{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_57208/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_57208","id":"gutenberg_57208","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/57208","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Essays, Letters & Speeches","Category: History - Other","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Islam","Jews","Romanies"],"text":"Produced by Fritz Ohrenschall, Emmanuel Ackerman and the\nOnline Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net\n(This book was produced from scanned images of public\ndomain material from the Google Books project.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n  THE JEW, THE GYPSY\n\n  and\n\n  EL ISLAM\n\n\n  [Illustration: From the portrait by Lord Leighton F. Jenkins Imp. Paris\n  Richard F. Burton\n  [Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u062d\u062c \u0639\u0628\u062f\u0627\u0644\u0644\u0647: Al-Hajj 'abd Allah]]\n\n\n\n\n  The Jew, The Gypsy\n\n  and El Islam\n\n\n  By the late Captain\n\n  SIR RICHARD F. BURTON\n\n  K.C.M.G. F.R.G.S. ETC\n\n  Translator of\n  \u201cThe Thousand and One Nights,\u201d and Author of \u201cThe\n  Book of the Sword,\u201d \u201cMy Pilgrimage to Mecca,\u201d etc.\n\n\n  Edited with a Preface and Brief Notes\n\n  by\n\n  W. H. WILKINS\n\n\n  London\n\n  Hutchinson & Co\n\n  Paternoster Row\n\n  1898\n\n  Printed by Hazell, Watson, & Viney, Ld., London and Aylesbury.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\n\n\u201cGood wine needs no bush,\u201d and a good book needs no preface, least\nof all from any but the author\u2019s pen. This is a rule more honoured\nin the breach than the observance nowadays, when many a classic\nappears weighed down and obscured by the unnecessary remarks and bulky\ncommentaries of some unimportant editor. For my part it will suffice to\ngive as briefly as possible the history of the MSS. now published for\nthe first time in this volume.\n\nSir Richard Burton was a voluminous writer. In addition to the\nforty-eight works published during his life, there remained at his\ndeath twenty MSS., some long and some short, in different stages\nof completion. A few were ready for press; others were finished to\nall intents and purposes, and only required final revision or a few\nadditions; some were in a state of preparation merely, and for that\nreason may never see the light. Those in this volume belong to the\nsecond category. That so many of Burton\u2019s MSS. were unpublished at the\ntime of his death arose from his habit of working at several books at a\ntime. In his bedroom, which also served as his study, at Trieste were\nsome ten or twelve rough deal tables, and on each table were piled the\nmaterials and notes of a different book in a more or less advanced\nstage of completion. When he was tired of one, or when he came to a\nstandstill for lack of material, he would leave it for a time and work\nat another. During the last few years of his life the great success\nwhich attended his _Arabian Nights_ led him to turn his attention more\nto that phase of his work, to the exclusion of books which had been in\npreparation for years. Thus it came about that so many were unpublished\nwhen he died.\n\nAs it is well known, he left his writings, published and unpublished,\nto his widow, Lady Burton, absolutely, to do with as she thought\nbest. Lady Burton suppressed what she deemed advisable; the rest she\nbrought with her to England. She published her _Life of Sir Richard\nBurton_, a new edition of his _Arabian Nights_, also _Catullus_ and _Il\nPentamerone_; and was arranging for the publication of others when she\ndied (March, 1896).\n\nHer sister and executrix, Mrs. Fitzgerald (to whom I should like\nto express my gratitude for the many facilities she has given me),\nthought fit to entrust me with the work of editing and preparing for\npublication the remaining MSS. In the exercise of the discretion she\nwas good enough to vest in me, I determined to bring out first the\nthree MSS. which make up this book.\n\nThe first part--_The Jew_--has a somewhat curious history. Burton\ncollected most of the materials for writing it from 1869 to 1871, when\nhe was Consul at Damascus. His intimate knowledge of Eastern races and\nlanguages, and his sympathy with Oriental habits and lines of thought,\ngave him exceptional facilities for ethnological studies of this kind.\nDisguised as a native, and unknown to any living soul except his wife,\nthe British Consul mingled freely with the motley populations of\nDamascus, and inspected every quarter of the city--Muslim, Christian,\nand Jewish. His inquiries bore fruit in material, not only for this\ngeneral essay on the Jew, but for an Appendix dealing with the alleged\nrite of Human Sacrifice among the Sephard\u00edm or Eastern Jews, and more\nespecially the mysterious murder of Padre Tomaso at Damascus in 1840.\nThere is little doubt that his inquiry into these subjects was one of\nthe reasons which aroused the hostility of the Damascus Jews against\nhim; and that hostility was a powerful factor, though by no means the\nonly one, in his recall by Lord Granville in 1871.\n\nBurton, however, had collected a mass of material before he left\nDamascus, and in 1873, the year after he had been appointed Consul at\nTrieste, he began to put it into shape for publication. It was his\nhabit to collect for many years the material of a work, to mark, learn,\nand inwardly digest it, and then write it in a few months. This plan he\npursued with _The Jew_, which, with the Appendix before mentioned, was\nfinished and ready for publication towards the end of 1874.\n\nIn 1875 he came home from Trieste on leave, and brought the book\nwith him, intending to publish it forthwith. But first he asked an\ninfluential friend, who was highly placed in the official world,\nto read the MS., and give him his opinion as to the expediency of\npublishing it. That opinion was adverse, owing to the anti-Semitic\ntendency of the book. Other friends also pointed out to Burton that, so\nlong as he remained in the service of the Government of a country where\nthe Jews enjoy unprecedented power and position, it would be unwise, to\nsay the least of it, for him to make enemies of them. These arguments\nhad weight with Burton, who was not as a rule influenced by anything\nbut his own will, and for once he deemed discretion the better quality,\nand returned with his MS. to Trieste. There were other considerations\ntoo. His wife had just brought out her _Inner Life of Syria_, which was\npartly devoted to a defence of his action at Damascus in the matter of\nthe Jews. It had met with a very favourable reception. His friends were\nalso endeavouring to obtain for him a K.C.B. and the post of Tangier,\nMorocco--the one thing he stayed in the Consular Service in the hope\nof obtaining. So the time (1875) was not deemed a propitious one for\nmaking enemies.\n\nBurton put his MS. on the shelf, and waited for the promotion which\nnever came. It remained there until 1886, when Tangier, which was as\ngood as promised to Burton, was given by Lord Rosebery to Sir William\nKirby-Green. Then Burton took down the MS. on _The Jew_ again, and had\nit recopied. But his wife, who was endeavouring to obtain permission\nfor him to retire on full pension, pointed out to him that since it had\nwaited so long it might as well wait until March, 1891, when, his term\nof service being finished, they would retire from official life and be\nfree to publish what they liked. Moreover, they numbered many friends\namong the wealthy Jews of Trieste, and had no wish to wound their\nsusceptibilities. Burton reluctantly agreed to this, but declared his\ndetermination of publishing the book as soon as he had retired from the\nConsular Service. Five months before the date of his retirement he died.\n\nLady Burton had _The Jew_ next on her list for publication at the time\nof her death. In publishing it now, therefore, one is only carrying\nout her wishes and those of her husband. But in the exercise of the\ndiscretion given to me, I have thought it better to hold over for the\npresent the Appendix on the alleged rite of Human Sacrifice among the\nSephard\u00edm and the murder of Padre Tomaso. The only alternative was to\npublish it in a mutilated form; and as I hold strongly that no one has\na right to mutilate the work of another writer, least of all of one\nwho is dead, I prefer to withhold it until a more convenient season.\nI can do this with a clearer conscience, because the Appendix has no\ndirect bearing on the other part of the book, and because the chapters\non _The Jew_ which are retained are by far the more important. The\ntone of even this portion is anti-Semitic; but I do not feel justified\nin going contrary to the wishes of the author and suppressing an\ninteresting ethnological study merely to avoid the possibility of\nhurting the susceptibilities of the Hebrew community. It has been\ntruly said, \u201cEvery nation gets the Jew it deserves,\u201d and it may well\nbe that the superstitions and cruelties of the Eastern Jews have been\ngenerated in them by long centuries of oppression and wrong. From these\nsuperstitions and cruelties the enlightened and highly favoured Jews in\nEngland naturally shrink with abhorrence and repudiation; but it does\nnot therefore follow they have no existence among their less fortunate\nEastern brethren.\n\n_The Gypsy_ has a far less eventful history, though the materials for\nits making were collected during a period of over thirty years, and\nwere gathered for the most part by personal research, in Asia mainly,\nand also in Africa, South America, and Europe. Burton\u2019s interest in\nthe Gypsies was lifelong; and when he was a lieutenant in the Bombay\nArmy and quartered in Sindh, he began his investigations concerning\nthe affinity between the Jats and the Gypsies. During his many travels\nin different parts of the world, whenever he had the opportunity\nhe collected fresh materials with a view to putting them together\nsome day. In 1875 his controversy with Bataillard provoked him into\ncompiling his long-contemplated work on the Gypsies. Unfortunately\nother interests intervened, and the work was never completed. It was\none of the many unfinished things Burton intended to complete when\nhe should have quitted the Consular Service. He hoped, for instance,\nto make fuller inquiries concerning the Gypsies in France, Germany,\nand other countries of Europe, and especially he intended to write\na chapter on the Gypsies in England on his return home. Even as it\nstands, however, _The Gypsy_ is a valuable addition to ethnology; for\napart from Burton\u2019s rare knowledge of strange peoples and tongues, his\nconnexion with the Gypsies lends to the subject a unique interest.\nThere is no doubt that he was affiliated to this strange people by\nnature, if not by descent. To quote from the _Gypsy Lore Journal_[1]:\n\n\u201cWhether there may not be also a tinge of Arab, or perhaps of Gypsy\nblood in Burton\u2019s race, is a point which is perhaps open to question.\nFor the latter suspicion an excuse may be found in the incurable\nrestlessness which has beset him since his infancy, a restlessness\nwhich has effectually prevented him from ever settling long in any one\nplace, and in the singular idiosyncrasy which his friends have often\nremarked--the peculiarity of his eyes. \u2018When it (the eye) looks at\nyou,\u2019 said one who knows him well, \u2018it looks through you, and then,\nglazing over, seems to see something behind you. Richard Burton is\nthe only man (not a Gypsy) with that peculiarity, and he shares with\nthem the same horror of a corpse, death-bed scenes, and graveyards,\nthough caring little for his own life.\u2019 When to this remarkable fact\nbe added the scarcely less interesting detail that \u2018Burton\u2019 is one\nof the half-dozen distinctively Romany names, it is evident that the\nsuspicion of Sir Richard Burton having a drop of Gypsy blood in his\ndescent--crossed and commingled though it be with an English, Scottish,\nFrench, and Irish strain--is not altogether unreasonable.\u201d\n\nOn this subject Lady Burton also wrote:\n\n\u201cIn the January number of the _Gypsy Lore Journal_ a passage is quoted\nfrom \u2018a short sketch of the career\u2019 of my husband (a little black\npamphlet) which half suspects a remote drop of Gypsy blood in him.\nThere is no proof that this was ever the case; but there is no question\nthat he showed many of their peculiarities in appearance, disposition,\nand speech--speaking Romany like themselves. Nor did we ever enter a\nGypsy camp without their claiming him: \u2018What are you doing with a black\ncoat on?\u2019 they would say; \u2018why don\u2019t you join us and be our King?\u2019\u201d[2]\n\nWhether the affinity was one of blood or of nature does not greatly\nmatter; in either case it lends a special interest to Burton\u2019s study of\nthe gypsy.\n\nOf _El Islam; or, The Rank of Muhammadanism among the Religions of\nthe World_ there is little to be said. It is one of the oldest of the\nBurton MSS.; and though it bears no date, from internal evidence I\njudge it to have been written soon after his famous pilgrimage to Mecca\nin 1853. It is, in fact, contemporary with his poem _The Kas\u00eedah_,\nthough I know not why the poem was published and the essay withheld.\nProbably Burton contemplated writing more fully on the subject.\nMuhammadanism in its highest aspect always attracted him. So long\nago as 1848 we find him preparing for his Mecca pilgrimage, not only\nby learning the Koran and practising rites and ceremonies, but by \u201ca\nsympathetic study of Sufi-ism, the Gnosticism of El Islam, which would\nraise me high above the rank of a mere Muslim.\u201d[3] Lady Burton writes:\n\u201cThis stuck to him off and on all his life\u201d; and, it may be added, gave\na colour to his writings. Since Burton wrote this essay (now published\nfor the first time) a change has taken place among thinking men in the\nestimate of El Islam among the religions of the world. Writers like\nLane Poole, Isaac Taylor, and Bosworth Smith, to name no others, have\ncleared away many misconceptions concerning the \u201cSaving Faith,\u201d and\nhave discussed its merits as a humanizing creed. But the testimony of\na man like Burton, who by personal observation studied thoroughly the\n\u201cinner life of the Muslim,\u201d who absolutely lived the life of an Arab\npilgrim, and penetrated to the Holy of Holies, of necessity carries\npeculiar weight.\n\nI should like to say a few words concerning the author\u2019s MSS. So many\nconflicting rumours have appeared with reference to the late Sir\nRichard Burton\u2019s MSS., that it is well to state that these are here\nreproduced practically as they left the author\u2019s hands.[4] It has\nbeen my endeavour to avoid over-editing, and to interfere as little\nas possible with the original text. Hence editorial notes, always\nin square brackets, are sparingly introduced. It has not been found\nnecessary to make any verbal changes of importance. But the case is\ndifferent with the spelling of proper names, which were left in such\na chaotic condition that a revision was found indispensable, so as\nto reduce them to some measure of uniformity. The variants were so\nmany and the MS. so difficult to decipher, that I am fain to crave\nindulgence for my performance of this somewhat troublesome task.\n\nIn conclusion, I will only add that it has been my endeavour to give a\nfull and accurate presentment of these hitherto unpublished MSS. There\nare more to follow; but these form a good sample of the work of the\nfamous Oriental traveller in fields which he made peculiarly his own.\nThey are eminently characteristic of the man. They give glimpses of him\nonce more as a bold and original thinker, a profound student of men\nand things, as a rare genius, if a wayward one, and as one of the most\nremarkable personalities of our day and generation.\n\n                                                          W. H. WILKINS.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[1] January, 1891.\n\n[2] Lady Burton\u2019s life of Her Husband, Vol. I., p. 252.\n\n[3] Burton\u2019s _Reminiscences_, written for Mr. Hitchman in 1888.\n\n[4] In the case of the Appendix on Human Sacrifice among the Sephard\u00edm\nor Eastern Jews and the murder of Padre Tomaso, I have (as before\nstated) preferred to hold it over to publishing it in a mutilated form.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\n  CHAP.                                                            PAGE\n\n  PREFACE                                                             v\n\n  CONTENTS                                                         xvii\n\n\n  I. THE JEW\n\n    I. GENERAL OPINION OF THE JEW                                     3\n\n    II. OPINION OF THE JEW IN ENGLAND                                20\n\n    III. THE JEW OF THE HOLY LAND AND HIS DESTINY                    46\n\n    IV. THE JEW AND THE TALMUD                                       72\n\n    V. THE CONTINUITY OF TRADITION IN THE EAST                      115\n\n\n  II. THE GYPSY\n\n    Part I. NOTES ON MODERN STUDIES OF \u201cCHINGANOLOGY\u201d\n\n      I. THE INDIAN AFFINITIES OF THE GYPSIES                       136\n\n      II. THE CLAIMS AND PRETENSIONS OF M. PAUL BATAILLARD          144\n\n      III. A REVIEW OF M. PAUL BATAILLARD\u2019S REVIEWS                 157\n\n        \u00a7 1. Preliminaries                                          157\n\n        \u00a7 2. \u201cDerniers Travaux, etc.\u201d                               172\n\n        \u00a7 3. \u201cOrigines, etc.\u201d                                       183\n\n        \u00a7 4. \u201cNotes et Questions, etc.,\u201d \u201cSur le mot Zagaie, etc.\u201d  197\n\n    Part II. TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE GYPSIES AND THE JATS\n\n      IV. HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE GYPSY IN EUROPE                  202\n\n      V. THE GYPSY IN ASIA                                          211\n\n        \u00a7 1. The Panjabi Jats                                       211\n\n        \u00a7 2. The Jats of Belochistan                                215\n\n        \u00a7 3. The Gypsies of Persia                                  217\n\n        \u00a7 4. The Gypsies of Syria                                   219\n\n        \u00a7 5. The Gypsies of the Haur\u00e1n, South-Eastern Syria         228\n\n        \u00a7 6. The Gypsies of Damascus                                231\n\n      VI. THE GYPSY IN AFRICA                                       233\n\n        \u00a7 1. The Egyptian Ghajar or Ghagar                          233\n\n        \u00a7 2. The Gzane of Algeria and Morocco                       258\n\n        \u00a7 3. The Gypsies in Inner Africa                            261\n\n      VII. THE GYPSY IN EUROPE                                      263\n\n        \u00a7 1. The Gypsy in Hungary                                   263\n\n        \u00a7 2. The Gypsies of Spain                                   269\n\n      VIII. THE GYPSY IN AMERICA                                    282\n\n        The Gypsies of the Brazil                                   282\n\n\n  III. EL ISLAM\n  OR\n  THE RANK OF MUHAMMADANISM AMONG THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD\n\n    EL ISLAM                                                        289\n\n\n  INDEX                                                             347\n\n  TRANSCRIBER\u2019S NOTE\n\n\n\n\nI.  THE JEW\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nGENERAL OPINION OF THE JEW\n\n\nThe history of the Jew as well as his physiological aspect are subjects\nwhich still remain to be considered and carefully to be worked out from\nan Aryan point of view. We have of late years seen books in plenty\nupon points of detail: let us particularize _The Physical History of\nthe Jewish Race_, by Dr. Josiah Clark Nott[5] (Charleston, 1850); _Le\nJuif_, par le Chevalier Geargenot des Monceseaux (Paris: Henri Plon,\n1871); and _Notices of the Jews and their Country by the Classic\nWriters of Antiquity: being a Collection of Statements and Opinions\ntranslated from the Works of Greek and Latin Heathen Authors previous\nto A.D. 500_, by John Gill (London: Longmans, 1872). But in these, as\nin other works, we find wanting a practical and personal familiarity\nwith the subject, nor can we be surprised at its absence. It is\ngenerally assumed that at the present moment there are six millions\nof Jews scattered over the face of the earth. Some have exaggerated\nthe total to nine millions and a half; but even the former figure is a\ngreater number, says M. Cr\u00e9mieux, than the nation could boast of at any\nother period of its history, ancient or modern.[6] Throughout the world\nalso the race increases with such marvellous rapidity as a rule, which\nadmits of few exceptions, that philosophical inquirers are beginning\nto ask whether this immense fecundity, taken in connexion with the\nexceptionally healthy and vigorous physique of the race, its ubiquity\nand its cosmopolitanism, does not point to a remarkable career in times\nto come.\n\nThe ethnologist and the student of general history are urgently invited\nto consider the annals and the physical and intellectual aspects of\nthe children of Israel, perhaps the most interesting subject that\ncan occupy their attention. The Jew, like the Gypsy, stands alone,\nisolated by character, if not by blessing. Traditionally, or rather\naccording to its own tradition, the oldest family on earth, it is at\nthe same time that which possesses the most abundant vitality. Its\nindestructible and irrepressible life-power enables this nation without\na country to maintain an undying nationality and to nourish a sentiment\nof caste with a strength and a pertinacity unparalleled in the annals\nof patriotism. The people that drove the Jews from Jud\u00e6a, the empires\nwhich effaced the kingdoms of Israel and Judah from the map of the\nworld, have utterly perished. The descendants of the conquering Romans\nare undistinguishable from the rest of mankind. But, eighteen hundred\nyears after the Fall of Jerusalem, the dispersed Jewish people have a\ndistinct existence, are a power in every European capital, conduct the\nfinancial operations of nations and governments, and are to be found\nwherever civilization has extended and commerce has penetrated; in\nfact, it has made all the world its home.\n\nOne obstacle to a matured and detailed ethnological study of the Jew\nis the difficulty of becoming familiar with a people scattered over\nthe two hemispheres. Though the race is one, the two great factors\nblood and climate have shown it to be anything but immutable, either in\nphysique or in character. Compare, for instance, the two extremes--the\nTatar-faced Kara\u00efte of the Crimea with the Semitic features of Morocco,\nthe blond lovelocks of Aden and the fiery ringlets of Germany with the\ngreasy, black hair of Houndsditch. And as bodily form differs greatly,\nthere is perhaps a still greater distinction in mental characteristics:\nwe can hardly believe the peaceful and industrious Dutch Jew a brother\nof the fanatic and ferocious Hebrew who haunts the rugged Highlands of\nSafed in the Holy Land. Yet though these differences constitute almost\na series of sub-races, there is one essentially great quality which\ncements and combines the whole house of Israel.\n\nThe vigour, the vital force, and the mental capacity of other peoples\nare found to improve by intermixture; the more composite their\ncharacter, the greater their strength and energy. But for generation\nafter generation the Jews have preserved, in marriage at least, the\npurity of their blood. In countries where they form but a small\npercentage of the population the range of choice must necessarily be\nvery limited, and from the very beginning of his history the Jew, like\nhis half-brother the Arab, always married, or was expected to marry,\nhis first cousin. A well-known traveller of the present day has proved\nthat this can be done with impunity only by unmixed races of men, and\nthat the larger the amount of mixture in blood the greater will be the\namount of deformity in physique and morale to be expected from the\noffspring. Consanguineous marriages are dangerous in England, and far\nmore dangerous, as De Hone has proved, in Massachusetts. Yet the kings\nof Persia intermarried with their sisters, and the Samaritan branch of\nthe Jews is so closely connected that first cousins are almost sisters.\n\nPhysically and mentally the Jewish man and woman are equal in all\nrespects to their Gentile neighbours, and in some particulars are\nsuperior to them. The women of the better class are strongly and\nsymmetrically shaped; and although their beauty of feature is not that\nadmired by the Christian eye, debility and deformity are exceptionally\nrare. In grace of form and in charm of manner they are far superior\nto their husbands and brothers, and indeed this everywhere appears to\nbe a sub-characteristic racial feature. They are nowhere remarkably\ndistinguished for chastity, and in some places, Morocco for instance,\ntheir immorality is proverbial. Their grand physique does not age\nlike that of the natives of the strange countries which they colonize\nand where Europeans readily degenerate, they preserve youth for ten\nyears longer than their rivals, they become mothers immediately after\npuberty, and they bear children to a far later age. Their customs\nallow them to limit the family, not by deleterious drugs and dangerous\noperations, but by the simple process of prolonging the period of\nlactation, and barrenness is rare amongst them as in the days when it\nwas looked upon as a curse. There is scarcely any part of the habitable\nglobe, from the Highlands of Abyssinia to the Lowlands of Jamaica,\nin which the Jewish people cannot be acclimatized more readily and\nmore rapidly than the other races of Europe--also the result of blood\ncomparatively free from that intermixture which brings forward the\ninherent defects of both parents.\n\nThe Jews also enjoy a comparative immunity from various forms of\ndisease which are the scourge of other races. Pulmonary and scrofulous\ncomplaints are rare amongst them; leprosy and elephantiasis are almost\nextinct; and despite their impurity in person and the exceptional\nfilth of their dwelling-places, they are less liable to be swept away\nby cholera and plague than the natives of the countries which are\nhabitually ravaged by those epidemics. They seldom suffer from the\nusual infectious results, even where the women are so unchaste that\nhonour seems as unknown to them as honesty to the men.\n\nPhysiologists have asked, How is this phenomenon to be accounted for?\nWhy is the duration of life greater among the Jews than among the\nother races of Europe? Is it the result of superior organization or\nof obedience to the ceremonial law? The researches of those who have\nmade these questions their special study supply but one satisfactory or\nsufficient answer, and it may be summed up in six words--a prodigious\nsuperiority of vital power. And all the laws attributed to the\ntheistic secularism of Moses were issued with one object--namely, that\nof hardening and tempering the race to an extent which even Sparta\nignored. The ancient Jew was more than half a Bedawin, and not being an\nequestrian race his annual journeys to and from Jerusalem were mostly\nmade on foot. His diet was carefully regulated, and his year was a\nsuccession of fasts and feasts, as indeed it is now, but not to such an\nextent as formerly. The results were simply the destruction of all the\nweaklings and the survival of the fittest.\n\nThrice during the year, by order of the Torah (Deut. xvi. 16)--namely\n(1) in the Passover, or feast of unleavened bread during the first\necclesiastical and the seventh civil month; (2) at Pentecost, or\nShebaoth (weeks), the feast of the wheat harvest in the third or the\nninth month; and (3) at the Feast of Tabernacles, or the ingathering\nof the harvest in the seventh or the first month--the Jew of old was\nreligiously commanded to appear before the Lord. He was bound to leave\nhis home, which might be distant a hundred and fifty miles, and travel\nup to Jerusalem, where he led a camp life like his half-brothers in\nthe Desert. This semi-nomad life was combined with a quasi-ascetic\ncondition produced by the frequency and the severity of his fasts and\nby the austerities attending upon making ready for the Sabbath, that is\nto say, the preparations of Friday evening--some religious men even in\nthe present age suffer nothing to pass their lips for seven consecutive\ndays and nights.[7] This afflicting the soul, as it is called, served\nto breed a race equally hard and hardy in frame and mind. It embodied\nto perfection the idea of the sacrifice of personal will. Add to this\nthe barbarous and ferocious nature of their punishments, amongst\nwhich stoning by the congregation is perhaps the most classical, and\nthe perpetual bloodshed in the Temple, which must have suggested a\nbutcher\u2019s shambles.\n\nAgain, the history and traditions, the faith and practice of the Jew\never placed before his eyes the absolute and immeasurable superiority\nof his own caste, the \u201cPeculiar People, the Kingdom of Priests, the\nHoly Nation.\u201d This exaltation justified the Hebrew in treating his\nbrother-men as heathens barely worthy of the title of human. \u201cLo,\nthe people shall dwell alone, and shall not be reckoned among the\nnations\u201d--an unfriendly separation and an estrangement between man and\nman equally injurious to the welfare of Jew and Gentile. It grew a rank\ncrop of hideous crimes committed in the fair name of religion--what\nnation but the Hebrew could exult over a Jephthah who \u201cdid with his\ndaughter according to his own,\u201d that is, burnt her to death before the\nLord? At the same time it inculcated a rare humanity amongst its own\nmembers unknown to all other peoples of antiquity: for instance, it\nallowed the coward to retire from the field before battle, and, strange\nto say, it inculcated the very highest of moral dogmas. In 250 B.C.\nSoch\u00e6us, and after him the Pharisees, according to Josephus, taught\nthat God should be served, not for gain, but for love and gratitude:\nhence his follower Sad\u00edk forbade the looking forward to futurity, even\nas Moses had neglected the doctrine with studious care. Even in the\npresent age of the world such denegation of egotism would be a higher\nlaw.\n\nAll these specialities in combination urged the Jews to dare and to do\neverything against all who were not of their own blood. The inevitable\nconclusion of such a policy was that eventually they came into\ncollision with all around them; that they failed in the unequal combat\nwith pagan Rome and early Christianity; that they lost the birthplace\nof their nationality, and were scattered far and wide over the surface\nof the earth. And what has happened once may happen again.\n\nThe Greeks of earlier days, who like the Hebrews had but one faith\nand one tongue, also met periodically as a single family at Delphi,\nthe centre of their racial area. Thus that gifted people without any\ninspiration effectually combined with grandeur in the worship of the\ngods the law of harmony which should preside over human society. But\nthe Greeks were a sensuous and a joyous race, walking under the free\nheavens in the glorious lights of poetry, of art, and of beauty, and\ncould not fail to realize the truth that society based upon reciprocal\nbenevolence means civilization and the highest stage of human\nsociety--communion with the world.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nDr. Boudin, the eminent physiologist and medical writer, remarks\nthat the Jew is governed by statistical laws of birth, sickness, and\nmortality completely different from those which rule the peoples\namongst whom he lives. This assertion is confirmed by the testimony of\nhistory. During the Middle Ages, when the unclean capitals of Europe\nand Asia were periodically devastated by the plague, the angel of death\npassed by the houses of the oppressed and despised Jews, although they\nwere condemned by local regulations to occupy the worst quarters of the\ncities. In speaking of the pestilence of A.D. 1345, Tschudi says that\nit nowhere attacked the Jews. Frascator mentions that they completely\nescaped the typhus epidemic in A.D. 1505; they were untouched by the\nintermittent fevers which reigned in Rome in A.D. 1691; they were not\nsubject to the dysentery which was so fatal at Nimeguen in A.D. 1736;\nand both in 1832 and 1849 it is stated upon excellent authority that\nthey enjoyed comparative exemption from the cholera in London, although\nduring the last-named year the city numbered nearly thirteen thousand\nvictims.[8]\n\nNot less curious are the statistics showing the natural aptitude of\nthe Jewish people, at once so national in their sentiments and so\ncosmopolitan in their tendencies, for universal acclimatization. The\nJew and the Christian will emigrate to a British or a French colony\nfrom the same birthplace; and while, owing to the uncongenial climate,\nthe Christian settler with his family eventually dies out, the Jewish\nsettler increases and multiplies. In Algeria, for example, the French\ncolonies would become extinct in a very short process of time were it\nnot for the steady influx of immigrants, whereas the Jew takes deep\nroot and throws out vigorous branches.\n\nWith respect to the superior longevity of the Jews, German sources\nsupply some interesting particulars. Dr. W. C. de Neufville,[9] of\nFrankfort, by the collection and collation of an immense mass of\nstatistics, has demonstrated the following facts:\n\n  1. One-fourth of Christian populations dies at the mean age of 6\n      years 11 months.\n\n  2. One-fourth of Jewish populations dies at the mean age of 28 years\n      3 months.\n\n  3. One-half of Christian populations dies at the mean age of 36\n      years 6 months.\n\n  4. One-half of Jewish populations dies at the mean age of 53 years 1\n      month.\n\n  5. Three-fourths of Christian populations die at the mean age of 59\n      years 10 months.\n\n  6. Three-fourths of Jewish populations die at the mean age of 71\n      years.\n\nIt is found that in Prussia the annual mortality among the Jews is 1\u00b761\nper cent, to 2\u00b700 among the rest of the population. The annual rate\nof increase with the former is 1\u00b773 per cent.; with the latter only\n1\u00b736.[10] In Frankfort the mean duration of human life is 36 years 11\nmonths among the Christian population, and 46 years 9 months among the\nJewish.\n\nI will now quote at full length the favourable verdict usually offered\nin the case of the Hebrews by the writers of Europe:\n\n\u201cIf we trace the history of the Israelitish race from the destruction\nof Jerusalem to the time at which the prevalence of a more enlightened\npublic opinion caused to be effaced from the Statute Books of European\nnations the barbarous and cruel enactments against the Jews, adopted\nin an epoch when bigotry, brutality, and persecution were rampant, we\nshall be constrained to admit that there has been something little\nless than miraculous in the preservation of this people from utter\nextermination. Basnage[11] (_Histoire des Juifs_) calculates that\n1,338,460 Jews perished by fire and sword, famine and sickness, at and\nafter the siege of the Holy City. Subsequently a host of unfortunate\nexiles became the objects of bitter and unrelenting persecution,\nfanaticism, and tyranny in every country throughout Christendom. During\nthe two years which preceded their final expulsion from Jud\u00e6a, 580,000\nJews were slaughtered by the Romans; and the gradual dispersion of\nthe rest over the face of Europe was the prelude for the perpetration\nupon them by \u2018Christians\u2019 of a series of atrocities almost unequalled\nfor merciless savagery. The functions they discharged in medi\u00e6val\nsociety were, in reality, of the most valuable kind; but so dense\nwas the ignorance, and so inveterate were the prejudices of the age,\nthat towards the close of the thirteenth century upwards of 13,000\nIsraelites were banished from England in one day; just as two hundred\nyears later 500,000 were expelled from Spain, 150,000 from Portugal,\nand an indefinite number were cast out of France. For a period of three\ncenturies successive sovereigns refused to accord permission to the\nJews to worship Almighty God within the English realm; nor was it until\nthe Protectorate of Cromwell that a synagogue was allowed to be erected\nin London.\n\n\u201cIn works of fiction, in the drama, and in daily life the name of\nJew has become a byword and a reproach, and an explanation of this\nis to be sought for rather in the malignity of religious prejudice\nthan in the actual conduct of the people who have been visited with\nso much opprobrium. Their virtues are their own, but their faults are\nthe fruit of eighteen centuries of outlawry and oppression. Under\nsuch treatment archangels would have become depraved. In the history\nof the whole world there is nothing which in any degree resembles\nthe systematic persecutions, the barbarous cruelties, the cowardly\ninsults, the debasing tyranny to which the Jewish race has been\nexposed. That it was not degraded to the level of the African negroes,\nor absolutely obliterated from the face of the earth, is only another\nproof of its wonderful vitality and of the indestructible elasticity\nof the national character.[12] In spite of all these centuries of\noppression and repression, its representatives are still found, not\nmerely among the monarchs of finance, but among the royalties and\naristocracies of genius. Every one must remember the passage in\n_Coningsby_ in which Mr. Disraeli enumerates the illustrious Jews who\nare occupying, or have occupied, the foremost rank in arts, letters,\nstatesmanship, and military science--Count Cantemir in Russia, Senor\nMendizelal in Spain, and Count Arnim in Prussia; Marshals Soult and\nMassena, Professors Neander, Regius, Bearnary, and Wohl; the composers\nRossini, Mendelssohn, and Meyerbeer (not to mention Offenbach); Rachel\nthe actress; Pasta, Grisi, and Braham the vocalists, Spinoza the\nphilosopher, and Heine the poet; to which list he might have added the\nnames of some of the most distinguished of living French and English\ncelebrities.[13] And though we have forgotten Xapol and Gondomar,\nYahuda Halevi, and Aviabron, alias Solomon ben Gabriel, few of us\ncan ignore the Rothschilds and Goldsmids, the Ricardos, Rouhers, and\nTorlonias, now become household words in Europe.\n\n \u201cThat in all countries the Jews, on the other hand, should evince a\n preference for sordid pursuits, and follow them with an eagerness and\n tenacity worthy of employment in more generous and elevated callings,\n must also be admitted. William Abbott, in his outspoken and earnest\n but narrow-minded way, advanced this plea upon one occasion in the\n House of Commons, in resistance to a motion to relieve all persons\n professing the Jewish religion in England from the civil disabilities\n under which they then laboured. He was replied to by Macaulay in a\n speech as eloquent in terms as it was irresistible in logic.\n\n \u201c\u2018Such, sir,\u2019 said he, \u2018has in every age been the reasoning of bigots.\n They never fail to plead, in justification of persecution, the vices\n which persecution has engendered. England has been to the Jews less\n than half a country, and we revile them because they do not feel for\n England more than a half patriotism. We treat them as slaves, and\n wonder that they do not regard us as brethren. We drive them to mean\n occupations, and then reproach them for not embracing honourable\n professions. We long forbade them to possess land, and we complain\n that they chiefly occupy themselves in trade. We shut them out from\n all the paths of ambition, and then we despise them for taking refuge\n in avarice. During many ages we have in all our dealings with them\n abused our immense superiority of force, and then we are disgusted\n because they have recourse to that cunning which is the natural and\n universal defence of the weak against the violence of the strong. But\n were they always a mere money-changing, money-getting, money-hoarding\n race? Nobody knows better than my honourable friend, the member for\n the University of Oxford, that there is nothing in their national\n character which unfits them for the highest duties of citizens. He\n knows that in the infancy of civilization, when our island was as\n savage as New Guinea, when letters and arts were still unknown to\n Athens, when scarcely a thatched hut stood on what was afterwards the\n site of Rome, this contemned people had their fenced cities and cedar\n palaces, their splendid Temple, their fleets of merchant ships, their\n schools of sacred learning, their great statesmen and soldiers, their\n natural philosophers, their historians and poets. What nation ever\n contended more manfully against overwhelming odds for its independence\n and religion? And if, in the course of many centuries, the oppressed\n descendants of warriors and sages have degenerated from the qualities\n of their fathers--if while excluded from the blessings of law and\n bound down under the yoke of slavery they have contracted some of\n the vices of outlaws and slaves, shall we consider this a matter of\n reproach to them? Shall we not rather consider it a matter of shame\n and remorse to ourselves? Let us do justice to them. Let us open to\n them every career in which ability and energy can be displayed. Till\n we have done this, let us not presume to say that there is no genius\n among the countrymen of Isaiah, no heroism amongst the descendants of\n the Maccabees.\u2019\u201d\n\nWe have \u201cdone this,\u201d and the results have stultified all this nicely\nbalanced rhetoric. And the following pages may suggest that our\nEuropean ancestors had other reasons for expelling the Jews than the\nmere \u201cbigotry\u201d and \u201cbrutality\u201d so unphilosophically ascribed to them by\nLord Macaulay. FOOTNOTES:\n\n[5] [Dr. J. C. Nott, the well-known ethnologist.]\n\n[6] The two great centres of Jewish population are, first, the northern\npart of Africa between Morocco and Egypt, especially the Barbary\nStates, where they form the chief element of the town population, and\nwhere a census is at present mere guesswork; they spread gradually\nsouthwards, and since 1858 a trading colony has occupied Timbuctoo on\nthe Niger. The other families in Africa are the Falashas, or Black\nJews of Abyssinia, mere proselytes like those of Malabar, and a few\nEuropeans at the Cape of Good Hope. The second great centre is that\nregion of Europe which extends from the Lower Danube to the Baltic; and\nhere there are about four millions who occupy the middle class among\nthe Sclavonic nationalities, while in the whole of Western Europe there\nare not a hundred and twenty thousand. Their descendants have followed\nthe path of European migrations to America, North and South, and to\nAustralia, where the large commercial towns enable them to multiply as\nin the Old World, and much more rapidly than the Christian population.\nThe other outlying colonies are in Turkey, European as well as Asiatic,\nalthough the Holy Land now contains but a small proportion of their\nformer numbers; in Yemen, especially at Sana\u00e1 and Aden, in Nejer\u00e1n,\nand other parts of Arabia; along the whole course of the Euphrates,\nin Kurdistan, Persia, and India, especially in Malabar, where there\nare white and black Jews; in China and in Cochin China, both colonies\nbeing also found; and in the Turkoman countries. Here they inhabit the\nfour fortresses of Shahr-i-sabz, Kulab, Shamatan, and Urta Kurgan, with\nabout thirty small villages; they live in their own quarters, and,\nexcept having to pay higher taxes, they are treated on an equal footing\nwith the other inhabitants.\n\n[7] This terrible fast is called Ha-frak\u00e1. Old men have been known in\nSyria and Palestine to endure it twice a year, in summer and in winter.\nThey sup on Saturday evening, and till the sunset of the next Saturday\nthey do not allow themselves to swallow even a drop of water or to\ntouch a pinch of snuff. The state of prostration towards the end of the\nterm is extreme, and the first thing done, when the time has passed, is\nto place the patient in a warm bath. This is probably the severest fast\nknown to the world, unless it be rivalled by certain Hindu ascetics:\nthe Greek and Coptic Christians and the Muhammadans have nothing to\ncompare with it.\n\n[8] This we gather from the reports of the General Board of Health on\nthe epidemic cholera. In 1832 only 4 deaths were recorded out of the\n3,000 Portuguese Jews, and in 1849 amongst the 20,000 then inhabiting\nLondon there were no more than 13, although the loss from cholera\namounted to 12,837. This gives a proportion of 0\u00b76 per 1,000, whilst\nthe superintendent registrar assigns 1: 1,000 to Hampstead, 6: 1,000 to\nWhitechapel, 7: 1,000 to the City of London, 19: 1,000 to Shoreditch,\nand 29: 1,000 to Rotherhithe. [These figures are for the special\ncholera year 1832. Since then the visitations have been much less\nsevere.]\n\n[9] [The work referred to is _Lebensdauer und Todesursachen 22\nverschiedener St\u00e4nde_. Frankfort, 1855.]\n\n[10] [These figures are for average years, and hence hold good now as\nthen.]\n\n[11] [Author of the large history of the Jews in 5 vols. Rotterdam,\n1707.]\n\n[12] There is another parasitic race, also of pure blood, but\nIndo-European, not Semitic, whose preservation appears almost as\n\u201cprovidential\u201d as that of the Jews, and whose union is even more\nexceptional because it is not bound either by revelation or indeed by\nany form of faith--the Gypsy.\n\n[13] Not to mention Wolff and Palgrave the travellers, and Monseigneur\nBauer, P\u00e8re Hermann, and P\u00e8re Marie de Ratisbonne, the converts.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nOPINION OF THE JEW IN ENGLAND\n\n\nOf all Europeans, the Englishman, who boasts of being a staunch friend\nto the people \u201cscattered and peeled,\u201d and whose confident ignorance and\nindiscriminate philanthropy are bestowed upon them equally with the\nAfrican negro, knows least of the customs and habits of his _prot\u00e9g\u00e9s_,\nand especially of those of Jews in foreign countries. The neglect of\nthings near to us must be the reason why we know so little of the inner\nlife of Jewry: there are, however, other concomitant causes.\n\nIn our native land the Hebrew lives protected, and honoured, in\nfact, as one of ourselves. We visit him, we dine with him, and\nwe see him at all times and places, except perhaps at the Sunday\nservice. We should enjoy his society but for a certain coarseness of\nmanner, and especially an offensive familiarity, which seems almost\npeculiar to him. We marvel at his talents, and we are struck by the\nadaptability and by the universality of his genius. We admire his\npatience, his steadfastness, and his courage, his military prowess,\nand his successful career in every post and profession--Statesman and\nSenior Wrangler, Poet and Literato, Jurist, Surgeon, and Physician,\nCapitalist, Financier, and Merchant, Philosopher and Engineer, in fact\nin everything that man can be. When we compare the Semitic Premier with\nhis Anglo-Saxon rival, it is much to the advantage of the former: while\njesting about the \u201cAsian mystery,\u201d we cannot but feel that there is\nsomething in the Asiatic which we do not expect, which eludes our ken,\nwhich goes beyond us.\n\nThose familiar with the annals of old families in England are aware\nof the extent to which they have been mixed with Jewish blood, even\nfrom the days when religious prejudice is mistakenly represented to\nhave been most malign. Indeed, of late centuries our nation has never\nprided itself, like the Portuguese and the Iberians generally, in\npreserving its blood \u201cpure and free from taint of Jew and Infidel.\u201d\nThe cross perpetually reappears in outward form as well as in mental\nquality. Here and there an old country house produces a scion which\nto all appearance is more Jewish than the Jews themselves. A peculiar\ncharacteristic of the blood is an extreme fondness for show, for\ncolour, for splendour and magnificence in general. The rich Jew must\ndisplay his wealth; like the Parsee, he makes and spends whilst\nhis rivals the Greek and the Armenian make and hoard. In certain\ncontinental cities where he now reigns supreme he renders society\nimpossible to the Christian. The Messrs. G. Muir Mackenzie and O. P.\nIrby--_The Turks, the Greeks, and the Slavons_ (London: Bell & Daldy,\n1867)--will show how at Salonika[14] the French Consul Marquis de\n---- could not join in any of the festivities. The dinner-table was\nnot respected unless it glistened with gold and silver plate borrowed\nand lent for the occasion. His wife could not appear without a new\ndress on every occasion, and therefore she stayed at home. A toilette\nfrom Paris twice a week not only ministers to the womanly enjoyment\nof the wearer, and to the sensuous pleasures of the beholders, but\nalso shows that the house is wealthy and that the firm has spare money\nto throw away. It is, in fact, an advertisement of the most refined\ndescription. Ladies meeting in parties of three and four over what our\ngrandmothers called \u201ca dish of tea\u201d must appear _d\u00e9collet\u00e9es_ and in\ndiamonds. The _rivi\u00e8re_ must disfigure the beautiful neck and bosom of\nthe bride. At the theatre those boxes are most valued where the light\nfalls strongest upon the precious stones, and where costly textures and\nvaluable laces stand out to the greatest advantage. And behind this\nsplendour of show lies cunning of a high order. The grand liveries are\nused once a week upon Madame\u2019s \u201cday\u201d; at other times the lackeys are\n_en d\u00e9shabille_. The costly carriage horses work till noon in carts and\ndrays transporting the _irritamenta malorum_ which support the equipage\nof the afternoon. And so in everything. The Hebrew race is so marked in\nits characteristics that it has ever been the theme of over-praise or\nof undue blame, like those individuals concerning whom society cannot\nbe neutral; and of late years the transitions of public opinion which\nusually moves slowly have been comically abrupt.\n\nThe Jew of popular English fiction is no longer _Moshesh_, a wretch who\nbelieves in one God and in Shent-per-Shent as his profit, whose eyes,\nunlike those of Banquo, are brimming full with \u201cspeculation.\u201d The Fagin\nof young Dickens only a quarter of a century ago has now become the\n\u201cgentle Jew Riah\u201d of old Dickens, a being remarkable for resignation\nand quiet dignity, a living reproach to the Christian heathenry that\ndwells about him. The great feminine actresses of the world, we are\ntold by a charming authoress, are all Jewesses. _Tancred; or, the New\nCrusade,_ to mention nothing of meaner note, teaches us to admire and\nlove the modern \u201cRoses of Sharon,\u201d those exquisite visions that are\nread to rest by attendants with silver lamps, and who talk history,\nphilosophy, and theology with the warmth of womanly enthusiasm,\ntempered by the pure belief of a bishop of the Church of England, the\nlearning of a German professor, and the grace of Madame Recamier.\nMiriam has become, in fact, a pet heroine with novel writers and novel\nreaders, and thrice happy is the fascinating young Christian who, like\n\u201cthat boy of Norcott\u2019s,\u201d despite his manifold Christian disabilities,\ncan win her hand and heart.\n\nOf the middle and lower classes of Jews the Englishman only hears\nthat they are industrious, abstinent, and comparatively cleanly in\nperson; decent, hospitable, and as strict in keeping the Sabbath as\nthe strictest Sabbatarians could desire--perhaps, if he knew all, he\nwould not desire so much. He is told that they are wondrous charitable\nin their dealings with those of the same faith, always provided that\nsome mite of a religious difference does not grow to mountain size. The\npapers inform him how munificent and judicious is their distribution\nof alms, how excellent are their arrangements for the support of their\npaupers, who are never exposed to the horrors of the parish and the\npoor-house, and who are maintained by their co-religionists, though\nnumbering in London at least 16\u00b750 per cent. out of a total exceeding\nthirty thousand souls.[15] And he everywhere reads of Charities,\npublic, private, and congregational; of Hospitals and Almshouses; of\nOrphanages, Philanthropic Institutions; of Pensioners\u2019 and Widows\u2019\nHomes; Friendly Societies; of Doles of Bread and Coal and Raiment;\nof Lying-in Houses and Infant Asylums; of Burial Societies, male\nand female; of arrangements for supplying godfathers and godmothers\nmanaged by Benevolent Societies, Boards, Institutions, Committees,\nand Consistories. Like their charities, the educational system may be\ndivided into three heads: Schools, public and private; Rabbinical and\nTheological Institutions; and Literary and Scientific Associations.\n\nHe--the ordinary Englishman--may be dimly conscious that the Jew is\nthe one great exception to the general curse upon the sons of Adam,\nand that he alone eats bread, not in the sweat of his own face, but\nin the sweat of his neighbour\u2019s face--like the German cuckoo, who\ndoes not colonize, but establishes himself in the colonies of other\nnatives. He has perhaps been told that all the world over the Jew\nspurns the honest toil of the peasant and the day labourer; that in\nthe new Jewry of Houndsditch and Petticoat Lane, in the Marais, in\nthe Ghetto, in the Juden Strasse, and in the H\u00e1rat el Yah\u00fad (Jewish\nquarters) of Mussulman cities, his sole business is _quocumque modo\nrem--sordid gains_--especially by money-lending, and by usury, which\nmay not be practised upon a fellow Jew, but which, with the cleanest of\nconsciences, is applied to the ruin of the Gentile. He has heard that\nwhere Saxon and Celt ply pick and pan, the Hebrew broker and pedlar\nbuy up their gains and grow rich where the working-men starve in the\nmidst of gold. He sees that the \u201cChosen People\u201d will swarm over the\nworld from California to Australia, wherever greed of gain induces them\nto travel. \u201cTo my mind,\u201d says a popular writer, \u201cthere are few things\nso admirable and wonderful in this life as the \u2018getting on,\u2019 as it is\nvulgarly called, of the Hebrew race. For one of us who, by means of\ninfinite wriggling, panting, toiling, struggling, and hanging on by\nhis eyebrows, so to speak, to opportunity, ambitious to emerge from\nobscurity, and ascend to the topmost round of the ladder, there seems\nto be at least five hundred Caucasian Arabs who attain the desired\naltitude; ay, and who manage to avoid turning giddy and toppling over.\nMost Jews seem to rise, and the instances of a few going \u2018to the\nutter bad,\u2019 as the phrase runs, seem equally as rare. How often your\nsuccessful Nazarene comes to grief! At the moment you think him Lord\nof All he is Master of Nothing.... Jews appear to keep what they have\ngotten; and, what is better, to get more, and keep _that_ too. They\nare not much given, I fancy, to experience the pangs of remorse; and\nI cannot well imagine a mad Jew. It must be something awful. On the\nwhole, looking at the vast number of Christians I have known who from\nsplendour have subsided into beggary, and the vast number of Hebrews\nI have watched advancing, not from mendicity--a Jew never begs, save\nfrom one of his own tribe, and then I suppose the transaction is more\nof the nature of a friendly loan, to be repaid with interest when\nbrighter days arrive--but from extreme indigence to wealth and station,\nI incline to the opinion that Gentiles have a natural alacrity in\nsinking--look how heavy I can be--but that the Chosen People have as\nnatural a tendency towards buoyancy. That young man with the banner\nin Mr. Longfellow\u2019s ballad was, depend upon it, an Israelite of the\nIsraelites; only I think the poet was wrong, as poets generally are, in\nhis climax. The young man was not frozen to death. He made an immense\nfortune at the top of Mont Blanc by selling \u2018Excelsior\u2019 penny ices.\u201d\n\nThe secret of this \u201cgetting on\u201d is known to every expert. The Jewish\nboy begins from his earliest days with changing a few sovereigns,\nand he pursues the path of lucre till the tomb opens to receive him.\nHe is utterly single-minded in this point; he has but one idea, and\ntherefore he must succeed. Who does not remember the retort of the\nJewish capitalist to the Christian statesman who, impertinently enough,\nadvised him to teach his children something beyond mere trade? \u201cMy\nfirst wish,\u201d answered the Hebrew, \u201cis to see my boys become good men of\nbusiness; beyond that--nothing!\u201d\n\nThe average Englishman cannot help observing with Cobbett, and\ndespite Lord Macaulay, that the callings which the lower orders of\nJews especially prefer are those held mean or dishonourable by other\nmen, such as demoralizing usury, receiving stolen goods, buying up\nold clothes, keeping gambling-houses and betting-cribs, dealing in a\nliterature calculated to pervert the mind of youth; combining, as a\nperson--afterwards sent to Newgate--lately did, the trade of a cosmetic\nartist with the calling of a procuress, and supplying the agapemon\u00e6\nof the world,[16] while occasionally producing a sharp jockey or a\nhard-hitting prize-fighter. He is not ignorant of their prodigious\ntrickery, of their immense and abnormal powers of lying--the \u201ctrifle\ntongue,\u201d as they picturesquely call it--and their subtle art of winning\ntheir object by roundabout ways. He cannot mistake their physical\ncowardice, but he remembers that the Jewish officers, once so numerous\nin the French army, were as brave as their Christian brethren; and\nagain he recognizes the fact that lying and cowardice long continue to\nbe the effects of oppression. He smiles at their intense love of public\namusements, and their excessive fondness for display, evinced by tawdry\nfinery and mosaic gold.\n\nKnowing this, however, he supposes himself to know the worst. He has\nheard little of the excessive optimism of the Jew, the [Greek: \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1 \u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd: panta kala lian], so strongly opposed to Christianity, the\n\u201creligion of sorrow.\u201d He knows nothing of the immense passions and\npugnacity, the eagerness and tenacity of Lutheran rancour displayed\nagainst all who differ from some minuti\u00e6 of oral law. He ignores\nthe over-weening, narrow-minded pride of caste which makes the Jew\n\u201cdestined by God to be a kingdom of priests and a holy nation\u201d--as\none of their own race, Rabbi Ascher (initiator of youth), even now\nrepeats.[17] He cannot realize the fact that the ferocity and terrible\ndestructiveness which characterize the Jew and his literature, from\nthe days of the Prophets to those of the Talmudists, are present in\nhis civilized neighbour, whom he considers to be one of the best of\nmen--a sleeping lion, it is true, but ready to awake upon the first\noccasion. And he is ignorant of the Eastern Jews\u2019 love of mysticism\nand symbolism, their various horrible and disgusting superstitions,\nand their devotion to magical charms and occult arts which lead to a\nvariety of abominations.\n\nThis ignorance produces weak outbursts of lamentations that the Hebrews\n\u201cstill cling with obstinate persistence to a hopeless hope,\u201d Hence we\nread in the pages of a modern traveller--_The Rob Roy on the Jordan_,\np. 274, by J. MacGregor, M.A. (London: Murray, 1869): \u201cHere, as well\nas some twenty years ago, I heard men in Palestine call their fellows\n\u2018Jew\u2019 as the lowest of all possible words of abuse. When we recollect\nthat the Jews, in this very land of their own, were once the choice\npeople of the world; that now through the whole earth, among the\nrichest, the bravest, the cleverest, the fairest, the best at music\nand song, at poetry and painting, at art and science and literature,\nat education, philanthropy, statesmanship, war, commerce, and finance,\nin every sphere of life are Jews,--we may well remember the word of\nprophecy which told us long ago that the name of Jew would be a \u2018byword\nand a reproach,\u2019 even in the Jews\u2019 own land.\u201d It is true that, even\nin the Portuguese colonies, where the Jew is comparatively unknown,\nhis name is worse than at Jerusalem, Bagdad, and Damascus; whilst\n\u201cJudear\u201d--to play the Jew--signifies the being capable of any villainy.\nBut how long will prophecy prove true? In the coast towns of Morocco, a\nfew years have sufficed to raise the Hebrew from the lowest of stations\nto equality with, and even superiority over, his Mussulman cousin. The\nJew may ere long make the Gentile a \u201cbyword and a reproach.