoes was even subdivided among\nseveral tradesmen. There were in the market, cooks (hired by the day),\nropemakers, tanners, and also many perfumers and druggists. Tanners were\ngenerally compelled to have their workshops outside the city. We may\nalso, without doubt, consider military service by sea or land one of the\nordinary trades of Greece, practiced from very early times in Asia, and\nall through Greek history by the Arcadians, who were the Swiss of the old\nworld. The usual pay for a mercenary soldier or sailor was four obols,\nwhich was often raised in times of difficulty. When the former outlet\nwhich enterprising young men had found in new colonies throughout Asia\nMinor, Pontus, and Magna Gr\u00e6cia, was closed by the rise of new races\nand new empires, this trade, disreputable as it was, became very common\nindeed. The celebrated 10,000 whom Xenophon brought safely from the heart\nof the Persian empire, were an army made up of these adventurers, who had\nfollowed the younger Cyrus merely for the sake of pay and plunder. Thus\nAgesilaus[4] and Cleomenes, kings of Sparta, were not ashamed to serve in\nEgypt as mercenaries.\n\n\nMERCANTILE PURSUITS.\n\nWe may first notice the lower sort, the retail merchants, who were\nemployed in buying the husbandman\u2019s and the tradesman\u2019s goods, and\nselling them in the markets or through the towns at a profit. It was\nindeed much in fashion among the Greeks, to sell one\u2019s own produce in\nthe market, but of course such people as fishermen or shepherds could\nnot leave their business to journey often a long way to a market town.\nThus we find in large places like Athens, many butchers, fishmongers,\nvegetable and other grocers, and particularly wine sellers, who went\nabout with their wine in carts. All these people were accused of\nextortion and insolence, the fishmongers of selling stale fish, the\nvintners of watering their wine (a very harmless adulteration). There\nwere street cries, and often even the buyer going into the market called\nout what he wanted.\n\nThe wholesale merchant was of course a more important person, and the\nrise of this larger trade was in fact what raised up a wealthy city class\nin opposition to the landed aristocracy, and was generally the cause of\noverthrowing oligarchies.[5] Many respectable citizens (except in Sparta)\nthought it no disgrace to follow this sort of business, and none of them\nscorned to invest money in it as a speculation. As the land traffic in\nGreece is unusually difficult and roundabout, almost all commerce was\ncarried on by sea, so that a merchant was often called a skipper. We are\nfully informed about Athenian commerce only.\n\nWe must imagine the Greek waters not as they are now, lonely and\ndesolate, with often not a single boat to give life to a great bay or\nreach of water, but rather covered in the summer with traffic and with\nlife, so much so that a Greek poet speaks of sailors as the \u201cants of the\nsea,\u201d hurrying in all directions with ceaseless industry. There were\npublic wharves and warehouses close to the quays, where the skipper\nbrought samples of his cargo. With the exception of the corn and slave\nfactors, the Greek merchants did not confine themselves to trading in one\nkind of goods, but conveyed anything according as they saw chances of\nprofit. Pottery from Samos and Athens, fine woolen stuffs and Assyrian\ncarpets from Miletus, paper, unguents, and glass from Egypt, salt fish,\nskins and corn from the Black Sea, ship timber and slaves from Thrace\nand Macedonia, ivory and spices from Cyrene[6]\u2014these were among the\nusual articles imported and exported through the Greek waters. Merchants\nwere in some places treated with peculiar favor, had their taxes and\nmilitary duty forgiven, and above all, were granted a speedy trial, and\nin the idle winter months, in case of disputes about contracts, or other\nlawsuits.\n\n\nWEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND COINAGE.\n\nAll these great helps to trade were originally imported from the\nBabylonians, through the Ph\u0153nicians into Greece, but with so many\nvariations that the computing of values according to the different\nstandards is very intricate.\n\nAs to measures of length, it seems that the Olympic stadium or furlong\nwas generally received through Greece. It was the one-fortieth of our\ngeographical mile, and was divided into six plethra of one hundred feet\neach. Each foot, which was nearly equal to our English foot, was divided\ninto four hands, and each of these into four inches.\n\nCubic measures started from the half pint, and were used for both fluids\nand solids.\n\nIn these measures the \u00c6ginetan,[7] Attic, and Olympic standards varied.\nThe latter, though originally brought from Babylon, was somewhat smaller,\nthe cubic foot being only two-thirds of the Babylonian. To this Olympic\ncubic foot the Attic was as twenty-seven to twenty, the \u00c6ginetan as nine\nto four. Similarly as to weight, the Babylonians had fixed a cubic foot\nof rain water as the standard weight of their talent. The Attic talent\nwas much smaller.\n\nAll the various talents, however, agreed in having sixty min\u00e6; each mina\none hundred drachm\u00e6; each drachme six obols. The terms \u00c6ginetan and\nEub\u0153ic point to the fact that the early Greek trade was chiefly in the\nhands of these people, where the weights and coinage were first fixed,\njust as the Attic standard became almost universal afterward. The Attic\ntalent was about $1,180; the mina accordingly about $19.50; the drachme\nnineteen cents; the obolus three cents. This Attic drachme was of silver,\nwhich was the only metal habitually coined for a long time in Greece, as\ngold was very scarce. The Macedonian mines first produced gold enough\nfor ordinary coinage. So also copper coinage came in from Sicily and\nMagna Gr\u00e6cia, where the talent was regarded as a weight of copper, and\nonly equal to six (or even less) Attic drachm\u00e6. There were at Athens\nsilver pieces of four and eight drachm\u00e6, and even half and quarter obols.\nThis shows how much scarcer money was then than now, and how the public\ntreasures and private fortunes, which seem to us so small, were really\nlarge in proportion to the prices paid even for the luxuries of life.\n\nDebasing the coinage, and using alloy, were common devices among the\nGreeks, whose local coins seem seldom to have had any general currency.\nIt was specially noted of the Attic money, that it passed everywhere, on\naccount of its excellence.\n\n\nPOLITICS.\n\nThe general principle of Greek states was to consider high political\noffice as both a duty and an honor, but not a profession, so that no\nsalaries were attached to such duties. It is certain, however, that the\nindirect profits were very great, inasmuch as the bribery of that day\nwas applied, not to the electors, but to the holders of even very high\noffice. This form of corruption is said to exist even now in Greece,\nwhere bribery of electors is very rare. The lower state officials, such\nas secretaries and heralds, were paid moderate salaries.\n\nWhen Athens became an imperial city, the sovereign people were paid\nsundry emoluments from the taxes of their subjects. For example, those\nAthenian citizens who were employed as dicasts,[8] or judges in court,\nreceived three obols per day\u2014an income on which most of the poorer\ncitizens lived. They were also paid by public distribution a sufficient\nsum for their entrance to the theater, and to enjoy themselves at the\ngreat festivals of the city. These profits were the direct result of\npolitical privileges.\n\nAs mercenary warfare was common, so that of mercenary general was\npracticed, even by distinguished Greeks, such as Agesilaus and Cleomenes,\nin later days. As the pay was only four times that of the common soldier,\nit is evident that extortion and plunder must have been presupposed as\nan additional means of gain, and this was the case with many of the\nolder citizen generals of whom we read in history, such as Pausanias,\nThemistocles, and others. The profession of military engineer was not\ncommon, but was practiced with success and fame by a few remarkable men,\nsuch as Artemon,[9] whose mechanical genius made them very valuable.\n\n\nLAW.\n\nAs men pleaded their own case among the Greeks, the legal profession, as\nfar as we know, could only give friendly advice, or compose speeches for\nlitigants, and this was an extended and lucrative profession at Athens.\nIn some cases friends or supporters were allowed to speak in addition\nto the actual litigants, but paid counsel were not directly recognized.\nWhen the state retained what we should call a public prosecutor, he was\nonly paid one drachma (nineteen cents) for a speech, which reminds us\nof a medi\u00e6val entry quoted by Hallam, where eight cents and his dinner\nwas a lawyer\u2019s fee. But distinguished orators like Demosthenes obtained\nlarge private fees. There was also in almost all democracies special\nencouragement, in the absence of state lawyers, for any citizen to\ndenounce any violation of the laws which he could detect. This gave rise\nto a profession called sycophancy, which usually degenerated into that\nof a spy or informer; and such men constantly extracted money from rich\npeople and from politicians by threats of accusation.\n\n\nLITERATURE.\n\nIn addition to the schoolmasters, who were not in high repute, and were\nrather considered a trade than a profession, there were the sophists, who\nwere both rhetoricians and philosophers, and who performed exactly the\nfunctions now expected from universities, as distinguished from schools.\nPeople spoke of a pupil of Isocrates as they now do of \u201ca Harvard man.\u201d\nThese men taught politics, rhetoric, literary criticism, and higher\nscience in a practical way, and made large incomes in spite of their\ngreat unpopularity with the old-fashioned side of both political and\nsocial Greece. At first they obtained enormous fees, but by competition\nthese were reduced to an average of from five to ten min\u00e6 for a course of\ninstruction. Their course lasted about three years.\n\nWe do not hear of any authors making a livelihood by their work, except\npoets, who were largely paid for occasional poems by both states and\nkings, and whose dramatic works were a source of profit as well as honor.\nCopies of books were easily multiplied by means of slave labor, so that\nwe hear of Anaxagoras\u2019[10] treatise being sold for one drachma, then\nvery dear. This was at a regular bookstall in Athens, from whence books\nwere actually an article of exportation as far as the Black Sea. Still,\ncollections of books were rare till after the time of Euripides, and we\nknow of no fortunes made by writing books. Anaxagoras himself, though so\npopular with the rising generation, is said to have died in poverty.\n\nThe profession of architects was esteemed far the greatest among artists,\nand was the most richly paid. They were no doubt men of culture, and\nwere literary men, as, for example, Ictinus,[11] one of the architects\nof the Parthenon, who wrote a special work about the great temple. The\nprofessions of sculptor and painter were not so at first, the sculptor\nbeing hardly more than a skillful workman, and this seems to be the case\nin most great art epochs. Men like Pheidias and Polygnotus,[12] who\nwere of a higher level, often worked without accepting any pay, but the\nsculptors who adorned the Erectheum at Athens, one of the most beautiful\nof Greek temples, were either paid by the day from one to two drachm\u00e6, or\nby the job, receiving two hundred to two hundred and forty drachm\u00e6 (under\n$50) for each figure or small group of figures. This was in Pericles\u2019\ntime, when art had reached its highest perfection.\n\nSimilarly in music, though amateur singing and playing were very common,\nit was not thought gentlemanly to live by them, and professional\nmusicians were ranked with actors and jugglers, and the other classes who\nlived by amusing the rich. At later periods, however, both celebrated\nmusicians and celebrated actors became important personages, and were\ncourted by a society which had abandoned higher and more serious pursuits.\n\nThe medical profession had always a high position in Greek life, from the\ndays of Machaon Podalirius,[13] in Homer, down to the doctors of Plato\u2019s\nday, who sometimes brought an orator with them to persuade the patient to\ntake their remedies. This was done because it was the fashion to discuss\neverything in Greece, and people were not satisfied to submit silently to\nanybody\u2019s prescriptions.\n\nThere was of course a great deal of superstitious quackery, which dealt\nin amulets and charms, and there were slave assistants, who visited slave\npatients, but the higher members of the profession were not only well\npaid, but appointed publicly by the various cities as official physicians.\n\nThe most famous schools for medicine were at Croton, Cnidus, Rhodes, and\nCos, where the name of Hippocrates is celebrated as the founder. These\nschools were guilds or trade unions, into which the apprentice entered\nwith a very remarkable and solemn oath. Such accredited physicians\nwere specially exempted by law, in some cities, from prosecution for\nmanslaughter, if their patients died. The descriptions of the symptoms\nand the treatment of various diseases still preserved in the works\nattributed to Hippocrates, are so striking for their good sense and acute\nobservation, that the most competent judges consider them the foundation\nof all rational medicine in Europe.\n\nIn all the larger Greek towns the art collections were always the main\nobject of curiosity, which every one went to see. There were the temples\neither venerable for age, or remarkable for architectural splendor, and\nin them the statues of the gods, and the portraits of heroes and victors\nwhich were the work of famous sculptors. The inner walls of both temples\nand porticoes were often covered with frescoes, and had even separate\npictures hung upon them. In fact, just as we now-a-days go to see in\nsuch a town as Antwerp or Rouen the churches, the pictures, the statues\nand carvings, and the antiquities, so every educated Greek enjoyed the\narts, and thought his life incomplete without having seen their highest\nproducts. Crowds went to see the Pheidian statue of Zeus at Olympia, the\nEros of Praxiteles at Thespi\u00e6, the cow of Myron at Athens. Such great\nworks were constantly copied, and to this practice we owe the inestimable\nbenefit of finding in Roman galleries close imitations of the Greek\nmasterpieces brought from Greece itself.\n\nEach important state was indeed represented in considerable cities by\na proxenus, who corresponds to our modern consuls, but of course he\ncould not be expected to offer hospitality to all travelers, though he\ndid so to official visitors. Every distinguished family had accordingly\nfamily friends in foreign cities, to whom they were bound by mutual\nties of hospitality. These friendships were handed down from generation\nto generation, and when the traveler had never seen his host he often\nbrought with him a token formerly given to his family by the family\nhe went to visit. On his arrival the host gave him a separate set of\napartments, and supplied him with light, fuel and salt; he also sent him\nhis dinner the first day, and invited him to dine afterward, but for the\nrest the guest was attended by his own servants, and supplied himself. As\nto the actual traveling, so much of it was done by sea that there seems\nto have been but indifferent means of journeying on land. To Delphi,\nOlympia, and such public resorts there were good roads, which could be\ntraveled in carriages, but elsewhere pack mules and riding, or even\nwalking was, as it now is, the only way of crossing the country.\n\nAthletic contests were always held conjointly with festivals, so that we\nmust separate two phases in the greatest and most complex enjoyment of\nGreek society. In fact, the Greeks always combined religion with sport.\nThe greatest of these meetings was undoubtedly that held at Olympia every\nfive years, and at which the victors were recorded since 776 B. C. It\nwas gradually thrown open to all Peloponnesians, then to all European\nGreeks, and finally to all the colonies, in 620 B. C. This extension was\nfollowed by the founding in rapid succession of the public contests at\nDelphi (586), the Isthmos of Corinth (582), and Nemea (576 B. C.). They\nwere celebrated in honor of the peculiar god honored at the place\u2014Apollo\nat Delphi, Poseidon at the Isthmus, Zeus at Nemea and Olympia. There was\na solemn truce declared throughout Greece during the Olympic games, and\nall the world flocked thither to enjoy the sports, meet their friends,\ntransact mercantile or even political business, and publish or advertise\nnew works and new inventions. At Delphi musical and poetical contests\npredominated, but at the others the athletic elements.\n\nIn addition to athletic games, many musical and poetical contests were\nencouraged at the festivals, as, for example, at the Pythian games,\nheld at Delphi, and at the Dionysia, held at Athens. So much did\nthese competitions come into fashion, that the best advertisement and\npublication of a new poem, or of a novelty in music, was its production\non one of these occasions. The great tragedies handed down to us were\nall composed in this way, and brought out at Athens in honor of the god\nDionysus. For a fee of two obols, granted him by the state, every citizen\nand his wife, at some contests even resident strangers, could go and\nsit at the theater, and hear four plays of \u00c6schylus pitted against four\nplays of Sophocles, and four of Euripides. The endurance of an audience\nnot given to reading, and not fond of staying at home, is of course much\ngreater than that of our modern play-going people.\n\n\nFESTIVALS.\n\nAs the games and dramatic shows were in honor of the gods, or sometimes\nin honor of deceased heroes, the real celebration consisted in\nsacrifices, prayers, and solemn processions. These sacrifices were\ncombined with public feasts, as a great many victims were slain. In all\nprocessions the military, or citizens in armor, and on horseback, formed,\nas they now do, an important and imposing part. But we are bound to\nadd that in addition to all the splendor of the festivals and athletic\ncontests, there was the usual collection of mountebanks, jugglers,\nthimble-riggers, and other bad characters, who now frequent horse races.\nThis was so much the case in later days, that Cicero indignantly denies\nthe report that he had gone to the Olympic games. On the other hand,\nwe must regard the home festivals in each Greek city among the most\nhumane and kindly institutions in their life. They corresponded to our\nSundays and holidays, when the hard-worked and inferior classes are\npermitted to meet and enjoy themselves. This was particularly the case\nwith the slaves, who enjoyed many indulgences on these special days.\nThe women also in such cities as usually insisted upon their seclusion,\nwere allowed to join in processions, and see something of the world;\nand \u201cthe stranger that was within their gates,\u201d or who came to worship\nat the feast, was received with kindness and hospitality. No executions\nor punishments were allowed; prisoners were let out on bail, and the\nsentences of the law for debts or fines were postponed in honor of the\ngods, who were worshiped not in sadness, but with joy.\n\n\n\n\nGREEK MYTHOLOGY.\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nHESTIA (VESTA).[1] In the domestic life of the Greeks Hestia, the hearth\ngoddess, occupied an important position. She was one of the twelve great\ndivinities, and her expressive symbol, the fire, they carefully guarded\nand kept constantly burning. In the more rude, barbaric state of society\nher worship was, perhaps, not general, as there is no mention of her\nby Homer in the \u201cIliad\u201d or \u201cOdyssey.\u201d But as society advanced and the\nimportance of domestic order and purity was more fully recognized, no\nother deity was held in greater veneration. She gives security to the\ndwelling, and especially guards the virtue and happiness of the family.\n\u201cThe hearth possessed among the ancients a far higher significance than\nit does in modern life. It served not only for the preparation of the\ndaily meals, but was esteemed the sacred altar in the house. There the\nimages of the Penates,[2] or household gods, were placed; and then, after\nthe old patriarchal fashion, the father and priest of the family offered\nsacrifice on all important occasions of their domestic life.\u201d (Seemans.)\n\nThe well-ordered home, under the guardianship of the virgin goddess,\nherself pure as the bright flame that was her symbol, is the secure\nabode of happiness as complete as mortals know. For the maintenance of\nits purity and peace the most solemn vows were made and the tutelary[3]\ngoddess invoked to avenge the injured and reward the faithful. For those\nwithout, the hearth itself was a sacred shrine before which suppliants,\nif danger threatened, sought not in vain protection from the inhabitants\nof the house. And, as the state is an extended family, embracing all the\ndomestic organizations in its domain, Hestia, protectress of the home\ncircle, regards also the interest and safety of every civil community.\nSo, thoughtful men of upright character, their statesmen and wise\nsenators, did not hesitate to carry the religion of their homes into\npolitical matters that engaged their best endeavors.\n\nIn the Greek states the senate house, or department of the governing\nbody, was solemnly dedicated to Hestia, and in it they built her an\naltar, on which fire was kept ever burning. That the daily sacrifice\nmight not be wanting, or that sacred fire ever become extinct, it was\nassiduously guarded by vestal[4] virgins, whose negligence would be\nseverely punished.\n\nThe name Hestia is not only very sacred, but has a stem or root meaning\nthat indicates the fixed abiding position of her altar in the room where\nthe family dwelt, or the senators met for business.\n\nHERMES (MERCURY). For the accredited pedigree, characteristics, and\nexploits of this sly deity\u2014things of much interest to students of the\nold mythology\u2014we are mostly indebted to Homer and his imitators, the\nRhapsodists, some of whose productions were accepted as Homeric. He was\nthe reputed son of Zeus and the mountain nymph Maia, and born in a cave,\nor grotto, on Mount Cyllene,[5] in Arcadia. The so-called \u201cHomeric Hymn,\u201d\nassuming cunning and dexterity as his principal characteristics, tells\nin a way to interest the reader, with what amazing capacity his powers\ndeveloped. Having such a father, and his mother a daughter of Atlas, he\ngrew as none but gods can, almost instantly revealing his divine powers.\nOnly a few hours after his birth he sprung from his mother\u2019s arms, or\nfrom the cradle where he lay, already planning an expedition of vast\nproportions, and escaped from the grotto to at once execute his purpose.\nOn the way he met a beautiful tortoise that he killed, and extracting the\ncarcass from the shell, stretched resonant cords across the cavity, and\nthus made him a harp on which he played most skilfully. The same day he\nhurried off to Pieria, where he stole fifty kine from the herd of Apollo,\nand undertook to drive them to the grotto of his mother. Fearing that the\ntheft, so adroitly accomplished, might be detected by their tracks in\nthe sand, he managed to drive them in such circuitous paths that, where\nmost exposed to observation, the tracks showed them to be going toward\nthe place from which they were stolen. His own footsteps he disguised by\nwrapping his feet with tamarisk and myrtle leaves. The next morning, at\nearly dawn, he reached the stream of Alpheus,[6] and then rubbed sticks\nof wood against each other till they were ignited. Thus Hermes is said to\nhave first given fire to mortal men. Another legend attributes the same\nto Prometheus,[7] who is said to have stolen fire from the altars of the\ngods. But this was kindled in the forest by the friction of dry branches\nrubbed against each other by the wind. In that forest Hermes slaughtered\ntwo of the herd, but, though pressed with hunger, he ate none of the\nroasted meat. After quenching the fire, and effacing all signs of it, he\nproceeded to Cyllene, where he concealed the cattle, and, having entered\nthe place of his birth softly as a summer breeze, resumed his place as a\nbabe, and lay innocently playing with the cradle clothes, while his right\nhand held the tortoise lyre hidden under them. His absence and the booty\nwith which he returned were not unobserved by his mother, who chided him\nfor the theft, but was assured that, by such exploits, he would secure\nfor her and for himself admission to the assembly of the gods. In the\nmorning Apollo, missing part of his herd, set out in search of them. An\nold man informed him that a child was seen the day before driving cows\nalong the road. At Pylos he saw confused tracks of his cattle, but was\namazed at the strange footprints of the driver. Greatly chagrined at his\nloss, and meditating chastisement for the thief, he entered the cave\nof the nymph. Hermes, seeing him, gathered himself under the clothes,\nfeigning fear of the angry god. Apollo searched all the premises for his\nstolen property to no purpose. But convinced that the child, his own\nyounger brother was certainly guilty of the theft, he threatened to hurl\nhim into Tartarus[8] if he did not tell at once where the cows were. The\nlittle fellow in his cradle, winking slyly, and making a low whistling\nsound, as if amused at Apollo\u2019s excitement, denies any knowledge of the\nmatter, and innocently asks what cows are like. \u201cI know nothing of cows,\u201d\nhe said, \u201cbut their name. We must refer the matter to Zeus, who will\ndecide for us.\u201d\n\nWhen the father of gods and men heard the complaint and the evidence,\nlittle Hermes, to the great amusement of the celestials, stoutly denied\nthe charge, and with his cradle clothes about his person, argued the\nabsurdity of supposing a mere child like himself capable of such deeds.\n\nZeus admonished the contestants to be friends, but with a significant\nnod, the suit was decided in Apollo\u2019s favor, and the brothers sent in\nquest of the missing kine. The miscreant led the way, and when the cattle\nwere brought out of the cave, Apollo missed two, and was surprised to\nfind their hides stretched on a rock to dry\u2014more so, that when attempting\nto drive the others away their feet were found fastened in the earth.\nAgain he seized the offender for punishment, but he in the emergency,\nthought of his lyre, and touching its chords, called forth music so sweet\nand soothing that Apollo, forgetting his anger, coveted the instrument\nand besought the musician to teach him his wondrous art. \u201cTake it,\u201d said\nhe, \u201csince you are wise, and will know how to use it well, but if touched\nby those unskilled in the divine art, it will utter strange nonsense,\nmaking uncertain, discordant moanings.\u201d Delighted with his acquisition,\nApollo gave his brother a magic wand, by which he could confer happiness\non whom he would; and, henceforth, they dwelt together in great harmony\nand love, the honored sons of a common father.\n\nInterpreting this myth one says, \u201cwhile Apollo represents the genial\nsunshine, Hermes, as a power of nature, is the rain\u2014rain and sunshine\nbeing both from the great God of heaven, or, in the language of\nmythologists, his sons. They are both beneficent and have many things so\nsimilar as to indicate a common origin.\u201d\n\nIn the process of time their conceptions of the younger brother seem to\nhave undergone some change, or possibly the different shades of opinion\nmay indicate the places rather than the times in which they prevailed.\nTo those who regarded him as sending the fertilizing rain, and thus the\ndispenser of manifold gifts, he also, and naturally, represented the\nwind that \u201cbloweth where it listeth,\u201d and carries the clouds about on\ntheir mission. This idea of personification may account for some things\nin their legends that otherwise seem inexplicable. Helpless infancy, in\na very few hours leaving the cradle and performing exploits the most\nastonishing, has its parallel in the wind, which, at first only gentle\nzephyrs whispering softly, soon may freshen to a gale, and in an hour\nsweep over the earth with a force that defies resistance; and when people\nmake inquest for the mischief done they hear but the mocking laugh as it\nhastens on, and the calm after a squall is like the quiet return of the\nadventurous god to the cave and cradle that were left for the exploits\nof that eventful day. Then the clouds of various shape and color that\nare seen grouped above the horizon, or scattered over the vast field of\nthe sky, were, to a vivid imagination, the herd of Ph\u0153bus, who watches\nover them. When the rising wind, represented by Hermes\u2019 leaving the cave,\ncarries them away, a stupendous theft has been committed.\n\nThe offices of Hermes were many, and supposed to be useful, nor was his\nmany sided character thought bad when judged by the moral code of a\npeople who made him a god after their own likeness. Crafty, dishonest\nmerchants did not mean to impeach his honesty when they implored him\nto give them such shrewdness as to outwit and supplant others in the\nbargains they made. Rogues and thieves prayed to him, just as bandits and\nrobbers in the same country and in parts of Italy ask the patron saints\nto aid their assaults on defenseless travelers, and give them a rich\nbooty.\n\nArcadian shepherds invoked Hermes as the guardian of flocks while he\ninspired their pastoral songs and directed in the manufacture of the\nrustic instruments on which they played.\n\nMoreover, he was regarded and often spoken of as the fleet messenger and\ndextrous agent of his father, Zeus. In this character the epic poets most\nfrequently present him. Swifter than the wind he passes over the land\nand sea to execute whatever commissions are intrusted to him. Once he\ndestroyed the hundred eyed Argus, the guardian of Io, on which account he\nis called by Homer the Argus slayer.\n\nSeemans suggests that Argus in that myth represents the starry heavens,\nand the suggestion is plausible\u2014Argus is slain by the rain god; that is,\nthe stars are hid by the thick clouds.\n\nAs represented in art, he bears the herald\u2019s staff, or wand, given\nhim by Apollo, by the means of which he can induce sleep or rouse the\nslumberer; but it was supposed to be used chiefly in guiding souls to\ntheir abodes in the under world. The earliest Greeks, as indeed men of\nall nations, and in every state of society, civilized, semi-civilized\nor savage, cherished the expectation of a state after death, and though\nvaguely hoping for happiness hereafter, they also felt the need of an\nescort, though unseen, to that \u201cland of deepest shade unpierced by human\nthought.\u201d The belief in Hermes as psychopompus,[9] or conductor of the\nsoul, doubtless gave the dying mythologist when consciously loosing his\nhold on things visible and tangible, some crumbs of comfort. With no\nother rod or staff on which to lean, a heathen poet could say:\n\n    \u201c_Non ego omnis moriar._\u201d[10]\n\nSuch was at least the longing for immortality in the darkest ages.\n\nThe statues and plastic representations of Hermes, as also of the other\ndivinities, changed with the progress of this ideal development. They\nrepresent him as a shepherd, sometimes a herald, or messenger, and always\nas a powerful, bearded man. Those of later date show him as a beardless\nyouth, but of great strength, with broad chest, lithe but powerful limbs,\ncurly hair, small mouth and eyes, a wonderful combination of grace and\nvigor. \u201cIf we add to this the expression of kindly benevolence which\nplays around his finely cut lips, and the inquiring look of his face\nas he bends forward thoughtfully, we have the principal characteristic\nfeatures artists have given of this god.\u201d Of existing statues, in bronze\nand marble, we can not speak more particularly\u2014such are found in the\nVatican, at Naples, and in the British Museum.\n\nHADES.\u2014This name now, and from the beginning of the Christian era, used\nonly to distinguish a place, was in mythology a personal appellative,\nand given to one of the Olympic divinities who received, by allotment,\ncontrol of the lower world. He was son of Cronos and Rhea, and there\nare but few legends of him that the reader would care to see recorded,\non account of the mysterious gloom that enveloped his person and his\nkingdom. It is enough to say he was at first regarded with dread as the\nunpitying, unrelenting foe of mankind, and while all were fated in their\nappointed time to descend to his dismal realms, heedless of their mortal\nreluctance and agony, he gathered them in, and deaf to their prayers kept\nhis gate so guarded by that hundred headed monster Cerberus[11] that none\ncould ever escape. The conception was so horrible that men shrank from\nit in dismay. Hades, being inexorable, was not worshiped. Prayer had no\nencouragement, no utterance. Those who dreaded to become his victims\nmight wail in their agony or curse bitterly, but no door of hope was open\nfor them.\n\nIn the course of time\u2014how long none can tell, as no details are given,\nbut in after ages\u2014the Greek conception of Hades as a divinity seemed\nto undergo considerable change. Not only other but very different\ncharacteristics were given to him. He even received a new name, Pluton\n(riches), possibly indicating for him some agency in sending up, from\nthe bosom of the earth, nourishment for things that grow on its surface,\nand also as offering unbounded wealth to mankind in the metals whose\nmines are in the subterranean chambers. But though the original dismal\nconception of this stern, inexorable deity was partially relieved,\nmention of him seems always to have conveyed to the mind the idea of\nsomething grim and painfully mysterious, and that probably caused them to\nspeak of him but seldom, and with fear.\n\nWe are more interested to trace their notions of the underworld itself,\nand respecting the state of the dead who have entered it. On these\nsubjects there was evidently some diversity of opinion, not between\ndifferent persons only, but of the same person at different times. Even\nHomer presents two distinct views respecting the abode and condition of\nthe dead. In the \u201cIliad\u201d he locates it beneath the flat earth, and not\nfar from the upper surface. Describing the battle of the gods he says:\n\n    \u201cPluto, the infernal monarch, heard alarmed,\n     And, springing from his throne, cried out in fear,\n     Lest Neptune breaking through the solid earth\n     To mortals and immortals should lay bare\n     The dark and drear abode of gods abhorred.\u201d\n\nBut in the \u201cOdyssey,\u201d the realm in which the shades of the departed\nwander, lies far west of the earth-girdling Oceanus, or is an island\nin the midst of that fabled stream. Nor is this at all wonderful,\nsince, after the progress of centuries, and the partial unveiling of\nthe future in the divine oracles, the _heaven_ revealed, as to its\nlatitude, longitude and topography, remains, even to Christians, a _terra\nincognita_.[12]\n\nIn the profoundly interesting problem of a future life the question of\nlocality is of little importance. That which more concerns the mortal,\nyet immortal man, is what that life shall be; and, in their answers to\nthat question, theology and mythology differ widely. The latter claims\nfor departed spirits only a shadowy, dreamy, dismal existence, devoid\nof any real happiness. At first they seem to have had no thought of\nany difference in their allotments, and say nothing of the judgment of\nthe dead. Further on in their history the idea of future reward and\npunishment had some development. Thenceforward there was a division in\nPluto\u2019s realm, and the nethermost part was called Tartarus, a deep,\ndark, cavernous abode of wretchedness and woe, where those condemned\nby the judges,[13] Minos, Rhadamanthus and \u00c6acus were tormented by the\nFuries. The good, being special favorites of the gods, are transferred to\nelysian fields\u2014isles of the blessed\u2014and find their happiness complete,\nwhile those of a middle class, without either positive excellence or\ndamning wrong, are permitted to remain in a dusky region, where, as dim\nbut ghastly shades, they pass a dull, joyless existence, without much\npositive suffering.\n\nThe punishment of great criminals was a fruitful theme for the\nimaginations and pens of the Greek poets. Tityus, who had offered\nviolence to Leto, is chained to the earth while vultures constantly tear\nhis ever growing liver. Tantalus,[14] who had been admitted to the table\nof the gods, but impiously thought to test their superior discernment by\nputting before them the flesh of his son Pelops, is for his crime doomed\nto suffer the torments of continual hunger and thirst. Just above his\nhead are branches laden with beautiful and luscious fruits, but when he\nattempts to pluck them a gust of wind bears them quite beyond his reach.\nHe stands on the bank of a beautiful stream clear as crystal, or in the\nmidst of the water, but when he attempts to quench his raging thirst it\nis impossible even to wet his lips. Sisyphus, once king of Corinth, and a\ngreat sinner, was condemned to roll a block of stone up a high mountain,\nbut, soon as the top was reached, the huge stone, by some sudden impulse,\nrolled back to the plain, and with weary limbs he must continue the\nfruitless struggle. Ixion, also an insolent offender, is chained, hands\nand feet, to an ever revolving wheel and tortured without respite or hope\nof release. And the daughters of Danaus, who at their father\u2019s bidding\nhad slain their husbands the night of their nuptials, are laboriously\npouring water into a perforated cask with despair of ever accomplishing\nthe required task of filling it. The punishment was deemed retributory,\nand in these examplary cases from its nature without end.\n\nEROS AND PSYCHE[15] (CUPID AND THE SOUL).\u2014Eros, reputed a son of\nAphrodite and Ares, in the earlier legends appears a winged child; then\na boy of marvelous beauty on the verge of youth, but small of stature.\nHis characteristic is the golden bow, from whose taut string arrows fly\nto their mark, with unerring aim, and inflict wounds that represent the\nconsuming pangs of love. As the charming but mischief-making Eros, being\nsolitary, did not grow, his mother, by the advice of Artemis, gave him\nas a play-fellow a brother whom they named Anteros; his company caused\ncontent and happiness. Eros was venerated not only as the god of love,\nkindly influencing the sexes toward each other, and kindling purest\nfires on their home altars, but as the author also of loving friendships\nbetween youths and men. For this reason probably, his statue was placed\nbetween those of Hermes and Hercules in the gymnasia, and the warlike\nSpartans sacrifice to him before battle, pledging themselves to be\nfaithful, and stand by one another in time of need.\n\nThe significant myth showing the love of Eros for Psyche is of\nmore recent origin and shows some higher religious notions. Various\ninterpretations of the legend have been suggested, all of them\nsufficiently fanciful. We give here an abridgment of a much lengthier\naccount found in \u201cStories from the Classics.\u201d\n\nIn a certain city were three daughters of the king, of whom the youngest,\nPsyche, being exceedingly beautiful, was thought the loveliest of\nmortals. Her enraptured admirers built altars for her worship as a\ngoddess, and strewed them with flowery garlands. The charming Psyche was\ntoo gentle and good to be elated by the homage, however extravagantly\nexpressed, but the hearts of her less beautiful sisters were soon filled\nwith envy and jealousy. Moreover Venus herself, the goddess of beauty,\nbecame like a mortal jealous of poor Psyche. Highly offended that her\nown altars should be neglected for those of an earth-born maiden, she\nretired in anger to her favorite isle, and there cherished purposes of\nrevenge. Thither her winged boy, Cupid, came quickly at his mother\u2019s\ncall. With tears and many passionate lamentations she told him the story\nof her wrongs\u2014how Psyche was honored and Venus neglected. \u201cYou alone, my\nson,\u201d she said, \u201ccan punish this presumptuous beauty, and make her feel\nthat it is a serious thing to incur the displeasure of the immortals.\u201d\nWhen her plans were made known, soothing his mother with fond caresses,\nCupid readily promised to execute all her wishes. Then, in obedience to\nher commands, he hastened away to a luxuriant island in the midst of\nthe ocean, where were two fountains side by side, one clear as crystal,\nimparting health and happiness to all who drank of the delicious water;\nthe other turbid and of a most deadly nature. Those who tasted its\npoisoned water were never happy again. From the one, a living fountain,\nhe took water of joy, from the other of sorrow, and placing each in a\nlittle amber urn, flew away to the palace of Psyche, where he found her\nlying upon a couch, fragrant with roses, asleep, and smiling in her\npleasant dreams. Too intent on accomplishing his mission to be deterred,\neven by the sight of such transcendent beauty, silently and lightly as\nfalls a noxious dew upon a gentle flower he shed on her slightly parted\nlips the fatal drops of grief, and was preparing to wound her with\nhis arrow, when his victim suddenly awoke. The scene was changed and\nthe mischievous, cruel Cupid was now quite overcome with her strange\nloveliness, and the gentle expression of her lustrous eyes. Filled with\nremorse for what was done he hastily shed on her golden ringlets the\nbalmy drops of joy, intended for another, and vanished from her sight.\n\nThe father of Psyche fearing the wrath of the celestials on account of\nthe adoration paid to his daughter, inquired, at the oracle of Apollo,\nwhat course he should pursue. The response filled him with anguish. He\nwas directed to place the maiden on a barren rock on the top of the\nmountain, and there abandon her to her unknown fate. The poor king and\nhis queen wept much, but dared not disobey the oracle, cruel as it\nseemed. Preparations were made in sadness, and on the day appointed\nPsyche was attended to the destined rock by a mournful procession of\nfriends whose lamentations rent the air. When the broken-hearted parents\nbade a last adieu to their beloved child, they ordered the gates of\ntheir palace to be shut and gave themselves up to despair. As the train\nof mourners gradually disappeared Psyche stood trembling on the top of\nthe lone mountain, and now overcome with grief and fear, she burst into\ntears, bemoaning her sad condition. Then the gently blowing zephyr caught\nand raised her in the air, and bearing her over the valley at the foot\nof the mountain left her on a flowery turf, in a sweet sleep. When she\nawoke all fear was gone. Looking around she saw, near a grove of lofty\ntrees, a cool fountain gently flowing, and within the grove a palace so\ngorgeous that it was evidently the residence of a god. It was of costly\nmaterials, exquisite workmanship, and filled with immense treasures, all\nof which seemed secure without guards or doors. As the astonished but\nnow delighted maiden entered, a voice of angelic sweetness addressed\nher, saying, \u201cLovely Psyche, all these treasures are yours, and we whose\nvoices you hear, though invisible, are your servants, who will obey all\nyour commands. Come to the banquet already prepared for our rightful\nmistress.\u201d She was conducted to a rich repast of ambrosia and nectar,\nserved by invisible hands, and entertained with delightful music from\n\u00c6olian harps.\n\nPsyche did not know who the lord of the palace was, but, without being\nsuffered to behold him, she became his wife, and lived for a long time\ncontented and happy; treated by him, when present, with the utmost\nkindness, and, in his absence, cheered by the voices of her unseen\nattendants.\n\nWhen her sisters, wicked women, who had heard of her happiness, and were\ninvited to share it, arrived at the palace they were received by Psyche\nmost cordially. She tenderly embraced them, showed them her treasures,\nand bestowed such gifts as sisterly affection suggested. But their hearts\nwere hard and cruel. More envious than before at the sight of such\nmagnificence, they artfully planned to destroy their unsuspecting victim,\nwho had been warned not to allow any idle curiosity about her husband,\nlest, by so doing, she might lose him forever. \u201cDearest sister,\u201d they\nsay, concealing their real feelings under a mask of sisterly kindness,\n\u201cour love constrains us to make known to you that the being you call your\nhusband is doubtless some malignant spirit who dares not show to you his\nhideous person, and who will some day destroy you. Take therefore, we\nentreat, this lamp and dagger; conceal the lamp in the tapestry of your\nchamber, and in the night satisfy your curiosity. If he prove the monster\nwe suspect, you can kill him in his sleep and return to the home of your\ndistracted parents.\u201d\n\nPoor Psyche was overwhelmed with sorrow, and after much talking they so\nwrought on both her fear and curiosity that she reluctantly promised to\nheed their advice. As night approached her courage failed, and all the\npast kindness of her husband coming in mind made her design appear most\nungrateful, yet she must keep her promise, and at any risk, satisfy the\ndoubts that were distracting her. So when all voices were hushed, the\nlights out, and deep silence reigned in the palace, she took the lamp\nfrom the place where she had concealed it, and, with trembling, drew\nnear the couch where she saw her husband lying fast asleep. What was\nher glad surprise when she found him none other than the beautiful god\nCupid himself. His countenance was so radiant that the very light of\nthe revealing lamp seemed to grow dim. On his shoulders were wings of\ndelicate whiteness, covered with a tremulous down. His bow and arrows\nlay at his feet. As she stood over him, entranced by the sight, the oil\nin the lamp, as if to punish her crime, bubbled over and the burning\nliquid fell on the shoulder of the sleeper. Immediately he started up,\nand looking reproaches stronger than words, at once flew away in silence.\nAlas! for the imprudent wife\u2019s distress, when the husband she adored left\nher in anger, and, as she feared, never to return.\n\nThe deceitful sisters, themselves deceived by a false tale of Cupid\u2019s\nregard for them, miserably perished. When the indignant Venus learned\nthat Cupid, instead of punishing, had taken to his palace her detested\nrival, and then suffered injury at her hand, she threatened vengeance and\nsent Mercury in search of the object of her hate. Her wounded son was\ncared for, but not without upbraiding him for his conduct, and proposing\nsuch chastisement as anger mingling with maternal love suggested.\n\nAs for the deserted Psyche, having attempted in vain to drown herself\nin a neighboring stream, she wanders through the world in search of her\nlost love. Relentlessly persecuted by her adversary, who subjected her to\nnumerous and severe trials, the plants and animals, the reed, the swan,\nthe eagle, offer advice and assistance. Pitied, but unaided, unprotected\nby the higher goddesses, Ceres and Juno, her case becomes desperate, and\nshe determines, at once, to surrender herself into the hands of Venus.\n\u201cPossibly she may be won by my good and dutiful conduct, and in the\nhouse of his mother I may get a sight of him I have so long sought in\nvain.\u201d That hope, too, was doomed to disappointment. The haughty goddess,\nforgetting alike the dignity of her rank, and the tenderness of a mother,\nspoke bitter, revengeful words, and, calling two servants, Sorrow and\nSolicitude, she ordered them to chastise her in the severest manner. The\nsuffering of her victim did not satisfy the angry Venus, and the most\ndifficult tasks were enjoined. Having tried her ability by requiring\nmany things thought impossible for mortals, but that were all, by the\naid of favoring divinities, accomplished, as a last effort she bade her\ngo to the palace of Pluto, in the infernal regions, and, carrying a\nbox given her for the purpose, to request of Proserpine[16] a portion\nof her divine beauty, and bring back the treasure untouched. It was a\nperilous undertaking; but again helped and instructed how to proceed,\nit was accomplished in safety, and with entire success. She escaped the\nwiles with which Proserpine sought to detain her guest, and obtained\nthe treasure box, filled and carefully closed. In her instructions she\nwas enjoined not, on any account, to open the box or meddle with its\nprecious contents. When returning, the chief difficulties and dangers of\nthe way already past, her woman\u2019s curiosity again prevails, and silencing\nher fears and her conscience, she decides to appropriate a very small\nportion of its contents, desiring to become more pleasing to her offended\nhusband, whom she still hopes to meet. The lid was cautiously raised,\nwhen lo! instead of the celestial beauty that was expected, there issued\nfrom within, a black, dense vapor which enveloped her so closely, that,\npresently, overcome with a deep stupor, she fell senseless to the ground.\n\nCupid having escaped from the palace, and, having on his downy wings,\nwitnessed the whole of this proceeding, flew to the spot, and, quickly\ngathering up the deadly vapor, confined it again within the casket.\nThen gently arousing the stupefied Psyche, with a touch of his arrow,\n\u201cSee,\u201d said he, \u201chow thou wouldst perish by this foolish curiosity! Arise\nnow and complete the task imposed by my mother, while I supplicate the\nmighty Jupiter to appease her anger.\u201d Thus saying he soared on high, nor\nceased his flight till he reached Olympus, the lofty dwelling of the\ngods. Then kneeling before the throne he pleaded with such eloquence the\ncause of his hapless spouse that the king of gods was moved to pity, and\npromised, by the exercise of his sovereign will, to end forever Psyche\u2019s\nmisfortunes and sufferings. Mercury was ordered to conduct her to his\npresence, and, eager to fulfill so pleasant a commission, the winged\nmessenger darted through the air with utmost speed and soon returned with\nhis charge.\n\nThe joy of Cupid was boundless, when Psyche, more lovely than ever, stood\nby his side. Jupiter, regarding her for a time with silent admiration,\nthen, presenting a cup of nectar, said: \u201cTake this, and be henceforth\nimmortal. The bitter waters that have occasioned all your sufferings,\nafter this divine draught will be forgotten. Venus shall no longer mourn\nyour union with her son. It has the approval of the gods, and shall\nendure forever.\u201d\n\nPsyche thus indued with a new and glorious nature, looked imploringly at\nmother Venus. Friendly influences stealing into her heart, the goddess\nyielded, and embraced her radiant daughter with maternal affection. The\nwedding banquet was prepared, and the Hours with roseate fingers decked\nthe bride. Ganymede,[17] as commanded, poured for them the sparkling\nnectar, and cloud-capped Olympus echoed to the glad sounds of choral\nvoices.\n\nNeptune came from his ocean cave; Apollo and the Muses were attracted\nby the sweet notes of song; Minerva laid aside her helmet to grace the\nmarriage feast with her presence; Mars, with swordless hand, and merry\nBacchus, the grape wreath that bound his golden hair nodding as he\nstepped, all joined the festive company. The Graces had decorated the\nspacious hall; there were thrilling strains of music in the orchestra,\nand Venus herself danced for joy. Psyche, the admired of all, reclining\non the bosom of her reconciled husband, in the bliss of so divine a union\nlost forever the remembrance of all her sorrows.\n\nThis beautiful fable, some say, represents the trials and destiny of\nhuman beings. The soul\u2014so the mythologists held\u2014though of divine origin,\nis here subjected to error and evil in its prison, the body. Trials\nand purifications are necessary, that it may become capable of purer\npleasures and nobler aspirations. Two loves meet it, one earthly and\ndegrading, the other heavenly and elevating. This, when victorious leads\noff the soul, disenthralled and purified, to the abodes of the blessed.\n\nAccording to these expositors the myth is a moral one, and represents\nthe dangers to which nuptial fidelity was exposed in such a country as\ndegenerate Greece, and also gives an instance of true constancy subjected\nto many and strong temptations, but victorious over them all.\n\nAs allegorical myths are of doubtful interpretation, the reader may\nescape some perplexity by accepting the story as a tale of fancy,\nintended for innocent amusement, rather than for instruction in\npsychology or morals.\n\n\n\n\nSTUDIES IN KITCHEN SCIENCE AND ART.\n\nIV. APPLES, PEACHES, BLACKBERRIES AND STRAWBERRIES.\n\nBY BYRON D. HALSTED, SC. D.\n\n\nIn our study of the food products of the earth, we now come to a\nconsideration of some of our leading fruits. All of the four given above\nare furnished us by a single order of plants, namely: the Rose Family,\nor _Rosace\u00e6_.[1] This order not only contains the \u201cQueen of Flowers,\u201d\nbut the \u201cKing of Fruits;\u201d it is, in short, a royal family among plants,\nwithout which we should be deprived of much that is very beautiful, and\nmore that is exceedingly useful. We are dependent upon the cereals for\nour flour, but what would flour be without some fruit to mix with it in\nthe formation of a very long list of our most highly prized viands? Apple\npies, peach dumplings, blackberry puddings and strawberry shortcakes all\nhave their ardent admirers, and happy is the housewife who can make them\nto perfection.\n\nTHE APPLE.\u2014Well might the apple be the fruit to tempt mankind. The\nschoolboy feels this when before him stands a neighbor\u2019s tree loaded with\nthe golden spheres of ripeness and sweetness. Well might Solomon with\nall his wisdom acknowledge the beauty and worth of this best of fruits\nwhen he writes: \u201cA word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures\nof silver.\u201d Downing, in his classic work on \u201cThe Fruits and Fruit Trees\nof America\u201d says: \u201cAmong the heathen gods of the north there were apples\nfabled to possess the power of conferring immortality, which were\ncarefully watched over by the goddess Iduna,[2] and kept for the special\ndessert of the gods who felt themselves growing old.\u201d Apples may not\nconfer immortality, but they lend new charms to life, and we should guard\nthis fruit as did the sleepless dragon the golden apples in the orchards\nof Hesperus.[3]\n\nIf the \u201ctree of knowledge\u201d is not an allegory, and it bore apples, we\nhave the antiquity as well as ancient edibility of the apple at once\nestablished. The origin and first home of the apple, like all the fruits,\nflowers and vegetables in cultivation before the time of human records,\nis all obscurity, and speculation has free course in seeking for the\nearly history of the apple. This fruit was extensively cultivated by the\nRomans, and is widely diffused through all parts of the temperate zone.\n\nThe apple tree is one of slow growth and medium size, though there\nare some specimens in this country of great dimensions. The head is\nlow-spreading, and the flowers sweet and beautiful. The blossom, as well\nas the fruit that follows it, is famous in story and in song. The kinds\nof apples are very numerous, and the number is increasing every year. The\ngenus _Pyrus_,[4] to which the common apple belongs, has several species,\nincluding the mountain ashes, common chokeberry, and several kinds of\ncrab apples, and last, but far from the least, the pears. The orchard\napple is thus seen to be in the midst of good company.\n\nApples are classified in various ways; that by J. J. Thomas, in his\n\u201cAmerican Fruit Culturist,\u201d is as follows: Three divisions are made upon\nthe time of ripening\u2014as, summer, autumn, and winter apples. Under each of\nthese are two classes, namely: sweet apples, and those with more or less\nacidity. Under each of these six classes are two sections, viz.: color\nstriped with red\u2014color unstriped. The three points in this classification\nare season, taste, and color of skin. For example, the apple before\nme is a summer fruit, sweet, with skin not striped. It belongs in the\nsecond section of class one of the first division. It is the sweet\nbough. Again, the apple is striped, acid, and winter; by referring to\nthe descriptive list we find it is northern spy, king of Tompkins,\nor Wagener. The characteristics of the groupings above given are not\nproperly distinct. As Thomas says: \u201cSummer apples gradually pass into\nautumn, and autumn into winter apples. A few \u2026 possess nearly a neutral\nflavor between a dead sweetness and slight acidity. Again, apples classed\nwith those that are striped, sometimes present a nearly uniform shade\nof red.\u201d So much interwoven are the colors, periods of ripening, etc.,\nthat Downing discards all classification and arranges his descriptive\nlist alphabetically. In describing apples and similar fruit the word\n_base_ is used for the stem end of the fruit, and _apex_ the blossom end.\nThe primary forms of apples are: oblate, roundish, conical, and oblong.