{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_56144/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_56144","id":"gutenberg_56144","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/56144","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Folklore -- India"],"text":"FOLK LORE NOTES.\n\n                            Vol. I--GUJARAT.\n\n                  COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED BY\n            the late A. M. T. JACKSON, indian civil service.\n\n\n                     R. E. ENTHOVEN, c.i.e., i.c.s.\n\n\n                  BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.\n                                  1914\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n\nThe circumstances attending the murder of Mr. A. M. T. Jackson in\nNasik in December 1909 led to the raising of a small subscription\namong his friends, to be devoted to a memorial in some shape or form,\nshowing the respect and affection with which he was regarded in\nWestern India. A large part of the fund then raised was expended on\nthe purchase of his valuable library, which now forms a part of the\ncollection owned by the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. It\nwas subsequently decided that the balance could not be better spent\nthan in defraying the cost of publishing certain folklore materials\nwhich he had collected and intended, at the time of his untimely death,\nto publish in the pages of the Indian Antiquary. These materials were\nthe result of an enquiry set on foot by him about the year 1900. His\nplan of operation was to forward, through the agency of the Education\nDepartment, Crooke's list of folklore questions to schoolmasters in\nvarious parts of the Presidency. The question paper is given below;\nthe replies form the raw material from which these notes have been\ncompiled. For convenience they are divided into two series: Gujarat\nand the Konkan.\n\nI desire at the outset of these introductory remarks to explain that,\nwhen at the request of the memorial committee I undertook the task\nof seeing these notes through the press, I did not contemplate any\ncritical handling of the materials found in the papers made over\nto me. I had neither the leisure nor the knowledge to carry out\nMr. Jackson's intention, i.e., to edit the notes carefully with\nsuch criticisms and comparisons as his ripe scholarship would have\nsuggested. I make no claim, therefore, to have effected more than\nto have rescued from the wastepaper basket a number of replies to\nquestions regarding the beliefs of the people in Gujarat and the\nKonkan. The notes as now presented doubtless contain much that is\ntrivial, and possibly many inaccuracies; but among them students of\nfolklore may on the other hand discover material of real value--such\nas they are, they will, I trust, repay careful study, and perhaps\nserve one day to form the basis of a further and more comprehensive\nexamination of the folk-lore of the Bombay Presidency--an examination\nwhich should not be too long deferred, for the old practices and\nbeliefs are yearly tending to decay and vanish in contact with\nthe spread of education. The field for enquiry is wide and rich,\nbut workers fail to come forward; and meanwhile the old beliefs and\npractices slowly disappear. On the subjects with which these notes\ndeal, much information of value has already been collected and recorded\nby another oriental scholar, the late Sir James Campbell, K.C.I.E.,\nand will be found partly in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer, and\npartly in the notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom which he\npublished from time to time in the Indian Antiquary. The present notes\ncarry striking confirmation of Sir James Campbell's theory regarding\nthe extent to which beliefs and religious practices in this country\ncan be traced to the desire to propitiate spirit presences. It may be\nremarked that Campbell's work in the domain of Indian folk-lore does\nnot seem to have received the notice that it deserves in the works\nof writers on folk-lore generally, possibly because so much of it is\nburied in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer or in scattered numbers\nof the Indian Antiquary. The notes would amply repay the labour of\nrepublication, with a summary and suitable index. They deal very\nfully with spirit worship and possession, witchcraft and magic,\nand the evil eye. They differ from the present notes in being to\na large extent comparative, assembling under the various heads of\nancestor worship, spirit haunts, spirit possession, exorcism, etc.,\nkindred beliefs from all parts of the world. Doubtless his work to\nno small extent suggested to Mr. Jackson the line of enquiry which\nis contained in the question paper. From the materials accumulated by\nthese two scholars a comprehensive study of the folk-lore of western\nIndia may one day be compiled.\n\nThe notes illustrate very fully the common beliefs in unseen presences\ncausing mischief of various kinds. They illustrate the common methods\nof protection by propitiation, of spirit and disease scaring, and of\navoidance of the effects of the evil eye. A full list will be found\n(pp. 126-130) of the lucky and unlucky omens besetting the undertaking\nof various acts, and much information is recorded regarding lucky and\nunlucky numbers, and spirit scaring names which has not, so far as I\nam aware, been made public before. Ceremonies for exorcising spirits\nthat have possessed human beings are given in some detail. There will\nalso be found an account of the interpretation commonly put on such\nnatural phenomena as the rainbow, an eclipse, thunder, lightning,\nmeteors, comets, &c.\n\nMany examples are given of the beliefs regarding the means for securing\nsuccessful pregnancy. The trees and animals worshipped in the country\nside are described, with the ceremony that is held to be suitable in\neach case. An unusually interesting belief is that which attributes to\na certain lake in Gujarat the power to transform males into females\nand vice versa (see p. 39). The curing of diseases by the wearing of\nmagic threads and the application of mantras or holy verses is also\ndealt with in some detail. Finally a list is given of the shrines of\nthe country side with the tradition regarding the holy man in whose\nhonour and to whose memory they have been erected. They are for the\nmost part worshipped alike by Hindu and Musalman.\n\nIn conclusion, I would refer once more to the fact that no attempt\nhas been made to edit critically the information embodied in these\nnotes. In the scanty leisure available after official demands\non my time have been met, it has only been possible to see the\nmaterials through the press as they stood, after translation. The\ntask has been greatly lightened by the generous assistance received\nfrom R. B. P. B. Joshi who undertook the preparation of the whole\nof the MSS. of the Konkan series. I am also greatly indebted to\nMr. G. M. Kalelkar for many arduous hours of work on the compilation of\nthe Gujarat papers. To both these gentlemen my cordial thanks are due\nfor their co-operation. If the publication of these materials serve\nto stimulate interest in the subject of Indian folk-lore, they will\nnot have been printed in vain. Such as they are, they will, I trust,\nremain as a small tribute to the memory of an oriental scholar, of\nno mean merit, of whose services India was deprived in so untimely\na manner.\n\n\nR. E. Enthoven.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nQUESTIONS ON FOLKLORE.\n\nBy W. CROOKE, Late of the Indian Civil Service.\n\nAuthor of the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India.\n\n\n\nI. NATURE POWERS.\n\n1. Give any indications of the connection of the worship of the Deota\nor minor local deities with the lower races, as, for instance, where\nthe village deity is served by a priest drawn from the lower castes.\n\n2. Give any current beliefs about sun worship. How and at what\nperiodical feasts is the worship conducted and what form of ritual\nis adopted?\n\n3. Give any customs of moving round temples or sacred objects in the\ncourse of the sun in the heavens: cases in which women after childbirth\nare exposed to the sun: conception believed to be caused by exposure\nto the rays of the sun: the use of the Swastika as an emblem.\n\n4. Give any legends or customs connected with moon worship: the spots\non the surface of the moon: the moon as a healer of disease: the\ncustom of drinking the moon's rays: any ceremonies at new or full moon.\n\n5. Give any legends and rites connected with eclipses.\n\n6. Similarly for star worship; superstitions connected with the\nrainbow; the milky way.\n\n7. Rites connected with worship of the earth mother: sacred things\nnot to fall on earth: occasions when people sleep on the earth.\n\n8. Superstitions connected with thunder and lightning.\n\n9. Popular belief regarding earthquakes.\n\n10. Collect instances of and ritual for worship of sacred rivers;\nsprings; waterfalls; water spirits and goblins: prejudice against\nsaving drowning people: ceremonies at digging and dedication of wells:\nwell water as a cure for disease: instances of sacred lakes: palaces\nunder the water.\n\n11. Instances of sacred mountains and legends connected with them:\ndread of climbing mountains.\n\n12. Name any deities supposed to control the weather, and describe\nthe modes of causing or averting rain, of checking storms and hail.\n\n13. Give instances of any rites in which women alone take part or\nfrom which they are excluded: any rites in which the worshipper must\nbe nude.\n\n14. Are there any sacred stones which are believed to influence\nthe rain?\n\n15. Note any superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors.\n\n\n\nII. THE HEROIC GODLINGS.\n\n16. Describe the ritual and any legends or superstitions connected\nwith the worship of Hanuman, Bhimsen, Bhishma.\n\n17. Name and describe the local deities most generally worshipped in\nyour neighbourhood. What legends are connected with them; who are\ntheir priests; what offerings and on what occasions are offerings\nmade to them?\n\n18. How is the local deity of a new settlement selected and installed?\n\n19. What local deity is considered responsible for crops and\ncattle? When and how is he worshipped?\n\n20. Describe the worship of Bhairon or Bhairava, Ganesa, the Matris\nor Mothers, the deities of the jungle, those who assist parturition.\n\n\n\nIII. DISEASE DEITIES.\n\n21. Describe the worship of any deities who are believed to have the\npower of averting or causing disease, such as cholera, small pox,\nfever, etc.\n\n22. Is epidemic disease attributed to witchcraft, and, if so, what\nprecautions are taken? Give particulars of observances in connection\nwith cattle disease.\n\n23. What methods are in vogue for the exorcism of disease? Give\nexamples of any rural charms used for this purpose.\n\n24. Is dancing used in exorcism? If so, give instances of religious\ndances.\n\n25. What are the position and functions of the village sorcerer and\nhow is he appointed?\n\n26. Give examples of the offering of rags, coins, etc., at sacred\ntrees, wells, etc.\n\n27. Give any methods of transferring disease to another person.\n\n28. Give instances of the use of scapegoats.\n\n\n\nIV. THE WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.\n\n29. Give instances of worship of ancestors: the belief that spirits\nare mortal and that the spirits of the dead are re-born in children.\n\n30. Give instances of miracle-working tombs, and of saints who have\nbeen deified in modern times.\n\n31. Give instances of Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted\nby Hindus.\n\n32. Give the rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.\n\n\n\nV. THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.\n\n33. What are the current beliefs as to the cause of dreams and the\nomens derived from them?\n\n34. Is it considered possible for the soul to leave the body\ntemporarily? If so, give instances.\n\n35. What is the popular conception of the character and functions of\nthe Bhut or disembodied soul?\n\n36. What beliefs are current as to the state of the soul after death;\nthe path to the other world: the condition of souls in the other world:\nthe possibility of the soul returning thence?\n\n37. What belief is current as to the souls of those dying by a sudden\nor violent death?\n\n38. What are believed to be the appearance and habits of the Bhut?\n\n39. In what way do spirits enter or leave the body?\n\n40. What is the current theory regarding sneezing and yawning?\n\n41. What is known of the Rakshasa or malevolent demon?\n\n42. Name and describe any other varieties of malignant spirits.\n\n43. Do any evil spirits go about headless?\n\n44. What special evil spirits infest burial or cremation grounds,\nand what are the other haunts of such spirits?\n\n45. Does any special class of evil spirit infest mountains, jungles,\ntrees?\n\n46. What fiends attack the young mother and her child?\n\n47. What belief prevails as to the spirits of those killed by tigers\nor other wild beasts?\n\n48. What form does the ghost of a woman dying at childbirth or during\nher menses assume?\n\n49. Is there any belief that the father has to take special precautions\nat the birth of his child?\n\n50. Is there any belief in a connection of the bat or owl with spirits\nof the dead?\n\n51. Describe the evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried\ntreasure: or occupy caves and mines.\n\n\n\nVI. THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.\n\n52. Describe the belief in the Evil eye and the modes of evading it.\n\n53. Does the belief in giving opprobrious names to children prevail,\nand if so, how is it accounted for?\n\n54. Can you give instances of change of sex?\n\n55. Illustrate the value of the following protection against evil\nspirits--iron and other metals: coral and shells: precious stones:\nblood: incense: spittle: salt: water: grain: colours: grasses:\ntattooing: leather: garlic: glass.\n\n56. Describe the amulets generally used.\n\n57. Illustrate the sacred circle as a protective.\n\n58. Illustrate the belief in omens, numbers, lucky and unlucky days.\n\n59. What means are adopted to help the spirit to the other world, to\nprevent it from returning and to secure its good-will to the survivors?\n\n60. Illustrate the prevalence of earth burial and cremation: the\ncustoms of shaving the hair: placing food or other articles for the\nuse of the dead.\n\n61. Does the spirit reappear in the form of insects and animals?\n\n62. Are the earthen vessels of the household broken at death: if so,\nwhy? Describe rites connected with mourning.\n\n63. What spirits are benevolent?\n\n64. Illustrate the belief in tree spirits.\n\n65. What spirits are special protectors of crops and cattle?\n\n66. What spirits are invoked to frighten children?\n\n\n\nVII. TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.\n\n67. Name any sacred groves in your neighbourhood and describe any\nprejudice against cutting trees.\n\n68. Are any trees specially connected with any local deity or saint?\n\n69. Name any trees which receive particular respect or devotion and\nnote any legends or superstitions in connection with them.\n\n70. Does the custom of marrying a bride or bridegroom to a tree\nprevail? Any instances of marriage to a god: religious prostitution.\n\n71. Give instances of snake worship and shrines of serpent deities:\nof deified snake heroes.\n\n72. Does the belief prevail that snakes guard treasure? Give details.\n\n73. What snake festivals are observed? Describe the ritual.\n\n74. What is the village treatment of snake-bite?\n\n75. The snake has a jewel in his head: he is connected with the\nrainbow: he has a palace under the water: he weds mortal girls:\nhe protects the household--illustrate these beliefs.\n\n\n\nVIII. TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.\n\n76. Can you quote any beliefs which are suggestive of Totemism? Are\nany clans named after or do they claim descent from animals or\nplants? What animals are treated with special respect by particular\ntribes? Do special castes refuse to eat any special food?\n\n77. Are any local deities specially associated with animal worship?\n\n78. Illustrate the worship of stocks and stones. Is any respect shown\nto perforated stones?\n\n79. Are there any modern survivals of human sacrifice?\n\n80. Are fetish stones supposed to cure disease or to be the abode\nof spirits?\n\n81. Are any fetishes peculiar to particular families or castes?\n\n82. Is special respect shown to the corn sieve, the winnowing basket,\nthe broom, the rice pounder, the plough?\n\n83. Give instances of fire worship. Is the sacred fire maintained in\nany shrine? Is fire made by friction for special rites?\n\n\n\nIX. ANIMAL WORSHIP.\n\n84. Illustrate from local examples the worship or respect paid to the\nhorse, ass, lion, tiger, dog, goat, cow, buffalo, antelope, elephant,\ncat, rat and mouse, squirrel, bear, jackal, hare, crow, fowl, dove\nand pigeon, swan, and other birds, alligators, fish and insects,\nand give any legend or superstition in connection with them.\n\n\n\nX. WITCHCRAFT.\n\n85. How far does the belief in witches and their powers prevail? Do\nthey appear as animals and have they special haunts and seasons?\n\n86. What ordeals are used to test a witch and what means to guard\nagainst her witchcraft?\n\n\n\nXI. GENERAL.\n\n87. Describe the rural ceremonies in connection with ploughing,\nsowing the various crops, reaping and harvesting.\n\n88. Rites intended for the protection of cattle; to ensure sunshine\nand favourable weather: to scare noxious animals or insects: to\nprotect special crops: illustrate these from local custom.\n\n89. Are there any rites in which secrecy and silence are essential?\n\n90. Describe the observances at the Holi.\n\n91. Give details of any rites performed when boys or girls attain\npuberty.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTABLE OF CONTENTS.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nNature Powers.                                                    Page.\n\n    Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. Circumambulation\n    round images and other sacred objects. Exposure of women to the Sun\n    after child-birth. The Swastika. Moon-worship. Eclipses. Worship\n    of planets and stars. The rainbow. The milky way. Worship of\n    the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes. Worship of sacred\n    rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins. Ceremonies\n    at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred\n    Lakes. Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who\n    control the weather. Methods of causing or averting rain and\n    of checking storms. Vratas or religious vows practised only\n    by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in which\n    the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with\n    aerolites and meteors.                                            1\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nThe Heroic Godlings.\n\n    The worship of Hanuman, Bhimsen and Bhishma. Local\n    deities. Installation of deities in new settlements. Deities\n    responsible for crops and cattle. The worship of Bhairow, Ganesh,\n    Matrikas or mothers, the deities of the jungle and the deities\n    who preside over childbirth.                                     54\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nDisease Deities.\n\n    Deities who can cause or avert diseases such as cholera, small pox,\n    fever, etc. Causes of the outbreak of cholera. Remedies adopted\n    to stop cholera. Causes of the outbreak of small pox. Remedies\n    adopted for the cure of small pox. Causes of fever. Remedies\n    adopted in cases of fever. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised by\n    the village people in connection with them. The methods for the\n    exorcism of disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the\n    body. The village sorcerer. Offerings of rags, coins, etc. at\n    sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease from one\n    person to another. Scapegoats.                                   74\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nThe worship of ancestors and saints.\n    Shraddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and\n    emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious\n    sects, of saints, etc. Ghosts. The length of their life. Rebirth\n    of ancestors in the same family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan\n    saints whose worship has been adopted by Hindus. Rural methods\n    for the cure of barrenness.                                      89\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nThe worship of the malevolent dead.\n\n    Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious\n    dreams. Temporary abandonment of the body by the soul. Character\n    and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul. The state of the\n    soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The souls of persons\n    dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts enter\n    and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the\n    body. Beliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. Rakshasa or the\n    malevolent demon. Maharakshasas. Other malignant spirits. Evil\n    spirits which go about headless. The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts\n    of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of persons killed\n    by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in\n    child-bed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of\n    children. Beliefs in connection with bats and owls. Spirits which\n    haunt ruins, guard buried treasure and occupy valleys.          102\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nThe evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.\n\n    Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by\n    the evil eye. Precautions taken to evade the influence of the\n    evil eye. Opprobrious names. Change of sex. Protection against\n    evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens. Numbers. Lucky\n    and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the\n    other world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the\n    hair. Offerings of food to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits\n    in form. The practice of breaking earthen vessels at death. Rites\n    connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits. Spirits which haunt\n    trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits invoked\n    to frighten children.                                           120\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nTree and Serpent worship.\n\n    Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions\n    connected with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms\n    to trees. Snake worship. Shrines of snake deities. Deified\n    snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment of\n    snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Its connection\n    with the rainbow. Weddings of snakes with human beings. Guardian\n    snakes.                                                         136\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nTotemism and Fetishism.\n\n    Names derived from animals. Names derived from plants. Clan names\n    derived from trees and animals. Sacred animals. Deities associated\n    with animal worship. Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of\n    human sacrifice. Disease-curing stones. Respect shown to corn\n    sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough. Fire worship.  144\n\n\nCHAPTER IX.\n\nAnimal worship.\n\n    Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected\n    with them.                                                      150\n\n\nCHAPTER X.\n\nWitchcraft.\n\n    Human and ghost by Dakans or witches.                           152\n\n\nCHAPTER XI.\n\nGeneral.\n\n    Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites\n    performed for the protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring\n    noxious animals and insects. Rites performed for ensuring sunshine\n    and favourable weather. Rites performed for the protection of\n    crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The\n    observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when girls\n    attain puberty.                                                 153\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE FOLKLORE OF GUJARAT\n\n\nNATURE POWERS\n\nCHAPTER I\n\n\nBesides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and\ntreated of in the Shastras and Puranas, numerous other minor deities,\nnone of whom however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped\nby the lower classes. The principle underlying the whole fabric of\nthe worship of these minor deities, who for the most part are the\nspirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has more in it of fear for their\npower of harming than of love for their divine nature. All untoward\noccurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments and unusual\nnatural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the villager,\nare attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and numerous\nspirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men. [1] The\nlatent dread of receiving injuries from these evil spirits results in\nthe worship by the low-class people of a number of devas and matas, as\nthey are called. The poor villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts\nof hovering spirits, ready to take offence, or even to possess him,\non the smallest pretext, requires some tangible protector to save him\nfrom such malign influences. He sets up and enshrines the spirit\nthat he believes to have been beneficent to him, and so deserving of\nworship, and makes vows in its honour, often becoming himself the\nofficiating priest. Each such deity has its own particular thanak\n(sthana) or locality. Thus there is hardly a village which has not\na particular deity of its own. But in addition to this deity, others\nin far off villages are generally held in high esteem.\n\nThere are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities\ncan be installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or\nmetal. [2] No temples or shrines are erected in their honour. [3] An\nordinary way of representing them is by drawing a trident, (trishul,\na weapon peculiar to god Shiva) in red-lead and oil on an upright\nslab of stone on a public road, on any dead wall, on the confines\nof a village, or a mountain side, or a hill top, in an underground\ncellar, or on the bank of a stream. [4] Some people paint tridents in\ntheir own houses. The trishul, or trident, may also be made of wood,\nin which case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil\nand covered with a thin coating of tin. [5] Sometimes carved wooden\nimages in human shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed\nin a small wooden chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In\nsome shrines two brooms or whisks of peacock's feathers are placed\non either side of the image. [6] A slight difficulty overcome or a\ndisease remedied by a vow in honour of any of these deities offers\nthe occasion for an installation, and in all future emergencies of\nthe same kind similar vows are observed. A mata installed to protect\na fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mata, and the worshippers\nof a fortress, or street, mother are known as Pothias. [7] At the time\nof installation flags are hoisted near the dedicated places. A troop\nof dancers with jingling anklets recite holy verses, while the bhuva,\nexorcist-priest, performs the ceremonies. Generally installations are\nfrequent during the Navaratra [8] holidays when, if no human-shaped\nimage is set up, a trishul at least is drawn in red-lead and oil. [9]\nSome of these evil deities require, at the time of their installation,\nthe balidan (sacrifice or oblation) of a goat or a he-buffalo. Also,\nwhen a spirit is to be exorcised, the symbol of the familiar spirit of\nthe exorcist is set up and invoked by him. After the installation,\nno systematic form of worship is followed in connection with them. [10]\nRegular forms are prescribed for the real gods of the Puranas. But\nupon these the low-caste people are not authorised to attend.\n\nStill, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or\nsamanya-puja and special or vishesha-puja. [11] Ordinary worship is\nperformed by bathing the deity--which can be done by sprinkling a\nfew drops of water over it--burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it,\nand by offering a cocoanut and a pice or a half-anna piece. The last\nis taken away by the bhuva, or priest, who returns generally half or\nthree-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasad of the god.\n\nThere are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays\nand Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured. [12] On such days,\nofferings are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order\nto avoid a badha, or impending evil. In the observance of this vow\nthe devotee abstains from certain things, such as ghi, butter, milk,\nrice, juvar, betelnut till the period of the vow expires. When a vow\nis thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers, garlands, incense,\nfood or drink according to the terms of his vow. The dhupa, i.e.,\nburning incense of gugal (balsamodendron) is one of the commonest\nmethods of worship.\n\nThe days for special worship are the Navaratra holidays, the second day\nof the bright half of Ashadh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar,\n[13] Divasa [14] or the fifteenth day of the dark half of Ashadh, and\nKali-chaudas [15] or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin,\nthe last month; besides other extraordinary occasions when a spirit\nhas to be exorcised out of a sick person.\n\nThe Navaratra days are said to be the most auspicious days for\ndevi-worship. People believing in the power of the matas observe\nfast on these days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of\nthe Navaratra known as Mata-ashtami, taking only a light meal which\nconsists of roots, as a rule, especially the suran (Amorphophallus\ncampanulatus), and of dates and milk. [16] On the Navaratra days\nred-lead and oil are applied to the images of the devis, and a number\nof oblations, such as loaves, cooked rice, lapsi [17], vadan [18]\nand bakla [19] are offered. [20] The utmost ceremonial cleanliness\nis observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted,\ncleaned, ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered\nto the gods and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these\noperations must be performed on the same day; for the offerings must\nnot see lamp-light. [21] Girls are not allowed to partake of these\nofferings. All ceremonies should be conducted with much earnestness\nand reverence; otherwise the offerings will fail to prove acceptable\nto the matas or devis.\n\nOn Mata-ashtami and Kali-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats\nor buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual\nofferings of lapsi, vadan and bakla. The night of Kali-chaudas\nis believed to be so favourable for the efficacious recitation\n(sadhana) of certain mantras, mysterious incantations possessing sway\nover spirits, that bhuvas (exorcists) leave the village and sit up\nperforming certain rites in cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other\nequally suitable places where spirits are supposed to congregate. [22]\n\nOn Divasa, the last day of Ashadh, the ninth month, low-caste\npeople bathe their gods with water and milk, besmear them with\nred-lead and oil, and make offerings of cocoanuts, lapsi, bakla of\nadad (Phaseoleus radiatus) or kansar [23]. Particular offerings are\nbelieved to be favoured by particular deities: for instance, khichdo\n(rice and pulse boiled together) and oil, or tavo (flat unleavened\nloaves) are favoured by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice by Shikotar\nand lapsi by the goddess Gatrad. [24]\n\nOn these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of\nAshadh the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on\ncertain musical instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile\nbhuvas, believed to be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits,\nundergo self-torture, with the firm conviction that the spirits have\nentered their persons. Sometimes they lash themselves with iron chains\nor cotton braided scourges. [25] At times a bhuva places a pan-full\nof sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in it,\nand takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the boiling\noil over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the oil,\nlights them and puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot bullets\ninto his mouth, seemingly without any injury. [26] This process secures\nthe confidence of the sevakas or followers, and is very often used\nby bhuvas when exorcising spirits from persons whose confidence the\nbhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full of water is then passed round the\nhead of the ailing person (or animal) to be charmed, and the contents\nare swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has swallowed in the\nwater all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir to.\n\nIn the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as\nutar is sometimes gone through. An utar is a sacrificial offering of\nthe nature of a scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel,\nopen and broad at the top, and containing lapsi, vadan, bakla, a\nyard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric), one rupee and four annas in\ncash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or surmo-lead ore used\nas eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts. Very often a\ntrident is drawn in red-lead and oil on the outer sides of the black\nearthen vessel. [27] The bhuva carries the utar in his hands with\na drawn sword in a procession, to the noise of the jingling of the\nanklets of his companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of\ncymbals. After placing the utar in the cemetery the procession returns\nwith tumultuous shouts of joy and much jingling of anklets. [28]\n\nSometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the\nday of the utar ceremony, and a ceremony known as Danklan-beswan\nor the installation of the dankla [29] is performed. (A dankla\n[30] is a special spirit instrument in the shape of a small\nkettle-drum producing, when beaten by a stick, a most discordant,\nand, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome and ghastly\nsound--K. B. Fazlullah).\n\nMany sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva\nof the same order. [31] The bhuva holds a high position in the society\nof his caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi\nor mata whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her,\nthe will of the mata, replying for her to such questions as may be put\nto him. [32] The devis are supposed to appear in specially favoured\nbhuvas and to endow them with prophetic powers. [33]\n\nThe following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of\nGujarat and Kathiawar:--\n\n(1) Suro-puro.--This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor\nwho died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a\nfamily-god at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death,\nwhere a pillar (palio) is erected to his memory. [34]\n\n(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dada (sire).--This is\nsaid to have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some\nCharans, who invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters. [35] He\nis considered to be the family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent,\nand is the sole village-deity in Okha and Baradi Districts. [36]\nOther places dedicated to this god are Padana, Aniala, Taluka Mengani,\n[37] Khajurdi, Khirasara and Anida. [38] He is represented by a stone\nhorse, and Charans perform priestly duties in front of him. [39]\nSubmission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure\nrabid-dog-bites. [40]\n\n(3) Sarmalio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhari and many other\nplaces. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied\nin their marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him. [41] Persons\nbitten by a snake wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated\nto this god.\n\n(4) Shitala is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.--Persons\nattacked by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kalavad and\nSyadla are places dedicated to her.\n\n(5) Ganagor.--Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and\ncomfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in\nher honour.\n\n(6) Todalia.--She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her\nhonour, but is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village\nboundary--Padal or Jampa. All marriage processions, before entering\nthe village (Sanka) or passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity\nand offer a cocoanut, failure to do which is believed to arouse her\nwrath. She does not command daily adoration, but on occasions the\nattendant, who is a Chumvalia Koli, and who appropriates all the\npresents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal (balsamodendron)\nand lights a lamp before her. [42]\n\n(7) Buttaya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in\nthe vicinity of Sanka. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long\nseason of drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brahmans,\nfor which purpose four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each\nthreshing floor in the village.\n\n(8) Surdhan.--This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who\ndied on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing\nan image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.\n\n(9) Ghogho.--This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada\nhaving a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.\n\n(10) Pir.--This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is\nerected, the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.\n\n(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon\nby chamars (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvada (i.e.,\na quarter inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have\nobserved a vow in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him,\nhe dedicated certain lands to her; but they are no longer in the\npossession of the attendants. [43]\n\n(12) Hanuman.--On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of\nthis god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and\nplaster the image with red-lead and oil. A sadhu of the Maragi sect,\na Koli by birth, acts as pujari.\n\n(13) Shakta (or shakti).--This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by\na Chumvalia Koli. On the Navaratra days, as well as on the following\nday, Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in\nher name.\n\n(14) Harsidh.--Gandhavi in Barda and Ujjain are the places dedicated\nto this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her\nimage stood in a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo\nin Gandhavi. She was believed to sink or swallow all the vessels\nthat sailed by. A Bania named Jagadusa, knowing this, propitiated\nher by the performance of religious austerities. On being asked\nwhat boon he wanted from her, he requested her to descend from her\nmountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to offer a living\nvictim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he sacrificed\none victim after another until the number of victims he had brought\nwas exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children,\nthen his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion\nthe goddess faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take\nplace in the village. [44]\n\n(15) Hinglaj.--This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty\nmiles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make\npilgrimage.\n\nIn the village of Jasdan, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of\nKalu-Pir in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly\nfabrics, and a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and\nMusalmans believe [45] in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats\nand money to his soul. A part of the offering being passed through the\nsmoke of frankincense, burning in a brazier near the saint's grave\nin the shrine, the rest is returned to the offerer. Every morning\nand evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pir's honour. [46]\n\nOther minor deities are Shikotar, believed by sailors to be able to\nprotect them from the dangers of the deep; [47] Charmathvati, the\ngoddess of the Rabaris; [48] Macho, the god of the shepherds; Meldi,\nin whom Vaghries (bird-catchers) believe; [49] Pithad, the favourite\ngod of Dheds; [50] Dhavdi, who is worshipped by a hajam (barber); [51]\nKhodiar; [52] G\u00e9la, Dadamo, Kshetrapal, Chavad, [53] Mongal, Avad,\nPalan, Vir Vaital, [54] Jalio, Gadio, Paino, Parolio, Sevalio,\nAndhario, Fulio, Bhoravo, Ragantio, Chod, [55] Gatrad, Mammai and\nVerai. [56] There are frequent additions to the number, as any new\ndisease or unusual and untoward incident may bring a new spirit into\nexistence. The installation of such deities is not a costly concern,\n[57] and thus there is no serious check on their recognition.\n\nThe sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great\nluminary, is believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty\nGod, [58] and inspires the human mind with a feeling of grateful\nreverence which finds expression in titles like Savita, Life-Producer,\nthe nourisher and generator of all life and activity [59].\n\nHe is the chief rain-sender [60]; there is a couplet used in Gujarat\nillustrative of this belief. It runs:--\"Oblations are cast into the\nFire: the smoke carries the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary,\npropitiated, responds in sending down gentle showers.\" \"The sacred\nsmoke, rising from the sacrificial offerings, ascends through the\nethereal regions to the Sun. He transforms it into the rain-giving\nclouds, the rains produce food, and food produces the powers of\ngeneration and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the sun, as the\npropagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity.\"\n\nIt is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are\nhighly efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the\neyesight. Mr. Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgita\nthe saying of Krishna:\n\n\n                         Prabhasmi sasisuryayoh\n\n\n\"I am the very light of the sun and the moon. [61]\" Being the\nembodiment or the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either\nto the bodies or to the eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput\nwoman of Gomata in Gondal and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white\nleprosy by vows in honour of the sun. [62] Similar vows are made\nto this day for the cure of the same disease. Persons in Kathiawar\nsuffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal affections, leucoderma\nand white leprosy are known to observe vows in honour of the sun. [63]\n\nThe Parmar Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the\nsun deity of Mandavraj, in curing hydrophobia. [64]\n\nWomen believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of\nattaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object\nof securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to\nthe Great Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given\nsuch a name as Suraj-Ram, Bhanu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Ram. [65]\n\nMany cradles are received as presents at the temple of Mandavraj,\nindicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have\nbeen satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled\nby the present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich\ndonors, these cradles are made of precious metal. [66]\n\nAt Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmar Rajputs, as\nwell as the Kathis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day,\nin company with their newly-married brides. After the birth of\na son to a Rajputani, the hair on the boy's head is shaved for the\nfirst time in the presence of the Mandavraj deity, [67] and a suit\nof rich clothes is presented to the image by the maternal uncle of\nthe child. [68]\n\nThe sun is sarvasaksi the observer of all things and nothing can\nescape his notice. [69] His eye is believed to possess the lustre\nof the three Vedic lores, viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda,\nand is therefore known by the name of vedatrayi. The attestation of a\ndocument in his name as Surya-Narayana-Sakshi is believed to be ample\nsecurity for the sincerity and good faith of the parties. [70] Oaths\nin the name of the sun are considered so binding that persons swearing\nin his name are held to be pledged to the strictest truth. [71]\n\nVirgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the 'tili-vrat' in the\nsun's honour, for attaining akhamda saubhagya--eternal exemption from\nwidowhood. In making this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed\nand worshipped the sun, sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him. [72]\n\nAccording to Forbes's Rasmala, the sun revealed to the Kathis the\nplan of regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout\nworship and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Than, was\nset up by the Kathis in recognition of this favour. In it both the\nvisible resplendent disc of the sun and his image are adored. [73]\n\nPeople whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the\nSurya-dasha, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe\nvows prescribed by Hindu astrology. [74]\n\nCultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the\nsafety of their cattle. [75]\n\nThe following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:--\n\n(1) Aditya-hridaya--literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of\nthe glory of the sun and the mode of worshipping him.\n\n(2) Brihadaranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans--portions of Yajurveda\nrecited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as well as\nmental prayers to the sun.\n\n(3) Bibhrad--the fourth chapter of the Rudri.\n\n(4) A passage in Brahman--a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the\nwords svayambhurasi Thou art self-existent--is entirely devoted to\nSun-worship. [76]\n\n(5) Surya-Purana--A treatise relating a number of stories in\nglorification of the sun.\n\n(6) Surya-kavacha. [77]\n\n(7) Surya-gita.\n\n(8) Surya-Sahasranama--a list of one thousand names of Surya. [78]\n\nIt is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with\na wooden stick, known as datan [79] and then to offer salutations\nto the sun in the form of a verse which means: \"Oh God, the datans\nare torn asunder and the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the\ninnermost parts, forgive us our sins. Do good unto the benevolent\nand unto our neighbours.\" This prayer is common in the mouths of the\nvulgar laity. [80]\n\nBetter educated people recite a shloka, which runs: \"Bow unto Savitri,\nthe sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of\nthe universe, the inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold\npersonality (being an embodiment of the forms of the three gods of\nthe Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvar)--the embodiment of\nthe three Vedas, the giver of happiness and the abode of God. [81]\n\nAfter his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer\nmorning prayers and arghyas to the sun. [82] The Trikala-Sandhya\nis enjoined by the Shastras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman\nshould perform the Sandhya thrice during the day: in the morning,\nat mid-day and in the evening. The Sandhya is the prayer a Brahman\noffers, sitting in divine meditation, when he offers three arghyas\nto the sun and recites the Gayatri mantra 108 times. [83]\n\nThe arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley\nseeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In\noffering the arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon\nis lifted to the forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting\nthe Gayatri mantra. [84] If water is not available for offering the\narghyas, sand may serve the purpose. But the sun must not be deprived\nof his arghyas. [85]\n\nThe Gayatri is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing,\nas it does, the highest laudations of him. A Brahman ought to\nrecite this mantra 324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as\ngreat as the slaughter of a cow. [86] Accordingly a Rudrakshmala, or\na rosary of 108 Rudraksh beads, is used in connecting the number of\nGayatris recited. [87] It is exclusively the right of the twice-born\nto recite the Gayatri. None else is authorised to recite or even to\nhear a word of it. Neither females nor Shudras ought to catch an echo\nof even a single syllable of the Gayatri mantra [88].\n\nA ceremony, called Suryopasthan, in which a man has to stand facing\nthe sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun,\nis performed as a part of the sandhya. [89]\n\nOf the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable\nfor Sun worship [90]. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health\nand a happy progeny, especially people suffering from disorders\ncaused by heat and from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and\nmen anxious for victory on the battlefield, weekly observe vows in\nhonour of the sun, and the day on which the vow is to be kept is\nSunday. [91] It is left to the devotee to fix the number of Sundays\non which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose to observe all\nthe Sundays of the year. [92] On such days the devotees undergo\nceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of\nclean garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and\nrecite the Aditya-hridaya-patha, which is the prescribed mantra for\nSun worship. [93] Then follows the Nyasa, (nyasa) in the recitation\nof which the devotee has to make certain gestures (or to perform\nphysical ceremonials). First the tips of all the four fingers are\nmade to touch the thumb as is done in counting. Then the tips of\nthe fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand. Then one\nhand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the\nheart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right\nhand is then put round the head and made to smite the left. An\nashtadala or eight-cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and\nfrankincense, red ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun. [94]\nDurva grass is also commonly used in the process of Sun-worship. [95]\n\nSometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a\ncopper disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar\nor the five-fold ceremonials. [96] Of all ceremonials a namaskar is\nespecially dear to the sun. [97] It is said:--\n\n\n        Namaskarapriyo bhanurjaladharapriyah sivah |\n        Paropakarapriyo visnurbrahmano bhojanapriyah ||\n\n\nA namaskar or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water\nin a small stream over Shiva's idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence\nto Vishnu and a good dinner to a Brahman.\n\nIn observing vows in the sun's honour on Sundays, the following\nspecial foods are prescribed in particular months: [98]--\n\n(1) In Kartika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three\nleaves of the Tulsi or the holy basil plant.\n\n(2) In Margashirsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of\ncandied sugar.\n\n(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.\n\n(4) In Magha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may\nbe swallowed.\n\n(5) In Phalguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.\n\n(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi\nand molasses.\n\n(7) In Vaishakha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing\nthe vrat is to lick their own palms three times.\n\n(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or\npalmfuls of pure water.\n\n(9) In Ashadha, three chillies may be eaten.\n\n(10) In Shravana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.\n\n(11) In Bhadrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.\n\n(12) In Ashvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in\nthe form of an ointment or of powder.\n\nOnly a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in\nthe above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice,\nghi, sugar, milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as\nto colour.\n\nPeople observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during\nthe day, and that too in bajas or dishes made of khakhara (or palash)\nleaves. This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there\nbeing some mysterious relation between Surya and the khakhara. [99]\n\nIf the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of\nthe sun on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling\nthe desires of the devotees. [100]\n\nOf the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the\ndark halves of each month [101] and the Amavasya day, i.e., the last\nday of a Hindu calendar month, [102] are set apart for Sun-worship. The\nceremonies of the worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact,\nin almost all the observances in connection with the sun the same\nceremonials are to be gone through. Very often a Brahman recites the\npatha directing his hosts or hostesses to perform certain ceremonial\ngestures. On the last of the number of days which the devotee\nhas decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and Brahmans are\nfeasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as vratujavavun. [103]\n\nThe special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankranti days and the\nsolar eclipses.\n\nIn each year there are twelve Sankranti days on which the sun moves\nfrom one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed\non all these Sankrantis, but Makara-Sankranti, which falls on the\n12th or 13th of January, is considered the most important. [104] The\nUttarayana-parvan falls on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to\nhis northern course from his southern, and the time of that Parvan\nis considered so holy that a person dying then directly attains\nsalvation. [105] On this day, many Hindus go on a pilgrimage to\nholy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give\nalms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and\ncows. [106] Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed, [107]\ngrass and cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lapsi [108] and loaves\nto dogs. Sweet balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten\nas a prasad and given to Brahmans, and dainties such as lapsi are\npartaken of by Hindu households, in company with a Brahman or two,\nwho are given dakshina after the meals. [109]\n\nOn solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers\nto God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with\nthe demon Rahu, prayers being offered for the sun's success. When the\nsun has freed himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full\nlustre on the earth, the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers\nto God with a concentrated mind, and well-to-do people give in alms\nas much as they can afford of all kinds of grain. [110]\n\nThe Chaturmas-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with\nHindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on\nthose days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather,\nthe sun is not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds\nfor days together, the devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the\ndeity again. [111]\n\nBarren women, women whose children die, and especially those who\nlose their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases\ncaused by heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments\nobserve the vow of the sun in the following manner. [112] The vows\nare kept on Sundays and Amavasya days, and the number of such days is\ndetermined by the devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned\nBrahman. The woman observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at\nnoon when the sun reaches the zenith, and dresses herself in clean\ngarments. Facing the sun, she dips twelve red karan flowers in red\nor white sandal ointment and recites the twelve names of Surya as\nshe presents one flower after another to the sun with a bow. [113]\nOn each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the shape of\nlapsi, in bajas of khakhara or palash leaves; white food in the form\nof rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a\nghi-lamp burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at\nnight on a bed made on the floor. [114]\n\nPeople who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence\n(dasha) of Surya, observe vows in the sun's honour and go through\nthe prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds\nof food and engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in\nhonour of the sun. If all goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sadhus and\nother pious persons are entertained at a feast. This feast is known as\nvrat-ujavavun. Some persons have the sun's image (an ashtadal) engraved\non a copper or a golden plate for daily or weekly worship. [115]\n\nOn the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped\nand the homa sacrifice is performed. [116]\n\nIf at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position\naccording to the bridegroom's horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn\non gold-leaf and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is\nalso common on such an occasion.\n\nA Nagar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her\nwedding. [117]\n\nIn Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun,\nand the following mantra is chanted [118]:--\n\n\n    Adityo Bhaskaro Bhanu Ravih Suryo Divakarah |\n    Sannama smarennityam mahapatakanasanam ||\n\n\nIt means--one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya,\nBhaskar, Bhanu, Ravi, Surya, Divakar, which destroy sin.\n\nThe sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of\na person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing\na handful of raw khichedi--rice and pulse--and covered with yellow\npieces of cotton are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called\ngadaso bharvo.\n\nRajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also\nkeep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned\nBrahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only\none meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable\nto the sun). [119]\n\nCircumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered\nmeritorious and to cause the destruction of sin. [120] The subject\nhas been dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vrataraja,\nand Shodashopachara among the Dharma-Shastras of the Hindus. [121]\n\nThe object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god,\nsuch as of Ganpati, Mahadev or Vishnu [122] or the portrait of a\nguru, or his footmarks engraved or impressed upon some substance,\nor the agni-kunda (the fire-pit), [123] or the holy cow [124], or\nsome sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad (banyan tree), the Pipal\n(ficus religiosa), [125] the Shami (prosopis spicegera), the Amba\n(mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia), [126]\nor the Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.\n\nIt is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to\ncomplete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then\nto take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much\nless common now than formerly. [127] Still, visitors to a temple\nor an idol, usually are careful to go round it a few times at least\n(generally five or seven). The usual procedure at such a time is to\nstrike gongs or ring bells after the turns, to cast a glance at the\nshikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to return. [128]\n\nWomen observing the chaturmas-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting\nfrom the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh (the ninth month)\nto the eleventh day of the bright half of Kartik (the first month)\nfirst worship the object, round which they wish to take turns, with\npanchamrit (a mixture of milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The\nnumber of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or 108. At each turn they keep\nentwining a fine cotton thread and place a penda [129] or a bantasa\n[130] or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or some other\nfruit before the image or the object walked round. These offerings\nare claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony. [131] When\na sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of\nthe tree at each turn. [132]\n\nDuring the month of Shravan (the tenth month) and during the\nPurushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe\na number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening,\nthey take turns round holy images and objects. [133]\n\nPeople observing the chaturmas-vrat (or monsoon vow), called\nTulsi-vivaha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take\nturns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark\nhalves of each of the monsoon months. The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow)\nnecessitates perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Savitri-vrat round\nthe Vad or banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the\nKapilashashthi day (the sixth day of the bright half of Margashirsha,\nthe second month) and on the Amavasya or the last day of Bhadrapada\n(the eleventh month). [134]\n\nWomen who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take\nturns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they\nwind a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw\nred lac and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a\nhalf-anna piece before it. [135]\n\nThe Shastras authorise four pradakshinas (or perambulations) for\nVishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half) [136]\nfor Shiva. [137] But the usual number of pradakshinas is either 5,\n7, 21 or 108. In taking turns round the image of Vishnu, one must\ntake care to keep one's right side towards the image, while in the\ncase of Shiva, one must not cross the jaladhari [138] or the small\npassage for conducting water poured over the Shiva-linga.\n\nSometimes in pradakshinas the votary repeats the name of the deity\nround which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names\nof the gods in Shlokas. [139] Sometimes the following verse is\nrepeated. [140]\n\n\n        Papoham papakarmaham papatma papasambhavah |\n        Trahi mam pundarikaksa sarvapapaharo bhava ||\n        Yani kani ca papani janmamtarakrtani ca |\n        Tani tani vinasyantu pradaksinapadepade ||\n\n\n'I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O\nlotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever\nsins I may have committed now as well as in my former births, may\nevery one of them perish at each footstep of my pradakshina.'\n\nThe recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the\nphera of lakh-choryasi [141]. Alms are given many times to the poor\nafter pradakshinas. [142]\n\nThe reason why pradakshinas are taken during the day is that they\nhave to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting\nwitness of all human actions. [143]\n\nAs all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and\nlunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic\ndevelopment. [144]\n\nThe heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new\nsprouts, and therefore he is called 'Savita' or Producer. [145]\nSolar and lunar rays are also believed to facilitate and expedite\ndelivery. [146] The medical science of the Hindus declares the Amavasya\n(new-moon day) and Purnima (full-moon day) days--on both of which\ndays the influence of the sun and the moon is most powerful--to be\nso critical for child-bearing women as to cause, at times, premature\ndelivery. [147] Hence, before delivery, women are made to take turns in\nthe sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to invigorate the foetus,\nthus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The assistance rendered\nby solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart a hot\ntemperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool\none.] [148] After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her\nhands clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him. [149]\nSitting in the sun after delivery is considered beneficial to women\nenfeebled by the effort. [150] It is a cure for the paleness due to\nexhaustion, [151] and infuses new vigour. [152]\n\nThe Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun\nconfers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat. [153]\n\nThe practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does\nnot seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In\nKathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in\na dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial\nmeans. [154] On the other hand, it is customary in many places to\nbring a woman into the sunlight after a certain period has elapsed\nsince her delivery. The duration of this period varies from four\ndays to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman is not allowed to\nsee sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to the\nsun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day\nfrom the date of her delivery. [155]\n\nA ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day\nafter the birth of a child, and the Namkaran ceremony--the ceremony\nof giving a name--on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is\nsometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of these\nceremonies. [156] Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth,\nthe mother is made to take a bath in the sun. [157]\n\nExactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman\nis taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun\nand to fetch water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is\nknown as Zarmazaryan. [158] Seven small betel-nuts are used in the\nceremony. They are carried by the mother, and distributed by her to\nbarren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts from her hand,\nthey are likely to conceive. [159]\n\nIn difficult labour cases, chakrava water is sometimes given to\nwomen. The chakrava is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a\nbell-metal dish, over which the finest white dust has been spread. This\nfigure is shown to the woman in labour: water is then poured into\nthe dish and offered her to drink. [160] The figure is said to be a\nrepresentation of Chitrangad. [161] It is also believed to be connected\nwith a story in the Mahabhaarata. [162] Subhadra, the sister of god\nKrishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pandavas, conceived\na demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the womb of\nSubhadra even twelve months after the date of her conception, and\nbegan to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing\nof the demon's presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the\nafflicted condition of his sister and read chakrava, (Chakravyuha)\na book consisting of seven chapters and explaining the method of\nconquering a labyrinthine fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna\ncompleted six chapters, and promised to teach the demon the seventh,\nprovided he came out. The demon ceased troubling Subhadra and emerged\nfrom the womb. He was called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh\nchapter for then Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take\nhis life. This ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his\nlife on the field of Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined\nlabyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when\ntaught to a demon in the womb facilitated the delivery of Subhadra,\na belief spread that drinking in the figure of the seven cross-lined\nlabyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who had\ndifficulties in child-birth.\n\nThe figure Swastika (literally auspicious), drawn as shown below,\nis an auspicious sign, and is believed to be a mark of good luck and\na source of blessings. It is one of the sixteen line-marks on the\nsole of the lotus-like feet of the god Ishwar, the Creator of the\nUniverse. [163] The fame of the good effects of the Swastika figure\nis said to have been first diffused throughout society by Narad-Muni,\nas instructed by the god Brahma. [164]\n\nVarious conjectures have been made concerning the origin of\nthis figure. The following explanation is found in a work named\nSiddhantsar. The Eternal Sat or Essence, that has neither beginning\nnor end nor any maker, exhibits all the religious principles in a\nchakra or a wheel-form. This round shape has no circumference; but\nany point in it is a centre; which being specified, the explanation\nof the whole universe in a circle is easy. Thus the figure [dotted\ncircle] indicates the creation of the universe from Sat or Essence.\nThe centre with the circumference is the womb, the place of creation\nof the universe. The centre then expanding into a line, the diameter\nthus formed represents the male principle, linga-rup, that is the\nproducer, through the medium of activity in the great womb or\nmaha-yoni. When the line assumes the form of a cross, it explains the\ncreation of the universe by an unprecedented combination of the two\ndistinct natures, animate and inanimate. The circumference being\nremoved, the remaining cross represents the creation of the world.\nThe Swastika, or Sathia, as it is sometimes called, in its winged\nform suggests the possession of creative powers by the opposite\nnatures, animate and inanimate. [165]\n\nAnother theory is that an image of the eight-leaved lotus, springing\nfrom the navel of Vishnu, one of the Hindu Trinity, was formerly drawn\non auspicious occasions as a sign of good luck. The exact imitation of\nthe original being difficult, the latter assumed a variety of forms,\none of which is the Swastika. [166]\n\nSome people see an image of the god Ganpati in the figure. That god\nbeing the master and protector of all auspicious ceremonies has to\nbe invoked on all such occasions. The incapacity of the devotees to\ndraw a faithful picture of Ganpati gave rise to a number of forms\nwhich came to be known by the name of Swastika. [167]\n\nThere are more ways than one of drawing the Swastika, as shown below,\nbut the original form was of the shape of a cross. The first consonant\nof the Gujarati alphabet, ka, now drawn thus [KA], was also originally\ndrawn in the form of a cross (+). Some persons therefore suppose that\nthe Swastika may be nothing more than the letter ka, written in the\nold style and standing for the word kalyan or welfare. [168]\n\nThough the Swastika is widely regarded as the symbol of the sun,\nsome people ascribe the figure to different deities, viz., to Agni,\n[169] to Ganpati, [170] to Laxmi, [171] to Shiva, [172] besides the\nsun. It is also said to represent Swasti, the daughter of Brahma, who\nreceived the boon from her father of being worshipped on all auspicious\noccasions. [173] Most persons, however, regard the Swastika as the\nsymbol of the sun. It is said that particular figures are prescribed\nas suitable for the installation of particular deities: a triangle for\none, a square for another, a pentagon for a third, and the Swastika for\nthe sun. [174] The Swastika is worshipped in the Ratnagiri district,\nand regarded as the symbol as well as the seat of the Sun-god. [175]\nThe people of the Thana district believe the Swastika to be the central\npoint of the helmet of the sun; and a vow, called the Swastika-vrat,\nis observed by women in its honour. The woman draws a figure of the\nSwastika and worships it daily during the Chaturmas (the four months\nof the rainy season), at the expiration of which she presents a Brahman\nwith a golden or silver plate with the Swastika drawn upon it. [176]\n\nA number of other ideas are prevalent about the significance of the\nSwastika. Some persons believe that it indicates the four directions;\n[177] some think that it represents the four margas--courses or objects\nof human desires--viz., (1) Dharma, religion; (2) Artha, wealth; (3)\nKam, love; (4) Moksha, salvation. [178] Some again take it to be an\nimage of the ladder leading to the heavens. [179] Others suppose it\nto be a representation of the terrestrial globe, and the four piles\nof corn placed in the figure, as shown below (p. 16) represent the\nfour mountains, Udayachala, Astachal, Meru and Mandarachala. [180]\nThe Swastika is also believed to be the foundation-stone of the\nuniverse. [181]\n\nThe Swastika is much in favour with the gods as a seat or couch, and\nas soon as it is drawn it is immediately occupied by some deity. [182]\nIt is customary therefore to draw the Swastika on most auspicious\nand festive occasions, such as marriage and thread ceremonies, the\nfirst pregnancy ceremonies and the Divali holidays. [183] In the\nKonkan the Swastika is always drawn on the Antarpat, or the piece\nof cloth which is held between the bride and the bridegroom at the\ntime of a Hindu wedding. [184] And at the time of the Punyaha-wachan,\na ceremony which precedes a Hindu wedding, the figure is drawn in rice\nand is worshipped. Throughout the Chaturmas some persons paint the\nauspicious Swastikas, either on their thresholds or at their doors,\nevery morning. [185]\n\nOn the sixth day from the date of a child's birth, a piece of cloth\nis marked with a Swastika in red lac, the cloth is stretched on a\nbedstead and the child is placed upon it. [186] An account of this\nceremony is to be found in the treatises Jayantishastra, Jatakarma,\nand Janakalaya.\n\nBefore joining the village-school, little boys are made to worship\nSaraswati, the goddess of learning, after having installed her\non a Swastika, in order that the acquisition of learning may be\nfacilitated. [187]\n\nA Brahman host, inviting a party of brother-Brahmans to dinner,\nmarks the figure one (1) against the names of those who are eligible\nfor dakshina, and a Swastika against the names of those who are not\neligible. These latter are the yajamans or patrons of the inviting\nBrahman, who is himself their pujya, i.e., deserving to be\nworshipped by them. A bindu or dot, in place of the Swastika, is\nconsidered inauspicious. [188]\n\nThe Swastika is used in calculating the number of days taken in\npilgrimage by one's relations, one figure being painted on the wall\neach day from the date of separation.\n\nIt is said that the Swastika when drawn on a wall is the representation\nof Jogmaya. Jogmaya is a Natural Power, bringing about the union of\ntwo separated beings. [189]\n\nThe Jains paint the Swastika in the way noted below and explain\nthe figure in the following manner:--The four projectors indicate\nfour kinds of souls: viz., (1) Manushya or human, (2) Tiryach or of\nlower animals, (3) Deva or divine, (4) Naraki or hellish. The three\ncircular marks denote the three Ratnas or jewels, viz., (1) Jnan or\nknowledge, (2) Darshana or faith, (3) Charita or good conduct; and\nthe semi-circular curve, at the top of the three circles, indicates\nsalvation. [190]\n\nEvery Jain devotee, while visiting the images of his gods, draws a\nSathia (Swastika) [191] before them and places a valuable object over\nit. The sign is held so sacred that a Jain woman has it embroidered on\nthe reticule or kothali in which she carries rice to holy places. [192]\n\n'I am the very light of the sun and the moon,' observes Lord Krishna\nin his dialogue with Arjuna, [193] and the moon also receives divine\nhonours like the sun. Moon-worship secures wealth, augments progeny,\nand betters the condition of milch-cattle. [194] The suitable days\nfor such worship are the second and the fourth days of the bright half\nof every month (Dwitiya or Bij and Chaturthi or Choth, respectively)\nand every full-moon day (Purnima or Punema). On either of these days\nthe devotees of Chandra (the moon) fast for the whole of the day and\ntake their food only after the moon has risen and after they have\nseen and worshipped her. [195] Some dainty dish such as kansar, [196]\nor plantains and puris, [197] is specially cooked for the occasion.