\u201d\n\nBut the English world never hears the fact that the Jew of Africa,\nof Arabia, of Kurdistan, of Persia, and of Western Asia generally,\nis still the Jew \u201ccunning and fierce\u201d of the thirteenth and the\nfourteenth centuries in Europe; that he is the Jew of the Talmud,\nof Shammai, and of Rabbi Shalomon Jarchi, not of the Pentateuch, of\nHillel, and of Gamaliel; that he sympathizes, not with those staunch\nold conservatives and rationalists, the Sadducees, now gone for ever,\nnor with Ezra and the Priests, the Levites and the Nethin\u00edm--men of\nthe Great Synagogue--nor with the ascetic Essenes, prototypes of\nChristian monkery; but with the Pharisees, the Separatists, and the\nPuritans of his faith, with the Captains, the Fanatics, the Zealots,\nthe Sicarii, the Swordsmen and the Brigands of John of Giscala, of\nEleazar son of Ananias, and of those who worked all the civil horrors\nof our first century. Some distant or adventurous journey of Sir Moses\nMontefiore[18] or other philanthropists, duly published with packed\nand partial comments in the papers of Europe, reveals to the lazy\ncomprehension of the man of refinement that the Hebrew in many parts\nof the semi-civilized world is still the object of suspicion, fear,\nand abhorrence. He attributes the persecutions, the _avarice_, or the\nmassacre to the pleasures of plunder, to the barbarous bigotry, and to\nthe cruel fanaticism of bloodthirsty and cruel races, who still look\nupon the present with the eyes of the past, and who have seized an\nopportunity to glut their lust of spoil or to wreak an obsolete revenge\nbecause some eighteen centuries and three-quarters ago \u201can aristocratic\nand unpopular high priest, whom the people afterwards rose upon and\nmurdered, had for political reasons crucified our Lord,\u201d or because in\nA.D. 729[19] a heroic Jewess of Khaibar poisoned a shoulder of lamb\nwith the object of trying by a crucial test whether Muhammad was the\nProphet of Allah, or merely the Sheikh of Arab pillagers, the worthy\n_confr\u00e8re_ of M\u00fasailamah the Liar.\n\nWe do not waste time upon thought or inquiry whether the persecution,\nthe _avarice_, or the massacre may not be the direct result of some\nintolerable wrong, of some horrible suspicion which has gradually\nassumed the form of certainty, and which calls for the supreme judgment\nof the sword; we do not reason that the cause which from ancient times\nhas confined the Jew to Ghettos and to certain quarters in all great\ncontinental cities resulted, not only from his naturally preferring\nthe society of his co-religionists, but also from the fact that his\nChristian neighbours found it advisable to consult by such means their\nown safety and that of their families. The disappearance of children\nwas talked of at Rome and in all the capitals of Italy even throughout\nthe early part of the present century, when constitutional rule and the\nnew police were unknown, as freely and frequently as at Salonika, at\nSmyrna, and in all the cities of the Levant during the year of grace\n1873.\n\nAgain, we hardly reflect that, as intolerance begets intolerance and\ninjury breeds injury, a trampled and degraded race will ever turn\nwhen it can upon the oppressor, and that the revenge of the weak,\nthe slavish, and the cowardly will be the more certain, ruthless,\nand terrible because it has a long score of insults and injuries to\nreckon up. In the country towns of modern Persia, as in Turkey, the\nJew is popularly believed to make away with children. The Muhammadan\nboy, meeting a Hebrew in the streets, will pluck his grey beard,\ntaunt him with the _B\u00fa-e-Shim\u00edt_--the rank odour which is everywhere\nsupposed to characterize the race--tread upon his toes, and spit upon\nhis Jewish gabardine. In Turkey there are still places where he would\nbe expelled the Bazar with sticks and stones; others where every\noutrage of language would be levelled against him, including Al Yah\u00fad\nM\u00fasair\u00e1j[20]--the Jew smells of the lamp--alluding to his free culinary\nuse of sesamum oil. A Jew passing through the square of the Holy\nSepulchre at Jerusalem would infallibly be mobbed on all occasions,\nand on certain f\u00eates would be torn to pieces; and the list of dangers\nand insults which he incurs both from Muslims and Christians might be\nindefinitely prolonged.\n\nCan we wonder then if the persecutor, man or boy, disappear, should\nopportunity offer such tempting punishment for their barbarous\nfanaticism? And will not this supposition explain the Arabic proverb,\n\u201cSup with the Jews and sleep at the Christians\u2019,\u201d and the fact that\nevery mother teaches her boy from earliest youth to avoid the Jewish\nquarter, binding him by all manner of oaths? Finally, is it surprising\nthat amongst an ignorant and superstitious race of outcasts such\nrandom acts and outbreaks of vengeance, pure and simple, should by\nhuman perversity pass, after the course of ages, into a semi-religious\nrite, and be justified by men whose persecution has frenzied them as\na protest and a memorial before the throne of the Most High against\nthe insults and injuries meted out by the Gentile to the children of\nAbraham?\n\nShakespeare may not have drawn Shylock from a real character, but his\ngenius has embodied in the most lifelike form the Jew\u2019s vengefulness\nand the causes that nourished it. How many cities of the world there\nare where he might hear these words: \u201cHath not a Jew eyes? hath not\na Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions? fed\nwith the same food, hurt with the same weapons, subject to the same\ndiseases, healed by the same means, warmed and cooled by the same\nwinter and summer, as a Christian is? If you prick us, do we not bleed?\nif you tickle us, do we not laugh? if you poison us, do we not die? and\nif you wrong us, shall we not revenge?\u201d\n\nMoreover, in the course of our reading, we Englishmen meet with nothing\nwhich points to the existence of cruel murders and similar horrors in\nany branch of the Hebrew race. Popular books like _The British Jew_\n(Rev. John Mills. London: Hurlston & Stoneman, 1854), for instance,\nare mostly written in the apologetic tone; they are advocates and\nmissionaries, not describers. They enumerate the duties and ceremonies\nof the \u201cstrict, enlightened Israelite\u201d--a powerful majority amongst\nthe thirty-five to forty thousand that have colonized the British\nIslands--modified and transformed by the civilization of their\nsurroundings. They studiously avoid that part of the subject which\nwould be most interesting to the ethnologist, the various irregular\npractices of the people, because they would not \u201ccrowd their pages\nwith the superstitions of the ignorant\u201d; and they probably have not\ndefined to themselves the darker shades which the religious teaching\nof later centuries has diffused over the Jewish mind, and which linger\neven among the most advanced of modern communities. The well-known\nvolume of Dr. Alexander McCaul, _The Old Paths; or, a Comparison of\nthe Principles and Doctrines of Modern Judaism with the Religion of\nMoses and the Prophets_ (London: Hubbard & Son, 1854), which has\nbeen translated into almost every European language, reveals but\nlittle, while professing to reveal much. It is written in a purely\napologetic spirit; and as it attacked the Talmud, but spared the Jew,\nwho, however, systematically destroys every copy, it has lost for the\ngeneral reader all its significance. The celebrated article upon the\nTalmud first published in the _Quarterly Review_ (October, 1867),\nand afterwards owned to by the late M. Emanuel Deutsch, who began by\ndenying the authorship, greatly surprised the _poco-curanti_ of Great\nBritain. It was a triumph of special pleading. It studiously ignored\nthe fact that the Talmudic writers who flourished in the third and the\nsixth centuries of our era had evidently consulted the writings of the\n\u201cSchool of Galilee,\u201d[21] especially of the New Testament, apocryphal as\nwell as canonical. It artfully opened to the admiring eye of ignorance\na noble garden of time-honoured experience, a goodly parterre of racial\nand social piety and benevolence, a paradise of religious wisdom, from\nwhich a few transplanted shoots would suffice to enrich and adorn a\nwilderness of rugged and neglected fields. It concealed with equal\nskill the sinks and drains, the shallows and quagmires which everywhere\nunderlie the fair and flowery surface; and it withdrew attention from\nthe dark corners rank with poisonous weeds and overrun with trees\nbearing deadly fruit. Such art of manipulation would readily pick\nthe Sermon on the Mount from the pages of the erotic poets of \u201cthe\nEast,\u201d perhaps the most materialistic and the most corrupt which the\nliterature of the world has produced.\n\nWhat then can the average Englishman, thus instructed, know about\nthe Hebrew at home? how much of the Hebrew abroad, especially in\nAsia, in Africa, and even in Europe? How is he fully to comprehend\nthe reason why the name of Jew is still a byword and a reproach? or\nwhy the scrupulous British official--the late Consul Brant, C.B.,\nthe historical Consul of Erzerum, who revived the trade of ancient\nTrebizond--who never allowed himself to use profane language, applied\nto Christians and Muslims the word \u201cJew\u201d as the most insulting term\nthat can be levelled at man?\n\nThe following article appeared in the _Saturday Review_[22] as a\ncomment upon a \u201crecent outbreak of Rumanian fanaticism against the Jews\nat Ismail,\u201d and explains at once the isolation and the great material\nsuccess of the children of Israel all the world over. I quote it _in\nextenso_ as it shows the general opinion of educated Englishmen and\nthe unreality and shallowness of the treatment which views the world\nthrough glasses of British home-make:\n\n\u201cThere is no real difference between the Rumanian Jews and the Jews\nof Galicia or Bohemia; nor can they in their turn be separated from\nthe Jews of Germany, of France, or of England. The dirty, greasy\nusurers of Rumania are the humble brethren of the financiers of\nLondon and Frankfort, and that the Jews are a great power in Europe\nis incontestable. What are, it may be asked, the secrets of their\npower? They are religion, the capacity for making money, and internal\nunion. A ceremonial, and therefore an exclusive religion, a religion\nthat binds together its members by rites that seem strange to the\nrest of the world, has a strong hold upon those who are within the\nfold. They are like the tenants of a beleaguered fort cut off from\nthe rest of mankind, and obliged to protect themselves and help each\nother. But religion is not enough to raise a race into eminence. The\nJews and the Parsees are eminent, not only because they circumcise\ntheir sons, or light fires on the tops of their houses, but because\nthey make money. The money they have gives them consequence; but it is\nnot only the money itself that does this; it is the qualities that go\nto making money which raise them--the patience, the good sense, the\ncapacity for holding on when others are frightened, the daring to make\na stroke when the risk is sufficient to appal. And the Jews are not\nonly religious and rich; they are bound together by intimate ties. The\ninner world of Judaism is that of a democracy. The millionaire never\ndreams of despising, or failing to aid, his poorest and most degraded\nbrother. The kindness of Jews for Jews is unfailing, spontaneous, and\nunaffected. The shabbiest hat-buyer or orange-seller of Houndsditch is\nas sure of having the means provided for him of keeping the sacred\nfeast of the Passover as if he lived in a Piccadilly mansion. To\nthe eyes of the Jews even the most degraded of Jews do not seem so\ndegraded as they do in the eyes of the outer world. The poorest have\nperhaps possessions which redeem them in the eyes of their brethren;\nand many of the lowest, greasiest, and most unattractive Hebrews who\nwalk about the streets in search of old clothes or skins are known by\ntheir co-religionists to be able to repeat by rote portions of the\nsacred volumes by the hour at a time. To all these permanent causes of\nJewish eminence there must, however, be added one that has had only\ntime to develop itself since extreme bigotry has died away, and since\nin Western Europe the Jews have been treated, first with contemptuous\ntoleration, then with cold respect, and, finally, when they are very,\nvery rich, with servile adoration.\n\n\u201cThese people--so exclusive, so intensely national, so intimately\nlinked together--have shown the most astonishing aptitude for\nidentifying themselves with the several countries in which they have\ncast their fortunes. An English Jew is an Englishman, admires English\nhabits and English education, makes an excellent magistrate, plays to\nperfection the part of a squire, and even exercises discreetly the\npower which, with its inexhaustible oddity, the English law gives him,\nwhile it denies it to the members of the largest Christian sect, and\npresents incumbents to livings so as to please the most fastidious\nbishops. The French Jews were stout friends of France during the\nwar--served as volunteers in the defence of Paris, and opened their\npurses to the national wants, and their houses to the suffering French.\nThe German Jews were as stout Germans in their turn; and in war, as\nin peace, they are always ready to show themselves Germans as well as\nJews. It is the combination of the qualities of both nations that is\nnow raising the foremost of the German Jews to their high rank in the\nworld of wealth. In that world, to be a German is to be a trader whom\nit is very hard to rival, to be a Jew is to be an operator whom it\nis impossible to beat; but to be a German Jew is to be a prince and\ncaptain among the people.\n\n\u201cIn this way the Jews have managed to overcome much of the antipathy\nwhich would naturally attach to men of an alien race and an alien\nreligion. The English Jew is not seen to be standing aloof from\nEngland and Englishmen. But it is impossible there should not be some\nsort of social barrier between the Jew and the Christian. They cannot\nintermarry except for special political or other cogent reasons, and\nit necessarily chills the kindness and intimacy of family intercourse\nwhen all the young people know that friendship can never grow into\nanything else. In order to overcome this obstacle many wealthy Jews\nhave chosen to abjure their religion and enrol their households in\nthe Christian communion. But the more high-minded and high-spirited\namong them shrink from doing this, and accept, and even glory in, the\nposition into which they were born. Fortunately for himself and for\nEngland, a kind friend determined the religion of Mr. Disraeli before\nhe was old enough to judge for himself, and in his maturer years he\nhas been able conscientiously to adopt what he terms the doctrines of\nthe School of Galilee. If they are not decoyed into Christianity by\ntheir social aspirations, Jews are unassailable, for the most part, by\nthe force of either persecution or argument; and although there are\nsome conversions to be attributed to Christian reasoning or Christian\ngold, they are probably counterbalanced by the accessions to Judaism\nof Christian women who marry Jewish husbands. The Jews therefore\nlead, and must lead, on the whole a family life marked by something\nof reserve and isolation. But the disadvantages they have thus to\nendure are not without their compensative advantages. Their family life\nby being secluded has gained in warmth and dignity.[23] In very few\nfamilies is there so much thoughtfulness, consideration, parental and\nfraternal affection, reverence for age, and care for the young as in\nJewish families. The women too have been ennobled, not degraded, by\nbeing thrown on themselves and on their families for their sphere of\nthought and action. They are almost always thoroughly instructed in\nbusiness, and capable of taking a part in great affairs; for it has\nbeen the custom of their race to consider the wife the helpmate--the\nsharer in every transaction that establishes the position or enhances\nthe comfort of the family. Leisure, activity of mind, and the desire\nto hand on the torch of instruction from the women of one generation\nto those of another, inspire Jewesses with a zeal for education, a\nlove of refinement, and a sympathy with art. Homes of the best type\nare of course to be taken as the standard when it is inquired what are\nthe characteristics of a race as seen at its best; and European family\nlife has few things equal to show to the family life of the highest\ntype of Jews. Their isolation, again, makes most of the men liberal\nand free from the prejudices of class, just as their connexion with\ntheir dispersed brethren relieves them from the pressure of insular\nnarrowness. But, as Mr. Bright remarks, religious bigotry is slow to\ndie away altogether; and even in educated English society there are few\nChristians who do not think themselves entitled to approach a Jew with\na sense of secret superiority. If a Jew is ostentatious or obtrudes his\nwealth, if his women are loaded with jewellery, if he talks the slang\nof the sporting world in order to show what a fine creature he is,\nsociety is as right to put him down as to put down any Christian like\nhim. But the philanthropists who invited Mr. Bright to attend their\nmeeting may be profitably invited to search their own hearts, and ask\nthemselves whether they are quite free from that feeling that the best\nJew is never the equal of the worst Christian, which is at the root of\nthe Rumanian riots,[24] and which certainly is entirely out of keeping\nwith the tenets and teaching of the School of Galilee.\u201d\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[14] Here out of sixty thousand souls the Jews number forty thousand,\nbut to prevent taxation they have arranged with the Turkish authorities\nnever to exceed eleven thousand five hundred. [Since this was written\n(1873) the whole population of Salonika has increased rapidly, and now\n(1897) numbers 150,000, of whom about 60,000 are Jews, 30,000 Turks,\n30,000 Serbs, 15,000 Greeks, and 4,000 Zinzers.]\n\n[15] No religious census has lately been taken in England and Wales;\nthe above therefore is only a conjecture. In 1853 the Jews of Great\nBritain were set down at 30,000; of these 25,000 were resident in\nLondon, and 5,000 elsewhere. The yearly deaths were 560, which at the\naverage rate of mortality would give a maximum of 25,000. Of this\ntotal, 5,000 belonged to the upper or educated class, 8,000 to the\nmiddle orders, and 12,000 represented the lower ranks. [In 1890 the\nJews of Great Britain and Ireland were estimated at over 93,000, of\nwhom 67,500 were resident in London. It may be of interest to add that\nin 1896 the entire Jewish population was calculated at 6,505,000,\nthus distributed over the globe: Europe 5,500,000; Asia 260,000;\nAfrica 430,000; America 300,000; Australia 15,000. See A. H. Keane,\n_Population, Races, and Languages of the World_, in the _Church\nMissionary Atlas_, New (eighth) edition. London, 1896.]\n\n[16] At this moment there is a traffic far fouler and more terrible\nthan any Coolie-hunting in African slave-export--extending from Lemberg\nto India and China.\n\n[17] The essential superiority of the Jew over Nakhr\u00edm, or strangers,\nis carefully kept up by the Gavn\u00edm, or luminaries, of the Jewish Law.\nDuring the preparations for Sabbath one of the prayers is: \u201cBlessed\nart Thou, O Lord, who hast made distinction between things sacred and\nprofane, between light and darkness, between Israel and other nations.\u201d\nOn the New Year\u2019s Day (Rosh ha-Shanah) the housemaster says at supper:\n\u201cBlessed art Thou, O Lord, who didst select us from all other people,\nand exalt us above all other nations, and sanctify us with Thy\ncommandments, ... for Thou didst select us, and sanctify us from all\nother people.... Blessed art Thou, O Lord, the Sanctifier of Israel,\u201d\netc. At the Passover they repeat the same, adding, \u201cBlessed art Thou,\nO Lord, the Sanctifier of Israel and the times.\u201d During the Feast of\nPentecost they pray, \u201cBlessed art Thou, O Lord, who hast selected us\nabove all other people, and exalted us above all other nations, and\nsanctified us with Thy commandments.... Our Lord is exalted--He is the\nfirst and the last, He desired and chose us, and delivered to us the\nLaw.\u201d\n\nSuch are a few of the passages which are still approved of by learned\nand reverend Jews, \u201cthe stars of the evening twilight of their race.\u201d\nThese pretensions are evidently misplaced at the end of the nineteenth\ncentury. Their effects are remarkable upon the feeble brains of certain\nChristians, who, in conversation and missionary matters, have been\nthrown much in Jewish society, and who end by thoroughly believing all\nthese absurd claims. A Gentile writes about them: \u201cIn addressing the\nposterity of the Patriarchs on such a theme [incredulity], well may I\navail myself of the words held sacred by their fellow-citizens, not\nof their race, while I repeat the assertion that a Hebrew infidel--an\ninfidel amongst the \u2018Israelites, to whom appertained the adoption,\nand the glory, and the covenants,\u2019 and to whom were committed the\noracles of God\u2019--the only open eye of the world when all the rest of\nmankind had darkness for their portion, or the light of dreams--is\nindeed a frightful, a portentous phenomenon!\u201d Yet such as they are they\nnumber hundreds of thousands, and the spread of absolute infidelity is\nenormously on the increase.\n\n[18] The journey of this eminent philanthropist to Alexandria in\n1840 was a very remarkable one, all things considered. In 1855 he\nagain visited \u201cthe East,\u201d with the especial object of ameliorating\nthe condition of his co-religionists in the Holy Land; and it is a\nfavourite subject to conjecture how much, or how little, of the true\nstate of things he was allowed to know. He certainly learned nothing\nfrom his Damascus host, the late Ishak Haim Farkhi, a Jew under French\nprotection. Nor is it believed that he gained much knowledge of the\ntrue state of affairs at Jerusalem. For instance, the almshouses built\noutside the city under his trusteeship are occupied by the friends of\nthe Scribes and those who pay court to them, not by the destitute for\nwhom they were intended. When the venerable philanthropist paid his\nlast visit, a collection of the poorest and the most miserable of the\ncommunity was hurriedly installed there, and after his departure was as\nsummarily ejected. The public has not forgotten his trip to Morocco,\nwhich, however, if matters progress as they do now, may eventually be\nregretted by his _prot\u00e9g\u00e9s_.\n\n[19] [I have retained 729, the date given by Burton, although Muhammad\ndied in 732 from the effects of the experiment.]\n\n[20] Upon the _sanguineo-oleaginous expression_ of the Jews and the\nconsequent pendency of the epiglottis, see \u201cA Cause of Diminished\nLongevity among the Jews,\u201d by Sir Duncan Gibb, Bart, M.A., M.D., LL.D.,\nArticle 10, _Journal of Anthropology_, No. 1, July, 1870, pp. 94-97. It\nexactly describes many of the Jews of Syria and Palestine.\n\n[21] This is a complete misnomer applied to Christianity, which it\nconfuses with the Rabbinical Schools of Tiberias and Safed.\n\n[22] [The year would be 1873.]\n\n[23] The Jewish family is still in England what it is all over the\nEast, the chief defence of the individual against society. Hence the\nstrong affections between relations. And for the same reason Jews are\nexcellent parents--it can hardly be otherwise when the son is expected\nto liberate his father and mother from Sheol.\n\n[24] This is a very small fibre of a very pretty root.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III\n\nTHE JEW OF THE HOLY LAND AND HIS DESTINY\n\n\nIn dealing with the Jews of the Holy Land, it is well to remember that\nthe two great branches of the Hebrew race are the Sephard\u00edm and the\nAshkenaz\u00edm. They are both equally orthodox, and may intermarry when\nthey please. It is advisable to offer a few words concerning these\ngreat branches first.\n\n\u201cSepharad,\u201d pronounced throughout \u201cthe East\u201d _Safard_, a word occurring\nonly once in the Old Testament (\u201cand the captivity of Jerusalem,\nwhich is in Sepharad,\u201d Obad. ver. 20), has been subjected to various\ninterpretations. Enough to say the majority of Jews following the\nTargum Jonathan and the Peshito, or Syriac version, identify it with\nIberia, modern Spain and Portugal. The Sephard\u00edm claim descent from the\nroyal tribe of Judah, which, like the children of Benjamin, was the\nlast to disperse. It contains the usual three orders: (1) The Cohen (in\nArabic K\u00e1hin), the priest or Levite of the house of Aaron--a numerous\nbody, as the Cohens of England show. Though born an ecclesiastic, he\nmay now, since the rite of ordination has become extinct, pursue a\npurely laical trade. Whenever a Jew slaughters an animal, the Cohen\nclaims the tongue, one side of the face, and one shoulder.[25] So in\nthe days of Josephus (_Antiquities of the Jews_, IV. iv. 4) the priest\ntook the maw, the cheek (or breast), and the right shoulder of the\nsacrifice privately killed for a festival. (2) The Levite or descendant\nof Levi, but not through the house of Aaron; like the Cohen, to whom he\nshould pay the tithe of his tithes, he must prove his genealogy, which\nis often doubtful, and he is known by taking the name of Levi after his\nown and before that of his birthplace--_e.g._ Simeon Levi Salonikli.\n(3) \u201cThe circumcision\u201d or Ammon Israelite.\n\nSince the final destruction of the Temple there are no Gentile\nProselytes of the Covenant, that is, circumcised strangers admitted\nto all the privileges of the children of Abraham; nor are there\nProselytes of the Gate, uncircumcised worshippers of Jehovah who keep\nthe moral law. The Ger, or stranger, may be received into the Church\nunder certain circumstances by purification and circumcision, which\nlatter, unlike the law of Muhammad, is absolutely necessary. Judaism,\nhowever, like Hinduism and Guebrism, is essentially one of the old\ncongenital creeds; it never has been, it is not, and it never will be\na system of proselytizing. As regards the tribes, Judah and Levi are\neverywhere known. Benjamin, Ephraim, and Half Manasseh are spoken of,\nand tradition declares that Asher exists in Abyssinia with Kara\u00efte\npeculiarities. Finally, many Jews do not believe that the Ten Tribes\nwere ever lost. They say that, during the Great Captivity, when the\nfaith became all but extinct, they were mixed to such an extent that it\nwas afterwards impossible to separate them.\n\nThe Sephard\u00edm, or Southern Jews, are mostly the descendants of\nSpanish and Portuguese ancestry, and throughout the Levant and the\nNorth African coast they speak Spanish and read and write it in their\nown character. Those of the Moroccan interior use Arabic. The dress\nis Oriental, and in the Holy Land they still wear the black turban\nordained by the sumptuary laws of El Hakim (_circa_ A.D. 1000). In\nphysical appearance they are somewhat more prepossessing than the\nAshkenaz\u00edm, who are outnumbering them in Syria and Palestine, and are\ngradually ousting them. Officially they retain their position; the\nHakh\u00e1m Bash\u00ed, or chief doctor, is the only Jewish official recognized\nby the Turkish Government and representing the community in the\nMajlis, or town council. In all matters which come before the tribunals\nthe Ashkenaz\u00edm must be supported by the Hakh\u00e1m Bash\u00ed, while the doctors\nhear and decide all cases relating to the internal affairs of the\ncommunity. Many of the Sephard\u00edm are shopkeepers, trading chiefly\nin stuffs and hardwares. There are many minor differences between\nthem and the Ashkenaz\u00edm, such as the contents and the arrangement of\ntheir ritual, the constitution of their meetings, the mode of reading\nthe service, their music, and even their cursive form of the square\nHebrew character. The Maghrabis, or Western Jews, chiefly living in\nNorth-western Africa, rank elsewhere as Sephard\u00edm; at Jerusalem,\nhowever, they are considered a separate sect, and have their own chief\ndoctor.\n\nThus the Sephard\u00edm are the Southern, opposed to the Northern Jews, or\nAshkenaz\u00edm. These derive their name from Ashkenaz, son of Gomer, and\ngrandson of Japhet (Gen. x. 3), who is supposed to have peopled, in\nethnologic succession, Armenia (Jer. li. 27), Poland, Germany, and\nScandinavia--the latter according to some derives from him its name.\nThe Ashkenaz\u00edm claim descent from Benjamin, and are generally supposed\nnot to have been present at the second building of the Temple by\nZorobabel (B.C. 520), as described in the Book of Ezra.\n\nThe Ashkenaz\u00edm of the Holy Land are chiefly Germans, Poles,\nMuscovites, and other Northerners. On January 26, 1849, an order from\nthe Russian Consulate-General of Beyrut obliged them either to return\nhome biennially in order to renew their passports or to give up their\nnationality. They were then taken under the protecting wing of Great\nBritain by the immense exertions of their co-religionists in the \u201cCity\nof Refuge\u201d (London) and of other Western powers. This step can hardly\nbe looked upon with satisfaction. Relying upon their new nationality,\nthey addict themselves openly to usury and to other transactions of a\ndoubtful and often of a dishonourable character. A determination to\nprotect the whole community from religious persecution, allowing the\nSultan to treat their commercial and civic affairs on the same footing\nas all the rest of his subjects, would be much more just, and would\nprobably remedy not a few evils. In the year 1840 the Northern Jews\nmustered few at Damascus, and even now they are not numerous; among\nthem may be mentioned old Ab\u00fa Brah\u00edm, a well-known cicerone at Demitri\nCara\u2019s Hotel, who usually passed for a Cohen.\n\nThe Ashkenaz\u00edm speak a kind of Jew-German, garbled with Hebrew and\nother foreign words. Their dress is a long robe like a dressing-gown,\nand a low-crowned hat of felt or beaver; the lank love-lock hanging\ndown either cheek, and the eccentrically clipped fur caps, which,\ndespite the burning sun, they everywhere don for the Sabbath and\nfor feast-days, make their appearance not a little comical. In the\nHoly Land they are mostly petty traders and craftsmen, supported in\npart by the Hallorkah, or alms. Many Jews who have neither the time\nnor the will to visit Jerusalem pay considerable sums for vicarious\nprayers there offered by their co-religionists, and the contributions\nare collected throughout Europe by appointed emissaries like the\nbegging friars of the Catholic world. This dole, distributed alike and\nindiscriminately to all who occupy the four Holy Cities, brings many\nidle and worthless persons together, and promotes early and improvident\nmarriages, every child being a source of additional increase. Some\nsteps should be taken to obviate the scandals of the Hallorkah. Much\nvice, misery, and ill-feeling are engendered by the present system of\nbounty, which leaves much behind when passing through the hands of\ndoctors responsible to no one for the money they receive. These men\nlive in comfort and even luxury; the terrorism, physical as well as\nspiritual, with which they inspire their congregations, renders them\nabsolutely unassailable. Knowing that his doctor can excommunicate\nhim, and, what is more to the purpose, starve him and his family, not\na Jew dare object to, though he will loudly complain of, a system\nof hypocrisy and peculation. And as a rule the almsgiving of the\nIsraelite, so exceptionally liberal throughout Western Europe, becomes\nmean and niggardly throughout the Holy Land. In the absence of coin\nsufficiently small, the wealthy Hebrews of Jerusalem have invented a\nsystem of tin bits, which the mendicant must collect till sufficiently\nnumerous to be changed for currency. Whenever there is a famine in the\ncountry, pauper Jews receive probably the least assistance from their\nfellows dwelling within the same walls.\n\nThe Ashkenaz\u00edm are divided into religious sects and social communities.\nThe former are three in number--_viz._ Parush\u00edm, Khasid\u00edm, and Khabad.\nThe Parush\u00edm, Pharisees or Separatists, follow the law as laid down\nin the commentary of the late R. Gaon[26] of Wilna. They consider the\ndiligent study of the Talmud an essential for every religious Jew,\nand they conduct their liturgy according to it, respecting, however,\nthe sense attached to various rites by the Cabalistic teachers. They\nstrictly observe the appointed times for prayer, but they do not\nconsider it necessary to dip the body in water before ablution. They\nneglect the second pair of phylacteries prescribed by Rabbenu Tam.[27]\nThey do not hold it unlawful to slaughter animals for food with a knife\nwhich is not very sharp, provided that the edge has no notches. They\nregard a Passover cake as lawful, even though it be made of any kind\nof wheat or flour.\n\nThe Khasid\u00edm (Cabalists), that most fanatical of Jewish sects, are here\nfor the most part unlearned. Their liturgy is according to Ramb\u00e1ni or\nMaimonides (_Rabbi Moshe ben Maimon_), a Spaniard who flourished in the\ntwelfth century, and of whom it is said, \u201cFrom Moses to Moses there\nwas none like Moses\u201d; they interpret it, however, in the Cabalistic\nsense. Their favourite book is the Holy Ri; they pray whenever they\nfeel bound to do so, no matter whether the prescribed time has passed\nor not. Unlike the Parush\u00edm, they believe in certain Sadik\u00edm, or\nrighteous men, popularly called Gute Yaden (Juden), and regard them\nwith a superstitious veneration which borders upon worship, attributing\nto them supernatural powers, and attaching some spiritual and symbolic\nmeanings to their most trivial and insignificant actions. Whilst\nprofessing to be guided only by the Talmud, they in reality follow\nthe teaching of some chosen Guter Jude. The Khasid\u00edm are particular\nin the observance of Jewish customs, especially such as relate to the\nSabbath. They shake themselves violently and cry aloud during prayers;\nat other times they are much addicted to dancing, singing, and deep\ndrinking. They dip themselves in water before devotions, and use the\nsecond pair of phylacteries. They deem it unlawful to slaughter animals\nwith a knife which is not very sharp, or to use any but a particular\nkind of wheat for the Passover cakes. Much importance is attached by\nthis sect to works of charity; in this way they are guided by the Yad\nha-Khazakah, or \u201cstrong hand\u201d of Maimonides, who assigns eight steps\nor grades to the golden ladder of charity. The Parush\u00edm and Khasid\u00edm\ncombine in various proportions; for instance, in Tiberias all are\nKhasid\u00edm except the doctor, who is a Parushi.\n\nThe Khabad, or third sect, suggests in name the Ebionites, or Jewish\nNazarenes, who hold the \u201cgreat teacher of Nazareth\u201d to be the Messiah,\nbut merely human; this sect, however, has apparently died out. The\nmodern Khabad have a liturgy arranged from their old Rabbi Zelm\u00edna.\nThey resemble the Khasid\u00edm, having their own Gute Juden, but they are\nusually more learned and pious. They are given to hospitality and\ncharity, and attach much importance to visiting the sick. They dip\nthemselves before prayers, read and study much, and meet together on\nSabbath evenings to hear the Law expounded by their principal teacher.\nThey keep as a feast the 19th day of Kislef, the third civil and ninth\necclesiastical month (about December); on that day R. Shalomon, the\nfounder of the sect, was liberated from prison.\n\nThe Ashkenaz\u00edm are divided into social communities according to the\nEuropean district or city whence they came, and each section is\npresided over by a scribe or a layman of respectability and good\nstanding. The chief communities of Parush\u00edm are the Wilna, Grainer,\nGrodno, Minsk, Nassen, Warsaw, Zuolik, and German. Those of the\nKhasid\u00edm are the Volhynian, the Hungaro-Austrian, and the Galician. The\nKhabad are a community by themselves.\n\nThe Ashkenaz\u00edm, who are wrongly represented to be considered pariahs\nby the Sephard\u00edm, have brought from Northern climates a manliness\nof bearing, a stoutness of spirit, and a physical hardness strongly\ncontrasting with the cowardly and effeminate, the despised and\ndespicable Sephard\u00edm \u201cJew of Israel\u2019s land.\u201d If spoken to fiercely,\nthey will reply in kind; if struck, they will return the blow; and\nthey do not fear to mount a horse, unlike their Southern brethren, who\nprefer an ass, or at most an ambling pony, to the best of Arab blood.\nThey will travel by night over difficult and dangerous paths, whereas\ntheir congeners tremble to quit the city walls; and they can endure\nextremes of heat and cold, of hunger and thirst, which might be fatal\nto any soft Syrian who would imitate them. The Ashkenaz\u00edm of the Holy\nLand are in a word \u201cmen\u201d; the Sephard\u00edm are not. \u201cThe Spanish and\nPortuguese Jews are of far higher and more intellectual type than the\nEnglish and German,\u201d says Dr. Linsdale. Possibly; but in the matter\nof manliness there is no comparison. And, as has been remarked, the\nAshkenazi is \u201ceating up\u201d the Sephardi wherever they meet.\n\nConcerning the so-called unorthodox sects in the Holy Land a few brief\ndetails may be given.\n\nThe Kara\u00eftes (Cara\u00eftes), translated \u201cReaders,\u201d that is \u201ctextualists,\u201d\nassign a literal sense to all Holy Writ, and reject every book\nposterior to the Law and the Prophets; they are therefore considered\npestilent heretics. These Puritans, claiming descent from the Ten\nTribes who took no part in the Crucifixion, are scattered throughout\nArabia, with Bagdad for a centre; and they are most numerous in Russia\nand Poland, where they could boast that for four centuries none of\ntheir number had ever been found guilty of a serious crime. Henderson\nthe traveller numbers some four thousand of them in the Crimea with\ntheir Cohens, or priests. At Pentecost, they read, we are told, as\nHa-phatorah, or conclusions of the day, Joel ii. 28-32, whereas other\nJews stop at ver. 27. There is still a large colony at Aden, where the\nEnglish authorities have found nothing to complain of them. Formerly\nthere were many at Damascus; now they have left it _en masse_: the\nProtestant cemetery occupies part of their old burial-ground, whose\ngravestones are distinguished from those of the Jews. In Syria they are\nmostly confined to Jerusalem, where till lately they numbered seven\nfamilies (thirty-five souls). Their single, poor synagogue, a small\ncellar-like chamber, which dates back, they say, for many centuries,\nlies opposite the big new building of the orthodox. Its sole object of\nattraction is one old manuscript of the Pentateuch, and the other Jews\nso hate them that the stranger will not readily find his way to their\nplace of worship. In early 1872 they were reinforced by an emigration\nfrom Bagdad numbering forty souls, who reported that many more were\non the way. These men all wore Bedawin dresses, which, however, they\nchanged for the usual Jewish garb when once settled in the city.\n\nThe Samaritans are now found only at Nabl\u00fas, the classical Neapolis,\nor new town. They claim descent from Ephraim and Manasseh, whilst\ntheir Cohens are of course Levites; the orthodox opprobriously call\nthem K\u00fath\u00edm, or Babylonians, and despite physical evidence utterly\ndeny their Jewish consanguinity. All contact with them is defiling,\nas though they were Gentiles. The total is now forty families, or\na hundred and thirty-five souls; they will not intermarry with any\nbut their own people; the birth of males, contrary to what might be\nexpected, outnumbers that of females in the proportion of eighty to\nfifty-five, and consequently the \u201cundying dogmatism\u201d is threatened\nwith dying out. The little sect owes its fame in Europe to the three\nwell-known codices which every stranger hastens to inspect. According\nto their Hakh\u00e1ms, whilst repeating the Talmud they study the Targum of\nR. Levi. They keep their Passover by solar computation, not lunar, like\nthe Hebrews; for instance, in 1871 the former held the feast on May 3,\nand the latter on April 5. Moreover, they still sacrifice and eat their\nPaschal Lamb upon Mount Gerizim.\n\nJerusalem is sometimes visited by some of the \u201cBlack Jews\u201d of\nMalabar and Western India, concerning whom so much absurdity has\nbeen written. The \u201cWhite Jews\u201d of India have a tradition according\nto which their ancestors, numbering ten thousand souls, emigrated\nEastward about A.D. 70, and settled about Cranganore on the Malabar\ncoast. Here they remained till A.D. 1565, when they were driven into\nthe interior by the Portuguese. As no synagogue can be founded without\na minimum congregation of ten free and adult males, the white Jews\nwhen necessary simply bought back their nine Hindu slaves, manumitted\nthem, circumcised and bathed them, and thus obtained their wishes. The\n\u201cReformed British Jews,\u201d mostly Ashkenaz\u00edm, who date from the 7th of\nEll\u00fal, A.M. 5601 (August 24, 1841), and whose prayer-book is edited by\ntheir minister, the Rev. Mr. Marks, are hardly likely to make way in\n\u201cthe East\u201d with such ultra-Kara\u00efte doctrine as \u201cthe sufficiency of the\nLaw of Moses for the guidance of Israel,\u201d and with their opposition to\nthe divinity of the traditions contained in the Mishnah; and in the\nJerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds they would only be included in the\nhost\n\n    Of petulant, capricious sects,\n    The maggots of corrupted texts.\n\nThere is little to say concerning the physical peculiarities of\nthe Eastern Jew, who in all the salient points of form and feature\nremarkably resembles his brother of Houndsditch and the Minories.\nHere and there the lines are less curved, the profile is straight and\nhigh, whilst there are a few local varieties like the fair hair and\nolive-coloured eyes of Dalmatia. The highest type contains a certain\nsoftness of expression, with that decisive cast of mouth and chin which\nmay be seen in the London policeman and in the backwoodsman of the\nFar West. Although centuries of oppression have necessarily given to\nthe many that cringing, deprecating glance, that shifting look which\npainfully suggests a tame beast expecting a blow, yet we still find\nboth amongst the Ashkenaz\u00edm and the Sephard\u00edm red Jews and black Jews;\nfierce-eyed, dark-browed, and hollow-cheeked, with piercing acuteness\nof glance, and an almost reckless look of purpose. Greed and craft, and\neven ferocity, are to be read in such faces, but rarely weakness, and\nnever imbecility; roughness, unculture, and coarseness are there, not\nvulgarity, nor want of energy; and the Christian physiognomy by their\nside looks commonplace when contrasted with those features so full of\nconcentration and vigorous meaning.\n\nThese are the same men as those who under happier auspices organize\nsuch worldwide institutions as the Alliance Isra\u00eblite Universelle, with\nits heart in Paris and its limbs extending far and wide on the earth,\nwhilst increasing organization proposes to extend them farther and\nwider. Its object is simply to promote concerted action amongst the\nJews scattered about both hemispheres; to effect unity and community\nin all matters interesting to the Jewish body politic; to forward the\ninterest of its friends, and to effect the ruin of its enemies. Thus\nit will eventually absorb by taking under its charge such detached\ninstitutions as the Khagal, or Communal Government of the Hebrews in\nRussia. It is the fashion to praise the organization of the Jesuits,\nthe Freemasons, the Carbonari, the Mormons, and other bodies, who have\nan esoteric system underlying the exoteric form. As far as my knowledge\ngoes, none can be compared with that of the Jews, because those are\nlocal and partial, whereas these are all but universal.\n\nSuch men easily become the warriors of commerce, bringing to the battle\nof interests, the campaign of life, all that boldness and resolution,\nthat persistence and heroism, that subtlety and unscrupulousness which\nthe Patriarchs and the Maccabees carried out into the personal conflict\nof sword and spear. They become the great potentates of finance and\ncapital, who have agents and reporters in every chief centre of the\nworld; who know every project, what is to flourish and what is to\nfounder; what enterprise is to be effectual, and what is to fail. If a\nseaport want a dock, a city require a bulwark, or a country demand a\nrailway or a loan, they are ever ready to furnish each and all. And as\na rule they are not unfair, they are not mean; indeed there is often\na certain generosity in their conditions. But they always bargain for\nsomething besides money. They stipulate, for instance, that this man\nshould be allowed to participate in these profits, that another should\nbe excluded from those advantages; their interests are so various\nand so widespread that they need political power everywhere, and as\nthey must have it so they will have it. One offence, one deadly sin,\nnever forgiven, never forgotten, is insubordination in the ranks,\nhowever trifling. Let a secondary firm attempt to throw off the yoke\nby launching out, for instance, into an enterprise unauthorized by the\nGreat House; straightway its credit is assailed, its acceptances are\ndishonoured, its ruin is assured. Such are the arts which have enabled\nthe Jew to arrive at his present position. And he may confidently look\nforward to the time when the whole financial system, not only of Europe\nfrom one end to the other, but of the whole world, will be in the\nhands of a few crafty capitalists, whose immense wealth shall, with a\nfew pulsations of the telegraph, unthrone dynasties and determine the\ndestinies of nations.\n\nIt remains now only to touch upon the future prospects of the Jewish\nrace. This important consideration is still subject to two widely\ndifferent opinions.\n\nThe first, which may be called the vapid utterance of the so-called\nLiberal School, speaks as follows: \u201cIn this century we are battering\ndown the ponderous walls of prejudice which nations and sects have\nerected in past times, for the separation of themselves from their\nneighbours, or as a coign of vantage from which to hurl offensive\nweapons at them. Roman Catholic and Jewish emancipation have been\nconceded, though tardily, and we may fairly hope that in the next\ngeneration our political, social, and commercial relations with\nour fellow-men will be conducted without regard to their religious\nbelief or their ethnological origin.\u201d The trifling objection to this\n\u201charmonious and tolerant state of things\u201d is that, though the Christian\nmay give up his faith and race, the Jew, however readily he may throw\noverboard the former, will cling to the latter with greater tenacity,\nas it will be the very root and main foundation of his power.\n\nThe second is the Judophobic or Roman Catholic view of the supremacy\nof Jewish influence in the governments and the diplomacy of Europe.\nIt openly confesses its dread of Judaic encroachments, and it goes\nthe full length of declaring that, unless the course of events be\nchanged by some quasi-miraculous agency, the triumph of the Israelite\nover Christian civilization is inevitable--in fact, that Judaism, the\noldest and exclusive form of the great Semitic faith, will at least\noutlive, if it does not subdue and survive, Christianity, whose triumph\nhas been over an alien race of Aryans. \u201cGold,\u201d it argues, \u201cis the\nmaster of the world, and the Jewish people are becoming masters of\nthe gold. By means of gold they can spread corruption far and wide,\nand thus control the destinies of Europe and of the world.\u201d For the\nlast quarter of a century the dominant Church in France seems to have\noccupied itself in disseminating these ideas, and the number of books\npublished by the alarmists and replied to by Jewish authors is far from\ninconsiderable. Witness the names of MM. Tousseuel, B\u00e9darride, Th.\nHalliz, Rev. P. Ratisbonne, and A. C. de Medelsheim, without specifying\nthe contributors to the _Union Isra\u00eblite_ and the _Archives Isra\u00eblites_\nof Paris--a sufficient proof of the interest which this question has\nexcited, and of the ability with which it has been discussed in France.\n\nBut these are generalisms which require the specification of\nparticulars. Where, however, the field is so extensive, we must limit\nourselves to the most running survey of Europe and the Holy Land.\nThroughout this continent the career of the Jew is at once thriving\nand promising. The removal of Jewish disabilities in England and the\nalmost universal spread of constitutionalism throughout Europe have\ntold mightily in favour of the Jews. An essential condition of all\nreform is that the reformer never can say, \u201cThus far will I go, and\nno farther.\u201d In sporting parlance, he took off the weight from a dark\nhorse, and the latter is everywhere winning in a canter. The father\nkept a little shop in the Ghetto; the son has palaces and villas, buys\ntitles, crosses, and other graven images utterly unknown to the Mosaic\nLaw, and intermarries with the historic Christian families of the land.\nThe great, if not the only, danger is that in the outlying parts of\nEurope, where men are not thoroughly tamed, and where the sword is\nstill familiar to the hand, the Jew advances far too fast; nor is it\neasy to see how his career can be arrested before it hurries him over\nthe precipice. At this moment Hungary is a case in point. The Magnate,\nprofuse in hospitality, delighting in display, careless of expenditure,\nand contemptuous of economy, sees all his rich estates, with their\nflocks and herds, their crops and mines, passing out of his own hands,\nand contributing to swell the bottomless pocket of the Jewish usurer.\nBut the Magyar is a fiery race; and if this system of legal robbery be\nallowed to pass a certain point, which, by-the-bye, is not far distant,\nthe Jews must prepare themselves for another disaster right worthy of\nthe Middle Ages. And they will have deserved it.\n\nAs regards the restoration of Israel to the Holy Land, that favourite\ntheme of prophecy and poetry, that day-dream of the Jew, at least\nuntil he found a country and a home in the far happier regions beyond\nhis ancient seats, no supernatural gift is required to point out the\nnatural course of events. Though the recovery of Jerusalem is the\nsubject of eternal supplication throughout the Jewish world, wealthy\nand prosperous Jews openly declare that they take no personal interest\nin the matter. The prayer, in fact, has become a mere formula.[28]\nStill, with six millions of souls, which will presently become nine,\nthere can be no difficulty in finding volunteers like those who now\ngarrison the four Holy Cities--Jerusalem and Hebron, Tiberias and\nSafed. A single million of souls would give the Israelite complete\ncommand over the Land of Promise in the widest acceptation of the\nterm, and it will not be long before this number can be contributed.\n\nThe Jews might readily return to Jud\u00e6a; but there is a lion in the\npath. Russia cares little for Constantinople, which will fall to her\nin the fulness of time when the fruit is ripe. But she will brook no\ninterference with the Holy Land, except for her own benefit. This\npower, half European and half Asiatic, greatly indebted withal for her\nsuccess in life to the mixture which she despises, has the immense\nadvantage of a peculiar and homogeneous creed, in which she believes\nwith childish ardour and which she preaches with virile energy. To\nher, conquest is not mere increase of area, of physical growth. It\nis extending the field of proselytism, of religion; and this view\nof national progress and of racial duty is at once her strength and\nher weakness, her glory and her shame. She finds the headquarters\nof Christianity necessary to the full development of her religious\nsuperiority, and in the ever-increasing weakness of the Latin Church\nshe descries her best opportunity.\n\nThus, as modern travellers assure us, Russia is quietly absorbing the\nHoly Places in Syria and Palestine. A bran-new Jerusalem of church,\nconvent, and hospice, which a few days\u2019 work would convert into forts\nand barracks, has lately risen outside the grey old walls and towers\nof Jebus, concealing them from the ardent gaze of the pilgrim as he\ntops the last hill leading to the Jaffa Gate. At Hebron the Muscovite\nwas not allowed to buy building-ground within the settlement; he bought\nthe oak which passes itself off for Abraham\u2019s terebinth, and here again\nwill be a church, convent, and hospice. Jacob\u2019s Well at Shechem has\nshared the same fate, and even Tiberias is threatened with a fourth\nchurch, convent, and hospice. The so-called Greeks,[29] whose Muscovite\nsympathies are well known, were granted such boons as the monopoly of\nMount Tabor, whose classic and Saracenic ruins were ruthlessly pulled\ndown to build a cockney church and convent. This usurpation became so\nintolerable, that in the summer of 1872 the Latin monks attacked the\nintruders, seized _vi et armis_ a part of the mountain to which they\nlaid claim, and enclosed their conquest with a wall. On the other hand,\nwhen the Latins proved an undoubted right to their ancestral chapel at\nKefr Kenna (Cana in Galilee), the Greeks were instructed to set up a\nrival claim, and both were formally dismissed with the oyster shell,\nthe oyster having been pronounced Wuk\u00faf, or mosque endowment.\n\nThis Russian pre-emption of the Holy Land is a benefit to the Jew,\nalthough the latter may not recognize it. But for this he would hasten\nto fulfil the prophecy; he would buy up the country, as indeed he is\nnow doing at Jerusalem;[30] he would conquer the people by capital, and\nhe would once more form a nation.\n\nBut here the question obtrudes itself: \u201cIf Judaism should again\nprevail--indeed its advocates say it shall prevail universally--how\nlong could it endure?\u201d\n\nThose who know the codes of the Talmud and of the Safed School, which\nare still, despite certain petty struggles, the life-light of Judaism,\nwill have no trouble in replying. A people whose highest ideas of\nreligious existence are the superstitious sanctification of Sabbath,\nthe washing of hands, the blowing of ram\u2019s horns, the saving rite of\ncircumcision, and the thousand external functions compensating for\nmoral delinquencies, with Abraham sitting at the gate of Hell to keep\nit closed for Jews; a community which would declare marriage impossible\nto some twelve millions of Gentiles, forbid them the Sabbath, and\nsentence to death every \u201cstranger\u201d reading an Old Testament; which\nwould have all the Ger who are not idolaters without religion, whilst\nforbidding those whom it calls \u201cidolaters\u201d (the Christians) to exercise\nthe commonest feelings of humanity; which would degrade and insult\none-half of humanity, the weaker sex, and which would sanction slavery,\nand at the same time oppress and vilify its slaves by placing them\non a level with oxen and asses; a faith which, abounding in heathen\npractices, would encourage the study of the Black Art, would loosen\nevery moral obligation, would grant dispensations to men\u2019s oaths, and\nwould sanction the murder of the unlearned; a system of injustice,\nwhose Sanhedrins, at once heathenish and unlawful, have distinguished\nthemselves only for force and fraud, for superabundant self-conceit,\nfor cold-blooded cruelty, and for unrelenting enmity to all human\nnature,--such conditions, it is evident, are not calculated to create\nor to preserve national life. The civilized world would never endure\nthe presence of a creed which says to man, \u201cHate thy neighbour unless\nhe be one of ye,\u201d or of a code written in blood, not in ink, which\nvisits the least infractions of the Rabbinical laws with exorcism and\nexcommunication, with stoning and flogging to death.[31] A year of such\nspectacles would more than suffice to excite the wrath and revenge of\noutraged humanity; the race, cruel, fierce, dogged, and desperate as\nin the days of Titus and Hadrian, would defend itself to the last; the\nresult would be another siege and capture of Jerusalem, and the \u201cChosen\nPeople\u201d would once more lie prostrate in their blood and be stamped out\nof the Holy Land.\n\nBriefly, it is evident that nothing but Russian preponderance in Syria\nand Palestine prevents its being reoccupied by its old intolerant\nand persecuting owners,[32] and that to these the greatest possible\nmisfortune would be the granting of their daily, weekly, and yearly\nprayer--\n\n                _Next year may we meet at Jerusalem._\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[25] In consequence of the accident which occurred to Jacob (Gen.\nxxxii.) his descendants still abstain from the hind-quarters of the few\nbeasts left to them by Leviticus xv.\n\n[26] Gaon means a learned man: had he not some other name?\n\n[27] [Rabbenu Tam was the most distinguished disciple of the renowned\nR. Rashi (1040-1105 A.D.).]\n\n[28] The formula, however, is still perpetually repeated. On the\nSabbaths preceding the new moons Jehovah is adjured to \u201cgather the\ndispersed, the united people of Israel from the four corners of the\nearth.\u201d The sunset devotions, the Yom ha-Kippur, or Great Day of\nAtonement, concludes with, \u201cNext year we shall be in Jerusalem.\u201d At the\nPassover feast before the fourth cup the Lord is blessed, and all say,\nas they have been saying during the last eighteen centuries, \u201cThe year\nthat approaches we shall be in Jerusalem.\u201d The burden of the Musaph\nconcluding the Sabbath services is that God may be pleased to return\nHis people from their dispersions, and restore them to the possession\nof Jerusalem and the Temple.\n\n[29] Not to be confounded with Hellenes. These Greeks are Syrian and\nChristian peasants (fell\u00e1h\u00edn), without a drop of Greek blood in their\nveins, but belonging to the so-called Greek Church.\n\n[30] In 1873 the population of the Holy City is generally laid down as:\n\n          Jews         9,500\n          Christians   5,300\n          Muslims      5,000\n                      ------\n          Total       19,800\n\n[Owing to the recent immigration especially of Russian Jews, and to the\nopening of the railway to the coast of Jaffa, these figures have been\nmore than quadrupled. In 1896 the whole population was estimated at\nover 80,000, of whom nearly 40,000 were Jews, 25,000 Christians of all\ndenominations, and 15,000 Muhammadans, chiefly Turks and Arabs.]\n\n[31] It has been well remarked that no Hebrew citizen was ever\ncondemned to exile. If guilty, he was punished, but not made an outcast\nand infamous, forced to sin by dwelling beyond the holy soil of their\nown land in the impure and accursed rest of earth.\n\n[32] It is interesting to read what the inspired Jew Spinoza wrote upon\nthe Jews: \u201cThe rite of circumcision, I am fain to persuade myself,\nis of such moment in this matter (_i.e._ of isolating nations) that\nit alone, methinks, were enough to preserve this people distinct for\never; indeed, unless the fundamentals of their religion bring upon\nthem effeminacy of mind and character, I am inclined to believe that,\nwith the opportunity afforded, since human affairs are notoriously\nchangeable, they may again recover their empire, and God elect them to\nHimself anew.... To conclude, were any one disposed to maintain that\nthe Jews, for the cause assigned, or for any other cause whatsoever,\nhad been especially chosen by God to all eternity, I should not gainsay\nhim, provided he allowed that this choice was most in respect of\nnothing but empire and personal advantages (in which only one nation\ncan be distinguished from another), for as regards understanding\nand true virtue no nation is more remarkable than another, and so\ncannot on such grounds be looked on as elected by God\u201d (_Tractatus\nTheologico-Politicus_, chap. iii.).\n\nIt is instructive to compare with the sage\u2019s text two commentaries\nof his editions. One of them assures us that, no longer persecuted\nby Pope and Kaiser or Christian community, \u201cwith no mark of civic\ndistinction denied the Jews, they will soon become absorbed into the\nlarger Christian communities, surrounded by whom they now dwell in all\nthe countries of Europe; they will finally disappear, and leave only\nhistorical records of their existence.\u201d At present, however, Judaism\nbids fair to rise above and to survive Christianity. In B. Auerbach\u2019s\n_Leben Spinozas_ we are told that the immediate cause which to Spinoza\nsuggested this \u201ccurious persuasion\u201d (the restoration of the Jews) may\nhave been this, that a certain Sabbathai Zewi,[33] who had lately\nappeared in Greece, caused such a commotion amongst his co-religionists\nas at one time to make their regeneration and reconstitution into a\nsovereignty appear not impossible.\n\n[33] [Better known under the popular form Cevi.]\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nTHE JEW AND THE TALMUD\n\n\nThe present chapter contains many an assertion which will make the\nexpert Talmudist smile. It will, however, serve one most useful\npurpose--namely, to show what the Christians and Muslims of the East\nhold to be the belief of the Hebrew race and the practices of men\ndwelling within the same walls as themselves. That this hostility to\nthe Eastern Jews is no mere unreasoning prejudice, but is founded in\nsome sort on fact, the following brief survey of the Rabbinical and\nTalmudic writings will show. A people which has such a vindictive Oral\nLaw is sure to excite the spirit of retaliation, for obviously the Law\nexists not merely in letter, but in the spirit.\n\nIn a notorious trial in Damascus within living memory, which roused\nthe anti-Jewish feeling in that city and indeed throughout Syria to\na frenzy, certain learned doctors brought into court as evidence a\nnumber of manuscripts and printed books. It was remarked that the texts\nwere full of lacun\u00e6. This was explained by the fact that they are\nso written, since Europe began to read the Rabbinical and Talmudic\nwritings, for the purpose of concealing what might excite odium.