\nThe last report of the American Pomological Society[5] catalogues three\nhundred and thirty-seven varieties of apples, with the standing of each\nin the several states and territories. From this tabulation we select\nthe following varieties as among those that proved the best: For summer,\nearly harvest, red astrachan, sweet bough, American summer, Carolina\nJune, and Oldenburg; for autumn, fall pippins, Porter, maiden\u2019s blush,\nGravenstein, late strawberry, sops of wine, and primate; for winter,\nBaldwin, Ben Davis, Hubbardston, Rhode Island greening, northern spy, and\nfarmer\u2019s. These sorts are not equally good everywhere, but taken all in\nall they are among the leading sorts. There may be some varieties of only\nlocal reputation that do better in their native section than any here\nmentioned. Some apples are adapted to the warmer climate of the southern\nstates, while others are suited to the cold regions farther north. The\nwealthy apple is a fine illustration of the latter; it is especially\nsuited to New Hampshire, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa and Colorado.\n\nApple trees are raised from seed sown in autumn, and remain in the seed\nbed for two or three years, when they are removed in the spring, with\ntheir tap-root or main root cut to the nursery rows. The following autumn\nthey are budded with the desired variety. The well ripened bud is\ninserted in the bark of the twig, near the ground. The growth from the\nbud afterward forms the tree top. The trees may be set in the orchard\nthe third year after budding. The soil best adapted for an orchard is\na strong loam containing abundant limestone or calcareous matter. The\nsoil should be kept mellow by frequent cultivation, until the trees are\nof considerable size. It must be remembered that the trees are of first\nimportance, and they should not be starved by lack of richness in the\nsoil or by the growth of exhausting grain crops.\n\nThere are many insect enemies to the apple tree, the leading among which\nare the borers, American tent caterpillar, canker worm, bark-lice and\ncodling moth. The methods of treating each one of these pests have been\nwell worked out, but space forbids our giving them in this connection.\n\nIt is important that apples be gathered with care, especially if to be\nsent to market. The reputation of American apples in the English market\nhas suffered greatly from carelessness in picking and packing. Fruit\nsells more by appearance than anything else, and therefore the packages\nshould be neat and the contents uniformly good. Apples are employed in\nvarious ways beside cooking. They are the source of much cider that\nafterward by fermentation forms the best quality of vinegar.\n\nTHE PEACH.\u2014The peach (_Prunus Persica_[6]) is a native of Persia, as the\nbotanical name indicates, and was brought from that country to Italy\nby the Romans. It is frequently mentioned by ancient writers, and was\nregarded with much veneration by the people of Asia. The peach reached\nthe British Isles in the sixteenth century. There is no country where\nthe peach is more successfully grown than in some portions of the United\nStates. It can not be grown with profit north of 42\u00b0 north latitude, but\nsouth of this line it flourishes as far as the Gulf of Mexico. There are\nsome localities specially adapted for the peach, and here it is grown\nin its perfection. First among such sections is the Delaware peninsula,\na territory of six thousand square miles, within which more peaches per\nacre are produced than anywhere else on the globe, and of the finest\nquality. A portion of Michigan, known as the \u201cpeach belt,\u201d is likewise\nfamous, and supplies the western markets with vast quantities of this\nluscious fruit.\n\nThe peach is a small tree, with long narrow leaves and beautiful pink\nblossoms. It grows rapidly to maturity, and after bearing a few crops is\nthrough with its best work, and should be replaced by another.\n\nMr. Fulton, in his small book on \u201cPeach Culture,\u201d writes: \u201cThe seed\nshould be of natural fruit. It is more vigorous, more hardy, more certain\nto germinate, and the tree lives longer. This should never be overlooked\nby any planter who wishes the full reward of his labors.\u201d This indicates\nthat the seed in the budded fruit loses some of its vitality. It is\ndoubtless a law that as we go farther from the native or wild state the\nless vigorous becomes the nurtured plant. The artificial life that many\nplants lead leaves them no time to store up strength for the continuation\nof the race, and in many cases they have lost all power of producing\noffspring. The young peach trees are provided by sowing the seeds in\nbeds, carefully kept free from weeds. After the proper size is reached,\nbuds are inserted, as above mentioned under the apple, and in a year or\ntwo the budded trees are ready for the orchard.\n\nThis process of budding is similar to that of making cuttings or slips,\nonly, a single bud is set in the cleft bark of a living stem, instead of\na piece of branch, with two or more buds, set in moist sand. Grafting\ndiffers from budding in that the cion is a stem with two or more buds,\nusually set in a cleft of a living branch; it is budding on a larger\nscale, and is suited to large trees.\n\nThe varieties of peaches are very numerous, more than one hundred and\nfifty sorts being set down in some lists. It is not an easy task to\nselect the best. There are many things to consider in deciding upon the\nmerit of a peach. It may have the best flavor, but be subject to rot, a\npoor bearer, or be so small that it will not sell well. The tree should\nbe vigorous and productive, with fruit large, rich flavored, and fine\ncolored. Such fruit is fit food for the gods. From the recent Pomological\nSociety catalogue we find that the following varieties are the most in\nfavor, take the whole country through. Among those known as very early\nare: Alexander, early York, large early York, Hales and truth; medium,\nearly Crawford, Chinese cling, Columbia, oldmixon free and oldmixon\ncling; late, smock, stump-the-world, late Crawford, Heath cling, and\nWard\u2019s late. By a careful selection of varieties with regard to their\ntime of ripening, a small orchard would furnish fruit from midsummer\nuntil the frosts come. In setting out an orchard there is a tendency to\npurchase new sorts, and for this the nurserymen are largely to blame. A\nman\u2019s interest in the sale of so simple a thing as a tree may cause it to\nbe overestimated. A half dozen time-tested standard sorts are worth more\nthan a score of new seedlings without any record.\n\nPeaches are classified by their fruit into those with white flesh and\nyellow flesh, and these are divided again into free-stones and clings.\nIn some of the clings the flesh is very superior, but owing to its close\nunion with the stone it is difficult to eat, and therefore is far less\npopular than free-stones of an inferior quality.\n\nThe leading enemies to the peach are the borer, curculio,[7] the\nleaf-curl and the \u201cyellows.\u201d The \u201ccurl\u201d is caused by a fungus, and the\nremedy is picking and burning the leaves. The \u201cyellows\u201d is the most fatal\nof all the enemies, having ruined hundreds of the finest orchards. The\ncause is not fully understood, but the indications are that it may be a\nlow form of microscopic life known as bacteria. No cure has been found,\nand when a tree turns the characteristic yellow it should be torn out and\nburned, root and branch.\n\nWe can not close this brief sketch without thinking of that happy boy\nreclining upon the shady sod, who\n\n        \u2014lifted his head to where hung in his reach\n    All laden with honey, the ruddy-cheeked peach.\n\nBLACKBERRIES.\u2014The two fruits already described in this paper are of\na comparatively large size, and grow on trees. We now come to the\nso-called \u201csmall fruits,\u201d among which are the blackberry, raspberry,\nstrawberry, currant, and gooseberry. The genus _Rubus_[8] furnishes both\nthe blackberries and the raspberries, thus showing that these two kinds\nof small fruits are very closely related. There are about one hundred\nand fifty species of blackberries scattered throughout the world, but\nof these only two have furnished our gardens with the best cultivated\nvarieties, namely: the high blackberry (_R. villosus_[9]), growing\neverywhere in thickets, with a strong prickly stem, six feet high, and\nthe low blackberry, or dewberry (_R. canadensis_[10]), a long trailing\nplant, with slightly prickly stems, and small, early ripening fruit.\n\nThe cultivation of the blackberry has been retarded to a considerable\nextent by the excellence of the wild sorts\u2014the people being satisfied\nwith the fruit of the bramble in the fence row. The varieties that now\nhead the list have all been chance seedlings found growing wild, and\nafterward improved by garden culture. The Lawton was found growing on a\nroadside in Westchester county, New York, and is often known by the name\nof its native town, New Rochelle. The Lawton did much to introduce the\nblackberry to the fruit gardens. The canes winter kill, and the fruit,\nunless perfectly ripe, is hard and sour at the core. The Kittatinny\nstands among the first for the size and richness of its fruit. This\nberry is a little earlier than the New Rochelle. It was found near the\nKittatinny mountains, in New Jersey, and bears the peculiar Indian name\nof the place of its nativity. Mr. Roe, in his \u201cSuccess with Small Fruits\u201d\nsays of the discoverer of the Kittatinny blackberry: \u201cHe has done more\nfor the world than if he had opened a gold mine.\u201d\n\nThe Wilson\u2019s early is a third variety, of New Jersey origin, that grows\nlow, with the canes trailing upon the ground. As the name indicates, this\nis a remarkably early blackberry, and were it not subject to attacks from\ninsects it would be a very superior variety. The Snyder is of western\norigin, is wonderfully productive and hardy. The small size of the berry\nis the greatest defect of the Snyder. There are some recent candidates\nfor popular favor, but the four mentioned have been found worthy of a\nplace in the small fruit garden.\n\nThe blackberry prefers a rather dry soil, of medium richness. On a moist\nand very fertile soil the canes grow rank and large and produce very\nlittle fruit. The plants need to be set in rows six to eight feet apart\neach way. It is best to set the plants in autumn, because they start\ninto growth very early in the spring, before there is opportunity for\ntransplanting. Stakes or cheap wire trellises are usually provided for\nholding up plants. The canes that grow up one season produce fruit the\nsucceeding year, and then die. It is therefore necessary to treat as\nweeds all shoots that are not needed for the bearing canes the following\nseason. Judicious pruning of the cane while it is growing will produce\nmuch branched tops, which are more productive than those that grow to\ngreat length, and they are less liable to be injured by frost. Mr. Roe\nsays: \u201cMore can be done with the thumb and finger at the right time\nthan with the most savage pruning shears after a year of neglect.\u201d The\nblackberry produces many suckers, and if these are left to grow for a\nyear or two the whole ground becomes a wilderness that is not productive,\nand very difficult to subdue.\n\nSTRAWBERRIES.\u2014It is not an easy task to find the person who dislikes\nstrawberries. They are acceptable to the vast majority, and in almost any\nform, from the plain berry just picked off the vine to the juicy, red\nlayer in a shortcake, or the heaping saucer with its fragrant contents\nhalf floating in sweet cream. The name strawberry probably came from the\nold Saxon _streawberige_, either because of the strawlike stems to the\nplants, or from the berries being strewn upon the ground. In olden times\nchildren strung the berries upon straws and sold them thus, and possibly\nfrom this we now have the name for our earliest and finest of small\nfruits. The name of the strawberry genus is _Fragaria_,[11] the Latin\nfor \u201csweet smelling.\u201d The cultivated varieties of strawberries represent\nfive species. The most common one, growing wild almost everywhere being\n_Fragaria vesca_. In this species the seeds are superficial on the\nluscious cone. The Virginian strawberry, _F. Virginiana_, abundant in all\nparts of the United States, has roundish fruit, with the seeds embedded\nin deep pits. At the time of the introduction of this species in English\ngardens the culture of the strawberry took a fresh start. By sowing the\nseed of the Virginian species new varieties have been produced in large\nnumbers, so that now it is the parent of nine-tenths of all the sorts\ngrown in our gardens. The Hovey, Wilson, monarch, Seth Boyden, Charles\nDowny, and Sharpless are some of the improved varieties of this species.\nA new impetus was given to strawberry culture by the introduction of a\nSouth American species, _F. grandiflora_. The fruit is large and sweet,\nwith a peculiar sprightliness that makes the varieties derived from this\nspecies highly prized in England and on this continent. Our cold winters\nand hot summers are too severe extremes for these offsprings of a more\ntropical species. The triumphe de gand and jucunda are two superb sorts\nderived from the _F. grandiflora_.\n\nSome varieties of strawberries have what are known as pistillate flowers;\nthat is, the stamens or male organs are imperfect or wanting. In such\ncases it is necessary to grow a perfect-flowered (bi-sexual) variety in\nclose proximity, in order to insure fertilization and the formation of\nfruit. The famous Hovey seedling is a pistillate variety, and there are\nmany others of this character.\n\nOne of the leading features of the strawberry plant is to multiply by\nmeans of long, slender branches, called runners. There are, however,\nthree methods of propagating the strawberry, viz.: by the runners, by\ndivision of the root, and by seeds. The chief method is by runners.\nStrawberries need a rich, mellow soil. The plants may be set either\nin the spring or fall, though the spring is generally preferred by\nexperienced strawberry growers. Plants set in autumn will not come into\nbearing the next season unless they are pot-grown. These pot-grown plants\nare obtained by sinking small flower pots in the earth of the strawberry\nbed, into the contents of which the runners strike root and form plants.\nThe roots of the plants are not disturbed by transplanting, and one\nwhole season is gained. In setting out strawberry plants care needs to\nbe observed that the crown is not buried. The holes should be large, so\nthat the roots may be spread out in all directions. If set in rows two\nand a half feet apart, and a foot or so distant in the row, a horse and\ncultivator may be used to advantage in keeping down the weeds. After two\nor three full crops have been gathered from a bed the rows may be plowed\nup. Some growers gather only one crop, and reset the land. There are many\nmethods of treatment. In the fall the strawberry bed should be covered\nwith a mulch. The success of many cultivators of the strawberry is due,\nin great measure, to the protection of their plants in winter.\n\nThe insect enemies to the strawberry are numerous, not the least of\nwhich is the white grub, the larv\u00e6 of the May beetle or \u201cJune Bug,\u201d the\nstrawberry worm, the leaf-roller, crown borer, saw fly, and various cut\nworms. A rust sometimes attacks the plants and almost ruins them.\n\nIt is very difficult to indicate what are the best varieties of\nstrawberries. Again referring to the chart in the last issue of the\nAmerican Pomological Society, we find forty-one varieties there\ntabulated. Of these the Charles Downing and the Wilson take the lead,\nbeing suited to a wide range of climate, soil, and other conditions. The\nDowning is the type of excellence in flavor and other qualities, while\nthe Wilson is a firm, sour, and very prolific berry well suited for the\nmarket garden. Among the other sorts worthy of attention, mentioned\nalphabetically, are: Crescent, Cumberland, Hovey, Kentucky, Manchester,\nminer\u2019s prolific, Monarch, Sharpless, and triumphe de gand. A dozen or\nmore new sorts appear each year, some of which may take their places\namong the time-tested sorts here mentioned. It may be that in a few\nyears all of these old varieties will be superseded by new sorts, and\nthe berries that we now eat with so much relish will seem poor by the\ncontrast. Let the future be as it may, no one should neglect the culture\nof the kinds we now possess. A person with only a village half acre may\ngrow his own berries of various sorts, and still have room for a few\npear, apple, peach, and cherry trees.\n\nLet us close this brief treatment of small fruits at the same place\nwhere Mr. Roe began his large, elegant and exhaustive book on the same\nsubject, by quoting the following passage from his \u201cPreliminary Parley:\u201d\n\u201cMany think of the soil only in connection with the sad words of the\nburial service, \u2018earth to earth, ashes to ashes.\u2019 Let us, while we may,\ngain more cheerful associations with our kindred dust. For a time it can\nbe earth to strawberry blossoms, ashes to bright red berries, and their\ncolor will get into our cheeks, and their rich, sub-acid juices into\nour insipid lives, constituting a mental, moral and physical alteration\nthat will so change us that we shall believe in evolution, and imagine\nourselves fit for a higher state of existence. One may delve in the earth\nso long as to lose all dread at the thought of sleeping in it at last,\nand the luscious fruits and bright hued flowers that come out of it, in a\nway no one can find out, may teach our own resurrection more effectually\nthan do the learned theologians.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nAPPLES, PEACHES, BLACKBERRIES AND STRAWBERRIES.\n\n\n\u201cThe liberal use of various fruits as food is conducive to good health.\nFruit is not a solid and lasting element like beef and bread, and does\nnot give strength to any great extent. But fruits contain those acids\nwhich refresh and give tone to the system during the season when it\nis most needed. They should never be eaten unless thoroughly ripe, or\ncooked. Stale fruits, or those that have been plucked some time, are\nunhealthy in the extreme. The proper time to eat fruit is in the morning\nand early afternoon. At night it is \u2018leaden,\u2019 according to the Spanish,\nwho call fruit \u2018golden in the morning and silver at noon.\u2019\u201d These words\nof general advice fitly introduce our \u201capples, peaches, strawberries, and\nblackberries,\u201d for whose use, fresh and uncooked, we would strongly plead.\n\nRIPE FRUIT.\u2014Wash and polish apples with a clean towel, and pile in a\nchina fruit basket, with an eye to agreeable variety of color. Of peaches\nand pears the finest should be selected, handling as little as may be,\nand pile upon a salver or flat dish, with bits of ice between them,\nand ornament with peach leaves or fennel sprigs. One of the prettiest\ndishes of fruit I ever saw upon a dessert table was an open silver\nbasket, wide at the top, heaped with rich red peaches and yellow Bartlett\npears, interspersed with feathery bunches of green, which few of those\nwho admired it knew for carrot tops. Wild white clematis wreathed the\nhandle and showed here and there among the fruit, while scarlet and\nwhite verbenas nestled amid the green. Send around powdered sugar with\nthe fruit, as many like to dip peaches and pears in it after paring and\nquartering them.\n\nNever wash strawberries or raspberries that are intended to be eaten as\nfresh fruit. If they are so gritty as to require this process keep them\noff the table. You will certainly ruin the flavor beyond repair if you\nwash them, and as certainly induce instant fermentation and endanger the\ncoats of the eaters\u2019 stomachs, if, after profaning the exquisite delicacy\nof the fruit to this extent, you complete the evil work by covering them\nwith sugar, and leaving them to leak their lives sourly away for one or\ntwo hours. Put them on the table in glass dishes, piling them high and\nlightly; send around powdered sugar with them and cream, that the guests\nmay help themselves. It is not economical, perhaps, but it is a healthful\nand pleasant style of serving them\u2014I had almost said the only decent one.\n\u201cBut I don\u2019t know who picked them,\u201d cries Mrs. Fussy.\n\nNo, my dear madame! nor do you know who makes the baker\u2019s bread, or\nconfectioner\u2019s cake, creams, jellies, salads, etc. Nor, for that matter,\nhow the flour is manufactured out of which you conjure your dainty\nbiscuits and pies. I _know_ God made strawberries. \u201cDoubtless,\u201d says\nBishop Butler, \u201che could have made a better berry, but he never did.\u201d The\npicker\u2019s light touch can not mar flavor or beauty, nor, were her fingers\nfilthy as a chimney sweep\u2019s, could the delicate fruit suffer from them\nas from your barbarous baptism.\u2014_Marion Harland in \u201cCommon Sense in the\nHousehold.\u201d_\n\nPUDDINGS AND PIES.\u2014_Apple Dumplings._\u2014Make a crust as for biscuit, or a\npotato crust, as follows: Three large potatoes boiled and mashed while\nhot. Add to them two cups of sifted flour and one teaspoonful of salt,\nand mix thoroughly. Now chop or cut into it one small cup of butter,\nand mix into a paste with about a teacupful of cold water. Dredge the\nboard thick with flour, and roll out\u2014thick in the middle and thin at\nthe edges. A thick pudding-cloth\u2014the best being made of Canton flannel,\nused with the nap-side out\u2014should be dipped in hot water and wrung out,\ndredged evenly and thickly with flour, and laid over a large bowl. Upon\nthe middle of this place the rolled-out crust, fill with apples pared\nand quartered, eight or ten good-sized ones being enough for this amount\nof crust. Gather the edges of the crust evenly over it. Then gather\nthe cloth up, leaving room for the dumpling to swell, and tying very\ntightly. In turning out, lift to a dish, press all the water from the\nends of the cloth; untie and turn away from the pudding, and lay a hot\ndish upon it, turning over the pudding into it, and serving at once, as\nit darkens or falls by standing. In using a boiler, butter well, and fill\nonly two-thirds full, that the mixture may have room to swell. Set it\nin boiling water, and see that it is kept at the same height, about an\ninch from the top. Cover the outer kettle, that the steam may be kept in.\nPeaches pared and halved, or canned ones drained from the syrup, may be\nused instead of the apples. When canned fruit is used the syrup can be\nused as a sauce, either cold for cold puddings and blancmanges, or heated\nand thickened for hot, allowing to a pint of juice a heaping teaspoonful\nof corn starch, dissolved in a little cold water, and boiling it five\nminutes. Strawberry or raspberry syrup is especially nice.\n\n_Bread and Apple Pudding._\u2014Butter a deep pudding dish and put first a\nlayer of crumbs, then one of any good acid apple, sliced rather thin,\nand so on until the dish is nearly full. Six or eight apples and a quart\nof fresh crumbs will fill a two-quart dish. Dissolve a cup of sugar and\none teaspoonful of cinnamon in one pint of boiling water and pour into\nthe dish. Let the pudding stand half an hour to swell; then bake until\nbrown\u2014about three-quarters of an hour\u2014and eat with liquid sauce. It can\nbe made with slices of bread and butter instead of crumbs.\n\n_Short-Cake._\u2014One quart of flour, one teaspoonful of salt and two of\nbaking powder sifted with the flour, one cup of butter, or half lard and\nhalf butter, one large cup of hot milk. Rub the butter into the flour;\nadd the milk and roll out the dough, cutting in small square cakes and\nbaking to a light brown. For a strawberry or peach short-cake have three\ntin pie-plates buttered; roll the dough to fit them, and bake quickly.\nFill either, when done, with a cup of sugar, or with peaches cut fine and\nsugared, and served hot.\n\nPIES\u2014APPLE, PEACH, AND BERRY.\u2014In the first place, don\u2019t make them except\nvery semi-occasionally. Pastry, even when good, is so indigestible that\nchildren should never have it, and their elders but seldom. A nice\nshort-cake, filled with stewed fruit, or with fresh berries, mashed and\nsweetened, is quite as agreeable to eat and far more wholesome. But, as\npeople will both make and eat pie-crust, the best rules known are given.\nButter, being more wholesome than lard, should always be used if it can\nbe afforded. A mixture of lard and butter is next best. For a plain\npie-crust, take: One quart of flour, one even teacup of lard and one of\nbutter, one teacup of ice water or very cold water, and a teaspoonful of\nsalt. Rub the lard and salt into the flour till it is dry and crumbly,\nadd the ice water and work to a smooth dough. Wash the butter and have it\ncold and firm as possible, divide it in three parts. Roll out the paste\nand dot it all over with bits from one part of the butter, sprinkle with\nflour and roll up. Roll out and repeat until the butter is gone. If the\ncrust can now stand on the ice for half an hour it will be nicer and more\nflaky. This amount will make three good-sized pies. Enough for the bottom\ncrusts can be taken off after one rolling in of butter, thus making the\ntop crust richer. Lard alone will make a tender, but not a flaky, paste.\n\nFor puff paste there is required one pound of flour, three quarters of a\npound of butter, one teacupful of ice water, one teaspoonful of salt, one\nof sugar, and yolk of one egg. Wash the butter, divide into three parts,\nreserving a bit the size of an egg, and put it on the ice for an hour.\nRub the bit of butter, the salt, and sugar, into the flour, and stir in\nthe ice water and egg beaten together. Make into a dough and knead on\nthe moulding-board till glossy and firm\u2014at least ten minutes will be\nrequired. Roll out into a sheet ten or twelve inches square. Cut a cake\nof the ice-cold butter in thin slices, or flatten it very thin with the\nrolling-pin. Lay it on the paste, sprinkle with flour, and fold over the\nedges. Press it in somewhat with the rolling-pin and roll out again.\nAlways roll _from_ you. Do this again and again until the butter is all\nused, rolling up the paste after the last cake is in, and then putting\nit on the ice for an hour or more. Have filling all ready, and let the\npaste be as nearly ice-cold as possible when it goes into the oven. There\nare much more elaborate rules, but this insures handsome paste. Make a\nplainer one for the bottom crusts. Cover puff paste with a damp cloth and\nit may be kept on the ice a day or two before baking.\n\n_Apple Pie._\u2014Line a pie-plate with plain paste. Pare sour\napples\u2014greenings are best\u2014quarter and cut in thin slices. Allow one\ncup of sugar, and quarter of a grated nutmeg mixed with it. Fill the\npie-plate heaping full of the sliced apple, sprinkling the sugar between\nthe layers. It will require not less than six good-sized apples. Wet\nthe edges of the pie with cold water, lay on the cover and press down\nsecurely, that no juice may escape. Bake three-quarters of an hour, or a\nlittle less if the apples are very tender. No pie in which the apples are\nstewed beforehand can compare with this in flavor. If they are used stew\ntill tender and strain. Sweeten and flavor to taste. Fill the pies and\nbake half an hour.\n\n_Berry Pies._\u2014Have a very deep plate, and either no under crust, save a\nrim, or a very thin one. Allow a cup of sugar to a quart of fruit, but\nno spices. Prick the upper crust half a dozen times with a fork, to let\nout the steam.\u2014_Helen Campbell, in \u201cThe Easiest Way in Housekeeping and\nCooking.\u201d_\n\n_Apple M\u00e9ringue Pies._\u2014Stew and sweeten ripe, juicy apples, when you have\npared and sliced them. Mash smooth and season with nutmeg. If you like\nthe flavor, stew some lemon peel with the apple, and remove when cold.\nFill your crust and bake until just done. Spread over the apple a thick\nm\u00e9ringue,[1] made by whipping to a stiff froth the whites of three eggs\nfor each pie, sweetening with a tablespoonful of powdered sugar for each\negg. Flavor this with rose-water or vanilla; beat until it will stand\nalone, and cover the pie three-quarters of an inch thick. Set back in\nthe oven until the m\u00e9ringue is well \u201cset.\u201d Should it color too darkly,\nsift powdered sugar over it when cold. Eat cold. Peach pies are even more\ndelicious made in this manner.\n\n_Apple Snow_ requires six apples, whites of two eggs and three\ntablespoonfuls of powdered sugar. Peel and grate the apples into the\nwhites, which must have been whipped to a stiff froth. Beat in the sugar\nwith a few light sweeps of the egg; whip and set in a cold place until\nwanted. Eat with crackers or cake.\u2014_Marion Harland._\n\n_Apple Fritters._\u2014Pare some fine apples, and with an apple-corer cut out\nthe core from the center of each; now cut them across in slices, about\none-third of an inch thick, having the round opening in the center, dip\nthese in a fritter batter and fry in boiling lard; sprinkle over sugar.\nFresh or canned peaches may be used in the same way.\u2014_Mrs. Henderson, in\n\u201cPractical Cooking.\u201d_\n\nPUTTING UP FRUIT.\u2014One of the most satisfactory operations which is\ncarried on in the household is the annual putting up of fruit. To be\nsure, it has its disadvantages, like everything else. The fruit generally\ngets ripe a week or two earlier than you expect it will, and is brought\nto you on a day for which you have planned other work; but, after all,\nthere is to the well-regulated mind a rare pleasure in being confronted\nwith a basket of luscious fruit which may be preserved for enjoyment in\nthe winter; and I maintain that the pleasure we receive in midwinter\nfrom a dish of peaches, cherries, or plums on the table is not wholly\nof the senses, but the mind itself enjoys the contrasting picture which\ninevitably comes before it. Something of the brightness of the long\nsummer days in which it grew and ripened is felt again, and just as\nchopped pickle in June will suggest a November day when the tomatoes\nno longer ripen, the cucumbers have gone to seed, and the frost has\ncovered the tangled vines in the garden with a fairy-like network, so\nred raspberries and pears in December and March minister to other wants\nthan those of the palate. Half the trouble of putting up fruit\u2014the broken\ncans, the scalded fingers and stained dresses\u2014might be done away with if\na woman could enter upon the work in the right spirit. If, instead of\ncomplaining in May because the trees are full of blossoms, and exhausting\nourselves mentally by putting up the fruit and having it spoil long\nbefore it is ripe, we were to refrain from asking if we shall live to eat\nit or to see it eaten, we should accomplish something really great in\npreserving our peace of mind as well as our fruit. It is a simple matter\nalso, if entered into with calm cheerfulness, to look over and can the\nfruit. After the fruit has been carefully examined, set it in a cool\nroom or into the refrigerator, while you examine your cans. It is well\nto have some new rubber rings on hand, as you may need them; have also\na cup of flour paste ready; then if the zinc rings or covers are bent a\nlittle, you may still make them air-tight with the paste. If you are at\nall doubtful about the condition of your cans, use the paste. In a long\nexperience of putting up fruit I have never broken but one can, and that\nwas on account of carelessness in rinsing it in too hot water. I rinse\nthe can in warm water, then set it in a two-quart basin with a little\nwater in it, set it on the stove beside my porcelain kettle, fill the can\nwith boiling fruit, and seal up as quickly as may be. One thing which\nshould be carefully avoided is too much boiling of the fruit after the\nsugar is put with it. The injury which boiling does is not by any means\nwell understood by many good cooks. Last year I gave up all the care of\nputting up fruit and pickles to a competent and honest girl; but, by her\nnot knowing that sugar, when boiled, actually changes its nature, and\nloses much of its sweetness, she used more than twice the quantity which\nI have used this year, and then the fruit was not so sweet as it ought to\nbe. (When making syrup to eat on hot cakes bear this in mind: after the\nsugar is dissolved let it come to a boil, but do not boil it.)\n\nPEACHES.\u2014If possible, pare and cut up your peaches the afternoon before\nthey are to be canned, and scatter sugar over them. In the morning\nthere will be syrup enough to cook them in. Put this syrup into your\nporcelain kettle\u2014if you have one, if not, into a bright tin pan; cook a\nfew peaches at a time, try them with a broom-splint; just before they\nare done add the necessary quantity of sugar. Some housekeepers make a\npractice of putting one whole peach into a can, to give the almond flavor\nof the stone to the whole can. You can not, of course, guess at just the\nnumber of halves or quarters needed to fill the can; if you have too\nmany pieces, and are afraid of their cooking too much, take them out\ncarefully on a plate and, after cooking others for the next canful, add\nto them. By cooking a few at a time you can preserve the shape and have\nmuch finer results than if you cook a great many at a time.\n\nQUINCES AND SWEET APPLES.\u2014Prepare the quinces and apples as for canning.\nSteam them in the same way, having about one-third as many quinces as\napples. Make a very sweet syrup, as they will keep better with plenty of\nsugar. These may be canned or kept in a large stone jar.\u2014_Emma Whitcomb\nBabcock, in \u201cHousehold Hints.\u201d_\n\nPRESERVES.\u2014Preserves are scarcely needed if canning is nicely done. They\nrequire much more trouble, and are too rich for ordinary use, a pound of\nsugar to one of fruit being required. If made at all, the fruit must be\nvery fresh, and the syrup perfectly clear. For syrup allow one teacup\nof cold water to every pound of sugar, and, as it heats, add to every\nthree or four pounds the white of an egg. Skim very carefully, boiling\ntill no more rises, and it is ready for use. Peaches, pears, green gages,\ncherries, and crab-apples are all preserved alike. Peel, stone, and halve\npeaches, and boil only a few pieces at a time till clear. Peel, core, and\nhalve pears. Prick plums and gages several times. Core crab-apples, and\ncut half the stem from cherries. Cook till tender. Put up _when cold_ in\nsmall jars, and paste paper over them.\n\nJAMS.\u2014Make syrup as directed above. Use raspberries, strawberries, or any\nsmall fruit, and boil for half an hour. Put up in small jars or tumblers;\nlay papers dipped in brandy on the fruit, and paste on covers, or use\npatent jelly-glasses.\n\nMARMALADE.\u2014Quinces make the best; but crab-apples or any sour apple\nare also good. Poor quinces, unfit for other use, can be washed and\ncut in small pieces, coring, but not paring them. Allow three-quarters\nof a pound of sugar and a teacupful of water to a pound of fruit, and\nboil slowly two hours, stirring, and mashing it fine. Strain through a\ncolander, and put up in glasses or bowls. Peach marmalade is made in the\nsame way.\n\nFRUIT JELLIES.\u2014Crab-apple, quince, grape, etc., are all made in the same\nway. Allow a teacup of water to a pound of fruit; boil till very tender;\nthen strain through a cloth, and treat as currant jelly. Cherries will\nnot jelly without gelatine, and grapes are sometimes troublesome. Where\ngelatine is needed, allow a package to two quarts of juice.\n\nCANDIED FRUITS.\u2014Make a syrup as for preserves, and boil any fruit,\nprepared as directed, until tender. Let them stand two days in the syrup.\nTake out; drain carefully; lay them on plates; sift sugar over them, and\ndry either in the sun or in a moderately warm oven.\u2014_Helen Campbell, in\n\u201cThe Easiest Way in Housekeeping and Cooking.\u201d_\n\n\n\n\nHOME STUDIES IN CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS.\n\nBY PROF. J. T. EDWARDS, D.D.\n\nDirector of the Chautauqua School of Experimental Science.\n\n\nAIR.\u2014PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.\n\n    To make the _weight_ for the winds.\u2014Job xxviii:25.\n\nOne day an old Florentine pump-maker came to Galileo[1] to inquire why he\ncould not make a pump work effectively when it was more than thirty-four\nfeet long. The philosopher could not answer, nor did he solve the problem\nduring his lifetime, but bequeathed it to his pupil, Torricelli.[2] This\nfamous Italian succeeded in partially answering the question in 1643. He\nperformed the following experiment: Taking a glass tube thirty-six inches\nlong and one-fourth of an inch in diameter, closed at one end, he filled\nit with mercury, and holding his finger over the open end, inverted and\nplaced it in a cup of mercury, then removing his finger, discovered that\nthe quicksilver settled in the tube six inches, leaving a column of\nthe shining metal thirty inches high. He thus demonstrated that air has\nweight, equal to that of a column of mercury thirty inches in height.\n\nOn this supposition it was argued that if the whole height of the air\nshould be _lessened_ the column would fall. Such was the opinion of\nBlaise Pascal,[3] who in 1646 requested M. P\u00e9rier, his brother-in-law, to\nascend the Puy de Dome, a summit near Clermont, and repeat the experiment\nof Torricelli. To his delight, upon reaching the top of the mountain, the\ncolumn stood three inches lower. Pascal then used a tube fifty feet long,\nwhich he filled with water, and found that this liquid could be supported\nby the air to the height of thirty-four feet. Water is 13.6 lighter\nthan mercury, and it will be observed from the foregoing statement, that\nit was supported 13.6 higher than quicksilver. Here was a full answer\nto the pump-maker\u2019s query! A column of water, thirty-four feet long and\none square inch at the base, weighs fifteen pounds. A column of mercury,\nthirty inches long and one square inch at the base, weighs fifteen\npounds. A column of air the whole height of the atmosphere, one square\ninch at the base, weighs fifteen pounds.\n\nAny influence, therefore, which varies the weight of the air, will vary\nthe height of a column of quicksilver; and the reverse will of course be\ntrue, that any fluctuation in the column of mercury indicates a change\nin the condition of the atmosphere. Thus, a \u201cfalling barometer\u201d predicts\nfoul weather, for it shows that the air is becoming lighter, and will\ntherefore rise, while other air will rush in, with varying speed, to take\nits place, producing breezes, gales, and possibly tornadoes. The warm air\nrising may come in contact with a cold stratum above and its moisture be\ncondensed into rain or snow. We shall presently refer to this again.\n\n[Illustration: SHOWING DENSITY OF ATMOSPHERE AT DIFFERENT HEIGHTS.]\n\nA quart of air, at ordinary temperature, weighs about eight hundred times\nless than a quart of water, yet the aggregate pressure of the atmosphere\nis equal to fifteen pounds on every square inch. A person of average\nsize presents a surface of about two thousand square inches. This would\nreceive a pressure of fifteen tons, a weight more crushing than that of\nall the shields cast upon the traitorous Tarpeia[4] at the Roman gate.\n\nHerschel calculates that the total weight of the atmosphere is one\ntwelve-hundred-thousandth of that of the earth.\n\nWhy does not such enormous pressure destroy life? Because it is\ncounterbalanced by the pressure of air, gases and blood within the body.\nThat this is true may readily be seen in the process of dry-cupping.\nBare the arm, take a bit of writing paper an inch and a half long, dip\nit in alcohol, light, and instantly place in a small wine glass, and at\nonce apply the glass to the soft part of the arm. The flesh under the\nglass will rise like a pin-cushion, and become red from the pressure\nof the blood within. Persons going down in diving-bells suffer from\nthe condensation of the air in the bell, while on a high mountain they\nexperience a pressure in the opposite direction, on account of the\nrarefaction of the atmosphere, the blood often gushing from the nose and\nears.\n\nWe shall better understand the phenomena of the air by first considering\nsome of its distinctive properties.\n\n[Illustration: MAGDEBURG HEMISPHERES.]\n\n\nAIR PRESSES EQUALLY IN ALL DIRECTIONS.\n\nThis great principle, which applies to all gases as well as to fluids,\nhas many illustrations in nature. The haliotis[5] is held to the rock\nwith a tenacity which sometimes resists the strength of the collector,\nwho would add its iridescent beauty to his cabinet of shells.\n\nAlas for the fisherman\u2019s line whose bait has been swallowed by a\nskate![6] Quickly descending to the bottom, this broad, flat fish expels\nthe air from beneath it, and defies all effort at capture.\n\nThe most complete demonstration of this law is shown by the Magdeburg\nhemispheres,[7] invented by Otto von G\u00fcricke[8] and used by him before\nCharles V. and his brilliant court. They are still preserved in the\nancient city which gave them their name, are twenty-four inches in\ndiameter, and after the air in them had been removed, required twelve\nhorses to separate them.\n\nThe pressure of the air varies greatly at different altitudes. At the\nheight of three and one-half miles the column of mercury in a barometer\nfalls to fifteen inches, showing that below that elevation we have as\nmuch air as in all the space above.\n\n[Illustration: SHOWING TORRICELLI\u2019S HISTORICAL EXPERIMENT AND THE\nPRINCIPLE OF THE BAROMETER.]\n\nThe boiling point of liquids is materially influenced by the pressure\nof the atmosphere. On high mountains potatoes and even eggs can not be\ncooked by boiling, as the water will all evaporate before it is heated\nsufficiently to cook them.\n\nPartially fill a glass flask with water, heat it until steam begins to\nescape, then remove the lamp and insert a stopper, the boiling will\ncease. Now pour cold water upon the flask, and the water within begins\nagain to boil vigorously. The cold water condenses the steam, creating\na partial vacuum, thus relieving the heated water from pressure, and\nit boils at a lower temperature than 212\u00b0. This illustrates the famous\nculinary paradox that \u201ccold water will make hot water boil.\u201d\n\nThe buoyancy of substances in air depends upon the same principle that\ndetermines their buoyancy in liquids. It will be proportioned to the\namount of air which they displace.\n\nIt is correct to say that a balloon rises because the air is heavier, and\ntherefore pushes under the balloon and forces it up; or, that it rises\nbecause it displaces more than its own weight of air. Thistle-down may\nbe compressed so that it will fall like shot. The resistance offered by\nthe air to the fall of bodies led men long to hold to the fallacy that\nthe rapidity of the descent of falling bodies was proportioned to their\nweight. This error was at length exploded by Galileo in his interesting\nexperiment on the leaning tower of Pisa.[9] In a vacuum, a cannon ball\nand a feather fall in the same time.\n\n[Illustration: AIR PUMP.]\n\n\nCOMPRESSIBILITY.\n\nThe statement that air can be expanded involves the counter-truth that it\nmay be compressed.\n\nMariotte[10] announces the law as follows: Doubling the pressure upon\na given amount of gas will halve the space it occupies, and double its\nexpansive energy. The application of this principle in one form gives\nus the air-gun.[11] If the air in a gun-barrel forty inches long were\ncompressed into the space of half an inch it would press with eighty\ntimes its previous force, or with a power equal to twelve hundred pounds\nto the square inch. Compressed air is often used as a power in mines\nand excavations, and its advantages are many; it was so employed in\nthe Hoosac tunnel. Though the engine that compressed the air was three\nmiles away, the loss from friction was very slight, and the air, having\nperformed its work in driving the drill, was then liberated to purify\nthe atmosphere of the tunnel and expel noxious gases which accumulated\nfrom continuous blasting. The apparatus for compressing air is called\na condenser. It consists essentially of a cylinder and piston, with a\nvalve in the bottom of each, opening downward. A precisely opposite\narrangement of valves is found in the air-pump, a machine for exhausting\nair from a given space, usually a receiver. As the piston is raised in\nremoving the air, the valve closes, and the air is thus forced out of\nthe cylinder; the air in the receiver then expands, opens the valve at\nthe bottom of the cylinder, and rises into it; as the piston descends\nits valve is opened; rising, it again removes the cylinder full of air;\nthe air in the receiver again expands, opens the lower valve, and so\ncontinues, until the air in the vessel becomes too much rarefied to lift\nthe delicate valve and make its escape. The vacuum thus produced is by no\nmeans so perfect as the \u201cTorricellian vacuum,\u201d[12] the name given to the\nunoccupied space above the column of mercury in a barometer.\n\nVarious substances may be placed in a receiver to show the expansive\ntendency of air. A piece of wood immersed in a jar of water will throw\noff thousands of little bubbles. A shriveled apple will become round and\nplump. The air in an empty rubber bag will often expand so as to fill the\nreceiver. Air in a thin glass vessel, tightly corked, will expand so as\nto burst the vessel into fragments.\n\nThe following simple but useful piece of apparatus can easily be made:\nTake a pint bottle with a nicely fitted cork, through the cork insert\na small glass tube so as to be perfectly air-tight (melted sealing wax\nis convenient for making tubes or glass tight;) a perforated _rubber_\nstopper is better. Let the end of the tube inserted be drawn out in\nthe flame of an alcohol lamp (this is not essential, but will make the\nexperiments more interesting), suck the air from the bottle, close the\nend of the tube at once with the finger and place it in a glass of water,\nand a miniature fountain, in vacuo, will be revealed. After performing\nthis pretty experiment remove the tube and reinsert it with the larger\nend down, having filled the bottle two-thirds full of water. With the\nlips force a quantity of air into the bottle, upon removing the mouth\nthe water will rise in the tube and fall in a fine spray from the small\naperture at the top. This last experiment is particularly interesting, as\nit is a perfect illustration of a flowing oil well. Closely allied to the\nexpansibility of air is its\n\n\nELASTICITY,\n\nOr tendency to regain its former volume after being compressed. Many a\nschool-boy has observed this property, while manipulating his fascinating\npopgun. When he places his finger over the open end of the piece of\nelder, utilized as a gun, and suddenly pushes down the piston upon the\nwad, he notices that it quickly flies back. An inflated bladder thrown\nupon the floor bounds like a rubber ball; force pumps in our houses\nact upon this principle. The air in the chamber of the pump is first\ncompressed by the entrance of the water; it reacts like a spring, and\nforces the water through the pipes to the rooms above.\n\n[Illustration: EXPANDING RUBBER BAG IN AN EXHAUSTED RECEIVER.]\n\nThe hydraulic ram is another application of the same principle. Perhaps\nthe reader may know some place where this apparatus can be used. Let us\nbriefly describe the conditions of its operation. Near your house, at a\nlower elevation, may be a beautiful spring, so situated that, within the\ndistance of about seventy feet, a fall of from five to ten feet can be\nobtained. Now run a large pipe from the spring to the spot where the ram\nis to be placed, below the level of the spring. The ram is a pear-shaped,\ncast iron cylinder, open at the small end, at which point a valve is\nplaced, opening upward. The pipe coming from the spring is screwed into\nthe bottom of the ram below this valve, in such a manner as to conduct\nthe water past the valve, and out through an opening beyond. At this\npoint, however, is placed a metallic valve, against which, as the water\nescapes, it continues to crowd. Presently the rushing stream obtains\nsufficient momentum to close this valve, and thus prevent for a moment\nits further escape. The accumulated force of the water then raises the\nvalve in the bottom of the ram and it rises into the chamber, which is\npartially filled with air. This air is compressed, but on account of its\nelasticity at once reacts upon the water and forces it through another\npipe to the required height. Only about one-eighth of the water is sent\nthrough the last pipe, as seven-eighths of it is required to force the\nremainder to the desired elevation. I have a great respect for this\nuseful apparatus, the invention of the elder Montgolfier.[13] I know of\none hydraulic ram which for fifteen years has raised, through a pipe\ntwenty-two hundred feet long, to an elevation of seventy-five feet, an\naverage of twenty-four barrels of water daily. Its total cost for repairs\nhas not exceeded twenty-five dollars, and yet it has done every day the\nwork of four men. If men had been hired to do this labor at $1.50 per day\neach, their wages would have amounted to the snug sum of $32,850.\n\n[Illustration: A FOUNTAIN MADE BY COMPRESSING AIR IN A BOTTLE.]\n\nAtmospheric pressure is employed in many of our cities to convey packages\nfrom one part of a building to another, and to even greater distances.\nThis \u201cPneumatic Dispatch\u201d[14] system, as it is called, was first tried\nsuccessfully in Paris, in 1865. A company was then established, which\nnow claims to send eight hundred and thirty packages daily. In our own\ncountry this curious appliance may be seen in operation at the United\nStates Express office in New York City, in the mammoth establishment of\nMr. Wanamaker, in Philadelphia, and doubtless in many other places. For\nmany years attempts have been made to propel cars by compressed air, but\nas yet the expense of such a plan greatly exceeds that of steam.\n\n\nLIGHT.\n\nAmong the most gracious and beautiful offices performed by the atmosphere\nis the reflection and refraction of light. The blue dome of the sky, the\nmagnificent coloring of the clouds, and all the delicate and ever varying\ntints of the morning and evening twilight are due to its influence.\nWithout the air we should be in complete darkness until the sun rose,\na fiery ball, above the horizon. All day long the only light we should\nreceive would come directly from the sun, or be reflected from objects\non the earth. At sunset, darkness would instantly be spread over us like\na pall. No gentle gradations of light and deepening shade would usher in\nand close the day.\n\nAll must have observed during the past year the remarkable appearance\nof the western sky after the sun had set. Cities were more than once\nsupposed to be burning, reflecting their lurid blaze upon the clouds. The\ncause of this is still a matter of dispute, but is generally attributed\nto the presence of star dust, or some minute mineral matter suspended in\nthe higher atmosphere.\n\nIt will be remembered that color is not an inherent property of a\nsubstance, but depends upon what portion of the light rays it absorbs.\nSnow is white, as it absorbs none of the prismatic colors, but reflects\nthem all to the eye. Whatever, then, varies the absorbing or reflecting\npower of an object varies its tints. Thus, objects seen on the horizon\nare red, because the dense atmosphere has turned aside the violet,\nindigo, blue, green, yellow and orange, and only the red color reaches\nthe eye.\n\nObserve that the initial letter of the prismatic colors taken in their\norder make the word \u201cvibgyor.\u201d\n\nAgain, were there no atmosphere, there could be no\n\n\nCLOUDS NOR RAIN.\n\nThe moon is destitute of these, or at least that half of it which is\nalways turned toward us. The most powerful telescopes can detect there\nthe presence of neither atmosphere nor cloud.\n\nA most remarkable proof of divine wisdom can be seen in the nice\nadjustment by which the pressure of the air prevents undue evaporation\nfrom the lakes and seas, and at the same time furnishes the medium by\nwhich moisture is conveyed to the remotest parts of the earth. The fact\nthat water, in the form of mist or clouds, should float, and not fall in\na substance many times lighter than itself, is one of the most wonderful\nof nature\u2019s phenomena. When shot are dropped into water, we expect that\nthey will sink; yet lead is but eleven times heavier than water, while\nwater is eight hundred times heavier than air.\n\nThe following seems to be the most satisfactory explanation of the\nmatter: It is a well known fact that the air has the power to absorb and\nhold, in an invisible form, a certain amount of moisture. The quantity\nwhich it can contain depends upon its temperature. If the air is cooled,\nit parts with a portion; thus if the grass radiates its heat, dew is\ndeposited upon it; if it is very cold, the frost covers it with sparkling\ncrystals. It is thought that when cooling from any cause takes place in\nhigher altitudes, the atmospheric moisture changes from the invisible\nto the visible form, and assumes the physical condition of spheroids or\nvesicles, minute bubbles of water in point of fact, each bubble filled\nwith air. These bubbles, heated by the sun\u2019s rays, would become lighter\nthan the medium in which they float, for the same reason that soap\nbubbles float while they are warm. In this condition they are drifted\nalong by currents until they reach a colder stratum of air, when they are\ncondensed and fall as rain. If cooled sufficiently, snow would be formed.\n\nCloud forms are four in number, cirrus, cumulus, nimbus, and stratus, all\nof which may sometimes be seen at once, in the sky of a summer\u2019s day. At\ntimes they float above the loftiest mountains. Gay-Lussac,[15] rising in\nhis balloon to an elevation of 21,600 feet, perceived clouds drifting far\nabove him.\n\n[Illustration: AIR CURRENTS\u2014SHOWING THE PRINCIPLE ON WHICH MINES ARE\nOFTEN VENTILATED.]\n\nThe work performed by the atmosphere in supplying water to the soil is\nworthy of profound attention. Close observation shows that it varies in\namount, year by year, much less than one would suppose. For example,\nthe average yearly rain-fall in western New York, for the last thirteen\nyears, has been thirty-six inches. Contrary to the general impression,\nthe record shows a slight yearly increase in the amount. While this is\ntrue, the quantity of water carried down by our rivers is constantly\ndiminishing. All must have observed the lessening size of our streams.\nMany a mill has ceased to run from lack of its former supply of water.\nThis has resulted from the destruction of forests, and clearing of land,\nwhich have greatly increased evaporation of moisture from the soil. So\ngrave a matter has this become, that it is attracting the attention of\ngovernments, because of its relation to agriculture and the navigation of\nrivers.\n\nOne can have but little idea, unless he carefully calculates it, of the\ninestimable blessings conferred by the atmosphere upon man, in furnishing\nto the soil its supply of water.\n\n\nMR. THOUGHTFUL THANKFUL,\n\nBeing disposed properly to acknowledge the care of a kind Providence,\nin carrying on the work of his farm, one day sat down to figure out the\nvalue of a recent shower, which had refreshed his crops. The leaves of\nhis corn had begun to curl, the oats and wheat were growing prematurely\nyellow, a few more days of the scorching heat and drouth would have\nmade his harvests a failure, but to his great relief a plenteous shower\nfell. The rain gauge showed half an inch of water. Mr. Thankful took\nout his pencil and, after careful mathematical calculations, arrived\nat this astounding conclusion: An unseen hand had conveyed from a\nremote distance, and deposited upon every acre of his little farm,\nmore than fifty-six tons of water. He owns a hundred acres. There must\ntherefore have been scattered upon the entire farm over 5,600 tons of\nrain, an amount so large that if he had been compelled to pay for its\ntransportation it would have required more than all the income of his\nfarm.\n\n[Illustration: MAKING WATER BOIL BY APPLYING COLD WATER.]\n\n\nSOUND.\n\nOur atmosphere is the medium of sound. Upon lofty mountains its\nvibrations become faint, while in a vacuum all sound ceases. The world of\nmusic, with which we are surrounded, were the air removed, would become\nforever silent. No song of birds, no murmur of the brook, no sighing of\nthe trees, no thunder of the cataract, no grand diapason of the sea, no\nsweet voice of friendship, no thrilling words of love could ever again\nfall upon human ear. Gather together in one heap of useless rubbish (for\nthey will never more be needed), harp, lyre, flute, flageolet, violin and\nguitar, piano and organ. Even that harp of three thousand strings, which\nthe divine hand has placed in the human ear, shall not again vibrate to\nthe delicate touch of nature\u2019s hand.\n\n\nELECTRICITY AND METEORS.\n\nWe will close our present article by mentioning two other interesting\natmospheric phenomena.\n\nDr. Franklin proved that lightning and electricity are identical. This\nwonderful agent manifests itself in a variety of ways. The zigzag track\nof light across the darkened sky, with its accompanying crash, is one of\nnature\u2019s exhibitions of tremendous power. The irregularity of its path is\ndue to the resistance of the air, compressed by the electric motion. The\nbeautiful illumination called heat or sheet lightning, is caused by the\nreflection of the electric flash, at a great distance from the observer.\n\nA very curious form of electricity is that known as St. Elmo\u2019s fire,\nwhich appears as a glowing ball, often poising itself on the spars of\nships, to the great consternation of superstitious sailors.