\n\nA sight of the moon on the second day of the bright half of every\nmonth is considered auspicious. After seeing the moon on this day\nsome people also look at silver and gold coins for luck. [198] The\nbelief in the value of this practice is so strong that, immediately\nafter seeing the moon, people refrain from beholding any other\nobject. Their idea is that silver, which looks as bright as the\nmoon, will be obtained in abundance if they look at a silver piece\nimmediately after seeing the moon. [199] Moon worship on this day is\nalso supposed to guarantee the safety of persons at sea. [200] In the\nsouth, milk and sugar is offered to the moon after the usual worship,\nand learned Brahmans are invited to partake of it. What remains after\nsatisfying the Brahmans is divided among the community. On this\nday, those who keep cattle do not churn whey nor curd milk nor sell it,\nbut consume the whole supply in feasts to friends and neighbours. [201]\nThe Ahirs and Rabaris especially are very particular about the use of\nmilk in feasts only: for they believe that their cattle are thereby\npreserved in good condition. [202]\n\nThe fourth day of the dark half of every month is the day for the\nobservance of the chaturthi-vrat (or choth-vrat). This vrat is observed\nin honour of the god Ganpati and by men only. The devotees fast on\nthis day, bathe at night after seeing the moon, light a ghi lamp,\nand offer prayers to the moon. They also recite a path containing\nverses in honour of Ganpati, and, after worshipping that god, take\ntheir food consisting of some specially prepared dish. This vrat is\nsaid to fulfil the dreams of the devotees. [203]\n\nThe day for the chaturthi-vrat in the month of Bhadrapad (the 11th\nmonth of the Gujarati Hindus) is the fourth day of the bright half\ninstead of the fourth day of the dark half, [204] and on this day\n(Ganesh Chaturthi [205]) the moon is not worshipped. The very sight\nof her is regarded as ominous, and is purposely avoided. [206] The\nstory is that once upon a time the gods went out for a ride in their\nrespective conveyances. It so happened that the god Ganpati fell off\nhis usual charger, the rat, and this awkward mishap drew a smile from\nChandra (the moon). Ganpati, not relishing the joke, became angry and\ncursed Chandra saying that no mortal would care to see his face on\nthat day (which happened to be the fourth day of the bright half of\nBhadrapad). If any one happens to see the moon even unwittingly on\nthis day, he may expect trouble very soon. [207] There is one way,\nhowever, out of the difficulty, and that is to throw stones on the\nhouses of neighbours. When the neighbours utter abuse in return, the\nabuse atones for the sin of having looked at the moon on the forbidden\nnight. The day is therefore called (in Gujarat) Dagad-choth, i.e.,\nthe Choth of stones. [208]\n\nOn the fourth day of the dark half of Phalgun (the 5th month of\nGujarati Hindus) some villagers fast for the whole of the day and\nremain standing from sunset till the moon rises. They break their\nfast after seeing the moon. The day is, therefore, called ubhi (i.e.,\nstanding) choth. [209]\n\nVirgins sometimes observe a vow on Poshi-Punema or the full-moon day\nof Pausha (the 3rd month of the Gujarati Hindus). On this day a virgin\nprepares her evening meal with her own hands on the upper terrace\nof her house. She then bores a hole through the centre of a loaf,\nand observes the moon through it, repeating while doing so a verse\n[210] which means: O Poshi-Punemadi, khichadi (rice and pulse mixed\ntogether) is cooked on the terrace, and the sister of the brother takes\nher meal. [211] The meal usually consists either of rice and milk or\nof rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar, or of kansar. She\nhas to ask the permission of her brother or brothers before she may\ntake her food; and if the brother refuses his permission, she has to\nfast for the whole of the day. [212] The whole ceremony is believed\nto prolong the lives of her brothers and her future husband. The moon\nis also worshipped at the time of griha-shanti, i.e., the ceremonies\nperformed before inhabiting a newly-built house. [213]\n\nIf the moon is unfavourable to a man born under a particular\nconstellation, on account of his occupying either the 6th, the 8th or\nthe 12th square in a kundali [214] (see below) prayers are offered\nto the moon; and if the occasion is a marriage, a bell-metal dish,\nfull of rice, is presented to Brahmans. [215]\n\nThe appearance of the moon and the position of the horns of her\ncrescent at particular times are carefully watched as omens of future\nevents. Cultivators believe that if the moon is visible on the second\nday of the bright half of Ashadh (the 9th month of Gujarati Hindus),\nthe sesamum crops of that season will be abundant; but if the moon be\nhidden from sight on that day, the weather will be cloudy during the\nwhole of Ashadh, and will prove unfavourable to vegetable growth. [216]\nIf the moon appears reddish on a Bij day (or the second day of the\nbright half of a month), and if the northern horn of the crescent be\nhigh up, prices in the market are believed to rise; if, on the other\nhand, it is low, it prognosticates a fall in prices. If the two horns\nare on a level, current prices will continue.\n\nSimilarly, the northern horn of the crescent, if it is high up on\nthe Bij day of Ashadh, augurs abundant rainfall; if it is low, it\nforeshadows a season of drought. [217]\n\nIf the moon presents a greenish aspect on the full-moon day of Ashadh,\nexcessive rains may be expected in a few days; if on that day she rises\nquite clear and reddish, there is very little hope of good rains; if\nshe is partly covered by clouds when she rises and then gets clear of\nthe clouds, and then again disappears in the clouds in three ghadis,\n[218] three pohors, or three days, rain is sure to fall. [219]\n\nIf on the 5th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the moon appears to\nthe west of the Rohini constellation, the prices of cotton are believed\nto rise; if to the east, they are said to fall; and if in the same\nline, the current rates are believed to be likely to continue. [220]\n\nThe Bij (2nd day) and the ninth day of Ashadh (the 9th month of the\nGujaratis and the 4th month of the Hindus of the Deccan) falling on\na Sunday is a combination that foretells excessive heat. If they fall\non Wednesday, intense cold is said to be the result. Their occurring\non a Tuesday, threatens absence of rains, and on a Monday, a Thursday\nor a Friday, foreshadows excessive rainfall. [221]\n\nThunder on Jeth-Sud-Bij, or the second day of the bright half of\nJyeshtha, is a bad omen and threatens famine. [222]\n\nThe spots on the moon have given rise to numerous beliefs, mythological\nas well as fanciful. One of them is that they are the result of a\ncurse, pronounced by the sage Gautama on Chandra. Indra, the god of\nrain, was infatuated with the charms of Ahalya, the wife of Gautama,\nand with the help of Chandra laid a cunning plot to gain his ignoble\nobject. Accordingly, one night, Chandra set earlier than usual, when\nIndra assumed the form of a cock and crowed at midnight in order to\ndeceive Gautama into the belief that it was dawn, and therefore his\ntime for going to the Ganges to perform his religious services. The\ntrick was successful, and the holy sage being thus got rid of,\nIndra assumed the form of Gautama himself and approached Ahalya,\nwho was surprised to see her husband (as she thought) so quickly\nreturned. The wily god allayed her suspicions by explaining that it\nwas not yet time for the morning ceremonies, and thus enjoyed the\nfavours due to her husband. Gautama, in the meanwhile, finding the\nwater of the Ganges cool and placid, and discovering that it was not\nyet dawn, returned to his hermitage. On reaching home he detected\nthe treachery of Indra, who tried to escape in the disguise of a\ntom-cat. The exasperated sage then cursed Indra, Chandra and his wife:\nIndra to have a thousand sores on his person, Ahalya to turn into a\nstone, and Chandra to have a stain on his fair face. [223]\n\nAnother mythological story is that Daksha Prajapati, the son of\nBrahma, gave all his twenty-seven daughters in marriage to Chandra,\nwho was inspired with love for one of them only, named Rohini, the most\nbeautiful of them all. The slighted twenty-six sisters complained to\ntheir father, Daksha, of Chandra's preference for Rohini. Daksha in\nanger cursed Chandra to be attacked by consumption (which is supposed\nto be the reason of the waning of the moon) and his face to be marred\nby a stain. [224]\n\nThe curse of Gautama and the curse of Daksha are also supposed to be\nreasons of the waxing and the waning of the moon.\n\nAnother belief regarding the moon-spots is that when the head of\nGanpati was severed by Shiva's trident, it flew off and fell into\nthe chariot of the moon. The spots are either the head itself [225]\nor are due to drops of blood fallen from the flying severed head. [226]\n\nThe spots are also said to be explained by the fact of the image of\ngod Krishna or Vishnu [227] residing in the heart of the moon who,\nas a devotee of Vishnu, holds his image dear to his heart. [228]\n\nThe moon is often called mriganka (lit. deer-marked) and\nmriga-lanchhana (lit. deer-stained); and a further explanation of\nthe spots in this connection is that the moon-god took into his lap a\nstrayed deer, out of compassion, and thus his lap became stained. [229]\nJains believe that in the nether parts of the moon's viman or vehicle,\nthere is an image of a deer whose shadow is seen in the spots. [230]\n\nSome persons declare the spots to be a shami tree (prosopis\nspicigera). [231] The belief of the masses in Gujarat is said to\nbe that the spot on the moon's disc is the seat of an old woman,\nwho sits spinning her wheel with a goat tethered near her. [232]\nIf the droppings of the goat were to fall on earth, departed souls\nwould return to the earth. [233]\n\nIt is said that a child and a tree are never seen to grow except\nduring the night. Such growth is therefore held to be due to lunar\nrays. [234] As all trees, plants, etc., thrive owing to the influence\nof the moon, the moon-god is called the lord of herbs. The moon is\nalso a reservoir of nectar and is called Sudhakar, i.e., one having\nnectarine rays. [235] As the lord of herbs, the moon-god is supposed\nto have the power of removing all diseases that are curable by drugs,\nand of restoring men to health. [236]\n\nPersons suffering from white leprosy, black leprosy, consumption\nand diseases of the eyes are believed to be cured by the observance\nof the Bij and Punema vows. [237] Consumption in its incipient and\nlatter stages is also said to be cured by exposure to the rays of\nthe moon. [238] Constant glimpses of the moon add to the lustre of\nthe eyes. [239] On the Sharad-Punema, or the 15th day of the bright\nhalf of Ashvin (the last month of the Gujaratis and the 7th month of\nthe Deccani Hindus), tailors pass a thread through their needles in\nthe belief that they will thereby gain keener eyesight. [240]\n\nA cotton-wick is exposed to the moon on Sharad-Punema, and is\nafterwards lighted in oil poured over the image of Hanuman. The soot,\nwhich is thus produced, if used on the Kali-chaudas day--the fourteenth\nday of the dark half of Ashvin--is said to possess much efficacy in\nstrengthening the eyesight and also in preserving the eyes from any\ndisease during the ensuing year. [241]\n\nSweetened milk or water is exposed to moonlight during the whole of the\nnight of Sharad-punema (the full-moon day of Ashvin) in order to absorb\nthe nectarine rays of the moon, and is drunk next morning. Drinking in\nthe rays of the moon in this manner is believed to cure diseases caused\nby heat as well as eye-diseases, and it similarly strengthens the\neyesight and improves the complexion. [242] Sugar-candy thus exposed\nand preserved in an air-tight jar is partaken of in small quantities\nevery morning to gain strength and to improve the complexion. [243]\nThe absorption of the lunar rays through the open mouth or eyes is\nalso believed to be of great effect in achieving these objects. [244]\n\nOnce upon a time the gods and demons, by their united efforts,\nchurned the ocean and obtained therefrom fourteen ratnas or precious\nthings. [245] These were distributed among them. Lakshmi, the kaustubha\njewel, the Sharnga bow and the conch-shell fell to the share of Vishnu,\nand the poison, Halahal visha, was disposed of to Shiva. Only two\nthings remained, sudha, or nectar, and sura or liquor. To both gods\nand demons the nectar was the most important of all the prizes. A hard\ncontest ensuing between them for the possession of it, the demons,\nby force, snatched the bowl of nectar from the gods. In this disaster\nto the gods, Vishnu came to their help in the form of Mohini--a most\nfascinating woman--and proposed to the demons that the distribution of\nthe immortalising fluid should be entrusted to her. On their consent,\nVishnu or Mohini, made the gods and the demons sit in opposite rows\nand began first to serve the nectar to the gods. The demon Rahu,\nthe son of Sinhika, fearing lest the whole of the nectar might be\nexhausted before the turn of the demons came, took the shape of a god\nand placed himself amongst them between Chandra (the moon) and Surya\n(the sun). The nectar was served to him in turn, but on Chandra and\nSurya detecting the trick, the demon's head was cut off by Vishnu's\ndiscus, the sudarshana-chakra. Rahu however did not die: for he had\ntasted the nectar, which had reached his throat. The head and trunk\nlived and became immortal, the former being named Rahu, and the latter\nKetu. Both swore revenge on Chandra and Surya. At times, therefore,\nthey pounce upon Chandra and Surya with the intention of devouring\nthem. In the fight that ensues, Chandra and Surya are successful\nonly after a long contest, with the assistance of the gods, and by\nthe merit of the prayers that men offer. [246]\n\nThe reason of the eclipse is either that Chandra and Surya bleed in\nthe fight with Rahu and their forms get blackened [247]; or that the\ndemon Rahu comes between the two luminaries and this earth, and thus\ncauses an eclipse [248]; or because Rahu obstructs the sun and the moon\nin their daily course, and this intervention causes an eclipse [249];\nor because Rahu swallows the sun and the moon, but his throat being\nopen, they escape, their short disappearance causing an eclipse. [250]\n\nBesides the mythological story, there is a belief in Gujarat that\na bhangi (scavenger or sweeper), creditor of the sun and the moon,\ngoes to recover his debts due from them, and that his shadow falling\nagainst either of them causes an eclipse. [251]\n\nA third explanation of the eclipse is that the sun and the moon revolve\nround the Meru mountain, and the shadow of the mountain falling upon\neither of them causes an eclipse. [252]\n\nIt is believed amongst Hindus that eclipses occur when too much\nsin accumulates in this world. [253] Most Hindus regard an eclipse\nas ominous, and consider the eclipse period to be unholy and\ninauspicious. The contact of the demon Rahu with the rays of the sun\nand the moon pollutes everything on earth. Great precautions therefore\nbecome necessary to avoid pollution. [254] A period of three pohors\n[255] (prahars) in the case of the moon, and of four in the case\nof the sun, before the actual commencement of an eclipse, is known\nas vedha, i.e., the time when the luminaries are already under the\ninfluence of the demon. During this period and during the time of an\neclipse people observe a strict fast. Anyone taking food within the\nprohibited period is considered sutaki or ceremonially impure, as if\na death had happened in his family. [256] An exception is, however,\nmade in the case of children, pregnant women and suckling mothers\nwho cannot bear the privation of a strict fast. From the beginning\nof an eclipse to its end, everything in the house is believed to be\npolluted, if touched.\n\nAs the sun and the moon are believed to be in trouble during an\neclipse, people offer prayers to God from the beginning of the vedha\nfor their release. It is the custom to visit some holy place on an\neclipse-day, to take a bath there, and to read holy passages from the\nShastras. Some people, especially Brahmans, sit devoutly on river-banks\nand offer prayers to the sun. Much secret as well as open charity\nis given at the time of an eclipse. But the receivers of charity\nduring the actual period of an eclipse are the lowest classes only,\nsuch as bhangis, mahars and mangs. When an eclipse is at its full,\nthese people go about the streets giving vent to such cries as ap\u00f3\ndan chhut\u00e9 chand (give alms for the relief of the moon!). [257]\n\nAmong the gifts such people receive are cotton clothes, cash, grain\nsuch as sesamum seeds, udad, pulses, and salt. [258] The gift of a pair\nof shoes is much recommended. [259] Sometimes a figure of the eclipsed\nsun or moon is drawn in juari seeds and given away to a bhangi. [260]\n\nAlthough the period of an eclipse is considered inauspicious, it is\nvalued by those who profess the black art. All mantras, incantations,\nand prayogas, applications or experiments, which ordinarily require\na long time to take effect, produce the wished for result without\ndelay if performed during the process of an eclipse. [261]\n\nIf a man's wife is pregnant, he may not smoke during the period of an\neclipse lest his child become deformed. [262] Ploughing a farm on a\nlunar-eclipse day is supposed to cause the birth of Chandra-children,\ni.e., children afflicted by the moon.\n\nAfter an eclipse Hindus bathe, perform ablution ceremonies, and dress\nthemselves in clean garments. The houses are cleansed by cowdunging\nthe floors, vessels are rubbed and cleansed, and clothes are washed,\nin order to get rid of the pollution caused by the eclipse. [263]\nUnwashed clothes of cotton, wool, silk or hemp, according to popular\nbelief, do not become polluted. The placing of darbha grass on\nthings which are otherwise liable to pollution is also sufficient to\nkeep them unpolluted. [264]\n\nBrahmans cannot accept anything during the impious time of an eclipse,\nbut after it is over, alms are freely given to them in the shape of\nsuch costly articles as fine clothes, gold, cattle and the like. [265]\n\nAfter an eclipse Hindus may not break their fast till they have\nagain seen the full disc of the released sun or the moon. It sometimes\nhappens that the sun or the moon sets gherayala (while still eclipsed),\nand people have then to fast for the whole of the night or the day\nafter, until the sun or the moon is again fully visible. [266]\n\nThere is a shloka in the Jyotish-Shastra to the effect that Rahu would\nsurely devour Chandra if the nakshatra, or constellation of the second\nday of the dark half of a preceding month, were to recur on the Purnima\n(full-moon day) of the succeeding month. Similarly, in solar eclipses,\na similar catastrophe would occur if the constellation of the second\nday of the bright half of a month were to recur on the Amavasya (the\nlast day) of that month. [267] The year in which many eclipses occur\nis believed to prove a bad year for epidemic diseases. [268]\n\nThe Jains do not believe in the Hindu theory of grahana (or the\neclipse). [269] Musalmans do not perform the special ceremonies\nbeyond the recital of special prayers; and even these are held to be\nsupererogatory. [270]\n\nWith the exception that some people believe that the stars are the\nabodes of the gods, [271] the popular belief about the heavenly\nbodies seems to be that they are the souls of virtuous and saintly\npersons, translated to the heavens for their good deeds and endowed\nwith a lustre proportionate to their merits. [272] And this idea\nis illustrated in the traditions that are current about some of the\nstars. The seven bright stars of the constellation Saptarshi (or the\nGreat Bear) are said to be the seven sages, Kashyapa, Atri, Bharadwaj,\nVishwamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni and Vasishtha, who had mastered several\nparts of the Vedas, and were considered specialists in the branches\nstudied by each, and were invested with divine honours in reward for\ntheir proficiency. [273] Another story relates how a certain hunter and\nhis family, who had unconsciously achieved great religious merit, were\ninstalled as the constellation Saptarshi [274] (or the Great Bear). A\nhunter, it is narrated in the Shivaratri-mahatmya, was arrested for\ndebt on a Shivratri [275] day, and while in jail heard by chance the\nwords 'Shiva, Shiva' repeated by some devotees. Without understanding\ntheir meaning, he also began to repeat the same words, even after\nhe was released in the evening. He had received no food during the\nday, and had thus observed a compulsory fast. In order to obtain\nfood for himself and his family, he stationed himself behind a Bel\n[276] tree, hoping to shoot a deer or some other animal that might\ncome to quench its thirst at a neighbouring tank. While adjusting\nan arrow to his bowstring, he plucked some leaves out of the thick\nfoliage of the tree and threw them down. The leaves, however, chanced\nto fall on a Shiva-linga which happened to stand below, and secured\nfor him the merit of having worshipped god Shiva with Bel-leaves on\na Shivratri day. He was also all the while repeating the god's name\nand had undergone a fast. The result was that not only were his past\nsins forgiven, but he was placed with his family in heaven. [277]\n\nSimilarly, Dhruva, the son of king Uttanapad, attained divine favour\nby unflagging devotion, and was given a constant place in the heavens\nas the immovable pole-star. [278]\n\nAccording to Hindu astrology, there are nine grahas [279] or planets,\ntwelve rashis [280] or signs of the zodiac, and twenty-seven nakshatras\n[281] or constellations. Books on astrology explain the distinct forms\nof the nakshatras. For instance, the Ashvini constellation consists\nof two stars and presents the appearance of a horse. It ascends the\nzenith at midnight on the purnima (the 15th day of the bright half) of\nAshvin (the first month of the Gujarati Hindus). The constellation of\nMrig consists of seven stars, four like the legs of a sofa and three\nothers under them in a line. All these twenty-seven groups of stars\nreach the zenith at midnight on particular days in particular months;\nand the months of the Hindu calendar are named after them. [282]\n\nAll planets influence the life of a person, one way or the\nother, according to their position in the heavens at the time of\nhis birth. A kundali, i.e., a figure like the one shown here, is\ndrawn by astrologers to illustrate the respective positions of the\nplanets. The twelve squares of the diagram represent the twelve signs\nof the zodiac, and the positions of the planets in different squares\ninfluence persons in different ways. Ravi (the Sun), Budha (Mercury)\nand Shukra (Venus) occupy one rashi for one month; Chandra (the Moon)\noccupies a rashi for 135 ghadis, [283] i.e., two days and a quarter;\nMangal (Mars) for one month and a half; Guru (Jupiter) for thirteen\nmonths; Shani (Saturn) for two years and a half, and Rahu for a\nyear and a half. This is their normal and ordinary motion. But if\nthey take an abnormal course and move either too fast or too slow,\nthey finish their revolution through a rashi within a shorter or a\nlonger period. [284]\n\nIf the planet Guru (Jupiter) occupies either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, 6th,\n8th, 10th, or 12th, square of a kundali, it is said to bring about a\nrupture with friends, pecuniary wants, and an increase in the number\nof enemies. [285]\n\nIf Shani (Saturn) occupies the 1st, 2nd, 4th, 5th, 7th, 8th, 9th,\nor the 12th square in a man's kundali, it causes despondency of\nmind, family quarrels, imminent injuries from foes, and pecuniary\nwants. [286]\n\nThe presence of Mangal (Mars) in the 3rd, the 6th, or the 11th square\nis auspicious.\n\nOf the nine planets, Budha, Guru, and Chandra are benevolent, Mangal\nand Ravi are neither benevolent nor baneful; and Shani, Rahu, and Ketu\nare downright malevolent. [287] Each planet has a story connected\nwith it concerning its benevolence or malevolence, and showing also\nthe way to secure its propitiation. For instance, the malevolence of\nShani drove King Vikrama to unknown countries, and subjected him to\ngrave calamities. On the advice of a wise man, however, he observed\nthe Saturday-vows and thus overcame his difficulties. [288]\n\nWhen a planet is unfavourable to a person, it has to be propitiated\nby vows, and the person who is under its evil influence often lays\nupon himself the obligation of abstaining from particular articles\nof food or from wearing certain articles of clothing for a certain\nnumber of days. [289] Particular days of the week are set apart as\nappropriate for the worship of particular planets, and, on such days,\nthe person keeping the vow observes a fast and worships the planet\nthrough the medium of a Brahman. [290] For instance, vrats or vows\nare observed on Tuesdays in honour of Mangal (Mars), when an image\nof the planet, engraved on a golden dish, is worshipped, and the\nperson observing the vow takes food consisting of wheat only, and\nthat too, only once during the day. This mode of fasting is followed\nfor a number of consecutive Tuesdays prescribed by an astrologer;\nand on the last Tuesday, when purnahuti [291] is offered, Brahmans\nare feasted and dakshina is given to them. A piece of red cloth and\nsome corn are used in the installation of the planet; these and the\ngolden engraving are carried away by the priest.\n\nSimilarly, in propitiating Rahu and Ketu the same ceremonies are gone\nthrough: only, instead of wheat, mug (Phaseolus mungo) is eaten by the\ndevotee. In the same way Shani (Saturn) is said to favour the diet\nof adad (or lentils): Guru (Jupiter) inclines to chana (or gram),\nwhile Shukra (Venus) favours chola (dolichos sinensis).\n\nCertain forms or figures, called mandals, are favoured by particular\ngrahas, and are drawn in their honour in worshipping them. Different\nthings, too, are given in charity in honour of different planets. [292]\n\nAll the nine grahas and the twenty-seven nakshatras are worshipped on\nthe occasion of the Griha-Shanti ceremony, which is performed before\noccupying a newly erected building.\n\nIt is considered inauspicious to hold a marriage ceremony while Shukra\n(Venus) is invisible. In such a case, however, the ceremony may be\nperformed after setting up and worshipping a small golden image of\nthe planet.\n\nOf the stars, the constellation of saptarshi is perhaps the one most\noften worshipped. Its worship forms a part of the ceremonies performed\non the occasion of investing boys with the sacred thread [293] and\nalso of the ceremonies of marriage. The worship of the saptarshi on\nmarriage occasions is believed to be an attestation of the marriage,\nand to secure the benign care of the saptarshi for the couple. The form\nof worship is sometimes as follows: a red and white piece of cloth is\nstretched on the ground, bearing an image of the saptarshi over it;\nwheat and rice are scattered over the cloth, a ghi-lamp is lighted,\nand red lac and flowers are offered to the image. [294] Another form\nof worship is to mark seven red-lac-dots on a patla or a wooden stool,\nand to place seven pice and seven betel-nuts thereon. After worshipping\nthe seven pice, the bridal pair are made to take four turns round\nthe stool, touching the stool with their great toes at every turn. A\nproverb runs to the effect that, whatever may happen to the couple,\nstill the seven pice of satpati (i.e., the ceremony described) are\nsecure. [295] A third process is to form seven small piles of kamod,\n[296] on each of which, successively, the bride places her right foot\nwhile the bridegroom removes each pile one by one. [297]\n\nThe fifth day of the bright half of Bhadrapad (the eleventh month\nof the Gujarati Hindus) is observed as a day of worship in honour of\nthe saptarshi group. People observe a fast on that day. Brahmans set\nup seven chats [298] in honour of the seven sages, adding an eighth\nin honour of Arundhati, the wife of Vasishtha, and worship them by\nshodashopachar (i.e. sixteen-fold ceremonial). The worship is said\nto secure felicity for departed souls. [299]\n\nThe saptarshi are also annually worshipped by Brahmans on cocoanut-day\n(the 15th day of the bright half of Shravan) on the occasion\nof changing their sacred threads. Hindu seamen also worship the\nconstellation on the same day. [300]\n\nIn the performance of the Nil-parvan ceremony, which is held to\npropitiate the spirits of departed ancestors, and which requires a calf\nand a heifer to be married, an entertainment being simultaneously given\nto one hundred and eight Brahmans, and on the occasion of Vastu or the\nceremonies performed before or at the time of occupying a newly-built\nhouse, burnt offerings and worship are offered to the saptarshi. [301]\n\nEvery Brahman must offer arghyas [302] to, and worship, the agastya\nconstellation, in a hut of darbha [303] and kasada, within\nseven days from the date of its appearance. Failure to make this\noffering brings pollution on him for seven months, and disqualifies\nhim from performing any of the rites or ceremonies prescribed by\nthe Shastras.\n\nMarried couples are made to look at the Pole star immediately after\nthe Hymenal knot is tied by the priest, in the hope that they may\nbe as long-lived or as inflexible or unmoved by the ups and downs\nof life.\n\nThe twelfth day after the death of a person, known as Tara-baras (or\nthe star-twelfth) is kept as the day of star-worship by the relatives\nof the deceased, when one member of the family observes a fast on that\nday in honour of the deceased, and takes food only after worshipping\nthe stars at night. It is customary on this day to give up the use\nof bronze vessels and to give them away in charity. [304]\n\nJust as persons carrying or accompanying a corpse to the cemetery are\nconsidered sutaki (under ceremonial impurity), so those who witness\nthis rite are also considered unclean: but they are purified by a\nsight of the stars. [305]\n\nYoung girls watching the starry sky at night recite a verse which\nmeans, \"I worshipped the star-spangled firmament first and then my\nlover Abhla dabhla Kankuna dabhla [306]--\"Ye stars! blind the prowling\nthief and seize him if he tries to steal away, and your blessings on\nmy lord confer!\" [307]\n\nThe Rohini and Krittika constellations, popularly known as Gadli,\nare supposed to indicate the rise and fall in the cotton-market. [308]\n\nThe dimmest star of the saptarshi group foretells the death of a\nperson within six months from the date on which it becomes invisible\nto him. [309] Again, if a man cannot perceive the saptarshi or the\ngalaxy in the sky, it is considered such a bad omen that his end is\nbelieved to be near at hand. [310]\n\nThe rainbow is believed to be the bow of Indra, [311] the god of\nrains, and is therefore called 'Indra-dhanushya.' We see it when\nIndra draws his bow to release the rains from the rakshasas (demons);\n[312] or, when successful in bringing down rain, Indra manifests his\nglory by drawing a bow; [313] or when in the struggle for supremacy\nbetween Summer and the rainy season, Indra draws his bow to defeat\nSummer. [314]\n\nIt is also believed that when Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana,\nadjusted an arrow to the bow of Shiva, to compete for the hand of\nSita in the swayamvara (or maiden's-choice marriage) celebrated by\nher, the bow was split into three pieces, which ever since present\nthemselves as rainbows in the sky. [315]\n\nThe rainbow is popularly regarded as an indication of good or bad\nrainfall according as it appears at particular hours and in particular\ndirections. If a rainbow appears in the east a speedy rainfall is\nexpected; if on the other hand it is seen in the west, rainfall is\napprehended to be distant. [316] Some people, however, believe the\ncontrary, i.e., they regard the appearance of a rainbow in the west\nas an indication of good rains, and in the east as a sign of scarce\nrainfall. [317] Perhaps both ideas are reconciled by a third belief\naccording to which the appearance of a rainbow in a direction facing\nthe sun, indicates the proximity of rain. [318]\n\nIf a rainbow is seen at sunset or sunrise just before the commencement\nof rain the fall of rain will be excessive; but if it appears after\nrainfall, the rain will probably cease. [319] According to some persons\nthe appearance of a rainbow in the morning portends a drought. [320]\nThere is, however, a popular saying to the effect that were the kachbi,\ni.e., the rainbow, to be seen at sunrise in the west, it foretells\ngreat floods before nightfall.\n\nThe sight of a rainbow is sometimes regarded as a bad omen. Some\nbelieve that it shortens a man's life and brings misfortunes to\nhim. Others believe that it is calamitous to a man's relations\nby marriage, especially to the mother-in-law, who is sure to lose\nher power of hearing. [321] People sometimes clash earthen vessels\nagainst one another to avert the evils which are to be feared from a\nrainbow. [322] It is also said that the sight of the whole of the\nrainbow is a good omen: but the sight of a part, however large,\nis inauspicious. [323]\n\nAccording to the Puranas, the milky way or akash-ganga is the celestial\nRiver Ganga which was brought down by Bhagirath to the earth. [324]\nKing Sagar once performed an ashwa-medha [325] sacrifice, when,\naccording to custom, he let loose a horse, and sent his sixty thousand\nsons with it. Indra, jealous of the growing power of Sagar, stole the\nhorse and concealed it in the hermitage of Kapila, when the sage was\ndeeply absorbed in religious meditation. The sixty thousand sons of\nSagar followed it to this asylum, where they taunted and insulted the\nsage, believing him to be the thief. Kapila, who was ignorant of the\ntheft, opened his long-closed eyes in anger, emitting sparks of flame\nfrom them, and destroyed the sons of Sagar together with the whole of\ntheir army. Bhagirath, the grandson of Sagar, propitiated the sage, and\non his advice practised religious austerities in honour of Shiva for\nthe purpose of bringing down the River Ganga from heaven. Through the\nkindness of God Shiva, Bhagirath was at last successful in bringing the\ncelestial river down to this world; and with the water of the river he\nrevived the sons of Sagar. The River Ganga (i.e., the Ganges) in this\nworld is therefore also known by the name of Bhagirathi. It is this\nheavenly river which we see as the milky way. [326] Like the sacred\nGanges on the earth, the River Ganga in the celestial regions is held\nin great respect by the gods [327] and purifies the heavenly bodies,\njust as the earthly Ganges washes away the worst sins of mortals.\n\nSome people, however, believe the milky way to be the track by which\nthe holy Ganges descended from heaven to earth. [328]\n\nAnother belief is that the God Vishnu, at the time of his Vaman\n(or Dwarf) incarnation, touched the ina (i.e., the Egg) in his\nthird footstep and thus caused a flow of waters, which is known as\nakash-ganga. [329] Some suppose the milky way to be a ladder leading\nto the heavens. [330] Astrologers call it Vatsa, a fictitious creature\nwith numerous horns, mouths, and tails. [331] According to another\nbelief, the milky way consists of two rekhas--lines--one of sin and\nthe other of good and meritorious actions. The length of one line\ncompared to the other betokens the predominance of good or evil as\nthe case may be. [332] The milky way is also supposed to be the track\nleft by the rath or car of Ramachandra. [333]\n\nAkash-ganga or the milky way is said to consist of one crore and\neighty lacs of stars. [334] If a man cannot perceive the milky way\nin the sky, his end is believed to be near at hand. [335]\n\nThe Musalmans declare the milky way to be the track formed by the\nfootstep of the horse of the Prophet Muhammad, on the occasion of\nhis night-journey to Heaven.\n\nThe occasion for earth-worship most frequently arises when anything\nis to be built upon its surface. At the time of setting the\nmanek-stambha, or the first pillar of a marriage-bower or a bower\nfor a thread-ceremony, [336] before commencing the construction of\nwells, reservoirs, and tanks and in laying the foundation-stone\nof a house, a temple, or a sacrificial pit, [337] or of a street,\na fortress, a city, or a village, [338] or of any constructive work\nraised upon or made under the ground, certain ceremonies, called\nkhat-muhurt or khat-puja, are performed. The earth-mother is then\nworshipped in the manner prescribed in the Shastras, to propitiate her\nagainst interruptions in the completion of the work undertaken. The\nowner or the person interested in the new construction pours a\nlittle water on the earth where the foundation-pit is to be dug,\nsprinkles red lac and gulal (red powder), places a betel-nut and a few\nprecious coins, and digs out the first clod of earth himself. [339]\nSome of the things offered to the earth at the time of khat-puja\nare panchamrit, [340] betel-nuts, betel-leaves, pancha-ratna (or the\nfive kinds of precious things, namely, gold, silver, copper, coral,\nand pearls), a bowl and green garments. Under the influence\nof particular rashis (signs of the zodiac), particular corners\nof the building under construction are required to be dug in the\nkhat-muhurt ceremonies. For instance, a little digging in the\nnorth-west corner is believed to be favourable to the constructor\nwho happens to be under the influence of Sinha (Leo), Kanya (Virgo)\nand Tula (Libra): in the north-east corner, if under the influence\nof Vrishchika (Scorpio), Dhanu (Sagittarius) and Makar (Capricornus):\nin the south-east corner if under the sway of Kumbha (Aquarius), Min\n(Pisces) and Mesha (Aries): in the south-west corner in the case of\nVrishabh (Taurus), Mithun (Gemini) and Kark (Cancer). After the\nworship of the earth-mother, sugar or molasses is distributed among\nneighbours, bystanders and relatives, in token of the auspiciousness of\nthe occasion. [341] An image of Ganpati is worshipped in a copper-dish,\nthis is buried underground, and a brick is laid on it when starting the\nwork of construction. In setting up the manek-stambha on marriage\noccasions, a small earthen bowl is filled with milk, curds, turmeric,\ndurva-sprouts [342] and mag seeds (Phaseolus mungo), and buried in\nthe ground after being sprinkled over with red lac and rice. [343]\n\nThe ceremonies appertaining to khat-muhurt are treated of at length\nin a book called Dharma-sindhu. [344] They are believed to secure\ndurability of construction.\n\nOn the Dasara [345] day or the 10th day of the bright half of Ashvin\n(the last month), Rajas go out in state with their ministers and\nsubjects to worship the earth-mother and the holy shami tree (prosopis\nspicegera). A wetted plot of ground is first dug over with pikes,\njavala (tender wheat plants) and shami leaves are then mixed with\nthe muddy earth, and small balls of the mixture are made. A pice\nand betel-nut are placed in each ball, and they are presented to\nthe worshipper as a mark of good luck. Travellers carry such balls\nwith them on their journeys for luck. Kings carry the same to obtain\nsuccess on the battle-field. The Pandavas had such balls with them\non the field of Kurukshetra when they obtained a victory over the\nKauravas. [346] The balls are also used as pastana. [347] The javala\nin the balls are taken out and allowed to grow in an earthen vessel\nfilled with clay and manure till they reach a span in height, when\nthey are taken up and used. [348]\n\nEarth-worship is performed before burying treasure underground, and\nalso when a marriage-procession, at the time of returning, reaches\nthe limits of the bridegroom's village. [349]\n\nIn some places, virgins worship the plot of ground on which the Holi\nis lighted, for about ten or twelve days after the Holi holiday. [350]\n\nAnother occasion for earth-worship is the third day of the bright half\nof Chaitra (the sixth month), on which day Vishnu saved the earth in\nhis Varaha (or Boar) incarnation, when it was being carried to the\nnether regions by the demon Shankhasur. [351]\n\nOn the eighth day of the bright half of Magh and also of Ashvin (the\nfourth and the last month respectively), naivedya (an oblation of\nfood) is offered to the earth-mother, and is then used as her prasad\n(gift). No cooked food is allowed to fall on the ground on this day:\neven the leavings after meals are given away to cows. [352]\n\nWhen any ceremony is to be performed on the earth's surface, as much\nof the spot as is required for the ceremony is cleansed by watering\nit and plastering it with cow-dung. A betel-nut and a pice are then\nplaced on it as the Chada or rent of the spot. [353]\n\nOn those occasions when dakshina is given to Brahmans outside the\nvillage limits, worship of the earth-mother is performed by pouring\nmilk on the ground, and by placing seven betel-nuts and seven single\ncopper-pieces thereon. [354]\n\nSome ambitious Brahmans dig earth from near the roots of a banyan\ntree after offering prayer to the earth, and out of it, make an\nimage of Parthishwar--Lord of the Earth--hoping thereby to obtain\nwealth. The same ceremony, if observed near the roots of a pipal tree\n(ficus religiosa), is believed to confer wealth and male issue.\n\nWhen Vishnu killed the demons Madhur and Kaitabha, the earth was strewn\nwith their flesh and marrow (meda). Therefore the earth is called\nmedini, and for the same reason is unclean, and no holy objects are\nallowed to touch it. [355] Another explanation is that the earth was\nrendered unclean because blood was shed on its surface in the combat\nof the demon Vritrasur with the god Indra. [356]\n\nThe things polluted by a contact with the earth are either objects\nwhich are to be dedicated to gods, such as sandal-wood ointment,\npanchamrit, [357] the leaves of the bel tree (Aegle marmelos), tulsi\nleaves (leaves of the holy or sweet basil plant), betel-leaves and\nflowers; [358] or objects which are sacred because of their having\nbeen dedicated to the gods, including tirtha [359] or water used in\nbathing the images of gods [360]; or things which are by nature so\nholy that it is improper to place them on the bare earth; for instance,\nimages of deities, water of the sacred Ganges or the Jumna, [361] any\nholy writ, [362] a conch-shell and even gold. [363] Cooked food also\ndeserves respect, as it supports the lives of men, and it is sinful in\na Hindu to let it lie on the bare ground. Any irregular conduct in this\nrespect arouses the wrath of the Annadeva (or the food deity). [364]\n\nIt is, however, maintained by some that the reason why certain things,\nsuch as materials of worship, are not allowed to touch the earth, is\nthat the earth itself being a deity, such things would be dedicated to\nthis deity by a contact with the earth and would thus become incapable\nof any further use, as things that are dedicated to one deity cannot\nagain be offered to another. [365]\n\nDuring the course of the recitation of mantras (holy hymns) in\nhonour of Vishnu and Mahadeva; on the occasion of offering prayers\nto the grahas (planets) for their propitiation; and on occasions like\nVishnuyaga, [366] Maharudra, Shatachandi, Gayatri-purashcharan [367]\nand Brahmana-varana [368] the devotee or the sacrificer and the\npriest sleep on darbha grass or on clean woollen blankets, spread on\nthe bare ground.\n\nOther occasions for sleeping on the floor are the days of the\nobservance of certain vrats or vows; such as, the Divasa or the 15th\nday of the dark half of Ashadh (the ninth month), the Janmashtami\nor the 8th day of the dark half of Shravana (the tenth month), the\ndays of Goatrad, a vrat lasting from the 11th day to the 15th day\nof the bright half of Bhadrapad, Mahashivaratri or the 14th day of\nthe dark half of Magh, the Ekadashi day or the 11th day of both the\nbright and dark halves of a month, the Navratra days or the first\nnine days of Ashvin, eclipse days, and the day of Jagran or the 15th\nday of the bright half of Ashadh, besides, sometimes, the whole\nof the months of Shravana and the Purushottam or intercalary month;\nand the chaturmas, i.e., the four months of the rainy season. [369]\n\nA Brahman in his brahmacharya (or the period of his life which,\naccording to the Shastras, should be devoted to the acquirement of\nlearning, and which commences from the date of his being invested\nwith the sacred thread and terminates at the age of twenty-three)\nand a widow are not allowed by the Shastras to sleep elsewhere than\non beds made on the ground.\n\nWomen, while in menstruation, sleep on the floor for four days.\nSome women, when they are separated from their husbands, also sleep\nin this fashion.\n\nA dying person, two or three minutes before his death, is placed on\nthe ground, which is first purified with cow-dung-plaster. [370] For\nten days after a death, the members of the deceased's household and\nhis relatives sleep on beds spread on the bare ground. [371] If the\ndemise be very affecting, the nearest relatives sleep on the floor\nfor periods which may extend to three months, six months, or even\nfor a year, and sometimes the penance lasts for their whole lives.\n\nIt is customary, among some sects, not to allow the sathara--i.e.,\nthe spot lately occupied by a corpse in the house--to be suna or\nunoccupied for a single night. Someone must sleep on the spot for\ntwelve consecutive days from the date of demise. [372]\n\nPilgrims, [373] after pilgrimage, abandon sensual pleasures, take\ntheir meals only once every day, and sleep on the floor. It is\ncustomary to sleep always on the ground while in holy places. Devotees,\nascetics, sadhus, and their disciples sleep on the ground.\n\nThe God Indra has twelve meghas or clouds under his control, and he\ndirects each of them to pour out their waters wherever he likes. When\nin the least irritated in the execution of his orders, Indra's voice\nis heard in this world in thunder-claps which rise to a terrible pitch\nif the deity becomes downright angry. Thunder is also said to be\nthe loud laughter of Indra when in a happy mood. [374]\n\nAnother belief is that during the rainy season, Indra plays gedi-danda\n[375], and the strokes given to the gedi in the course of the game,\nproduce what we call thunder; [376] or, that the clouds are god's\nfootballs, and thunder is produced by his foot striking them, while\nat play during the rainy season. Some believe thunder to be due\nto the loud sounds produced by various musical instruments which are\nplayed upon the occasion of the marriage-ceremony of Indra. [377]\nAccording to others, thunder is produced by the cannon of Indra;\n[378] or, as some again say, by the trumpetings of Airavat, the\nelephant of Indra [379]; or, we hear thunder when Indra draws his\nbow and adjusts an arrow to the bow-string, in order to bring about\nthe fall of rain. [380]\n\nA further belief attributes thunder to the very rapid pace of the\nchariot of Bhagwan. [381] Some people, however, say that it is produced\nwhen Bhima (one of the five Pandavas) wields his prodigious club or\nbludgeon. [382] In the opinion of others, Vidyut or Tanyatun, the\noffspring of Lamba, the daughter of Daksha, and the wife of Dharmaraj\nthunders in the rainy season. [383] It is also suggested that the\ngod of rains shakes the heavens and thus produces thunder. The\nShastras, it is said, declare that thunder is caused by the sounds\nof the dundubhi--or kettledrums--beaten by the gods in delight at\nthe sight of rain. [384] There is also a popular belief in the Surat\ndistrict that an old hag causes thunder either when she grinds corn\nor when she rolls stones in the clouds. [385]\n\nThe prevalent belief about lightning seems to be that it is the girl\nwhom Kansa tried to dash against a stone, but who escaped and went\nup to the sky. Kansa, the tyrant king of Mathura, was informed by a\nheavenly voice, by way of prophecy, that a son would be born to his\nsister who would cause his destruction. Kansa thereupon confined his\nsister Devaki and her husband Vasudeva in prison, loaded them with\nfetters, and kept the strictest watch over them. He took from Devaki,\nand slew, every child of hers as soon as it was born. In this way he\ndisposed of her first six children. On the seventh occasion, however,\non which Devaki gave birth to a son named Krishna, a girl was born at\nthe same hour to Nanda in Mathura; and Vasudeva secretly interchanged\nthe two children in spite of the vigilance of Kansa. When Kansa knew\nof his sister having been delivered, he seized the infant girl and\ntried to dash her against a stone. The little one immediately flew\naway to the skies, where she still dwells in the form of Vijli or\nlightning. [386]\n\nThe Shastras describe Vijli as the distinctive weapon of Indra, just as\npashupataka is peculiar to Shiva and the Gandiva bow to Arjuna. [387]\n\nOther beliefs about lightning are that Vijli is the sister of\nMegharaja, the god of rains, and appears to announce his approach:\n[388] that Vijli is a goddess who rests upon winds, fire, and rains:\n[389] that Vijli is but the thunderbolt of Indra: [390] that lightnings\nare the flashes of the bright weapon of Indra: [391] that lightning\nis the lustre of the fireworks and the lamps lighted by the gods in\nhonour of the nuptials of Indra: [392] that lightning is produced by\nthe sparks caused by the friction of the gedi and the danda of Indra\nwhen the god plays the game. [393] Vijli is also known as Saudamini,\ni.e., one residing on Mount Sudama. [394]\n\nThe occurrence of thunder and the appearance of lightning on\nparticular days and in particular directions are regarded as signs\nof the abundance or scarcity of rain during the season.\n\nThunder during the Rohini nakshatra [395] is a bad omen: it foreshadows\neither a famine, [396] or a Boterun, i.e., complete cessation of rains\nfor seventy-two days after the thunder-claps are heard. According\nto another view, if the Rohini nakshatra lasts for a fortnight and if\nthe sky is clear during the period and yet lightning and thunder occur,\na Boterun will be the consequence; but if lightning and thunder were\nto accompany the clouds in the same nakshatra, heavy and plentiful\nrains may be confidently expected. [397] Lightning without clouds in\nthe same nakshatra is believed to be the cause of what is popularly\ncalled Rohini-dazi, i.e., the burning heat of Rohini. [398]\n\nSome persons expect a Boterun after kadakas or crashing thunder. Others\napprehend a famine if they hear thunder on the second day of the\nbright half of Jyeshtha (the eighth month).\n\nThunder or lightning in the Hasta [399] nakshatra foretells good\nharvests and a prosperous year. [400] Thunder in the same nakshatra is\nbelieved to muzzle the jaws of serpents and other noxious creatures,\nand to achieve this object, also, a samelu (or a log of wood) is struck\nagainst a mobhara (or a hollow stone used for threshing corn). [401]\nIf thunder is not heard during this nakshatra, mosquitoes and other\ninsects and vermin are believed to be likely to multiply. [402]\n\nIf thunder is heard during the Ardra nakshatra, the rainfall will be\ndelayed for a month. [403]\n\nLightning is commonly seen on the second and the fifth day of the\nbright half of Ashadh, and is considered a sign of good rainfall,\nwhile its absence indicates a probable scarcity of rain. [404] Its\nappearance on the fifth day of Ashadh is believed by some to foretell\nan early fall of rain. Since the rainfall, and therefore the state\nof the crops during the ensuing year, are suggested by lightning on\nthis day, corn-dealers settle a rise or fall in the price of corn\naccording as lightning is or is not seen on that occasion. [405]\n\nThunder in the east predicts a speedy fall of rain. If flashes of\nlightning are seen in the north-east or the north, rain will fall\nwithin three days. Lightning in the south-east or the south\nforetells extreme heat. [406]\n\nLong-continued thunder shows that the rainfall is distant. Similarly,\ncontinued flashes of lightning intimate danger to the lives and\nproperty of people. Sudden thunder portends an immediate cessation\nof rain. Thunder or lightning out of season threatens calamity\nto the country. [407]\n\nVijli or lightning is said to be fettered on the fifth day of\nthe bright half of Ashadh--(or, as some say, on the second day of\nShravan)--after which date no apprehensions of its destructive\npowers need be entertained. [408] Till then, however, it is free and\nis likely to injure those persons [409] who have not cut or shaved\ntheir hair from their birth. [410]\n\nThe occurrence of lightning is believed to cause the delivery and\nsometimes even the death of pregnant women. [411]\n\nAny period marked by the occurrence of lightning is considered\ninauspicious. [412]\n\nThe Puranas speak of fourteen worlds--the seven swargas (celestial\nregions) and the seven patals (nether regions) [413]. Underneath the\nseventh patal [414] lies Shesha (the divine cobra) who supports all\nthe fourteen worlds on one of his one thousand hoods. On account of\nthe heavy burden, the serpent-god sometimes gets tired, and tries to\nchange his position. The result of the movement is an earth-quake.\nAccording to another version, an earthquake occurs when Shesha changes\nhis posture in sleep, [415] or is the result of a hair falling from\nthe body of Shesha. [416] Some people say that ordinarily Shesha does\nnot feel the weight of the fourteen worlds on his head; he bears the\nload as if it were only a single sesamum seed. But when too much sin\naccumulates in any of the regions, the burden becomes unbearable for\nhim: he begins to shake under it, and an earthquake occurs. [417]\n\nSome believe that there is a tortoise under the divine cobra who\nsupports the world; [418] others go further, and add a frog below the\ntortoise: [419] and it is said that the slightest motion on the part\nof either the tortoise or the cobra is the cause of an earthquake.\n\nAnother belief is that earthquakes occur whenever there is tyranny\nor injustice on the part of a king, or whenever immorality spreads\nin society, because the earth is unable to bear the sin, and trembles\nat the sight of it. [420]\n\nAccording to a different opinion, the earth is supported by the Pothia\nor the favourite bull of Shiva on one of his horns. An earthquake\nis caused whenever he transfers the earth from one horn to another\nin order to relieve the former from the constant pressure of the\nburden. [421]\n\nThere is also a belief that deities of some strange species reside\nin the nether regions, and the earth is shaken whenever these beings\nfight among themselves.\n\nAccording to the Varaha-sanhita, an earthquake is always the precursor\nof some unprecedented calamity. [422] The prevalent belief in the\npopular mind seems to be that an earthquake is the result of immorality\nand sin, and further that it forebodes some dire calamity, such as\nfamine, pestilence, an outbreak of fire, a revolution, or a great\nwar. [423] The phenomenon is, therefore, regarded with great fear;\nand when it occurs, people endeavour to avoid the contingent evils by\nsuch meritorious acts as the giving of alms, and generally by leading\na virtuous life. [424]\n\nThe most popular of the holy rivers are the Ganges, the Jumna (or\nJamuna), the Narbada, the Saraswati (near Sidhpur), the Kaveri, the\nGodavari, the Gandaki, the Sarayu, the Damodari, the Sindhu (or Indus),\nthe Mahanad, the Gomati (near Dwarka), the Brahmaputra, the Sabarmati,\nthe Ghels (near Gaddheda), the Tungabhadra, the Suvarnabhadra, the\nBhadrashita, the Jambuvati, the Phalaku (or Phalgu), the Kaushiki, the\nTamraparni, the Sita and the Alakananda. Any point where three rivers\nmeet is also a sacred place. Most of the holy rivers are the subject of\nmany traditions, and books have been written to celebrate their merits.\n\nThe Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari are said to be the holiest of\nall rivers. There are a number of beliefs about the origin of the\nGanges. One of them is that the Ganges is the stream caused by King\nBali washing the feet of Vaman (the Dwarf incarnation of Vishnu). [425]\nAnother story relates that the god Brahma was exhausted by overwork at\nthe time of the marriage of Shiva and Parvati. The gods, therefore,\ncreated water from their own lustres, and gave it to Brahma in a\ngourd, to be used in a similar contingency. When Vishnu in his Vaman\navatar (or Dwarf incarnation) bestrode the heavens with a single\nstep, Brahma washed his toe in the water from this gourd. A stream\nwas thus created called Swarga-ganga and brought down to the earth\nby Bhagirath, the grandson of Sagar. When the Ganges fell from the\nheavens, it was supported and held fast by God Shiva in his jata or\nmatted hair. It was released by his loosening the hair, and in its\ncourse, inundated the sacrificial ground of King Jahnu. The latter,\nbeing angry, drank up its waters. On the entreaties of Bhagirath,\nhe released the stream by tearing off his thigh. [426] The river then\nflowed to the spot where the sixty thousand sons of Sagar were burnt\nto ashes; and it is said by some that one of the sixty thousand was\nsaved at the end of each year up to the year 1955 of the Samvat era\n(corresponding to A. D. 1899), by the end of which period all the\nsixty thousand had attained salvation. From the earth the Ganges went\nto the nether regions. Thus flowing in the heavens, on the earth and\nin the Patal, the Ganges is called Tripathaga (i.e., flowing in three\ncourses). In its divine form, the Ganges is the wife of Shiva. Owing\nto the curse of Brahma, she was born in human form in this world and\nwas married to Shantanu, by whom she became the mother of Bhishma,\nthe heroic uncle of the Kauravas and the Pandavas. [427]\n\nIt is customary among Hindu pilgrims, when they visit Kashi (Benares)\nto take with them copper-vessels filled with Gangajal (water of the\nGanges), and to worship the Ganga when they reach their homes after\nthe pilgrimage. A figure is drawn in seven different kinds of corn;\nthe bowl is placed on it; abil gulal (red powder), frankincense, and\nnaivedya (an oblation of food) are offered: a ghi lamp is lighted:\na Brahman woman is dressed as Uma, the wife of Shiva, and Brahmans\nare entertained at a feast, dakshina being given to them. [428]\n\nThe water of the Ganges, as well as that of the Jumna, is believed to\nbe so pure that it cannot be affected by microbes, even if kept for\nyears in the house. This quality is believed to be a manifestation of\nits divine nature. It is further called patit-pavan (lit. purifier\nof the fallen), and exculpates the sinful from their sins, either\nby a single draught or by bathing in it. [429] Gangajal is kept in\nmost Hindu families, a draught of it taken by a dying person being\nbelieved to secure moksha or eternal salvation for the soul. [430]\n\nA vow is observed by women, in honour of the Ganges, for the first\nten days of the month of Jyeshtha. On these days they rise early in\nthe morning and bathe in the holy waters of the Ganges. [431]\n\nSometimes ghi lamps are placed upon the waters of the Ganges or the\nJumna, and vessels of metal, pice, and cocoanuts are cast into the\nstream. At such a time, when many people are standing on the banks\noffering prayers with folded hands, or engaged in the arati, [432]\nthe river presents a very picturesque scene, the numerous lights\nbeing reflected in the water. [433]\n\nThe Jamuna or Yamuna is the daughter of the Sun, and the sister of\nYama, the god of Death. The banks of the Jumna are well known as\nthe scene of the amorous sports of God Krishna. [434] The story of\nthe defeat of the demon Kaliya Nag who was ejected from the Jumna by\nKrishna is well-known.\n\nIt is said that those who have bathed in the Jumna or have once tasted\nits water, need not be afraid of Yama, the god of Death. [435] It\nis considered meritorious among the Hindus to bathe the image of god\nShiva in water from the holy Jumna or the Ganges or the Godavari. [436]\nThere is a popular shloka in honour of the Jumna which runs:--\"Victory\nto thee! Oh Yamuna, flowing through the Madhu-vana (the Madhu woods),\nthe bearer of shining waters, the companion of Jahnavi, the daughter\nof Sindhu, the ornament of the enemy of Madhu (viz., Krishna),\nthe appeaser of Madhava, the dispeller of the danger of Gokal,\nthe destroyer of the sins of the world, the giver of intellect, the\nscene of the amorous sports of Keshava. Victory to thee! O remover\nof difficulties, purify me.\" [437]\n\nThe banks of the Godavari are known as the site of the hermitage of\nGautama. When the planet Brihaspati (Jupiter) enters the Sinha-rashi\n(the constellation Leo) [438] the holy Ganges goes to the Godavari,\nand remains there for one year. During that year, all the gods are\nbelieved to bathe in this river. Thousands of pilgrims visit Nasik\nto offer prayers to the Godavari, and after bathing in the river,\ngive alms to Brahmans. Similarly, on the Kapilashashti day, on which\nsix jogs or conjunctive incidents occur simultaneously, the virtue\nof all tirthas or holy places is believed to be concentrated in the\nGodavari at Nasik.\n\nThe mere sight of the Narbada has the same effect as a bath in the\nGanges or the Jumna. [439] It is said that the Narbada is the image of\nShiva, and that fragments of the stony bow of Shiva are to be found\nin its bed. [440] The stones in the bed of this river have the same\nsanctity as the images of god Shiva. [441] Shaligram stones, which\nare worshipped as the images of Vishnu, are found in this river.\nIt is an act of high merit among Hindus to take a pradakshina round the\nNarbada, i.e., to travel along the banks of the river, inhabited as the\nregion is by many Sadhus and other holy persons. [442] Ashvatthama, the\nimmortal son of Drona, is believed to reside on the banks of this river\nand to pay occasional visits to the Bhils in the neighbourhood.\nThe Shukla-tirtha, situated on the Narbada, is visited by numerous\npilgrims, and a fair is held there on every sixtieth year.\n\nThe sage Kapila instructed his mother Devahuti with divine knowledge\non the banks of the Saraswati. Since then, the river is held sacred and\nfuneral ceremonies--Shraddhas--are performed on its banks in honour of\ndeparted female ancestors. Similarly Shraddhas in honour of male\nancestors are performed at the confluence of the Ganges, the Jumna,\nand the Saraswati at Allahabad. [443] [444]\n\nOf the Gandaki it is said that it contains as many shankars (images\nof Shiva) as there are sankars (stones). The shaligram stone is found\nin this river also. The Saryu is sacred as the scene of the childish\nsports of Ramachandra, the hero of the Ramayana. On the banks of the\nPhalaku or Phalgu, Ramachandra performed Shraddha ceremonies in honour\nof his father Dasharath.\n\nA bath in the waters of a holy river washes away the sins of the\nbather. [445] It is also meritorious to repeat the names of the\nseveral holy rivers. [446] The performance of Shraddha ceremonies on\nthe banks of a holy river secures the felicity of deceased ancestors\nin heaven. At the time of performing Shraddhas at a holy place,\nHindus shave their moustaches, bathe in the sacred waters, and then\ngo through the necessary ceremonies, in the course of which pindas are\noffered to the Pitars (spirits of dead ancestors). Brahmans are feasted\nafter the ceremonies, and dakshina is given to them. [447] Tarpan\nor an offering of water with flowers, ointment, red lac, cocoanuts,\nand betel, is frequently made to the river on the banks of which the\nceremonies are performed. [448] The bones of a deceased person, left\nunburnt after cremation of the body, are gathered together and thrown\ninto holy rivers such as the Ganges, the Jumna, and the Godavari,\nfor the purification of his soul. [449]\n\nWhen heavy floods threaten a village or a city with serious injury,\nthe king or the headman should go in procession to propitiate the\nriver with flowers, cocoanuts, and other offerings in order that\nthe floods may subside. [450] A story is related of the occurrence\nof heavy floods in a village in the Jatalpur taluka, when a certain\nlady placed an earthen vessel (ordinarily used for curdling milk),\ncontaining a ghi lamp, afloat on the floods, whereupon the waters\nwere at once seen to recede. [451]\n\nBesides the holy rivers, there are numerous kunds or sacred pools\nwhich are regarded with equal reverence, and in which a bath has\nthe same efficacy for destroying sin. Similarly, they are equally\nsuitable places for the performance of Shraddha ceremonies. These\nkunds are the subject of numerous beliefs, and each of them has a\ncertain mahatmya or peculiar merit of its own. Six miles to the east\nof Dwarka, near the sea-coast, there is a kund called Pind-tarak,\nwhere many persons go to perform the Shraddha and the Narayan-bali\nceremonies. They first bathe in the kund: then, with its water, they\nprepare pindas, and place them in a metal dish: red lac is applied\nto the pindas, and a piece of cotton thread wound round them; the\nmetal dish being then dipped in the kund, when the pindas, instead\nof sinking, are said to remain floating on the water. The process is\nbelieved to earn a good status for the spirits of departed ancestors\nin heaven. It is further said that physical ailments brought on by\nthe avagati--degradation or fallen condition--of ancestors in the other\nworld, are remedied by the performance of Shraddha on this kund. [452]\n\nThe Damodar kund is situated near Junagadh. It is said that if the\nbones of a deceased person which remain unburnt after his cremation\nare dipped in this kund, the soul of that person obtains moksha\n(or final emancipation).\n\nThere is a vav or reservoir on Mount Girnar, known as\nRasakupika-vav. It is believed that the body of a person bathing in\nit becomes as hard as marble, and that if a piece of stone or iron\nis dipped in the vav, it is instantly transformed into gold. But\nthe vav is only visible to saints and sages who are gifted with a\nsupernatural vision. [453]\n\nKashipuri (Benares) contains a vav called Gyan-vav, in which there is\nan image of Vishweshwar (the Lord of the universe, i.e., Shiva). A\nbath in the water from this vav is believed to confer upon a person\nthe gift of divine knowledge.\n\nIn the village of Chunval, a few miles to the north of Viramgam, there\nis a kund known as Loteshwar, near which stands a pipal tree. Persons\npossessed by ghosts or devils, are freed from possession by pouring\nwater at the foot of the tree and taking turns round it, remaining\nsilent the while. [454]\n\nA bath in the Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji is said to cause the wishes\nof the bather to be fulfilled. There is a local tradition [455] that\na Rajput woman was turned into a male Rajput of the Solanki class by\na bath in its waters.\n\nThere is a kund called Zilaka near Zinzuwada with a temple of Naleshwar\nMahadev near it. The kund is said to have been built at the time of\nKing Nala. It is believed locally that every year, on the 15th day\nof the bright half of Bhadrapad, the holy Ganges visits the kund\nby an underground route. A great fair is held there on that day,\nwhen people bathe in the kund and give alms to the poor. [456] There\nis also another kund close by, known as Bholava, where the river\nSaraswati is believed to have halted and manifested herself on her\nway to the sea. [457]\n\nThere is a kund in Baladana near Wadhwan, dedicated to Hol, the\nfavourite mata of the Charans. In this kund, black or red gagar\nbedinus--pieces of cotton thread--are sometimes seen floating in the\nwater. They appear only for a moment, and sink if any one endeavours\nto seize them. The appearance of black pieces forebodes famine:\nbut the red ones foretell prosperity. [458]\n\nIn Bhadakon near Chuda there is a kund called Garigavo. The place is\ncelebrated as the spot of the hermitage of the sage Bhrigu and a fair\nis held there annually on the last day of Bhadrapad.\n\nPersons anxious to attain heaven, bathe in the Mrigi kund on Mount\nGirnar; and a bath in the Revati kund, which is in the same place,\nconfers male issue on the bather. [459] There is also a kund of the\nshape of an elephant's footprint Pagahein on Mount Girnar. It never\nempties and is held most sacred by pilgrims. [460] People bathe in the\nGomati kund near Dwarka and take a little of the earth from its bed,\nfor the purification of their souls. [461] In the village of Babara,\nBabhruvahan, the son of Arjun, is said to have constructed several\nkunds, all of which are believed to be holy.\n\nThe Lasundra kund near Lasundra in the Kaira District [462] and the\nTulsi-shyama kund on Mount Girnar [463] contain hot waters. There is\nalso a hot kund called Devki-unai, about thirty miles to the south of\nSurat. There the waters remain hot throughout the whole of the\nyear, except on the fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra. On\nthis day, the waters cool, and people can bathe in the kund. Many\npilgrims visit the place on this occasion, to offer money, cocoanuts,\nand red lac to the unai mata, whose temple stands near the kund. It is\nsaid that King Rama built this kund while performing a local sacrifice,\nand brought water up from the patal (nether regions) by shooting an\narrow into the earth. [464]\n\nOther holy kunds are: the Bhim kund, the Gomukhi-ganga, and the\nKamandalu kund on Mount Girnar near the temple of Bhimnath Mahadeo;\nthe Radha kund, the Lalita kund, and the Krishna-sarovar in Dwarka;\nthe Rama-sarovar, the Sita kund and the Devki-unai kund in Ayodhya\n(Oudh); [465] and the Suraj kund [466] and the Hanumandhara [467]\nkund on Mount Girnar.\n\nWaterfalls are not very familiar to the people of Gujarat. There is\na belief, however, that barren couples obtain issue if they bathe in\na waterfall, and offer a cocoanut. [468]\n\nIf a river source issues from an opening, in the shape of a go-mukh\n(cow's-mouth), the stream is called dhodh, and is considered as sacred\nas the holy Ganges. A bath in such a dhodh has the same efficacy for\nabsolving persons from their sins. [469]\n\nWhen a person dies an accidental death and before the fulfilment of\nhis worldly desires, his soul receives avagati (i.e., passes into\na degraded or fallen condition), and it is not released from this\nstate till Shraddhas have been duly performed in its name, and the\nobjects of its desire dedicated to it with proper ritual. The same\nfate befalls those souls which do not receive the funeral pindas with\nthe proper obsequies. Such fallen souls become ghosts and goblins,\n[470] and are to be found where water is, i.e., near a well, a tank,\nor a river. [471]\n\nThose who meet death by drowning become goblins, residing near the\nscene of their death, and are a source of danger to all who approach\nthe water; for instance, in Monapuri and Sasai, there are two ghunas\n(mysterious watery pits) haunted by bhuts (ghosts) which take the\nlives of one or two buffaloes every year. [472] Matas [473] and\nShankhinis also haunt wells, springs, and tanks and either drown,\nor enter the persons of those who go near their resorts.\n\nPersons who are possessed in this manner, can be freed by bhuvas,\nwho give them a magic thread to wear. [474]\n\nThere is a vav called Nilkanth vav near Movaiya, in which a Pinjari\n(a female cotton-carder) is said to have been drowned, and to have\nbeen turned into a ghost, in which form she occasionally presents\nherself to the people. [475]\n\nAnother ghost haunts an old vav, called Madha, in Vadhwan and drowns\none human being every third year as a victim. But a male spirit named\nKshetrapal resides in the kotha (or entrance) of the vav, and saves\nthose who fall near the entrance. A person is, however, sure to be\ndrowned if he falls in any other part of the vav. [476] A ghost also\nresides in the vav at Hampar near Dhrangadhra and terrifies the people\nat times.\n\nThe goddess Rainadevi resides in water, and is worshipped by virgins\non the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh, when they grow\njavaras (tender wheat-plants) in an earthen vessel and present them\nto her, remaining awake for the whole of the night to sing songs in\nher honour.\n\nDarya-Pir, the patron of Luvanas (merchants) and Kharvas (sailors),\nresides in the sea; and vows are observed in his honour by these people\non the second day of the bright half of every month, when they pass\na little water through his sieve. [477]\n\nIt is well known that a drowning person clings fast to anyone who\ntries to save him, and endangers the lives of both himself and his\nsaviour. [478] It is also believed by some people that the messengers\nof Varuna (the lord of all waters) seize those persons who bathe in\na river earlier than the usual hour in the morning; and the act of\nsaving a drowning person thus deprives Varuna of his victim, and\nbrings down the wrath of that deity. [479]\n\nSometimes, for the sake of moksha, a person takes samadhi (i.e.,\ndrowns himself with a religious motive) in a holy river, such as the\nGanges or the Jumna. In such a case the relatives and other persons\nrefrain from interference, and do not try to rescue the person.\n\nWhen a well is to be dug, an expert is first called to select a likely\nspot on which to dig. A Brahman is then consulted as to the auspicious\nhour on which the work of digging should be commenced. [480] For this\npurpose, Tuesdays and those days on which the earth sleeps are to\nbe avoided. The earth is supposed to be asleep on the following six\ndays in every month, namely: the 1st, the 7th, the 9th, the 10th,\nthe 14th and the 24th days following a sankranti (i.e., the day on\nwhich the sun crosses from one constellation to another). Excluding\nthese days, a date is generally fixed on which the Chandra-graha (or\nthe planet moon) is favourable to the constructor of the well. [481]\n\nOn the appointed day, the expert, the constructor of the well, the\nBrahman priest, and the labourers go to the place where the well\nis to be dug, and an image of the god Ganpati--the protector of all\nauspicious ceremonies--is first installed on the spot and worshipped\nwith panchamrit. [482] [483] A green coloured piece of atlas (silk\ncloth), about two feet long, is then spread on the spot, and a\npound and a quarter of wheat, a cocoanut, betels, dates and copper\ncoin are placed on it. A copper bowl containing some silver or gold\ncoins and filled with water, is also placed there; the mouth of the\nbowl is covered with the leaves of the Ashoka tree (Jinesia Asoka)\nand a cocoanut is placed over the leaves. After this, the priest\nrecites sacred hymns and asks his host to perform the khat [484]\nceremonies. [485] Among favourite offerings to Ganpati and the earth\nin the course of worship and in the performance of the khat ceremonies\nare: curds, milk, honey, molasses, cocoanuts, dhana (a kind of spices),\nleaves of nagarvel (a kind of creeper) and red lac. The expert\nwho is called to choose a proper site for the well offers frankincense\nand a cocoanut to the spot, and lights a lamp thereon. After the khat\n[486] ceremonies are over, the host distributes sugar or molasses\namong the bystanders, and offers a sum of money to the expert, who\nusually refuses it, asking the host to spend it in charity. Those\nwho accept money give away a part of it in alms to the poor.\n\nSometimes, to secure the unobstructed completion of the work, the god\nGanpati and the goddess Jaladevi are installed and worshipped daily,\ntill water appears in the well. Some people, however, install\nthe goddess Jaladevi after the appearance of water, when a stone is\ntaken out from the bottom of the well and is plastered with red-lead\nto represent the goddess and is ceremoniously worshipped. When the\nconstruction of the well is complete, vastu, i.e., the ceremony\nin vogue after the completion of a new building, or jalotsava (the\nwater-festival) is celebrated, Brahmans being entertained at a feast,\nwith dakshina given. [487]\n\nThe water of the Krukalas well in the island of Shankhodwar is believed\nto cure fever and diseases caused by morbid heat. A draught of the\nwater of the Gomukhi-ganga near Girnar, makes one proof against an\nattack of cholera. [488]\n\nThe water of a gozara well (i.e., a well which is polluted on account\nof a person bring drowned in it) cures children of bronchitis and\ncough. [489] [490]\n\nThere is a well near Ramdorana, of which the water is effective against\ncough, [491] and the water of the Bhamaria well near Vasawad possesses\nthe same virtue. [492]\n\nThe water of the Mrigi kund near Junagadh remedies leprosy.\n\nThe Pipli well near Zalawad and the Detroja-vav near Kolki are\nwell-known for the stimulative effect of their waters on the\ndigestion. [493]\n\nIf a dark stone is found in the course of digging a well, the water\nof that well is believed to have medicinal properties. [494]\n\nThe birth of a child under the mul nakshatra endangers the life\nof its father: but the misfortune is averted if the child and its\nparents bathe in water drawn from one hundred and eight wells.\nSuch water, if swallowed, is said to cure sanipat or delirium. [495]\n\nIn the island of Shial there is a vav called Than-vav, where mothers,\nwho cannot suckle their children for want of milk, wash their\nbodices. When they afterwards wear these bodices, these are believed\nto be able to cause the due secretion of milk. [496]\n\nThe most famous of the sacred lakes are Pampa [497], Bindu [498],\nPushkar and Sambhar near Ajmere, Man-sarovar near Bahucharaji,\nNarayan-sarovar in Cutch, Ravanrhad in the Himalayas, and Ramarhad. The\nfollowing popular myth is related about Man-sarovar.\n\nTwo kings once agreed that the two children that should first be\nborn to them should marry each other. But it happened that both\nthe kings had daughters. One of them, however, concealed the fact,\nand gave out that the child born to him was a son. So that when the\nchildren attained a marriageable age, they were married to each other\naccording to the agreement.\n\nBut the wife found out the secret when she went to stay with her\nsupposed husband, and disclosed it to her parents, who invited the\ncounterfeit son-in-law to their house with the object of ascertaining\nthe truth. The alleged son, however, suspected the design and fled,\nwith a mare and a bitch. On arriving near Man-sarovar, the animals\nwent into the lake in order to refresh themselves, when there was an\nimmediate transformation; and the bitch and the mare came out a horse\nand a dog. On observing this miracle, their mistress followed their\nexample and was also turned into a male. The story is still sung by\ngirls in a garabi (song) during the Navaratra holidays. [499]\n\nThere is a belief that the ancient golden city of Dwarka, the capital\nof god Krishna, still exists in the sea, although it is invisible to\nthe eyes of mortals. A story is told of a man named Pipo Bhagat,\nwho, once perceiving a golden bowl floating in the sea, plunged into\nthe water and saw the golden palaces of Dwarka and god Krishna resting\ntherein. It is said that he returned with the tide and related his\nexperience to several people. [500]\n\nSimilarly, the golden Lanka of Ravan is still believed to exist\nunder the sea, ruled over by Bibhishan, the brother of Ravan, and\nvisible only to the eyes of saints and holy persons. [501] It is a\ncommon belief that the nether regions are inhabited by a species\nof semi-divine beings, half men and half serpents, called Nags,\nwho possess magnificent palaces under the water. [502] The story of\nKaliya Nag, who resided at the bottom of the Jumna and was driven\nfrom that place by Krishna, is well known. [503] There are a number\nof mythological traditions in the Puranas of kings and princes having\nvisited these palaces in watery regions, and of their having brought\nback beautiful Nagakanyas (daughters of Nags) therefrom. [504] For\ninstance, Arjuna married a Nagakanya named Ulupi when he was living\nin exile with his brothers. He also stayed for some time with the Nags.\n\nGhosts and demons sometimes inhabit palaces under the water. Deep\nwaters, unfrequented by men, are the favourite resorts of such\nbeings. [505]\n\nThe god Varuna resides in the waters, and is said to have once carried\noff Nand (the adoptive father of Krishna) to his watery abode, for\nhaving bathed in the Jumna before dawn.