\nThe divines supply the omissions by inserting them in writing, or\npreferably by committing them to memory. Thus they suppress offensive\nsectarian words, such as Goi (plural Goy\u00edm), the wicked, the forgetful\nof God--that is to say, Gentiles in general, including Christians and\nMuslims; Min\u00edm, or Kara\u00efte Jews; Kuthim, Samaritans; Nakhr\u00edm, strangers\nor infidels, corresponding with the Arabic K\u00e1firin, or the Turkish\nGiaour; and Ndoyy\u00edm, or Mes\u00famed\u00edm, in Arabic Mahr\u00fam\u00edn or Murtadd\u00edn, the\nexcommunicated. And it is evident that they had good reasons for this\nprudence; the Seder Adarhout, for instance, enumerates with the object\nof refuting them many foul crimes attributed to the Jews.\n\nThe most important and pregnant tenet of modern Jewish belief is that\nthe Ger, or stranger, in fact all those who do not belong to their\nreligion, are brute beasts, having no more rights than the fauna of the\nfield. Thus in Lucio Ferraris (_Prompta Bibliotheca_, Vol. III., sub\nlit. E and H, Order 4, Tract 8) we read: \u201cPr\u00e6cipitur omnibus Jud\u00e6is ut\nChristianes omnes loco brutorum habeant, nec aliter eos tractent quam\nbruta animalia.\u201d The argument from which this abominable belief is\nderived appears to be as follows: \u201cWhen Abraham was ordered to offer\nup Isaac (Gen. xxii.), he saddled his ass, and took two of his young\nmen with him. But when he saw the place of sacrifice,[34] he said unto\nhis young men, \u2018Abide ye here with the ass; and I and the lad will go\nyonder and worship, and come again to you.\u2019\u201d The Talmud declares that\nAbraham, who had seen God, asked his servants if they had likewise done\nso; and on their replying in the negative, he said to them, \u201cAbide\nye here with the ass,\u201d meaning that they were animals like the ass.\nBut this is by no means contrary to Scripture doctrine; for instance,\nJeremiah (x. 8) calls the votaries of false religion \u201caltogether\nbrutish and foolish.\u201d Thus the Law and the Prophets belong exclusively\nto the Jews; the Gentile reading or even buying a copy should be put to\ndeath. All the books of other faiths must be burnt, even though they\ncontain the name of Jehovah; and if any but a Hebrew write the name of\nGod in a Bible which is not a Jewish manuscript, the volume must also\nbe burnt.\n\nThe Jew who does not keep the Sabbath (Saturday)[35] according to\nRabbinical Law must suffer excision, be stoned to death, or incur\nthe flogging of rebellion, that is, he must be \u201cbeaten until his soul\ngo out,\u201d like all those who transgress affirmative commandments. Some\nRabbis hold that a Hebrew, hearing the sound of the trumpet, should\nstand or sit in the same position until the evening of the Holy Day.\nAll manner of work is absolutely forbidden to the Jew: he is guilty\nof capital crime if he carry a snuff-box or a pocket-handkerchief; he\nmay not light a fire to cook his meals, nor extinguish it to prevent\nhis house being burnt down. Until the days of the Maccabees he could\nnot defend his life against an enemy; and when Strabo informs us that\nPompey (B.C. 63) stormed Jerusalem \u201cby waiting for the day of fast,\non which the Jews were in the habit of abstaining from all work,\u201d\nhe evidently alludes to the Saturday. The modern Jew in Syria and\nPalestine can walk only two thousand paces upon the Sabbath, except\nwhen travelling through the dangerous desert.[36] He will not receive\nmoney on that day, or transact any business, however profitable; it\nis moreover the fashion to keep a grave face, and to speak as little\nas possible. Yet he is not the strictest of Sabbatarians, and his\nwomen rather enjoy being called upon between the services[37] in\norder to display their dresses and jewellery. Of course there are\nmany \u201cguiles,\u201d technically so called, in order to elude restrictions\nwhich savour of the degrading spirit peculiar to the Oral Law, which\nis little more than the Rabbinical Criminal Code intended to raise and\nprovide for an aristocracy of savants. For instance, most wealthy\nfamilies, forgetting that he who hires a man to murder a third person\nis really _the_ murderer, habitually keep Muslim servants, who can boil\ncoffee and serve pipes to Gentile friends. And the latter must by no\nmeans join in honouring the day. According to the Talmud (chap, iv.,\nSanhedrin, of the fourth Mishnic Section, or order Seder Nezikin), the\nGentile sanctifying the Sabbath must be put to death without asking\nquestions, even as the Lord said to him, \u201cThou shalt not rest day nor\nnight.\u201d[38]\n\nThe Oral Law is superior in dignity to all others.[39] In the _Prompta\nBibliotheca_ we find (p. 297, Order 4, Tract 4, Dist. 10): \u201cGravius\nplectendos esse qui contradicunt verbis Scribarum quam verbis Mosaic\u00e6\nLegis, quibus qui contradixerit, morte moriatur.\u201d And he must die\nby the flogging of rebellion, a Rabbinical practice utterly unknown\nto the Pentateuch, which ordered forty stripes, whereas in the New\nDispensation the offender must be flogged without intermission till he\nexpires. Thus the Scribes and Pharisees still sit in Moses\u2019 seat. The\nmodern Jew follows the creed of Maimonides (twelfth century), which\ncontains thirteen fundamental articles, the last being the resurrection\nof the dead. The ancient Jew obeyed the Twelve Commandments without\na word about the resurrection. The sojourning proselyte who would be\nsaved must become a Noahite, and obey the Seven Commandments assured to\nthe Noachid\u00e6; the Hakh\u00e1m Ab\u00fa'l Af\u00edya gave them as follows:\n\n  1. Thou shalt not worship planets, stars, or idols.\n\n  2. Thou shalt not fornicate nor commit adultery.\n\n  3. Thou shalt not slay (man).\n\n  4. Thou shalt not steal.[40]\n\n  5. Thou shalt not eat in the street the flesh of a lamb.\n\n  6. Thou shalt not castrate the sons of Abraham, mankind, or any\n      other animal.\n\n  7. Thou shalt not join the several races of animals.[41]\n\nMore correctly speaking, this code given to the Noachid\u00e6, or\nNoahites, commands them to abstain from the Seven Deadly Sins: (1)\nidolatry; (2) irreverence to God; (3) homicide; (4) robbery, fraud,\nand plunder--generally, not only of a co-religionist; (5) adultery;\n(6) disobedience and misrule; and (7) eating part of an animal still\nliving, or the blood of the dead. The latter was added (Gen. ix. 4) to\nthe Six Sins forbidden to Adam--namely, idolatry, blasphemy, shedding\nof blood, incest, robbery, and injustice.\n\nBut the sojourning proselyte[42] receives scant consolation, as he may\nnot be received when the Jubilee cannot be observed (Hilchoth Issure\nBiah, xiv. 7, 8); and this ceased after Reuben, Gad, and half Manasseh\nwere led away captive, or in B.C. 884, according to common chronology.\nAdd to this 1,873, and we have 2,757 years since the last feast of the\nkind, and we have twenty-seven centuries and a half since any Gentiles\nwere converted from the errors of idolatry to the religion of the sons\nof Noah.\n\nThose who transgress any of the Commandments transgress them all.[43]\nThe goods of Gentiles who have not conformed to the Noahite code,\nthat is to say, all now living, are lawful to the Hebrews. This right\nwas first conferred by Jehovah during the Exodus from Egypt, and it\nwas confirmed to the descendants of the wanderers by the Talmud (Baba\nMasiaah, or Middle Gate, second of the fourth order, and Abodah Zarah,\neighth of the same).\n\nRabbinical religion is rampant in the kitchen. Blood first forbidden\nto Noah (Gen. ix. 4), and afterwards to all the sons of Abraham (Lev.\niii. 17 and vi. 30)--because it was supposed to contain the vital\nprinciple which it does not--must be drained out of the meat before\nthis can be eaten. The usual practice is by macerating it in water for\nthirty minutes, and leaving it in salt for an hour. It is then taken\nout and washed again, a peculiar wooden tub and sieve being used for\nthe purpose. In Morocco the Jews also pound the flesh till the fibre is\nbroken, and thus it becomes more tender and less able to be kept--this,\nhowever, is a local practice unknown to the Jews elsewhere. The Talmud\ndeclares that there are two kinds of blood pleasing to the Lord--_viz._\n(1) that of the Paschal holocaust; (2) that of circumcision. In the\nbooks of Moses we find that blood is used as a purifier. For instance,\nthe Lawgiver (Exod. xxiv. 6-8) took half of the blood drained from\nvictims and put it in basins, with which he sprinkled the people to\ncleanse them from the abominations of the Egyptians, and the other half\nhe sprinkled upon the altar. Human blood is not used by us in its pure\nstate; nor can we[44] call it human, for the Gentiles are mere vermin,\nand of their daughters it is said, \u201cCursed be he that lieth with any\nbeast.\u201d It must also mostly undergo through manipulation a change of\nessence.[45] Nor is it administered indiscriminately, but only to the\nmost zealous. On the eve of the Passover the chief Scribe attends the\noven, and mixes what he pleases with the cakes, which are then sent\nround to the congregation.\n\nA Jew abandoning the faith of Israel must die the death; also he\nshould be surely slain for all such breaches of the Law as committing\nadultery. All who admit the doctrine of the Trinity, whether they be\nJewish perverts, Christians, Muslims, or Pagans; all Hebrews who have\nviolated the secrets of the Synagogue;[46] and all those especially\nwho speak against or who injure a co-religionist, have forfeited their\nlives. In these days minor offenders are usually excommunicated;[47]\nbut those who have been informers or who proved themselves hostile to\nIsrael must be killed at all risks, either by the Jews themselves, or,\nbetter still, through the local authorities. This is an invariable\nrule.[48]\n\nWe read in the tract Sanhedrin (fourth of fourth order, p. 58) that\nthe Gentile who strikes a Jew has committed a capital offence; this\nordinance is as old as the sojourn of Moses in Egypt. He who strikes a\nJew strikes the Deity. The \u201csons of Noah\u201d may be slain by the sentence\nof a single Rabbi, or upon the testimony of a solitary witness,\nalthough the latter be a relation. A descendant of the Hebrews who,\nlearning the true God in the days of Abraham, thereby separated\nthemselves from and exalted themselves above the rest of humanity,\nmay not be put to death but by the decision of twenty Rabbis and on\nthe testimony of two witnesses. A Gentile forfeits life if he cause a\npregnant Jewess or her fruit to perish; a Jew is not to be punished\ncapitally for such crime, but he must pay for the loss of the child (p.\n57). The \u201cson of Noah\u201d who blasphemes the Holy Name, who has committed\nadultery with or who has slain a co-religionist, ceases to merit death\nby becoming a sojourning proselyte; but he must not be suffered to\nescape if he has slain a Jew, or if he has committed adultery with a\nJewess (p. 71). The Jew must not contract friendship with Gentiles,\nlest, an oath being necessary, he be compelled to swear by an idol (p.\n63). He may not eat bread prepared by the heathen, for fear of undue\nintimacy being the result. Market bread may be bought and eaten, but\non condition that it was made for sale, not for private use and then\nsold--it is usual to burn a bit of such bread before using it. A Jew\nmay not eat victuals cooked by Gentiles, although vessels from a Jewish\nhouse were used in the presence of Jews--this extends even to a roasted\negg.\n\nThe tract Abodah Zarah, before alluded to, asserts (p. 4) that all\nthe commandments kept by Jews[49] shall bear friendly and favourable\nwitness in heaven before all the assembled souls of men, and to the\nconfusion of every other faith. Hebrews dwelling out of the four Holy\nCities are as idol-worshippers, but without blame. A Jew going to a\nGentile marriage feast eats impure food, although the meats be cooked\nby Jews and served by Jews in the presence of Jews; he even commits a\nsin if he enters the house within thirty days of the coming ceremony\n(p. 8). Gentiles should be prevented as much as possible purchasing\nimmovable property. It is not allowed to speak well of a Gentile, man\nor woman, and it is a sin to make a present to them (p. 20), to greet\nor to approach them; and the Jew becomes as ceremonially impure by\nhandling anything touched by them, by drinking out of the same cup,\nor by sleeping under the same roof, as if eating with them. Hebrews\nshould never tether their beasts in places not belonging to them, at\nleast without locking them up, lest the heathen plunder or pollute\nthem. Gentiles preferred the Jews\u2019 beasts to their own women, because\nevil entered into Eve on the day when the serpent (demon) committed\nadultery with her. A Jewess may not live amongst the heathen, because\npossibly the latter do not hold adultery to be a sin; a Jew should\nalso beware for fear of their killing him, as they probably will do.\nIsrael was purified of every sin upon Mount Sinai; but the descendants\nof the peoples not present there preserve their perversity (p. 22).\nIf a Hebrew wayfarer meet a Gentile armed with a sword (worn on the\nleft), he should pass on the other\u2019s right side, and _vice versa_ if\nthe stranger has only a staff, so that the arm can be seized before the\nweapon can be used; he must also name a distant place when asked his\njourney\u2019s end, in order that the Gentile may defer slaying him till too\nlate (p. 25).[50] The better to prevent all intimacy, the Jew must not\nbuy wine or vinegar from a Gentile, who also may perhaps have used it\nin pagan rites. If a Christian, a Muslim, or an idolater touch a cup\ncontaining wine, the Jewish owner must throw away the wine or sell it\nto the heathen, and cleanse the cup. The same is the case with grapes.\nThe Law forbids the Israelites to marry the daughters of the Seven\nTribes that held the land before the conquest--namely, the Hittites,\nGirgashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites, and Jebusites.\nThis, say the writers of and commentators on the Talmud, arose from\nthe fact of these women being impure from their childhood upwards.\nOthers, however, whilst including all Gentiles in these Seven Tribes,\nassert that the prohibition was not on account of any special impurity,\nsuch women being vermin or brute beasts not subject to the normal\nfeminine infirmities. Thus the learned restrain their weaker brethren\nwho might suppose that an impure Gentile woman is pure to them, and who\nmight even extend it to the case of a Jewess. Hence again the deduction\nthat only the Hebrews are human beings (p. 35).[51]\n\nTract Arubim (second of the second order, Seder Moed, Of Appointed\nSeasons) declares (p. 62) that if a Jew live under the same roof with\na Gentile who breaks the Sabbath (Saturday),[52] the former, lest he\nbe robbed, should drive out the latter by hiring the whole house. But\nhe may expel the heathen as he can or as he pleases; all tenements\ninhabited by others than Jews are dens of beasts which cannot become\nhouseholders. The \u201cson of Noah\u201d who steals even a farthing should be\nput to death--one of ten commandments given by God in His covenant with\nNoah--and he cannot be pardoned unless he restore the stolen goods. But\nGod enjoined this restitution only upon Gentiles becoming Israelites\n(_i.e._ sojourning proselytes); all other thieves must be instantly and\npitilessly slain.\n\nIn tract Ohaleth (second of the sixth order, called Seder Taharoth,\nor Of Purification) we read (\u00a7 6) that the graves of Gentiles cannot\nbe held impure because they are not tenanted by human beings, and\nthat when the law declares sitting upon tombs a cause of defilement\nit alludes only to those of Jews. Chapter Baba Bathra (third tract of\nthe fourth order) declares (\u00a7 I, p. 10, also repeated in another part\nof the same tract) that all alms given by Jews are acceptable to God,\nwhereas those of the Gentiles are so many sins because their objects\nare ostentation and the preservation of their children. If, however,\nthe Jew declare that his alms-deeds are meant to save his family and\nto win Paradise, still they are grateful to Jehovah--a privilege\nallowed only to the children of Israel. In the same tract we are also\ninformed that Esau, the son of Isaac, sinned five times in one day,\nby committing adultery with a heathen, by slaying his neighbour, by\nprofaning the name of his God, by insulting the resurrection of the\ndead at the coming of the Messiah, and by degrading the rights of\nprimogeniture.[53] Rabbi Shalomon argues, from the fact of Ishmael\nlaughing when his brother Isaac was born, that Sarah concluded\ntherefrom, either that he held her to be an adulteress, or that she\nsaw him commit a murder; thus he draws the deduction that Ishmael had\nbroken the Seven Commandments, and that consequently his descendants\ncannot bear witness against Jews (p. 16).\n\nTract Bechoroth (on Primogeniture, fourth of the fifth order, Seder\nKodashim, Of Holy Things) gives (i. 17) the formula of the Scribes\u2019\nprayers, and tells us that there are two things which hinder men from\nkeeping the law of God--the action of demons and dependence upon\nGentiles. The Lord explains to the angels that usury is permitted only\nto the Hebrews, who, being ordered to give thanks after food, praise\ntheir Creator even when they have eaten only an egg or an olive (p.\n20). A Jew may not pray before a naked Gentile, though the latter be\nin the category of a wild beast (p. 25). This tract relates that a\nJew, beaten by a Scribe when detected in adultery with an Egyptian\nwoman, complained to a Gentile ruler that the law had been taken into\nprivate hands. The Scribe pleaded that he had surprised the criminal\nwith a she-ass, and called the prophet Elijah to bear witness. \u201cWhy\ndidst thou not slay him?\u201d asked the magistrate. The reply was that,\nsince the children of Israel had been driven from their own country,\nsuch a punishment could not be inflicted by them, but that the judge\ncould do as he pleased. When both left the court, the Jew charged the\nScribe with having called Elijah as a witness to a lie. \u201cWretch!\u201d\nexclaimed the learned man, \u201cand are they not the same as she-asses?\u201d\nBut as the Jew was about to return and report this explanation, the\nScribe slew him with his staff (i., p. 58). Hence it appears that this\ntenet is a religious secret whose violation merits death. When a Jew\nlooks upon the grave of a brother Jew, he must say: \u201cBlessed is He who\nhath created us by law, who has promised to raise us again by law, and\nwho knoweth our number; blessed is He who revives the dead.\u201d But if\nthe tomb be that of a Gentile, he must say: \u201cShame upon thy mother,\ncursed be she that bare thee; for the end of the heathen shall be dry\nand desolate as the soil of the desert\u201d (p. 58). It also explains\nearthquakes by the lamentations of the Lord, who bewails the miseries\nof the Jews (p. 59). If a Jew find an object lost, we will say, by a\nMuslim, he must not restore it, even though he knew the proprietor.\nAlso, if a Gentile make any mistake in accounting with the Jew, or\nleave property in his house, the latter, when not in fear of the\nauthorities, must rob him. At all times, in fact, the Jew should spoil\nthe Gentile as much as possible. If one Jew injure another, though even\nhis personal enemy and the greatest villain in the world, especially\nif such injury be to the advantage of a Gentile, the Jew shall surely\ndie (chap. 388 of the Khalehah Orah Ha\u00edm Meshat, one of the most\naccredited parts of the Oral Law). All those present are bound to put\nthe denouncer to death before he can do the deed; and if he has done\nit, they must remove him from this world, every Israelite in the place\ncontributing to pay the assassin. The oath of a Gentile or a Samaritan\ncannot be taken in evidence against a Jew. If a dispute occurs between\ntwo Israelites, they must go before their own judge.[54] It is sinful\nto have recourse to foreign tribunals, and all the decisions of the\nlatter, when adverse to Jews, must be quashed. Although the heathen\ncourt pass sentence according to Hebrew Law, the plaintiff or denouncer\nbecomes impious, sacrilegious, and religiously excommunicated, whilst\nthe Rabbi is bound to make him lose his cause by every possible\ncontrivance, even by suborning false witnesses against him. And at\nlast due punishment must be dealt out. The latter is not a Biblical\ncommand, but it results from the commentaries on the Talmuds. When\nthese works were written Muhammadanism did not exist; Muslims therefore\nare now included amongst the Gentiles. They are not, however, like the\nChristian idolaters.\n\nIn tract Keritoth (or Excision, the seventh of the fifth order,\nKodashim) the learned R. Moshe Meimunah, after describing a fight\nbetween two bulls,[55] the one belonging to a Jew, the other to an\nEgyptian, declares (p. 36) that, in case of a dispute between men of\nthese different races, the Hebrew, if in the right, should go to the\nlocal authority and say, \u201cSee, such is the Law!\u201d But he must not do so\nif he prefer the Jewish tribunal. The Rabbi adds that no one should be\nastonished at such a condition, for all who do not keep the revealed\ncommandments are not men, but beings whose sole purpose upon earth is\nto serve men. Tract Muad Katon (Little Feast, eleventh of the second\norder) forbids Jews to salute Gentiles unless in fear of them, and even\nthen never twice. When it was observed to the author that many Scribes\nhad so done, he replied that doubtless it was with some such mental\nreservation as this, \u201cI salute thee, A., son of B.,\u201d meaning the Rabbi\nwho had taught the speaker to read the Scriptures (p. 62). El Ruzich,\nin his commentaries on the Talmudic tract Abodah Zarah, speaking of\nHebrew accusers of Hebrews and eaters of flesh not ceremonially killed,\ndeclares their death to be a necessity.\n\nAt this point it may be advisable to offer a short view of the two\nGreat Schools of the Holy Land which have influenced Jewish thought in\nChristian times. These are, first, that of Tiberias, whence issued the\nTalmud of Jerusalem, followed by the Talmud of Babylon; and, second,\nthe School of Safed, which rendered itself remarkable by the extreme\nopinions of its commentaries and glossaries.[56]\n\nWe read in a Jewish writer (M. J. Cohen on the authority of the\nTalmud, _Archives Isra\u00eblites_, 1841)[57]: \u201cWhen after two hundred\nyears of energetic struggles against an empire which was fated to be\nuniversal the Hebrew race found its political nationality in peril,\nthe first want felt was to lighten, as much as possible, the bonds\nof personality, so as morally to preserve by identity of belief that\nunity which dispersion was about to dissolve. And the plan which at\nonce suggested itself was to determine, by an invariable method, the\nprinciples of the Mosaic Law, to develop their sense, and to fix their\ninterpretation.\n\n\u201cBut in those times, if I may so speak, the lights of Israel were\neclipsed; ages had elapsed since the voices of the prophets had\ndelivered to this people the Oracles of God; and divine inspiration,\nthe heightening of the national faculties by supernatural means,\nseemed to have returned to its home in heaven. Moreover, after the\ndestruction of Jerusalem and the expulsion of the Jews, all authority\nhad disappeared with national power, and, social organization no longer\nexisting, man could not magisterially impose his opinion upon others.\nThe only rational step in this state of things was to assemble all the\nIsraelites, or those who represented them, and to form a sovereign\nsynod.\u201d\n\nThe Jewish Senate, Sanhedrin ([Greek: \u03a3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b4\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd: Synedrion]),[58] or\nnational council, was first transferred from the ruins of the Holy\nCity to Javneh, and after many removes to Saff\u00far\u00edah,[59] the Sephores\nwhich in the days of Josephus was ever faithful to the Romans. Finally,\nabout the middle of the second century, during the reign of Antoninus\nPius (A.D. 138-161), it was transferred to Tiberias, another city\nof Galilee. Rabbi Yah\u00fada, universally known as ha-Kodesh, or the\nsaint, was the Nashi (Prince) of his nation and the President of the\nSanhedrin. He lived at Saff\u00far\u00edah, where there is a cave through which\nthe Roman Emperor, whose reign in history is almost a blank, used to\nvisit him from Tiberias; this tunnel is now blocked up. The modern Jews\nresiding in Galilee are not agreed whether the Great Rabbi died at\nSaff\u00far\u00edah, or at T\u00farean, a neighbouring village, where two large caves\nexist; but neither of them shows traces of a tomb. When this Prince of\nIsrael died, it was Friday evening, and the sun stood still whilst his\ncorpse was carried to its distant grave, lest even the body might break\nthe Sabbath.[60]\n\n\u201cThe work of this Sanhedrin consisted in committing to paper that which\nhad before been entrusted to memory and had perpetuated itself by\ntradition--the jurisprudence of the Jews, the various interpretations\nof the Law by the principal doctors, and the rules of man\u2019s duty; in\nother words, all that was called the Oral Law. Thus the Synod began\nby transgressing a principle of Israelitism, which until those days\nhad decreed that the supplementary code should never be written, and\nhence indeed its vulgar name. In this point the \u0152cumenical Council\nfollowed the example of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), the adopted father\nof Antoninus Pius, who also commanded the jurist Salvius Julianus to\ndraw up the _Edictum Perpetuum_, or fixed code, and the _Responsa\nPrudentium_, which before his time formed an unwritten corps of\ndoctrine embodying legal decisions and precedents. The book, which\nwas compiled by R. Yah\u00fada, with the adhesion of the Jewish majority,\nreceived the name of Mishnah, \u2018doubling,\u2019 or repetition of the Law,\nand its principles became obligatory upon all men.\u201d The great work was\ncompleted, according to some, about A.D. 119; David Ganz prefers A.D.\n219, or a short time before the compiler\u2019s death; whilst others contend\nthat R. Yah\u00fada collected the principles of the code, and that the\nnation accepted it by order of Gamaliel, his son, and successor in the\nprincely dignity of _Nashi_ and presidency of the Sanhedrin;[61] \u201cand\nothers again make it of still later date. At all events, it is the most\nancient composition known to the Jews after the Law and the Prophets.\u201d\n\nBy almost imperceptible degrees the notes and commentaries upon this\ntext grew to formidable proportions, and became a special science,\nwhose technical name, found in the Book of Chronicles (2 xiii. 22 and\nxxiv. 27), is Midrash, from darash; in Arabic, dars, a lesson. Of the\ninnumerable methods of studying these Holy Writs, the three principal\nare embodied in the Persian Parad\u00eds, the Arabic Firdaus, and the\nGreek [Greek: \u03a0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2: Paradeisos], written Semitically without\nvowels PRDS, and the mysterious letters were assumed mneumonically as\nthe initial of a technical word. Thus P (Peshat, the simple rendering\nof words) recorded the elementary law of Talmudic exegesis, \u201cNo verse\nof Scripture practically admits any sense but the literal sense,\u201d[62]\nalthough in a different or familiar signification it may be explained\nin a host of ways. R (Remiz, the Arabic Ramz, a secret, intimation,\ninsinuation, or suggestion of meaning) illustrates certain letters\nand signs apparently superfluous and explained only by tradition;\nin a more general manner, it gave rise to a _memoria technica_ and\na stenography resembling the Roman _Notaricon_. Points and notes\nwere added to the margins of manuscripts, and thus was founded the\nMassorah (tradition), or diplomatic conservation of the text, intended\nto preserve its purity. D (Derush, illustration) was the familiar\napplication of historical, traditional, anecdotical, allegorical, and\nprophetical sayings to the actual state of events; it was a sermon\naided by ethics, logic, poetry, parable, proverb, apologue, and the\nvast mass of legendary lore known as the Hagadah (plural Hagadoth), as\nopposed to the Halakah,[63] or dogmatic part--perhaps it was suggested\nby the New Testament. Finally, the fourth and last, S (Sod, secret,\nmystery), included the mystical and esoterical sciences of theosophy,\nmetaphysics, angelology, and a host of supernatural visions, brilliant\nand fantastic. It borrowed with impartial hand from the magic of Egypt,\nthe myths of Hermes Trismegistos, the works of the Platonists and\nNeo-Platonists, and the labours of the Christian Gnostics. Few were\ninitiated into \u201cthe Creation,\u201d or \u201cthe Chariot,\u201d as it was called,\nalluding to the vision of Ezekiel; yet its attractions were such that\nat last \u201cParadise\u201d was confined to this special branch of esoteric\nscience, even as later in Gnosticism it came to signify the Spiritual\nChrist.\n\nYet the Talmudic authors lay down the principle that their decisions\nare in no wise absolute, but can always be modified by a power equal\nto that which lay them down.[64] Their sole object was to fix the\nsense and the rules of Written Law; for as Mo\u00efse de Coucy says in his\n_S'mag, or Great Book of Precepts_: \u201cIf the interpretation of the Oral\nLaw had not been added to the Written Law, the whole code would have\nbeen obscure and unintelligible, because Holy Writ is full of passages\nwhich seem to oppose and contradict one another.\u201d Ramb\u00e1ni Maimonides\nof Cordova declares (Introduction to his _Guide_, Vol. I., p. 29):\n\u201cThus we find continually written in the Talmud, \u2018The beginning of the\nchapter differs from the end\u2019; and the explanation is given, \u2018Because\nthe first part emanates from such-and-such a doctor, and the last from\nanother.\u2019 Furthermore, we read, \u2018Rabbi Yah\u00fada the Holy approved the\nopinion of that doctor in that case, and merely records the opinions\nof this doctor in this case, without even naming him.\u2019\u201d The following\nformulas are also frequent: \u201cTo whom belongs this anonymous assertion?\u201d\nR. \u201cTo A. B., the doctor!\u201d and, \u201cTo whom belongs our paragraph of the\nMishnah?\u201d R. \u201cTo such-and-such a person!\u201d\n\nTo resume the history of the Talmud.\n\nSome years after the publication of the Mishnah in the third century\n(A.D. 230-270), R. Yochanan, who for eighty years had been President\nof the Sanhedrin, undertook a commentary on the text like the Sharh,\nwhich accompanies the Arabic Matu. Aided, it is said, by Rab and\nSamuel, the disciples of Gamaliel, son of R. Yah\u00fada, he produced about\nA.D. 390 a book which, united with the Mishnayoth, received the title\nTalmud (doctrine or learning) of Jerusalem, though written at Tiberias.\nThe product of the Schools of Palestine, it was composed in the West\nAram\u00e6an tongue; and it calls the Mishnic text by the simple name of\nHalakah (rule), or dogmatic part. The School of Tiberias flourished\napparently in the days of St. Jerome, and passed into oblivion during\nthe fourth and early fifth centuries.\n\nIn A.D. 367 Askhi, President of the Babylonian Sanhedrin, whilst\nteaching the Mishnah, annually commented upon two tracts of that work,\nwhich, being concise, and as it were axiomatic, like all books that\nannounce legislative principles, required explanation of the author\u2019s\nexact intention. He was aided by the opinions of many doctors omitted\nin the Mishnah, either those who died before R. Yah\u00fada the Holy had\nfinished his labours, or the many who followed during the ensuing\nyears. In order that his learning might not be lost to the world,\nhe compiled and transcribed thirty-five tracts, and died A.D. 427.\nHis son Mar and Marimon his disciple continued the work, and after\nseventy-three years appeared the Gemara, complement or conclusion. It\nwas written in the Eastern Aram\u00e6an tongue, and it corresponds with the\nHasheyah of Arabic standard works.\n\nThe Mishnah and the Gemara, now forming a single code, became known\nto history as the Talmud Babli (of Babylon); and when _the_ Talmud is\nmentioned, the second work, being the fuller and the more minute, is\nalways meant.[65] Presently the Talmudists separated into two great and\nrival schools in ante-Christian times: that of Hillel,[66] remarkable\nfor his learning, his humility, and his charity, extending even so\nfar as to forbid usury (Tract Baba Metzin, folio 17^b); and that of\nShammai, inflexible in principles and often inclining to severity.\n\nBoth of these voluminous compositions are essentially a _corpus juris_,\nto be compared with the _Edictum Perpetuum_ and _Responsa Prudentium_,\nwith the _Pandects_, the _Novell\u00e6_,[67] and the _Institutes_. They\nform an encyclop\u00e6dia of Jud\u00e6an Law, divine and human, national\nand international, laical and ecclesiastic, civil and criminal; a\ndoctrinal, judicial, and sentential digest, dealing in exegesis and\nhermeneutics; a huge compilation of what Muslim divines call Fatw\u00e1,\nor decisions upon legal subjects; and a thesaurus of ceremonial\nobservances borrowed from the Oral Law and the traditions of the heads\nof schools from Rabbi Gamaliel downwards.[68] Composed in the East,\nthat classic land of the supernatural, they abound in Hagadistic\nmatter, wild and picturesque legends sometimes inculcating moral\nlessons, like the four nocturnal spectres Lil\u00edth, Naama, Aguerith,\nand Mahala,[69] at other times puerile tales of the great angels\nPatspatsiah, Tashbach, Hadarniel, Enkatham, Pastam, Sandalphon,\nShamsiel, and Prasta. Its historical, topographical, ethnographical,\nand geographical information must be received with the greatest\nreserve, coming from authors of different ages and of several values.\nFor instance, the Gemara (Sanhedrin, vi. 2) informs us that our Lord,\nhaving vainly endeavoured during forty days to find an advocate,\nwas sentenced, and on the 14th of Nisan was stoned and afterwards\nhanged. It is a storehouse of curious allusions to the products of\nvarious countries, the occupations of races, agriculture, gardening,\nprofessions and trades, arts and sciences, connubial relations, manners\nand customs, the interiors of houses, and even dress. It portrays the\ncosmopolitanism and the luxury of Rome in her later days, thereby\nfilling up the somewhat meagre sketches of the post-classical school.\nWe find in the Mishnah allusions to the fish of Spain, the apples of\nCrete, the cheese of Bithynia, the zythus,[70] lentils, and beans of\nEgypt, the citrons of Greece, the wines of Italy, the beer of Media,\nthe garments of India and Pelusium, the shirts of Cilicia, and the\nveils of Arabia.\n\n\u201cAt five years of age,\u201d says the Mishnah, \u201clet the child begin to\nstudy the Scriptures; let him continue so doing till the age of ten,\nwhen he may begin to study the Mishnah; at the age of fifteen let him\nbegin the Gemara\u201d (T. Aboth, chap. v.). This passage in the \u201cvast work\nor ocean of learning,\u201d as some call it, could not but be distasteful\nto Christianity. The tone adopted in speaking of the Almighty is\nanthropomorphic and anthropocentric in the extreme.[71] God spends a\nfourth part of the day in studying the Law. At every watch of the night\nHe sits and roars like a lion, saying, \u201cWoe is Me that I have laid\ndesolate My house and burned My sanctuary, and sent My children into\ncaptivity among the nations of the world\u201d (Berachoth). He plays for\nthree hours every day with the leviathan. And bear in mind there are\nfar more objectionable representations than these in the writings of\nthe Rabbis. It revels more than any known faith in the degradation of\nwomen; the Rabbinic court declares women \u201cdisqualified by the Law from\ngiving testimony\u201d; the Talmud excludes them from the public worship\nof God, and teaches that they are under no obligation to learn the\nrevealed will of their Creator,--peculiarly antipathetic doctrines to\nthose who believe in an Immaculate Virgin and in a St. Mary Magdalen.\nMoreover, the large space given to cursing the Jew and the non-Jew, and\nto the unhallowed practices of magic and necromancy, the summoning and\nconversing with devils and spirits, the advocacy of astrology, charms,\nand philters, served as a pretext for Pope and Inquisition to attack\nit. In A.D. 553 Justinian proscribed it by Novella 146 as a \u201ctissue of\npuerilities, of fables, of iniquities, of insults, of imprecations, of\nheresies, and of blasphemies\u201d; it was destroyed by Gregory IX. in A.D.\n1230; it was burnt in Paris by Innocent IV. (A.D. 1244); and it was\nproscribed by Clement IV., by Honorius[72] IV., and by John XXII. The\nfirst printed edition (Venice, 1520) saved it, and not until the third\nhad appeared (Basle, 1578) did it come under the eye of the censor.\n\nIn 1553 and 1555 Julius III. promulgated a proclamation against what\nhe called grotesquely the Talmud Gulnaroth; and this proceeding was\nrepeated by Paul IV. in 1559, by Pius V. in 1566, and by Clement VIII.\nin 1592 and 1599.\n\nA well-known anti-Talmudical writer remarked in 1836: \u201cThe promised\nGerman translation of the Talmud, if ever completed, must without\nany discussion overthrow Talmudism. Its exhibition in any European\nlanguage is the most fatal attack that can be made on its authority.\u201d\nThis is utterly unphilosophical; the Book of Mormon, with all its\nAmericanisms and its internal evidences of futile forgery, confirmed\ninstead of destroying Mormonism. The Mishnah was translated into Latin\nby Surenhusius (Amsterdam, three vols. 4^o) as early as 1698-1703, and\ninto German by the Chaplain J. J. Rabi (Onolzbach & Ansbach, first\nto sixth part, 4^o) in 1760-1763. Without any knowledge of Hebrew\nor Aram\u00e6an, those who read Latin, French and Italian, German and\nEnglish, will find in any great library--that of the British Museum\nfor instance--a translation of almost every part, and they may be\nassured that the small remnant still untranslated contains nothing of\nimportance. The modern verdict is that the Talmuds are a \u201cspotted orb,\u201d\nand that they contain two distinct elements--the sacred light in the\ntrue interpretation of the word of God, and the purely human darkness\nin its folly and infirmity. But it does not confirm the following\nassertion of the _Initiation of Youth_ (Rabbi Ascher): \u201cThe Talmudical\nwriters enjoin upon us to treat Christians as our own brethren in every\nsocial matter.\u201d[73]\n\nThe second great Rabbinical School arose at Safed, also a city of\nGalilee, and rising within sight of Tiberias. Benjamin of Tudela\n(A.D. 1163) visited the tombs of Hillel and Shammai, \u201cnear Mer\u00fan,\nwhich is Maron,\u201d supposed to be the Beth-maron of the Talmud; but he\nsays nothing about Jews being in Safed, then a fortress held by the\nTemplars. \u201cThe city set upon a hill\u201d is also ignored by travellers\nof the next three hundred years, and appears in history only about\nthe sixteenth century.[74] It then became the great centre of Jewish\nlearning--in fact, another Jerusalem. The children of Israel dwelt\nthere in great numbers, and had a vast Khan, a square lead-roofed\nfortress, where many of them lived, and which contained a fine\nsynagogue. Besides the schools in which the sciences were taught,\nthey counted eighteen synagogues, distinguished by the names of the\nseveral nations which possessed them, as the Portuguese, Spanish,\nItalian, and others. The printing-press, of which there are remnants\nat the north-eastern village Ein el Zeit\u00fan, issued many volumes, now\nbecoming exceedingly rare because so much in request amongst European\nbibliophiles. The College (Madr\u00e1sh) of the Rabbis still remains, a\ntwo-arched hall, of which no part is ancient except the eastern side.\nAll the rest has been shaken down by earthquakes, which are supposed to\ndestroy the city as each Sabbatical year comes round. In the cemetery\nbelow the settlement are the whitewashed graves of Joseph Caro, of\nShalomon Alkabez, and of other notables.\n\nThe peculiar ferocity of the Safed School resulted partly from the\ndomination of the sons of Ishmael, which, however mild, is everywhere\ndistasteful to the children of Israel.[75] If \u201cEsau hateth Jacob\nbecause of the blessing wherewith his father blessed him,\u201d Jacob\nreturns the hate with at least equal heat, adding fear and contempt--he\nwould willingly, to use the words of Rashi, \u201cblot out Esau and his\nseed.\u201d But doubtless the harshness and cruelty which distinguished\nits doctors must be explained by the nature of the place and its\nsurroundings. Situated in the bleak and windswept, the stony and barren\nhighlands of Upper Galilee, shaken by earthquakes, and exposed to\nterrible storms, Safed is one of the least amene sites in the whole\nof Syria. The climate is ever in extremes, the water is hard and full\nof constipating lime, the earth is cold and fruitless, and the people\nare crafty and cruel as Simeon and Levi. After a few days\u2019 residence,\nstrangers complain of sickness, cramps, and malaise, and their only\ndesire is to escape from the gloom and seclusion of this town upon the\nhillside. Even the Muhammadans contrast the facile manners of their\nown women at soft and low-lying Tiberias with the asperity and the\nviolence of those who inhabit the upland settlement. \u201cSafad fasad\u201d\n(Safed ever giveth trouble) is the jingling saw of the neighbourhood,\nand it contains abundant truth. The amount of intrigue and plotting\nis excessive even in a Syrian settlement, the charges bandied about by\nmen against one another are atrocious--this doctor is a murderer, that\nscribe is an adulterer, and the third is a swindler and a thief. If\nthe visitor were to believe half what he hears, he would find himself\nin a den of brigands. That not a few of these charges are founded on\nfact may be gathered from what travellers have printed concerning\ncertain sons of this Holy City, some of which are too revolting for\npublication. The rich divines are accused of shamelessly embezzling\nthe Hal\u00fakah, large sums sent from Europe for the maintenance of the\ncommunity; and the poor are ready with complaints upon the most\ntrivial occasions--the breaking of a hen\u2019s leg sends them on a hurried\nofficial visit to their Vice-Consuls. It is not too much to say that\nif Safed again produced a theological school, it would rival in its\nnarrow bigotry and peculiar ferocity that which disgraced the sixteenth\ncentury.\n\nThe Talmud had spoken its last upon the interpretation of the Torah,\nit had closed the discussions which arose from the sacred text, and\nit had exhausted the traditional lore and the rules established by\nthe Rabbis of Palestine and Babylon till the fifth century after the\nChristian era. Still, the Talmud itself required after the course of\nages to be interpreted, and this gave rise to a variety of medi\u00e6val\nabridgments and to a vast series of glosses and commentaries. The more\nmodern Rabbis especially resolved that no uncertainty should rest upon\nthe Halakah, or doctrinal part of the work, and they strictly applied\nthemselves to codify the whole body of the Talmud.\n\nTo cite only the best-known names. We have to begin with Rabbi Ishaz\nal Fasi, who first resumed the Talmud, and who had the boldness\nto expel from the text everything not strictly bearing upon the\ndiscussion. Then came the celebrated Maimonides of Cordova (A.D.\n1150), whose Yad ha-Hazaka (Hand of Power) is a compendium of Talmudic\nlore valued almost as highly as the original. He was followed by\nAscheri, a powerful dialectician, who knew how to conciliate with the\nTalmudic argument the observations of the Tossaphists, or Glossarians,\nrepresented before and after him by Rashi, Rabbenu Tam, Coucy, and a\nhost of others. His son succeeded him, and made a new attempt at a\ncodification, in which the opinions of Ascheri naturally occupied the\nplace of honour.\n\nAbout this time rose the Safed School. The first and greatest\ncommentator was the Rabbi by some called Rabanu Jacob Be-Rab, an exile\nfrom Spain, and subsequently Chief Rabbi of Fez and Safed, where, after\nlong teaching, he died in A.D. 1541. This Baal ha-Turim (Lord of the\nBooks), as he is called, wrote four works, which, being considered in\nthe light of \u201creligious laws,\u201d were known as the Din\u00edm. The first\nof the Arbah Turim, Orach Cha\u00fcin (Urah ha-Yiim, the Way of Life),\ntreats of observances enjoined upon the Jews. The second is Jor\u00e9 D\u00e9ah\n(Yurah daah, the Teacher of Knowledge); it describes the ceremonious\nobservances of butchering, eating, making vows, circumcising, and so\nforth. The third is Eben ha-Azar, the Stone of Assistance (to mankind).\nAnd in the fourth, Hoshen Mishpat (Breastplate of Judgment), law, civil\nand criminal, is discussed.\n\nThe School of this commentator was kept up by Moses of Trani in Apulia,\nwho lectured during fifty-four years to A.D. 1580, the year of his\ndeath. The next name of repute was R. Joseph Karo, or Caro, a Jew of\nSpanish descent, born at Constantinople, who died in A.D. 1575. He\nwas a voluminous writer. In the Shoulkhan Aroukh, a code of religion\nadopted universally by the Israelites, he analyzed and resumed the\nopinions of his predecessors. His _magnum opus_ is the Beth Y\u00fas\u00faf\n(House of Joseph), in four folios, first printed at Venice, and\nrepeatedly republished; it consists of commentaries upon the four Din\u00edm\nof Rabanu Jacob, on the Talmudic writings of the R. Ishaz al Fasi, and\non the labours of Rabbino Yak\u00fab ben Rosh, not to be confounded with\nRashi the glossarian. The fourth great name is R. Shalomon Alkabez,\nalso of Constantinople, who wrote in A.D. 1529, and who was still\nliving in A.D. 1561. This theologian has left the worst name amongst\nthe Christians, whom he seems to have hated from his very heart. A\npupil and colleague of Caro and Alkabez was Moses of Cordova, the most\nfamous Cabalist since the days of Simeon ben Jochai; he died Chief\nRabbi of Safed in A.D. 1570. Moses Galant\u00e9, a native of Rome, was\nsomewhat later, dying in A.D. 1618. But the academy was not indebted\nfor its fame to strangers alone; Samuel Oseida and Moses Alsheikh, both\nnatives of Safed, contributed to its celebrity during the sixteenth\ncentury. The latter died between A.D. 1592 and 1601.\n\nOf the medi\u00e6val Rabbis and their successors generally, it may be\nobserved that the later the school the more prominent became its\nbigotry and violence. This is easily explained. Anna Comnena[76]\ndescribes the Crusades, which were guided by a giant and a goose, with\ntruly Eastern relish, as having left a \u201cvery admirable mound of bones,\nhigh, deep, and broad.\u201d But they left something more--a tradition which\npresently enabled the Christians to recover power in the Holy Land,\nand their abomination of the Jew inspired him with kindred sentiments.\nNor can we wonder that the later and more fanatical writings are\npreferred by the Israelites to those of the earlier schools. Religious\nexclusiveness and the ambition of being a peculiar people, set apart\nfrom and raised above the rest of humanity, appeal to the heart of\nevery man through the sure channel of his passions. And thus in the\nyoungest faith of the world we find the same phenomenon as in one of\nthe most ancient--the Book of Doctrines and Covenants is read at Salt\nLake City whilst the Book of Mormon is neglected.\n\nR. Jacob Be-Rab, in the second part of his Jor\u00e9 D\u00e9ah (Yurah daah),\nasserts that it is unlawful to draw a Gentile out of a well into which\nhe may have descended or fallen. He also declares that the scrupulous\nJewish physician who thoroughly conforms to Talmudic Law will not\nattend a Gentile without honorarium, because this will be his sole\nreward. He may do so gratuitously, if he wishes to study medicine by\nthat means; but he should usually kill such patients whilst pretending\nto cure them. This, however, must be attempted only when there is no\nchance of detection. R. Joseph Caro of Safed, one of the most pestilent\nof that School, in his commentary upon the Way of Knowledge, enables\nthe doctor to do additional harm by calling Gentile fees Kashmad, that\nis to say, the wages of sin--a term applied to the price of a woman\u2019s\nhonour; and in speaking especially of Christians, he declares that if\nthe Jewish physician takes his fee without poisoning them it is as\nthe gift to the wicked woman. On the other hand, should the mediciner\nbe unwilling to be paid, he must absolutely poison his patient. He\nalso forbids the doctor who has not thoroughly studied the healing art\nto attend one of his own faith, lest his ignorance cause death;[77]\nbut he may practise amongst all others, because if he kill them it is\nlawful and no matter (commentary of Gittin, the sixth tract of the\nthird order). Others declare that the Hebrew physician must not treat\na stranger even for fees; but if he fear the Gentile, and the latter\nknow him to be a Jew, he may do so for money. Rubbi argues the question\nby reference to the Gittin, in which it is related that R. Richmi bin\nAskhi had prepared a dose for a stranger; he explains that the drug may\nhave been given by way of experiment, or for the purpose of study.\n\nThe Safed School continued its labours into the seventeenth century,\nand Quasimus (writing about A.D. 1625) speaks of it [Safed] as\ninhabited chiefly by Hebrews, who had their synagogues and schools, and\nfor whose sustenance contributions were made by the Jews in other parts\nof the world. After that it gradually sank under the oppression of the\nMuhammadans, who probably took the place by degrees.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[34] Mount Moriah (of appearance), afterwards the site of Solomon\u2019s\nTemple. Certain modern writers, especially Mr. Mills (_Nablous and the\nSamaritans_), would identify Mount Geriz\u00edm of Shechem with Moriah; but\nthe most superficial consideration of the distance to be marched and\nthe time required proves the theory to be absurd.\n\n[35] This institution has even distinguished the Jew from the other\ncivilized nations of antiquity, the Egyptians and Assyrians, the Hindus\nand Guebres, the Greeks and Romans, who ignored it. By this part of\nhis cosmogony Moses evidently intended to inculcate the dignity of\nlabour and the hygienic necessity of rest. But the Rabbis and Doctors\nexaggerate all things, and they have still, like the vulgar Hebrew, to\nlearn that the Sabbath was made for man, not man for the Sabbath. The\nTargum of Onkelos (Dr. Etheridge\u2019s Translation. London: Longmans, 1862)\nmakes the Creator rest and be refreshed in all points like a wearied\nhuman being. Dr. McCaul and a host of writers have enlarged upon the\nvexatious, barbarous, and inhuman Sabbatical ordinances engrafted by\nthe Talmudists upon the Mosaic Law.\n\n[36] Usually the Sabbatical journey is reckoned at one Mil (mile); but\nit varies according to circumstances, the permitted extremes varying\nbetween seven furlongs and two miles. Probably the ancient Jews had a\nlonger and a shorter measure, in the latter the pace being half of what\nit was in the former; the longer mile, equal to 2,000 paces, = 5,000\nfeet = 1,666 yards, or 98[78] yards shorter than the English statute\nmeasure, whilst the Roman was 142 yards less than ours.\n\n[37] The Sabbath services throughout the world are four--namely, (1)\nPrayers, petitions, and thanksgivings in the synagogue on Friday after\nsunset; (2) Saturday morning prayers, rather later than usual that\nmen may take a longer rest; (3) Ha-phatorah, the conclusion after the\nmorning prayer, reading sections of the Law and the Prophets; and (4)\nHa-musaph, or the additional prayers, consisting of portions of the\nPentateuch referring to the sacrifices of the Mosaic Dispensation which\nare now no longer lawful. The style of cantillation is complicated as\nthe reading of the Koran, and would be called a \u201cneuma\u201d[79] in the\nmedi\u00e6val music of the Christian Church. And the chant annotation, which\nis shown in every Old Testament, offers a host of difficulties. As a\nrule the services are the reverse of impressive. They are in a dead\nlanguage \u201cnot understanded of the people\u201d; they are hurried over with\nunseemly haste; and, as in most ceremonial faiths, the profuse outward\nobservances contrast strangely with the apparent absence of religious\nfeeling.\n\n[38] \u201cA Gentile who employs himself in the Law is guilty of death. He\nis not to employ himself except in the seven commandments that belong\nto the Gentiles. And thus a Gentile who keeps a Sabbath--though it be\non one of the weekdays--if he make it to himself as a Sabbath, he is\nguilty of death.\u201d And the measure of difference between Gentile and Jew\nis that, whilst the former has seven commandments, the latter has six\nhundred and thirteen.\n\n[39] Thus the Rabbinical saying is: \u201cEvery one is bound to divide the\ntime of his study into three--one-third to be devoted to the Written\nLaw, one-third to Mishnah, and one-third to Gemara.\u201d Thus he gives\none-half to the Old Testament, whilst double study is assigned to the\nOral Law. The latter, which has some tangible points of resemblance\nwith the traditions of the Roman Catholic Church and the Sunnat of\nthe Muhammadans, is the unwritten code received by Moses on Mount\nSinai and transmitted inviolate by word of mouth from generation to\ngeneration. Until after the last destruction of Jerusalem it was never\ncommitted to writing (see _A Manual of Judaism_, by Joshua Van Oven,\nEsq., M.R.C.S.L. London, 1835). It is held uninspired by all save the\nJews, and one of its bitterest enemies was the Founder of Christianity,\nwho, when attacking tradition, never failed to uphold the Law. One\nmight smile at so prodigious an assumption as this legendary system\nin the total absence of historic proof. But only a few years ago a\nFrench Grand Rabbi published a learned work to prove that the facts\ncan be accounted for only supernaturally. Also Dr. Adler, Orthodox\nChief Rabbi of England, declared, in a sermon preached but a few years\nago, the Written and the Oral Laws to be equally divine, and compared\nthe reformers with the false mother in the judgment of Solomon. These\nthings make us regret the total disappearance of the Sadducee or\nRationalistic School.\n\n[40] [The fourth, omitted by Burton, is, \u201cTu non ruberai\u201d according to\nthe Hakh\u00e1m.]\n\n[41] Arub\u00edm, or mixtures, were forbidden by the Mosaic Law (Lev. xix.\n19), and were greatly extended by the Oral Law, such as grafting,\nsowing different kinds of seeds in the same soil, wearing a garment of\nwool and linen mixed, and so forth. The subject is copiously treated in\nthe nine chapters of Kilaim (Heterogeneous, or Things not to be Mixed),\nthe fourth tract of the first order, Seder Zeraaim (the Order of Seeds).\n\n[42] The subject of proselytizing amongst the ancient Jews is full\nof difficulties, and the object seems mostly to have been the\ndiscouragement of converts, with a fair scheme on paper. The Proselytes\nof the Gate, generally called Gerim, or strangers (\u201cthe stranger that\nis within thy gates\u201d) and properly Noachid\u00e6 (sons of Noah), were only\nhalf Israelites. The Proselytes of the Covenant or of Righteousness\nwere perfect Israelites. They are still admitted under protest--men by\ncircumcision and immersion in water, and women by the latter rite only.\nIt is a question how far baptism was used in ante-Christian times, and\npossibly John the Baptist merely adopted the old rite for a new purpose.\n\n[43] This again is Scriptural. \u201cThe doctrine of Moses is not that\nobedience to one command will compensate for disobedience to another,\nbut that disobedience to one command will make obedience to others of\nnone effect.\u201d\n\n[44] [_Sic_ Burton. The Hebrew scribe is supposed to be speaking.]\n\n[45] Here the scribe does not explain himself. What he refers to is the\nsupposed system of reducing the blood to ashes.\n\n[46] \u201cHeretics and informers and Epicureans, who have denied the Law\nor the resurrection of the dead, ... all such go down to hell, and are\njudged for ever\u201d (Rosh ha-Shanah, or Head of the Year, eighth tract of\nthe second order).\n\n[47] There are three forms of excommunication--(1) the Nachri, or\nsimple expulsion from the synagogue; (2) expulsion accompanied with\nAnathema; and (3) the same with Maranatha. The latter is composed of\ntwo Syriac words meaning \u201cthe Lord will come,\u201d _i.e._ in judgment.\n\n[48] Hence, it may be added, the exceeding care of the Jews to\npropitiate all those having authority.\n\n[49] A tenet which in the hands of the Arab has become a very poetical\nvision. The Muhammadan\u2019s good deeds in this life, his works in fact,\nwill meet him under the form of a beautiful woman, and will lead him\nover the terrible bridge El Sirat to the Gates of Paradise.\n\n[50] Dr. McCaul (_Old Paths_, No. 5) remarks upon these and other\nprecautions which are numerous in the Hilchoth Rots\u00edh: \u201cWhat an\naffecting picture does this present of the Jews under heathen\ndomination!\u201d We should rather ask: \u201cWhat conduct on the part of the\nJews must have led to this habitual treatment by those whom they\nbranded with the name of idolaters?\u201d\n\n[51] \u201cIt is unlawful to bake or to cook on a holy day, in order to feed\nGentiles or dogs; for it is said (Exod. xii. 16), \u2018That only may be\ndone for you.\u2019 \u2018For you,\u2019 and not for Gentiles; \u2018for you,\u2019 and not for\ndogs\u201d (Hilchoth Yom Tov., c. i. 10). Some Rabbis go so far as to make\nthe Am ha-erits (son of earth, _i.e._ people of the land like the Seven\nTribes), or unlearned Jew, an abomination, a beast, whose nostrils may\nbe split, but who is too worthless to be slain (see Dr. McCaul, _The\nOld Paths_, pp. 6, 7).\n\n[52] Nothing is more striking to the Hebraist, or to one who has lived\nlong among the Hebrews, than to hear unlearned Christians perpetually\nusing the word (Sabbath) which can mean only Saturday to signify Sunday.\n\n[53] The Targum of Palestine says (chap. xxv.): \u201cHe had worshipped\nwith strange worship, he had shed innocent blood, he had gone into a\nbetrothed damsel, he had denied the life of the world to come (nowhere\ntaught in the Law), and he had despised his birthright.\u201d\n\n[54] The system of the Beth-din (house of judgment) is kept up even\nin the British Islands. The Chief Rabbi is called Rab or Ab Beth-din,\nand he nominates his two Dayan\u00edm, or associates. Its jurisdiction is\ncivil, social, and religious; but its powers extend only to levying\nfines and to excommunicating recusants. In Damascus the jurisdiction is\nmuch more extended. The building is in the street of the Scribe called\nby courtesy Rabbi Yak\u00fab Perez, and half the intrigues in the city are\nhere hatched. The well-known Khagal of the Russian Jews is a similar\ninstitution, not recognized by the Government, but exerting immense and\ninjurious power over the people.\n\n[55] Our modern versions which use the word \u201cox\u201d in such places lead to\nerror. The Hebrews did not castrate their cattle, and similarly their\nmules and their eunuchs were imported from Egypt and elsewhere. Nothing\nof this is hinted at about the bull in the most popular modern books;\nso, for instance, the article \u201cOx\u201d in Smith\u2019s _Concise Dictionary of\nthe Bible_. And here it may be noted that if a bull killed a slave\nthe owner of the former paid a fine of thirty shekels to the owner\n(Josephus, _Ant. Jud._, IV. viii. 36); hence possibly the sum offered\nto and accepted by Judas as the value of a bought servant.\n\n[56] For the other great centres of learning, see _Jerusalem and\nTiberias; Sora and Cordova: A Survey of the Religious and Scholastic\nLearning of the Jews. Designed as an Introduction to the Study of\nHebrew Literature_. By J. W. Longmans, M.A. (London: Longmans). It is\ncurious to see how neglected has been the Safed School, which is most\nerroneously included in that of Tiberias.\n\n[57] Most of these remarks are taken from the Introduction to the\n_Trait\u00e9 des Berakhoth (Benedictions) du Talmud de J\u00e9rusalem et du\nTalmud de Babylone, traduit pour la premi\u00e8re fois en Fran\u00e7ais par\nMo\u00efse Schwab, attach\u00e9 \u00e0 la Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale_ (Paris: Imprimerie\nNationale, MDCCCLXXI.).\n\n[58] The word clearly shows the immense effect of the Hellenic\nConquest. There were two forms of Sanhedrin--the Greater, numbering\nseventy-one souls; and the Lesser, consisting of twenty-three. Both\nwere composed of the three orders Priests, Levites, and common\nIsraelites. The Greater Council claimed, and would again claim,\nsupreme jurisdiction over the king, the high priest, the prophets,\nand the people, and \u201cstrangulation was the mode of execution for any\nlearned man who rebelled against their words\u201d (Hilchoth Mamrun, i. 2).\nAnti-Talmudic writers strongly object to this upstart aristocracy,\nwhen Moses (Deut. xvii.) ordained a supreme council consisting of the\n\u201cPriests the Levites\u201d (not the Priests _and_ the Levites), together\nwith the judge, or chief civil governor; the ecclesiastical element\nremaining in the family of Aaron, whilst the magistracy fell to the\nlot of Joshua. But when they assert, \u201cIt is quite absurd, and if\nthe subject were not so grave it would be ludicrous, to hear the\nRabbinists exclaiming that the Law of Moses is unchangeable, when they\nthemselves have changed all its main provisions and made an entirely\nnew religion,\u201d the Jew may fairly retort that the Pauline modifications\nextending to radical changes had the same effect upon Christianity.