\n\nJudge Dana, in his admirable book, \u201cTwo Years Before the Mast,\u201d more than\nonce alludes to the sensation caused by these weird visitors, as they\nrounded stormy Cape Horn.\n\nThe northern lights, or aurora borealis, with their throbbing, shifting,\ncrimson and purple tints, sometimes called \u201cthe merry dancers,\u201d are\nsupposed to be produced by the discharge of electricity in high altitudes\nand in rarefied air. All around us there is slumbering this power, which\nscience may some day awaken to do the common work of the world.\n\nMeteors, or \u201cshooting stars,\u201d as they are often incorrectly called, are\nsmall bodies, often not larger than grains of sand, which rush into our\natmosphere at a speed equal to the earth\u2019s motion, eleven hundred miles\na minute, and by friction are set on fire, and blaze for a moment in\nthe sky. Lockyer[16] says that seven millions of these, visible to the\nnaked eye, traverse our atmosphere in a single day, and that a powerful\ntelescope would reveal in the same time not less than four hundred\nmillions.\n\nOnce in thirty-three years an astonishing display of these celestial\nfireworks takes place. The last was in 1866. At that time these bodies\nchanced to cross the track of the earth\u2019s orbit, and were thus brought\ninto collision with it. The largest of them, called meteorites, sometimes\npass through the atmosphere unconsumed and reach the earth. They have\nbeen known to kill both men and cattle.\n\nIn 1866 one thousand of these stones, the largest weighing six hundred\npounds, fell in Hungary.\n\nIt is very incorrect to call these flashing bodies in the air shooting\nstars, for they are extremely minute in size, while stars are vast suns;\nagain, in point of distance, they are different, being near at hand,\nwhile the latter are millions of miles away. It would be difficult to\nfind an instance in which language can convey a greater error than this\nphrase, which constantly implies that vast worlds, by thousands, are\nflying hither and thither, like sky-rockets. Often a single glance at the\nsky on a clear night, would show how unsafe this world would be as the\nobject of such tremendous cannonading.\n\n    _End of Required Reading for January._\n\n\n\n\nTHE HOMELIKE HOUSE.\n\nBY SUSAN HAYES WARD.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\u2014THE HALL.\n\nIn studying how to make home beautiful, we must not forget that, first\nof all, there must be a home; and that in a true home, the household,\nand not the house, is of primary importance. We have all seen careful\nhousekeepers whose first and last thought was to keep their domains with\nabsolute neatness, and whose domestic law was of Median and Persian\ninflexibility. Overshoes must be left here; slippers must be put on\nthere; the front stair-carpet must only be trodden by the visitor\u2019s\nfoot; the front door-latch must never be lifted by the children\u2019s hand;\ncurtains must be drawn close lest carpets fade; and autumn fires remain\nunlighted lest ashes fly. These were housekeepers, not home makers. The\nvirtue of carefulness is a housewife\u2019s glory; but when carried to an\nexcess, it becomes a woman\u2019s shame, leading her to imagine that meat is\nmore than life, raiment than body, and house than man. Of the virtuous\nwoman we read first: \u201cShe openeth her mouth with wisdom, and in her\ntongue is the law of kindness;\u201d then that \u201cshe looketh well to the ways\nof her household, and eateth not the bread of idleness;\u201d after which it\nfollows naturally that \u201cher children rise up and call her blessed, her\nhusband also, and he praiseth her;\u201d but when the devil of neatness enters\ninto a woman he defies family comfort, and banishes the angel of peace\nfrom the home. And yet comfort, important though its place may be in the\nhome economy, is not to be the first aim. A wise critic says: \u201cEvery\nhouse should have in it that which tells of strength, and seems to favor\nself-sacrifice, simplicity, self-control. Nothing is finer in a house\nthan a kind of subtle ubiquitous spirit, which asserts the superiority\nof the household, and tells you that they fear neither hunger nor cold,\nneither toil nor danger, and do not bow down, night and morning to the\nvulgar divinity, Comfort.\u201d Not the house we live in, but the life we live\nin it is that on which the real beauty of home depends. In the House\nBeautiful, not Mr. Cook\u2019s, nor Mrs. Allen\u2019s, but in that incomparable\nHouse Beautiful which Bunyan has described for us, even there the\nboy Matthew fell sick from tampering with the fruit of Beelzebub\u2019s\ngarden. Compared with this soundness of inner life in the house, these\nquestions of outer adornment, of taste, or expediency, or expense, are\nbut unimportant matters, since no home can be truly beautiful that is\ntarnished by an unworthy life within its walls.\n\nSo much of preliminary statement must be pardoned me, because in the\nrefined paganism of these days there seems to be a mania for magnifying\nthe house we live in, and the highest religion of many a family is\nsimply to make their home beautiful and attractive. It is better than no\nreligion at all\u2014but a higher religion teaches us to make the homes of the\npoor comfortable before\u2014we make our own beautiful, shall I say? Not at\nall; but before we spend freely to gain this end. For the external beauty\nof home does not depend on the amount of money spent in its adornment.\nMoney buys a great deal of clutter that had far better be left in the\nshops; money buys a vast amount of superfluous stuck-on ornaments, that\nwere better left off, but money does not and can not buy good taste\u2014an\neye for color, thoughtful care for the general comfort, a quick wit, and\ncommon sense. Yet these are the safest and surest helps to the woman who\naims to make her home attractive to the eye and restful to the body.\n\nLet us enter the door of this woman\u2019s house and see what she allows and\nwhat she disallows.\n\nFirst, we notice that her entry and stairways are planned upon as\nliberal a scale as possible. That is but common sense, for furniture\nand trunks must go in and out, up and down, to say nothing of household\nand visitors, and the broader the entry way, the more hospitable and\ninviting it can be made with chairs, table and sofa. Modern builders\nhave at last learned this, and they are giving us the old-fashioned hall\nagain, with a corner or side fireplace, and, if possible, an outlook on\nthe back garden. This hall is not kept too dark in winter, nor too light\nin summer. In cold weather we need cheerfulness, warmth, and light on\nentering the house. In summer we should step from the glare of a vertical\nsun and heat of the nineties, into a cool, refreshing shade, kept, of a\npurpose, darker than sitting-room, dining-room and kitchen, to prevent\nflies from swarming into the hall and up the stairway and becoming the\npest of the morning sleeper. The back stairs also are closed, either\nabove or below, so that premonitory hints of meals to come may not ascend\nto the bedrooms and go down the front stairs to guests in the parlor,\nthus proclaiming on the housetop what you whisper to your cook in the\nkitchen.\n\n\u201cAim at a gold gown and you\u2019ll get a sleeve,\u201d says our grandmother\u2019s\nproverb; so our wise woman knows what is best and aims for it, but\ncontents herself with what she can get. For an American house, the best\nflooring, generally speaking, would be\u2014for a vestibule\u2014tiles of small\npattern and modest color, such as yellow and brown, which would take no\ninjury from muddy overshoes or dripping umbrellas; for the rest of the\nhouse hard wood floors (Southern pine is admirable), plain or very simply\ninlaid. Elaborate patterns in inlaid woods should be avoided, except in\nlarge rooms, and contrasts of colors, such as stripes of black walnut and\nhard pine, which make a narrow hallway look yet narrower; but a modest\nborder might be inlaid around any room, hall, parlor, or bedroom with\ngood effect, if desired, with a substantial oriental rug in the midst of\nit all. There can be nothing better than this.\n\nBut a cheap pine floor, if properly laid, can be stained and made to\ndo good service, instead of hard wood, and a strip of cocoanut matting\nrunning the length of the hall is not to be despised; or, if cracks yawn\ntoo perceptibly to have the floor bare, it can be covered with a plain,\nself-colored drugget or carpet filling, or \u201ctwo ply,\u201d while a strip of\nbright carpet passes from the doorway up the stairs, and enlivens the\nhall. Or, simpler yet, the floor can be painted a serviceable yellow\nor gray, and a width of rag carpet can add warmth and color. There are\npretty straw mattings in greens and reds and cream colors which, with\nthe aid of rugs, serve admirably for floor coverings, but they are\nhardly durable enough for entry ways. Our wise woman bears in mind that\na well-laid, hard wood floor will outlast many a drugget, or carpet, or\ncoat of paint, or oil cloth, and she does up her hall floor, at first, in\nas durable a fashion as her purse will allow.\n\nThere is a certain fitness of things also to be observed. Good taste\nforbids her to step from an entry with stained or painted pine floor\nand rag carpet to a parlor with inlaid floors and Persian rugs. The\nrag carpet of the hall demands something correspondingly simple in the\nreception room; a floor stained or painted in the same fashion, or a\nstraw matting, with perhaps a few breadths of \u201cMorris\u201d carpet, of warm\ncolor and quiet figure, sewed together to make a rug, and raveled at the\nends for fringe.\n\nAs for walls, it is convenient to divide them with a chair rail or\nmoulding of the same stuff as that used for mop-boards and door casings,\nfastened about four feet from the floor and running around the entry and\nup the side wall of the stairway. The wall below this moulding can be\npainted in oil a warm olive-brown or green, or a dull red, and, when so\npainted, can be washed like the woodwork.\n\nA more expensive way would be to panel off this space with big cedar\nshingles of the sort that cost about $25 a thousand, provided the rest\nof the woodwork is repainted, or with wood corresponding with the finish\nof the room. Unpainted woodwork, even though made of soft pine, is far\nbetter from the housekeeper\u2019s standpoint than that which is coated\nwith paint. Pine, when oiled and varnished\u2014not too heavily\u2014assumes a\nrarely beautiful hue and shows the variety of its markings to very good\neffect. The wall space above could be papered with some figured pattern\ncorresponding in color with that below the chair-rail, or dado, as it\nis called (if that is painted rather than paneled), but the wall-space\nshould be of lighter tint than the dado, or it could be calcimined, or\n_kalsomined_, as they spell and pronounce it in New Jersey.\n\nWhen paper is used, the pattern should not be so large as to make the\nroom look small, nor so pronounced as to prevent the walls from serving\nas a fair back-ground for pictures and plants.\n\nBut suppose our prudent woman can afford neither chair-rail nor\noil-painted dado, and yet would like to divide the wall space. Then let\nMr. Kalsominer paint a dado of olive-brown or green, a wall space of much\nlighter shade, and a ceiling of cream color. He can also paint a band\nof dull red where the chair-rail should be, and then our wise woman,\nif she be also a woman of faculty, will take the little red paint pot\ninto her own hand and will cut out of varnished paper some conventional\nleaf or flower, and using this as a stencil, with a stiff brush she will\npowder[A] this leaf or flower at regular intervals of about a foot all\nover the dado. Or, discarding the stencil, some simple arrangement of\ntriple dots might be used that need only be indicated with a pencil point\nand then painted on, with a small brush, free hand. The kalsominer would\ndouble his prices if he did it, but the room will be twice as pretty\nif she does it herself. Or she may powder her lighter wall space with\nfigures of the same dark shade as the dado, so harmonizing the upper\nand lower portions, while a yet darker brown line divides them. But the\nstenciling of a wall space requires too much step-ladder work for the\nordinary woman. Last, and probably cheapest of all, she may use wall\npaper\u2014the darkest shade below\u2014of some stiff diaper or tile pattern, the\nlighter above, with border between; the ceiling being washed a lighter\nharmonizing color.\n\nAs to the furniture of the hall, it ought to begin outside the door, with\na bench, or settle, or chair, at least, upon the piazza, or \u201cstoop,\u201d for\nany weary body to drop down upon while the door is undoing. A wide piazza\ngives room not only for a few chairs, and the picturesque and comfortable\nhammock, but for a table, as well, where the afternoon cup of tea can\nrest, or the work-basket with the weekly mending. A broad platform with\nawnings is a comfortable and picturesque addition to a house of plain and\nunattractive exterior. Happy and healthy are the households whose piazzas\nare their summer sitting-rooms.\n\nThe vestibule should have closets or some very plain and simple\nreceptacle for umbrellas and India rubber shoes. In the hall proper comes\nup the vexed question of the hat tree. It is an ungainly, aggressive\npiece of furniture, and very cumbersome. If possible, let it be done\naway with. If there is a closet under the stairs for the family hats and\ncoats, then the chance visitor can throw off his coat on the hall sofa\nor table. Hall chairs are useful, with a box seat holding whisk broom,\nhat brush, driving gloves, and things of that sort, and so is the table\ndrawer; any of these contrivances are better than the hat tree, and so is\na simple rail hidden away in some dark corner under the stairs, if there\nbe no closet, with pegs attached for hats and coats. \u201cThere can be no\nreasonable law against making a hall chair both comfortable and suitable\nto its situation. The common Windsor high-backed arm-chair, made in the\nsame wood as the table, and with a cushion covered with some bright\ncolored material is well suited for this purpose; or a chair \u2026 with a\nhigh back and broad, low seat looks both severe enough to discourage\nunbecoming lounging, and yet sufficiently comfortable to secure a proper\ndegree of rest for the weary.\u201d\n\nAnd where in the hall can hangings and stuffs be used to best advantage?\nEnter any house and look about for yourself. If the ground glass of the\nvestibule door be exposed and staring, the hall floor bare and cold, the\nhall chair hard and stiff, the doors to the reception or sitting-room all\nclosed, rising black and grim before you, and the hall itself so dark\nthat you can not see even where to lay down your companionable umbrella,\ndoes there not come over you a chill, as if you were being repelled by\nthe spirit of inhospitality? The entrance hall gives you no hearty cheer\nof welcome. But warm up the floor with a rug, lay a restful and inviting\ncushion on the chair; open the door that leads to the room where the\nhousehold gathers, or where your hostess is to receive you, or take it\noff the hinges bodily and lay it away, and hang instead a curtain that\nshall give a glimpse of the warmth and light within, while still shutting\nout the draught. Let soft silk or Madras muslin hang in full folds over\nthe window in the door, and the stranger who enters no longer feels like\na prisoner in Doubting Castle, whom Giant Despair has cast into a dungeon\nfor trespassing on his grounds, but rather shall I not say, as if he had\nfallen upon the House Beautiful, built on purpose for the entertainment\nof pilgrims, where only the fair virgins Prudence, Piety and Charity\nwould be his companions?\n\nJust so inviting was the entrance to my wise woman\u2019s house when I last\nvisited her. It was a house with a door in the middle, the hall running\nthrough the entire depth. Midway, an arch curtained with Mexican blankets\nhalf screened the back hall, which served for the family music room.\nFacing the piano was a long, old-fashioned sofa, where the weary head of\nthe house could lie and be rested by music from his daughter\u2019s fingers\nor the voices of his children. This happy man, who had his quiver full\nof them, had one of those charming houses that grows with the household.\nNear the side entrance, what used to be a dining-room is now known as\n_the coat room_. I saw one side of the room literally lined with coats\nand wraps, hats and bonnets, depending from some hat rack arrangement\nof domestic manufacture. Boots, shoes, and galoches of all shapes and\nsizes stood in a suitable rack beneath. Guns and hunting gear, fishing\nrods and tackles, bows and arrows, grace hoops, battle-doors and\nshuttle-cocks, tennis rackets and croquet mallets and balls all found\ntheir appointed places here. Water and towels awaited the convenience of\nthose who must make a partial toilet in haste. Even the shoe-blacking\nhad its own corner. A book case on the wall held well thumbed grammars\nand geographies side by side with dictionaries, college text-books and\na cook book or two; while before the fireplace that \u201cfilled the room on\none side,\u201d you might see a young Nimrod greasing his boots or polishing\nhis gun; and later, the little folks popping corn, making caramels, or\nboiling taffy. When the wise woman, after looking well to the ways of\nher household, devises such liberal things as these in their behalf, no\nwonder her children rise up and call her blessed.\n\nThe room on which the average American housekeeper expends the most\nthought and pains is the parlor, as she calls it. The word parlor means,\nprimarily, a room for conversation. Properly speaking, the room where\nmembers of the family gather that they may talk together, is the parlor\n(from the French _parler_), but somehow the word has been applied to\n\u201cthe best room of a house, kept for receiving company, as distinguished\nfrom the sitting room of the family.\u201d We have an English word for\nthat\u2014drawing room\u2014contracted from withdrawing room\u2014a room appropriated\nfor the reception of guests \u201cto which a company withdraws from the dining\nroom.\u201d Since the household is more important than the house, the best of\nthe house should be at the service of the household; hence whatever is\nmost comfortable and cheerful should be in the parlor where the family\ncongregate. If aside from the dining room and kitchen there is but one\nother room on the first floor, let that be the parlor for family use, the\n\u201cliving room,\u201d unless there be a family sitting room on the second floor.\n\nFor people who entertain many guests the reception or withdrawing room\nis a necessity, and it is often convenient in city houses to have, in\naddition, a smaller room near the door, where the lady of the house can\nreceive visitors without disturbing the family party or the friends whom\nshe may be entertaining in the drawing room.\n\nThere is never need of saying to an American housewife, let the room\nwhere you receive your friends be as handsome as may be. I would rather\nsay let it be as comfortable as you know how to make it. Do not keep it\ndark and unwholesome, stuffy and shut up. If your economical soul refuses\nto expose its treasures always to the light of day, at least do your\nbest to make the room look habitable, and as if it were put into daily\nuse. What can be more embarrassing to a guest than to be ushered into a\ndark room, cold and repellent in winter, close and stifling in summer,\nthere to wait drearily till the mistress of the house has donned her good\nclothes and is ready to push back the shutter or raise the curtain that\nshe may have light enough to recognize her guest?\n\nOur English sisters set us a good example in this respect. Their drawing\nrooms are made comfortable, with easy chairs strong enough to hold a\nman\u2019s weight, with tables conveniently placed, with books here and an\nembroidery frame there, and a lady\u2019s work basket near at hand, not at\nall too fine for daily use. I have seen an American lady hustle her work\nbasket out of the room when the door-bell rang, hide her thimble in her\npocket, and assume an air of elegant idleness and leisure, as if she were\nashamed to be caught needle in hand. Her English sister, better bred,\nwould lay down her work to welcome her guest, and resume it again, as a\nmatter of course, to set her visitor at ease.\n\nA marble-topped center table is not essential to a drawing room; nor\nare a photograph album and illustrated books essential ornaments of the\ncenter table. The morning papers, the last number of _The Century_, and a\nreadable book are more attractive ornaments than the most costly album,\nthough filled with pictures of all the celebrities you have ever seen.\nI would have a book case, at least a book-shelf, in every room in the\nhouse\u2014I have three in my hall, even\u2014and the reception room surely is no\nexception to the rule. Let there be books at hand for the entertainment\nof guests, and let there be every facility possible for rendering the\nroom light enough to read or to sew. In a large room there should be\nmore than one table, and student lamps in abundance where there is no\ngas. Where gas is burned there should still be lamps or drop-lights on\nthe tables. Parsimony in lamp-light is as bad as parsimony in fuel or\nin bedding, and results in serious injury to the eyes. As to the matter\nof heating our houses, there have been so many funny things done in the\nattempt to affect a compromise between the fire place and the furnace\nthat almost every house has in it something incongruous in this line. The\nold-fashioned fireplace for burning wood was healthful and artistic, but\nit often smoked, and in the depth of winter seldom gave out sufficient\nheat. The grate in which anthracite coal is burned, or soft coal, was\ngood, but the care of the coal fire, though not so continuous as of\nthe wood, was still a heavy burden. There is a price to pay for every\ncomfort, and we can not rightly enjoy the comfort without paying its\nfull price. But that seemed a hard doctrine, and so the inventors went\nto work. They gave up that abomination, the air-tight stove, which rose\nin grim blackness an offense to the eye, and parched all the air for us\nbefore we had breathed it in. Then the furnace came in and there was\nan era of real rejoicing. Fireplaces were walled up and holes cut in\nall the floors, but with hot air furnaces there were new complications.\nWater pans which should be replenished daily were as often as not left\nempty, and the air was no better to breathe than that baked dry by an\nair-tight stove, and the fire, as a rule, required a man\u2019s hand. Beside,\nholes in the floor were not inviting to have around. But the furnace,\nwhether hot air or steam, did warm the house. Thermometers stood at\nfrom seventy to eighty instead of being kept where they belonged, down\nin the sixties, and throat and lung diseases multiplied. Then some one\nwho had not forgotten the cheer of the fireplace introduced the hot air\nfrom a chimney register, giving out heat, with no sign of fire, from the\nold spot, and then came the make-believe iron logs with an internal gas\narrangement which was lighted when guests came, and burned in a pathetic,\nappealing way, provoking the beholder now to laughter and now to tears.\n\nIt was left to the \u00e6sthetic craze to bring in the last and worst affront\nof all to comfort and common sense, a fireplace with highly glazed\ntiles and elaborate wrought iron back, with choice and costly fenders,\ntongs, and andirons of brass and steel, with all the appointments of the\nfireplace of the most luxurious stamp, but all too fine for possible use,\nwith absolutely nothing intended for use. The poor, foolish, iron logs\nnever deceived any one, but they burned; nevertheless, these beautifully\ntiled fireplaces, with their spick and span hearths are mere husks, and\nare as loathsome and cluttersome as are the \u201cair castles\u201d and wax fruit,\nwhich these \u00e6sthetics would banish in contempt from their homes. The\nheight of luxury is to have the sharpness of winter\u2019s cold subdued by a\ngood furnace in the cellar, which modifies the air all over the house,\nand then to have open fires here and there to give cheer as well as\nadditional warmth and good ventilation, and a fireplace finished with\nplain brick, without a tile, the brick work, freshened up occasionally by\npainting it with Indian red mixed with milk, after the fashion of fifty\nyears ago, or a plain iron grate for coal, used as occasion calls, is in\nbetter taste for a drawing room than the most elaborate combination of\ntiles, brass and steel kept for mere show. When any object, not alone a\nfireplace, but any object designed primarily for use is so excessively\nornamented as to fail of its mission of utility, this very excess of\ndecoration becomes an offense and renders the object neither useful nor\nbeautiful.\n\nWm. Morris\u2019s stringent rule, \u201cHave nothing in your homes that you do not\nknow to be useful or believe to be beautiful,\u201d applies with full force to\nthe drawing room; and when the housekeeper has striven first of all to\nsupply her drawing room with comfortable, useful pieces of furniture, she\nmay look around her with surprise to find that almost without her thought\nthe place has grown beautiful as well.\n\n[A] POWDER\u2014a technical term used in heraldry\u2014a figure is powdered on a\ncoat of arms, when it is repeated at uniform intervals over its surface.\n\n\n\n\nA PRAYER BY THE SEA.\n\nBY SARAH DOUDNEY.\n\n\n    I saw the ships on a windy sea\n      In the light of the morning\u2019s gold;\n    And the shout of the sailors came to me\n      Like songs from the days of old.\n\n    Wild waves leaped up on the crags and beat\n      On the edge of the rock-bound shore;\n    And the thought of a coming time was sweet,\n      When the sea should be no more.\n\n    No more, no more shall mothers and wives\n      Dream of loves that the blue wastes hide,\n    No more shall the vigorous hearts and lives\n      Be flung to the wind and tide!\n\n    Oh, Father, follow the gallant ships\n      Through the light of the morning pale!\n    Thou hearest the prayer of the loving lips,\n      Thy mercy never can fail.\n\n    And guide us all to some haven blest\n      Where never a tempest is known;\n    For life is sad, and the secret of rest\n      Is hidden with Thee alone.\n\n\n\n\nGEOGRAPHY OF THE HEAVENS FOR JANUARY.\n\nBY PROF. M. B. GOFF,\n\nWestern University of Pennsylvania.\n\n\nTHE SUN.\n\nDuring this month the sun makes rapid strides northward, moving from\ndeclination 22\u00b0 57\u2032 south on the 1st to declination 17\u00b0 11\u2032 south on the\n31st. This occasions also quite an increase in the length of the day,\nfrom sunrise to sunset on the 1st being 9h. 23m. 36s., and on the 30th,\n10h. 4m. 56s. On the 1st, 16th and 30th, 7:22, 7:21 and 7:11 a. m. are\nthe respective hours of rising, and 4:46, 4:59 and 5:16 p. m. the hours\nof setting. On the 16th, day breaks at 5:40 a. m., and twilight ends\nat 6:40 p. m., giving just thirteen hours between \u201cearly dawn and dewy\neve.\u201d The sun is slower than the clock, on the 1st, being on the meridian\nat three minutes and thirty-eight seconds past twelve, and on the 31st\nreaching the meridian thirteen minutes and forty-seven seconds after the\nclock indicates noon.\n\n\nTHE MOON\n\nWill present its ordinary four changes at the following times: last\nquarter on the 7th, at 10:28 p. m.; new moon, 16th, 3:28 a. m.; first\nquarter, 23d, 8:18 p. m.; full, 30th, 11:11 a. m. It will be in apogee,\nor farthest from the earth, on the 13th, at 3:42 a. m., and in perigee,\nor nearest to the earth, on the 28th, at 8:42 p. m. It will reach its\ngreatest elevation, amounting to 66\u00b0 55\u2032, on the 28th, and the least\nelevation, 30\u00b0, on the 14th.\n\n\nMERCURY,\n\nWell named from its mercurial habits, having the smallest orbit, and\nbeing the most rapid traveler, presents in a given time more phases than\nany other of the planets. Thus we find that on the 3d, at 5:00 p. m.,\nit is in inferior conjunction with the sun, that is, between the earth\nand the sun; on the 14th, at 8:42 a. m., 2\u00b0 1\u2032 south of the moon; on the\n14th, at 3:00 p. m., stationary, that is, it is moving in a direct line\n(or nearly so) away from the earth, and thus _seems_ to stand still;\non the 24th, at 5:00 a. m., is 1\u00b0 6\u2032 north of Venus, on which occasion\nthe latter will serve as a good \u201cpointer,\u201d enabling one readily to find\nthis peculiar planet. On the 26th, it is at its greatest distance (24\u00b0\n53\u2032) west of the sun. Its motion for the first fourteen days is 12\u00b0 45\u2032\nretrograde; and for the remainder of the month, 29\u00b0 51\u2032 40\u2033 direct. On\nthe 1st it rises at 7:39 a. m., and sets 5:11 p. m.; and on the 16th,\nrises at 5:52 a. m., sets at 3:22 p. m.; and on the 30th rises at 5:52 a.\nm., and sets at 3:10 p. m.; changing from evening star during the first,\nto morning star in the latter part of the month.\n\n\nVENUS\n\nContinues morning star, and will remain so till the 4th of May. On the\n1st, rises at 5:11 a. m., sets 2:39 p. m.; on the 16th, rises at 5:40 a.\nm., sets 2:52 p. m.; on the 30th, rises at 5:59 a. m., sets 3:17 p. m.\nMotion 41\u00b0 32\u2032 59\u2033 direct. Diameter diminishes from 12.4\u2033 to 11.2\u2033. On\nthe 13th, at 3:34 p. m., 4\u00b0 8\u2032 south of the moon. On the 24th, at 5:00 a.\nm., 1\u00b0 6\u2032 south of Mercury.\n\n\nMARS.\n\nThis planet presents nothing peculiar this month. It will be an evening\nstar, though appearing but a short time after sunset each day. On the\n1st it rises at 8:10 a. m., and sets at 5:20 p. m.; on the 16th rises at\n7:51 a. m., sets at 5:21 p. m.; on the 30th rises at 7:29 a. m., sets at\n5:21 p. m. It has a direct motion of 25\u00b0 16\u2032 2\u2033, and its diameter remains\nabout the same during the month, namely: 4.2\u2033. On the 16th, at 6:48 p.\nm., is 5\u00b0 42\u2032 south of the moon.\n\n\nJUPITER\n\nMakes a retrograde motion of 2\u00b0 24\u2032 47\u2033, and is classed as a morning\nstar, though he shines nearly the entire night, rising on the 1st at\n9:02 p. m., and setting next morning at 10:14 a. m.; rising on the\n16th at 7:59 p. m., setting on the 17th at 9:13 a. m.; and on the 30th\nrising at 6:56 p. m. and setting at 8:14 on the morning of the 31st.\nAn indication that he is approaching the earth is that his diameter\nincreased from 39.6\u2033 on the 1st to 42.2\u2033 on the 30th. On the 4th, at 7:24\np. m., he is 4\u00b0 2\u2032 north of the moon.\n\n\nSATURN\n\nHas a retrograde motion of 1\u00b0 31\u2032 53\u2033, and his diameter decreases during\nthe month six-tenths of a second of arc; but this diminution affects\nbut very slightly his brightness. As he is an evening star, the most\nconvenient opportunities are afforded for obtaining a fine view. He rises\non the 1st at 3:07 p. m., and sets on the 2nd at 5:43 a. m.; on the 15th\nrises at 2:04 p. m., and sets the following morning at 4:40; on the 30th,\nrises at 1:07 p. m., and sets on the 31st at 3:43 a. m. On the 26th, at\n9:02 p. m., is 3\u00b0 27\u2032 north of the moon.\n\nThe use of the telescope in developing the rings of Saturn is one of the\ninteresting items in astronomical history. To one looking at this planet\nwith the naked eye, he appears simply as a bright star; but to a person\nusing a telescope of moderate power, he now presents some such appearance\nas was hinted at in the December number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and resembles\na globe with an appendage on either side similar to a new moon (the\nconcave part turned toward the globe). To the early astronomers, whose\ntelescopes were so much inferior to ours, his appearance was a great\npuzzle and produced a great variety of opinions. To Galileo the planet\nappeared like three globes, a large one with a smaller detached one on\neach of two sides. To Scheiner, in 1614, he appeared as one large globe,\nwith a small attached ball on either side. To others he appeared as a\nglobe with crescents (shape of new moon) sometimes detached, and at\nother times having their cusps (sharp points) meet on the edge of the\nplanet. And it was not until 1655 that the discovery was made that these\nappendages were neither balls nor crescents, but were, as then supposed,\na ring (seen in various positions) around the body of the planet. In\nthe spring of this year, Huyghens discovered that what had appeared as\nhandles extended out on each side and were somewhat like a veritable\nball with its projecting axes ready to be laid in their \u201cbearings.\u201d The\nnext spring the \u201cgudgeons\u201d had disappeared and only the plain sphere\nremained. In the fall of 1656 the axes had reappeared. Thus was suggested\nto Huyghens that these appearances were produced by the alternate\npresentation to view of the edge and face of a ring, whose thickness was\nso small as to be invisible when its plane was directed to the eye. Being\nanxious to secure to himself the honor of this discovery, and yet not\nwishing to publish it prematurely, lest his conception should turn out\nto be incorrect, he printed at the end of a little pamphlet descriptive\nof the planet the following characters: _aaaaaaa ccccc d eeeee g h\niiiiiii llll mm nnnnnnnnn oooo pp q rr s ttttt uuuuu_. Should his theory\nprove to be incorrect no one would be likely to solve the riddle; should\nit be correct, as it proved to be, he readily arranged the letters to\nread: _Annulo cingitur tenui, plano nusquam cohaerente, ad eclipticam\ninclinato_; which being translated means: \u201cGirdled by a thin, plane ring,\nnowhere touching, inclined to the ecliptic.\u201d It was soon ascertained\nthat the ring had an inclination of 27\u00b0 to the plane of its orbit, and\nas it with the planet revolves about the sun, its axis maintains the\nsame absolute position; so that as the revolution is made once in every\ntwenty-nine and a half years, every fourteen and three-fourth years\nits edge is directly toward the sun, and, practically, toward the earth\n(since the distance of the earth from the sun is comparatively small),\nand is invisible except through the most powerful telescopes. In like\nmanner, every fourteen and three-fourth years the greatest possible\nportion of the ring\u2019s surface is presented to the sun, and if the ring\nwere perpendicular to the plane of the earth\u2019s orbit, and its axis\ndirected toward the earth, we should see the globe entirely girdled,\ninstead of seeing, as we do, a large portion of one side of the ring and\nthe opening only on two sides between it and the planet.\n\nAfter Huyghens, the discovery was made by an English astronomer named\nBall, that instead of only one ring, Saturn had two rings, divided by a\nnarrow, dark line, and that the inner ring was broader than the outer in\nabout the ratio of seventeen to ten; that is, the breadth of the inner\nwas estimated to be 17,000 miles, while that of the outer was only 10,300\nmiles. In 1850, Prof. Bond, of Cambridge, discovered a third ring lying\nbetween the inner ring and the planet. But this was hardly regarded as a\ndiscovery, as this ring had been \u201cseen in England by Messrs. Lassell and\nDawes, before it was formally announced by the Bonds;\u201d and \u201csomething of\nthe same kind had been seen by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, as far back as 1838.\u201d\n\nAnother perplexing question is, whether there are changes going on in\nthese rings, and if so, what they are. Struve, in 1851, propounded\nthe theory that the inner edge of the ring (or rings) was gradually\ncontracting, and thus lessening the space between it and the planet, and\nthis at the rate of about 1.3\u2033 per century; at which rate it would close\nin on the planet about the year 2150\u2014a date at such a distance that the\nevent, should it transpire, will be of little moment to our readers.\n\nAnother not yet satisfactorily answered question is, of what are these\nrings composed? The generally accepted answer at present is, that it is\nneither a solid nor a fluid ring, but a cloud of satellites, too small\nand too numerous to be seen singly. \u201cThey are like the separate little\ndrops of water out of which are composed fogs and clouds, which, to our\neyes, seem like solid masses.\u201d\n\n\nURANUS\n\nReaches his stationary point on the 6th, at 5:00 p. m., having made a\ndirect motion of 51.45\u2033; during the rest of the month he retrogrades 17\u2032\n12.6\u2033. On the 6th, at 6:50 p. m., he is 1\u00b0 18\u2032 north of the moon. He\nfigures as a morning star, rising on Dec. 31st, \u201984, at 11:29 p. m., and\nsetting on New Year\u2019s at 11:25 a. m.; on the 15th, rising at 10:30 p. m.,\nand setting on the 16th at 10:26 a. m.; on the 29th, rising at 9:33 p.\nm., and setting on the 30th at 9:31 a. m.\n\n\nNEPTUNE\n\nAlso plays the _r\u00f4le_ of morning star, rising in the afternoon of the\n1st at 1:31, and setting on the morning of the 2d at 3:25; on the 16th,\nrising at 12:31 p. m., and setting next morning at 2:25; and on the 30th,\nrising at 11:36 a. m., and setting at 1:30 a. m. on the 31st. On the\n24th, at 11:34 p. m., he is 1\u00b0 48\u2032 north of the moon; is stationary at\n3:00 a. m. on the 30th, up to which date he has retrograded 14\u2032 51.6\u2033.\nHis diameter being only 2.6\u2033, he can only be seen through a telescope of\nhigher power.\n\n\n\n\nYALE COLLEGE AND YALE CUSTOMS.\n\nBY GEORGE H. VINCENT.\n\n\nThe good people who, in 1638, came over from England and settled New\nHaven, came with a definite purpose. They aimed to establish a model\ncommunity in church and state, and, as an important means to this end,\nthey proposed to found a college. At first, events conspired to keep\nthe classic groves from taking root on the bleak Connecticut shore. A\ncapricious government in England was granting and annulling charters\nwith alarming frequency, and the colonies were in a corresponding state\nof uncertainty and apprehension, while the ravages of the Indian wars\ndid much to occupy and distract the thoughts of the New Haven people.\nFinally, in 1660, a bequest of Governor Hopkins induced the colonists\nto found an institution which they called a \u201cCollegiate School,\u201d lest a\nmore pretentious title might make it difficult to obtain a charter. The\nGovernor\u2019s will, however, was contested by the legislature, which finally\nobtained a part of the bequest. This fact, together with the depression\ncaused by the compulsory union of New Haven with the Connecticut colony,\nprevented any marked advance in the prosperity of the institution which,\nunder the title of the \u201cHopkins Grammar School,\u201d still prepares students\nfor the various departments of Yale.\n\nAfter the peace of Ryswick in 1697, prosperity returned to the colonists,\nand a second time the subject of a college was agitated. Ten trustees,\nmost of them ministers from New Haven and vicinity, met some time in 1700\nat Brandford, a small town near New Haven. Each trustee presented a few\nvolumes with the declaration: \u201cI give these books for the founding of a\ncollege.\u201d\n\nThe next year a charter was granted to the new college, which was located\nat Saybrook, with the Rev. Abraham Pierson, a metaphysician of some\nnote, as president. The students, eight in number, and \u201cput into classes\naccording to the proficiency they had antecedently made,\u201d lived in the\npresident\u2019s house, under his supervision and instruction. The first\ncommencement was held at Saybrook, September 13, 1702.\n\nThe French war of the same year had its effect upon the college, and\nwhen in 1707 Rector Pierson died, it was found impossible to support a\nresident professor at Saybrook. Consequently the senior class was sent to\nMilford and placed under the Rev. Samuel Andrew, while the other classes\nremained at Saybrook with two tutors. At this time Yale College extended\nfrom the senior class at Milford to the juniors, sophomores and freshmen\nat Saybrook, a distance of forty miles.\n\nIn 1714, the death of the Rev. James Pierpont, who may be regarded as\nthe founder of the college, struck another blow at its prosperity. At\nthe same time complaints about their accommodations from the Saybrook\nstudents made it evident that if the college was to become a permanent\ninstitution, some active measures were required. At a meeting of\ntrustees in 1716, after a protracted discussion, and not a little to\nthe dissatisfaction of Hartford, it was decided to locate the college\npermanently at New Haven. Hartford was appeased by building there a new\ncourt house, and the scattered students were gathered at New Haven, which\nthat day became a college town.\n\nAmong several donations to the college, the most generous was that of\nElihu Yale, a former resident of New Haven, and at the time a wealthy\nLondon merchant. In view of his munificence, the trustees called the new\nbuilding which his donation had enabled them to complete, Yale College.\n\nIt would be superfluous for our purpose to trace the history of the\ncollege from this permanent foundation in 1718 to the present time. Among\nits presidents we find such names as Elihu Williams, Ezra Stiles, Timothy\nDwight, Jeremiah Day, Theodore D. Woolsey and Noah Porter\u2014grand men of\nthe orthodox school, some of them rigid and severe in administration,\nbut all respected and honored. The character of the presidents is an\nindex to the institution, which has developed under the severe discipline\nof New England. The students who of late years have come from distant\nstates have modified the general character of the college, but have not\ndestroyed the old influence. The recognition of religion, which in some\nuniversities has well-nigh disappeared, still holds its own, and the same\nbell which, in years gone by, summoned sleepy and half-dressed students\nto the murky chapel, at five in the morning, now, at a more convenient\nhour, assembles in the handsome \u201cBattell\u201d those who have come to college\nfrom every state in the Union. Thus the old New England _r\u00e9gime_ makes an\nimpression upon the rising generation of the whole country.\n\nIt is not within the scope of this article to consider the development\nof the college curriculum; but, perhaps, in view of the radical changes\nwhich the Yale faculty have introduced for the college year 1884-\u201985, it\nmay not be out of place rapidly to sketch the innovations. In 1786 the\nrequirements for admission were \u201cVirgil, Tully, and the Greek Testament.\u201d\nThis is characteristic of the college, which has always been remarkably\nconservative in its devotion to the classics. Charles Francis Adams\u2019\noration at the Harvard \u201cPhi Beta Kappa\u201d dinner two years ago, aroused\nno little antagonism in New Haven. President Porter has written several\narticles defending the classics, and when Matthew Arnold and Lord\nColeridge addressed the Yale students, both congratulated the institution\nupon its attitude toward the ancient languages. Heretofore Latin and\nGreek have been compulsory during both freshman and sophomore years. But\nunder the new system German and French may be substituted for a portion\nof the classics. To the senior and junior classes even greater liberty\nis given. They are offered between twenty and thirty elective courses;\nso that now, instead of turning a whole class out of the same mould, the\ncollege permits men to select those studies which they find attractive,\nor which will best prepare them for their pursuits in life. Thus in one\nyear Yale has made very rapid strides, and now stands a \u201cgolden mean\u201d\nbetween the conservatism of the past and the rashly radical tendencies of\nthe present. So much for the origin and curriculum of Yale.\n\nIt is not the instruction alone that makes a college course desirable.\nThe associations, friendships, and experiences in the college community\nare also important factors. It has been well said that a college is a\nminiature world, with its successes, failures, and temptations as real as\nthose of the world without.\n\nIt is impossible, in an article like the present, to do more than give\na few of the peculiarities of Yale. The writer disclaims any attempt to\nanalyze critically the influences and tendencies of the college, but aims\nmerely to present a few facts concerning its students, buildings, class\nspirit, and every-day life.\n\nThe college catalogue shows that in the academic department the classes\naverage one hundred and fifty students. In the Sheffield Scientific\nSchool the aggregate number is about two hundred and twenty-five. The\nother departments swell the total to between ten and eleven hundred. It\nis probably unnecessary to state that co-education is not \u201cdreamed of\u201d in\nthe Yale philosophy. The warm affection which the faculty feel for the\ndead languages seems only to increase their coldness toward the gentler\nsex.\n\nYale is eminently a cosmopolitan institution. When two years ago state\nclubs were being formed at Yale, some one remarked that if the same\nexperiment were attempted at Harvard, there would be two clubs, one from\nBoston, and one from the rest of Massachusetts. While this statement is\nby no means true, it suggests the sectional character of the other New\nEngland colleges. A few figures will sustain this claim. In 1883-\u201984,\nout of 824 students in the academic and scientific departments, only\ntwenty-nine per cent. were from Connecticut. There were nineteen men\nfrom California, six from Colorado, seven from Georgia, fifty-one from\nIllinois, thirty-three from Ohio, twenty from Missouri, and sixty-five\nfrom Pennsylvania. Almost every state, and many of the territories, were\nrepresented, and the very fact that Yale draws its men from so many\nwidely different sources has an important influence upon the character of\nthe students. The swift-coursing, tingling blood of the West is infused\ninto the old, staid, New England institution, which restrains, modifies,\nand directs it. The enthusiasm of Yale is due in a great measure to this\nwestern element. There is a whole-heartedness about Yale students which\nyou will find in no other eastern institution. Nor is money at Yale the\nbasis of social standing. A man may command any position which he has the\ncharacter or ability to attain.\n\nIt is generally supposed that in a large institution the numbers in a\nclass prevent that personal contact with the instructors which smaller\nclasses afford. This objection can be easily answered. Let us suppose\nthat a freshman class numbers one hundred and fifty students, and that\nthe curriculum includes five studies. The class will be divided into\nfive sections of thirty men each, and will recite to five instructors\nin order. There are fifteen recitations a week, so that every member of\nthe class recites three times a week to each of these instructors, and\nthat, too, in a class of only thirty. This affords all the \u201ccontact\u201d\nthat either instructors or instructed need or desire. The divisions are\narranged according to excellence in scholarship at the end of every term,\nso that each division has its own standard of attainment; hence the\ndiligent are not retarded by their more leisurely classmates. Recitations\nand examinations are marked upon a scale of four. When one\u2019s average\nstanding falls below two, he is given the choice between leaving college\nor entering the class next below. This unpleasant experience is known\nas being \u201cdropped.\u201d For irregularities and tardiness in attendance, the\npenalties are inflicted in the form of \u201cmarks,\u201d which have no influence\nupon scholarship standing. The penalty for \u201ccutting\u201d chapel on a week\nday is two marks, on Sunday, eight. As these marks accumulate, parents\nare informed by \u201cletters home\u201d when a certain limit is approached, which\nvaries in the different years\u2014more latitude being granted to seniors and\njuniors than is enjoyed by the lower classes. For seniors, the first\nletter comes at thirty marks; the second at about fifty; and the third,\nif there be one, informs the parent that his son has incurred sixty\nmarks, and has been suspended for six weeks. This is \u201crustication.\u201d\nThe unfortunate retires to Milford, where he pursues his studies in\ninteresting solitude. This marking system has many \u201cdefects,\u201d which are\nespecially patent to the down-trodden student, but it certainly has\nthe merit of securing method and regularity in college duties. Other\ncolleges, notably Amherst, have adopted new methods for which they claim\ngreat superiority over the archaic system. But it is safe to say that the\nYale faculty must be thoroughly converted before they will discard the\nold system, which has been for years the bone of contention in every Yale\ndebating club.\n\nWe come now to speak of the material world of Yale\u2014its buildings\nand campus. Architecturally, Yale is inferior to both Harvard and\nPrinceton. There are between thirty and forty buildings connected with\nYale University; but on the college campus there are sixteen. Six of\nthese are dormitories, occupied exclusively by members of the academic\ndepartment, or Yale College proper. Four of these dormitories, together\nwith three other buildings, the \u201cAthen\u00e6um,\u201d \u201cLyceum,\u201d and \u201cOld Chapel,\u201d\nextend in a line along the east side of the campus, and constitute the\n\u201cold brick row.\u201d The dormitories are called \u201csouth,\u201d \u201csouth middle,\u201d\n\u201cnorth middle,\u201d and \u201cnorth,\u201d and are separated by the three recitation\nbuildings mentioned above. \u201cSouth middle,\u201d erected in 1750, is the oldest\nbuilding on the campus. Until within a few years, it was reserved for\nthe use of the sophomore class, and many a trembling freshman has had\nhis first experience of hazing within its ancient walls. The faculty\nconcluded, however, that they would best consult the interests of good\norder and education by razing this sophomore stronghold. \u201cSouth middle,\u201d\nthoroughly renovated, is to-day as quiet as the seniors\u2019 retreat\u2014\u201cSouth.\u201d\nDurfee Hall, at the north end of the campus, is a handsome dormitory\nof brown stone, accommodating eighty students. Farnam Hall is a modern\nbuilding of brick, furnishing rooms for an equal number. Battell Chapel,\non the north-eastern corner of the campus, is a large stone building\nwith a seating capacity of eight or ten hundred. Its walls contain many\nhandsome memorial windows, and in one of its towers are the clock and\nchimes. Graduate\u2019s Hall is a massive brown stone building, presenting the\ngeneral appearance of a feudal castle. It is, in fact, the stronghold\nof the college, and must be taken several times during the course\u2014it\nis the examination hall. Next comes the Library, a gothic building\nwith low wings on either side. It is a repository for some one hundred\nand seventy-five thousand volumes. The Art School is one of the most\nexpensive buildings on the campus. It is of brown stone, and, like the\nlibrary, is overgrown with ivy planted by graduating classes. The Art\nSchool contains excellent collections of paintings, marbles, and casts,\ntogether with several studios and class rooms. The other buildings, known\nas \u201cOld Lab.,\u201d \u201cCabinet,\u201d and \u201cTreasury\u201d are, it is to be hoped, as\nuseful as they are unattractive. So much for the campus proper. Near by\nare the new Sloane Physical Laboratory, the gymnasium, and the Peabody\nMuseum, which even in its present incomplete state is one of the largest\nbuildings in New Haven. The collections are excellent, being especially\ncomplete in the departments of mineralogy and pal\u00e6ontology. Within the\nradius of a few squares are the Sheffield Scientific School, the Divinity\nSchool, and the departments of Law and Medicine.\n\nLet us now turn to the composition of the college community. The\nfour classes are separated by very clearly defined lines. While, of\ncourse, there are many friendships between men of different classes,\nas a rule men associate exclusively with their own classmates. When\nit is remembered that a class averages one hundred and fifty men, one\nexplanation of this clannishness is obvious. It takes four years for\na student to know his classmates, and among them he will find all the\nfriends he needs. Until within the last year or two the elective system,\nwhich brings members of different classes into the same recitation\nroom, has not been in operation, and men have always recited with their\nclassmates exclusively. Another prominent reason for class feeling, as\nit is called, is found in athletic rivalry. Let one attend a class boat\nrace, hear the shouting, observe the ecstacy of delight with which the\nwinners carry their crew on their shoulders from the boat, and he will\nbegin to understand the real significance of class spirit. This class\nspirit is warmest between the two lower classes, where the friction\nis greatest. Just here we may refer to hazing and rushing, which are\nobjects of so much popular misapprehension. That in early years freshmen\nwere subjected to rough, and often brutal treatment, can not be denied.\nBut that order of things has passed away, together with early chapel\nand biennial examinations. A \u201crush\u201d is nothing more than an attempt of\nfreshmen and sophomores, arranged in solid phalanxes, to force each\nother back. Such a thing as a decision on a rush is unknown, and the\nwhole affair has the advantage of leaving both sides assured of a \u201cmost\ndecisive and brilliant victory.\u201d Hazing is confined to the first few\nweeks of the term, and is harmless, not to say puerile, in its character.\nSophomores wander about the streets, admonishing freshmen to \u201cput out\u201d\ntheir lights. If these commands are not complied with, the hazers ascend\nto the room of the audacious freshman, quiz him awhile, and then put him\nto bed, where he stays until his persecutors have left, when he resumes\nhis interrupted tasks. The whole thing is a farce, and can not last much\nlonger. Although the custom may be childish, it certainly is not the\npernicious thing which the press would have the public believe.\n\nAthletics have a very prominent place in the college world. Youthful\nvitality finds a safety valve in athletic exercises. Inter-collegiate\nrivalry is a most natural thing. University foot ball teams, crews and\nball nines follow as a matter of course. These contests are of absorbing\ninterest, and are eagerly anticipated. Alumni of many years\u2019 standing\nare carried away with enthusiasm at a college match. The public is led\nto suppose that athletics monopolize the student\u2019s thought and interest.\nIt is true that students do talk of a ball match more frequently than\nof Greek particles. The one belongs to the recreative side of college\nlife, the other to the recitation room. When relieved from his regular\nduties, the normal student seeks recreation. Beside affording exercise,\nathletics engender a college spirit which helps to bind together the Yale\nalumni all over the land. Whatever may be the excesses, the advantages\nare manifold. The faculty declare that athletics have never been more\nprominent, nor the standard of scholarship higher than at the present\ntime.\n\nOne trace, at least, of the good, old, puritanic days is found in\n\u201ccompulsory prayers.\u201d At seven every morning, except Sunday, when there\nare regular services at 10:30, the old bell in the lyceum tower disturbs\nthe peacefully slumbering student. At eight it gives a second warning,\nand at about seven minutes after it rings again, until, tolling the last\nminute, it stops at 8:10 precisely. The students who have been dropping\nin one by one since eight, come in increasing numbers as the time\napproaches. As the bell and organ voluntary cease, a few stragglers drop\ninto their seats. If it is the last of the term, there are often a few\nmen who, having only two marks between them and the cold world, appear in\nconspicuously superficial toilets.\n\nThe chapel has two transepts, one occupied by the juniors, the other by\nthe sophomores. The seniors fill the seats on either side of the center\naisle; while the freshmen are consigned to the gloomy region under the\nrear gallery. The deportment of the students during chapel exercises is,\nwithout exception, dignified and respectful. President Porter reads a\nselection from the scriptures and announces four verses of a hymn, which\nare sung by the choir. Then follows the \u201clong prayer,\u201d during which\nalmost every head is bowed. It can not be denied, however, that many a\nlesson is rapidly scanned during this part of the devotions. At the close\nof the prayer all stand until the president and instructors have left\nthe building. The seniors face the center aisle, and as the president\npasses make a low bow, bringing the body into a horizontal position.\nThe effect from the galleries is ludicrous, and affords visitors no\nlittle amusement. Immediately after prayers the classes repair to their\nrecitation rooms. Although compulsory prayers are not universally\npopular, yet if regarded merely as a means of securing regularity, and,\nby assembling the classes, of fostering a spirit of college unity, they\nare undeniably valuable.\n\nIt would not do to describe Yale customs and neglect the \u201cfence.\u201d The\nuninitiated can not read of the \u201cfence\u201d and its traditions without a\nsmile. To one who has not been a member of the Yale world, the customs\nof the fence seem as ridiculous as the antics and gambols of brokers\non \u2019change. But having once, as a freshman, felt the joy of balancing\non that \u201cfence,\u201d after defeating the Harvard freshman at base ball; as\nsophomore having displayed the wonders of the tailor\u2019s art from the\nnext higher division of the same perch; as junior having sung there\nthe college songs, and watched the people \u201cpass on the other side of\nthe way,\u201d and at last, as senior, having parted from one\u2019s classmates\nthere, the Yale \u201cfence\u201d must be to him more than any other dingy-brown,\ntwo-railed old structure can be.