\n\nKalindi, the daughter of the king of the Kalingas, practised religious\nausterities in a palace under the waters of the Jumna with the object\nof securing a suitable husband. Krishna, on being informed of this\nby Arjuna, went to the place and married her. [506]\n\nThere is a story in the Puranas that a king, named Nandraj, used to\nbury his treasures in the sea with the assistance of a mani (jewel)\nwhich furnished a safe passage through the water. The mani was in the\nend burnt by the queen of Nandraj and the treasure still lies hidden\nin the waters of the sea. [507]\n\nIt is narrated in the fourth chapter of Bhagvat-puran that the ten\nthousand sons of Prachetas used to reside in palaces built under\nwater. [508]\n\nMountains are held to be sacred in a variety of circumstances; thus,\nsome are valued for possessing medicinal drugs: some are revered as\nthe birthplaces of the gods, or as the residences of saints: some for\npossessing many tirthas (holy spots): some because they were visited\nby Rama or the Pandavas: some serve as guardians of the four quarters:\nand some contain the sources of holy rivers.\n\nBoth the important ranges of the Presidency, the Sahyadri and the\nSatpuda, are subjects of veneration in the popular mind. The Himalayas,\nthe Vindhya Mountains, and the Nilgiris command special respect. Other\nsacred mountains are Girnar and Shetrunja in Kathiawar, Mount Abu,\nPavagad near Baroda, Brahmagiri Arasur, Tryambak near Nasik, Koyalo,\nGovardhan near Mathura, Revatachal near Dwarka, and Hinglaj in Sind.\n\nIt is said that in ancient times there were deep miry ditches where\nGirnar and Abu stand at present. One day a cow belonging to the sage\nVasishtha fell into one of them and was found by Kacha, the son of\nBrihaspati, after a long search. When the incident was brought to the\nnotice of Vasishtha, he requested Meru (a mythical mountain) to send\nhis two sons Girnar and Abu to occupy and fill the ditches. Girnar\nrequired sixty-eight tirthas to accompany him; and the boon was\ngranted by the gods. [509]\n\nGirnar is one of the seven great mountains which once possessed\nwings. [510] [511] It is also known as the place where the sage\nDattatraya performed religious austerities. [512] The place is so\nholy that any person dying within a radius of twelve gaus [513]\nfrom it is believed to attain moksha. [514] A visit to the temples\non Girnar absolves one from all sins; and taking a turn round Girnar\nand Shetrunja is said to bring good fortune. [515] Bhagwan manifests\nhimself to those who ascend the Bhairavajaya summit on Girnar. There\nis a rock on this mountain of which it is said that those who cast\nthemselves from it directly attain heaven. [516]\n\nPavagad is known for the temple of Mahakali Mata. It is said that King\nPatai once propitiated her by austerities, and on being desired to\ndemand a boon, asked the goddess to accompany him to his palace. The\ngoddess was highly incensed at this request, and promptly destroyed\nhim.\n\nHanuman, the monkey-god, once promised to take the Mountain\nGovardhan to meet Rama. It is well known how the monkey allies of Rama\nconstructed a bridge of rocks across the sea to Lanka, and how Hanuman\nsupplied the requisite material by fetching huge mountains. Whilst\nengaged on this work, he was one day carrying the Govardhan mountain\nto the site of the bridge, when Rama issued an order that all monkeys\nwho were fetching mountains should deposit their burdens at the spot\nwhere they stood at the moment of the order. Hanuman could not disobey\nthe order of his lord, and he had accordingly to drop the Govardhan\nmountain near Mathura. In order to fulfil Hanuman's promise, however,\nVishnu held the mountain over his head for seven days, at the time\nof his Krishna incarnation.\n\nIt is said that the inhabitants of the districts round Govardhan\nformerly revered and adored Indra. But Krishna condemned this custom,\nand introduced the worship of Govardhan. Indra was exasperated\nat this conduct, and poured tremendous rains on Gokal in order to\ndrown Krishna and his followers. But Krishna held up the Govardhan\nmountain on his little finger and sheltered all his people under\nits cover. The mountain was supported in this manner for seven days,\nby the end of which the rains subsided and Indra confessed himself\nvanquished. Even now Vaishnavas form an image of Govardhan out of\nmud and worship it on the Janmashtami day (i.e., the eighth day of\nthe dark half of Shravan). [517]\n\nThe Oshama Hill near Patanvav (in the jurisdiction of Gondal) is\nnoted for the beautiful temples of Tapakeshwar Mahadev, and Matari\nMata. It is said that Bhima [518] the second of the five Pandavas,\nfirst met the giantess Hidimba, on this hill. [519] The charcoal-like\nstones which are dug out in numbers from this hill are believed by\nthe people to have been blackened by the blood of the giant Hidimb,\nthe brother of Hidimba who was killed by Bhima. [520]\n\nMount Shetrunja (or Shatru\u00f1jaya) possesses numerous Jain shrines and\nattracts thousands of pilgrims every year. The hearts of all pilgrims\nare believed to be purified from the moment they come within six\nmiles of the mountain. [521]\n\nMount Abu possesses the temple of Amba Mata where Krishna's hair\nwas clipped for the first time. [522] Tryambak is known for the\ntemple of Tryambakeshwar and the source of the holy Godavari. [523]\nAbout Revatachal, it is said that the mountain was golden in ancient\ntimes. [524] In the Vindhya Mountains is situated the famous temple of\nOmkar Mandhata. [525] The hermitage of Kakbhushundi in the Nilgiris\nwas visited by Rama when he listened to the religious stories read\nout by that sage. The sage Agatsya also is said to have resided in\nthese mountains. [526]\n\nThe temple of Hinglaj stands on a hill, which is situated at a distance\nof eighteen days' journey by road from Karachi. The Mata is ministered\nto by a Musalman and the place is mostly visited by Atits, Bavas,\nKhatris, Chhipas, Mochis, and other low-caste Hindus. On occasions the\ndoors of the temple spontaneously open, and after the devotees have\nvisited the Mata, they again shut in the same mysterious manner.\n\nAs the abode of Shiva and as containing the sources of the holiest of\nrivers, the Himalayas are the most sacred of all mountains, and possess\nmany holy places of pilgrimage, such as Badrinarayan, Kedarnath,\nHardwar, etc. Badrinarayan is the favourite resort of those who have\nrelinquished the world and who only wish to meditate on the Divine\nBeing. The sages Nara and Narayan are said to have performed religious\nausterities in this place, and eighty-eight thousand rishis (sages)\nare believed to be similarly occupied there to-day. Owing to the\nexcessive cold, the place is extremely difficult to reach. Pilgrims\ncarry burning hearths with them to protect themselves against\ncold. Besides, it is necessary to cross the Pathar-nadi (or stony\nriver), of which the water, if touched, turns one into stone. The\nmethod of crossing this river is to suspend sikans or slings above\nits water and to swing from one sling to another. [527]\n\nA hill called Swargarohan is believed to be twenty miles to the north\nof Badrikedarnath and is said to lead to heaven. In ancient times the\nPandavas had repaired to this place in order to do penance for the\nsin of having killed their kinsmen in the Great War. But when they\ntried to ascend to heaven by the Swargarohan Hill, only Yudhishthir\nand his faithful dog were able to reach their goal: the rest were\nfrozen in the snow.\n\nMount Kailasa, the abode of Shiva, is supposed to be situated in the\nnorthern part of the Himalayas. The mountain is described as always\ncovered with verdure and full of beautiful gardens and of palaces\nmade of jewels, with roads paved with golden dust and sphatika-mani\n(crystal stone). It is said that Ravan, the king of Lanka, once\nuprooted this mountain and held it on the palm of his hand, in order\nto display his prowess. The demon Bhasmasur, who was enamoured of the\ngoddess Parvati, is said to have performed the same feat in order to\nfrighten Shiva.\n\nAnother mythical mountain is Meru, which is supposed to occupy the\ncentre of the earth. [528] The sun, the moon, and all the planets\nrevolve round this mountain, and it therefore plays an important part\nin the causation of day and night. For night falls on one side of\nthe earth when the sun goes to the other side of Meru; and the day\nbegins when the sun emerges from that side of the mountain. Meru is\nsixty-eight thousand yojans [529] in height, and penetrates the earth\nto the depth of sixteen thousand yojans. Its eastern side appears\nwhite, the southern is yellow, the western is black, and the northern\nred. The mountain is also believed to consist of gold and gems. The\nGanges, in her fall from the heavens, is said to have descended first\non the top of this mountain and then to have flowed in four streams\nin four directions. The southern stream is known as the Ganges; the\nnorthern, in Tartary, is called Bhadrasoma; the eastern is the same as\nthe Sita; and the western is named Chax or the Oxus. The top of this\nmountain is believed to be inhabited by gods, gandharvas (celestial\nmusicians) and rishis (sages). [530] According to the Yoga-vasishtha,\nthere is a kalpa-vriksha [531] on the Lalmani summit of Meru, where\na rishi named Bhushundkak is engaged in devotional prayers since time\nimmemorial. [532] The Puranas declare that Vaivaswat Manu, the first\nman, resided near Meru, and that his descendants migrated to Ayodhya\nto found there a kingdom which was afterwards ruled over by Rama.\n\nIt is believed by some people that mountain-tops are inhabited by a\nclass of recluses, called Aghori-bavas, who devour human beings. [533]\nThe Kalika hill near Girnar is believed to be frequented by Joganis\n(female harpies) who take the lives of visitors to the hill, and it\nis said that none who visits the place is ever known to return. [534]\nPersons who visit the temple of Kalikamata on Mount Girnar always\nlose one of their party, who falls a victim to the goddess. [535]\n\nThe changes in the seasons are attributed by some to Brahma, Vishnu,\nand Mahesha (Shiva), the gods of the Hindu Trinity. Brahma sends down\nthe rains and produces corn, grass, etc., Vishnu protects and nourishes\nthe harvests in winter, and Shiva causes the heat of the summer. [536]\nThere is also a belief that these three gods go down in turns to the\npatal (nether regions) and stay there for four months. Vishnu descends\non the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashadh, and on that day the\nrainy season begins. When Vishnu comes up and Shiva takes his place,\npeople experience the cold of winter: but as this god always keeps\na dhuni [537] burning near him, the waters under the surface of the\nearth, such as those in the wells, remain hot during this period. Such\nwaters are cooled when Shiva returns and Brahma goes down to the patal:\nbut the return of Shiva causes summer on the earth. [538]\n\nAccording to another belief, the sequence of the seasons is\ncontrolled by the sun-god. [539] There are six ritus or seasons:\nand the changes in the ritus depend upon the position of the sun in\nthe twelve rashis or signs of the Zodiac. [540] Each ritu lasts for\na period of two months, during which time the sun travels through two\nrashis. Vasant-ritu is the period which the sun takes to pass through\nthe Min (Pisces) and Mesha (Aries) rashis. Grishma-ritu corresponds\nto the time during which the sun passes through Vrishabha (Taurus)\nand Mithun (Gemini). During Varsha-ritu the sun moves through\nthe signs Karka (Cancer) and Sinha (Leo), and during Sharad-ritu\nthrough Kanya (Virgo) and Tula (Libra). Hemant-ritu is the time\nwhich the sun takes to travel through Vrishchika (Scorpio) and Dhanu\n(Sagittarius). Shishir-ritu occurs when the sun stands in the Makar\n(Capricornus) and Kumbha (Aquarius) rashis. [541]\n\nIndra (the god of rain), Varuna (the lord of all waters), Vayu (the god\nof wind), Agni (the god of fire), and the moon-god are also believed\nby some to have power over the seasons. [542]\n\nThe belief is as old as the Vedas that demons sometimes obstruct\nthe fall of rain, and confine the waters of the clouds. It is Indra\nwho fights with them and breaks through their castles by means of\nhis thunderbolt, sending down showers of rain for the benefit of\nhis worshippers. So, whenever there is an unusual drought, people\nstill invoke the aid of this god, and celebrate a festival in his\nhonour, called Ujjani or Indramahotsava. Homas [543] are performed to\npropitiate the god, and Brahmans are entertained at a feast. Sometimes\nthe festival is celebrated outside the village, where people go in\nlarge parties to dine together. The usual dish on such an occasion\nis Meghladu or sweet balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi.\n\nAnother favourite ceremony supposed to cause rain to fall is the\nsubmersion of the image of Shiva in water, by blocking up the khal or\npassage in the Shiva-linga by which water poured over the image usually\nruns off. This ceremony is known as Jala-jatra. Rudrabhisheka, or\nthe ceremony of pouring water in a constant stream over the image of\nShiva for eleven consecutive days and nights, is sometimes performed\nwith the same object. [544]\n\nSometimes the assistance of Shringhi rishi is invoked to bring about\na fall of rain. The rishi is installed in water, mantras are recited,\nand prayers are offered before a sacrificial fire. This ceremony,\ncalled Parjanya-shanti, is said to have been performed within recent\nyears in Bombay, and to have been successful in bringing rain. [545]\n\nIt is also said that rainfall can be caused by singing a song or\na sacred hymn to the malar tune. There is a tradition that the\nwell-known saint Narsinha Mehta once sang this tune on the occasion\nof the celebration of the first pregnancy of his daughter, and the\nperformance was immediately followed by a shower of rain. Rain, which\nis brought down in this manner, can be put a stop to by singing to\na different tune. [546]\n\nLow-caste women have recourse to the following expedient to bring\nrain. Five or six of them place a quantity of muddy earth on a wooden\nstool, which is carried by one of them. The lump of mud is covered\nwith leaves of the Gidotan or Tindotan creeper, and is called mehulo\nor meghalo. The whole party then sing songs, and visit every house\nin the village. A bowl of water is poured over the mehulo and the\nwomen receive some corn for their trouble. [547]\n\nSome believe that when the worship of the village-gods is neglected\nand when the people grow corrupt, ill-treat the saints and are\ngiven to the killing of cows and Brahmans, Yama, the God of Death,\ndirects his colleagues, Indra and Varuna, to threaten the world with a\ndrought. The rainfall returns only when the people revert to righteous\nways, and after Indra and Varuna have been conciliated by offerings.\n\nThe lower classes of the people believe a prolonged cessation of rain\nto be due to the wrath of local minor deities, aroused by the neglect\nof their worship. In such a contingency, therefore, they prepare baklan\n[548] of udad (lentils), lapsi, [549] vadan [550] and other dishes,\nand offer them to the local gods for their propitiation. [551]\n\nTo stop an incessant fall of rain, people often observe the Aladra\nvow. The patel or headman issues a proclamation that on a particular\nday none should cook, or churn whey, or fetch water, or wash clothes,\nor attend to any of the multifarious household duties; but that all\nshould pass the day in prayer. A complete cessation from toil in favour\nof earnest devotion to divine powers are the peculiar features of this\nvow. People do not abstain from food: but food must be prepared on\nthe previous day. If the rains do not cease in spite of this vow, but\nthreaten the village with inundation, the headman leads a procession to\nthe confines of the village and makes an offering to the waters. [552]\n\nIn some places a spinning wheel, sometimes specially constructed\nof human bones, [553] is turned by a naked person in the reverse\ndirection to the usual one, with the object of causing the cessation\nof immoderate rainfall. [554]\n\nA cessation of rains is also believed to be brought about by offering\nan oblation to the god Kasatia, and by the observance of the vow called\nKasatia ganth (or tying the knot of Kasatia). The vow lasts for three\nweeks, and those who observe it do not partake of anything except rice\n[555] (or, according to others, jiran, a kind of spice [556]).\n\nSome persons attribute a heavy fall of rain to the wrath of Indra,\nand offer ceremonious prayers to appease that god. [557] In some\nplaces people engage the services of magicians to restrain the fall of\nrain. [558] Farmers sometimes brand the rain by casting burning sparks\nupon it in order to stop an incessant fall. [559] Vows in honour of\nsamudra (the ocean) are also observed with the same object.\n\nIn the changing circumstances of life, women more readily have recourse\nto religious vows for the fulfilment of their wishes than men. This\nfondness of women for vows has brought into vogue a number of vrats or\nreligious observances which are practised by women only. Gangigor or\nGanagor, Vat-Savitri, Molakat, Goutrat, Alavana or Alunda, Eva-vrat,\nTulsi-vrat, Uma masheshwar-vrat, and Surya-vrat are instances of\nsuch vows. The Molakat-vrat is observed by virgins from the\neleventh to the fifteenth day of the bright half of Ashadh. [560]\nThe Goutrat-vrat is believed to secure male progeny, as well as long\nlife to the husband. It is observed on the fourth day of the dark\nhalf of Shravana, on which day women fast till the evening, and then\ntake food after worshipping a cow. [561] The object of the Eva-vrat\n(or Jiva-vrat) is to secure eternal exemption from widowhood, the\nday for this vow being the last day of Ashadh. It is then necessary\nto observe a fast till the evening; and the only food allowed is a\npreparation of wheat, taken at nightfall. [562]\n\nOn the fourth day of the dark half of Shravan, women observe a vrat\ncalled Bolchoth. In the morning the woman worships a cow and her calf\n(which must both be of the same colour), applies a little cotton to\nthe horns of the cow, and makes an auspicious mark on the foreheads\nof both with red lac. She then places an offering of betel and rice\nbefore the cow, takes four turns round the pair, and whispers in the\nears of the cow the words tarun satya marun vritya (your truth and\nmy devotion). A Brahman then recites the legend of the vrat. [563]\n\nAfter narrating this story, the Brahman takes the betel and other\nthings placed before the cow. The woman then returns home and takes\nfood for the first time during that day, the meal consisting of loaves\nof bajra-flour and some preparation of mag (phaseolus mungo). Some\nwomen take ghi and khir: but any preparation of cow's milk is strictly\nforbidden. Similarly, there is a prohibition against using things\nwhich have been cut by a knife or scissors. [564]\n\nThe worship of the goddess Randal is a favourite vrat with Gujarati\nwomen. A bower is erected for the installation of the goddess, and\na bajat or a wooden stool is placed therein. A piece of fine cloth\nis spread on the bajat, and a figure is drawn in seeds of corn. A\nkalasio or bowl, with a cocoanut on it, is placed over the figure. The\ncocoanut has two eyes painted on it in black collyrium and a nose in\nred lac, and is decorated with rich clothes and ornaments to represent\nthe goddess Randal. Ghi lamps are kept constantly burning before the\ngoddess for three consecutive days and nights. An invitation is sent\nto the neighbouring women, who bring offerings of ghi to the goddess,\nand dance in a group at night to the accompaniment of melodious garabis\n(songs). [565] Sometimes, if a child is ill, or some misfortune is\napprehended, goranis, i.e., a certain number of unmarried girls and\nunwidowed women, are invited to a feast in honour of Randal.\n\nOn the Nagapanchami day, i.e., the 5th day of the bright half of\nShravan, [566] women draw an image of a nag (cobra), and worship it\nwith sprouts of bajra. In some places it is the custom to avoid all\nfood but khichedi [567] on this day.\n\nThe wad (the banyan tree) is worshipped on the first day of the dark\nhalf of Shravan. On that day the woman wears a necklace of fifteen\nleaves of this tree and prepares a dish called navamuthium. [568]\nA dora or piece of string is also worn on the person to ward off\nevil. [569]\n\nRishi-panchami, [570] Gauri-pujan, Shitalai-pujan, Shili-satem are\nholidays observed only by women. On the Rishi-panchami day only niar\n[571] rice is allowed to those who observe the vrat. [572]\n\nBesides the observance of vrats, there are other ceremonies,\nauspicious as well as inauspicious, in which women alone can take\npart. Only women are concerned with all those ceremonies which are\ngone through on the birth of a child. On the twelfth day after birth,\na name is given to the child by its aunt. The ceremony of making an\nauspicious mark on the throne of a king is performed by an unwidowed\nwoman or an unmarried girl. [573]\n\nAt the time of a marriage, women make the auspicious mark on the\nforehead of the bridegroom and carry a laman-divo [574] to fetch\nukardi. For nine days preceding the date of marriage the bride and\nthe bridegroom are besmeared with pithi or yellow turmeric powder,\nwhen auspicious songs are recited by a party of women invited to\nwitness the ceremony. When the bridegroom reaches the entrance of\nthe marriage bower, he is welcomed there by his mother-in-law, who\ncarries him on her hip to his seat in the marriage booth. [575]\n\nIt is necessary to make certain marks on the corpse of a woman, and\nthese marks are made by women only. [576] Similarly, women alone take\npart in the ceremony of getting a widow's hair shaved on the ninth\nday after her husband's death. [577]\n\nThe Shastras have enjoined the worship of certain higher-grade deities,\nand have prescribed certain ceremonials for the purpose. But women are\nnot authorised to make use of these ceremonies. The reason is that\nthe Shastras regard women as inferior to men and do not grant them\nthe privileges given to the latter. They are not allowed to learn\nthe Vedas nor can the Gayatri-mantra be taught to them. The result\nis that women are not qualified to perform the ceremonial worship\nof such higher-grade deities as Vishnu, Shiva, Durga, Ganpati,\nand Hanuman; [578] similarly the sacrificial rites of Vishnuyag,\nShaktiyag, Ashvamedha, Raja-yajna, and Gayatri-purashcharan can only\nbe performed by men. [579]\n\nIt is the duty of men only to worship the shami tree (prosopis\nspicegera) on the Dasara day, and the Hutashani fire on the day\nof Holi.\n\nWomen are not allowed to worship the god Kartikey, who is said to\nshun women, and to have pronounced a curse against all who visit\nhis image.\n\nThe fifteenth day of the bright half of Chaitra is the anniversary of\nthe birth of Hanuman, and a vrat called Hanuman-jayanti is observed\non this day. This vrat, [580] as well as the Ganesh-chaturthi-vrat\n[581] are meant only for men.\n\nThe ceremonies of Shraddha [582] and the Baleva [583] ceremonies\ncan be performed by men only. The duty of giving agni-sanskar\nto corpses, i.e., of performing the necessary rites at a funeral,\nis also laid on men.\n\nPeople who practise the art of attaining mastery over spirits and\nfiends, usually remain naked while they are engaged in the performance\nof their mysterious rites. There are many branches of this black\nart: for instance, Maran, [584] Uchchatan, [585] Lamban, Vashikaran,\n[586] Mohan, [587] Stambhan, [588] etc., and although the meli vidya\n(sacrilegious art) is not held in respect by high-class Hindus, it is\npopular among the lower classes. There is a belief that knowledge of\nthis art dooms a person to hell; but it secures to those who master it\na position of much importance, and therefore finds many followers. The\nart consists in the knowledge of certain mysterious incantations,\nwhich enable a person to influence the spirits and to bring about\ncertain results through their agency. Not only has every person when\nlearning this art, to remain naked, but all those who make prayogas\nor experiments in it afterwards must observe the same precaution. The\nnight of Kali-chaudas or the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin,\nis considered to be the most favourable time for the sadhan or\naccomplishment of this secret art of remaining naked. [589] On this\nday, it is the custom of those who exercise the art, to go stripped\nto a cemetery in the dead of night, and to cook food in a human skull\nas an offering to the spirits residing in the neighbourhood. On the\nsame night, some sorcerers, after stripping themselves, are said to\nride round the village on some mysterious conveyance. [590]\n\nA practice is noted among low-class people of performing a sadhana\nbefore the goddess Jhampadi for the sake of progeny. The man who\nperforms the sadhana, has first to go naked to a cemetery on a Sunday\nnight, and to fetch therefrom the ashes of a corpse. At the time of\nthe sadhana, the man takes his seat on a corpse, fills a madaliun or\nhollow bracelet with the ashes brought from the cemetery, and puts\nit on his arm above the elbow. [591]\n\nDhobis, Malis, Valands and other low-caste people remain naked\nwhile worshipping Bhairav. [592] In the performance of the anushthan\n(propitiation) of such deities as Kal-Bhairav, [593] Batuk, Mani,\n[594] Griva, etc., the devotees keep their persons uncovered. The\nworshippers of the goddess Jakshani also remain naked when they attend\nupon her. [595]\n\nPersons who practise the art of curing men from the effects of\nserpent-bites by means of incantations, have to sit naked under water\nin order to gain efficacy for their mantras.\n\nFollowers of the Devi-panth, Shakti-panth and Aghori-panth sects\nremain naked while worshipping or offering victims to their gods. [596]\nVama-margis worship a nude image of the goddess Digambara.\n\nThe hook-shaped instrument, known as ganeshio, which is used by\nthieves in boring a hole through the walls of a house, is sometimes\nprepared by a blacksmith and his wife on the night of Kali-chaudas,\nboth being naked at the time. Instruments prepared in this fashion\nare believed to secure success for the thief, who scrupulously sets\naside the first booty acquired by the help of the ganeshio for the\nblacksmith as a reward for his services. He does not grudge the reward\nhowever large the booty may be.\n\nIn making dice according to the directions of Ramalashastra, the\nworkers should remain naked.\n\nThere is a belief that granulations in the eyes of a child are cured\nif the maternal uncle fetches naked the beads of the Arani tree,\nand puts a circlet of them round the neck of the child. [597]\n\nIf a person uncovers himself on hearing the screech of an owl, and then\nties and unties seven knots in a piece of string, repeating the process\ntwenty-one times, the piece of string is believed to possess the virtue\nof curing Taria Tav or periodical fever. [598] Another remedy for the\nsame ailment is to go to a distance of three miles from the village\nand there to eat food which has been cooked in a state of nudity.\n\nIn the preparation of Nargudikalpa [599] or Gujakalpa, some drugs\nhave to be procured by a naked person. [600]\n\nIt is considered meritorious by some persons to rise early in the\nmorning and to bathe naked on the Makar Sankranti day. [601]\n\nA Brahman boy must be naked at the time of the performance of his\nthread investiture ceremony. After the ceremony, the maternal uncle\nof the boy presents garments to him, which he thereupon puts on. [602]\n\nIn Gujarat, for the most part, the people seem to be unacquainted\nwith the belief that certain stones possess the virtue of influencing\nthe rain. Some persons however attribute this quality to the stones\non such sacred mounts as Girnar, Abu, and Pavagadh. [603] There is a\npoint called Tonk, on mount Girnar, of which it is said that rain is\ncertain to fall whenever anyone succeeds in climbing it. [604] There\nis also a common belief that arasi marble if heated has influence\nover rain. [605]\n\nIt is a common practice to submerge the image [606] of Shiva in\nwater with the object of bringing rain. Similarly the image of\nthe goddess Harshadh is sometimes bathed when rain is desired. [607]\nThe bhuva or the bhui, i.e., the male and the female attendants of\nthe goddess are at the same time given a bath, and an offering of Khir\n[608] is made to the goddess.\n\nThere are two goals which a pious Hindu tries to attain by leading\na life of purity and virtue, viz., (i) moksha or final emancipation,\nmerging into the Eternal Spirit, and (ii) swarga (heaven or paradise)\nwhere meritorious persons enjoy pure pleasures unalloyed by earthly\ncares. The stars are the spirits of so many righteous persons who are\ntranslated to swarga for their good actions, and are endowed with a\nlustre proportionate to their individual merits. But every moment of\nenjoyment in swarga diminishes the store of merit: and those whose\nwhole merit is thus exhausted, on receiving their proportionate share\nof pleasures, must resume their worldly existence. The Bhagavad-gita\nsays: \"ksine punye martyalokam visanti\" i.e., \"they enter the mortal\nworld when their merit is expended.\" Meteors are believed to be\nspirits of this description who fall from their position as stars,\nto live again on this earth. [609]\n\nAnother explanation of meteors is that they are the sparks produced\nwhen the vimans (or vehicles) of celestial people clash against each\nother. [610]\n\nMeteors are also held to be the agar or charak (i.e., excreta) dropped\neither by a curious water-bird, or by Garud, the favourite eagle,\nand vehicle of Vishnu, [611] or by a fabulous bird Anal. [612] The\nlatter is said to fly at an immeasurable height from the surface\nof the earth, and to take food only once a day. It is almost\nimpossible to catch the charak when it falls to earth: but if ever\nit can be secured, the application of it to the eyes of a blind man\nwill restore his eyesight. It also furnishes an effective remedy for\nleprosy, and gives a golden lustre to the body of a person suffering\nfrom that disease.\n\nSome declare that meteors are stars which fall owing to the curse of\nIndra, and subsequently assume the highest human form on earth. [613]\n\nIt is also said that the stars descend to earth in human form when\nsins accumulate in the celestial world. [614]\n\nThe influence of meteors on human affairs is treated at length in the\nVarahasanhita. [615] The phenomenon is popularly regarded as an evil\nomen: it is supposed to portend devastation by fire, an earthquake,\na famine, an epidemic, danger from thieves, and storms at sea. [616]\nThe appearance of a bright shooting star is supposed to foretell the\ndeath of some great man; [617] and on beholding one, it is customary\nto repeat the words 'Ram Ram' [618] several times. [619] A shower of\nmeteors is believed to presage some civil commotion or a change in\nthe ruling dynasties.\n\nSome persons, however, regard the appearance of meteors as auspicious\nor baneful, according to the mandal or group of stars, from which they\nare seen to fall. Meteors from the Vayu-mandal, (or the group of stars\nknown by the name of Vayu) portend the breaking out of an epidemic:\nthose from Varuna-mandal, are believed to be favourable to human\nhappiness; if they fall from Indra-mandal, they forebode danger to\nall kings; those from Agni-mandal, threaten war between nations. [620]\n\nDuring the monsoons, rain is believed to fall in that direction\nin which a meteor is seen to shoot. [621] A meteor in the west is\nominous to kings, and if it falls into the sea, it forebodes evil to\nthe dwellers on earth. [622]\n\nThe appearance of a comet is believed to portend some dire calamity\nto the king and the nation. It is said that if a heavenly body\nis seen, chhogalo, [623] chhogala kings (i.e., great and celebrated\nkings) are in danger of their lives. [624] A comet is also believed\nto threaten all tailed animals with destruction.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nHEROIC GODLINGS\n\n\nSeveral stories, in addition to the legend of the Ramayana, are\nrelated of the birth of the god Hanuman. Dasharatha, king of Ayodhya,\nbeing childless, once performed a sacrifice with the hope of thereby\nobtaining male issue. On the completion of the ceremony a heavenly\nbeing rose out of the sacrificial fire and presented the king\nwith a celestial preparation, called payas, which he directed the\nking to give to his wives if he desired a son. The king divided the\ndivine gift among his three queens; but the share of one of them was\nsnatched away by an eagle. It was dropped into the hands of Anjani,\nwho was herself childless, and was practising austerities for the\nsake of obtaining a son. On partaking of the payas, Anjani conceived,\nand the son born to her was afterwards known as the god Hanuman.\n\nAnother story relates how Anjani was one of those persons who helped\nIndra in his evil designs on Ahalya, the wife of Gautama. She had on\nthat account been cursed by Gautama, and threatened with the birth of\na fatherless child. To prevent the curse from taking effect, Anjani\nburied herself in the ground as far as her waist, and began to observe\nreligious austerities in the hope of propitiating Shiva. The latter was\npleased with her devotion, and sent her a mantra through Narada, who\nwas ordered to deliver it in her ear. Vayu, the god of wind, forced the\nmantra into her womb, and she conceived a son named Hanuman. This son\nhad the form of a monkey, because, at the time of conception, Anjani\nhappened to behold a monkey, named Keshi, on a neighbouring tree.\n\nHanuman is a chiranjiva, i.e., one of those seven [625] persons who\nare to live for ever and are therefore considered to be immortal. He\nis represented as possessed of miraculous strength, and his body is\nvajramaya, i.e., adamantine. When Sita was carried off by Ravana, it\nwas he who crossed the sea and brought news about her to Rama. When\nAhi and Mahi, two cousins of Ravana, carried off Rama and Lakshmana\nby magic and decided to offer them as victims to their favourite\ngoddess Panoti, Hanuman entered the temple of Panoti, crushed her\nunder his feet, and released Rama and Lakshmana. Hence he is known\nas the conqueror of Panoti. After the death of Ravana, Hanuman was\nleft to guard the kingdom of Lanka, which was conferred by Rama on\nBibhishana, the brother of Ravana. [626]\n\nHanuman is an incarnation of one of the eleven Rudras, [627] [628]\nis a brahmachari (i.e., one who has taken the vow of celibacy),\na powerful and benevolent deity, and a giver of many blessings. At\nthe same time, he is considered to be the master-deity of all bhuts,\nprets, pishachas, (ghosts, goblins, fiends), of dakans (witches),\nshakans, chudel, vantri, of the forty-nine virs (male fiends), of the\nfifty-two vetals, of yakshas and yakshinis and of all evil spirits\nin general, who are believed to obey his commands. [629] Vows are\nobserved in honour of Hanuman if a person is possessed by a bhut or a\npret, or if he is scared by a jhapat (sudden encounter) with a devil,\nor if he happens to step inadvertently within the kundalan [630] of\nan utar. Persons who are possessed by evil spirits are exorcised by\nthe bhuvas by reciting the zanzira mantra in honour of Hanuman. [631]\n\nKali-Chaudas, i.e., the 14th day of dark half of Ashvin [632] is\nconsidered to be the most favourable day for practising the black art;\nand the god Hanuman is accordingly worshipped with much ceremony by\nbhuvas on that day.\n\nAll bhuts, prets and spirits are thus believed to obey the commands\nof the god Hanuman. In the course of a sadhana (i.e. the process of\nprocuring the fulfilment of certain desires through the favour and by\nthe agency of spirits) the latter are conjured in the name of Hanuman,\nso that the sadhana may not prove inefficacious. For this purpose\nthe Hanuman raksha mantra is repeated one hundred and eight times\nbefore the image of the god, the devotee remaining standing all the\ntime. A lamp of clarified butter is also lighted, and frankincense is\nburnt. The mantra runs as follows:--'Om namo Hanuman bala ghatapidam,\npanika rakhavala, lohaki kothadi, bajarka tala, deva-danava-kumar,\nnikal Hanuman asan, Mahadev basan, Hanuman hathela, bajarka khila.' It\nis neither pure Sanskrit, nor Gujarati, nor Hindustani, but roughly it\nmeans:--'Bow to the young Hanuman, the tormentor of ghata, the guardian\nof water, the iron-safe, the lock of vajra, the son of the gods and\nthe demons. Take your seat, the receptacle of Mahadev, O stubborn god,\nO Nail of adamant.' After the repetition of the mantra, four nails\nare driven into the four corners of the seat of the votary, and it\nis believed that the sadhana is thus rendered sure of success. [633]\n\nThe god Hanuman is sometimes worshipped when a serious epidemic is\nto be warded off. The usual mode of propitiating him in such cases,\nand also in exorcising spirits, is to pour red lead and oil over\nhis image, to make an offering of udad seeds (Phaseolus radiatus)\nand molasses, and to invest the image with a wreath of one hundred\nand eight flowers of ankada [634] or of as many leaves or berries of\nthe same plant. [635]\n\nThe influence of the god is believed to be so powerful in some places\nthat it is said that a bhut or a pishacha is at once exorcised from\nthe body of a person who observes certain ceremonies there. In some\nplaces the mere sight of the image of the god has the same effect,\nand it is believed that ghosts shriek and fly from the bodies of\npossessed persons, if these visit the images of Hanuman. In Kodolia,\nabout half a mile to the west of Lilapur in Gujarat, there is a temple\nof Hanuman where persons suffering from fever go on a Saturday,\nand take a meal before 2 p. m. at which time the god goes out to\ngraze his cows. This proceeding is believed to work a cure in cases\nof fever and is called anagah. [636] A mere glance at the temple of\nHanuman at Khandia and Saranghur, or of that image which is known as\n'Bhid-bhanjan,' is sufficient to drive out evil spirits from the\nbodies of possessed persons. [637] The same virtue is attributed\nto the images of Hanuman at Bhurakhia, near Lathi and at Nariana,\nnear Dhrangadhra, in Jhalavar, [638] Kathiawar.\n\nThere are certain peculiar conjunctions of planets, which if they\nappear in a person's horoscope, always bring him misfortunes. In\nsuch circumstances, the person is said to be under the influence\nof panoti. [639] Such influence lasts for a period varying from one\nyear to seven years and a half. [640] When the planet Shani (Saturn)\nenters the 1st, 11th, or the 12th rashi in relation to a person,\nthe latter is said to be affected by sadasati-panoti, i.e., panoti\nextending over seven years and a half. [641] The panoti enters the life\nof such a person with feet either of gold, silver, copper or iron:\nand in most cases the result is disastrous. If the panoti affects\nthe head of a person, he loses his wits; if it affects the heart,\nit takes away his wealth; when it affects the feet, it brings bodily\nailments. In order to counteract the evil effects of panoti, people\nworship Hanuman as the god who crushed the malignant goddess Panoti\nunder his feet. On Saturdays red lead and oil, adad, molasses are\noffered to the image of the god. Frankincense is burnt, a lamp is\nlighted, and a wreath of ankada flowers is sometimes dedicated. [642]\nA fast is observed on such days; and sometimes the services of a\nBrahman are engaged to recite verses in honour of the god.\n\nThere is a belief that Hanuman cries out once in twelve years,\nand those men who happen to hear him are transformed into hijadas\n(eunuchs).\n\nOil which has been poured over the image of Hanuman and caught in\na vessel is called naman. It is sometimes carried in a vatki (a\nsmall metal cup) and is burnt to produce anjan (i.e., soot used as\ncollyrium). This anjan is believed to improve the eyesight, and to\nprotect a person from the influence of evil spirits. There is\na saying in Gujarati that 'Kali-chaudasno anjyo, ane koine na jay\nganjio'. i.e., a person using anjan on Kalichaudas day cannot be\nfoiled by anyone. [643]\n\nOf the days of the week, Saturday is the most suitable for the worship\nof Hanuman. Of all offerings, that of red lead and oil is the most\nacceptable to him. When Hanuman was carrying the Drona mountain\nto the battlefield before Lanka, he was wounded in the leg by an\narrow from Bharata, the brother of Rama. The wound was healed by the\napplication of red lead and oil, and hence his predilection for these\nthings. It is also said that after the death of Ravana and at the\ntime of the coronation of Bibhishana, Rama distributed prizes to all\nhis monkey followers, when nothing was left for Hanuman except red\nlead and oil.\n\nMostly Ankada flowers are used in worshipping Hanuman, but sometimes\nKaran flowers also are made to serve the purpose. The favourite\ndishes of Hanuman are malidda [644], churama [645] and vadan. [646]\nThe usual naivedya is malidda of Savapati, i.e., of wheat weighing\nabout six pounds and a quarter and vadan. [647]\n\nBhima the second of the Pandavas was begotten from Kunti by Vayu, the\ngod of wind, and hence was called Vayusuta. From his childhood he was\npossessed of miraculous strength, and had a voracious appetite. Every\nday he consumed 12 kalashis [648] (or 192 maunds) of corn, and as much\noil as is yielded by 13 ghanis. He also required a maund and a\nquarter of betelnuts after each dinner. These habits had procured him\nthe name of Vrikodara, i.e., wolf-bellied. He played a very important\npart in the Great War, and on the last day of the battle smashed the\nthigh of Duryodhana with his ponderous mace. In his early days he\nkilled several demons including Baka and Hidimba. [649]\n\nBhima never took food without first worshipping Mahadev. On one\noccasion no temple of Shiva could be found within easy distance,\nand in a rage, Bhima turned his bowl upside down and set it up as\nMahadev. Such was the first installation of Bhimanath Mahadev revered\nto this day by all Hindus.\n\nOnce upon a time Bhima obstructed the stream of a river by laying\nhimself across it, when the river rose to the banks and submerged\na temple of Shiva near by. Shiva thereupon assumed the form of a\nlion and pretended to chase Parvati in the guise of a cow. Bhima,\nin his true Kshatriya spirit, instantly rose from the water in order\nto save the cow from the lion. But the latter gave Bhima a blow on\nthe shoulder with one of his paws, and instantly transformed himself\ninto a sage. After Bhima had fruitlessly searched for the lion for a\nlong time, he was informed by the sage that it was he, Shiva, who had\nassumed the form of a lion in order to rouse him from his position\nacross the river. Shiva then favoured him with a boon that the half\nof his body which had received the blow would be turned into vajra\n(adamant). On Bhima's request a further boon was granted to him\nthat he should in future be able to digest as much as he could eat\nwithout suffering discomfort. Hence the proverb: Bhima khave shakuni\naghe. [650]\n\nIt is said that Bhima once played at navateri (lit. nine and thirteen),\ni.e., he flung into the sky nine elephants with his right hand and\nthirteen with his left. The corpses of these animals were afterwards\nbrought down to earth by Shukamuni to expiate king Janmejaya's sin\nof Brahmahatya (Brahman-slaughter).\n\nIn his whole life-time Bhima is said to have fasted only on one day,\nwhich happened to be the eleventh day of the bright half of Jyeshtha\nand is now called Bhima-agiaras. On this day people who desire to\nbe cured of dyspepsia observe a strict fast, taking neither food\nnor water, and pass their hands over their bellies repeating the\nname of Bhima and also offer cocoanuts to his image. [651] On the\nnight of Bhima-agiaras, persons who are anxious to obtain health,\nwealth and victory over their enemies, bathe the image of Bhima in\nwater and panchamrit [652] and worship it according to the prescribed\nceremonies. [653]\n\nIn some places there are vavs (or tanks) called Bhima-vavs which\nare said to have been formed by the strokes of Bhima, when playing\ngilli-danda. [654]\n\nThere are huge images of Bhima on Mount Palitana. [655] There are\nmany places in different parts of India which possess such images\nand which are believed to have been visited by the Pandavas during\ntheir exile from Hastinapur. The Pandavas never attained the status\nof gods and there is no systematic form of worship for them.\n\nBhishma, the uncle of the Kauravas and the Pandavas, was an incarnation\nof one of the Ashtavasus [656] and was the son of king Shantanu\nby Ganga. The stories about Bhishma are chiefly derived from the\nMahabharat, and need not be repeated here. He is not regarded as a\ngod and does not receive systematic worship. [657]\n\nA fast is observed on the eighth day of Magh, the anniversary of\nthe death of Bhishma. A dora (a knotted piece of string) tied in\nthe name of Bhishma is believed to cure fever. [658] The Yantra (a\nmystical formula or diagram) of Bhishma is sometimes drawn on a piece\nof paper, water is poured over it, and the water is offered to women\nin labour to drink, as likely to expedite delivery. Bhishma-worship\nis supposed to facilitate the observance of the Brahmacharya-vrat\n(the vow of celibacy) and to bestow heroism and learning. [659]\nBhishma is credited with having composed the well-known poem,\nBhishma-stavaraj, which recites the glory of Krishna and shows the\nway to attain salvation. [660]\n\nThere is a large temple of Ganpati near the eastern gates of Dhhank. It\nis said that this Ganpati informed a goldsmith, by appearing in a\ndream, that he was buried in a particular spot, and promised that a son\nwould be born to him if he raised a temple in honour of the god. The\ngoldsmith satisfied the wishes of the god and was soon relieved from\nthe repeated taunt of the vanziapana (i.e., the barrenness of his\nwife). [661]\n\nThe following tradition is connected with a place, about a mile from\nDhhank, called Dhhank-ni Fui. Dhhank was in ancient times a great\ncity and was known as Preh Patan [662]. Once a bava (recluse), named\nDhundhalimal, came to reside with his chela (disciple) in a cave on\na neighbouring hill. Every day the chela went about the city begging\nalms for himself and his guru; but nobody except a poor kumbharan\n(a potter-woman) ever gave him anything. So the chela was obliged to\ncut and sell fuel in order to obtain means of subsistence, although\nhe did not mention this fact to his guru. One day the guru noticed\nthe growing baldness of his disciple and on being questioned about it,\nthe latter had to admit his difficulties in earning a livelihood. The\nnext day the bava decided to test the charity of the neighbourhood,\nand went on a begging round in person. He moved about the city from\ndoor to door, crying aloud alek alek, but nobody except the kumbhar\nwoman offered him so much as a handful of flour. He then addressed the\nlatter thus:--\"Girl, this city is sinful and will shortly meet with\ndestruction. Fly, therefore, instantly with your family and never turn\nyour face towards the city in your flight\". Having thus warned the only\nrighteous person in the city, the bava returned to his cave where,\nafter reciting an incantation in high exasperation, he pronounced a\nterrible curse for the destruction of the city 'Let Patan be buried\nand let maya [663] be reduced to mati (dust).' A whirlwind at once\narose and destroyed the whole city. The kumbharan had already fled\nwith her children; but she unfortunately happened to look back in\nher flight, in spite of the warning, and she and her children were\nall turned into stones. In this form she can be seen even to-day,\nwith two of her children on her shoulders and leading the other two.\n\nTo the south of the same village on the banks of a small lake are\nsituated the temples of Hinglaj Mata and Kamdev Mahadev. If there is a\nprospect of a drought in any year, the people of the village make an\noffering of lapsi to the former deity in order to bring about a fall\nof rain. About two miles from Dhhank there is a temple of Vikani, in\nwhose honour vows are observed for the cure of fractured bones of men\nand animals. Brahmans are feasted at the temple of Hanuman at Timbo,\nfour miles away from Dhhank. At a distance of about two khetarvas\n(fields) there is the shrine of Ashabi-pir where Mussalmans feast\nfakirs and other co-religionists of theirs. [664]\n\nBesides the above there are the temples of Shankar Tapakeshwar Mahadev\nand Mungeshwar Mahadev near the hill mentioned in the paragraph above\nand the temples of Pipaleshwar Mahadev and Ramchandraji, to the south\nof Dhhank. There are also temples erected in honour of suttees known\nas Nomalmata, Hulmata, etc.\n\nThe river Vinu meets the Bhadar, at a place two miles to the east\nof Ganod, and the Moja also joins the Bhadar a little further to the\neast. Hence the spot is called Traveni (a confluence of three rivers)\nand is regarded as holy. The beautiful temple of Baraneshwar Mahadev\nis situated here. Vows for feasting a certain number of Brahmans,\nare observed in honour of this deity. [665]\n\nThe celebrated shrine of Husen-pir is situated in the vicinity of\nGanod, and is much revered by the Khoja community, who hold a fair\nthere on every Aso-sud-bij, i.e. the second day of the bright half\nof Ashvin. The fair lasts for seven or eight days, when Khojas from\nBombay and even Zanzibar visit the place. A large building, the\nKhoja-khana, is set apart to the west of the shrine for the sabha\n(or meeting). The largest fair was held in samvat 1940 (1884 A.D.),\nwhen H. H. the Agashah paid a visit to the shrine. There is a large\ngathering of people at the place every bij day.\n\nHusen-pir was a native of Kadi and a Saiyed by birth. In his youth,\nwith his father's permission, he decided to remain unmarried, and\ntook to travelling. In the course of his wanderings he halted for\na week on the spot where his shrine stands at present, and was so\ncharmed with the place, that he asked the owner of it, a Rabari,\nAlmora by name, for permission to reside there always. The Pir was\naccompanied by two followers of the Mujavar fakir sect. The present\nMujavar attendants at the shrine are descended from them, and stand\nin the 12th or the 15th degree of descent.\n\nOne evening (it was the 5th day of the dark half of Bhadrapad) the\nPir accompanied by his two followers went to the Bhadar to offer the\nevening prayers. After the prayers were over, he told his followers\nthat a flood was soon coming in the river, and asked both of them to\nleave him and return with their horses. One of them left the place\nas directed: but the other placed his head on the Pir's lap and was\ndrowned along with his master in the flood, which came down as if in\nobedience to the Pir's words. Before dying the Pir granted a boon to\nthe Mujavars that their line of descent would never fail for want of\ntheir heirs, and that their heirs would always be his attendants.\n\nThe same night the Pir informed the Khojas of Keshod and Kutiana\nthat his corpse and that of his Mujavar follower lay unburied at\na particular spot. The Khojas, accompanied by the Rabari Almora,\nvisited the place in the morning and made ready to carry the corpses\nto Junagadh. They found to their astonishment that the corpses could\nnot be removed. Almora then recollected the request of the Pir, and\ntold the Khojas of his favourite place. The corpses were then carried\nto their present place of rest, and all efforts of the Khojas to\nproceed further proved unavailing. At that time there was a village\ncalled Keralun about a mile from the present site of Ganod. It is,\nhowever, uninhabited and in ruins and its site is now known as the\ntimbo of Keralun. The Khojas erected a shrine over the place where\nthe Pir was buried, and the tombs of his relatives were afterwards\nerected in the vicinity. Vows observed in honour of the Pir having\nproved fruitful in many cases, the Pir's fame spreads wider every\nday. The Gondal Durbar has granted a wadi (a piece of land) for the\nmaintenance of the Mujavar family, who also receive the things that\nare offered to the Pir. The Khojas consider it a merit to dedicate a\nportion of their earnings to this Pir. People of all castes from Ganod\noffer one kori [666] at the time of the marriage of a girl at their\nhouse. The knots of the marriage-scarves of newly-wedded couples are\nuntied here, and the ceremony of shaving children for the first time\nis also performed in the presence of the Pir. The usual offering to\nthe Pir consists of churamu and kansar: some people, however, offer\na goat or a ram and call it panechednariel. [667]\n\nThere is a hollow log of wood on the boundary of Lath, a sub-village\nof Gondal and a mile to the South of Ganod. Long ago a fakir, while\naccompanying a band of outlaws barvatias, was killed in a scuffle\nand was buried here. A babul tree grew over his tomb, and came to be\nknown afterwards as Lakkad Pir (the wooden Pir). The tree after a time\nwithered till its stem was reduced to a small log with a hole in the\ncentre. People observe vows in honour of this Pir for the cure of\ncough and bronchitis in children. After recovery, the children are\nmade to pass through this bakan or hole and an offering of kansar\nis made to the Pir. It is not only the Musalmans who observe vows in\nthe Pir's honour: Hindus also have the same strong faith in him.\n\nNearly twelve miles from Vanod lies the temple of Bechra Mata,\nwho is the patron goddess of the Pavaiya sect. A male buffalo is\noffered to her as a victim on the 15th day of the bright half of\nevery month. Near the temple there is the holy kund of Mansarovar,\nthe legend about which has already been related in these notes. [668]\n\nThe village of Dadvi possesses the shrine of Mangalsha Pir. Friday is\nthe day for special worship of the Pir, when dainties and cocoanuts\nare offered, and a flag is hoisted. Frankincense is burnt every\nevening. [669] There is also a temple of Machho, the goddess of the\nBharvads, who offer her lapsi and cocoanuts on every bij day. They\nalso light a ghi lamp and lop off the ears of a goat or a ram, and\noffer the blood to the goddess.\n\nIn Kolki a bava of the Bharvad caste named Hado Bhagat is said to\nhave set up the images of all the gods in a certain temple. It is\nbelieved that he possessed miraculous powers. His descendants do not\nsell goats to Kasais (butchers [670]).\n\nThere is a temple of Khodiar Mata in Chok. The goddess is worshipped\nby Atits, who offer her lapsi on every Dasara day. There is also a\ntemple of Hanuman, where the Khakhis bring an offering to the god\nevery Saturday. [671]\n\nIn the village of Mota Devalia are the temples of Bholanath, Mahadev\nand Pipaleshwar Mahadev. Both the deities are worshipped by Atits,\nwho perform the ceremony with the usual materials of frankincense,\na ghi-lamp, cooked food, and who also blow a conch. It is said about\nPipaleshwar Mahadev that none can stay at night in the temple. Once\na Brahman, who insisted on passing the night there, was hurled to a\ndistance of two fields. There is also a temple of Swami-Narayan and\nthree temples of Thakorji where the ceremony of worship is performed\nevery morning and evening in the usual way with frankincense, a ghi\nlamp, and arati. The shrine of Nila-Pir on the village boundary is\nrevered alike by Hindus and Musalmans. [672]\n\nIn the vicinity of Chhatrasa, there is a temple of Kishordas\nHanuman. On Kali-Chaudas day the people of the village offer churamu\nand vadan to the god. The shrine of Gebalasha Pir is situated two miles\naway from Chhatrasa, on the boundary line between that village and\nKalana. Sweet-balls, or sometimes only molasses, are offered to this\nPir on the fulfilment of vows observed in his name. Near the village\ngates lies the shrine of Daudshah, of whom it is said that he deprives\nthieves of their eye-sight, if they try to enter Chhatrasa. In the\nVishnu-mandir, annakut [673] is offered to Vishnu by the attendant\npriest, on the first day of the bright half of Kartik. [674]\n\nA temple of Khodiar Mata surrounded by Pandari creepers is to be seen\non the way from Mojidad to Sanka. The Thakor of Limbdi used to kill a\ngoat before the goddess during the Navaratra holidays; but an offering\nof lapsi is now substituted for the goat. There is another temple\nof the same goddess on the way to Zabala where she is worshipped by\nthe Bhadkava Durbar. The attendants at both places are Atits, and the\nusual offering consists of lapsi and khir. [675] At a place near the\nboundary-line between Mojidad and Ayarda, Swami-Narayan Bhagwan and\nSahajanand Swami are said to have bathed in the company of Hanuman in\nthe river Vansal. The Brahmacharis [676] of the Swami-Narayan sect\nhold a fair there and offer prayers to Hanuman on the 15th day of\nthe dark half of Bhadrapad. [677]\n\nEvery marriage-procession on its way to and from the place of marriage\nhas to offer a new earthen jar to such field-deities as Dadmokhodiar,\nLalo, Hardas, etc. Failure to do so arouses the wrath of these\ndeities and brings disasters to the married couple. The only form\nof worship in use for these deities is to apply red lead and oil to\ntheir images. Seven kinds of corn, viz. adad (phaseolus radiatus),\nmag (phaseolus mungo), kalathi, math, chana (gram), wheat and juvari\nare mixed and cooked together and the preparation which is called\nkhichdi is offered to the deities at sunset. If the deities are not\npropitiated in this manner, they are believed to do harm to the people\nof the village. [678]\n\nOn a hill near the village of Patanvav there is a temple of Mataji,\nwhere a ghi lamp is kept constantly burning at the cost of the Gondal\nDurbar. In Patanvav itself there is a shrine of Ahaba Pir attended\nupon by a fakir. At the approach of the monsoons, all the villages\noffer lapsi to Mataji and churamu to the Pir. [679]\n\nIn Paj, near Sultanpur there is a shrine of Gebansha Pir surrounded\nby a number of babhul trees; and it is said that if a person were\nto cut any of the trees, he would meet with death or at least fall\nill. There is a cobra deity, called Khetalo, near Sultanpur whose gors\n(attendant priests) are Nagmaga Brahmans. It is believed that this\ndeity confers once on each generation of the gors, as much wealth as\nwould suffice for the lifetime of all men of that generation. [680]\n\nThere is a temple of Hadmatio Hanuman about half a mile to the west of\nLuvaria. A Kanbi of the Dhani tribe once, while pursued by robbers,\ntook shelter behind the image of Hanuman, and vowed that he and his\ndescendants would discharge priestly duties towards the god if he\nescaped safely out of the difficulty. The god protected him in his\ndanger, and his descendants are now the recognised attendants at the\ntemple. [681]\n\nThe village of Aman possesses the holy tomb of Davalshah Pir. This\nPir lived in the 15th century and was a native of Ahmedabad. He had\ncome to serve in the Amaran thana, when he was killed in a battle. A\ntomb was built over his body, and he soon came to be regarded as\na Pir. His name became famous when a blind Bharvad regained his\neye-sight through his favour. The Pir also gave a son to a Bania\nfrom Ahmedabad who visits the tomb every year in a black suit. Once\na Miana killed a cow and took refuge at the shrine of this Pir: but\nthe shrine spontaneously caught fire and he was burnt with it. The\npresent building was erected by the Bania, and the ladies of the\nJamsaheb's court have supplied silver gates and copper railings to\nit. The Jamsaheb also presents kinkhab coverings for the tomb every\nyear. On the night of the Uras (or the fair held in the Pir's honour)\nsandalwood is burnt before the Pir. [682]\n\nCharadwa is well-known for the temple of Rajeshwari Mata. King Prithwi\nRaj Chohan suffered from white leprosy and was once going to Dwarka,\nwith the hope that residence in the holy city would cure him of his\ndisease. On the way, one of his best bullocks suddenly fell. The\nanimal was almost given up for dead when a young woman named Rajbai,\ndaughter of Uda Charan, happened to pass by while carrying water in\nearthen pots. Rajbai touched the bullock with one of her toes, and to\nthe astonishment of all beholders, the animal at once got up. Prithwi\nRaj got rid of his leprosy by the favour of Rajbai, who granted him an\nadditional boon that she would come to help him on another occasion\nif he remembered her and sought her assistance. Rajbai then directed\nhim to visit Dwarka. Long after, king Prithwi Raj, when he was at his\nown place, remembered her in a moment of distress, and she went there\n(in spirit) after giving instructions to her relatives not to dispose\nof her body, as she would return soon. But the relatives did not\nunderstand her, and before she had returned from Prithwi Raj's place,\nher body was disposed of according to the usual manner. For this,\nRajbai cursed her relatives that one of their descendants in each\ndegree would turn out a lunatic. In her memory a pillar was raised\nand an image set up, both of which are worshipped every morning and\nevening. Milk, sugar and cakes are offered to her every morning in a\nthal or dish, and milk and sugar every evening. There is a festival\nin honour of Rajbai during the Navaratra holidays. [683]\n\nThe temple of Swami-Narayan at Charadwa contains the images of\nShrikrishna, Baldev, Radha, Rama, Lakshman and Sita. The ceremony of\narati is performed before the images five times every day. The first\nis called mangalarati or the auspicious arati and is performed early\nin the morning. The second is Shangar (Shringar) arati, when night\ngarments are taken off the images and new ones are put on for the\nday. The third Rajbhog arati, takes place at the time when dainties\nand cooked food are offered to the gods. The Sandhya arati follows\nthe offering of milk, sugar and cakes to the gods in the evening. The\nlast, Pidhan arati, is performed at night, when night garments are\nsubstituted for the rich dresses of the day. There are five occasions\nduring the year when a fair is held at this place: (1) the Annakut\nfair on the first day of Kartik; (2) Vasantapanchami fair, on the\nfifth day of the bright half of Magh; (3) Hutashani or Holi fair,\non the 15th day of the bright half of Phalgun; (4) Ramanavami fair,\non the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra, (5) Janmashtami fair\non the 8th day of the dark half of Shravan. [684]\n\nTo the north of Charadwa there is a field-goddess, named Motisari Meldi\nMata, in whose honour persons who are afflicted by diseases take a vow\nof presenting a tava (a cake fried in oil in a pan). There is also a\nserpent-god named Charmaria who receives an offering of lapsi on every\nAso-sud-bij, i.e., the second day of the bright half of Ashvin.\n\nBesides these there are four temples of Shiva, one of Shaktimata,\none of Hanumanji and two Mahomedan Pirs in the village.\n\nIn Limbdi Taluka, there is a temple of Kalika Mata, in whose\nhonour vows are observed by persons suffering from physical or\nmental afflictions. The attendant at the place is a Brahman, and the\nworshippers of the Mata visit her temple on a Sunday or a Tuesday and\noffer sweetmeats or lapsi. On the eighth day of Ashvin a havan is made\n(i.e., offerings are burnt) before the goddess. [685]\n\nVows in honour of Khodiar Mata are efficacious in the prevention of\nsuch epidemics as cholera. The Khiyado Mamo quells evil spirits,\nbhuts and prets. The Khodo Mamo cures such diseases as cough and\nbronchitis. In the temple of Ramnath, a brahmabhoj--a feast to\nBrahmans--is given on the last day of Shravan.\n\nNear the western gates of Zinzuwada is seen the celebrated shrine of\nRajbai Mata. In old times Zinzuwada was only the nehado [686] of a\nBharvad called Zunza. At that time the queen of the reigning prince\nof Patan could not be delivered of a child even though two years had\npassed since the time of conception. Once while on tour the queen's\nparty encamped near the nehado of Zunza Bharvad. The latter, when he\nlearnt of the queen's misfortune, said that the co-wives of the queen\nhad bewitched her by the kaman art, i.e., by passing an earthen pot\nround her and by burying the pot underground with a live frog hanging\nwith its head downwards in it. He added that the queen would not be\ndelivered unless the frog was brought out by some stratagem. He asked\nthe queen and her followers to stay there for some time, and sent word\nto Patan with a messenger that the queen was delivered of a son. The\nco-wives of the queen, dismayed at the unexpected news and at the\nfutility of the kaman art, went to look at the buried frog, which\ninstantly jumped out and at the same moment the pregnant queen gave\nbirth to a son. As the child was brought to birth by the instructions\nof a Siddha-purusha (a magician), it was named Siddharaj. The town of\nZinzuwada was built in memory of Zunza Bharvad, and a temple of Rajbai\nMata was erected in honour of the queen. A large lake named Sensasar\nwas also constructed in memory of Sensa, the brother of Zunza. [687]\n\nSoon afterwards people began to observe vows in honour of Rajbai\nMata. The devotees of the goddess visit her temple every evening. All\nnewly-married couples in the village offer salutations to the Mata\naccompanied by hired musicians and a party of women who sing on\nthe way to the shrine. A virgin walks in front of the party with\nan earthen pot and a cocoanut on her head. After the salutations,\nsweetmeats to the amount vowed for are distributed among all those who\nare present. Sometimes a woman who has observed vows for the sake of\na son, presents a silver umbrella to the goddess, of the value of one\nrupee and a quarter or five rupees and a quarter, on the birth of a\nson to her. Burnt offerings and lapsi are presented to the goddess to\nprotect the town from such misfortunes as cholera, plague, etc. [688]\n\nThere is a well-known place called Vachhda-solanki about eight miles\nfront Zinzuwada. Once a Rajput boy, aged sixteen, was going round the\nmarriage-altar at the time of his wedding, in the village of Kuar,\nwhen he heard a piteous cry from a distressed cowherd, whose cows were\nbeing carried away by freebooters. The boy immediately ran to rescue\nthe cows; but he was killed in the encounter. A temple was built\non that spot in his honour. There is a small kund near the temple,\nthe water in which is believed never to dry up and to possess the\nquality of curing hydrophobia.\n\nGoradia Hanuman lies three miles from Zinzuwada, and there is a\ntradition that there is a treasure hidden near by. Many vows are\nobserved in honour of Dhama Hanuman, whose place is at a distance of\ntwo miles from Zinzuwada.\n\nThe holy kund of Zilanand is one mile from Zinzuwada. It is a custom\nof the neighbourhood to throw the bones of deceased persons into this\nkund, and a fair is held annually at the place on the last day of\nBhadrapad. The Bhotavo kund is one mile distant from Zilanand kund:\nthe bottom of this kund presents a bluish appearance, and the water\nalways remains hot. It is said that there are sulphur mines below.\n\nA princess of Marwar used to worship five gods: Sumaria Ganesh,\nKanaknath, Ratneshwar Mahadev, Nagnath and Hanuman; and she had taken\na vow never to take food before she had worshipped all of them. The\ngods followed her everywhere in all her tours, but they had made one\ncondition, that they would stop if she looked behind at them on the\nway. The princess happened to look back at Ganpati on the ridge of\nSumaria near Keshia, three miles to the east of Jodia. So Ganpati would\nnot leave Sumaria, and was installed there as Sumaria Ganesh. The same\nhappened to Ratneshwar near Badanpur; to Kanaknath, at a place midway\nbetween Kanakpuri (the modern Kunad) and Badanpur; and to Hanuman,\nnear Kunad. In the same manner, Nagnath was installed near the Balambha\ngate of Jodia. The old town of Kanakpuri was buried by an earth-quake,\nand the image Kunadia Hanuman was found among its ruins.\n\nThe attendants of Sumaria Ganesh are Atits. A fair is held there on the\n4th day of Vaishakh, when thousands of Dheds flock to the place. The\nusual offering to the god consists of sweet balls. Kanaknath is\nattended upon by Atit Bavas who share among themselves whatever is\noffered to the god. Shaivas hold a fair here on the 8th day of the\ndark half of Shravan.\n\nThe devotees of Kunadia Hanuman observe anagh (vulgarly called\nanagodha) at his place on Saturdays. They cook their food there and\nmake offerings to the god before partaking of it, fasting afterwards\nfor the day. The anagh is observed in the month of Margashirsha. The\nattendants of this god are Khakhi Bavas. [689]\n\nOne mile to the north-west of Jodia, towards the sea, there is a stone\nimage of a horse set up on a pedestal, known as Raval Pir. A heroic\nGirasia of the Dal sect, named Raval, was once shipwrecked while on\nan expedition from Cutch, and is said to have landed at the spot\nwhere Raval Pir stands at present. He received a hearty reception\nat the hands of the then ruling prince of Jodia (who was a Khavas)\nand was installed in the Durbar as Nana Raval Pir.\n\nOn the second day of the bright half of Ashadh (which is the new\nyear's day according to the Halari year) Hindus offer lapsi to Raval\nPir as also on each Monday in the month of Bhadrapad. On occasions\nof popular distress, such as the breaking out of cholera or when the\nrains stop for days together, the bhuvas at the place, who are Dal\nRajputs, receive the pedi (a small heap of lapsi) on behalf of the Pir,\nand being possessed, declare the will of the Pir as to when rain may\nbe expected or when an epidemic will be warded off. Persons who are\nanxious for the success of their undertakings observe vows in honour of\nthe Pir which may cost them anything from a single pice to twenty-five\nrupees. At the shrine of Nana Raval Pir, huge kettledrums are beaten\nand the ceremony of arati is performed every morning and evening. [690]\n\nThe present site of Lilapur was formerly uninhabited, and the village\nstood nearly one mile off. Once the goddess Bhavani directed the patel\nof the village in a dream to reside on the present site, and promised\nhim that he would be always happy and that none of his descendants for\nseven generations would die of cholera. In testimony of the reality of\nthe dream a box of red lac, a cocoanut, a reel of red thread--called\nnadasadi and chunadi--were found under the patel's pillow. The village\nwas then removed to its present site. The descendants of the patel are\ncalled Yadoda. The Mata chose to take a Bharvad to be her attendant. On\nthe 15th day of the bright half of Shravan offerings are burnt before\nthe Mata, when the attendant bhuva has to offer sweetmeats worth five\nrupees. Every Bharvad family spends a rupee and a quarter every third\nyear in honour of the Mata.\n\nDuring the famine of the year 1895 Samvat era (= 1839 A. D.) the bhuva\nwas thinking of leaving the Mata in order to escape from starvation,\nwhen the goddess appeared in a dream to him, and told him that he\nwould find half a rupee every morning in the temple until he saw and\npartook of the new harvest. In the month of Shravan, he happened to\npartake of some new seeds and the coin could not be found as usual\nafter this, although the new harvest was not quite ready till three\nmonths afterwards. At the entreaties of the bhuva, however, the\nMata again told him in a dream that he would find a silver anklet,\nweighing 60 tolas, on the bhogava (village boundary) of the village\nof Shiyani. A number of vows are observed in honour of this goddess\nwith various motives. [691]\n\nThe Shakta Mata in the western part of the same village prevents the\nJoganis or female fiends from spreading contagious diseases.\n\nThe Surdhans near the gates of Lilapur represent two heroes who were\nkilled in an encounter with freebooters in the Samvat year 1836 (1780\nA. D.). The knots of the marriage-scarves of the descendants of the\nSurdhans are untied before them, and any of their female descendants\nvisiting the images without a veil on their faces, are subjected to\nserious calamities.\n\nAbout ten years ago Unad Bhagat and Jiva Bhagat of Paliad were one\nday walking together, when Unad Bhagat collected seven stones and\nplacing them one over the other, said to Jiva Bhagat that he was\nconstructing a palio, i.e., a tomb for Jiva. Immediately Jiva died,\nand Unad had to carry out what was merely meant in jest. Some rooms\nare built at the expense of the Jasdan Durbar, and a pujari daily\noffers worship to Jiva Bhagat. A fair is also held in his honour on\nthe second day of Bhadrapad. [692]\n\nAbout two miles from Jasdan in the village of Bakhalvad there is a\ntemple of Avad Mata. The latter represents the queen of one of the\nrulers of Jasdan. On every Vijaya-dashami, i.e., the 10th day of\nthe bright half of Ashvin, the prince of Jasdan goes to visit the\nimage in a procession, offers lapsi to Avad Mata, and then a feast\nis celebrated. Formerly it was the custom to kill a buffalo before\nthe goddess on this day: but only lapsi is now offered instead. It\nis usual to take some wine also on this occasion. [693]\n\nOn the Chitalia hill, two miles from Jasdan, there is a temple of\nShitala, the goddess of small-pox, where children who have lately\nrecovered from that disease are taken to offer salutations to the\ngoddess. Silver images of human eye, milk, sugar, curds, grapes,\ncocoanuts, a sheet of blank paper, and a number of other things are\npresented to the goddess on such an occasion. Some persons vow to\nvisit the goddess with a burning hearth on their heads. Such vows\nare discharged on a satem, i.e., the 7th day of the bright or the\ndark half of a month. On Shili Satem, the 7th day of the dark half\nof Shravan, there is a large gathering of people at the place.\n\nThe village-gods of Upleta are Kaleshwar, Pragateshwar, Somnath,\nNilkanth, Dadmo and Khetalio. Pragateshwar is said to have emerged\nfrom the earth of his own accord and is therefore called Swayambhu\n(self-existent). The same is said about Nilkanth and Somnath also. The\ntemple of Dadmo lies a little away from Upleta. Persons suffering from\ncough observe vows in his honour and partake of parched gram. There\nis a devi near Pragateshwar before whom a sacrifice is performed on\nthe 9th day of the bright half of Ashvin, and cakes, bread, khichdi\nand khir are offered. [694]\n\nIn Gondal there is a temple of Gondalio Nag and one of Nagnath\nMahadev. Pure milk is the usual offering made to both the\ndeities. Gondalio Nag is installed in Durbargadh and is white in\nappearance. Newly married couples of high class Hindus untie the knots\nof their marriage-scarves before this deity. In the Durbargadh there\nare tombs of seven ghoris with whose assistance the first king of\nGondal is said to have won his crown. There is also a family goddess\nof the Bhadeja Rajputs in Gondal known as Ashapuri, a vow in whose\nhonour is believed to fulfil all desires. [695]\n\nThere is a female spirit named Meldi in Movaiya who is worshipped\nby bhuvas on the 14th day of the dark half of Ashvin. On that day\nthey heat oil in an iron pan and take out cakes from the burning oil\nwith unprotected hands. A goat and a cock are also sacrificed on this\noccasion, and the meat is partaken of in order to win the favour of\nthe goddess. [696]\n\nThere is a beda tree near Movaiya about which the following story is\ntold. Long ago there was a kanbi (farmer) in Movaiya who used to see\na boy moving in front of him with an uncovered head whenever he was\nploughing his field. One day the kanbi lopped off the hair from the\nboy's head who followed him to his home, entreating him to return the\nlock of hair. The kanbi however did not heed him, and concealed the\nlock of hair in a jar containing gram. The boy then served the kanbi\nas a field-boy, when one day he was asked by his master to take gram\nout of the jar for sowing. The boy, who was a bhut, found his lock of\nhair there, and when once he had obtained it, he took a very heavy\nload of gram to the kanbi and bade him good-bye. But before the boy\nhad fled with his lock of hair, the kanbi begged of him a boon that\na beda tree should grow in his field, where vows could be observed\nin honour of the bhut.\n\nThe villagers in Sayala accompanied by several bhuvas and by musicians\nwho beat the dhols and the danklan go outside the village to visit\nthe temple of Khodiar Mata on the 15th day of the bright half of\nShravan. The bhuvas wind a piece of cotton-thread round the village,\nand sometimes pour out milk or water in the same place in order\nto secure its safety from any epidemic. On the same occasion four\ndivers, who are generally healthy young athletes, are presented with\nan earthen pot each and are made to stand in the village-tank till the\nwater reaches to their necks. They are asked to dive simultaneously in\nthe water at a signal from the headman of the village, and to get out\nimmediately. Each of them is named after one of the four months of the\nrainy season and the amount of water in the pot of each is supposed\nto indicate the amount of rain which would fall in the respective\nmonths of the next year. After leaving the water the divers break\nthe pots on the spot, and the fragments are taken away by the people,\nto be kept in their jars of corn, in the belief that they will bring\nprosperity in the ensuing season. The four divers are then made\nto run a race on the maidan, and he who wins the race gets a small\nplough and a cocoanut as a prize. The winner is called halino-jityo,\nand it is believed that he will be successful in all his undertakings.