\n\n[59] According to the system of Sir William Jones, this name would be\nwritten Saff\u00fariyeh, but not, as travellers generally do, Saff\u00fareh or\nSaffuriyyeh.\n\n[60] The sun has often stood still in history; but how often did the\nhistorian understand what the sun standing still really means? As\nSpinoza remarked, \u201cNot even in their dreams had they ever thought of\nparhelia\u201d; and one of his editors quotes the French drummer-boy in\nSwitzerland, \u201cNous sommes ici au bout du monde! Ici on touche le soleil\nde la main!\u201d In the twelfth century Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela found the\ngrave of Rabenu Hakkadosh (R. Yah\u00fada) near \u201cSuffurieh, the Tsippori of\nantiquity,\u201d and evidently never heard the legend, \u201cThey are buried in\nthe mountain, which also contains numerous other sepulchres.\u201d In his\nday Tiberias contained only fifty Jews.\n\n[61] See C\u00e9rnach David, Editio princeps (Prague, 1592), fol. 43.\n\n[62] Similarly the Mormons \u201cpointedly condemn those who make the\ncontents of the Bible typical, metaphysical, or symbolical, \u2018as if God\nwere not honest when He speaks with man, or uses words in any other\nthan their true acceptation,\u2019 or could \u2018palter in a double sense.\u2019\u201d\nThis return to Hebrew lines of thought is not a little curious, and\nit may be remarked that every fresh branch put forth by the tree of\n\u201cProtestantism,\u201d as it is called, invariably reverts more and more\nto the old type. Indeed, whenever in these days we hear of a new\n\u201creligion\u201d having been born into the world, we may determine, _\u00e0\npriori_, that it is more Jewish than its predecessors. And traces of\nthe same operation may be found amongst the Hindu Sikhs and the Muslim\nBabees.\n\n[63] Hagadah, from Hagah, to declare or describe, to invent or imagine,\nis applied to any illustration, historical or fabulous. Halakah, from\nHalak, to walk, is a rule of conduct, anything prescriptive of the\npeculiarities of Jewish life.\n\n[64] See the Mishnah, fifth part, tract Edonyoth, i., \u00a7\u00a7 5 _et seq._\nThis is a fair answer to the host of contradictions and the general\ncharge of inconsistency levelled by anti-Talmud writers against the\nOral Law, and it enables the modern Rabbi to make almost any assertion\nthat he pleases concerning disputed points. Thus one will find in the\nTalmud that Christians should be put to death, the other that they\nshould be treated like brothers. This is certainly very convenient.\n\n[65] It is still a disputed point whether the two Targums (versions or\ntranslations of the Pentateuch) on the Pentateuch, attributed to the\nproselyte Onkelos, or Ankelos, and to the Jew Jonathan bin Uzzul, were\nwritten by contemporary students in the Rabbinical Schools of Jerusalem\nwithin the half-century before Christ, or were worked out like the\nSeptuagint by the Babylonian Maturgemanin (interpreters) of the fourth\ncentury. The later the date the better in order to account for such\nGr\u00e6cisms and Latinisms as Ardiphene (Rhodaphne, oleander), Polimarkin\n([Greek: \u03a0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2: Polemarchos]), Sapuklator\u00eda (Speculators), and\nOktaraia (Octariones, pr\u00e6fecti militares). In the Targum of Jerusalem\nwe read \u201ca band of Saracens.\u201d\n\n[66] _Vie de Hillel_, par M. le Grand Rabbin Tr\u00ednel (1867).\n\n[67] [The _Novell\u00e6_ or _Novel Constitutions_ were so called because\nthey were posterior in time to the _Institutes_ and other digests of\nthe Roman Emperors, especially Justinian.]\n\n[68] Rabbi Gamaliel the Elder flourished about the end of the first\ncentury. Some suppose that he added a nineteenth prayer to the Shamunah\nAshara, the \u201ceighteen\u201d composed by Ezra and the men of the Great\nCongregation, and which is still used by the British and other Jews.\nOthers attribute it to Rabbi Samuel the Lesser, a disciple of Gamaliel,\nwhilst others make it of even more modern date.\n\n[69] The derided myth has been amply vindicated by the Rev. John Mills\n(_The British Jews_, p. 409) and by N. M. Schwab (Introduction, p.\nxxviii). The latter writer would be valuable, if he could only be\nimpartial. Unfortunately he writes with all the animus of a Hebrew (pp.\nxxxviii and xxxix), and not a few of the prejudices of a Frenchman (p.\nxxvii). This is the more regrettable, as the reading public will be\nwholly in his hands and he can make the Talmud say what he pleases.\n\n[70] [It is the [Greek: \u03b6\u03c5\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2: zythos] or Egyptian beer mentioned by\nHerodotus, ii. 77. Later the term was extended to the _cerevisia_ and\nother beers of European nations; hence the obsolete word _zythepsary_\n([Greek: \u03b6\u03c5\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2: zythos], and [Greek: \u03b5\u03c8\u03c9: eps\u00f4], to boil), a brewery.]\n\n[71] Here, however, we can hardly find the Talmud alone guilty. Its\nanthropopathisms are merely exaggerations of what is found in the books\nof Moses when the Creator is subject to wrath, sorrow, repentance,\njealousy, and other human passions of the baser kind. In fact, it would\nbe difficult to detect in the Rabbinical ordinances anything which is\nnot built upon the Mosaic text; they have greatly added to the Law,\nwhich, methinks, is their great sin in the eyes of Christians, and they\nhave in many cases carried it out to absurdity--_corruptio optimi fit\npassima_.\n\n[72] This Pope in A.D. 1286 wrote to the Archbishop of Canterbury\ndirecting him to have a care lest any one read a book from which all\nevils flow. Pope Pius IV., when authorizing a new edition, expressly\nstipulated that it should be published without the title of Talmud,\nwhich appears to have been a kind of Shibboleth, \u201cSi tamen prodierit\nsine nomine Talmud, tolerari deberet.\u201d Such was the terror which it\ninspired in the ecclesiastical mind.\n\n[73] An _ad captandum vulgus verdict_. It is thus modified by the next\nsentence: \u201cAll the latter Gavn\u00edm [luminaries of the Jewish Law] agree\nthat Christians are reckoned as our own brethren, and are not included\nin the term Nakhr\u00edm [strangers].\u201d\n\n[74] Dr. Robinson, _Biblical Researches in Palestine_, iii. 331.\n\n[75] After the second expulsion of the Templars, Sultan Bibars\nrepeopled Safed with a colony from Damascus, and local tradition\nasserts that of these many were Kurds.\n\n[76] [The Empress of Constantinople.]\n\n[77] The treatment of the Jewish sick, even in these degenerate days,\nis very scrupulous. When the patient is evidently moribund, not a drop\nof medicine or even a drink of water must be given to him unless he ask\nfor it himself, lest such act hasten dissolution, and make the giver\nguilty of having caused the death of a brother Hebrew.\n\n[78] [_Sic_ Burton, but should be 94.]\n\n[79] [The _neumes_, properly pneumes (Gr. [Greek: \u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1: pneuma]),\n_i.e._ the musical notations prevalent from the eighth to the twelfth\ncentury, are supposed by some to represent the ancient _Nota Romana_,\nthough others hold them to be of Oriental origin.]\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nTHE CONTINUITY OF TRADITION IN THE EAST\n\n\nObviously such cruel and vindictive teaching as that recounted in\nthe previous chapter must bear fruit in crime and atrocities. The\noccurrence of such deeds explains much of what appears to have been the\nmere results of superstition and greed of gain amongst semi-barbarous\npeoples. From the earliest ages to these modern days, and not in one\nplace, but all the world over, the hatred of the Jew against the\nnon-Jew has been of the fiercest. Those who are so ready to admit and\ndeplore the mighty provocations which roused a spirit of retaliation\nin the Rabbinical mind should equally make allowance for the natural\nfeelings of the unfortunate Gentiles and heathens when the \u201cPeople of\nthe Synagogue\u201d had their wicked will. In the fifth century the Hebrew\ncolony, which, flying from Syria and Palestine after the wars of Titus\nand Hadrian, settled near Yathrib (Medina), was powerful enough to\nmurder the Viceroy of the Tobbaa, or Himyarite King, and to convert\nto Judaism, Du-naw\u00e1s (A.D. 480), one of the last of that dynasty. He\nacquired the title \u201cLord of the Fiery Pit,\u201d by burning alive, in a\ntrench filled with combustibles, thousands of the Christians of Nejer\u00e1n\nat the instigation of the Jews. In later times the \u201cPeople of the\nSynagogue\u201d brought upon themselves a war of extermination by insulting\nan Arab woman, and after the siege of Kheibar they attempted to poison\nMuhammad. In A.D. 614 the Hebrews of Galilee, according to Eutychius,\njoining the Persian army under Chosroes II., caused a great slaughter\nof the Nazarenes. When the Holy City was captured, they bought at a\ncheap rate those taken by the Persians, especially from the Greek\nmonastery of Mar Saba, for the sole purpose of butchering them. Even\nin Abyssinia, when the Falashas, or black proselytes, established a\npowerful kingdom, this quasi-Jewish race, under their King Gideon and\ntheir Queen Judith, was a scourge to all the nations around. These\nare but a few instances of the many which would fill a volume. It is\nabsurd to suppose with the \u201cliberal\u201d writers of the nineteenth century\nthat whole colonies have been expelled, driven away half naked, from\nEngland and France, from Germany, Spain, Portugal, and other Christian\nkingdoms; that communities were imprisoned in Ghettos, and subjected to\ntumultuous and wholesale massacres; and that thousands of individual\nJews and Jewesses, old men and children, were roasted with dogs over\nslow fires, were skinned alive, tortured, dismembered, and slain like\nsavage beasts for the mere frenzy and the ignorance of superstition,\nfor simply diabolical barbarity, and for clipping coin or for claiming\nmore than two shillings per week as interest on a loan of twenty\nshillings.\n\nWe must seek for a solid cause underlying these horrible acts of\nvengeance; we find ample motive in the fact that the Jew\u2019s hand\nwas ever, like Ishmael\u2019s, against every man but those belonging to\nthe Synagogue. His fierce passions and fiendish cunning, combined\nwith abnormal powers of intellect, with intense vitality, and with\na persistency of purpose which the world has rarely seen, and\nwhetted moreover by a keen thirst for blood engendered by defeat and\nsubjection, combined to make him the deadly enemy of all mankind,\nwhilst his unsocial and iniquitous Oral Law contributed to inflame\nhis wild lust of pelf, and to justify the crimes suggested by spite\nand superstition. Because under the present enlightened Governments\nof the West the Jews have lost much of their ancient rancour, and no\nlonger perpetrate the atrocities of the Dark Ages, Europe is determined\nto believe that the race is, and ever has been, incapable of such\natrocities. The conclusion is by no means logical. We have seen them\neven now repeated in the Holy Land, and presently we shall see that\nthey are still not unknown to Western Europe, Asia Minor, and Persia.\n\nAnd what can we expect from a system which teaches men to believe and\nto act as follows?[80] \u201cA tradition of the Talmud says (Talmud, Book\nBaba Kama, Chapter Haggozel) if an Israelite and a Gentile come before\nthee to judgment, if thou canst absolve the Israelite according to the\nJewish Law, absolve him, and say, \u2018This is our way of judging.\u2019 But if\nthou canst absolve him by Gentile Law, absolve him, and say, \u2018This is\nyour way of judging.\u2019 But if not, then they are to come upon him with\ncunning frauds. R. Samuel says the error of a Gentile is also lawful.\nFor, behold, Samuel bought a piece of gold for four small coins, and\nadded one more (that he might go away the sooner, and not perceive\nthe fraud). Chahana bought a hundred and twenty casks of wine for the\nprice of a hundred; he said, \u2018My trust is in thee.\u2019 So far the Talmud.\nFrom these and similar passages Jews infer that they may and ought to\ndeceive Christians and others who are not Jews. Thus also from other\npassages they infer that they may and ought to kill Christians, of\nwhich the following example is found in the book Mechilta: Exod. xiv.\n7, _And he took six hundred chosen chariots, and all the chariots of\nEgypt_. From whom did he take them? If you say from the Egyptians, is\nit not said already, Exod. ix. 6, _And all the cattle of Egypt died_?\nIf you say Pharaoh, then there is a difficulty; for it is said already,\nix. 3, _Behold, the hand of the Lord shall be upon thy cattle_. But if\nyou say they were from the Israelites, it is said already, x. 26, _Our\ncattle shall go with us_. From whom then were they? It is plain that\nthey must have been from those who feared the word of the Lord. Hence\nwe learn that those of the servants of Pharaoh who feared the word of\nthe Lord were a stumbling-block to Israel, and hence R. Simeon ben\nJochai says, \u2018Slay thou the best amongst the Gentiles, and of the best\nof serpents bruise the head.\u2019[81] Thus far the Talmud; and by this they\nmean to say, that as of serpents he especially is to be killed that is\nthe greatest and best of its kind, so Christians are to be dealt with\nin the same way. For killing Christians and throwing their children\ninto pits, and even for killing them when they can do it secretly, they\nderive an argument from that which is said in the book Abodah Zarah,\nChapter En Maamidin: \u2018As to Gentiles and robbers, and those that tend\nsmall cattle, they are neither to be helped out of a well nor to be\nthrown into it. But heretics and informers and apostates are to be\nthrown in, but not to be helped out.\u2019 The commentary of Rashi says:\n\u2018Heretics mean the priests of idols; informers mean calumniators who\nbetray the wealth of their brethren into the hands of the Gentiles.\u2019\nR. Shesheth says: \u2018If there be a step in the pit, let him find an\nexcuse, and say, Lest an evil beast descend upon him.\u2019 Rabba and R.\nJoseph both say: \u2018If there be a stone upon the mouth of the well, he\nis to cover it, and say, I do it that the beasts may pass over it.\u2019\nR. Nachman says: \u2018If there be a ladder in the well, he is to take it\naway, and say, I wish to get down my son from the roof.\u2019 Thus far the\nTalmud. Thy prudence, O reader, may perceive that the Talmud, which so\nperniciously teaches them to lie and to kill Christians, is not the law\nof God, but the figment of the devil.\u201d\n\nWe can hardly be surprised, after reading such atrocious doctrines,\nat what history tells us concerning the Jews, their crimes, and their\ncondemnations. For instance:\n\nIn A.D. 419, according to Socrates (_Eccles. Hist._, Lib. VII., chap,\nxvi.), some Jews of Inmestar, between Chalcis and Antioch, as a drunken\nfrolic, tied a Christian child[82] upon a cross and mocked it, and\nthat, hurried on in their wickedness, they afterwards scourged it until\nit died.\n\nIn A.D. 560 a Jew was stoned for carrying away and profaning an image\nof the Saviour. The same happened at Odessa in A.D. 1871, where the\nHebrews were charged with stealing the image of the \u201cmiraculous Madonna\nof Kutperova.\u201d\n\nAbout A.D. 787 the Jews of Beyrut repeated the offence. The result was\nthe conversion of almost all their number, and the consecration of\ntheir synagogue by the bishop.\n\nA.D. 1010. Massacre of the Jews in France.\n\nA.D. 1017. Certain Jews beheaded by order of Pope Benedict at Rome.\n\nA.D. 1135. The Jews crucified a boy at Norwich. According to\nthe general report, they hired a Christian lad aged twelve as a\nleather-sewer, and converted him into a Paschal offering; they placed\na bit in his mouth, and after a thousand outrages they crucified him,\nand pierced his side in order to mock the Redeemer\u2019s death. The corpse\nwas borne in a sack to be burned outside the town gates; but a surprise\ncaused the murderers to fly, leaving the remains hanging upon a tree.\n\nA.D. 1166. The Jews at Ponthosa crucified a lad aged twelve.\n\nA.D. 1185. For similar outrage upon a girl and others, King Philip\nAugustus confiscated the goods of the Jews, and banished them from his\nrealms in the April of the following year.\n\nA.D. 1189. The Jews were massacred at London and in other parts of\nEngland.\n\nA.D. 1190. The Jews were massacred at York.\n\nA.D. 1250. The Jews of Saragossa nailed a child named Dominic to\nthe wall in the form of a cross, and then pierced his side with a\nspear. During the same century those of Toledo also killed a Christian\nyouth. According to the _Cronica Serafica_ (della Vita di S. Francesco\nd\u2019Assisi, Opera del Padre Damiano Cornejo, 1721, Lib. I., chap, i.),\nthe Jews superstitiously used the blood of Christians in child-birth,\nand sent it in a dried state to China and other places, where they had\nsynagogues, but where worshippers of Christ[83] are not to be found.\nHence the Jews were eventually expelled from Spain and Portugal.\n\nA.D. 1255. \u201cJappen,\u201d one of the chief Jews of Lincoln, and others of\nhis faith, kidnapped a lad eleven years old (August 27), beat him\nwith rods, cut off his nose and upper lip, broke some of his teeth,\nand pierced his side. King Henry III. and his Parliament at Reading\ncondemned the murderers to be dragged to death at horses\u2019 heels, and\ngibbeted their carcases.\n\nA.D. 1271. The Jews of Pforzheim murdered a girl seven years old.\n\nA.D. 1287. The Jews of Wesel murdered a boy named Werner.\n\nA.D. 1288. The Jews of Pacherat [?] (W\u00fcrtzburg) murdered a Christian,\nand extracted his blood \u201cas it were with a winepress, and which they\nare said to use as a medicine.\u201d About the same time the Jews of Munich\nmurdered a Christian child.\n\nA.D. 1290. A Jew was burnt in Paris for insulting a consecrated wafer.\nIn the same year, during the reign of Edward I., fifteen to sixteen\nthousand Jews were banished from England; nor were they allowed to\nreturn till the days of Cromwell, the first Liberal (A.D. 1660).\n\nA.D. 1299. Many Jews were put to death for insulting a consecrated\nwafer at Roettingen of Franconia.\n\nA.D. 1303. The Jews of Th\u00fcringen murdered a child, and were slain in\nnumbers.\n\nA.D. 1306. King Philip of France was induced by a multitude of\naccusations, involving magic, sacrilege, and murder, to expel the Jews\nfrom his country, to confiscate all their goods except what was wanted\nfor the journey, and to forbid their return under pain of death--all\nwere arrested on the same day, July 22.\n\nA.D. 1330. The Jews of Gustow in Vandalia [Pomerania] insulted a Host.\n\nA.D. 1348-1350. The Jews were accused of poisoning the wells and\nrivers, and of causing the plague which then devastated Europe. Many\nwere slain and thousands were driven away from Germany, where the cry\nof \u201cHep\u201d was first raised. At length the Papal power was compelled to\ndefend their lives by threats of excommunicating their destroyers.\n\nA.D. 1379. The Jews of Belgium insulted a consecrated Host.\n\nA.D. 1399. The same was done by the Jews of Poland.\n\nA.D. 1468. The Jews of Toledo in Spain crucified a Christian boy.\n\nA.D. 1475. The Jews again insulted the Host, and were expelled the\nterritories of the Bishop of Passau.\n\nA.D. 1492-1498. The Jews were expelled from Spain, in consequence of\npopular clamour, by Isabel the Catholic. Many retired to Portugal,\nwhere asylum was granted to them under the conditions, first, that each\nshould pay a certain sum of gold for admission, and, secondly, that if\nfound in Portugal after a certain day, they should either consent to\nbe baptized or be sold for slaves. At the expiration of the appointed\ntime many remained. \u201cThe King therefore gave orders to take away all\ntheir children under fourteen years of age, to distribute them amongst\nChristians, to send them to the newly discovered islands, and thus\nto pluck up Judaism by the roots.\u201d This expulsion, which has been\nstrongly commented upon by modern historians, is still fresh in the\nmemory of the Jews, and an Eastern Rabbi can hardly conceal the hatred\nwith which even in these days he regards a Spanish official.\n\nA.D. 1495. The Jews of Trent, by means of one of their number, a\nphysician, decoyed to his house, whilst the Christians were at church,\nit being Maunday Thursday, a boy two years and a half old, by name\nSimeon, the son of a tanner. Before the Paschal festival commenced, the\nprincipal Jews collected in a room near their synagogue. The child,\ngagged with a kerchief, was extended in the form of a cross, and was\nheld down by his murderers. The blood, pouring from heavy gashes, was\ncollected in a basin, and when death drew near the victim was placed\nupon his legs by the two men, and the others pierced his body with\nsharp instruments, all vying in brutality and enjoying the torture.\nThe corpse having been found in the Etsch river, which flows through\nthe city, led to the detection of the crime; the murderers were put\nto death, the synagogue was razed to the ground, and a church was\nbuilt over the place where the horrid deed was done. A sculpture was\nput on the Bridge Tower in Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and a picture of\na \u201cChristian Infant murdered by the Jews\u201d was placed in one of the\ngalleries in the H\u00f4tel de Ville. Of late years it has been removed,\nin deference to the feelings of the Hebrew community, which, of late\nyears, has formed a large and important section of the commercial\npopulation. This murder has been abundantly commented upon. Dr. John\nMatthias Tiberinus, in Trent at the time, and Jacobus Philippus\nBergamensis, of the Order of the Hermits of St. Augustine, who was then\nliving at the neighbouring town of Bergamo, gave accounts of it; whilst\nan engraving was produced in the _Chronicles_ of John Louis Gottfried,\nedited by Matth\u00e6us Merianus. On the other hand, Pietro Mocenigo, the\nDoge of Venice, and his Senate asserted: \u201cCredimus certe rumorem ipsum\nde puero necato commentum esse et artem; ad quem finem, viderint et\ninterpretentur alii.\u201d\n\nA.D. 1518. The Jews ill-treated consecrated Hosts and murdered\nChristian children in the Electorate of Brandenburg.\n\nA.D. 1669 (September 25). A child was barbarously slaughtered by\none Raphael Levi, and the cause was publicly tried at Metz. The\nNuremburg Chronicle produces, in the same year, three other cases of\nkidnapping--one in England and two at Fiesole. Baronio (_Raccolta delle\nCause Celebri_, p. 288, etc.) supplies many similar instances of child\nstealing and murder.\n\nM. Tustet, a Lazarist priest, used to relate what he had heard when\nliving at Turin from the lady who nearly fell a victim to Jewish\nsuperstition, even in the early part of the present century. A certain\nSignor Antonio Gervalon, born at Castiglione d\u2019Osta, and settled in\nbusiness at Turin, happened, when walking with his wife Giulietta\nBonnier, to enter the Jewish quarter. This Ghetto used to be closed at\nnight, as in Hamburg and Frankfort. Whilst he was talking business with\none of his Hebrew acquaintances, Madame Gervalon left him, and strolled\non a short way. Suddenly she was mobbed by a crowd of Jews, who hustled\nher forwards, and at last forcibly thrust her into a _souterrain_\nclosed by a trap-door. She was stripped to the waist, and presently\nvisited by two Rabbis, who, after reading their books for about half\nan hour, retired, saying, _Voi dovete morire_. The husband, after the\nconversation ended, followed his wife, whom all the Ghetto folk denied\nhaving seen; and thinking that perhaps she had gone home, he returned\nthere to seek her, but in vain. Thence he went to various houses, till\na relative said to him in jest, \u201cHave a care! You know how the Jews\ntreat us Christians.\u201d The words struck him. He hurriedly collected\na party of policemen, and whilst these searched the Ghetto he went\nabout shouting, \u201cLa mia moglie! La mia moglie\u201d (My wife! my wife!).\nThough half dead with fear, the lady at length screamed a reply, and\nwas saved. The affair was hushed up with money, which made the Jews as\npowerful at Turin as they are at Aleppo and Damascus; but the tale was\nlong told by the children of Madame Gervalon. In this section of the\nnineteenth century the subject has passed into the domain of politics,\nand is no longer submitted to reason and judgment. The Italian Liberal\ndenies and derides the charges, whilst the Conservatives or Retrogrades\nare almost ashamed to support them.\n\nA.D. 1811. A Christian woman disappeared in the Jewish quarter of\nAleppo.[84]\n\nA.D. 1821. The Jews sacrificed a man at Beyrut.\n\nA.D. 1824. The Jews of Beyrut made away with Fatallah Sayegh, an\nAleppine Muhammadan.\n\nA.D. 1829. The Jews of Hamah murdered a Muhammadan girl, and were\nexpelled the city.\n\nA.D. 1834. The Jews of Tripoli were accused of murdering an Aleppine\nChristian.\n\nA.D. 1838. The Jews of Jerusalem attempted to murder a Muhammadan.\n\nA.D. 1839. A flask of blood passed through the Custom-house of Beyrut.\n\nA.D. 1840. The Jews murdered Padre Tomaso and Ibrah\u00edm Am\u00e1rah at\nDamascus. In the same year they made away with a Greek boy at Rhodes, a\nGreek boy disappeared from Corfu, and an attempt was made to murder a\nMuhammadan.\n\nA.D. 1847. The Jews crucified a Christian boy in Mount Lebanon.\n\nA.D. 1853. The Jews of Caiffa murdered the wife of an Algerine Jew.\n\nA.D. 1865. The Jews of Safed put to death a Spanish Jewess.\n\nDo not these things remind us of that \u201cgeneration of vipers,\u201d certain\nof the Jews, who banded together and bound themselves by a curse,\nsaying that they would neither eat nor drink till they had killed Paul?\nAnd was not the Apostle justified in asserting, \u201cThey please not God,\nand are contrary to all men\u201d?\n\nHow vain it is, in presence of all these horrors, to quote the\ntestimony of Grotius, who, speaking of the Jews since the Dispersion,\nsays: \u201cEt tamen tanto tempore Jud\u00e6i, nec ad falsorum deorum cultus\ndefluxerunt, nec de adulteriis accusantur\u201d; and, \u201cApud Batavos Jud\u00e6i\nsuspecti talium facinorum non sunt.\u201d Yet these men excommunicated\nSpinoza and attempted his life because he wrote the truth that was in\nhim. Granting, however, that the Jews of Holland were like the mild\nand unoffending Kara\u00eftes of the Crimea and Aden, it does not follow\nthat all the widely parted families of the house of Israel deserve an\nequally favourable verdict. At any rate, sufficient has been advanced\nin these pages to open the eyes of the student and the ethnographer; it\nwill stand on record \u201cuntil Elijah.\u201d\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[80] The passage is from the Pugio Fidei (Part III., c. xxii., \u00a7 22) of\nthe learned Raymund Martin (A.D. 1284), quoted in a pamphlet, of which\nmore presently.\n\n[81] This has passed into an Arabic proverb.\n\n[82] The annals of the world are full of reports concerning children\nbeing kidnapped, crowned with thorns, flogged, crucified, and pierced\nwith sharp instruments. Of course the child is chosen because it is\nmore easily mastered than a man.\n\n[83] The Chronicles are right in believing that the Jew hates the\nChristian more than he does the Muhammadan. \u201cAs to those Gentiles,\nwho, like the Ishmaelites, are not idolaters, their wine is unlawful\nto drink, but is lawful for purpose of profit, as is taught by all the\nGaons; but Christians are idolaters, and their wine, even such as has\nnot been used as wine of libation, is unlawful even for purposes of\nprofit\u201d (Hilchoth Maakhaloth Asuroth, c. xi. 7). \u201cStatuimus,\u201d says the\nTalmud (Order I., Dissert. 4, quoted by Lucio Ferraris), \u201cut quilibet\nJud\u00e6us ter in die omnem Christianorum gentem ac Deum precetur ut\nconfundat, interimatque ipsam cum regibus et principibus suis; atque\nhoc maxim\u00e8 faciant sacerdotes Jud\u00e6orum in synagoga ter quotidie orantes\nin odium Jesu Nazareni.\u201d This curse is not ordered against Muhammadans.\n\n[84] This skeleton list is continued in order to show chronologically\nthe continuity of tradition concerning atrocities and sacrilege\npractised by the Jews.\n\n\n\n\nII.  THE GYPSY\n\n\u201cA people proscribed by opinion, and doomed by the laws to opprobrium\nand ignominy; a race which, driven from all liberal professions,\nhas been for ages, and still is, robbed of its right to hold landed\nproperty; which, subjected to special and severe regulations, has\nlearned at once to obey and yet to preserve a manner of independence;\nwhich, despite the contempt that it inspires and the hate that it\nawakes and the prejudices wherewith it is received and judged, still\nresists this contempt, this hatred, and finally all those causes which\nought to disunite, loosen, and annihilate the family, the race, the\nnation;--such a people, I say, deserves the observer\u2019s attention, if\nonly from the fact of its existence.\u201d\n\n                                                  JAUBERT DE PASSA.\n\n\nTO THE READER\n\nOf general works upon the subject of the Gypsies we have perhaps\nenough, and more than enough; this objection, however, cannot be\nurged against specialities, which still are highly desirable in every\ndepartment of \u201cChinganology.\u201d I use the latter term in preference\nto the French _Tsiganologie_, of which more presently, and the\n\u201cRomanology,\u201d a term of dubious import, lately introduced into English.\n\nI wish to place _in extenso_ before the public the following\nconclusions which the study of some years has, it is hoped, justified\nme in drawing with regard to the relation of the Gypsies and the Jats:\n\n  1. The medi\u00e6val Gypsies of Europe were the last wave of Aryan\n      emigration that flowed westward during the early fifteenth\n      century; and this wave was possibly preceded by more than one\n      similar exodus.\n\n  2. The medi\u00e6val Gypsies show family resemblances, physical and\n      moral, ethnological and linguistic, with the modern Jats, a\n      highly important race, which extends from the mouth of the Indus\n      to the head of the great Valley, thence ramifying over Turkistan\n      and the far North.\n\n  3. There are solid reasons for believing the Jats and the Jin-tchi\n      of Tatary to be the modern representatives of the classical Get\u00e6\n      and the Goths of later days.\n\n  4. The language of both tribes (Jat and Gypsy) is of Indo-Persian\n      type, the Indian ingredient not being so much decomposed as in\n      the modern varieties of Prakrit. An absolute isolation of speech,\n      especial reasons for secrecy, and the fact of being oral and\n      never written have preserved its purity among the Gypsies; while\n      the Jats, in close contact with alien tongues, have made those\n      secular linguistic changes which are familiar even to English and\n      French.\n\n  5. The most ancient name of the race is _Ching\u00e1neh_, a term still\n      used in Persia and Turkey, and necessarily corrupted by the\n      Arabs, who have no _ch_, to _Jing\u00e1neh_.\n\n  6. Concerning the origin of the Gypsy article (_o--os_, _a--as_,\n      etc.), which is unknown to both Sanskrit and Prakrit, the suit\n      is still pending. Possibly it is original and peculiar to the\n      dialect; more probably it is an European and especially a Greek\n      innovation. Briefly, until we have grammatical and vocabularian\n      sketches of the Central Asian and the Turkoman-Gypsy tongues, we\n      are not in a position to draw conclusions.\n\nI propose to discuss the Indian affinities of the Gypsies. I begin\nwith a detailed critique of the various reviews proceeding from the\nprolific pen of M. Paul Bataillard, who claims the merit, such as it\nis, of having first identified the Gypsies and the Jats. I end with\ntopographical notes on both tribes throughout their extension from the\nIndus to Morocco and even to the Brazil.\n\n\n\n\nPart I\n\nNOTES ON MODERN STUDIES OF \u201cCHINGANOLOGY\u201d\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nTHE INDIAN AFFINITIES OF THE GYPSIES\n\n\nThe following letter to the _Academy_ (March 27, 1875), which opened\nthe discussion between M. Paul Bataillard and its author, speaks for\nitself[85]:\n\n\u201cIn the _Academy_ of February 27, 1875, I had these words:\n\n\u201c\u2018Professor de Goeje, of Leyden, has printed some interesting\n_Contributions to the History of the Gipsies_ (sic). He accepts the\nview propounded by Pott,[86] as early as 1853, that the Gipsies are\nclosely related to the Indian Jatt (a name which the Arab historians\ntransform into Zott).... Dr. Trumpp[87] has already pointed out the\nclose resemblance between the European Gipsies and the Jatt of the\nbanks of the Indus.\u2019\n\n\u201cI venture to hope that you will permit me to show the part taken by\nmyself in this question.[88] _Sindh and the Races that inhabit the\nValley of the Indus_ (London: Allen), my volume written between 1845\nand 1849, and published in 1851, thus treats of the peoples of the\nplains:\n\n\u201c\u2018The Jat, or as others write the word, Jath, Juth, or Jutt, was, in\nthe time of the Kalhor\u00e1 dynasty, one of the ruling classes in Sindh.\nIt was probably for this reason that the author of the Tohfat el Kir\u00e1m\n(a well-known book of Sindhi Annals) made them of kindred origin with\nthe Belochis, who now repudiate such an idea with disdain. The Jat\u2019s\naccount of his own descent gives to Ukayl, the companion of Muhammad,\nthe high honour of being his progenitor; but what class of Muslim\npeople, however vile, do not claim some equally high origin?\n\n\u201cAs J\u00e1taki, the dialect peculiar to the people, proves, they (i.e.\n_the Sindh division of this extensive race_) must have come from the\nPanj\u00e1b, and the other districts Ubho or B\u00e1l\u00e1dasht, Jhang-Siy\u00e1l,\nMult\u00e1n, and other regions dependent upon the great Country of the Five\nRivers. Driven by war or famine from their own lands, they migrated\nsouthwards to Sebi (_Sibi_ or _Siwi, Upper Sindh_) and to the _hills_\naround it. They are supposed to have entered Sindh a little before\nthe accession of the Kalhor\u00e1 Princes, and shortly afterwards to have\nrisen to distinction by their superior courage and personal strength.\nAt present they have lost all that distinguished them, and of their\nmultitude of J\u00e1g\u00edrd\u00e1rs, Zemind\u00e1rs, and Sard\u00e1rs now not a single\ndescendant possesses anything like wealth or rank. The principal\nsettlements are in the provinces of Kakr\u00e1lo, J\u00e1ti, Chediyo, Maniy\u00e1r,\nPhul\u00e1ji, and Joh\u00ed. [_Those of Umarkot speak, it is said, a different\ndialect from the Indine Jats, and not a few migrating tribes graze\ntheir herds on the great Delta._[89]] They are generally agriculturists\nor breeders of camels, and appear to be a quiet, inoffensive race.\nThroughout the eastern parts of Central Asia, the name Jat is\nsynonymous with thief and scoundrel.\n\n\u201c\u2018The Sindhi Jats have many different Kamus or clans, the principal\nof which are the following: Babbur, Bh\u00e1ti, Jisk\u00e1ni, Kalaru, Mag\u00e1si,\nMir-jat, Parhiy\u00e1r, Sanjar\u00e1ni, Siy\u00e1l, and Sol\u00e1ngi.\u2019\n\n\u201cTo this text were appended the following notes:\n\n \u201cJat^u in the Sindhi dialect means: 1. A camel-driver or breeder. 2.\n The name of a Beloch clan. Generally in the lower Indus Valley it is\n written Jat^u, and pronounced Dyat^u. It has three significations: 1.\n The name of a tribe, the Jats. 2. A Sindhi, as opposed to a Beloch;\n it is in this sense an insulting expression, and so the Beloch and\n Brahins of the hills call the Sindhi language J\u00e1thki. 3. A word of\n insult, a \u2018barbarian,\u2019 as in the expression _do-dasto Jat^u_, \u2018an\n utter savage.\u2019\n\n \u201cLt. Wood\u2019s work shows that the Jats are still found in the Panj\u00e1b and\n all along the banks of the Indus.\n\n \u201cUnder the name Jat no less than four races are comprised.\n\n\u201cI continued:\n\n\u201c\u2018It appears probable from the appearance and other peculiarities\nof the race that the Jats are connected by consanguinity with that\npeculiar race the Gypsies. Of 130 words used by the Gypsies in Syria,\nno less than 104 belong to the Indo-Persian class of language. The\nrest may be either the remains of the barbarous tongues spoken by\nthe aboriginal mountaineers who inhabited the tract between the\nIndus and Eastern Persia, or the invention of a subsequent age, when\ntheir dispersion among hostile tribes rendered a \u201cthieves\u2019 language\u201d\nnecessary. The numerals are almost all pure Persian. There are two\nwords, \u201ckuri\u201d (a house) and \u201cpsih\u201d (a cat), probably corrupted from\nthe Pushtu \u201ckor\u201d and \u201cpishu.\u201d Two other words are Sindhi \u201cm\u00e1nna\u201d for\n\u201cm\u00e1ni,\u201d bread, and \u201ch\u00fai\u201d for \u201ch\u00fa,\u201d he. As might be expected from a\ntribe inhabiting Syria, Arabic and Turkish words occasionally occur,\nbut they form no part of the groundwork of the language.\u2019\n\n\u201cIt was my fortune to wander far and wide, during four years of\nstaff service, about the Valley of the Indus; and to make personal\nacquaintance with many, if not all, its wild tribes. I saw much of the\nJats, lodged in their huts and tents, and studied the camel under their\ntuition. They are the best \u2018Vets.\u2019 and breeders known to that part\nof the Indian Empire. My kind friend, now no more, then Colonel, and\nafterwards General, Walter Scott, of the Bombay Engineers, had a Jat in\nhis service; and the rough old man\u2019s peculiarities afforded us abundant\ndiversion. Thus I was able to publish in 1849 the first known notice\nof J\u00e1taki and its literature. The author of the famous \u2018Dabistan\u2019[90]\napplies the term \u2018Jat tongue\u2019 to that in which N\u00e1nah Sh\u00e1h, the Apostle\nof the Sikhs, composed his Grauth[91] and other works. Throughout the\nPanj\u00e1b _Jatki b\u00fat_ (\u2018Jat tongue\u2019) is synonymous with the _Gunw\u00e1r ki\nboli_ or \u2018peasants\u2019 jargon\u2019 of Hindustan.\n\n\u201cI wrote the word _J_\u00e1_t_aki with two italics. The first denotes the\npeculiar Sindhi sound, a blending of _j_ and _t_; the second is the\nfamiliar cerebral of Sanskrit and Prakrit, which survives to a certain\nextent in our modern English tongue, though unknown to the Latin and\nthe Teutonic languages. The tribal name is _J_a_t_^u, with the short\nterminal vowel which in Sindhi, as in Sanskrit, follows the consonant;\nits plural, _J_a_t_\u00e1_n_, ends with a well-marked nasal.\n\n\u201cAt that time I divided this rude race of semi-Bedawin into four great\ntribes; namely:\n\n\u201c\u2018The Panj\u00e1b\u00ed Jat, who is neither a Hindu nor a Hindi (Muslim). He\nfirst appears in Indian history as a nomad, alternately shepherd,\nrobber, and temporary tiller of the ground. Many became Sikhs, and\ndid good service to N\u00e1nah Shah\u2019s faith by their zealous opposition to\nMuhammadan bigotry. As this was their sole occupation for many years,\nthey gradually grew more and more warlike, and at one time they were as\nfighting a race as any in India. They have been identified by Colonel\nSleeman and others with the ancient Get\u00e6 and their descendants the\nGoths.[92]\n\n\u201c\u2018The Jat or Dyat of the Haz\u00e1rah country, Jhang-Siy\u00e1l, Kach (Kutch)\nGand\u00e1va, and Sindh generally, where they may number two hundred and\nfifty thousand out of a total population of one million. They are all\nMuslims, and are supposed to have emigrated from the north during or\nshortly after the Kalhor\u00e1 accession; hence their dialect is commonly\ncalled Belochki. In those days the Beloch\u00eds were very little known to\nSindh, whose aristocracy, the Am\u00edrs, J\u00e1g\u00edrd\u00e1rs, and opulent Zemind\u00e1rs,\nwas either Sindhi or Jats. About Pesh\u00e1wur \u201cJat\u201d is still synonymous\nwith Zemind\u00e1r or landed proprietor; at times, however, it is used as a\nterm of reproach.\n\n\u201c\u2018The third is a clan of Beloch\u00eds, who spell their name with the\nArabo-Persian, not the Sindhi _j_. In the lower Indine Valley they hold\nthe province of J\u00e1ti, and other parts to the south-east. The head of\nthe tribe is entitled _Malik_ (literally \u201cKing\u201d), _e.g._ Malik Hamm\u00e1l\nJat.[93]\n\n\u201c\u2018The next is a wandering tribe, many of whom are partially settled\nin Candah\u00e1r, Her\u00e1t, Meshhed, and other cities of the Persico-Afghan\nfrontier. They are found in Meckran; and they sometimes travel as\nfar as Maskat, Sindh, and even Central India. They are held to be\nnotorious thieves, occupying a low place in the scale of creation.\nNo good account of this tribe has as yet appeared; and the smallest\ncontributions upon the subject would be right thankfully received.\u2019\n\n\u201cThe fifth which must now be added is the _Jin-tchi_ of Central Asia.\nThese people are not, as Mr. Schuyler[94] seems to think, \u2018K\u00e1firs from\nK\u00e1firistan\u2019; they are apparently true Jats--an idea once advanced by\nMr. Andrew Wilson of the Abode of Snow.[95]\n\n\u201cThese tribes are looked upon as aborigines, which simply means that\ntheir predecessors are unknown.[96]\n\n\u201cSuch were the notices collected by me in manuscript some years before\n1849. At that time the Orientalists of Europe were almost unanimous\nin identifying the Gypsies with the _Nat\u2019h_, a scattered Indian tribe\nof itinerant tinkers and musicians, the \u2018poor players\u2019 of the great\nPeninsula, utterly ignorant of horse-couping, cattle-breeding, and even\npoultry-snatching. And the conviction still holds its ground; only\nlately my erudite correspondent, Dr. J. Burnard Davis, reminded me of\nit.\n\n\u201cOf course the humble linguistic labours of a perpetual explorer can\nhardly be familiar to the professionally learned world; but I cherish\na hope that you will aid me in resurrecting my buried and forgotten\nwork.\u201d\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[85] In this reprint of the original letter the only changes are a few\nverbal corrections and suppressions of the parts elsewhere enlarged\nupon.\n\n[86] The famous work _Die Zigeuner in Europa und Asien_, 2 vols. 8vo\n(Halle, 1844-5). It was followed by two _Nachtrags_ (which I have not\nseen). The first contains a Syro-Gypsy vocabulary; and the second,\nnotices of their manners and customs in Turkey and other countries. See\n_Zeitschrift d. Deut. Morgen. Gesell._, III., pp. 321-325, of 1849; and\n_Ibid._, Vol. VII., p. 393.\n\n[87] Dr. Ernest Trumpp\u2019s _Sindhi Grammar_. (Tr\u00fcbner, 1872.)\n\n[88] The literati of Europe form a guild into which none but members\nare admitted. At times their absolute disregard of _meum_ and _tuum_,\nespecially when they plunder an obscure name, is a fine study of trade\nmorality--or its reverse.\n\n[89] These words were afterwards added to my MS. copy.\n\n[90] The full title is Dabist\u00e1n-i-Maz\u00e1hib, or School of Faiths (not \u201cof\nManners\u201d): there is a translation by David Shea and Anthony Troyer for\nthe Oriental Trans. Fund, 3 vols. 8vo (Paris, 1843).\n\n[91] Adi Grauth: the Sacred Book of the Sikhs.\n\n[92] Jornandes, \u201cDe Getarum sive Gothorum Origine et rebus Gestis.\u201d\nThe learned Abbate Fortis (_Dalmatia_, I. 1, \u00a7 1) includes among the\nSlav peoples the Scythians, Get\u00e6 or Goths, Slavini (Slovenes), Croats,\nAvars, and Vandals. Our grandfathers derived the term \u201cGoths\u201d from\n_Gog_ (and Magog).\n\n[93] The account given by Mr. Hughes of the Jat in Belochistan will be\nfound in a future page (215).\n\n[94] _Turkistan._ (Sampson Low & Co., 1876.)\n\n[95] _Academy_, October 14, 1876.\n\n[96] The letter here contains a sketch of _J_\u00e1_t_aki literature in\nSindh. I have also suppressed a paragraph noticing their migration and\ntribal name; both these subjects will be discussed with more detail.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nTHE CLAIMS AND PRETENSIONS OF M. PAUL BATAILLARD\n\n\nThe following letter, which bears the author\u2019s signature and the\ndate Paris, May 28, 1875,[97] was the result of my communication to\nthe _Academy_.[98] As I had objected to my thunder being stolen by\nProfessor Pott and De Goeje, so M. Paul Bataillard charges me with\nhaving purloined his artillery:\n\n\u201cThe _Academy_ of March 27 last published an interesting letter which\nonly came to my knowledge a few days ago. In this letter Mr. Richard\nBurton, F.R.G.S., claims the priority in identifying the Gipsies or\nTsigans with the Jat of the banks of the Indus, whose name, he adds,\nis pronounced Dyat. The question has lately been treated at length\n(25 pages in 8vo, almost entirely consecrated to this subject) by\nProfessor J. de Goeje, of Leyden, who attributes the first idea of this\nidentification to Mr. Pott in 1853, as is stated in the _Academy_ of\nFebruary 27, in a short article mentioning this Dutch _Contribution to\nthe History of the Gipsies_.\n\n\u201cMr. Burton, who has wandered far and wide in the Valley of the Indus,\nand has much frequented the Jats, published in 1849 a grammar of the\nJ\u00e1taki dialect (41 pages), which contains an interesting classification\nof this race, reproduced in his letter, and, in 1851, a volume upon\nSindh--_Sindh and the Races that inhabit the Valley of the Indus_--in\nwhich he starts the theory of a probable relationship between the Jats\nand the Gipsies, as proved in the extracts which he commences by giving\nof this work.\n\n\u201cAllow me to claim a still earlier priority (dating from 1849), and to\nbegin by establishing exactly the share belonging to each.\n\n\u201cProfessor Pott, in his great work, _Die Zigeuner_, Vol. I. (1844),\np. 62, had spoken of the tradition mentioned by Ferdoussy, by the\n_Tarikh-Guzydeh_, and \u2018by another ...\u2019 that is to say, by the\n_Modjmel-al-Tevarykh_, according to which Bahram-Gur, King of Persia,\nhad caused ten or twelve thousand musicians, designated in two at least\nof these three texts under the name of _Luri_,[99] to come from India.\nOne or two other names, of which it is not necessary to speak, are\nadded to this one. (See pp. 41, 42 of my memoir, published in 1849, and\nmentioned by-and-by.)\n\n\u201cFive years later, Professor Pott, coming back to the subject in his\narticle \u2018Ueber die Zigeuner,\u2019 published, as a second supplement to his\ngreat work, in the _Zeitschrift der Deut. Morgenl. Gesellschaft_, Vol.\nIII., 1849, said (p. 326):\n\n \u201cConcerning the tradition of which I spoke, Vol. I., p. 62, of\n the transmigration of Indian musicians into Persia, ordered by\n Bahram-Gur, and set forth in the _Shahnameh_, a tradition which is\n applied perhaps rightly to the Zigeuner, I owe to Fleischer a very\n interesting notice, and wholly unknown to me hitherto, drawn from\n _Hamza Ispahani_, Gottwaldt edition, 1834 (p. 40 of the translation\n of Gottwaldt), according to which Bahram-Gur, for the pleasure of his\n subjects, caused twelve thousand musicians, those designated by the\n name of _Zuth_, to come from India. They are called _Luri_ in the\n _Shahnameh_[100], which is a proof that Hamza did not simply copy this\n fact. But Fleischer adds what follows relative to the name of _Zuth_,\n which I have not yet met with anywhere, and which was a complete\n enigma to me: \u2018The _Kam\u00fbz_ says that the _Zotth_ are a race of men\n of Indian origin, and that the true pronunciation of this word is\n _Djatt_, but that the Arabs pronounce it _Zotth_.\u2019 (See notes 3 and 4\n at p. 43 of my memoir of 1849, concerning the rather free translation\n of this passage of the _Kam\u00fbz_.) In the French and Arabic Dictionary,\n by Ellious Bocthor, we find: \u2018_Boh\u00e9mien_, Arabe vagabond, Tchinghian\u00e9,\n qui dit la bonne aventure, vole, etc., is called _Zotti_ at Damascus,\n plural _Zotte_.\u2019\n\n\u201cNothing more. It is clear that, in the identification of the Djat of\nIndia with the Tsigans, Professor Pott\u2019s share is very small up to\nthe present. The great Indianist of Halle is rich enough in his own\nlearning to be content with what belongs to him, and the respect I\nentertain for him and his kind feeling towards me form a sure guarantee\nthat he will not be offended at my setting forth my claim.\n\n\u201cI think I may say that it is I (thanks, it is true, to M. Reinaud)\nwho first treated the question. I had published, in 1844, in the\n_Biblioth\u00e8que de l\u2019\u00c9cole des Chartes_, a rather long memoir upon the\n_Apparition des Boh\u00e9miens en Europe_ (the _tirage \u00e0 part_, which is\nlong ago exhausted, has 59 pages octavo). In 1849 I contributed to\nthe same collection a second paper upon the same subject, examining\nespecially Eastern Europe, and establishing for the first time that the\nGipsies were in this region at an epoch far anterior to the date (about\n1417) of their appearance in the West. I may add, incidentally, that\nnearly all those who have since spoken of the appearance of the Gipsies\nin Europe have done little more than draw upon these two memoirs,\nwithout always exactly saying what part belonged to me, so that I have\noften had the annoyance of seeing such or such an author, Francisque\nMichel more especially, mentioned afterwards in third-hand notices\nas the original source of what I had written. Now my second memoir\n(_Nouvelles Recherches sur l\u2019Apparition des Boh\u00e9miens en Europe_, 48\npp. in the _tirage \u00e0 part_, Paris, 1849: Franck, rue de Richelieu, 67)\nends with an \u2018Additional Note\u2019 of ten very compact pages, the principal\nobject of which is precisely to identify the Gipsies and the Indian\nDjath.\n\n\u201cIn this note, or appendix, I begin by collecting and giving, in\nFrench, in order that they may be compared, the accounts that Professor\nPott had only pointed out, relating to the ten or twelve thousand\nmusicians that Bahram-Gur, King of Persia (420-440 of our era), had\nsent for from India, that is to say, the tradition related by Ferdoussy\nin the _Shahnameh_ (about 1000), by the _Modjmel-al-Tevarykh_ (about\n1126), by the _Tarikh-Guzydeh_ (about 1329, for this last I have not\nbeen able to give the text), and lastly, by Hamza Ispahani, the Arabian\nauthor whom Professor Fleischer had just made known to Professor\nPott, and who is the oldest of all, since he belongs to the tenth\ncentury, while Professor Pott supposed him to have been posterior to\nFerdoussy. It is to be remarked that Hamza mentions the descendants of\nthe twelve thousand musicians as still existing in Persia in his time\nunder the name of _Zuth_, and that Ferdoussy says the same of the ten\nthousand _Luri_, whom he represents as vagabonds and thieves. But the\nnew and important point is the name of _Zuth_ given to them by the\nArabo-Persian author of the tenth century; and it is here, as I remark\nin my work (p. 42 of the _tirage \u00e0 part_), \u2018that the real interest\ncommences.\u2019\n\n\u201cI again find this name (p. 44) under the form of _Djatt_ and _Djatty_\nin a fifth account of the same matter by the Persian Mirkhond\n(fifteenth century); and, after having remarked that the same name is\ngiven by the Kam\u00fbz under the form _Zotth_ as the Arabian equivalent of\n_Djatt_, an Indian race, and that, according to Ellious Bocthor, it\nserves precisely, under the form _Zott_, to designate the Gipsies at\nDamascus, I start from thence to gather from the important _M\u00e9moire,\netc., sur l\u2019Inde_, by M. Reinaud, a few data upon the history of the\n_Zath_ or _Djatt_ of India, and to establish, pp. 45-48, the probable\nidentity of this race and the Gipsies. I repeat that this is precisely\nthe essential object of my \u2018Additional Note.\u2019\n\n\u201cI am not an Orientalist, and besides, as I have not failed to mention,\nthis note of ten large pages was written when my memoir was already in\nthe press. But I had the kind assistance of the learned and lamented\nM. Reinaud, to whose memory I am glad here to render my tribute of\ngratitude.\n\n\u201cAlso, the eminent scholar of Leipzig, the same who had first opened\nthe way for discovering the connexion between the Gipsies and the\nDjatt, Professor Fleischer, in a general account embracing the\nscientific publications of three years (the same _Zeitschrift_, Vol\nIV., 1850, p. 452), has not disdained to mention my work in these terms:\n\n \u201cBataillard, the author, etc., taking up the supplement to Pott,\n published in our journal, III., pp. 321-335, has, with the aid of\n Reinaud, shown the great probability of the opinion that the Zigeuner\n descend from the _G\u2019at_ or _G\u2019et_, the most ancient inhabitants of the\n north-west of India; and might not the name _Zigeuner_, _Zingani_,\n _Zingari_, [Greek: \u03a4\u03b6\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9: Tzinganoi], etc., by the intermedium of\n the form _Gitanos_, be derived from the name of this people?\n\n\u201cThis last supposition of Professor Fleischer\u2019s does not appear to\nme admissible, for there is no doubt that _Gitanos_ is derived from\n_Egipcianos_, as _Gipsies_ is from _Egyptians_.\n\n\u201cI come at last to Professor Pott\u2019s article \u2018Last Contributions\ntowards the Knowledge of the Gipsies and their Language,\u2019 in the same\n_Zeitschrift_ of 1853 (Vol. VII., pp. 389-399), mentioned in the\n_Academy_, quoting Professor de Goeje, as the starting-point for the\nidentification of the Gipsy and the Jat. What do we find there upon\nthis subject? The following lines (p. 393):\n\n \u201cI am indebted to the obliging friendship of Professor Fleischer,\n of Leipzig (see our _Zeitschrift_, III., p. 326), for an important\n passage upon the Zuth of Hamza Ispahani, whose _Annals_ are anterior\n to the _Shahnameh_, as M. Bataillard demonstrates in his _Nouvelles\n Recherches_, p. 42. For the origin of the Gipsies we ought to consider\n very attentively these _Zotth_, who, according to what R\u00f6diger\n communicates to me, are also confounded with the _Zengi_ (called also\n _Aethiopes_, and whose name is even sometimes employed for _Zingari_:\n see my _Zigeuner_, i., p. 45). In fact, the Zuth appear to be the same\n as the Jats, or, according to the Turkish Kam\u00fbz, Tchatt, concerning\n whom we find in Elliot, _Biogr. Index_, i. 270-27 (_sic_) (and\n especially, _Ibid._ in Masson, _Journey to Kelat_, pp. 351-353), an\n interesting article. See, moreover, Reinaud, _M\u00e9m. sur l\u2019Inde_, 1849,\n p. 273, note 3 upon the Dschats, which may also be compared with the\n _Proverb. Arab._ of Freytag, Vol. II., p. 580 (communicated also by\n Fleischer, to which I must add the further statement of Bataillard).\n Above all, it would be very important for us to have some details\n concerning their language.\n\n\u201cThus the learned professor of Halle here contents himself with the\nfresh mention of the passage in Hamza, for which he was indebted to\nFleischer, and with pointing out some fresh sources to be consulted\nfor the Zotth, Jats, etc., which had been made known to him by the\nsame savant, and refers besides to my \u2018further statements (weitere\nAuseinandersetzung)\u2019; and, as he afterwards devotes a long page to the\nanalysis of the principal part of my _Nouvelles Recherches_, which he\nhad mentioned at full length (pp. 389-390), and which he quotes again\nin several other places, one would think that he had done enough.\n\n\u201cThis mention has none the less escaped, according to all appearances,\nProfessor de Goeje, of Leyden, who nevertheless was acquainted with\nthis passage of Pott (since he mentions it, p. 16, so as to induce the\nbelief that the learned professor of Halle was the first to establish\na connexion between the Zott or Djatt and the Tsigans), and who quotes\nin several places my long articles in the _Revue Critique_ on \u2018Les\nderniers travaux relatifs aux Boh\u00e9miens dans l\u2019Europe Orientale\u2019 (of\nwhich the _tirage \u00e0 part_ forms an octavo volume of 80 pages, 1872),\nbut who says not a word of my work of 1849. This is an omission such\nas the most conscientious savants sometimes make; and I do not intend\nto address a reproach to the learned professor of Leyden, whose work\nmust besides have all the superiority belonging to a deep study made\ntwenty-five years later by a most competent Orientalist. But since the\nquestion of priority upon this subject has been raised in your paper,\nyou will, I think, perceive, in perusing what I wrote in 1849, which\nI send you with this letter, that I have a right not to be completely\nforgotten, especially when it concerns an interesting point in the\nhistory of the Gipsies upon which I have hitherto published only some\nfragmentary works, but to the study of which I have devoted so many\nyears.\n\n\u201cMy letter is already long: allow me, nevertheless, to add yet a few\nmore words. Although I have in my possession the work of Professor de\nGoeje (the author has had the kindness to send it to me), I cannot say\nthat I am acquainted with it, because I cannot read Dutch, and have\nnot yet found an opportunity of having it translated, which I doubly\nregret under the present circumstances. I think, however, that I may\nsay that the point treated by the professor of Leyden, and twenty-five\nyears ago by myself, although it be already sufficiently complex, is\nonly one side of the very much more complicated question of the origin\nof the Gipsies, considered in all its bearings. I hope to be able\nto show that the historical documents of Eastern Europe, of Western\nAsia, and of Egypt itself furnish very important data, hitherto very\ninsufficiently considered, upon the question. I think I have also the\nmeans of giving an explanation of the word _tsigan_, and of the other\nnames approaching to it, more certain and more interesting than those\nproposed by Professor de Goeje and Mr. Burton.\n\n\u201cIt is not the less interesting to examine any point of the very\ncomplex question of the origin of the Gipsies, and especially one so\nimportant as this appears to be of their connexion with the Jats or\nDjatt. But this point itself has, so to speak, several faces. There\nis the part belonging to erudition in the strict sense, and I think\nthat Professor de Goeje has treated it very ably; but there is the\nethnological, anthropological, and even the linguistic part of the\nsubject, which does not appear to me to be very far advanced up to\nthe present time. _It is this part that Mr. Burton has handled; and\nas he has lived in the midst of the Jats, he was in some respects in\nthe best condition for throwing great light upon it; but, on the one\nhand, he ought perhaps to have been better acquainted with the Gipsies,\nand, on the other, it does not appear that the connexion between the\nGipsies and the Jats has occupied him much. He has perceived a probable\nrelation between these two tribes of men, and he has expressed it in\nhalf a page; but this is not sufficient._[101] No doubt in occupying\nhimself specially with the Jats, in giving in 1849 a grammar of their\nlanguage (of which I cannot appreciate the value, but which did not\nprevent Professor Pott, in 1853, from saying that we were wanting\nin information respecting this idiom),[102] in collecting some very\nsummary data concerning their division into four tribes, and upon their\nhistory and manners, he has furnished some materials, but materials\nquite insufficient,[103] for a comparison, _which is still unmade,_\nbetween this race and the Gipsies. He tells us, for example, that the\nappearance and other peculiarities of this race authorize as probable\nthe supposition of a relationship between it and the Gipsies. But he\ndoes not give us even the smallest information respecting the type\n(appearance) of the Jats; and the other \u2018peculiarities\u2019 which he does\nnot explain, and which we are obliged to seek in scattered traits,\nfurnish such fugitive comparisons that one can conclude nothing from\nthem. In reality nearly every tribe in India (not to speak of certain\ntribes in other countries) will furnish, when compared with the\nGipsies, quite as many, if not more, points of resemblance. Indeed this\nis, more or less, the defect of nearly all the comparisons which have\nbeen made between the Gipsies and such or such populations of India;\nthe authors of these comparisons are not sufficiently acquainted with\nthe Gipsies, and their study of the resemblances is not sufficiently\n_specific_.\n\n\u201cThe Jats must belong, I suppose so at least, to the Hamite\n(Chamite), and more particularly to the Kuschite stratum of the\nHindoo populations,[104] and for my part I do not doubt that the\nGipsies, although their idiom is connected with the Aryan languages\nof India, belong to this same branch of the human species.--I remark,\nby the way, in the division made by Mr. Burton of the Jats into four\ntribes, that one of the districts inhabited by the second is called\n\u2018Kach (Kutch).\u2019[105]--But this branch is widely spread in Asia and in\nAfrica. It would be necessary, in the Kuschite family, to remark the\nparticular traits which distinguish, on the one hand, the Jats, on\nthe other, the Gipsies, in all the very complex affinities allowed by\nethnography, and start thence to compare them. This is what remains\nto be done in order to throw light upon _this part of one side_ of\nthe question of Gipsy origin. It is useless to say that, in following\nout more particularly this comparison between the Gipsies and the\nJats, the other points of comparison that may be furnished by other\ntribes, related or not to the Jats, such as that of the _Tchangar_,\nfor example, pointed out by Dr. Trumpp in the Panjab (_Mittheil.