\n\nAmong several privileges which are withheld from the freshman when he\nbegins his course, is that of sitting on the \u201cfence.\u201d Most readers would\nnot regard this in the light of a serious privation. But such it really\nseems to the new comer. As soon as the Yale freshmen defeat the Harvard\nfreshmen at base ball, they are rewarded by being permitted to sit on the\nfreshmen fence. A man on taking his seat in the United States Senate can\nnot feel any more real satisfaction than a Yale freshman perched for the\nfirst time on the \u201cfence we\u2019ve won.\u201d\n\nOne of the most amusing exercises of commencement time is the\npresentation of the sophomore fence to the freshmen. A sophomore makes\nthe speech of presentation, to which a freshman replies. These speeches\nare often bright and witty, and are received with great applause.\n\nThe \u201cfence\u201d is the forum, the market place of the college. Here\nappointments are made. It is here you look for a student before you\nseek him in his room. Here in the twilight, and far into the beautiful\nevenings of May and June, you may hear the college songs\u2014now a lively air\nor snatch of opera; now a warble, loud and clear; again, some plaintive\nplantation melody. This is the time when the magic of the fence is most\npotent in its influence. There are more romantic things with which to\nassociate the delightful memories of college life, perhaps, but nothing\ncan bring a pleasanter throng of recollections to the Yale alumnus than\nthe mention of the fence.\n\nFond as they are of being \u201con the fence,\u201d Yale men are by no means\nundecided or vacillating. Yale is a positive institution, strong,\northodox, and conservative. Its alumni are prominent not so much in\nletters as in the affairs of state. Yale College is yearly sending out\ninto the world enthusiastic, practical, sensible young fellows to strive,\nas the grand old song has it,\n\n    \u201cFor God, for country, and for Yale.\u201d\n\nNEW HAVEN, CONN.\n\n\n\n\nNEW ZEALAND.\n\nBY M. EMILE BLANCHARD.\n\nTranslated for THE CHAUTAUQUAN from the _R\u00e9vue des Deux Mondes_.\n\n\nDuring a long cycle of years, upon the land called New Zealand, there\nwere no inhabitants more powerful than gigantic eagles and moas, enormous\nbirds now extinct. At some indeterminate time men landed upon these\ndesolate shores; being, doubtless, unable to return to their point of\ndeparture, and, perhaps, finding the country an asylum, they remained\nthere. They were Melanesians, men of dark color, and of coarse hair, like\nthose who inhabited the archipelago in the western part of the Pacific,\nput down upon the maps as Melanesia.\n\nLater came people from Polynesia, of whom all tradition is lost. At\na time, the date of which can be approximately fixed, some canoes\nreached this land whose occupants declared that they came from Hawa\u00efki,\nprobably Hawaii. Afterward, in the first relations of the Europeans\nwith these inhabitants, they were quickly satisfied that the leading\nraces were of Polynesian origin, though in some parts all the races\nwere so intermingled that it was hard to distinguish them. These better\ndeveloped classes were known under the name of the Maoris. These people,\nfull of treachery, robbers without shame, barbarians of a remarkable\nintelligence, able to construct fishing utensils, fine canoes, implements\nof warfare, and even to sculpture rude figures and to design ornaments\nwhich indicated a certain artistic taste, inclined to observation enough\nto attach a name to all objects which fell under their notice, appeared\nto the first European voyagers to their land as a people that could be\neasily civilized.\n\nThey were in general of tall figure, and had regular features; their\nsmall, jet black eyes were always in motion. According to an artist who\nhas traveled nearly round the world, the young men would serve well\nas models for a statue of Hercules. The women were well formed, had\nbeautiful eyes and an abundance of black hair. Their faces looked quite\nintelligent, and even possessed a certain grace.\n\nFormer explorers tried to find out what religious sentiments, what\nsuperstitions, reigned among these people; they sought to gather up their\ntraditions. Owing to their idiomatic language the information was derived\nslowly and only after great effort. In the midst of a people presenting\nthe spectacle of primitive life it is impossible not to take a lively\ninterest in their belief touching the origin and the final destiny of\nman. Many of their ideas on these subjects present a striking similarity\nto those prevailing among civilized people.\n\nThey have a long mythological history concerning the migrations of\nseveral distinguished ancestors. The life of one of these in its\nbeginning is of peculiar interest. At his birth his mother, seeing that\nhe was very feeble, put him in a little skiff which she placed upon the\nsea. The winds and the waves rocked him. He was finally wafted ashore,\nand found and cared for by a woman in high authority. His after life was\nfull of wonderful and supernatural deeds. Then comes an age of heroes.\nThese at death were deified and shone as stars in the heavens. Their\nbrilliancy was greater or less according to their deeds of valor.\n\nIn the cosmogony of these New Zealanders the earth is a plain, the\nheavens an opaque body extending around it, separated from it by a\ntransparent substance. They supposed that the sun and moon glided on\nthe outside of this crystal-like appearance. Above is the reservoir of\nthe rain, higher the haunts of the winds, higher still the dwelling of\nspirits, then that of light, and then the highest region, the abode of\nthe greatest of all the gods.\n\nThey recognized a multitude of divinities, and accorded to each one a\nspecial function. They occasionally presented offerings to the gods, in\norder to render them propitious.\n\nThey did not anticipate any pain nor any recompense in the future life.\nAfter death souls, having remained three days near the bodies which they\nhad abandoned, took themselves to the extreme north of New Zealand, in\norder to take their last plunge into eternal night, or into glory.\n\nAs to their customs, scholars say that among the Maoris the family\nexisted, the tribe, and, in a certain rude sense, the nation. Under\nordinary circumstances the people lived independent of one another. Upon\ngreat occasions the chief called together the tribes under his sway. He\nhad, however, the power to declare war or peace, or to dispose of any\nquestion of interest to the public, only with the consent of his people.\nThere was little distinction in regard to rank among them. The practice\nof tattooing themselves prevailed largely, especially among the warriors.\n\nThey had a custom of flattening the noses of the boys and bandaging their\nknees and the lower part of the legs, in order to make them smaller. Thus\nthey manifested the \u00e6sthetic sentiment. The hands of the girls were bound\nin such a way as to render them more skillful, in their estimation, in\nseparating and weaving the fibers of the plant which affords the famous\nlinen of New Zealand.\n\nEight days after the birth of a child it underwent a sort of baptismal\nceremony. The marriage relation was observed. At the death of an\nindividual the whole tribe assembled, and from time to time uttered loud\ncries, expressive of their grief. The relatives cut off their hair.\n\nBy their work the Maoris excited the surprise of their first civilized\nvisitors. They displayed remarkably inventive minds, struggling under\nthe most restricted resources. The necessary work was divided between\nthe men and women very much after the manner of our times. The men built\nthe houses, constructed canoes, cultivated the earth, carved their rude\nornaments, and went hunting and fishing. The women prepared the food,\nspun the linen, and wove the cloth. Their language was well adapted to\noratorical effects. There were fourteen letters in the alphabet; each\nsyllable ended in a vowel, whence resulted a singularly harmonious\nspeech. They had many proverbs bearing a striking analogy to many used\nthroughout Europe. For instance, they said: \u201cOne may avoid the point\nof a lance, but not a slander;\u201d also, \u201cOne may in time learn all the\nnooks and corners of any house, but never those of the heart.\u201d In their\nassemblies the most eloquent exercised a great influence, and gave proofs\nof a remarkable memory in reciting with great effect proverbs, songs and\npoems, capable of producing a great impression upon their auditors.\n\nThe exploits of heroes were only perpetuated by these frequent recitals.\nWhenever any notable event occurred it became the motive power of some\nimprovisation. They entertained themselves as people in Europe do,\nby all sorts of amusements, especially dancing. Certain dances were\nengaged in by the women alone, others by the men; but in most the men\nand women danced together. The women had for their especial amusement\nthe _tangi_, or scene of despair. They feigned the deepest grief, wrung\ntheir hands, and uttered the most heart-rending cries, while tears\nflowed in abundance. A stranger moved at the sight always learned with\nsurprise that it was simply a pastime, and reproached himself for having\nmisplaced his sympathy. Whenever a visitor presented himself, the mode\nof salutation was for the host to rub his nose against the nose of\nhis guest. Small baskets of provisions were brought in, and a cordial\ninvitation given to the visitor to join in partaking of the refreshments.\n\nBut these people, hard, cruel, without pity in the execution of\nvengeance, but of a quick intelligence and unquestioned bravery,\nindustrious and ingenious, cultivating a rude kind of art and of poetry,\nhave been crushed in their struggles with the Europeans. The descendants\nof the fierce New Zealand warriors, as prisoners in certain districts\nwhich the English colonists have promised to respect, live sad and\nmiserable, hating the plunderers of their land. At the present time they\nare scattered by families over the island, nearly always at a distance\nfrom the colonies. Each year this population diminishes; in the near\nfuture they will have entirely disappeared. Soon there will live only the\nmemory of an extinct race.\n\nBut while this is true of the Maoris, the English colonists, masters of\nthe country, exceedingly prosperous, occupy all the places possessing the\ngreatest advantages.\n\nImportant cities have been built upon the most desirable locations, both\non the sea coast and river banks. Vast agricultural districts are now\ntilled. New Zealand has become a European country, where the population\nlives with no fear of the original inhabitants. It is a dependency of\nEngland, a colony which since its formation has made great progress. The\nmildness of the climate, the fertility of the soil, the extent of its\nforests, the presence of the best materials for industrial occupations,\nthe independence and safety which an insular position gives have marked\nthis island as a privileged region. New Zealand comprises two islands,\nseparated from each other by Cook\u2019s Straits; they are distinguished as\nNorth Island and South Island. The development of the country since the\noccupation by the English has been remarkable. At the commencement of\n1881 there remained only 36,000 Maoris; the colonial population numbered\n500,910. Some of its cities have acquired considerable importance.\nDunedin, in South Island, has 42,794 inhabitants, and Auckland, in North\nIsland, the ancient capital, 30,952; Wellington, the present capital,\n20,536. In 1881 there were about 1,310 miles of railroad built, and about\n3,000 miles of telegraph lines. The revenues of the government amounted\nto nearly $18,036,000, and the expenses to $17,644,000. The exportation\nwas valued at $15,212,000, and the precious metals at $5,602,000. There\nare on the island 100,000 horses, 500,000 cattle, and 10,000,000 sheep,\nyielding great profit. Ships cross from Canterbury in the eastern part of\nthe country to London in forty days.\n\nThe linen produced on the island affords a fine branch of industry, and\nthe colonies send it to London, receiving for it not less than $6,000 or\n$8,000 per year. Trees of the coniferous order furnish a quantity of gum\nor resin, which is an important source of revenue. The commerce carried\non in grain, woods and fats is very great. In the whole country the\nabundance of combustible material constitutes a great source of wealth.\nBeside its fine forests, it has numerous coal fields. Petroleum is found\nin several places, and the colonists affirm that it is inferior in no\nrespect to that found in the United States.\n\nGold districts are so extensive and productive that a great part of the\npopulation is engaged in them. Then add that silver, mercury, copper,\nlead, manganese, antimony, and iron exist in abundance. They are as\nreserves of public fortune to the colony. This country has had the rare\ngood fortune of having already among its inhabitants distinguished\nscientific men who have explored the region for the greater profit of\nthe new society, and for the interests of those who are occupied with\nthe general knowledge of the globe. The Institute of New Zealand was\nfounded at Auckland in 1868. Its members proposed to have for their use\nmuseums and public libraries, and to disseminate by all means possible,\ninstruction relative to questions of art, of science, and of literature.\nWhen the capital was moved to Wellington the Institute was also\ntransferred. Since its opening it has published every year a great volume\nfilled with reports and communications of deep interest in regard to the\nancient inhabitants of the country, the fauna and the flora, the geology\nand mineralogy and economy. It is a valuable work on the natural history\nof this region of the world.\n\nThe decline, the oppression, almost the annihilation of one race of\nmankind has been seen here. We may see now upon the same soil, rising to\nprominence, men of another race who talk of liberty for themselves, and\nare preparing for a long and glorious future for their descendants.\n\n\n\n\nTHE LAUREATE POETS.\n\nBY THE REVEREND A. E. WINSHIP.\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nRoyal favors skip from small to great and back again by no law of ethics\nor \u00e6sthetics, and if we flatter ourselves that we can account for the\nchoice of some candidates for the poet\u2019s pension we shall certainly find\nour wits tested in search of a philosophy to apply to Charles II., who,\nwith equal felicity, placed the crown on the geniusless Davenant and the\nimmortal Dryden.\n\nJohn Dryden, with all his faults of verse and purpose, was the genius\nof his age, and remains one of the five names that star the diadem\nof English song. In circumstances that tended to enervate rhyme, at a\ntime when the rebound from Puritanism paid a premium on license and\nlicentiousness, when no element in national life had the electrical\ncurrents to stimulate literary, least of all poetic genius, John Dryden\nhad the skill to attune the age in which he lived to a melodious key that\nharmonizes with Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspere and Milton.\n\nIn character and record he is inexplicable. Born in the erratic days of\nCromwell he is the most heartily English of all her \u201cmen of letters;\u201d of\nstrictest Puritan training, he died a devout Romanist; of cleanly life\nand chaste conversation, his verses are morally reckless; educated at\nCambridge, where he remained for a seven years\u2019 post-graduate course,\nhe was noted for disloyalty to his _Alma Mater_; never wrote a line in\npraise of it, but went out of his way to endorse its rival\u2014Oxford\u2014to whom\nhe owed nothing.\n\nIt was his unanticipated loyalty to royalty that led Charles II. to\nappoint him laureate to succeed Davenant, at the same time creating a\npost of literary honor and financial profit\u2014historiographer\u2014receiving\n\u00a3100 for each position. His honors cost him dearly in public favor. It\nwas currently believed that he renounced the cause of the people for\ncourt favors, and Puritanism for self-advancement, and for a score of\nyears he lost in popularity all that he won of financial ease and royal\ndistinction.\n\nHis greatness consisted in the sublime tact with which he used the\nopportunity that disfavor brought him to immortalize himself in verse.\n\nThe Duke of Buckingham, the people\u2019s favorite, ridiculed the laureate\nin scathing rhyme, which called forth vociferous applause from all the\nlesser poets whom envy and jealousy led to bitter hatred of the favorite\nof the court.\n\nDryden had the grit and genius to hurl the masterpiece of his age at\nthe whole range of critics under the title of \u201cAbsalom and Achitophel,\u201d\nand by sheer superiority of brilliancy and wit dethroned Buckingham\nand seated himself on the throne of popular favor. A specimen of his\ncharacterization may not be amiss.\n\n    \u201cSome of their chiefs were princes of the land;\n     In the first rank of these did Zimri stand.\n     A man so various that he seemed to be\n     Not one, but all mankind\u2019s epitome.\n     Stiff in opinions, always in the wrong,\n     Was everything by starts and nothing long;\n     But in the course of one revolving moon\n     Was chemist, fiddler, statesman and buffoon,\n     Then _all_ for women, painting, rhyming, drinking,\n     Beside ten thousand freaks that died in thinking,\n     Blest madman, who could every hour employ\n     With something new to wish or to enjoy.\n     Railing and praising were his usual themes,\n     And both to show his judgment in extremes.\n     So over violent or over civil,\n     That every man with him was God or devil.\n     In squandering wealth was his peculiar art,\n     Nothing went unrewarded but desert.\n     He laughed himself from court, then sought relief\n     By forming parties, but could ne\u2019er be chief.\n     Thus, wicked but in will, of means bereft,\n     He left not faction, but of that was left.\u201d\n\nDryden was the first well-paid poet England ever had. For the translation\nof his fables he received \u00a3300, while for translating Virgil he received\nthe fabulous sum of \u00a31,200.\n\nHis most distinguished poem is his \u201cOde to St. Cecilia,\u201d which he wrote\nat the age of seventy, at a single all-night sitting. In the evening hour\nthe thought occurred to him and he could not drop his pen until at dawn\nthe last word was on paper.\n\nWordsworth could not love Dryden, because there is not an image in all\nhis poetry suggested by nature. While Chaucer seems to have been always\nout of doors, Dryden apparently never knew there was any out of doors.\nHe could not create, could not be pathetic, but in power of argument, in\nsatirical skill, in \u201cdeclamatory magnificence,\u201d he is without a peer in\nthe language.\n\nThomas Shadwell, \u201cmature in dullness from his tender years,\u201d who only\nlives through the grace of Dryden\u2019s crucifying satire, by a fortune no\nart can explain enjoyed the laurel that had decked the brow of Dryden for\na generation. Without poetic merit he was skillful as a hater, shrewd as\na schemer; he missed no opportunity to make Dryden wince until he made\nhimself acknowledged as his rival, and when William and Mary ascended\nthe throne the only way they could effectively snub the royalty they\nsupplanted was to transfer the laurel from Dryden to Shadwell, who owed\nall the fame he ever enjoyed to his artful drawing of Dryden\u2019s fire.\n\nIt is too bad that William and Mary were fated to divest their reign of\nall literary glory by bestowing the court honors first upon Shadwell and\nthen upon Nahum Tate, who had some veins of merit, but no popular talent.\nDryden praised him in his day, and the \u201cBook of Common Prayer\u201d and our\nchurch hymn books retain some choice lines that he wrote. Queen Anne\nretained him ten years, but he was almost universally regarded as stupid\nand juiceless in poetry, and at the age of sixty-five, poor, homeless,\nunable to earn a living, she ejected him from the laureateship, and he\nretired to the \u201cMint,\u201d the prison for the better class of poor debtors.\nThus, in poverty and humility ended the days of him who wrote our\nfamiliar hymn,\n\n    \u201cWhile shepherds watched their flocks by night,\n     All seated on the ground;\n     The angel of the Lord came down,\n     And glory shone around.\u201d\n\nNicholas Rowe, with no popular fervor of verse, won high favor in classic\ncircles through an independent fortune and rare social gift. Pope\u2019s\nfriendship welcomed him to the circle of rare visits, while the _\u00e9lite_\nof Queen Anne\u2019s reign courted him with royal art. Few men of real genius\never have been so splendidly rewarded as he. Swift and Addison were only\nsecond in their admiration to Pope, who wrote this tender epitaph:\n\n    \u201cThy relics, Rowe, to this sad shrine we trust,\n     And near thy Shakspere place the honored bust;\n     Oh! next him skilled to draw the tender tear,\n     For never heart felt passion more sincere;\n     To nobler sentiment to fire the brave,\n     For never Briton more disdained a slave.\n     Peace to thy gentle shade, and endless rest!\n     Blest is thy genius, is thy love, too, blest!\n     And blest that timely from our scene removed,\n     Thy soul enjoys the liberty it loved.\u201d\n\nUnknown as Rowe has proved to be to fame, he was blest with the respect\nof his contemporaries, which could not be said of his successor, Lawrence\nEusden, then as well as now unknown to fame, and yet he wore the laureate\nwreath twelve years. Pope abused him in his \u201cDunciad,\u201d Cooke in the\n\u201cBattle of the Poets\u201d has this couplet:\n\n    \u201cEusden, a laurel\u2019d bard by fortune raised,\n     By very few was read, by fewer praised.\u201d\n\nThe rhetorician, Oldmixon, says he never met a poet with so much of the\n\u201cridiculum and fustian jumbled together, a sort of nonsense which so\nperfectly confounds all ideas that there is no distinct one left in the\nmind.\u201d And yet the Georges I. and II. placed the laurel on his brow.\n\nGeorge II., with characteristic misfortune, selected Colley Cibber, whom\nPope made famous\u2014I had almost said infamous\u2014in these lines:\n\n    \u201cIn merry Old England it once was a rule,\n     The king had his poet, and also his fool,\n     But now we\u2019re so frugal, I\u2019d have you to know it,\n     That Cibber can serve both for fool and for poet.\u201d\n\nHis father, Caius Gabriel Cibber, an artist, sculptured the statues of\ntwo lunatics over the gates of Bedlam hospital. Although the artistic\nwork was creditable, Pope made the father\u2019s hand the medium of a savage\nattack on the son in the first book of the \u201cDunciad,\u201d which was written\nfor the purpose of making Eusden and Cibber, the laureates of George II.,\nridiculous. He thus introduces them as dunces:\n\n    \u201cStill Dunce the Second reigns like Dunce the First.\u201d\n\nAnd thus he makes the father\u2019s art serve his wicked purpose:\n\n    \u201cClose to those walls where Folly holds her throne,\n     When o\u2019er the gates, by his famed father\u2019s hand,\n     Great Cibber\u2019s brazen, brainless brothers stand.\u201d\n\nHis only literary work that has endured even in the knowledge of scholars\nwas an admirable autobiography which would have honored his name had he\nthe wit to let poetry alone.\n\nEusden and Cibber succeeded in one thing, they made the position of\nlaureate thoroughly undesirable, so that when upon the latter\u2019s death it\nwas offered the author of the \u201cElegy Written in a Country Churchyard,\u201d\nThomas Gray promptly declined it, but William Whitehead accepted, serving\nduring the excitement preceding and attending the American Revolution.\nHe became at once the target for the shafts of satire aimed by his\nfellow poets, Churchill endeavoring to persecute him as Pope had his\npredecessors. But Whitehead had the rare grace to bear all attacks in\nsilence, living as comfortable and happy a life as though there had\nbeen no satirical buzzing. He knew he was not brilliant, and did not\npropose to make himself miserable over it. Churchill might rasp him as\ncaustically as he chose, he would lose neither sleep nor peace of mind\nin consequence, and this sublime indifference ultimately silenced all\ncritics, permitting him to enjoy thirty years of self-satisfied service.\n\nAt his death Thomas Warton, the senior of two poetic brothers, whom\nHazlitt says was studious with ease and learned without affectation,\nreclaimed the position from the contempt in which it had been so\nlong held. He achieved what should satisfy the aspiration of any man\nsuccessfully challenging the public taste that had been the slave of the\ndidactic school of poetry under Pope, imparting a love for the poetry of\nnature and the literary style of the Old English masters who lived out of\ndoors. It is hard to think that at his death the laureateship sank lower\nthan ever. It is humiliating to record that for a quarter of a century\nHenry James Pye bore the honors, ushering out the eighteenth and ushering\nin the nineteenth century, a man of whom Byron expressed the universal\ndisdain when he wrote:\n\n      \u201cWhat! What!\n    Pye come again? No more, no more of that.\u201d\n\nThree names grace the laureate record of the past seventy years, names\nof pioneers, each rapturously praised by admirers, and as violently\ncondemned by critics\u2014Southey, Wordsworth and Tennyson.\n\nTaine, our racy French critic, places Southey in the first rank of his\nclass of poets, a clever man, an indefatigable reader, inexhaustible\nwriter, crammed with erudition, gifted in imagination, gifted like Victor\nHugo for the freshness of his annotations and splendor of his picturesque\ncuriosity. De Quincy criticises him as being too intensely objective,\nwith too little exhibit of the mind as introverting upon its own thought\nand feelings. He is distinguished at once for his unwearying attacks\nupon the institutions of which the natural Englishman is proud. This is\nreadily accounted for from the fact that at fourteen he was disgraced\nat Westminster school for writing a sarcastic article on corporal\npunishment, for which the publisher was prosecuted by the head-master,\nand that at Oxford University, where he took a partial course, he was\nannoyed by the exasperations of financial infelicities preventing high\nrank, and ultimately forcing him away from scholastic privileges.\n\nAs a critic, historian and antiquarian Southey held high rank among the\nscholars of the land, and yet he acquired his scholarly taste and vast\nlearning by out of school studies.\n\nHe was pre\u00ebminently one of those curious creatures of circumstance who\nare such because they have the tact to make unpromising events serve\nthem. He was too active a democrat to hope for court favors, and too\nclosely allied with the Unitarians to venture within the church, and\ntherefore happily fell into association with Coleridge and his coterie.\nAt the time Coleridge was scheming as a high-toned communist to send a\ncolony to America to found a model, impracticable republic on the banks\nof the Susquehanna, from which all selfishness was to be banished, and\nSouthey, at eighteen, attempted to raise money for that object, failing\nin which he was frequently a penniless youth.\n\nTo prevent the poverty stricken youth from marrying Mrs. Coleridge\u2019s\nsister, his uncle shipped him to Lisbon, but it was too late, as the lad\nhad already married her secretly on borrowed money.\n\nHe was sixty years of age before he was financially straight, and before\nhe was eighty he died, leaving one of the finest libraries in Europe and\nan estate of \u00a312,000. His library was the result of his habits of close\nstudy and devout love of books. Of himself he wrote:\n\n    \u201cMy days among the dead are passed;\n     Around me I behold,\n     Where\u2019er these casual eyes are cast,\n     The mighty minds of old;\n     My never-failing friends are they,\n     With whom I converse night and day.\u201d\n\nA college chum befriended him in his youthful poverty and settled upon\nhim an annuity of \u00a3160, which prevented suffering many times. He prided\nhimself on early rising and was at his desk soon after rising, whether he\nhad special work on hand or not. The morning after he had finished one of\nhis leading poems he wrote the first hundred lines of a more successful\none before breakfast. He worked almost literally every hour of every day\nof every month of every year of his life, until at seventy-six he broke\ndown with softening of the brain.\n\nWilliam Wordsworth, a companion and admirer of Southey, succeeded him\nas laureate. He was good naturedly ridiculed by the literary world,\nbut instead of being maddened thereby as Byron was, instead of being\nheart-broken and sent to an untimely grave as Keats was, he smiled\nserenely on his critics and studiously sought to write as his critics\ndid _not_ wish him to write, and thereby lived to enjoy a generous and\nwidespread appreciation.\n\nWhile others went to Greece and Rome, to history and mythology for\nheroes, he went into the streets, highways and byways, huts and hovels,\nand chose the rude and crude, the loveless and homeless for his poetic\npurpose. A more uniformly prosperous, serene, moral man never graced\nEnglish authorship, and in his age he said with pride, \u201cWhatever the\nworld may think of me or of my poetry is now of little consequence; but\none thing is a comfort in my old age, that none of my works \u2026 contain\na line which I should wish to blot out because it panders to the baser\npassions of our nature.\u201d Who could ask to have more said of him than that\nhe was always correct in life, sweet in spirit, amiable in disposition,\nunwaveringly conscious that he was doing his utmost to make the world\nbetter?\n\nUpon his death an effort was made to abolish the office of laureate, but\nit failed and Alfred Tennyson was selected, and has for thirty-five years\npoetized for the glory of England. It is popular in our day to make light\nof Tennyson\u2019s verse, but it was not always thus, for our own classic\nLongfellow wrote:\n\n    \u201cO sweet historian of heart!\n     To thee the laurel leaves belong,\n     To thee our love and our allegiance,\n     For thy allegiance to the poet\u2019s art.\u201d\n\nThe criticisms of no poet are so amusing. Ward (T. H.), who is unrivaled\nin general judicious criticism, calling from oblivion innumerable\nforgotten names, seems never to have so much as heard of him, while\nTaine, our French critic, who unceremoniously \u201cskips\u201d numerous poets of\nacknowledged rank, gives to scarcely one English poet so extended, clear,\nclose, appreciative criticism as to Tennyson. Shaw in his \u201cLiterary\nCompendium\u201d does not deign to mention him, while Bayard Taylor said \u201cNo\nEnglish poet, with the possible exception of Byron, has so ministered to\nthe natural appetite for poetry.\u201d The average newspaper ridicules him\nas stupid, but one of our keenest critics says, \u201cHe can gather up his\nstrength like a serpent in the gleaming coil of a line, or dart it out\nstraight and free.\u201d\n\nWhen Tennyson appeared as a poet at the age of thirty-two he evidenced\na rare poetic taste, unlike that which had hitherto catered to English\nreaders. For a long time the poetry of England had been prosy in the\nextreme, metaphysical, monotonous, remorseful, dark and somber, and\nthe appearance of a poet light, graceful and sentimental, was an event\ncalculated to arouse the nation into joyous enthusiasm.\n\nThere was about his life, as in his stanzas, a poetic halo, living as\nhe did in the Isle of Wight, away from the rivalries and annoyances of\nsociety. Queen Victoria appointed him laureate, out of respect to the\npublic demand that he be thus honored.\n\nIt is three centuries since Spenser first wore the laurel. The first\ncentury embraced five names, three of whom\u2014Spenser, Johnson and\nDryden\u2014were men of recognized superiority. The second had no poet of\nnote. From the reign of the Prince of Orange to the independence of\nAmerica there was no man of talent who consented to sing the praises of\nWilliam, Mary, Anne or the Georges. The present century has been honored\nby scholarly, virtuous men, devoid of marked genius.\n\nIt is a delightful thing to be able to say that of the entire sixteen,\ndull as some of them have been, they have been almost unexceptionally men\nof recognized purity of character, in ages when poets were renowned for\ntheir laxity of morals.\n\n    [CONCLUDED.]\n\n\n\n\nTHE BELLS OF NOTRE DAME.\n\nBY ADA IDDINGS GALE.\n\n\n    Thy deep tones burden all the air\n    And hearing, strangest thoughts are mine;\n    Thou\u2019rt calling all the world to prayer,\n    To contemplation all divine.\n    Fled are the pageants of the past\n    That once turned at thy deep voiced calls,\n    In glooms doth stand the palace vast,\n    And silent are its splendid halls.\n\n    The galaxy of kings and queens,\n    Of courtiers\u2014maids of honor fair,\n    The glittering robe of costly sheen,\n    The tossing plume, the jewel rare,\n    The wild retainers in their glee,\n    That passed unheeded, thy sad tone;\n    Alas! that life so frail should be\n    By moulded brass and iron outdone.\n\n    Beneath thy chimes passed pomp of pride,\n    Here many a royal love hath come,\n    Whose beauties long since faded\u2014died,\n    Whose dulcet voice is long since dumb.\n    Thou rang\u2019st the royal infant\u2019s birth,\n    Thou tolled\u2019st above the royal bier:\n\n    Kings, potentates have sunk to earth\u2014\n    Still art thou speaking calmly here.\n    Still speak\u2019st above the noise and din\n    Of the fair city\u2019s glittering sweep\u2014\n    Thy deep, pathetic tones do win\n    My very soul\u2014I list and weep.\n\n    Thou only art eternal here,\n    Thy voice the only voice that stays,\n    Out-ringing, far-toned, deep and clear\u2014\n    Unmeasured is thy length of days.\n    Thrones crumble\u2014empires pass away,\n    And great republics spring to place;\n    If but men better seem to-day,\n    Why mourn the faults of age or race?\n\n    Why mourn the sad and bitter past,\n    If but from it the perfect flower\n    Of justice springeth up at last\n    To sweeten all the present hour?\n    Why mourn that gilded thrones should fall,\n    And jeweled crowns forget to shine,\n    Since Right will triumph over all,\n    Moved onward by a power divine?\n\n\n\n\nTHE NEW YORK CUSTOM HOUSE.\n\nBY COLEMAN E. BISHOP.\n\n\nOne day I said to the Factotum of the Collector of Customs in New York,\n\u201cI must do up the Custom House in a magazine article of three thousand\nfive hundred words; how much time shall I need to give to the collection\nof data here?\u201d\n\nFactotum smiled compassionately on me and said: \u201cAbout three months!\u201d\n\nIn this granite building on Wall Street, with its tall Ionic columns,\nis transacted a business greater than all the industries of the United\nStates combined half a hundred years ago. The merchandise that was\ninspected, weighed, counted, measured, valued, catalogued here last year\nwas valued at\u2014count the figures!\u2014$857,430,637. The catalogue includes\nover three thousand articles, many of which you never heard of and\nwould not even recognize the names thereof. Each of these articles has\nits particular rate of duty, some having two or three different ones.\nThese have to be calculated specifically on every package by quantity,\nor if the duty be _ad valorem_, the value of the article has to be first\ndetermined and the duty then calculated on the quantity of goods of\nthat class. These estimates and adjustments form the most intricate and\ndelicate business known to civilization. We sometimes think _things_ are\nplain and easy to administer upon, but the whole range of metaphysics\nand abstract thought is not more perplexing and doubtful than this mere\nbusiness matter of levying and collecting the duties on goods passing\nthe custom house.\n\nI remember of hearing a debate in the Senate of the United States upon\na proposed amendment to the tariff laws. The bill had been prepared\nand revised in a committee of Senators most experienced and acute in\nsuch matters, and it had been hammered over in long days of debate.\nSome one now asked what would be the exact duty collectible under this\nbill on the class of merchandise to which it related, and not a man in\nthe Senate could tell. Last winter, when it was proposed in the House\nof Representatives to cut down the duties twenty per cent. all around\n(\u201chorizontal reduction\u201d), it was demonstrated by experts that the measure\nwould work such confusion that it could _not_ be executed.\n\nTo illustrate the nicety and intricacies that have grown around this\nbusiness, take fabrics. The duty on silk goods and that on cotton goods\nare different. In the case of mixed, silk and cotton, it is, of course,\ndifferent still. Then, whether the goods be silk or cotton, or mixed,\nthe duty is calculated by a double standard\u2014so much per square yard, and\nso much according to its fineness and weight. They count the threads of\nwarp and woof in a square inch, and charge duty accordingly. If there\nare two hundred threads to the inch the fabric must pay a duty of, say,\nthirty-five per cent. _ad valorem_, if it cost over twenty-five cents per\nyard; while on another piece counting two hundred and one threads to the\ninch the duty shall be six and a half cents per square yard and fifteen\nper cent. of its cost. A single thread more or less may change the duty.\nThen there is all the complication of fixing the value of goods. I don\u2019t\nsuppose there is a farmer in the United States who can ascertain by any\namount of figuring what it costs him to raise a pound of wool; yet the\ncustoms officers must fix the cost for all wool that is imported. So of\nall other products on which _ad valorem_ duty is levied. Congress two\nyears ago made a change in the basis of valuation, by decreeing that the\nvalue of the package in which goods are imported, the fees of brokers\nand other middlemen in the country where the goods were bought, and the\ncost of transporting them from points inland abroad to the seaboard,\nshould not be counted in the value of the goods. All these items had\nbefore to be included in the appraisement. The fine distinctions and\nthe contested points in fixing duties are innumerable. If any of them\nseem absurd and needlessly exact, you must remember that every one of\nthem has been fought over between government and importers, between\nforeign and American dealers, and between rival importers, and has been\nestablished by experience as the best adjustment of all conflicting\ninterests. For the tariff system is the growth of centuries. We inherited\nits leading features from England\u2019s protective system\u2014what time that,\ninstead of free trade, was her better policy\u2014and have gradually modified\nand expanded it to suit the exigencies of our own national growth. Each\nitem in it is the record of more than fiscal economy. It measures the\ngovernment\u2019s efforts, as well to defeat the devices of smugglers and\nthe designs of foreign producers as to raise its own revenues. \u201cAs the\nlaws of nations are the crystallizations of its historical experiences,\nso the customs regulations of a people are the residual crystallization\nof its commercial relations with foreigners, its efforts at industrial\ndevelopment and self-preservation, and its bitter acquaintance with\ngreed, guile and guilt.\u201d[B]\n\nThe country\u2019s acquaintance with greed, guile and guilt does not stop\nat such manifestations of human nature in those who seek to evade the\npayment of duties, either. It has to protect itself at the same time\nagainst the dishonesty and incapacity of its own servants. The customs\nsystem is therefore one of checks and balances to secure (1) the\nimpartial and rigorous collection of _all_ duties; (2) the prevention\nof mistakes in accounts; (3) the prevention of frauds and peculations,\nboth inside and outside the custom houses. To secure all these the\nsystem of book-keeping and business detail is grown wonderfully complex\nand ingenious. The work is divided into three departments, or bureaus,\neach under the head of its official, all separate and distinct from one\nanother, all under the jurisdiction of the Collector of Customs, and yet\neach official having his prerogatives and duties which the Collector can\nnot interfere with. Each department revises the work of the others and\ntests accuracy and fidelity therein.\n\nThe Collector\u2019s duties are to see that all the departments do theirs.\n\nThe Surveyor of the Port has charge of all outside matters. He is the eye\nof the Custom House. He is its right hand, which is laid upon a vessel,\nits passengers and cargo as soon as they enter the Narrows, and never\ntaken off until all dues and requirements of the government are paid and\nfulfilled.\n\nThe Appraiser is to inspect, value, and catalogue all merchandise, and\napportion the duties thereon.\n\nThe Naval Officer is to revise the work of all the others, and correct\nerrors and neglects, but he has nothing to do with the machinery of\ncollection.\n\nTo insure greater correctness there is a reviser of the revisers,\nwho about a year after the clearance of a cargo takes all the papers\nconnected with it, computes, compares and checks them off, and ascertains\nwhat has become of all the goods invoiced.\n\nOne would suppose that after a ship and its invoices had run the gauntlet\nof all these lynx-eyed officials, and the accounts had been cast in half\na dozen different ways, and the whole affair probed, and pried open, and\npried into, and taken to pieces and put together again in different ways,\nerrors and frauds would be impossible. Importers evidently have not such\nfaith in the perfection and inevitableness of the system, for appeals\nfrom the demands of the custom house are frequent, and upward of five\nhundred suits in a year are brought in court against the collector.\n\nThe best way to get a slight comprehension of the way this labyrinthine\nbusiness is done is to go through it once, in fancy. Say you are a\nmerchant traveling in Europe, and keeping an eye on the main chance\nby buying a stock of silks, woolens, and fancy goods; also dresses,\ngloves, and \u201cknick-knacks,\u201d for gifts. When the former are ready to be\nshipped you have three invoices made and presented to the United States\nConsul of the port of shipment, for him to revise and approve as correct\ndescriptions of the goods. One of these invoices he keeps, one he mails\nto the Collector of Customs at New York, and one he gives the owner or\nconsignee of the goods. If on opening the consignment in New York the\ninspector find this invoice does not correspond with the goods, it must\nbe returned to the consul for correction. Thus early in the transaction\ndo the safeguards begin.\n\nArrived in port, the vessel is boarded by inspectors who take from\nthe master the ship\u2019s manifest and the other papers, and seal up the\nhatchways, one remaining in charge of the ship while another takes\nduplicates of the papers to the collector. The master of the vessel also\nproceeds to the custom house and submits his papers, which convey a\ncomplete history and description of his vessel, its voyage, passengers,\ncrew, cargo, stores, etc., etc. There are in some cases port dues and\nother charges against the vessel for him to pay. His statement includes\na schedule of the number, nature, contents, consignees\u2019 names and\nresidences, and markings and numbers of your packages of goods, and of\nall others in the cargo. All this he vouches for under oath. Thus, to\nbegin with, the government has three accounts of the cargo. The master is\nthen given a permit to land his cargo, still under surveillance of the\ninspector.\n\nThe cargo while being discharged on the wharf is checked off by the\nmanifest, so as to determine whether the cargo apparently corresponds\nwith the representations of the master and his papers. The cargo being\nlanded, the interests of yourself and other consignees become active. You\ngo to the custom house in person, or by a broker, present the bill of\nlading and the invoices of your goods, certified by the consul; and you\nstate under oath that you have certain merchandise in the cargo as set\nforth in the invoices, with the marks of the packages and description of\ntheir contents. This is called an entry of the goods. If approved, the\npapers are stamped, dated and numbered, and the value of the goods and\nthe rate of duty are indorsed on the back of your invoice by the entry\nclerk. He then issues to you a permit to take away such of the goods\nas you choose, upon payment of the estimated duties thereon, and after\ncompliance with the further conditions described below. If you choose to\nleave any of the goods for a season in government warehouses, you need\nnot pay the duties thereon, but may give bonds for payment to be made\nwhenever you do take them. This is a bonded warehouse, and when you take\nthe goods it is called \u201ctaking them out of bond.\u201d Often goods intended\nfor re-export are left in bond until sent out of the country, and no duty\nis ever paid on such.\n\nThe correctness of these preliminary steps having been reviewed and\nvouched for by the naval officer, certain portions of the goods, about\nten per cent., are sent to the appraiser\u2019s office, as samples from\nwhich the value of the whole consignment may be appraised. Before the\nappraisal is made, however, you must go to the cashier\u2019s office and pay\nthe _estimated_ duty on the goods wanted immediately, on their _apparent_\nvalue as shown in the invoice; you must also give what is called a\n\u201creturn bond\u201d that you will not open the goods until ten days after the\nappraiser has passed upon the samples, and that you will return the\ngoods to the custody of the collector if required during that time; this\nenables the government to keep its hold on the goods until the final\nadjustment of its claims. You now get your permit indorsed by the deputy\ncollector and the naval officer, and take it to the inspector in charge\nof the vessel.\n\nAll your other papers are sent to the appraiser, with the sample goods.\nHis examiner identifies the one by the other and he makes his estimates\u2014a\ndifficult and delicate task, sometimes. The changes from the invoices,\neither in the quantity or value of goods are noted, and the papers are\nreturned to the collector\u2019s office, where the work of the appraiser as\nto classification of goods and proper duties, to be paid is carefully\nrevised. If the appraiser\u2019s work be disapproved it is returned to him\nfor correction. After he has amended it, it goes to the naval office,\nwhere the whole work is again revised. Then it goes finally to the Bureau\nof Liquidation, where if you have already paid the right duty you can\nget a permit to take your goods; if there is more to pay you pay it; if\nyou have paid too much the amount of the overcharge is returned to you.\nIf you be not satisfied with the valuation or any other feature of the\nadjustment you can appeal, within a certain time, to the Secretary of the\nTreasury, and if he sustain the collector you can still further appeal\nto the United States Court. Or if the valuation do not satisfy you, you\ncan ask for a re-appraisement, or demand to have the goods valued by a\ndisinterested outsider expert in such goods. Before him you can call\nexpert witnesses and make as good a case as possible.\n\nIf you find any of your goods have been damaged in the voyage\u2014say by\nbilge water or breakage\u2014you can demand a reduction of the valuation (and\nhence of the duty) in consequence.\n\nYou have now done with the custom house, but it has not done with your\npapers. They are all gone over again in another way, so as to verify\nthem; and then all the data are tabulated in such a way as to again prove\nthe accuracy of the processes. There is another review of them before the\nmuch-tested documents are finally laid to rest. And as before noted, the\nwhole account of the cargo is re-examined a year later.\n\nWith the kid gloves and finery in your trunk you will have less red-tape\ntrouble. Inspectors from a revenue cutter have boarded the ship down the\nBay, and taken a sworn statement from every passenger as to the number of\npieces of baggage he has, and whether or no he has any dutiable goods\ntherein. You may not know whether your goods are dutiable or not, and\nwhat is of more importance to you, you may not know that some things\nwhich are strictly dutiable in law and would have to pay if put through\nthe custom house in an invoice, can pass free in your baggage. You shall\nsee how and why this liberality of the government is exercised.\n\nNow you and your baggage are taken off the steamer and transported\non barges to the barge office at the Battery. Here the scene is as\nanimated, if not as picturesque, as at Castle Garden, described in the\nOctober CHAUTAUQUAN. A large rotunda is piled with long tiers of trunks,\nboxes and parcels, each ranged under a placard bearing the letter\nwhich is the initial of the owner\u2019s name\u2014so that it is easy for you to\nfind yours, unless you are as uncertain as to the orthography of your\nname as Tony Weller was. A blue-clad, brass-badged inspector, holding\nyour sworn statement in his hand, demands the keys to your trunks.\nThe manner in which you comply will have much to do with the rigor of\nhis investigation, as will your general appearance and make-up. These\nofficials become as good judges of character by externals as do railroad\nconductors. One of the latter once said to me: \u201cI can pick out all the\nfresh passengers in a coach as soon as I open the door, by the way they\nsit, look, and breathe. If they try to deceive, their faces will betray\nthem; they look too unconcerned and innocent. If they feign sleep they\noverdo it; their attitudes betray them.\u201d So an inspector here says that\npeople\u2019s words, movements, dress, all tell of them.\n\nI can tell the incoming traveler an open secret. Uncle Sam is extremely\nliberal in the matter of baggage inspection. You would be surprised, sir\nor madam, at the things the inspector don\u2019t see, if you simply throw\nyourself on the government\u2019s generosity and act as if you expected to be\nliberally dealt with. You have only to remember that your foot is on your\nnative heath, and you are an American citizen, one of the sovereigns. An\ninspector said: \u201cThis property is personal effects, and public sentiment\nis very sensitive as to domiciliary inspection and invasion of private\nsanctity. The inspector is given wide latitude of judgment; he must have\nit. By law, every pair of kid gloves that has not been worn is dutiable,\nbut we began to allow a lady a few extra pairs, and finally the limit was\nset at a dozen. Although that is liberal, we find that plenty of ladies\nhave more pairs in use; and if her appearance, dress, and the other\ncontents of the trunks justify it, we pass as many as we fancy a lady in\nher station _might_ possess. So of dresses, laces, fans, fancy articles,\net cetera. Even piece goods not cut or sewed are under certain conditions\nignored, if the owner declares they are for her own necessary use. So of\ncigars. Our rule is to pass a hundred duty free; but we don\u2019t always stop\nto count them, if the passenger looks like a man of means and character.\nWhat would the seizure amount to if there were ten or twenty, or even\nfifty over the arbitrary limit we have fixed? The government does not do\nsuch \u2018picayune business.\u2019\u201d\n\n\u201cDoes not this leave the door open for smuggling?\u201d\n\n\u201cNot much. A person can not get much through openly in a trunk that can\naffect the revenues or injure honest importers. The chief thing we need\nto prevent is passing goods intended for selling. This sort of fraud is\nusually attempted by deception, and we are pretty sure to detect it,\neither by the nervousness or appearance of the person, by the looks\nof the baggage, or by having been forewarned by detectives abroad, on\nshipboard or here. We get a moiety share of the forfeiture and fine, if\nwe detect such attempts, and this is so large a sum that our interests\nare mostly with the government.\u201d\n\nWe will learn more about smuggling. False bottoms and secret pockets\nin trunks are an old device for hiding things; but the man who first\nsecreted diamonds in his boot heel originated something. Secreting about\nthe person is the ruse oftenest used, and, women\u2019s costumes affording the\nbest resources for this purpose, women are the most frequent smugglers.\n\nSome of them\u2014reputable women, too\u2014take quite superfluous pains and make\nthemselves look needlessly ridiculous by loading their persons with\napparel that no one would question if in their trunks, and no one does\non their persons, except to smile at the self-exposure. On a hot July\nday I saw elegant appearing ladies in the barge office, sweating under\nenormous fur cloaks that made them look like Arctic explorers. This\nfoible is neatly satirized in \u201cNothing to Wear,\u201d in which is described\nthe enormously stout appearance of _Miss Flora McFlimsy_ upon landing.\n\nOne day the inspector witnessed a woman waddling down the gang plank with\nthe body of a two hundred pounder and the face and head of a skinny,\nninety-five pounder. Of course she was invited to the examination room\nby the female inspector, where the peripatetic ladies\u2019 furnishing store\nwas opened up and duty demanded on the whole outfit. The same things in a\ntrunk would probably have gone through, most of them. Here the open and\nhonest course were the wisest.\n\nLaces, silks, and linens are wound around the body and limbs, or made\nup into extra and superfluous skirts. Coiffeurs are made to serve as\nbustles; extra gold watches and jewelry are hung to the inside of skirts,\nand a dozen other devices are the suggestion of lovely and ingenious\nwoman.\n\nHere, as well as on the Canada frontier, women are found most apt at\namateur smuggling. The reasons for this are numerous. Women are by\neducation and domestic necessity close buyers and can not usually forego\na bargain. The lines of duty, moral or fiscal, are not closely drawn\nor clearly defined here. Smuggling is a statutory offense, not a moral\ncrime, and from time immemorial injustice and favoritism have been\nalleged against the whole tariff on imports. You shall hear plenty of\ngood moral men to-day denouncing all tariff as robbery. Besides, what\ndeference for or loyalty to government demands should we expect of women\nwhen they are denied all share in government or law-making? Over against\nthese customs peccadilloes we may set the unanimous verdict of business\nmen that in positions of financial trust and responsibility, and as\ndebtors, women are almost universally honest.\n\nThe belief is quite common that smuggling through luggage is much\npracticed by feeing the inspectors. Of course, the inspectors deny this.\nThey point to the superior inducements to fidelity on their part in the\nshare they secure of seizures, forfeitures, and penalties; to the risk\nthey run of detection in accepting bribes, the inspection being done\nopenly with many interested spectators and paid spies about, and to the\nserious consequences of detection. Moreover, since the courts in the\ncelebrated Astor suit decided that anything may pass which the person\nwould swear is for personal or family use, the _necessity_ for bribery\nis largely done away. Mr. Astor recovered from government duties upon\n$40,000 worth of luggage that had been seized.\n\nThis story is told: Two years ago a woman landed with as many trunks as a\nbanyan tree; the inspector had been notified that she was a fashionable\nmilliner in New York. She said to the inspector, \u201cI am in great hurry,\nand if you will put my baggage right through and come up to my store\nthis evening I will give you a five pound note.\u201d The collector scented\nmore than twenty-five dollars for himself in forfeitures, and began the\nexamination. A dozen pairs of new kid gloves, of four different sizes,\nwere the first thing uncovered. The lady protested that they were all for\nherself, and that she was entitled to a dozen, and they were passed. But\nwhen more gloves of different sizes were found, until there were half a\ngross, she began to raise her bid. Then fifty pairs of new shoes of many\ndifferent sizes were turned out, and then silks, flowers, ribbons, fans,\nand finery _\u00e0 la_ McFlimsy. She at last offered three hundred dollars to\nhave the trunks passed, but as there was about twelve hundred dollars\nworth of goods on which was a duty to collect of, say, five hundred\ndollars, all of which (seventeen hundred dollars) was forfeit, it was no\nuse. The business had gone to a point where the owner could not afford\nto bid against the government for the purchase of the inspector\u2019s honor.\nThe goods were sent to the seizure room, and the woman was sued for the\npenalty, as it exceeded the value of the property. After two years of\nobstacles and delay the case was compromised and settled. The inspector\ntold me that his share of the damages would be much more than the three\nhundred dollars she offered. Honesty is the best policy, virtue is its\nown reward, and everybody is honest when it pays best, you see. If the\nwoman had not offered the bribe, and thus put it out of the power of the\nofficial to show her any leniency, she would have been allowed to take\nthe goods away on payment of simple duty. She at least learned that there\nis a time and way for all things, including bribery.