\n\nOn the same day the bhuvas place a small four-wheeled chariot of\nthe Mata outside the village, and it is believed that the chariot\ncarries off the plague, cholera and similar diseases with it. Such\nceremonies are performed in most of the villages on the Balev holiday\n(i.e., the Narel-Purnima day, or the 15th day of the bright half of\nShravan). [697]\n\nThe foundation of a new settlement is carried out in various ways. A\nseries of unusual accidents befalling the residents of a village makes\nthem doubtful of the security of their residence, and produces a desire\nto move to a safer home. Very often on such occasions the bhuvas or\nexorcists are possessed by the Devis, or Matas, and declare the will\nof the gods regarding a new settlement. Sometimes a change of home is\nrecommended to the villagers in a dream: sometimes a heavenly voice\nis said to direct the change, in addressing one of the villagers. [698]\n\nAn astrologer has first to be consulted as to the auspicious date on\nwhich the boundaries of the new settlement should be marked out. Three\nor four days before the delimitation, learned Brahmans are sent to\npurify the chosen site by the recitation of sacred mantras. [699]\nOn the appointed day the headman of the village leads a procession\nto the site, and performs the ceremony of installing the village\ngods. It is said that, at the time of founding a new settlement,\nit is necessary to install and worship the panch-deva or the five\ndeities, namely, Hanuman, Ganpati, Mahadev, Vishnu and Devi. Hanuman\nis installed at the village-gates, and is propitiated with an offering\nof churmu and vadan. The images of Ganpati and Vishnu are set up in\na central place in the village, temples being built for them in due\ncurse. Mahadev is generally installed on the village-boundary, and\nhas a temple built for him afterwards. Devi may be set up anywhere:\nher installation is not permanent nor does she receive systematic\nworship. [700] But more generally only Ganpati, Hanuman and Mata\nare installed on this occasion. [701] Occasionally other deities,\nsuch as the Earth, Shesh Nag, [702] the Navagrah (the nine planets),\nthe pole-star and Kshetrapal are also worshipped. [703]\n\nThe village-gates are fixed after the ceremony of installation, and\na toran--a string of asopalav leaves (Jonesia asoka) with a cocoanut\nin the centre--is fastened across them near the top. [704] Here the\nceremony of khat-muhurt [705] is performed [706] and afterwards the\nheadman, accompanied by a Brahman, who recites mantras, either winds\na cotton-thread besmeared with red lac round the village or pours\na stream of milk dharavadi along the village boundaries. [707] The\nheadman has further to perform the homa at the gates of the village,\nwhen a company of Brahmans recite holy passages in honour of Hanuman\nand Mata. At the time of the completion of the homa, when the ahuti\n(an oblation of ghi) is thrown on the fire, all persons present offer\ncocoanuts to the sacrificial fire. [708]\n\nIn some places it is usual to worship the newly chosen site itself,\nand then to drive into the ground a wooden peg besmeared with red lac,\ncalled the khili (peg) of Shesh Nag, which is first ceremoniously\nworshipped with red lac, sandal-ointment and rice. [709]\n\nAfter these ceremonies, the villagers are at liberty to build their\nown houses within the new settlement. When the houses are complete\nand ready for habitation, it is necessary to perform the ceremony\nknown as vastun (or graha-shanti) for the propitiation of the nine\nplanets. Both the day of installing the gods and the day of vastun\nceremony, are observed as festivals, at which Brahmans are feasted,\nand lapsi, churmu and kansar are offered to the gods. [710]\n\nThe new settlement may be named after the deity whose advice brought\nabout the move or after the headman. It is sometimes named after the\nparticular incident which drove the people to seek their new home.\n\nA failure of the harvest is in most cases due to the irregularity of\nthe rains. It is therefore ascribed to the displeasure of Indra, the\ngod of rain, and Varuna, the god of water. The mode of propitiating\nthese gods has already been described.\n\nSometimes a cessation of rains is attributed to the wrath of the\nvillage-gods, whereupon the festival of Ujani is celebrated in order\nto appease them. One day, preferably a Sunday, all the inhabitants\ngo outside the village, and rich viands are cooked to be offered\nto the village-gods. At the same time, the headman performs a homa\nsacrifice and the dainties are partaken of after the villagers have\nthrown cocoanuts into the sacrificial fire.\n\nIn similar circumstances people sometimes seek the protection of\nthe gods Annadeva, Annapurna, and Kriya Bhaudai. Six dokdas [711]\nor six pice are collected from every house in the village to make\nwhat is called a chhakadi, and the whole amount is then bestowed in\ncharity in the name of the above-named deities. [712]\n\nRain during the Ashlesha and Magha nakshatras [713] is destructive\nto the crops, and is a sign of the wrath of Indra, who should be\nappeased with sacrificial offerings. [714]\n\nDiseases among cattle are believed to be brought on by the wrath\nof minor deities such as Shitala Mahakali [715] or the sixty-four\nJoganis. [716] [717] The bhuvas, when they are possessed, declare to\nthe people which particular deity is exasperated, whereupon that deity\nis conciliated either by offering dainties or a goat or a ram, or by\nthe observance of Ujani. A dharavadi--a stream of milk--is poured on to\nthe ground adjoining the village side, and torans of asopalav leaves\n(Jonesia asoka) are fastened on the doors of the offended deity's\ntemple. [718] It is also customary to place baklan and vadan at a\nspot where three roads meet in order to propitiate the evil spirits,\nwho frequent such places. [719]\n\nSmall-pox is supposed to be the result of the displeasure of the\ngoddess Shitala. In all cases of small-pox the victim is left to\nsuffer, the only remedy being the observation of vows in honour of the\nangry goddess. Different things are dedicated to the goddess according\nas the disease affects one part of the body or another; and they are\nusually offered on a Sunday or a Tuesday. The usual offering consists\nof kulera, [720] a tav (a sheet of paper), fried juvari, fried gram,\nand other articles varying according to the symptoms. [721]\n\nTo ward off this disease the women of the village sometimes prepare\ncakes, ganthias, [722] etc., on the sixth day of a month, the\npreparations being partaken of on the next day, when no fresh food\nis to be cooked. [723]\n\nKharava affects the hoofs of cattle, in which it produces irritation;\nit is generally due to worms in the hoofs. A jantra (a mystical\narrangement of words) of the twelve names of Mahavir (the great\nwarrior, i.e. Arjun) is written on a piece of paper, and tied round\nthe neck of the diseased animal, fastened over the gates through which\nthe cattle pass, or suspended over the street by which the cattle go\nout to graze. [724] The jantra is as follows:--\n\n\n  Shrisakha [725]   Dhanurdhari       Gajidhana       Krishna-sakha.\n  Dhananjaya        Lalanlarkha       Kapidhwaj.      Jayahari.\n  Gudakesh          Pitabhava         Narsinh         Parth.\n\n\nSometimes the paper on which the jantra is written is placed in a\nhollow bamboo stick which is then fastened over the gates. [726]\nThe jantra is believed to have the power to cure the disease.\n\nMuva-keshibi causes saliva to flow continuously from the mouths of\nanimals. A gagarbediun (a piece of leather thong or a piece of black\nwood, on which magic spells have been cast) is suspended over the\nvillage gates or is tied to the neck of the animal, in the case of\nthis disease occurring. [727]\n\nIn such diseases as kharava, sunaku, motudukh (lit. the great malady),\nvalo, pet-tod, [728] Bandhai-javan, [729] a jantra is tied by a\npiece of indigo-coloured cloth or by a piece of thread of the same\ncolour, round the neck of the animal, and is also fastened over the\nvillage-gates. A toran is prepared of the ears of juvari corn with\na cocoanut in the centre, and after magical incantations have been\npronounced over it, is suspended over the village-gates. All animals\npassing under the toran are believed to be proof against the disease.\n\nBut if this is not successful in checking the course of the disease,\nit is usual to swallow the chelans [730] of Mungi Mata (the Dumb\nMother). For this purpose the bhuvas of the Mata, who are Bharvads,\nare invited to the stalls of the affected cattle, where they recite\nmagic incantations amidst tumultuous shouts and yells. After this they\nare fed with rice, ghi and sugar, this latter process being called\n'swallowing the chelans of the Mata.' [731]\n\nIn event of this process being of no avail in restraining the disease,\nthe headman of the village in the company of his wife performs a homa\nsacrifice in the places dedicated to the Matas, and offers an ahuti--a\nsacrificial oblation--when all the villagers dedicate cocoanuts to\nthe sacrificial fire. [732]\n\nSometimes the wrath of the god Gorakhdev is supposed to be responsible\nfor cattle-diseases. A bunch of the leaves of a poisonous medicinal\nplant ankdo is passed seven times over the body of the ailing animal\nwith the prayer 'May Gorakhdev be pleased,' and a cocoanut is dedicated\nto the god. [733]\n\nAnother method of checking cattle-disease is to bury the corpse of an\nanimal which has died thereof near the village-gates. It is believed\nthat this puts a stop to any further deaths among cattle from the\nsame disease. [734]\n\nWhen such a disease as shili (small-pox), sakharado, or kharava\nprevails largely among cattle, a belief gains ground that the Dheds\n(who flay the dead cattle and sell their hides) have poisoned the\ndrinking water of the cattle in order to increase their earnings. [735]\n\nThe god Kal-bhairav was brought into existence by the fury of god\nShiva, when he, being extremely angry with Brahma, cut off the fifth\nhead of the latter. Kal-bhairav is the leader of all bhuts (ghosts)\nand dakans (witches), and resides at Kashi (Benares) by the order\nof Shiva. His favourite haunt is a cemetery. His image is always\nrepresented as fierce and ugly. [736]\n\nIt is said that this god once entered the mouth of Gorakhnath and\nperformed religious austerities in that strange abode. Although\nGorakhnath was nearly suffocated, he could only persuade Kal-bhairav\nto come out by extolling his glory and by conferring on him the\nleadership of all bhuts and the guardianship of the Kotvalu fortress\nat Kashi. [737]\n\nKal-bhairav does not command worship on any auspicious occasion. On\nthe other hand, he is much revered by persons who practise the black\nart. On Kali-chaudas day his devotees worship him in a cemetery,\noffer an oblation of baklan, and recite magic incantations till late\nat night. [738]\n\nThe offerings favoured by Kal-bhairav are khir, [739] cakes of wheat\nflour, sugar and vadan. [740] [741] The sacrifice of a live animal is\nalso acceptable. [742] The offerings after presentation to the god,\nare given to black dogs.\n\nPregnant women in order to secure a safe delivery sometimes\nvow to abstain from ghi till they have offered an oblation to\nKal-bhairav. [743]\n\nThe following lines are often repeated in honour of this god [744]:--\n\n\n        Bhuktimuktidayakam prasasta\u00f1caruvigraham |\n        Bhaktavatsalam sthitam samastalokavigraham ||\n        Niskvananmanoj\u00f1ahemakimkinilasatkatim |\n        Kasikapuradhinatham kalabhairavam bhaje || 1 ||\n\n\n(I worship Kal-bhairav, the giver of food and of salvation, of\nauspicious and comely appearance, who is kind to his devotees.)\n\nGanpati or Ganesh, about whose origin the traditional legends prevail,\nis represented with four hands, in one of which he holds a kamandalu (a\ngourd), in the second a ladu (or a sweet-ball), in the third a parashu\n(or an axe), and in the fourth a jap-mal (or a rosary). He is sometimes\ncalled Dundalo (lit., big-bellied) because of his having a protuberant\nbelly. He puts on a yellow garment and rides a mouse. His brother\nis Kartik-swami who rides a peacock. His favourite dish consists of\nladus or sweet-balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with\nmolasses. Siddhi and Buddhi are the two wives of Ganpati. Before\ntheir marriage their father Vishwarupa had made a promise that he\nwould bestow the hands of both on whomsoever circumambulated the\nwhole Earth within one day. Ganpati reasoned that a cow and a mother\nare equal in merit to the Earth and by passing round the former,\nhe got the hands of both. Ganpati is said to be the fastest writer\nof all, so that the sage Vyasa secured his services as a scribe,\nat the instance of Brahma, in writing the Mahabharat. When Ravan\nhad conquered all the gods and made them serve in his household,\nGanpati had to become a cowherd and to look after cows and goats. [745]\n\nOn Vaishakh sud choth, known as Ganpati choth, i.e., the fourth day\nof the bright half of Vaishakh, Ganpati is ceremoniously worshipped\nwith red lead, red flowers, milk, curds, honey, etc. The image of\nthe god is besmeared with red lead and ghi, and the remnant of this\nointment is applied to the doors and windows of the house. [746]\nSweet-balls of wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with molasses\nare first dedicated to Ganpati and are afterwards partaken of as the\ngod's gift. [747]\n\nThe people of Maharashtra observe Ganpati choth on the 4th day of\nthe bright half of Bhadrapad, when an earthen image of Ganpati is\nmade and worshipped with twenty kinds of leaves. [748]\n\nIt is a custom among the Vaishnavas to draw an image of Ganpati in\nthose vessels which are to be used for cooking food at the time of\nperforming the obsequies of a deceased Vaishnava. [749]\n\nThe Matrikas are sixteen in number, and are worshipped on such\nauspicious occasions as a yajna (i.e., a sacrifice), a wedding, or\nthe ceremony known as vastu. [750] Their installation consists in\npainting the following marks with red lac on the back walls of a house.\n\n\n                       .   .   .   .   .   .   .\n                         .   .   .   .   .   .\n                           .   .   .   .   .\n                             .   .   .   .\n                               .   .   .\n                                 .   .\n                                   .\n\n\nThe marks are besmeared with molasses, and a little ghi and a piece\nof some precious metal is affixed to them. [751] At the time of\na marriage, fourteen are worshipped in the house, one outside the\nvillage limits, and one near the front door of the house where the\nwedding is celebrated. [752]\n\nThe Matrikas or Matas are worshipped during the Navaratra holidays\nalso. On this occasion small morias or earthen bowls with a hole in the\ncentre of each, are plastered with khadi (red or green earth) and kaya;\nand young girls carry them on their heads with burning lamps from door\nto door. At each house they receive oil for the lamp and a handful\nof corn. On the last day, i.e., on the ninth day, all the bowls are\nplaced on the special site dedicated to the Matas. The songs, which\nare also accompanied by dancing, are called garabi or garaba. [753]\n\nThe Matrikas are also supposed to be the grahas or planets which\ninfluence the life of a child in the womb, and their worship is\nbelieved to bring about an easy delivery. [754]\n\nThere is also a family goddess of the name of Matrika. In worshipping\nher, seven round spots are painted on a wall with red lac, and ghi\nis poured over them in such a manner as to form five small relas\n(streams). A mixture of molasses and ghi is then applied to these\nspots with a piece of adachh (red cotton yarn). By this process the\ndevotee secures the motherly regard of the goddess. [755]\n\nOne of the deities which preside over child-birth is Randal Mata or\nRanna Devi, who is said to be the wife of the Sun. [756] In order\nto secure an easy delivery, pregnant women take a vow that they\nwill invite one or more lotas (bowls) of this Mata. The process of\n\"inviting the lotas\" is as follows:--\n\nThe tufts round the shell of a cocoanut are pulled out, the nut is\nbesmeared with chalk, and marks representing two eyes and a nose are\npainted on it. (Or the nut is so placed that the two spots on its\nsurface represent eyes, and the pointed tuft of fibres between them\nserves the purpose of a nose). A bowl is placed on a piece of cloth\nstretched on a wooden stool, and the cocoanut is placed over the\nbowl. It is then dressed in elegant female attire, and a ghi lamp\nis kept constantly burning near it. This completes the sthapan or\ninstallation of Randal Mata. Women bow down before this representation\nof the Mata, and sing melodious tunes in its presence. On the morning\nof the following day, the image is carried to the temple of the village\nMata, the cocoanut is deposited there, and the garments are brought\nhome. The cocoanut is subsequently taken by the Brahman attendant of\nthe Mata.\n\nOn the day of the installation it is customary to invite five goranis\n[757] (married women whose husbands are living) to a feast of khir\nand cakes. On the next day, when the Mata is sent away, three virgins\nare entertained with rice, sugar and milk. [758]\n\nIn some communities a custom prevails of \"inviting the lotas of the\nMatas\" on the occasion of the first pregnancy of a woman. On the\nday on which the lotas are to be invited, the pregnant woman takes a\nbath early in the morning, and calls upon thirteen goranis, whom she\ninvites to dinner by marking their foreheads with red lac. A Brahman\nis called to set up the Matas, whose installation takes place in\nthe same manner as that of Randal. The piece of cloth spread on the\nwooden stool is required to be green. When the goranis sit down to\nthe dinner, the pregnant woman washes their right toes with milk and\nswallows that milk as charanamrit (lit. the nectar of the feet). The\ngoranis are required to taste a morsel of some preparation of milk\nbefore they begin their meal. At night, a company of women dance in a\ncircle round the Matas, singing songs. Next morning a bhuva is called,\nwho declares the will of the Matas. On receiving a satisfactory reply\nfrom the bhuva, the party disperses. [759]\n\nThe goddesses Bahucharaji (or Bechraji) and Ambaji are sometimes\nworshipped for the sake of safety during childbirth. The ceremony of\nNandi-Shraddha which was performed when Rama was born is sometimes\ngone through at the birth of a child. [760]\n\nThe deities of the forest reside in groves of trees or near the\nPiludi tree, to which their devotees must go in order to fulfil their\nvows. [761] These deities do not receive any formal worship. But\nthey are noted for the cure of certain diseases, and the groves\nwhich they haunt are frequently visited by afflicted persons. These\ndeities are installed in those places where they have manifested\ntheir powers. [762]\n\nThere is a belief that if unmarried persons touch sindur or red lead,\na cobra deity of the forest, Kshetrapal, takes them in marriage. But\nthe danger can be averted by vowing to dedicate khichadi, red lead, a\ndokado [763] and some fruit to this god at the time of marriage. [764]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nDISEASE DEITIES.\n\n\nSuch diseases as cholera and small-pox are believed to be brought on by\nthe wrath of the Matas or Devis caused by neglecting to offer the usual\noblations. In order to propitiate them, Brahmans are engaged to recite\nthe Chandipath and to offer havans (sacrificial offerings). Very often\nthe festival known as ujani is observed, in which all the villagers\ngo outside the village to take their meals, and return home in the\nevening after witnessing the ahuti (the offering of cocoanuts to the\nsacrificial fire). [765]\n\nAnother belief personifies the diseases as malin or evil spirits who\nare fond of human prey. To ward them off, a dhara-vadi, or stream\nof milk, is poured out in the village or a magic thread is passed\nround. The chariot [766] of the Mata is driven through the village\nwith the same object. [767]\n\nThere is a popular tradition that in ancient times cholera was\nsubjugated by king Vikrama, and was buried underground. Once upon a\ntime the British excavated the place in the belief that treasure was\nconcealed there, and thus cholera was released. After many soldiers\nhad fallen victims, the disease deity was at last propitiated by an\noblation, and was handed over to the Bhangis (or scavengers). [768]\n\nThis association of the Bhangis with cholera is present in most of\nthe beliefs current about the disease. There is a story that once\nupon a time a number of students had put up in a house by which a\nBhangi was in the habit of passing frequently. He daily used to hear\nthe students reciting the sacred texts and this produced in his mind\nthe desire to become a Sanskrit scholar. For this purpose, having\nconcealed his low birth, he went to Benares and by diligent study,\nsoon became a pandit. He even married a girl of high caste. But his\nimposture being at last discovered, he burnt himself to death, and\nhis ashes gave rise to the disease known as cholera. [769]\n\nAt the present day, if the epidemic breaks out, the Bhangis are often\nsuspected in some way or other of having brought it about. It is said\nthat they make statues of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and\nafter piercing them with needles and pins, either throw them into the\nwells which are daily used by the villagers [770] or bury them in a\nspot over which the people frequently pass. The whole affair is managed\nvery secretly and at the dead of night. The slightest rumour of such\nproceedings causes a tumult in the village, and the Bhangis are then\nin danger of being severely handled by the enraged villagers. [771]\n\nAnother method by which the Bhangis are supposed to bring about cholera\nis to sprinkle the blood of a black cow on the image of Hanuman. The\ngod is deeply offended at the insult, and in consequence spreads\ncholera in the neighbourhood. For this reason, offerings are burnt\nbefore Hanuman in order to stop an epidemic of cholera. [772]\n\nBhangis are also supposed by some to accomplish the same result by the\nhelp of malin or evil deities who are first gratified by the offering\nof victims. [773] One of such deities is Ramdepir, to whom bali-dan\n(offering of a victim) is made by the people, through the medium of\nBhangis, for the prevention of cholera.\n\nAn outbreak of cholera offers a good opportunity to the Bhangis,\nwho extort dainties and small sums of money from the people. Persons\nattacked by cholera often seek the services of a Bhangi and promise\nhim liberal gifts if they are cured. The latter generally treats his\npatients by tying a magical thread round their elbows. [774]\n\nIt is said that the Bhangis have to present an offering to their\nmalin or evil goddess every third year, and that, in so doing, they\nkill a black animal before the goddess. They then place an iron pan\nfull of sesamum oil on the fire, and suspend the body of the animal\nabove it. It is believed that as many human beings will fall victims\nto cholera as the number of the drops of blood that fall from the\nbody of the animal into the iron pan. [775]\n\nAnother deity whose wrath is supposed to be responsible for the\nbreaking out of cholera is Mahamari Devi. [776] The worshippers of this\ngoddess are Bhangis. She is believed to send forth cholera when her\noblations are stopped, [777] and her favour is regained by renewing\nthe offer of these oblations. Sometimes the Navachandi sacrifice\nis performed at the principal village-gates, and the chandipath is\nrecited at the other gates. A number of Brahmans and virgins are\nalso feasted, and presented with garments. A magic cotton thread\nis passed round the village and a dhara-vadi, or stream of milk, is\npoured out. The bhuvas go round the village playing upon the harsh\nunpleasant danklan. A goat is then taken to the temple of the Mata,\nand the bhuvas, after cutting out its tongue, dip their hands in\nits blood and strike them against the doors of the temple. The goat\nis then killed and similar blood-marks are made upon every door\nin the village as well as on the village-gates, where an iron nail\nis driven into the ground with an incantation. A lime is then cut,\nand an oblation is offered to the Mata. Such a process is believed\nto stop the progress of the epidemic.\n\nOther deities connected in popular belief with cholera are the\ngoddesses Visuchika [778] and Chandika. [779] Visuchika is conciliated\nby burnt offerings: the recitation of the chandipath wins the favour\nof Chandika. There is also a giantess named Karkata who is supposed\nto be responsible for cholera. She is said to have sprung from the\nsweat on the forehead of Brahma and to reside in the chandra mandal\n(or lunar sphere). [780]\n\nOne of the remedies adopted to stop an epidemic of cholera is to\npropitiate Shiva by the performance of Rudrayag, [781] Maharudra,\nShatachandi, Homahavan and by bestowing gifts on Brahmans and other\nholy men. [782] Sometimes vows are observed with the same object in\nhonour of a minor local deity named Lala Hardev. [783] Another method\nof driving off the disease is to convey it to the body of a goat or a\nram, or a he-buffalo, and to drive the animal out of the village. [784]\n\nSmall-pox is believed to be the act of the goddess Shitala Mata, who\nspreads the disease whenever she is desirous of having victims. [785]\nThus, in cases of small-pox, the patient very often receives no\nmedical treatment, the only remedies adopted being directed towards\nthe propitiation of the Mata. [786] A number of vows are taken in the\nMata's name, to be fulfilled after the patient has recovered. Many\npeople accomplish their vows before the Shitala Mata at Kalavad in\nJamnagar. A vow to visit this place after the patient's recovery,\nand to abstain from certain things till the day of the visit, is taken\nby the mother of the affected person in case of a severe attack. But\nalmost every village contains a temple of Shitala Mata, and those,\nwho cannot go to Kalavad, vow in the name of the local Mata.\nOne of such vows is to go to the temple of the Mata with a burning\nhearth on the head. Such a vow is generally undertaken by the\npatient's mother.\n\nOrdinarily in a case of small-pox, the patient is not allowed to bathe\ntill he is completely free from all traces of the disease. A bath is\nthen given on a Sunday, a Tuesday, or a Thursday, with water which\nhas been heated by being placed in the sun. An image of Shitala Mata\nis set up in the house near the water room, and the patient worships\nthe image after the bath. The image is drawn in cowdung with two\ncotton seeds to represent the eyes. An offering of kulera [787] and\ncurds is made to the goddess. Five virgins are invited to dinner,\nand are served with cold food. All the members of the household\nalso partake of cold food. On the 7th or the 13th day of the bright\nhalf of a month the patient is taken to the temple of Shitala Mata,\nwhen a cocoanut is broken in the presence of the goddess. Half of\nthe cocoanut is brought home, the other half being carried away by\nthe Mata's attendant. Some people place a new earthen vessel filled\nwith water near the goddess. Silver eyes, which may be worth anything\nbetween half an anna and half a rupee, are dedicated to the Mata.\n\nThe first visit to the Mata should take place on a Sunday or a\nTuesday. The things vowed to the goddess are dedicated on this\noccasion. It is also necessary to go to the goddess again on the next\nTuesday or Thursday after the first visit. This time only water and\nred lac are offered. [788]\n\nDuring the course of the disease no low-caste person and no woman\nin her monthly course is allowed to cast his or her shadow on the\npatient. The women in the house are prohibited from combing\ntheir hair, or churning curdled milk, or indulging in sexual\nintercourse. Such acts are believed to cause extreme displeasure\nto the Mata, who then causes some limb of the patient to be\naffected. Branches of nimb leaves are suspended over the doors of the\nhouse, and also round the patient's bed. The same leaves are used to\nfan the patient.\n\nWhen a child suffers from the disease, it is often weighed against\ndates, which are first dedicated to the goddess, and then distributed\namongst the poor. [789] The child is taken to bow down before the\ngoddess after nine or ten days from the date of attack, and the\nmother of the child offers several things to the Mata, among which are\ngrapes, sugar, a pinch of flour, a small earthen bowl full of water,\nand a blank sheet of paper. [790]\n\nDifferent things are dedicated to the goddess according as the\ndisease affects one part of the body or another. For instance,\nflour of bajra or juvari is offered in case of bronchitis; silver\nmodels of the human eye when the disease affects the eyes; a goras\n(a black earthen vessel full of curds) in case of morbid heat; a\npiece of black paper, in high fever, and salt if there is an itching\nsensation. [791] The Mata is said to live on cold food and to be very\nfond of things which have a cooling effect such as fruits, sugar,\netc. The same things are given to the patient as food. [792]\n\nTo secure the protection of Shitala Mata for their children, women\nannually observe the vow of shili satem on the 7th day of the dark\nhalf of Shravan. On this day the Mata is said to visit every house\nand to roll herself on the hearth. No fire is, therefore, lighted\nin the hearth on this day: for if the Mata comes and is scorched by\nthe fire she is sure to bring misfortune on that household. For this\nreason, a number of dainties and all the food necessary for the day\nis prepared on the previous day. On the day of shili satem, juvari\nseeds are spread on the hearth, and after being sprinkled with red\nlac, a cowdung bowl containing a plant called vana is placed upon\nthem. The women of the house bathe with cold water and take only one\nmeal during the day. They further abstain from sewing and embroidering\nduring that day. Sometimes a Brahman is engaged to recite the Shitala\nshloka from a book called Rudrayamal. [793]\n\nThe following legend is related of shili satem. A certain woman\nonce forgot to extinguish the fire in her hearth on Randhan Chhetha\n(lit. cooking sixth), i.e., the day previous to shili satem. On the\nnext day, the Mata was scorched in the stomach when she came to roll\nherself on the hearth. In extreme anger the goddess cursed the woman\nsaying that her only son would be burnt to death; and immediately the\nboy died. In her anguish the unfortunate mother confessed her fault to\na friend, who advised her to go to the jungle and entreat the Mata to\ngive back her son. She found the goddess rolling in distress under a\nbabul tree. The woman slowly approached her, and began to comb out the\nMata's hair. She then placed her son in the Mata's lap and entreated\nthe goddess to revive the boy. The Mata felt much relieved by the\nwoman's attentions and blessed her saying that her bosom should be as\nquiet as her own head. Immediately, at these words, the boy revived,\nto the intense joy of his mother. [794]\n\nWomen whose relatives have recovered from a dangerous attack of\nsmall-pox observe a vow on every satem, i.e., the 7th day of the\ndark half of every month. They first bathe with cold water and,\nafter offering an oblation of kulera, take their meals only once\nduring the day. This food has to be prepared on the previous day.\n\nShitala Mata is described as riding an ass in a nude state with the\nhalf of a supadun (a winnowing fan) for an umbrella and with a swing\nin one hand, and a broom in the other. [795] But more usually the Mata\nis represented by a mere trunkless head in stone, besmeared with red\nlead. This is said to be the head of Babhrivahan, the son of Bhima\n[796] the second of the Pandavas by a Nag mother. At the time of the\nGreat War, he was sent by his mother from his residence in the patal\n(the regions below this world) to assist his father, and as he did not\nknow the Pandavas, he was asked to join the weaker side. On coming\nto the earth he first met with Krishna who took a promise from him\nto lop his own head off. In return, Krishna promised him that he\nwould be immortal, invisible and worshipped by all, and the head\nwas set up on the flag of the Pandavas. This head began to trouble\nthe Pandavas after their victory, and could only be quieted by the\npromise of Krishna to have him recognised as a deity with unlimited\npowers. This head afterwards came to be known as the controller of\nsmall-pox. How the head of the male Babhrivahan came to be identified\nwith Shitala Mata, it is difficult to explain. [797]\n\nThere is a tradition that a Kunbi once recovered his eyesight, lost\nin an attack of small-pox, by worshipping Shitala Mata, and by vowing\nnot to tie his lock of hair till his blindness was cured. [798]\n\nIt is said that the powderlike substance which falls from the scabs\nof small-pox cures cataract if applied to the eyes.\n\nDaksha Prajapati once celebrated a great sacrifice, but did not invite\nhis son-in-law Shiva. The latter was extremely enraged at the insult,\nand eight sorts of fever were in consequence produced by his breath at\nthat time. [799] According to another story zar or fever was created\nby Shiva in order to assist the demon Banasur in his contest with\ngod Krishna, and it can be cured by the recitation of a piece called\nUshaharan, from the Harivansha. [800] Some persons attribute fever\nto the wrath of Vishnu, and declare that it can be avoided by the\nrecitation of Vishnusahasranama. [801] Others believe it to be due to\nthe anger of Shiva, and say that it can be cured by pouring a stream of\nwater over the image of Shiva by offering bel leaves (Aegle marmelos)\nto him, and by reciting the Mrityunjaya mantra in his honour. [802]\nOthers again ascribe it to the displeasure of the gods Hari [803] and\nHar, saying that the heat is caused by the wrath of Shiva. [804]\n\nThe following are some of the remedies adopted in cases of fever:\n\n\n(i) The recitation of sacred hymns in honour of the gods.\n\n(ii) The worship of Narsinh. [805]\n\n(iii) Rudrabhishek--pouring a stream of water on the image of Shiva\nwith the recitation of verses in his honour.\n\n(iv) Drawing the jantra of Mrityunjaya (lit. Death-conquering, an\nepithet of Shiva) as shown below.\n\n(v) Tying a magic thread round the arm. [806] On a Sunday or a Tuesday\na woollen thread or a piece of five-coloured silken thread is taken\nto a bava or a jogi, who mutters a few mystic words, and makes seven\nknots in the thread. The thread is treated with frankincense, and\nthen tied round the arm. [807]\n\n\nPeriodical fevers are believed to be under the control of certain\nspirits. There is a story connected with almost every sort of\nfever, and it is believed that a person who listens to such a story\nis cured of fever. [808] The following legend is connected with\nekanterio--intermittent fever occurring on alternate days. Once\na Bania, on his way to a village, came across a banyan tree\nwhere he unyoked his bullocks and went to a distance to seek for\nwater. Ekanterio (the spirit controlling intermittent fever) resided on\nthis tree, and when the Bania had gone sufficiently far he stole from\nbehind the tree and carried away the Bania's carriage together with his\nfamily. The Bania was much surprised to miss them on his return, but\nhe soon found out the author of the trick, and pursued Ekanterio. That\nspirit however would not listen to the Bania's entreaties to return\nhis carriage, and the matter was at last referred for arbitration to\nBochki Bai. The latter decided in favour of the Bania, and confined\nEkanterio in a bamboo tube. He was released on the condition that he\nwould never attack those persons who listen to this story. [809]\n\nThere is a flower garden to the west of Jodia where there is a tree\ncalled ghelun (mad) tree. Vows in honour of this tree are believed\nto be efficacious in curing fever.\n\nIt has been already said above that such epidemic diseases as cholera\nor the plague are often supposed to be the result of the sinister\npractices of the Bhangis. There is a belief that the Bhangis sometimes\nprepare an image out of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and\npierce it with needles, and it is said that for every hole made in the\nimage one human being falls a victim to some epidemic disease. Such an\nimage is sometimes placed in an earthen vessel and buried underground\nin a public way so that every passer-by treading on the spot where it\nis buried may be attacked by some disease. Or it is thrown into the\nwell which is most used by village people, with the object that all\npersons drinking water from the well may perish by the disease. [810]\n\nThe Bhangis are also accused of causing an epidemic by means of\nboiling the ear of a buffalo and the flesh of an ox together in one\nvessel, it being believed that the virulence of the disease varies in\nproportion to the extent to which the boiling proceeds. This process\nis supposed to cause a disease among cattle also. [811]\n\nAnother belief is that the Bhangis charm seeds of adad and cloves by\nrepeating magic incantations over them, and afterwards strew them\non a highway in order that those who step on them may be attacked\nby cholera or some similar disease. [812] One motive suggested for\nsuch action is that they are thereby likely to receive their garments,\nwhich would be used for covering the bodies. [813] Also at the outbreak\nof such an epidemic, clothes, cocoanuts, ghi, molasses, wheat flour,\netc., are offered by the people to the Bhangis, who in return give\na dora, a piece of thread, of black wool to be worn by the afflicted\npersons. [814]\n\nBut apart from such beliefs, the appearance of an epidemic is also\nattributed to other causes. There is the usual belief that it is caused\nby the diminution of virtue and the increase of sin among people and\nthe consequent wrath of the gods, who are only propitiated by the\npeople again reverting to righteous ways and by the performance of\nsacrifices in their honour. [815]\n\nThere is also a belief that the sixty-four Joganis, when they are\ndesirous of victims, cause baneful epidemics among mankind, the\nremedies in such a case being such as offering a goat or a he-buffalo\nto them, or the observation of an ujani in their honour.\n\nThe following tale is related regarding an occurrence said to have\ntaken place not long ago in the village of Verad. The headman of the\nvillage who was a Rajput by birth but who had lost his caste owing\nto irregular conduct with a woman, died of fever, and as he was an\noutcaste his body was buried instead of being cremated. Soon after,\na number of persons in the same village happened to die of the same\nfever and the people conjectured that the late patel's corpse must\nbe lying in its grave with its face downwards chewing the khahan\n(? perhaps kaphan, i.e. the cloth in which a corpse is wrapped). Many\nthought that the health of the village would not be restored until\nthe corpse was replaced in the correct position with its face upwards\nand unless the kaphan was taken out of its mouth. But none ventured\nto do so, being dissuaded by the fear of meeting with a worse fate.\n\nBut although they did not open the grave yet they arranged for certain\nvows to be taken in honour of the dead man, and that put a stop to\nthe disease. [816]\n\nAnother story from the same place is that when small-pox once raged\nfuriously in that village, the people of the place celebrated a\nmagnificent feast of dainties prepared of wheat-flour, ghi, molasses,\nrice and pulse, and afterwards the Dheds of the village lopped off\nthe head of a dead he-buffalo, burying it at the spot where the feast\nwas held. [817]\n\nThe remedies adopted for the abatement of epidemic diseases have\nalready been mentioned above, the most common being the winding of\na cotton-thread, the pouring out of dharavadi, i.e., milk, in the\nvillage, and the taking of the rath of the Mata in a procession beyond\nthe village boundary, the epidemic being supposed to be expelled\nin the rath. In the last case, after the rath has been taken to the\nneighbouring village, a charmed peg is sometimes driven into the ground\nnear the village boundary to prevent the epidemic from crossing back\nagain. [818]\n\nMention has already been made of the deities which protect the cattle\nand to whose displeasure diseases among cattle are attributed. It\nis said that such diseases are very common during the vishi of\nShiva. A cycle of twenty years is called a vishi, three such cycles\nmaking a complete samvatsar of sixty years. Each of such vishis is\npresided over and named after each of the three gods of the Trinity,\nBrahma, Vishnu and Shiva. The vishi of Brahma is characterized by\nprotection and creation, that of Vishnu by growth and that of Shiva\nby destruction, the last often bringing on such calamities as plague,\nfamine and diseases among cattle. [819]\n\nThe following are some of the remedies practised by the village people\nin the case of certain cattle-diseases.\n\nIn the case of such diseases as mova kharava or the like, there is\na practice of burying a plough near one's gates, which is afterwards\ncovered with dust gathered from three streets and is worshiped with\na branch of a tree, a plate of iron and red lead. This ceremony has\nto be performed either on a Sunday or a Tuesday, and the man who\nperforms it has to remain naked at the time. [820]\n\nFor the cure of valo (a disease in which the throat is inflamed),\npieces of the stalk of kukad-vel (a kind of creeper) are tied round\nthe neck or the horns of the diseased animal and no other food except\nghi and molasses is allowed to it for two or three days. A handful\nof salt is sometimes thrown on the back of the animal. [821] Sesamum\noil is also said to work as a good medicine in the case of the same\ndisease. [822]\n\nAnother remedy for the same disease is to pass a knotted bamboo stick\nwith seven knots seven times over the back of the ailing animal. [823]\n\nGhi is sometimes used as a medicine in the case of small-pox. In the\ncase of shakario or kalo va, the animal is branded in the affected\nlimbs. To one suffering from a stye in the eye an ointment prepared\nfrom the horn of a deer is applied, while a mixture of whey and salt\nis said to be useful in most eye maladies. The treatment for the\nswelling of the belly is a mixture of molasses, ajamo (ligusticum\najwaen) and sanchal (a kind of salt). To cure an animal of khapari\n(a disease which affects milch-cattle), the milk of the affected\nanimal is poured on rafda (a kind of jujube tree). If after delivery,\nsome part of the embryo remains inside an animal, milk and molasses\nare given to expedite its removal. [824]\n\nIn the case of kharava the ailing animal is made to move about in\nhot sand and is treated with salt, which is first fried on the fire\nof Holi. The remedy for the disease known as kumbhava is to give a\ndose of castor oil, sanchal, ajamo and hot water to the sick animal\nand also to tie a magic thread round its neck. [825]\n\nA disease called okarinu (i.e., vomitting) sometimes breaks out\namong sheep. In this case the shepherds separate all the affected\nanimals from the herd and remove them to a distance. All the sheep\nwhich die of the disease are buried deep in a pit, which is guarded\nfor several days, lest some other animals dig it up and let lose the\nburied epidemic by exposing the carcasses. It is believed that the\ncontagion of this disease lies in the ears; and the ears of all the\nsheep in the herd are carefully watched if they bleed. [826]\n\nThe twin gods Ashvini Kumar are sometimes propitiated by means of an\nanushthan (the performance of religious austerities in their honour)\nin order that they may put a stop to a disease among cattle. [827]\n\nIt appears that dancing often forms a part of the process of\nexorcism. Frequently dancing is accompanied by the beating of cymbals\nand drums and other loud noises. A mandalu is convened at the house\nof the person who is to be exorcised i.e., a number of bhuvas are\ninvited to attend along with a number of low-caste drummers, and\nafterwards the ceremony of utar is gone through; the utar is then\ntaken to a cemetery. [828]\n\nSometimes the beating of drums and cymbals is alone resorted to\nfor expelling an evil spirit from the person of a patient. It is\nbelieved that this process is effectual in proportion to the degree\nof the intensity of the noise created. [829] The patient is asked to\nsit facing the east. The Baval or Vaghri i.e., the drummer, sits in\nfront of him, and not only beats the drum as loudly as he can, but\nalso sings hymns at the top of his voice in honour of his favourite\ngoddess. In the meanwhile, the bhuva, who is also in attendance, begins\nto be possessed, and discloses the fact by convulsive fits. After a\nwhile, the bhuva suddenly stamps his foot furiously on the floor, and,\nseizing the patient by a lock of his hair, and perhaps even giving him\na blow on the back, asks in a stern voice, \"Who art thou? speak out\nat once why thou hast come or else I will burn thee to death.\" [830]\n\nThe patient will then perhaps reply: 'Don't you know me? I am charan',\nor I am zamhadi, (a female spirit guarding the village gates) or\nVagharan [831] or Purvaj (the spirit of a deceased ancestor). Regarding\nthe reason for possession, the evil spirit will give some such\nexplanation as follows:--\"Once upon a time the patient was taking\na loaf and vegetables which he hid from me, and therefore I shall\nleave his person only with his life.\" The bhuva will then say \"life\nis precious and not so cheap as you think. If you want anything else,\nsay so and leave this person.\" After a dialogue such as the above,\nthe bhuva and the spirit come to some compromise, and the bhuva then\nleads a procession with the utar either to the village boundary or to\na cemetery. The bhuva then draws a circle on the ground with the point\nof a sword which he carries, and places the utar within the circle. He\nthen slightly cuts the tip of his tongue with the edge of the sword,\nand spits blood into a fire lighted for the purpose. The smoke of\nthis fire is supposed to carry the offering to the evil spirit. The\nutar is then taken away by the drummers, who share it secretly with\nthe bhuva. In the event of the patient deriving no benefit from this\nceremony, the bhuva advises the patient's relatives to repeat the\nprocess. [832]\n\nThe following ceremony is sometimes performed in order to ascertain\nwhether a person is under the influence of an evil spirit or\nnot. A bhuva is invited to the patient's house in the company of\ndrummers, and there he dances for some time amidst the din produced\nby the beating of the drums and by the loud recitation of hymns in\nhonour of his favourite goddess. Afterwards a handful of grain is\npassed round the head of the patient and presented to the bhuva for\ninspection. The bhuva selects a few seeds from the grain and making\ncertain gestures, offers them to the patient with either the words\n'vacho' or 'vadhavo'. In case the bhuva says 'vacho' and the number\nof seeds happens to be even, what he declared to be the cause of\nthe patient's trouble is believed to be true. So also if the bhuva\nsays vadhavo and the number of seeds proves to be odd. But in case\nthe number of seeds proves to be odd when the bhuva says 'vacho',\nor even, when he says vadhavo, then his explanation of the cause of\nthe patient's trouble is not credited.\n\nSometimes Brahmans instead of bhuvas are engaged to exorcise an evil\nspirit from the body of a sick person. A bell-metal dish, containing\nadad (phaseolus radiatus), wheat and jowari, is placed on a copper\njar and struck violently with a stick, called velan, so as to produce\na loud noise. The patient, who is made to sit in front, begins to\ntremble and sometimes even to rave. The Brahmans also create a loud\nnoise and in a loud voice ask the patient who the evil spirit is\nand what it wants. The patient will then give out the name of some\nnotorious dakan (witch) or of one of his deceased ancestors and will\nadd that he desires a certain thing which he was used to get while in\nhuman form. The evil spirit is then propitiated by offering the things\nasked for and is requested to leave the body of the patient. [833]\n\nThe following are other methods of expelling an evil spirit from\nthe body:--\n\nEither lobhan, i.e., incense powder, or chillies or even the excreta\nof dogs are burnt under the nose of the patient, who, overpowered by\nthe unpleasant odour, is supposed to give out the name of the evil\nspirit and also what the latter wants.\n\nWater is charmed with incantations, and is either dashed against the\npatient's eyes or is given to him to drink. [834]\n\nIf the evil spirit possessing a patient is a purvaj, i.e., the spirit\nof a deceased ancestor, either Narayan-bali Shraddha or Nil-Parvani\nShraddha or Tripindi Shraddha is performed in order to propitiate it,\nand a party of Brahmans is invited to dinner. In case the purvaj is a\nfemale, a cocoanut is installed in a gokhalo (a niche) in the wall to\nrepresent it, ghi lamps are lighted, and frankincense is burnt every\nmorning before it. On the anniversary of the death of the purvaj a\nparty of goranis (unwidowed women) is invited to dinner. [835]\n\nIf a woman is believed to be possessed by a dakan, she is made to\nhold a shoe in her teeth and is taken to the village boundary, where\nthe shoe is dropped, and a circle is drawn round it with water from\na bowl carried by the party. The holding of the shoe by the teeth\nsignifies a vow on the part of the dakan never to re-enter the person\nof the exorcised woman. [836]\n\nThe following are other occasions for religious dancing, namely during\nthe Nav-ratra holidays (i.e., the festival which commences from the\n1st day of the bright half of Ashvin and lasts for nine days); at\nthe time of offering oblations to the village-gods; on the occasion\nof setting up a pillar in memory of a deceased person; at the time\nof the Nilotsava [837] ceremony.\n\nAt the time when Randal the wife of Surya is installed and worshipped,\na party of young women dance in a circle before the goddess to the\naccompaniment of garabis. [838]\n\nThe eighth day of the bright half of Ashvin is dedicated to the\nworship of the Matas and devis (minor goddesses), and on this day,\nbhuvas have to dance each before his favourite mata. This they have\nalso to do on the 1st day of the bright half of Ashadh. Bhuvas are also\ninvited to dance on the Diwasa day i.e., the last day of Ashadh.\n\nThe bhuva occupies a high place in the esteem of the village people,\nand commands much respect. In the first place, his position is\nthat of a medium between the gods and goddesses on the one hand\nand human beings on the other. [839] He is the interpreter of\nthe will of the gods, which he expresses to the public when in\na state of trance. Besides he is believed to have power over the\nevil spirits which are visible to a bhuva though cannot be seen by\nordinary eyes. [840] He is the guardian of the village, his duty,\nbeing to protect the people from the malignant influence of the\nevil spirits.\n\nIn the next place, it is also the office of the bhuva to treat the\nsick. In cases when medicine is unavailing and where the malady is\nsupposed to be the work of some evil spirit, the opinion of the bhuva\nis sought by the relations of the patient and is given by the test\nof the scrutiny of grain. [841] When the sick person is found to be\nunder the influence of a spirit, the common mode of exorcising is to\ntake an utar to the cemetery. An image of a human being is prepared\nout of the flour of adad (phaseolus radiatus) and is passed round the\nbody of the sick person. The bhuva then holds the image near his heart\nand stretches himself on a bier with the image on his bosom. In this\ncondition the bhuva is taken to the cemetery, and the evil spirit is\nbelieved to be driven by these means out of the patient's body. [842]\n\nThe bhuva distributes doras (magic threads) and anklets among the\npeople. Such things are coveted for their efficacy in warding off\nthe influence of evil spirits and are often sought after by people\nfor their cattle as well as for themselves. [843] The prosperity of\nthe danklan-vagadnars (those who beat the drum) depends to a large\nextent on the success of the bhuva's business, and for this reason,\nthe drummers are often very good advocates of the bhuva and take\nevery opportunity of glorifying his powers and merits.\n\nThe respect which a bhuva commands in this way is sometimes increased\nby the performance of such tricks as his putting lighted torches into\nhis mouth, placing his hand in boiling oil, and similar performances.\n\nBut although there may be some bhuvas who profit by imposing upon the\ncredulity of the villagers, there are many bhuvas who do not work with\nthe expectation of any reward, and are only actuated by benevolent\nmotives. Many of them honestly believe that at the time when they are\nthrown into a state of trance, the matas or deities actually enter\ntheir bodies and speak their wishes through them as a medium.\n\nIn some villages, the office of the bhuva is hereditary, and lands\nhave been assigned to them in remuneration for their duty [844]. In\naddition to this religious calling, a bhuva often follows some other\nprofession as that of agriculture, weaving or spinning. [845]\n\nThe bhuva generally belongs to some low caste and may be a Koli,\nBharvad, Rabari, Vaghri or even a Chamar. The bhuvas are also known as\npothias. One good qualification for becoming a bhuva is to possess the\nhabit of throwing one's self into convulsive fits followed by a state\nof trance, especially on hearing the beating of a danklan (drum). At\nsuch a time the mata or devi is supposed to possess the person of\nthe bhuva and to speak out her wishes on being questioned. Some\nbhuvas are regularly possessed by some devi or mata on every Sunday\nor Tuesday. [846]\n\nA typical bhuva has a braid of hair on his head, puts one or more\niron or copper anklets round his leg or elbow, and makes a mark with\nred lead on his forehead. A bhuva attending upon the goddess Meldi is\ngenerally [847] a Vaghri by caste and always wears dirty clothes. A\nBharvad bhuva has generally a silver anklet round his waist. A bhuva\nhas to observe a fast on all the nine days of the Nav-ratras. If a\nbhuva happens to come across another bhuva in convulsive fits or in\na trance, he must need go into fits as well.\n\nGenerally speaking every bhuva keeps an image of his favourite mata in\nor near his own dwelling. Generally he erects a hut for the purpose\nand hoists a flag upon it. Near the image are placed a number of\nconch-shells and stones and brooms of peacock feathers. The deity is\nnot systematically worshipped every day but receives adoration every\nSunday and Tuesday. Sometimes the bhuva has a disciple--a sevaka--who\ndoes the duty of dashing bell-metal cymbals at the time when the\nbhuva throws himself in a trance. [848]\n\nWhen a new bhuva is to be initiated into the profession, he is made\nto sit before an image of the mata, where he goes into convulsive fits\nwhile the danklan vagadnars beat the drums and loudly recite hymns in\nhonour of the deity. Afterwards he is taken to a cemetery accompanied\nby the drummers and an expert bhuva, where the latter marks out a\nsquare on the ground with the edge of a sword. The novice is asked to\nlie prostrate within the area thus marked out and to get up and lie\nagain, doing the same four times, each time with his head towards each\nof the four quarters. The bhuva who initiates the novice and who is\nthenceforth considered to be the guru or preceptor of the latter, ties\na rakhadi (a piece of silk thread) round the elbow of the pupil. [849]\n\nEvery bhuva is required to propitiate his favourite goddess every\nthird year, the ceremony which is then performed being called\nKhad-Khadya-besadvi. This is performed either during the Nav-ratra\nholidays or during the bright half of either the month of Magh or\nChaitra. All the bhuvas in the village are invited on the occasion,\nwhen there is ganja-smoking or bhang-drinking, partly at night. After\nthe supper which follows this party, all the bhuvas gather together\nand go into convulsive fits till they are almost suffocated. Cocoanuts\nare then dedicated and cracked before the mata, and the kernel is\ndistributed among those present. The party then break up. [850]\n\nIt is believed by some people that the spirit of a Muhammadan saint,\nliving or dead, dwells in such trees as the Khijado, i.e., Shami\n(Prosopis spicigera) and Baval, i.e., Babhul (Acacia arabica). It is\nknown by the name of chitharia that is, the ragged Pir. It is a common\nbelief that if a mother fails to offer a rag or a piece of cloth to\nsuch a holy tree while passing by it, her children run the risk of\nfalling ill. Women and ignorant people, therefore, make a point of\noffering rags to such trees whenever they happen to pass by them. [851]\n\nAccording to another belief, travellers, in order to accomplish their\njourney safely, offer rags to such of the Khijado, Baval or Limdo\n(Nim) trees as are reputed to be the residences of spirits, if they\nhappen to be on their road. [852]\n\nSome believe that both male and female spirits reside in the Khijado,\nBaval and Kerado trees, and throw rags over them with the object of\npreventing passers by from cutting or removing the trees. Some pile\nstones round their stems and draw tridents over them with red lead\nand oil. If superstitious people come across such trees, they throw\npieces of stones on the piles, believing them to be holy places, and\nthink that by doing so they attain the merit of building a temple or\nshrine. A belief runs that this pile should grow larger and larger\nday by day, and not be diminished. If the base of such a tree is\nnot marked by a pile of stones, rags only are offered; and if rags\nare not available, the devotee tears off a piece of his garment,\nhowever costly it may be, and dedicates it to the tree. [853]\n\nOnce, a child saw its mother offering a rag to such a tree, and asked\nher the reason of the offering. The mother replied that her brother,\nthat is the child's maternal uncle, dwelt in the tree. Hence a belief\narose that a chithario (ragged) uncle dwells in such trees. Others\nassert that the chithario pir dwells in such trees, and they propitiate\nhim by offering cocoanuts and burning frankincense before it.\n\nThere is a Khijado tree near Sultanpur which is believed to be the\nresidence of a demon mamo. This demon is propitiated by the offerings\nof rags.\n\nSome declare that travellers fix rags of worn out clothes to the\ntrees mentioned above in order that they may not be attacked by the\nevil spirits residing in them. Another belief is that the spirits of\ndeceased ancestors residing in such trees get absolution through this\nform of devotion. It is also believed that a goddess called chitharia\ndevi resides in such trees, and being pleased with these offerings,\nblesses childless females with children, and cures persons suffering\nfrom itch of their disease. There is a further belief that ragged\ntravellers, by offering pieces of their clothes to the Khijado,\nBaval or Kerado trees, are blessed in return with good clothes.\n\nSome believe that Hanuman, the lord of spirits, resides in certain\ntrees. They call him chithario or ragged Hanuman. All passers by\noffer rags to the trees inhabited by him. There is such a tree\nnear the station of Shiroi. There is a tamarind tree on the road\nfrom Tamnagar to Khantalia which is believed to be the residence of\nchithario Hanuman and receives similar offerings. Another tamarind\ntree of this description is near Marad and there is a Khijado tree on\nthe road between Kalavad and Vavadi which is similarly treated. [854]\n\nIt is related by some people that in deserts trees are rare and the\nsummer heat is oppressive. To the travellers passing through such\ndeserts, the only place of rest is in the shadow of a solitary tree\nthat is to be met occasionally. In order that no harm be done to such\ntrees, some people have given currency to the belief that a spirit\ncalled mamo dwells in such trees and expects the offering of a rag\nand a pice at the hands of every passer by.\n\nSome are of opinion that the bhuvas, in order to raise money from the\ncredulous by terrifying them, daub a tree within the limits of each\nvillage with the form of a trident, and fix rags to it, stating that\nit is the abode of a mamo or a pir. At times they ask their clients\nto offer certain things to such trees, which they appropriate to\nthemselves. [855]\n\nThere is also a belief, that the holy trees that receive offerings\nof rags from travellers, are the abodes of gods or evil spirits,\nand are distinguished from other trees of the same species by the\nepithet of chithario. Some people hoist flags on such trees instead\nof offering rags.\n\nIn some places, the Boradi (jujube), Pipal, Vad (banyan) and the sweet\nbasil receive offerings of a pice and a betelnut from travellers,\nwhile the Khijado and Baval are given rags. [856]\n\nIt is stated by some people that the belief in chithario pir has\ngrown during the last four hundred years.\n\nRags are never offered to wells, but it is common to offer them copper\ncoins and betelnuts. Sometimes flags are hoisted near holy wells\nin honour of the water-goddess Jaldevki. Travellers hoist flags on\ncertain wells and throw copper coins into them in the course of their\njourney. The origin of this offering is said to be in the desire of\ntravellers to prevent people from committing a nuisance near wells.\n\nSome wells are noted as being the abode of spirits who have the\npower of effecting certain cures. It is customary to throw a pice\nin such wells. When a person is bitten by a rabid dog, he goes to\na well inhabited by a vachharo, the spirit who cures hydrophobia,\nwith two earthen cups filled with milk, with a pice in each, and\nempties the contents into the water.\n\nIt is a belief among Hindus that to give alms in secret confers a\ngreat merit on the donor. Some of the orthodox people, therefore,\nthrow pice into wells, considering it to be a kind of secret charity.\n\nThe belief in the practices adopted for transferring disease from\none person to another obtains mostly among women, who have recourse\nto such practices for curing their children.\n\nOne of such practices is to lay a suffering child in the cradle of\na healthy child. This act is believed to result in transferring the\ndisease of the ailing child to the healthy child. Another practice\nis that the mother of the sickly child should touch the mother of\na healthy child with the object of transferring the disease of her\nchild to the child of the latter. Some believe that the mere contact\nof an ailing child with a healthy child is sufficient to transfer the\nmalady of the former to the person of the latter. Others maintain that\nthis can be brought about by a mother either by touching the cradle\nof another child or by touching the person of another woman. There\nare others, who hold that the disease of a sickly child can be\ntransferred to another child by feeding the latter with the leavings\nof the former. There is a further belief that a mother can transfer\nthe disease of her suffering child to the child of another woman by\napplying the end of her robe to the end of the robe of the latter. In\nsome places, when a child begins to weaken, its mother makes an idol\nof cow or buffalo dung, and keeps it fixed to a wall of the house, in\nthe belief that the child will be cured slowly as the idol dries. It is\nstated that instances are actually known of the recovery of children\nby this process. These methods of transferring disease are called\ntuchakas i.e. mystic methods. As a rule superstitious women practise\nthem on Sundays or Tuesdays, as it is believed, that to be efficacious,\nthey must be practised on these days.\n\nIn addition to the tuchakas above stated the utars, doras, etc.,\nalready described, are used for curing diseases.\n\nSome diseases are attributed to vir possession. Virs are male spirits\nfifty two in number. The bhuvas or exorcists are believed to have\ncontrol over them, and are supposed to be able to detect an illness\ncaused by possession by a vir. In such cases, the bhuvas drive away\nthe evil spirits from the patients by magic incantations, or transfer\nthem to others by waving a certain number of grain seeds round the\nhead of the patient. By another process the bhuvas can confine the\nevil spirit in a glass bottle, which is buried underground.\n\nIn order to eradicate a dangerous disease, an utar is frequently\noffered to a dog, in the belief that by eating the utar the disease\nis transferred to the dog.\n\nIn some places, diseases of long standing due to spirit possession are\ncured by employing a bhuva, (exorcist), who, accompanied by others of\nhis order, goes to the patient's house, makes a bamboo bier, waves an\nutar round the patient's head, and lays himself on the bier with the\nutar by his side. The bier is carried to the burning ground by four\npersons to the accompaniment of the beatings of drums, followed by the\nexorcists, who throw baklans (round flat cakes of juvari flour) into\nthe air as the procession moves on. When the party reach the burning\nground, the bier is put down, and the bhuva, shaking violently, offers\nthe utar to a spirit of the place. He then prostrates himself four\ntimes with his face turned towards the four directions and drives a\nnail into the ground at each turn. Next, the bhuva lets loose a goat\nor a ram, to which the vir in the body of the patient is supposed to\nbe transferred. It is said that the performance of this rite relieves\nthe patient's mind of anxiety regarding the cause of his disease,\nand he thereafter shows signs of improvement. [857]\n\nWhen a man is suffering from anjani (a sore or mole on the eye-lid)\nhe goes to another person's house and strikes earthen vessels against\nhis door saying \"I have shaken the vessels. May the anjani be with me\nto-day and with you tomorrow\". It is also stated that such a patient\ngoes to the house of a man who has two wives while the latter are\nasleep, and taps his door uttering the words \"Anjani ghar bhangani\naj mane ane kal tane\" i.e., \"May anjani, the breaker of the house,\nbe to-day with me and tomorrow with thee.\" This process is believed\nto transfer the disease from the person of the patient to that of\nthe husband of the two wives.\n\nA common method for transferring disease is to wave water round a sick\nperson and give it to another to drink. Similarly, a goblet filled\nwith water is passed round a patient's head and offered to a bhuva,\nwho drinks off the contents.\n\nA belief prevails all over Gujarat that a disease can be passed\nfrom one species of animals to another, and various practices are\nadopted to effect this. Generally a bhuva or exorcist arranges the\ntransfer. The bhuva, accompanied by a troupe of dancers and drummers,\nvisits the house of the sick person and, after examining corn seeds\ndanas which have been waved round the patient's head on a night\npreceding a Sunday or Tuesday, declares that the evil spirit possessing\nthe patient requires a living victim. A cock, goat or a male buffalo\nis then brought as a substitute for the patient, is waved round him,\nthe tip of its right ear is cut off, and it is offered to the mata or\ngoddess, that is, it is released to stray as it pleases. These goats,\netc., are called mata's goats, mata's cocks, or mata's male buffaloes,\nand are seen wandering about in many villages. Sometimes the goat,\netc., is killed before the image of the mata and the bhuva dipping the\npalms of his hands into its blood, presses them against the doors of\nevery house in the village. In the case of an outbreak of epidemic,\nthe victim is set at liberty beyond the limits of the village\naffected. It is believed by some people that the animal to which a\ndisease is conveyed in the above manner, dies of its effects. [858]\n\nIn some places the patient is supposed to be possessed by a goddess\ninstead of by an evil spirit. A goat, cock or a male buffalo is\noffered to the goddess in the same way as to an evil spirit.\n\nIn some villages, when there is an outbreak of a serious epidemic,\nit is customary to drive a buffalo beyond the village boundary, with\nthe disease on his back. The back of the buffalo which is chosen for\nthis purpose is marked with a trident in red lead and covered with a\npiece of black cloth, on which are laid a few grains of adad and an\niron nail. Thus decorated, the buffalo is driven beyond the limits of\nthe village. It is believed that an animal driven in this way carries\nthe disease wherever it goes.\n\nVery often, the beast to which a disease is transferred is kept tied\nto a post all its life, with the belief that by so doing the disease\nremains enchained. Jain teachers confine a disease in a bottle and\nbury it underground. Sometimes, a disease is passed on to a crow,\nwhose legs are tied to a pillar, thus making it a life-long prisoner.\n\nOnce upon a time, when there was an outbreak of cholera in a certain\nvillage, a bava (recluse) happened to arrive on the scene. He\ncaught two rams, made them move in a circle, and left them in the\nburning ground, where they died, the epidemic disappearing with their\ndeath. Hence a belief gained ground that an epidemic of cholera can\nbe expelled by passing it on to two rams or goats. [859]\n\nIt is related that, at Gondal, a case of cholera was cured by a Bhangi\n(sweeper) by waving a cock round the patient's head. [860]\n\nA few years ago there lived in Khakhi Jalia, a village in the vicinity\nof Kolki, a Khakhi (recluse) named Narandas, who, when laid up with\nfever, passed on the disease to his blanket, and after a time drew\nit back to his own person.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nWORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.\n\n\nThe spirits of a deceased father, grand father, great grand father,\nand of a mother, grand mother, and great grand mother, i.e., all the\nmale and female ascendants up to the third degree, receive systematic\nworship when the Shraddha or funeral ceremonies are performed either\non the anniversary of the death of any of them or on the day when the\nNarayan bali is performed in such holy places as Gaya, Siddhapur or\nPrabhas Patan. The spirits of those who meet heroic deaths on fields\nof battle are called Suropuros, and pillars are erected in their\nmemory on the spot where they breathed their last. They receive only\noccasional worship. [861]\n\nThe purvajas or spirits of deceased ancestors receive worship on\nthe thirteenth or fourteenth day of the dark half of Shravan (the\ntenth month of the Gujarat Hindu year), on the fourteenth of the dark\nhalf of Ashvin, on the death anniversaries and on days on which the\nShraddhas, tripindis or nil parnavavi ceremonies are performed. On\nthese occasions, the pitriyas (deceased ancestors) are represented\nby twisted braids of the durva grass (cynodon dactylon). [862]\n\nPurvajas or ancestral spirits descend to the level of ghosts when\nthey are strongly attached to worldly objects. Such spirits often\npossess the bodies of their descendants, though the necessary\nShraddhas are performed for their release. The 13th, 14th and 15th\ndays of the bright half of the months of Kartik and Chaitra are the\nspecial days for propitiation of departed spirits by their relatives\neither at home or in holy places, while the whole of the dark half of\nthe month of Bhadarva is devoted to this purpose. [863] During this\nfortnight, shraddha is performed in honour of the deceased on the day\ncorresponding to the day of his death, when Brahmans are feasted. Thus,\na person dying on the 5th day of Kartik has his shraddha performed\non the 5th day of the sharadian. On this occasion, water is poured\nat the root of the Pipal, tarpan or offerings of water are made,\nand pinds or balls of rice are offered to the deceased.\n\nOf all the days of the sharadian the 13th, 14th and 15th are considered\nto be of special importance.\n\nThe death anniversary of a pitriya is called samvatsari, valgo\nsamachari or chhamachhari, when a shraddha is performed and Brahmans\nare feasted.\n\nThe pitriyas are also worshipped on auspicious occasions such as\nmarriages, by the performance of a shraddha called nandi, when pinds\n(balls) of molasses are offered instead of rice. It is considered an\nact of merit to perform shraddha in honour of the pitriyas on the\nbanks of a river or tank at midday on the 8th day of the dark half\nof a month.\n\nFrom the 13th to the 15th day of the dark half of Shravan, after\ntheir morning ablutions, orthodox people pour water over the Pipal,\nthe Babul, the Ber (Zizyphus jujube) and durva grass, and on those\nplaces where cows are known to congregate, in the belief that by\nso doing the thirst of the spirits of the deceased is quenched. It\nis also believed that if feasts are given to the relatives of the\ndeceased and to Brahmans the pitriyas are satisfied.\n\nAccording to some, the Sharadian lasts from the full-moon day\nof the month of Bhadarva to the new-moon day of the same month,\nthat is for a period of sixteen days. The Shraddhas of those who\ndie on the Punema or full-moon day of a month are performed on the\nfull-moon day of Bhadarva, and the Shraddhas of those who die on the\nnew-moon day amavasia of a month are performed on the amavasia of\nBhadarva. The 13th day of the dark half of Bhadarva is called bala\nterash that is children's thirteenth. This day is specially devoted\nto the propitiation of the spirits of children. [864]\n\nOn the Shraddha days Brahmans and relatives of the deceased are\nfeasted, and oblations called Vash, consisting of rice and sweets,\nare offered to crows.\n\nOn Asho Vad fourteenth, that is, the fourteenth of the dark half of\nAsho, it is customary to apply red lead to the pillars erected in\nhonour of men that die heroic or noble deaths on fields of battle,\nto break cocoanuts before them, to light lamps fed with ghi and to\noffer cooked food to their spirits. [865]\n\nThe spirits of those who die with strong attachment to the objects of\nthis world are said to enter the state known as asur gati or the path\nof demons. In this condition the spirit of the deceased possesses the\nperson of one of his relatives and torments the family in which he\nlived. The members of the family, when worried by his persecutions,\nengage the services of a bhuva or exorcist, who sets up a wooden image\nof the tormenting spirit in a niche in a wall of the house. A lamp fed\nwith ghi is lighted daily before this image, and in times of trouble,\na cocoanut is offered to it in the belief that the spirit can protect\nthe offerers from injuries.\n\nThe pitriyas or ancestral spirits are propitiated by pouring water\nover the Bordi (jujube), the Tulsi (sweet basil), the Vad (banyan),\nthe Pipal or durva grass (cynodon dactylon) on the 13th, 14th and 15th\ndays of the bright half of Chaitra and on the same days of the dark\nhalf of Kartik and Shravan. On Vaishakh Shud Trij, that is, on the\nthird of the bright half of Vaishakh, which is called Akha Trij, women\noffer to Brahmans two earthen jars filled with water and covered with\nan earthen cup containing a betelnut, a pice and a pan or betel leaf,\nfor the propitiation of the spirits of their deceased ancestors. [866]\n\nFor the propitiation of a male spirit a party of Brahmans is feasted,\nand for the propitiation of a female spirit three unwidowed married\nwomen. [867]\n\nRajputs, Bharvads, Ahirs and Kolis set up either a pile of stones or\na single stone on the boundary of their village in honour of those\namong them who die on battle fields. These piles or stones are called\nPalios. On the Palios are placed engraved images to represent the\ndeceased in whose memory the Palios are erected. Small pillars are\nalso raised in the localities where such persons met their death. On\nthe Kali Chaudas or black fourteenth, that is the fourteenth day\nof the dark half of Asho, the Palios are daubed with red lead and\nworshipped with offerings of cocoanuts. Women who have become sati\nreceive worship and offerings on the Hindu new year's day. [868]\n\nSpiritual guides such as Shankaracharya, Vallabacharya, the maharajas\nor spiritual heads of the sect called Swaminarayan, Lalo Bhagat and\nTalo Bhagat are worshipped by their devotees with offerings of food,\ngarments and cash. In this Kali Yuga or iron age, men who are really\ngreat are rare, and even if there be some, they are invisible to the\nfaulty vision of the present day degraded mortals. A few come into\ncontact with such holy men by virtue of the good deeds performed by\nthem in their past lives. These are said to attain paradise by this\nsatsang [869] (contact with the righteous).\n\nHoly men receive personal worship during their life-time. After\nthey are dead, their relics, such as impressions of their footsteps,\ntheir photos or busts are worshipped with offerings of sandal paste,\nflowers, red powder, frankincense, lamps fed with ghi and arati\n(swingings of lamps). [870]\n\nEvery sect of Hindus has a Maharaja or spiritual head, and it is\nconsidered meritorious to entertain and worship him on certain\nspecial occasions. The Maharaja or Guru is received with great\n\u00e9clat. His followers form a procession and carry him in a palanquin\nor a carriage and pair accompanied with music. At the house of the\nperson who invites him, the floor is covered with rich cloth, over\nwhich the Maharaja is led to a raised seat specially arranged for the\npurpose. He is then worshipped by the host with the same details as\nthe image of a god. His feet are washed by panchamrita (five nectars),\nthat is a mixture of ghi, milk, honey, sugar and water, which is\nsipped by the worshipper and distributed among the followers of the\nMaharaja. Very often the feet of the Maharaja are washed in water,\nwhich is considered as purifying as the panchamrita. Great festivity\nand rejoicings are observed on this day at the house of the Maharaja's\nhost, where crowds of the Maharaja's followers assemble eager for\na sight of him. After spending about half an hour in the house,\nthe Maharaja departs, first receiving valuable presents from the host.\n\nSpiritual guides who claim the power of working miracles are held\nin high esteem by the people. Some of these guides are said to have\ncontrol over spiritual beings or to possess their favour. These spirits\nare supposed to endow them with the power of preparing mystic threads,\nwhich, when worn round the waist, neck or arm, cure various diseases.\n\nIn the Kadavasan woods, near the village of Daldi, there lives a bava\ncalled Bhimputi, who is believed to possess miraculous powers. He\nsurprises visitors by his wonderful feats and commands vows from\nthe afflicted by mitigating their sufferings. Every day, before\nbreakfast, the bava visits seven villages to collect sugar and flour,\nwhich he throws in handfuls over every anthill which he meets on his\nway. This act of charity has established him as a saint, and most of\nhis prophecies are believed to be fulfilled.\n\nA Musalman named Muhammad Chhail is held in great respect by the\npeople on account of his great magical powers. He is believed to\nbe in the good graces of a Pir, who has endowed him with the power\nof commanding material objects to come to him from long distances,\nand of breaking them and making them whole again. [871]\n\nGreat men of antiquity often command worship as gods. A fast is\nobserved by Hindus on the 9th day of the bright half of Chaitra, the\nbirth day of Rama, whose birth anniversary is celebrated at noon on\nthat day in his temple. On this occasion, all visitors to the temple\noffer a pice or two to his image and receive his Prasad, that is,\nconsecrated food, which consists of a mixture of curdled milk and\nsugar. The birth of Krishna is celebrated at mid-night on the eighth\nday of the dark half of Shravan, when people keep awake for the whole\nof the night.\n\nThe Jains observe a fast for seven days from Shravan Vad Baras, that\nis the 12th day of the dark half of Shravan, to the 5th day of the\nbright half of Bhadarva, in honour of Mahavir Swami, one of their\nspiritual teachers, who is believed to have been born on the 2nd day\nof the bright half of Bhadarva. This period is known as the Pajusan,\nduring which the Jains cause the slaughter-houses and fish markets\nto be closed and give alms to the poor. [872]\n\nA century ago there lived at Nalkantha a sage named Bhansab. He met\na holy death by deep meditations, and a few days after rose up from\nhis grave in his original form. This led him to be classed in the\ncategory of great men and to command divine worship. [873]\n\nVithal, a sage of the Kathi tribe, is revered in Paliad. Savo, a\ndevotee at Zanzarka, is worshipped by Dheds. Fehala, a Rajput and Tolat\nhis wife, are enshrined at Anjar, a village in Cutch. Lalo, a Bania\ndevotee of Sindhavar, received divine honours in his life-time and his\nimage in Sayala is held in great reverence to this day. The samadh of\nMadhvagar, an atit of Vastadi, situated in Unchadi a village in the\nDhandhuka taluka in Ahmedabad, is an object of worship. Harikrishna\nMaharaja, a Brahman saint of Chuda, received divine honours at Chuda\nand the Charotar. [874]\n\nIf the souls of the departed ones are condemned to become ghosts,\nshraddha ceremonies performed by their descendants are said to be\nefficacious in freeing them from their ghostly existence and relegating\nthem to some other form of life.