\nder Anthrop. Gesellschaft in Wien_, T. II., 1872, p. 294, quoted by\nMiklosich in his third memoir on the _Zigeuner_, 1873, p. 2), and\nseveral others, which it would be too long to mention, must not be\nneglected. But all this can only be well done in India, and by a person\nwho has specially studied the Gipsies of Europe, of Eastern Europe\nespecially, and, if possible, those of Western Asia and even of Egypt.\nUnfortunately these conditions are very difficult to find.\n\n                     \u201c(_Signed_) PAUL BATAILLARD.\u201d\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[97] [This letter appeared in the Academy, June 5, 1875.]\n\n[98] The notes appended to this letter are by me.\n\n[99] It has still to be proved of what tribe these Luri are: all that\nwe can say is that they are the natives of modern L\u00farist\u00e1n (Elyma\u00efs).\n\n[100] A valuable authority, but still a poem.\n\n[101] The italics are mine. What does the author know about my\nacquaintance with the Gypsies, especially the Burton Gypsies? The \u201chalf\na page\u201d will be answered in another place.\n\n[102] This means simply that Professor Pott never saw my paper printed\nat Bombay.\n\n[103] Evidently a premature statement: the author knew only my\ncommunication to the _Academy_ (Chapter I.).\n\n[104] Of this stupendous Kushite theory I have something to say in a\nfuture page. (194)\n\n[105] _Proh pudor!_ I said _Kach (Kutch)_ Gand\u00e1va; and here it is\nconfounded with Kach (Cutch) near Gujr\u00e1t (Guzer\u00e1t).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III\n\nA REVIEW OF M. PAUL BATAILLARD\u2019S REVIEWS\n\n\n\u00a7 1. _Preliminaries_\n\nM. Paul Bataillard--ominous name!--who has thus offered me battle in\nthe _Academy_, is apparently an indefatigable _Tsiganologue_,[106] to\nuse his own compound; and he seems to have been studying Chinganology\nsince 1841. Of bookmaking on the Gypsy theme there is no apparent\nend; even the mighty \u201cMagician of the North\u201d proposed, we are told,\nadding his item to the heap. The reading public, indeed, seems to\nhold these _Hamax\u00f3bioi_ an ever virgin subject; and since the days of\n\u201cGypsy Borrow\u2019s\u201d _Translation of St. Luke_ (1838),[107] _The Zincali,\nThe Bible in Spain_ (1841), and other popular works, it has ever lent\nan ear to the charmer, charm he never so unwisely. A modern author was\nnot far wrong when he stated: \u201cA great deal of what is called genius\nhas been expended upon the Gypsies, but wonderfully little common\nsense.\u201d[108]\n\nAnd the subject has its peculiar charms. These \u201coutlandish persons\ncalling themselves Egyptians or Gypsies\u201d; these cosmopolites equally\nat home in the snows of Siberia and in the swamps of Sennaar; these\nIshmaelites still dwelling in the presence of their brethren, at once\non the outskirts and in the very centres of civilized life; this\nhorde of barbarians scattered over the wide world, among us but not\nof us; these nomads of a progressive age isolated by peculiarities of\nphysique, language, and social habits, of absolute materialism, and\nof a single rule of conduct, \u201cSelf-will,\u201d all distinctly pointing to\na common origin; this phenomenon of the glorious epoch which opened a\nnew thoroughfare to the \u201cEast Indies,\u201d and which discovered the other\nhalf of the globe, is still to many, nay, to most men, an inexplicable\nethnic mystery. Englanders mostly take the narrow nursery view of the\n\u201cBlack Man\u201d; at the highest they treat him picturesquely in connexion\nwith creels and cuddies, hammer and tongs, the tin-kettle and the\nkat\u00fana or tilt-tent. Continental writers cast, as usual, a wider and\na more comprehensive glance. M. Perier, with French \u201cnattiness,\u201d\nthus resumes the main points of interest in the singular strangers:\n\u201c_Une race extraordinaire, forte, belle, cosmopolite, errante, et\ncependant (?) pure, curieuse par cons\u00e9quent, \u00e0 tant de titres._\u201d\nThe Rumanians have deemed the theme worthy of poetry; witness the\nheroic-comic-satyric \u201cTsiganida,\u201d or Gypsy-Camp, of Leonaki Diancu.[109]\n\nThe \u201cwondrous tale\u201d of the old Gypsy gude-wife concerning the \u201cThings\nof Egypt\u201d is more wonderful, observe, than aught told of Jewry.\nCertain of the learned credulous, as we read in the _Evidences of\nChristianity_ and other such works, essentially one-sided, point to\nthe dispersion and the cohesion of the self-styled \u201cChosen People\u201d as\na manner of miracle, a standing witness to certain marvellous events\nin its past annals. They ignore or forget the higher miracle of the\n\u201ctinklers.\u201d Whilst the scattering abroad of the Israelites arose\nnaturally from the same causes which in the present day preserve their\nunion, the powerful principle of self-interest and wealth-seeking,\nthe deeply rooted prejudices, social and religious, fostered by a\ntheocratic faith and by a special and exclusive revelation, the\nlively tradition of past glories and the promises of future grandeur\nconfirmed by the conviction of being a people holy and set apart, the\nbarbarous Rom\u00e1[110] are held together only by the ties of speech[111]\nand consanguinity, and by the merest outlines of a faith, such a\ncreed as caste, or rather the outcast, requires. Still the coherence\nis continuous and complete; still, like the rod of Moses, this\nethnological marvel out-miracles the other, and every other, miracle.\n\nHardly less peculiar is the historical relation of the Jew and the\nGypsy. They have many points in common. Both have had their exodus, and\nare dispersed over the world. Both have peculiarities of countenance\nwhich distinguish them from the \u201cGentiles,\u201d whom they hate, the Goy\u00edm\nand the Busne. Both have their own languages and preserve their racial\nnames.[112] Similarity of conditions, however, which should breed\nsympathy, as usual amongst men has borne only hatred. But the Jew was\nwealthy, like his cousin the Morisco. Hence the horrible persecution\nof the Israelites in Spain (A.D. 1348-98), when a prevailing pest was\nattributed to their poisoning the water, and which endured till the\nHussites drew down upon themselves the earthly \u201canger of Heaven.\u201d\nDuring those dreadful years many of the Hebrews fled to the mountains,\nthe Alpujarras and the Sierras--Morena and de Toledo--and to the wild\nbanks of the Upper Ebro, the Guadiana, and the Tagus. Meanwhile the\nGypsies suffered under the conviction that they were Jews who, denying\ntheir forefathers, represented themselves to be of Egyptian blood.\nPresently, when the revenues of the Catholic kings, Henry III. and John\nII., amounting to 26,550,000 reals (dollars) reduced to our present\nvalue, fell under Henry IV. to 3,540,000, the plethoric money-bags\nof the Israelites led to the establishment of Holy Office and its\ninquisitorial tribunal (January, 1481). Finally, as if persecution and\ndeath were not sufficient, a wholesale expulsion took place in March,\n1492. These horrors are still, after the lapse of ages, fresh in the\nJewish mind. I have seen at Jerusalem a Kh\u00e1kh\u00e1m (scribe) so moved\nby the presence of a Spanish official, that the latter asked me in\nastonishment how he had managed to offend his host.\n\nBut what could the Santa _Hermandad_ alias _La Bruja_ (the witch) find\nto plunder and pillage in the tent of the Rom? During three centuries\nof loose wild life, often stained by ferocious crime, and made bestial\nby the Draconian laws of medi\u00e6val Christianity, the Gypsies had their\nseasons of banishment, torture, and execution; but their poverty and\nisolation saved them from the horrors of a deliberate and official\npersecution. _Mas pobre que cuerpo de Gitano_ (Nothing poorer than a\nGypsy\u2019s body) is still a proverb in Spain, where men also say, _Tan\nruin es el conde como los Gitanos_. All these barbarities ended in\nEurope with the close of the eighteenth century, where the new Religion\nof Humanity had been preached by the encyclopedists whose major\nprophets were Voltaire and Rousseau, Diderot and D\u2019Alembert.\n\nNo Disraeli has hitherto arisen to vindicate the nobility of these\n\u201cmasterful beggars\u201d; and to chronicle their triumphs in court and\ncamp, in arts and arms; to trace them in the genealogies of titled\nhouses, or to strip off the disguises assumed during the intolerant\ntimes when the Jew was compelled to swear himself Gentile and the\nMuslim a Christian. Yet the Gypsies have had their great men, whilst\ntheir pure blood has leavened much dull clay and given fresh life to\nmany an effete noble vein. Witness the \u201cKing Zindl\u201d or \u201cZindelo\u201d; the\nDukes Michael and Andrew; Counts Ion (Juan) and Panuel (Manuel) of\nLittle Egypt; the Waywodes (Vaivodes) of Dacia; the noble cavalier\nPedro, and the chief, Tomas Pulgar, who in A.D. 1496 aided Bishop\nSigismund to beat off the Turk invader. Witness, again, the Hungarian\nHunyadis, the Russian Tolstoys, and the Scotch Melvilles, not to speak\nof the Cassilis and the Contis under Louis XIV. Certain Gypsies became\nsoldiers of renown; and John Bunyan, one of the immortals of the earth,\nis shrewdly suspected of Gypsy descent. Borrow mentions an archbishop\nand \u201cfour dignified ecclesiastics\u201d; while some of the most learned and\nfamed of the priesthood in Spain have been, according to a Gypsy, of\nthe Gypsies, or at least of Gypsy blood.\n\nSuch is the Gypsy summed up in a few lines.\n\nThese pages have no intention, I repeat, of treating the subject of the\nRom\u00e1 generally. My humbler task is confined to showing the affinities\nbetween the Gypsies and the great Jat tribe, or rather nation, which\nextends from the mouths of the Indus to the Steppes of Central Asia.\nAnd my first objection must be to a question of precedence with M. Paul\nBataillard.\n\nThe _Tsiganologue_ claims, as has been seen, \u201ca still earlier priority\u201d\nin the identification of Gypsy and Jat; and he proposes to \u201cestablish\nexactly the share belonging to each of us.\u201d This is the normal process\nof the cabinet savant, who is ever appearing, like the _deus ex\nmachin\u00e2_, to snatch from the explorer\u2019s hand the meed of originality.\nThe former borrows from his books a dozen different theories; and when\none happens to be proved true by the labours of the man of action, he\nstraightway sets himself up as the \u201ctheoretical discoverer\u201d of the\nsources of the Nile, or of any other matter which engages popular\nattention. But in the present case I deny that my rival has any claim\nwhatever. My personal acquaintance with the Jats began in 1845, and my\nGrammar and Vocabulary were sent to the Royal Asiatic Society in 1848\nbefore my departure from India. On the other hand, M. Paul Bataillard,\nI understand, knew nothing of the Indine Jats when he wrote his first\npaper _De l\u2019apparition, etc._, in 1844. He honestly owns that he\nis no Orientalist; and that he required the assistance of the late\nM. Reinaud, who _was_ a scholar, to identify the _Zuth_ of _Hamza\nIspahani_ (tenth century), the _Luri_ musicians of the _Shahnameh_\n(eleventh century), and the _Zoth_ or _Zutt_ of the _Kam\u00fbz_ dictionary\n(fourteenth century) with the Zatt or Dyatt of India. This was in 1849.\nHis _expos\u00e9 \u00e9tendu_ was accepted by Professor Pott in the same year,\nand appeared in the _Nachtrag_ before mentioned, which completed the\n_grand travail--Die Zigeuner_. Such was the extent of my claimant\u2019s\ndiscovery. He had even to learn from Professor Fleischer, of Leipzig,\nthat \u201cthe Zigeuner descend from the _G\u2019at_ or _G\u2019et_, the most ancient\ninhabitants of North-Western India,\u201d[113] a second-hand opinion,\nderived from \u201cGypsy Borrow,\u201d Colonel Sleeman, and other Englishmen.\nI need hardly say that Professor Pott, the distinguished member of\nthat heroic band which founded comparative philology, knew nothing\npractically or personally about either the Gypsies or the Jats. And it\nis evident that Professor de Goeje is in outer darkness when he speaks\nof \u201cthe view _propounded by Pott_ as early as 1853.\u201d\n\nAt that time, and indeed until I wrote to the _Academy_ in 1875, M.\nPaul Bataillard evidently ignored \u201cM. Burton\u201d; and no blame be to him\nfor not knowing a paper published by a colonial society a quarter of a\ncentury ago. But he also ignored far more important facts. He applies\nthe term _petite population Djatte_ to the great scattered nation\ncalled Jat. He was of course not aware that this people preserve in\nthe Indine Delta, the \u201cSalt Country\u201d of the Sindhis, the purity of its\ntongue, which, farther north, is corrupted by an admixture of Sindhi,\nBelochki, and Panjabi. Nor could he be alive to the fact that many\npoints of similarity, anthropological and linguistic, connect the Gypsy\nand the Jat. There are men who are personally averse to new things, and\nthe easy alternative is to depreciate their value. \u201cHe,\u201d I am assured\nby my rival claimant, \u201chas perceived a probable relation between these\ntwo tribes of men, and he has expressed it in half a page; but this is\nnot sufficient.\u201d\n\nSuch an assertion, however, is more than sufficient for estimating and\nappreciating the Bataillard system of treating a literary question.\nFor \u201chalf a page\u201d read a dozen pages,[114] which might easily have\nbeen extended to many a dozen. But I had hoped that the statement\nof a traveller who had met the Gypsies at Oxford (Bagley Wood), in\nEngland, and on the Continent, and the knowledge of their racial\ncharacteristics, general amongst educated Englishmen, justified a\nconciseness imperiously demanded whilst treating in one volume the\ngeography, history, and ethnology of a country nearly equalling\nEngland in length. Again, when M. Bataillard assures his readers that\nI have \u201cnot given even the smallest information respecting the type\n(appearance) of the Jats,\u201d he once more makes it evident that he should\nhave read me before pretending to write about me. I will quote my\ndescription in full,[115] so that the public may judge between him and\nme:\n\n\u201cWe are now in the provinces inhabited by the Jats. Your [_i.e._ Mr.\nJohn Bull\u2019s] eye is scarcely grown critical enough in this short\ntime to see the tweedle-dum and tweedle-dee-like difference between\ntheir personal appearance and that of their kinsmen the Scindians;\nnor can I expect you as yet to distinguish a Jat wandh (village) from\na Scinde goth (village). You are certain to take some interest in a\nrace which appears to be the progenitor of the old witch in a red\ncloak, whose hand, in return for the cunning nonsense to which her\ntongue gave birth, you once crossed with silver; and of the wiry young\nlight-weight, whose game and sharp hitting you have, in happier days,\nmore than once condescended to admire.\n\n\u201cOur authors[116] probably err when they suppose the Jat to be the\noriginal Hindu of Scinde converted to Islam. Native historians and\ntheir own traditions concur in assigning to them a strange origin;\ntheir language, to this day, a corrupt dialect of that spoken\nthroughout the Indine provinces of the Panjab, gives support and real\nvalue to the otherwise doubtful testimony.[117] It is probable that,\ncompelled to emigrate from their own lands by one of the two main\ncauses that bring about such movements in the East, war or famine,\nthe Jats of Scinde travelled southward about the beginning of the\neighteenth century of our era.\n\n\u201cUnder the quasi-ecclesiastical Kalhor\u00e1 dynasty, when Scindians\ncomposed the aristocracy as well as the commonalty of the country, the\nJats, in consequence of their superior strength, their courage, and\ntheir clannish coalescence, speedily rose to high distinction. The\nchiefs of tribes became nobles, officials, and ministers at court;\nthey provided for their families by obtaining grants of ground, feoffs\nincidental to certain military services, and for their followers by\nsettling them as tenants on their broad lands. But the prosperity of\nthe race did not last long. They fell from their high estate when the\nBelochis, better men than they, entered the country, and began to\nappropriate it for themselves; by degrees, slow yet sure, they lost\nall claims to rank, wealth, and office. They are now found scattered\nthroughout Scinde, generally preferring the south-eastern provinces,\nwhere they earn a scanty subsistence by agriculture; or they roam over\nthe barren plains feeding their flocks upon the several oases; or they\noccupy themselves in breeding, tending, training, and physicking the\ncamel. With the latter craft their name has become identified, a Jat\nand a sarwan (camel-man) sounding synonymous in Scindian ears.\n\n\u201cThe Jats in appearance are a swarthy and uncomely race, dirty in the\nextreme, long, gaunt, bony, and rarely, if ever, in good condition.\nTheir beards are thin, and there is a curious (i.e. _Gypsy-like_)\nexpression in their eyes.[118] They dress like Scindians, preferring\nblue to white clothes; but they are taller, larger, and more un-Indian\nin appearance. Some few, but very few, of their women are, in early\nyouth, remarkable for soft and regular features; this charm, however,\nsoon yields to the complicated ugliness brought on by exposure to\nthe sun, by scanty living, and by the labour of baggage-cattle. In\nScinde the Jats of both sexes are possessed of the virtues especially\nbelonging to the oppressed and inoffensive Eastern cultivation; they\nare necessarily frugal and laborious, peaceful, and remarkable for\nmorality in the limited sense of aversion to intrigue with members\nof a strange Kaum.[119] I say in Scinde; this is by no means the\nreputation of the race in the other parts of Central Asia, where they\nhave extended (_or whence possibly they came_).[120] The term \u2018Jat\u2019\nis popularly applied to a low and servile creature, or to an impudent\nvillain; and despite of the Tohfat el Kiram,[121] a Beloch would\nconsider himself mortally affronted were you to confound his origin\nwith the caste which his ancestors deposed, and which he despises\nfor having allowed itself to be degraded. The Brahins, Afghans, and\nPersians all have a bad word to say of them.\u201d\n\nThus far M. Paul Bataillard has shown himself only the carpet-slippered\n_litt\u00e9rateur de cabinet_, who laboriously borrows from others, and who\nevidently expects his second-hand labours to _faire \u00e9poque_.\n\nBut my rival claimant, let me hasten to own, has solid merits. His\ntheory that Gypsy emigrations are of ancient date, and probably of\nhigh antiquity, deserves consideration. His later notices of the Jats\ncorrect the vulgar error which made Taymur the Tatar cause the first\nexodus of our \u201csorners.\u201d He notes the especial hatred, possibly racial,\nnourished by these Gentile vagrants against the other scattered nation,\nthe Jews. Other minor but still interesting matters of which he treats\nare the history of the Gypsies especially with respect to their slavery\nand serfdom--Crown captives, not chattels personal; their periodical\nwanderings and visitings; their vestiges of faith; their vernacular and\nhumble literature; their private and tribal names suggesting those of\nthe modern Israelitic Synagogue; and their supplying the dancing-girls\nof the nearer East, while in the lupanars of Europe a Gypsy girl is\nunknown.\n\nI now propose to run as rapidly as the subject permits through M. Paul\nBataillard\u2019s four papers _seriatim_. The critique will not only notice\nnovelties, but will also attempt to correct what to a practical man\nappears to want correction in connexion with the Gypsies.\n\n\n\u00a7 2. \u201c_Derniers Travaux, etc._\u201d\n\nThis paper treats chiefly of South-Eastern Europe, which has been\nestimated to contain at least six hundred thousand of the Rom\u00e1--a\nnumber, by-the-bye, wholly inadequate. The author\u2019s self-imposed limits\nwould be the western Slav frontier, a meridian drawn from the southern\nbend of the Baltic to the Adriatic head. Topographically disposed, upon\na line trending from east to west, the review deals in its progress\nwith writers mostly modern; and it forms an excerptive rather than an\nexhaustive or even a summary bibliography.\n\nThe first of the two component parts travels with the authorities who\ntreat of Russia, Poland and Lithuania, Germany, Bohemia, Hungary,\nTransylvania, the Banat, the Rumanian Principalities, and Turkey, or\nrather Constantinople. The lands about the Balkan Range, so unknown\nnot many years ago and now so much talked of, are justly considered\na second Gypsy _patria_, the \u201cold home\u201d being India. The review is\naccompanied and followed by side-glances at those who treat of Finland\nand Norway, of Persia and Basqueland, of Scotland and Holland, of\nSicily and Italy, which once owned an exceptional _castrum Gipti\u00e6_.\nThis section ends with linguistic and ethnographic remarks borrowed\nfrom many sources and specifying a considerable number of requisites.\n\nIn the second part the critic reviews M. Alexandre G. Paspati, D.M.,\na famous name in Gypsydom. This learned Greek physician--one of the\nfew children, by-the-bye, who escaped the \u201cgentle and gallant\u201d Turk\nin the foul Chios massacre of 1822--was educated in America, and is\nas highly distinguished for his Indian and Byzantine as for his Gypsy\nstudies. The _\u00c9tude, etc._, of 1870, which continued and completed his\nelaborate memoirs (1857-1862), is the work of a scholar who knew the\nRom\u00e1 personally, not of a mere _litt\u00e9rateur_. The book teemed with\nnovelties. For instance, it suggested that the article (_o_ or _u_;\n\u00ed and e), as unknown to the Asiatic Gypsy (?) as to the Sanskrit and\nthe Prakrit, had been borrowed by his European congener from the Greek\n[Greek: \u1f41: ho] and [Greek: \u1f21: h\u00ea], thus suggesting long residence\nin Hellas and familiarity with its people. Might it not, however,\nhave been a simple development of _\u00edh\u00e1_ and _uha_, the demonstrative\npronouns in J\u00e1taki--_this_ and _that_ becoming _the_? But as all\nGermanic, neo-Latinic, and Slav tongues have either produced or\nborrowed an article, the same may have been the case with the Gypsy,\nwhich comes from the same root.\n\nM. Paspati satisfactorily proved that the wandering tribes of the Rom\u00e1,\n_e.g._ the wild Zap\u00e1ris or Dy\u00e1paris (Szapary?),[122] have preserved in\nRumelia the _langue m\u00e8re_ of their ancients, whereas the \u201cdomigence,\u201d\nthe sedentary dwellers in cities and towns, have \u201cfalsified\u201d the\ntongue. The same is said by the Bedawin concerning the \u201cJumpers of\nWalls,\u201d the settled Arabs. This part of the subject leads to notices of\nGypsy tales and legends, in which, by the way, Gypsies rarely figure,\nand to other productions of _la pauvre Muse tsigane_.\n\nAfter some discursive matter, our critic passes from M. Paspati to M.\nBartalus, who has quoted from certain very rare tracts (_La V\u00e9ritable\norigine, etc._, A.D. 1798 and 1800) on the rise of the Gypsy nation.\nThe _Boh\u00e9miens_, it appears, are descendants of Cham or Ham, \u201cwhich is\nadmissible\u201d; and, like their brethren, they were damned by Noah. But,\non the destruction of the Plain cities, Sodom and Gomorrah, Adama and\nSaboim--Segor being honourably excluded--Zoar and its inhabitants were\nsaved because they harboured one Lot. The lands, however, were assigned\nto this \u201cpatriarch\u201d; and the Hamites, being dispersed, became Gypsies.\nOnce more that myth of Noah!--for how much false anthropology is it\nnot responsible? Again, we do not fail to meet another old friend. The\nwicked king of Egypt appears in a famous \u201cPharaoh Song,\u201d whilst in\nIceland he gave his name to a cavalry of seals. The oath formula of the\nHungarian Gypsies prescribed by the courts was: \u201cAs King Pharaoh was\nengulfed in the Red Sea, so may I be accursed and swallowed up by the\ndeepest abyss if I do not speak the truth! May no theft, no traffic,\nnor any other business prosper with me! May my horse turn into an ass\nat the next stroke of his hoof, and may I end my days on the scaffold\nby the hands of the hangman!\u201d[123]\n\nThe critic then passes to a second and a remarkable characteristic of\nthe Gypsy race, the musical, which is now becoming known throughout\nEurope. At the Paris Exposition of 1878 the \u201cnightingales of Koursk,\u201d\na troop of forty Rom\u00e1 from Moscow, followed the Hungarian _Cziganes_,\nand were equally admired. Even the celebrated Catalani appreciated the\nChing\u00e1neh girl of Moscow, \u201cwho performed with such originality and true\nexpression the characteristic melodies of the tribe\u201d; and threw over\nher shoulders a papal gift in the shape of a rich Cashmere shawl. Most\nEnglishmen now know that Mr. Bunn\u2019s \u201cBohemian Girl,\u201d thus unhappily\ntranslated from _La Boh\u00e9mienne_ of St. George, was a Romni girl. The\nfar-famed Abb\u00e9 Liszt[124] attributed to these \u201ctinklers\u201d the chief\n_r\u00f4le_ in treating the musical _\u00e9pop\u00e9e_; but this opinion of the great\nmaster is opposed by the artistic M. Bartalus. I, however, incline to\nLiszt\u2019s view. Let me note that the popular Romani word for musician,\nLautar (plural Lautari), may either be the Persian L\u00fat\u00ed,[125] or more\nprobably a deformed offspring of the Arabic El `A\u00fad[126], which gave\nrise to our \u201clute.\u201d Our critic holds that the Gypsy\u2019s music, like\nhis tales and poetry, is his own; whilst the matter of the songs and\nballads is borrowed from Hungarians, Rumans, and even the unimaginative\nTurk: he also points out that many of the legends are cosmopolitan.\nWhen the Catalan Gypsy, met by the author in 1869 at St. Germain, told\nhim that the _\u00e9tat_ (Dharma or religious duty) of the Romni-chel, the\n\u201csons of women\u201d (_i.e._ their mothers), is to cheat their neighbours;\nthat they learned this whole duty of man from St. Peter, who as our\nLord\u2019s servant habitually tricked and defrauded his Master; that _le\ndieu Jesus_, who established all human conditions on the creation day,\nhad taught them, by example as well as precept, to beg and to vagabond\nnaked-footed; that his tribe were veritable Christians \u201cwho knew only\nGod and the Blessed Virgin\u201d; and that all these things were written in\nthe \u201cBook of the Wanderings of our Lord,\u201d--we recognize the old, old\ntale. The ancient Rom, like a host of other facetious barbarians, was\nsolemnly hoaxing a simple student, a credulous \u201ccivilizee.\u201d Still the\njoke has its ethnological value; it shows that the pseudo-Christian\nsaints of the Gypsy Evangel are thieves and \u201csorners.\u201d Highly\ncharacteristic also is the address to the Gypsy deity: \u201cGood, happy\nGod of gold!\u201d On the other hand, such laical legends of the Apostles\nare current even amongst Christian peoples, from whom they may have\nbeen kidnapped by the Rom\u00e1. Witness the French peasant\u2019s tale of Jesus\nand St. Peter, the horseshoe and the cherries, which has for moral the\nmarket value of thrift.\n\nThe supplementary article analyzes the scholarly work of M. Franz\nMiklosich.[127] This erudite Slavist whose only reproach is that he\nfinds Slavism in every place, distributes the Gypsies into twelve\nlinguistic groups, to which he assigns an inadequate total of six\nhundred thousand head. Amongst the highly conservative Rom\u00e1 of Northern\nRussia he detects, besides Russian and Polish, Ruman and Magyar words,\nexpressions borrowed from the neo-Greek of the fourteenth and fifteenth\ncenturies. As these Hellenisms are also adopted by the Spanish Gypsies,\nthe natural deduction is that Greece generally formed an older home\nlong inhabited by the wanderers, who thence passed on _vi\u00e2_ Poland to\nRussia. But this theory, if proved to be fact, would not invalidate\nthe general belief that some Gypsy tribes migrated through Egypt and\nMorocco into Spain without crossing the Pyrenees. The Rom\u00e1, being\n\u201csturdy vagabonds,\u201d rather than true nomads, would borrow from one\nanother during their frequent and regular meetings the terms wanting to\ntheir scanty and barbarous speech. It appears rich enough in material\nand sensuous expression, and the same is notably the case with the\nwandering Arab and the Turkoman. M. Paspati[128] notices that \u201cthe\n[Rumelian] wanderer has more than forty words for his tent and the\nimplements of his trade.\u201d A \u201cThieves\u2019 Latin\u201d would not be required by\nthese bilinguals; but for the purposes of concealment and villainy they\nwould readily adopt strange vocables. Thus in the Scottish Lowlands\nthey make their English speech unintelligible by French and Gaelic,\nWelsh and Irish insertions. As will appear, they have invented in\nEgypt and Spain, and I believe there only, a regular _argot_. Such\nirregularities prevent our attributing much importance to the general\nremark that the Gypsy dialect does not return; _i.e._ that the Polish\nRom\u00e1 do not use Russian terms, nor the Turkish Rom\u00e1 Magyar words.\n\nFinally, M. Miklosich puts to flight the \u201cTamerlane tenet\u201d of popular\nbelief which would place the last Gypsy exodus after A.D. 1399. He\nadduces documentary evidence, the well-known donation instruments of\nA.M. 6894 (= A.D. 1386-87) issued by the Kings of Wallachia; noting\nthat during the fifteenth century, and even between 1832 and 1836, the\nPrincipalities, which have still preserved the Jewish disabilities,\nheld the Gypsies to be a Slav race.\n\nThe _Derniers Travaux_ has the merit of bringing prominently forward\nthe \u201chypothesis of Hasse,\u201d advanced in 1803 and presently forgotten.\nIt would explain the purity of the Gypsy tongue by the fact of these\ntinklers being settled in Europe _ab antiquo_. It has often been\nremarked that the farther we go eastward, and the nearer we approach\nthe cradle of the race, Sindh or Western India, the more completely\nthe language changes and degrades. This is to be expected. The Jats\nliving in close contact with other dialects would necessarily modify\ntheir own after the fashion of their neighbours; such is the rule of\nthe world. The Rom\u00e1 have only two ties: one is of blood, the love of\n\u201ckith, kin, and consequence\u201d; the other is of language which serves to\nconceal his speech. During the dispersion of centuries the Gypsies,\nsurrounded by alien and hostile races, would religiously adhere to\nthe old tongue; and having a vital interest in preserving a secret\ninstrument, it would war against change. It is the more necessary to\ninsist upon this view, as our critic expects to find after a separation\nof some four centuries the Jats or other tribes speaking pure old\nGypsy. The modern Gypsy may still represent the ancient J\u00e1taki. Hence\nalso the dialect of their ancestors is dying out amongst the sedentary\nRom\u00e1. M. Paul Bataillard has carefully separated, and perhaps too\ncuriously, the historical arrival of the Gypsies in Western Europe and\ntheir establishment in the south-eastern regions, Thrace, Dacia, etc.\nAn abuse of his theory makes him urge the identity of his _Tsigane_\nwith the mysterious Sicani who held Sicily before the Siculi. These and\nother prehistoric identifications have not yet been generally adopted.\n\nHad M. Paul Bataillard reflected a little more, he would not have\nadvocated, considering the extensive habitat of the Jats, the\ninsufficient theory of M. Ascoli--namely, that the Gypsies are Sindhis\nwho dwelt long in Hindustan; nor would M. Ascoli have omitted the\nwidely spoken J\u00e1taki from his list of neo-Indian tongues, which he\nunduly reduces to seven. We should have been spared the \u201cconviction\u201d\nthat the Rom\u00e1 dwelt in Mesopotamia, which was only one station on\ntheir way, Asia Minor and the Lower Danube being the general line of\nAryan emigration; that they are aborigines of Kabul, in fact primitive\nAfghans, as supposed by another French _litt\u00e9rateur_, whose lively\nimagination strips him of all authority; and, finally, that they\nare \u201cdescendants of those ancient peoples of Bactriana and Arya,\nsuccessively conquered by Persians, Greeks, Indoget\u00e6, and Afghans.\u201d\nA most trivial comparison is made between Segor, the biblical city,\nand the Gypsy name Cingani (Singani). When Professor Pott and M. de\nSaulcy find \u201crelationship\u201d and \u201cclose connexion\u201d between Sanskrit and\n_Romani-ch\u00edb_, they should have explained that the latter is a Prakrit\nor vulgar tongue with an Aryan vocabulary reposing upon the ruins of a\nTuranian base. The former, as its name shows, was a refined and city\nlanguage, never spoken, nor indeed understood, by the peoples of India\nin general; in fact, a professor\u2019s speech, like the present Romaic of\nthe Athenian _logiot\u00e1toi_.\n\nThe word _Berber_ (Barbar), again, applied to the Gypsies in Persia,\nmeans, according to its root, a chatterer, patterer, or speaker\nof unintelligible cant. It is the Sanskrit Varvvara, [Sanskrit:\n\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u0935\u0930][129], a low fellow, a savage, the Barbaros of the Greeks and\nRomans; the Be_r_be_r_, [Sindhi: \u0628\u0699\u0628\u0699], or Berber, [Arabic: \u0628\u0631\u0628\u0631], of\nmodern Hindustan; and the racial name of that great scattered people\nthe Bar\u00e1barah, who stretch from the Nile Valley to North-Western\nAfrica. The lunar god, Raho, of the Norwegian Gypsies is a palpable\nreminiscence and survival of the demon R\u00e1hu. The Gh\u00e1zieh of Egypt are\n_not_ \u201calso called Beremikeh\u201d;[130] the Bar\u00e1mikah are a substitute\nof the Ghagar. The \u201cChungal\u00f3,\u201d the \u201cJungal\u00f3,\u201d and the \u201cZungal\u00f3\u201d of\nPaspati, signifying a non-Gypsy, is evidently Jangal\u00ed, wild or sylvan\n(jungle) man, the popular title of Europeans, especially of Englishmen,\nin India. Das also, the term applied by the Rom\u00e1 to their Bulgarian\nand Wallachian neighbours, bears a suspicious resemblance to the Hindu\nDashya and Dasa, vulgarly Doss, a low caste or rather a no-caste man,\nsupposed to represent the original Turanian lords of the land.\n\nMoreover, why assume with M. Paspati that [Greek: \u03b3: g], [Greek:\n\u03b8: th], and [Greek: \u03c7: ch] are \u201cGreek importations into the Gypsy\ntongue\u201d? Of these letters two are Arabo-Persian: [Greek: \u03c7: ch] is\n= Kh\u00e1, [Arabic: \u062e]; and [Greek: \u03b3: g] is = Ghayn, [Arabic: \u063a]; the\ngamma pronounced Gh\u00e1mma in Romaic parlance when preceding the open\nvowels, _\u00e1_ and _o_. The third generally corresponds with the Arabic\nS\u00e1, [Arabic: \u0635], pronounced in Persian and Hindi as a simple S\u00edn\n(_s_)[131]. The critic, however, should not have told us, \u201c_Le_ [Greek:\n\u03b8: th] _r\u00e9pond assez bien au \u2018th\u2019 Anglais_.\u201d Our sibilant has two\ndistinct sounds: one soft, as in _thy_, answering to the neo-Greek\n[Greek: \u03b4: d]; the other hard, as in _theme_, = [Greek: \u03b8: th]. The\nGypsy Owa, Va (yes) bears a suspicious resemblance to the vulgar Arabic\nAyw\u00e1, contracted from Ay w' Allah--aye by Allah! A man must have\nabsolutely no practical knowledge of the Rom or of his congener the\n\u201cmild Hindu\u201d who can ask, \u201c_Les esprits grossiers sont-ils donc plus\nsubtils que les n\u00f4tres_?\u201d This is the mere _morgue_ and _outrecuidance_\nof European ignorance. Let the author try the process of \u201cfinessing\u201d\nupon the first lad, Jat or Sindhi, who comes in his way, and he will\nreadily be made to understand my meaning. Finally, I venture to throw\nout a hint that the \u201cbarbarous helot\u201d may preserve the tribal name\nNath, [Sanskrit: \u0928\u091f][132], a mime. This caste, with which the Gypsies\nused formerly to be identified,[133] certainly did not represent\nthe \u201cwild aboriginal inhabitants of India\u201d; they may have Dravidian\naffinities, but they are certainly not of Turanian blood.\n\n\n\u00a7 3. \u201c_Origines, etc._\u201d\n\nThis paper was published in 1875, when M. Paul Bataillard had the\nbenefit of my letter to the _Academy_; and apparently its main object\nis to prove that he preceded me in identifying the Gypsies with the\n\u201cDjatte\u201d (Jats). It is divided into three parts, which are four. No.\n1 contains the author\u2019s reclamation and his notice of Professor de\nGoeje; No. 2 works out more fully his own theory of Gypsy origin; No. 3\ncontains a \u201ccertain and definitive explanation of the word _Tsigane_\u201d;\nand No. 4, by way of colophon and endowment of research, thrusts\nforward certain preachments upon the direction of future inquiries for\nthe benefit of us rude practical men.\n\nOf No. 1, I have already treated, and content myself with\nenergetically objecting to the statement that all who have treated\nabout the peoples of the Indine Valley have imagined either a possible\nor a probable _rapport_ between the Jats (not Juth) and the Gypsies. M.\nPaul Bataillard again shows that in 1850, when my paper was published\nin 1849, neither he nor Professor Fleischer knew aught concerning the\nmodern Sindhi Jats, a mere section of the race, save the corruption of\na name. They were ignorant of its extensive habitat scattered between\nthe Indus mouths and the Tatar Steppes. They had never learned that it\nspeaks its own peculiar dialect, which is like that of the Gypsies and\nthe Sindhi to a certain extent, Persico-Indian.\n\nPart No. 2 becomes much more sensational. We find that our critic\u2019s\nideas have grown, and that the antiquity of the Gypsies in\nSouth-Eastern Europe extends deep into the misty regions of the past.\nIn 1872 he merely alluded to the high importance of the ethnic name\nSindho or Sinto (feminine Sindhi; plurals Sindhe and Sindhiyan),\n\u201cmeaning the great.\u201d Now he would identify them with the aborigines\nof Lemnos, those \u201clords of Vulcan\u201d the [Greek: \u03a3\u03b9\u03bd\u03c4\u03b9\u03b5\u03c2: Sinties]--a\nword generally understood to signify robbers ([Greek: \u03c3\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9:\nsinomai]). The connexion is brought about because Homer describes\nthese metal-workers as speaking a wild speech ([Greek: \u03b1\u03b3\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9:\nagrioph\u00f4noi]), and because Hellanicus of Lesbos derives them from\nThrace. Two independent authorities--the original hypothesist Dr.\nJohannes Gottlieb Hasse in 1803, and M. Vivien de Saint-Martin in\n1847--had suggested an idea which M. Paul Bataillard borrowed and\nadopted. The _Tsigane_ represent, we are assured, not only the Sicani\nof Sicily, but also the [Greek: \u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9: Sigynai, \u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9: Sigynoi,\n\u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03b9\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9: Siginnoi], whom Herodotus places in the Caucasus, Asia Minor,\nand Thrace. The broad gap of years is bridged over, in the teeth of M.\nPaspati, by means of certain medi\u00e6val Byzantine heretics, the [Greek:\n\u0391\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9: Athinganoi], Manich\u00e6ans like the Albigenses, the Paulicians,\nand especially the dwellers in Bosnia and its neighbourhood, also\ncalled Athigarii, Atingarii, Anthingarii, and Atingani; and this only\nbecause certain of the modern Greeks call their Gypsies Athinganoi\n([Greek: \u0391\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9: Athinganoi]). Brosset[134] notices that in the\neleventh century, when King Bagrat visited Constantinople, he there\nheard a marvellous and wholly incredible thing; namely, that a tribe of\nthe Samaritans descended from Simon Magus, and called _Atsinkan_, were\nstill infamous for their evil-doings and sorceries. And then we have\na silly story of how the monk St. George of Athos rendered all their\npoisons of no account.\n\nMoreover, we are told, _if_ the modern Tsigane represent the Sinties\nand the Siginnoi, they must, _ergo_, stand in the same relationship to\ncertain mysterious tribes inhabiting the Caucasus and Western Asia,\nEgypt, the Levantine Islands, and the Danubian basin. Thus we see the\norigin of the Telchini, the Chalybes, and other \u201cCabiric peoples.\u201d The\nlatter has the disadvantage of being purely Semitic, Kab\u00edr meaning \u201cthe\ngreat\u201d applied to the twelve _Dii majores_ of the Ph\u0153nicians who sent\nforth Kadmos (El Kad\u00edn) = the old or the great.[135] But let that pass.\nOur author proves his fact by showing that these races, like the modern\nRom\u00e1, were makers of weapons, especially the assegai or javelin; whilst\nthe Cabiri and the Telchini were renowned for music and soothsaying.\nAnd how not recognize the Troglodytic Sibyls of Asia Minor and Egypt,\nof Greece, and especially Thrace, in the pure Gypsy, when [Greek:\n\u03a3\u03b9\u03b2\u03c5\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1: Sibylla] is only a form of [Greek: \u03a3\u03b9\u03b2\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7: Sibyn\u00ea] or [Greek:\n\u0396\u03b9\u03b2\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7: Zibyn\u00ea], which naturally derives from [Greek: \u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7: Sigyn\u00ea],\n[Greek: \u03a3\u03b9\u03b3\u03c5\u03bd\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2: Sigynnos] = _Tsigane_? How not perceive that the\nEgyptian prophetesses turned into black pigeons by Herodotus, and the\ndoves of Dodona, were not identical with the Romn\u00ed?\n\nThis becomes a disease--_Tsigane_ on the brain; from which our\nauthor evidently suffers in an acute form--so acute as to render his\nimagination most lively. To the unimaginative ethnologist the \u201cSindhi\u201d\nare simply the Sindh tribes of Gypsies, so called from the Sindhu, that\nmighty stream which gave to Europe a name for the Indian Peninsula.\nHence, indeed, some philologists would derive the Spanish word Zincale\n(Zinkale), making it a compound of Sindh and K\u00e1lo (plural K\u00e1le, black)\n= dark men of Sindh. Rejecting this treatment, we must consider it a\ntribal name like Kar\u00e1chi (= lower Sindhian), Helebi (Aleppine), L\u00fari\n(from L\u00farist\u00e1n), and many others into which the great Jat nation is\ndivided.\n\nBut whilst we reject particulars, we must beware how we treat the\ngeneral theory. Tradition and ethnological peculiarities, far stronger\nthan philological resemblances or coincidences, tend to prove that the\nearliest metal-workers and weapon-makers were an Indine race whose\nimmigration long preceded the movement of the last ethnic wave, the\nGypsy of history. Herodotus notices a caste or corporation of ambulant\nfounders and metal-workers which came from Asia, possibly belonging\nto the age called by M. de Mortillet _de la chaudronnerie_, when the\nhammer took the place of simple fusion. Modern research has shown that\nthese prehistoric artisans affected Gypsy habits like the _caldereros_\n(coppersmiths) of the Rom\u00e1 in later ages. They had no permanent abodes;\ntheir _ateliers_ were not inside the towns, but _en plein champ_ near\ninhabited centres; here they fashioned their new and recast their old\nmetal, bartering their works for furs, hides, amber, and other articles\nof local _provenance_. Hence M. \u00c9mile Burnouf[136] assumes these\nwandering workmen of the Bronze Age to have been a Gypsy race; while\nthe remarkable similarity, I may almost say the identity, of the alloy\nsuggests that it was the produce of a single people. We must, however,\nbe careful how we accept his derivation from Banca and Malacca of the\nprehistoric tin required for bronze. It would first be supplied by the\nCaucasus mines to a race of workmen migrating along the southern base\nfrom the West to the East. The next source of supply, before passing to\nSouthern France, Spain, and the Cassiterides, would be North-Western\nArabia. The Book of Numbers[137] distinctly mentions the metal, placing\nit between iron and lead, as part of the spoils taken by the children\nof Israel from their cousins the Midianites (_circ._ B.C. 1450); and\nthe two Khedivial expeditions (A.D. 1877-78) have brought home proofs\nthat it may still be found there. Indeed, I have a suspicion that\nthe \u201cbroken\u201d people of Western Arabia are descended from the ancient\nGypsies who may have worked the gold mines of Midian.\n\nPart No. 3 corrects Professor de Goeje, M. Fagnan, and myself in our\nseveral explanations of _Tsigane_. The exaggerated value attributed\nby M. Paul Bataillard to his own \u201ctypical proof and the material\nconfirmation of all his system\u201d seems to have hindered his revelation;\nand he insists upon it na\u00efvely as if it were proof of Holy Writ. Its\nvenerable \u201chypothetical origin\u201d must be sought in the root CHIN\u00c1V,\nmeaning to thrust, throw, fight, cut, kill, write, and eject saliva. It\nsurvives in the word Sagaie or Zagaie (our assegai): the latter, when\nsplit in two, contains a first part similar to _sag_-itta, and a second\nlike _gais_ (_g\u0153_-sum), the heavy, barbed Gallic javelin; whilst the\nwhole resembles the Amazonian Sagaris, an axe.\n\nIn the name of the Prophet--figs! This dreamery is ushered in as usual\nby a whole page of discursive matter. The debased Romaic [Greek:\n\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b6\u03b9\u03b2\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2: katzibelos], a \u201cmaker of javelins,\u201d used by a Byzantine\npoet of the middle fourteenth century, is shown = Sigynos = _Tsigane_.\nKilinjirides, a Gr\u00e6cised form of the Turkish Kilij-ji, or sword-maker,\nis the same word. Let me here note that the \u201cpure Turkish term Kaldji,\u201d\nstill used at Rhodes, is not the same as Kilij-ji; it is the bastard\ncompound Arabic and Turkish Kala'-j\u00ed, a tinsmith. Such are some of the\nlinguistic will-o\u2019-the-wisps which have, I fear, habitually misled our\ncritic.\n\nI must now consider the origin of the corrupted \u201ctypical term\u201d Tsigane,\nwhich M. Paul Bataillard has converted into a \u201cgeneric name.\u201d The\nold and obsolete derivations of the _Zingaro_, which with various\nmodifications prevails throughout Europe, are the following.[138] Ciga\nor Siga, the seaport of Mauretania C\u00e6sariensis, or the Ciga or Cija\nRiver mentioned by Lucan; the Magian Cineus; Zeugitania Regio (Zeugis);\nSingara, the Mesopotamian city; Zigera, a Thracian settlement; the\nZinganes, a tribe inhabiting the Indus Delta (?); the Zigier Province\nin Asia Minor; and \u201cthe bird _Cinclo_\u201d (motacilla or wagtail), a\n\u201cvagrant bird which builds no nest,\u201d and therefore gave rise to the\nterm Cinli or Cingary. Less absurd is the derivation from Singus, or\nCingus, the chief of a horde under \u201cTamerlane,\u201d who employed these\nmen, not as combatants, but camp-followers and to export trains[139]\n(A.D. 1401). Arabshah, the biographer of the great Tatar Am\u00edr, recounts\na contrivance by which in A.D. 1406 he rid his city (Samarkand) of\nthe rebellious Zingaros; and the account of this race shows a certain\ncorrespondence with the Gypsies. Hence, probably, Borrow (_The\nZincali_) tells us that \u201cthe Eastern Gypsies are called Zingarri.\u201d The\nword is quite unknown to Turkey and Persia. In 1402 they accompanied\nthe Sultan B\u00e1yez\u00edd on his invasion of Europe along the Danube, and\nthus settled in Bulgaria and Old Servia.\n\nWhat we know for certain is that the Gypsies have been known in Persia\nfrom time immemorial as Ching\u00e1neh, [Persian: \u0686\u0650\u0646\u06af\u0627\u0646\u0647]. Professor de\nGoeje writes the word Tsjeng\u00e1n (Cheng\u00e1n), and would explain it by the\nPersian plural of Tsenj, a musician, a dancer. Is this word intended\nfor Chang, a harp, or for Zang, in Arabic Zanj, a K\u00e1lo, a \u201cblack man,\u201d\nas the Gypsy is still called in England? Ching\u00e1neh in Syria becomes\nJing\u00e1neh, the Semites having no _ch_; and the term now applies, not\nto the Gypsies generally, but to a small and special tribe. The Greek\nand Romaic [Greek: \u0391\u03c4\u03b6\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2: Atzinganos] and [Greek: \u0391\u03b8\u03b9\u03b3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2:\nAthinganos] corruptions of Ching\u00e1neh, are, as we have seen by Atsinkan,\nas old at Constantinople as the eleventh century. In Turkish the word\nis written as in Persian, but the pronunciation changes to Chingy\u00e1neh;\nM. Paspati adopts Tchinghian\u00e9, the Turco-French corruption, with the\ne = eh. Hence evidently the Hungarian Czigan (Czigany, Czig\u00e1nyok,\nCzingaricus, etc.), and the Transylvanian Cingani, which appears in\nwritings of the fifteenth century; the former evidently engendered M.\nBataillard\u2019s bastard _Tsigane_. The Poles turned Ching\u00e1neh into Cygan\n(Cyganaeh, Cyganskiego, etc.), and the Russians into Zigan. Here we see\nthe Italian Ciano, Cingano, and Zingano, the older forms of Zingaro and\nthe Portuguese Cigano.\n\nThe Spanish Zincali is derived by Borrow from two Gypsy words meaning\n\u201cK\u00e1le\u201d (the black men) of Zend (Sind or Ind), a theory perfectly\ninadmissible. The Iberian Git\u00e1no, now a term of opprobrium, is\nprobably a survival of the racial name, and not a corruption of the\nolder Egypciano, the Basque Egipcioac. The latter, evidently from\nAigyptos, \u00c6gyptus, Egypt, an \u201cEgyptian,\u201d is itself a corruption of\nKupt, [Persian: \u06a9\u067e\u0637], in modern parlance a Copt. Hence the Turks also\ncall their vagrants Kupti or Gupti. Hence also [Greek: \u0393\u03c5\u03c6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2: Gyphtos]\nin Romaic applies indifferently to a Gypsy or a blacksmith, and hence\nfinally our Gypsy, which should be pronounced with a hard _g_, and\nwritten as by the older writers Gypsy. All four derive from a different\nroot, the Egyptian.\n\nAs regards the German Zigeuner and its older forms Secane and Suyginer\n(fifteenth century), Professor de Goeje would derive it from Sjik\u00e2ri\n(Syik\u00e1ri), as he writes Shek\u00e1ri, a huntsman, much reminding us of\nthat diction which confounds \u201csrimp\u201d with \u201cshrimp.\u201d The word means a\nwanderer, and seems to derive from the root that gave us _zig_-zag.\nThe Dutch call these Indians _Heiden af Egypti\u00ebr\u2019s_; the French\n_\u00c9gyptiens_, but preferably _Boh\u00e9miens_, showing what they believed to\nbe the last halting-place of the tribe before it passed on to Western\nEurope. A curious irony of fate has connected in the Gallic mind the\nold land of the Boii with all that is wild and unsettled, when its\nsons are the stiffest and the most priggish of the Austro-German\n_beamter_ class.\n\nNot a few commentators on the Bible[140] have believed the Gypsies\nto be that \u201cmixed multitude\u201d which has done so much for romantic\nethnology. This medley, the Hebrew\u2019s _hasaphsuph_, corresponding with\nthe Arabic _Habash_ (Abyssinian), we are told \u201cwent up also with the\nJews out of Egypt.\u201d The learned add that they marched eastward to\nIndia, became veritable Aryans, retraced their steps to Misraim, the\ntwo Egypts, upper and lower, and thence spread over Europe.\n\nFor the first set of words, _Tsigane_ included, I hold Ching\u00e1neh to be\nthe origin, owning at the same time my inability to determine the root\nor history of the word. For the second, whose type is Gitano, I think\nit probable that the wanderers may have modified their racial name\n_Jat_ and its adjective _Jat\u00e1ni_ into the semblance of _Egyptian_ at\nthe time when they represented themselves to be descendants of the old\nNile dwellers and to speak an Egyptian (Coptic) dialect. The Jugo-Slav\ntongues abound in similar instances of conversion, vernacular and\nsignificant terms being often applied to the older terms of conquered\nor occupied countries. For instance, _Aurisina_, the Roman station\nnear Trieste, became _Nabresina_, from na-brek = ad montem.\n\nReturning to M. Paul Bataillard, we find him declaring that the Gypsies\nare generically Chamites (descendants of Ham!), and specifically\nKushites, \u201cwho lived long enough under the 'Aryas in the Indus region\nto _lose their Kushite tongue_ and to adopt an Aryan dialect.\u201d This\nimmense assertion, made perfunctorily, as it were, and without\nacknowledgment of its source, is worthy of the eighteenth century\nand its \u201cmixed multitude\u201d borrowed from the Book of Exodus. What the\nlearned Movers (_Geschichte d. Ph\u0153nicier_) said of the \u201cKushites\u201d\nwas that, originally from India, they migrated in prehistoric days\nwestwards, allied themselves with the Semites, and became the peoples\nspeaking such Aryo-Semitic tongues as the Egyptian and Coptic,\nHimyaritic and Gh\u00edz. To believe that this also was the history of the\nGypsy movement is to hold that, whilst other \u201cKushites\u201d changed their\nphysique and their morale, their eyes and hair, their cheekbones and\nfigures generally, the Gypsies have remained pure Indians without a\ntrace of other blood.\n\nA word here upon this \u201cKushite\u201d theory, which has been accepted by\nmen of the calibre of Heinrich Brugsch Bey. It appears to be simply a\nlabour-saving institution, in fact what algebraists call _supposer un\ninconnu_, a pure assumption which spares the pains of working out the\norigination of the so-called Aryo-Semitic races. These Kushites, who\nwere they? Where are they mentioned in history or legend as emigrants\nfrom the plains of Hindustan to the north-eastern angle of Africa?\nWhat traces have they left upon the long route across Western Asia\nwhich connects the Indus with the Nile? How came it that, without\nmarking their exodus by a single vestige of civilization, they began\nat once to hew the obelisks and build the pyramids in their new home,\nthe _chef-d\u2019\u0153uvres_ of artistic Egypt\u2019s golden age? No answer to such\nobjections as these.\n\nIn Part No. 4, concluding the paper, M. Paul Bataillard attempts to\nconciliate his \u201cprincipal thesis\u201d with the views of M. de Goeje. The\nLeyden professor opines that the first colonies of Djatts (Jats) were\nfounded amongst the Persians and Arabs of the seventh century; and M.\nFagnan also speaks of inscriptions in Buddhist characters treating of\nthe Jats in the fourth and fifth centuries. The tribal name, corrupted\nby Arabization, appears in the \u201cCanal of the Zott\u201d (Zutt) near Babylon,\nand in the \u201cZott-land.\u201d Families of \u201cZotts\u201d were transplanted to Syrian\nBosra, Bostra, or Old Damascus during the earliest Muslim conquests in\nthe seventh century (_circ._ A.D. 670), not in the ninth (A.D. 855),\nas our author had determined. About A.D. 710 \u201cZotts\u201d and Indians were\ntransferred from the Indus to the Tigris (Khuzist\u00e1n); and between\nA.D. 714 and 720 a certain number were sent with their four thousand\nbuffaloes--\u201cwhich make the lion fly (!)\u201d--to colonize the Antioch\nregions. Hence possibly the name of the large tribe which is known\nin Egypt and elsewhere as \u201cEl H'aleb,\u201d or \u201cHelebi, the Aleppine.\u201d\nThey waxed powerful enough in their new possessions to contend with\nthe Caliphat till A.D. 820-834, when they were subjugated, and some\ntwenty-seven thousand were transplanted to Bagdad. Thence they were\nsent north-eastwards to Kh\u00e1nikin and westwards to Ayin-Zarba (?) in\nSyria, a place subsequently (A.D. 855) captured by the Byzantines; and\nfinally the \u201cZott\u201d and their belongings were carried off and dispersed\nthroughout the empire.\n\nSo far so good. But our critic appends a rider to Professor de Goeje\u2019s\ntale. He owns that this race, Zott or Jats, may have transformed itself\ninto Gypsies--not difficult, as they were Gypsies. But he contends that\nthey formed a feeble modern addition to his \u201cKushites,\u201d to the race\nwhich was represented _ab antiquo_ by the Sicani and Sinties _et hoc\ngenus omne_.\n\nFurther let me note _en passant_ the vulgar error now obsolete which,\nconfounding Hindi with the Urd\u00fa-Zab\u00e1n or camp dialect,[141] made the\nformer a bastard modern tongue when its literature is as old as the\nearliest English and French. And here we may note that, while the\n_Romni-ch\u00edb_ is in point of vocabulary a sister of the Hindi, the\ngrammar of the noun with its survival of regular cases belongs to a\nmore remote age. It is partly Prakrit and partly Sindhi, a dialect\nwhose numerous harsh consonants make us suspect, despite Dr. Trumpp,\na non-Aryan element. Besides the prehistoric occupation of the\ntrans-Indine regions by the Indo-Scythians noticed in Alexander\u2019s day,\nwe find another dating from far later times. The Bactrian kingdom which\nbecame independent sixty-nine years after the great Macedonian\u2019s death\nlasted one hundred and thirty years, and was destroyed about B.C. 126\nby the \u201cwhite Huns,\u201d Chinese Tatars, who crossed the Jaxartes. Hence\npossibly the Dravidian Brahins still dwelling in the midst of Aryan\npopulations. The apparent anomaly that the wild and vagrant Gypsies\nhave preserved in Europe ancient forms which have died out in the old\nhome has already been accounted for; I may also number amongst the\ncauses of conservation the total want of a written character, which\nalso proves the early date of the Gypsy exodus.\n\n\n\u00a7 4. \u201c_Notes et Questions, etc._,\u201d \u201c_Sur le mot Zagaie, etc._\u201d\n\nI treat of Nos. 4 and 5 out of order of date because they are mere\n_ausflugs_ illustrating Nos. 3 and 6. From the first we learn that\nwhen the French occupied Algiers in 1830 they found the city and its\nterritory partly occupied by Gypsies, who did not mix with the Arabs\nor the Kabyles (Kab\u00e1il or the Tribes), with the Jews or the Europeans.\nThey spoke their own tongue, and they were often visited by their\ncongeners of Hungary and other parts of Europe. It is conjectured that\nthese Rom\u00e1 may have passed over from Spain, and possibly that they\ntravelled eastward from Morocco, as Blidah contains many of the race.\nThe question becomes interesting when we find the Egyptian _Ghagar_\nclaiming to be emigrants from the West. According to the Librarian of\nAlgiers, the late M. Berbruger in 1846, they were known as Gues\u00e1ni,\npronounced G's\u00e1ni or G'z\u00e1ne (Gezz\u00e1n\u00ed), the feminine singular being\nGezz\u00e1na (Gezz\u00e1neh).[142] Here of course M. Paul Bataillard finds no\ndifficulty in detecting, through Dz\u00e2na and Ts\u00e2na, \u201ca corruption of\nthe true name _Tsigani_ or _Tchingani_.\u201d The latter form, I would\nobserve, retaining the nasal of the original Ching\u00e1neh and the Arabized\nJing\u00e1neh, is far preferable to the mutilated _Tsigane_ adopted\nafterwards (1875) with so much pomp and such a flourish of trumpets.\n\nA family dislodged from a house in the present Rue de Chartres was\nfound lying upon the straw surrounded by human skulls, serpents, and\nother instruments of their craft. Whilst being evicted they noisily\nthreatened their molesters with all manner of devilry; but as usual\nthey ended by submitting. The men apparently had no occupation; the\nwomen used to wander about the streets in small parties, generally a\nmatron followed by four or five girls, crying, \u201cGezz\u00e1neh! who wants\nto know the future?\u201d[143] The Durke,[144] or pythoness, carried a\ntambourine; and when divining she placed upon her drum-head a bit of\nalum and of charcoal, with pebbles, beans or grains, wheat and barley;\nthese represented the \u201celements,\u201d water, fire, and earth, thus showing\nthat the process was a rude form of the Arab\u2019s geomancy. Sometimes the\n\u201cspae-wife\u201d made passes over the consultee\u2019s head, holding in her hand\na lump of sugar; this reminds us of the magicians in Morocco and Egypt\nand their mesmerized \u201cclear-seers.\u201d Between 1837 and 1838 these Gypsies\nretired into the Sahar\u00e1 or Desert; and now they visit the city only\nin caravans. Their women, tattooed and painted like the Bedawiyyah,\nare generally robed in rags and tatters, and decorated with the usual\ntinsel, rings, and hangings.\n\nAn interesting subject, but by no means easy of treatment, would be\nthe order of Dervishes known as A\u00efssaoua, also \u201ccalled _Adr\u00e1_, from\nthe name of one of their festivals.\u201d[145] They have been noticed by a\nmultitude of writers each more ignorant than the other. These men are\nprobably Gypsies, to judge by analogy with the Rif\u00e1'i Dervishes, who\nwill be noticed under the head of Egypt. The same may be said of the\nNa\u00eflette, the Almah (\u00c1limeh) or dancing-girl of Algiers, who affiliates\nherself with the Aul\u00e1d N\u00e1'il[146], the large and wealthy Bedawin tribe\noccupying the inner regions. Similarly the Nawar Gypsies farther east\nderive themselves from the Beni Nawar. These Na\u00eflettes are public when\nyoung, yet in after-life they become faithful wives; the same is said\nof the Egyptian Ghagar and the nach-girls of India. According to one\nauthority, there are among the Mozabites two or three Gypsy tribes that\nlive by prostituting their women to caravans. It is curious to compare\nthe rigid chastity of the Gypsy girls in England and Spain, indeed in\nEurope generally, where a lapse would lead to certain death, with their\nlooseness of life elsewhere. But the Rom\u00e1 is _une race curieuse entre\ntoutes_, and both extremes may be expected from it.