\n\n[B] _Harper\u2019s_ for June, 1884.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CHRISTIAN REVOLT OF THE JEWS IN SOUTHERN RUSSIA.\n\nBY BISHOP JOHN F. HURST, D.D., LL.D.\n\n\nThere is a little country in the south-eastern corner of Europe,\nbordering on the Black Sea, which goes by the name of Bessarabia. It\ndrops into the angle formed by the Black Sea and one of the three mouths\nof the Danube. Before the Crimean war it was a part of Russia, but in\nconsequence of Russia\u2019s defeat in that war she was compelled, in the\ntreaty, to give it up to Turkey, and until six years ago it remained a\npart of the Turkish Empire. But in the late war between Russia and Turkey\nit was Russia\u2019s time to win, and so she took back Bessarabia, and it\nagain became a part of her dominions. It has always been the scene of a\nbusy and peculiar life. The very river itself seems to have imparted much\nof its current to the people, and they have been thinking, in their own\nhumble way, of the best means to promote their own interests.\n\nThe most recent movement in this small section of Russia is the religious\nawakening of the Jews who settled in Bessarabia many years ago, being\ndriven there by the pressure of persecution, and leading a quiet life,\nsaying nothing as the lash came down upon them. From one step to another\nthis religious reformation has proceeded, all the while approaching\nChristianity, until now it is a strong and still growing work, and in all\nessential respects, save only organic unity, is allied with the Christian\nchurch. It has already attracted the attention of inquiring minds in\nwestern Europe, and threatens to extend into the hitherto firm body of\nJudaism, and awaken intense Christian aspirations and sympathies in the\nJewish mind throughout the world. Delitzsch, of Leipzig University,\nhas given some account of the general features of the revolution in\nhis _Documente der National-j\u00fcdischen Christgl\u00e4ubigen Bewegung in\nS\u00fcdrussland_, but the most that has been written has thus far been in\nfugitive form, in the Slavic periodicals of the Danubian principalities.\nThe whole affair has taken place in such an obscure country, and so far\nremoved from the busy centers of European thought and life, that it has\nnot had time to get into the permanent field of literature. Its leaders\nhave been so little accustomed to rely on the press, or to take it into\nview as a means of propagating their opinions, that in this new phase of\ntheir work they have depended simply on the justice of their cause and\nthe firm principles which they believe underlie it. From various sources,\nand especially from the Rev. Dr. Kleinheim, of Bucharest, who has been a\nresident of this far-off city about twenty years, and is probably better\nacquainted with the internal working of Judaism in eastern and southern\nEurope than any other man, I have gathered the most of the data which I\nherewith present to your readers. This gentleman has spent his life in\ntrying to christianize the Jews of Moldavia and Wallachia, and his labors\nhave been remarkably successful. He has been kind enough to answer all my\ninquiries, and to open to me some of the interior views of this important\nand unique movement which could not have been secured at a distance.\n\nThe prime mover in this revolt against pure Judaism, and in favor of\nChristian adaptations, is a layman, Joseph Rabinowitz. He is a lawyer\nby profession, and for learning, and as a pure and elevated character,\nhe has been long held in the highest repute by his companions in faith\nthroughout Bessarabia. From his very development into manhood he seems\nto have been interested in the improvement of their condition, and to\nhave conceived the idea that there must be some new and easy solution of\ntheir solitude and sorrow. In 1880 he presented a plan, which was more\ntheoretical and fanciful than practical, by which the Jewish priesthood\nmight be thoroughly reorganized, and thereby the whole Jewish system\nundergo a most salutary rehabilitation. There was, however, no intimation\nhere that any form of Christianity should be superadded to Judaism. But\nhe had his thoughts, and applied himself with redoubled energy to helping\nhis brethren to something better than they had so far possessed, both\nin faith and material comfort. The Jews have seldom shown any sympathy\nwith agriculture. They are a folk of trade, the world\u2019s shopmen and money\nchangers. But Rabinowitz endeavored to introduce agriculture among the\nBessarabian Jews, and to locate them in pleasant and open homes. By and\nby, in 1882, the violent persecution of the Jews of the whole of southern\nRussia broke out, and neither life nor property seemed to rest on any\napproach to a secure base.\n\nRabinowitz now turned his attention to the Holy Land. He felt that Russia\nwas no place for the Jews to live in, that they should go to a country\nwhere their fathers had once been great and strong, that now Palestine\nhad only a sparse population, that the Jews would not be disturbed there\nin any way, and that they should wander hither, become tillers of the\nsoil, and develop once more into a great people. He went there himself,\nmade a careful study of the country, and especially of its history, and\ncame to the startling conclusion that the land itself, from positive\ninternal evidence, gives the fullest and clearest proof possible, to-day,\nthat such a character as Jesus Christ did live in it, that he, and none\nother, is the promised Messiah, that all further expectation of a Messiah\non the part of the Jews is idle, and that the only proper course for\nthem to adopt is to accept him as their Savior and Redeemer. This is\nconcession which lies at the root of all Judaism; once granted, there is\npositively nothing essential left.\n\nRabinowitz had gone to Palestine for the sole purpose of opening the\ncountry for a new immigration, not only of Jews from Bessarabia, but\nfrom every land. He saw in the occupation of the country, by his\nfellow-believers, a magnificent future for them. But through some strange\nprovidence, which no one seems yet to understand, he saw a larger\nfuture\u2014the Jews of all lands coming to the cross of Christ. He went back\nto Bessarabia, and soon astounded his companions in doctrine by his bold\nand impassioned declarations of the divine character of Jesus. With the\ngenius of the real leader, he adopted a watchword, which has now become\nbroadly known as the rallying cry of all Jews who share his doctrine:\n\u201cThe key of the Holy Land lies in the hand of our brother Jesus.\u201d\n\nThere is no want of clearness in the creed of this new and striking\ndeparture in Judaism. It is an adoption of the fundamental doctrines\nof Christianity; at the same time, however, those who entertain these\ndoctrines do not propose to withdraw from Judaism completely, but to\nretain some of the minor features of the old system, and to refrain from\njoining any Christian denomination. They call themselves \u201cThe National\nJewish Society of the New Testament.\u201d In their articles of faith, as\ncommunicated by Pastor Faltin, of Kischinev, to Dr. Delitzsch, they hold\nthe following general views: There is one living and true God, creator\nof all things. He made a covenant with Israel, his people, that he would\nraise from their midst a prophet, who should have the spirit of the Lord,\nand himself be the Lord, who would plant righteousness throughout the\nearth. This prophet is the promised Messiah, who taught the people the\ntruth, and bore their sins, and died for the whole world. He was born\nabout seventy years before the destruction of the second temple, and died\nat the hands of his enemies. He will rule the house of David, and exalt\nthe horn of his people for ever more. The Jews of his time were stricken\nwith blindness. The light was before them, but because of their hardness\nof heart they were punished with helplessness. Hence they killed their\nLord. It is now time to open their eyes, and see him whom their fathers\nslew. He alone is Redeemer. He alone can build up the Jewish people. From\nall lands they should hasten to Palestine, and accept Christ immediately,\nand expect nothing less than that he will restore Jerusalem to its former\nglory, and build there once more the throne of David.\n\nSuch is the mere thread of doctrine which pervades this new system, but\nthere is interwoven with it a certain general paraphrase of teaching,\nwhich it is also necessary to understand. This is furnished Dr. Delitzsch\nby Wilhelm Faber (of Kirsanoff), who took notes one afternoon when\nRabinowitz himself gave a survey of his creed. \u201cWe Jews,\u201d says the\nleader, \u201cwho have come into the full vision of Jesus Christ, and now feel\nthe power of his spirit, have not come to the great light through any\ngeneral indoctrination from without. No, we have looked deeply into the\nOld and New Testaments, and have found that God takes no pleasure in the\ndeath of the sinner, and that he loves his people Israel, and is willing\nto save them. Our reflection has become stirred by the miracles of Jesus.\nWe see in them the evidences of his divinity and the proofs of his love\ntoward us. We have come to look to our brother Jesus as the Messiah, and\nto find in him our only hope of salvation.\u201d\n\nWhile Rabinowitz has organized his companions in this new doctrine into\na separate religious body, which does not alienate itself fully from\nJudaism, it differs from Christianity widely enough to prevent perfect\naffiliation with it. It stands upon the border-line, being neither\npositively Jewish nor altogether Christian. Rabinowitz finds fault with\nChristians for being divided into many confessions, and congratulates\nhis fellow-believers from among the Jews on the ease with which they\ncan build themselves into a new organization without the embarrassment\nof subdivisions. In answer to the question as to whether circumcision\nshould be enforced in this new religious society, Rabinowitz says: \u201cIt\nis not sinful to abstain from circumcision, but he who does so abstain\ncuts himself off from all relation to his people.\u201d He, therefore, makes\nthis rite a part of the creed of his church, but not a necessity. He\nregards the sentences of the Old and New Testaments as of equal validity,\nand rejects the Talmud and the writings of the rabbinists as not of\nauthoritative force, but as valuable monuments of an early time. He\nadopts the communion service of the Lutheran church, and makes baptism an\nessential part of his system.\n\nRabinowitz propounded his doctrines to his fellow Jews only two years\nago, and in this brief time over two hundred families have formally\nunited with him. Of course the regular Jews do not endorse such a\ndeparture. They regard it as a miserable apostasy, and proclaim loudly\nagainst it. On the other hand, the Christian church can not hail it with\nunmixed pleasure, inasmuch as the \u201cNational Jews\u201d still adhere to some\nparts of the Jewish system, and must make some important concessions\nbefore they can be regarded as a thorough religious body.\n\nIn what light, therefore, must these Jews, who have accepted Christ and\nhis full atonement, be held? Can we see in their doctrines a sign of real\nhope for the entire Jewish world? We think that only one answer can be\ngiven, the one which Delitzsch and other close students of the Hebrew\nmind, both past and present, have been compelled to give\u2014namely, that\nwe see here an evidence of the breaking up of the old Jewish solidity.\nMendelssohn and others have proven that the Jews are subdivided among\nthemselves, that there are numerous tendencies which pervade the entire\nbody, and that these are constantly growing stronger. This, however,\nis the first instance where an important part of the Jewish church has\nopenly adopted the atonement of Christ, and proposes to rise or fall by\nthat alone. May it not be the great outcome of the Jewish mystery, that\nlarge sections will formally adopt Christianity; that not as individuals\nbut as vast territorial sections they will renounce their old faith and\ntake their place among Christian bodies; and that in due time they will\ndrop the Jewish name altogether, and be thoroughly identified with the\ngreat Christian church in all its activities and grand purposes?\n\nThe middle ground of the National Jews of to-day, as occupied and\npreached by Rabinowitz, is simply an impossibility for the future. It is\nneither one thing nor another. Its exact parallel, in our day, can be\nfound in the impossible church of Father Hyacinth. His work is neither\nall Protestant nor all Roman Catholic. To succeed it must become\nProtestant, and formally reject all attachments to the old Romanism.\nThere must be no looking back when once the \u201chand is put to the plow.\u201d\nHad Martin Luther stood all his life upon the door-sill of Roman\nCatholicism, looking out and yet not going out, his work would have been\na total failure, and have shown a lack of that final courage which makes\na successful revolution. We must, however, bear in mind the fact that\nhe was preceded by men who had taken positive ground, but not the last\nstep. To their moderate work he owed much. He saw their failure, and the\ncause of it, and hence he broke the whole yoke and became a free man. In\nthe same useful line must we rank the doctrines and work of Rabinowitz.\nHe may not take all the advanced course which we would like, and which\nhistory reveals as only the true Reformer, but he is the sure forerunner\nof one or more who will do this work. It is one of the ways in which God\ndistributes his honors, that his great movements are not conducted by one\nalone. There is always the Baptist, and sometimes many, who must preach\nin the wilderness, before the full gospel of the mountain side and sea\nshore can be heard from the lips of the world\u2019s Teacher. In this light,\nas the prophecy of a new religious awakening among the Jews, who have for\nall ages rejected all approaches from Christianity, must we regard the\ndoctrines and work of Rabinowitz and his friends. His cause is rapidly\ngrowing, and must continue to grow. While it is not a finality, it is in\nthe right direction, and hence a blessing which all Christian people must\nhail with pleasure.\n\nBUCHAREST, ROUMANIA, October 7, 1884.\n\n\n\n\nTHE INNER CHAUTAUQUA.\n\nBY CHANCELLOR J. H. VINCENT, D.D.\n\n\nChautauqua is a place and an idea. The idea was before the place;\nalthough it must be confessed that the embodiment of the thought in a\nphysical frame-work of soil and forest had a most wholesome effect on\nthe idea itself, giving it a chance to draw strength from its external\nconditions; to \u201cultimate\u201d its conceptions in action; to experiment with\nraw material; to command the attention and elicit the commendation on\nwhich good things thrive, and to adapt its aim and energy to the variety\nof people and conditions with which it proposed to deal.\n\nThe place is beautiful, and grows more beautiful with the passing years.\nNature has not suspended her beneficent ministries since Art pitched her\npavilion by the side of these waters. Trees still put forth branches and\nclothe them with foliage. The old trees stand like venerable giants,\nwith as much of hope as of memory in their hearts, and in their annual\nrobe of verdure forget that for so many years they have watched the\ncoming and the going of the seasons. Young trees that have grown a dozen\nyears older since the first Chautauqua song broke the silence are now\nstately and beautiful, ready to be witnesses for a hundred years, of the\nstrange things to be done here, and of which we who are looking about\nfor graves only dream of now. The lake\u2014who shall tell of its moods, its\nsmiles and frowns, its loud murmurings of unrest when the fierce winds\ncome down in power upon it; its low sobbings after the storm, trying to\nforgive and forget; its sweet answers to the toying breeze; its splendor\nwhen the moon flings a robe of silver over it; and when the sun, making\nit a mirror, rejoices in it (as Christ in the true saints) because it\nfaithfully reflects his own glorious image?\n\nArt has not altogether been useless, although more than once unwise.\nPenuriousness has sometimes spoiled lines and angles, and mixed bad\ncolors. Stupidity has blundered into sad combinations and contrasts;\nbut on the whole Art has clasped hands with Nature, and made the place\nChautauqua a lovely and fitting tabernacle for the Chautauqua Idea.\n\nThere is a Chautauqua within Chautauqua. To see this other Chautauqua,\none must have eyes\u2014eyes that look into the innermost things. He must\nsee beyond groves and crowds, beyond lake and sky, beyond buildings and\nprograms. He must be able to see necessities, intellectual and spiritual,\nin the individual and in society, tendencies of thought, forces of\nconviction, pressures of desire and ambition, the conflict of new and old\ncivilizations in the personal life, as circumstances bring a man face to\nface with the new, while yet from habit and feeling he is held half-slave\nby the old.\n\nHe who sees Chautauqua must understand the relations (not generally\nunderstood) between gracious culture and the rough, un\u00e6sthetic services\nwhich people must render each other and their own lives in this world,\nservices of feeding and clothing and cleaning and housing\u2014low, gross and\nhumiliating, as judged from an artist\u2019s studio or a \u201cpoet\u2019s frenzied\nmood.\u201d He must find out that high and low, noble and ignoble are relative\nterms; that a kitchen may for a time cage an angel whose hands dabble\nin dough, and whose tired feet in coarse shoes tread rough floors. She\nmay serve her inferiors and treasure the pittance they give her to buy\nbooks for her brain life, at least that portion of the pittance she does\nnot need to feed unfortunate people who depend upon her. When crowns are\ngiven out, a marvelous readjustment of relations will take place, and\ncertain little neighborhoods will be shaken with surprise.\n\nChautauquans with eyes see the distinctions in advance, and recognize\nthe crowns that hover in mid-air over the saints, and they pay honors to\n\u201cAlfreds in neat herd\u2019s huts\u201d before the throne is ready.\n\nChautauquans who have eyes to see have discovered the strong and\ndelicate cords of religious life which run through and unite all the\ndiverse elements of life into a sacred harmony\u2014a sacrament exceeding holy.\n\nChautauquans see God in everything and find in everything ways of coming\nnear to him. They believe in nature and in science\u2014true science\u2014and\nabide by her final decisions, and take delight in her processes. But\nthey believe also in a FATHER whose thought makes scientific thought\npossible, and of whose creative and controlling thought science is but an\ninterpretation.\n\nChautauquans believe in the God of the Book\u2014the BOOK of Books. They\ndo not trouble themselves about the _modus_, the _quantum_ and the\n_qualitas_ of inspiration. They simply take the book in its entirety, as\nthe book given to be studied, trusted, loved, and obeyed, as individual\nconscience and judgment respond to its contents after calm, devout and\ndiligent study thereof; and not to be quarreled over or quibbled about,\nor forced to sustain preconceived or preaccepted notions by a string of\nseparated texts on the cord of a curious fancy, or an antiquated dogma.\nThey put BOOK and soul together, and trust both thoroughly for fair\ntreatment.\n\nChautauquans \u201cstudy the Word and the Works of God.\u201d And so firm is their\nfaith in the SPIRIT who wrought the works and inspired the Word, and in\nthe spirit of man for whom the Word was inspired, that they feel it not\nstrange that God the Father should \u201cdwell in the midst of them,\u201d folding\nhis own children to his heart and breathing of his own spirit into their\nspirits, enlightening, regenerating, comforting, witnessing. And as trust\ngrows and desire increases this access becomes less and less interrupted,\nand they hope one of these days in all wisdom, reason and sense to trust\nin God continually, and every day to feel his presence and rejoice in his\ngrace.\n\nChautauquans, however, discriminate between this divine possession which\ncaptures and sways intellect and will week days and Sundays, in business\nand in church life steadily and effectively, and the mere spasms of\nresolution under pressure of occasion; the selfish efforts over fancied\npersonal security; the studied outward conformity to religious duties\naccording to the ebb and flow of religious emotion. They believe so\nfirmly in the kingdom and patience of our Lord that obedience is worth\nmore than comfort and faith, a firmer foundation than sight or feeling.\n\nTo Chautauquans, therefore, all things hold a measure of God\u2019s infinite\nwisdom. All things are precious, for in all things one may find traces of\nhis grace. All things are sublime, for all things are connected with a\nglorious unity, which fills heaven and earth, eternity past and eternity\nto come. Flowers, fossils, microscopic dust, foul soil, things that\ncrawl and things that soar, ooze from the sea-depths, lofty heights that\nsalute the stars\u2014all are divine in origin and nature. A boot-black may be\na king\u2014boot-black and king\u2014both at once. Human eyes see only the black\nhands, patched knees and crouching form that bespeak servility. There are\neyes that can see deeper and further. Seeing so much they extend a hand\nof greeting. Then kings and saints converse.\n\nChautauquans believe in Wealth when honesty wins it, prudence protects\nit, and benevolence uses it. They believe in Position when worth secures\nit, work honors it, and humility attends it. They believe in Culture,\nwhen teachableness goes before it, and all the faculties in true harmony\nreceive it and religion inspires and controls it. They believe in Labor,\nwhen true social relations distribute it, when no one family of faculties\nis abused by it, and when true, reverent and philanthropic motives direct\nit.\n\nChautauquans are believers in a common brotherhood\u2014but are not\n\u201ccommunists.\u201d They are open to truth, and hold an inheritance in all\ntruth, and are subject only to the truth. But they are not boastful free\nthinkers in\n\n    \u201cRealms remote, mysterious, divine,\u201d\n\ndogmatizing and denouncing. They believe in truth, God, and humanity.\nThey seek the first, rejoice in the second, and serve the third.\n\nThese are some of the ideas which belong to the Chautauqua movement\u2014the\nthoughts within the things\u2014the theories of which phenomenal Chautauqua is\na visible expression.\n\n\n\n\nOUTLINE OF REQUIRED READINGS.\n\n\nJANUARY, 1885.\n\n_First Week_ (ending January 8).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Greek Course in\nEnglish,\u201d from page 1 to 21.\n\n2. \u201cCharacter of Jesus,\u201d from page 1 to 45.\n\n3. \u201cTemperance Teachings of Science,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Sunday Readings for January 4, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Second Week_ (ending January 15).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Greek Course in\nEnglish,\u201d from page 21 to 43.\n\n2. \u201cCharacter of Jesus,\u201d from page 40 to 87.\n\n3. \u201cGreek Mythology,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. \u201cKitchen Science and Art,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n5. Sunday Readings for January 11, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Third Week_ (ending January 23).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Greek Course in\nEnglish,\u201d from page 43 to 63.\n\n2. \u201cCharacter of Jesus,\u201d from page 87 to 129.\n\n3. \u201cOld Greek Life,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Sunday Readings for January 18, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Fourth Week_ (ending January 31).\u20141. \u201cPreparatory Greek Course in\nEnglish,\u201d from page 63 to 83.\n\n2. \u201cCharacter of Jesus,\u201d from page 129 to 173.\n\n3. \u201cHome Studies in Chemistry and Physics,\u201d in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n4. Sunday Readings for January 25, in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\n\n\nPROGRAMS FOR LOCAL CIRCLE WORK.\n\n\nFIRST WEEK IN JANUARY.\n\n1. Review of the Persian War.\n\n[Giving cause of the war, date and location of each battle, leaders on\nboth sides, and a brief outline of the life of each leader.]\n\n2. Recitation\u2014\u201cPicture of Modern Greece,\u201d by Lord Byron. From \u201cThe\nGiaour.\u201d Found also in Chambers\u2019s \u201cCyclop\u00e6dia of English Literature.\u201d\n\n3. Essay\u2014Torricelli and Pascal.\n\nMusic.\n\n4. Select Reading\u2014\u201cAncient Greece,\u201d by Lord Byron. From \u201cChilde Harold.\u201d\nCanto II. Stanzas 2 to 9.\n\n5. Essay\u2014The Proposed New Word, \u201cThon.\u201d\n\n6. Question Box.\n\n7. Talk on the New Orleans Exposition.\n\n\nSECOND WEEK IN JANUARY.\n\n1. Roll-call\u2014Responses by Mottoes.\n\n2. Essay\u2014Use and Abuse of Food.\n\n3. Fifteen minutes\u2019 talk on \u201cTemperance Teachings of Science.\u201d\n\n4. Recitation\u2014\u201cPericles and Aspasia,\u201d by the Rev. George Croly, found in\nChambers\u2019s \u201cCyclop\u00e6dia of English Literature.\u201d\n\nIntermission.\n\n5. Essay\u2014Herodotus.\n\n6. Select Reading\u2014\u201cCautions to be Observed in the Reading of Ancient\nGreek and Roman Historians.\u201d By Addison.\n\n7. One-half of the \u201cQuestions and Answers\u201d for January.\n\n8. Conversation on the Topics of the Times.\n\n\nTHIRD WEEK IN JANUARY.\n\n1. Talk and Questions on the Month\u2019s Readings.\n\n2. Essay\u2014Thucydides.\n\n3. Recitation\u2014\u201cPsyche and Pan.\u201d By Mrs. Browning.\n\nMusic.\n\n4. Select Reading\u2014\u201cOn the Athenian Orators.\u201d By Macaulay. [The last third\nof the article, beginning, \u201cOratory is to be estimated\u2014\u201d]\n\n5. Essay\u2014Visible Forms of Electricity.\n\n6. Chemical Experiments.\n\n\nMONTHLY PARLOR MEETING.\n\nMusic.\n\n1. Roll-call\u2014Quotations from Readings of the Month.\n\n2. Paper on Plato\u2019s Republic, carefully prepared, followed by discussion\nof the subject by the members.\n\n[Articles upon it may be found in Mahaffy\u2019s \u201cHistory of Classical Greek\nLiterature,\u201d and in De Quincy\u2019s writings.]\n\n3. Recitation\u2014\u201cMarriage of Psyche and Cupid.\u201d By Mrs. Browning.\n\nMusic.\n\n4. Essay\u2014Apples.\n\n[It need not be entirely practical; allusions may be made to the apples\nof mythology and history.]\n\n5. Select Reading\u2014\u201cDissertation on Roast Pig.\u201d By Charles Lamb.\n\nMusic.\n\n6. Question Match\u2014Answers relating to Greek History and Literature given\nto all questions in THE CHAUTAUQUAN of the present volume.\n\n\nLOCAL CIRCLES.\n\n\nC. L. S. C. MOTTOES.\n\n\u201c_We Study the Word and the Works of God._\u201d\u2014\u201c_Let us keep our Heavenly\nFather in the Midst._\u201d\u2014\u201c_Never be Discouraged._\u201d\n\n\nC. L. S. C. MEMORIAL DAYS.\n\n1. OPENING DAY\u2014October 1.\n\n2. BRYANT DAY\u2014November 3.\n\n3. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014November, second Sunday.\n\n4. MILTON DAY\u2014December 9.\n\n5. COLLEGE DAY\u2014January, last Thursday.\n\n6. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014February, second Sunday.\n\n7. FOUNDER\u2019S DAY\u2014February 23.\n\n8. LONGFELLOW DAY\u2014February 27.\n\n9. SHAKSPERE DAY\u2014April 23.\n\n10. ADDISON DAY\u2014May 1.\n\n11. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014May, second Sunday.\n\n12. SPECIAL SUNDAY\u2014July, second Sunday.\n\n13. INAUGURATION DAY\u2014August, first Saturday after first Tuesday;\nanniversary of C. L. S. C. at Chautauqua.\n\n14. ST. PAUL\u2019S DAY\u2014August, second Saturday after first Tuesday;\nanniversary of the dedication of St. Paul\u2019s Grove at Chautauqua.\n\n15. COMMENCEMENT DAY\u2014August, third Tuesday.\n\n16. GARFIELD DAY\u2014September 19.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nHow shall we arrange a program? It is a constantly recurring query\nfor instruction committees. A skillfully planned program insures an\ninterested society, but it is no easy undertaking for even a very wise\ncommittee to plan a series of exercises which shall be of just the right\nlength, of pleasing variety, and on topics in which every one will be\ninterested. Only a careful study of the reading of the month, a knowledge\nof the taste and ability of the circle, and considerable practice will\nguarantee a really good program. Many hints may be gathered, we believe,\neach month from the programs presented in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. At least,\nmany circles report that they find them helpful. The QUINCY, ILL.,\ncircle writes: \u201cThose programs are a very great help to us.\u201d At KITTERY,\nMAINE, where a circle of ten active members has been in operation for\nthree years, they have adopted THE CHAUTAUQUAN programs, and express the\nbelief that with them they will do better work than ever before. This\nmodest little circle has never made itself known before, but in a quiet\nway has done much good with the \u201cPopular Education\u201d circular. At least\none circle in another state owes its existence to its efforts. One of\ntheir amusements is the Chautauqua games, and they say that the use of\nthese games has led to much close reading of the books and articles.\nThe regular programs are used, too, at SHENANDOAH, IOWA, where a circle\nof twenty-five members, representing the classes of \u201986, \u201987, and \u201988,\nare meeting weekly. The plan has proven very successful with them, they\nwrite. Bryant\u2019s Day was celebrated by special exercises. This circle\nhas found, as we believe all readers will, that bringing all the Greek\nstudies into one year is a great help, instead of a drawback. The more\none knows on any subject, the greater his interest. The Greek course of\nthis year enables us to learn a great deal on that subject.\n\nAt PUTNAM, CONN., WEST MIDDLESEX, PA., and DARTFORD, WIS., circles\nreport the adoption of these same programs. The organization at Putnam,\nnumbering eighteen members, is of recent date, although there have been\nseveral young people there pursuing the prescribed course for the past\nfive years. An interesting variation to their program is a paper called\nthe _Olla Podrida_. It is made up of original contributions from the\nmembers, and is issued monthly, a different editor being appointed each\ntime. The Middlesex circle is in its second year. It has had already an\naddition of four \u201988s. Dartford circle of six members is a new addition\nto our ranks, and a very welcome one. We feel sure that the hope they\nexpress of gaining great benefit from the Required Readings will not be\ndisappointed.\n\nWhile many circles find the prescribed exercises satisfactory, we are\nglad to know that others vary performances to suit the talents and\ninterests of their members. This is found necessary in the BOWLING GREEN,\nOHIO, circle, we learn from a recent letter. They use the programs simply\nas a model, and work according to their talent. All the features of a\nfirst-class circle are found in this year-old circle at Bowling Green.\nThey boast a goodly membership, an efficient president, a thorough\norganization, a constitution which all cordially support, and much social\nlife. The first annual reception of our Bowling Green friends was given\nlast summer. In September they wisely held their first meeting, that\ntheir plans might be laid to begin work the first week of October\u2014a\npoint which many of us would do well to bear in mind until next fall.\nBryant\u2019s Day was observed, and very flatteringly noticed in their local\npaper. Among the virtues which we infer belong to this circle we must\ninclude the missionary spirit. They have in mind the conversion of their\nwhole county to the C. L. S. C.\n\nThe same plan in regard to programs is followed at LUDINGTON, MICH.,\nwhere there is a new circle of twenty-seven members, called \u201cP\u00e8re\nMarquette\u201d\u2014a magnificent beginning. Our correspondent writes: \u201cWe enjoy\nour reading and our weekly meetings very much indeed; the only regret I\nhave is that I have let so much time slip by before taking the course.\u201d\n\nSome of the programs sent us contain novelties which when introduced\ninto a purely literary program are very agreeable diversions. One which\nis capable of being made very entertaining we find in a program from a\nnewly organized circle of thirty members\u2014nearly all \u201988s\u2014at NORWICH,\nCONN. It is character personation (\u201cWho am I?\u201d). The well known game,\n\u201cCharacters,\u201d is another number on one of their programs. The response\nto roll-call by quotations on Bryant\u2019s Day was improved by stating\nafter the quotation an interesting fact from the life of the poet. The\nNorwich members are certainly to be congratulated on the variety in their\nexercises.\n\nAnother CONNECTICUT circle which has a particularly good plan for its\nevenings is the \u201cQuintette\u201d local circle, of SHARON. They have but\nrecently organized, and report their plan for work as experimental;\nsuccessful, too, we prophesy it will be. The secretary informs us: \u201cWe\nintend to learn the questions and answers in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and recite\nat our regular meetings, held every two weeks. For the present we in\nturn are to read aloud selected articles from THE CHAUTAUQUAN and \u2018Cyrus\nand Alexander;\u2019 after each reading discussing in general conversation,\nwhat has been read, commenting on pronunciation, looking up references\nconcerning people and places mentioned, and trying to inform ourselves\nthoroughly about what has been read.\u201d That plan of preparing programs\na month in advance, and giving to each member a printed copy has been\nadopted by the \u201cLongfellow\u201d circle, of NORTH CAMBRIDGE, MASS. This circle\nhas begun its second year with extraordinary vigor, the membership being\nlargely increased.\n\nOne objection that may be urged against the majority of the programs is\nthat they are too long. It is difficult to make them short. There is so\nmuch we want to talk about; so many charming selections to read, such\na wealth of subjects for essays, it is not strange that sometimes we\ntire out ourselves and our guests by overdoing matters. To avoid this\ntry the plan of the SACRAMENTO, CAL., circle, which introduces midway\nin the evening a \u201crecess of fifteen minutes.\u201d It will prove many a time\na saving clause. Another feature of their plan of work may furnish some\none an idea; it is that a committee should prepare a set of questions,\ndistribute them one week, and that at the following meeting, the\nanswers, as original and concise as possible, should be read. The circle\nwhich has given us these two ideas enrolls itself among the strong and\nenthusiastic circles. Their year opened most promisingly, six new names\nbeing added to their roll. \u201cWe all,\u201d they write, \u201cseem to have caught the\ntrue Chautauqua inspiration, and it has fired our hearts and elevated\nthe character of our work.\u201d To the hints on programs which the letters\nof the month have given us we must add two programs, which seem to us\nparticularly good; the first one comes from the circle at BALTIMORE, MD.,\nnow in its sixth year, and is of the Bryant memorial service:\n\n    WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT\u2014BORN NOV. 3, 1794\u2014DIED JUNE 12, 1878.\n\n    Chautauqua Vesper Service.\n    Bryant Letter to C. L. S. C.\n    Quotations from Bryant.\n    Anniversary Hymn.\n    \u201cBryant as a Student of Nature.\u201d\n    Illustrated Readings.\n\nThe other is from the \u201cVincent\u201d circle, of ALBANY, N. Y. We print the\nslip in full. It will furnish a useful model for those who may wish to\nsend out similar notices:\n\n                               C. L. S. C.\n\n                                THE FIRST\n                         MONTHLY MEETING OF THE\n                             VINCENT CIRCLE\n                              WILL BE HELD\n              In the North Second Street Methodist Church,\n                  _Thursday Evening, November 6, 1884_,\n                       At half past seven o\u2019clock.\n\n                                PROGRAM.\n\n        1. Geography of Greece.\n        2. Glimpses of Ancient Greek Life.\n        3. Our Every Day Speech.\n        4. Why are the French at War with China?\n        5. William Cullen Bryant\u2014A Conversazione.\n        6. Our Round-Table.\n\n    The New Year opens invitingly. Its wealth of instruction is\n    proffered to the earnest student. Remember our motto: \u201cWE\n    STUDY THE WORD AND WORKS OF GOD.\u201d There is no royal road to\n    learning\u2014save that of hard work! We hope to greet the older\n    members of the Circle. A welcome to all.\n\n    The \u201cBryant Memorial Day\u201d is November 3; let us work up a hearty\n    conversazione. Every monthly meeting we shall have at least one\n    current topic: No. 4 is such. Remember the Round-Table and make\n    it witty and wise. Come promptly.\n\n                                                        H. C. FARRAR,\n                                                         _President_.\n\n                                                        A. M. WRIGHT,\n                                                         _Secretary_.\n\nThe many newly organized circles which are coming in day after day\ntestify that a great amount of work has been done by somebody in the\ninterests of the C. L. S. C. It is true, much has been done. Much more is\nbeing done; of how much nothing that we have received is more suggestive\nthan the following letter from a prominent member of the class of \u201987,\nMr. K. A. Burnell, and it must be remembered that there are many more\nworkers as zealous as is Mr. Burnell:\n\n                     WALLA-WALLA, WASHINGTON TERRITORY, November 10, \u201984.\n\n    DEAR CHAUTAUQUAN:\u2014As a member of \u201987, and deeply interested in\n    every one of the 18,000 whose names appear on the two big books\n    at Plainfield, as well as every one reading in any one of the\n    classes of all of the great Chautauqua household, I venture\n    an account of an evangelistic tour over the Northern Pacific\n    Railroad.\n\n    Miss Kimball most kindly mailed me the names of the two to three\n    score of readers in Dakota, Montana, Idaho, and Washington\n    Territories, and I wrote eighteen letters to as many points,\n    indicating that as one deeply interested in the C. L. S. C., I\n    was to be over the Northern Pacific Railroad on an evangelistic\n    tour, and should be happy to meet circles or individual readers,\n    and render any service possible, and I felt sure if I imparted\n    nothing I should not fail to be a recipient. I heard from most of\n    the messages, and with uniform and marked interest in the fact of\n    meeting one late from Chautauqua, and especially with a member of\n    the Pansy class of \u201987.\n\n    At Fargo, Casselton, Cooperstown and Mandan, Dakota, I found\n    individual readers, and did what I could to induce others to take\n    up the course. My habit was at the close of each service to make\n    a few minutes\u2019 statement concerning the C. L. S. C. readings,\n    their rapid growth, and their very great advantage and exceeding\n    helpfulness. I received from Plainfield a generous package of the\n    green books, admission sheets, and circulars, and at each place\n    these documents were placed in the hands of the people at the\n    close of the public service, and were received gladly.\n\n    At Gladstone, Dakota, the very patient and self-forgetting\n    Scotch-Irish minister brought from his five miles distant ranch,\n    his three sons and two daughters, with whom after the service I\n    drove home, passing the night and most of the next day, the good\n    minister then driving me to my next appointment (Dickinson),\n    which also was one of his preaching places.\n\n    This family, as a whole, became so interested in the C. L. S. C.\n    readings (it was not new to them) as to fully decide to take the\n    course, and at once enter upon it. These bright, thoughtful and\n    inquiring young people will be benefited beyond estimate by their\n    thought, research and study, and by their intimate relations to\n    the great numbers who are pursuing the same stimulating studies.\n    The adaptation of our grand everybodies\u2019 college to meet a great\n    want has striking application in this exemplary minister\u2019s home.\n\n    At Helena, Montana\u2019s capital, rich and wicked, there is a\n    single reader, but I failed to find her after repeated public\n    intimations. At Rathdrum, Idaho, the only reader (a school\n    teacher) had gone away to the mines. No readers from Oregon were\n    announced from Plainfield, but I was glad indeed to find a circle\n    in good beginning in connection with and at the rooms of the\n    Young Men\u2019s Christian Association of Portland.\n\n    The Portland Y. M. C. A. is a vigorous and hard-working company,\n    and in its adoption of the C. L. S. C. readings is doubtless a\n    prophecy as to the future. At Seattle and Tacoma, Washington\n    Territory, under the shadow of grand, old, snow-capped Mount\n    Tacoma, the only glacier mountain in this county, I found a\n    single reader, and one family reading. Steps were taken for\n    forming a circle at an early day. The delights of an evangelistic\n    campaign of forty-five days on the Northern Pacific Railroad have\n    been deepened because of our Chautauqua classmates.\n\n                                                           K. A. BURNELL.\n\nThis individual effort has been supplemented by a great deal of newspaper\nwork. Through the past year very many valuable articles on the C. L.\nS. C. have appeared from time to time. The _Daily Arkansas Gazette_,\nof LITTLE ROCK, recently contained such an article from the pen of\nMrs. Myra Vaughan. It gave all the details of our work, correctly and\ninterestingly\u2014an article that everybody would read, and having read would\nponder. These efforts have told. The number of new circles claiming our\nrecognition this month is the best proof of their success. Listen while\nwe run through the list: A club called the \u201cClio\u201d club has been formed\nat NEWPORT, VERMONT. There are sixteen members, and the meetings are\nheld weekly. The club has a corresponding secretary, and would be glad\nto open communication with other circles.\u2014\u2014At WOODSTOCK, VT., seven\nladies organized, on September 19, the \u201cMayflower\u201d circle. They began\non Garfield\u2019s Day, with a celebration\u2014an admirable plan\u2014and on November\n10th observed Bryant\u2019s memorial day. A bit of personal effort comes\nwith our report, which is worth saving. The lady to whom the circle\nlargely owes its life is the mother of five children, two of whom she\nteaches at home, while she does all the work for a family of eight. Still\nshe finds time for the C. L. S. C. Another demonstration of our old\nproverb about \u201ca will\u201d and \u201ca way.\u201d\u2014\u2014A letter from NEWTONVILLE, MASS.,\nsays: \u201cWe have started this year a local circle, and hasten to inform\nyou of the fact which gives us so much pleasure; although our number\nis at present small, being but thirteen, still we are in earnest, and\ninterested in our work, and propose to go through. Our number is made\nup of very busy people\u2014housekeepers, teachers, young men of business,\netc. We attended\u2014that is, most of us\u2014the Framingham Assembly, and there\nbecame filled with enthusiasm which terminated in the foundation of\nour circle.\u201d\u2014\u2014Another Massachusetts circle is heard from at IPSWICH,\nwhence the secretary writes: \u201cThis fall a C. L. S. C. was formed in our\ntown in time to begin work October 1. We organized with about fifteen\nmembers; since then our circle has steadily increased, additions being\nmade at every meeting, until now we are thirty in number. We follow, with\nslight variation, the programs laid out in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. The chemical\nexperiments are performed, and the Bryant memorial day was observed.\nWe are young yet, but we start out under quite favorable auspices,\nhaving an intelligent and enthusiastic president, and a circle of busy,\nwide-awake members. You may hear from us again.\u201d\u2014\u2014Last year a few persons\nat ROCKVILLE, CONNECTICUT, subscribed for THE CHAUTAUQUAN and read its\nnumbers with growing interest. This year the fervor was unabated, and\nsteps were taken in October to organize a local circle. They number at\npresent thirty-one members, including one or two graduates\u2014twenty-five\nbelonging to the general Circle, class of \u201988. The present prospect is\nof much profit and real enjoyment in the literary field, during the\nwinter months.\u2014\u2014In the quiet old town of BRISTOL, RHODE ISLAND, upon the\nborders of the beautiful Narragansett, a number of persons have been\npursuing the Chautauqua course of reading by themselves. \u201cLast autumn\nthe idea of forming a local circle was advanced. A preliminary meeting\nwas held October 23d, and the ten Chautauquans present agreed to form a\ncircle. As we are all busy people, with no spare time, we shall hold our\nmeetings but once a month, but we intend to make every meeting a decided\nsuccess. As Bristol is noted for having within its limits the classic\nhill where Philip\u2014not of Macedon, but of Narragansett\u2014lived and died,\nwe call ours the \u2018Mount Hope\u2019 circle. We hold our meetings at private\nresidences, as this gives them a more social air, and those who have any\npart assigned them feel more at ease than if in a public hall. At our\nmeeting on November 13th, twenty-one members were present, and responded\nto roll-call by quotations from Greek authors. Brief papers were read\nupon mythological events; an interesting biographical sketch of Bryant\nwas also read, and a humorous poem, written for the occasion. Vocal and\ninstrumental music also found a place. The enthusiasm manifested was\na promise of future success. The \u2018Mount Hope\u2019 circle is exceptionally\nfortunate in having for its president, Mr. George W. Arnold, the\nlibrarian of our excellent \u2018Rogers Free Library.\u2019 His familiarity with\nthis choice collection of books, and his ability to place before us\njust the reference needed at any time, is of inestimable value to us as\nreaders and students. We have, in our membership, representatives from\nevery Protestant church in town. Many of us are teachers, either in the\nSunday-school or in public schools, or in both. We are confident that the\nC. L. S. C. is a power for good, and in the words of an old Sunday-school\nhymn, \u2018We\u2019re glad we\u2019re in this army.\u2019\u201d\u2014\u2014In that pleasant summer resort\nby the sea, WESTHAMPTON, N. Y., a few \u201cPansies\u201d have been studying\ntogether, but this year they generously opened their doors, and by their\ngenial influence have drawn together a pleasant set of twenty-one young\npeople. Much good is naturally looked for from this circle. \u201cAlready,\u201d\nwrites a friend, \u201cbeneficial results are manifest.\u201d\u2014\u2014At BUFFALO, N.\nY., the \u201cAlyssum,\u201d an offshoot from the old circle in that city, has\nbeen well organized. They have a plan in their program committee which\nseems practical. At each meeting a new member is appointed. The former\nchairman drops out and the next in order takes the position. In this\nway each member of said committee becomes chairman in turn, serves\nat three committee meetings, and those who have never done such work\nhave the advantage of seeing how others do before their turn comes. It\nworks admirably. Each member is assessed ten cents a month for the nine\nmonths. The circle has decided it shall be the social duty of each member\nunable to be present to send notice of such absence to the hostess of\nthe evening.\u2014\u2014A fine compliment, evidently deserved, is paid the circle\nat SCRANTON, PA., in the following letter: \u201cIt affords us pleasure to\nreport the formation of a C. L. S. C. in PITTSTON, PA. We have long felt\nthe need of such an organization, but it was at a parlor entertainment\ngiven by the \u2018Vincent\u2019 C. L. S. C. of Scranton that we fully determined\nto have one of our own, and we are indebted to that circle for help\nand encouragement received in forming our circle. Ours, known as the\n\u2018Riverside\u2019 C. L. S. C., was organized in September, and has already\nreached the limit of its membership\u2014twenty. We meet on Monday evening\nof each week, at the home of one of the members, and follow the program\ngiven in THE CHAUTAUQUAN. We are all delighted with the work, and are\nalready satisfied that the time spent in the pursuance of the course\ncould not be spent more profitably.\u201d\n\nAnother new Chautauqua circle is reported in SULLIVAN, OHIO, from\nwhich place a lady writes: \u201cI think our members all appreciate the\nvalue of this great educational movement and have the success of the\nwork at heart. We number but five members, but have met regularly\nsince October 8th, the time of organization. We celebrated Bryant\u2019s\nDay, spending a most delightful evening in the study of Bryant and his\nproductions.\u201d\u2014\u2014A local circle of five members has entered upon the\nwork of the class of \u201988 at MONTEZUMA, IND. Full of enthusiasm for the\npresent, and determination for the future, we do not for a moment doubt\nthat they will be able to accomplish the good report which they express\nthemselves so anxious to have ready in 1888.\u2014\u2014Two readers in the village\nof ONARGA, ILL., last year, were the leaven from which has risen this\nyear a prosperous circle of eighteen members. Busy mothers and teachers,\nyoung ladies at home, and one professor make up their membership. Their\nmethods and plans we hope to hear of in the year.\u2014\u2014Three new circles\nare reported from MICHIGAN: The \u201cMayflower\u201d of twenty-two members, all\n\u201cPlymouth Rocks,\u201d at SCHOOLCRAFT, where, as they write, they are brimming\nover with Chautauqua enthusiasm; a circle of a dozen energetic young\npeople organized by the Rev. and Mrs. L. F. Bickford, at PONTIAC, and at\nCLIMAX a very enthusiastic circle of ten members organized in October\nthrough the effort of J. H. Brown, a member of the class of \u201986; the\nnine remaining members belong to the class of \u201988. They follow the plan\ngiven for local circles in THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u2014\u2014Two circles are reported\nfrom IOWA\u2014a state which always has a C. L. S. C. report. At CHEROKEE,\nowing to the energetic efforts of a young lady graduate from the State\nNormal, a local circle of eleven members was organized on Bryant\u2019s Day.\nThough the plans of the infant association are still indefinite, great\nhopes are entertained of its ultimate success. From ALTA, also, a friend\nwrites us of the \u201cSummit Gleaners,\u201d a society lately organized. They\nbegan with four members, but have quickly increased to eleven, and hope\nfor more. Two or three of their circle are members of the \u201cPansy\u201d class;\nthe rest are of the class of \u201988. They follow the course prescribed in\nTHE CHAUTAUQUAN as near as possible, for, as they write, they find it\nbetter than anything they can suggest.\u2014\u2014In October last a local circle\nwas organized in EUREKA SPRINGS, ARKANSAS. Special credit is due the\nPresbyterian minister of the place for working up an interest in the\n\u201cChautauqua Idea.\u201d He undertook it at the suggestion of an earnest\nChristian lady belonging to his church, who has been reading the C. L. S.\nC. books for more than a year. They have in the circle thirty members,\nnearly all of whom are reading the books, and more are joining all the\ntime. The circle is popular. The course of reading is well received by\ntheir most intelligent people.\u2014\u2014MISSOURI presents the last new circle\u2014a\nclass of seven members formed at MOUND CITY. The books have been secured,\nand they are now ready for work. All have started with a determination to\nfinish the four years\u2019 course.\n\nThe circles of other years are writing us of much that is interesting\nand suggestive. Many of their bits of circle history and circle social\nlife are so good that we feel a little envious; for example, of the good\nfortune of the circle at BRANTFORD, ONTARIO, CANADA, where they were\nrecently honored by a visit from Chancellor Vincent. The organization\nat Brantford, which town, by the way, is a former reserve of the Six\nNations, dates from October, 1883, and numbers twenty-one members; \u201cup\nto the standard\u201d they must be, for they write: \u201cLast month we tried some\nof the chemical experiments given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, some of which\nproved quite successful. Another evening we tested an experiment made\nby our hostess in cooking potatoes after one of the rules given in THE\nCHAUTAUQUAN, and they were pronounced by all to be excellent.\u201d\n\nA name we have, too, this month, which is particularly pleasing to those\nof us who read the \u201cArt Readings\u201d of last year. It is the \u201cDorionic\u201d\nCircle, of BIDDEFORD, MAINE. From its start the circle has been much\ninterested in Greek history and literature. In comparing the two\nleading types of Grecian character, the Doric and the Ionic each found\nenthusiastic champions. Excellent qualities were discerned in both,\nand in recognition of the value of the combination the circle decided\nto call itself \u201cDorionic.\u201d This circle, formed November, 1883, has had\na prosperous and pleasant experience. It now numbers sixty, with new\nmembers coming in every evening. The Bryant memorial exercises were of\nspecial interest. The president of this circle is the Rev. B. P. Snow,\npresident of the class of \u201986.\n\nThe \u201cAlpha\u201d circle, of RUTLAND, VT., has entered upon its fourth year\nfull of zeal and enthusiasm. They commenced the year\u2019s reading promptly\non the first of October. In her report, the secretary gives an account\nof their special features. \u201cWe all craved additional information about\nthe great men in Roman history, so at our last meeting we had five-minute\nsketches of Julius C\u00e6sar, Scipio Africanus, Cicero, Camillus, and Pompey,\nand at our next meeting are to have as many more. We are also to have an\nessay on Roman women. A new feature with us is the question-box. Each\nmember is requested to hand in one question upon some given subject,\nthese are distributed and answered at the next succeeding meeting. We\nobserved Bryant\u2019s Memorial and passed a delightful evening.\u201d\n\nThe vigorous circle which sprang into existence at the beginning of the\nyear of \u201983-\u201984 at EAST WEYMOUTH, MASS., has had this year a very marked\nincrease in its members. A public meeting was called early in October and\nits effects were soon evident in the dozen new names which were added to\ntheir roll. Much of the energy with which the circle has been enabled to\nbegin its work is attributed to the inspiration which the members who\nvisited the Framingham Assembly gathered from its inspiring meetings.\nThis spirit seems to have spread through all New England. The circles\nare teeming with new ideas and swelling with numbers. At GLOUCESTER,\nMASS., where the \u201cProspect\u201d C. L. S. C. was organized in 1883, they have\na membership of nineteen, and have begun the year expecting large things\nin the future. At READING, MASS., a \u201cTriangle\u201d of young ladies is meeting\nfortnightly to compare notes and talk over the readings. They find the\ncourse valuable, and send us the encouraging word that soon they hope to\nunite the several readers in the town into a circle. And the \u201cHurlbut\u201d\ncircle of EAST BOSTON are writing a book\u2014\u201cA Cyclop\u00e6dia of Animal Life.\u201d\nEach member in turn prepares his or her paper with a good deal of care,\nobtaining information from standard works of reference. The writer must\nconfine himself to four pages\u2014letter paper size\u2014and as he is expected to\ndescribe two representatives of the animal kingdom within this compass,\nhe must select the most important and interesting characteristics, and\ncondense his statements. The Cyclop\u00e6dia is necessarily limited\u2014but ten\nrepresentatives of each letter of the alphabet. The members of the\n\u201cHurlbut\u201d circle are learning strange and beautiful things concerning\nanimal life.\n\nSome of the \u201cold circles\u201d are new to us. Such is the one at NEW CANAAN,\nCONN., whence a friend writes: \u201cYou ought to have been informed last\nyear of the existence of a flourishing C. L. S. C. in this place. We\nhave twenty members, with the promise of others. Our meetings are both\npleasant and profitable, each member faithfully doing his part. During\nthe past year we had some very interesting programs. Our members are\nenjoying the work. We are greatly pleased with THE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u201d The\ngrowth and energy started during the summer is not confined to New\nEngland, either. There is a word from LONG ISLAND, which is as ringing\nas any Framingham report. It comes from EAST NORWICH, where the circle\nwas reorganized this year with a regular membership of eighteen. Their\nmeetings are held in a very pleasant school house, and are rapidly\nincreasing in interest. They take great pride in the circle, which they\nrightly consider one of the best in the land.