\n\nThe lives of bhuts and pishachas, male and female ghosts, are said to\nextend over a thousand years. [875] Shraddhas, such as the samachari\ni.e., the death anniversary and Narayanbali i.e., a shraddha performed\nin a holy place, emancipate the ghostly spirits from their wretched\nexistence and make them eligible for birth in a better form. [876]\nSome believe that at the end of their ghostly existence (a thousand\nyears) they take birth in the animal kingdom in the mortal world. [877]\n\nThe soul is not said to have finally perished unless it merges into\nthe divine self and attains moksha or salvation. The passions and\ndesires of a dying man do not permit his soul ascending beyond a\ncertain stage, where he or she remains as a ghost until the soul\nis purged of all his or her desires and sins by the performance of\nfuneral ceremonies. For relieving ancestral spirits from the low order\nof bhuts and pishachas, shraddhas are performed by their surviving\nrelatives in such holy places as Prabhas, Gaya and Pindtarak. These\nceremonies are known as Narayanbali, Nilotsarga and saptaha-parayan\n(recitation of a sacred book for seven consecutive days). [878]\n\nThose persons who die with wicked thoughts still present and their\ndesires not fulfilled, enter the order of evil spirits, from which\nthey are liberated after their desires have been satisfied and their\nwicked thoughts eliminated. [879]\n\nBhuts and pishachas--ghosts, male and female--can be prevented from\ndoing harm by recourse to certain processes. For instance, the wife\nof a Nagar of Gadhada became a witch after her death and began to\ntorment the second wife of her husband by throwing her out of bed\nwhenever she was asleep. To prevent this, the husband took a vow\nto perform a shraddha at Sidhpur in the name of the deceased wife,\nafter the performance of which the ghostly presence stopped harassing\nthe new wife of her husband. [880]\n\nBhuts and pishachas are believed by some people to be immortal,\nbecause they are supposed to belong to the order of demi-gods. In the\nAmarkosha--the well-known Sanskrit lexicon--they are classed with\ndivinities, such as guhyaks, and sidhas. The bhut is defined as a\ndeity that troubles infants and the pishacha as a deity that lives\non flesh. Bhuts and pishachas are the ganas or attendants of Shiva,\none of the gods of the Hindu Trinity. They are supposed to be upadevas\nor demi-gods.\n\nPreta is the spirit of a person that dies a sudden or unnatural death\nwith many of his desires unfulfilled. His soul attains emancipation\nby the performance of a saptah, that is a recitation of the Bhagvat\non seven consecutive days. It is described in the Bhagvat that\nDhundhumari, the brother of Gokarn, who had become a preta, was\nreleased from his preta existence by the performance of a saptah\nwhich his brother caused to be made. The Garudpuran mentions that King\nBabruvahan emancipated a preta by the performance of a shraddha. The\nmukti or salvation of a preta is in itself its death. This would\nprove pretas to be mortal. [881]\n\nThe span of life of the bhuts and pretas is very long, but those whose\ndescendants offer them the usual oblations gain their emancipation\nsooner. There is a kund or spring called Zilanand in the vicinity\nof Jhinjhuvada, on the banks of which is a temple of Zilakeshwar\nMahadev. The performance of the pitri shraddha by the side of this\nspring is believed to expedite the emancipation of the spirits of\nthe deceased from ghostly life. Every year, on the Bhadarva amavasya,\nthat is, the new moon day of the month Bhadarva, a great fair is held\non this spot, when people from long distances visit the place to get\ntheir relatives exorcised by the bhuvas or exorcists.\n\nIt is believed, that though bhuts, pretas and pishachas are immortal,\nthey are scared away by the sound of a European band and of other\nmusical instruments. [882] It is said that all drums and other weird\ninstruments whether European or Indian, have the power of scaring\naway evil spirits.\n\nAn evil spirit called Babaro had entered the person of the uncle\nof Maldev the king of Jhalavad much to the king's annoyance. Maldev\noffered a stubborn fight to Babaro, who, unable to cope with Maldev,\npromised to extend his kingdom over those villages in which he would\nhang up bunting in one night. It is said that the present extent\nof the Jahlwad territories was due to king Maldev's enterprise in\nhanging up bunting over these territories as asked by Babaro. [883]\n\nThough at the time of a man's death the faculties may hardly be sound,\nyet the varsana--the impressions--left on his mind by his past actions\nare in themselves good or bad enough to impress him so as to make his\ndeparting spirit assume a new form of life in keeping with them. For\ninstance, a man following a particular profession becomes subject to\ndreams bearing on that profession. When the impression created by his\nactions in daily life is so deep as to induce dreams, his mind, even\nafter death, leaves to his departing soul an inclination to be engaged\nin the subject of his mind's last activities. This is vasana. [884]\n\nIt is a popular saying among Hindus that children inherit the nature\nof their parents. It is for this reason that high caste Hindus do not\nutter the names of their eldest sons. There is a further belief that\nthe Pitriyas departed from the world with certain desires unfulfilled\nreappear as descendants of their children to have these desires\nsatisfied. [885]\n\nAs the saying goes Pita putrena jayate, that is a father is born\nin the form of the son, so the Pitriyas are born as descendants of\ntheir children, or according to the Bija vrikshanyaya, as a tree\nsprings from its seed, that is, its offerings, so parents take birth\nas children of their offspring. [886]\n\nThe Pitriyas, whose attachment to their children or family or wealth\ndoes not die with them, reappear in the same family as descendants. It\nis also believed that persons dying with debts unpaid with the\nconsciousness that they must be paid, are reborn in this world for\nthe discharge of their obligations. [887]\n\nIt is not always that the Purvajas reappear in the same family. It is\nsaid about the departed spirits, that after undergoing punishment for\ntheir sins and enjoying the fruits of their good actions, they come\ndown on earth again as drops of rain, and forming part of the grain\nwhich grows on rain water make their way into the wombs of animals\nand are thus reborn. [888]\n\nOn account of the community of their feelings, habits and ideas\nin previous births, members of different families form different\ngroups. The actions performed in this life keep them bound to one\nanother either as recipients of the return of the obligations given\nin the past or as givers of fresh obligations. The members of a family\nstand thus to one another in the relation of debtors and creditors. It\nis for the discharge of these debts and recovery of dues that several\nindividuals are united in a family. This naturally leads to the\nmembers of a family taking birth again in the same family for the\nproper discharge of debts.\n\nA virtuous child is declared to have been born to return the debts\ncontracted in its past lives, and a vicious one to recover the\ndues. [889]\n\nWhen an atit or holy man or a recluse dies, his body is interred, and\na platform rising waist high from the ground, or a small dome-shaped\ntemple, is built over the spot. This is called a samadh. An image\nof the god Shiva is generally installed in the samadh; but sometimes\npadukas i.e. the impressions on stone of the footsteps of the deceased,\nare installed instead. Instances of the latter are the padukas of\nDattatraya, Gorakha and Machchendra Nath.\n\nBoth the Samadh and the image of the god Shiva as well as the padukas\ninstalled therein, are worshipped by the people, who, in course of\ntime, give currency to the belief that the Samadh possesses certain\nmiraculous powers, such as curing long-standing diseases, blessing\nbarren women with children, etc. Offerings are made to the Samadh by\npious persons and festivals or fairs are held in its honour by the\ninhabitants of the village in which the Samadh is located. [890]\n\nKabars or tombs raised over the graves of Mahomedan saints or Pirs\nare held in equal reverence both by Mahomedans and Hindus. To these\nofferings are made, and fairs are held in their honour.\n\nSome Samadhs and Kabars noted for miraculous powers are given below.\n\n1. Gorakhnath:--The Samadh of Gorakhnath lies on Mount Girnar. It\nis said that when the word Salam is shouted by any one standing on\nthe brink of the hollow wherein the Samadh is said to be, the word\n\"Aleka, Aleka, Aleka\" is heard in response. [891]\n\n2. Kevaldas:--The Samadh of Kevaldas stands in Susavav. It is told\nthat, on one occasion, when a festival was being celebrated in honour\nof the Bava Kevaldas, a nimb tree (Azadirachta Indica) overhanging\nthe Samadh was transformed into a mitho Limbdo (Ailantas excelsa).\n\n3. The Samadh at Kanga:--In the religious house at Kanga, a village\nin the Junagadh State, there lived a bava given to religious\nausterities. It is said that he took Samadh [892] during life. This\nSamadh is said to work miracles at times.\n\n4. Similarly, a bava in the religious house at Navanagar called\nSharada Matha has taken a Samadh during life, and his remains and\nthe structure over them have become an object of worship.\n\n5. The Samadh of Lala bhakta:--Lala bhakta was a native of\nSayola. He was famous for his piety, and after his death his Samadh\nwas deified. It is said in reference to this Samadh that a meal of\ndainty dishes prepared for five or six persons by its side, would\nsatisfy the hunger of a company of fifty, if one happened to arrive\nthere at the time of serving the meal [893].\n\n6. Datar [894] Pir:--The tomb of this Pir is situated on Mount\nGirnar. Almost all people in Kathiawar and many from Gujarat offer\nvows to this Pir. [895]\n\nThis Pir is also known by the name of Kala Yavan. [896] It is believed\nthat he has the power of releasing the chain bonds of a person falsely\naccused with an offence provided he approaches the Pir in chains. The\nsanctity of this Pir is so great that vows in his honour secure to\npersons desiring male heirs the birth of sons. [897]\n\n7. Asami Pir:--The tomb of this Pir is in Lunar. He is believed to\nensure the fulfilment of certain vows made by those who have faith\nin him. [898]\n\n8. Devalsha Pir:--The tomb of this Pir is situated at Amaran about\nseven miles from Todia. Many Hindus perform the first hair-cutting\nceremony of their children at the shrine of this Pir with an offering\nof a sweet preparation of ghi, sugar or molasses, and wheat flour. The\nMuhammadans distribute cooked rice among the Fakirs about this shrine.\n\nA tradition runs that, once seven eunuchs defied the power of this\nPir saying that they would put no faith in him unless they conceived\nsons. This they did, and when in terror regarding their approaching\nconfinement, they were told that the children would have to be taken\nout by cutting their bodies open. The tombs of these seven eunuchs\nand their sons still stand near the tomb of Devalsha to bear testimony\nto his glory and miraculous power. [899]\n\n9. The Kabar of Haji Karmani:--Is situated at Dwarkan and is much\nrespected by both Hindus and Muhammadans. [900]\n\n10. The tombs of Jesal and Toral:--These are said to be the tombs of\na husband and wife of the names of Jesal and Toral. They are situated\nin Anjar, a village in Cutch. It is said that originally these tombs\nwere at the distance of twenty-seven feet from one another, but now\nthe distance between them is only 7 1/2 feet. A belief is current\nthat the day of judgment will come when these two tombs meet. [901]\n\n11. Haj Pir and Gebansha Pir:--The tombs of these Pirs are at\nMendarda. Vows are offered to the Haj Pir (Pilgrims saint) with the\nobject of securing a good rainfall after an unusual drought, also\nfor the restoration of stolen property. Vows to the Gebansha Pir are\nbelieved to be efficacious in curing foot diseases of cattle and skin\ndiseases of children. [902]\n\n12. Panch or Five Pirs:--The tombs of these Pirs are situated in\nDahura, each of them measuring about twenty-seven feet. A miracle is\nattributed to these tombs in the phenomenon that they can never be\naccurately measured, each attempt at measurement giving a different\nresult. Women whose sons die in infancy make vows in honour of the\nPanch Pirs, and take them to their tombs on their attaining a certain\nage, where they observe fakiri [903] for ten days. [904]\n\n13. Aulia Pir [905]:--The tomb of this Pir lies on Mount Girnar. It\nis believed to possess the miraculous power of stopping the career of\ngalloping horses and bringing them to the ground, and of stupefying\nthe senses of a person who enters the shrine. [906]\n\n14. Miran Datar:--The celebrated tomb of this Pir is in the\nvillage of Unjha near Baroda, where a fair is held every Friday in\nShravan. Persons possessed by evil spirits are said to be cured by\nvisiting this tomb and offering an image of a horse stuffed with\ncotton, and a cocoanut. People from all parts of Gujarat and from\ndistant places suffering from physical infirmities, observe vows in\nhonour of this Pir. Some wear iron wristlets round their wrists in\nhis honour. [907]\n\n15. Pir Mahabali:--The tomb of this Pir is situated at Gotarka near\nRadhanpur. Every year a fair is held in honour of this tomb, when\nthe chief Pujari of the shrine of Varalu goes there, holding in one\nhand a bayonet with its point touching his breast, and in the other,\na cocoanut. It is said that when the Pujari reaches the third step\nleading to the entrance of the shrine, the locked doors of the shrine\nfly open, and the Pujari throws the cocoanut into the shrine. If the\nshrine gates do not open of themselves on his approach, the Pujari\nhas to stab himself to death then and there. [908]\n\n16. Kalu Pir:--It is said that this Pir leads a procession every night,\nwhen monstrous kettle-drums are beaten by his phantom followers. On\nevery Friday this procession goes on its rounds, which cover a large\narea. [909]\n\nOther tombs noted for miraculous powers are those of Gebalsha Pir\nin Charadwa, of Daria Pir in Morvi, of Hajarat Pir in Baghdad and of\nKhoja Pir in Ajmere. [910]\n\nThe followers of the tenets of Swami-narayan, Vallabhacharya, Kabir,\nShankaracharya, Ramanuja, Madhwacharya, Nimbark and Talo Bhagat look\nupon these personages as gods, and worship their images. [911]\n\nSome of the spiritual teachers mentioned above maintained\nlarge establishments and made their supremacy hereditary. Their\nrepresentatives (that is either their heirs or disciples) are looked\nupon as the embodiments of the same virtues as were concentrated in the\nfounders of the sects. The great teachers are worshipped either in the\nform of their footprints, their images or their representatives. [912]\n\nThe worship of the following Muhammadan Pirs has been adopted by\nHindus:--\n\n\n(1) Datar Pir in Junagadh.\n\n(2) Datar in Rataiya near Khirasara.\n\n(3) Gobalsha Pir:--This Pir is noted for curing boils.\n\n(4) Tag Pir or the live saint near Bhayavadar:--This Pir is believed to\nhave the power of curing enlargement of the spleen. Persons suffering\nfrom this disease go to his shrine and distribute dry dates among\nchildren. This is supposed to propitiate him and to effect the\ncure. [913]\n\n(5) Miran Datar:--The miraculous and curative powers of this Pir\nare so potent that blind persons are known to have their eye-sight\nrestored and childless persons to have their longings for children\nsatisfied through his favour. Persons possessed by evil spirits are\nexorcised by merely wearing a ring in his name. [914]\n\n\nThe shrine of this Pir is situated in the village of Unava in the\nGaikwar's territory in North Gujarat. His Highness the late Gaikwar\nKhanderao has fixed solid silver railings round the shrine of this\nPir in gratitude for a cure effected by him.\n\n\n(6) Ramde Pir:--This Pir has obtained the epithet of Hindva Pir as he\nis worshipped mostly by the Hindus. He has worshippers in many places,\nwhere shrines are erected in his honour and verses and hymns composed\nand sung in his praise. [915] He is evidently, as his name suggests,\none of the first Khoja missionaries who practised teachings more\nHindu than Musalman in order to secure a following among the Hindus.\n\n(7) Haji Karmani near Dvarikhan.\n\n(8) The Davalsha Pir near Amaran.\n\n(9) The Lakad Pir and the Hussein Pir in the vicinity of Ganod.\n\n(10) Mahabali Dada Pir:--This Pir is to be found close to the village\nof Varai. Milk offered to him in his shrine in indas (egg-shaped pots)\nis said to remain fresh for a year. Similarly, the doors of his shrine\nopen of themselves after the lapse of a year.\n\n(11) Mangalio Pir:--This Pir is worshipped at Dadvi.\n\n(12) Moto Pir:--Is worshipped at Khandorana.\n\n(13) Hindva Pir:--This is the Pir of the Khojas in Pirana near\nAhmedabad. He is so called because he is worshipped by the Hindus also.\n\n(14) Bhadiadaro Pir:--Is in the village of Bhadia near Dhorali.\n\n(15) Ingarasha Pir and Balamsha Pir.\n\n(16) Tamialsha and Kasamsha Pir:--The shrines of these Pirs are on\nthe Girnar hill. [916]\n\n(17) Ganj Pir:--The shrine of this Pir is near Todia. Vows to\noffer a quarter of a pound of molasses to this Pir are believed\nto be efficacious in curing persons of fever and children of their\nailments. [917]\n\n\nThere is a Pir in the village of Vadhardun near Viramgam. Persons\nsuspected of having committed thefts are conducted in chains before\nthis Pir. It is said that, if the charge be false, the chains break\nasunder of themselves. [918]\n\nApart from the respect paid to the Pirs mentioned above, the Hindus\nhold in great reverence the tabuts of the Muhammadans. [919]\n\nThere are various rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.\n\nOne of these is for the barren woman to swallow the navel-string of a\nnew-born child. [920] Another is to partake of the preparation called\nkatlan. [921]\n\nThere are two kinds of preparations which go by the name of katlan. One\nis prepared from seven pieces of dry ginger. [922] The other is\na mixture of suva, [923] sunth (dry ginger), gundar (gum arabic),\ngol (molasses) etc. [924] In order to secure the desired effect,\nthe katlan must be eaten seven times every Sunday or Tuesday seated\non the cot of a woman in child-bed. [925]\n\nThe longing for a child is also believed to be satisfied by partaking\nof the food served to a woman, in confinement, sitting on her bed,\neither on a Sunday or Tuesday. [926]\n\nThere is also another preparation which is believed to cause\nconception. It consists of a mixture of pitpapdo (Glossocardi\nBoswellia), sugar-cane and butter. In order to be efficacious, it\nmust be taken on seven consecutive days commencing from the fourth\nday of the monthly menstrual period. [927]\n\nConception is also believed to be favoured by administering the gum\nof the babul tree dissolved in milk for three days commencing from\nthe third day of the monthly period.\n\nSome believe that, in order to be effective, this mixture must be\ntaken standing. [928] In some places, seeds of a vegetable plant\ncalled shivalangi are also administered.\n\nTo secure conception, a bit of coral is also eaten, with the face\nturned towards the sun.\n\nOther preparations taken with the belief that they cause conception\nare:--\n\n(1) Harde (Myrobalan) put in kansar (a preparation of wheat flour\ncooked in water and sweetened with molasses), (2) extract of the fruit\ncalled sarangdha, (3) paras pipalo (Thespesia populnea) mixed with\nclarified butter, (4) gum mixed with plantains, (5) juice of the\ncooked leaves of the Arani (Elaeodendren glaucum), [929] (6) powder\nof Nag kesar (Messua ferrea) put into milk, and (7) the roots of Bhong\nringdi (a kind of poisonous plant) mixed with the milk of a cow. [930]\n\nIt is also believed that if a barren woman succeeds in carrying away\ngrains of rice from the folds of the upper garment of a pregnant\nwoman, and eats them cooked in milk, her desire for a child is\nsatisfied. [931]\n\nIn celebrating the Simant or first pregnancy ceremony of a woman, the\npregnant woman is taken for a bath to a dung-hill or to a distance\nof about thirty yards behind the house. After the bath is over, she\nreturns home walking over sheets of cloth spread on her way. On this\noccasion her company is coveted by barren women for the purpose of\ntearing off unseen a piece of her upper garment, as this is believed\nto bring about conception. It is said that if a woman succeeds in\ndoing this, she conceives, while the victim has a miscarriage. [932]\n\nSome believe that a slight pressure by a childless woman on the upper\ngarment of a pregnant woman is sufficient to bring about the result\nmentioned above. [933]\n\nOthers hold that a slight blow on the shoulder of a pregnant woman by\na childless woman satisfies the desire of the latter for a child. [934]\n\nConception is also said to be effected by branding children while at\nplay in the streets. [935]\n\nIt is believed that this brand, to have efficacy, must be inflicted\non a Sunday or Tuesday. The operation is generally performed in\nthe evening with a red-hot needle. It is said that the branded child\ndies while the branding barren woman conceives a child. [936]\n\nOffering bread to black dogs is also supposed to be a cure for\nbarrenness.\n\nConception is also favoured by passing under the bier or palanquin\nholding the corpse of an ascetic or holy man while it is being carried\nto the cemetery. [937] Some believe that such an ascetic or saint\nmust be a follower of the Jain faith. [938] Others maintain that\nthe desired end can be secured only by wearing round the elbows the\ngrains of rice or coins offered to the bier of a saint on its way to\nthe cemetery. [939]\n\nOther methods practised for the cure of barrenness are as follows:\n\nThe barren woman cuts off a lock of the hair of a child-bearing woman\nand keeps it in her custody. [940]\n\nSome women collect the dust trodden on by a child-bearing woman in\nan earthen pot and eat it every day till it is exhausted.\n\nSome throw grains of adad (Phaseolus mungo) over the bed of a woman\nin confinement. [941]\n\nOthers daub their foreheads with the blood emitted by a woman in\nmenses.\n\nThere are some who pour water in a circle at the village gate on a\nSunday or Tuesday, and when in period, partake of the powder of mindhal\nmixed with lapsi (coarse wheat flour fried in ghi and sweetened with\nmolasses or sugar) seated on the threshold of the house. [942]\n\nMany wear round their necks leaves called bhojapatras on which the\nmystical figure given below is drawn by an exorcist.\n\n\n                               +---+\n                             4 | 2 | 2\n                     +---+-----+---+\n                    3| 3 |  4  | 3 | 3\n                     |   |   +-+-+ |\n                     +---+---+ 3 +-+----+\n                         |   +-+-+ |    |\n                         |  5  | 4 | 12 | 12\n                         +-----+---+----+\n                      24 |  24 | 4\n                         +-----+\n\n\nPieces of paper on which the following jantra is written by an ascetic,\nwoven in a string made of five kinds of silk, are also worn round\nthe elbows:--\n\n\n                Swaha aum rhin kling swaha.\n\n\nAbout a month and a quarter after the delivery of a woman, a\nceremony called zarman zarvan is performed, when the woman goes to a\nneighbouring stream or well to fetch water for the first time after her\ndelivery. Near the stream or well five small heaps of sand are made and\ndaubed with red lead. Next, a lamp fed with ghi is lighted, and seven\nsmall betelnuts are offered to the stream or well. A cocoanut is then\nbroken, and a part of it is thrown into the water as an offering. Next,\nthe woman fills a jar with the water of the stream or well and returns\nhome, taking with her six out of the seven betelnuts offered to the\nstream or well. On her way home she is approached by barren women who\nrequest to be favoured with one of the betelnuts, as it is believed\nthat swallowing such a betelnut causes conception. [943]\n\nSome believe that only the smallest of the seven betelnuts has the\npower of producing this result [944]. Others hold that this betelnut\nmust be swallowed on the threshold of a house. [945]\n\nEating cocoa-kernel and molasses sitting on the threshold of the\nhouse on the fourth day of the monthly period is also believed to be\na remedy for the cure of barrenness.\n\nPlacing a box containing a kori, (a small silver coin) on a spot where\nthree roads cross one another is also said to favour conception. [946]\n\nIn some places, a black earthen pot containing charcoal and grains of\nadad (Phaseolus mungo) is placed on a spot where two roads cross one\nanother, on a Sunday or Tuesday. On this day the barren woman has to\ntake her meals without salt. [947]\n\nCutting off a lock of a child's hair and keeping it in custody is also\nbelieved to satisfy the longing of a barren woman for a child. This\nresult can also be obtained by securing a piece of a garment of a\nsuckling child.\n\nSome worship daily a cocoanut and a betelnut consecrated with\nincantations. [948]\n\nSome take a bath on the third day of their period, and stand on the\nthreshold of the house with their hair sprinkled over with kankotri\n(red powder). Next, a ghi-fed lamp is offered to the deities, and\nthe devotee prostrates herself before the lamp. [949]\n\nIt is also believed that barrenness can be cured by religious vows,\nby offering alms in propitiation of malignant planets such as Mars,\nand by reciting the jap or incantation called gopal santan to please\nthe deity of that name. [950]\n\nOne of the religious vows of this nature is to observe fasts on twelve\nconsecutive Sundays or Tuesdays. On these days the devotee fixes her\ngaze on the sun and offers him worship, after which she takes a meal\nprepared in milk without salt or sugar. [951]\n\nSome hold a recitation of the chandi kavach a hundred times through\nBrahmans with sacrificial oblations of clarified butter, sesamum\nseed, kamod (a kind of rice), gugal (rhododendron), sandal wood and\nsugarcandy. [952] Others have the story of the Harivansha recited on\nseventeen consecutive days, during which period the devotee (i.e.,\nthe barren woman) observes brahmacharya, that is abstains from\nsexual enjoyment. This ceremony is believed to exorcise the fiend\nof barrenness.\n\nSome keep a vow of standing on their legs for the whole day on the\nfourteenth of the month of Phalgun (the fifth month of the Gujarat\nHindu year) and of breaking their fast after worshipping the sacred\npyre. [953]\n\nThere is another vow called the Punema or full-moon day vow, the\nobservance of which is believed to favour the birth of a son. [954]\n\nPouring water at the root of, or circumambulating, a pipal or babul\ntree after a bath without removing the wet clothes, is also believed\nto cause conception. [955]\n\nSome observe the vow of entertaining thirteen Brahmans and thirteen\nvirgins to a feast, and of setting up Randal Bantva. [956]\n\nWomen whose children die in infancy give them opprobrious names such\nas Khacharo (filth), Ghelo (stupid), Natho, Uko, Ukardo, Bodho, Pujo,\nAdavo, Mongho, Tulhi, Tutho, Kadavi, etc. in the belief that by so\ndoing the life of the children is lengthened. [957] The idea is almost\nAsiatic in extent. Among Musalmans also such names are given; and even\namong the Persians and Arabs boys are given such names as Masriequ and\nOsaid--the Stolen and the Black. Sometimes parents arrange that their\nchildren be actually stolen; and some next of kin, generally the aunt,\nis made to commit the kindly felony. She afterwards returns the child\nfor a certain amount in cash or clothes. The custom is as old as the\nscriptures, there being an allusion in the Koran to how the little\nJoseph was made to steal some garment of his aunt and was claimed as\na forfeit by her. Speaking about Levi, the older brothers of Joseph\nsay to the Egyptian soldiers, \"If he hath stolen (the king's goblet)\nverily the brother of his too did (formerly) steal.\"\n\nSome make a vow of not cutting the hair of their children till they\nare taken to Ambaji, where their hair is cut for the first time. [958]\n\nSome treat their children as beggars until they attain the age of five\nyears, that is, they are dressed till that age in clothes obtained\nby begging. Some bore the nose of the child.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nWORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.\n\n\nThe beliefs current as to the cause of dreams are many. One of\nthese is that memory of known facts or incidents heard or seen\ncauses dreams. Dreams are also supposed to be caused by disorders\nin the brain, by brooding constantly over a particular occurrence,\nby anxiety or by the perpetration of sinful acts. [959] Those who\nare indebted to the pitris (ancestral spirits) are also said to be\ntroubled by dreams. [960] A hearty meal at night just before going\nto bed is also supposed to cause dreams. [961]\n\nThere are three conditions of human existence, (1) Jagriti that\nis wakefulness (2) Swapna that is dream and (3) Sushupti that is\nsleep. The incidents which impress the mind strongly during wakefulness\nare reproduced in dreams. Very often thoughts that never occur to our\nminds strike us in dreams. These are ascribed to the impressions made\non the soul during past lives. [962]\n\nIt is said that the interpretation of dreams goes by contraries. But\nat times they are fully borne out. A good dream is an indication of\nfuture good, and a bad one of future evil. [963]\n\nThere are some persons whose dreams are always fulfilled. Dreams\ndreamt by persons pure of mind and heart seldom turn out false.\n\nDreams occurring in the first quarter of the night are believed to\nbe fulfilled in a year, those in the second quarter of the night in\nsix months, those in the third quarter in three months, and those\nin the last quarter in one month. A dream seen during an hour and a\nhalf before daybreak bears fruit in ten days, while that seen just\nat day-break is realised immediately. [964]\n\nDreams that occur before midnight are never fulfilled. [965]\n\nIf a person has a bad dream, he should go to sleep at once, and not\ncommunicate it to any one. If he has a good dream, he should not sleep\non that night after its occurrence. Early on the following morning\nhe should communicate it to a preceptor or saint; but if neither be\navailable, he should repeat it into the ears of a cow. A good dream\nshould never be told to a bad or low-minded person.\n\nIf a man sleeps after a good dream and has a bad one, the former\nloses its force while the latter gains ascendancy and comes true. [966]\n\nIt is related that Allauddin the bloody once entered the house of a\nblacksmith when the latter was asleep dreaming that he saw a treasure\ntrove after having bathed in a stream and drunk a little water. At the\nsame time Allauddin saw a small insect come out of the blacksmith's\nnostril, drink water from a neighbouring cistern, and return to the\nplace from whence he came. When the dream was over, the blacksmith\nwoke and communicated it to Allauddin, which enabled the latter to\nspot the treasure, found by excavating the place where the insect\nwas hidden. [967]\n\nThe king Nala was questioned in his sleep several times by an\nindividual unknown to him, \"May I come now or later?\" Nala replied\n\"Come now\" thinking that if it was misfortune that put him the\nquestion, it would be better to get rid of it soon, so that the\nlatter part of life might be passed happily. The questioner proved\nto be misfortune, and it is related that Nala met many mishaps during\nhis youth.\n\nSimilarly, a bad dream dreamt by Harischandra was followed by a series\nof calamities.\n\nRavan, the demon king of Lanka or Ceylon, had a dream in the third\nquarter of the night that Lanka was destroyed, and the destruction\nof Lanka followed. [968]\n\nTo see or think or experience in dreams the following, as the case\nmay be is considered to be auspicious:--\n\n(1) A cow, (2) a bullock, (3) an elephant, (4) a palace, (5) a\nmountain, (6) a high peak, (7) the droppings of a bird, (8) ointment,\n(9) weeping, (10) a king, (11) gold, (12) the crossing of the ocean,\n(13) a lamp, (14) flesh, (15) fruit, (16) a lotus, (17) a flag,\n(18) the image of one's favourite god, (19) a saint, (20) a Brahman,\n(21) an ancestral spirit, (22) a white snake biting the right side,\n(23) a flowering tree, (24) climbing a tree, (25) climbing the Rayan\n(Mimusops hexandra), (26) a woman dressed in white, (27) walking\nover a layer of lead, (28) lifting a goblet filled with wine, (29)\na lion, (30) the goddess of wealth, (31) a garland, (32) driving\nin a carriage to which an elephant, a lion, a horse or a bullock\nis yoked, (33) swallowing the disc of the sun or the moon, (34)\nthe hands or feet of a man, (35) worship of a deity, (36) barley,\n(37) rice, (38) sandal paste, (39) the Dro grass (Cynodon Dactylon),\n(40) the moon, (41) the sun, (42) a goblet, (43) an ocean of milk,\n(44) jewels, (45) smokeless fire, (46) an image of the god Shiva,\nBrahma or Ganesh or of the goddess Gauri, (47) a celestial vehicle,\n(48) the heaven, (49) the Kalpavriksha or the magic tree that satisfies\nall desires, (50) a river in floods, (51) fish, (52) curdled milk,\n(53) going on a pilgrimage, (54) ornaments, (55) crossing a river,\n(56) eating the flesh of a man's legs or flowers. [969]\n\nTo see in a dream (1) a person leading a life of celibacy, (2)\na virgin, (3) a green tree, (4) or students returning from school,\nis also considered to foretell good fortune. [970]\n\nSimilarly, the sight of an unwidowed woman and the thought of the\ndeath of any person, in a dream, is believed to bring good luck.\n\nA dream in which one of the following objects is seen is also supposed\nto be good:--\n\n(1) An assemblage of Brahmans, (2) a gardener, (3) milk, (4) a\nprostitute, (5) a shield and sword, (6) a musket, (7) a scimitar, (8)\nan antelope, (9) an unwidowed woman carrying on her head a jar filled\nwith water, (10) a mongoose, (11) a peacock, (12) a woman carrying a\nchild on her waist, (13) newly-washed dry clothes, (14) a costly fan,\n(15) a man dressed in white clothes. [971]\n\nIn a book called Harit-sanhita the subject of the influence of dreams\non human happiness or misery is fully treated.\n\nThe book says:--If the sun, the moon, the congregation of the stars,\na lake filled with clusters of expanded lotuses, or crossing the sea\nor a river full of water be seen or experienced in a dream by a man,\nhe attains wealth, happiness and prosperity and relief from diseases.\n\n\"If a cow, a horse, an elephant, a king or a flower called prashasta\nis seen in a dream by a sickly person, his illness disappears; if\nby one laid in sick bed, he is cured; if by one confined in a jail,\nhe is released.\" [972]\n\nIf a child grinds its teeth and weeps in a dream, it indicates\nliquidation of pecuniary liabilities. One who sees a man die in a\ndream is blessed with longevity. [973]\n\nA bite by a white snake in a dream is an omen of increase of\nwealth. [974]\n\n\"All black objects except a cow, a horse, a king, an elephant, and\nfish, seen in a dream, are the precursors of disease and calamity.\"\n\n\"One who sees in a dream his body devoured by crows, herons, camels,\nserpents, boars, eagles, foxes, dogs, wolves, asses, buffaloes, birds\nmoving in the sky, tigers, fishes, alligators or monkeys, experiences\nin the immediate future a heavy loss or a terrible disease.\" [975]\n\nThe following objects seen, heard or experienced in a dream are\nbelieved to forebode evil:--\n\n(1) Cotton, (2) ashes, (3) bones, (4) whey, (5) singing, (6)\nmerriment, (7) laughing, (8) studying, (9) a woman dressed in red,\n(10) a red mark on the forehead, (11) a gandharva or heavenly bard,\n(12) a demon, (13) a wizard, (14) a witch, (15) a prickly shrub,\n(16) a cemetery, (17) a cat, (18) vomiting, (19) darkness, (20) a\nhide, (21) a woman with a bad reputation, (22) thirst, (23) a contest\nbetween two planets, (24) fall of a luminous body, (25) a whirlwind,\n(26) vishotak (a disease in which the skin is covered with ulcers),\n(27) one carrying away one's vehicle, wife, jewels, gold, silver\nor bell-metal utensils, (28) the breaking of one's own house, (29)\nthe drinking of a poisonous liquid. [976]\n\nIf in a dream one relishes a dish of sweetmeats, plays upon a musical\ninstrument, or sees a widow dressed in the garment of an unwidowed\nwoman, it is believed to prognosticate evil and bring misfortune.\n\nSimilarly, if in a dream, the sleeper marries or hears the crowing of\na crow or the bark of a dog, or an owl speak like a man, it portends\nmisfortune. [977]\n\nSeeing an auspicious mark, or bathing in or being besmeared with oil,\nin a dream, is an indication of one's death in the near future. Going\nto the south riding a he-buffalo, or seeing a widow, brings on\nmisfortune. [978]\n\nIf a man in health comes across a corpse in a dream, he apprehends\nillness. If a patient does the same, he fears death. [979]\n\nIt is a common belief that the soul can leave the body temporarily.\n\nWhen a man feels thirsty in sleep, his soul is supposed to leave\nthe body to drink water, and if it finds the water pots covered, not\nto return to the body, which is found dead the next morning. [980]\nIt is for this reason that most people drink water at the time of\ngoing to bed. [981]\n\nShankaracharya was a life long celibate. Once, in a discussion with\nthe wife of Mandan Mishra, she put to him a question on the subject of\nthe pleasures of married life. To answer the question it was necessary\nto have the experiences of a married life. To gain these experiences\nShankaracharya's soul left his body and entered the corpse of a king\njust dead, and enjoyed the pleasures of married life for six months\nin the company of the queen of the deceased king. It then returned\nto his body, which was preserved by his disciples according to his\ninstructions, and answered the question put to him by the wife of\nMandan Mishra. [982]\n\nIt is related that the spirit of the daughter of a black-smith in\nLuvaria returned to her body two hours after her death, after which\nshe lived for a fortnight.\n\nA similar story is told of a Nagar Brahman, who lived for some years\nafter the return of his spirit to his body. [983]\n\nAbout forty years ago, the corpse of a Kanbi in Lilapur was carried\nto the burning ground for cremation, and there his spirit returned\nto his body. On being asked where he had been, the Kanbi replied that\nhe had been to Dharmaraja, the lord of hell, who told him to go back\nto his body, saying that his life's thread had not yet ended. It is\nrelated that the Kanbi lived for some years after this incident.\n\nAnother instance of the soul departing and then returning to the body\nis that of a Kanbi woman in Lilapur, whose soul returned to the body\nafter she had been carried to the burning ground. The woman lived\nfor five years after this occurrence. [984]\n\nA Brahman in Limbdi named Vaijnath had, by the performance of yoga,\nobtained the power of sending his spirit out of his body and recalling\nit at pleasure. [985]\n\nThe soul of a living being leaves its physical tabernacle during sleep\nand hovers about. It can go to and return from even the heavenly and\ninfernal regions.\n\nThere are eighteen kinds of siddhis or accomplishments, one of which\nis parakayapravesh or the power of entering the body of another and\nreturning to one's own body at will. The soul cannot exist separated\nfrom the body. When a person who revives after death is asked how\nhe returned to life, he declares that he has been carried to the\npresence of the god of death by his messengers, being mistaken for\nanother bearing the same name and living in the same locality. When\nsuch a mistake is detected, the god of death tells the soul of the\nman concerned that his life's span has not yet ended, and sends it\nback to the body, which appears to be dead. [986]\n\nOften the soul of a man ascends to his temples, when the man is\nsupposed to be dead although he is alive. In such cases, when the\nsoul descends, the man is supposed to come to life again.\n\nIt is believed by some people that if all the desires of a man are\nnot satisfied at the time of his death, his soul leaves the body to\nsatisfy them and subsequently returns to the corpse, whereupon the\nbody revives. [987]\n\nA devotee in his meditative trance can send forth his soul\nwhithersoever he pleases. [988]\n\nIt is also believed that the soul of man leaves the body in sleep to\nenjoy those pleasures which it cannot enjoy in wakefulness. [989]\n\nThe popular conceptions of the character and functions of the bhut\nor disembodied soul are as follows:\n\nA ghost has no recognised form. It may assume the form of a human\nbeing, a goat, a blaze of fire, a whirl-wind or any other object it\npleases. [990]\n\nSome assume a terribly gigantic and fearfully uncouth frame, with big\nfang-like teeth, long matted hair and a height that reaches the sky. At\ntimes they assume the form of a child and cry heart-breakingly at a\nconcealed corner of a road. Should a passer-by, out of compassion,\ntry to save it, the supposed infant begins to lengthen its legs to\nshow its benefactor its real and supernatural dimensions. Sometimes\nit transforms itself into a gigantic and terrible being, taking\npossession of the man if he becomes afraid. [991]\n\nSome evil spirits manifest themselves as showers of burning charcoal,\nwhile some are so forward as to offer their services as guides\nto strangers from one village to another. Some assume the form\nof Bhensasur--a demon in the form of a buffalo--said to be a most\nmalignant ghost. [992]\n\nThe throat of a ghost is as narrow as the fine end of a needle, and\nyet it is believed to require a dozen potfuls of water to quench its\nthirst. It cannot get pure water, as such water is guarded by the\ngod Varuna. It has, therefore, to quench its thirst with such dirty\nwater as it can get. Similarly, it cannot get clean food, and has to\nsatisfy its hunger on human excretions, the droppings of birds and\nother animals, urine, and the filth of houses. [993]\n\nIt is generally believed that evil spirits do not cast shadows. All\nattempts to catch them prove futile, as they vanish in the form of\na flame. [994]\n\nIf it is sought to catch hold of a goat-shaped ghost, the goat swells\ninto such a monstrous size that the spectator gets terrified, whereupon\nthe ghost finds an opportunity of disappearing in a flame.\n\nIt is believed that ghosts prefer darkness to light and silence to\nnoise. They live on the Pipal (Ficus religiosa) or Shami (Prosopis\nspicigera) trees. [995]\n\nA ghost presents itself to the vision of a man by blocking its way\nin the form of a goat or some other animal. [996]\n\nGhosts are believed to infest woods, unused wells, cellars and\nold tanks. They are also found in ruins and cemeteries. As far as\npossible they keep themselves aloof from mortals; but at times they\nare visible to human beings, mostly to those destitute of religion and\nmorals. They roam about and terrify people. Sometimes they enter the\npersons of human beings. Such men either gain in strength, fall sick,\nor become senseless. The ghosts who possess them make them laugh or\nwork, without being fatigued, with ten times the vigour they originally\npossessed. [997]\n\nGhosts keep their persons uncovered, feed upon flesh and blood,\nsleep during the day, and roam about at night. [998]\n\nOften a large concourse of ghosts meet together and dance, sing and\nmake merry uttering loud and fierce shrieks. A ghost has no back,\nand has its feet reversed. It keeps away from man, but terrifies him\nby pelting him with stones from a distance. [999]\n\nOn the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin (the twelfth month of\nthe Gujarati Hindu year) all ghosts are believed to go about playing\npranks with poor mortals and possessing them. [1000]\n\nThe Navaratra holidays is the season when ghosts appear in many\nplaces. [1001]\n\nGhosts enter corpses or possess human beings and speak through them as\na medium. Sometimes they assume their original human form, and often\ntorment people with disease. They present themselves as animals and\npass away in a blaze. They hum in the air without being seen, wrestle\nwith men or carry unseen human beings from one place to another. Some\nwomen are believed to conceive by intercourse with male ghosts. [1002]\n\nIf a man happens to step in the circle described by water round the\noffering given to a ghost, viz., utar, he is possessed by the ghost. A\nhouse haunted by a ghost is the scene of great mischief. [1003]\n\nGhosts are said to be most mischievous during the first part of the\nnight. Their fury diminishes with the advance of night. [1004]\n\nGhosts are inimical to human beings, terrify them, and sometimes,\nassuming the form of a cobra, kill those whom they hated most during\nlife. [1005]\n\nThey are pleased with offerings of blood. [1006]\n\nTo throw stones at houses and trees and to set them on fire are their\nusual pranks. [1007]\n\nThe ghost called Jan manifests itself as a giant, its height reaching\nthe sky. If a man comes under its shadow, he is seized by it and\ndashed to pieces on the ground. On the contrary, if a man wins its\nfavour, he becomes prosperous. Hence a proverb has been current that\n\"seizing another as by a jan\" meaning \"being attacked by a dire\nmisfortune.\" [1008]\n\nThere is a female ghost called Chudel. Its back is covered with flesh,\nits feet are reversed, its form is hollow and its face handsome like\nthat of a charming woman. [1009]\n\nIt is said that a woman dying in childbed becomes a chudel. Her form\nis a skeleton behind with the figure of a pretty woman in front.\n\nIt is believed that mastery over ghosts can be obtained by dint of\nincantations or mantras. Those who subjugate ghosts in this way have\npower to command them to do their behests. But the process by which\nsuch powers are procured is believed to be beset with dangers, and\nmany lose their lives in so doing. [1010]\n\nThere is also a belief that a bhut or ghost can be brought under\ncontrol by lopping off a lock of its hair or top knot and keeping it\nin one's custody. [1011]\n\nIt is said that this lock ought to be kept inside the right thigh\nby tearing a hole in the flesh. It is believed that the thigh can be\ncut open by a hair of the ghost without injury. [1012]\n\nThe ghost so subjugated should never be kept unemployed; otherwise\nit oppresses its master. [1013]\n\nIt is believed that the spirits of deceased persons become ghosts\nunder the following conditions:--\n\n1 If scriptural ceremonies are not performed with the ceremonial\nofferings of rice balls to the deceased.\n\n2 If the deceased dies with a strong attachment to worldly objects.\n\n3 If the death is unnatural that is, caused by an accident.\n\nAll ghosts get absolution by the performance of propitiative ceremonies\nby their descendants as prescribed in the scriptures. [1014]\n\nThere are various beliefs current as to the state of the soul after\ndeath. The Garud puran contains many passages illustrating its\nmovements after it leaves the body. Says the book:--\n\n\"When the soul leaves the body it assumes a form as small as a\nthumb. At this very moment it is caught by the servants of Yama while\nhe is crying out ha! ha! looking at its corporal receptacle.\"\n\nAnd again:--\n\n\"Covering the body of the soul (which suffers intensely) and strangling\nit forcibly, the servants of the god Yama carry it away just as a\nculprit is carried by a king's soldiers.\"\n\nThe verses that follow describe the miseries inflicted upon the\npoor thumb-shaped soul for the sins committed by him during his\nlife-time. The sinful soul has to undergo similar miseries in\nhell. From hell it returns to this world guarded by the servants of\nYama, to partake of the rice-balls and other articles of food offered\nby the sons or other relatives. It is then again taken to hell to\nsuffer more miseries and penalties in expiation of past sins. Then\nit returns once more to receive the offerings of rice-balls made\nat shraddha ceremonies. If, even after this, any desires remain\nunfulfilled, it has to continue a wretched existence in the other\nworld. [1015]\n\nIn a chapter of the Pretamanjari of the Garud Puran it is stated that\nthe souls of righteous men go to the next world unmolested. [1016]\n\nSome people believe that the departing soul assumes a form like a\nthumb, and remains in that state until relieved by the performance\nof shraddha by his heirs. It then enters the other world to enjoy\nthe fruits of its good actions. The Yamapuri or the city of the\ngod of death is 8,6\u00b40 Yojans--a Yojan being equal to four miles--to\nthe south of the earth. The lord of this place is Dharmaraja. Yama\nis his servant, whose duty is to carry the soul from one place to\nanother. [1017]\n\nOthers maintain that two states await the soul after death according\nto whether it has performed righteous or sinful acts during life.\n\nThe righteous attain to heaven and enter the Parshad Vaikunta of\nVishnu. The sinful go to hell or Yamaloka. [1018]\n\nThe sinful souls go to Yamaloka and are made to suffer the miseries\nof twenty-eight naraks or hells in proportion to the sins perpetrated\nby them, after which they return to the earth.\n\nThe following are some of the punishments meted out to wicked souls\nfor their sins, in their next lives:--\n\n1 Those who murder Brahmans suffer from consumption.\n\n2 Those who slaughter cows are born as tortoises.\n\n3 Those guilty of female infanticide suffer from white leprosy.\n\n4 One who kills his wife, as well as a woman guilty of causing\nabortion, becomes a beggar.\n\n5 Those who commit adultery become impotent.\n\n6 He who seats himself on the bed or seat of his preceptor is affected\nby skin diseases.\n\n7 Flesh-eaters get a red body.\n\n8 Those who indulge in drink get black teeth.\n\n9 A Brahman partaking of prohibited food suffers from dropsy.\n\n10 One who eats sweets without sharing them with the by-standers\nsuffers from cancer in the throat.\n\n11 One who offers polluted food to departed spirits suffers from\nblack leprosy.\n\n12 One who disobeys and despises his teacher suffers from wind apasmar.\n\n13 One who does not believe in the shastras suffers from enlargement\nof the spleen or Bright's disease.\n\n14 A perjurer is born dumb.\n\n15 One who does not serve food equally to all the members at a dining\ntable loses one of his eyes.\n\n16 Those who break off a marriage alliance are punished with thick\n(negro-like) lips.\n\n17 Those who steal books lose their eye-sight.\n\n18 He who kicks a Brahman becomes lame.\n\n19 A liar becomes a stammerer.\n\n20 Those who listen to contradictory versions of what is generally\nbelieved to be true become deaf.\n\n21 One who poisons another becomes a lunatic.\n\n22 One who steals precious metals becomes indigent.\n\n23 An incendiary is punished with a bald head.\n\n24 Meat-sellers meet with misfortunes.\n\n25 One who steals gold has his nails deformed.\n\n26 He who steals food is born a mouse.\n\n27 One stealing corn has to be reborn as a locust.\n\n28 One stealing opium or other poisonous drugs is born a scorpion.\n\n29 One who steals leaves or vegetables is born a peacock.\n\n30 One who enjoys perfumes by stealing them is born a mole.\n\n31 One who steals honey becomes an eagle.\n\n32 One who steals flour, rice, etc. is born a monkey. [1019]\n\nThe state of the soul after death depends upon a man's good or bad\nactions in life.\n\nThe souls of the righteous leave the body without any trouble. The\nmessengers of the god of death present themselves to these souls in\nthe form of saints and carry them to that part of the heaven which\nis presided over by their favourite deity, by the eastern, northern,\nor western gates. They are received there with great respect. Here\nthey enjoy the fruits of their merit, after which they return to this\nworld and are born either in the family of a wealthy virtuous man or\nin that of a poor Brahman who has attained the knowledge of God. In\nthis new life they accumulate further merit, in virtue of which they\nare endowed with a higher spiritual life in the following birth,\nand so on until they attain final emancipation.\n\nAfter attaining moksha or salvation the soul becomes free from the\nwheel of birth and rebirth.\n\nTo the souls of the sinful, who leave their bodies with a great\nstruggle, the messengers of the god of death present themselves\nin a terrible form. They are carried to hell by the southern gate,\nbeing constantly lashed on the way. There they are relegated to one\nof the twenty-eight pits (of hell) appropriate to their misdeeds,\nto suffer retribution for their sins. [1020]\n\nThe soul is carried to Dharmaraja after it leaves the body. Thence,\nwith the permission of the god, it returns to this world and halts for\nthirteen days at the threshold of its house. On the thirteenth day\nan earthen jar filled with water is emptied on a pipal tree (Ficus\nreligiosa) after which its connection with this world ceases. Then\nit returns to the heavenly judge of actions (Dharmaraja), and is\nagain born in the species prescribed by him. The soul of a strictly\nspiritual being merges into the divine entity and becomes free from\nbirth and rebirth.\n\nMoksha or Mukti, that is final emancipation is of two kinds, sayujya\nor merging into the divine form and samishya or entering the divine\norder and living in this state so long as one's merits allow.\n\nDharmaraja keeps an account of the good and bad actions of all men in\nhis book called siddhi karan, and dispenses justice according to it. A\nman guilty of adultery is sentenced to embrace a redhot image of a\nwoman; one who has slaughtered animals is devoured by those animals;\nwhile those who have committed the sin of murdering Brahmans are\nrelegated to hell for ever. [1021]\n\nThere are seven rungs to the ladder which leads to the next world. The\nfirst is covered with a thick forest. The second bristles with pointed\nspears. The third is strewn with gokharu (a species of thorns). The\nfourth has piercing blasts. On the fifth runs the river Vaitarna. The\nsixth is full of red-hot iron. The seventh is covered with deep\nstreams. [1022]\n\nAfter death, the soul has to cross the river Vaitarna (vide the fifth\nrung above) on its way to the next world. Those who have given cows\nin charity can cross this river without difficulty by holding the\ntails of the cows, who present themselves to help them.\n\nThose who have given shoes in charity can tread the third step\nwith ease.\n\nThe sinful have to walk barefooted on ground studded with pointed\nspears, and to embrace red-hot iron pillars. It is with the object\nof avoiding these miseries that people distribute shoes and clothes\nin charity. [1023]\n\nThe sinful expiate their sins by passing through a cycle of 8,400,000\nbirths. [1024] They have to be born 2,100,000 times in the class\nof creatures born of eggs, 2,100,000 times in the species of worms\nproduced from sweat, 2,100,000 times from embryonic birth and a\nsimilar number of times in the vegetable kingdom.\n\nThose who lack virtue but commit no sins are born in the divine order\nof a low grade such as the servants of Kuber, the attendants of the\ngod Shiva, Gandharvas, Vaitals, Brahmarakshasas, Kushmands and other\ndemigods. Virtuous women are born as goddesses or devis or as apsaras\nor celestial songstresses. Those who have performed only a few acts\nof righteousness enter the ranks of Jakhanis, Kinnaris, Matrikas,\nand the maid servants of the goddess Durga. [1025]\n\nThe souls of the righteous are carried by Yamadutas or the messengers\nof the god of death through five cities, by a route passing through\nbeautiful gardens; while those of the sinful are led barefooted over\nbrambles and pointed spears by roads running through dense forests\nhidden in pitchy darkness. The latter have also to cross large\nrivers and pass through streams filled with blood and puss. As they\npass, eagles prey upon their bodies and they are bitten by venomous\nsnakes. [1026]\n\nThe souls of those who have in life performed good actions pass through\nthe sun and assume divine forms; while those of ordinary beings pass\nthrough the moon and return to this world. [1027]\n\nA sinful soul has to go to Yamaloka or hell through sixteen cities. On\nits way it has to cross the river Vaitarna, which consists of blood\nmixed with puss. He who has presented a cow to a Brahman can cross\nthis river with ease. Beyond this river lies a land which is covered\nwith spikes. Those who have given in charity ashtamahadan, that is,\nsesamum seeds, flour, gold, cotton, salt, clarified butter, milk\nand sugarcandy, can walk over this ground without being hurt. When\nthe soul has reached Yama or the god of death, the sun and the moon,\nthe ever-living witnesses of human actions, testify to its virtues and\nsins, and it is meted out a punishment appropriate to its sins. [1028]\n\nIn order that the departed soul may not find its way difficult,\nhis heirs make a gift to a Brahman of a bedstead, bedding, a lamp,\ncorn, a pair of shoes and other articles, on the thirteenth day after\ndeath. This gift is called seraja. [1029]\n\nOne enters the human order after passing through 8,400,000 species of\nliving beings. It is in the human life that one can accumulate merit,\nand wipe out the influence of past sins.\n\nThose who meet a sudden or violent death, e. g., by being crushed\nunder a falling house, by drowning in a well, by an accidental fall,\nby a snake bite, etc. enter the order of bhuts, pretas, pishachas,\netc., and are said to have gone to durgati or to a bad path. [1030]\n\nBut those who die on a field of battle are believed to attain\nheaven. [1031]\n\nAccording to another belief, persons dying a violent death have to\npass through the same fate, that is, die violently, for the next\nseven lives. [1032]\n\nTheir souls are said to be liable to enter the asurgati or the order\nof devils. They are emancipated from this condition by the performance\nby their descendants of the ceremony called Nil parnavavi or of those\nceremonies prescribed in the Pal Shastra. [1033]\n\nIt is also believed that such souls after entering the order of ghosts\noppress and torment their descendants and relatives. [1034]\n\nIn the case of suicides, when the crime is proved before the god of\ndeath the culprit is hurled into a hell called Maharaurava, where he\nhas to pass a thousand years. After the expiry of this period he is\nborn again into this world, again commits suicide, and again meets\nthe same fate after death. This is repeated seven times, after which\nhe has to pass through 8,400,000 species of animals before again\nobtaining the human life. [1035]\n\nIf the suicide be caused by poisoning, the person, in his next\nlife, becomes a serpent; if by drowning or strangling, he becomes a\nghost. [1036]\n\nSome believe that the souls of persons meeting a violent death enter\nthe order of such ghosts as Jinni, Mamo, etc. For their emancipation\nshraddhas are performed by their descendants. At times these ghosts\npossess the persons of their nearest relatives, and through this\nmedium declare their desires. If they express a desire to have a\npalio or pillar erected in their name, one is erected on the spot\nwhere they breathed their last. On this pillar is engraved a figure\nriding a horse, representing the deceased, which is besmeared with\nred lead or ochre. This representation is worshipped as a deity with\nofferings of frankincense, cocoanuts and lamps fed with ghi. [1037]\n\nThe palio is called surdhan, and is worshipped, especially on the\ndeath anniversary of the deceased. [1038]\n\nIn some castes the surdhans are installed in the house of the\ndeceased. [1039]\n\nThere are various beliefs current as to the way in which spirits\nenter and leave the body.\n\nAccording to one belief, when a person gets frightened by the\napparition of a ghost, the ghost enters his body through one of the\norgans, and makes him senseless and violent. [1040]\n\nAccording to another belief, a ghost, as stated above, takes an airy\nform and enters the body through any channel through which air can\nenter the body. It leaves the body by the same route. [1041]\n\nThere is also a belief that evil spirits enter the body of a man\nthrough any part of the body and under their influence the person\npossessed dances, jumps, foams or sits idle [1042].\n\nThere is a further belief that a ghost enters the body through the\nthumb and gets out by the ears. [1043]\n\nAccording to some, a ghost makes its way into the body through the\nanus and its exit by the same route. [1044]\n\nOthers maintain that it enters the body through the nostrils and gets\nout by the same passage. [1045]\n\nSome say that it finds an entrance and outlet through the skull. [1046]\n\nThere are others who are of opinion that the immaterial form of a\nghost can find admission into the body by the right side and egress\nthe same way. [1047]\n\nIt is said that when the body is unclean, a ghost can enter it through\nany of the organs. [1048]\n\nTo drive away an evil spirit from the body of a person, a conjuror,\nVanjha, Koli, Vaghri, Atit, Fakir or other exorcist is engaged to set\na danklan [1049] and to offer a victim and frankincense to the evil\nspirit, which is supposed to drive the spirit out by the same route\nby which it entered the body. [1050] [1051]\n\nAnother method of driving away an evil spirit from the body is as\nfollows:--\n\nAs soon as it is ascertained that a man is possessed by an evil spirit,\nsomebody catches hold of the top-knot of the man or ties it into a\nknot. Next he is lashed with a whip or chain until the ghost in him\ncries out \"Please don't beat me. I shall leave the body and shall\nnever return.\" Then the ghost is told that it is a liar, that it said\na thousand times that it would leave the body and not return, but it\ndid not do it. No faith, therefore, would be put in its word. After\na haggling dialogue of this kind and on the ghost's confirmation of\nits offer never to return by some satisfactory oath or assurance,\nthe top-knot is unloosed and the ghost disappears. [1052]\n\nA third method is to subject the person possessed to the fumes of red\nchillies or of black wood, or to tie a sacred thread round his elbow.\n\nAfter one of these processes has been performed to expel the ghost,\nthe victim gives a deep yawn, and it is said that the ghost goes out\nin the yawn. Next the relieved person is given water to drink, and\nan exorcist is engaged to take measures to prevent the possibility\nof the ghost's return. [1053]\n\nIn a book entitled Brahman Nighanta Ratnakar is described the method\nof driving away an evil spirit from the body of a man by an offering\nof dhup or frankincense. The dhup to be used for this purpose must be\nmade of gugal, and it must be offered with honey and clarified butter,\nrepeating the following mantra:--\n\n\"Amen. Bow to the divine Lord of the evil spirits, the Lord whose\nteeth, jaws, and mouth are fierce, by whose three eyes the forehead\nis ablaze, whose lustre is marked by irresistible anger, who holds a\ncrescent moon on the forehead and matted hair on the head, whose body\nis besmeared with ashes; whose neck is adorned by the poison of the\nfierce lord of the cobras. Oh! may success attend to thee! Oh! Great\none! The Lord of spirits! manifest thy form, dance, dance; move, move;\ntie with a chain, tie; terrify by a neigh, terrify; kill, kill by\nthe adamantine wand; cut, cut off by a sharp weapon; tear off, tear\noff by the point of a spear; reduce, reduce to atoms by the bludgeon;\nremove remove, all the evil spirits Swaha.\" [1054]\n\nThere are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people\nregarding sneezing.\n\nAccording to one belief, if a person sneezes face to face with another\nwho is about to begin an auspicious act, such as starting on a journey,\ndecking his person with ornaments, performing a marriage ceremony,\nand the like, it portends misfortune to the latter; but a sneeze\non his right or at his back foretells good. A sneeze in front of\na person starting to perform an auspicious act is supposed to mean\nthat a blow has been struck on his forehead, suggesting that the act\nshould be stopped. If, in spite of this warning, the act is commenced,\nevil consequences are sure to follow.\n\nA sneeze at a man's back confirms the unobstructed fulfilment of the\nact taken in hand, as it is believed to have patted the man on his\nback or shoulders in token of approval.\n\nSneezes on either side, right or left, portend neither good nor evil.\n\nAs a rule, sneezes are believed to forebode evil, and it is considered\nhighly unmannerly to sneeze while one is about to begin an auspicious\nact or start with a good purpose. If, in spite of this etiquette,\none sneezes, he excuses himself by saying that he is suffering from\ncold. [1055]\n\nSome people believe that a sneeze in front is an indication of a\nbroil on the road, a sneeze on the left side portends loss of money,\none from above is a harbinger of success, one from below foretells\ndanger, while the sneeze of the man who is engaged or is starting on\nthe act contemplated is believed to be very injurious. A sneeze on\nthe right is considered neither good nor bad. [1056]\n\nA sneeze in the east causes anxiety, in the south-east foretells\nhappiness, in the south speaks of coming loss, and in the south-west\nis an indication of good. A sneeze from the west or north-west is\nconsidered good, from the north injurious, and from the north-east\nauspicious. [1057]\n\nSome lines from the sayings of Gorakhraj run to the effect that a\nsneeze in the east causes anxiety, one in the south-east inflicts\na sound beating, one in the south brings a visitor or guest, one in\nthe south-west subjects the person concerned to a taunt, one in the\nwest bestows a throne or crown, one in the north-west promises sweets\nor dainties, one in the north foretells good, one in the north-east\nbrings disappointment, while one's own sneeze is so ominous that one\nshould never start out on any business after sneezing. [1058]\n\nThe beliefs enumerated above relate to sneezes which occur on certain\nweek days. The sneezes which occur on Sundays have the following\nconsequences.\n\nA sneeze from the east is good, one from the south-east points to\ndelay in the fulfilment of one's intended object, one from the south\nbrings in profit, one from the south-west results in death, one from\nthe west in happiness, one from the north-west throws one into the\nsociety of good men, one from the north is productive of pecuniary\ngain, and one from the north-east of general wellbeing. [1059]\n\nIt is a common belief that if while one is about to commence some\nact, somebody sneezes once, the act is doomed to fail, and to avoid\nfailure it must be postponed. But if the sneeze is repeated, no\nharm ensues.\n\nA sneeze by an ailing person is believed to be a sign of his recovery,\nand more sneezes by the same person are supposed to indicate his\ncomplete recovery, even though the symptoms be not favourable.\n\nA sneeze by a cow at the commencement of an auspicious act is supposed\nto be the worst possible omen, and a sneeze by a cat is proverbially\na portent of failure in any act taken in hand at the time. [1060]\n\nA yawn is generally believed to be harmless, as it does not foretell\neither good or evil. Still as sometimes it results in accidental\ninstantaneous death, the elders of a person when he yawns, exclaim,\n\"Be long-lived! Patience! Live long!\", and the spiritually disposed\nrepeat the name of the god of their devotion. [1061]\n\nLest spirits may make their way into the body of a person through\nhis mouth when he is yawning, or lest his soul may pass out of it,\nsome people pinch him to stop the yawn while others utter the words\n\"Ram\" \"Ram\" to divert his attention. [1062]\n\nIn mythological times, Brahma, one of the gods of the Hindu Trinity,\nonce left his body for a time. Some people began to molest the body,\nwhen he cried out, \"Rakho! Rakho!\" that is \"Keep aloof! Keep aloof!\" or\n\"Wait! Wait!\". These people came to be called Rakho [1063] which in\ncourse of time corrupted into Rakshasa. The beings who hold sway over\nrakshasas are called Maharakshasas. In the Ramayan and other purans,\nrakshasas are represented as feeding on human flesh. [1064]\n\nA rakshasa is supposed to be sixteen miles in height and to roam about\nfor his prey within a circle with a radius of sixteen miles. [1065]\n\nThe Maharakshasas are supposed to have their abode in the seas. It\nis said that they burn or swallow ships sailing thereon. [1066]\n\nThe rakshasas are supposed to number 60,000,000 and the maharakshasas\n20,000. Kubera, a maharakshasa, is the lord of the rakshasas. [1067]\n\nIt is said that the rakshasas, maharakshasas, wizards and witches were\nvisible to the human eye during the tretayuga. With the commencement\nof the present or kaliyuga they have become invisible. It is stated in\nthe Purans that during the recitation of the Surya kavach, Saptasani\nor the Narayan kavach, if the rakshasas or maharakshasas fall into\nor approach the limits circumscribed for them, the recitation proves\nineffective. [1068]\n\nIt is a common belief that there is bitter enmity between the gods\nand rakshasas. The former follow the path of virtue while the latter\nlead immoral lives devouring Brahmans and cows, feeding on flesh,\nand indulging in intoxicating drinks. The habitat of the rakshasas\nis the patal or nether world, Rawan being their king. [1069]\n\nThe exploits of some of the rakshasas are described in the Mahabharat,\nBhagvat and the Ramayan. For instance, the misdeeds of Jarasandh,\nGhatotkacha and Hedamba are described in the Mahabharat; those of\nKansa, Banasur, Pralambasur, Adhasur, Dhenukasur, Kalanemi, Shankasur\nand Vritrasur in the Bhagvat; and those of Ravan, Kumbhakarna and\nIndrajit in the Ramayan. [1070]\n\nA rakshasa named Tripurasur conquered the heavens, the earth and the\nnether regions, and began to annoy the gods. The god Shiva burnt the\nrakshasa to ashes. [1071]\n\nThe two rakshasas Hiranyaksha and Hiranyakashyapu were originally the\ngate-keepers of Vishnu, one of the gods of the Hindu trinity. Once\nthey affronted Sanatkumar, the son of Brahma, when they were cursed\nby Vishnu who decreed that they would be born rakshasas in three\nsuccessive lives. In these lives they had to play the part of the\nenemies of gods and men, and were destroyed by Vishnu as such.\n\nA rakshasa named Jalandhar is stated to have met his death when the\nchastity of his wife was violated by the god Vishnu in the disguise\nof her husband. [1072]\n\nMaharakshasas are also known by the name of Brahma rakshasas. A\nBrahman dying without imparting all his learning to his disciples or\nwith the guilt of the murder of a Brahman or a cow on him is believed\nto enter the order of Brahma rakshasas after his death. In this state\nhe possesses a body without a head. A Brahma rakshasa is also called\nKhavis. [1073] [1074]\n\nIn addition to the wizards and witches mentioned above, there are\nothers the names of which are as follows:--\n\n(1) Dakini, (2) Sakini, (3) Kushmand, (4) Zod, (5) Dholio, (6)\nPale Marad, (7) Bhuchar, (8) Khechar, (9) Jalaj, (10) Jakharo, (11)\nShikotrum, (12) Ashtabharo, (13) Chand Chani, (14) Chorosi Kantini,\n(15) Jogani, (16) Hathadi, (17) Miyali, (18) Ghanchini, (19) Mochini,\n(20) Baladi, (21) Molani, (22) Khuntini, (23) Suti, (24) Gavati, (25)\nBethi, (26) Ubhi, (27) Avi, (28) Chaurar, (29) Madhu Pavanti, (30)\nMansa Khavanti, (31) Bhasika, (32) Pratab, (33) Vira, (34) Vavanchara,\n(35) Chorasi Viru, (36) Nao Narasing, (37) Jaikha, (38) Jutaka, (39)\nMasida, (40) Gandharavi, (41) Jami, (42) Asmani, (43) Mamikula, [1075]\n(44) Zampadi, (45) Meladi, (46) Balla. [1076]\n\nOf the above, the first forty-three together with Chudela or Vantri\nand Preta are believed by some to be the names of so many Joganis\nor female evil spirits or witches. The remaining are living Dakans\nor witches who are believed to cause illness or even death by their\nevil eye to those on whom they throw a glance. [1077]\n\nWizards live upon ordinary food, witches on air, while pretas require\nnothing to eat for their maintenance. It is said that their backs and\nshoulders are covered with filth and emit an offensive odour. [1078]\n\nIt is generally believed that the spirits of such male members of\nlow unclean castes as die a violent death become Khavis. [1079]\nSome believe that Khavis or Khabith is a Musalman ghost. [1080]\nOthers hold that he is the lord of all ghosts. [1081]\n\nKhavis has no head. His eyes are located in the chest. He is as tall\nas a cocoa-palm or bamboo. He roams about holding in one hand a weapon\nand in the other a lump of flesh. Those over whom his shadow falls\nare said to fall ill. [1082] His appearance is so terrible that a\nperson who sees him for the first time is frightened to death. [1083]\nIt is stated that he starts on his excursions after sun-set. [1084]\n\nThe attendants of the god Shiva known as Vaitalikas are said to\nhave no heads. [1085] They live in cremation grounds, as they have\na burning desire to possess the bodies of deceased persons. [1086]\n\nA belief runs that the trunk of the evil spirit called Suropuro,\nthat is the spirit of one who meets a heroic death, moves about like\na Khavis. [1087]\n\nIt is a common belief that evil spirits haunt trees, groves, deserted\ntanks and woods. [1088]\n\nVetal roams over burial and cremation grounds, as also Bhuchar,\nKhechar, Kal-Bhairav and a number of other ghosts. [1089]\n\nThe Jimp, Babaro and some other ghosts reside in fortresses and\nunoccupied houses and roam about in the burning grounds. Chudela, Kotda\nand Brahma Rakshasa make their abodes on the tamarind, Shami (Prosopis\nspicigera), Babul and Kerado trees and in deep tanks and wells in\ndeserted places. Their favourite haunts are river banks. [1090]\n\nIt is stated by some people that the Chudel, Vantri, Dakan, Jimp,\nKhavis and other ghosts generally haunt cremation grounds, fields\nwhere battles have been fought, thresholds of houses and latrines\nand cross-roads. [1091]\n\nSome declare that ghosts are also to be found in temples in which\nthere are no images and in dry wells. [1092]\n\nThe ghost preta is said to be as tall as a camel, the passage of\nits throat being as small as the bore of a needle. It is therefore\nbelieved to be always wandering about in quest of water. [1093]\n\nThe evil spirit Jan haunts mountains and forests and Mamo the centres\nof filth, while Vetal is found in cremation grounds. [1094]\n\nJan, Brahma Rakshasa and Khavis reside in woods, trees, or on\nmountains, Khijadio Mamo lives in the Khijada or Shami tree and Amatho\nMamo in a grove of trees. Spirits of high caste people not emancipated\nfrom the trammels of birth and rebirth have their abode in the Pipal\ntree. [1095]\n\nIt is related that once a number of boys, on their return from a tank\nto which they had gone on a swimming excursion, passed by a Khijada\ntree, when one of them suggested to the others to throw stones at\nthe tree, saying that any one not doing so would fall under the\ndispleasure of God. One of the boys threw a stone at a neighbouring\nBabul tree with the result that on reaching home he fell ill in a fit\nof terror. He began to shake and said, \"Why did you strike me with a\nstone? I had resorted to the Babul tree from the Khijado and you struck\nme there. I shall not depart until I take your life.\" Evidently it was\nthe Khijadio Mamo who had possessed the boy who spoke the above words;\nand an exorcist was called who drove him out by the incantation of\nmantras; after which the boy recovered. [1096]\n\nIt is believed that a woman who dies an unnatural death becomes a\nChudel and troubles her husband, her successor or co-wife, or her\nchildren. [1097]\n\nThere are three classes of Chudels, (1) Poshi, (2) Soshi and (3)\nToshi. Those women that have not enjoyed before death the pleasures of\nthis world to their satisfaction enter the order of Poshi Chudels. They\nfondle children and render good service to their widower husbands.\n\nThose women that are persecuted beyond endurance by the members of\ntheir families become Soshi Chudels after death. They dry up the\nblood of men and prove very troublesome to the members of the family.\n\nThose women who bear a strong attachment to their husbands enter\nthe order of Toshi Chudels and bring great pleasure and happiness to\ntheir husbands in this life. [1098]\n\nMost high caste people, on the death of their first wives, take\nan impression of their feet on gold leaves or leaf-like tablets\nof gold and cause their second wives to wear them round their\nnecks. [1099] These impresses of feet are called shok-pagalans or\nmourning footprints. Among the lower castes, the hands or the feet\nof the second wives are tattooed in the belief that this prevents\nthe deceased wife from causing injury to the second wife. [1100]\n\nAll female spirits called Pishachas or Dakans and male spirits called\nVirs or Bhuts oppress their descendants. [1101]\n\nIt is also believed that any male member of a family dying with\ncertain of his desires unfulfilled becomes a Surdhan and oppresses\nthe surviving relatives, while a female member troubles others as\nSikoturu or Mavadi. [1102]\n\nThe spirits of men that fall victims to tigers or other wild animals\nare believed to enter the ghostly order and wander about until they are\nrelieved from this state by the performance of the prescribed shraddha\nby some pious surviving relative. [1103] These evil spirits live in\nforests and eat nothing but flesh. [1104] If they do not get flesh\nto eat they eat the flesh of their own bodies. [1105] At times they\nput their relatives to great annoyance by entering their persons. To\npacify them, palios are erected in their name, and their images are\nset up in the square cavities of walls. These images are besmeared\nwith red lead and oil by their descendants on the fourteenth day of\nthe dark half of Ashvin. The relief of such spirits is sought by the\nperformance of a shraddha either at Siddhapur or at Gaya. [1106]\n\nIt is believed that a woman dying in child-bed or menses enters the\norder of ghosts variously known as Chudels, Vantris or Taxamis. In\norder that she may not return from the cremation ground, mustard seeds\nare strewn along the road behind her bier, for a belief prevails that\nshe can only succeed in returning if she can collect all the mustard\nseeds thus strewn on the way. [1107]\n\nIn some places, loose cotton wool is thrown over the bier so as to be\nscattered all along the road to the cemetery. It is believed that the\nChudel can only return to the house if she can collect all the cotton\nscattered behind her in one night. This is considered an impossible\ntask, and no fear is therefore entertained of her return after the\ncotton has been scattered. [1108]\n\nTo prevent the return of the Chudel, some people pass underneath the\nbier the legs of the cot on which the woman lay in her confinement,\nwhile others drive in an iron nail at the end of the street immediately\nafter the corpse has been carried beyond the village boundary. [1109]\n\nIn some places, the nail is driven into the threshold of the\nhouse. [1110]\n\nEven after the precautions mentioned above have been taken, to\nprevent the return of a Chudel or Vantri, Shraddhas are performed,\nand a number of Brahman women feasted on the twelfth and thirteenth\nday after death to propitiate her as the fear of the mischief done\nby her is very strong.