\n\nIt remains only to treat of No. 5, which discusses the origin of the\nword Zagaie or Sagaie, the Spanish and Portuguese Azagaia, a small kind\nof Moorish spear which we have named assegai, transferring it to the\nthrowing dart of the B\u00e1setu or K\u00e1fir race. We have seen (\u00a7 3) that M.\nPaul Bataillard has fathered upon this term the mysterious racial name\n_Tsigane_ (Ching\u00e1neh), and there is no reason to repeat what has been\nsaid of his derivation. We may accept his dictum: \u201cThere are words\nwhose history would, if known, throw vivid light upon human migrations\nand the affinity of peoples in very ancient ages.\u201d But here we find, in\nlieu of illumination, outer darkness. The comparison of Zagaie, G\u00e6sum,\nand Gais is bad enough; but it is worse to transport the assegai into\nSouth American speech. Demersay, describing the Paraguayan tribe of\n\u201cPayagas\u201d (the Payag\u00faas or Canoe Indians), calls their lance _Pagaie_,\n\u201cwhich,\u201d remarks our author, \u201cmay, it appears, be permitted to me to\nidentify with Sagaie.\u201d This is again transcendental etymology applied\nto ethnic misuse. Pagaie here is simply the popular European, and\nespecially French, corruption of Tacap\u00e9 or Tangap\u00e9, the paddle-club of\nironwood sharpened to serve as a sword, and used by all the maritime\ntribes of Eastern South America. Finally Korik, the bellows, so called\nby the Gypsies of Asia Minor, is not _Turkish_, but a corruption of the\nArabic Kor.\n\nHere ends my long notice of M. Paul Bataillard\u2019s four papers; the\nnovelties introduced into them will, it is hoped, be held to justify\nthe prolixity.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[106] The following are his advertised works; he kindly supplied me\nwith copies of all, except the first two, which were out of print:\n\n  1. _De l\u2019apparition et de la dispersion des Boh\u00e9miens en Europe._\n      Reprinted from the _Biblioth\u00e8que de l\u2019\u00c9cole des Chartes_, 1844,\n      in 8vo of 69 pages; and again in 1849 by M. Franck. I understand\n      that in this, his first paper, the author knew the \u201cZott,\u201d but\n      ignored the \u201cJats.\u201d\n\n  2. _Nouvelles Recherches sur l\u2019apparition des Boh\u00e9miens en Europe\n      (particuli\u00e8rement dans l\u2019Europe Orientale,--avec un appendice sur\n      l\u2019arriv\u00e9e de dix ou douze mille Louri, Zuth, ou Djatt en Perse\n      entre les ann\u00e9es 420 et 440)._ From the same _Biblioth\u00e8que_,\n      1849, in 8vo of 48 pages, a _petit travail_ (as the author calls\n      it) containing his first notice of the Jats.\n\n  3. _Les derniers travaux relatifs aux Boh\u00e9miens dans l\u2019Europe\n      Orientale._ From the _Revue Critique_, Vol. II. of fifth year\n      (1870-71). Reprinted Paris: Franck, 1872. In treating of the\n      Gypsies the Jats now become an important element.\n\n  4. _Notes et questions sur les Boh\u00e9miens en Alg\u00e9rie._ From the\n      Bulletin of the _Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019Anthropologie de Paris, S\u00e9ance du 17\n      Juillet_, 1873. Reprinted Paris: A. Henmeyer, 1874.\n\n  5. _Sur le mot Zagaie ou Sagaie, et accessoirement sur le nom du\n      soufflet de forge primitif._ From the Bulletin of the _Soci\u00e9t\u00e9\n      d\u2019Anthropologie de Paris, S\u00e9ance du 21 Mai_, 1874.\n\n  6. _Sur l\u2019origine des Boh\u00e9miens ou Tsiganes, avec l\u2019explication du\n      mot \u201cTsigane.\u201d Lettre \u00e0 la Revue Critique._ Paris: Franck, 1875.\n      This last publication criticises my identification of the Gypsies\n      and the Jats, etc.\n\n[107] _Emb\u00e9o e Maj\u00e1ro Lucas, etc._, now rare. This version preserved\nintact many of the Spanish words used by Padre Scio, instead of\nconverting them into pure \u201cRomani.\u201d See Borrow.\n\n[108] For instance, when Borrow makes Chai denote the men of Egypt\nor the sons of Heaven, when it simply signifies children, being a\ndialectic variety of the Hindi Chokra, Chokr\u00ed.\n\n[109] A second \u201cTsiganida\u201d was in the hands of the late M. Pierre\nAssaki, possibly composed by one of his kinsmen.\n\n[110] Rom (man), masc. sing.; Rom\u00e1 (men), masc. plur. Romni, Romni\u00e1,\nwoman, women; Roman\u00ed, adjectival, belonging to man. Hence our phrases\n\u201c_rum_ fellow\u201d and \u201cpottering Rommany.\u201d Lom is a mere popular\nmispronunciation of Rom, and Ro is a vulgar abbreviation. The latter\nword I would derive from the Coptic [Greek: \u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5: r\u00f4me] (rom\u00e9), a man.\n\n[111] The bond of language has perhaps been exaggerated by M. Alexandre\nG. Paspati, _\u00c9tude sur les Tchinghian\u00e9s en Boh\u00e9miens de l\u2019Empire\nOttoman_ (Constantinople, 1870), and others, where they assert\n\u201c_l\u2019histoire enti\u00e8re de cette race est dans son idiome_.\u201d\n\n[112] As the Jews all have especial Hebrew names for the Synagogue\nbesides the Gentile family-names known to the world, the Gypsies are\nalso binominal. Thus the Stanleys are Bar-engres (stony fellows); the\nCoopers, Wardo-engres (\u201cwheel fellows,\u201d coopers); the Hernes, Balors\n(hairs, hairy fellows); the Smiths, Petul-engres (\u201chorseshoe fellows,\u201d\nblacksmiths); and the Lovells, Camo-mescres (amorous fellows). See _The\nZincali_.\n\n[113] Get\u00e6, Goths.\n\n[114] _History of Sindh_, pp. 246, 247, and Notes, p. 411; _Scinde,\nor the Unhappy Valley_, Vol. II., pp. 116-19; _Journal of the Bombay\nAsiatic Society_, pp. 84-90; without including the Grammar and the\nVocabulary.\n\n[115] _Scinde, or the Unhappy Valley_, Vol II., pp. 116-19.\n\n[116] Alluding chiefly to Captain Postans\u2019 _Personal Observations on\nScinde_, chap. iii.\n\n[117] Both of these statements have been modified by subsequent\nexperience. The Jats are _not_ immigrants, nor is their language\ncorrupt Panjabi. It is connected with the Sindhi; but it wants those\nintricacies and difficulties, and that exuberance of grammatical\nforms, which, distinguishing the latter from its Prakrit sisters,\nrenders it so valuable for the philological comparison of the neo-Aryan\ntongues. The vernacular of the Sindh Valley has preserved many forms\nfor which we vainly look in its cognates, and it is notably freer\nfrom foreign admixture than any other of the North Indian dialects,\nthe Panjabi, Hindi, and Bengali of our day. It has, in fact, remained\ntolerably steady to that first stage of decomposition which attacked\nthe Prakrit of the ancients. Hence Dr. Trumpp (_loc. cit._) holds it\nto be an immediate derivation from the _Apabhransha_, which the old\ngrammarians placed lowest in the scale of Prakrit speech. \u201cWhile all\nthe modern vernaculars of India,\u201d he says, \u201care already so degraded\nthat the venerable mother tongue (Sanskrit) is hardly recognizable in\nher degenerate daughters, the Sindhi has, on the contrary, preserved\nmost important fragments of it, and erected for itself a grammatical\nstructure which far surpasses in beauty of execution and internal\nharmony the loose and levelling construction of its sisters.\u201d\n\n[118] Every observer has noticed the Gypsy eye, which films over, as\nit were, as soon as the owner becomes weary or _ennuy\u00e9_; it has also\na remarkable \u201cfar-off\u201d glance, as if looking over and beyond you.\nBorrow (_The Zincali_) describes it as a \u201cstrange stare like nothing\nelse in this world.\u201d And again he says that \u201ca thin glaze steals over\nit in repose, and seems to emit phosphoric light.\u201d It is certainly a\nmarvellous contrast with the small, fat-lidded eye of the Jew, the\noblique and porcine feature of the Chinese, and the oblong optic of the\nold Egypt which in profile looks like full face.\n\n[119] In the language of the Jat a Kaum is a clan.\n\n[120] The italicised words are in the second edition.\n\n[121] The author of this well-known Persian history of Sindh asserts\nthat the Jats and the Belochis are both sprung from the same ancestors.\n\n[122] I cannot but suspect some connexion between the Gypsy tribal name\nand that of the Counts Szapary, one governor of Fiume, and the other\ncommanding a _corps d\u2019arm\u00e9e_ in Bosnia.\n\n[123] _Die Einwanderung der Zigeuner in Europa._ Ein Vortrag von Carl\nHopf. (Gotha, 1870.)\n\n[124] _Des Boh\u00e9miens et de leur Musique en Hongrie._ (Paris, 1859.)\n\n[125] Literally, a descendant from Lot; popularly, a loose fellow, a\ncad.\n\n[126] [_The Arabic word is_ [Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u0639\u0648\u062f] _which is currently\ntransliterated as El-`O\u00fad_.--_Transcriber_.]\n\n[127] _Ueber die Mundarten und Wanderungen der Zigeuner Europa\u2019s._ Von\nDr. Franz Miklosich Denkschriften der k. Akademie der Wissenschaften.\n(Wien, 1872-77.)\n\n[128] _\u00c9tude, etc._, p. 15; see also _Derniers Travaux_, p. 37.\n\n[129] [_While Varvvara_ [Sanskrit: \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0935\u094d\u0935\u0930] _is what appeared in the\noriginal book, it was common to omit the cross on the lower circle\nin some forms of writing, so Barbbara_ [Sanskrit: \u092c\u0930\u094d\u092c\u094d\u092c\u0930] _is also\npossible. Hindi Wikipedia lists the desired word as Barbara_ [Sanskrit:\n\u092c\u0930\u094d\u092c\u0930].--_Transcriber_.]\n\n[130] Here the mincing French pronunciation has done its very worst\nwholly denaturalizing the Perso-Arabic word.\n\n[131] [_The text is transcribed as it was in the original book. However\nS\u00edn in Arabic and Persian is written_ [Arabic: \u0633].--_Transcriber_.]\n\n[132] [_The Sanskrit is transcribed as written in the book. However\nthat word would be transliterated Na\u1e6da. Nath would be_ [Sanskrit:\n\u0928\u0920]--_Transcriber_.]\n\n[133] _Asiat. Res._, VII. 451.\n\n[134] _Histoire de la G\u00e9orgie_, Part I., p. 338. The modern Armenians\ncall the Gypsies Boscha, possibly from Bokch\u00e1, by which the Russian\nGypsies denote Hungary.\n\n[135] I am not a little surprised to see a scholar like Mr. Gladstone\ndeclaring that \u201cKadmos signifies a foreigner\u201d (_Homer: Primer._) The\n\u201cOld One\u201d with his sixteen letters is supposed by M. Freret (_Canon\nChronologique_) to have settled at B\u0153otian Thebes in B.C. 1590, or some\ncentury and a half before Troy was founded (B.C. 1425).\n\n[136] \u201cL\u2019Age de Bronze,\u201d _Revue des Deux Mondes_, July 15, 1877.\n\n[137] [Chap. xxxi. 22.]\n\n[138] Borrow; _El Gitanismo_.\n\n[139] Tamerlane is our corruption of Taym\u00far--_i.e._ long, limping\nTaymur. The Gypsies call Asmodeus Bengui lango, the lame devil, the\ndevil on two sticks. Not a few Hungarian Ching\u00e1neh accompanied the\nNapoleonic armies to Spain.\n\n[140] For instance, Roberts on Ezekiel (chaps. xxix. and xxx.).\n\n[141] An Urd\u00fa-Zab\u00e1n has been formed in Italy, where the soldiers drawn\nfrom a multitude of provinces, each speaking its own dialect, not to\nsay _patois_, have developed a special speech. The officers are obliged\nto study this \u201cpidjin-Italian.\u201d\n\n[142] The feminine plural is not given; analogy would suggest it to be\nGhan\u00e1zineh.\n\n[143] The same cry used by the Egyptian Gypsies: see Von Kremer\u2019s Notes.\n\n[144] Literally, a far-seer. The Persian word _d\u00far_, far or distance,\nGerm. _dort_ and Engl. _forth_, is familiarly used in Hindustani, and\nits compound forms are frequent in Turkish.\n\n[145] The Id el Zuh\u00e1, alias Kurb\u00e1n Bayr\u00e1m, the festival of the yearly\npilgrimage to Mecca.\n\n[146] [_The Arabic word is_ [Arabic: \u0623\u0648\u0644\u0627\u062f \u0646\u0627\u0626\u0644] _which is currently\ntranslterated as Ouled N\u00e1'il_.--_Transcriber_.]\n\n\n\n\nPart II\n\n_TOPOGRAPHICAL NOTES ON THE GYPSIES AND THE JATS_\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nHISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE GYPSY IN EUROPE\n\n\nBefore proceeding to the topographical portion of my subject, it\nmay be well to review summarily the historical accounts of the Rom\u00e1\nwho overspread Europe during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.\nGrellman, a classic upon the subject of \u201cChinganology,\u201d[147] proved\nthat the last movement to Western Europe set out, not from Bohemia, but\nfrom Hungary and the adjacent countries, including (Old) Rumelia and\nMoldavia. In 1417 some three thousand settled in Moldavia, whilst late\nin the same year hordes of Tatars, then so called, appeared before the\ngates of the Hanseatic towns on the Baltic coast, first Luneburg, and\nthen Hamburg, L\u00fcbeck, Wismar, Rostock, and Stralsund.[148] Next year\nthey migrated to middle Germany, to Meissen, Leipzig, and Hesse; and\npresently turned their steps towards Switzerland, entering Z\u00fcrich on\nAugust 1, 1418. There they divided their forces. One detachment crossed\nthe Botzberg, and suddenly appeared as \u201cSaracens\u201d before the Proven\u00e7al\ntown of Sisteron. The main body, led by \u201cthe dukes, the earls, and\na bevy of knights,\u201d[149] turned towards Alsace, swarmed through\nStrasburg, and halted under the walls of Nuremburg.\n\nIt is not easy to determine the date of their arrival in Spain, where\nthey may have dwelt in far more ancient times; indeed, during the\nfifteenth century the Iberian Peninsula was popularly supposed to be\ntheir birthplace.[150] On the other hand, many Spaniards believe them\nto be Germans, and called their tongue \u201cGermania,\u201d Gypsy German.\n\nIn 1433 they invaded Bavaria; and thence they spread over Germany,\nDenmark, and Sweden.\n\nTheir first appearance in French Christendom seems to be when a tribe\nof one hundred and thirty-two souls, under \u201ca duke,\u201d \u201ca count,\u201d and ten\n\u201cknights,\u201d startled the people of Paris, August 17, 1427. Pasquier, an\neye-witness, who records the arrival of these \u201cChristian penitents\u201d at\nParis, where they lodged in La Chapelle, outside the city, gives them\nugly features, with crisp black hair.[151] If he be correct, the horde\neither must have sojourned long in Africa, or must have had intercourse\nwith negro and negroid. There is no more constant characteristic of the\nmodern Gypsy, after his eye, than the long, coarse, black Hindu-Tatar\nhair.\n\nFrom an old work[152] it would seem that the Gypsies drifted to England\nabout 1500, though this is uncertain. The writer, in his book published\nin 1612, says: \u201cThis kind of people about a hundred years ago began to\ngather an head about the southern parts. And this I am informed and can\ngather was their beginning: Certain Egyptians [_sic_] banished their\ncountry (belike not for their good condition) arrived here in England;\nwho for quaint tricks and devices, not known here at that time among\nus, were esteemed and held in great admiration; insomuch that many\nof our English loiterers joined with them, and in time learned their\ncrafty cozening. The speech which they used was the right Egyptian\n[_sic_] language, with whom our Englishmen conversing at least learned\ntheir language.\u201d\n\nWe first hear of them in Italy in the early part of the fifteenth\ncentury. On July 11, 1422, a horde of fully one hundred, led by a\n\u201cduke,\u201d encamped before Bologna, passing by Forli, where some of\nthem maintained they came from India. At Bologna these \u201cmild Hindus\u201d\nrepresented that they were bound on an expiatory visit to the Pope.\n\nElsewhere they became \u201cpenitents,\u201d who, expelled by the Saracens from\ntheir homes in Lower Egypt, had confessed themselves to his Holiness,\nand had been condemned to seven years\u2019 wandering and dispersion by\nway of penance. Thus was visited upon their heads the crime of those\n\u201cperverse pagans\u201d their forefathers, who refused a drink of water\nto the Virgin and Child flying from the wrath of Herod. This was\nonly fourteen centuries after, and we know that _lenta ira deorum\nest_. There was quoted concerning them the forty years\u2019 dispersion\nof Ezekiel: \u201cAnd I will make the land of Egypt desolate in the midst\nof the countries that are desolate, and her cities among the cities\nthat are laid waste shall be desolate forty years: and I will scatter\nthe Egyptians among the nations, and will disperse them through the\ncountries\u201d (xxix. 12). The prophet\u2019s minatory ravings against the old\nEgyptians, who had been a \u201cstaff of reed to the house of Israel,\u201d were\nalso recalled to explain their bondage and vagabondage. Hence some\ndeclared that it was sinful to maltreat these pseudo-pilgrims.\n\nThe Gypsies travelled to Rome and secured a papal safe-conduct twenty\nyears after their first appearance at Bologna. Hypocritical legend\nsecured them passes and passports from the European powers who were\nthen engaged in the perilous Ottoman Wars. They were more or less\nsupported by the Emperor Sigismund and the bishop of the same name,\nwho, A.D. 1540, at F\u00fcnf-Kirchen employed them in casting iron and\ncannon-balls for the benefit of the Turks; by Ladislas II., King of\nHungary, and other potentates. The Gypsies doubtless imitated the Jews\nin hedging between the two belligerents, and in betraying both of them\nfor their own benefit; and this doubtless was part of the cause of the\npersecution which the two scattered races endured. Purely religious\nmovements of the kind are rare in history; but they are numerous when\nreligion mixes itself, as it ever has and always will, with politics.\n\nPresently public opinion changed, and the natural reaction set in.\nLorenzo Palmireno, A.D. 1540, declared in one of his books \u201cthat the\nGypsies lie,\u201d and the lives they led were not of penitents, but of\n\u201cdogs and plunderers.\u201d They were now loaded with all the crimes of\nthe Middle Ages--espionage in the cause of the infidel, incendiarism,\nprofessional poisoning and other forms of assassination, cannibalism,\nsorcery and bewitching, blaspheming God and the saints, and personal\nintercourse with the foul fiend in the shape of a grey bird.\n\nIn 1499, shortly after the institution of the Holy Office, A.D. 1481,\nand the expulsion of the Jews, A.D. 1492, the \u201cGreat Pragmatic,\u201d signed\nby Ferdinand and Isabella at Medina del Campo under the influence of\nJimenez de Cisneros, the archbishop who disgracefully broke faith\nwith the Moors of Grenada, formally attacked the vagrant race.[153]\nIt decreed that the Egyptians and stranger tinkers, _caldereros_,\nshould settle as serfs for sixty days, and after that time leave the\nkingdom under severe personal penalties. This decree was renewed under\nCharles V. by the Cortes of Toledo, in 1523, and of Madrid, in 1528,\n1534, and 1560, with the condition that \u201cthose found vagabonding for\nthe third time should become the life slaves of their captors.\u201d Under\nthe timorous Philip III., 1619, the Professor of Theology to the\nToledo University, Dr. Sancho de Moncada, addressed a discourse to the\nking justifying the wholesale slaughter of the race, even women and\nchildren, by the dictum, \u201cNo law pledges us to bring up wolf-cubs.\u201d\n\nFollowing the lead of the Catholic kings, the Diet of Augsburg,\n1500-1548, revoking all previous concessions, banished the Gypsies\nfrom the Holy German Empire under similar conditions. This ordinance\nwas also revived in 1530, in 1544, in 1548, in 1551, and in 1577,\nthe last time confirmed by a police regulation at Frankfurt. In 1545\nthe Superior Tribunal of Utrecht punished a Gypsy who had disobeyed\na decree of exile by flogging until blood was drawn, by splitting\nhis nostrils, and by shaving his head before he was driven to the\nfrontier.[154]\n\nIn England the liberal and Protestant Henry VIII.[155] sanctioned an\nAct of Parliament persecuting the Gypsies to extermination; and it was\nrenewed by Philip and Mary, and by Elizabeth.\n\nFrancis I. of France followed the example of his neighbours; and\nunder Charles IX. the persecution was renewed by the States-General\nassembled at Orleans, 1561, who decreed extermination by steel and\nfire. Another and similar edict appeared in 1612. Charles V., besides\nhis proclamations in Spain and Germany, condemned the Gypsies of the\nNetherlands to enrolment under pain of death, and this was confirmed\nby the States-General in 1582. Fanatic Poland in 1578 issued a law\nforbidding hospitality to Gypsies, and exiling those who received them.\nPius V. showed himself equally inhuman, and the Rom\u00e1 were driven from\nthe duchies of Parma and Milan, from the republic of Venice, and the\nkingdom of Denmark. Sweden distinguished herself by the severest laws\nof expulsion in 1662, 1723, and 1727.\n\nFrom these barbarities arose the Gypsies\u2019 saying, \u201cKing\u2019s law has\ndestroyed the Gypsy law.\u201d The latter consisted of fidelity to one\nanother; the code contained only three commandments, of which the first\ntwo were addressed to women:\n\n\u201cThou shalt not separate from the Rom (Gypsy law).\u201d\n\n\u201cThou shalt be faithful to thy Rom.\u201d\n\n\u201cThou shalt pay thy debts to the Rom.\u201d\n\nThese Draconian laws against the Gypsies died out during the\ndevelopment of civilization, and received their death-blow at the hands\nof the great and glorious French Revolution, 1789.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nI propose now to collect a series of notices upon the subject of the\nGypsies and the Jats which are not readily procurable by students; many\nare obtained from books little known to the public, and not a few are\ngathered by myself. And with a view of introducing some order into the\nscattered tribes, we will begin from the farthest East, the old home.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[147] _Histoire des Boh\u00e9miens_, French Translation of 1810.\n\n[148] The _Edinburgh Review_, \u201cOrigin and Wanderings of the Gypsies,\u201d\nJuly, 1878, adopted the opinion of F. Bataillard that a single\nscouting-party was in Europe between 1417 and 1427.\n\n[149] [\u201cThey appeared in various bands, under chiefs, to whom they\nacknowledged obedience, and who assumed the titles of dukes and earls\u201d\n(_Weissenburch_).]\n\n[150] The opinion is refuted by Francisca de Cordova; yet the _Histoire\nde Los Gitanos_, by J. N., published in Barcelona 1832, expressly says\nthat the Gitanos, whom he has specially distinguished from the Gypsies\ndescended from the Arab or Moorish tribes, came from the coast of\nAfrica as conquerors at the beginning of the eighth century.\n\n[151] [Hoyland writes: \u201cWhen they arrived in Paris, nearly all of them\nhad their ears bored, with one or two silver rings in each, which they\nsaid were esteemed ornaments in their own country. The men were black,\ntheir hair curled; the women remarkably black, and all their faces\nscarred\u201d (_Historical Survey of the Gypsies_).]\n\n[152] A quarto work by S. R., published to detect and expose the \u201cart\nof juggling\u201d in 1612.\n\n[153] For the special persecutions in Spain and Portugal under Philip\nIII. (1619), Philip IV. (1633), Charles II. (1692), and Philip V.\n(1726), whose decrees prevailed until 1749, see _El Gitanos_. [\u201cGerman\nwriters say that King Ferdinand of Spain, who esteemed it a good work\nto expatriate useful and profitable subjects--Jew and even Moorish\nfamilies--could much less be guilty of an impropriety in laying\nhands on the mischievous progeny of the Gypsies. The edict for their\nextermination was published in the year 1492. But instead of passing\nthe boundaries, they only slunk into hiding-places, and shortly after\nappeared in as great numbers as before\u201d (_Hoyland_).]\n\n[154] [\u201cEven at the present day a Gypsy in many parts of Germany is not\nallowed to enter a town; nor will the inhabitants permit him to live in\nthe street in which they dwell\u201d (_Simson_).]\n\n[155] [\u201cAn outlandish people, calling themselves Egyptians, using no\ncraft nor feat of merchandise, who have come into this realm, and\ngone from shire to shire, and place to place, in great company; and\nused great subtlety and crafty means to deceive the people--bearing\nthem in hand that they, by palmistry, could tell men\u2019s and women\u2019s\nfortunes; and so have deceived the people for their money; and also\nhave committed many heinous felonies and robberies\u201d (22 _Henry VIII.,\nc._ 10).]\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nTHE GYPSY IN ASIA\n\n\n\u00a7 1. _The Punjabi Jats_\n\nWe find the Jats well and copiously described as early as 1835 by\nLieutenant-Colonel W. H. Sleeman.[156] He called them \u201cJ\u00e2ts,\u201d with\na long vowel, and treats them everywhere as low caste, or rather\nno-caste, Hindus. Their original habitat was upon the Indus about\nMult\u00e1n, one of the headquarters of Hindu fable, and thence they spread\nto the Jumna and the Chumbul Valleys. They were alternately robbers\nand peaceful peasants until about A.D. 1658, when they plundered the\nill-fated Dara Shikoh, son of Shah Jehan, the Moghol. Enriched by this\nfeat, they became the nobles and rajahs of the land; and they expended\nvast sums in building forts like Bharatp\u00far, Matras, and Gohud, and on\npublic works like the quadrangular garden at D\u00edg. Incited by a love of\nconquest and plunder, and united by a feeling of nationality, which\nmay be called patriotism, they would have become, but for the Mar\u00e1tt\u00e1s\nand for the English, the dominant race in India. Fate, however, was\nagainst them, and those dwelling between the Indus and the Jumna merged\ninto the N\u00e1nah-Sh\u00e1kis or Sikhs. As regards the origin of his \u201cJ\u00e2ts,\u201d\nColonel Sleeman reminds us that Sultan Mahmoud carried back with him to\nHindustan in A.D. 1011 some two hundred thousand captives, the spoils\nof his expedition.\n\nThe way of the new faith presently converted powerful subjects and\nindustrious peasantry into a fighting caste, and every Jat became\na soldier. On the other hand, those lying along the Jumna and the\nChumbul, never having been inspired with the martial spirit or united\nunder any conqueror, continued to drive the plough. Thus external\ninfluence combined to make the Jats restless, and gradually they turned\ntheir steps westward.[157]\n\nAgain, Ghenghis Khan, in A.D. 1206, and his descendant Turmachurn, who\nin A.D. 1303 invaded India and carried off hosts of prisoners, may have\ngiven impulse to the current westward. Lastly, about two centuries\nafter, the great Conqueror whom Europe has apparently determined by\nsectarian nickname, \u201cTamerlane,\u201d swept over Northern India in A.D.\n1398-1400, and his horde must have caused a wide scattering of the\nweaker tribes.\n\nThe Jats, I may here notice, inhabited the Indine Valley, whence\nemigration westward is easy; the other tribes, like the Nats,\nfancifully connected with the Gypsies, were by no means so favourably\nsituated for an exodus. Originally the Gypsies must have been outcasts,\nnot Hindu Pariahs, as some have supposed them to be; although they may\nhave borrowed from those Aryans the horse-sacrifice and the burning of\nthe dead--the latter custom has become obsolete in Europe, and now only\na few of the deceased person\u2019s clothes are thrown into the fire. They\nhad words for God (Deob) and the Devil (Bad God--Benga), \u201cJ\u00e1 li benga\u201d\n(Go to the Devil) being a popular curse. They were unalphabetic: so\nclever a race would certainly not have lost a written character, and\nthey became nominal Christians and Muslims in imitation of those among\nwhom they settled.\n\nThe Jats are still half nomads, and perhaps of old they were wholly\nnomadic. They are breeders of cattle and rude veterinary surgeons.\nThey are fond of music, as are all these races; and their dances are\nexactly represented by those of the Egyptian Gypsies, a similarity\nwhich has yet to be insisted upon. Their iron-smelting, like that of\nthe Mahabaleshwar tribes, is exactly like that of the Rom\u00e1. Their sword\nplay is that of the Hindu, whereas the Gypsies in Scotland use a direct\nthrust straight to the front,[158] certainly not learned in India.\nThe village Jats are said to mould the babies\u2019 heads; perhaps the\nidea arose by the shampooing of the younger children by the mothers.\nDivination seems to be the growth of the soil, and palmistry palpably\nderives from India. Snake-charming is also common amongst them. As\ntheir history in the Panjab proves, they are disposed to robbing and to\nviolence. Lastly, though the history of the country universally derives\nthem from the Land of the Five Rivers, the modern date of Muslim annals\nwould not be proof against their being a race of remote antiquity.\n\nBelieving that the Jats may fairly have sent forth the last wave of\nAryan emigration, the Gypsies, a western flood which was probably\npreceded by many others, I attempted during my last trip through\nSindh in the spring of 1856 to enlist fellow-workmen in the task\nof illustrating their ethnology and philology. Able linguists like\nLieutenant-Colonel Dunsterville, Collector of Hydrabad, and others,\nwere willing to assist me. But I was much disappointed by the\nincuriousness of a certain professor who met me at Milan before my\nvisit to Western India and Sindh. He had never seen my Grammar and\nVocabulary, of which he desired the republication; but he accepted\nwith enthusiasm my offer to enlist collaborators in the Valley of the\nIndus for the purpose of proving or disproving his favourite theory\nthat the Gypsies are Sindhis who have long dwelt in Afghanistan.[159]\nThis professor had of course no personal experience; anything he had\nwritten on the subject was derived from theory only. Object lessons are\nnot yet popular in Italy; it is easier to visit the camel of the Jardin\ndes Plantes than the camel of the desert, and we can hardly expect a\n_litt\u00e9rateur_ to take interest in gathering together raw new facts.\n\n\n\u00a7 2. _The Jats of Belochistan._\n\nThe following interesting extract is borrowed from _The Country of\nBalochistan_,[160] by A. W. Hughes (London, 1877):\n\n\u201cIn returning to a consideration of the Jat race of Kachh Gand\u0101va, it\nmay be mentioned that wherever they are found--and they may it seems,\nfrom what Masson states, be seen not alone in the Panjab and Sindh and\nin those countries lying between the Satlej and Ganges Rivers, but even\nat K\u0101bul, Kandah\u0101r, and Herat--they preserve their vernacular tongue,\nthe Jatki. Of this language many dialects are believed to exist, and it\nmay well be suggested by Masson that the labour of reviewing would not\nbe found altogether unprofitable. It appears to be a fact that the Jats\nin some places preserve the calling of itinerant Gypsies, and this more\nparticularly in Afghanistan; and it is not unlikely that some affinity\nin their language and habits might very possibly be traced between them\nand the vagabond races of Zing\u0101ris which are spread over so large a\nportion of Europe. The Jats of Eastern Kachhi, the supposed descendants\nof the ancient Get\u00e6, form the cultivating and camel-breeding classes,\nand are of industrious and peaceable habits, but are dreadfully harried\nand plundered by the marauding Balochis of the neighbouring hills.\nThey are, so to speak, the original inhabitants of this district, the\nRinds,[161] Balochis, and Brahuis having settled in the country at an\napparently recent period. The Jats are numerously subdivided among\nthemselves, some tribes amounting, it is said, to nearly forty in\nnumber. Some of these are known under the names of Aba, Haura, Kalhora,\nKhokar, Machni, Manju, Palal, Pasarar, Tunia, and Waddera. In general\nthey are all Muhammadans of the Suni persuasion.\u201d\n\nAs El Islam was established in these countries before our tenth\ncentury, and the Hinduism of the Lower Valley of the Indus and of\nMult\u00e1n dates from the days of Alexander the Great, the original\nemigration of Gypsies, who hardly preserve a trace of Hinduism, must\neither have been outlying pagans or a race of extreme antiquity.\n\n\n\u00a7 3. _The Gypsies of Persia._\n\nCaptain Newbold, after visiting the Gypsies in Sindh, Belochistan, and\nMult\u00e1n, found them in the \u201cgreat plain of Persepolis; in the blossoming\nValley of Shir\u00e1z in the Butchligar Mountains; on the scorched plains\nof Dashtistan and Chaldea.\u201d He thinks that they may be traced to,\nand probably far beyond, the Caspian, and easterly to the deserts of\nHerman and Mekran. They affect but little the scanty fare and the\nuninteresting life of the desert. Perfectly distinct from the pastoral\n\u201cIliy\u00e1t,\u201d the Bedawin of nearer Asia, the Turkomans, Kurds, and other\nnomads who camped far from the abodes of settled men, these tribes\nwander from town to town and village to village, always pitching tents\nnear the more industrious, on whose credulity they partly subsist, here\nand elsewhere.\n\nThe ostensible trades of the Persian Gypsies are those of the\nblacksmith and tinker, the tinner of iron, makers of winnowing sieves,\ncattle doctors, and fortune-tellers; they are also workers in gold,\nand forge the current coins of Persia and Turkey. Others are Z\u00edngar\n(saddle-makers); and Newbold adds, evidently without sufficient basis:\n\u201cHence the Zinganeh, a Kurdish tribe who are supposed to be of Gypsy\norigin, the Italian, Spanish, and German word for Gypsy, Zingari, etc.\u201d\nFinally, they are vendors of charms and philters, conjurers, dancers,\nmountebanks, and carvers of wooden bowls.\n\nThe professors of these arts wander about in separate bands; but\nthey must not be confounded with independent tribes of vagabonds and\noutcasts of various tribes who lead a roving, thieving Gypsy life,\nbut are not Gypsy. Their Persian neighbours hold them to have a\nseparate origin; but identity of feature and language prove them to\nbe one and the same stock. They divide themselves into two classes,\nthe Kaoli or Ghurabti, the Kurbat of Syria and the Gavbar. Both names\nare of disputed origin, and even the Persians and the Gypsies are at\nvariance. Kaoli is generally supposed to be a corruption of Kabuli (a\nman from Kabul). From this old and venerable city, Sir John Malcolm\nstates, the Dakr\u00e1m-i-G\u00far imported into Persia twelve thousand singers\nand musicians; and the dancing girls of Persia are to this day called\nKaoli. Khurbat, of which Kurbat is a corruption, involves, it is said,\nthe idea of wandering. Gavbar is equally obscure; the meaning would be\n\u201cone who takes pleasure in cattle\u201d; but the Persians call a herdsman\n\u201cGan-ban,\u201d never \u201cGav-bar.\u201d The true Kaoli and Gavbar, who, like their\nbrethren in Sindh, Syria, and Egypt, outwardly profess El Islam,\nrarely, if ever, intermarry with Persians, Turks, or Arabs. And whilst\nthe latter regard them as distinct in origin from themselves, in fact\nas Hindus, would their wretched Pariahs, the G\u00e1o-b\u00e1r, claim the honour\nof being Sayfids, or descendants of the Apostle?\n\n\n\u00a7 4. _The Gypsies of Syria._\n\nAccording to Newbold, the Gypsies of Palestine and South Syria[162] are\ncalled N\u00e1wer; while in Asia Minor and North Syria they style themselves\nKurbat, Rumeh, and Jinganeh (Chinganeh). The signification of Kurbat is\ndoubtful, but is only supposed to mean a wanderer from his own land, a\nstranger, derived from the Arab root Gharaba, \u201che went far away.\u201d The\ntwo last terms he holds related to the Spanish Romani (?) and Zincali,\nand the German Zigeuner. They are true to the character of their race;\nthey disdain to be shepherds or tillers of the soil; and they feed\nlike vultures and carrion upon the credulity and superstitions of\nmankind. Bedawin of the intellectual world, they juggle the simpler\nsons and daughters of cities by pretended skill in the occult, more\nespecially chiromancy. Some are dancers and minstrels, while others\nvend charms, philters, and poisons. Like their English brethren, the\nmen are profound adepts in horseflesh, in donkey-dealing, and in\ngame-snaring; but instead of tinkering pots and kettles, they spin\ncotton and woollen yarns for their clothes and tents, and they make and\nmend osier-baskets. This and making wooden boxes were the favourite\nhandicrafts of the Gypsies when they first entered Europe.\n\nIn winter they camp on the outskirts of large towns, in a sort of\nhalf tent, half hut, which is readily removed. During the fine months\nthey go forth into the plains or mountains, where they affect tents\nor ruins, but never far from the haunts of their prey, mankind. Their\nmigrations, if regular, are not of a great extent; and they never\nwholly forsake a country unless driven away by absolute persecution.\n\nShaykh Rasscho, the head of the Aleppine Gypsies, and responsible for\ntheir poll tax, informed Newbold that his tribe was divided into thirty\nhouses, of whose names he could only remember twenty-eight. It is not\nmaterial to give these names, but they are evidently Muslim names of\nmen who probably belonged to \u201cheads of houses.\u201d The old Gypsy declared\nthat Kurbat, Nawar, Rumeli, and Chinganeh were all of the same family,\nand had lived in Syria and Asia Minor since the creation.\n\nThese people in no way differ physically from the European tinkers.\nThey have the same slender, well-knit figures, rather below middle\nsize, tawny skins, rather prominent cheekbones, and straight black\nhair. The facial angle is rather Hindu and Tatar than Turkoman,\nand they have the Hindu\u2019s long horse-tail hair. Dark eyes are not\ninvariable; in the mountains of Antioch the colour is sometimes grey\nor blue, and the same occurs occasionally among the Arabs of Petra\nand Palmyra, among the Syrians, the Zebeks, and other races of Asia\nMinor. A great mixture of blood is the cause. The Zebeks of Smyrna have\nnow been deputed to represent the bandit regular troops of Turkey as\nopposed to the bandit police. The Asiatic Gypsy has also that peculiar\nindescribable appearance and expression of eye which is so strongly\ndeveloped in the Rom\u00e1 of Morocco and Moorish Spain, \u201ca feature which,\nlike the brand on the forehead of the first murderer, stamps this\nmarked race over the whole globe, and when once observed is never\nforgotten. The \u2018Evil Eye\u2019 is not the least of the powers with which\nthis people is superstitiously invested; and if there be any truth\nin the overstrained (?) doctrines of animal magnetism, one could not\npossibly frame to the imagination an eye so well calculated, so intense\na magnetic force.\u201d[163]\n\nThese Gypsies have never been seen to pray or perform any religious\nrite; some of their elders, like the Druzes and other Syrian tribes,\ncircumcise their children, and conform to the exterior observances of\nEl Islam.\n\nShaykh Rasscho could repeat with sundry mistakes the Arabic Faith\nFormula, omitting the second half, \u201cMuhammad is the Apostle of Allah.\u201d\nHe said that he and his tribe acknowledged one supreme, everlasting,\nomnipotent Being, and believed in an existence after death, a state\nof reward and punishment connected with metempsychosis. He denied the\ncharges made against the Kurbat by Syrians, Muslims, and Christians\nthat they worshipped the stars or the creative principle under a\nsymbol. He also denied that they abhorred the eel and the celebrated\nblack fish of the Antioch Lake, like the Jews, to whom the Mosaic\nLaw--which, by-the-bye, is equally binding upon Muslims--makes it\nunclean, because it lacks fins and scales.[164] Newbold, however, was\nassured that the Kurbat, who, like the India Pariahs, are the flayers\nof animals dying a natural death, devour the carcases of all animals\nexcept the man and the hog.\n\nAccording to the Turks and Syrians, the Kurbat girls are not so chaste\nas their European sisters; yet they wear till marriage the \u201clacto\ndiklo,\u201d a certain cloth, in token and in pledge of spotless virginity,\nwhich the bridegroom alone is permitted to take off. The women dress\nlike the lower orders in Syria; but they affect more ornaments of\nsilver and brass, ear-and nose-rings, armlets and bracelets, anklets\nand bangles. They spin, take care of the poultry, ducks, cats, and\nchildren, and cook exactly like the English Gypsy women. Especially\nthey tell fortunes, which practice, confined to a certain caste but\nforbidden to others, seems to be a kind of sacerdotalism.\n\nThe Kurbat, like their brethren all the world over, have no written\ncharacters or symbols for letters or words. Their Shaykh told Newbold\nthat, although they themselves could not write, two men in the tribe\ncould write. As, however, neither the men nor specimens of their\nwriting were produced, the inference drawn from this, and other similar\ninquiries, was that \u201cthe written characters, or symbols, of their\nlanguage, or rather jargon, have either been lost, or are known to only\na few, who superstitiously keep them secret.\u201d[165] In the bazars of\nSyria they speak Arabic or Turkish; at home they use their own tongue.\n\nThe following scanty list of Kurbat words was obtained viva voce from\nthe Aleppo tribes, and were subsequently checked by comparison with\nthe tribe near Antioch:\n\nVOCABULARY: KURBAT-DUMAN.\n\n  _Kindred._\n\n  _English._        _Kurbat._              _Duman._\n\n  Father            b\u00e1b\u00far                  b\u00e1b\u00far.\n  Mother            aida                   aida _and_ ana.\n  Brother           bhair\u00fa                 ber\u00e1vau.\n  Sister            bhanu                  kochi.\n\n  _Natural Objects._\n\n  Sun               g\u00e1ham                  g\u00e1ham.\n  Moon              hei\u00faf                  hei\u00faf.\n  Star              astara                 astara.\n  Air               v\u00e1l _and_ v\u00e1i          kannad h\u00e1v\u00e1.\n  Heavens           kh\u00faai                  ghennader.\n  The earth         bar, ard (Arab.) _or_  bar.\n                      turra\n  Fire              ag                     \u00e1r.\n  Water             p\u00e1ni                   hou (Pers. \u00e1b, \u00e1o).\n  Rain              bursenden              b\u00e1r\u00e1n.\n  Snow              kh\u00edf                   s\u00farg.\n  Cloud             bar\u00fadi                 bull\u00fat.\n  Light             tshek                  ar _and_ aidinlik.\n  Sea               d\u00fanguz (Turk.)         da\u00edreh _and_ d\u00fanguz.\n  Mountain          thull (At. tall)       ghiella.\n  A spring          kh\u00e1ni                  kh\u00e1ni.\n  Stone             v\u00fath                   k\u00e1wer.\n  Salt              l\u00f3u                    khoi.\n  Milk              k\u00edr (Sanak. Pers.)     shir (pure Persian).\n                      _and_ lebben (Ar.)\n  Barley            jou (jau)              jou.\n  Wheat             gheys\u00faf                ghiannam.\n  Iron              n\u00e1hl                   khallik.\n  Night             ar\u00e1t                   shou (Pers. shub,\n                                             shao).\n  Day               bedis                  ghiundez.\n  Onion             lussun, piyaz          piy\u00e1z.\n  Dhurra (Holcus,   ak                     ar.\n    Sorghum)\n  Rice              brinj                  silki.\n\n  _Animals, etc._\n\n  A hare            kunder                 kunder.\n  Dog               s\u00farunter               k\u00fachek.\n  Cat               ps\u00edk                   kadizor.\n  Horse             ghora _or_ aghora      asp.\n  Mare              m\u00edno                   m\u00edno.\n  Ass               kharr                  kharri.\n  Sheep             bakr\u00e1                  khaid\u00fa.\n  Cow               g\u00f3ru                   kaikuz.\n  Bull              grouf, _or_ maia g\u00f3ru  meshj\u00fak.\n  Fowl              jeysh-chum\u00e1ri          mirrishk.\n  Pig               d\u00f3nguz (Turk.)         d\u00f3nguz.\n  Camel             aubba, asht            ashtur.\n  Crow              k\u00edl, hashzeik _and_    sereh.\n                      t\u00e1nuk\n  Snake             s\u00e1nb, s\u00e1mp             marr (Pers.).\n  Fish              machchi                machchi.\n\n  _Parts of the Human Body._\n\n  Finger            angl\u00fa, \u00e1ngul           pechi.\n  Hand              kust\u00fam, kust\u00far         dast.\n  Eye               akki _and_ \u00e1nkhi       jow.\n  Hair              v\u00e1l _or_ b\u00e1l           khalluf.\n  Ear               k\u00e1n _and_ kannir       pr\u00ed\u00fak.\n  Neck              g\u00farg\u00far                 k\u00e1ntlagu.\n  Knee              l\u00fal\u00fak, choky\u00fam         koppaku.\n  Teeth             d\u00e1ndeir                ghi\u00f3lu.\n  Head              sir, chir              murr\u00e1s.\n  Flesh             m\u00e1rsi                  g\u00f3sht.\n\n  _Miscellaneous Nouns._\n\n  A well            astal, ch\u00e1l            ch\u00e1l.\n  An egg            \u00e1n\u00f3                    heili.\n  A ring            ang\u00fashteri             dast\u00fari.\n  God               Kh\u00e1narje               Allah.\n  A ship            ghemmi, durongaye      ghemmi.\n  Boat              sh\u00e1t\u00far                 sh\u00e1t\u00far.\n  War               lag\u00edsh, k\u00e1wye          k\u00e1wye.\n  A Christian       kutt\u00far (dog?)          nosaru (Nazarene).\n  Door              K\u00e1pi (Turk.)           kapi.\n  Boy               ch\u00e1g\u00fa                  l\u00e1wak.\n  Girl              lafti                  kechikeh.\n  Thief             kuft                   khai\u00fak.\n  Tent              ch\u00e1der (Pers.)         ch\u00e1der.\n  Knife             ch\u00edr\u00ed                  khair.\n  Rope              kund\u00f3ri                kund\u00f3ri _and_ sij\u00fam.\n  Book              kit\u00e1l                  kit\u00e1h, mushulleh.\n  City              vi\u00e1r                   vi\u00e1r.\n  Village           deh, diy\u00e1r             deh, diy\u00e1r.\n  Bridge            kienpri (Turk.)        kienpri.\n  Castle            killa                  kalla.\n  Paper             k\u00e1ghaz                 k\u00e1ghaz.\n  Bread             manna                  n\u00e1n.\n  House             kuri _or_ kiri         m\u00e1l\u00e1.\n  King              padshah                beghirtmish.\n  Love              mankamri _and_ kamri   kamri.\n  Month             muh, mas               viha, mas.\n  Colour            t\u00e1w\u00fal                  t\u00e1wul.\n  Year              das di mas, varras     deh di mar _or_ dah di\n                      _or_ barras            viha.\n\n  _Personal and Possessive Pronouns._\n\n  I                 man                     man.\n  Thou              t\u00f3                      to.\n  He                h\u00fai                     h\u00fai.\n  Mine              maki _or_ man ki        maki _or_ man ki.\n  Thine             to ki _or_ toi ki       to ki _or_ toi ki.\n  His               hui ki                  hui ki.\n\n  _Cardinal Numbers._\n\n  One               ek.                     The Duman is the\n  Two               di.                     same, except _sih_ for\n  Three             turrun.                 \u201cthree,\u201d and _deh_ for\n  Four              char _or_ shtar.        \u201cten.\u201d\n  Five              penj.\n  Six               shesh.\n  Seven             heft.\n  Eight             hesht.\n  Nine              na _or_ nu.\n  Ten               das.\n  Eleven            das ek.\n  Twelve            das di.\n  Thirteen          das turrun.\n  Fourteen          das char.\n  Fifteen           das penj.\n  Sixteen           das shesh.\n  Seventeen         das heft.\n  Eighteen          das hesht.\n  Nineteen          das na.\n  Twenty            v\u00edst _or_ b\u00edst.\n  Twenty-one        v\u00edst ek.\n  Twenty-two, etc.  v\u00edst di, etc.\n  Thirty            si.\n  Forty             chhil.\n  Fifty             penjeh.\n  Sixty             turrun v\u00edst.\n  Seventy           turrun v\u00edst das.\n  Eighty            ch\u00e1r v\u00edst.\n  Ninety            ch\u00e1r v\u00edst das.\n  One hundred       sad.\n  Two hundred       di sad.\n  A thousand        hazar.\n\n  _Adjectives._\n\n  Sick              numshti                b\u00edm\u00e1r, ru\u00e1r.\n  Bad               kumnarrey              k\u00ed\u00f3n\u00e1.\n  Good              gahay                  arunder.\n  Great             dur\u00f3nkay, burro        m\u00e1zin.\n  Small             t\u00far\u00f3ntay, thoranki     ch\u00fach\u00fak (Pers.\n                                             kuchik).\n  Black             k\u00e1l\u00e1, k\u00e1lo             k\u00e1ni, shippia.\n  White             pannarey               suffeid.\n  Red               lorey, loley           kunnu.\n  Yellow            zard                   zara, kulp.\n  Green             kark                   sukkul.\n  Blue              niley                  n\u00edla.\n  Cold              si\u00e1                    s\u00faki.\n  Hot               tottey                 khunney.\n\n  _Adverbs._\n\n  Much              bh\u00fayih                 phurga.\n  A little          thor\u00e1ki                ennika.\n  Enough            basey                  nar.\n  Here              veshli, itan, idhur    b\u00fandeh.\n\n  _Verbs._\n\n  To come           p\u00e1 \u2513                   pa.\n  To go             j\u00f3 \u251a imperative        jo.\n  To eat            khm \u2513                  kh\u00e1m.\n  To drink          pi\u00fan\u2502 imperative       pi\u00fam.\n  To bring          n\u00e1n \u251a                  winni.\n  To tell fortune   f\u00e1l wunnakerim.\n\n[The above list is printed exactly as written by Burton; but it has\nbeen found impossible to verify it from other sources.]\n\n\n\u00a7 5. _The Gypsies of the Haur\u00e1n, South-Eastern Syria._\n\nIn January, 1871, I accompanied the Damascus Pilgrim Caravan some\nmarches; and at Maz\u00e1r\u00edb in the Haur\u00e1n, the well-known station near\nwhich Ali Beg el Abbasi, the Spaniard, was poisoned, I found three\nGypsy tents. The inmates called themselves Nawar, a popular term\nthroughout the country. In the same way as the Rom\u00e1 of Spain affected\nto be devout Christians \u201cliving in a peaceable Catholic manner,\u201d\nso the head of the little party I discovered insisted upon all his\npeople being born Muslims, evidently disliking the suspicion that\nthey belonged to the \u201cobsolete faith,\u201d Christianity, with which the\nignorant faithful confused all later creeds. (These people thus saved\nthemselves from exile when Sultan \u201cB\u00e1yez\u00edd\u201d expelled all Gypsies from\nthe Ottoman Empire.) In proof of his assertion he recited a verse\nof the Koran with peculiar twang. The headquarters of the tribe and\nthe abode of the chief Shaykh were at Ghazzeh, and Muhammad and his\n\u201clamentable retinue\u201d had wandered northwards, intending to stay four or\nfive days at Maz\u00e1r\u00edb--in fact, whilst the caravan was passing. Their\npeculiar industries were metal-work and making sieves, so they stated;\nbut to these their neighbours added plundering and petty larceny,\ntogether with trading in asses and horses. According to my informant,\nmany of his people attend the Haj, doubtless to throw dust into Muslim\neyes.\n\nMy Syrian companions compared the general look of the dark-skinned,\ntanned dwellers with the Ashd\u00e1n, whilst they found a certain\nresemblance between the Roum\u00eds and the women of a certain Arab tribe\nwho camped about near Damascus; but the long, coarse, lank hair, with\nthe duck-tail under curl, the brown white eyes, whose peculiar glance\nis never to be mistaken, the prominent Tatar-like cheekbones, and the\nirregular-shaped mouths, suggested Hindu origin and physiognomy. The\nbeard was long and somewhat wavy, possibly the result of inhabiting\nfor generations a hot dry land. Some have gashed faces like the\n\u201cBohemians\u201d when they first entered Paris. Their women, adorned with\near-rings and necklaces, bracelets and anklets of brass and tinsel,\nwere Macbethian witches; and both sexes, like the outcasts of India\ngenerally, seem to abhor cold water. I tried them with a few words of\nSindhi, introduced into Hindustani, when their faces assumed the normal\npuzzled expression, and their eyes appeared to close and film over.\nOf magic and divination they would not speak to a stranger; but they\nreadily gave me the following words: Ag, fire (pure Hindi); Ake, eye\n(Aukh); Chir\u00ed, knife (Churi); Goray, horse (Ghora); K\u00e1l\u00e1, oracle (pure\nHindi); Mun\u00e1m, bread (an Arabic corruption?); P\u00e1nay, water (Pani);\nZari, mouth (?). Conversing with one another they spoke fluently, and\nintroduced few Arabic words.\n\nThe Nawar make their appearance with the Eastern Bedawin, Wuld Ali, and\nothers about the beginning of summer, and occupy huts built of cane,\nsticks, and mud. The roofs are hides weighted with sticks. They work\nat getting in the harvests, and they are said to work much harder than\nthe average husbandman. Of course they are charged with plundering\npoultry. They speak bad Arabic, and talk together in their own tongue;\nwherefore the peasants affect to despise them. In fact, here, as\nelsewhere, they constitute a strange sort of commonwealth amongst\nthemselves--wanderers, impostors, and jugglers.\n\n\n\u00a7 6. _The Gypsies of Damascus._\n\nConsul E. T. Rogers, my predecessor at Damascus, made the following\nbrief notes, and obliged me with permission to publish them. His long\nperiod of residence led him to study subjects which escaped the passing\ntraveller.\n\n\u201cI remember quite distinctly that the Gypsies of Syria, or people\nresembling them, were divided into three distinct families, not\nsupposed to intermarry, and, as I was told, supplying two distinct\nlanguages:\n\n\u201c(1) The Nawar[166] follow the ordinary Gypsy vocations, stealing,\nfortune-telling, tinkering, attending f\u00eates and marriages as itinerant\nmusicians, jugglers, etc.;\n\n\u201c(2) The Zutt were generally seen with trained animals, goats, donkeys,\netc., performing in the streets; and\n\n\u201c(3) The Bar\u00e1maki, who give more attention to horse-dealing. They are\nfarriers and blacksmiths, and are generally found on the outskirts of\nisolated villages, or near the camps of small Arab tribes, where they\nlet out stallions for breeding purposes. They buy broken-down horses\nand mares of good breed, and are very clever at doctoring them up and\nrendering them fit for sale.\u201d\n\nMr. Consul Rogers also showed me a sketch he had made of a Zutti boy\nwith a performing goat borne upon sections of bamboo--a common sight in\nIndia.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[156] _Rambles and Recollections of an Indian Officer, etc._ (London:\nHatchard.)\n\n[157] Colonel Sleeman, however, fails to identify his \u201cJ\u00e2ts\u201d with the\nGypsies.\n\n[158] [\u201cAs I have frequently mentioned, all the Gypsies were regularly\ntrained to a peculiar method of their own in handling the cudgel in\ntheir battles. I am inclined to think that part of the Hungarian sword\nexercise at present practised in our cavalry is founded upon the Gypsy\nmanner of attack and defence, including even the direct thrust to the\nfront, which the Gypsies perform with the cudgel.\u201d--SIMSON, _A History\nof the Gypsies_.]\n\n[159] Inadmissible, because there are Afghan Jats.\n\n[160] [_Balochistan, Balochis., etc._, _sic_ Hughes.]\n\n[161] A celebrated Beloch tribe which considers itself the flower of\nthe nation.\n\n[162] [\u201cBishop Pococke, prior to 1745, mentions having met with Gypsies\nin the northern part of Syria, where he found them in great numbers,\npassing for Mahommedans, living in tents or caravans, dealing in\nmilch cows when near towns, manufacturing coarse carpets, and having\na much better character than their relations in Hungary or England\u201d\n(_Simson_).]\n\n[163] The Spaniards describe this peculiarity of the race, the\nremarkably brilliant eye, as opposed to the small fat-lidded organ of\nthe Jew and the pig\u2019s eye of the Chinaman.\n\n[164] \u201cAnd whatsoever hath not fins and scales ye may not eat; it is\nunclean unto you\u201d (Deut. xiv. 10).\n\n[165] The same is the case with the Bedawin tribal marks.\n\n[166] The tribal name in Syria is Nawar. During two years\u2019 residence\nand long travelling I never heard the terms \u201cDumi\u201d and \u201cZutt.\u201d The\nlatter also escaped a most careful observer, Captain Newbold. As\nregards that officer\u2019s distinction between Jat and J\u00e2t, he heard the\nformer term from me at Karachi in 1848 when he looked over my Grammar\nand Vocabulary, while he borrowed J\u00e2t from Captain Sleeman and others\nwho have written on the Panjab with perceiving that the two tribes are\none and the same.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI\n\nTHE GYPSY IN AFRICA\n\n\n\u00a7 1. _The Egyptian Ghajar or Ghagar_\n\nIf there is anything persistent in Gypsy tradition, it is the assertion\nthat the Gypsies originally came from the banks of the Nile--that\nEgypt, in fact, gave them a local habitation and a name. Yet, curious\nto say, this is the country, and the only country, where a tribe of the\nRom\u00e1, preserving the physiognomy and the pursuits of its ancestors,\nhas apparently lost its old Aryan tongue, or rather has exchanged it\nfor a bastard _argot_, mostly derived from Arabic.[167] Nor does this\nphenomenon seem to be of modern date. A very rare Italian comedy of the\nmiddle sixteenth century, _La Cingana_, pronounced \u201cTchingana,\u201d was\nexpected to yield treasures of philological lore; but on investigation\nit proved that the Gypsies spoke only a corrupt Arabic.\n\nThe following pages are mostly taken from the well-known work\n_Aegypten_, etc. (Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1860), by the famous Orientalist,\nAlfred von Kremer. As will be seen, he made a careful study of the\n\u201cZigeuner\u201d or \u201cAegypten,\u201d the \u201cGhagar\u201d; whereas these interesting\nfamilies of the Gypsy race, a people of wanderers, who have nowhere a\nhouse, and who have everywhere a home, are most perfunctorily treated\nof by Lane.\n\n\u201cOn the banks of the Nile,\u201d says Von Kremer, whose words I shall\nnow quote, as in other places, \u201cthe Ghagar men, like the Polloi of\nHerodotus, are tinkers, ape-leaders, rope-dancers, and snake-charmers;\nwhilst the women are \u00c1hnahs, prostitutes, and fortune-tellers. They are\nvery numerous; they trade in asses, horses, and camels, and, as pedlars\n(Baddaah), they manage almost all the _petit commerce_ of the country.\nThe Ghagar buy goods wholesale in Cairo, and frequent the two annual\nfairs of Tant\u00e1; that of May was instituted about 1853, and entitled\nthe Maulid El Shilk\u00e1ni (birth-festival of the Shaykh El Shilk\u00e1ni),\nwho is buried some three hours\u2019 march from Beni Suef. Thus they not\nunfrequently become rich.\n\n\u201cThe H\u00e1wi[168] (snake-charmers) and the snake-eaters (Rifaijjeh)\nlive at Cairo; and many travellers have seen the disgusting spectacle\nwithout suspecting that the Dervish\u2019s frock covered the \u2018tinkler.\u2019\nThese classes are useful to the naturalist, as they have always a\nsupply of live or dead serpents, with and without poison-fangs,\nlizards, uromastix, jerboas, jackals, wolves, ferrets (_Stinkthiere_),\nand so forth. They find and catch serpents with surprising dexterity:\narmed with a bit of palm frond to tap the walls and ceilings, and\nwith a pipe whose tones draw the reptiles from their hiding-places,\nthey rarely fail to make captures, as the older houses of Cairo are\nmostly haunted by harmless snakes. This proceeding of course awes the\nignorant, and none dare to engage a room when the H\u00e1wi has declared it\nto be snake-possessed.\n\n\u201cThe term \u2018Ghagar\u2019 or \u2018Ghajar\u2019 is general; the people, according\nto their own account, are divided into tribes, who all, however,\nrepresent themselves to be pure Arabs and wandering immigrants from the\nWest.[169] The date of this movement is apparently unknown; but its\nreality is confirmed by the fact that all, without exception, belong\nto the Maliki school, prevailing in Morocco and in North-West Africa.\nThey are vagrants by profession, and obtain written permission to\ntravel, either from the police or from the Guild Shaykh of the Rifai\nDervishes.\n\n\u201cThe most numerous tribe everywhere in Egypt is the Ghaw\u00e1zi;[170]\nin every city, town, and village there are representatives of these\narch-seductresses, whose personal beauty makes them dangerous. They\ncall themselves Baramaki,[171] and derive themselves from the Persian\nBarmekides, the historical house ruined and annihilated by the Khalif\nHarun-er-Raschid. Yet they are very proud of their Bedawin descent;\nand they lead the lives of the sons of the desert, dwelling in tents,\nwhich they carry from fair to fair. The maidens are dancers, the\nold women spae-wives;[172] the girls rarely marry before securing a\ncompetency, and they often take their slaves to husband. The Gh\u00e1ziyah\u2019s\ngoodman is generally nothing more than a servant, who brings her new\nacquaintances, and who pipes or drums when she dances. There are cases\nof these girls marrying village chiefs; and their after-lives are as\ncorrect as their youth was dissolute (compare p. 145, Burckhardt\u2019s\n_Arabic Proverbs_: London, 1830). The Ghaw\u00e1zi speak the Gypsy jargon\nwhich is in use amongst all the other tribes.\n\n\u201cThe Gypsies of the Sa'\u00edd (Upper Egypt), who call themselves \u2018Sa\u00e1ideh,\u2019\nhave purely Asiatic, not African, features, with dark brown skins,\npiercing black eyes, and lank hair, also black. The women tattoo\ntheir lips, hands, and bosoms generally in blue, wear heavy brass\near-rings, and hang round their necks strings of blue and red beads.