\n\nAt CALEDONIA, N. Y., the year-old circle has returned to work. Nearly\nall the old members are back, and several new ones have joined, swelling\nthe membership to twenty-seven. They must thoroughly enjoy the course,\nfor they do all the work. The secretary informs us that the \u201cTemperance\nTeachings of Science\u201d have evoked quite a lively and interesting\ndiscussion which was entered into by nearly all present. They expect that\nsome time during the winter they will be favored with some interesting\nchemical experiments, performed by a prominent chemist of Rochester.\n\nThe local circle at HARRISBURG, PA., was reorganized on September 30th,\nwith an increased membership, the total number now being fifty, of which\nthirty-one are new members. Although the meetings of last year were very\ninteresting and profitable, those of this year bid fair to surpass them\nin every way. The members appear to have decided to do thorough work and\nalready its effect can be seen upon the meetings. The programs are varied\nand take in as much of the month\u2019s readings as it is possible to crowd in\nand yet do justice to all.\n\nEleven large circles are registered in WASHINGTON, D. C. Each month we\nhear some good thing from them. An item from the Washington _Evening\nStar_ says of the \u201cUnion\u201d circle: \u201cWith the approach of the winter season\nthe literary and social clubs of the city begin to attract attention,\nand none have begun the season\u2019s work with more vim than the Chautauqua\nLiterary and Scientific Circles, of which there are now several in\nthe city, all owing allegiance to the central organization, whose\nheadquarters are at Plainfield, New Jersey. One of the oldest of these\nChautauqua organizations in the city is \u2018Union\u2019 circle, which meets every\nThursday evening at the residence of the president. It has a total of\nnearly thirty members, all of whom are enthusiastic in the work, and each\nmeeting\u2019s exercises are of an interesting character. Some of the members\nof \u2018Union\u2019 circle will graduate in the four years\u2019 course of reading next\nyear.\u201d And the secretary of \u201cFoundry\u201d circle writes: \u201c\u2018Foundry\u2019 local\ncircle, of this city, enters upon the third year of its existence with\nthirty-five enthusiastic members. Our meetings are held weekly in the\nparlor of Foundry M. E. Church. We have followed some of the programs for\nweekly meetings in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, and have had interesting meetings.\nThe evening of October 27th was given up to chemistry, Prof. Israel, of\nthe Washington High School, delivering an interesting lecture on the\nsubject, and performing the experiments explained in THE CHAUTAUQUAN for\nOctober, and some others not mentioned there.\u201d\n\nA new circle at KALAMAZOO, MICH., has led the former organization to\nadopt the title of \u201cAlpha\u201d circle. This latter is a very lively body, we\njudge from their report. Their reorganization was a time for a general\nmeeting, to which invitations were issued. So well has the year started\noff that the secretary writes: \u201cOur past four meetings have been so\nvery enjoyable that the closing hour\u2014ten o\u2019clock\u2014comes only too soon.\nOne feature of the evenings which has caused us the greatest sport has\nbeen the \u2018pronouncing\u2019 match (also \u2018questions and answers\u2019 match), which\nwas carried on as a spelling match, choosing sides, etc.; the one who\nfirst takes his seat through failure must favor the society with a song,\nsuggested by the fortunate one. The roll-call responded to by quotations,\nas suggested in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, monthly report, essays and impromptu\nspeeches form pleasing variety. A speech on a given subject is required\nas penalty for former absence. Then, too, the music! How we enjoy that\npart of the program! As our musical committee varies each Monday evening,\nsinging or playing often falls to the lot of non-musicians, who amuse us\nby compliance; on one occasion an organ grinder\u2019s instrument was secured\nfor the evening\u2019s entertainment.\u201d\n\nAn Egyptian campaign in the interests of the C. L. S. C. is being\norganized at METROPOLIS, in ILLINOIS. Have they a Chinese Gordon, we\nwonder, to conduct their forces? They must have a leader as efficient,\nsurely, for they write that their circle, strengthened by a goodly\nincrease, organized promptly at the beginning of the year, that their\nformer members belonging to the class of \u201986 are becoming more in\nearnest as the year advances, and that they are planning to go down into\nEgypt, an expedition which has the heartiest good wishes of us all.\u2014\u2014At\nAURORA, ILL., too, a campaign was planned for the fall, which proved\nmost successful. The secretary of the \u201cFirst\u201d circle of that city, while\nat Chautauqua, planned a Round-Table, at which the three circles should\nunite in celebrating \u201cOpening Day.\u201d A very entertaining program was\nprepared, and Chancellor Vincent kindly wrote them a letter of greeting;\nthe hope that the circle had had of increasing their membership by this\nunion meeting was not disappointed. Aurora now boasts _five_ circles,\neach numbering from eighteen to twenty members.\n\nILLINOIS also sends us a chapter of history this month which is very good\nreading. It is from the WINCHESTER circle: \u201cOur circle has just entered\nits fourth year\u2019s work, with nine members. Having consisted mainly, in\nprevious years, of teachers, our number has been fluctuating. Since\nOctober, 1880, we have enrolled eighteen names, nearly all of whom proved\nzealous workers. At present we have only two of the original number, who\nare called the \u2018Veterans.\u2019 During the summer of 1881 two of our members\nwent on to attend the convention; that of 1882 was spent by three of\nthem on \u2018A Tour Around the World,\u2019 in THE CHAUTAUQUAN; and the recent\nvacation, that of 1883, was devoted to the \u2018Art Papers\u2019 of last year;\nby the way, when those appeared in the journal, they seemed so fully to\nmeet the wants of some of the members that an \u2018Art Branch\u2019 was promptly\norganized and a thorough study of the subject commenced. As we took up\neach artist separately, and only held our branch meetings every two\nweeks, we did not finish with the year\u2019s work, nor are we through yet,\nhaving gotten as far as Rubens in the May number of 1884. We feel repaid\na thousand times for doing the extra work. Last year Prof. J. M. Crow,\nof Grinnell, Iowa, a student of Leipsic University, and a gentleman who\nhas made several trips to Europe, lectured for us on \u2018Greece and the\nParthenon.\u2019 This year we propose to hold an extra meeting each month,\ninvite our friends in, and thus strive to convince them that the C. L.\nS. C. work is _not superficial_ (as some have the impression). We defend\nour _Alma Mater_ from the attacks of the skeptical, with almost as\nmuch energy as \u2018Horatius held the bridge,\u2019 and trust we are laying the\nfoundation for a circle that will flourish in the future. Our president\nand others of the class hope to represent us at Chautauqua next summer.\nMiss M. Huston, our former enthusiastic president, is now a teacher in\nCalifornia, whither she has doubtless carried the C. L. S. C. spirit.\nSince taking up the course, the hitherto dismal days of fall have become\ngolden ones, and life has grown sweeter, brighter and better.\u201d\n\nA local circle was organized in the little village of BLUE EARTH CITY,\nMINN., several months since, with about ten members, now increased to\nthirteen. They meet every Tuesday evening at the house of some member.\nTheir reading is confined to the magazine principally; each gives some\nitem of news at the opening of the meeting, then questions are asked on\nthe preceding lesson, and persons are appointed to look up and report\nat the next meeting any subject which may arise in connection with the\nlesson. They are all greatly interested and feel that the meetings are\na benefit, as well as a help in cultivating among the members a better\nacquaintance and more friendly relations.\n\nFrom FAIRFIELD, IOWA, a friend writes: \u201cWe would like to report ourselves\nas living and active in our work. This new year has opened auspiciously.\nOur circle numbers twenty-five are not found outside the C. L. S. C.\nWe are known as the \u2018Hawkeye Arc,\u2019 have our meetings weekly and hope to\ngreatly profit by the studies of the year. We have met a serious loss in\nthe death of our president, Mrs. T. D. Ewing, the wife of the president\nof Parson\u2019s College, of this place. She was a lady of culture and liberal\neducation, and gave her best efforts to the advancement of the C. L. S.\nC. in this, her adopted home. But we are glad that while many of our\nassociates are called to \u2018come up higher,\u2019 the work does not languish\nand is still exerting the beneficent influence of this wonderful band of\nreading ones.\u201d\n\nNORFOLK, NEBRASKA, is as far as we can go west this month. A live,\nenterprising circle at that point is working with a western vim. They\nseem to take a rather unusual pride in being \u201clike everybody else,\u201d\nbut when we remember the points of resemblance, it is not surprising\nthat they should be proud. They send word: \u201cAll bear stories open with\n\u2018once upon a time,\u2019 so all reports of C. L. S. C.s read, \u2018Our circle was\norganized on such an evening, and consists of lawyers, doctors, bankers,\nministers, merchants, and their wives and daughters; all intelligent,\nenthusiastic workers,\u2019 etc. Ours is no exception to this rule. We have\ntwenty-five members with three officers, president, vice, and secretary.\nAs variety hath charms, our president is authorized to appoint a new\nleader for each evening, and as no two men or women of different\nprofessions have minds made after the same mould, we succeed in the\n_variety_. Especially do we succeed in this particular, when we undertake\nto pronounce the Greek words found in the readings.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nTHE C. L. S. C. CLASSES.\n\n\nCLASS OF 1885.\n\n\u201c_Press on, reaching after those things which are before._\u201d\n\n\nOFFICERS.\n\n    _President_\u2014J. B. Underwood, Meriden, Conn.\n    _Vice President_\u2014C. M. Nichols, Springfield, Ohio.\n    _Treasurer_\u2014Miss Carrie Hart, Aurora, Ind.\n    _Secretary_\u2014Miss M. M. Canfield, Washington, D. C.\n    _Executive Committee_\u2014Officers of the class.\n\nClass badges may be procured of either President or Treasurer.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLetters are coming to the secretary from members in all parts of the\nUnited States\u2014Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Indiana, Ohio, Minnesota\nand Iowa being represented, and the indications are, the \u201cInvincibles\u201d\nwill not be \u201clost in the woods\u201d in August \u201985. Those who attended the\ncamp-fire last season at Chautauqua will appreciate the foregoing phrase.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne enthusiastic young lady writes: \u201cI have read the course alone, could\nnot form here even a \u2018straight line\u2019 or a \u2018triangle;\u2019\u201d another, \u201cI am\nalone in my studies, but hope to meet and greet my fellow-laborers \u2018under\nthe arches.\u2019\u201d Such courage is truly \u201cInvincible\u201d and should be rewarded\nby an extra seal.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLetters ending \u201cYour Chautauqua friend,\u201d \u201choping to clasp hands with\nyou at Chautauqua in August \u201985,\u201d etc., make one feel \u201cChautauqua\u201d is\nthe magic word that draws us together as links in the great C. L. S. C.\nchain, and that friendships formed through its medium may continue even\nafter we have \u201cfinished our course.\u201d \u201cFor so the whole round earth is\nevery way bound by gold chains about the feet of God.\u201d\n\n\nCLASS OF \u201986.\n\n\u201c_We study for light, to bless with light._\u201d\n\n\nCLASS ORGANIZATION.\n\n_President_\u2014The Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Maine.\n\n_Vice Presidents_\u2014The Rev. J. C. Whitley, Salisbury, Maryland; Mr. L. F.\nHoughton, Peoria, Illinois; Mr. Walter Y. Morgan, Cleveland, Ohio; Mrs.\nDelia Browne, Louisville, Kentucky; Miss Florence Finch, Palestine, Texas.\n\n_Secretary_\u2014The Rev. W. L. Austin, Dunkirk, New York.\n\n\nNEW ENGLAND ORGANIZATION.\n\nClass Headquarters was a new and most pleasant feature at Framingham\nlast summer, and one which the limited hall accommodations rendered a\nnecessity. The class tent was tastefully decorated, and over the entrance\nwas displayed the device of the class\u2014a hand passing a lighted torch\nto another hand\u2014with the class motto, \u201cWe study for light to bless\nwith light.\u201d The committee having the matter in charge hope to provide\nsuitable accommodations for the class at the Assembly next season.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA very pleasant reunion was held in Normal Hall, Thursday, July 24, at 10\na. m. The exercises consisted of an address by the president, the Rev.\nB. P. Snow, of Biddeford, Me., and stirring speeches by representatives\nfrom several states, with reading of original and selected articles. A\nmost interesting item on the program was the reading of the well known\npoem, \u201cNo sect in Heaven,\u201d by Mr. C. Cleveland, of Hartford, Conn.,\nson of the authoress, who is also a member of the class. Miss Gelia H.\nTewkesbury (Helen Hawthorne) was unanimously elected class poetess. Hon.\nWm. Claflin, ex-Governor of Massachusetts, was made an honorary member of\nthe class.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSix hundred and forty-eight names from one hundred and seventy-three\ntowns are now enrolled, only a fraction of the whole number. Will all\nmembers of Class \u201986 in New England, who have not yet registered, please\nsend their names and address, stating whether they are studying alone or\nin a circle, and the name of the circle, to the New England Secretary at\ntheir earliest convenience?\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe following officers were elected for the ensuing year:\n\nPresident, the Rev. B. P. Snow, Biddeford, Me.; Vice Presidents, Miss\nEmily Jordan, Alfred, Me., Edwin F. Reeves, Laconia, N. H., the Rev. J.\nH. Babbitt, Swanton, Vt., Chas. Wainwright, Lawrence, Mass., H. Howard\nPepper, Providence, R. I., the Rev. A. Gardner, Buckingham, Conn.;\nSecretary and Treasurer, Mary R. Hinckley, New Bedford, Mass.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA new badge bearing the emblem of the class is proposed. If it is adopted\nfurther particulars will be given hereafter.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIda M. Grisell, of the class of \u201986, died at her home in Upper Sandusky,\nOhio, June 30, 1884. She was an enthusiastic Chautauquan, having remarked\nshortly before her death that life seemed so much more worth living since\nshe had taken the course.\n\n\nCLASS OF \u201987\u2014\u201cTHE PANSIES.\u201d\n\nFrom De Soto, Mo., comes news of most vigorous work in the C. L. S. C., a\nlarge circle of enterprising members and a program for the observance of\nthe Bryant Day, that tells of a meeting of rare interest.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. N. B. Fisk, of Woburn, Mass., class of \u201987, is the secretary and\ntreasurer of the Board of Trustees who have in hand the erection of the\n\u201cHall on the Hill\u201d for New England\u2019s accommodation at Framingham.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn the November number of THE CHAUTAUQUAN the New England branch of the\nClass of \u201987 was given three presidents. The Rev. F. M. Gardner, of\nLawrence, Mass., is the president; the other two names should have been\ngrouped with the vice presidents.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nNewspaper notices of C. L. S. C. work sometimes do more than we expect.\nCircles in the country and smaller towns read programs of meetings and\nother Chautauqua items with a good deal of interest, and often get\nencouragement from seeing what others are doing. The papers are glad to\nget the notices. We advise circles to use them freely, and to publish\nin their local papers notices of the memorial days, with a list of the\nreading for those days. Try it.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe \u201cPansy\u201d bed at Chautauqua, projected as a testimonial improvement by\nthe class of \u201987, is in the hands of a committee who are to secure a good\nlocation and carry the matter to completion. It will be placed near the\nAmphitheater, a little toward Mrs. Alden\u2019s cottage. Already a number of\nmost exquisite designs have been furnished by widely separated members of\nthe class. When agreed upon the description will be given in our column.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nOne New England minister, who is a member of \u201987, writes: \u201cI consider\nthis Chautauqua business a part of my pastoral duties; it is so saturated\nwith the spirit of Jesus, emanating from such a consecrated man as Dr.\nVincent, and comprehending so much of the devotional, aggressive, and\npersuasive in religion. I have a Congregational church in a hotbed of\ninfidelity and heresy, and can see very plainly that such books as\n\u2018Philosophy of the Plan of Salvation\u2019 and \u2018Evidences,\u2019 together with\nthe devout spirit of the whole plan, are making an impression among the\nskeptical and shaking them somewhat in their infidel intrenchments.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA Michigan mother nearly sixty years old writes a letter, touchingly\ngrateful that the C. L. S. C. was ever organized. She has two sons who\nare members with her of the class of \u201987, and who are herders of cattle\nin New Mexico. She says no one can appreciate her joy at the assurance\nthat they are held by their reading to the improvement of their time, and\nthus escape the evils that work the ruin of many boys away from home. She\nwith them forms a circle. Their meetings are only through correspondence.\nNeither has ever seen Chautauqua, or any other summer Assembly, but they\nbless the plan of improvement whose privileges they share.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAmong pleasant C. L. S. C. experiences which are found among the members\nof \u201987, as among those of the other classes, is the case of an engineer\non the railway west from Chicago. The last argument he made to his wife\nwhy he could not join the class and do the reading was that he would\nunavoidably so soil his books that she could not tolerate them in their\ncosy cottage home. She said, \u201cTry it, and I will clean every soiled\npage the year through and have them tastily on our little shelves.\u201d He\nagreed to undertake it. She found no small task upon her hands, but she\ndid it by pinching her allowance to the purchase of a duplicate for each\nsuccessive book, to which joyous accomplishment on her part her husband\npoints with pride in his growing library.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nQuite a large proportion of the class are going on with the reading this\nsecond year. But the number can be increased by a little personal effort\non the part of those who have the C. L. S. C. enthusiasm. See that your\nbook stores keep the books ready for sale. See that each member has one\nof the C. L. S. C. circulars for 1884-5, so that they may not be in\nany doubt about what the reading for each month is. Help them about\nsending for THE CHAUTAUQUAN by forming a club and sending together,\nthus saving expense. Some fail to send in their annual fees, but go on\nwith the reading. Secretaries of circles should collect the annual fees\nof 50 cents, and send on by check or postoffice order to Plainfield.\nBy attending to these matters some will be kept in the ranks who would\notherwise fall behind. If any one can not do the prescribed reading just\nas directed in THE CHAUTAUQUAN, week by week or day by day, let such try\nto keep a little in advance, rather than behind. The officers of circles\nought to keep in advance especially, so as to be ready to arrange some\nparts of the program for the future meetings of their circles.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe most of the more than two hundred \u201987s whose names were registered\nat Chautauqua, this year, promised to write Mrs. Alden, Carbondale,\nPa.\u2014\u201cPansy\u201d\u2014a letter of incident in the work, she most kindly indicating\nher willingness to write a book, dedicated to the class. It\u2019s one\nthing to promise, another to perform, and while we could not think of\na Chautauquan who would not do as they agree, the secretaries of \u201987,\nwith the president, are very anxious to know if Mrs. Alden has received\nnearly two hundred letters. Early in the new year the class officials\nwill write to Carbondale to know if all the promises have been made good.\nMrs. Alden\u2019s book will be grand, every one of her more than fifty books\nare excellent. Let every one of us who promised do gladly all that we\npromised and more.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe \u201987 badges were noticeably fine at Chautauqua last year, and every\nreader in that great class should have this badge. They should be worn\nuniformly at the circles and on all memorial days. Class love (call it\npride if you will) is important indeed; it can scarcely be overestimated.\nYou are and can be in but one class, and that is the class to you, and\nwill be all through life. \u201987 \u201cPansy\u201d class is yours, and you love your\nclassmates, and you are deeply interested in every one of them, and will\nbe all along down through life. It is true that the first great class\n(in numbers at least) is \u201987, and while we hope \u201988 and \u201989 and \u201990 will\nevery way excel it, it still remains for us of \u201987 to make the most of\nevery hour.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMiss Ellen A. Shaw, of Keeseville, N. Y., a member of the C. L. S. C., of\nthe class of \u201987, entered \u201cthat school where she no longer needs our poor\nprotection, but Christ himself doth rule,\u201d on September 30, 1884, aged\nnineteen years. They had been \u201cnineteen beautiful years,\u201d exceptionally\nhappy to herself, and the source of great pleasure to all her friends.\nGraduating from the High School in Keeseville in June, 1884, she\nimmediately took up the Chautauqua Idea, and began the prescribed course\nin October following. She enjoyed it exceedingly, interested others in\nit, read carefully, and made her memoranda and reports faithfully until\nher strength failed, and she laid down her hopes of earthly improvement,\nwith brighter ones of the country where our mental powers know no fatigue\nor decay.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAt a meeting of the \u201cBryant\u201d circle of Worcester, Mass., C. L. S. C.,\nOctober 7th, 1884, the following memorial was adopted: \u201c_Whereas_, It has\npleased our Heavenly Father to remove from our circle one of our beloved\nmembers, Miss Effie C. Warner, of the class of \u201987, we desire to express\nour appreciation of her character and her worth as a member of our\ncircle. Her presence was always welcomed with pleasure, and our meetings\nwere made interesting by her fine musical attainments, which she was\never ready to devote to the cause she loved. While we mourn her loss, we\nbow in submission to the will of him who \u2018doeth all things well.\u2019 We are\nthankful for her pure, gentle life, and feel sure that its influence will\nlong be felt in our circle.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nQUESTIONS AND ANSWERS.\n\nONE HUNDRED QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cCOLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH,\u201d\nAND \u201cTHE CHARACTER OF JESUS.\u201d\n\nBY A. M. MARTIN,\n\nGeneral Secretary C. L. S. C.\n\n\nI.\u2014FIFTY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cCOLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH,\u201d FROM\nCOMMENCEMENT OF BOOK TO PAGE 82, INCLUSIVE.\n\n1. Q. What is the object of the volume, \u201cCollege Greek in English?\u201d A. To\nfurnish readers not versed in any tongue but the English, with the means\nof obtaining, at their leisure, and without change of residence on their\npart, approximately the same knowledge of Greek letters as is imparted to\nstudents during a four years\u2019 stay in the average American college.\n\n2. Q. What is said of the courses of Greek reading in colleges? A.\nVarious colleges have various courses of Greek reading prescribed for\ntheir students, and some colleges from time to time vary their courses.\n\n3. Q. What is the Greek course considered in the present volume? A. A\nkind of eclectic and average Greek course.\n\n4. Q. In Europe how does the university student accomplish his prescribed\ncourse of study? A. In any way he may choose to adopt, aiming simply at\nbeing able to pass the tests of examination that await him only at long\nintervals of his progress.\n\n5. Q. How are the examinations of college students conducted in this\ncountry? A. The student is examined, not only at certain widely separated\nstations in his course, but every day.\n\n6. Q. What is said of the standard of performance in recitation? A.\nIt varies greatly under different teachers, at different colleges, in\ndifferent classes. It is never anywhere too high.\n\n7. Q. What is the average maximum accomplished in colleges in any one\nGreek author? A. About one hundred pages of text.\n\n8. Q. What is probably a fair estimate for the average number of terms in\nwhich Greek is studied by the Greek student? A. Five or six terms, and it\nis rarely the case that to any one Greek author more than a single term\nis devoted.\n\n9. Q. On an average how many Greek authors are introduced into a college\nGreek course? A. Six are as many as are perhaps introduced on an average.\n\n10. Q. What is the plan in the present book? A. To give the readers a\ntaste of some ten or twelve Greek authors, representing four departments\nof Greek literature.\n\n11. Q. What are the four departments of Greek literature represented? A.\nHistory, philosophy, poetry, and eloquence.\n\n12. Q. Who are the historians represented? A. Herodotus and Thucydides.\n\n13. Q. What title has been bestowed upon Herodotus? A. The father of\nhistory.\n\n14. Q. How many years may have elapsed after Homer wrote the world\u2019s\nfirst great epic, before Herodotus wrote the world\u2019s first great history?\nA. Five hundred years.\n\n15. Q. When did Thucydides write his historical masterpiece? A. Promptly\nafter Herodotus\u2014perhaps while Herodotus was still among the living.\n\n16. Q. What makes Herodotus differ so much in seeming antiquity from his\nyounger contemporary, Thucydides? A. It is largely the striking contrast\nin tone and manner between the two historians.\n\n17. Q. What has gained for Herodotus a traditional and popular repute\nof untrustworthiness, that he is far from deserving? A. His credulity,\ntogether with his plan of reporting reports, to a great extent\nirrespective of their probable truth.\n\n18. Q. What is said of Herodotus\u2019s efforts to gain information? A. He\nwas very painstaking in his efforts to gain information, and traveled\nextensively.\n\n19. Q. What does the word history in its present universal usage mean? A.\nA supposedly trustworthy account, written with a degree of philosophical\ninsight into cause and effect, of transactions rising to a certain height\nof importance and dignity.\n\n20. Q. In the use of Herodotus what did the word history mean? A. Merely\na report of investigations, researches, inquiries undertaken by the\nauthor.\n\n21. Q. What is there to the conception of Herodotus\u2019s work? A. A kind of\nepic majesty and sweep.\n\n22. Q. Where and when was Herodotus born? A. In Halicarnassus, a Dorian\nGreek colony on the coast of Asia Minor, about 484 B. C.\n\n23. Q. When and where did Herodotus die? A. When and where he died is not\ncertainly known.\n\n24. Q. What made up to Herodotus the whole world of mankind? A. The\nGreeks and the Barbarians.\n\n25. Q. What are the ultimate objective points at which he aims? A. First,\nMarathon, and then Thermopyl\u00e6 and Salamis, with Plat\u00e6a and Mycale.\n\n26. Q. To reach these points what start does the history take? A. From\nthe origin of those empires older than the Persian, which in due time the\nPersian received and swallowed up.\n\n27. Q. Of what countries does it fall within the comprehensive design of\nthe history to treat? A. Of Lydia, Egypt, Babylon, Scythia, Libya, as\nwell as of Persia and Greece.\n\n28. Q. From what fact does the book on Egypt have a peculiar interest?\nA. From the fact of its being the only literature to furnish information\nconcerning that country parallel with the information contained in the\nBible.\n\n29. Q. To what parts of the history does the present author chiefly limit\nhimself? A. To the story of Cr\u0153sus and the invasion of Xerxes.\n\n30. Q. What do these two parts together best illustrate? A. The peculiar\ntheory of human life upon which Herodotus conceived and composed his\nhistory.\n\n31. Q. How does Cr\u0153sus come in our historian\u2019s way? A. As having,\naccording to Herodotus, been the first Asiatic to commence hostilities\nagainst the Greeks.\n\n32. Q. What Greek colonies did Cr\u0153sus bring under his dominion? A. The\nGreek colonies in Asia Minor.\n\n33. Q. Of what empire was Cr\u0153sus the ruler? A. The Lydian empire.\n\n34. Q. For whom did Sardis, the capital of the Lydian empire, become the\nresort? A. For the sages of Greece.\n\n35. Q. Whom among the Greek celebrities to visit him did Cr\u0153sus make his\nown guest, and lodge him in his palace? A. Solon.\n\n36. Q. With what is the first considerable extract from Herodotus made by\nour author occupied? A. With an account of a conversation between Solon\nand Cr\u0153sus.\n\n37. Q. Against whom did Cr\u0153sus make war? A. Cyrus, king of Persia.\n\n38. Q. What was the result of the war in which Cr\u0153sus engaged with Cyrus?\nA. Sardis was taken by Cyrus and Cr\u0153sus made a captive.\n\n39. Q. How was Cr\u0153sus treated by Cyrus after he became his prisoner? A.\nHe was made his companion and counselor.\n\n40. Q. An account of the capture of what city by Cyrus is given in the\nextracts from Herodotus? A. The capture of Babylon.\n\n41. Q. To what is nearly the entire second book of Herodotus\u2019s history\ndevoted? A. To an account of Egypt, the land and the people.\n\n42. Q. What plan has our author followed in making extracts from\nHerodotus\u2019s history of the invasion of Greece by Xerxes? A. A few salient\nanecdotes are selected from the full store supplied by Herodotus.\n\n43. Q. What aim are the selections made to serve? A. Not only to show the\nmatter and method of Herodotus, but to illustrate the characters of two\nmen in particular, brought into the strong light of mutual contrast by\nthe struggle\u2014Xerxes and Themistocles.\n\n44. Q. To what is the fact due that Thucydides is not so entertaining\na historian as Herodotus? A. Partly to the nature of his subject; but\npartly to the nature of the man.\n\n45. Q. What does Thucydides describe in his history? A. The so-called\nPeloponnesian war.\n\n46. Q. To what conflict is this name given? A. To a conflict, continued\nwith little interruption during twenty-seven years, between Sparta, with\nher allies, on the one side, and Athens, with her allies, on the other.\n\n47. Q. What was the prize contended for in this war? A. The leadership in\nHellenic affairs.\n\n48. Q. How did Thucydides regard the Peloponnesian war? A. He thought\nthat never in the world had there been a war so great as promised in its\nimminency to be the Peloponnesian war.\n\n49. Q. In what particulars is the history of Thucydides important? A.\nNot as history, but, first, as literature, and secondly, as fund of\nillustration for the Greek national genius, it is of the very highest\nimportance.\n\n50. Q. In what form is it composed? A. In the form of annals, that is,\nthe events and incidents are related chronologically by years.\n\n\nII.\u2014FIFTY QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS ON \u201cTHE CHARACTER OF JESUS.\u201d\n\n51. Q. What is the design of the author in the argument of the book under\nconsideration? A. To show the self-evidencing, superhuman character of\nChrist, forbidding his possible classification with men.\n\n52. Q. What is the grand peculiarity of the sacred writings? A. That they\ndeal in supernatural events and transactions, and show the fact of a\ncelestial institution finally erected on earth.\n\n53. Q. Who is the central figure of Christianity? A. Jesus Christ, and\nwith him the entire fabric either stands or falls.\n\n54. Q. In the argument, what is, and what is not assumed, in regard to\nthe narrative by which the manner and facts of the life of Jesus are\nreported to us? A. The truth of the narrative is not assumed, but only\nthe representations themselves as being just what they are.\n\n55. Q. On what is it proposed to rest a principal argument for\nChristianity as a supernatural institution? A. On the single question of\nthe more than human character of Jesus.\n\n56. Q. What is the first peculiarity at the root of his character? A.\nThat he begins life with a perfect youth.\n\n57. Q. What is the early character of Jesus in this respect? A. It is a\npicture that stands by itself.\n\n58. Q. What element in the character of Jesus in his maturity do we\ndiscover at once which distinguishes it from all human characters? A. His\ninnocence.\n\n59. Q. How does human piety begin? A. With repentance.\n\n60. Q. What does Christ, in the character given him, acknowledge as to\nsin? A. He never acknowledges sin.\n\n61. Q. What elements of character was Christ able perfectly to unite?\nA. Elements of character that others find the greatest difficulty in\nuniting, however unevenly and partially.\n\n62. Q. What attitude of Jesus is distinct from any that was ever taken\nby a sane man, and is yet triumphantly sustained? A. The attitude of\nsupremacy toward the race, and inherent affinity or oneness with God.\n\n63. Q. What is there peculiar in the passive side of the character of\nJesus? A. In opposition to the impression of the world generally, Christ\nconnects the non-resisting and gentle passivities with a character of the\nseverest grandeur and majesty.\n\n64. Q. What is it easy to distinguish in what is called pre\u00ebminently the\npassion of Christ? A. A character which separates it from all mere human\nmartyrdoms.\n\n65. Q. In what way does Christ show himself to be a superhuman character\neven more sublimely than in the personal traits exhibited in his life?\nA. In the undertakings, works, and teachings, by which he proved his\nMessiahship.\n\n66. Q. What was the grand idea in the mission of Christ? A. To new-create\nthe human race and restore it to God, in the unity of a spiritual kingdom.\n\n67. Q. How is the plan of Christ related to time? A. It is a plan as\nuniversal in time as it is in the scope of its objects.\n\n68. Q. With whom does Christ take rank? A. He takes rank with the poor,\nand grounds all the immense expectations of his cause on a beginning made\nwith the lowly and dejected classes of the world.\n\n69. Q. Hitherto what opinion had prevailed among all the great statesmen\nand philosophers of the world, in regard to a great change or reform in\nsociety beginning with the poor? A. No philosopher who had conceived\nthe notion of building up an ideal state or republic ever thought of\nbeginning with the poor.\n\n70. Q. Where was any hope of reaching the world by any scheme of social\nregeneration to begin? A. With the higher classes, and through them\noperate its results.\n\n71. Q. How is the more than human character of Jesus further displayed in\nhis thus identifying himself with the poor? A. In the fact that he was\nyet able to do it without eliciting any feeling of partisanship in them.\n\n72. Q. What is noticed first of all in the teaching of Christ? A. The\nperfect originality and independence of his teaching.\n\n73. Q. What is not to be detected by any sign in his teaching? A. That\nthe human sphere in which he moved imparted anything to him.\n\n74. Q. By what methods does he not teach? A. He does not teach by the\nhuman methods.\n\n75. Q. In what particular does he never reveal the infirmity so commonly\nshown by human teachers? A. He never veers a little from the point, or\nturns his doctrine off by shades of variation to catch the assent of\nmultitudes.\n\n76. Q. What is one remarkable fact that distinguishes Christ from any\nother known teacher of the world? A. Words could never turn him to a\none-sided view of anything.\n\n77. Q. What was the relation of Christ to the superstitions of his times?\nA. He was perfectly clear of all the current superstitions.\n\n78. Q. Of what did Christ never take the ground or boast the distinction?\nA. Of a liberal among his countrymen.\n\n79. Q. What is a remarkable and even superhuman distinction of Jesus\nin regard to the simplicity of his teachings? A. While he is advancing\ndoctrines so far transcending all deductions of philosophy, and opening\nmysteries that defy all human powers of explication, he is yet able to\nset his teachings in a form of simplicity that accommodates all classes\nof minds.\n\n80. Q. What form for truth was Jesus first able to find? A. A form for\ntruth adequate to all the world\u2019s uses.\n\n81. Q. What is the character of the God that Christ revealed? A. God\nwhom the humblest artisan can teach, and all mankind embrace with a faith\nthat unifies them all.\n\n82. Q. In what has the morality of Jesus a potential superiority to that\nof all human teachers? A. In the fact that it is not an artistic or\ntheoretically elaborated scheme, but one that is propounded in precepts\nthat carry their own evidence.\n\n83. Q. What is a high distinction of Christ\u2019s character as seen in his\nteachings? A. That he is never anxious for the success of his doctrines.\n\n84. Q. In what was the character of Jesus different from that of all the\nmere men of the race as shown by familiarity? A. Instead of being reduced\nin eminence, as human characters are, it was raised and made sacred by\nfamiliarity.\n\n85. Q. What two questions now remain which the argument of the author\nrequires to be answered? A. Did any such being as Jesus actually exist?\nand, if so, was he a sinless character?\n\n86. Q. What can we believe more easily than that Christ was a man, and\nyet a perfect character, such as here given? A. We can believe any\nmiracle more easily.\n\n87. Q. If Jesus was a sinner, of what was he conscious? A. He was\nconscious of sin, as all sinners are, and, therefore, was a hypocrite in\nthe whole fabric of his character.\n\n88. Q. What would such an example of successful hypocrisy be of itself?\nA. The greatest miracle ever heard of in the world.\n\n89. Q. What is Mr. Parker\u2019s estimate of the doctrine of Christ? A. \u201cHe\npours out a doctrine beautiful as the light, sublime as heaven, and true\nas God.\u201d\n\n90. Q. What is the first conclusion reached by our author in his\nargument? A. That Christ actually lived and bore the real character\nascribed to him in history.\n\n91. Q. What is the second conclusion? A. That he was a sinless character.\n\n92. Q. What is it incredible and contrary to reason to suppose of a being\nout of humanity? A. That he will be shut up within all the limitations of\nhumanity.\n\n93. Q. Jesus being a miracle himself, if he did not work miracles what\nwould it be? A. It would be the greatest of all miracles.\n\n94. Q. What is said of the mythical hypothesis to account for the\nChristian miracles advanced by the critics who deny them? A. It is itself\nimpossible.\n\n95. Q. What have the evangelists been able to give us concerning Christ?\nA. A doctrine upon which the world has never advanced, and a character so\ndeep that the richest hearts have felt nothing deeper, and added nothing\nto the sentiment of it.\n\n96. Q. Of what are these mighty works of Jesus, which have been done and\nduly certified, a fit expression to us? A. Of the fact that he can do for\nus all that we want.\n\n97. Q. What does our author call the spirit of Jesus unabridged? A. The\ngreat miracle of Christianity.\n\n98. Q. What only can draw the soul to faith, and open it to the power of\na supernatural and new-creative mercy? A. Nothing but to say, \u201cJesus of\nNazareth, a man approved of God by miracles and signs which God did by\nhim.\u201d\n\n99. Q. In what way are all the conditions of life raised by the advent of\nJesus? A. By the meaning he has shown to be in them, and the grace he has\nput upon them.\n\n100. Q. What does our author say it would be easier to do than to get the\ncharacter of Jesus out of the world? A. It were easier to untwist all the\nbeams of light in the sky, separating and expunging one of the colors.\n\n\n\n\nTHE CHAUTAUQUA UNIVERSITY.\n\nTHE CORRESPONDENCE SCHOOLS.\n\nBY PROF. R. S. HOLMES, A.M.\n\n\n\u201cWhat is the relation of the Correspondence Schools to the University?\u201d\n\n\u201cI am a member of the Correspondence Class in German; am I also a member\nof the University?\u201d\n\nCorrespondents have recently asked these questions. They are important\nenough to receive public answer, since they represent many of the same\nimport. They exhibit an uncertainty concerning the relation of the\nUniversity to other Chautauqua institutions, which should be removed. To\naccomplish it is our present purpose.\n\nWe answer the first easily. There is no relation between the University\nand the Correspondence Schools; the latter have ceased to exist as\nseparate institutions. We answer the second easily, though this answer\nmay seem to contradict the former. A member of the Correspondence Class\nin German is, and is not, a member of the University. Both answers are\ntrue. The separate existence of the Correspondence School has ceased,\nbut its existence in the University as the College of Modern Languages\ncontinues.\n\nAgain, although members of the Correspondence School are thus in the\nUniversity, they are not matriculated members, not having met the\nmatriculation requirement. The faculty is unchanged. Dr. Worman directs\nthe College of Modern Languages; Prof. Lalande the Department of French.\n\nBut the answers thus given do not meet the spirit of the questions. To\ndo this we must review the history which has resulted in the Chautauqua\nUniversity. The Chautauqua Summer School of Languages held its first\nsession in the summer of 1879. It made no claim to originality. It was\namong the earlier of these popular schools, and has achieved an enviable\nreputation. It ranged itself from the outset on the side of the so called\n\u201cnew education.\u201d It adopted the system of Pestalozzi, and announced to\nthe world the opening of a school for instruction in language by the\nnatural method. Six schools were organized with a brilliant corps of\nteachers. After the lapse of six years, it is the candid judgment of\na careful observer, that better teaching has never been done on this\ncontinent than was done in that first session of the Chautauqua Summer\nSchool. The original heads of the French and German Schools still occupy\ntheir positions with honor alike to themselves and to Chautauqua, while\nthe standard of excellence has never been higher than at the present hour.\n\nThe session of the Summer School lasted for six weeks. It early became\nevident that these six weeks must in some way be supplemented if the\nstudent was to make any lasting acquisition. To meet this necessity\nmembers of the school were advised to continue their work at home, and\nwere assured that needed aid would be rendered by correspondence by their\ndepartment professors. The attempt was made. It failed. The causes were\nnumerous. There was the lack of the teacher\u2019s presence, and of a bond of\nunion. Professional duties claimed the teacher\u2019s time. Acquaintance had\nbeen too brief to create even personal interest of teacher in pupil. The\nstudent had no incentive to persistent effort, there was a lamentable\nwant of system, and the correspondence was irregular and unsatisfactory.\nIt failed; but failure is not the end of Chautauqua enterprises. Another\nyear witnessed another effort for an after-school course of study. One\nperson was selected to receive all inquiries from the students, to\nforward them to the respective teachers, and to secure from the teachers\nprompt attention. This attempt failed; but failure brought yet deeper\nconviction that there were great possibilities in the after-school\nidea, if only a true method of work could be found. There were a few\npatient students who had persevered notwithstanding the difficulties.\nSomething must be provided for them. After much deliberation a plan for\nCorrespondence Schools was adopted. There was to be a regular course of\nstudy, lasting from October to July. Ten dollars was to be the annual\ntuition fee. Each professor was pledged to a definite amount of work, and\neach school was to have the benefit of the Chautauqua name; but there was\nno homogeneity. Each professor was independent of every other, giving\nattention only to the details of his own particular school, and with no\ninterest save his own. The only benefit that could accrue to Chautauqua\nwas a possible increase in attendance upon the Summer School.\n\nThe plan succeeded. For three years teachers and students have worked\nsuccessfully. True, there have been disadvantages. French and German\nare living languages. Pronunciation is difficult even to one trained in\nlanguage when aided by a present native teacher. Valuable as the lesson\npaper may be in helping to a knowledge of principles and translation, it\ncan not speak, nor tell another how to speak. Yet it is plain that one\nwho is correctly trained in principles, and can with rapidity translate,\ncould easily master pronunciation when once in contact with the living\nteacher.\n\nBut notwithstanding these difficulties the schools have been successful.\nGood work has been done. The students have made notable progress; and\nsome able to attend the Summer School, have speedily added to their\nfoundation in principle the essentials of correct pronunciation. The\nproblem was solved; but with its solution came another important\nquestion. Why may not all the subjects embraced in a college curriculum\nbe taught by correspondence? To this there can be but one answer: There\nis no reason why any subject may not be so taught, except such as require\nthe use of instruments and the performance of experiments; and for these\ngood local instructors could be obtained. The next and logical step is\nthe incorporation and organization of the Chautauqua University.\n\nWe have now reached a point where a comprehensive answer can be made to\nthe questions which begin this paper. To organize the University, the\nprofessors identified with the Correspondence Schools were retained,\nwhile the schools themselves, which had achieved success by efforts of\nChautauqua officials, and through the prestige of the Chautauqua name,\nwere merged in Chautauqua\u2019s crowning glory\u2014the University.\n\nHenceforth there are no separate and unrelated institutions, which\nprofessors shall control and direct as circumstances allow; but\neach is part of one grand institution, watched over and directed by\nits Chancellor, and managed through its central office. All this is\neffected without prejudice to any interest. The professor becomes\nthe representative of an institution which will hereafter be known\nas the pioneer in the grandest educational movement of the century.\nThe student, from an isolated class, is brought into relation with\nmany other departments of study, with a curriculum which may end in a\ndiploma and degree. All this has been possible only through the work\nwhich Chautauqua has accomplished. Not only has it been possible, but\npossible at a merely nominal cost. The little tuition charged has gone\nas an inadequate compensation to the faithful work of talented teachers.\nChautauqua has received from these sources no pecuniary benefit. Here\nis a question for each student of the Correspondence Schools to ponder:\nDo I not owe something to the University in return for the advantages I\nhave enjoyed, and to aid it in extending them to others? Here, too, is\nan anomaly: A University planning the largest educational work, without\na dollar of endowment and with meager provision for necessary expenses.\nIn addition to the former tuition fee of ten dollars there is required\nfrom all students, before entering, the payment of a matriculation fee\nof five dollars. Only those who have paid this fee are enrolled upon\nthe University books. This explains the statement already made, that\nmembers of the Correspondence classes were, and were not, members of\nthe University. There is no purpose to disturb the present status of\nthe schools of French, German and English. Those who entered them under\nthe previous arrangement are entitled to the benefits promised them.\nShould any student in these schools feel disposed to aid the work by the\npayment of the matriculation fee, proper acknowledgment will be made. It\nwill not for the present year be required; but with the expiration of\nthe year, when the obligation between student and teacher has been met,\nthe University will assert its right to demand full conformance to its\nrequirements by all who participate in its privileges. Professors will\nno longer be burdened with business details. All fees will be sent to\nthe central office, and through it students will be introduced to their\nprofessors, and the University will enter upon a future of usefulness\nwhich no forecasting can express.\n\n\n\n\n\u201cINVINCIBLE\u201d\u2014CLASS OF \u201985.\n\nBY PHEBE A. HOLDER.\n\n\n    The age is trembling with the steps\n      Of an advancing God,\n    Our pulses feel the thrill and beat\n      With sympathetic chord.\n    The everlasting doors of Truth\n      Stand open to our sight,\n    Along the shining way she leads\n      We walk in purest light.\n\n    Her precious words inspire the soul,\n      Touch every hidden key,\n    Sweep every chord with subtle power,\n      And wondrous sympathy.\n    A large, rich soul can always give,\n      Scatter its wealth around,\n    And like the sun that lights the world,\n      No poorer shall be found.\n\n    To meet the morning we go forth\n      Leaving behind the night,\n    And face the full, clear blaze that glows\n      With pure electric light.\n    Press on while deeper meanings come\n      Into the wondrous years,\n    And brighter with God\u2019s changeless love\n      Immortal life appears.\n\n    \u201cPress on to reach the things before\u201d\n      Our watchword still shall be,\n    Until is sown the golden crown\n      Of immortality.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S OUTLOOK.\n\n\nPRACTICAL LOYALTY\u2014C. L. S. C. BOOKS.\n\nThe C. L. S. C. text-books are adapted to the peculiar method of C. L.\nS. C. work. They are the result of efforts to meet the wants of the\nmain body of our members, and there has been no hap-hazard in their\nselection, but careful, patient and abundant thoughtfulness. Sometimes a\nmember desires to substitute some book not in the course for one of ours.\nSometimes his request may be granted; often it may not be granted. In the\nfirst place, it is desirable that there should be uniformity in the work\ndone, and this we secure, for the most part, by uniform text-books. In a\ncollege, the uniformity is secured by the living teacher; we must secure\nours by the printed page. Our need of common text-books is therefore\npeculiar and imperative. If we granted all the requests for substitutions\nwhich might be made, we should end by frittering away our course of\nstudy. We might seriously impair it by granting only those requests which\nseem to those who make them to be entirely reasonable. There must be hard\nand fast lines in any system of instruction; in our system the uniform\ntext-books make one of those lines. It is our means of keeping together,\nof easily communicating with each other, of simplifying examinations\nand assisting our members in overcoming difficulties. In a rare case, a\nsubstitution may be allowed; but the substituted book must be equally\ngood and equally _fresh_. Very few old text-books are now good. The\nsubjects have undergone changes of importance either in the principles\nor the modes of illustrating them. A good text-book must be a fresh\nbook. Furthermore, our books are specially adapted to private study; the\nordinary school-books are made to be interpreted by a living teacher. The\nfull meaning of this difference will not be grasped at once by those who\nhave not thought about it. We have had to think about it. Our success\ndepended upon our thinking about it to some purpose. The result of much\nthinking and careful planning is the Chautauqua system of text-books. We\nfind it more and more important to adhere to our own books. _The books\nare our teachers._\n\nWe hope, therefore, that those who have desired changes to meet their\nspecial wants will remember the reason why their wishes can not be\nconsulted. There is a call for loyalty on their part to the system.\nIt depends on their loving it enough to forego some personal feelings\nor interests. We are in special and numerous ways dependent upon the\naffectionate respect of our members for the invisible authority of\nthis institution\u2014just as colleges depend on a like feeling toward the\nvisible authority in their work. The colleges select their text-books;\nwe select ours. In each case, substitutions ought to be very rare. If\nthe disappointed applicant for a change of book has a loyal feeling\ntoward the C. L. S. C. he will cheerfully sacrifice his preferences or\nhis convenience to the welfare of the whole body. The whole body must\nmove on common lines to common ends; and the individual members keep\nstep, because a great army can not march in any other way\u2014the individual\nmust co\u00f6perate in the movement according to a common plan. We therefore\nappeal to the loyalty of our members to aid us in all reasonable ways\nto maintain our system of uniform books. We see more clearly than\nthey possibly can that this uniformity is vital to the C. L. S. C.\norganization.\n\n\nTHE DISHONESTY OF REPUDIATION.\n\nIn the _North American Review_ for December Mr. John F. Hume repeats his\nappeal to the honest people of this country to vindicate the national\nhonor by paying the dishonored bonds of twelve states. Mr. Hume is\nsevere and almost bitter; but he tells us some truth which must needs\nbe unpleasant and should be seriously told. We are in an anomalous\nposition in the matter of these state debts; the states are by the\neleventh amendment secure from legal pursuit, and the Union secures them\nfrom the forcible settlement which the law of nations authorizes. There\nis no doubt that each of these states would have been seized for debt\nby foreign powers, just as Mexico was seized a few years ago, if the\nnational government did not cover them with its protection. The evil is\nprecisely this, that the constitution cuts off creditors of states from\nany remedy when the states do not pay their debts. This state of things\nwas brought about by the whole people when the eleventh amendment was\nadopted. We are all therefore responsible for state roguery. We have,\nthough unintentionally, authorized the repudiation by opening the door\nto it; and so long as we leave the door open we are responsible for the\nrascally people who repudiate state bonds. We have tried hard to see some\nescape from the logic of Mr. Hume; but we have found none. We are as a\nnation responsible for the existence of these dishonored debts, which now\nexceed three hundred millions of dollars. We are a dishonest nation; it\nis a hard saying, but it is the exact truth of the case.\n\nThe logical remedy is the repeal of the eleventh amendment, but\nunfortunately there is no hope of that. The defaulting states are too\nnumerous; and there is further some doubt whether the rest of us are\nhonest enough to approve such a reform. Representatives in legislatures\nand in Congress are liable to be influenced by a set of considerations\nwhich have no proper relation to the matter. It is affirmed that the\nstates were wronged by their officers in the issue of the bonds; that the\nbonds are now held by men who bought them for a small part of their face\nvalue; and that to pay them is to honor the rascalities which gave them\nbirth, and reward speculators in unreasonable measure. If the subject\nis pressed upon our attention, we shall be told, and have no reason to\ndisbelieve it, that the speculators are spending money through a lobby,\nand that the road to honor lies through more filth than is piled up\nin the path of dishonor. The evil, we shall be told, is done, and is\nirremediable. We can not reach the persons who were really wronged. They\nhave parted with their property at an almost total sacrifice; the present\nholders have no _moral_ rights whatever. All this has been plentifully\nsaid, and it has lulled many consciences to sleep. Another moral opiate\nis the _fact_ that the creditors had due notice that the states could\nnot be sued at law, and therefore can not complain of this defect in\nour constitution. But this is a two-edged argument and might well rouse\na sleepy conscience. These state debts are for this very reason debts\nof honor, such as honest men pay before all other debts. And yet, it\nis true, and pity \u2019tis \u2019tis true, no hope exists that the unfortunate\namendment can be repealed. It is perfectly just to say that it would\nbe proper to accompany the repeal with any legislation which might be\nrequired to enable courts to take account of all the equities in each\ncase, even to require that original holders of bonds, or their heirs be\nfound, and that any reduction from par in the original sales be allowed\nto the state. It would, in short, be possible to do justice as exactly as\nmen can do justice in transactions of this complicated character, and to\nsecure the tax-payers of the states in default against any oppression.