\n\nA Chudel has no shoulders. [1111] Any passer by coming across her is\nasked by her to take her to his home, and if he agrees, she accompanies\nhim, passes the night in his company, and brings his life to a speedy\nend. In the village of Charadi under the jurisdiction of Dhrangadhra,\na Girasia named Halaji fell into the clutches of a Chudel who was\ndriven from his person by the enchantment of a Jati on condition that\nhe should not go into the eastern part of the village. [1112]\n\nIt is believed that a woman can be relieved from the ghostly order\nof a Chudel by the performance of a shraddha at Siddhapur. [1113]\n\nThere is no belief that the father has to take special precautions at\nthe birth of his child except that care is taken to note the exact\ntime of the child's birth for the purpose of casting its horoscope\ncorrectly. An inkstand and pen are also placed in the lying-in-room,\nas it is believed that the creator writes the destiny of a child as\nsoon as it makes its appearance into the world. [1114]\n\nAll children born in Jyeshta Nakshatra, Mula-nakshatra, or Yamaghanta\nare said to cause the death of their male parent. Such children were\nleft to starve uncared for in forests in olden times; but now-a-days\nthey are kept alive, as certain performances are believed to avert the\nevil. One such performance is only to see the child after clarified\nbutter has been given in donation. Another is to see its face after\nit has been bathed with the water collected from eighteen wells in\na pot with a thousand holes. [1115] In a third, the parents of the\nchild hold in their hands goblets filled with clarified butter, and\nsee their faces reflected in them before the child is presented to\nthe sight of the father.\n\nSuch children are named Mulubhai, Mulchand, Muli or Mulo.\n\nA child born in the month of Jyeshta prognosticates poverty. [1116]\n\nIf the birth time of a child happens to fall within the ecliptic\nperiod, that is the period of nine hours before an eclipse takes place,\nas well as in the duration of the eclipse, the father does not see\nthe child before performing certain rites, as to do so is supposed\nto bring misfortune. [1117]\n\nIf a man has a child in his twentieth year he does not see the child\nbefore he completes it. [1118]\n\nIf a child is born at a wrong juncture or conjunction of the stars,\nthe father does not see it for twenty-seven days. [1119]\n\nA child born on the fourth, fourteenth or fifteenth day of a month\nis supposed to become a burden to its father. [1120]\n\nIt is a common belief that a woman in child-bed should not see the\nface of her husband nor he of her. [1121]\n\nWomen who do not obey the commands of their husbands, who partake of\ntheir meals secretly before their husbands, [1122] or violate any of\ntheir duties towards their husbands, are believed to enter the order\nof bats or owls after their death. [1123]\n\nAccording to another belief, men who have been incontinent become\nowls after death, while such women become bats. [1124]\n\nThe owls and bats are blind during the day, but they can see corpses\nand the spirits of the deceased and converse with them in their own\ntongue. [1125]\n\nThe spirits of the deceased are supposed to remain in their worldly\ntenement for twelve days, and owls and bats are supposed to be able\nto see them at night and talk to them. [1126]\n\nOne of the beliefs entertained by Hindus about the owl is that none\nshould throw a lump of earth at it, as the owl is believed to pick up\nthe missile and throw it into a well or tank or any sheet of water,\nwith the result that it gradually dissolves and disappears, and\nsimultaneously the body of the person is said to be consumed. [1127]\n\nIf perchance an owl utters some note perching on the top cross beam\nof a house on a Sunday or Tuesday night, the owner of the house\nshould pass a dark woollen thread below the cross beam, to which a\nnude person should give a knot at every screech of the owl. If such\na thread be kept in one's anklet, one need have no fear of ghosts\nnor can he be seen by a dakan or witch.\n\nIf a person in sleep responds to the call of an owl, he is believed\nto expire within six months from that date. [1128]\n\nIf an owl screeches every night for six months on one's house or an\nadjacent tree, a terror seizes the members of the house that some\nsure and certain calamity not short of death is imminent. [1129]\n\nAn owl sitting on the house of a person and screeching is said to\nbe uttering threats or forebodings of calamities and misfortunes,\nand is believed to foretell the death of some near relative or of a\nmember of the household. [1130]\n\nIf a miser dies after accumulating vast treasures, his spirit becomes\na ghost or a snake and guards his wealth. [1131]\n\nAccording to another belief, a miser dying without an heir becomes\na snake to guard his treasure. [1132]\n\nIt is believed that such treasures are accessible to batrisas [1133]\n(those possessed of thirty two accomplishments).\n\nThose persons that die while ousted from the houses built by them\nbecome ghosts, and, residing in the houses, do not allow any body to\nlive therein, and leave them only when they are demolished. [1134]\n\nSome evil spirits guard treasures in the form of drones. [1135]\n\nIt is related that there is a pond called Lakhota near Jamvadi in\nGondal. It contains a treasure guarded by a cobra which tries to bite\nwhosoever attempts to remove it. [1136]\n\nThe Janchar, Bhuchar, Jin and some other spirits are believed to\nhaunt valleys. [1137]\n\nSome believe that those persons that meet their death in valleys\nbecome evil spirits and haunt the valleys. [1138]\n\nRakhevalio, Andhario, Sevalio, Sulio and Ragatio are evil spirits\nthat haunt the ruins of magnificent buildings and also valleys. [1139]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nTHE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.\n\n\nThe superstitious dread of an evil eye is to be seen mostly among\nignorant people, especially among women. If a boy were to fall ill,\nthey say, \"Chhotio (the name of the boy) was playing in the house\nwearing a fine dress and was prattling sweetly, when that wretch\ncame to the house and her evil eye fell on him\" [1140] or \"The boy\nwas eating a dainty dish when that devilish woman came up and her\nevil eye influenced the boy.\" [1141]\n\nPersons born on a Sunday or Tuesday are generally believed to have\nan evil eye. [1142]\n\nThe evil eye causes its victim to vomit what he has eaten in its\npresence. [1143]\n\nIf a child weeps all day long, or a person finds his appetite very\nweak, the evil is attributed to an evil eye. [1144]\n\nIf milch cattle do not give milk, or if seva (vermicelli), papad\n(wafer biscuits), pickles, dudhpak (rice cooked in milk and sweetened\nwith sugar) or such other eatables are spoilt, it is believed that\nthe evil eye is at the root of the trouble. [1145]\n\nIt is believed that the following objects are liable to be influenced\nby an evil eye:--\n\n(1) Persons having fine glossy hair, fiery eyes, exquisite form,\nrefined gait, fine speech or good handwriting, (2) good sportsmen,\n(3), pickles, (4) papad (wafer biscuits), (5) seva (vermicelli),\n(6) all attractive objects.\n\nIf a person falls ill after he is praised, he is said to have been\na victim of an evil eye. [1146]\n\nThe precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye are\nas follows:--\n\n(1) When children are dressed and decked with ornaments, a spot is\nmade on their cheeks or near their necks with a black pigment or\ncollyrium, as it is believed that the dark colour is an antidote\nagainst the influence of the evil eye.\n\n(2) Some efficacious inscription is engraved on a copper plate,\nwhich is suspended round the child's neck.\n\n(3) A bead of kachakada is also worn round the neck.\n\n(4) A tiger's nail or tooth is worn round the neck.\n\n(5) An iron ring is worn on the finger.\n\n(6) A lime is worn in the turban or headdress.\n\n(7) An incantation in the praise of Hanuman is written on a piece of\npaper and put in an anklet which is worn.\n\n(8) A piece of thread of five kinds of silk or cotton spun by a virgin\nis given seven knots on the fourteenth day of the dark half of Ashvin\nand worn on the person.\n\n(9) In order that sweet meats and other eatables such as papad (wafer\nbiscuits), pickles, etc., may not be spoilt by an evil eye, a lime,\nan iron nail or a knife is put into them.\n\n(10) In order that a cot or cradle may not be broken by the influence\nof an evil eye, a black woollen thread is tied round it.\n\n(11) To prevent dudhpak (rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar)\nfrom being spoilt, a piece of charcoal is put into the pot in which\nit is prepared. [1147]\n\nWhile taking one's meal one should avoid the company of an evil-eyed\nperson, but if perchance one happens to be present, a morsel of the\nfood should be thrown behind him or set aside on the ground as an\noffering to the evil eye. [1148]\n\nIf, in spite of the precautions mentioned above, the influence of\nthe evil eye prevails, the following remedies are adopted to remove\nits effects:--\n\n(1) The evil eye is fastened or curbed, as they say, by one of the\nprocesses described in Chapter III above.\n\n(2) A red-hot charcoal is placed on a dinner plate and covered with an\nearthen jar. A bowl filled with water is then passed round the head\nof the patient, emptied over the jar and placed on it with its mouth\ntouching the jar. Next, a scythe is placed over the bowl. The jar,\nwhich is heated with the heat of the burning charcoal placed under\nit produces a hissing sound as soon as it is touched by the water in\nthe bowl, and is said to speak. This process is called Ghadulo and\nis performed after sunset. [1149]\n\nIn some places, it is a belief that the plate to be used in this\nprocess must be of bell-metal, and that over the fire placed in it\nmustard seeds, chillies and salt must be thrown before it is covered\nwith the earthen jar. [1150]\n\n(3) An utar [1151] or sacrificial offering is taken to the village\ngate on a Sunday or Tuesday.\n\n(4) Milk is passed three or seven times round the head of the ailing\nchild, poured into a black earthen pot, and offered to a black bitch\non a Sunday or Tuesday. [1152]\n\n(5) The mother or some other near relative of the child suffering from\nthe effects of the evil eye, puts in a bell-metal cup mustard seed,\nsalt, chillies and seven stones from the village gate, passes the\ncup thrice round the child's head, puts burning charcoal in the cup,\nand after it is heated, places it overturned in a bell-metal pot and\npours over it water mixed with cowdung, so that the cup adheres to\nthe pot. This sticking of the cup is called najar chonti gai (the\nevil eye has stuck fast) and is believed to cure the child. [1153]\n\n(6) An exorcist is engaged to wave a bowl filled with water round the\nhead of the patient. He then drinks off the water, and the patient\nbelieves that the disease has been drunk with it. [1154]\n\n(7) A handful of salt and chillies is passed thrice round the head\nof the patient and thrown into the fire. If the chillies burn without\ngiving out fumes of an unpleasant odour, the evil eye is believed to\nbe at the root of the illness. [1155] [1156]\n\n(8) A little dust collected from a spot where two roads cross one\nanother, or red lead and oil offered to Hanuman, a red chilly, an\niron nail and grains of adad (Phaseolus mungo) are packed into a\npiece of white cotton cloth with a black woollen thread, and tied to\nthe cradle of the suffering child. [1157]\n\n(9) A side of a loaf of millet flour is baked by being exposed to fire,\nclarified butter is applied to this side, and a fine cotton thread is\npassed round the loaf. Next, the loaf is waved round the head of the\nailing child and thrown into fire. If the cotton thread is not burnt by\nthe fire, an evil eye is believed to be the cause of the illness.\n\nSometimes the loaf is offered to a black dog after it has been waved\nround the child's head.\n\n(10) If the illness be due to the influence of the evil eye of a\nwoman, she is called in and asked to pass her hand over the child's\nhead. [1158]\n\n(11) In order to avoid the effects of the evil eye, when a child\nreturns home from an outside visit, a bowl filled with water is passed\nthrice round its head and emptied outside the house before it crosses\nthe threshold of the house. [1159]\n\n(12) The grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor (Euphoria nerifolia),\nsalt and dust are passed seven times round the head of a person\nsuffering from the effects of an evil eye, on the threshold of the\nhouse, and thrown away. [1160]\n\n(13) Grains of Adad, twigs of the Thor, salt, an iron nail and charcoal\nare put into an unused earthen pot and taken to the village boundary\nwith a bowl filled with water. The person carrying the pot and bowl\nshould not look behind either on his way to, or on his return from,\nthe village boundary. The pot is placed on the village boundary,\nand water is poured over it seven times from the bowl. [1161]\n\n(14) A loaf baked on one side, with seven grains of Adad, seven grains\nof salt and seven cotton seeds placed over it, is passed seven times\nround the patient's head and placed on a spot where two roads cross\none another. The person carrying the bread should not look behind\nwhile carrying it. [1162]\n\nThose whose children do not live, or die in infancy, or who get\nchildren with difficulty, give them opprobrious names, as it is\nbelieved that objects so named, being considered of no value, are\nleft unharmed both by men and by gods. [1163]\n\nSome people believe that children so named are considered impure by\nFate or Destiny, and consequently not molested by her. [1164]\n\nIt is believed by some that, as good names attract attention, giving\nopprobrious names averts the danger of the evil eye. [1165]\n\nSome people throw a newly-born child on a dung-hill and take it\nback, saying that they found it on the dung-hill, with the belief\nthat a child of such low origin cannot be snatched away from them\nby Fate. Such children are named Punjio, Unkardo or Kacharo meaning\n'dung-hill.'\n\nSome children are named Khoto, Amatho or Jutho, all meaning 'false',\nwith the belief that children so named are considered to belong to\ngods or Fate, and hence cannot be taken away from their parents by\nthe god of death.\n\nSome people exchange their children for sweets, or offer them to\nothers and purchase them back at a nominal price. Others roll them\nin the dust and name them Dhulio or dust. This is believed to ensure\na long life to the children. [1166]\n\nIn some places, a relative of the child's on the mother's side presents\nit with a necklace of gold beads shaped like large black ants. When\nthe child attains the age of eight or ten years this necklace is\noffered to some god or goddess. The child is named Sankalio as it\nwears round its neck this sankal or chain, that is, necklace. [1167]\n\nIt is held by some that children bearing contemptuous names are not\naffected by magic. [1168]\n\nSome weigh the child against corn and give the name of that corn to the\nchild, e. g., 'Kodario', 'Juvario'. The corn is then distributed among\nbeggars, which is supposed to ensure a long life to the child. [1169]\n\nSome make earthen figures of children, call them Ila Ili or Pithad,\nand carry them through the village on the Holi day (the full-moon day\nof Falgun), with the belief that by so doing they ensure a long life\nto the children.\n\nIt is related that a carpenter's children used to die in infancy, so\nhe named one of his sons 'Pithad' and he lived. Since then, parents\nwhose children do not live name them 'Pithad'. Some name their children\n'Jivo' that is 'Live' with the hope that they may live long. [1170]\n\nThe opprobrious and other special spirit-scaring names generally\ngiven to boys are as follows:--\n\n\n              NAME.                MEANING.\n\n              Amatho               Useless\n              Jutho                False\n              Kacharo              Refuse\n              Nathu                Tied\n              Punjo                Refuse\n              Jivo                 Live\n              Kalo                 Black\n              Ghelo                Mad\n              Gafal                Stupid\n              Valu or Vayali       Eccentric\n              Sawo or Siwo         Sewed\n              Dungar               Hill\n              Ado                  Useless\n              Bhabho               Worthless\n              Malo                 Bower\n              Velo                 Creeper\n              Nano                 Small\n              Khodo                Lame\n              Oghad                Fool\n              Hakalo\n              Bhukhan\n              Uko                  Dung-hill\n              Lavo                 Parasite\n              Jino                 Small\n              Doso                 Old\n              Rano                 Lord (ironical)\n              Bavo                 Recluse\n              Rupo                 Handsome (ironical)\n              Mor                  Peacock\n              Popat                Parrot\n              Jado                 Fastened [1171]\n              Bodho\n              Gobaro [1172]\n              Fakiro               Beggar\n              Mafatio              Worthless\n              Nago                 Shameless\n              Bocho                Coward\n              Bakor                Noise\n              Bow                  Name of a demon\n              How                  Ditto.\n              Limbo                Poisonous\n              Ganglo               Stony [1173]\n              Bhikhari or Bhikho   Beggar\n              Vaigrai              Recluse\n              Amar                 Immortal\n              Sidio                Negro-like\n              Vasto [1174]\n              Polio or Polo        Hollow\n              Kadavo               Bitter\n              Bero                 Deaf\n              Dipo                 Panther\n              Vagh                 Tiger\n              Cohampalo            Meddlesome\n              Chindharo            Ragged\n              Chiko\n              Chuntho              Ragged\n              Jinthro              Ragged\n              Jalo\n              Davalo               Not loved\n              Dendo                The croaking of a frog.\n              Dhingo               Fat\n              Bodo                 Bald-headed\n              Rotal                Womanish\n              Radio                Crying [1175]\n\n\nThe contemptuous names given to girls are:--\n\n\n              NAME.               MEANING.\n\n              Liri\n              Dhori               White\n              Zini                Small\n              Punji               Refuse\n              Kali                Black\n              Ful                 Light as a flower [1176]\n              Nathi\n              Juthi               False\n              Jadi                Fat\n              Monghi\n              Jaba [1177]\n              Kadvi               Bitter\n              Jivi                Live\n              Divi [1178]\n\n\nVeju, Bhilak, Chichi, Laghu [1179], Mafat (useless), Gheli (mad),\nPanchi [1180], Dedki, Kukadi and Zabu. [1181]\n\nIt is said that in ancient times change of sex could be effected.\n\nTradition relates that all the children of a certain Solanki king\ndied in infancy, except the last child, a girl. She was dressed in\nmale attire and passed for a boy. When the pretended boy attained\nmarriageable age, he was betrothed to a princess. When the day fixed\nfor the marriage drew near, the king became anxious and went on an\nhunting expedition to pass the time. On his way back from the hunt\nhe became very thirsty, and quenched his thirst with the water of\na pond near which a temple of Bahucharaji stands to this day. His\nbitch, which was with him, leapt into the pond, and on coming out\nof the water was found to be transformed into a dog. On seeing this\nthe king brought his daughter and bathed her into the pond with the\nresult that she was transformed into a boy. The king then built a\nbig tank on the spot, which is known by the name of Man. [1182]\n\nIn a chapter called Brahmottar Khand of the Padma Puran, which\ndescribes the glory of a vow called Uma Mahesh, the greatness\nof observing fasts on Mondays is described at length. Two Brahman\nbrothers, one dressed as a man and the other as a woman, set out on a\njourney. Once they halted in a temple of the god Shiva, where lived\na woman who had observed the fasts on Mondays. She invited them to\ndinner, taking them, as they appeared to be, for a man and a woman. The\ndevotion of the hostess was so great that the brother dressed as a\nwoman was actually transformed into a woman while partaking of the\nmeal served to him. [1183]\n\nIt is related that in ancient times the son of a certain sage once\ndisguised himself as a girl with the result that he was actually\nchanged into a girl. He was thereafter called Mudralopi and married\nto the sage Agastya. [1184]\n\nThe warrior Shikhandi who assisted the Pandavas in killing Bhishma\n(who had vowed not to raise his arms against a woman) was at first\na girl, and was subsequently transformed into a boy by the boon of\nthe gods. [1185]\n\nThere is supposed to be a forest of Parvati in a continent called\nIlavrit. Any man visiting it is at once turned into a woman. [1186]\n\nA king named Sudyaman visited this forest and was transformed into\na woman. It was only after appeasing Parvati by a sacrifice that he\nwas restored to his original form. [1187]\n\nIt is believed that in Kamaru Desha or the land of fairies,\nchildren are transformed into the opposite sex by the spell of the\ninhabitants. [1188]\n\nA belief is current that change of sex can be effected by the\nperformance of the Shatchandi or the prayoga of Rudra, Bahucharaji,\nAshapuri and Mahakali. [1189]\n\nIt is also believed that change of sex can also be effected by the\nspell of magic. [1190]\n\nThere is a further belief that Yogis by their incantations, and\nMahatmas by their blessings or curses, can effect a change of\nsex. [1191]\n\nThe following things are considered efficacious in protecting oneself\nagainst evil spirits:--\n\n(1) A sword, (2) iron, [1192] (3) a woollen blanket, (4) fire, (5)\na coin in the funeral pyre, (6) a nail of a tiger, (7) a blue thread,\n(8) the red lead offered to the god Hanuman, (9) a lime consecrated\nwith incantations, (10) five kinds of cotton thread worn round the\nelbow, [1193] (11) blood, (12) corn, (13) frankincense, (14) salt,\n(15) water, (16) leather, (17) an amulet of iron procured from a\nwell polluted by the death of some one in its water, [1194] (18)\na garland, the beads of which are made of the wood of the Ekal ber\n(Zizyphus jujuba), (19) the sacred thread worn by Brahmans, [1195]\n(20) iron nails extracted from a wheel of a cart used for carrying fuel\nfor cremation, [1196] (21) human blood, [1197] (22) a costly jewel.\n\nAmulets are generally used as a precaution against the attack of\nevil spirits or the influence of an evil eye. They are also used\nto cure diseases. They are made of iron, copper, tin, gold, silver,\nalloys of precious metals, or leather.\n\nChithis or pieces of paper on which mystic signs are drawn are put\ninto the amulets and are tied to the forearm with black woollen or\nsilk thread. [1198]\n\nIn some places, frankincense of gugal (Canarium strictum) or loban\n(olibanum) is offered to the amulets before they are worn. [1199]\n\nAmulets are also made of tad-patras (palm-leaves). They are tied\nround the arm with an indigo-coloured cloth. [1200]\n\nDoras or threads are also worn with the same object as amulets. They\nare generally made of five kinds of silk thread, black wool, or red\nor black cotton thread. The length of the dora must be eight feet,\none and a quarter of a cubit or a man's height. They must have three\nfolds and must be twisted seven or twenty-one times. After they are\ntwisted, they are knotted seven, fourteen or twenty-one times, when\nthey become ready for use. An offering of frankincense made of gugal\nor of loban is made to a dora before it is worn. [1201]\n\nIt is believed by some people, that a chiti (amulet) or dora in order\nto be effective, must not be touched with water.\n\nThe dora of the god Kal-bhairav at Benares, which is made of silk\nthread with seven twists, is tied round the wrist of a patient in\nthe belief that it cures illness.\n\nA janjiro (black cotton thread with seven knots) of the god Hanuman\nis worn round the arm with the same belief.\n\nSurakano, that is, twisted iron wire, consecrated by the worshipper\nof the goddess Machhu, is worn by the Bharvads round the elbow or\nthe wrist with the belief that it cures wind.\n\nThose people whose children do not live long put silver anklets\nround their left legs in the belief that by so doing their life is\nlengthened. [1202]\n\nAn amulet made of a piece of cloth is called dhaga. [1203] It is either\na piece of cloth used by a holy man, a piece of cloth containing\na mixture of red lead and oil offered to the god Hanuman, [1204]\nor a piece of cloth in which are wrapped up the things put into an\namulet. The dhaga is either worn round the wrist or suspended from\nthe neck. [1205]\n\nAmulets tied to the horns of pet animals such as cows, bullocks,\nhorses, etc., are called damanas. Sometimes they are also suspended\nfrom the necks of these animals. They are made of the hides of sacred\nanimals and are believed to protect the animals against the evil eye,\nevil spirits and magic. [1206]\n\nIt is believed by some people that one can escape injury from an\nevil spirit by seating oneself in a circle or square drawn in and\nplastered with cowdung. [1207]\n\nOthers hold that the circle must be drawn with the point of a\nsword.\n\nSome maintain that the circle cannot be a protective unless it is\ndrawn with enchanted water, milk or sesamum oil.\n\nThere are others who are of opinion that the entry of evil spirits\ninto the circle can be prevented only by calling upon God not to\nallow the evil spirits to enter it. [1208]\n\nWhen an evil spirit is expelled from the body of a person, it is\nburied underground, a circle of water is made round the spot and an\niron nail is driven into the ground, in order that it may be imprisoned\nthere. [1209]\n\nIf anybody step into such a circle, the evil spirit confined therein\ntakes possession of him, and is thus freed. [1210]\n\nTo prevent this, evil spirits are generally confined in secluded\nspots. [1211]\n\nAs the circle drawn by the point of a sword is a protection against\nan evil spirit, those who go to the burning ground to propitiate or\nsubjugate evil spirits, seat themselves in such circles while reciting\nmantras. [1212]\n\nAfter entering the circle, some people recite the name of Hanuman,\nChandi or Bhairav. [1213]\n\nSome people, after seating themselves in the circle, make offerings\nto the evil spirits, while reciting mantras, to propitiate them more\neasily. The Kali chaudas or the fourteenth day of the dark half of\nAshvin is considered a suitable day for propitiating or subjugating\nevil spirits. [1214]\n\nThere are various superstitious beliefs entertained by people\nregarding omens.\n\n1. If when leaving the house on a visit or with some definite object in\nview, a deer crosses one's path from right to left, it is considered\na bad omen, while crossing from left to right is considered good. On\nreturning home, this omen is read in the reverse way to that just\nstated. [1215]\n\n2. When starting on a journey, the braying of an ass on the right is\na good omen and on the left, evil. [1216]\n\n3. If on leaving the house, a man meets an unwidowed woman or a virgin\nwith a jar filled with water on her head, it is an indication that\nthe object of the expedition will be accomplished. [1217]\n\n4. While starting on a good errand, if one breathes through the left\nnostril or comes across a person carrying a basket of eggs, it is a\ngood omen.\n\n5. If at the time of leaving for a visit to another town or village,\nthe position of the moon in the circle explaining the position of\nstars with reference to one's birth-day stars, be in the rear or\non the left of that position, it is a bad omen, but if it be in the\nfront or on the right it is a good omen.\n\nThe moon in front means fulfilment of the intended purpose, on the\nright, it confers happiness and prosperity, on the back it causes\ndeath, and on the left, loss of wealth.\n\n6. The warbling of the bird bhairav on the right while going out\nand on the left while returning is a good omen, but the opposite is\nbad. [1218]\n\n7. A cat or a serpent crossing one's path is ominous of evil; but if\neither passes on the right, it foretells good.\n\n8. A jackal howling in the evening prognosticates damage by fire\nto the town or village; its howling at midnight predicts robbery;\nwhile in the last part of the night it foretells good.\n\n9. Kag-rashias (expounders of the utterances of crows) know the good\nand bad indications of the croakings of crows.\n\n10. The wailing notes of the bird Favadi forebode evil.\n\n11. The throbbing of the right eye or side in the case of men and of\nthe left eye or side in the case of women is considered to be a good\nomen, while the contrary is bad.\n\n12. If the bird holo sweeps the roof of one's house continuously\nfor a number of days, a calamity is supposed to be imminent for the\ninmates of the house.\n\n13. If a dog barks in front of a man it is considered to be a bad\nomen. [1219]\n\nA Brahman, a cow, fruits, flowers, milk, pearls, jewels, a prostitute,\nan elephant, an umbrella, meat, fish, a gun, a bayonet, a mirror,\na mongoose, a peacock with its plumage expanded, girls singing\nsongs, band-players and a washerman carrying washed clothes are all\nconsidered to be good omens, if one comes across them while going\nout on business. [1220]\n\nThe sight of a king, an armed man, a Dhed, a Bhangi or a Darji is\nalso considered to be an auspicious omen. [1221]\n\nThe sight of boys going to or returning from school is a good\nomen. [1222]\n\nA labourer carrying a load of fuel on his head, a corpse in front,\na potter carrying earth on his head or on his donkey, a woman carrying\nher son, a man carrying molasses, are all auspicious omens. [1223]\n\nA male monkey or a donkey crying on the right while going out, and on\nthe left while returning home is considered to be a good omen. [1224]\n\nWine and good speech are also considered good omens. [1225]\n\nThe sight of a herdswoman, a dog scratching its right side, a cuckoo\nsinging on a tree or a black sparrow is a good omen. [1226]\n\nFuel, hides, grass, vegetables, a smoking fire, sesamum oil, molasses,\na barren woman, an enemy, a disorderly mob, a woman without the\nauspicious mark on her forehead, a man besmeared with oil, a eunuch,\nmud, wet clothes, an ascetic, a beggar, are all considered to be bad\nomens, if one sees them while going on business. [1227]\n\nThe sight of dry cow-dung cakes is supposed to be a bad omen. [1228]\n\nThe sight of a widow or of a corpse [1229] is bad. [1230]\n\nWeasels crossing the road, dogs shaking their ears, a man carrying\na black earthen vessel, a woman with loose hair, a person carrying\nclarified butter, a man with gray moustaches, a man having no hair on\nhis chest, a cat-eyed man, a person carrying flour, a Brahman without\nthe sacred mark on his forehead are all bad omens. [1231]\n\nThe sight of the husk of corn, a man with a medicinal application,\nor a lunatic, is a bad omen. [1232]\n\nThe question \"kian jao chho\" that is \"Where are you going\" is a bad\nomen. [1233]\n\nThe mixture of whey, mud and cow-dung, a recluse with matted hair,\na man spitting, a cough, and a man with the whole of his head shaved\nare bad omens [1234].\n\nSimilarly, the sight of a drunkard, Adad or cotton seeds is a bad\nomen. [1235]\n\nA bride stumbling on her entry into the bridegroom's house is said\nto be a bad omen. [1236]\n\nA dog scratching its left side with his paws, a man riding a he-buffalo\nor a donkey, two Banias, one Musalman, one male goat, one ox, five\nshe-buffaloes, six dogs, three cows, or seven horses, confronting a\nman on starting from the house are ominous of evil. [1237]\n\nSome numbers are believed to be auspicious and some inauspicious. There\nis a book on this subject, in which some good or evil is attributed\nto each number. One who wants to know the result of the undertaking\nin hand puts his finger on any number in the book, and the expounder\nof the science, reading the passage bearing on the number, explains\nhow the undertaking will end. [1238]\n\nThe numbers, 12, 18, 56 and 58 are considered inauspicious. [1239]\n\nAn odd number is generally believed to be inauspicious. It is for\nthis reason that newly-married girls are not sent to their husbands'\nhouse for the first time in any of the odd years of their age. They\nare also not sent back to their parents' house in an odd year of\ntheir age for the same reason. [1240]\n\nThe numbers 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 13, 15, and 21 are believed to be lucky\nwhile 3, 4, 8 and 12 are considered unlucky. [1241]\n\nA belief exists that if a company of three start on a mission, the\nmission is sure to fail. This has given rise to the proverb \"Tran\ntrikat ane maha vikat\" that is, \"Three persons going on an errand\nmeet with great difficulties or danger.\" [1242]\n\nA zero is believed to be inauspicious. In monetary transactions or\nbargains, therefore, all numbers ending in a zero are avoided. If such\nnumbers are unavoidable, the sign of 1/4 is placed before them. The\nnumber 12 is considered unlucky, to avoid which 11 1/2 is used in\nits place. [1243]\n\nSome people believe that the numbers 1 1/4, 5, 7, 21, 108 and 1,008\nare lucky while 12 is unlucky. [1244]\n\nIt is a belief that in the sales of cattle and certain other things\nif the price is raised by 1 1/4, it results in good both to the seller\nand buyer. [1245]\n\nIt is for this reason that in subscribing to charitable funds people\nwrite 401 instead of 400 and so on. But 1 1/4 is preferred to 1 in\nvaluing things. So in all purchases and sales 1 1/4 is added to the\nactual price of a thing. [1246]\n\nThe numbers 5 and 7 are believed to be auspicious, because on starting\non a journey from the house one is given five betelnuts as a sign\nof good omen, while in all auspicious ceremonies seven betelnuts are\nused. [1247]\n\nCertain days of the week are considered lucky while others are\nconsidered unlucky. It is also believed that certain days are\nauspicious for performing certain acts, while others are inauspicious\nfor the performance of the same acts.\n\nMonday, Wednesday, Thursday and Friday are considered lucky, while\nTuesday, Saturday and Sunday are believed to be unlucky. [1248]\n\nIt is a common belief that one should not go in certain directions\non certain days; for doing so results in what is called disha-shul\nor pain caused by directions. [1249]\n\nGoing to the north on Sunday, to the west on Tuesday, to the north-west\non Monday, to the south-west on Wednesday, to the south on Thursday,\nto the south-east on Friday and to the east on Saturday is considered\nominous of evil. [1250]\n\nAccording to another belief, Sunday and Thursday are inauspicious for\ngoing to the south-east; Monday and Friday, to the south-west; Saturday\nand Tuesday, to the north-west and Wednesday to the north-east. [1251]\n\nSome people believe that by going to the west on Monday or Saturday\none secures the fulfilment of the desired object. [1252]\n\nMany hold that the favourableness or otherwise of the days for going\nin particular directions varies according to the occasion. [1253]\n\nThe auspicious days for sending a girl to her husband's house are\nbelieved to be Monday, Thursday and Friday. Sunday and Tuesday are\nalso considered auspicious for a girl to go to her house, but they\nare considered very unlucky for her to return to her parents. [1254]\n\nIt is forbidden to eat dalia (baked split gram) on Sunday, but it is\nfavoured on Friday.\n\nWednesday is considered to be a lucky day for sowing corn, and making\npurchases of new articles. Thursday is believed to be auspicious for\nsending a boy to school for the first time. [1255]\n\nWednesday is considered unfavourable for the separation of brothers and\nsisters, but it is considered a suitable day for their meeting. [1256]\n\nIt is believed that if a man wears new clothes on Sunday they will be\nburnt; if on Tuesday, they will be lost; if on Wednesday or Saturday,\na quarrel with some one is the result. [1257]\n\nIt is considered auspicious to go to a Chamar or tanner on Sunday,\nto a prostitute on Monday, to a Kachhia (vegetable seller) on Tuesday,\nto a washerman on Wednesday, to a Brahman on Thursday, to a Bania on\nFriday and to a barber on Saturday. [1258]\n\nThe beliefs regarding the lucky and unlucky days of a month are\nsimilar to those of the lucky and unlucky days of the week.\n\nAccording to some, all the days of the bright half of a month are\nauspicious for performing any good act, while the days in the dark\nhalf are considered favourable for perpetrating black deeds. [1259]\n\nSome believe that the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 11th, 13th and\nthe full-moon day of a month are auspicious, while the 2nd, 4th,\n7th, 9th and 14th, whether of the bright or dark half, as well as\nthe new-moon day, are inauspicious. [1260]\n\nAccording to another belief, the 1st, 6th and 11th days of a month are\ngood, the 3rd and 8th are dates of success (that is acts commenced\non these days are crowned with success); the 5th, 10th and 15th are\npurna tithis, that is, complete days, (meaning that the moon on these\ndays appears full one-third, full two-thirds and completely full);\nwhile the 2nd, 7th and 12th are auspicious days.\n\nThe 4th, 9th and 14th days of a month are inauspicious. [1261]\n\nSome hold that if the 1st, 4th, 12th, 14th and 30th day of a month\nfall on a Saturday they are good; otherwise bad. [1262]\n\nThe 1st, 13th or 14th day of either the bright or dark half of a month,\nas well as the full-moon and new-moon day, are considered unfavourable\nto patients. [1263]\n\nThe 2nd, 14th and the last day of a month are considered unlucky. Those\ndays on which there is a panchak--a grouping of constellations lasting\nfor five consecutive days--are very inauspicious for commencing\nauspicious acts. [1264]\n\nA belief prevails that any one dying in a panchak draws five companions\nto heaven, that is, his death is followed by the death of four others\nof the same village. [1265]\n\nA son born on the full-moon day is believed to turn out brave, but\nis supposed to forebode evil to the parents. [1266]\n\nIf a girl is born on the 2nd, 7th or 12th day of a month falling on a\nTuesday or Saturday in the Ashlesha, Kritika or Shutbhilla nakshatra,\nshe loses her husband. [1267]\n\nThe Mul nakshatra falling on the 1st day of a month, Bharani on the\n5th, Kritika on the 8th, Rohini on the 9th and Ashlesha on the 10th,\nhas an effect like a volcano. A girl born on the 1st, 6th or 11th day\nof a month falling on a Saturday, Tuesday or Sunday in the Kritika\nor Mrigshar nakshatra is like poison. She is supposed to cause the\ndeath of herself, her husband, or all the members of her father's\nfamily. [1268]\n\nSome of the Hindu holidays are considered auspicious for performing\ncertain deeds, while inauspicious for performing certain others. [1269]\n\nThe ceremonies described below are performed to help the spirit to\nthe other world.\n\nWhen a man is on the point of death the floor is cow-dunged and an\noffering of sesamum seeds, Durva grass (cynodon dactylon) and Java\n(barley) is made to the deities. Next, water of the Ganges or the\nJumna is dropped into the mouth of the dying man and the name of Ram\nis whispered in his ear, as this is believed to turn his consciousness\nto God and thus facilitate his way to the other world.\n\nWhen a patient is convinced that his case is hopeless, he distributes\nmoney or other valuable articles among Brahmans, as this is believed\nto make his way to heaven easy.\n\nWhen life is extinct, the corpse is placed on the cow-dunged floor and\nthen carried on a bier to the burning ground with the cries of \"Shri\nRam\", \"Ram\", \"Ram nam satya hai\", [1270] or \"Jaya Shri Krishna\". In\nthe fuel with which it is burnt is put Tulsi (sweet basil), Pipal\nand sandal wood and cocoanuts. The bones and ashes are collected\nand preserved, to be thrown into the Damodar kund, (pool of water)\nat Gaya or other holy waters. For three days after death, holy water\nand milk is offered to the spirit of the deceased. On the 10th, 11th\nand 12th day after death, on all the days of every month in the first\nyear corresponding to the day of death, and on every anniversary of\nthe death, Shraddha is performed. Shraddha is also performed annually\non the day corresponding to the day of death in the dark half of the\nmonth of Bhadrapad.\n\nThe ceremonies mentioned above are believed to make the passage of\nthe soul to the other world easy. For his final emancipation a man\nmust renounce all pleasures of the senses and all egotism. [1271]\n\nGiving alms to the poor, holding recitations of the Bhagvat, performing\nthe Vishnu Yag, Gayatri-purashcharan and the Chandrayan vrat are also\nbelieved to make the passage of the soul to heaven easy. [1272]\n\nIn order that the departing spirit may meet with no obstruction on\nthe way, cows, articles of dress, shoes and food are presented to a\nBrahman for one year after death. [1273]\n\nPlaces for offering water to passers by, and houses in which to feed\nthe needy, are also established by well-to-do people with the same\nobject. [1274]\n\nThe gift of sacks for holding corn, of umbrellas, blankets and bedding\nto travellers, is also believed to smooth the passage of the soul to\nheaven. [1275]\n\nThe performance of the shraddhas and other ceremonies mentioned above\nis believed to prevent the return of the spirit to this world. [1276]\n\nObserving fasts by the survivors of the deceased on the Rishi Panchami\n(the 5th day of the bright half of Bhadrapad), the Janmashtami (the\neighth day of the dark half of Shravan) and the Ramnavami (the ninth\nday of the bright half of Chaitra) is also believed to prevent the\nreturn of a spirit from heaven. Some worship the Pipal with the same\nobject. [1277]\n\nReading the Garud Puran for nine days after death is also believed to\nbe a means of preventing the return of the soul to this world. [1278]\n\nSome people believe that performing shraddha in sixty-eight holy\nplaces secures this end. [1279]\n\nDaily offerings of rice and water to the departed spirits also prevent\nthem from revisiting this world. [1280]\n\nThe same means which are adopted to help the spirit to the other\nworld and to prevent its return also secure its good-will to the\nsurvivors. [1281]\n\nPersons living on the banks of the Ganges do not burn the dead,\nbut throw the corpses into the holy water of the river. [1282]\n\nIf a pregnant woman dies in the eighth month of her pregnancy, the\nfoetus is taken out by cutting open the womb and buried, while the\nwoman is burnt. [1283]\n\nCorpses of persons dying an unnatural death are burnt in a Gondaro\n(place where the village cows rest) or on the village common, in\nthe belief that by so doing the deceased escapes divine wrath and is\nfreed from rebirth. [1284]\n\nWhen a grave is commenced in a certain spot, the corpse must be\nburied on that spot, even though the ground be rocky or otherwise\nunsuitable. As far as possible, the corpses of relatives are buried\nnear one another.\n\nThe occasions on which the hair is shaved are as follows:--\n\n1. When a boy attains the age of three years, his head is shaved\ncompletely for the first time.\n\n2. At the time of performing shraddha in holy places, the head,\nexcept the top-knot, and the moustaches and face must be shaved.\n\n3. On the ninth day after the death of a man, all his male relatives\nyounger than himself have to shave their heads, except the top-knot,\nand the moustaches and chin.\n\n4. On the day of investing a boy with the sacred thread his head is\nshaved before the investiture.\n\n5. Amongst high caste Hindus the heads of widows are shaved on the\ntenth day after the death of their husbands. [1285]\n\n6. Gorjis or preceptors of the Atits, Shravaks and Sanyasis have to\nget their heads shaved at the time of entering the order. [1286]\n\n7. All the male relatives of the deceased have to get their heads\nshaved on the ninth day after death.\n\n8. Atits and Bavas get the heads of their disciples shaved at the\ntime of admitting them into their order. [1287]\n\n9. The preceptors of the Swami Narayan sect shave off their moustaches\nevery time they shave their heads. [1288]\n\n10. At the time of admitting a Jain to the ascetic order of the\nreligion, the hairs of his head are pulled out one by one until the\nhead is completely bald. [1289]\n\n11. On the occasion of a man being readmitted to his own caste, out\nof which he has been expelled for some breach of caste rules, he has\nto shave his head and face by way of prayaschitta or atonement.\n\nIt is believed that if the head of a widow is not shaved on the\ntenth day after the death of her husband, his soul is not admitted\nto heaven, and the funeral ceremonies performed in his honour bear\nno fruit. [1290]\n\nThe heads of such widows are shaved on the banks of the Godavari or\nat Benares or at some other holy place in the neighbourhood. [1291]\n\nThe spirits of the dead are represented by balls of rice flour or\ncooked rice, and offerings of water, cotton thread, red powder,\nabir (white scented powder), red lead, sandal paste, frankincense,\nlamps, sesamum seeds and of the leaves of the Tulsi, the tamarind,\nthe Agathio or Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora) and the Bhangra, and\nthe flowers and seeds of the Java, are made to them.\n\nThe ancestral spirits are also represented by chats (twisted braids\nof the Durva grass (Cynodon Dactylon)), and to them are offered the\nSuran (Elephant-foot) cooked rice, fried cakes of the flour of mag\n(Phaseolus mungo), rice cooked in milk, etc. [1292]\n\nIt is believed that the departed spirits are pleased with offerings\nof pindas or rice-balls. [1293]\n\nPindas are also made of wheat flour or molasses. Costly dishes,\nsesamum seeds, honey, curdled milk, clarified butter, and sugarcandy\nare also offered to the manes. [1294]\n\nThe pindas are generally offered on the 10th, 11th and 12th day after\ndeath and on the occasion of performing shraddha. [1295]\n\nRice balls are also offered to crows or thrown into water in the belief\nthat by so offering they reach the spirits of deceased ancestors.\n\nA belief prevails that the messengers of the god of death eat the\nflesh of the deceased if pindas are not offered to them. So, in ancient\ntimes, offerings of flesh balls were made instead of rice ones. [1296]\n\nIt is believed that male and female evil spirits such as bhuts and\npishachas manifest themselves as dogs, notably black dogs, goats,\nfire, the whirl-wind, snakes or children. [1297]\n\nThey may assume the form of a he-buffalo, a heifer, a ram, a man,\na woman, [1298] a lion, a tiger or a cat. [1299]\n\nThe evil spirit called jan is believed to manifest itself as a\nsnake. [1300]\n\nThe voice of an evil spirit in any of the above forms is heard from\na distance, and the nearer the hearer approaches the more it is found\nto recede. [1301]\n\nAmong Bharvads and Sonis, seven or nine earthen pots are broken in the\nhouse of the deceased on the tenth day after death. The number of the\npots varies according to the individual merits of the deceased. [1302]\n\nAmong some low castes, an earthen pot is broken on the village boundary\nand another in the burning ground. [1303]\n\nSome break an earthen pot at the village gate on their way back from\nthe cemetery after the performance of shraddha. [1304]\n\nIn some places, the earthen pots placed on the spot where the corpse\nis laid in the house are broken at the village gate. [1305]\n\nIn some low castes two earthen pots are placed on the village boundary\non the twelfth day after death, and broken by children. [1306]\n\nSome carry the funeral fire in a black earthen jar as far as the\nvillage gate, where the jar is broken and the fire carried in the hand,\nby one of the mourners, to the burning ground. [1307]\n\nAccording to some, this breaking of an earthen pot is a symbol\nindicating that the connection of the deceased with this world has\nbroken or ceased. [1308]\n\nOthers hold that it indicates the disintegration of the constituents\nof the body into the elements of which it was formed. [1309]\n\nThere are others who are of opinion that the messengers of the god\nof death are satisfied with the breaking of an earthen pot after an\noffering to them of six rice balls and water. [1310]\n\nWhen a death takes place in a family, a prana-poka or death-wail is\nraised by the chief mourner, who is joined afterwards by the other\nrelatives. [1311]\n\nThe prana-poka is believed to open the gates of heaven for the\nadmission of the soul. [1312]\n\nSome are of opinion that the object of the death-wail, which begins\nwith \"O mara bhai!\" that is, \"Oh my brother!\" or \"O mara bap!\" that is,\n\"Oh my father!\", is that at the moment of death, the soul, by hearing\nthe sound 'Om' may ascend to the brahmarandhra or the divine seat of\nthe brain and thus attain salvation. [1313]\n\nWhen the funeral party start with the bier for the burning ground,\nthe women of the house, accompanied by other women of the neighbourhood\nor village, follow them as far as the village gate, crying and singing\nfuneral dirges. There they stop a while and sing more funeral dirges,\nkeeping time by beating their breasts. They then start to return home,\nand, on their way, bathe in a tank or well and again mourn for some\ntime before entering the house. The funeral party enter the house\nafter the women and cry aloud for a few seconds. They also cry when\nthe pyre is set on fire. [1314]\n\nThe mourning of the women continues for thirteen [1315] days after\ndeath. They also weep on such holidays as the Holi, the Divali, etc.,\nand on the quarterly, six-monthly and the first anniversary Shraddha\nday. [1316]\n\nMale relatives of the deceased wear a white turban as a sign of\nmourning. [1317]\n\nIt is generally believed that bhuts or evil spirits prove beneficial\nto those who succeed in securing locks of their hair or subjugate\nthem by incantations or magical rites. [1318]\n\nSuch spirits generally belong to the class of the Bavan, the Vir,\nthe Babro, Mamo, Vaital, Dadamo and Yaksha. Of these, Mamo, Vir,\nVaital and Dadamo prove beneficial through favour, while the rest\nbecome the slaves of those who subdue them. [1319]\n\nIt is believed that Suro Puro and Dado favour only their blood\nrelations. [1320]\n\nIt is related that in building the numerous tanks and temples\nattributed to Siddhraj Jaysing, a former king of Gujarat, he\nwas assisted by the spirit Babario whom he had brought under his\ncontrol. [1321]\n\nA tradition is current that Tulsidas, the celebrated author of the\nRamayan in Hindi and a great devotee of Ram, had secured personal\nvisits from the god Hanuman through the favour of a ghost.\n\nThe king Vikram is said to have received great services from the evil\nspirits Vaital and Jal. [1322]\n\nIn a book entitled Vaitala Pachisi it is described how a bhut lived\non a banyan tree in Ujjain. [1323]\n\nIt is related that in Rajkot a bhut called hunthia lived on a banyan\ntree. [1324]\n\nTo the east of Kolki there is a tree called Jala which is inhabited\nby a mamo. It is related that the mamo frightens persons passing by\nthe tree. Near the school at Kolki there is a Pipal on which lives\na sikotarun who frightens people passing along the road. [1325]\n\nIs is related that a mamo lived on a Khijado tree at the gate of\nthe village Surel. He manifested himself, dressed in white garments,\nfor a period of nearly ten years. Once he frightened several persons\nout of their senses. It is said that on his being propitiated with\nan offering of wheaten bread at his abode (the Khijado tree), these\npersons recovered their senses. [1326]\n\nThe Habib-Vad or Habib's banyan tree on the road leading from Mavaiya\nto Gondal is a favourite haunt of bhuts, who frighten and stupefy\npersons passing by that road. [1327]\n\nThere is a step-well near Hampar under the jurisdiction of Dhrangadhra\nwhich is the resort of a bhut. A Girasia and his wife arrived here\none day at midnight. The Girasia tied his mare to a tree hard by,\nand went to the well to fetch water for the mare. On his return he\nfound there a number of mares like his own tied to the trees. He\ntherefore smelt their mouths to recognise which of them was his\nown, but in the flurry caused by the appearance of so many mares,\nhis waist-cloth got entangled, and while mounting his mare he fell\ndown, which frightened him so much that he exclaimed \"I am overtaken\n(by a ghost)\" and died. [1328]\n\nIt is related that in the Chhaliachok at Limbdi, no woman has yet\nsucceeded in reciting a garabi (song) in honour of the goddess Mahakali\nto the end, as a ghost which lives on the tamarind tree opposite the\nchok (square) is averse to its completion.\n\nThere is a house at Porbandar haunted by a ghost, in which none is\nable to reside. [1329]\n\nIt is believed that only those trees, the wood of which cannot be\nused for sacrificial purposes, can be haunted by evil spirits. Such\ntrees are the Khijado, the Baval, the Kerado and the tamarind. [1330]\n\nKshetrapal is believed to be the guardian spirit of fields and Suropuro\nand Mamado are believed to protect harvest and cattle. [1331]\n\nIt is also believed that the spirit jakhara protects crops and\ncattle. [1332]\n\nMamo and Dadamo are also believed by some to be the guardian spirits\nof crops and cattle. [1333]\n\nA belief runs that if a cousin (father's brother's son) becomes\na spirit after death, he proves beneficial to the cattle of his\nrelatives. [1334]\n\nThere are various ways of frightening crying children to silence,\none of which is to invoke evil spirits.\n\nWhen a child continues to cry for a long time, the mother says,\n\"keep quiet, Baghada has come.\" \"Oh Bau, come and take away this\nchild.\" \"Babara, come here. Don't come, my child is now silent.\" \"May\nBaghada carry you away.\" These exclamations are uttered in such a\ntone and with such gestures, that generally the child is at once\nfrightened into silence. [1335]\n\nIn addition to the spirits mentioned above, Babaro, Chudda, Dakana,\nSatarsingo and other spirits are also invoked to frighten a weeping\nchild to silence. [1336]\n\nA Bava or Bairagi, a Fakir, a tiger, a dog, a cat or a rat are all\npresented to the child as objects of terror, and are called one after\nanother to silence it. [1337]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nTREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.\n\n\nCertain trees are considered holy, and they are neither cut nor their\nwood used as fuel.\n\nThe Pipal is one of such trees. It is considered to be the incarnation\nof a Brahman, and to cut it is considered to be as great a sin as\nmurdering a Brahman. It is believed that the family of one who cuts\nit becomes extinct. [1338]\n\nSome people believe that the spirits of the deceased do not get water\nto drink in the next world. The water poured at the root of the Pipal\non the 13th, 14th and 15th day of the dark half of Kartik and Shravan\nand on the 14th day of the bright half of Chaitra is believed to\nreach these spirits and quench their thirst. [1339]\n\nAlthough to cut the Pipal is supposed to be a great sin, it is\nbelieved that if a corpse is burnt with its wood, the soul of the\ndeceased attains salvation. [1340]\n\nThe Vad or banyan tree is believed to be a representation of the god\nShiva. [1341] There is a proverb to the effect that one who cuts this\ntree is punished with the extirpation of his family. [1342]\n\nAccording to another belief, the god Vishnu once slept on this\ntree. [1343]\n\nThe Tulsi or sweet basil is considered to represent Lakshmi, the wife\nof Vishnu. It is also related that Krishna wanted to kill the demon\nJalandhar, but he could not be killed on account of the merit of the\nchastity of his wife Vrinda. Krishna, therefore, assumed the form\nof Jalandhar, violated the chastity of Vrinda, and was thus enabled\nto kill the demon. Krishna next expressed a desire to marry Vrinda,\nwhen she transformed herself into the Tulsi plant. It is considered\nan act of great religious merit to wed Krishna with the Tulsi, and\nthis marriage is celebrated every year by all Hindus on the 11th day\nof the bright half of Kartik otherwise called Dev Divali.\n\nIt is considered a great sin to uproot this plant, though no sin\nattaches to the plucking of its leaves during the day time. The leaves\nof the Tulsi are considered holy and are offered to the image of the\ngod Vishnu and are required in all religious ceremonies. [1344]\n\nThe Khijado or Shami tree is also held sacred. When the Pandavas lost\ntheir kingdom in gambling with the Kauravas, the latter promised the\nformer that they would give them back their kingdom if they lived in\nthe forest for twelve years and unknown for one year. After having\ncompleted their stay in the forest, the Pandavas remained unknown\nfor one year in the city of Virat. During this year they concealed\ntheir weapons on a Khijado tree. Before taking these weapons, they\nworshipped the tree. Next took place the great battle of Kurukshetra\nin which the Pandavas won a splendid victory. This has given rise\nto the custom of worshipping the tree on the tenth day of the bright\nhalf of Ashvin or the Dasara day. [1345]\n\nIt is a common belief that a tree haunted by ghosts should not be\ncut. So the Khijado is not cut, because it is the favourite residence\nof ghosts. [1346]\n\nThe Kadamb (Anthocephalus cadumba) is considered sacred because it is\nbelieved that God Krishna rested under this tree when he took cattle\nto graze. [1347]\n\nThe Limbdo (Nim tree) is also considered sacred as it represents the\ngod Brahma. [1348] Some believe that it represents Jagannathji. [1349]\n\nThe Rudraksha is believed to be a representation of the god Shiva. It\nis therefore considered a sin to cut it. Garlands of Rudraksha beads\nare worn round the neck by the devotees of Shiva.\n\nThe leaves of the Bel (Aegle marmelos) are offered to the god Shiva\nas they are supposed to be liked by him. It is also considered a sin\nto cut this tree. [1350]\n\nThe Karan (Mimusops hexandra) is believed to be a representation\nof Shiva. A grove of the Karan trees is supposed to be inhabited by\nnatural powers called Matas and to cut a Karan is supposed to bring\ndisaster to the cutter. [1351]\n\nThe Maravo (Marjoram) is considered sacred by Musalmans. They dip\nits leaves into oil and rub them against the face of a corpse. [1352]\n\nThere is a temple of Bhimnath Mahadev near Baravala in the shade of\nan ancient Jal tree. The worshipper at the temple, a wealthy man,\nonce thought of erecting a grand temple over the image, but he was\nprevented from doing so by the god appearing in his dream and telling\nhim that he preferred to live under the tree. [1353]\n\nUnder a Jal tree near Dhandhuka there is a shrine of Bhimnath Shankar\nwho is known as Bhimnath Jalvalo after the tree. [1354]\n\nThere is a Sakhotia tree near Kutiana, which is supposed to be the\nabode of a snake deity. [1355]\n\nNear Rajkot in Kathiawar there is a tree called Gandu or mad, vows\nin honour of which are said to cure children of bronchitis. [1356]\n\nIn the village of Vadal near Bhiyal in the Junagadh State there is\na banyan tree called Lal Vad said to have sprung from the sticks of\na Vad (banyan) used as tooth brushes by Lal Bava, a preceptor of the\nVaishnav school. A silver staff and silver umbrella belonging to Lal\nBava are kept near this tree, which is visited and worshipped by the\nfollowers of the preceptor. [1357]\n\nIt is related that in this Lal Vad there is an opening through which\nthe virtuous can pass to the other side, but not the sinful. [1358]\n\nThere are two banyan trees near Anandpur, one of which is called\nBhut-vad or the banyan tree of the evil spirits, as it is supposed\nto be inhabited by ghosts. The other is called Visalvad, because a\ndevotee named Visaman Bhagat lived under this tree. [1359]\n\nThere is a branch of the followers of Kabir called Khijada Panth. They\nworship the Khijada or Shami in their temples. [1360]\n\nThere is a belief that the sanctity attached to the Pipal tree has\nbeen the act of the god Krishna. This tree is invested with a sacred\nthread. [1361]\n\nAccording to tradition, Krishna breathed his last under a Pipal\ntree. [1362]\n\nIt is related that once blood gushed forth from a Pipal tree when it\nwas cut. Thenceforward it came to be regarded as a Brahman and it is\nno longer cut. [1363]\n\nThere is a Pipal tree in the village of Prachi near Prabhas Patan,\nvows in whose honour are believed to favour childless persons with\nchildren. [1364]\n\nIt is described in the Puranas that Savitri, the daughter of King\nAshupati, lost her husband within a year after her marriage. The\ndeath took place under a banyan tree, by worshipping which, Savitri\nsucceeded in reviving her husband. Since then women perform a vow\ncalled Vat Savitri Vrat on the 13th, 14th and 15th days of the bright\nhalf of Jetha by observing a fast and worshipping and circumambulating\nthe banyan tree. [1365]\n\nThere is a legend that in mythological times a woman named Vrinda was\ncursed to be a plant for infidelity to her husband. She became the\nTulsi (sweet basil), which is held sacred by Hindus, and worshipped\nby women. [1366]\n\nOn the top of the hill in the village of Jasdan there are two tall\ntrees called 'mad trees'. As the fruits of these trees resemble\nthe face of a saint, they are considered divine and worshipped with\nofferings of red lead, oil and cocoanuts. [1367]\n\nAmongst Rajputs, during the marriage ceremony, the bride has to\nwalk four times round the sacrificial fire in the company of the\nbridegroom. Two of these turns are generally taken with a wooden\nblade called Khandu. [1368]\n\nWhen a girl loses her betrothed twice in succession, she is married\nto a Pipal tree before being betrothed for the third time. [1369]\n\nIf the betrothed husband of a girl dies before the celebration of\nthe marriage, she is married to a Pipal or Ankda (a poisonous plant)\nin the belief that the danger of death will fall on the tree, and\nthat the next husband of the girl will survive. [1370]\n\nIf a man loses two wives one after the other, he is married to a\nShami tree before he is married again, and his third marriage is\ncalled the fourth. [1371]\n\nIn some places, such a man is married to a Bordi (Zizyphus Jujuba)\ninstead of a Shami. [1372]\n\nIn some places, if a man's wives do not live, his next wife is married\nto an Ankdi plant before her marriage with him. [1373]\n\nA belief prevails that an insane maiden is cured of her insanity if\nmarried to the field god Kshetrapal. [1374]\n\nIf a girl attains puberty before marriage, she is married to a Pipal\ntree. A girl with congenital deformities is also married to a Pipal\ntree. [1375]\n\nIt is generally believed that if a betrothed girl touches red lead,\nshe is carried away by Kshetrapal. [1376]\n\nThe belief that Kshetrapal carries away the bride from the marriage\naltar is so common, that a stone representing the god is placed on\nthe marriage altar and touched by the bridal pair at every turn round\nthe sacrificial fire. [1377]\n\nIf this is not done, disastrous consequences follow, to avert\nwhich, that portion of the marriage ceremony in which Kshetrapal is\npropitiated has to be performed a second time. [1378]\n\nDisagreement between husband and wife soon after marriage is attributed\nto the wrath of Kshetrapal. To bring about a reconciliation between\nthem, they are taken to a triangular field and married there to please\nthe god. [1379]\n\nAll Hindus worship the snake. The day especially devoted to its worship\nis the fifth day of the bright half of Shravan, which is called Nag\npanchami. In some places Nag panchami is observed on the 5th day of\nthe dark half of Shravan. On this day an image of a snake is made of\ncowdung or earth, or its picture is drawn on the wall.\n\nThe image is worshipped as a deity, and kulera, a mixture of wheat,\noat or rice flour, clarified butter, and sugar or molasses is offered\nto it. After worship, the members of the household take their meal\nand eat kulera, cocoanuts and cucumbers. Only one meal is taken on\nthis day by men and women. [1380]\n\nThe Nag panchmi is observed as a vrat or vow, generally by women. They\ndo not take any meal on this day, but live only on kulera. On this\nday, her Highness the Maharani of Baroda, mounted on an elephant,\ngoes in procession to the woods to worship an ant-hill. The pipers who\naccompany the procession blow their pipes, and allured by the sound,\nthe snakes come out of their holes, when they are worshipped and fed\nwith milk. [1381]\n\nWomen do not pound, grind or sift corn on the Nag panchami day,\nand all people try to see a snake.\n\nIt is obligatory in some families to offer a cocoanut to the Nagdev\n(snake god) on the Nag panchami day. [1382]\n\nIn some places, the likeness of the snake is engraved on a stone or\ncopper plate and worshipped. In others, it is drawn on a piece of\npaper which is affixed to the wall. [1383]\n\nIn many places there are temples dedicated to snake gods. These gods\nare known by various names. Some of the temples with the names of\nthe gods installed in them are given below:--\n\n1. The temple of Sarmalio Nag at Arani Timba near Bikaner.\n\n2. The temple of Ragatio Nag midway between Kanaza and Vanthali in\nthe Junagadh State.\n\n3. The temple of Charmalio Nag at Chokdi near Chuda. Vows of offering\nsweets are made to this Nag by persons bitten by snakes, who visit\nthe temple, hold the sweets before the image of the god, distribute\nthem among the visitors, and are in return presented with cotton\nthread which they wear round the neck.\n\nThis god is also reputed to have the power of blessing childless\npersons with offspring. The offerings concerned consist of cradles,\nwhich are presented to the god after the wished for object has been\nfulfilled.\n\n4. The temple of Vasuki Nag near Thangadh. This Nag is supposed to be\na servant of the god Shiva. An old snake with gray moustaches is said\nto live in this temple. He drinks milk at the hands of visitors. Many\nvows are made in honour of this snake god.\n\n5. The temple of Khambhadio Nag at Khambhada.\n\n6. The temple of Nag Mandal at Dadvi.\n\n7. The temple of Bhujia Nag at Bhuj.\n\n8. The temple of Shimalia Nag near Jadeshvar in the neighbourhood\nof Jetpur.\n\n9. The temple of Fulia Nag near Jopanath.\n\n10. The temple of Malodaro Nag at Malod.\n\n11. The temple of Charmalio Nag at Chudia.\n\n12. The temple of Chhatrasia Nag in Chhatrasa.\n\n13. The temple of Monapario Nag at Monpar near Chital.\n\n14. The temple of Ashapal at Nanadiya in the Bantva State.\n\n15. The temple of Khodial Nagini at Khokharda in the Junagadh State.\n\n16. The temple of Gondalia Nag at Gondal.\n\nIt is related that there were once divine snakes in the royal fort\nof Jodia. When a pair (male and female) of these snakes were found\nkilled, the heinous act was atoned for by the bodies of the snakes\nbeing buried and a temple erected over the grave. The male snake of\nthis pair is known as Nag Nath or the Lord of Snakes.\n\nAccording to others, Nag Nath was a big white snake with gray\nmoustaches. He once waylaid a milkman of the royal household, forced\nhim to put down the milkpot he was carrying, drank the milk and went\naway. This snake is believed to be divine. [1384]\n\nThe god Shiva is supposed to wear a snake round his neck like a\ngarland of flowers. So, in all temples of Shiva, an image of a snake\nis installed behind the idol of the god with his hood spread over\nthe idol. [1385]\n\nIn ancient times dead snakes were buried and temples and altars were\nerected over their graves. An image of the dead snake was engraved\non the altar. [1386]\n\nThere is a shrine dedicated to Chandalia Nag on the bank of the river\nPalavo on the road from Mota Devalia to Tramboda. It is visited by\na sect of beggars called Nag-magas. The Nag-magas beg wealth of the\nsnake god, and it is said, that he bestows it on them. They are never\nseen begging from any body else. [1387]\n\nIn the Puranas, the Shesh Nag, the Takshak Nag, Pundarik, Kali Nag\nand Karkotak Nag are described as gods. In modern times, Sarmalio,\nBhujo and Gadhio are believed to be as powerful as gods, and vows\nare observed in their honour. [1388]\n\nDhananjaya, Pushkar and Vasuki are also considered to be very\npowerful. [1389]\n\nTakshak is believed to have drunk the nectar of immortality. [1390]\n\nA tradition is current that god Vishnu sleeps on the Shesha Nag in\nthe Milky Ocean. This snake is believed to have a thousand mouths\nand to support the earth on its hood. [1391]\n\nIt is described in the Puranas how King Parikshit was bitten by Takshak\nNag and King Nala by Karkotak Nag. King Nala became deformed owing to\nthe bite, but he could assume his original form by wearing a special\ndress, through the favour of Karkotak.\n\nVasuki Nag was wrapped round the Mandar mountain, which was used as\na churning handle by the gods and demons to churn the ocean for the\nrecovery of the fourteen jewels from the ocean [1392].\n\nIt is a common belief that treasures buried underground are guarded\nby snakes.\n\nGenerally a miser dying without an heir is supposed to be born as a\nsnake after his death, to guard his hoarded money.\n\nIt is believed by some people that on the establishment of a new\ndynasty of kings after a revolution, a snake makes its appearance to\nguard the accumulated wealth of the fallen dynasty. [1393]\n\nIt is also believed that a rich man dying with his mind fixed on his\nwealth is born as a snake, to guard the wealth. [1394]\n\nThere is a further belief that one who collects money by foul means\nand does not spend it, is born as a snake in his next life to guard\nhis buried treasure. [1395]\n\nThere is still another belief that a man who buries his treasure in a\nsecret place becomes a snake after death, to guard the treasure. [1396]\n\nThe beliefs mentioned above have given rise to the impression that\nplaces where big snakes are found are sure to have a treasure trove\nconcealed in them. [1397]\n\nIt is believed that the snake guarding the treasure of his previous\nlife does not allow anybody to remove it, and bites any one who\nattempts to do so. [1398]\n\nIf in spite of this, a man succeeds in seizing the treasure by force\nor by the power of mantras or incantations, it is believed that he\nleaves no heirs to use it. [1399]\n\nA belief is also current that such guardian snakes allow those persons\nto take away the treasures guarded by them if they are destined to\npossess them. [1400]\n\nTo the south of Kolki there is a site of a deserted village. It is\nbelieved to contain a buried treasure which is guarded by a snake with\nwhite moustaches. This snake is seen roaming about the place. [1401]\n\nIt is related that a Brahman once read in an old paper that there\nwas a treasure buried under a Shami tree in Deola. He communicated\nthe information to the Thakor of Dhrol who secured the treasure by\nexcavating the place. The Brahman went to worship the spot, but was\nburied alive. The Thakor buried the treasure in his castle, but the\nBrahman, becoming a snake, guarded the treasure and allowed none to\ntouch it. All attempts to dig it up were frustrated by attacks of\nbees and the appearance of a snake.\n\nA Kshatriya named Dev Karan, while the foundation of his house was\nbeing dug, found a treasure guarded by a snake. He killed the snake\nby pouring boiling oil over it and secured the treasure.\n\nA Kunbi of Malia, while digging a pit for storing corn, found a large\nvessel filled with costly coins guarded by a snake. He killed the\nsnake and secured the vessel. [1402]\n\nThere are many practices in vogue to render the poisonous bite of a\nsnake ineffective.\n\nIf the man bitten by a snake be bold, he cuts off the bitten part.\n\nSome have the bitten part branded.\n\nThose who have no ulcer in the mouth suck the poison, and spit it out.\n\nThe powder of the fruit of the Nol Vel is also administered with water.\n\nSometimes emetics and purgative medicines are given.\n\nA mixture of pepper and clarified butter is also believed to be\nefficacious. [1403]\n\nOther remedies for the cure of snake bite, are as follows:--\n\nThe patient is made to wear a cotton thread in the name of Charmalia\nNag, Sharmalia Nag, or Vasangi Nag, and certain observances, as stated\nabove, are promised to the snake deity. [1404]\n\nThe ends of peacock feathers are pounded and smoked in a chilum\n(clay pipe) by the patient. [1405]\n\nA moharo (stone found in the head of a snake supposed to be a cure for\nsnake poison) is applied to the wound caused by the bite. It absorbs\nthe poison, and on being dipped into milk, transfers the poison to\nthe milk.\n\nThus it can be used any number of times. [1406]\n\nThere is a Girasia in Lakhtar who is believed to cure patients\nsuffering from snake poison. As soon as a person is bitten by a snake,\none of the garments worn by him is taken to the Girasia, who ties it\ninto a knot and this cures the patient. [1407]\n\nThere is a Bava in Rajpara, a village near Anandpur. He and all the\nmembers of his family are reputed to be able to cure snake-bites. When\na person is bitten by a snake, he or a friend goes to the Bava's house\nand informs him or any member of his family of the occurrence. The Bava\nor the person who receives the intimation folds into a knot a garment\nof the informant, which he afterwards unfolds. As soon as this is\ndone, the patient is in great pain, loses his senses, is seized with\nconvulsions and tells why the snake bit him. Thereupon the relatives\nof the patient implore the pardon of the snake, which is granted on\ncondition that the patient should give alms to the poor. [1408]\n\nIn some places, Bhagats or devotees of Mataji are invited to dinner\nalong with a number of exorcists, who are generally Rabaris. After\nthey have assembled at the house of the patient, they start out in\na procession headed by one who holds in his hand a bunch of peacock\nfeathers, to bathe in a river. On their way to and back from the\nriver they sing songs in praise of the goddess to the accompaniment\nof drums and other musical instruments. After their return from the\nriver, the whole party are treated to a feast, which is supposed to\ncure the patient of the effects of the snake-bite. [1409]\n\nSome people believe that snakes, like evil spirits, can enter the\nbodies of human beings. Such persons, when possessed, are supposed\nto have the power of curing snake-bites. [1410]\n\nEvery village has an exorcist who is a specialist in curing the effects\nof snake-bites. When a person is bitten by a snake the exorcist is at\nonce sent for. He gives the patient Nim leaves and pepper to chew,\nto determine the extent of the effect of the bite. Next he asks\none of those present to bathe and bring water in an unused earthen\njar. He then recites incantations, and sprinkles water from the jar\nover the body of the patient. If this does not counteract the effects\nof the poison, he throws red-hot pieces of charcoal at the patient,\nwhen the snake speaks through the patient and states that he bit the\npatient because he committed a certain offence, and that he will leave\nhim if certain offerings are made. After he has ceased speaking,\nthe patient begins to shake and to crawl about like a snake, and\nis then cured. If the man be doomed to death, the snake would say,\n\"I have bitten him by the order of the god of death, and I will not\nleave him without taking his life.\" [1411]\n\nSometimes the exorcist fans the patient with branches of the Nim tree,\nreciting mantras, and thereupon the patient becomes possessed by the\nsnake and declares the cause of his offence.\n\nSome exorcists present a magic epistle or charm asking the snake\nthat bit the patient to be present. The snake obeys the call, and\nappears before the exorcist. The latter then asks the snake to suck\nthe poison from the wound of the patient, which is done by the snake,\nand the patient is then cured. [1412]\n\nIn some places, the exorcist ties up the patient when the snake tells\nthe cause of the bite. Next the exorcist calls on the snake to leave\nthe body of the patient, who then begins to crawl about like a snake\nand is cured.\n\nOn some occasions, the exorcist slaps the cheek of the person who calls\nhim to attend the patient. It is said that the poison disappears as\nsoon as the slap is given. [1413]\n\nSome exorcists take a stick having seven joints and break them one\nby one. As the stick is broken, the patient recovers, his recovery\nbeing complete when the seventh joint is broken. [1414]\n\nIt is believed that the Dhedas are the oldest worshippers of Nags\nor snakes. When a person is bitten by a snake, he is seated near a\nDheda, who prays the snake to leave the body of the patient. It is\nsaid that in some cases this method proves efficacious in curing the\npatient. [1415]\n\nIt is stated that exorcists who know the mantra (incantation) for\nthe cure of snake-bites must lead a strictly moral life. If they\ntouch a woman in child-bed or during her period the mantra loses\nits power. This can be regained through purification, bathing,\nand by reciting the mantra while inhaling the smoke of burning\nfrankincense. Some exorcists abstain from certain kinds of vegetables\nand sweets, e. g., the Mogri (Rat-tailed radish), Julebi (a kind of\nsweet), etc. They have also to abstain from articles of a colour like\nthat of a snake. [1416]\n\nA belief prevails that there is a precious stone in the head of the\nsnake. Such stones are called mohors. They are occasionally shown to\nthe people by snake-charmers, who declare that it is very difficult\nto procure them.