\nThey divine by muscle-shells, broken bits of glass, coloured stones as\nagates and jaspers, pieces of stained wax, and so forth, carried upon\nthe shoulders in a kirbah, or bag, generally of gazelle-skin. After\ntaking her seat on the mat or carpet, the woman empties her sack, and,\nchoosing one article which shall represent the person who pays, draws\nher revelations from the grouping. Money is required at various stages\nof the process; and at the end the Gypsy presents some bits of stone\nor coloured wax by way of charms to her employer.[173]\n\n\u201cThese people may be seen in the streets of Cairo, dressed like the\nFell\u00e1hah (peasant woman), in taubs, or long shirts of home-made\nindigo-dyed cotton, but lacking the shintiy\u00e1n (drawers) and the burka'\n(nose-bag). Their features at once distinguish them from the Muslims\nand the Copts; and they are noted, moreover, by the sheep-skin or\ngazelle-skin thrown, besides the bag, over their shoulders. They\nfrequent the bazars, and stroll about the principal thoroughfares of\nthe great towns, especially in summer-time, as the Nile begins to rise;\nand their favourite cries are \u2018Nibejjin-ez-zein!\u2019 (We show the good,\n_i.e._ luck), \u2018Ta'\u00e1l! shuf el Bakht\u2019 (Come and see your fortunes), and\n\u2018Nidmor el Ghaib!\u2019 (We find the lost).\n\n\u201cThe capital contains a large company of Ghagar women, who speculate\nupon public credulity; and their quarter is the Hosh Bardak, once a\nfine quarter, now a squalid hole behind that noble pile the Sultan\nHasan Mosque. I visited it in November, 1877, and found the courts\nstill occupied. The people, tinkers and blacksmiths, who sell\near-rings, bracelets, amulets, and other metal articles, exactly\nresembled Fellahs to a superficial glance. Apparently they had\nforgotten their favourite craft, fortune-telling. Moreover, they did\nnot like the term Ghagar. There is, or rather was, another colony\nat Masr el 'At\u00edkah (Babylon or Old Cairo). A third used to camp\nchiefly during winter and spring near a village on the right of the\nCairo-Shubr\u00e1 road, and I believe they are still there. Their rivals,\nthe Maghrib\u00ed (North-West African) magicians, and those from the central\nregions, of which Darfur[174] supplies the greatest number, are known\nby their sitting in the streets and performing upon cards or sand.[175]\nPredicting by marks drawn on the sand (Ilm el Raml) is old in the East,\nand plays a great part in the _Arabian Nights_.\n\n\u201cOther tribal names are H'aleb or Helebi (Aleppine), Schah'\u0101ini, and\n_T_a_t_ar (T'at'ar). The men of the last class, almost all farriers or\ntinkers, are also termed A'ww\u0101d\u0101t or Mua'merr\u0101tijjeh.[176] Amongst the\nother Ghagar there are many smiths, who make the brass rings worn on\nthe fingers and arm-joints, in the ears and nose, and around the neck.\n\n\u201cThe monkey-leaders so numerous in Cairo, especially about the\nEzbekijjeh quarter,[177] the Kuraydati,[178] so called from Kird,\nan ape, also belong to the Gypsy tribes; and these mostly supply\nthe Bahlaw\u00e1n,[179] gymnasts or strong-men, athletes, and especially\nwrestlers, who frequent fairs and festivals. During the 'Id ed\nDahijjeh[180] they swarm in the capital.[181]\n\n\u201cAll these subdivisions speak the same Rothwelsch, or \u2018Thieves\u2019 Latin,\u2019\nwhich they call El S\u00edm. It explains the idea prevailing in the middle\nof the last century; namely, that the Gypsy language was an invented\ntongue; a \u2018Germania,\u2019 as the Spaniards say; a conventional jargon; a\njail-bird\u2019s speech, varying with every horde.[182] The origin and full\nimport of the term S\u00edm are undetermined; but it is understood to mean\nsomething hidden or secret;[183] and it is applied to the impure and\ngilt \u2018gold-wires\u2019 imported from Austria. It is said, however, that\nthe Bahlaw\u00e1n above use another speech; of this I have been unable to\ncollect proofs, nor do I hold the information wholly credible.\u201d\n\nThe following vocabulary was compiled by Von Eremer at Cairo, where\nhe persuaded many of the Ghagar to frequent the Consulate, especially\nMuhammad Merw\u00e1n, who pompously styled himself \u201cShaykh of all the\nSnake-charmers of Egypt.\u201d He also consulted many Gypsy women from Upper\nEgypt; these appeared to speak a somewhat different dialect, and the\nwords taken from them are distinguished by an S. The numerals, all save\none corrupted Arabic, are as follows:\n\nNUMERALS.\n\n  1, Mach[184] (Etruscan, Max): according to Newbold (_loc. cit._),\n      Helebi, Ek; N\u00e1wer, Yek.\n\n  2, Machayu (evidently a dual form purely Arabic): Hel. D\u00fai; Naw. D\u00fa.\n\n  3, Tulit (S), or Tel\u00e1t (Sal\u00e1s) M\u00e1ch\u00e1t (three ones): Hel. D\u00fai-ek\n      (_i.e._ 2 + 1), or Sih (Pers.); Naw. S\u00faso (Sih).\n\n  4, R\u00fabi' (S), or Arba'ah M\u00e1ch\u00e1t (four ones), and so forth: Hel. and\n      Naw. Ch\u00e1r, or D\u00fai fi d\u00fai (the fi being pure Arabic \u201cin\u201d).\n\n  5, Kh\u00famis (S), or Shamm\u00e1leh (_i.e._ the hand): Hel. Penk, Peng; Naw.\n      Fowi.\n\n  6, Sutet (S): Hel. and Naw. Penk-ek (5 + 1).\n\n  7, S\u00fabi': Hel. and Naw. Penk-i-d\u00fai (5 + 2).\n\n  8, T\u00famin (S): Hel. and Naw. Ister or Heshter (Nasht, Pers.).\n\n  9, Tiwa' (S): Hel. and Naw. Enna, Nau, or Peng-i-dui-fi d\u00fai (5 + 2\n      in 2).\n\n  10, Ushir (S): Hel. Das, Des, Desh; Naw. Halaheh.\n\nEvidently Von Kremer\u2019s numerals are altered just enough to be hardly\nintelligible in a sentence hurriedly spoken; whilst Newbold\u2019s are\nPersian and Hindi.[185]\n\nVOCABULARY.[186]\n\n  Water, _M\u00f3ge_ (evidently M\u00e1ych, Moyyeh), _Himbe_ (S). Newbold: H.\n      Hembi, Sheribni (Pers.), or Pani (Hindi); G. P\u00e1ni; and N. \u00d3ah.\n\n  *Bread, _Shen\u00fab, Bishleh_ (S).\n\n  Father, _Ab_ (Arab.) or _A'rub_;[187] my father, _Abamru_ or _A'rubi_.\n\n  *Mother, _Kodde_, plur. _Kad\u00e1id_; my mother, _Kodd\u00e9ti_; it also means\n      generically woman: H. Amm\u00e1mri; G. Kuddi.\n\n  *Brother, _Sem'a_ or _Khaw\u00edj_ (from Akkaw\u00ed, adj. brotherly?); my\n      brother, _Sem'ai_; thy brother, _Sema'ak_ or _Khawijak_;[188]\n      also generically a boy, lad, youth: H. Huwiji; G. B\u00fardi.\n\n  Sister, _Sema'ah_[189] or _Ukht_ (pure Arabic); thy sister,\n      _Sem'atak_: H. Khawishti; G. Marash; N. Maras: also generically\n      a girl, lass, e.g. _Sema'ah bah\u00edleh_, a pretty girl.\n\n  *Night,[190] _Ghalm\u00faz'a_: H. D\u00e1m\u00fad; G. R\u00e1tse.\n\n  *Horse, _Soh'l\u00ed_ (Sohl, neighing), _Hus\u00e1n\u00e1ish_ (S) (from Hus\u00e1n, a\n      stallion): H. Sohli; G. Ghera (Hind.).\n\n  *Ass, _Zuwell_: H. Zowilli; G. Khar\u00eds (Pers. Khar).\n\n  *Camel, _Hantif_: H. Huntif; G. Hunt (Hind.), Ashtr (Pers.).\n\n  Buffalo, _En Naff\u00e1kheh_ (from the Arab Nafkh, blowing, the blower?).\n\n  *Lamb, _Mizgh\u00e1l, Minga'esh_ (from classical Arabic Naja'ah) (S),\n      _Khurraf_ (Arab. Khar\u00faf) (S).[191]\n\n  Tree, _Khudrum\u00e1n_ (Akhdar, green?), _Shagar\u00e1ish_ (Arab. Shajar) (S).\n\n  Flesh, _A'dwaneh Mahzuzah_ (S).\n\n  Fowl, _En-Nebb\u00e1sheh_ (Nabsh, scratching the ground): H. Chur\u012bya\n      (Hind.); G. Kagmiyeh; N. Burah.\n\n  *Fat (subst.), Bar\u00faah.\n\n  Ghost, angel, devil, _Astr\u00fam_ (Sh\u00fam, Arab, ill-omened?).\n\n  Hell, _Ma-anw\u00e1ra_, ma, the thing which is light, _i.e._ fire, from\n      n\u00far, anw\u00e1r, light, lights (e.g. _add el-ma-anwara_, light the\n      fire); not the Sa'idi, El-Mug\u00e1nwara (S).\n\n  Date, _Ma'ahli, Mahalli_ (S) (the thing sweet).\n\n  Gold, _El-ma-asfar_ (the thing yellow for El-m\u00e1-asfar, a\n      transposition), _Midhabesh_ (S) (corrupted from Dahab).\n\n  *Silver, B\u00edt\u00fag.\n\n  Iron, _Hadidaish_ (Arab. Hadid): H. Megan; G. Sista; N. Shir.\n\n  *Corn, _Duh\u00fabi, Duh\u00faba_ (S): H. Dahuba; G. Ghi\u00fa; N. Ghiudem (Pers.\n      Gaudum).\n\n  Hunter, _Dabaibi_ (from D\u00edb, a wolf-hunter?).\n\n  *Magician, Tur'ai.\n\n  Stone, _Hogger_ (Arab. Hajar, Hagar; dimin. Hujayr): H. Hajar; G.\n      Path.\n\n  *Land, region, _Anta_, plur. _An\u00e1ti_.[192]\n\n  *Uncle, _A'r\u00fab_; and Aunt, _A'rubeh_.\n\n  Milk,[193] _Raghw\u00e1n, Hirw\u00e1n_ (S) (Arab. Raghwah, foam of milk).\n\n  Onion, _Musan\u00fam, Mubsalcheh_ (S) (Arab. Basal): H. Musmunum; G. Piyaz\n      (Pers.).\n\n  Cheese, _El-Mehartemeh, Mah\u00e1rteme_ (S).[194]\n\n  *Soured milk, _Atreshent, Mishsh_ (the Arabic Laban).\n\n  Millet, Handawil, Mugaddiriyyeh (S) (the dish Mujadderah, rice and\n      lentils mixed, from Judr\u00e1, the small-pox).\n\n  *Beans, _Buhus_.[195]\n\n  *Dog, _Sanno_: H. and G. Sunno.\n\n  Wolf, _Dibaish_ (Arab. Dib).\n\n  Knife, _El-Kh\u00fasah_: H. Till\u00fameh; G. Matwa, Churi (Hind.); N. Chiri.\n\n  Foot, _Darr\u00e1geh_ (Arab. Daraj, a step), _er-raghaleh_ (Arab. rijl,\n      rigl) (S), _Mumeshay\u00e1t_ (S) (Mashi, walking).\n\n  Head, _Kam\u00fakhah, Dum\u00e1kheh_ (S) (Pers. Dam\u00e1gh, brain): H. Ras; G. Sir\n      (Hind.), Sherit, Kamokhti.\n\n  Eye, _Bass\u00e1seh_ (Bass\u00e1seh, she that sees?), _Huzz\u00e1rah_ (S): H.\n      Haz\u00e1ra; G. Ankhi (Hind.).\n\n  *Thief, _Dam\u00e1ni_: H. Gow\u00e1ti; G. Dum\u00e1ni, K\u00e1lo; N. Show\u00fasti.\n\n  Hand,[196] _Shamm\u00e1leh_ (Arab. Shamala, he collected; Shim\u00e1l, the\n      left-hand?), also two number five: H. Kum\u00e1shteh; G. Gadno, Kust\u00far\n      (Augushti?), Chang (Pers.); N. Fow\u00edtak.\n\n  North, _Baharaish_ (from Bahar, the sea, _i.e._ towards the\n      Mediterranean).\n\n  South, _Kiblaish_ (Kibleh, Arab, the fronting-place, _i.e._ Mecca).\n\n  East, _Sharkaish_ (Arab. Shark; hence probably Saracen).\n\n  West, _Gharbaish_ (Gharb, whence probably Maurus, a Moor).\n\n  Coffee, _Mag\u00e1swade_ (M\u00e1 aswad, that which is black).\n\n  *Clothes,[197] _Sarme_ (S).\n\n  Shoe, _Merkub\u00e1ish_ (Arab. Merk\u00e1b).\n\n  Nose, _Zen\u00fan\u00e1ish_.\n\n  Ear, _Widu_ (Arab. Uzu); thy ear, _Widuamrak_[198] (S) or _Mud\u00e1usheh_\n      (S): H. Wudu; G. Kirkawiyeh.\n\n  Cow, _Mubg\u00e1rsheh_ (S) (Arab. Bakar): H. Mubgursha; G. G\u00f3m (Goa,\n      Pers.?).\n\n  Bull, _Mutw\u00e1resh_ (S) (Arab. Taur): H. Mutwarish; G. Maia, G\u00f3no (male\n      cow?).\n\n  River, _Mistabhar_ (S) (from Bahr, sea or river).\n\n  Palm (tree), _Minkhalesh_ (S) (Arab. Nakhl).\n\n  Tent, _El-Mikkw\u00e1shesh_ (S) (Arab. Khaysheh).\n\n  Wood, _Makhshabesh_ (S) (Arab. Khashab).\n\n  Straw, _Tibu\u00e1ish_ (Arab. Tibu).\n\n  Christ, _El-Annawi_ (el-Nabb\u00ed, _The_ Prophet?).\n\n  *Egg, _Mugahrada_ (S): H. Mej\u00e1haled; G. W\u00e1in.\n\n  Fire,[199] _El-Mug\u00e1uwara_, (S): light the fire, _Wall\u00e1ish\n      el-Mug\u00e1uwara_.\n\n  *Food, _esh-Shimleh_.\n\n  Sack, _Migr\u00e1besh_ (Arab. Kirbeh, Girbeh).\n\n  Arm, _El-Kemm\u00e1sheh_; my hand hurts, _Kemmashtu waga'ani_ (Arab.\n      Kamasha, he collected, picked up; the last word pure Arab.).\n\n  Hair, _Sha'ar\u00e1ish_ (S) (Arab. Sha'ar): H. H\u00e1ra; G. B\u00e1l or V\u00e1l (Hind.).\n\n  *Tobacco, _Tiftaf_ (S) (possibly formed like the Turk. Tutun).\n\n  Mountain, _Migbalish_ (S) (Arab. Jebel, Egypt. Gebel, whence\n      Monte-Gibello): H. Gebel (Arab.); G. Mel\u00fash, Durum; N. Koh\n      (Pers.).\n\n  *Nasty (adj.), Shalaf.[200]\n\nVERBS.\n\n  *Go, _Fell_; I went, _Felleit_ (Arab, termination--ayter, ayt). To\n      go: H. Fil; G. J\u00e1 (Hind.).\n\n  Come, _E'utib_ (S); he came, _G\u00e1dat_. To come: H. Ig; G. Utelo or \u00e1\n      (Hind.).\n\n  *Say, _Agmu_; I said, _Agemtu_.\n\n  Strike, _Il'big_; he struck, _H'abash, Habash_ (S) (Himyaritic?); he\n      still strikes, _Hay yihbig_ (Ha fa h\u00e1za el wakt; vulgar Egyptian).\n\n  *We ate, _Rakkhayn\u00e1_ or _Shamalna_ (Arab. we gathered). To eat: H.\n      Eshna, Shemb; G. Khaba, J\u00e1la; N. Arkus.\n\n  Sit, _Watib_.\n\n  We drank, _Mawwajn\u00e1_ (from Manj, a wave?); I drank, _Mawwagt_,\n      _Hamball_ (S). To drink: H. Hunnib; G. Mowwak.\n\n  He cut, _Shafar_.\n\n  He called, cried, _Nabbat'a_.\n\n  *He died, _Entena_.\n\n  He killed, slew, _Tena_; he kills, _Yitni_.\n\n  *He sleeps, _Yidmukh_; I slept, _Dammacht_. To sleep: H. Dumak; G.\n      Sobelar; N. Suk.\n\n  *He rides, _Yita'alwan_.\n\n  *He gives, _Yikif_; he gave, _Kaf_.\n\n  *He steals, _Yiknisk_; he stole, _Kanash_. To rob: H. Gunwani; G.\n      Churabi (Hind.); N. Lahis.\n\n  *He cooks, _Yittabig_; he cooked, _Tabag_ (Arab. Tabaxa).\n\n  He saw, _Haseb_.\n\n  *He laughs, _Biarr'a_.\n\n  *Sit, _Ukriz_.\n\n  Stand up, _Utib_.\n\n  *He married, _Etkaddad_.\n\n\u201cFrom these philological facts,\u201d says Von Kremer, in conclusion, \u201cI\ndraw no inference, the material being perhaps too scanty to warrant\ndeductions. It is very regrettable that the old original words are\ndropping out of use, being replaced by a cant or jargon from Arabic\naccording to a purely conventional plan, a changing of the ending,\nlike Kiblas for Kibla. It is also evident that the Ghagar have sunk in\nfavour of the vernacular their own peculiar names for colours, for the\nsun and moon, for earth and fire, and for other terms of universal use.\u201d\n\nIn Newbold\u2019s vocabulary, on the other hand, we have distinct signs of\nan Eastern, not a Western provincialism, as the author says: \u201cThere\nis a marked difference in the three dialects, or jargons; that of\nthe Ghagar most resembles the language of the Kurbat, or Gypsies of\nSyria. The Gypsy dialect in Borrow\u2019s work contains more words of Indian\norigin than the Helebi and Nawar jargon. The Helebi comprises a large\nnumber of words of Arabic root, indicating a long sojourn in Yemen, or\nother parts of Arabia. Its numerals, which are also used by the Ghagar\nwhen secrecy is required, bear strong marks of Eastern, or Persian,\norigin. Usually the Helebis adopt the vulgar Arabic numerals in use\nthroughout Egypt.[201] ... The numerals of the Nawars are evidently of\nPersian origin.... All the tribes disclaim having any written character\npeculiar to themselves,[202] and it is rare to find one among them\nwho can write the common Arabic of the country. I have been informed,\nhowever, by a respectable Copt that they have secret symbols which they\nsedulously conceal. It seems to me probable that the whole of these\ntribes had one common origin in India and the adjacent countries on its\nwestern frontier, and that the difference in the jargons they now speak\nis owing to their sojourn in the various countries through which they\nhave passed. It is certain that the Gypsies are strangers and outcasts\nin the land which has given them a name, and which has long been\nsupposed to have given them birth.\u201d\n\nIn Sindh I met Captain Newbold, and, assisted by my late friend James\nMacleod, then Collector of Customs at Karachi, supplied him with a\nshort vocabulary. His studies gained breadth by noting the manners and\nhabits of a singular wandering tribe called the Jats, whose remarkable\nphysical appearance reminded him strongly of the Gypsies of Egypt and\nSyria. He saw a tribe living in tents and rude movable huts in the wood\nof Balut, near Jujah, between Karachi and the Indus. Hence he drew the\nfollowing conclusions:\n\n\u201cSince my visit to the banks of the Indus, I am more than ever\nconvinced that from the borders of this classic river originally\nmigrated the horde of Gypsies that are scattered over Europe, Asia, and\nthe northern confines of Africa. The dialects spoken by the numerous\ntribes which swarm upon the territories adjacent to the Indus, from\nthe sea to the snowy mountains of Himalaya and Tatary, have, with those\nspoken by the Gypsies, a certain family resemblance, which, like their\nphysical features, cannot be mistaken. I find it impossible at present\nto place my hand on any particular tribe, and say, \u2018This is the parent\nstock of the Gypsies\u2019; but as far as my researches have gone, I am\nrather inclined to think that this singular race derives its origin,\nnot from one alone, but from several tribes that constitute the family\nof mankind dwelling on, or adjacent to, the banks of the Indus.\u201d\n\nCaptain Newbold\u2019s studies in Egypt, where he was assisted by the\nShaykhs of the Rom\u00e1, complete those of Von Kremer, and prove that\nthe latter had chiefly noticed the Ghaw\u00e1zi and Ghagar families. The\nformer would divide the vagrants into two--the Helebis and their wives,\nthe Fehemis (wise women), who practise palmistry and divination,\nand look down with supreme contempt upon their distant kinsmen the\nGhagar or Ghajar, whose better halves are musicians and rope-dancers.\nThe Helebis, who evidently derive their name from H'abel (Aleppo),\nclaim to be derived from El Yemen, and declare that in the early\nhistory of their race a great king persecuted and expelled them.\nThe tribe then wandered over Syria, Egypt, Persia, and Europe under\nsome brother-chiefs, whose tombs are still held holy to this day.\nThe Helebis confined their wandering to the Rif or Nile Valley and\nthe Delta. They rarely go deep into the desert, except when they\nsally forth to sell cattle medicines, or to buy jaded beasts from the\nreturning pilgrim caravans, and a few perform the pilgrimage in order\nto win the title of Hagi.\n\nThe Shaykhs speak of four tribes scattered about Egypt, and each\ncomprising fifty families, a number of which Newbold had reason to\nbelieve is much and designedly underrated. According to the Helebis,\nthe sworn chiefs obtained from the sovereign of Egypt the right of\nwandering unmolested about the country, and the privilege of exemption\nfrom taxes. Muhammad Ali Pasha compelled them, however, to pay a poll\ntax, which accounts for their numbering only two hundred instead of\nperhaps five thousand families. In 1847 the pasha had ordered the\npeople not residing in their native villages to return to them, causing\ngreat distress and scenes of violence and misery. The Gypsies took\nthe hint, struck their tents by night, decamped bag and baggage, and\ndisappeared altogether. They are expert in disguises, and do not yield\nthe palm to European brethren in cunning and deception. Remarkably\nintelligent and quick in gaining information, they would make capital\nspies in an enemy\u2019s camp. The women during their halts on the outskirts\nof towns and villages, and in running about the streets, bazars, and\ncoffeehouses, pick up with wonderful tact and accuracy all requisite\ninformation concerning the private history of those on whom they may be\nexpected to exercise their vocation of fortune-telling. In this secret\nintelligence department they are aided by the men, who, it is said, are\nnumerous in official employment, although unknown to be Gypsies. At all\nevents they mingle with residents on the spot, and with strangers in\nthe caravanserais and other public places.\n\nThe Helebis, leading a vagabond, wandering life, usually pitch tents or\nportable huts on the outskirts of towns and large villages. The former\nresemble in all points those of the pauper Bedawin, and contained\nlittle beyond wretched horse and ass furniture, mats, cooking-pots, and\nsimilar necessaries. Everything denotes externally the most squalid\npoverty, except only the enormous mass of fowl, mutton, and savoury\nvegetables seething in the large caldron suspended from the familiar\ncrossed sticks over the embers of a large fire, thus proving to more\nsenses than one that the care of the flesh-pots of ancient Egypt has\nnot devolved upon a race insensible to their charms. All deny the\ncommon charge of eating dogs, cats, and other meat held impure by\nMuslims.\n\nThe male Helebis are ostensibly dealers in horses and asses, camels and\nblack cattle. They pretend to great skill in the veterinary art; but\ntheir character for honesty does not stand high with those who know\nthem best. Without known religion, priests, or houses of prayer, this\ntribe, like the Ghagar and all others, conform to El Islam, or to the\npredominant religion whenever policy or convenience demands. They bury\ntheir dead, but have no fixed places of interment. The men will marry\nGhagar damsels, but will not give their daughters to Ghagar. The zone\nof chastity is even made, they say, of plaited things like that of the\nNubian, and is cut off on the wedding night. The women, though chaste\nthemselves, will act as Mercuries to the Gentile male and female; and\nthey have been charged with sundry indecencies for money. The Muslims\nand Copts declare that they kidnap children, and they of course swear\nthey do not. The women never intermarry with strangers, and in this\nrespect they are as rigid as the Hindus. They are not remarkable for\ncleanliness either of person or apparel. In this respect, and in their\npassion for trinkets of brass, silver, and ivory, they remind one of\ncertain native women of India. Their special privilege is the practice\nof palmistry and divination. The Fehemi takes the inquirer\u2019s right hand\nby the finger tips, and bends them gently backward so as to render the\nlines more visible. She mutters a spell while with all gravity she\nreads the book of destiny, and then reads the result; of course her\nhand must be crossed with silver. Palmistry, I must add, is one of the\nmany superstitions to which India gave birth, and all the world over\nthe lines and mounts and spaces and other distributions of the hands\nare the same.\n\nNewbold says comparatively little of the Ghagar, who claim to be of\nthe same stock as the Helebis, and who speak of brethren in Hungary,\nwhile the original tongue is preserved. Comparatively poor in physical\nappearance and in vagabond habits, they bear a family resemblance\nto the Helebis and to the Syrian Kurbat. During the summer months\nthey wander about the cultivated land, and pitch tents and Kaysh. A\nfavourite way of gaining a livelihood is by carrying water-jars, and\nby singing at the birthday f\u00eates of saints, etc., during the fine\nseason. In wandering they prefer the towns. In ancient Arabia they have\nGhettos, as at Old Cairo and elsewhere.\n\nBeing subject to the poll tax, they have an interest in understating\ntheir numbers, which can scarcely be less than sixteen thousand.\nWhen the publican is abroad, they quietly abscond across the Nile,\nand take refuge in some village on the skirts of the desert. After\npaying a first visit to them, which aroused their suspicion, Newbold\nreturned the following day, and to his surprise found the quarter quite\ndeserted. Subsequently, however, a better acquaintance was established.\n\nWith few exceptions the Ghagar are all thieves. Ostensibly the men are\nathletes, monkey-leaders, and mountebanks attending several fairs.\nThey are also metal-workers and horse-dealers. The women are not\nallowed to practise palmistry and divination, consequently they are\ndespised by the Fehemis. Many of them are excellent rope-dancers;\nothers are musicians, playing chiefly on the talla, a kind of castanet.\nThey also practise female circumcision upon Muslim girls, bore ears and\nnostrils, and tattoo lips and chins.\n\nThe Nawar of Egypt were hereditary robbers, like certain tribes in\nIndia. They were protected and even employed by the Billi tribe of\nArabs, and the relations of patron and client were those of the\nHighland chiefs and the crofters upon their properties. Muhammad Ali\nPasha succeeded in taming this lawless tribe, which for generations\nhad given immense trouble to his predecessors, upon the principle\nof setting a thief to catch a thief. He employed them as police and\nwatchmen upon his country estates, and he allowed them 50 per cent. on\nproperty recovered from plunderers brought to justice. Since that time\nthey have seldom broken the law, except at Cairo, where there is less\nchance of detection. They intermarry with the Fellahin, or Egyptians\nof the soil, from whom in physique and raiment they can hardly be\ndistinguished. Outwardly they profess Muhammadanism, and they have\nlittle intercourse with the Helebis and Ghagar. In 1847 their chief was\na certain Shaykh Yusuf, one of the most notorious thieves in Egypt.\n\n\n\u00a7 2. _The Gzane of Algeria and Morocco._\n\nThis race is interesting because it shows the origin of the Darb\nel-mendel, the Magic Mirror of Egypt, known to the Hindus as Aujan. It\nwas first noticed in India by the learned Dr. Herklots, who in 1832\npublished a most valuable volume on the manners and customs of the\nHindi Muslims. Unfortunately the British public misjudged its title,\nand held it to be a cookery-book. The next to notice it was Mr. Lane\n(_Modern Egyptians_, Vol. II., chap, xii.) in 1835. He tells us that\ntwo Europeans, an Englishman and a Frenchman, learned to induce the\nphenomenon; and he concludes with the normal deprecatory formula of his\nage: \u201cNeither I nor others have been able to discover any clue by which\nto penetrate the mystery; and if the reader be alike unable to give the\nsolution, I hope that he will not allow the above account to induce in\nhis mind any degree of scepticism with respect to other portions of\nthis work.\u201d Since that time the _Zoist_, the _Journal de Magn\u00e9tisme_,\nand similar publications took up the subject, and traced it from\nCornelius Agrippa and Dr. Dee to the most degraded of existing savages,\nthe Australians:\n\nThe following is Dr. de Pietra Santa\u2019s account of the two modes\nof fascination employed by the \u201cmagicians\u201d of French Africa\n(Algiers)[203]:\n\n\u201cThe first forms part of the baggage of all Arab _Gzanes_, Gypsies,\nsorceresses, and fortune-tellers. When one wishes to strike the\nimagination of the multitude, it is absolutely necessary to find\nphenomena which are both intelligible to all and which each one can\ninstantly verify for himself. Amongst such there is not one more\nevident than sleep. It is therefore important for the _Gzane_, in order\nto prove in an undeniable manner her moral power and supernatural\ninfluence, that she should be able to send to sleep at a given moment\nthe person who has recourse to her occult science. She employs the\nfollowing means:\n\n\u201cUpon the palm of the hand she describes, with some blackish colouring\nmatter, a circle, in whose centre is marked a spot equally black. After\nlooking fixedly at the latter for a few minutes, the eyes grow heavy,\nthey blink, and the sight is confused; the heaviness is presently\nsucceeded by sleep, and sleep by a sort of insensibility,[204] of which\nthe Gypsy profits to exercise her man\u0153uvres more securely. I give you\nthe simple fact without commentaries; and abjuring any pretensions to\ndetermine its importance.\n\n\u201cLet us now pass on to the second mode of fascination. Upon a table\ncovered with a white cloth is placed a bottle, usually filled with\nwater and backed by a small lamp lighted. The subject is comfortably\nseated on a chair, and told to look at the bright point placed before\nhim at the distance of a few steps. After a few minutes the eyelids\ngrow heavy, then they gradually smile, and sleep is induced. With\nnervous temperaments palpitation of the heart and headache also\nmanifest themselves.\n\n\u201cIn order to give an odour of the supernatural to these phenomena, the\nMoroccan, Gypsy or Marabout, has a certain quantity of benzoin burnt\nbehind the table; and while the vapour spreads itself through the\nroom, the person undergoing the process falls into a complete state of\nan\u00e6sthesia.\u201d\n\nBorrow mentions in Barbary sundry \u201csects of wanderers,\u201d which he\nshrewdly suspects to be Gypsies, and whom he provides with the worst\nof characters. The first are the \u201cBeni Aros\u201d (?), who wander about\nFez, and have their homes in the high mountains near Tetuan. A comely,\nwell-made race, they are beggars by profession, notorious drunkards,\naddicted to robbery, murder, and effeminate crimes. They claim to be\nMoors, and their language is Arabic. The second are the \u201cSidi Hamed au\nMuza,\u201d so called from their patron saint. In many respects they not a\nlittle resemble the Gypsies; but they speak the Shilhah, or a dialect\nof that tongue. They earn their livelihood by vaulting, tumbling, and\ntricks with sword and dagger, to the sound of wild music, which the\nwomen, seated on the ground, produce from their uncouth instruments.\n\n\n\u00a7 3. _The Gypsies in Inner Africa._\n\nIt is generally believed that the Rom\u00e1 have extended far southwards\nfrom Morocco and Barbary. Borrow remarks of the Dar-bushi-fal\n(fortune-tellers), that if they are not Gypsies, the latter people\ncannot be found in the country. Numerous in Barbary, they wander\nduring the greater part of the year, pilfering, fortune-telling, and\ndealing in mules and donkeys. Their fixed villages are known as \u201cChar\nSeharra,\u201d witch hamlets. They can change the colour of an animal, and\ntransform a white man into a negro black as a coal, after which they\nsell him as a slave. They are said to possess a peculiar language,\nwhich, being neither Arabic nor Shilhah, is intelligible only to their\nown caste. Borrow often conversed with them; but he neglected to apply\nhis favourite Shibboleth, Pani (water). Their faces are described as\nexceedingly lean, their skins swarthy, and their legs are reeds; \u201cwhen\nthey run, the devil himself cannot overtake them.\u201d Their vehicles of\ndivination are oil, a plate full of flour, or a shoe placed in the\nmouth. They are evil people, and powerful enchanters, feared by the\nemperor himself.\n\nM. Paul Bataillard (_Notes et Questions_) refers, for information\nconcerning the Gypsies, to the _Voyage dans le Nord et dans les\nParties Centrales de l\u2019Afrique_, the journey of Denham and Clapperton,\ntranslated by Eyries and another (Paris, 1826, 3 vols. 8vo). These\nauthors, he says, pretend to assimilate the \u201cChou\u00e2a\u201d Arabs of Bornou\nwith the Gypsies. Indeed, they expressly declare that their Arabic is\nalmost pure Gypsy. This is, however, incompatible with another passage,\nwhich declares that these \u201cChou\u00e2as\u201d have imported into Bornou the\nArabic, which they speak purely.\n\nI can only find[205] that the women of the Chou\u00e2a Arabs are described\nas \u201ca very extraordinary race, with scarcely any resemblance to the\nArabs of the north: they have fine open countenances, with aquiline\nnoses and large eyes; their complexion is a light copper colour; they\npossess great cunning with their courage, and resemble in appearance\nsome of our best-formed Gypsies in England, particularly the women; and\ntheir Arabic is nearly pure Egyptian.\u201d Major Denman afterwards found\nthe \u201cShouaas of the tribe of Waled Salamat, extending eastward quite as\nfar as the Tchad.\u201d He notes their difference from the Fellalahs, and\ntheir practice of sending plundering parties to Mandara. We also hear\nof their skill in the chase and their use of the spear on horseback.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[167] In Spain this is called \u201cGermania,\u201d which, however, refers not to\nthe true Gypsy, but to the cant slang, or \u201cThieves\u2019 Latin\u201d; the French\n_argot_ and the Italian _gorgo_, a mere farrago, which contained only a\nfew words of Romani.\n\n[168] Lane (chap. xx.), generally so correct, falls, according to\nKremer, into an error when he explains Hawi simply by \u201cperformer of\nsleight of hand tricks\u201d (_Taschenspieler_); the origin of the word,\nHayyeh, \u201ca snake,\u201d shows its signification. Amongst the Sinaitic\nBedawin almost every tribe has an official called the Hawi, who is\nsupposed to be poison-proof, and to have the power of stanching wounds\nand curing hurts by his breath. The necessary qualification for this\noffice is that the mother should make her babe swallow, before he\nhas tasted other food, a cake composed of seven barleycorns, seven\ngrains of wheat, a small scorpion, and a hornet, all pounded and mixed\ntogether (_The Desert of the Exodus_).\n\n[169] Algeria as well as Morocco is full of Gypsies, including the\n'Aysaw\u00ed Dervishes.\n\n[170] Gh\u00e1zi (plural Ghaw\u00e1zi) would mean in Arab \u201cone who fights for\nthe Faith,\u201d or \u201ca conqueror of infidels.\u201d Europe has learned this\nmuch during the Russo-Turkish war (1877); but our papers ridiculously\nmisused the term \u201cGhazi Mukhtar,\u201d for Mukhtar P\u00e1sh\u00e1 Gh\u00e1zi is worse\nthan any amount of \u201cSir Smith.\u201d According to some authorities, the\nEgyptian Gypsies took this title to gratify their Oriental crave for\ngrandiloquence. But, I would remark, in Persian it is synonymous with\nrope-dancer or courtisan; and perhaps both are derived from the Ghagar\n\u201cGhaziyah,\u201d meaning a woman (?).\n\n[171] The origin of the term is a Persian _jeu de mots_. \u201cBermek'am\u201d\nwould mean _I am a Barmak_; Bar-maken, _I sup it up_. These were\nthe words spoken by Ja'afar the \u201cBarmekide\u201d when his poisoned ring\ncaused the stones upon the arm of the Ommiade Caliph (Abd el Malik) to\nrattle--a general and popular superstition. It is quite possible that\nthis memorable family belonged to the Gypsy tribe so common in Persia.\nAccording to Ibn Kh\u00e1lik\u00e1n, the first great ancestor was the principal,\nor the grand prior, of the convent in Balkh called Nan-buhar (young\nspring), a palpable corruption of Nava bih\u00e1ra, in Sanskrit the \u201cnew\nmonastery.\u201d\n\n[172] Hence an Englishman defined the Gypsy religion as \u201cfaith in\nfortune-telling.\u201d\n\n[173] Captain Newbold (p. 288) tells a curious tale of a Fehemi (wise\nwoman), who threw a cowrie into a basin of clear water, and muttered\nan invocation over it; when the pot began to boil, the shell was shot\nout--doubtless by some chemical substance--to the distance of several\nfeet. Some of the water accompanied it, with a slight explosion like\nthat of a percussion cap thrown into the fire.\n\n[174] The word should be written D\u00e1r-For, the abode or region of the\nFor tribe.\n\n[175] The latter material is that originally used in the Arab Darb el\nRaml (throwing of the sand), briefly called El Raml (the sand), that\nis, geomancy.\n\n[176] In conversation Von Kremer quoted the name Sab\u00e1ijeh, a \u201cbroken\nplural,\u201d of which no singular is known, as alternating with Zutt in old\nArab historians. Newbold enumerates among the \u201cdistinct classes\u201d of\nGhagar the Medd\u00e1h\u00edn, Gharr\u00e1d\u00edn, Barmek\u00ed (Barmekides), Walad Ab\u00fa Tenn\u00e1,\nBayt el R\u00edf\u00e1'\u00ed (?), Hemmeli, and Rom\u00e1ni (p. 292).\n\n[177] This was written before 1863; in 1877 the old camping-ground of\nthe Uzbeg Tatars had become a kind of Parisian quarter.\n\n[178] Kremer gives \u201cKurud\u0101ti\u201d; the word is generally in the diminutive\nform Kurayd, a little Kird (baboon).\n\n[179] From the Persian Pahlew\u00e1n, a brave, a wrestler, an athlete.\n\n[180] Generally written 'Id el Zuh\u00e1, the great Meccan festival when the\nvictims are offered.\n\n[181] Their active habits make them a fine race. Newbold says that\n\u201cone of the most magnificent women he had ever seen in the East\u201d was\na Ghagar rope-dancer at the palace of one of the Cairene Beys; he\ncomplains only that she had disfigured herself by tattooing her under\nlip and chin--a practice very common among the Arab women of Syria and\nEgypt.\n\n[182] At the end of 1763 the _Gazette_ of Vienna printed a letter\nfrom the Hungarian captain, Szekely de Doba. The latter related how\na Protestant pastor, when studying at Leyden, made the acquaintance\nof some Malabar youths, who spoke of a province Zingania (of course\nZigeuner), and whose language was that of the Gypsies. He made a\nvocabulary of about a thousand words, and returning home to Almasch\nor Almas, near Komorn, he found, to his surprise, that the \u201ctinklers\u201d\nunderstood them. The Hindustani grammars published in England (1773)\nand in Portugal (1778) enabled Grellman, Richardson, Marsden,\nLudolf, and others to trace the resemblance with a firm hand. See\nMayo and Quindal\u00e9, who in p. 45 fall into the vulgar error that the\n\u201cMongol-Hindustani jargon\u201d began to be used in India only after the\nMoghol Conquests. These authors declare that when the celebrated\nMezzofanti, of Bologna, became deranged in 1832, he never confused\nGypsy with his other thirty-two tongues. Borrow\u2019s _Translation of St.\nLuke_ is also said to have retained several Spanish words from Padre\nScio. As regards the \u201cGermania\u201d _argot_ of Spain, a vocabulary was\npublished about the middle of the last century by Juan Hidalgo; and\nthough mostly obsolete, the useless farrago was textually reproduced in\nthe _Diccionario de la Academia_.\n\n[183] It is usually explained as an abbreviation of S\u00edmiy\u00e1, a word\nformed in imitation of K\u00edmiy\u00e1 (alchemy).\n\n[184] Curious to say, this word is pure Etruscan, and appears in no\nother language known to me.\n\n[185] Newbold adds:\n\n  20, Yuksi or Yeksi; 21, Yirksi wa, etc.\n\n  30, Yuksi wa d\u00e9s (30 and 10); 31, Yuksi wa des wa, etc.\n\n  40, Kam\u00e1ki or Kum\u00e1ki.\n\n  50, Kam\u00e1ki wa des, etc.\n\n  60, Kam\u00e1ki wa yuksi.\n\n  70, Kam\u00e1ki wa yuksi wa des.\n\n  80, Du Kam\u00e1ki (2 forties).\n\n  90, Du Kam\u00e1ki wa d\u00e9s.\n\n  100, Hel. Bank, Sad (Pers.), or D\u00fai Kam\u00e1ki wa yuksi (2 forties + 20);\n      Naw. Beni.\n\n  1000, Des Bank (10 hundred); das Sad.\n\n[186] I have marked with a star the words which appear original, or\nrather unconnected with Arabic. The list is compared with Newbold\u2019s\nvocabularies, H. (Helebi), G. (Ghagar), N. (N\u00e1wer).\n\n[187] They are not likely to have two words for \u201cfather,\u201d so A'rub is\nprobably dialectic. Newbold gives the Helebi word G\u00e1r\u00fabi; Ghagar, B\u00e1lo,\nM\u00e1nsh; N\u00e1wer, B\u00e1y\u00e1b\u00ed.\n\n[188] The two affixed pronouns--\u00ed (my) and ak (thy)--are also pure\nArabic.\n\n[189] This form of feminine (opposed to Maia, masculine), Sem'ah, from\nSem', is also Arabic. Newbold adds:\n\n  Wife: H. K\u00fadah; G. Gaziyeh; N. Gad.\n\n  Husband: H. El-bar\u00e1neh; G. Marash; N. Maras. Of these the latter two\n      are evidently corrupted from the Sansk. Manushya; Prak. M\u00e1nus.\n\n  Boy: H. Lamb\u00fan, Sumgun; G. Chabo; N. Sowaiti.\n\n  Girl: H. Lamb\u00fanih, Samgunih; G. Somah, Chabo, or Chai; N. Bub\u00far.\n\n[190]\n\n  Day: H. Merrakrish; G. Chebish.\n\n  Rain: H. Matr (Arab.); G. Bursunden (Pers.), Moga; N. Aug.\n\n  The two latter may be Sansk. Megha, a cloud.\n\n  Snow: H. Telj (Arab.); G. Ghar\u00e1bi.\n\n  Cloud: H. Reim (Arab. Ghaym); G. B\u00e1r\u00fad.\n\n  Light: H. and G. N\u00far.\n\n[191]\n\n  Sheep: H. Hahaiya; G. Bakra (Hind.).\n\n  Hare: H. Emeb (Arab.); G. Kundu.\n\n  Cat: H. Ghutta (Arab.); G. Berkuka.\n\n  Mare: H. Schliyeh; G. Aghorai. The first is the Arabic form of\n      feminine from Sohli, a stallion; the second is Hind.\n\n  Hog: H. Khang\u00edr (Arab.); G. Hall\u00faf (Arab.); N. Segel harmin (?).\n\n  Crow: H. Grab (Arab.); G. Mentuf, Kil.\n\n  Snake: H. T\u00e1bun (Arab. Thu'ub\u00e1n?); G. Samp (Hind.).\n\n  Fish: H. Semek (Arab.); G. Machchiyeh (Hind.).\n\n[192]\n\n  Sea: H. Buhr (Arab.); G. Pani (Sansk.).\n\n  A Spring (fount): H. Ain (Arab.); G. Moga (Mayet, corr. Arab?).\n\n  A Well: H. Bir (Arab.); G. Ghibini.\n\n[193] Milk: H. Millanish, Helwah (Arab. Halw\u00e1, the sweet?); G. R\u00e1g\u00fan,\nR\u00e1ghebi, Ch\u00fati; N. Raw\u00e1n.\n\n[194] In this, as in other cases, the Sa'idi dialect appears to throw\nback the accent.\n\n[195]\n\n  Barley: H. Muharish; G. Jan (Sansk. Pers.).\n\n  Dhurra-grain: H. Meghidhurra; G. Darineh.\n\n  Rice: H. Ruz (Arab. Pers.); G. Barnu, Fukiyeh, Udbukh (_i.e._\n      tetbukh, cook thou!?).\n\n  Bread: H. Shemun, Mushmul; G. M\u00e1rey; N. Nan (Pers.).\n\n[196]\n\n  Finger: H. Sabua (Arab.); G. Augushti (Hind.).\n\n  Neck: H. Rekl (Arab.); G. Sheriti.\n\n  Knee: H. Ruggal or Kumayhtu; G. Shang.\n\n  Teeth: H. Sinnan (Arab.), Suvan; G. D\u00e1ndi (Hind.), Sinnam.\n\n  Flesh: H. Udwan; G. Maas (Hind.).\n\n  Perd, mas.: H. Lib; G. Kiab.\n\n  \" neut.: H. Budi; G. Minchi\u00e1; N. Bud.\n\n  Belly: H. Batu (Arab.); G. Burri; N. Bosah.\n\n[197] Ring: H. Khatim (Arab.); G. Aug\u00fastir (Hind.).\n\n[198] The terminal, amrak, may be they work, business, property; in\nfact, synonymous with the vulgar bit\u00e1'k.\n\n[199] Every Arabic dialect has some euphonistic form of expressing\nfire; the simple word Nar would be inauspicious, suggesting the idea of\nhell-fire.\n\n[200] Newbold adds:\n\nNOUNS.\n\n  God: H. Allah; G. Allah; N. Allah.\n\n  Devil: H. Shaytan (Arab.); G. Iblis (Arab.); N. Harmir (Harami?).\n\n  Christian: H. Ghiraie; G. Bal\u00e1mu.\n\n  Gentile, _i.e._ non-Gypsy: H. Hushno; G. Chaju; N. Kegh\u00e1neh.\n\n  Luck (fortune): H. Bakht (Pers.); G. B\u00faji; N. Sohri.\n\n  Poison: H. Sun (Arab. Sum?); G. Z\u00fangali; N. Mubahah (Arab. the\n      permitted?).\n\n  Love: all use Hebb (Habb, Arab.).\n\n  Harlot: H. Beskanan; G. Besignan, Gabu; N. Gad el-haram.\n\n  Zone of chastity: H. Hug; G. Dilk; N. Fowi (F\u00fatah, a napkin).\n\n  Name: H. Ism (Arab.); G. Rubon (_i.e._ your name); N. Minas.\n\n  Year: H. Shahr (Arab.); G. Yuk Sad\u00edsh.\n\n  King: H. Dazi, Zilk; G. El-reibo, el-burro (Hind. Bar\u00e1, gnat?).\n\n  City or village: H. Gavuti (Hind.); G. G\u00e1v (Hind.); N. Desi (Hind.).\n\n  Bridge: all Juntava (error or corruption of Kantaral?).\n\n  House: H. Nizb; G. K\u00edr (Ghar, Hind?).\n\n  Door: H. B\u00e1l (Arab.); G. K\u00e1p\u00fa (Turk.).\n\n  Rope: H. Hebl (Arab.); G. Dori (Hind.).\n\n  Paper: all use Warkeh (Arab).\n\n  Book: all use Kit\u00e1b (Arab.).\n\nADJECTIVES.\n\n  Sick, tired: H. Tabau (Arab.).\n\n  Bad: H. Batt\u00e1l (Arab.); G. Bilbey.\n\n  Good: H. Tayyib (Arab.); G. Sasho (pure Gypsy).\n\n  Great: H. Kabir (Arab.); G. Bara (Hind.); N. Bari.\n\n  Small: H. Sughayyar (Arab.); G. Thoranki (Hind.).\n\n  Black: H. Aswadish (corr. Arab.); G. K\u00e1lo (Hind.).\n\n  White: all use Alyar (Arab.).\n\n  Cold: H. Melladish (corr. Arab.); G. Memudrih.\n\n  Hot: H. Mahrarish (corr. Arab.); G. Garu (Pers.).\n\nADVERBS.\n\n  Much: H. Ket\u00edr (Arab.); G. Bh\u00fat (Hind.).\n\n  A little: H. Meframrush; G. Ther\u00e1ki, Thukr\u00e1n\u00ed (corr. Hind.).\n\n  Enough: H. Keffi (Arab.); G. Bas (Pers.), Nunniya.\n\n  Here: H. Hene (Arab.); G. Syde.\n\n  There: H. Hun\u00e1h (Arab.); G. Aurileh.\n\n[201] This proves one of two things: first, that the Gypsies left India\nbefore the Hindus had borrowed a Western character from the Ph\u0153nicians;\nor two, the Gypsies were a low caste, which, like the Pariahs and\nothers, ignore writing.\n\n[202] When travelling, for instance, they place on prominent rocks and\nremarkable trees pebbles, bits of thread, and similar articles, showing\nthe road they have taken.\n\n[203] Letter written from Algiers, and published in the _Union\nM\u00e9dicale_ of January 2, 1860.\n\n[204] This is evidently the hypnotism so called by Dr. John Braid, of\nManchester, the Braidism of Continental writers. The discovery was\nmade in 1841. See _Neurypnology, or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep,\nConsidered in Relation with Animal Magnetism_. About 1849, profiting\nby the studies of Doctors J. B. Dods and Philips, a certain Mr. Stone\nintroduced into England a modification of hypnotism, which he absurdly\ncalled _Electro-biology_; his zinc and copper discs were the civilized\nsuccedanea of the ink-blot.\n\n[205] _Narrative of Travels in_ 1822-24. The folio edition shows two\nwomen with the crisp African hair.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII\n\nTHE GYPSY IN EUROPE\n\n\n\u00a7 1. _The Gypsy in Hungary_\n\nThe Czigany, as they are called, appeared early in the fifteenth\ncentury, and were supposed to have fled from Moghol persecution. King\nSigismund, father of the heroic John Hunyadi,[206] allowed them to\nsettle in his realm, and the law called them \u201cmere peasants.\u201d In 1496\nBishop Sigismund at Funf-Kirchen ordered iron cannon-balls from the\nGypsies to be used against the Turkish invaders of Hungary; and he was\ndoughtily supported against the Turks by King Zindelo, Dukes Miguel and\nAndrew, by Counts Manuel and Juan, by the \u201cnoble knight\u201d Pedro, and by\nthe chief Tomas Polgar.\n\nThe reforms of 1848 found them in a state of slavery, _adscripti\ngleb\u0153_, who could not legally take service away from their birthplace.\nTheir condition was worse than that of the Wallach peasant, who says\nof his haughty Magyar Magnate, \u201cA lord is a lord born in hell.\u201d Some\nforty years ago Mr. Paget[207] says Gypsies were exposed for sale in\nthe neighbouring province of Wallachia. In the Hungary of the bad old\n_r\u00e9gime_ the relation of the landowning peasant, however oppressive\nmight have been his obligations, was never that of master and slave. If\nthe agriculturist chose to give up his _session-lands_, the ground he\noccupied by hereditary use, he could go where he pleased. Practically\nthis was rare; it was equivalent to giving up his means of subsistence,\nand he preferred the tax-paying while all the nobles went free, and the\nodious burden of the \u201cRobot\u201d _corv\u00e9e_, or forced labour, two and in\nsome cases three days a week. Hence he hated the military conscription,\nthe only means of civilizing him established by Austria in 1849.[208]\nBut the Czigany, however deep-rooted is his love of liberty, never\npreserved the modicum of freedom to which the Hungarian clung.\n\nThough now legally free, the Czigany\u2019s deep respect for everything\naristocratic attaches him to the ruling caste. In Transylvania \u201cMagyar\u201d\nis a distinctive term for class as well as race. The Czigany who do\nnot assimilate with the thrifty Saxons prefer to be mere hangers-on at\nthe castle of the Hungarian Magnate, as in England of old they take\nhis name; and they profess the same faith--Catholic, Protestant, or\nnothing. Notwithstanding their incurable propensity for pilfering,\nthey are trusted as messengers and carriers; like the old Spanish\n_arriero_, they form a general \u201cparcels-delivery company.\u201d And they\nare ubiquitous, for never a door is left unlocked lest a Gypsy will\nslip in and steal. In old days they were most efficient spies upon\nChristian and Muslim, and they trimmed between the twain to their own\nadvantage. They also made the best of smugglers; they dug for treasure,\nand they washed for _paillettes_ of gold the Transylvanian affluents\nof the Danube. At times they set out upon plundering excursions,\nwhich extended to Italy, France, and Spain. They are still accused of\nincendiarism by the Wallachs, who apparently thus seek to hide the\nmalpractices resulting from their inordinate lust of revenge, the ugly\nsurvival of the savage character. These people forget that \u201ccurses,\nlike chickens, come home to roost,\u201d and will play with fire even when\nit damages themselves.\n\nThe settled Gypsy\u2019s dwelling is even more primitive than the Wallachs.\nThe hut is formed, like the African\u2019s, with plaited sticks, and\nswish is plastered into the gaps. Before the hut entrance often\nstands the nomad cart, two wheeled and tilted, and always stands the\ntripod supporting the iron pot--a sight, like the scarlet cloak, once\nfamiliar to us, but now disappeared from England. In time the earth\nis grass-grown; and as the hovel is rarely more than seven feet high,\nit looks rather like an exaggerated ant-hill or a tumulus than a\nhabitation for man. Yet the ragged inmate, whose children go about in\nnature\u2019s garb, is clever with his hands. He is the best blacksmith in\nthe country, and he fashions simple wooden articles for household use\nwith dexterity and even with taste. Despite his wretched surroundings,\nhe keeps his good spirits, he sings to his work, and he plays the\nviolin in his leisure hours.\n\nI need hardly repeat the commonplaces about the music of the Hungarian\nGypsy, and the legends concerning Catalani and Liszt. Strolling bands,\nin civilized attire, and performing upon divers instruments, are and\nhave been for some time well known to the capitals of Europe. So great\nis the contrast between their art and their surroundings, that more\nthan one traveller has suspected this marvellous gift of pathetic\nstrains to be a \u201clanguage brought with them in their exile from another\nand a higher state of existence.\u201d I find in it only the marriage of\nEastern with Western melody, the high science of the former, so little\nappreciated by the ignorant Anglo-Indian, with the perfect practice of\nthe latter.\n\nThough utterly unalphabetic, these people have a strange power of\nstirring their hearers\u2019 hearts. They play by ear, in style unsurpassed\nby the best training, the violin, the \u2019cello, and the zither, with\nwhich London is now familiarized. The airs, often their own, tell a\nthrilling national tale in a way that makes an indelible impression\nupon the stranger. Now it is the expression of turmoil, battle, and\ndefeat, followed by a long wail of woe, of passionate grief, mostly in\nthe minor key. Then it suddenly passes to the major in a wild burst of\njoy, of triumph, of exultation, of rapture, which carries along with it\nthe hearer in irresistible sympathy. It has all the charm of contrast;\nof extremes, excitement and depression; subjection and deliverance,\ndelight and despair. The strains rob the excitable Hungarian of his\nreason; he drinks in the music till he is drunk.\n\nThe Gypsy is capable of a noble self-sacrifice, and Mr. Crosse tells\na tale which proves it. He passed in a wild, romantic glen a steep,\noverhanging rock known throughout the land as the \u201cGypsy\u2019s stone.\u201d\nAbout the middle of the last century, it is supposed, there was a\nfamine; and the Czigany, poorer than their neighbours, were reduced to\nbeg or starve. When turned away by certain hard-hearted villagers, one\npoor fellow refused to go, declaring that his children were dying of\nhunger. \u201cThen,\u201d said one of the boors in a mocking tone, \u201cI will give\nyour family a side of bacon, if you will jump from that rock.\u201d \u201cYou\nhear his promise!\u201d cried the Czigan, appealing to the crowd. Without\nanother word he rushed from amongst them, clambered up the rock, and\ntook the leap, which was--death.\n\nThis is exactly what we might expect under the circumstances from a\nHindu. The system of _Badli_--in plain English, paying a man to \u201ctake\nblame\u201d and to be hanged for you--is the best proof.\n\nIt should be remembered that a Hungarian was the first to publish the\n\u201cIndic origin\u201d of the Romani tongue. At the end of 1765 an interesting\n_communiqu\u00e9_ was addressed to the _Vienna Gazette_ by Captain Szekely\nde Doba. He related that the Protestant parson Stephen Vali while\nstudying at Leyden made acquaintance with certain Malabar youths sent\nthere by the Dutch Government, and their vernacular reminded him of\nthe Gypsy tongue which he had heard in his home at Almasch. They also\nassured him that in Malabar there is a district called _Zigania_ (?),\nwhich suggested a comparison with the German Zigeuner. At their\ndictation he wrote down almost a thousand words, and returning to\nAlmasch he was surprised to find the Czigan understanding them.\n\nThen set in the first period (1775-1800) of Sanskrit and Zend study,\naccompanied by publications of Bengali, Urdu, and others of the\neighteen Prakrit tongues still spoken in the great Peninsula. This led\nto careful study of Romani. The celebrated Mezzofanti did not hesitate\nto assign it high rank amongst the thirty-two languages he had studied;\nand when he lost his mind (1832) he never confounded it with other\nidioms. Then followed in 1837 the _Gospel of St. Luke_ translated into\nSpanish _Cal\u00f3_ by \u201cGypsy Borrow,\u201d who, however, inserted Castilian\nwords from Father Scio instead of forming them from Gypsy roots.\n\n\n\u00a7 2. _The Gypsies of Spain._\n\nWe have ample material for studying the Spanish Gypsy, or Flamanco,\nas he is contemptuously called, probably because he entered Andalusia\nin the train of the Flemings during the first third of the fifteenth\ncentury. Yet it is somewhat remarkable that Europe believed up to the\nend of that century the purely Spanish origin of the Gypsies.\n\nPasquier, describing the arrival of these \u201cpenitents\u201d in Paris A.D.\n1427, adds that from that time all France was infested by these\nvagabonds, but that the first horde was replaced by the Biscayan and\nother peoples of the same origin. This suggests an early occupation\nof the Peninsula; although Francisca de Cordova in his _Didasculia_\ndeclared they were first known in Germany, and the general belief now\nis that the last horde entered Europe by the highroads of Andalusia and\nBulgaria, or rather Greece, and they must have been settled for many\nyears in these countries.\n\nNorthern Spaniards find in Andalusian blood a distinct Gypsy\ninnervation.\n\nIn Spain, as elsewhere, the Gypsy made himself hated by his systematic\ncontempt of the laws of _meum_ and _teum_; whilst he was protected\nby two widely different conditions: the first was his poverty (\u201cAs\npoor as a Gypsy\u201d is still a proverb); secondly, he was a spy equally\nuseful to Christian and unbeliever. Yet action was not wanting. In\n1499 was published the Gran Pragmatica (Royal Ordinance) of Medina\ndel Campo, under the influence of a fanatic archbishop, banishing on\nand after the term of sixty days the Egyptian and foreign tinkers\n(_caldereros_), and forbidding return under pain of mutilation. This\nPragmatica was renewed under Charles V. by the Cortes of Toledo and of\nMadrid, with the additional punishment of perpetual slavery for those\nfound wandering a third time. Yet in 1560, on his marriage at Toledo\nwith Isabelle of France, Gypsy dances formed part of the festivities.\nHe was comparatively mild, and after moderating the old rigorous\nlaws he ordered the outcasts to live in towns. In 1586 the same king\nallowed them to sell their goods at ten fairs and markets under certain\nconditions.\n\nThese nomads picked up information from all classes, and the women,\nwith their black magic, sorcery, and devilry, palmistry, love-potions,\nand poisons, penetrated into every secret. The Holy Office, established\nin January, 1481, disdained to persecute such paupers; and the strong\narm of the law could not do more than hang a few witches. Ticknor\nremarks: \u201cEncouraged by the expulsion of the Jews in 1492, also by that\nof the Moors in 1609-11, Dr. Sancho de Moncada, a professor in the\nUniversity of Toledo, addressed Philip III. in a discourse published in\n1619, urging that monarch to drive out the Gypsies, but he failed.\u201d\n\nAnother authority says that he himself, 1618, had prepared a memorial\nto that effect, adding, \u201cIt is very vicious to tolerate such a\npernicious and perverse race.\u201d Cordova, writing in 1615, accused them\nof preparing, some years before, an organized attack upon Sogrovo\ntown when the pest raged, and declares that it was saved from such by\nthe arts of a certain wizard who had mysterious relations with the\nvagabonds.\n\nThe charges of cannibalism became universal, founded probably upon the\nfact that Gypsies do not disdain the flesh of animals poisoned by them.\n\nThat many of the persecuted outcasts were compelled to fly the country\nwe shall see presently in the Morerias of Brazil; and when religious\nzeal cooled down, political interests took its place, and led to the\ngreat legal persecution. Philip IV. in 1633 prohibited the Gypsy\ndress and dialect, expelled them from the Ghettos, and by rendering\nintermarriage illegal aimed at fusing the vagrants with other subjects.\nIn 1692 Charles II. ordered them to practise nothing but agriculture.\nThe decree was renewed in 1695, and article 16 threatened punishment to\nall, gentle and simple, who aided and abetted them. Philip V. in 1726\nbanished from Madrid certain Gypsy women who had petitioned in favour\nof their persecuted husbands. Nineteen years afterwards (1745) he\nordered the fugitives to return to his dominions under pain of fire and\nsteel, denying to them even the right of asylum in sacred places. This\nterrible decree was renewed in 1746-49.\n\nBetter days now began to dawn. The racial hatred and brutality suffered\nby the Gypsies became by slow degrees to be considered the abrogations\nof past ages. Already, in 1783, Don Carlos of Spain followed the\nEmperor Joseph of Germany, 1782, and revoked the ultra-Draconian laws\nwhich aimed at the extinction of a people, and substituted decrees\ncontrasting strongly with the Pragmatica of 1499; he even threatened\npains and penalties to those who hindered the Gypsies in their\noccupations. In fact, the Gitano, no longer the Egipciano, was allowed\nintermarriage with his caste, his family rights were recognized, and he\nwas allowed to choose his own trade. He was forbidden only to wear any\nspecial dress, to display his language in public, or to exercise the\nignoble parts of his calling. Briefly, after having been for centuries\nof persecution a social pariah, he became a subject. The change must\nbe attributed only to the French philosophical school, and the works\nof the encyclopedists, which presently led to the greatest benefits\nof modern ages, the first French Revolution of 1789. It made men and\ncitizens where it found serfs and slaves.\n\nThese humanitarian measures bore their natural consequences. Under the\neffect of toleration the Gypsies lost much of the savage wildness which\ndistinguished them in the depths of the Toledo Mountains, the Sierra\nMorena, and the wild Alpujarras. They flocked to the valleys of the\nEbro, the Tagus, and the Guadiana, where many, waxing rich and caring\nlittle for a community of goods, lost much of their devotion to caste\nand their fear and horror of their Christian fellow-citizens. And the\ngrey-beards did not fail to complain that the Zinc\u00e1lo was speedily\nbecoming a Gacho or a Busno, opprobrious terms applied to non-Gypsies.\n\nThe Gitanos of Spain are supposed to number from fifty to sixty\nthousand, and the increased toleration of society is rapidly\nconcentrating them into the great towns. They abound in Madrid, Cadiz,\nMalaga, Granada, Cordova, Ciudad Real, Murcia, Valencia, Barcelona,\nPamplona, Valladolid, and Badajoz. In parts of Upper Aragon and the\nAlpujarras Mountains they are troglodytes rather than nomad hordes.\nEven in the northern provinces, Old Castile, Asturias, and Galicia,\nwhere they formerly were most hated and feared, they are now freely\nallowed to settle. A complete assimilation is expected from the\nposition which they have acquired in places like Cadiz and Malaga. They\nare beginning to educate themselves in a country where hardly 20 per\ncent. can read, and where a grandee of the last generation was a kind\nof high-caste _chalan_ (horse-cooper) or _torero_ (bull-fighter)--the\nGitano\u2019s peculiar trades. Though they preserve the Gypsy tradition,\nsome of them traffic largely in cattle and own extensive butcheries;\nthey keep inns and taverns; they deal with the chief merchants; and\nthey live in luxury. Gitanos of the poorer classes buy and barter\nanimals; act jockeys and race-riders; people the bull-ring (especially\nin Andalusia); work nails and ironmongery, as at Granada and Cordova;\nand plait the coloured baskets for which Murcia, Valencia, and\nBarcelona are famous. Their women sell poultry and old rags; prepare\nbuns (_bu\u00f1uelos_) and black puddings (_morcillas de sangre_); engage\nthemselves as tavern cooks; are excellent smugglers; and find in\ninterpreting dreams, in philter-selling, and in fortune-telling the\nmost lucrative industries. They sing and play various instruments,\naccompanying the music with the most voluptuous and licentious\ndances and attitudes; but woe to the man who would obtain from these\nBayaderes any boon beyond their provocative exhibition. From the Indus\nto Gibraltar the contrast of obscenity in language and in songs with\ncorporal chastity--a lacha ye drupo, \u201cbody shame,\u201d as they term it--has\never been a distinctive characteristic. No brothel in Europe can boast\nof containing a Gypsy woman.[209] The mother carefully watches and\nteaches her child to preserve the premices for the Rom, the Gypsy\nhusband. At marriages they preserve the old Jewish and Muslim rite,\nthat disappeared from Spain only with the accession of the house of\nAustria. Even Isabella of Castile, when she was married at Valladolid\nto Ferdinand of Aragon, allowed her \u201cjustificative proofs\u201d to be\ndisplayed before the wedding-guest. Gypsy marriages, like those of the\nhigh-caste Hindus, entail ruinous expense; the revelry lasts three\ndays; the \u201cGentile\u201d is freely invited; and the profusion of meats and\ndrinks often makes the bridegroom a debtor for life. I have explained\nthis practice in Hindustan as the desire to prove that the first\nmarriage is _the_ marriage.\n\nThe Spanish Gypsies are remarkable for beauty in early youth: for\nmagnificent eyes and hair, regular features, light and well-knit\nfigures, easy gait, and graceful bearing. Their locks, like the Hindus,\nare lamp-black, and without a sign of wave; and they preserve the\ncharacteristic eye. The form is perfect, and it has an especial look to\nwhich is attributed the power of engendering _grandes passions_--one\nof the privileges of the eye. I have often remarked its fixity and\nbrilliance, which flashes like phosphoric light, the gleam which in\nsome eyes denotes madness. I have also noted the \u201cfar-off look\u201d which\nseems to gaze at something beyond you, and the alternation from the\nfixed stare to a glazing or filming over of the pupil.[210] Hence the\nEnglish song:\n\n    A Gypsy stripling\u2019s glossy (?) eye\n      Has pierced my bosom\u2019s core,\n    A feat no eye beneath the sky\n      Could e\u2019er effect before.\n\nAnd in Spain it is remarked that the Gypsy man often makes a conquest\nof the Busno\u2019s wife.