\nBut the great public is not going to be convinced. It will be said that\nthe remedial measure is for the relief of idle rich men in Wall street,\nand Congressmen and legislators will be warned not to sign their death\nwarrants. In the course of such a campaign so much immorality will be\ntaught, so many men now decent in life will be manufactured into rascals,\nthat it may be wiser not to attempt to repeal the eleventh amendment. It\nis a disagreeable conclusion to reach, but we reach it frankly: We are a\ndishonest nation. There is no reasonable hope, rather no shadow of hope,\nthat we can purge ourselves in the matter of dishonored state bonds.\nThere are not enough honest voters to redeem our reputation. We may\nsucceed in raising up an honest generation to follow us; for our part,\nwe of this generation must wear the stigma and groan under the burden of\nour dishonor. We are not able to allow creditors of defaulting states\nto present their cases to our own courts and have them passed upon as\nall other debts are. The nation has a court to consider claims against\nitself; but a state is free of even such supervision, and is authorized\nto be guilty of any dishonesty. The other remedy which Mr. Hume proposes\nis not practicable for the foregoing reasons. He proposes that the\nnation shall assume all these debts. We could easily pay them; but for\nthat matter, it would be easier for the indebted states to pay them than\nnot to pay them. No one doubts that the state of Illinois did the best\nthing financially when in 1845 it assumed and provided for the crushing\ndebt\u2014for which, by the way, it had very little to show as value received.\nGood men avoid dishonest communities, and such states are resorted to by\nmen of prey. Granted, however, that we might pass in Congress the proper\nbills to pay the dishonored bonds of states, it would certainly be better\nto pay thus than to bear our reproach. And yet this would only give us\na short rest. The next decade would find us plunged back into the gulf\nof disgrace. So long as dishonest men can create debts, for which no\none is legally responsible, by using the names of states, the business\nof making us all responsible for scoundrelism will go on. No, we will\nmodify that. The men who made the debts are not necessarily rascals. They\nmay mean that posterity shall pay the debts; but so long as a dishonest\nlegislature can with a stroke of the pen plunge us back into dishonor,\nit is hardly worth while to pay the dishonored millions now staring our\nconsciences in the face and humiliating us to the dust. The bill for\npaying off the debts should be contingent on the repeal of the eleventh\namendment. In short, this repeal is the only road to honor. When we shake\nourselves from our rogueries, we shall have to march to the eleventh\namendment and wash ourselves in a national act of repeal. We write most\nsorrowfully our conviction that we shall not for some time rid ourselves\nof this uncleanness.\n\nMr. Hume very properly calls attention to the solemn silence of our\nAmerican churches on this subject. We are glad that he has done so.\nOur church organizations are verily guilty in the matter. They often\nlift up their voices on subjects of far less obvious and direct moral\nconcernment. We are living in a state of the national law whose direct\neffect is to make every citizen a thief, a partaker with thieves in their\nviolation of the eighth commandment. Decalogue religion is, we sometimes\nfear, a little below par. Thousands of our citizens who are church\nmembers fail miserably in keeping the Decalogue in their public conduct\nas voters and members of political parties. And yet we believe that the\nsilence of our churches is due to the forgetfulness of the facts, or to\ndespair of any real and permanent cure. It is a hard case. More than one\nnewspaper has asked how many bonds Mr. Hume owns; and the ministers who\nurge the duty of public honesty will in fact find themselves aiding and\nabetting the schemes of Wall street speculators and lobbyists. The road\nto righteousness is so foul and so infested with thieves that sublime\ncourage is necessary to him who attempts the journey. We have written\nevery sentence of this article with a consciousness that we are offending\nmen who see the uncleanness of the path to honor, and _do not_ see that\nit is the righteous road in spite of the foul smells with which it reeks.\nWe recall such to the simple facts: First, by the eleventh amendment a\nstate can not be sued. It is the only debt-creating power in the Union\nwhich is above any form of judicial inquiry or compulsion. Even the Union\nhas a court of claims whose decisions are respected by Congress. Second,\nmore than three hundred millions of money is apparently due by defaulting\nstates to their creditors. The nation stands between the creditors and\nthe states, and bars the way to the courts. It is our one colossal and\nunpardonable crime against the eighth commandment.\n\n\nTHE FALL IN PRICES.\n\nIt is often disagreeable to admit a plain truth, and there are truths\nwhich one may safely admit in private which have an almost incendiary\ncharacter when printed. To admit in private that the commercial outlook\nis not good costs nothing; to print the fact and prove it is to run the\nrisk of aggravating the causes of the unpromising condition of affairs.\nThe public is like a patient whose chance of recovery depends upon his\nnot knowing his critical condition. If his nerves get to playing around\nthat danger, they may drag him into it. To state in printed words that\nthe times are bad and growing worse might be to tell a truth; but it\nwould tend to produce the worse times. This is the reason why editors\nare either silent, or even lie a little, in seasons of financial\nand commercial depression. But it is also true that in our present\ncircumstances there are unpleasant things which admit of mitigation, and\neven of radical cure; and it is perhaps wiser to state what most of us\nknow and suggest the remedies for an evil case.\n\nIt is known that the wages of laboring men and clerks all over the\ncountry are being cut down. It is probably within the mark to say that\nseven millions of wage-earners (of all classes) will receive in 1885 an\naverage of ten per cent. less compensation for their services than they\nreceived in 1884. Assuming a very low average for the old wages, $1.25\nper day, the total reduction in wages for the year will amount to more\nthan $260,000,000. This amount will of course be taken from the net total\nof trade. The workmen and clerks will buy two hundred and sixty million\ndollars worth less of goods in 1885. The reduction will be dispersed over\na large area, but it will not spread into a thinness which will render it\nimpalpable. Nor does the reduction end with the workmen. All the persons\nof whom workmen buy manufactured goods will buy less for their own\nconsumption\u2014they also will have less to buy with. This class is a very\nlarge one, and there are few of us who do not belong in it\u2014are not in\nsome way dependent on workmen for patronage. To say that all these will\nreduce their annual purchases two hundred and sixty millions, carrying\nthe reduction up to five hundred and twenty millions, is probably within\nthe mark. We may as well consider in this connection the reductions\nin the price of farm products, another great drain on the volume of\ntrade. Agricultural products are worth at most ten per cent. less than\nin 1883. The effect of the reduction in prices of farm products acts\nmore disastrously on trade, since farmers usually double their caution.\nThey will not merely buy ten per cent. less; they will buy as little\nas possible. Old clothes, old wagons, old tools, will be kept in use,\nand it may be within the mark to say that the loss of farmers\u2019 trade of\nall sorts will amount to as much as all the others\u2014to five hundred and\ntwenty millions more. One thousand and forty millions taken off from the\n_net_ total of sales of goods will necessarily be keenly missed. The\npayment of all the national debt in a prosperous year would be easier\nand more pleasant. If it had no compensations this reduction would\ncrush the life out of us. At least it is a burden to bear. Economies\nupon customary spending in a single household matter but little, but\neconomies in millions of households\u2014less buying of customary comforts\u2014are\na large matter. They are not merely a consequence of hard times; they\nmake the times hard. And we are so bound together that the enforced\neconomies in the families of workmen act on the whole purchasing line\nwith mathematical certainty. It is a good thing, a beneficence of natural\norder, that there are compensations. We see these natural offsets most\neasily by looking back at the case of the farmer. He has to sell his food\nin a cheaper market, and wants to buy also in a cheaper market. He has\nmade food cheaper for the workman, and he wants the goods made by the\nworkman at less cost. He wants the same amount of cloth, sugar, salt,\ntools, etc., for the same number of bushels of wheat. It is the cloth,\ntools, etc., that he wants as a farmer. As a debtor, indeed, he wants\nthe same number of dollars; and this is _his_ real pinch. He is in debt,\nand has to pay in the fall of grain a twenty per cent. premium on what\nhe owes. As a producer, he would, however, suffer no harm if all other\nprices fell as much as the price of grain. If, then, by the corresponding\nand simultaneous reduction of the price of food and of wages, the ten\nper cent. less money would buy the same things to eat and wear\u2014if the\nreduction were equalized all round\u2014nobody would suffer. The farmer\u2019s\ngrain would buy as much as before; the workman\u2019s wages would buy as much.\nGoods of all kinds would be so much cheaper in money terms, but just as\nvaluable in barter terms. The reduction would be only in the figures and\nnot in the facts of trade. The footings of the ledgers would be smaller,\nbut the ledgers of comfort would show an undiminished balance in favor of\nhappiness.\n\nWill it work out in this way? Partly it will; partly it will not. Cheaper\nfood will partly balance the accounts of all parties, but some accounts\nwill not balance. Prices sink or rise unequally. And this is not half\nour trouble. In these matters \u201cthinking makes it so;\u201d the belief that\nwe are losing ground causes the sliding back which we dread. There is\na reluctance to buy what we are accustomed to buy. The reduction in\nwages makes men _feel_ poor; and to feel poor is to be a poor customer\nof the seller. Suppose that a general fall in prices is going on\u2014a\npossibly complete explanation of our troubles\u2014then we must remember\nthat all values are disturbed. We can not make a \u201chorizontal reduction\u201d\nby a stroke of the pen. It must be effected slowly and painfully and\nirregularly and in detail. The results are suffering and depression of\nspirit. The strain is severe, but it has to be borne; and patience really\nlightens all burdens. If we reflect that these stretches of bare ground\nin trade are really safe roads\u2014safer than the smoother paths along which\nwe have driven gaily and recklessly\u2014we shall have confidence to keep\ncompany with patience, and the two will make a rough road tolerable,\nif not enjoyable. Honest and industrious souls thrive in such times.\nSpeculative rogues thrive in good times. The honest man\u2019s chief trouble\nis that he _will_ get into debt. His worst calamity is he is paying now\nwith eighty-cent wheat debts contracted in dollar-wheat prices. The poor\nman can not be helped. May the Lord be good to him.\n\n\u201cBut\u201d one will say, \u201cthis is not our whole disease. We are really at\nwar. Workmen are falling under the wheels of a great machine called\nprogress; and the machine is driven by forces too powerful for any hope\nof resistance. It is not a mere readjustment of prices; it is a life and\ndeath struggle; and the god Competition must be dethroned, or the people\nwill perish.\u201d We do not believe this wild-eyed reformer, but we do expect\na hard winter. Let us all remember the poor.\n\n\n\n\nEDITOR\u2019S NOTE-BOOK.\n\nThe steady growth of this country is shown by the fact that in the\nlast fiscal year there was a net increase of 2,154 in the number of\npost-offices. The total number is now 50,071. About this time it is\ninteresting to learn that there are only 2,323 President\u2019s post-offices\nwith salaries of $1,000 and higher; and there are only 159 free delivery\noffices. The expenses of the last year exceeded the receipts by more than\nthree millions of dollars.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nHostile Apaches continue to be troublesome on the Mexican border. They\nescape across the line and are safe from pursuit. These troubles will\nend when the two governments make permanent arrangements for the pursuit\nof marauders across the boundary. A temporary provision of that kind has\nexisted, but it should be permanent\u2014unless, indeed, our citizens fear\nMexican soldiers more than they fear Indians.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA United States Court has decided in due form that an \u201cIndian not taxed\nis not a citizen of the United States.\u201d It is time he was made a citizen.\nThe fiction of regarding the Indians as independent powers, and dealing\nwith them as tribes, ought to be made an end of. The Indians themselves\nneed the discipline of citizenship, and we need to free ourselves from\na useless and harmful fiction. By all means keep faith to the last\nfarthing, but make a man of this red brother as soon as possible.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA Connecticut paper soberly declares that a citizen of that state did not\nknow the name of either candidate for the presidency until the Saturday\nbefore the election. And yet people unreasonably complain that there was\ntoo much noise in the late campaign.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIt is remarked that Presidential electors were scratched to a\nconsiderable extent this year. It is as unreasonable a performance as\nkicking the stone you have stumbled over, more so indeed for the stone\nhas done you some harm, while a Presidential elector is incapable of\ndoing any harm. He is, by our political customs, merely a machine for\ntransmitting a vote to the candidate of the party. But there has been so\nmuch of this scratching this year that politicians will probably estimate\nits influence hereafter. In a close election this species of scratcher\nmight defeat his own wishes and his party by blind stupidity.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA new life of the witty Sydney Smith has brought to light a new piece of\nhis inimitable jesting. A friend complained to Smith that in an important\ninterview Lord Brougham had treated him _as if he were a fool_. \u201cNever\nmind, never mind,\u201d said the incorrigible wit, in his most sympathetic\ntones, \u201cnever mind, never mind, _he thought you knew it_.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\u201cSwift as the wind\u201d is not very swift after all. The record of its\ntravels in New York City, for a whole week in November, showed only 1,076\nmiles. Ocean steamers go nearly three times as fast, and through trains\nfrom New York to Chicago travel five times as fast. A good pedestrian\nwould beat an average wind if he did not have to rest.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSince the November election there has been a marked increase in business\nfailures. The wages of workmen have been reduced in many places, and many\nmills have suspended. Politicians are not agreed about the cause, but\nit is probable that this will be a hard winter for the poor. Heavenly\ncharity will, we trust, be everywhere equal to the tasks laid upon her.\nRemember the poor.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIt is positively affirmed that physicians regard canned foods as\ndangerous. Many cases of poisoning occur from eating such foods, but\nchemical testimony is divided. Some chemists trace the poisoning to\nspecial conditions of the food used; in other words, the food was in an\nadvanced state of decomposition when it was put into the can. This is the\nopinion recently expressed by an eminent English chemist. In this view,\nproper caution in examining the food will avert all danger.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWhat impressions would our chief cities make on those of us who do not\nlive in them, if we received all our knowledge of them through the\nnewsy papers? San Francisco, for example, is known in that way as the\nhome of Sand Lot orators, astonishing divorce suits, fighting editors,\nand swearing preachers. The latest of these picturesque incidents is\nthe shooting of an editor, Mr. De Young, who is the second man in his\nfamily to be shot by outraged and bloody-minded readers. Such incidents\ndoubtless misrepresent the City of the Golden Gate; but many thousands of\nnewspaper readers know only these miserable doings in San Francisco.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe sacred hen of Brahma has long been at home in American barn-yards;\nand now we learn that for several years the sacred cow of India has been\nestablishing herself in the South. The Brahma cattle, judiciously crossed\nwith English breeds, are becoming fashionable in New Mexico.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nPerhaps the most unfortunate man in the late campaign was a distinguished\none who ostensibly had nothing to do with politics. Ex-Senator Conkling\nis credited with depriving, by secret influence, Mr. Blaine of many\nvotes. The misfortune is in the fact that good and bad politicians agree\nin despising a sneak.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe \u201croller-skating rink\u201d is condemned in vigorous terms by one of the\nMethodist conferences. It is doubtless becoming a nuisance. The base-ball\nbusiness is past praying for, so degraded and disreputable has it become.\nThere seems to be no possibility of maintaining any form of athletics in\na wholesome, moral condition. They are becoming a worse nuisance each\nyear.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe outbreak of cholera in Paris has created almost a panic, in New\nYork, in the middle of November. Cholera has always been a warm weather\ndisease, and the apprehensions of New York were altogether unreasonable.\nThe disease made very little headway in Paris. Perhaps we should provide\nfor its reception in this country next summer; though it could be kept\nout by proper and sufficient quarantine measures.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe advise our readers not to give up Shakspere on account of the\nso-called cipher of the Hon. Ignatius Donnelly. Authority is of some\nimportance in this case, and whatever authority Mr. Donnelly has is in\nMinnesota politics. All that has been reported about Mr. D.\u2019s discovery\nmight be true and still not disturb Shakspere\u2019s claim to the writings\nwhich bear his name.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe last of the patents for sewing machines expired in 1876; but the\nwomen of the country are so attached to the old machines that they would\nnot buy the new, and probably better machines. The result is that the\nnew companies go into bankruptcy and the old companies monopolize the\nbusiness. Here is a plain account of one of the \u201cgrasping monopolies\u201d of\nthe country. A few others are explained by the insane attachment of the\nmen of the country to tools of a particular brand or make.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe notice in the papers an unusual number of reports of contests over\nwills containing charitable bequests. Let us say frankly that we think\nthis post mortem method of being charitable rather a sneaking way of\ndischarging the duty of benevolence. Give like a man what you might keep\nyourself. It is a coward\u2019s way to assess your children to pay your debts\nto philanthropy. A man who really wants to be benevolent is usually able\nto execute his own will. Be your own executor.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe largest farm in America has been sold to foreign nabobs. It is a\ncattle ranch of 800,000 acres in Texas. Mr. King, who has just sold it\nfor $6,500,000, built up this property, beginning with nothing. He is\nnow eighty years old and thinks it time to retire from business. The\nnew owners will operate the farm as a joint stock concern, and it will\nprobably be bankrupt in twenty years. One King is better than a score of\nnabobs for such business.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nDr. Talmage is still picturesquely anti-evolution. In a recent speech\nhe said: \u201cThere ought to be some place where God could go, where the\nevolutionists could not reach him. They keep ordering him off the\npremises.\u2026 According to evolutionists we are only a sort of Alderney\ncow among other cattle. I believe in an evolution of mortality into\nimmortality\u2014a heavenly evolution.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe English House of Lords has obtained a great victory. After a summer\nof agitation in the form of great meetings, monster processions and\nburning eloquence, the Ministry has compromised with the Lords on the\nFranchise bill, on terms dictated by the Lords. The Radicals are very\nangry; but Mr. Gladstone has secured the extension of the ballot to\nsome millions of Englishmen, and is believed to regard this success as\na fitting crown of his public career. He will leave the \u201creform of the\nLords\u201d to his successors.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe immigration of ten months of this year brought us 414,000 new\ncitizens; in the same period last year 501,000 came to us. The reduction\nis less than was expected; but the depression in trade is now acting as a\ncheck on immigration, though matters are even worse in Europe. This is,\nhowever, a stream which will not dry up in this century, perhaps not in\nthe next.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA French chemist has thought of a useful device to prevent accidents\nin the handling of poisons. A large number of persons are killed every\nyear by mistakes of apothecaries, of their friends, or of themselves.\nThe French chemist suggests that white cylindrical bottles be used\nfor medicines to be taken internally, and colored square bottles for\nmedicines to be used externally. The suggestion can be improved by\nadditional devices to prevent mistakes, but half the errors would be cut\noff by the proposed plan.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA great many Republicans are unhappy because their party has not settled\nthe Mormon question. Probably the Senate will resist the admission of\nUtah as a state; but the evil is only postponed. Some vigorous measures\nmust be taken, or plural marriage will become one of the established\nmodes of regulating the American family. If polygamy becomes a state\ninstitution, it will be as strongly entrenched as slavery was; and it may\nbe held that a plural marriage in one state is good in all the states;\nthis is the rule for monogamous marriage.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn New York City, in 1884, eleven thousand and fifty girls under fourteen\nyears of age were arrested by the police; the number of boys of like age\nwas only two thousand two hundred and forty-eight. The disproportion has\nits melancholy lesson.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA story went over the country that the temperance people of an Ohio town\nmobbed and killed a liquor man. The story should have been that some\nrejoicing Democrats refused to leave a saloon, where they were drinking,\nand fatally wounded the proprietor while he was attempting to put them\nout. Our authority for the revised version is the New York _Sun_.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA decision, under the anti-Chinese laws, seems to nullify them. Judge\nBrown has decided that a Chinaman has a right to land and visit with us.\nThis looks reasonable, but we have no police to look him up and send him\npacking when he has visited enough.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Indian question moves to a final settlement. Commissioner Price\nreports a considerable increase in the number of Indian farmers and\nstudents; and General Crook\u2019s annual report on the murderous Apaches of\nNew Mexico and Arizona is full of promise. The General has had no serious\ntrouble with American Apaches for a whole year. Mexican Apaches still\ntrouble us.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA story is circulating that the watch of Arctic-explorer De Long and the\nwatch of his wife stopped at the same instant\u2014he with his watch being in\nthe Arctic Ocean, and she with hers in this country. It is added that\nthe clock at home and the chronometer on the far-off ship united with\nthe watches in the conspiracy. It is not worth while to believe this\nstory, at least not until proper corrections for longitude are made. When\nmeridian time shall be used everywhere, such stories will come within the\nrange of intelligent consideration.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA ghastly corpse of a woman is found among ashes in a cellar in New\nYork City. The police do not know whether it is a case of murder or of\nsuicide. But the pathetic and blood-chilling fact is that many persons\nwho had mysteriously lost female relatives came to see if the body might\nbe that of their sister, wife or friend. Many people go down out of sight\nsuddenly in the waves of city life.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nA commercial treaty with Spain is pending in the United States Senate.\nIts object is to facilitate trade between our country and Cuba. We need\nforeign markets for our manufactures\u2014and those markets lie in the West\nIndies, Mexico, and South America.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Centennial Methodist Conference held in Baltimore, December 10th to\n16th, commemorated the organization in that city, Christmas week, 1784,\nof the Methodist Episcopal Church. It should not be forgotten, however,\nthat Methodism had existed in this country for about twenty years. The\nrecent celebration represented some 3,000,000 of Methodists.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTwo pieces of new wit deserve a place in this record. The first is the\n\u201c288 joke,\u201d and it is explained as \u201ctoo gross.\u201d Spell _too_ with a _w_.\nPepper and salt to your taste. The other describes a sermon as like\nchampagne. The preacher is elated by the criticism until it is added that\n\u201cextra-dry\u201d champagne is meant.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe most unreasonable man we have heard of during the last month went to\na physician to be treated for several diseases. The doctor looked him\nover carefully, minutely examined all the implicated organs, and informed\nthe patient that there was nothing the matter with him, whereupon the\nhero of several diseases assaulted the physician, and became the hero of\na police court.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nQuacks receive a blow by a legal decision in Massachusetts that men\nwho administer drugs, whose effects they do not know, are criminally\nresponsible for the mischief they do. It is common sense and deserves a\nwide circulation.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nSilver dollars continue to accumulate in the Treasury. The Secretary\nadvises Congress to abolish one, two and five dollar bills, so that all\npayments under ten dollars may be made in silver. This is the French\nmethod, and a good one. It is the best compromise offered, and the silver\nmen ought to accept it.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe French are considering a plan to restore the practice of transporting\nex-convicts to some far-off French colony. Experience shows that\ntransportation is the best practical measure for securing the permanent\nreformation of the criminals; but the colonists always object to this\nclass of new citizens.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nWe produce apples for Europe. It is expected that 2,000,000 barrels will\nbe exported this year. Good eating apples are but little cultivated in\nEurope; ours are the best in the world. This is an apple year. Who says\nthat times are hard?\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe Rev. Dr. A. G. Haygood has resigned the presidency of Macon College,\nGeorgia, to give his time to the management of the Slater Educational\nFund. We regret that Dr. Haygood has taken this step. He is a man of\nbroad views and generous impulses, and useful in a high institution of\nlearning. It is not too much to say that he is better known at the North\nthan any educator in the South. His sermons and lectures in Northern\nStates have awakened new sympathies in the hearts of many people for the\ncause of higher education in the South, and indeed, Dr. Haygood has been\none of the best representatives of the South. Always standing firmly by\nhis college and people, he has done much to strengthen the bonds of union\nbetween the two sections. Perhaps his new office will give him a new\nrange on more people, and increase his opportunities for usefulness. It\nis not the privilege of many men to decline the offices of bishop and the\npresidency of a college such as that at Macon inside three years, but Dr.\nHaygood has done both of these things. We predict for him large success\nin his new educational work.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIt is refreshing to find that the Christmas idea of making others\nhappy has at last reached our Sunday-schools. For years teachers and\nparents have made annually an exhaustive effort to feast their schools\non Christmas day. However great their efforts the results could never\nbe entirely satisfactory. Somebody was unavoidably overlooked, and the\nmanagers were always too nearly worn out to enjoy the holiday. A new\nplan, we hope, is to be instituted. Last season many schools tried it,\nmore are making the experiment this year. It is to substitute giving by\nthe school. On Christmas eve the classes bring in offerings for the poor.\nWhatever they wish and their purses allow is offered. The plan meets\nwith the heartiest reception wherever proposed, the smallest children\noften being the most eager to give. A general adoption of this method of\ncelebrating Christmas would do much to counteract the selfish feeling so\noften found in Sunday-schools that gifts, entertainments and prizes must\nbe continually given in order to keep the school together.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nEdward Everett Hale has consented that his name be added to the list of\nthe counselors of the C. L. S. C. This announcement will be received with\ngenuine satisfaction by every one interested in our work. It is an honor\nto us to number such a man in our faculty. Mr. Hale\u2019s position in the\nreligious and literary world is well established. Last spring when _The\nCritic and Good Literature_ asked the public to cast a vote for the forty\nnative American authors whom it deemed most worthy to form the \u201cforty\nimmortals\u201d of a proposed American Academy, his name was the eleventh on\nthe list, which ran: Holmes, Lowell, Whittier, Bancroft, Howells, Curtis,\nAldrich, Harte, Stedman, White and Hale. His books are known most widely;\nhis sympathies are broad and wise; he is a man of the truest culture of\nboth mind and heart. He will be welcomed most warmly by Chautauquans as\none of their honored counselors.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMr. Richard Grant White, whose articles on English form so important and\ninteresting a part of this year\u2019s course of reading, has been for several\nweeks seriously ill; so ill, indeed, that he has been quite unable to\nprepare his article for the present issue of THE CHAUTAUQUAN. By another\nmonth, however, Mr. White writes us that he believes his health will be\nso improved that he can continue his work.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe announcement of the Chautauqua School of Church Work, found in\nthis issue, associates with the Chautauqua work a name well known and\ndeeply honored by many of our readers. Dr. Geo. P. Hays, the director of\nthis new department at the great summer school, was for several years\npresident of Washington and Jefferson College, and since his connection\nwith that institution ceased he has been the pastor of a Presbyterian\nchurch in Denver, Col. His name has several times appeared on the\nChautauqua programs, and his appearance on that platform has always been\nvery welcome. Dr. Hays will represent the C. L. S. C. in the West, and we\nlook for large results from his efforts. This new department of church\nwork will be a great addition to the Chautauqua attractions for 1885.\n\n\n\n\nC. L. S. C. NOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS FOR JANUARY.\n\n\nCOLLEGE GREEK COURSE IN ENGLISH.\n\nP. 16.\u2014\u201cHerodotus.\u201d Critical essays containing the results of the\nresearches concerning Herodotus will be found in the works of the\neminent Germans, Creuzer, Dahlman, Heyse, Blum, A. Bauer, K. O. M\u00fcller,\nStein, Kirchhoff and Blakesley. De Quincey has an essay in Vol. i. of\n\u201cHistorical and Critical Essays.\u201d See also Vol. ii. of \u201cA History of\nClassical Greek Literature,\u201d by J. P. Mahaffy.\n\nThe following abridged opinions on Herodotus are interesting. Macaulay\nsays of him: Of the romantic historians, Herodotus is the earliest and\nthe best. His animation, his simple-hearted tenderness, his wonderful\ntalent for description and dialogue, and the pure, sweet flow of\nhis language place him at the head of narrators. He reminds us of a\ndelightful child.\u2026 But he has not written a good history.\u2026 The faults\nof Herodotus are the faults of a simple and imaginative mind. He wrote\nas it was natural he should write. He wrote for a nation susceptible,\ncurious, lively, insatiably desirous of novelty and excitement; for a\nnation in which the fine arts had attained their highest excellence, but\nin which philosophy was still in its infancy. Mahaffy quotes the German\nBlakesley\u2019s opinion that Herodotus wrote not to instruct but to _please_,\nthat he selected such events and attributed such motives as he thought\nwould be striking and popular, without any misgivings as to the accuracy\nof statement; that at his time there was no historic sense, but that\nthe idea of exact and critical historical writing is a late and gradual\nacquisition which Thucydides acquired only by his extraordinary genius\nand circumstances in those early days.\n\nP. 21.\u2014\u201cRawlinson,\u201d The Rev. George. (1815-\u2e3a.) An Oxford man, in 1874\nmade Canon of Canterbury. Besides his \u201cHerodotus\u201d he has published a\ncelebrated work called \u201cThe Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern\nWorld, or the History, Geography and Antiquities of Chaldea, Assyria,\nBabylonia, Media and Persia.\u201d To this he added, in 1873, the \u201cSixth\nGreat Oriental Monarchy,\u201d meaning Parthia, and in 1876 the \u201cSeventh\nGreat Oriental Monarchy; or the Geography, History and Antiquity of the\nSassanian or New Persian Empire.\u201d\n\n\u201cRawlinson,\u201d Sir Henry. (1810-\u2e3a.) A brother of the former. When but\nsixteen years of age he was sent to the East in the service of the East\nIndia Company; being transferred to the Persian army, he began to study\nthe Persian cuneiform inscriptions and forwarded valuable copies to\nEngland. He also explored the countries of Central Asia. His studies have\ngiven him high rank among modern arch\u00e6ologists. His publications include\nseveral valuable works on the history and inscriptions of Assyria,\nBabylon and Chaldea, and he has contributed many learned papers to the\njournals of the Asiatic Society.\n\n\u201cWilkinson.\u201d (1797-1875.) An Englishman who during a residence of twelve\nyears in Egypt studied the history, ruins, manners and customs of the\ncountry. His studies were embodied in voluminous works on a great variety\nof phases of Egyptian life and history, including the \u201cTopography of\nThebes and General View of Egypt,\u201d \u201cManners and Customs of the Ancient\nEgyptians,\u201d \u201cArchitecture of Ancient Egypt,\u201d \u201cModern Egypt and Thebes,\u201d\nand others. In striking contrast was a subject on which he published\na work in 1858\u2014\u201cColor, and the General Diffusion of Taste among all\nClasses.\u201d\n\nP. 22.\u2014\u201cLydian Empire.\u201d Lydia was a very early seat of Asiatic\ncivilization, the empire being founded at Sardis in mythical times.\nThree dynasties of kings are said to have ruled the country, the Atyad\u00e6,\nthe Heraclid\u00e6 and the Mermnad\u00e6, the last of which alone is authentic.\nOf their civilization Smith says: \u201cAmong the inventions or improvements\nwhich the Greeks are said to have derived from them were the weaving and\ndyeing of fine fabrics; various processes of metallurgy; the use of gold\nand silver money, which the Lydians are said to have first coined; and\nvarious metrical and musical improvements, especially the scale or mode\nof music called the Lydian, and the form of lyre called the Magadis.\u201d\nAfter the Persian conquest of Lydia it formed with Mysia, the second\nsatrapy. After the Macedonian conquest it passed to the kings of Syria,\nthence to those of Pergamus, and finally to the Romans, who made it a\npart of the province of Asia.\n\n\u201cSardis,\u201d or Sardes, stood until the wars of the Middle Ages, when in\n1402 it was almost entirely destroyed by Tamerlane. The remains extend\nover a wide space. Two Ionic columns (see illustration, page 33, of\n\u201cCollege Greek Course,\u201d) are the most conspicuous of the remains. These\ncolumns are supposed to have belonged to a temple of Cybele. The walls\nof the Acropolis, some of its towers, a few remnants of the magnificent\npalace of Cr\u0153sus, of a gymnasium, and a few other buildings are all that\ncan be traced. The tombs of the Lydian kings are in the neighborhood,\nprominent among which is the tumulus of Alyattes, a huge circular mound\n1,140 feet in diameter. An Arabian village of mud huts called Sart now\nstands on its site.\n\nP. 26.\u2014\u201cCr\u0153sus\u2019s father.\u201d Alyattes, king of Lydia, B. C. 617-560.\n\nP. 27.\u2014\u201cHermus.\u201d A good sized river of Asia Minor, rising in Phrygia,\nflowing through Lydia, watering the plain of Sardis, and emptying into\nthe Gulf of Smyrna.\n\nP. 28.\u2014\u201cTelmessus.\u201d A town of Cana about six miles from Halicarnassus.\nIts people were celebrated for their power in divination.\n\nP. 32.\u2014\u201cAgbatana.\u201d The usual form of writing the word is Ecbatana; the\nfirst form is the Ionic, used in poetry.\n\n\u201cPactyas.\u201d An army was sent against this man when he fled to Cyme, thence\nto Mytilene, and from there to Chios. The Chians gave him up to the\nPersians.\n\nP. 33.\u2014\u201cL\u2019Allegro,\u201d l\u00e4l-l\u0101\u02c8gr\u014d. The merry, the gay.\n\nP. 35.\u2014\u201cNitocris.\u201d Supposed to have been the wife of Nebuchadnezzar, and\nthe mother or grandmother of Belshazzar. While queen of Babylon many\nimportant works were carried on by her for the improvement of the city.\n\nP. 37.\u2014\u201cMassaget\u00e6.\u201d They were probably a nomad people of Central Asia.\nThe best authorities suppose them to have lived north of the Jaxartes\nand the sea of Aral. Some critics identify them with the Mesech of the\nScriptures. Many of their customs were very peculiar. They worshipped the\nsun, to which they sacrificed horses. Their very old people were killed\nand eaten. The race to which they belonged is in dispute, though usually\nconsidered the Turkoman.\n\nP. 40.\u2014\u201cPrexaspes.\u201d He had always been held in high honor by Cambyses,\nhaving been employed by the latter to kill his brother Smerdis, whom he\nfeared. Later in life an impostor calling himself Smerdis, tried to usurp\nthe throne and Cambyses suspected Prexaspes, but he cleared himself.\nAfter the death of Cambyses this false Smerdis was acknowledged king,\nand the Magi, who had put him on the throne, tried to win over Prexaspes\nto their plans, but he told before the assembled Persians of the\nassassination of the true Smerdis, and then threw himself from the tower\non which he was standing.\n\nP. 43.\u2014\u201cApis.\u201d A bull worshipped by the Egyptians. He was supposed\nto contain the spirit of the divinity Osiris, and was the symbol of\nfertility. The god must be black, with a white square or triangular mark\non his forehead, an eagle on the back, and other mysterious marks about\nthe body. When such an animal was found he was carried to Heliopolis and\nthence to Memphis, where he had his own temple and priests. The lifetime\nof Apis was twenty-five years. If one died the whole land was in mourning\nuntil a successor was found.\n\nP. 45.\u2014\u201cStaters,\u201d st\u0101\u02c8ter. The chief gold coin of the Greeks, usually\nworth about $5.50, though it varied much in value.\n\nP. 51.\u2014\u201cAndrians.\u201d The inhabitants of Andros, the most northerly of the\nCyclades.\n\n\u201cCa-rys\u02c8ti-ans.\u201d Those of Carystus, a town on the southern coast of\nEub\u0153a. Beautiful white marble and the mineral asbestos abounded near\nCarystus.\n\n\u201cParians.\u201d From Paros, one of the largest of the Cyclades, north of Delos.\n\nP. 52.\u2014\u201cThucydides.\u201d For additional readings on Thucydides see Grote\u2019s\nHistory of Greece, and also Thirwall\u2019s, Mahaffy\u2019s History of Classical\nGreek Literature, M\u00fcller and Donaldson\u2019s History of Greek Literature,\nand Mure\u2019s History of the Greek Language and Literature.\n\nCicero commends Thucydides as \u201ca faithful and dignified narrator\nof facts,\u201d and declares that he surpasses all others in the art of\ncomposition.\n\nMacaulay says: \u201cThucydides has surpassed all his rivals in the art\nof historical narration, in the art of producing an effect on the\nimagination by skilful selection and disposition without indulging in the\nlicense of invention.\u201d\n\nMahaffy thus compares Herodotus and Thucydides: \u201cWhile the conceptions\nof history in Herodotus and Thucydides were mainly the consequence of\nthe temper of the men and of their surroundings, it must be declared\nthat, _for an historian_, the atmosphere in which the latter lived, while\ngiving him critical acumen and freeing him from theological prejudices\nnarrowed his view and distorted his estimate of the relative importance\nof events. We may indeed feel very grateful that Herodotus was not\nattracted in early life by this brilliant exclusiveness, and that he\nremained an Ionic instead of becoming an Attic historian.\u201d\n\nP. 56.\u2014\u201cJowett,\u201d jow\u02c8et. (1817-\u2e3a.) An English Greek scholar and professor.\n\nP. 72.\u2014\u201cPeabody.\u201d (1811-\u2e3a.) An American theologian and author.\n\nP. 73.\u2014\u201cEurymedon.\u201d One of the Athenian generals in the Peloponnesian\nwar. After the expedition to Corcyra, Eurymedon commanded in the\nexpedition against Sicily in 425. In 414 he was a leader in a second\narmament fitted out against Syracuse; he fell in the first sea fight in\nthe harbor of that city.\n\nP. 81.\u2014\u201cAlc\u00e6us.\u201d About B. C. 600. A native of Mytilene. In a war between\nAthens and his country he is said to have fled, leaving his arms on the\nfield of battle. He was afterward driven from his native land in a strife\nbetween the nobility and people, and spent the remainder of his life\ntraveling. Some of his odes are extant, and the imitations of Horace\nhave made the character of Alc\u00e6us\u2019 verse well known. See \u201cBrief History\nof Greece,\u201d page 52. Mahaffy says of Alc\u00e6us, we see in him \u201cthe perfect\npicture of an unprincipled, violent, lawless Greek aristocrat, who\nsacrificed all and everything to the demands of pleasure and power.\u201d\n\n\nTHE CHARACTER OF JESUS.\n\nExcellent works to read in connection with \u201cThe Character of Jesus\u201d\nare Farrar\u2019s \u201cLife of Christ,\u201d Thomas Hughes\u2019s \u201cManliness of Christ,\u201d\nGeikie\u2019s \u201cLife and Words of Christ,\u201d Pollock\u2019s \u201cThe Christ of\nChristianity and of Modern Criticism.\u201d\n\nP. 108.\u2014\u201cCelsus.\u201d An Epicurean philosopher who lived in the second\ncentury. Only fragments of his works have been preserved as quotations\ngiven by Origen. He charges Christians with blind credulity, with\nreligious arrogance, with party divisions, and with having altered their\nsacred writings. His own doctrines were that evil is necessary and\neternal, and that sin can never be entirely removed, least of all by\nvicarious sacrifice.\n\nP. 109.\u2014\u201cJustin Martyr.\u201d The earliest of the church fathers after the\napostolic age. He lived in the second century, and attended the pagan\nschools of Asia Minor, Greece and Egypt. Afterward he embraced the\nChristian religion and wrote two apologies in its behalf. He suffered\nmartyrdom at Rome under Marcus Aurelius, because he refused to sacrifice\nto the heathen gods.\n\n\u201cTertullian.\u201d An eminent Latin father of the church who lived at Carthage\nin the second century. He was converted from paganism to Christianity.\nHe was a man of powerful intellect and great learning; was the author of\nnumerous works which are still extant.\n\nP. 111.\u2014\u201cSummum bonum.\u201d A Latin expression meaning the highest good.\n\nP. 134.\u2014\u201cTalmud.\u201d The work which gives the laws, both civil and\ncanonical, of the Jews. It contains the rules by which the conduct of\nthe people is regulated, and relates not only to religion, but also to\nphilosophy, medicine, history, and the branches of practical duty.\n\nP. 136.\u2014\u201cMr. Parker,\u201d Theodore. (1810-1860.) A distinguished American\nscholar; a Unitarian minister. His new doctrines gave great offence\nto the New England Unitarians, as he assumed the absolute humanity of\nChrist, and said his inspiration differed in no respect from that of\nother men. He died in Florence, whither he had gone for his health.\n\nP. 161.\u2014\u201cVishnu.\u201d One of the gods of the Hindoos, a sun god. He gave the\nearth to man as his inheritance. The unbroken order of the world is due\nto him.\n\n\n\n\nNOTES ON REQUIRED READINGS IN \u201cTHE CHAUTAUQUAN.\u201d\n\n\nTEMPERANCE TEACHINGS OF SCIENCE.\n\n1. \u201cAbd el Wahab.\u201d The founder of a recent Mohammedan sect now dominant\nthroughout the greater part of Arabia. He was the son of an Arab chief,\nand was born about the end of the seventeenth century. He was highly\neducated, and conceived the idea of restoring in its primitive shape the\nruined structure of Islam. The Koran had fallen into abeyance, and their\nreligion was little else than a round of external ceremonies. He gained\na numerous following in his efforts to revive the old zeal in their\nreligion. The sect took the name of the Wa-ha\u02c8bis, or the Wa-ha\u02c8bites.\n\n2. \u201cThe earthquake at Lisbon.\u201d This, the greatest of the frequent\nearthquakes at Lisbon, and one of the most remarkable that ever occurred\nanywhere, took place in 1775, and destroyed a great part of the city. The\narea affected was very extensive. The shock was felt on one side as far\nas the southern shore of Finland, and on the other it reached to Canada,\nan area of 7,500,000 square miles. The force required to move this must\nhave been enormous, for suppose the thickness of the earth\u2019s crust moved\nto have been only twenty miles, then 150,000,000 cubic miles of solid\nmatter was moved. The sea wave caused by it rose to a height of sixty\nfeet at Cadiz.\n\n3. \u201cLaputa.\u201d The name of a flying island described by Swift in his\nimaginary \u201cTravels of Lemuel Gulliver.\u201d It is said to be \u201cexactly\ncircular, its diameter seven thousand eight hundred and thirty-seven\nyards, or about four miles and a half, and consequently contains ten\nthousand acres.\u201d The inhabitants are speculative philosophers, devoted to\nmathematics and music.\u2014_Webster\u2019s Dictionary._\n\nSo materializing is the spirit of the age that the extended study of\nphysical and mechanical science seems likely one of these days to convert\nour island (Great Britain) into a _Laputa_.\u2014_Keightly._\n\n4. \u201cSyrian Maronites,\u201d mar\u02c8o-nites. A Christian tribe of very ancient\norigin. In the year 1445 they were formally united to the Roman Catholic\nChurch, but were allowed to retain their own national rites and usages.\nTheir priests are allowed to marry.\n\n5. \u201cLazaretto.\u201d A pest-house or hospital for the reception of the sick,\nparticularly for those affected with contagious distempers.\n\n6. \u201cBactrian nomads.\u201d Bactria is a country of Central Asia. A great part\nof it is made up of stretches of barren and drifting sands, so that the\ninhabitants are obliged to resort to the nomadic style of life. It was\nsubjugated by Alexander the Great, but afterward became independent. Its\nmodern history is not important.\n\n7. \u201cTitus Oates.\u201d An Englishman who in the reign of Charles II.\ncommunicated the details of a pretended plot, \u201cthe figment of his own\nbrain,\u201d in which were revealed a rising of the Catholic party, a general\nmassacre of the Protestants, the burning of London, and the assassination\nof the king. Several incidents seemed to corroborate the monstrous\nassertion, and it was universally believed. All London went wild with\nfear and rage, and at one time a massacre of the Roman Catholics seemed\nlikely to occur in anticipation of the one the Protestants feared. Many\nof the Catholics were arrested, tried and condemned to meet the death of\ntraitors at the block. On the accession of James II., Oates was tried,\nsentenced to be pilloried, publicly whipped, and afterward imprisoned for\nlife. When William III. came to the throne he was pardoned, and was no\nmore heard of. He died in obscurity seventeen years later, in 1705, at\nthe age of seventy-six.\n\n8. \u201cJack Sheppard.\u201d (1701-1724.) He was noted for twice escaping from\nprison at Newgate, whither he was sent for taking part in the revolution\nagainst the king, George I. He was hung at Tyburn.\n\n9. \u201cAbsinthe.\u201d\u2014A cordial of brandy flavored with wormwood.\n\n\nSUNDAY READINGS.\n\n1. \u201cSt. Augustine.\u201d (354-430.) One of the fathers of the Christian\nchurch. He was born at Tagaste, in Africa. He was sent to Carthage to\nbe educated, and there plunged into the frightful abyss of corruptions\nwhich marked that wicked city. In his \u201cConfessions\u201d he describes his\nlife at this time, and does not seek to excuse himself. At the age of\nthirty-three years he embraced the Christian religion and was baptized\nby Ambrose. His conversion from his errors was complete and permanent.\nMonica, his mother, who through all these years had been praying for her\nson, died shortly after, feeling that she could depart in peace, as her\neyes had seen his salvation. He wrote with great zeal and voluminously\nagainst all the sects which the church held to be heretical.\n\n2. \u201cBourdaloue,\u201d Louis. (1632-1704.) A most eloquent French preacher.\nLouis XIV. was an attendant upon his ministry, and on many different\noccasions invited him to preach the festival sermons before the court of\nVersailles. He was renowned for the solid dignity of his thought and his\nfervid religious eloquence.\n\n\nGLIMPSES OF ANCIENT GREEK LIFE.\n\n1. \u201cAlcm\u00e6onid,\u201d alc-me\u02c8o-nid. One of the tribe of the Alcm\u00e6onid\u00e6, a noble\nfamily of Athens. It received its name from Alcm\u00e6on, a great-grandson of\nNestor. The story of the sacrilege brought upon the family by Megacles is\ngiven on page 11 of \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d Clisthenes was their most\nfamous member in after years.\n\n2. \u201cRecouped,\u201d re-koop\u02c8ed. Recompensed.\n\n3. \u201cLeech.\u201d The word comes from the Anglo-Saxon word for healer,\nphysician, but in this sense is now almost obsolete.\n\n4. \u201cA-ges\u02cci-la\u02c8us.\u201d \u201cCle-om\u02c8e-nes.\u201d See \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d\n\n5. \u201cOligarchies,\u201d ol\u02c8i-garch\u02ccies. Governments in the control of a few\npersons.\n\n6. \u201cCyrene,\u201d cy-re\u02c8ne. A maritime city in Northern Africa, founded\nby a Greek colony; beautiful for situation, and of great mercantile\nimportance. \u201cIt was built on a high terrace of the Cyren\u00e6an table-land,\nabout nine miles from the coast of Appolonia, which became its port. The\nroad which connected the city with the harbor, a vast necropolis, and\nruins of streets, temples, theaters, tombs, and remnants of art, are\nstill visible. The site of the ancient city has been identified with the\nmodern Grennah.\u201d\n\n7. \u201c\u00c6ginetan,\u201d \u00e6g-i-ne\u02c8tan. Pertaining to the island and city of \u00c6gina.\n\n8. \u201cDicasts.\u201d The _dicasts_ in ancient Athens exercised the functions of\nour jurymen, rather than of the judges of courts.\n\n9. \u201cAr\u02c8te-mon.\u201d Said to have been from Clazomen\u00e6. He was an engineer, and\nto him was attributed the invention of the testudo and the battering ram.\nIn the siege of Samos he was employed by Pericles.\n\n10. \u201cAn\u02c8ax-ag\u02cco-ras.\u201d (B. C. 500-428.) An Ionian philosopher, a native\nof Clazomen\u00e6. When a young man he went to Athens, where he became the\nteacher of Pericles, Euripides and others. See \u201cBrief History of Greece,\u201d\npage 62.\n\n11. \u201cIc-ti\u02c8nus.\u201d A Grecian architect who lived about 450 B. C. He was the\narchitect of the great temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis, and of that\nof Apollo Epicurius, in Arcadia.\n\n12. \u201cPol-yg-no\u02c8tus.\u201d (460?-430? B. C.) A painter, whose native home\nwas Thasos, but who afterward became a citizen of Athens, where he was\nemployed by Cimon to ornament the temple of Theseus. \u201cHe is styled \u2018The\nHomer of painting,\u2019 because he treated his subjects in an epic rather\nthan a dramatic spirit. He had imagination in the highest degree. In\nallusion to the ideal character and moral expression of his works,\nAristotle calls him an _ethic_ painter. The same critic says, in another\npassage, \u2018Polygnotus represented men better than they are (superior to\nnature).\u2019 Among his works were the \u2018Capture of Troy,\u2019 and the \u2018Visit of\nUlysses to the Lower World.\u2019\u201d\n\n13. \u201cMa-cha\u02c8on Pod-a-lir\u02c8i-us.\u201d A son of \u00c6sculapius, celebrated among the\nGreeks for his ability as a physician; he is said to have gone to the\nTrojan war with thirty ships; he acted as a surgeon as well as serving\nin battle. He is mentioned by some writers as one of the heroes who were\nconcealed in the wooden horse.\n\n\nGREEK MYTHOLOGY.\n\nThose desiring to carry on more fully their readings in Greek Mythology\nwill find the following works peculiarly helpful: \u201cMythology of the\nAryan Nations,\u201d G. W. Cox; \u201cIntroduction to the Science of Religion,\u201d\nMax M\u00fcller; \u201cOrigin and Development of Religious Belief,\u201d Baring-Gould;\n\u201cHandbook of Mythology,\u201d G. W. Cox; \u201cMyth and Science,\u201d Vignole;\n\u201cMythology,\u201d Seeman.\n\n1. \u201cHestia.\u201d The Greek form corresponding to the Latin Vesta. It is\nconjectured by some that the two words are the same, going back to a\nperiod when the Greeks and Latins were still an undivided people.\n\n2. \u201cPe-n\u0101\u02c8t\u0113s.\u201d The word is derived from _penus_, the innermost part\nof the house, and referred to those divinities who, as exercising\nprovidential care over domestic affairs, were considered as the gods of\nthe household. The Penates were also the gods of the state, considered\nas a family, and as such had a sanctuary near the center of Rome, where\nsacrifices were made by public men.\n\n3. \u201cTutelary,\u201d t\u016b\u02c8te-la-ry. Derived from the Latin word _tutela_,\nprotection, and signifying protecting goddess.\n\n4. \u201cVestal.\u201d The priestesses of Vesta. A temple to this goddess stood in\nRome, in the Forum, and over the temple presided four, afterward six,\nvirgins, who were chosen to the office at first by the kings, and later\nby lot. They entered on this service when no older than ten years, and\nserved thirty years; the first ten being spent in learning, the second\nten in performing, and the third in teaching, their duties. A vow of\nchastity was taken, the violation of which was punished by being buried\nalive. The chief duty of the virgins was to keep the fire on the altar of\nthe goddess ever burning. After the term had expired they might marry,\nalthough it was considered unlucky.\n\n5. \u201cCyl-le\u02c8ne.\u201d The highest mountain in Peloponnesus. It was sacred to\nMercury, who was said to have been born there, and was hence called\nCyllenius.\n\n6. \u201cAl\u02c8phe-us.\u201d The largest river in Peloponnesus. It rises in Arcadia,\nbut soon sinks underground. It rises again and unites with the Eurotas.\nAfter flowing together for nearly three miles the two rivers disappear\nunderground. The Alpheus rises again at Peg\u00e6, and flows northwest into\nthe Ionian Sea.