\n\nIt is stated that on dark nights snakes take these mohors out of\ntheir head and place them on prominent spots in order to be able to\nmove about in the dark by their light. [1417]\n\nIt is believed that snakes give these mohors to those who please\nthem. If one tries to take a mohor by force, the snake swallows it\nand dissolves it into water. [1418]\n\nAs stated above, the mohor has the property of absorbing the poison\nfrom snake-bites.\n\nIt is because a snake is believed to hold a precious stone in its\nhead that it is called manidhar, that is, holder of a jewel. [1419]\n\nIt is believed by some people that the mohor shines the most when a\nrainbow appears in the sky. [1420]\n\nAccording to the Puranas the patal or nether world is as beautiful\nas heaven. It is inhabited by Nags or snakes in human form. The Nag\ngirls are reputed to be so handsome that an extraordinarily beautiful\ngirl is commonly likened to a Nag girl.\n\nIt is believed that in ancient times inter-marriages between Nags\nand human beings were common. [1421]\n\nIt is a common belief that Kshetrapal, the guardian snake of fields,\nmarried human brides. So to propitiate him, his image is installed\non the marriage altar, and the bride takes three turns round it when\nwalking round the sacrificial fire with the bridegroom. [1422]\n\nAccording to the Puranas, king Dasharath married a Nag girl\nSumitra. [1423] Similarly Indrajit, the son of Ravan, the Lord of\nLanka or Ceylon, married a Nag girl. [1424]\n\nAt times snakes are seen in houses. They are believed to be the\nguardians of the houses, and worshipped with offerings of lamps fed\nwith ghi. After worship, the members of the family pray to the snake,\n\"Oh snake! Thou art our guardian. Protect our health and wealth. We\nare thy children and live in thy garden.\" [1425]\n\nSome people believe that the spirits of deceased ancestors, on account\nof the anxiety for the welfare of progeny, become snakes and guard\nthe house. [1426]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nTOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.\n\n\nThe worship of totems is not known to prevail in Gujarat, but the\nnames of persons and clans or families are occasionally derived from\nanimals and plants.\n\nInstances of names derived from animals are given below:--\n\n\n               NAME.           ANIMAL FROM WHICH DERIVED.\n\n         1.    Hathibhai       Hathi--an elephant.\n         2.    Vaghajibhai     Vagh--a tiger.\n         3.    Nagjibhai       Nag--a snake.\n         4.    Popatbhai       Popat--a parrot.\n         5.    Morbhai         Mor--a peacock.\n         6.    Chaklibhat      Chakli--a sparrow. [1427]\n         7.    Kido            Kidi--an ant.\n         8.    Mankodia        Mankoda--a black ant.\n         9.    Tido            Tid--a locust. [1428]\n         10.   Hansraj         Hansa--a goose.\n         11.   Vinchi [1429]   Vinchi--a female scorpion.\n         12.   Olo             Olo--a species of bird.\n         13.   Ajo             Aja--a goat.\n         14.   Mena            Mena--a species of bird. [1430]\n\n\nThe Kali Paraj or aboriginal tribes in Gujarat give such names as Kagdo\n(crow), Kolo (Jackal), Bilado (cat), Kutro (dog) to their children\naccording as one or other of these animals is heard to cry at the\ntime of birth. [1431]\n\nThe following are instances of names derived from plants:--\n\n\n              NAME.           PLANT OR TREE FROM WHICH DERIVED.\n\n        1.    Gulab [1432]    Gulab--the rose.\n        2.    Ambo            Ambo--the mango.\n        3.    Tulsibai        Tulsi--the sweet basil.\n        4.    Tulsidas        Ditto.\n        5.    Kesharbai       Keshar--Saffron.\n        6.    Galalbai        Galal--Red powder. [1433]\n        7.    Bili            Bili--Aegle marmelos.\n        8.    Dudhi           Dudhi--Pumpkin.\n        9.    Lavengi         Laveng--Clove.\n        10.   Mulo            Mulo--Radish.\n        11.   Limbdo          Limbdo--The Nim tree.\n        12.   Mako            Maki--Maize. [1434]\n        13.   Champo          Champa--Michelia Champaca. [1435]\n\n\nInstances of family or clan names derived from trees and animals are\nas follows:--\n\n\n               NAME.        DERIVATION.\n\n          1.   Untia        Unt--camel.\n          2.   Gadheda      Gadheda--An ass.\n          3.   Dedakia      Dedako--A frog.\n          4.   Balada       Balad--An ox.\n          5.   Godhani      Godho--A bull.\n          6.   Bhensdadia   Bhensa--A buffalo.\n          7.   Ghetiya      Gheta--A sheep.\n          8.   Savaj        A species of wild animals. [1436]\n          9.   Kakadia      Kakadi--cucumber. [1437]\n\n\nThe cow, the she-goat, the horse, the deer, peacock, the Tilad or\nsinging sparrow, the goose, the Nag or snake, the eagle, the elephant\nand the male monkey are believed to be sacred by all Hindus. Of these,\nthe greatest sanctity attaches to the cow. Her urine is sipped for\nthe atonement of sins. The cow is also revered by the Parsis. [1438]\n\nThe mouth of the she-goat and the smell of the horse are considered\nsacred.\n\nAn elephant is considered sacred, because when the head of Ganpati\nwas chopped off by Shiva, the head of an elephant was joined to his\ntrunk. [1439]\n\nThe peacock is considered sacred on account of its being the conveyance\nof Sarasvati, the goddess of learning.\n\nA male monkey is held holy, because it is supposed to represent the\nmonkey god Maruti.\n\nSome sanctity attaches to the rat also, as it is the conveyance of the\ngod Ganpati. He is called Mama or maternal uncle by the Hindus. [1440]\n\nThe pig is held taboo by the Musalmans. [1441]\n\nBrahmans, Banias, Bhatias, Kunbis, Sutars and Darjis abstain from\nflesh and liquor. [1442]\n\nSome Brahmans and Banias do not eat tadias (fruit of the palm tree)\nas they look like human eyes. [1443]\n\nSome Brahmans abstain from garlic and onions. Some do not eat Kodra\n(punctured millet). [1444]\n\nThe masur (Lentil) pulse is not eaten by Brahmans and Banias, because,\nwhen cooked, it looks red like blood. [1445]\n\nThe Humbad Banias do not eat whey, milk, curdled milk and clarified\nbutter. [1446]\n\nThe Shravaks abstain from the suran (Elephant foot), potatoes and\nroots that grow underground. [1447]\n\nMahomedans abstain from the suran, because \"su\" the first letter of\nthe word suran is also the first letter of their taboo'd animal the\npig. [1448]\n\nThere are some deities associated with the worship of animals. These\nanimals, with the deities with whom they are connected, are given\nbelow.\n\n1. Pothio or the bull is believed to be the vehicle of god Shiva. In\nall temples of Shiva its image is installed, facing the image of\nShiva in the centre of the temple.\n\n2. Sinha or the lion is believed to be the vehicle of Parvati,\nthe consort of Shiva. The lion is also connected with the demon\nplanet Rahu.\n\n3. Hansa the goose is associated with Brahma the creator.\n\n4. Gadhedo the ass is believed to be connected with Shitala, the\ngoddess of small pox.\n\n5. Undar the mouse is the conveyance of Ganpati.\n\n6. Mor the peacock is the conveyance of Sarasvati, the goddess of\nlearning. The peacock is also associated with Kartik Swami.\n\n7. Garud the eagle is the conveyance of the god Vishnu.\n\n8. Pado the male buffalo is the conveyance of Devis or goddesses.\n\n9. Ghodo the horse is the conveyance of the Sun. The horse is also\nassociated with the planet Guru or Jupiter and Shukra or Venus.\n\n10. Mrig the deer is supposed to be the conveyance of the Moon as\nwell as of Mangal or Mars.\n\n11. Balad the ox is connected with Mars and Shani or Saturn.\n\n12. Hathi the elephant is supposed to be the conveyance of Indra. It\nis also connected with Budha or Mercury.\n\n13 The tiger is the conveyance of the goddess Ambaji.\n\nThe animals mentioned above are worshipped along with deities and\nplanets with whom they are associated [1449].\n\nIt is generally believed that the earth is supported by a tortoise. So,\nwhenever the goddess earth or Prithvi is worshipped, the tortoise is\nalso worshipped. [1450]\n\nIn the temples of the Matas cocks and hens, and in the temple of Kal\nBhairav, dogs, are worshipped. [1451]\n\nFor the propitiation of goddesses and evil spirits, male goats,\nhe-buffaloes and cocks are sacrificed. [1452]\n\nIn his first incarnation, the god Vishnu was born as a fish, in the\nsecond as an alligator, and in the third as a boar. For this reason\nthe images of these animals are worshipped. [1453]\n\nAll the gods, goddesses and spirits mentioned in the preceding pages\nare represented by idols made of stone, metal or wood. In addition\nto stone idols of gods there are certain stones which are considered\nto represent gods and worshipped as such. Some of these stones are\ndescribed below.\n\nAll the stones found in the river Narbada are believed to represent\nthe god Shiva and worshipped.\n\nThere is a kind of stone found in the river Gandaki which is smooth\non one side and porous on the other. It is either round or square\nand about five inches in length. This stone is called Shaligram and\nis believed to represent the god Vishnu. It is kept in the household\ngods and worshipped daily.\n\nThere is another kind of hard, white, porous stone found near\nDwarka. It is also worshipped along with the idol of Vishnu.\n\nSometimes tridents are drawn with red lead on stones to represent\ngoddesses. [1454]\n\nThere is a tank near the Pir in Kutiana in which bored stones are\nfound floating on the surface of the water. These stones are considered\nsacred. [1455]\n\nCertain stones are considered sacred on account of their supposed\ncurative properties. One of such stones is called Paro. It is believed\nto be efficacious in curing rheumatism. [1456]\n\nThere is also a kind of red stone which is supposed to cure skin\ndiseases. [1457]\n\nEach of the nine planets is supposed to be in touch with a stone of\na particular colour. For instance, the stone in touch with Shani or\nSaturn is black, and that with Mangal or Mars is red. These stones\nare bored, and set in rings which are worn by persons suffering from\nthe influence of these planets.\n\nA kind of stone called Akik, found in abundance in Cambay, is\nconsidered sacred by the Mahomedan saints, who wear garlands made of\nbeads carved out of these stones. [1458]\n\nIn ancient times human sacrifices were offered on certain\noccasions. Now-a-days, in place of a human being, a cocoanut or a Kolu\n(Cucurbita maxima) is offered. At the time of making the offering,\nthe cocoanut is plastered with red lead and other holy applications\nand covered with a silk cloth. The Kolu is offered by cutting it into\ntwo pieces with a stroke of a knife or sword. [1459]\n\nSometimes an image of the flour of Adad is sacrificed in place of a\nhuman being. [1460]\n\nThis sacrifice is generally made on the eighth or tenth day of the\nbright half of Ashvin.\n\nIn place of human blood, milk mixed with gulal (red powder) and\nmolasses is offered. [1461]\n\nIn ancient times, when a well was dug, a human sacrifice was made to\nit if it did not yield water, with the belief that this would bring\nwater into the well. Now-a-days, instead of this sacrifice, blood\nfrom the fourth finger of a man is sprinkled over the spot. [1462]\n\nIt is also related that in ancient times, when a king was crowned,\na human sacrifice was offered. Now-a-days, instead of this sacrifice,\nthe king's forehead is marked with the blood from the fourth finger\nof a low caste Hindu at the time of the coronation ceremony. [1463]\n\nThere are a few stones which are supposed to have the power of curing\ncertain diseases. One of such stones is known as Ratvano Paro. It is\nfound at a distance of about two miles from Kolki. It is marked with\nred lines. It is bored and worn round the neck by persons suffering\nfrom ratawa [1464] (a disease in which red spots or pimples are seen\non the skin).\n\nThere is another stone called Suleimani Paro which is supposed to\nhave the power of curing many diseases. [1465]\n\nThere is a kind of white semi-circular stone which is supposed to\ncure eye diseases when rubbed on the eyes and fever when rubbed on\nthe body. [1466]\n\nSieves for flour and corn, brooms, sambelus or corn pounders, and\nploughs are regarded as sacred.\n\nSieves are considered sacred for the following reasons.\n\n1. Because articles of food such as flour, grain, etc., are sifted\nthrough them. [1467]\n\n2. Because, on auspicious occasions, when women go to worship the\npotter's wheel, the materials of worship are carried in a sieve.\n\n3. Because the fire used for igniting the sacrificial fuel is taken\nin a sieve, or is covered with a sieve while it is being carried to\nthe sacrificial altar. [1468]\n\n4. Because at the time of performing the ceremony when commencing to\nprepare sweets for a marriage, a sieve is worshipped. [1469]\n\n5. Because, in some communities like the Bhatias, the bride's mother,\nwhen receiving the bridegroom in the marriage booth, carries in a\ndish a lamp covered with a sieve. [1470]\n\nThe flour collected by Brahmans by begging from door to door is\nsupposed to be polluted. But it is considered purified when it is\npassed through a sieve. [1471]\n\nThe sambelu is considered so sacred that it is not touched with the\nfoot. If a woman lie down during day time, she will not touch it\neither with her head or with her foot.\n\nOne of the reasons why it is considered sacred is that it was used\nas a weapon by Baldev, the brother of the god Krishna.\n\nA sambelu is one of the articles, required for performing the reception\nceremony on a bridegroom's entering the marriage pandal. [1472]\n\nIt is believed that a fall of rain is expedited by placing a sambelu\nerect in a dish when there is a drought. [1473]\n\nAmong Shrigaud Brahmans, on the marriage day, one of the men of\nthe bridegroom's party wears a wreath made of a sambelu, a broom and\nother articles. Some special marks are also made on his forehead. Thus\nadorned, he goes with the bridegroom's procession and plays jokes with\nthe parents of both the bride and bridegroom. His doing so is supposed\nto bless the bridal pair with a long life and a large family. [1474]\n\nOn the marriage day, after the ceremony of propitiating the nine\nplanets has been performed in the bride's house, in some castes three,\nand in others one sambelu, is kept near the spot where the planets are\nworshipped. Next, five unwidowed women of the family hold the sambelus\nand thrash them five or seven times on the floor repeating the words\n\"On the chest of the ill-wisher of the host.\" The sambelus are bound\ntogether by a thread. [1475]\n\nIf a woman has to take part in an auspicious ceremony on the fourth\nday of her monthly period, she is made to thresh one maund of rice\nwith a sambelu. Her fourth day is then considered as the fifth [1476]\nand she becomes eligible for taking part in the ceremony. [1477]\n\nThe plough is considered sacred, because it is the chief implement\nfor cultivating the soil. It is worshipped on the full-moon day of\nShravan which is known as a Balev holiday, the worship being called\nGrahan-pujan. [1478]\n\nSome people consider the plough sacred because Sita, the consort of\nRam, was born of the earth by the touch of a plough. [1479] Others\nhold it sacred as it was used as a weapon by Baldev, the brother of\nthe god Krishna.\n\nOn account of the sanctity which attaches to the plough, it forms part\nof the articles, with which a bridegroom is received in the marriage\npandal by the bride's mother. [1480]\n\nIt is related that king Janak ploughed the soil on which he had to\nperform a sacrifice. Hence it has become a practice to purify with\na plough the spot on which a sacrifice is to be performed. [1481]\n\nIn some places, on the Balev day, a number of persons gather together\nnear a pond, and each of them fills an earthen jar with the water of\nthe pond. Next, one of the party is made to stand at a long distance\nfrom the others with a small plough in his hands. The others then\nrun a race towards the latter. He who wins the race is presented with\nmolasses and a cocoanut. [1482]\n\nIt is customary among Brahmans to perform the worship known as Balevian\nafter the performance of a thread ceremony. In Native States, the\nprime minister and other State officials and clerks join the ceremony,\nthe principal function of the ceremony being performed by the prime\nminister. In villages, this function is performed by the headman of\nthe village. The party go in procession to a neighbouring village\nor a pond where an earthen image of Ganpati besmeared with red lead\nis installed on a red cloth two feet square. Near this image are\ninstalled the nine planets, represented by nine heaps of corn, on\neach of which is placed a betelnut. This is called the installation\nof Balevian. A plough about two feet in length is kept standing near\nthe Balevian with its end buried in the ground. The prime minister or\nthe village headman worships the plough, after which, four Kumbhars\nor potters wash themselves, and holding four jars on their heads,\nrun a race. Each of the Kumbhars is named after one of the four\nmonths of the rainy season. He who wins the race is presented with\nthe plough. The expenses of the ceremony are paid from the State\ntreasury or the village fund. [1483]\n\nAccording to a popular saying, a broom should not be kept erect or\ntrampled under foot. This indicates that brooms are held sacred.\n\nWhen a newly-born infant does not cry, the leaves of a broom are\nthrown into the fire and their smoke is passed over the child. It is\nsaid that this makes the child cry. [1484]\n\nSome people consider brooms sacred, because they are used in sweeping\nthe ground (that is the earth, which is a goddess).\n\nIn some places, children suffering from cough are fanned with a\nbroom. [1485]\n\nIn some castes, a broom is worshipped on the marriage day. [1486]\n\nMany people deny any sanctity to a broom. A belief is common that if\na man sees a broom the first thing after getting up in the morning,\nhe does not pass the day happily. [1487]\n\nSome believe that if a broom be kept erect in the house, a quarrel\nbetween the husband and wife is sure to follow. There is also a belief\nthat if a person thrashes another with a broom, the former is liable\nto suffer from a gland under the arm. [1488]\n\nFire is considered to be a deity by all Hindus. In all sacrifices,\nfire is first ignited with certain ceremonies of worship. [1489]\nIn all Brahman families, every morning before breakfast, a ceremony\ncalled Vaishvadeva is performed, in which fire is worshipped and\ncooked rice is offered to it. [1490]\n\nThe Agnihotris keep a constant fire burning in their houses and\nworship it thrice a day, morning, noon and evening [1491].\n\nThe Parsis consider fire so sacred that they do not smoke. Neither\ndo they cross fire. In their temples called Agiaris a fire of sandal\nwood is kept constantly burning. It is considered a great mishap if\nthis fire is extinguished.\n\nFire is specially worshipped on the Holi day, that is the full-moon\nday of the month of Falgun. [1492]\n\nOther special occasions on which it is worshipped are the thread\nceremony, the ceremony of installing a new idol in a temple, the\nfirst pregnancy ceremony, and the ceremony performed at the time of\nentering a new house. [1493]\n\nFire is also worshipped in Maharudra, Vishnuyag, Gayatri-purashcharan,\nNilotsarga, Vastupujan, Shatachandi, Lakshachandi, and the sacrifices\nperformed during the Navaratra and on the Dasara day. [1494]\n\nFire is considered to be the mouth of God, through which he is supposed\nto receive all offerings. [1495]\n\nThe offerings made to fire generally consist of clarified butter,\ncocoanuts, sesamum seed, the Java, chips of the wood of the Pipal\nand the Shami, curdled milk and frankincense. [1496]\n\nThe fire to be used for sacrifices and agnihotras is produced by the\nfriction of two pieces of the wood of the Arani, [1497] the Pipal,\nthe Shami [1498] or the bamboo while mantras or incantations are\nbeing recited by Brahmans. [1499]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX.\n\nANIMAL WORSHIP.\n\n\nThe following animals are considered sacred and worshipped by the\nHindus.\n\n1. The cow:--is regarded as the holiest of animals. She is worshipped\non the fourth day of the dark half of Shravan which is known as Bol\nChoth; [1500] and a vow is observed by women in her honour on the\nfifteenth day of Bhadarva. It is known as Gautrad Vrat. On this day\nwomen do not eat wheat, milk, clarified butter and the whey of a\ncow. [1501]\n\nThe sanctity which attaches to the cow is due to the belief that in\nher body reside thirty three crores of gods. [1502]\n\n2. The horse:--The horse is believed by some people to be the last\nincarnation of God. It is also believed to represent Vachhado, the\ndeity who cures hydrophobia. [1503]\n\nSome people believe the horse to be a celestial animal. It is said\nthat in ancient times it had wings, traces of which are believed to\nbe still visible in its knees.\n\nOf the fourteen jewels obtained by the gods and demons by churning\nthe ocean, one was a horse with seven mouths. Hence the horse is\nconsidered divine. [1504]\n\nThe horse is worshipped on the Dasara day. [1505]\n\n3. The elephant:--The elephant is considered divine because it is\nthe vehicle of Indra, the lord of gods, and because its head was\nfixed on the trunk of Ganpati, the son of Parvati and Shiva. It is\nbelieved by some people that vows to offer cocoanuts to an elephant\nare efficacious in curing fever. [1506]\n\nAt the time of celebrating a coronation ceremony an elephant is\nworshipped. There is a tradition that in ancient times the coronation\nwaters were poured over the king by a she-elephant. [1507]\n\n4. The lion:--The lion is considered sacred because it is believed\nto be the lord of the beasts of the forest and the vehicle of\ngoddesses.\n\n5. The tiger:--The tiger is worshipped with Vagheshvari Mata as it\nis believed to be her vehicle.\n\n6. The she-buffalo:--Some sanctity attaches to the she-buffalo, as\nit is believed that a she-buffalo was given in dowry to a Nag kanya\n(snake girl) by her father. [1508]\n\nTo atone for a great sin a she-buffalo decked with a black wreath,\niron, red lead and marks made with the flour of adad is presented to\na Brahman. [1509]\n\n7. The donkey:--Is believed to be the vehicle of the goddess of\nsmall-pox. [1510]\n\nIt is also believed that the god Brahma had formerly five mouths,\none of which was like that of a donkey. [1511]\n\n8. The dog:--The dog is believed to have divine vision and to be able\nto see the messengers of the god of death. Some believe that in its\nnext life a dog becomes a man. [1512]\n\nThe dog is also believed to be the vehicle of Kal Bhairav and is\nworshipped along with his image. [1513]\n\nSome people offer bread to dogs in the belief that they will bear\nwitness to their merits before God [1514].\n\n9. The goat:--is worshipped by the Bharvads when they worship the\ngoddess Machhu. [1515]\n\n10. The cat:--is worshipped in the belief that by so doing a man can\nwin over his opponents. [1516]\n\n11. The bear:--is considered by some people to be a holy animal because\nthe god Krishna married Jambuvanti, the daughter of Jambuvant, the\nheroic bear who assisted Rama. [1517]\n\n12. Fish:--are considered sacred because they are supposed to carry\nthe food (pindas) to the manes offered (in water) at the shraddha\nceremony. [1518]\n\n13. Alligators:--are worshipped in a pond at Magar Pir, near\nKarachi. [1519]\n\n14. The crows:--are worshipped because they are supposed to represent\nrishis. [1520]\n\nSome people believe that crows were formerly rishis. They are supposed\nto have divine vision, and food offered to them is believed to reach\ndeceased ancestors.\n\nA loaf is cut into three parts. One of them is designated kal\n(ordinary), the second dukal (famine), and the third sukal\n(plenty). Next they are offered to a crow. If the crow takes away\nthe kal, it is believed that the crops in the following year will\nbe normal; if it takes away the dukal a famine is apprehended in the\nfollowing year, and if the sukal, it is believed that the crops will\nbe plentiful. [1521]\n\n15. The goose:--is supposed to be the vehicle of the goddess\nSarasvati. It is believed that its worship ensures success in any\nenterprise. If a goose is seen in a dream, it is considered to be a\nvery good omen. [1522]\n\nA goose is believed to be endowed with the power of separating milk\nfrom water. It is supposed to feed on rubies. It is found in lake\nMan in the Himalayas. [1523]\n\n16. The cock:--is considered holy as it is believed to be the vehicle\nof the goddess Bahucharaji. [1524]\n\n17. The hen:--is worshipped on the last Sunday of the month of\nJeth. [1525]\n\n18. The parrot:--is worshipped by singers desiring to improve their\nvoice. It is also worshipped by dull persons desirous of improving\ntheir intellect. [1526]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X.\n\nWITCHCRAFT.\n\n\nDakans are of two kinds, human and of the order of ghosts. [1527]\n\nGirls born in the Ashlesha nakshatra on the bij or second day of\na month, in the Kritika nakshatra on the seventh day of a month\nand in the Shatabhigha nakshatra on the twelfth day of a month, are\nbelieved to be human dakans. They cause the death of their husbands,\nand their evil eye injures all things and individuals that come under\nits influence. [1528]\n\nWomen who die in child-bed, meet an untimely death or commit suicide,\nbecome Dakans or Chudels after death.\n\nSome people believe that women of such low castes as Kolis, Vaghris\nand Charans become Dakans. High caste Dakans are rare. [1529]\n\nA ghostly Dakan dresses in fine clothes and decks her person with\nornaments. But she does not cover her back, which is horrible to\nlook at. It is so frightful that any one happening to see it dies of\nhorror. [1530]\n\nGhostly Dakans trouble only women. When possessed by them, the\nlatter have convulsive fits, loose their hair, and cry out without\nany reason. [1531]\n\nA ghostly Dakan lives with a man as his wife, brings him dainties\nand turns the refuse of food into flesh and bones. The man gradually\nbecomes emaciated and ultimately dies. [1532]\n\nIt is believed that generally a Dakan kills a man within six\nmonths. [1533]\n\nThe Dakans do not allow calves to suck, cattle to give milk, and\nhealthy persons to enjoy sound health. Sometimes they cause cattle\nto yield blood instead of milk. [1534]\n\nA Dakan by virtue of her powers, can ascend to the sky. She lives\nupon the flesh of corpses. [1535]\n\nA Dakan can assume any form she likes. She appears as a cat, a\nbuffalo, a goat or any other animal. She can swell and shrink her\nbody at will. Her feet are reversed. [1536]\n\nDakans haunt trees, cemeteries, deserted tanks, mines or other desolate\nplaces. [1537]\n\nThey also haunt ruins and places where four roads meet. [1538]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI.\n\nGENERAL.\n\n\nVarious ceremonies are performed by cultivators at the time of\nploughing the soil, sowing, reaping and harvesting. These ceremonies\ndiffer in details in different localities.\n\nIn all places, an auspicious day for ploughing and sowing is fixed\nin consultation with an astrologer. On the day when ploughing is to\nbe commenced, the front court yard of the house is cowdunged and an\nauspicious figure called Sathia [1539] is drawn on it with the grains\nof juvari. [1540]\n\nA dish called kansar is prepared, and served to all members of the\nfamily at the morning meal. Their foreheads are marked with red powder,\nand a pice and betelnut are offered to the household gods. Hand-spun\ncotton threads marked at intervals with red powder are then tied round\nthe plough and to the horns of the bullocks which are to be yoked to\nthe plough. [1541]\n\nNext, the farmer stands waiting at the front door of his house for\ngood omens, [1542] and when a few are seen, sets out for his field.\n\nIn some places, the foreheads of the bullocks are daubed with red\nlead, clarified butter is applied to their horns, and they are fed\nwith molasses. [1543]\n\nIn others, a betelnut is placed over the Sathia and given to the\nperson who first meets the farmer on leaving his house. [1544]\n\nIn some localities again, the farmer holds the plough over the Sathia,\ntouching it with the end, eats a morsel of molasses, and bows to the\nSathia before starting. [1545]\n\nAs a rule, seed is not sown on Saturdays or Tuesdays. Wednesday is\nbelieved to be the most favourable day for this purpose. [1546]\n\nSowing is commenced from that corner of the field which has been\npronounced by the astrologer to be the best for the operation. [1547]\n\nSunday is believed to be the most auspicious day for reaping. [1548]\nWhile reaping, a part of the crop is offered to the image of Kshetrapal\nand to other village deities. In order to secure a good harvest,\nsweets are offered to the village gods on the eighth or tenth day of\nthe bright half of Ashvin or on the second day of the bright half of\nKartik which is called Annakuta. [1549]\n\nNo crop is brought into the house before a part of it has been offered\nto the local deities. [1550]\n\nWhen juice is to be extracted from sugar-canes, the mill is first\nworshipped. In the shed erected for storing the jars of molasses,\nan image of Ganpati is installed, and worshipped before placing the\njars in the shed. [1551]\n\nThe first jar of molasses and two bits of sugar cane are offered to\nthe local deities. [1552]\n\nBefore reaping cotton, offerings are made to the village gods. [1553]\n\nWhen a cow or she-buffalo is about to calve a packet containing a few\npebbles or cowries, the mali (red lead) from the image of Hanuman,\ndust collected from a place where four roads meet, and grains of Adad,\nare tied to its horns by an indigo-coloured thread, in the belief\nthat this protects the animal from the effects of the evil eye. [1554]\n\nTo guard cattle against an attack of small-pox, women observe a\nvow called Shili Satem on the seventh day of the bright half of\nShravan. [1555]\n\nTo prevent a tiger from attacking cattle, a circle of the flour of\ncharonthi is drawn round them by an exorcist reciting mantras or\nincantations. If a tiger tries to enter this protected area its mouth\nat once becomes swollen. [1556]\n\nIn some places, salt heated over the fire of the Holi is put into\nthe food given to the cattle in the belief that this protects them\nfrom disease. [1557]\n\nInstead of salt, some people give cattle leaves of castor-oil plants\nroasted over the fire of the Holi. [1558]\n\nIn some places, on the Divali holiday, a torch and a rice pounder are\nplaced in the cattle shed, and the cattle are made to cross them one\nby one. This process is believed to protect them from disease. [1559]\n\nA ceremony called the Doro of Mahadev is also performed in the month\nof Shravan to protect cattle against disease. [1560]\n\nVows in the honour of Ashpal or Nagdev are also observed for the\nprotection of cattle. [1561]\n\nIn the Hasta nakshatra during the monsoon, when there is a thunder\nstorm, a sambelu (rice pounder) is struck seven times against the main\ncross beam of the house in the belief that the sound thus produced\ndestroys insects. [1562]\n\nTo scare the insects called itidio, vows are observed in honour of\nthe Itidio Pir. [1563]\n\nIn order that insects and worms may not spoil the corn stored in\na granary or in earthen jars, the ashes of the fire of the Holi or\nleaves of the nim tree are mixed with it.\n\nTo prevent insects from spoiling wheat, bajari and juvari, mercury\nand ashes are put into them, while it is believed that gram cannot\nbe eaten by insects if it is mixed with dust from a place where three\nroads meet. [1564]\n\nTo drive away insects, a ceremony called Adagho Badagho or Mariyun\nis performed on the Divali holiday. It is as follows:--\n\nOne man holds a lighted torch in his hand, and another an earthen jar,\nwhich he beats with a small stick. The two men pass through every\nnook and corner of the house and the cattle-shed crying \"Adagho may\ngo, Badagho may go\", that is, \"May troubles and diseases disappear;\nmay bugs, serpents, mice, scorpions, mosquitoes and other insects\ndie out.\" Next they proceed, repeating the same words, through the\nstreets to the village boundary, where the torch, the earthen jar\nand the stick are thrown away, thus ending the ceremony. [1565]\n\nIn order to secure sunshine and favourable weather, oblations are\noffered to the local deities, sacrificial offerings are made and\nbunting is suspended from the doors of temples. [1566]\n\nIn order to secure a favourable rainfall, a grand festival is observed\non an auspicious day. On this day all agricultural work is stopped\nand megh laddus (sweet balls called megh or cloud) are eaten by the\npeople. [1567]\n\nIn some places, for the protection of the crops, a thread charmed\nby the incantations of an exorcist is passed round the hedge of the\nfield. [1568]\n\nFor the protection of crops of gram, wheat and sugar-cane against\ninjury by rats, a ceremony called Dadh Bandhavi is performed, in which\na thread over which incantations have been repeated by an exorcist\nis passed round the crop, and an image of Ganpati is installed and\nworshipped with offerings of sweet balls of wheat flour. [1569]\n\nIn some places, the ceremony of Dadh Bandhavi is performed somewhat\ndifferently. Instead of passing a thread round the field, the exorcist\nwalks round the field repeating incantations, holding in his hand a\npot containing fire, over which is placed a pan containing Gugal. This\nceremony is generally performed for the protection of sugar-cane crops\nagainst the attacks of jackals. It is believed that an animal entering\nthe field after the performance of this ceremony has its dadh (gums)\nstiffened. [1570]\n\nSilence and secrecy are considered essential in working mystic\nlore, for it is a belief that if learnt openly such lore loses its\npower. [1571]\n\nThe ceremony for obtaining command over Kal Bhairav is performed in\nperfect silence at midnight on the Kalichaudas, that is the fourteenth\nday of the dark half of Ashvin. [1572]\n\nSilence and secrecy are also essential in the ceremonies which are\nperformed for subjugating such evil spirits as Meldi and Shikotar\nand Matas. [1573]\n\nWhen Vaishnavas make offerings to their gods, the doors of the shrine\nare closed.\n\nThe initiating ceremonies of the Shakti Panthis and Margi Panthis\nare also performed in close secrecy. [1574]\n\nThe Shravaks have to observe perfect silence at the time of performing\nthe Shamag Padakamanu [1575] (a form of devotion to god).\n\nSome people observe a vow of keeping silent while taking their meals\neither for life or during the monsoon. [1576]\n\nThere are various legends current among the people regarding the\norigin of the Holi holiday. The chief versions are as follows:--\n\n1. In ancient times there lived a demoness named Dhunda who preyed\nupon children. Her misdeeds caused great misery to the people, who went\nto Vasishtha, the preceptor of Rama, and implored him to tell them of\nsome remedy for the mischief wrought by the demoness. Vasishtha told\nthem to light a pyre in honour of the goddess Holika, which he said,\nwould consume the demoness. The people accordingly lighted a huge\nfire, into which the demoness was driven by boys who led her to the\nspot by abusing her and troubling her in many ways. She was reduced\nto ashes by the fire, and the people were saved. [1577]\n\n2. A demon named Hiraniaksha had a sister named Holika and a son\nnamed Prahlad. Hiraniaksha bore great enmity to Rama, while Prahlad\nwas his devotee. Hiraniaksha did not like his son's devotion to Rama,\nand told him several times to give it up, and even threatened to take\nhis life. But Prahlad did not swerve an inch from the path of his\ndevotion. At last, being desperate, Hiraniaksha decided to kill him,\nand entrusted his sister with the mission. Holika raised a big pile\nof cow-dung cakes, set it on fire, and seated herself on the pile,\ntaking Prahlad in her lap. But through the grace of Rama, Prahlad\nescaped uninjured while Holika was reduced to ashes.\n\n3. A demoness called Dhunda had obtained a boon from Shiva to the\neffect that she would not meet her death during any of the three\nseasons of the year, either by day or by night. At the same time\nshe was warned to beware of injury from children between sunset\nand nightfall at the commencement of a new season. To prevent any\npossibility of injury from children, she began to destroy them by\npreying upon their bodies. This caused a great panic among the people,\nwho went to Vasishtha and asked his advice as to how to kill the\ndemoness. He advised them to kill her in the way described in legend\nNo. I above, and she was killed accordingly. [1578]\n\n4. The Govardhan mountain had two sisters named Holi and Divali. Holi\nwas a woman of bad conduct while Divali's character was good. Although\nunchaste, Holi boasted that she was chaste, and once, to prove her\nchastity, she threw herself on to a big fire. She could not bear the\npain caused by the flames, and began to scream aloud, when people\nbeat drums, abused her, and raised such a din that her screams\nbecame inaudible. Hence the custom of using abusive language and\nreciting abusive verses during the Holi holidays. Govardhan could not\nbear the disgrace attached to his sister's reputation. So he threw\nhimself into the fire and met his death without uttering a word of\npain. This has given rise to the custom of throwing into the Holi\nfire the cow-dung image of Govardhan, which is installed during the\nDivali holidays. [1579]\n\nOn the Holi day sweet dishes are prepared and taken with the morning\nmeal. Some women observe a vow on this day, and dine once only in\nthe evening, after worshipping the Holi fire with an offering of a\ncocoanut and walking seven times round it. [1580]\n\nIn some places, on the day preceding the Holi, which is known as\nKamala Holi, sweet stuffed cakes are prepared, and on the Holi Punema\nday vermicelli is eaten. [1581]\n\nThe fuel for the Holi fire is generally collected by boys. At\nabout two in the afternoon on the Holi day a party of boys goes\nfrom house to house and receive five to fifteen cow-dung cakes\nfrom each household. These cow-dung cakes are bored, and strung on\nstrings. [1582]\n\nThe fuel thus collected is heaped at the village boundary or the\nend of the street. All the male residents of the village or street\nmeet at the spot, a pit is dug, and earthen pots filled with wheat,\ngram and water mixed together are placed in the pit and covered with\ncow-dung cakes. Next, the headman of the village or the leading\nresident of the street worships the pile with the assistance of a\nBrahman priest. After worship, the pile is lighted, at the time fixed\nby an astrologer, [1583] by a low caste Hindu, generally a Bhangi or\nKotwal, as Hindus of good caste consider it a sin to kindle the Holi\nfuel. The Bhangi or Kotwal receives a few dates and cocoanut kernel\nfor this service. [1584]\n\nThe offerings thrown into the Holi fire generally consist of fried\njuvari grain, fried gram and cocoanuts. Flowers of mango trees and\ntender mango fruits are also thrown into the Holi fire. It is believed\nthat newly married pairs, by worshipping the Holi fire, are blessed\nwith long life, prosperity, and the birth of children. After the\nprincipal ceremony is over, they worship it one by one with the ends\nof their upper garments tied in a knot, and walk seven times round\nthe fire with their hands folded, the husband leading the wife. [1585]\n\nInfants dressed in gay clothes and decked with garlands of dry dates\nand bits of cocoanut kernel are also taken to the Holi fire by their\nparents. The latter worship the Holi Mata and walk four times round\nthe fire, taking the children in their arms. Next they offer cocoanuts\nto the goddess, which are either thrown into the fire or distributed\namong those present. [1586]\n\nWomen whose children die in infancy observe a vow of remaining standing\non the Holi day. When the Holi is lighted they worship the fire,\nafter which they may sit down and take their meal. It is believed\nthat the observance of this vow ensures long life to children. [1587]\n\nAlthough the Holi itself falls on the full-moon day of Falgun the\nrejoicings connected with it commence from the first day of that\nmonth. The principal feature of the rejoicings consists in indulging\nin indecent and vulgar songs and language. Vulgar songs or fags in\nhonour of the goddess Holi are also sung. Songs are composed abusing\neach caste, and sung addressing passers by, by groups of boys who\nhave full license during the Holi holidays to indulge in all sorts\nof pranks and abuses.\n\nSome make wooden blocks with engravings of vulgar and indecent words,\ndip them in coloured water, and press them on the clothes of passers\nby.\n\nOthers make naked idols of mud, and place them on the tops of\nhouses. [1588]\n\nThe day following the Holi is known as Dhul Padavo or Dhuleti. On\nthis day people indulge in the throwing of cow-dung, black pigments,\nurine, mud, coloured water and red powder.\n\nIn some places, on the Dhuleti day, a game is played with a\ncocoanut. The players form themselves into two parties and stand\nopposite to one another. Midway between them is placed a cocoanut. Each\nparty tries to take away the cocoanut, and prevents the other from so\ndoing by throwing stones and cow-dung cakes. The party which succeeds\nin taking away the cocoanut wins the game. [1589]\n\nAmongst Dheds, Kolis, Ravals and other low castes a post of the wood\nof the tamarind tree is planted in the ground and surrounded by women\nholding whips and cords in their hands. A party of men run to the\nwomen to drive them away and take possession of the post. The women\nprevent them from doing so by striking them with all their might\nwith the whips and cords in their hands. This struggle commences at\n10 A. M. on the Dhuleti day and continues till one o'clock in the\nmorning on the following day. At last the men succeed in carrying\naway the post, thus ending the game. [1590]\n\nIn some places, a man is tied to a bier as if he were a corpse,\nand carried on the shoulders of four men to the post of tamarind\nwood, followed by a party of men and women wailing aloud, to the\ngreat merriment of the crowd assembled near the post to witness the\nstruggle described above. [1591]\n\nSometimes contests are held between two parties of boys in singing\nvulgar songs. The contest commences by one of the parties singing a\nsong. The other party responds to it by singing another song, which\nis generally more indecent than the song sung first. The contest goes\non like this, and the party which fails to respond to its rival is\nsaid to be defeated.\n\nThe immoral practices described above are only to be seen among low\ncaste people, and even their women take part in these practices.\n\nThe women of higher castes wear rich clothes and ornaments on the\nDhuleti day, and sing songs in their houses. At times they throw\ncoloured water and red powder at each other. [1592]\n\nIn big temples a festivity called Ful Dol is observed, in which water\ncoloured with the flowers of the Khakhra (Butea frondosa) is thrown\nby the party assembled, and kundalias or indecent songs are sung in\na loud voice. [1593]\n\nIn some temples, holy songs are sung at night and prayers are held. At\nthe end, fried juvari, gram and sweets are distributed as the grace\nof God. [1594]\n\nThe boys who take an active part in the Holi celebrations are known\nas geraiyas or holias. For two or three nights before the Holi they\nsteal fuel for the Holi fire and beat and abuse those who try to\nprevent them from so doing. They also recite coarse songs and play\nwith dirt and mud freely. Parties of them go from shop to shop and\nobtain by force dates and fried gram. [1595]\n\nAt midnight of the Holi day a bower is erected in the centre of the\nvillage with bits of broken earthen vessels and cocoanut shells. A\nfool, generally a son-in-law of some low caste Hindu in the village,\nis induced, by the promise of dates and cocoanut kernel, to dress\nin a coat on which are drawn naked pictures. A garland of worn out\nshoes is tied round his neck and he is mounted on a donkey. He is then\ncalled Valam and taken from the bower through the village accompanied\nwith music and crowds of people, who utter in a loud voice coarse and\nvulgar expressions as the procession moves on. At times they play jokes\nwith the Valam, and give him blows on the head with their fists. [1596]\n\nIn some places, this procession is called Valama Valami and is\ncelebrated on the night preceding the Holi. Two poor stupid persons\nare dressed as bride and bridegroom, the latter in a ridiculously\ngrotesque dress. They are married on the following morning, when\nvulgar songs are sung. The Valam and Valami are represented by two\nnaked idols, made of rags, of a man and a woman. They are carried\nthrough the village in a noisy procession and married on an altar\nof black earthen vessels. They are then placed erect on two wooden\nposts side be side. [1597]\n\nIn some villages, a large stone is placed in a spacious compound in\nthe centre of the village, and broken earthen vessels are suspended\nover it with cords from the wooden bower erected over the stone. An\nass is brought to the spot, and a fool decked with a garland of worn\nout shoes is mounted on it with his face turned towards the tail of\nthe ass. He holds the tail of the ass in his hands as reins and is\ncarried in procession through the village to be brought back to the\nbower and married to another fool, dust, ashes and water being freely\nused in the service. [1598]\n\nIn some localities naked images of a husband and wife are set in a\ncart and taken through the village accompanied with music, the crowd\nsinging indecent songs all the way long. [1599]\n\nOn the Holi holiday children are presented with harda (garlands of\nballs made of sugar) by their relatives and the friends of their\nfamilies. [1600]\n\nThe Holi fire is extinguished by women on the morning of the following\nday. The earthen vessels containing wheat and gram which are put into\nthe pit of the Holi before the fire is lighted are then taken out. The\ngrain is cooked by the fire of Holi, and is called Ghugari. It is\ndistributed among the villagers, the belief being that those who eat\nit are protected against disease by the goddess of the Holi. [1601]\n\nThere are many other superstitious beliefs held by people in connection\nwith the Holi.\n\nAccording to one belief, those who expose themselves to the heat of\nthe Holi fire keep good health during the ensuing year. According\nto some, this can be secured by eating sugar-cane heated over the\nfire. Juvari stems heated over the fire are given to cattle with the\nsame object. [1602]\n\nSome believe that if salt heated over the Holi fire is given to cattle\nit protects them against epidemics.\n\nVirgins take home a little of the Holi fire and light five cow-dung\ncakes with it in the courtyard of their house. When the cakes are\nburnt, the ashes are removed and the spot is purified with a plaster\nof cow-dung. Next, they draw some auspicious figures on the spot and\nworship them for a number of days in the belief that this ensures\ngood health to their brothers. [1603]\n\nAmong Gujarat Hindus no special ceremonies are performed when a girl\nattains puberty, except that on the third or fifth day she is bathed by\nan unwidowed woman and dressed in green or saffron-coloured robes. She\nis given rice in milk, sweetened with sugar, and is presented with\na piece of green satin. [1604]\n\nIn some places, the girl is bathed on the fourth day and given kansar\nto eat. She then bows to her mother-in-law and makes her a present\nof half a rupee. The mother-in-law blesses her and presents her with\na bodice cloth. [1605]\n\nAfter the bath, a mark with red powder is made on her forehead and\nshe is taken to the temple of the family deity. [1606]\n\nIn some places, the red powder mark is made under the girl's\nright arm in the belief that this ensures to her the birth of many\nchildren. [1607]\n\nIn some localities the girl is bathed on the third day, dainty dishes\nare served her, and she is presented with a cocoanut by each of her\nkinsfolk. [1608]\n\nIn some castes, when a girl attains puberty, a feast of cooked rice\nand molasses is given to the caste people. In other castes, pieces\nof cocoanut kernel are distributed among children, and the girl is\npresented with a robe and bodice by her parents-in-law. [1609]\n\nIn some castes, a girl is not allowed to cook before she attains\npuberty. [1610]\n\nNo ceremonies are performed when a boy attains puberty, probably\nbecause in the case of boys the change is not so marked as in the\ncase of girls.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES\n\n\n[1] Khan Bahadur Fazlullah and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[2] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[3] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[4] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[5] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[6] Mr. M. D. Vyas, Shastri, Bhayavadur.\n\n[7] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi.\n\n[8] The first nine days of Ashvin, the last month of the Gujarat\nHindu Calendar, known otherwise as Matana dahada-mata's days. The\ninfluence of the matas is very strong in these days.\n\n[9] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[10] Mr. M. D. Vayas, Shastri, Bhayavadur.\n\n[11] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[12] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[13] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[14] Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[15] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[16] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[17] Lapsi is coarse wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with\nmolasses or sugar.\n\n[18] Vadan-bean flour--generally of gram or peas--is allowed to\nremain in water with spices until the paste acquires a sufficient\ndegree of consistence, when it is rolled into small biscuit-sized\nballs and fried in oil.\n\n[19] Bakla are small round flat cakes of dry boiled beans.\n\n[20] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[21] Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sanka.\n\n[22] Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sanka.\n\n[23] Kansar is coarse wheat-flour cooked in three times as much water,\nsweetened with molasses or sugar, and taken with ghi.--B. L. Dave,\nSchoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[24] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[25] Mr. G. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sultanpore.\n\n[26] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[27] Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[28] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[29] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[30] A dankla is otherwise known by the name of dug-dudioon.\n\n[31] Mr. Jagannath Hirji, Schoolmaster, Chok.\n\n[32] Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal.\n\n[33] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa.\n\n[34] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[35] Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasara.\n\n[36] Mr. L. G. Travadi, Schoolmaster, Upleta.\n\n[37] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[38] Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasara.\n\n[39] Mr. L. G. Travadi, Schoolmaster, Upleta.\n\n[40] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[41] Two pieces of cloth, a shouldercloth and a scarf are cast over the\nbridegroom and the bride, and they are tied together by a knot. It is\nthe unloosing of this tie which is here referred to.--Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[42] Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sanka.\n\n[43] Mr. N. M. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sanka.\n\n[44] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[45] The tendency to fraternise as much in belief as in nationality\nis a notable feature of Indian life. The saying goes:--Hindu Musalman\n\u00e9k Ram bij\u00f3 Rehman. The Hindu and Musalman are not far apart; one is\nthe follower of Ram, the other of Rehman (the most compassionate--a\nKuranic name of Allah). Again says another proverb: The Hindu and\nMusalman are as closely connected as the breast and the skirt of a\ngarment (Hindu n\u00e9 Musalman moli daman jo vehevar). The Hindu pays\nhomage to the Pir, the Muslim repays the compliment by holding some\nof his Hindu brother's lower class deities, such as Vaital and Kali\nand Amba, in awe. The Hindu worships and breaks cocoanuts before the\nMoharram taazias--the Musalman responds by showing a sneaking sort\nof a regard for the Holi, whom he believes to have been a daughter\nof the patriarch Abraham. This reciprocal good fellowship in times of\npolitical agitation, like those of the Indian Mutiny, results in the\n\"chapati\", or unleavened bread loaf, being considered a symbol to\nbe honoured both by Muslim and Hindu; and in more recent times, as\nduring the plague troubles in Allahabad and Cawnpore, shows itself in\nthe Muslim garlanding the Hindu on a holiday, and the Hindus setting\nup sherbat-stalls for Musalmans on an Id day.--Khan Bahadur Fazlullah.\n\n[46] Mr. J. N. Patel, Schoolmaster, Jasdan.\n\n[47] Mr. Jaggannath Hirji, Schoolmaster, Chok.\n\n[48] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa.\n\n[49] Mr. O. A. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Lakhapadar.\n\n[50] Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti Marad.\n\n[51] Mr. J. D. Khandhar, Sayala.\n\n[52] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[53] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[54] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[55] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[56] Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpore.\n\n[57] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[58] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[59] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[60] Mr. M. D. Vyas, Schoolmaster, Bhayavadur.\n\n[61] Cf. All\u00e1ho n\u00far-us-sam\u00e1w\u00e1tiwal ard, mathalo nurihi-ka miskatin\nbih\u00e1 nusb\u00e1h--Koran.\n\nAllah! He is the light of the Heavens and the Earth. The likeness of\nHis Light being similar to a lamp in a glass.--Fazlullah Latfullah.\n\n[62] Mr. Jethabai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal; and Damodar\nKarsonji, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[63] Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[64] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[65] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[66] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[67] A similar custom is observed in Gujarat. Unfortunate parents,\nwho have lost many children, vow to grow the hair of their little\nchildren, if such are preserved to them, observing all the time a\nvotive abstinence from a particular dish or betelnut or the like. When\nthe children are 3 or 5 or 7 years old, the vow is fulfilled by taking\nthem to a sacred place, like the temple of Ranchhodji at Dakor, to\nhave their hair cut for the first time. This vow is known as babari\nin Southern Gujarat--K. D. Desai.\n\n[68] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[69] Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Gondal.\n\n[70] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[71] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[72] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[73] Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[74] Mr. G. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Sultanpore.\n\n[75] Mrs. Raju Ramjee Kanjee, 2nd Assistant, Girls' School, Gondal.\n\n[76] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[77] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[78] Mr. Girijashankar Karmeashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[79] The Hindus use the tender sprigs of the Nim or Babul trees for\ntooth-brushes. After they have done duty as brushes they are cloven\ninto two and the tenderest part is used as a tongue-scraper.--Khan\nBahadur Fazlullah.\n\n[80] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[81] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[82] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[83] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[84] Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Aman.\n\n[85] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[86] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[87] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[88] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[89] Mr. M. D. Vyas, Shastri, Bhayavadur.\n\n[90] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia.\n\n[91] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara, and Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[92] Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[93] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa.\n\n[94] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi.\n\n[95] Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[96] Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[97] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[98] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa.\n\n[99] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[100] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadavah.\n\n[101] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[102] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[103] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[104] Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[105] Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti-Murad.\n\n[106] Mr. Ranchhodji Becher Pandya, Shastri, Jelpur, Sanskrit\nPathashala.\n\n[107] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[108] Wheat flour fried in ghi with molasses.\n\n[109] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[110] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[111] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[112] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[113] The names are: 1 Aditya, 2 Divakar, 3 Bhaskar, 4 Prabhakar,\n5 Sahasranshu, 6 Trilochan, 7 Haritashva, 8 Vibhavasu, 9 Divakrit,\n10 Divadarshatmaka, 11 Trimurti, 12 Surya.\n\n[114] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[115] Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur.\n\n[116] Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Ganod.\n\n[117] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[118] Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Ganod.\n\n[119] Mr. Chhaganlal Motiram, Wala Taluka.\n\n[120] Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School.\n\n[121] Mrs. Raju Ramjee Kanjee, Girls' School, Ganod.\n\n[122] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[123] Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School.\n\n[124] Mr. J. D. Khandhar, Sayala.\n\n[125] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[126] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[127] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[128] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[129] Milk and sugar ball.\n\n[130] A sugar cake.\n\n[131] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[132] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[133] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[134] Mr. P. L. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Luvaria.\n\n[135] Mr. Jeram Vasaram, Schoolmaster, Jodia.\n\n[136] Mr. M. H. Raval, Ganod.\n\n[137] Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod.\n\n[138] See figure above. A shows Shiva's image: the arrow-head,\nthe jaladhari which a person is not to cross. He is to return from\nthe point B in his first round and from the point C in his half\nturn. Thus B C remains uncrossed. The circle round A shows the Khal,\nplace wherein god Shiva is installed--K. D. Desai.\n\n[139] Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpore.\n\n[140] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[141] Hindus believe that a soul has to go through a lakh and\neighty-four thousand transmigrations before it attains final\nemancipation. The cycle of 1,84,000 births is called the phera of\nlakh-choryasi,--K. D. Desai.\n\n[142] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[143] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster. Dhhank.\n\n[144] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[145] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[146] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[147] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[148] Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Ainan.\n\n[149] Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School.\n\n[150] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[151] Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Moti-Murad.\n\n[152] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[153] Mr. D. K. Shah, Schoolmaster, Charadwa.\n\n[154] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi.\n\n[155] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Schoolmaster, Chhatrasa.\n\n[156] Mr. Chhaganlal Motiram, Schoolmaster, Wala Talu.\n\n[157] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Goholwad.\n\n[158] Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani, and the Schoolmaster, Movaiyam.\n\n[159] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[160] Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School.\n\n[161] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa.\n\n[162] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[163] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[164] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[165] Mr. N. J. Bhatt, Schoolmaster, Moti-Murad.\n\n[166] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Schoolmaster, Limbdi.\n\n[167] Mr. H. R. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Khirasara.\n\n[168] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[169] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[170] Mr. H. R. Pandya, Khirasara.\n\n[171] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa.\n\n[172] The Schoolmaster, Chank, Kolaba.\n\n[173] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwa.\n\n[174] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[175] The Schoolmaster, Pendhur, Ratnagiri.\n\n[176] The Schoolmaster, Anjar.\n\n[177] Mr. Jethabhai Mangaldas, Schoolmaster, Gondal.\n\n[178] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Schoolmaster, Songadh.\n\n[179] Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia.\n\n[180] The Schoolmaster, Ganod.\n\n[181] The Schoolmaster, Agashi and Arnala.\n\n[182] Mr. T. D. Khandhar, Schoolmaster, Sayala.\n\n[183] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh.\n\n[184] The Schoolmaster, Mith-bao, Ratnagiri.\n\n[185] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[186] Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Schoolmaster, Aman.\n\n[187] Mr. M. H. Raval, Vanod.\n\n[188] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[189] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh.\n\n[190] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[191] Mr. Girijashankar Karunashankar, Songadh.\n\n[192] The Swastika is found at Pompeii and in the Greek 'key'\npattern. It is also found on Persian and Assyrian coins and in\nthe Catacombs at Rome. It is to be seen on the tomb of the Duke of\nClarence, who was drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, at Tewkesbury,\nand occurs in Winchester Cathedral, where it is described as the\nfyle-foot.--R. E. E.\n\n[193] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank. Compare a similar idea\nin the Kuran in the chapter An Nur (the Lights): \"Allah is the Light\nof the Heavens and the Earth. The semblance of his light is the nyche\nwherein there is a light.\"--K. B. Fazlullah.\n\n[194] Mr. J. A. Jani, Schoolmaster, Aman.\n\n[195] Mr. N. D. Vora, Schoolmaster, Rajpara; and Mr. B. K. Dave,\nSchoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[196] Kansar is coarse wheat flour sweetened with molasses and cooked\nin water until the whole quantity of water is absorbed and taken\nwith ghi.\n\n[197] Puris are cakes of fine wheat flour, fried in ghi.\n\n[198] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[199] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[200] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[201] The Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[202] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[203] Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[204] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[205] All observers of the Chaturthi-vrat worship the god Ganpati\non this day, and offer him one thousand trifoliate sprouts of durva\n(cynodon dactylon). The dish specially prepared for the occasion is\nGolanaladu--sweet-balls of wheat flour fried in ghi and mixed with\nmolasses.--Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[206] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[207] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[208] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[209] The Schoolmaster, Vanod.\n\n[210] The original is--\n\n                Poshi Poshi Punemadi,\n                Agashe randhi khichadi,\n                jame bhaini benadi.\n\n[211] The Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani and The Schoolmaster, Jodia.\n\n[212] Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit School.\n\n[213] Mr. L. D. Mehta, Schoolmaster, Mota-Devalia.\n\n[214] A Kundali is an astrological diagram of the position of\nplanets at any particular time. The numbers in the diagram change\ntheir positions according to the position of planets at any given\ntime.--Mr. D. Desai.\n\n[215] Mr. Chhaganlal Motira, Wala Taluka.\n\n[216] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[217] The Schoolmaster, Khandhar.\n\n[218] One ghadi is equal to 24 minutes and one pohor (prahara) lasts\nfor three hours.\n\n[219] Mr. M. P. Shah, Schoolmaster, Zinzuwada.\n\n[220] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[221] Mr. M. P. Shah, Schoolmaster, Zinzuwada.\n\n[222] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[223] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Rajpara and Limbdi.\n\n[224] The Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[225] The Schoolmaster, Dadvi.\n\n[226] The Schoolmaster, Lilapur.\n\n[227] Throughout the Hindu Scriptures, Vishnu and his\nincarnations are described as being of Shyama-varna or dark\ncomplexion.--Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[228] The Schoolmaster, Dadvi.\n\n[229] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Halar.\n\n[230] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[231] The Schoolmaster, Lilapur.\n\n[232] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa.\n\n[233] Mr. M. P. Shah, Zinzuwada.\n\n[234] The Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls' School.\n\n[235] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa.\n\n[236] Rao Saheb Shelke and the Shastri of Bhayavadur.\n\n[237] The Schoolmaster, Rajpara.\n\n[238] The Schoolmaster, Dhhank. He refers to the books Vrataraj and\nPathyapathya on this point.\n\n[239] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Halar; and the Schoolmaster\nof Chauk, Kolaba.\n\n[240] The Schoolmaster, Jodia.\n\n[241] The Schoolmaster, Kolki.\n\n[242] The Schoolmasters of Rajpara, Limbdi, and Ibhrampur.\n\n[243] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[244] The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala.\n\n[245] The following Sanskrit verse mentions all of them:--\n\n    Laksmih kaustubhaparijatakasura dhanvamtariscandrama |\n    Gavah kamaduhah suresvaragajo rambhadidevanganah ||\n    Asvah saptamukho visam haridhanuh samkhomrtam cambudheh |\n    Ratnaniha caturdasa pratidinam kurvantu vo mamgalam || 1 ||\n\n                                                  Rao Saheb P. B. Joshi.\n\n[246] The Schoolmasters of Jodia, Dhhank, Songadh, Rajpara, and Limbdi.\n\n[247] The Schoolmaster of Khirasara.\n\n[248] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[249] Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasawad.\n\n[250] Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[251] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[252] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[253] Mr K. D. Desai.\n\n[254] Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasawad.\n\n[255] A pohor or prahar is equal to three hours.\n\n[256] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[257] Mr. Khan Bahadur Fazlullah.\n\n[258] The Schoolmasters of Jodia and Songadh.\n\n[259] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[260] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[261] Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[262] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[263] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[264] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[265] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[266] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[267] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah.\n\n[268] Mr. T. D. Khandhar, Sayala.\n\n[269] The Schoolmaster, Jodia.\n\n[270] Khan Bahadur Fazlullah.\n\n[271] Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[272] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa, and Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton\nFemale Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[273] Mr. Motichand Vasanji Doshi, Kaluwad.\n\n[274] I believe the name of the constellation is wrongly given:\nit ought to be Mriga. One of the stars in this group, known as\n'Sirius', in Western astronomy, is often called Vyadha (i.e., the\nhunter).--Mr. K. T. Gupte.\n\nThe Mrig constellation is also said to represent the goddess\nSaraswati, who had assumed the form of a gazelle in order to escape\nthe amorous grasp of Brahma, her father. While the deer in the Mrig\nconstellation is Saraswati, the Ardra constellation is Mahadev who\nhad followed to chastise Brahma, who also is seen as the Brahma\nconstellation.--Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[275] The thirteenth day of both the bright and dark halves of a month,\nsacred to the worship of god Shiva.\n\n[276] The three-leaf-clusters of this tree are loved by the god Shiva\nif put upon his image.--Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[277] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[278] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[279] The nine grahas are, Ravi (the Sun), Chandra (the Moon),\nMangal (Mars), Budha (Mercury), Guru (Jupiter), Shukra (Venus), Shani\n(Saturn), and Rahu and Ketu.\n\n[280] The names of the twelve rashis are:--1 Mesha (Aries), 2 Vrishabha\n(Taurus), 3 Mithun (Gemini), 4 Karka (Cancer), 5 Sinha (Leo), 6 Kanya\n(Virgo), 7 Tula (Libra), 3 Vrishchika (Scorpio), 9 Dhanu (Sagittarius),\n10 Makara (Capricornus), 11 Kumbha (Aquarius), 12 Mina (Pisces).\n\n[281] The following are the twenty-seven nakshatras:--1 Ashvini,\n2 Bharani, 3 Kritika, 4 Rohini, 5 Mrig, 6 Ardra, 7 Punarvasu, 8\nPushya, 9 Ashlesha, 10 Magha, 11 Purva-phalguni, 12 Uttara-phalguni,\n13 Hasta, 14 Chitra, 15 Swati, 16 Vishakha, 17 Anuradha, 18 Jyeshtha,\n19 Mul, 20 Purvashadha, 21 Uttarashadha, 22 Shravana, 23 Dhanishtha,\n24 Shatataraka, 25 Purvabhadrapada, 26 Uttarabhadrapada, and 27 Revati.\n\n[282] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[283] One ghadi = 24 minutes.\n\n[284] Mr. Motechand Vasanji Doshi, Kalawad.\n\n[285] The Schoolmaster, Dadvi.\n\n[286] The Schoolmaster or Dadvi.\n\n[287] N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[288] M. H. Raval, Vanod.\n\n[289] Hirji Monji, Ganod.\n\n[290] N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[291] I.e., a handful of rice, ghi, cocoanuts, and some other objects\nare cast into the fire as an offering.\n\n[292] Gangaram Tribhowandas, Lilapur.\n\n[293] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[294] K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[295] R. B. Pandya, Jetpur Sanskrit Pathashala.\n\n[296] A superior kind of rice.\n\n[297] The Schoolmaster of Khirasara.\n\n[298] Twisted braids of darbha grass.\n\n[299] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[300] B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[301] Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[302] Arghya is an offering of water in a spoon filled with barley\nseeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and flowers.\n\n[303] Two varieties of sacred grass, used in thatching roofs.\n\n[304] Kalyanji Bhaishankar, Kolki, and R. B. Pandya, Jetpur.\n\n[305] G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[306] Meaningless terms.\n\n[307] Odhowji Avichal, Lakhapadar.\n\n[308] Talakshi Dharamsi, Khandhar.\n\n[309] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[310] Hirji Monji, Ganod.\n\n[311] Indra has full sway over the twelve meghas (or clouds), of which\nShamaghana is the greatest. Indra directs them to pour down waters in\nwhatever regions he likes. At the time of the deluge he lets loose\nall the twelve meghas under the lead of Shamaghana and thus brings\nabout the destruction of this world.--N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[312] L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia.\n\n[313] Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa.\n\n[314] N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[315] The Schoolmaster of Palanvar.\n\n[316] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[317] K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[318] The Schoolmaster of Luvaria.\n\n[319] Mr. Kalyanji Bhaishankar, Kolki.\n\n[320] The Schoolmaster of Khandhar.\n\n[321] Mr. R. B. Pandya, Jetpur.\n\n[322] Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[323] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah.\n\n[324] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia, and B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[325] When a king desired to be Chakravarti--Sovereign of all\nIndia--he used to perform a horse-sacrifice, and a horse was let\nloose with a copper-plate fastened to its head with the name of\nthe king engraved upon the plate. The horse moved in front followed\nby the king's army. Those who were not willing to acknowledge the\nsuzerainty of the king challenged his army by seizing the horse. Such\na horse-sacrifice, if successfully completed, threatens the power\nof Indra, who is therefore said to be very jealous and to create\nobstacles to the performance of such sacrifices--K. D. Desai.\n\n[326] Mr. Vallabh Ramji, Mendarda.\n\n[327] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[328] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa.\n\n[329] Mr. Jethalal Anupram, Aman.\n\n[330] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[331] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[332] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[333] Mr. K. B. Fazlullah.\n\n[334] Mr. G. K. Bhall, Songadh.\n\n[335] Mr. Hirji Monji, Ganod.\n\n[336] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[337] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[338] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[339] Mr. Talakshi Dharashi, Sayala.\n\n[340] A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar.\n\n[341] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[342] Durva is a kind of sacred grass.\n\n[343] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[344] The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka.\n\n[345] On the Dasara holiday, which is also known as Vijayadashmi,\nHindus take special dishes, dress themselves in their best garments and\ngo out of towns and villages to worship the earth-mother and the holy\nshami, with javala stalks, a few of which are inserted in the folds\nof their head-dress as auspicious tokens. In towns, and big cities\na procession is formed, conducted by some city magnate or a native\nchief riding an elephant. They go in state to the place of worship,\nand after the completion of the worship a goat or a he buffalo,\npreferably the latter, is killed, and a salvo of three to seven or\nmore cannon is fired. People then return home and prostrate themselves\nbefore their elders, and receive from them a handful of candied sugar,\na betel-nut and leaf, with blessings for long-life and prosperity. Such\nblessings are considered likely to prove effective.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[346] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[347] Some Hindus, when intending to go on a journey, consult an\nastrologer as to the muhurt or auspicious hour for setting out. If\nthey do not happen to leave their place at the prescribed moment, they\nput a pastana--some of the articles to be carried by them in their\njourney--such as a suit of clothes or a box, in a neighbour's house\nas a token of their having set out at the stated time.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[348] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[349] Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod.\n\n[350] Mr. Talakshi Dharashi, Sayala.\n\n[351] Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[352] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa, and the Schoolmaster of Jasdan.\n\n[353] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[354] The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur.\n\n[355] Mr. Laxmichand Hemji, Vasavad.\n\n[356] Mr. Madhowji Tulsiram, Movaiya.\n\n[357] A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey, and sugar.\n\n[358] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[359] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[360] Such objects are taken in a plate and thrown over a tulsi\n(or sweet basil) plant.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[361] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[362] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[363] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[364] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[365] The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka.\n\n[366] Sacrifices in honour of Vishnu, Mahadev and the goddess Chandi,\nrespectively.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[367] A form of devotion requiring the recitation of the\nGayatri-mantra a hundred thousand times with certain symbolic\nceremonies.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[368] The appointment of duly authorised Brahmans to perform religious\nceremonies.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[369] Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[370] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[371] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[372] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[373] Intending pilgrims sometimes impose such self-denials upon\nthemselves, vowing abnegation from particular articles of food or\nwear till they have performed their pilgrimage. Some renounce the\nuse of ghi, some of milk, others of betel-leaf or nut, others swear\nnot to wear a turban or a dupatta--till they are given the merit of\na pilgrimage.--Khan Bahadur Fazlullah.\n\n[374] Mr. L. I. Joshi, Surela.\n\n[375] This game, much resembling the English boys' game of Tip cat,\nis also known as gilli-danda. The gedi or gilli is a small piece of\nwood, two or three inches in length, an inch or less in diameter and\nsometimes tapering at both ends. The danda is a small round stick,\nof the same thickness and a foot or more in length, by which the gedi\nis played. There are two sides to the game as in cricket, though not\ncomposed of a definite number of players. There are a number of ways\nin which the game can be played.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[376] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi.\n\n[377] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara, or of Bhagwan, according to Jairam\nVasaram, Jodia.\n\n[378] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[379] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[380] The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala.\n\n[381] The Schoolmaster of Paolanvav.\n\n[382] Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur.\n\n[383] The Schoolmaster of Rajkot Girls' School.\n\n[384] Mr. H. M. Bhatt, Ganod.\n\n[385] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[386] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Sanka, Limbdi, and Sultanpur.\n\n[387] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[388] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[389] The Schoolmaster of Charadwa.\n\n[390] The Schoolmaster of Surela.\n\n[391] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[392] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[393] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[394] The Schoolmaster of Gondal.\n\n[395] i.e., the period for which the Rohini nakshatra lasts.\n\n[396] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[397] Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[398] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[399] The Hasta nakshatra generally commences at the end of Bhadrapad\nor the beginning of Ashvin and lasts for a fortnight. The rains\nduring this period, which are required for the rabi crops, are so\nmuch esteemed that each drop of them is said to be worth a drop of\nghi. People store the hathio-varshad or the rain water of Hasta in\nreservoirs for drinking purposes, believing it to be very pure and\ndigestive.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[400] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[401] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[402] Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[403] The Schoolmaster of Luvaria.\n\n[404] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[405] The Schoolmaster of Songadh.\n\n[406] Talakshi, Dharashi, Sayala.\n\n[407] Mr. L. H. Jadow, Vasawad.\n\n[408] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[409] Among the Hindus it is customary for those whose children do not\nlive to keep their children unshaved for a certain number of years,\nafter which the children are taken to a holy place and shaved there\nfor the first time. The temple of Ranchhodji at Dakor is a favourite\nplace for such ceremonies.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[410] Mr. G. K. Dave, Sultanpur.\n\n[411] The Schoolmaster of Charadwa.\n\n[412] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[413] The seven nether worlds are Atal, Vital, Sutal, Talatal, Mahatal,\nRasatal, and Patal.\n\n[414] In an ocean, as some say--D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[415] Mr. Jethalal Devji, Bantwa.\n\n[416] Mr. G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[417] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[418] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[419] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[420] Mr. K. P. Joshi, Limbdi, and Mr. Raju Ramjee Kanjee Pathak,\nGirls' School, Gondal.\n\n[421] Mr. J. K. Upaddhyaya, Patanvao.\n\n[422] Mr. Raju Ramjee Kanjee Pathak, Gondal.\n\n[423] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[424] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[425] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[426] The river is, therefore, regarded as his daughter, and is\ncalled Jahnavi.\n\n[427] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[428] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[429] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[430] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[431] The Schoolmaster of Upleta.\n\n[432] The waving of lights to and fro before an object of worship.\n\n[433] The Schoolmaster of Kolki and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[434] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[435] Mr. B. K. Dave, Schoolmaster, Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[436] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[437] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Schoolmaster, Dhhank.\n\n[438] This happens every twelfth year. The year of Sinhastha i.e. the\nyear when Brihaspati stands in the Sinha-rashi, is the only one in\nwhich marriages among the Kadv\u00e2 Kunbis take place; and for this reason\nthe smallest children in the community, sometimes even those who are\nin the womb, are married in this year.--Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[439] The Schoolmaster of Upleta.\n\n[440] The Schoolmaster of Luvaria.\n\n[441] Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia.\n\n[442] Mr K. D. Desai.\n\n[443] The Saraswati is believed to be present, but invisible at\nthis spot.\n\n[444] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[445] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[446] Mr. D. K. Shah, Charadwah.\n\n[447] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Vanod, and Kolki.\n\n[448] Mr. M. R. Raval.\n\n[449] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[450] The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka.\n\n[451] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[452] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[453] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank, and the Headmistress of Gondal Girls'\nSchool.\n\n[454] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[455] See P. 42.\n\n[456] Mr. M. H. Raval, Vanod.\n\n[457] Mr. M. S. Shah, Zinzuwada.\n\n[458] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[459] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[460] Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia.\n\n[461] The Schoolmaster of Khirasara.\n\n[462] The Schoolmaster of Lewaria.\n\n[463] Mr. Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[464] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[465] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[466] The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad.\n\n[467] The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka.\n\n[468] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[469] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[470] There are several species of bhuts and prets--ghosts and\ngoblins--thus, for instance, Jalachar, i.e., those who live in\nwater; Agnichar, i.e., those found in fire; Ehuchar, i.e., those\nhovering on the earth; Gaganachar, i.e., those moving in ethereal\nregions; Manushyachar, i.e., those moving among men; Khagachar or\nthose moving among birds; and Pashuchar, i.e., those living among\nbeasts.--N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[471] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank; the Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala and the\nSchoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka.\n\n[472] Mr. L. D. Mehta, Mota Devalia.\n\n[473] Vide page 1.\n\n[474] The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka and the Shastri of Jetpur\nPathashala.\n\n[475] The Schoolmaster of Movaiya.\n\n[476] N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[477] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[478] N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[479] The Schoolmasters of Vanod and Kolki.\n\n[480] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[481] H. M. Bhatt, Ganod.\n\n[482] A mixture of milk, curds, ghi, honey and sugar.\n\n[483] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Patanvav.\n\n[484] Vide page 29.\n\n[485] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[486] Rich persons use silver or golden spades and hoes when turning\nup the first clod of earth.\n\n[487] The Schoolmasters of Ganod and Dadvi.\n\n[488] B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani.\n\n[489] The schoolmasters of Limbdi and Chhatrasa.\n\n[490] It is a common practice to bring a small circular piece of an\nearthen vessel from the neighbourhood of such a well and to hang\nit by a piece of string round the neck of a child to cure it of\nhadakhi-udharas or strong cough.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[491] The Schoolmaster of Upleta.\n\n[492] The schoolmaster of Mota Devalia.\n\n[493] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[494] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[495] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[496] G. K. Bhatt, Songadh.\n\n[497] Pampa is described in the Ramayana as being situated in the\nDandaka forest, i.e., in the Deccan, and seems to be the modern Hampi\nin Bellary district.\n\n[498] Perhaps the one in Sidhapur--K. T. G.\n\n[499] Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[500] The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala.\n\n[501] The Schoolmasters of Dadvi and Kolki.\n\n[502] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[503] H. M. Bhatt, Ganod.\n\n[504] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[505] Jairam Vasaram, Jodia.\n\n[506] The Schoolmaster of Khirasara.\n\n[507] N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[508] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Halar.\n\n[509] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank, Moti Parabadi, and Luvaria.\n\n[510] The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa.\n\n[511] All mountains once possessed wings and caused much havoc when\nthey flew about. So Indra clipped their wings with his thunderbolt\nand they are lying motionless since.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[512] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[513] Three-fourths of a gau = one mile.\n\n[514] The Shastri of Jetpur, Pathashala.\n\n[515] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[516] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[517] The Schoolmasters of Kotda-Sangani, Vanod, and Luvaria.\n\n[518] After the conflagration of Lakshabhuvan, the Pandavas escaped\nto the Hidimba forest. There one day, in his excursions, Bhima came\nacross the giantess Hidimba sitting on a see-saw. On her offering\nto marry him if he succeeded in swinging her see-saw, he is said to\nhave swung it so high in the skies that she could even see the stars\nduring daytime.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[519] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[520] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[521] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[522] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[523] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[524] R. B. Dave.\n\n[525] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[526] The Schoolmaster of Luvaria.\n\n[527] M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[528] The earth is believed to be flat like a dish and to consist of\nseven large islands, which are compared to the seven petals of a lotus.\n\n[529] One yojan = eight miles.\n\n[530] M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[531] A magic tree, supposed to grant all desires.\n\n[532] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[533] The Schoolmaster of Limbdi.\n\n[534] The Schoolmaster of Upleta.\n\n[535] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Sanka.\n\n[536] The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada.\n\n[537] Fire used for the purposes of smoking.\n\n[538] The Schoolmaster of Mendarda.\n\n[539] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Gondal Taluka.\n\n[540] The Shastri of Jetpur.\n\n[541] K. D. Desai.\n\n[542] N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[543] Offering oblations to gods by throwing ghi into the consecrated\nfire.\n\n[544] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[545] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[546] The Schoolmaster of Upleta.\n\n[547] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad and K. D. Desai.\n\n[548] A flat round loaf, about two to four inches in diameter,\nprepared from the flour of udad.\n\n[549] Coarse wheat-flour fried in ghi and sweetened with sugar or\nmolasses.\n\n[550] Bean-flour, generally of gram or peas, is allowed to remain\nin water with spices, until the paste acquires a sufficient degree\nof consistency, when it is rolled into small biscuit-sized balls and\nfried in sweet oil.\n\n[551] K. D. Desai.\n\n[552] M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[553] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[554] D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[555] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala, and the Schoolmaster of Vanod.\n\n[556] The Schoolmaster of Mota Dewalia. According to him, the same\nvow is also observed to bring about a rainfall.\n\n[557] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[558] The Schoolmaster of Vanod.\n\n[559] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[560] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[561] The Schoolmaster of Zinzuw\u00e2d\u00e2.\n\n[562] The Schoolmaster of Mendarda.\n\n[563] The story tells how a woman and her daughter-in-law, intending\nto observe this vow, killed and cooked a calf by mistake; covered\nwith shame, they locked themselves up in their house, and refused\nadmission to the neighbours, to whom they confessed their crime. On\nsearching for the remains of the calf, the neighbours discovered that\nit had been miraculously restored to life.--R. E. E.\n\n[564] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[565] The Schoolmasters of Vanod and Kolki.\n\n[566] Some observe the Nagapanchami on the fifth day of the bright\nhalf of Bhadrapad.\n\n[567] A mixture of rice and pulse treated with spices and cooked\nin water.\n\n[568] A preparation of nine handfuls of wheat.\n\n[569] The Schoolmaster of Surel.\n\n[570] Vide Page 24.\n\n[571] A kind of rice grown without ploughing.\n\n[572] The Schoolmaster of Jasdan.\n\n[573] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[574] The mother of the bride, accompanied by other women who sing\nsongs on the way, carries an iron lamp to the village-boundary, and\nfrom that place the party bring earth to erect the altars on which\nsacrificial fires are burnt. The lamp is called laman-divo and the\nearth which is brought is called ukardi.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[575] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[576] Mr. M. M. Rana, Rajkot.\n\n[577] The Schoolmaster of Zarama-Zarava.\n\n[578] The Schoolmaster of Kolki and the Head-Mistress of Rajkot Civil\nStation Girls' School.\n\n[579] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[580] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[581] The Schoolmaster of Surel.\n\n[582] Vide question 10.\n\n[583] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[584] The art of taking the life of a person by means of a magical\nprocess called muth-maravi. The victim of this process suddenly vomits\nblood and loses his life, unless the evil influence is counteracted\nby another sorcerer.--B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani.\n\n[585] Causing a person to leave his business by making him disgusted\nwith it, by means of magical spells.\n\n[586] The art of so influencing the conduct of a person as to bring\nhim perfectly under control.\n\n[587] Bewildering an enemy by means of magical charms.\n\n[588] The suppression of any force or feeling by magical means.\n\n[589] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[590] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[591] Mr. N. M. Dave, Sanka.\n\n[592] The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad.\n\n[593] Mr. B. K. Dave, Kotda Sangani.\n\n[594] Mr. N. D. Vora, Rajpara.\n\n[595] Mr. D. K. Pandya, Dhhank.\n\n[596] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Songadh.\n\n[597] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[598] The Schoolmasters of Upleta and Aman.\n\n[599] Name of a medicinal preparation.\n\n[600] The Schoolmaster of Aman.\n\n[601] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Halar.\n\n[602] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[603] The Shastris of Jetpur and Bhayavadar.\n\n[604] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[605] The Schoolmaster of Chok.\n\n[606] But the virtue of influencing rain belongs to the Shiva linga and\nto the idol of Harshadh, not because they are made of any particular\nkind of stone, but because they represent certain deities.\n\n[607] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[608] Rice cooked in milk and sweetened with sugar.\n\n[609] Mr. K. D. Desai and the Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[610] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[611] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[612] The Schoolmasters of Dhhank and Ganod and the Mistress of Rajkot\nCivil Station Girls' School.\n\n[613] Mr. Nandlal Kalidas, Chhatrasa.\n\n[614] The Schoolmaster of Sayala. Perhaps it is the accumulation\nof sin in this world that brings down the saints of heaven in human\nform. The earth is unable to bear too much sin and would soon come to\nan end if the balance between virtue and sin were not maintained. It\nis for this purpose that saints are born in this world and add to the\nstore of merit on earth, by preaching righteousness to people and by\nleading a virtuous life.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[615] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[616] The Schoolmasters of Rajpara, Vasawad, Upleta, and Khirasara.\n\n[617] The Schoolmasters of Patanvav and Sultanpur.\n\n[618] It is an act of merit to repeat the name of Ram, the seventh\nincarnation of Vishnu. As the death of a righteous person is due to\nthe growth of sin in this world, people utter the name of Ram in order\nto atone for that sin. The name is repeated as long as the shooting\nstar is visible. Vaishnavas recite the name of Krishna.--K. D. Desai.\n\nIt is also said that the name of Ram or Krishna is repeated, because\nthe falling star enters the Court of God Bhagwan.--The Schoolmaster\nof Lakhapadar.\n\n[619] The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur.\n\n[620] The Schoolmaster of Charadwa.\n\n[621] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[622] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[623] (I.e.) with a tail. Chhoga is the end of a turban, which is\nallowed to hang down the back.\n\n[624] The Schoolmaster of Songadh.\n\n[625] The following couplet mentions all of them:\n\n        Asvatthama Balirvyaso Hanumamsca bibhisanah |\n        Krpah parasuramasca saptaite cirajivinah ||\n\n[626] K. D. Desai, from the answers of various Schoolmasters.\n\n[627] A group of gods supposed to be inferior manifestations of Shiva,\nwho is said to be the head of the group.\n\n[628] The Schoolmaster of Vasavad.\n\n[629] The Schoolmaster of Rajpara.\n\n[630] Kundalan is the circle formed round the utar by a bhuva,\nafter he has placed the utar in a cemetery or over a crossway.--The\nSchoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[631] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[632] This is the day to learn such arts as that of muth, chot, maran,\netc., i.e., the art of doing bodily injuries by means of magic even\nto persons who are at a distant place. The process is gone through\nin a cemetery at the dead of night.--The Schoolmaster of Rajpara.\n\n[633] The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka.\n\n[634] A poisonous plant, the leaves of which are used in fomenting in\ncases of palpitation and of stomach troubles.--The Deputy Educational\nInspector, Prant Halar.\n\n[635] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Prant Halar.\n\n[636] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[637] The Schoolmaster of Songadh.\n\n[638] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[639] The panoti cannot affect anybody who has an elder male\nrelative living, i.e., it influences only the eldest male member of\na family.--K. D. Desai.\n\n[640] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[641] The Schoolmaster of Sanka.\n\n[642] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[643] K. D. Desai.\n\n[644] A sweet preparation of wheat flour fried in ghi.\n\n[645] Sweet balls of wheat flour fried and afterwards soaked in ghi.\n\n[646] Small biscuit-sized cakes of pulse flour treated with spices\nand fried in oil--K. D. Desai.\n\n[647] The Schoolmaster of Rajpara.\n\n[648] A ghani is that quantity of oil seeds which is put in at one\ntime to be crushed in an oil mill.\n\n[649] K. D. Desai.\n\n[650] The Schoolmaster of Aman.\n\n[651] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[652] A mixture of milk, honey, curds, sugar and ghi.\n\n[653] The Schoolmaster of Rajpara.\n\n[654] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[655] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[656] The Vasus are a class of deities, eight in number, and are\noften collectively called Ashtavasus.\n\n[657] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[658] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[659] The Schoolmaster of Rajpara.\n\n[660] The Schoolmaster of Charadwa.\n\n[661] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[662] Vide Bombay Gazetteer, Vol. VIII, page 414.\n\n[663] Maya, in philosophy, means the illusion, by virtue of which\none considers the unreal universe as existent and distinct from the\nsupreme spirit. Here it means the effect of maya, the unreal splendour\nof the world, in fact phenomena opposed to the noumenon.\n\n[664] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[665] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[666] Kori may mean either a new garment or an unused earthen jar.\n\n[667] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[668] See p. 42 Supra.\n\n[669] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[670] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[671] The Schoolmaster of Chok.\n\n[672] The Schoolmaster of Mota Devalia.\n\n[673] An offering of all sorts of dainties and vegetables.\n\n[674] The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa.\n\n[675] Milk and rice boiled together and sweetened with sugar.\n\n[676] I. e. persons who have taken the vow of celibacy.\n\n[677] The Schoolmaster of Mojidad.\n\n[678] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[679] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[680] The Schoolmaster of Sultanpur.\n\n[681] The Schoolmaster of Luvaria.\n\n[682] The Schoolmaster of Aman.\n\n[683] The Schoolmaster of Charadwa.\n\n[684] The Schoolmaster of Charadwa.\n\n[685] The Schoolmaster of Limbdi Taluka.\n\n[686] Nehado is the residence of Bharvads or shepherds.\n\n[687] The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada.\n\n[688] The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada.\n\n[689] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[690] The Schoolmaster of Goda.\n\n[691] The Schoolmaster of Lilapur.\n\n[692] The Schoolmaster of Jasdan.\n\n[693] The Schoolmaster of Jasdan.\n\n[694] The Schoolmaster of Upleta.\n\n[695] The Schoolmaster of Gondal Taluka and the Head Mistress of girls'\nschool, Gondal.\n\n[696] The Schoolmaster of Movaiya.\n\n[697] The Schoolmaster of Sayala.\n\n[698] K. D. Desai.\n\n[699] The Schoolmaster of Khirasara.\n\n[700] The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa.\n\n[701] The Schoolmasters of Jodia and Khirasara.\n\n[702] The celebrated serpent of one thousand heads who supports all\nthe worlds.\n\n[703] The Schoolmaster of Rajpara.\n\n[704] The Schoolmasters of Chhatrasa and Rajpara.\n\n[705] Vide Chapter I, p. 29.\n\n[706] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[707] The Schoolmasters of Khirasara, Jetpur and Rajpara.\n\n[708] The Schoolmasters of Chhatrasa and Jetpur.\n\n[709] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[710] K. D. Desai.\n\n[711] 100 dokdas = 1 rupee.\n\n[712] The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa.\n\n[713] The time taken by the sun to move through the constellations\nAshlesha and Magha, which is approximately the month of August.\n\n[714] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[715] The Schoolmaster of Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[716] The Schoolmaster or Dadvi.\n\n[717] Generally the same ideas prevail regarding diseases of cattle\nas in the case of human ailments. Doras or magical threads and\nslips of paper are often used in cases of fever. In epidemics like\ncholera pollution is believed to be at the root of the evil. Bhangis\nare engaged to prepare images of corn to keep off the disease, and\nthey forfeit their homesteads and property if the epidemic is not\nchecked thereby.--The Schoolmaster of Barton Female Training College,\nRajkot. (These images represent evil spirits presiding over particular\ndiseases. Certain oblations are offered to these evil spirits,\nand after the recital of certain incantations they are either burnt\nor buried.)\n\n[718] The Schoolmaster of Dadvi.\n\n[719] The Schoolmaster of Mota-Devalia.\n\n[720] Small round cakes of wheat flour sweetened with molasses and\nfried in ghi.\n\n[721] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[722] A preparation of fine gram flour treated with spices, which\nafter being made into a thick paste, is passed through a sieve into\nboiling oil.\n\n[723] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[724] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[725] Shrisakha, Gajidhana and Pitabhava are most probably corruptions\nof Shrishasakha, Gandivadhanva and Prithabhava respectively;\nLalanlarkha perhaps of Lalama narakhya.\n\n[726] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[727] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[728] A disease which causes severe pain in the stomach of the\naffected animal.\n\n[729] A disease which stiffens the limbs of animals and renders them\nincapable of any movement.\n\n[730] The word chela in ordinary language means a pancake (pudalo)\nof wheat or gram, sweet or salt, and it is a favourite oblation to\nMata. So the word chelan may have come to be used for any oblation\nto Mata and the expression swallowing the chelans may mean partaking\nof the oblation or offering of the Mata.\n\n[731] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[732] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[733] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[734] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[735] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[736] The Schoolmaster of Moti Murad.\n\n[737] The Schoolmaster of Chhatrasa.\n\n[738] The Schoolmaster of Jodia and Dodiala.\n\n[739] Milk and rice boiled together and sweetened with sugar.\n\n[740] Vide page 48.\n\n[741] The Schoolmaster of Aman.\n\n[742] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[743] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathashala.\n\n[744] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[745] The Schoolmaster of Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[746] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[747] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[748] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[749] The Schoolmaster of Jasdan.\n\n[750] The Schoolmaster of Aman.\n\n[751] The Schoolmaster of Dhhank.\n\n[752] The Schoolmaster of Aman.\n\n[753] The Schoolmaster of Zinzuwada.\n\n[754] The Schoolmaster of Ganod.\n\n[755] The Schoolmaster of Sanka.\n\n[756] The Schoolmaster of Sanka.\n\n[757] Also known as surasanis.\n\n[758] The Schoolmaster of Anandpur.\n\n[759] K. D. Desai.\n\n[760] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[761] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[762] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[763] A ball of molasses and sesamum seeds mixed together.\n\n[764] The Schoolmaster of Kolki.\n\n[765] Vide Question 19.\n\n[766] A small wooden car five or six inches long is covered over with\na piece of cotton cloth and the wooden image of a Mata--Khodiar or\nKalka--besmeared with red lead is placed upon it. This rath or chariot\nof the Mata is then passed through the village on the shoulders of\na low-caste person, who begs corn from door to door and afterwards\nplaces the image at the gates of the neighbouring village. From thence\nit is removed by the people of that village to the next village and\nso on till it reaches the sea.--Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[767] The Schoolmaster of Luvaria.\n\n[768] The Schoolmaster of Jodia.\n\n[769] The Schoolmaster of Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[770] Sometimes the statues of adad flour are besmeared with red\nlead and afterwards are boiled in dirty water. The whole of this\npreparation is then thrown into wells, the waters of which are used\nfor drinking in the village.--The Schoolmaster of Songadh.\n\n[771] The Schoolmasters of Jodia, Dadvi, and Songadh.\n\n[772] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[773] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[774] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[775] The School Master of Mendarda.\n\n[776] The School Master of Movaiya.\n\n[777] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[778] The School Masters of Devalia and Vasavad.\n\n[779] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala.\n\n[780] The School Master of Charadwa.\n\n[781] These are different sacrifices, the first two in honour of Shiva,\nthe third in honour of the goddess Chandi.\n\n[782] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[783] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[784] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[785] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[786] The patient is often entirely made over to the Mata and\nis again purchased from her at a nominal price of a rupee and a\nquarter.--Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[787] A mixture of the flour of bajri, ghi, and molasses.\n\n[788] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[789] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[790] The School Master of Sayala.\n\n[791] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Halar.\n\n[792] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[793] The School Masters of Dhank and Ganod.\n\n[794] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[795] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[796] Babhrivahan was not the son of Bhima, he was the son of Arjun\nby Chitrangada, a princess of Manipur.\n\n[797] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[798] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[799] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[800] The Mistress of Rajkot Civil Station Girls' School.\n\n[801] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[802] The Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala.\n\n[803] Names of Vishnu and Shiva respectively.\n\n[804] The School Master of Charadwa.\n\n[805] The half-man and half-lion incarnation of Vishnu.\n\n[806] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[807] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[808] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[809] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[810] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[811] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[812] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[813] The School Master of Jasdan.\n\n[814] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[815] The School Master of Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[816] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[817] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[818] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[819] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[820] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[821] The School Master of Dhank and the Shastri of Jetpur Pathshala.\n\n[822] The Shastri of Bhayavadur Pathashala.\n\n[823] The School Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[824] The Shastris of Jetpur and Bhayavadur.\n\n[825] The School Master of Wala Taluka.\n\n[826] The School Master of Anandpur.\n\n[827] The School Master of Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[828] The School Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[829] The School Master of Kotda-Sangani.\n\n[830] All this of course is addressed to the evil spirit which is\nsupposed to have possessed the patient.\n\n[831] Feminine of Vaghri belonging to the Vaghri caste.\n\n[832] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[833] The School Masters of Ganod, Vanod and Kolki.\n\n[834] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[835] The School Master of Limbdi Taluka.\n\n[836] Mr. B. K. Desai.\n\n[837] Nilotsava or Nil-parnavum is a ceremony performed in honour\nof a young man, who has come to an untimely end. The chief part of\nthe ceremony is the performance of the wedding of a bull-calf with a\nheifer. Sometimes a member of the deceased youth's family is possessed\non such an occasion by the spirit of the deceased man and is believed\nto have then the power of correctly answering questions about future\nevents, etc.--The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[838] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[839] The School Masters of Dhank and Kotda Sangani.\n\n[840] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[841] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[842] The School Masters of Dadvi and Kolki.\n\n[843] The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Sanka.\n\n[844] The School Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[845] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[846] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[847] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[848] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[849] The Schoolmaster of Patanvav.\n\n[850] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[851] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[852] The School Master of Davalia.\n\n[853] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[854] The School Master of Limbdi Taluka.\n\n[855] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[856] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[857] The School Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[858] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[859] The Pathashala Shastri, Talpur.\n\n[860] The School Mistress of Gondal.\n\n[861] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[862] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[863] This period of 15 days is called Sharadian.\n\n[864] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[865] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[866] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[867] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[868] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[869] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[870] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[871] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[872] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[873] The School Master of Lalapur.\n\n[874] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[875] The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Dadvi.\n\n[876] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[877] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[878] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[879] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[880] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilvad.\n\n[881] Shastri Bhayavadar Pathshala.\n\n[882] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[883] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[884] A vasana is the outcome of a person's good or bad actions. It is\nnot the last desire of a man as supposed by some, but the result of\nhis good or bad actions or rather of the workings of his mind during\nlife. It is believed that, if at the moment of death, a man's mind\nis fixed on the strong attachment he feels for his children, he is\nborn as a descendant of his offspring.--The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[885] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[886] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[887] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[888] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[889] The School Master of Charadwa.\n\n[890] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[891] The School Master of Dhank and the School Mistress of Gondal.\n\n[892] A samadh is taken during life in the following way.\n\nA deep pit is dug in the ground. The person who wishes to take a\nsamadh goes into a deep trance by meditation, and then runs yelling\nand screaming to the pit, while drums are beaten furiously and a\nloud din is raised, so that none should hear a possible exclamation\nor cry from the runner. In the midst of this din the runner leaps\ninto the pit and is covered over with salt and earth. An altar is\nraised over this spot with Shiva's image, which afterwards becomes\nan object of worship. It is believed that if a word or a cry from\nthe runner is heard while he is taking the leap, the whole village\nwill be destroyed.--Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[893] The Pathshala Shastri, Bhayavadar.\n\n[894] Datar means the great giver or munificent. The Pir is so called\non account of his power of fulfilling the vows of many.\n\n[895] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[896] The School Master of Movaiya.\n\n[897] The School Masters of Dhank and Moti Parabdi.\n\n[898] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[899] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[900] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[901] The School Master of Davalia.\n\n[902] The School Master of Mendarda.\n\n[903] A symbol of servitude of the saint.\n\n[904] The School Master of Sultanpur.\n\n[905] Aulia and Pir, synonymous terms, the first Arabic, the second\nPersian. Aulia is the Arabic plural of wali which means a saint. In\nHindustani the plural form is used to signify the singular e. g.,\na single wali or saint is often spoken of as an aulia. The word Pir\noriginally meaning an old man is used in Hindustan in the sense of\na saint. Aulia Pir is the Gujarati for a single or many saints.\n\n[906] The School Master of Moti Porabdi.\n\n[907] The School Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[908] The School Master of Surel.\n\n[909] The School Master of Jaseluan.\n\n[910] The School Master of Charadwa.\n\n[911] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[912] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[913] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[914] The School Masters of Dhank and Vanod.\n\n[915] The School Mistress, Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[916] The School Master of Moti Parabadi.\n\n[917] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[918] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[919] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[920] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[921] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[922] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[923] An ingredient used in preparing spices.\n\n[924] The School Master of Uptala.\n\n[925] The School Mistress, Girls' School, Gondal.\n\n[926] The School Master of Sultanpur.\n\n[927] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[928] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[929] The School Mistress of Rajkot, Civil Station Girls' School.\n\n[930] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[931] The School Master of Sultanpur.\n\n[932] The School Master of Dhank and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[933] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[934] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[935] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[936] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[937] The School Masters of Kotda Sangani and Chhatrasa.\n\n[938] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[939] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilwad.\n\n[940] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[941] It is for this reason that barren women are not allowed to\napproach the bed of a woman in child-bed.\n\n[942] The School Masters of Dadvi and Chhatrasa.\n\n[943] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[944] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[945] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[946] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[947] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[948] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[949] The School Master of Jhinjhuwada.\n\n[950] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[951] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[952] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[953] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[954] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[955] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[956] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[957] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[958] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[959] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[960] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[961] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[962] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[963] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[964] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[965] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[966] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[967] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[968] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[969] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[970] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[971] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[972] The Shastri, Bhayavadar Pathashala.\n\n[973] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[974] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[975] The Shastri, Bhayavadar Pathshala.\n\n[976] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[977] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[978] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[979] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[980] The Musalman Haditte has it that spirits cannot open closed\ndoors, uncover covered pots, or even remove a piece of cloth if it\nis spread over a tray or vessel to save its contents from view.\n\n[981] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[982] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[983] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[984] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[985] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[986] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[987] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[988] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[989] The School Master of Mojidad.\n\n[990] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[991] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[992] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[993] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[994] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[995] The School Masters of Sanka and Songadh.\n\n[996] The School Master of Charadva.\n\n[997] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[998] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[999] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1000] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1001] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1002] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1003] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1004] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1005] The School Master of Oman.\n\n[1006] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1007] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[1008] The word Jan is the plural of the Arabic jinni. It has remained\nas a relic of Arab supremacy and occupation of the Kathiawar coast\njust in the beginning of Islam during its first conquests--about half\na century after the Prophet's death.\n\n[1009] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1010] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1011] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1012] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1013] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[1014] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1015] The Shastri, Bhayavadar Pathshala.\n\n[1016] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1017] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1018] The D. E. Inspector, Halar.\n\n[1019] The Shastri, Pathshala, Bhayavadar.\n\n[1020] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1021] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1022] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1023] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1024] \"Like the green grass on the turf I have often grown and\nregrown. I have visited 770,000 bodies.\" Maulana Ilaluddin Rumi.\n\n[1025] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1026] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1027] The School Master of Jetalpur.\n\n[1028] The D. E. Inspector, Halar.\n\n[1029] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1030] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1031] The School Master of Charadva.\n\n[1032] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1033] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1034] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1035] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1036] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1037] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1038] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1039] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1040] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1041] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1042] The School Master of Patan Vao.\n\n[1043] The D. E. Inspector, Gohilwad.\n\n[1044] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[1045] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1046] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[1047] The School Master of Vala.\n\n[1048] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1049] See p. 3.\n\n[1050] If a lock of the hair of the person possessed by an evil spirit\nbe knotted round and round while the exorcist is trying to cast the\nspirit, it cannot get out.--The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1051] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1052] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1053] The School Master of Patan Vao.\n\n[1054] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1055] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1056] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[1057] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1058] The School Master of Chharadva.\n\n[1059] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1060] The School Master of Jhinjhuwada.\n\n[1061] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1062] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1063] This derivation of the word rakshasa is obviously\nfanciful. Rakshasa is a Sanskrit word and has no connection with the\nGujarati word rakho which itself is derived from the Sanskrit root\nraksha to protect.\n\n[1064] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1065] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1066] The School Master of Moti Parabdi.\n\n[1067] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[1068] The School Master of Charadva.\n\n[1069] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1070] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1071] The School Master of Lewaria.\n\n[1072] The School Master of Upleta.\n\n[1073] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1074] The word Khavis comes from the Arabic Khabith from the root\nverb Khabotha and means one who has become impure or unholy.\n\n[1075] The School Master of Sultanpur.\n\n[1076] The School Masters of Khirasara and Pipalana.\n\n[1077] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1078] The School Master of Anandpur.\n\n[1079] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1080] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1081] The School Master of Vasavad.\n\n[1082] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1083] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1084] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1085] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1086] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[1087] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1088] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1089] The School Master of Talpur and Luvaria.\n\n[1090] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1091] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1092] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1093] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1094] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1095] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1096] The D. E. Inspector, Gohilwad.\n\n[1097] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1098] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1099] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1100] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1101] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1102] The School Master of Jhinjhuwada.\n\n[1103] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1104] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1105] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[1106] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1107] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1108] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1109] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1110] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1111] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1112] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1113] The School Masters of Dhank and Vanod.\n\n[1114] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1115] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1116] The School Mistress, Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1117] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1118] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1119] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[1120] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1121] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1122] This is a point of conjugal etiquette in India. Hindu, and in\nGujarat and the Deccan, Musalman women, would much rather starve than\ndine before their husbands.\n\n[1123] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1124] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1125] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1126] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1127] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1128] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1129] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1130]  Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1131] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1132] The School Master of Mavaiya.\n\n[1133] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1134] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1135] The School Master of Sayala.\n\n[1136] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[1137] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1138] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1139] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[1140] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1141] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1142] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1143] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1144] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1145]  The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1146] The School Master of Sayala.\n\n[1147] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1148] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1149] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1150] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1151] See page 3.\n\n[1152] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1153] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1154] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1155] This process is generally adopted in cases of milch cattle not\ngiving milk and all other ailments to ascertain the influence of the\nevil eye.\n\n[1156] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1157] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1158] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1159] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1160] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1161] The School Master of Aman.\n\n[1162] The School Master of Sayala.\n\n[1163] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1164] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1165] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1166] Mr. M. M. Rana, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1167] The School Master of Sultanpur.\n\n[1168] The School Master of Moti Khilori.\n\n[1169] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1170] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1171] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1172] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1173] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1174] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1175] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1176] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1177] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1178] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1179] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1180] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1181] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[1182] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1183] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1184] The School Master of Uptela.\n\n[1185] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1186] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1187] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1188] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1189] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1190] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[1191] The D. E. Inspector, Halar.\n\n[1192] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1193] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1194] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1195] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohilwad.\n\n[1196] Anklets are made of these nails and worn round the wrist.--The\nSchool Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[1197] The School Master of Vasavad.\n\n[1198] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1199] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1200] The School Master of Gohilwad.\n\n[1201] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1202] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1203] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1204] The Pathashala Shastri, Jetpur.\n\n[1205] The Girls' School Mistress, Gondal.\n\n[1206] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1207] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1208] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1209] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1210] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1211] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1212] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1213] The School Master of Chok.\n\n[1214] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1215] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1216] The School Masters of Dadvi and Dhank.\n\n[1217] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1218] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1219] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1220] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1221] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1222] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1223] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1224]  The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1225] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1226] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1227] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1228] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1229] The sight of a corpse is a good omen when one sees it on\nentering a village where he goes on business.\n\n[1230] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1231] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1232] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1233] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1234] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1235] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1236] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1237] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1238] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1239] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1240] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1241] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1242] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1243] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[1244] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1245] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1246] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1247] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1248] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1249] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1250] The School Master of Sayala.\n\n[1251] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1252] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1253] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1254] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1255] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1256] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1257] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1258] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1259] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1260] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1261] The School Master of Moti Parabadi.\n\n[1262] The School Master of Charadva.\n\n[1263] The School Masters of Ganod and Vanod.\n\n[1264] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1265] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1266] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[1267] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1268] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1269] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1270] \"The name of Ram is alone true\" meaning all else except God\nis illusion.\n\n[1271] The School Master of Dhank and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1272] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1273] The School Master of Patanvav.\n\n[1274] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1275] The School Master of Halar.\n\n[1276] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1277] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1278] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1279] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1280] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1281] The School Master of Dhank and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1282] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1283] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1284] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1285] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1286] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1287] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1288] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1289] The School Master of Uptela.\n\n[1290] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1291] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1292] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1293] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1294] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1295] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1296] The School Mistress, Girls' school, Civil Station, Rajkot.\n\n[1297] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1298] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1299] The School Masters of Chhatrasa and Uptela.\n\n[1300] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1301] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1302] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1303] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1304] The School Master of Gunjar.\n\n[1305] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1306] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1307] The School Master of Halar.\n\n[1308] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1309] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1310] The School Mistress, Civil Station Girls' School, Rajkot.\n\n[1311] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1312] The School Master of Gunjar.\n\n[1313] The School Mistress of Civil Station Girls' School, Rajkot\nand the School Master of Todia.\n\n[1314] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1315] It is believed that the spirit of the deceased returns to its\nhouse for thirteen days after death. Hence the period of mourning is\nthirteen days.--The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1316] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1317] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1318] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1319] The School Masters of Vanod and Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1320] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1321] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1322] The School Master of Uptela.\n\n[1323] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1324] The School Mistress of Girls' school, Gondal, and the School\nMaster of Dhank.\n\n[1325] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1326] The School Master of Surel.\n\n[1327] The School Master of Mavaiya.\n\n[1328] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1329] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1330] The School Master of Moti Murad.\n\n[1331] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1332] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1333] The School Master of Rajpara.\n\n[1334] The School Master of Zinzuwada.\n\n[1335] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1336] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1337] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1338] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1339] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1340] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1341] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1342] The School Master of Moti Parabdi.\n\n[1343] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1344] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1345] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1346] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1347] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1348] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1349] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1350] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1351] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1352] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1353] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1354] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1355] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1356] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1357] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1358] The School Master of Uptela.\n\n[1359] The School Master of Anandpur.\n\n[1360] The School Masters of Ganod and Khirasara.\n\n[1361] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1362] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1363] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1364] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1365] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1366] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1367] The School Master of Jasdan.\n\n[1368] The School Masters of Dhank and Dadvi.\n\n[1369] The School Masters of Dhank and Mavaiya.\n\n[1370] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1371] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1372] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1373] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1374] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1375] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1376] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1377] The School Masters of Uptela and Limbdi.\n\n[1378] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1379] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1380] The Schoolmistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1381] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1382] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[1383] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1384] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[1385] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1386] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[1387] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[1388] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1389] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1390] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1391] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1392] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1393] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1394] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1395] The School Master of Charadva.\n\n[1396] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1397] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1398] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1399] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1400] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[1401] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1402] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1403] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1404] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1405] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1406] The D. E. Inspector, Halar.\n\n[1407] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1408] The School Master of Anandpur.\n\n[1409] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1410] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1411] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1412] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1413] The D. E. Inspector, Halar.\n\n[1414] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1415] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[1416] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1417] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1418] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1419] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1420] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1421] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1422] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1423] The School Mistress, Civil Station Girls' School, Rajkot.\n\n[1424] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1425] The School Master of Vanod, and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1426] The School Master of Sayala.\n\n[1427] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1428] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1429] These are female names.\n\n[1430] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1431] The School Master of Halar.\n\n[1432] Both male and female.\n\n[1433] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1434] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1435] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1436] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1437] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1438] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1439] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1440] The School Master of Mota Devalia.\n\n[1441] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1442] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1443] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1444] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1445] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1446] The School Master of Patanvav.\n\n[1447] The School Master of Vala.\n\n[1448] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1449] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1450] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1451] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1452] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1453] The School Master of Bantva.\n\n[1454] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1455] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1456] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1457] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1458] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1459] The School Masters of Kotda Sangani, Zinzuvada and Gohelwad.\n\n[1460] The School Master of Halar.\n\n[1461] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1462] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1463] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1464] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1465] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1466] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1467] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1468] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1469] The School Master of Aman.\n\n[1470] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1471] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1472] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1473] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1474] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1475] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1476] Among Hindus women in menses are considered impure for four\ndays.\n\n[1477] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1478] The School Master of Dhank and Kota Sangani.\n\n[1479] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1480] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1481] The School Master of Lilapur.\n\n[1482] The School Master of Zinzuvada.\n\n[1483] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1484] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1485] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1486] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1487] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1488] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1489] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1490] The School Masters of Dhank and Vanod.\n\n[1491] The School Master of Kalavad and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1492] The School Masters of Ganod and Dhank.\n\n[1493] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1494] The School Masters of Ganod and Kalavad and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1495] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1496] The School Master of Wala.\n\n[1497] The School Masters of Dadvi and Dhank.\n\n[1498] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1499] The School Master of Aman.\n\n[1500] See pp. 48-49.\n\n[1501] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1502] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1503] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1504] The Deputy Educational Inspector, Gohelwad.\n\n[1505] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1506] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1507] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1508] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1509] The School Master of Moti Marad.\n\n[1510] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1511] The School Master of Moti Parabdi.\n\n[1512] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1513] The School Master of Aman.\n\n[1514] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1515] The School Master of Aman.\n\n[1516] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1517] The Deputy Educational Inspector of Gohelwad.\n\n[1518] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1519] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1520] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1521] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1522] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1523] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1524] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[1525] The School Master of Aman.\n\n[1526] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1527] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1528] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1529] The School Master of Gondal.\n\n[1530] The School Master of Sultanpur.\n\n[1531] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1532] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1533] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1534] The School Master of Moti Khilori.\n\n[1535] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1536] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1537] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1538] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1539] See p. 14 Supra.\n\n[1540] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1541] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1542] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1543] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1544] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1545] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1546] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1547] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1548] The School Master of Jodia.\n\n[1549] The School Master of Movaiya.\n\n[1550] The School Masters of Zinzuvada and Devalia.\n\n[1551] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[1552] The School Master of Bhayavadar.\n\n[1553] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1554] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1555] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1556] The School Master of Chok.\n\n[1557] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1558] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1559] The School Master of Jetpur.\n\n[1560] The School Master of Patan Vav.\n\n[1561] The School Master of Moti Murad.\n\n[1562] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1563] The School Master of Patan Vav.\n\n[1564] The School Master of Sanka.\n\n[1565] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1566] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1567] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1568] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1569] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1570] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1571] The School Master of Kotda Sangani.\n\n[1572] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1573] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1574] The School Master of Devalia.\n\n[1575] The School Master of Limbdi.\n\n[1576] The School Master of Ganod.\n\n[1577] The School Masters of Dhank and Ganod.\n\n[1578] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1579] Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1580] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1581] The School Master of Moti Khiroli.\n\n[1582] The School Masters of Dhank and Songadh.\n\n[1583] This is generally in the evening or an hour or two after\nnightfall.\n\n[1584] The School Masters of Zinzuvada and Moti Marad.\n\n[1585] The School Masters of Dhank and Vanod.\n\n[1586] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1587] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1588] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1589] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1590] The School Masters of Zinzuvada and Todia.\n\n[1591] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1592] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1593] The School Master of Luvaria.\n\n[1594] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1595] The School Master of Patan Vav.\n\n[1596] The School Masters of Ganod, Vanod and Dhank.\n\n[1597] The School Master of Kolki.\n\n[1598] The School Mistress, Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1599] The School Master of Todia.\n\n[1600] The School Master of Songadh and Mr. K. D. Desai.\n\n[1601] The School Master of Patan Vav.\n\n[1602] The School Master of Songadh.\n\n[1603] The School Master of Khirasara.\n\n[1604] The School Master of Dhank.\n\n[1605] The School Master of Vanod.\n\n[1606] The School Master of Dadvi.\n\n[1607] The School Master of Chok.\n\n[1608] The School Mistress of Barton Female Training College, Rajkot.\n\n[1609] The School Master of Chhatrasa.\n\n[1610] The School Master of Uptela.","title":"Folk Lore Notes. Vol. I\u2014Gujarat","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":105020}