\n\n7. \u201cPro-me\u02c8the-us.\u201d See page 54 of \u201cBrief History of Greece.\u201d\n\n8. \u201cTartarus.\u201d According to Homer Tartarus is the lowest hell, a locality\nas far below Hades as earth is below heaven; into this dark region\nall who rebelled against Zeus were hurled. Later the word was used\nsynonymously with Hades.\n\n9. \u201cPsychopompus,\u201d si-ko-pom\u02c8pus.\n\n10. \u201cNon ego,\u201d etc. I shall not all die.\n\n11. \u201cCer\u02c8be-rus.\u201d \u201cThe monster that guarded the entrance to the infernal\nregions. He was a son of Typhon and Echidna, and is represented as a\ndog with three heads, the tail of a serpent, and a mane composed of the\nanterior extremities of numberless snakes. His business was to admit the\nspirits of the dead into their subterranean abode, and to prevent them\nfrom leaving it. Orpheus lulled him to sleep with his lyre, and Hercules\ndragged him from Hades, and exhibited him to the eyes of wondering\nmortals.\u201d\n\n12. \u201cTer\u02c8ra in-cog-ni\u02c8ta.\u201d Unknown land.\n\n13. \u201cJudges.\u201d Mi\u02c8nos, and Rhad\u02cca-man\u02c8thus were brothers, sons of\nJupiter and Europa. The former, the king and legislator of Crete, was\ndistinguished for his wisdom, and with the latter, famous throughout life\nfor his justice, was made a judge of the lower world. The third judge,\n\u00c6\u02c8a-cus, was a son of Jupiter and \u00c6gina. The island where he was born was\nnamed after his mother, and he became its ruler. He was renowned for his\njustice, being called upon by gods as well as men to settle disputes.\n\n14. \u201cTan\u02c8ta-lus.\u201d From this name we have the word tantalize, signifying\nto put a good within sight, that it may excite desire, but still to keep\nit out of reach.\n\n15. \u201cPsyche,\u201d si\u02c8ke.\n\n16. \u201cPro-ser\u02c8pi-na,\u201d or Per-seph\u02c8o-ne. The daughter of Jupiter and Ceres,\nand wife of Pluto, by whom she is said to have been carried off to Hades.\n\n17. \u201cGan\u02c8y-me\u02ccde.\u201d Said to have been the most beautiful of human beings.\nJupiter was so delighted with him that he carried him to Olympus as his\ncup-bearer.\n\n\nKITCHEN SCIENCE.\n\n1. \u201cRo-sa\u02c8ce-\u00e6.\u201d A highly important order in botany, including herbs,\nshrubs and trees that have stipulate leaves and regular flowers,\nresembling those of the rose family. It includes five sub-orders,\neighty-seven genera, and 1,000 species. It embraces our finest ornamental\nflowering shrubs, and a long catalogue of delicious fruits, as apples,\npears, peaches, plums, cherries, strawberries, blackberries and\nraspberries.\n\n2. \u201cI-du\u02c8n\u00e4.\u201d The goddess who kept in a box the apples which the gods\ntasted in order to preserve their perpetual youth.\n\n3. \u201cOrchards of Hesperus.\u201d The lands watched over by the Hesperides,\nmaidens who guarded the golden apples which Earth gave Hera at her\nmarriage to Zeus. The apples grew on a tree which was also further\nguarded by a sleepless dragon. These \u201corchards\u201d were in that part of the\nheaven where the sun sets.\n\n4. \u201cPy\u02c8rus.\u201d A genus of trees of the order Rosace\u00e6, including the apple\nand pear and some ornamental trees.\n\n5. \u201cThe American Pomological Society.\u201d This society was organized in New\nYork October 10, 1848. Its main object was to elicit and disseminate\ninformation relating to fruit growing, and to promote a cordial spirit\nof intercourse among horticulturists. It has brought together from all\nthe states and territories the most intelligent, experienced and skilful\ncultivators who have taught each other and made the knowledge of one the\nproperty of all. Its sessions are held in the different leading cities of\nthe country.\n\n6. \u201cPru\u02c8nus Per\u02c8si-ca.\u201d The Prunus is a genus of trees of the order\nRosace\u00e6, including those species which have the stone of the fruit\nsharp-pointed, and a longitudinal furrow passing all round. The young\nleaves are rolled up. \u201cPersica\u201d means that it is a native of Persia.\n\n7. \u201cCurculio,\u201d weevil. A Linn\u00e6an genus of insects characterized by the\nelongation of the head into a beak or snout, at the extremity of which\nthe mouth is placed, and from which the club-shaped antenn\u00e6 spring. The\nspecies are very numerous and are distributed over all parts of the earth.\n\n8. \u201cRu\u02c8bus.\u201d A genus of the order Rosace\u00e6, distinguished by a five-lobed\ncalyx, without bracts, and the fruit formed by an aggregation of small\ndrupes.\n\n9. \u201cRubus Vil-lo\u02c8sus.\u201d Villosus signifies shaggy or long-haired; given\nbecause the leaflets of the high blackberry are hairy on both sides.\n\n10. \u201cRubus Can-a-den\u02c8sis.\u201d So called because it is found growing in\nCanada.\n\n11. Fra-ga\u02c8ri-a.\n\n\nAPPLES, PEACHES, BLACKBERRIES AND STRAWBERRIES.\n\n1. \u201cM\u00e9ringue,\u201d m\u0101-r\u0103ng\u02c8.\n\n\nCHEMISTRY.\n\n1. \u201cGalileo,\u201d g\u0103l-i-lee\u02c8o. (1564-1642.) An illustrious astronomer,\nmathematician and philosopher, the creator of experimental science. He\nmade a number of important discoveries in the science of astronomy,\namong which were Jupiter\u2019s satellites, Saturn\u2019s rings, the sun\u2019s spots,\nand the starry nature of the milky way. He was a strong advocate of\nthe Copernican system\u2014which represents the sun to be at rest in the\ncenter and the earth and other planets to move round it\u2014and for this was\ntwice persecuted by the Inquisition. On both occasions he was publicly\ncompelled to abjure the system, but the last time he is said to have\nstamped his foot while muttering to himself, \u201cbut nevertheless it does\nmove.\u201d The later years of his life were spent in his country house near\nFlorence.\n\n2. \u201cTorricelli,\u201d tor-ri-cel\u02c8li. (1608-1647.) A celebrated Italian\nmathematician and philosopher. He made himself renowned for all time by\nhis interpretation of the fact that water will rise in a suction pump to\na height of thirty-two feet, which, up to his time, had been explained\non the ground that \u201cnature abhors a vacuum;\u201d above that limit the law\nwas modified. Torricelli employed mercury to perform this experiment,\nand soon found the clue to the mystery. He discovered that the column of\nfluid was sustained by the pressure of the atmosphere on the open surface\nof the fluid.\n\n3. \u201cBlaise Pascal.\u201d (1623-1662) A distinguished French philosopher and\nscholar. In his sixteenth year he produced a treaty on conic sections;\nin his nineteenth year he invented a calculating machine. Turning his\nattention to the theory of fluids which Torricelli had advanced, he\nwrote two essays which established his reputation as an experimental\nphysicist. He was the author of the magnificent but unfinished \u201cPens\u00e9es.\u201d\nHe was of a deeply religious turn, and before his death was entirely\ngiven up to prayer and practices of mortification, among which may be\nmentioned that of wearing an iron girdle studded with sharp points which\nhe forced into his flesh whenever he felt himself assailed by sinful\nthoughts. \u201cPuy de Dome,\u201d pw\u012b deh d\u014dm.\n\n4. \u201cTarpeia,\u201d tar-pe\u02c8ya. The daughter of Tarpeius, the governor of the\ncitadel of Rome. She promised to open the gates of the city to the\nSabines if they would give her what they carried on their left hands,\nmeaning their gold bracelets. The king consented, and as he entered the\ngates, to punish her perfidy he threw not only his bracelet, but his\nshield upon her. His soldiers followed his example, and she was crushed\nto death. She was buried in the capitol, which from her has been called\nthe Tarpeian Rock.\n\n5. \u201cHaliotis,\u201d hal-i-\u014d\u02c8tis. A genus of gasteropods with a shell\nresembling the human ear. The gasteropods are a class of univalve\nmollusks, like the snail.\n\n6. \u201cSkate.\u201d A kind of shark. A name given to several species of fish\nhaving a rhomboidal body.\n\n7. \u201cMagdeburg Hemispheres.\u201d They are two hollow hemispheres generally\nmade of brass or copper, with edges accurately fitted to each other, and\none of them provided with a stop cock. When the edges are pressed tightly\ntogether and the globe thus formed is exhausted of air through the cock,\nthe hemispheres are held together with such force that it is with great\ndifficulty they can be pulled apart.\n\n8. \u201cOtto von G\u00fcricke,\u201d fon g\u0101\u02c8rik-eh. (1602-1686.) A celebrated German\nphysicist. He invented the air-pump and made the famous experiment with\nthe Magdeburg hemispheres.\n\n9. \u201cTower of Pisa.\u201d The round marble belfry called \u201cThe Leaning Tower\u201d\nbecause it deviates about fourteen feet from the perpendicular. It is\n180 feet high, and consists of seven stories divided by rows of columns,\nand surmounted by a flat roof and an open gallery commanding a splendid\nview of the surrounding country. It was built in the twelfth century by a\nGerman architect, Wilhelm of Innsbruck.\n\n10. \u201cMariotte,\u201d M\u00e4-ri-\u014ft\u02c8. A French philosopher of the seventeenth\ncentury. He possessed an extraordinary power of drawing conclusions\nfrom experiment. He made a thorough investigation of the subject of the\nconduction of water, and calculated the strength necessary for pipes\nunder different circumstances.\n\n11. \u201cAir-gun.\u201d An instrument resembling a musket. By means of a condenser\nthe air is forced into a metallic globe which is attached to the musket\nnearly opposite the trigger.\n\n12. \u201cTorricellian Vacuum.\u201d To produce this vacuum a small quantity of\npure mercury is placed in the tube and boiled for some time. It is then\nallowed to cool and a further quantity, previously warmed, added, which\nis boiled, and so on until the tube is quite full; in this manner the\nmoisture and the air which adhere to the sides of the tube pass off with\nthe mercurial vapor.\n\n13. \u201cMont-gol\u02c8fi-er.\u201d There were two brothers of this name, Etienne and\nJoseph, distinguished as the inventors of the first kind of balloons.\nThey were both received as members of the French Academy. They lived in\nthe latter part of the eighteenth century.\n\n14. \u201cPneumatic Dispatch.\u201d The packages are placed on easily rolling\ncarriages which are nicely fitted within tubes. The force necessary to\nmove them is produced by the alternate compression and expansion of\nair in large reservoirs. This compression and expansion is caused by\nforcing the water into, and then allowing it to run out of a connecting\nreservoir, the action being changed by a system of cocks.\n\n15. \u201cGay-Lussac.\u201d (1778-1850.) A Frenchman, one of the most distinguished\nchemists and physicists of modern times. In 1804 he made a balloon\nascension of 23,000 feet, and Humboldt examined with him the air brought\ndown from that height, for the purpose of discovering the intensity of\nthe magnetic force. In 1839 Gay-Lussac was created a peer of France.\n\n16. \u201cLockyer.\u201d (1836-\u2e3a.) An English astronomer. He invented a method\nof observing the red flames of the sun without being obliged to wait\nfor an eclipse. In 1870 and 1871 he was sent to Sicily by the English\ngovernment, as the chief of the eclipse expedition.\n\n\n\n\nA CHAPTER OF BLUNDERS.\n\n\nPass, certificate, and competitive examinations are, no doubt, all\nsufficiently serious affairs to examinees, and sufficiently trying ones\nto examiners. To the outer public, however, to those \u201cwho have no son or\nbrother there,\u201d such \u201cexams.\u201d are, as a rule, nothing if not a source\nof amusement. The \u201cresults\u201d aimed at in examinations are, for the most\npart, admirable; but in the course of the processes, in the answering\nof examination questions, the unexpected constantly happens, and it\nis the unlooked-for results, the \u201csurprises\u201d of the occasions, that\nmake sport for the Philistines. The situation on this head is easily\nexplicable. It is a natural result of the modern system of preparation\nfor examination\u2014the cram system. Examinees bent only on \u201cgetting through\u201d\nwill answer questions on the hit-or-miss principle, while others, whose\nbrains have become more or less addled under the pressure of \u201cmemory\nwork,\u201d will evolve from their unbalanced inner consciousness replies\nfearfully and wonderfully made.\n\nSome of the \u201cexam.\u201d stories current in educational circles, though\ncharacteristic, and possibly \u201cfounded on fact,\u201d have an air of belonging\nto the too-good-to-be-true category. A number of these are told\nagainst\u2014and, if invented, were probably invented by\u2014undergraduates.\nThus\u2014so the story goes\u2014an undergraduate was asked to name the minor\nprophets, and, not having \u201cgot them up,\u201d neatly and politely replied that\nhe would rather not make invidious distinctions. Another university man,\ncalled upon to give the parable of the Good Samaritan, did so correctly\nenough until he came to the passage where the Samaritan said to the\ninnkeeper: \u201cWhen I come again I will repay thee,\u201d to which he added,\n\u201cThis he said, knowing that he would see his face no more.\u201d Perhaps,\nhowever, the examinee upon this occasion was a conscious humorist, and\nhad in mind the worldly-wise saying, that there are a great many people\nwilling to play the part of the Good Samaritan, less the oil and the\ntwopence.\n\nSomething of the same stamp must have been the candidate for a degree,\nwho, asked to state the substance of St. Paul\u2019s sermon at Athens,\nsaid that it was \u201ccrying out for two hours, \u2018Great is Diana of the\nEphesians.\u2019\u201d With variations, that is the substance of a great many\nsermons, and of other discourses beside sermons.\n\nSuch stories as the above may or may not be rather broadly illustrative\nthan strictly true, but in any case they can be pretty well matched by\nothers, about the truthfulness of which there is no doubt. Every year a\ncertain proportion of the children of the London board schools enter into\na competitive examination in Scriptural knowledge, for the \u201cPeek Prizes,\u201d\nwhich consist of handsomely got-up Bibles and Testaments. They are \u201cpaper\nwork\u201d examinations, and the following are a few of the many curious\n\u201chash\u201d answers that have at various times been put in at them.\n\n\u201cAbraham was the father of Lot, and ad tew wives. One was called Hishmale\nand tother Haggar, he kept wun at home, and he turned tother into the\ndesert where she became a pillow of salt in the day time, and a pillow of\nfire by night.\u201d\n\n\u201cJoseph wore a koat of many garments. He was chief butler to Faro and\ntold is dreams. He married Potiffers dortor, and he led the Gypshans out\nof bondage to Kana in Gallilee, and there fell on his sword and died in\nsight of the promised land.\u201d\n\n\u201cMoses was an Egypshion. He lived in a hark made of bulrushes, and he\nkept a golden calf and worshipt brazen snakes, and he het nothing but\nkwales and manner for forty year. He was kort by the air of his ed while\nriding under the bow of a tree and he was killed by his son Absolon as he\nwas hangin from the bow. His end was pease.\u201d\n\nOf the numerous stories told in connection with diocesan inspection\n\u201cexams.\u201d in public elementary schools, the two following are perhaps\nthe best known and most worth quoting. At one of these exams., a boy,\nasked to mention the occasion upon which it is recorded in Scripture\nthat an animal spoke, made answer: \u201cThe whale when it swallowed Jonah.\u201d\nThe inspector, being something of a humorist, maintained his gravity\nand asked: \u201cWhat did the whale say?\u201d To which the boy promptly replied:\n\u201cAlmost thou persuadest me to be a Christian.\u201d Another inspector, finding\na class hesitating over answering the question, \u201cWith what weapon did\nSamson slay the Philistines?\u201d and wishing to prompt them, significantly\ntapped his own cheek, and asked, \u201cWhat is this?\u201d and his action touching\n\u201cthe chords of memory,\u201d the whole class instantly answered: \u201cThe jawbone\nof an ass.\u201d\n\nA good example of the manner in which students who are \u201cin\u201d for several\n\u201csubjects\u201d at the same time get their ideas mixed, is that of the youth\nwho having to answer the question, \u201cWho was Esau?\u201d replied; \u201cEsau was a\nman who wrote fables, and sold the copyright for a bottle of potash.\u201d\nHere the confusion thrice confounded of Esau and \u00c6sop, birthright and\ncopyright, and pottage and potash, is really admirable in its way.\n\nAs might be expected, the examinations of medical students afford some\ngood stories\u2014true or otherwise. As might also be expected, some of them\nare wittily impudent. For instance, a \u201cbadgering\u201d examiner asked a\nstudent what means he would employ to induce copious perspiration in a\npatient, and got for answer: \u201cI\u2019d try to make him pass an examination\nbefore you, sir.\u201d The most frequently cited anecdote of this kind is that\nof the brusque examiner\u2014said by some to have been Dr. Abernethy\u2014who,\nlosing patience with a student who had answered badly, exclaimed:\n\u201cPerhaps, sir, you could tell me the names of the muscles I would put in\naction if I were to kick you?\u201d \u201cUndoubtedly, sir,\u201d came the prompt reply;\n\u201cyou would put into motion the flexors and extensors of my arm, for I\nshould knock you down.\u201d On the same lines as this was the retort made\nto M. Lefebvre de Fourcy, a French examiner, celebrated, not only for\nhis learning, but also for his severity and rudeness. He was examining\na youth, who, though well up in his work, hesitated over answering one\nof the questions put to him. Losing temper at this, the examiner shouted\nto an attendant: \u201cBring a truss of hay for this young gentleman\u2019s\nbreakfast.\u201d \u201cBring two,\u201d coolly added the examinee, \u201cMonsieur and I will\nbreakfast together.\u201d Of such alleged answers by students as that the\npancreas was so named after the Midland railway station, that the bone\nof the upper arm (_humerus_) was called the humerous, and was so styled\nbecause it was known as the funny-bone; or that the ankle-bone (_tarsus_)\nwas so called because St. Paul walked upon it to the city of that name\u2014of\nsuch alleged answers as these it is charitable to suppose that they must\nbe weak inventions of the enemy.\n\nMany of the comicalities in the way of examination answers recorded by\nher Majesty\u2019s inspectors of schools, the examiners in the school board\nscholarships competitions, and other the like official personages, go\na long way to prove that in examination blundering, as in many other\nmatters, truth is sometimes stranger than fiction. At least, it seems\nto us that no invented story\u2014supposing examination stories ever are\ninvented\u2014could equal for \u201cnice derangement\u201d the following written answer\nwhich was actually given at an examination in the \u201cspecific subjects\u201d in\na public elementary school within the metropolitan area. The specific\nsubject taken was physiology, and the children \u201cpresented\u201d in it were\nasked to \u201cdescribe the processes of digestion,\u201d which one of them did\nin this wise: \u201cFood is digested by the action of the lungs. Digestion\nis brought on by the lungs having something the matter with them. The\nfood then passes through your windpipe to the pores, and thus passes\noff your body by evaporation, through a lot of little holes in your\nskin called capillaries. The food is nourished in the stomach. If you\nwere to eat anything hard you would not be able to digest it, and the\nconsequence would be you would have indigestion. The gall-bladder throws\noff juice from the food which passes through it. We call the kidneys the\nbread-basket, because it is where all the bread goes to. They lay up\nconcealed by the heart.\u201d\n\nDomestic economy, as nowadays taught to \u201cchildren of the elementary\nschool class,\u201d embraces a good deal of physiological knowledge,\nor rather, as applied to such children, physiological jargon. It\nis a subject which affords hosts of amusing answers, though, from\nconsiderations of space, two or three must here suffice for specimens.\nThus, in reply to the question, \u201cWhy do we cook our food?\u201d one girl gives\nthe delightfully inconsequent reply: \u201cTheir of five ways of cooking\npotatoes. We should die if we eat our food roar.\u201d Another girl writes:\n\u201cThe function of food is to do its proper work in the body. Its proper\nwork is to well masticate the food, and it goes through without dropping,\ninstead of being pushed down by the skin.\u201d A third domestic economy\npupil puts in her examination paper that \u201cfood digested is when we put\nit into our mouths, our teeth chews it, and our tongue roll it down into\nour body.\u2026 We should not eat so much bone-making foods as flesh-forming\nand warmth-giving foods, for if we did we would have too many bones,\nand that would make us look funny.\u201d On the subject of ventilation, one\nstudent informs us that a room should be kept at ninety in the winter\nby a fire; in the summer by a thermometer: while a classmate writes: \u201cA\nthermometer is an instrument used to let out the heat when it is going to\nbe cold.\u201d Another girl sets down: \u201cWhen roasting a piece of beef place\nit in front of a brisk fire, so as to congratulate the outside.\u201d But an\nanswer\u2014still in domestic economy\u2014that better, perhaps, than any of the\nabove illustrates the jargoning that comes of the cram system, is the\nfollowing: \u201cSugar is an amyolid, if you was to eat much sugar and not\nnothing else you would not live because sugar has not got no carbon,\nhydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. Potatoes is another amyolids.\u201d\n\nThe definitions sometimes given by children in reply to examination\nquestioning, are, to say the least of it, original. After a reading of\nGray\u2019s \u201cElegy\u201d by a fourth-standard class, the boys were asked what\nwas meant by \u201cfretted vaults,\u201d and one youth replied: \u201cThe vaults in\nwhich those poor people were buried; their friends came and fretted\nover them.\u201d Asked what he understood by \u201celegy,\u201d another boy in the\nsame class answered: \u201cElegy is some poetry wrote out for schools to\nlearn like Gray\u2019s \u2018Elegy.\u2019\u201d A class of girls, who had read a passage\nfrom \u201cEvangeline,\u201d were told to write out the meaning of \u201cthe forge,\u201d\nand these were among the answers, \u201cA firnest in a blacksmith shop.\u201d \u201cA\nfirnest in a blacksmith.\u201d \u201cThe village smithy\u2019s anvil.\u201d \u201cThe dust that\nrises from the floor of a blacksmith\u2019s.\u201d A teacher, giving a reading\nlesson to his class in the presence of an inspector, asked the boys what\nwas meant by conscience\u2014a word that had occurred in the course of the\nreading. The class having been duly crammed for the question, answered as\none boy: \u201cAn inward monitor.\u201d \u201cBut what do you understand by an inward\nmonitor?\u201d put in the inspector. To this further question only one boy\nannounced himself ready to respond, and his triumphantly given answer\nwas, \u201cA hironclad, sir.\u201d\n\nA few years back there was published, as a curiosity, in its way, the\nsubjoined transcript from Cowper\u2019s poem on Alexander Selkirk written\n(from dictation) by a fifth-standard boy at a government examination of\na public elementary school: \u201cI Ham Monac of hall I searve, there is none\nheare my rite to Dispute from the senter. Hall round to the sea I am\nlorde of the fowls to the Brute all shoshitude ware are the charms that\nsages have sene in thy face better Dewel in miste of a larms than in this\nmoste horribel place. I am how of umity reach if must finish my Jurny a\nlone never here the swete music of speach i start at the sound of my hone\nthe Beasts that rome over the place my form with indrifence see they are\nso unocent with men such tamess is shocking to me.\u201d\n\nThe examiner for the School Board Scholarship competed for in 1882, gives\nthe following among other equally strange answers on historical matters.\n\u201cWhen Commonwealth comes to the throne it is called Oliver Cromwell.\u201d\n\u201cThe treaty of Utrecht was fought between the Zulus and the English.\u201d\n\u201cLord Clive captured the Fiji Islands in 1624.\u201d \u201cCardinal Wolsey was a\ngreat warrior.\u201d \u201cWalpole translated the Bible.\u201d \u201cWalpole was another\nfavorite of Henry VIII. He was the chief man in helping Henry to get a\ndivorce.\u201d \u201cChaucer wrote \u00c6sop\u2019s fables.\u201d In another of these scholarship\nexaminations Jack Cade was described as \u201ca great Indian conqueror,\u201d Sir\nChristopher Wren was set down as \u201ca discoverer\u201d and \u201can animal painter,\u201d\nand Mr. Gladstone as \u201ca great African traveler.\u201d The battle of Crecy\nwas stated to have been fought in the reign of George III., between the\nBritons and Romans, and \u201cThe Wide, Wide World\u201d was named as Shakspere\u2019s\ngreatest work. This last, however, was not so bad as the history of a\npupil-teacher, who informed the examiner that \u201cShakspere lived in the\nreign of George III., discovered America, and was killed by Caliban.\u201d\n\nA schoolboy habit of placing upon a question some literal meaning other\nthan that intended by the examiner, often leads to answers as curious\nas unexpected. Thus an inspector, testing a class upon their knowledge\nof the succession of the kings of Israel, asked the boy to whose turn\nit had come to be questioned: \u201cAnd who came after Solomon?\u201d To which\nthe youngster answered: \u201cThe Queen of Sheba, sir.\u201d Asked what were the\nchief ends of man, another boy replied, \u201cHis head and feet;\u201d and a third,\nquestioned as to where Jacob was going when he was ten years old, replied\nthat he was \u201cgoing on for eleven.\u201d One specially practical juvenile,\ncalled upon to say for what the Red Sea was famous, answered, \u201cRed\nherrings!\u201d\n\nTo the type of answers here in view, belongs an answer given by a boy\nwhose father was a strong teetotaler, and upon whom it would appear home\ninfluence had made a stronger impression than school lessons. \u201cDo you\nknow the meaning of syntax?\u201d he was asked. \u201cYes,\u201d he answered; \u201csin-tax\nis the dooty upon spirits.\u201d An inspector, who had been explaining to a\nclass that the land of the world was not continuous, said to the boy who\nhappened to be standing nearest to him: \u201cNow, could your father walk\nround the world?\u201d \u201cNo, sir,\u201d was promptly answered. \u201cWhy not?\u201d \u201cBecause\nhe\u2019s dead,\u201d was the unlooked-for response. As little anticipated,\nprobably, was the answer made to another inspector, who asked, \u201cWhat is a\nhovel?\u201d and was met with the reply: \u201cWhat you live in.\u201d\n\nA prettily humorous examination story is that of the little Scotch boy\nat the Presbytery examination. He was asked: \u201cWhat is the meaning of\nregeneration?\u201d \u201cTo be born again,\u201d he answered. \u201cQuite right! Would you\nnot like to be born again?\u201d He hesitated, but being pressed, said that\nhe would not, and asked why not, replied: \u201cFor fear I might be born a\nlassie.\u201d Alike astonishing and amusing was an answer given by an adult\nexaminee, who was \u201csitting\u201d for a certificate as acting teacher. In the\nexamination to test general knowledge, he was asked, \u201cWhat is the age of\nreason?\u201d and answered: \u201cAs many years as have elapsed since the birth\nof the person so named.\u201d It was also a certificate candidate, who, in\nreading, rendered two lines from Goldsmith\u2019s \u201cEdwin and Angelina\u201d thus:\u2014\n\n    The wicket opening with a latch\n      Received the armless pair.\n\n    \u2014_All the Year Round._\n\n\n\n\nTALK ABOUT BOOKS.\n\n\nThe \u201cCritical and Exegetical Hand-book to the Gospel of Matthew,\u201d[C] now\ngiven to American readers with an admirable preface by Dr. Crooks, is\njust what the title asserts, a critical exegesis of the text. The author\nwas a thorough linguist, and especially familiar with the language in\nwhich Matthew wrote. His expositions, which are accurately grammatical,\ngive evidence of much philological research, and a strict, attention\nto the _usus loquendi_ of both classic and New Testament Greek. As an\nexegete he ranks with the best; albeit, the exegesis itself is, at times,\nclearer than the English used to state it. Some sentences are burdened\nwith adjuncts, and there is not always the most felicitous arrangement of\nthe explanatory clauses. One familiar with good writing will occasionally\nfeel an impulse to recast and improve what does not quite suit him. For\nprofessional men, and especially young ministers, the Hand-book has great\nvalue, and is worthy of their careful study.\n\nAt least one novel book has been issued among the recent holiday volumes.\nIt is \u201cOne Year\u2019s Sketch Book,\u201d[D] a collection of engravings following\nthe birth, growth, and death of a year. Flowers are made to interpret\nthe changing phases of the seasons by the artist, for, though she weaves\nin many landscapes, they are almost always as backgrounds, for now a\nbunch of ox-eyed daisies, a bouquet of blue violets, a loose cluster of\nroses, a spray of clematis, or a bunch of bitter-sweet. She deals more\nsympathetically, too, with flowers than with other subjects, and her work\non them shows much more finish. There are several anachronisms in the\nbook that are annoying. March is made to follow May; the page called the\nend of spring-time bears a cluster of trailing arbutus as its emblem,\na flower which belongs to the birth of spring; and in her preface, she\nmakes her newly wedded birds hesitate between nest building in the\nlocust, with its \u201cdrooping white blossoms heaving with sweetness,\u201d and\nthe apple trees with their \u201cpink and white glory blushing against the\nsky,\u201d forgetful that the \u201cpink and white glory\u201d has fallen to the ground\nbefore the locust flower has come. The pictures are quite as beautiful,\nhowever, as if placed in strict calendar order, and the make up of the\nbook is delightful.\n\nProbably the most suggestive work on education ever written is Rousseau\u2019s\n\u201cEmile.\u201d[E] It is the work to which we owe the common sense and the\nthoughtful training which more and more characterize our system of\neducation. It is the work which aroused Pestalozzi and Fr\u0153bel, but it has\nbeen for many years practically a dead volume, particularly to English\nreaders. Old, poorly translated, long, and with many tedious digressions,\nteachers and mothers who ought to have been reading it were repelled by\nthese difficulties. Some time ago M. Jules Steeg removed these barriers\nfrom his French countrymen by arranging a volume into which he gathered\nthe most valuable portions of Emile, and now one of our country-women has\nremoved the difficulties from English readers by a clear translation of\nMr. Steeg\u2019s work. It is a book worth possessing, and educators ought to\nwelcome this practical and satisfactory arrangement of Rousseau\u2019s great\nbook.\n\nA jest book and a history are not often found in the same volume, but the\n\u201cEnchiridion of Wit,\u201d[F] is not only what it professes, a hand book of\nEnglish conversational wit; it is a very delightful history of certain\nperiods of English court and society life. The author has adopted the\nnovel plan of arranging chronologically the _bon-mots_ he has collected.\nThe effect is very striking. This grouping into periods enables a reader\nto study the progress, the men, the culture and refinement of each age\nfrom an entirely new standpoint, and one which no other book with which\nwe are familiar makes possible. The volume will form a valuable handbook\nin studies of the education and polish of the social and literary\ncoteries from the time of Sir Thomas Moore down to the days of Thackeray\nand Bishop Wilberforce.\n\n\u201cA Penniless Girl\u201d[G] is the story of one who, simply because she was a\ngirl, could not inherit the immense fortune which would have fallen to\na son. Her father\u2019s disappointment, and neglect of the daughter whose\nmother died at her birth, her reception into the house of a wealthy noble\nfamily where, after she had been well educated, she accepted the position\nof governess; and her struggles to free herself from the meshes spread\non all sides to lead her into a marriage for wealth and position, and to\nremain true to herself and the man she loved, make up the plot. It is a\nbook that will help while away an hour or so very pleasantly.\n\nA few short extracts from the first page of \u201cEpisodes of My Second\nLife\u201d[H] give the meaning of the title. \u201cOn the 15th of August, 1836,\nI was born again. On that day I embarked at Gibraltar for New York,\nbeing then twenty-five years old. It was the beginning of a new life.\u201d\nThe author is an Italian, and had passed his seventieth birthday before\nbeginning this book. It is made up principally of reminiscences of his\nlife in America and in England. His comments on some of the customs of\nAmerican social life give us a not very flattering view of ourselves as\nothers sometimes see us. His appreciation of the treasures of English\nliterature is very great, and his commendation of them as warm as his\ndenunciation of French literature is bitter. His patriotic, diplomatic,\nliterary, parliamentary, and journalistic experiences give quite an\ninsight into these great fields of labor. There is much of egotism within\nits pages, but the book is very readable and possesses literary merit.\n\n\u201cLight Ahead\u201d[I] is one of those satisfactory books in which the poor\ngood characters all turn out well, and have abundant opportunity to heap\ncoals of fire on the heads of the bad rich ones, who in former years had\ntreated them with contempt. The story of the little _spirituelle_ Alice,\nwho, from a refined home where poverty dwelt, won her way among the noble\nand the true in the highest circles, until she gained an established\nposition in the very best society, will do good wherever it goes.\n\n\u201cPretty Lucy Merwyn\u201d[J] is a charming story for the young. There is a\nfreshness and an individuality about it that captivates the reader from\nthe first. The racy, original little speeches of Lucy and her companions\nhave in them a naturalness that is seldom found, and the descriptions of\ntheir travels abroad are so vivid that those reading half believe that\nthey themselves are visiting the \u201cmemory haunted lands beyond the seas.\u201d\nIt is written in good style and in the purest English.\n\nMarion Harland, with her usual good sense in taking everything new and\ngood into the kitchen, has prepared a \u201cCalendar\u201d[K] for housewives. It is\nthe aptest device we have ever seen for furnishing a daily inspiration to\nmodel housekeeping. No woman with a spark of household pride in her soul\ncan pull away the leaves of this pretty calendar day by day and read the\nbright thoughts, the practical hints, and the encouraging words which\nMrs. Terhune has put on them without profit. It is a pretty object, too,\nfor a wall, with its richly colored sketch of Marion Harland herself,\nsitting in the corner of her library.\n\nA choice little book is the one containing two brief sketches called\n\u201cMiss Toosey\u2019s Mission\u201d and \u201cLaddie.\u201d[L] One experiences something of\na sense of wrong on looking in vain at the title page for the author\u2019s\nname. Both stories are written in a delightful manner, and find their\nway straight to one\u2019s heart. Would that there were more like poor\nMiss Toosey, who grieve over making just such failures of their lives\nas she thought she had. Could she only have known of the purpose which\nshe fanned to life in the breast of strong John Rossiter to go into the\nmission field and really do what she so fondly dreamed of once, she would\nhave felt that she had wrought \u201cbetter than she knew.\u201d\n\nThe \u201cLaddie\u201d was a prominent physician in London, who years before as\nan uncommonly promising youth had left his simple rural home and poor\nmother. The story tells of how she went to find him, and the thoughtless\nwords he spoke which made her leave his grand house, and of the long\nsearch he had for her and the sad finding.\n\nThe firm, convinced statements of Dr. Van Dyke in \u201cThe Reality of\nReligion\u201d[M] are a welcome change from much \u201cpopular\u201d writing and\npreaching on religious themes. To him there is no question of the\ntruths of the Bible. God is _manifest_ as a physical reality, a moral\nreality, an historical reality, a spiritual reality. The saving power\nof the Cross of Christ is no theory; it is a fact. The whole is ringing\nwith the perfect confidence the writer feels in the living truths which\nhe presents. It carries in its tone conviction. The book is a strong\nargument for what it teaches. If one man has found such perfect knowledge\nno reader can afford to overlook his experience. It is a forcible appeal\nto unbelievers; it is splendid help to wavering minds.\n\nMrs. Harrison, in writing \u201cThe Old Fashioned Fairy Book\u201d[N] has not only\nopened up a world of delight for little readers in which they can amuse\nthemselves by the hour, but has also conferred a great favor upon mothers\nand many other older persons by putting into their hands the means by\nwhich they may be enabled to respond to the oft repeated wish, \u201ctell us\na story, please.\u201d The book is a treasure house in which one may find\nthat which will suit any hour and any mood. There are tales of dwarfs\nand witches, and \u201clots of fairies,\u201d and lovely princesses, and brave\nchampions, and all the rest of the things that belong to fairy lore.\nAnd charming illustrations set off the whole book; even the cover is a\ndelight.\n\nWe are pleased to welcome a complete collection of Lucy Larcom\u2019s\npoems.[O] For many years she has been sending out her fresh, loving\nverses, until she has won a warm place in the hearts of earnest\nreaders. Her poems possess beside a real melody in versification, a\npure, devotional tone which makes them something better than merely\npleasing; it makes them inspiring. Her deep appreciation of nature, her\nquick sympathy with the sorrowing and the tempted, her tender love for\nchildhood, fill her poems, making them most beautiful collections for\nlovers of verse.\n\n\u201cHow We Live\u201d[P] is a little book finely illustrated, that treats of\nPhysiology and Hygiene. It is adapted to the use of scholars in the\nelementary schools. The chapters are short, well arranged, and clearly\nexpressed; at the end of each is a list of questions upon the subjects\ntaught in the chapter, put in a novel and interesting manner. The effects\nof alcohol and narcotics upon the system are pointed out, but great\ncare has been taken not to exaggerate the statements, as is too often\nthe tendency in a work of this nature. The book merits a welcome from\nall parents, who should see that their children are learning just such\nlessons as it teaches, and so growing up to be strong men and women.\n\nOne of the new series of Appleton\u2019s Science Text-Books is a Compend of\nGeology.[Q] The aim of the author has been to make an interesting as well\nas an instructive book, and to direct the attention of scholars to the\nphenomena now occurring on all sides. No roundabout method for leading\nup to the study proper has been used, but the author has very simply\ncommenced at the beginning. The directness of the whole book is one of\nits best features. His method of unfolding the science is at once easy\nand natural, and can not fail to awaken and retain the close attention of\nthe student. The definitions are clear, concise, and simply stated; the\nillustrations are numerous and finely supplement the text.\n\nA very neat little book is that called \u201cVocal and Action Language.\u201d[R]\nIn a carefully prepared introduction the objections against the study of\nelocution are very fairly met, and its necessity, importance and history\nset forth. Public speakers can gather many a useful hint from its pages\naside from the practical drill lessons which it contains.\n\n[C] Critical and Exegetical Hand-book to the Gospel of Matthew. By\nHeinrich August Wilhelm Meyer, Th.D. Translated from the sixth edition of\nthe German, by the Rev. Peter Christie. New York: Funk and Wagnalls. 1884.\n\n[D] One Year\u2019s Sketch Book. Illustrated and arranged by Irene E. Jerome.\nBoston: Lee & Shepard, Publishers. New York: Charles T. Dillingham. 1885.\n\n[E] Emile; or Concerning Education. Extracts, with an Introduction\nand Notes by Jules Steeg, D\u00eaput\u00e9 Paris, France. Translated by Eleanor\nWorthington. Boston: Ginn, Heath & Co. 1885.\n\n[F] The Enchiridion of Wit. The Best Specimens of English Conversational\nWit. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1885.\n\n[G] A Penniless Girl. A Novel. From the German of W. Heimburg. Translated\nby Mrs. A. L. Wister. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott & Co. 1885.\n\n[H] Episodes of My Second Life. By Antonio Gallengo. Philadelphia: J. B.\nLippincott & Co. 1885.\n\n[I] Light Ahead. By Cecelia A. Gardiner. New York: Phillips & Hunt.\nCincinnati: Walden & Stowe. 1884. Price, $1.25.\n\n[J] Pretty Lucy Merwyn. By Mary Lakeman. Boston: Lee & Shepard,\npublishers. New York: Charles T. Dillingham. 1884.\n\n[K] The Common Sense Calendar. By Marion Harland. New York: Charles\nScribner\u2019s Sons. 1885.\n\n[L] \u201cMiss Toosey\u2019s Mission\u201d and \u201cLaddie.\u201d Boston: Roberts Brothers. 1884.\n\n[M] The Reality of Religion. By Henry J. Van Dyke, Jr., D.D. New York:\nCharles Scribner\u2019s Sons.\n\n[N] The Old Fashioned Fairy Book. By Mrs. Burton Harrison. Illustrated by\nMiss Rosina Emmet. New York: Charles Scribner\u2019s Sons. 1884. Price, $2.00.\n\n[O] The Poetical works of Lucy Larcom. Household edition. Boston:\nHoughton, Mifflin & Co. 1885.\n\n[P] How We Live, or the Human Body and How to Take Care of it. By James\nJolonot and Eugene Bouton, Ph.D. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 1884.\n\n[Q] A Compend of Geology. By Joseph Le Conte. New York: D. Appleton & Co.\n1884.\n\n[R] Vocal and Action Language. By E. N. Kirby. Boston: Lee & Shepard,\npublishers. New York: C. T. Dillingham. 1885.\n\n\n\n\nSPECIAL NOTES\n\n\nCHAUTAUQUA SCHOOL OF CHURCH WORK.\n\nRev. Geo. P. Hays, D.D., Director, Box 2529, Denver, Colorado.\n\n\nThis school is designed to do whatever may be found practicable in\ntraining Christians for official position in their churches, and for\npersonal effort for the conversion of their acquaintances and friends.\nWith this in view, it is divided into two departments, and will during\nthe summer session of 1885 hold two sessions per day.\n\n_Official Duty._\u2014This department will hold a morning session. Here the\ntheory of all official authority and influence, and the best methods of\nmeeting the same, will be studied in their scriptural statements, their\nabstract application in the rules of business and of the church, and\ntheir concrete illustrations in the lives of successful officers in the\nchurch and the world.\n\n_Personal Effort._\u2014This department will hold an afternoon session, at\nwhich the Scriptural obligation to work as individuals will be carefully\nconsidered, and, afterward, the best methods of dealing with our\nfriends as to their objections, their fears, and their indifference.\nIn both departments an effort will be made duly to appreciate personal\npeculiarities, and yet for all make the experience of others as useful as\npossible.\n\nThe stationery adopted for the classes of \u201987 and \u201988 is out, and very\npretty it is, too. Mr. Henry Hart, of Atlanta, Ga., manufactures and\nsells the paper for these classes. The satisfaction which his badges have\ngiven is the best recommendation for his stationery. Readers of the C. L.\nS. C. who may wish to secure either badges or paper will reach Mr. Hart\nby addressing Atlanta, Ga.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n_Alma Mater_, No. 3, which has just been sent to all members of the C.\nL. S. C., is the first number for the current year 1884-5. Four numbers\nwill be sent during the year, but on account of some necessary changes,\nthe various \u201clessons\u201d in every-day speech, self-discipline, etc., will\nnot appear in the order first announced. The readings in each of the four\nnumbers will be _required_, but not in connection with the work of any\none month.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nMembers of the class of \u201988 should send items of particular interest to\nthe class to the Rev. C. C. McLean, Jacksonville, Florida. Mr. McLean has\nbeen chosen to prepare class matter for THE CHAUTAUQUAN. Do not let him\nlack for news. Those items which interest you as a \u201cPlymouth Rock\u201d will\ninterest your classmates.\n\n\n\n\nSUNDAY-SCHOOL NORMAL GRADUATES.\n\nCLASS OF 1884.\n\n\nCHAUTAUQUA ASSEMBLY NORMAL ALUMNI.\n\n  O. B. Booth                  Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Mrs. O. S. Baum              Chautauqua, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.\n  Harriet E. Borden            Kalkaska, Kalkaska Co., Mich.\n  O. S. Baum                   Chautauqua, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.\n  Gertrude E. Cutler           Jamestown, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.\n  Alvaretta Crouse             118 Brown St., Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Caroline C. Cornnelle        Madisonville, Hamilton Co., Ohio.\n  Harry E. Crankshaw           409 E. Center St., Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Josephine L. Creque          Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Orra N. Chamberlain          Watseka, Iroquois Co., Ill.\n  Charles E. Caskey            Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Bella C. Carter              Randolph, Cattaraugus Co., N. Y.\n  George W. Dithridge          751 Broadway, New York, N. Y.\n  Harriet M. L. Dithridge      Tionesta, Forest Co., Pa.\n  Ella B. Downey               Windsor Hotel, Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Morris Elwell                Newark Valley, Tioga Co., N. Y.\n  Hattie M. Ensign             Madison, Lake Co., Ohio.\n  Sadie L. Gifford             Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Cornelius C. Hunt            Summerville, Jefferson Co., Pa.\n  Clara E. Hill                Buffalo, Erie Co., N. Y.\n  Ella M. Holden               Marlborough, Middlesex Co., Mass.\n  Carrie E. Hill               46 York St., Buffalo, Erie Co., N. Y.\n  Rettie M. Hanna              Lakeville, Livingston Co., N. Y.\n  Mrs. E. J. Harper            North Hope, Butler Co., Pa.\n  W. C. Herrick                713 E. Market St., Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Cora J. Hoover               Flushing, Genesee Co., Mich.\n  Emma M. Jones                Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Lillie W. Johnson            Memphis, Shelby Co., Tenn.\n  Emma D. Knapp                Box 102, Fairfield, Fairfield Co., Conn.\n  Jennie F. Kenyon             207 S. Union St., Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Lorenzo Kidder               Connellsville, Fayette Co., Pa.\n  J. H. King                   133 W. Fourth St., Cincinnati, Ohio.\n  Christina Lang               Fetterman, Allegheny Co., Pa.\n  Celia R. Long                Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Sadie Lyle                   37 Liberty St., Allegheny City,\n                                   Allegheny Co., Pa.\n  Inez Marshall                Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Mrs. Fanny A. Marsh          Union City, Erie Co., Pa.\n  Miss Vie Maynard             Busti, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.\n  F. E. Meigs                  Warrensburg, Johnson Co., Mo.\n  Marcia Mitchell              Terre Haute, Vigo Co., Ind.\n  Ora M. Neeld                 81 Wood St., Pittsburgh, Pa.\n  Ella Paterson                Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Frank C. Perkins             Dunkirk, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.\n  Sarah J. Payne               Pittsburgh, Allegheny Co., Pa.\n  Amos A. Rothtrock            Westerville, Franklin Co., Ohio.\n  Ida E. Rockwell              Darien, Genesee Co., N. Y.\n  Louise Rickart               1131 Madison St., St. Louis, Mo.\n  May Rhodes                   Corry, Erie Co., Pa.\n  William G. Roberts           Bellevue, Huron Co., Ohio.\n  Charles L. Reifsnider        115 James St., Akron, Ohio.\n  J. Frumont Scott             Delaware, Delaware Co., Ohio.\n  T. C. Strickland             Randolph, Cattaraugus Co., N. Y.\n  Laura L. Smith               120 W. Seventh St., Terre Haute, Ind.\n  Helen A. Storer              Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  James H. Smart               Kingsville, Essex Co., Ontario.\n  L. M. Swanzey                Ridott, Stephenson Co., Ill.\n  Harry G. Limric              Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  Frances M. Sawyers           32 Ward St., Pittsburgh, Pa.\n  M. E. Taylor                 513 Prospect St., Cleveland, Ohio.\n  Mrs. Alice Trow              Drake\u2019s Mills, Crawford Co., Pa.\n  Mrs. Josephine Taylor        Pittsburgh, Pa.\n  Emily Gertrude Weegar        Akron, Summit Co., Ohio.\n  The Rev. Charles G. Wood     Kansas, Edgar Co., Ill.\n  Cora E. Wise                 110 N. Summit St., Akron, Ohio.\n  Hattie M. Wise               110 N. Summit St., Akron, Ohio.\n  Mrs. Margaret A. Watts       13 Main St., Louisville, Ky.\n  E. E. Williams               Tilsonburg, Oxford Co., Ontario.\n  Hattie L. Waters             Southfield, Oakland Co., Mich.\n  Jennie T. Weimer             209 S. Forge St., Akron, Ohio.\n\n\nFRAMINGHAM NORMAL UNION.\n\n  Rubie L. Adams               care of the Rev. E. A. Adams, Chicago, Ill.\n  Nellie F. Alexander          56 Messer St., Providence, R. I.\n  Lottie M. Alexander          63 Court St., Boston, Mass.\n  Emily J. Anthony             13 Chestnut St., Providence, R. I.\n  Anna L. Batchelder           Westborough, Worcester Co., Mass.\n  Annie C. Beale               Wiscasset, Lincoln Co., Maine.\n  Mrs. Sarah J. Bragg          Spencer, Worcester Co., Mass.\n  Emma F. Brown                17 Piedmont St., Worcester, Mass.\n  M. Anna Burns                Oakdale, Worcester Co., Mass.\n  Mrs. H. K. Burrison          West Newton, Middlesex Co., Mass.\n  Mrs. Geo. Clark              5 Home St., Worcester, Mass.\n  Mary E. Dorr                 Cordaville, Worcester Co., Mass.\n  Mrs. S. C. Dyer              Spencer, Mass.\n  Minnie E. Gaskins            Mattapan, Suffolk Co., Mass.\n  Jessie E. Guernsey           Framingham, Mass.\n  Mrs. S. C. Hayward           Fitchburg, Mass.\n  Jesse H. Jones               North Abington, Plymouth Co., Mass.\n  Miss G. F. Leonard           Cambridgeport, Mass.\n  Elizabeth Merriam            South Framingham, Mass.\n  Ella F. Moore                Framingham, Mass.\n  Mrs. Nellie E. Moulton       8 Madison St., Worcester, Mass.\n  Abbie P. Noyes               72 Line St., Newburyport, Mass.\n  Ella C. Roberts              19 Mount Vernon St., Boston, Mass.\n  Mary L. Sawyer               Boxford, Essex Co., Mass.\n  Miss M. J. Sherman           Brookfield, Mass.\n  Carrie L. Smith              13 Broadway, Providence, R. I.\n  Elizabeth F. Thayer          Lexington, Mass.\n  Effie L. Warner              574 Maine St., Worcester, Mass.\n  Florence E. Whitcher         Lexington, Middlesex Co., Mass.\n  Mrs. Emma C. White           Braintree, Norfolk Co., Mass.\n  Stella M. A. Wilcox          Providence, R. I.\n  Lillia T. Witherbee          100 Franklin St., Boston, Mass.\n\n\nINTER-STATE ASSEMBLY, OTTAWA, KANSAS.\n\n  A. P. Allen                  Hillsborough, Montgomery Co., Ill.\n  Robert Cochran               Bridgeport, Kan.\n  H. J. Coker                  Garnett, Anderson Co., Kan.\n  J. F. Drake                  Emporia, Lyon Co., Kan.\n  Mary H. Gardner              1023 Grand Ave., Kansas City, Mo.\n  George K. Grant              Media, Douglas Co., Kan.\n  O. Hansen                    Centralia, Nemaha Co., Kan.\n  M. Ingels                    Lanna, Allen Co., Kan.\n  Rose M. Kinney               Hamlin, Brown Co., Kan.\n  Mary E. Leonard              Ottawa, Franklin Co., Kan.\n  Mrs. C. B. Markham           1121 Parallel St., Atchison, Kan.\n  R. L. McNabb                 Council Grove, Morris Co., Kan.\n  Jennie Penrod                Emporia, Lyon Co., Kan.\n  The Rev. Francis Rice        Augusta, Butler Co., Kan.\n  Mary E. Gibson               Ottawa, Franklin Co., Kan.\n  Mrs. Sarah K. Stebbins       Atchison, Atchison Co., Kan.\n  The Rev. F. C. Sherman       Stockton, Rooks Co., Kan.\n  William Wheeler              Ottawa, Franklin Co., Kan.\n\n\nSUNDAY-SCHOOL PARLIAMENT.\n\n  Herman C. Boehme             Fordham, N. Y.\n  Sadia E. Baird               193 Waverly Place, N. Y. City.\n  Mrs. Hattie E. Buell         Cazenovia, Madison Co., N. Y.\n  Delia A. Matson              Oswego Falls, Oswego Co., N. Y.\n  Libbie I. McLean             193 Waverly Place, N. Y. City.\n\n\nMOUNTAIN LAKE PARK ASSEMBLY.\n\n  Robert W. Armstrong          128 Lexington St., Baltimore, Md.\n  The Rev. L. E. Peters        Clarksburg, West Va.\n  The Rev. M. W. Ryder         Oakland, Md.\n  G. W. Atkinson               Wheeling, West Va.\n  Laura W. Rice                197 Carrolton Ave., Baltimore, Md.\n\n\nCHAUTAUQUA TEACHERS\u2019 UNION.\n\n[Individual students who have taken the Normal Course and Examination.]\n\n  Effie Danforth               Peru, Huron Co., Ohio.\n  Minnie A. Fletcher           122 East 19th St., New York City.\n  John T. Judd                 Lewisburg, Union Co., Pa.\n  Mrs. Ella C. Keith           16 Cambridge St., Worcester, Mass.\n  John A. Parker               Schooley\u2019s Mountain, Morris Co., N. J.\n  Cyrus Poling                 Philippi, Barbour Co., West Va.\n  Antoinette F. Peterson       720 14th St., N. W., Washington, D. C.\n  Margaretta V. Wilcox         649 North 35th St., Philadelphia, Pa.\n  William S. Corlett           Warrensville, Cuyahoga Co., Ohio.\n  Fred. C. Abbott              Waterbury, Conn.\n  Florence Edwards             594 Prospect St., Cleveland, Ohio.\n  Mrs. E. P. Hickok            Winfield, Cowley Co., Kan.\n  Ida A. Mahler                Box 564, Waterbury, Conn.\n  William McKay                East Norwich, Queens Co., N. Y.\n  A. W. Moss                   Sweet Valley, Luzerne Co., Pa.\n  Retta Richardson             Stockton, Chautauqua Co., N. Y.\n  Edwin H. Williams            Waterbury, Conn.\n  Minnie A. Wyman              Waterbury, Conn.\n  Jennie G. Haight             Cleveland, Ohio.\n  Emily H. Miller              New Vienna, Clinton Co., Ohio.\n  Mrs. Cornelius D. Tinsley    3 Adams St., Petersburg, Va.\n  Miss E. Beswick              58 Anne St., Toronto, Ontario.\n  Carrie Baur                  432 North 6\u00bd St., Terre Haute, Ind.\n  Mary J. Erwin                Charlotte, Mich.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes:\n\nObvious punctuation errors repaired.\n\nPage 188, \u201cterm\u201d changed to \u201cterms\u201d (The terms \u00c6ginetan and Eub\u0153ic)\n\nPages 188-189, \u201cdrachma\u201d and \u201cdrachme\u201d are both used for the singular.\nNot changed.\n\nPage 189, \u201cwhen\u201d changed to \u201cthen\u201d (one drachma, then very dear)\n\nPage 189, \u201cSimilarily\u201d changed to \u201cSimilarly\u201d (Similarly in music)\n\nPage 190, \u201c856\u201d changed to \u201c586\u201d (the public contests at Delphi (586))\n\nPage 192, \u201ctaught\u201d changed to \u201ctaut\u201d (from whose taut string arrows fly)\n\nPage 194, \u201cbeome\u201d changed to \u201cbecome\u201d (to become more pleasing)\n\nPage 198, reversed order of lines \u201capples into the whites, which must\nhave been whipped to a\u201d and \u201cstiff froth. Beat in the sugar with a few\nlight sweeps of the\u201d, originally printed the other way around.\n\nPage 202, \u201cGuy Lussac\u201d changed to \u201cGay-Lussac\u201d (the loftiest mountains.\nGay-Lussac)\n\nPage 225, \u201cChatuauquan\u201d changed to \u201cChautauquan\u201d (the chemical\nexperiments given in THE CHAUTAUQUAN)\n\nPage 228, \u201cWorccster\u201d changed to \u201cWorcester\u201d (Worcester, Mass.)\n\nPage 229, \u201che\u201d changed to \u201cthe\u201d (contained in the Bible)\n\nPage 229, \u201cffrst\u201d changed to \u201cfirst\u201d (been the first Asiatic)\n\nPage 234, \u201csinc\u201d changed to \u201csince\u201d (since farmers usually double their\ncaution)\n\nPage 234, noted more for amusement than anything else, the line \u201cin\nmillions of households\u2014less buying of customary comforts\u2014are\u201d was\noriginally printed upside down.\n\nPage 241, \u201cPensees\u201d changed to \u201cPens\u00e9es\u201d (the magnificent but unfinished\n\u201cPens\u00e9es.\u201d)\n\nPage 241, \u201cGuy-Lassac\u201d changed to \u201cGay-Lussac\u201d (Gay-Lussac was created a\npeer)\n\nPage 241, \u201cth eEnglish\u201d changed to \u201cthe English\u201d (by the English\ngovernment)\n\nPage 242, repeated word \u201care\u201d removed (students who are \u201cin\u201d for several\n\u201csubjects\u201d)\n\nPage 244, \u201cGibralter\u201d changed to \u201cGibraltar\u201d (I embarked at Gibraltar for\nNew York)\n\nPage 245, \u201cSteegs\u201d changed to \u201cSteeg\u201d (an Introduction and Notes by Jules\nSteeg)","title":"The Chautauquan, Vol. 05, January 1885, No. 4","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":83324}