\n\nThe women are more voluble in language and licentious in manners\nthan the men. These characteristics, combined with the most absolute\nrepulsion for other favours, even to the knife, explain how many sons\nof grandees and great officials took part in the nightly orgies and\nby day favoured the proscribed caste. Moreover, the Gitana protected\nherself by the possession of family secrets. Besides soothsaying\nand philter-selling, she had a store of the _Raiz del buen Baron_\n(the goodman\u2019s, _i.e._ the devil\u2019s, root), alias Satan\u2019s herb, which\nrelieved incommodious burdens. At fairs, while the husbands were\nchapping and chaffering, the good-wives made money by the process\ncalled _coger \u00e1 la mano_ (to catch in hand); that is, pilfering coins\nby sleight during the process of exchanging. Amongst other malpractices\nis one called in Romani _Youjano b\u00e1ro_ (the great trick), translated\n_gran socali\u00f1a_ (great trick) by Jermimo de Alcal\u00e1 in his novel the\n_Historia de Alonzo, mozo de muchos amos_ (a youth with many uncles),\nwritten in the early seventeenth century. Rich and covetous widows were\npersuaded to deposit jewels and money in dark and unfrequented places,\nwith the idea of finding buried treasure. Useless to say that the Gypsy\nwoman was the only gainer by the transaction.\n\nWe read that the old Gypsy dress was repeatedly forbidden by law; but\nSpanish tradition preserves no memory of what the dress was. I have\nlittle doubt that the immigrants of the fifteenth century had retained\nto some extent the Hindu costume, the Pagr\u00ed (head-cloth) and the Dhoti\n(waist-cloth). So in Moscow I have seen the Gypsy dancing-girls assume\nthe true toilette of the Hindustani Nachni, the Choli, or bodice, and\nthe Peshw\u00e1z, or petticoat of many folds. Some writers imagine that the\n\u201cpicturesque vagabonds,\u201d Cal\u00f3s, had borrowed their peculiar garb from\nthe Moors.\n\nIn these days the well-to-do Spanish Rom affects the Andalusian\ncostume, more or less rich. He delights in white linen, especially\nthe \u201cbiled shirt,\u201d often frilled and embroidered. The materials are\nlinen and cotton, silk, plush, velvet, and broadcloth. The favourite\ntints are blue, red, and marking colours. The short jacket or pelisse\n(_zamarra_) is embroidered and adorned with frogs (_alamares_) or large\nsilver buttons; the waistcoat is mostly red, and a sash of crimson\nsilk with fringed ends supports the waist; the overalls narrow at\nthe ankle, where they meet boots or buskins (_borceg\u00faies_), slippers\nor sandals (_alpargatas_). Finally, the long lank locks, which hang\nsomewhat like the Polish Jew\u2019s along the cheeks, are crowned with the\nGypsy _sombrero_ or porkpie, and sometimes with the red Catalan _gorro_\n(bonnet), not unlike the glengarry.\n\nThe Romi also has retained the dress worn till lately in Andalusia,\nand now gradually becoming obsolete. The gleaming hair is gathered in\na Diana knot at the neck, and lit up with flowers of the gaudiest hue;\nit lies in bands upon the temples, and the whole is often covered with\nan embroidered kerchief. A cloak of larger or lesser dimensions thrown\nover the shoulders hardly conceals the bodice and the short, skimpy\npetticoat (_saya_), which is embroidered, adorned with bunches of\nribbons, trimmings, and other cheap finery.\n\nThe Spanish Gypsies have not preserved, like the Hungarian, their\nold habit of long expeditions for begging and plundering purposes.\nConsequently they have lost the practice of the _Pateran_ or _Trail_,\nthe road-marks by which they denote direction. These are fur twigs, or\nsimilar heaps of newly gathered grass disposed at short distances. At\ncross-roads the signs are placed on the right side of that followed.\nSometimes they trace upon the ground a cross whose longer arm shows\nthe way, or they nail one stake to another. The Norwegian Gypsies\ntrace with their whips a mark on the snow called Faano; it resembles\na sack with a shut mouth. In the course of ages they have lost that\nmarvellous power of following the _spoor_ which their kinsmen on the\nIndus preserve to perfection. They retain a peculiarly shrill whistle,\nfor which the Guanches were famous. By the signs and the whistles two\nparties could communicate with each other; and if anything particular\noccurred, messengers were sent to report it.\n\nThe Gypsy language was looked upon as a mere conventional jargon, and\nits Indian origin, as has been shown elsewhere, was not recognized\nbefore the middle of last century. It was, moreover, confounded with\nthe Germania (Thieves\u2019 Latin), whose vocabulary, collected by Juan\nHidalgo of Saragona, has found its way into the _Diccionario de la\nAcademia_. The only Gypsy words it contains are those borrowed from\nthe Cal\u00f3 by the bullies and ruffians of the days of Quevedo. Many\ncorruptions and barbarisms, however, have been introduced into books\nby pseudo-literati of \u201cwhite blood,\u201d who prided themselves upon their\nknowledge of Romani. For instance, Meriden means Coral; and as in\nSpanish reduplication of the consonant changes the word, an inventor,\nin order to express Corral (Curral, Kraal, cattle-yard), produced the\nmost barbarous term Merridden. This was the work of _aficionados_\n(fanciers) like the Augustine friar Manso de Sevilla in the Cartuja\nor Carthusian convent of Jirez, whose famous breed of horses brought\nthem into direct communication with the Gypsies. Happily, however,\nthe language was spoken, not written; and thus, as Mr. Buckle held of\nlegend and tradition, its purity was preserved.\n\nGypsy verse is generally improvised to the twanging and tapping of the\nguitar, sometimes to the guitar and castanet, and oftentimes without\nmusic. Much that has been printed appears to be of that spurious kind\nunintelligible to the Gypsies themselves. The favourite form is in\nquartettes, more or less carefully rhymed; they are impressed upon the\nhearers\u2019 memory; and thus they pass from mouth to mouth throughout\nSpain. Borrow gives a few translations of Gypsy songs in Romani. The\nCantes Flamancos of Dem\u00f3fico, in phonetic Andalusian, chanted at the\nfairs and markets, in the caf\u00e9s and ventas, the streets and alleys of\nSeville, date from the last century. The poetry is weak, the moral is\nnot always irreproachable; but the sentiment is strong and touching.\nThese Cantes are sung by many a tailor and many a barber who have not\na drop of Gypsy blood in their veins. They can hardly be accepted as\ngenuine Gypsy work.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[206] Hence probably the Hungarian Hunyadis are popularly supposed to\nhave Gypsy blood. John\u2019s mother (A.D. 1400) is said to have been a\nfair Wallach, Elizabeth Marsinai, possibly of Romani blood. The legend\nof the boy recovering his unknown father\u2019s ring from a plundering\njackdaw, his appearance at Buda, and his receiving the gift of Hunyad\ntown and sixty villages, is well known. The Turk\u2019s bell was first heard\nin invaded Hungary during the reign of Sigismund. John Hunyadi drove\nthem from Servia and Bosnia, and vainly proposed a league of Christian\npowers. When Corvinus passed away after a reign of forty-two years, the\nlieges said of him, and still say, \u201cKing Matthias is dead, and Justice\ndied with him.\u201d\n\n[207] _Hungary and Transylvania_, 1839. Before 1848 the Church, the\nState, and the nobles were the only landowners; the peasant, however,\nhad leave to occupy certain tracts (_session-lands_) under his lord.\n\n[208] Mr. Andrew F. Crosse, _Round about the Carpathians_ (Blackwoods,\n1878), declares (p. 146) that this \u201cconscription was enforced with\nevery species of official brutality.\u201d Austria was dealing with a\nconquered and a peculiar, stiff-necked people. Lord Palmerston\u2019s hatred\nof Austria was, we are told, the best passport to Hungarian sympathy.\n\n[209] The brothels of Buda-Pesth and other large cities of\nAustro-Hungary have often one Gypsy woman among their inmates.\n\n[210] I find my opinion confirmed by an older observer: \u201cThe\npeculiarity of the Gypsy eye consists chiefly in a strange, staring\nexpression, which, to be understood, must be seen, and in a thin glaze\nwhich steals over it when in repose, and seems to emit phosphoric\nlight\u201d (_The Gypsies_, by Samuel Roberts).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII\n\nTHE GYPSY IN AMERICA\n\n\n_The Gypsies of the Brazil_\n\nThe Rom\u00e1 of the North American Republic are well known, and their\nemigration is of modern date. During the wars between England and\nFrance which followed the great Revolution many of them exchanged a\nwandering life for the service of the country, having been either\nkidnapped or impressed, or having taken the shilling. Of course, after\nobtaining a passage to the American colonies, they deserted the army,\nfound friends, and settled in the country. The half-bandit bands of\nScottish Gypsies were mostly broken up in this way.\n\nOn the other hand, South America is very little known; and yet the\npart with which I am most familiar, the Brazil, is full of Gypsies.\nWhen Ferdinand and Isabella the Catholic (A.D. 1492) issued the\nexterminating edict against Moors, Jews, and Gitanos, the latter slunk\ninto hiding-places; they were again proscribed by Charles V. (A.D.\n1582); and Philip III. (A.D. 1619) issued from Belem in Portugal an\norder for all the Gypsies to quit the country within six months--an\norder renewed by Philip IV. in A.D. 1633. There was some reason for\nthis severity. The \u201cmasterful beggars\u201d had made themselves infamous\nby turning spies to the Turks and Saracens; and if the general\nprejudice against them was unfounded, it rested at least upon a solid\nfoundation--their hatred of the Christian Busno, Gacho, or non-Gypsy.\nThus every maritime city of the Brazil to which the exiles were shipped\npresently contained a Gypsy _bairro_, or quarter, the Portuguese\nMoreria (Moorery) corresponding with the Spanish Gitaneria, and not a\nlittle resembling the Ghettos of the Italian Jews. For instance, the\nRocco, now the handsomest square in superb Rio de Janeiro, was of old\nthe Campo dos Ciganos--the Gypsies\u2019 Field. The \u201cEgyptian pilgrims\u201d\nthence spread abroad over the Interior, where their tents often attract\nthe traveller\u2019s eye; and some of them became distinguished criminals,\nlike the Gypsy Beij\u00fa, one of the chief Thugs, whose career, ended by\nhanging for the murders which long disgraced the Mantiqueira Mountains,\nI have described in the _Highlands of the Brazil_ (i. 63).\n\nWandering about the provinces of S. Paulo and Minas Geraes, I often met\nGypsy groups whose appearance, language, and occupations were those\nof Europe. They are here perhaps a little more violent and dangerous,\nand the wayfarer looks to his revolver as he nears their camp at the\ndusk hour; yet they are hardly worse than the \u201cMorpheticos\u201d (lepers),\nwho are allowed to haunt the country. Popular books and reviews ignore\nthem; but the peasantry regard them with disgust and religious dread.\nThey protest themselves to be pious Catholics, yet they are so far the\nbest of Protestants, as they protest, practically and energetically,\nagainst the whole concern. Their religion, in fact, is embodied in the\naxiom: \u201cCras moriemur--post mortem nulla voluptas.\u201d We may well believe\nthe common rumour which charges them with being robbers of poultry and\nhorses, and with doing at times a trifle in the way of assassination.\n\nOn May 3, 1866, when riding from Rio Claro to Piracicava Sa\u00f5 Paulo,\nI visited a gang of these \u201cverminous ones\u201d; and attended by my armed\nservants, I spent a night in their tents. The scene was familiar: the\ntilt-tent swarmed with dark children, the pot hung from the triangle,\nand horses and ponies for carriage, and perhaps for sale, were picketed\nabout. The features and complexion were those of the foreign tinkler;\nthe women, besides trumpery ornaments of brass, coral, and beads, wore\nscarlet leg-wraps; and some of the girls were pretty and well dressed\nas the memorable Selina, of Bagley Wood, Oxford. Apparently they were\nowners of negro slaves, possibly runaways. According to the Brazilians,\nthey are fond of _nomes esquisitos_ (fancy names); Esmeralda and\nSapphira are common, and they borrow from trees, plants, and animals.\n\nTheir chief occupations are petty trade and fortune-telling, when they\nreveal for a consideration all the mysteries of \u201clove and law, health\nand wealth, losses and crosses.\u201d They also \u201ckeen\u201d at funerals during\nthe livelong day, and drink, sing, and dance through the night--a\nregular wake. I could not induce them to use their own tongue, yet they\nevidently understood me. This desire to conceal their Gypsy origin I\nhave frequently noticed elsewhere. It is probably a relic of the days\nof their persecution. Fortunately in most civilized countries to-day\nthe Gypsy can count equal rights with other men.\n\n\n\n\nIII.  EL ISLAM\n\n\n\n\nEL ISLAM\n\nOR\n\nTHE RANK OF MUHAMMADANISM AMONG THE RELIGIONS OF THE WORLD\n\n\nA great philosopher in days of yore informs us that we may search the\nworld throughout, and that in no region where man has lived can we find\na city without the knowledge of a god or the practice of a religion\n(Plutarch).\n\nThis apophthegm embodies a dogma somewhat too rash and sweeping. The\nnecessity of a Demiurgos--a Creator--so familiar to our minds is\ngenerally strange to savages. The wilder tribes of Singhalese Veddahs,\nfor instance, have no superstition; these savages have not even\nattained the fear of demons. It has but scant hold upon the imagination\nof barbarous men. The Buddhists and Jains ascribed after Sakya-Muni the\nphenomena of the universe to Swabh\u00e1va, or force inherent in matter,\nMatra, and independent of an Ishwara-Karta, or Manufacturing God.\nAristotle and Spinoza believed with Pythagoras the world to be eternal,\nand that a God cannot exist without the world, as height without\nbreadth. Hence Hegel\u2019s \u201ceternal nihilum\u201d--creation being everything\nfor created beings--in direct opposition to Calvin, who opined that\ncreation is not a transfusion of essence, but a commencement of it out\nof nothing. In the present day, the Kafirs of the Cape, the ancient\nEgyptians, and African races generally, barbarians and semi-barbarians,\nby no means deficient in intellect and acuteness, have never been able\nto comprehend the existence or the necessity of a One God. With them,\nas with a multitude of civilized philosophers--the Indian Charvakas,\nfor instance--Nature is self-existent, Matter is beginningless and\nendless; in fact, the world is their God. _Ex nihilo nihil fit_ is the\nfirst article of their creed. Absolute ignorance of any God, then, was\nthe earliest spiritual condition of the human family.\n\nBut veneration is inherent in the human breast. Presently mankind,\nemerging from intellectual infancy, began to detect absurdity in\ncreation without a Creator, in effects without causes. As yet,\nhowever, they did not dare to throw upon a Single Being the whole\nonus of the world of matter, creation, preservation, and destruction.\nMan, instinctively impressed by a sense of his own unworthiness,\nwould hopelessly have attempted to conceive the idea of a purely\nSpiritual Being, omnipotent and omnipresent. Awestruck by the\nadmirable phenomena and the stupendous powers of Nature, filled with a\nsentiment of individual weakness, he abandoned himself to a flood of\nsuperstitious fears, and prostrated himself before natural objects,\ninanimate as well as animate. Thus comforted by the sun and fire,\nbenefited by wind and rain, improved by hero and sage, destroyed\nby wild beasts, dispersed by convulsions of Nature, he fell into a\nrude, degrading, and cowardly Fetissism, the faith of fear, and the\ntransition state from utter savagery to barbarism.\n\nIn support of this opinion it may be observed that this religion--if\nindeed Fetissism merit that sacred name--in its earliest form contains\nno traces of a Godhead or a Creator.[211] It is a systematic worship\nof the personified elements, productions, and powers of Nature, male\nand female, and supported by a host of associates and subordinates.\nIts triad is Indra, the \u00c6ther-god; Varuna ([Greek: \u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2: ouranos]),\nthe Sun-god; and Agni, the Fire-god. The polytheistic triad of the\nPuranas being then unknown, the Creator, Brahma, appears in the Vedas;\nthe Preserver, Vishnu, inferior to Indra, represents the firmament;\nand Siwa is proved by Lassen to have been a local god, subsequently\nadmitted by the Brahmans into their vast Pantheon. Still further from\nman\u2019s belief in those early days is the bold and original thought\nof the Upanashids and Vedantas, destined so soon to fall before the\nformul\u00e6 of the schools and law-books, the Puranas and other traditions.\nThere Brahm, or the One Almighty, is made the pinnacle of the gorgeous\npagoda of belief; the whole universe, matter and spirit, is represented\nto be the very substance and development of the Demiurgos. In support\nof their grand Pantheism the Brahma-Sutra declares the human soul to\nbe a portion of the Deity--_divin\u00e6 particula aur\u00e6_--\u201cthe relation not\nbeing that of master and servant, but that of the whole and part.\u201d\nCreation was assumed to be the extension of the Creator\u2019s essence,\nas the mathematical point produces by its increase length, depth,\nand breadth by endowing empty space with the properties of figure.\nFrom this refined and metaphysical dogma, this theoretical emanation\nof being from, and its corollary, refusion into, the Soul of the\nWorld, springs the doctrine of Metempsychosis, \u201cimplying belief in\nan after-state of rewards and punishments and a moral government of\ncreation.\u201d The votary of Hinduism has now progressed so far as to\nsymbolize the vulgar idolatry of the people. Beneficent animals are\nexplained as symbols of Brahma\u2019s creative and Vishnu\u2019s preserving\nfunctions; wild and ferocious beasts are typified as the Deity\u2019s\ndestroying power. They revere men of splendid abilities and glorious\nactions as having more of the divine essence and a directer emanation\nthan the vulgar herd. Hence the senseless idol worship of the\nunlearned. Select forms also, as the cleft of a tree, are chosen to\nrepresent materially--_oculis subjecta fidelibus_--the passive power of\ngeneration, an upright rock expressing the active.\n\nThus semi-civilized man explains away the follies of his childhood,\nand excuses himself for leaving the ignorant in the outer glooms of a\nsymbolical faith. But does knowledge precede ignorance--the explanation\nthe fable? Or is it reasonable to suppose that a symbol, a type, a\nmyth, was ever worshipped, or that men were ever ashamed of their\ngods? The Hindu, and indeed many a Christian, still adores the bull\nand cow, the rock, the river, the idol, the relic, and the actual\nimage; they do not kneel before its metaphysics. The learned explain\nthem into mere deifications. They are, however, still deities to the\nlayman and the esoteric; and any attempt to allegorize them would be\nheld, as in ancient Greece, like the reform of Epicurus, mere Atheism.\nWe must, however, justly to appreciate these ancient dogmas, rebecome\nthe primitive children of earth--man in his infancy.[212] The wisdom\nof Egypt, the learning of the East are now puerility. But \u201cwho knows\nwhat luminous proofs were propagated under the disguise of their old\nidolatry? Who cannot see that imagination, first active faculty of\nthe mind, was fostered by myth, the moral sense by fable, and the\nfirst vacillating steps of knowledge were encouraged by precepts now\nseemingly childish and absurd?\u201d (Dabistan). Confucius was as disposed\nto primarize secondary causes as his predecessors. Owning that he knew\nnothing about the gods, he therefore preferred to avoid the subject.\n\nThe ancient Persians, according to Herodotus, who conversed with them,\nignored Dualism, their later scheme. Rejecting the images of gods and\nangels, they worshipped without personification or allegory \u00e6thereal\nfire drawn from the Sun. The universe was their temple, their altars\nPyr\u00e6theia, or circles of stones, in the centre of which stood the\nkiblah of their simple ignicolism. The very Puritans of heathenry,\nthey hated the grandiose fanes of the Egyptians, they plundered their\nmagnificent tombs, slew their bestial deities, and devoured their\ngarden gods. Presently symbolism began to intrude upon the simple and\nprimitive faith of Iran. Light and fire, according to Strabo, were\nworshipped as the fittest emblems of spirit and subtile intelligence.\nZoroaster was made to believe in a God, \u201cthe Best, Incorruptible,\nEternal, Unmade, Indivisible, and most Unlike everything\u201d; in fact,\nan abstraction, a negative. Yet Hyde, Anquetil du Perron, and other\nmoderns make the Parsee sect to represent with their complicated system\nof rites and ceremonies, their legion of supernatural beings, powers,\nand influences, and abstruse Dualism, the pure ignicolism of the old\nGuebre.\n\nBut the dark epoch of savage Atheism having fulfilled its time, already\nin the Fetissism, the Polytheism, the Pantheism, the Metempsychosis\ndogma, and the Idolatry of the early East may be descried the\ndawning of an enlightened Theism. Like the dogma of a future state\nof rewards and punishments in Moses\u2019 day, it was not unknown though\nunexplored. The Hindus had their Vedas Shashwata, and the Guebres\ntheir Akarana Zarw\u00e1na. The former ruled the triads; the latter was\nsuperior to Hormuzd, the Sun, and Ahriman Ahura-mana, the Evil\nPrinciple personified. So the Greeks had a [Greek: \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2: Theos], and\nthe Romans a Deus, ignored except as a theory. The Arabs and the\nMexicans in their vast Polytheism still distinguished Al, the Supreme\nBeing, from the crowd of subaltern gods, angels and devils, mediators,\nsubordinate intelligences, incarnations, transmigrations, emanations,\nmanifestations, and similar earthly representatives. Here, then, was\nthe thought-germ of an eternal, unmade, incorruptible, and creative\nDeity. Enveloped in the mists and shades of priestly fraud and popular\nignorance, still the dogma did exist; and so comforting has been its\nlight to the soul of man, that no earthly power has ever availed to\nextinguish it.\n\nThe Vedas Shashwata has been interpreted by philologists to signify\nthe Sun. Akarana Zarw\u00e1na (boundless time) is clearly synonymous with\nvenerable Chronos. So the Mulungu of East Africa and the Uhlungu of the\nKafirs mean equally a spirit, the sun, or the firmament. Amongst the\nMasai race, near Kilimanjaro, Engai, the Creator, is feminine, God and\nrain being confounded.\n\nThe similarity of belief, of manners and customs, and even of the\ncoincidence of lawful and unlawful food, between India and Egypt is\ntoo striking to be accounted for by mere chance. The Fetissism of the\none exactly resembled that of the other. Both worshipped personified\nNature, or Manushya-Ohakta; they exalted into godhead and adored the\nobjects of gratitude and reverence, of hope and fear. The \u201cgreat holy\nfamily\u201d of India became, on the banks of the Nile, Osiris, Isis, and\nHorus. Osiris, afterwards typified as the \u201cincarnate Goodness of the\nSupreme,\u201d perished to overcome Evil, was raised to life once more, and\nbecame the Judge of the quick and the dead. Isis again is the giver of\nDeath, and Horus, or Hor, the entrance or re-entrance into Life. Every\nmale deity in both systems had his Sakti, or passive energy, symbolized\nby a woman. Both mythologies had sacred cattle. Eggs, onions, and\nbeans--favourite articles of diet among the present Muslims--were\nforbidden to both for mystical reasons. The lotus flower, an aboriginal\nof India, and connected with the superstitions of either country,\nhas perished out of Egypt with the Muslims, who have no object in\npreserving the exotic. In Indian mythology was the Trisiras, in Egypt\nthe Tevnon, in Greece and Rome the Cerberus, that three-headed dog in\nHades, whose existence must have been communicated from one people to\nanother. India worships the Sacred Serpent, the modern Muslim of Egypt\nadores that of Jebel Shaykh Haridi. Hindu Yogis and Saunyasis still\nwander to the banks of the Nile, and prostrate themselves before its\nruined fanes. Society in India was divided into four great separate\nbodies--priests, soldiers, tradesmen, and serviles. The Egyptians\nnumbered a sacerdotal order, a military caste, husbandmen, tradesmen\nand artificers, and, lastly, the shepherds, their abomination. Diodorus\nSiculus enumerates five castes. The fifth, however, or shepherds,\nprobably did not belong to society; they were outcasts, corresponding\nwith the Hindu mixed bloods. In ancient Persia the rigid castes were\nalso four in number. And as the Aryas or Hindus of Aryavarrta, the\nLand of Men, are aborigines of Ariana and cognates of the Arian race,\nperhaps this system of artificial and unnatural distinctions arose\nin the regions of Mid-Asia. Indeed, Sir W. Jones came to a broader\nconclusion; namely, that the three primitive races of mankind must\noriginally have migrated from a vast central region of earth, and that\nthat region was Iran.\n\nAs time wore on, Pantheism, which sees a deity everywhere, even within\nourselves, regarded the terrestrial gods as earthly vessels animated\nwith a spark of the Universal Soul. The subaltern deities, the objects\nof Sab\u00e6an worship, as the sun, the moon, and the fixed stars, were held\nto be superior mediating powers with the Almighty Power. A thousand\ninterpretations, physical, symbolical, mystical, and astronomical, were\nframed by the wise of Memphis. And as amongst the Hindus, so the Deity\nof Egypt was, though revealed to the initiated, sedulously obscured to\nthe vulgar by a host of Avatars and incarnations, of transmigrations\nand subordinate intelligences.\n\nHistory is silent upon that most interesting subject, the early\nconnexion of India and Egypt. There are, however, still traces of its\nexistence through Arabia, although Wilford greatly exaggerated the\nsubject. Throughout Oman and Eastern Arabia there are traces to the\npresent day of castish prejudice. No Kab\u00edl\u00ed, or man of noble tribe,\nhowever poor, will become a Hadd\u00e2d (blacksmith), a Sh\u00e1mm\u00e1r (shoemaker,\nin Hindustani Cham\u00e1r), a Dabbagh (tanner), and a Nayy\u00e1l (dyer). The\nHindus of Maskat have an Avatar. Every Pandit knows that Shiva and\nhis wife, under the names of Kapot-Eshwara and Kapot-Eshwari, visited\nMecca, and were there worshipped under the form of male and female\npigeons. This notes a direct communication along the coast of the\nShepherd Kings. Again, it is possible that in ages now forgotten the\n\u00c6thiopians may have received from the Hindus their arts, sciences, and\ncivilization, which would naturally float northwards with the Nile.\n\nFrom Egypt these dogmas passed over to Greece, from Greece to the\nRasenian people of ancient Etruria. This diffusion, proved by the\nsimilarity of their belief, is supported by old tradition. Herodotus\nexplains the fable of the black pigeon that fled to Dodona, and there\nestablished the oracle on the ground that it was founded by a female\ncaptive from the Theba\u00efd. The manifest resemblance of the rites\nand ceremonies, the processions and mysteries, together with the\nhistoric fact that the greatest minds in Greece had studied with the\npriest-philosophers of Helispotes and Memphis, are the main points of\ncircumstantial evidence whence rose Warburton\u2019s luminous theory that\nthe knowledge of the \u201cSecret One\u201d was preserved by the esoteric, but\nconcealed for fear of the profane. He was an atheist who believed in a\nSingle Deity because he thus degraded and dishonoured the vulgar gods;\nand the ancients, most pious men, solemnly tore to pieces all guilty of\nsimilar impiety. The Arcana, however, were sacred; under their shadow\nany dogma might flourish.\n\nSome ethnologists have wondered at the remarkable coincidences between\nthe Etruscan cosmogony and that of Moses. The marvel is easily\nexplained. Both systems were borrowed from the Egyptians \u201cskilled in\nancient learning\u201d (Apuleius).\n\nIndia and Persia, we have seen, left their Deity an abstruse and\nphilosophical doctrine, a mere abstraction, \u201cinfinite and eternal\nNothings.\u201d Simple efforts of the mind and intellect, they were probably\nadded by after-thought to perfect and complete the Pantheon. They were\ninvolved in the deepest gloom, whilst man\u2019s vision was engrossed by the\nstars and other objective creations familiar to his eyes, and through\nthem to his sensuous mind. The most ancient philosophers then theorized\nconcerning an Almighty Creator, believed in him by stealth and theory,\nbut in practice left him to oblivion and neglect. The vulgar bowed,\nnot to a deity, but to deifications of his attributes, which they had\nrendered material and congenial.\n\nIt is to be presumed that Egypt advanced a step beyond India\nand Persia, otherwise so many of her dogmas would not have been\nincorporated with the Mosaic Code. Doubtless Egyptian priestly seers\nmade their Demiurgos not a mere being of the intellect, but a dominant\nidea in religious theory, whilst the grovelling Fetissism of the people\nreceived from them a mystic and abstruse interpretation. But herein lay\ntheir fatal error. The priests were not only ministers of religion,\nthey were the repositories of every branch of useful knowledge, from\nmedicine to philosophy. The king was by law a priest. If a member of\nthe second or military caste was raised to the throne, he was at once\ninitiated; for the \u201csons of God,\u201d as the sovereigns were called, could\nbelong to none but the holy order. The learned respected and revered\nas types and symbols what the vulgar worshipped and adored with heart\nand soul. But they kept to themselves the benefits of their reason,\nand invented mysteries and gnostic ceremonies--the purple robe of\nreligion--to veil that Holy Truth the contemplation of whose unadorned\ncharms belongs to mankind. They left their fellow-creatures, \u201cthe most\nreligious of men,\u201d utterly ignorant of divine knowledge, the abject\nworshippers of the Nile and the desert, of the ichneumon and the cat.\nTrue they secured to a caste the knowledge which is power amongst\nsemi-civilized races. But an ecclesiastical order, even in the most\nextensive hierarchies, is only the fraction of a people; they divided\ntherefore their brother-men into priests and slaves. Woe to him who\nthus bids the human mind go into darkness!\n\nWe have seen, then, that Fetissism supplanted Atheism in the\ndeveloping mind of man. Even as alchemy preceded chemistry, magic\nphysics, and astrology astronomy, in fact as ignorance and error have\never paved the way for true learning, so was the worship of Nature the\nfit preliminary to the worship of Nature\u2019s God. The fulness of time now\ncame for the revelation of Theism, the religion of Love, and the only\ndogma that has taken firm root in the hearts and minds of the nobler\ntypes of man. It matters little what was the _modus operandi_ of this\ninspiration. Any information above the common understanding of the age\nis justly called a revelation, and every nation has received some by\nwhich the human family has benefited (Dabistan). We may leave Zealots\nand Thaumaturgists, Sceptics and Atheists to dispute _ad libitum_ a\npoint unsolvable, and which, if solved, would be of little advantage to\nmankind.\n\nMoses, whose mighty mind drew from obscurity Theism, or a belief in\nthe One God, to become the corner-stone of the creed, not of a few\ninitiated sages and esoteric students, but of a whole people--who\nshared out to mankind their birthright, a knowledge of divine\ntruth--fully understood the fatal error of his preceptors, the priestly\nsages of Egypt. His history, elaborately dressed in the garb of fable\nby after-ages, appears to be this. Circumstances of an accidental\nnature drove him from the banks of the Nile into the eastern deserts.\nWhilst feeding the flocks of his Bedawin father-in-law amid the\nawful scenery and the silent, solemn wolds of Shur, he nerved his\nmind to the patriotic task, the gigantic scheme of converting into a\ngreat nation and a Chosen People a mere handful of degraded slaves.\nThere, too, he made those local observations which, seen through the\nmists of antiquity and exaggerated by the additions and traditions of\nsubsequent ages, became the groundwork of what is never wanting in\nthe East--wonders and signs and miracles from heaven. His powers and\nenergies concentrated by solitude--and there is no such strengthener of\nthe soul when the soul is strong--he returned to Egypt for the purpose\nof carrying into execution his stupendous scheme.\n\nBut Moses found it impossible, with no stronger hold upon his people\nthan certain obsolete tenets almost forgotten by the unworthy\ndescendants of patriarchal ancestors, in the atmosphere of superstition\naround him and under the baneful shadow of a hostile and priestly rule,\nto elevate to the dignity of manhood the spirits of an enthralled,\ndespised, and therefore a degraded race. What better proof of their\ndegeneracy than their demanding to know the name of a God?\n\nThis is the spiritual state of the Indian Pariah, who has his idols,\nbut no idea of an Almighty Godhead, and who deems his dead deities\ninferior in dignity to a live Brahman. What more indicative of their\nmental subjection to the superstitions of Egypt than their imaging the\nOne Supreme by a calf or young bull, the emblem of Priapus all over the\nancient world? They were equally inferior in physical force. Manetho\nnumbers them at 80,000--a prodigious rate of increase, considering\ntheir circumstances and social state, for the descendants from seventy\npersons in the short space of 430 years. The compilers of the Book\nof Numbers[213] give 603,550 fighting men from twenty years old and\nupwards; this, with women and children, would amount to nearly three\nmillions of human beings--an extravagant estimate.\n\nFrom this state of degradation the thousands of Israel must be\nraised--must return to the condition of their ancestors the bold free\nchiefs of the Bedawin. They must therefore depart from Egypt, and must\nprepare themselves, morally as well as physically by the discipline\nof the vast and terrible wilderness, to enter as conquerors the holy\nPromised Land. Many must perish under the hardships, privations, and\nfatigues of desert-travelling. According to Ibn Khaldun, the Hebrews,\ndebased by slavery, were unable to oppose the Philistines or Arabs of\nCanaan until the old generation had died off and a new one had grown up\nin the hardy life of the wilderness.\n\nThe great Lawgiver, a man of angry temper, as are all who accomplish\nwonderful actions, and master of the learning of Egypt, displayed\nin effecting the deliverance of his compatriots a work of itself\nwonderful, a strength of will, a power of contrivance, a might of words\nand deeds, which, seen by after-ages through the dim atmosphere of\ntradition and the mists of national vanity, has caused him to stand\nforth in the eyes of later ages a giant amongst his kind. He has been\nmade the subject of fable, physically as well as spiritually. Josephus\nspeaks of his divine form and vast stature. To the present day the\nArabs of Sinai show traces of gigantic feet and indentations made by a\nrod which must have been taller than a mast. The monuments of Egypt,\nso full of minute information, allude neither to Moses nor to the\nExodus. The migration of a few brickmaking slaves was, amongst a people\nsurrounded by nomadic tribes, an event too common, too unconsequential,\nto claim a line of hieroglyph. But the people of old, in this point\nreversing our modern style of national genealogy, ever strove to\ndignify and to adorn their birth; and the Hebrews, who claimed the most\nancient as well as the noblest of pedigrees, could not tell the tale\nof their origin as a nation without elevating its simple estate by a\nhundred fables, and embellishing it with signs and marvels and wonders\ntending to the honour of the Chosen People and of their great leader.\n\nIn one main point the Lawgiver miscalculated his powers. He had\nproposed making of his Hebrew followers a race of pure Theists, a\nkingdom of priests, a holy nation, reverencing nothing but the One\nSupreme, worshipping him without medium or mediator, and therefore\nindependent of temples and sacerdotal castes and the long list of\nceremonies and sacred paraphernalia by which hierarchies strengthen\nand perpetuate their sway. But the Hebrew mind was thoroughly unfitted\nto receive pure truth. Amid the awful preternatural scenes which,\naccording to their own accounts, heralded the proclamation of the God\nof Israel, with battle and destruction, miraculous plagues and fire and\nopenings of the earth ever ready to punish those who denied their Deity\nor disobeyed his servants, this wonderful people were in a perpetual\nstate of useless gainsaying and impotent revolt. Deeply imbued with the\ntenacious superstitions of the Nile, the stiff-necked race had become\nirritable rather than strong under the painful training of the desert,\nthey longed and begged for a return to slavery, and none had eyes to\nlook steadfastly upon the unveiled light of Revelation emanating from\ntheir leader and lawgiver.\n\nFinding, after his return from temporary seclusion and retirement,[214]\nhis chosen people worshipping a molten calf, the god Apis, and\n_playing_--in other words, a scene of Egyptian debauchery--Moses broke\nin wrath the first Tables of the Law (Exod. xxxii. 19). These consisted\nsimply of the Ten Commandments, a forbiddal to make gods of gold and\nsilver, easy directions for building an earthen altar of sacrifice,\nand a brief civil and criminal code embodied in three chapters. After\nanother term of forty days and nights spent in solitude amongst the\nawful and impressive scenes which had witnessed his meditations when\nfeeding Jethro\u2019s flocks, and now saw the disappointment of his early\naspirations, Moses returned with a code (Exod. xxxiv.) better fitted\nto the sickly and diseased condition of the Hebrew soul. Of this the\nproportion of the ritual to the moral precepts is as ten to two. It\nis a priestly system, a faith of feasts and sacrifices, of holy days\nand ceremonies purposely assimilated to those idolatries of Egypt with\nwhich the minds of the people were familiar but secured to the worship\nof Jehovah their God. The Lawgiver no longer disdained to borrow from\nsymbolical religion, especially in the ceremonial worship, which at\nfirst he appears to have avoided. The ark and the tabernacle were old\ntypes amongst the Egyptians, memorials of their Northern migration.\nThe Urim and Thummim (Ra and Thenei) were the Sun and personified\nJustice--Light and Truth. The Elohim were Kneph and Pthah, the\npresiding spirit and the creative intellect of the Supreme. The Spirit\nof God that moved upon the face of the waters is again the Deity\nKneph. The silence with which Jehovah was to be adored appears to be an\nidea borrowed from Amun Ra, the Unutterable Word, similar to the Hindu\n\u201cAum,\u201d which never must be spoken of man. The Tree of Life, whose fruit\nmade gods of those who tasted it, was a mere symbol, long before the\nday of Moses incorporated in the Indian and Egyptian mythologies. It\nsurvived in the Christian\u2019s early belief, and has even left its traces\nin the Tuba or Paradisiacal tree of El Islam.\n\nThe cosmogony of Moses may be traced to the same origin. The formation\nof the globe, so different from modern theory; the separating of\nmatter into four elements, fiery firmament, air, sea, and earth;\nand the derivation of animals from dust, were Egyptian dogmas. The\nHebrew historian held to the eternity of matter, the theory of ancient\nphilosophy in general.\n\nThe creation of man (Gen. i.), which we take figuratively, referring\ndivine resemblance to the soul, to righteousness, and to true holiness,\nthe Hebrews believed in literally and physically. As the Lord formed\nman in his own image, so man in return anthropomorphized the Deity.\nTheirs was a personal God with mortal shape and human passions, who\nhated the Canaanites for no sin of their own, and loved the Hebrews for\nno merit of their own, but for the sake of their ancestors. The \u201cangry\nGod\u201d and the \u201cjealous God of Moses\u201d stand for the orthodox opinion of\neven the modern Jews.[215]\n\nIn proportion as we return to the ignorance of antiquity and seek out\nthe metaphysics of savage races, so we find the personality of a God,\na description of his form, and an account of his actions and passions\nmost prominently brought forward. Savages and barbarians cannot believe\nwithout anthropomorphizing their Great Spirit. On the other hand,\nMuslims reject the tenet. Amongst them some sects, as the Bayzawi,\ndeny, and hold it impiety to assert, that even in a future state the\neyes of the beatified shall see Allah.\n\nAgain, the Hebrew Paradise is the vestige of an old legend current\nthroughout the Eastern world. The Hindus had their Satya Yug, the\nPersians Eriene Vigo, and the Greeks their Golden Age. It must be\nobserved, however, that, though we place the Garden upon earth, learned\nRabbis locate it in the first or lowest heaven, which is the exact\nreflection of this nether world. Sakya Buddha taught that human beings\nfirst appeared by apparitional birth. They were glorious and happy,\npure and passionless, till one of them tasted a savoury substance\nproduced by the earth. The example was followed by the rest; thus\npurity decayed, the empire of sense gained the ascendency, excess\nfollowed indulgence, and degeneracy excess. The same legend has been\npreserved in grosser form by El Islam. Adam is made to eat wheat, and\nthus became subject to human infirmities. The Magian Scriptures contain\ntraditions of a migratory march of the people of Hormuzd, under their\npatriarch Jamshid, from Eriene Vigo or pure Iran, supposed by the\nGuebres to be the primeval seat of their race, and located near Balkh,\nthe ancient Bactria. It was the region of all delights till Ahriman the\nEvil One made in its river the Serpent of Winter. With respect to the\ninhabitants of Paradise, our first parents, it may be mentioned that\nmany Eastern as well as Western learned men have supposed that Adam\nprior to the creation of Eve was androgynous; that is to say, at once\nmale and female (Mirabeau).\n\nThe promulgation of Moses\u2019 new code was not popular among the Hebrews.\nChecked in his patriotic intentions, the Lawgiver, however, bravely\npersisted in the course of preparation which he had commenced. Long\nand long years the Chosen People wandered in danger and difficulty\nround and round a region ever and in every way fitted to produce a\nhardy, rugged, and warlike race. And when all was prepared for the work\nof conquest, the great Leader would not head the expedition to the\nLand of Promise. In his latest act he displayed the magnanimity which\nhad supported him through a life of labour and disappointment, the\nreal vigour and grandeur of his mind. Casting away the superstitions\nconcerning man\u2019s body which Egypt taught, and resisting the temptation\nthat might have seduced a softer soul, namely, a train of mourners and\na mausoleum as a last home, he did for himself what he had done for his\nfollowers: he wandered over the desert till his hour approached, he\nchose as leader of the expedition a younger and more energetic man, and\nfinally he died and left the place of his tomb to this day unknown. He\nbequeathed, however, to the world a cosmogony, history, and ethnography\nthe essence of old Oriental learning, and to the present day perhaps\nthe most interesting document of the kind ever penned by man. He gave\nto his followers a code in which the highest intellect is blended with\nexperience and thought in the most trivial things; the cantonment\norders, for instance, cannot be improved in the present century. He\nleft men where he had found slaves, a successor trained to carry out\nthe favourite scheme and hope of his life, and finally a name that will\nfloat down the stream of time till merged into the ocean of eternal\noblivion.\n\nBut Moses left his dispensation imperfect. He feared the relapse of\nhis followers into the dark idolatries of the Nile. He therefore dealt\nonly in obscure allusions to a resurrection, to another life, to\na futurity of rewards and punishments--the mighty lever with which\nreligion moves the moral world of man. That such was the case is proved\nby this fact: the prophets and others who succeeded Moses, viewing\nthe future practically and not with philosophical indifference, made\nin all their schemes the hereafter of man a prominent feature. The\ndogma, moreover, as we have seen, was known, and well known, to all\nthe semi-civilized races of men. In the creed of Moses, however, a\npurely temporal system of rewards and punishments supplied the place\nof that future retribution so elaborated in the Hindu, the Guebre, and\nthe Egyptian systems. This was the great defect in his grand scheme.\nThe hope and fear of a life to come, of a world in which the apparent\ninconsistencies of the transient mundane state shall be explained and\nremedied, where suffering virtue shall triumph and triumphant vice\nshall suffer--a proclivity for this belief is implanted by nature in\nthe very soul and heart of man. Like veneration, it is instinctive\nrather than reasoning, an exertion of sentiment rather than an effect\nof intellect. Against a dogma based upon such foundations it is vain\nto contend. And in the moral government of the world it presents such\nvantage-ground to all who would discipline and elevate mankind, that it\nhas been cultivated in every system, proscribed by none. The Hebrews,\nhowever, were left to learn this essential article of faith, during\nthe Babylonish captivity, from the Assyrians, the Guebres, and other\nPagans.\n\nThe Jehovah of Moses, moreover, was in other points than personality\nan imperfect conception. The Deity, it is true, was drawn forth from\nthe thick veil of mystery with which the learned of India and Egypt had\ninvested him. His existence was proclaimed not to a caste or a class;\nit was published to a whole people. Still, he was the God of Abraham,\nof Isaac, and of Jacob, not the God of Eternity--the God of all men.\nA local deity, his cult and knowledge were confined to one people,\nto a mere fraction of the human kind. Moses, then, was essentially a\nbenefactor to the Hebrews, but he was not a benefactor to man.\n\nPresently a new Reformer appeared upon the worldly stage. The Hebrew\ncode had long before his day begun to decline; for forms of faith,\nbeing but earthly things, are subject to that eternal law which to\nevery beginning pre-creates and ordains an end. Its decay was hastened\nby political convulsions. The captivity of the Jews had supplied them\nwith a multitude of new and strange articles of belief derived from\ntheir Pagan masters. Hence arose heresies and schisms, which further\nweakened the ancient edifice, tottering as it was from the effects of\nage, from the new creed-wants of the people, and from the shocks of\nthe passing events. The Sadducees, adhering to the letter, rejected\nthe spirit of the Books of Moses. Pharisaic superstition founded upon\ntradition--that earthy alloy ever added to the pure ores of heavenly\nrevelation--was fast undermining the temple of Judaism. Idolatry had\nperished by slow degrees out of the land; but the contrary extreme,\nbibliolatry, to use a modern word, sown upon the wide ground of\npriestly pride and castish prejudice, had spread rankly over the world\nof Judaism. To clear away this poison growth, to reform the people of\nIsrael, Jesus of Nazareth began his ministry.\n\nA man of humble fortune, but of proud birth, the Founder of\nChristianity preached a creed in conformity with his circumstances. His\ntenets were the Essene, the third sect of philosophizing Jews. \u201cWhile\nthe Pharisees were heaping traditions upon the original structure\nof the Mosaic system, and the Sadducees were rigidly preserving and\nadhering to the simplicity of that structure, the Essene gave their\nwhole mind to the ascertainment and realization of its moral import.\u201d\nThey were thus the Sufis, the Spiritualists, and the Gnostics of\nJudaism. They abounded most at Alexandria, then the grand centre where\nthe Greek and the Roman, the Indian and the Persian, met the Arab\nand the Egyptian. A species of anchorite philosophers, they called\nthemselves physicians of souls and bodies; they lived in voluntary\npoverty, rigid chastity, and implicit obedience to the civil power;\nthey were purists in language, non-resistants, and haters of political\naction.\n\nSuch tenets, publicly announced as a voice from heaven, were of course\noffensive to the ruling factions at Jerusalem. The people also that\nflocked to the preaching of the new Prophet were disappointed by his\nproclaiming to them a spiritual kingdom not the heritage of wealth,\nsplendour, and glory, so distinctly promised to them by the seers of\nformer generations. They were but poorly put off with a type or symbol.\nA reformer is rarely popular, and reform is a dangerous work among\na people so hasty and headstrong as the Jews. But Christ\u2019s teaching\nwas not for the Jews only; he was preparing to spread abroad amongst\nmankind a knowledge of the One Supreme, when, falling a victim to\npriestly wiles, the Prophet of Nazareth suffered an ignominious death.\nBut he had given an impetus to the progress of mankind by systematizing\na religion of the highest moral loveliness, showing what an imperfect\nrace can and may become; and by the labour of a devoted life he had\ninstituted a college of successors who after him might preach the glad\ntidings to all the nations of the earth.\n\nThe Prophet of Nazareth had declared his mission to be for the purpose\nof establishing and confirming the Law of Moses. As it first appeared,\nChristianity was rather strong in the weakness around it than strong\nin its own strength. It was a system for anchorites and ascetics.\nThe reformed faith abounded also in a matter usually consigned in the\nEast to bards and mystics; namely, principles of almost superhuman\nbeauty often couched in highly poetical language, principles not the\ncreation of one mind, but the current coinage of philanthropy from\ntime immemorial. Islam all over the East has left its principles as a\nheritage to poets, and right well have they performed their duty to\nmankind. From the literature of the Hindus and Persians, the Egyptians\nand the Arabs, it would be easy to collect a code of morality and a law\nof benevolence as pure and amiable as ever entered the heart of man.\nThe whole practice of the Sufi consists in seeking the Divinity, not\nas the \u201cpopular prudential and mercenary devotee,\u201d but from fervency\nof love to God and man. He \u201cproclaims the invisible truth above the\nvisible comfort\u201d; his entire resignation can face the horrors of\neternal death inflicted by divine Will; \u201che has something higher even\nthan everlasting gain.\u201d\n\nEventually, however, this almost supernatural morality, incorporated\nwith a creed to the detriment of its practical tendency; this\nsubstitution of love for justice, of mercy for retribution, of\nforgiveness for punishment; this purely spiritual system, that first\nneglected all the most necessary material details of ablution,\ndietetics, and even formul\u00e6 and positions of prayer, could never endure\nin the sensuous and passionate populations of the East. From its\nfurther hold upon the instincts, the affections, and the prepossessions\nof the Jews, this reformation had neither extension nor continuance.\nThe Ceremonial Law of Moses, adapted to an idle and unoccupied race\nin a temperate climate and a land of plenty with its operose and\ntime-wasting system of prayer and purification, of festivals and\nprocessions, was it is true at first not abolished but confirmed.\nBut a simple and far more catholic system was required for the wants\nof the universe. Amongst the inspired followers of the Founder of\nChristianity one was found capable of executing the task. With a\ndaring hand Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles, rent asunder the tie\nconnecting Christianity with Judaism. His efforts were crowned with\nsuccess. He offered to the great family of man a Church with a Deity\nat its head and a religion peculiarly of principles. He left the moral\ncode of Christianity untouched in its loveliness. But he abolished\nthe civil and criminal law of Moses. And he boldly did away with the\nlong-cherished customs and the ordinances of food and diet which in\nolden times were used as the means of segregating the Israelites from\nthe races around them. Circumcision was no longer necessary, although\nhis divine Master had submitted to the rite; the distinction between\nbeings pure and impure, one of the strongholds of Judaism, was broken\ndown; and finally, as neophytes began to multiply, the Gentile was\nraised to the level of the Jew.\n\nThe last step taken by the stern Apostle suggests the possibility of\nhis having determined to disconnect totally the reformed religion\nwith Jud\u00e6a. A Roman himself, and therefore well acquainted with that\nruling race, and convinced of their physical and psychical superiority\nover the Asiatic family, he courted conveyance to Rome, and there\nenergetically carried on the work of propagandism. He died a martyr;\nbut not in vain was his blood shed. From the grain of faith implanted\nby him in the little dungeon below the Capitol sprang a goodly tree,\nunder whose comfortable shade half the civilized world have found\nrepose. In process of time the offshoots spread amongst the noble\nbarbarians of the North, then beginning to occupy the stage of the\nworld. Christianity, which in Jud\u00e6a and confined to the East would\nhave been the faith of a few hermits and visionaries, acquired in\nEurope a depth and fervency of popular belief which shortly overthrew\nall opposition. It is not wonderful that in this course of events the\nChristian distinguishes the finger of God!\n\nWhen the master-minds had vanished from the scene, their successors in\nthe East introduced other and less defensible changes. Christianity in\nthe East was surrounded by the impurest of influences. Its latitude\nof belief and absence of ceremonial allowed it to be worked upon by\nthe theurgic incarnations of the Buddhists, the demiurgic theories\nof the Eastern and Western Gnostics, the Triad of the Brahmans, the\nDualism of the Persians, the Pharisaic doctrine of the first Son of\nthe Supreme--Osiris in a new shape--together with the metaphysics\nof the Ebionites, the Speculatists, and other sects of Grecian or\nrather of Egyptian origin. From the Straits of Hercules to the coast\nof Coromandel, it was split up into a legion of heresies and schisms.\nSyria and Arabia seem to have been the grand central focus. The Church\nwas distracted by the frowardness of her children, and the Religion of\nLove was dishonoured by malice and hate, persecution and bloodshed.\n\nStill the reformed religion throve--and what tenets do not?--under the\ninfluence of a moderate persecution. When, however, under the rule of\nConstantine, the sun of prosperity poured its splendours full upon\nthe favoured faith, an ascetic enthusiasm, gloomy ideas of seclusion,\ncelibacy, and self-immolation, and a censure on wealth and industry\npronounced by religious hallucination, in fact the poisonous portions\nof the Essene School, spread subtilely through the whole body of\nChristianity. Everywhere in the East these practices require to be\nsuppressed, not to be encouraged. Where the face of Nature is gay and\nriant, to impressionize mankind gloom and horror in the World of Spirit\nare contrasted with the glory and the brilliancy of the scenes of\nsense. This is the stronghold of the Demonolatry and Witchcraft of the\nFetissist, the abominable paganisms of the Hindu, the superstitious\nfollies of the Guebre, and the terrible Sabaism of the ancient Mexican.\nAll are perfectly suitable to the genius of the people, to the climate,\nand to the scenery around them.\n\nThus in Syria and Egypt Christianity became degraded. It sank into\na species of idolatry. The acme of absurdity was attained by the\nStylites, who conceived that mankind had no nobler end than to live\nand die upon the capital of a column. Thus nations were weakened.\nSelf-mortification and religious penances soon degenerate a race,\nespecially in hot climates, where a moderate indulgence in the\ncomforts, the luxuries, and the pleasures of life strengthens the\nbody and with it the mind of man. The founders of Christianity had\nneglected to insist upon daily prayer at stated times, and ceremonial\ncleanliness, which is next to godliness. They forgot those dietetic\ndirections and prescriptions so necessary in the East, and allowed the\nuse of inebrients, together with impure and unwholesome meats as pork\nand rabbit\u2019s flesh. Man\u2019s physique suffered from their improvidence.\nThus, whilst Christianity increased in numbers and powers, some once\npopulous and flourishing countries--Egypt for instance--declined, and\nfell to the lowest depths of degradation. It is the race of man that\nexalts the faith in proportion to man\u2019s moral and material excellence.\nThe faith fails, on the other hand, to raise a degraded race. The\nArmenians and Abyssinians have derived little from the specific\nvirtues of Christianity. Inferior in mind and body to the Turks and\nArabs, they have degenerated into a semi-idolatry at once ridiculous\nand contemptible. With respect to moral conduct, a modern traveller\n(Curzon, _Armenia_) has had the courage openly to state that in Turkey\nnot one-tenth part of the crime exists which is annually committed\nin Christendom. Sectarians are fond of citing in favour of their\nReformation the superiority of the Protestant over the Catholic cantons\nof Switzerland. They forget that the former belong to the hardy and\nindustrious nations of the North, and that the latter are in climate\nand population indolent Southrons.\n\nTo return eastward. About the sixth century of its era the Christian\nworld called loudly for reform. When things were at their worst,\nMuhammad first appeared upon the stage of life. It is here proposed\nto touch briefly upon the points wherein due measure of justice has\nnot yet been dealt by philosophic and learned Europe to the merits\nand value of El Islam. The Western nations were so long taught to\nlook upon the forcible propagandism of Muhammad as a creed personally\nhostile to them, they were so deeply offended by the intolerant Deism\nand Monotheism of the scheme, and finally so rancoured by their fierce\nwars and deadly collisions with the Muslim, that certain false views\nhave long been, and still continue to be, part or rather essence of\nthe subject. And though in this our modern day a wiser and more\ncatholic spirit of inquiry and judgment has not been deterred from\nmanifesting itself, still even in the writings of those who pride\nthemselves most upon candour and freedom from prejudice not a little\nof the bad old leaven offends the taste. Men do not now, it is true,\nfear the imputation of \u201cturning Turk\u201d[216]--an expression since become\ncommon, and coupled by old writers (Burton, _Anatomy of Melancholy_)\nwith \u201cbetraying father, prince, and country, forsaking religion, and\nabjuring God.\u201d Nor does there survive in Europe the former rancorous\nhate for the founder and creed, for the apostles and followers of El\nIslam. Still, it is to be repeated the Saving Faith has not yet been\nallowed to assume its proper rank and position amongst the religions\nof the world. And the moderns rather busy themselves in philosophizing\nover and in detecting flaws and falsehood rather than in seeking\nout the truth, the merits, and the beauties of a religion which for\nthirteen centuries has been the light and \u201clife guidance\u201d of one-fifth\nof mankind (Carlyle, _Hero Worship_).\n\nThese four are briefly the most popular errors of the present day upon\nthe subject of El Islam:\n\nIn the first place, it is determined to be merely a perceptive\nfaith, and therefore adapted only to that portion of mankind whose\nminds, still undeveloped and uncultivated, are unripe for a religion\nof principles. This is partly correct of the corrupted, untrue of\nthe pure, belief; it will somewhat apply to the tenets of the Turks\nand Persians, but not to those of the first Muslims and the modern\nWahhabis. The spirit of the religion, its sentiments, and its \u00e6sthetics\nwere committed to the poets of El Islam, and right worthily have they\nfulfilled their task. It is not too much to assert that almost every\ncelebrated metrical composition amongst Muslims is either directly or\nindirectly devotional. Even the licentious Anacreons of Persia and\nIndia, Hafiz and Jafar i Zatalli, disguise their grossness under a garb\nof mystical _double entente_.\n\nBut even in their purely spiritual songs and hymns the poets of\nEl Islam do not betray that poverty of invention and puerility of\nimagination that distinguish the religious rhymesters of Christianity.\nIn the great and noble literature of England, for instance, there is\nbut one poem founded upon the base of revelation--_Paradise Lost_.\nWho can arise from its perusal without the conviction that a splendid\ngenius has so fettered himself with his theme that many ballad-mongers\nhave produced more poetical effects upon the reader? Who rises\nwithout disgust at the dialogues of the Father and the Son in which\nis discussed at length Calvinistic sectarianism? And what Christian,\nwho deems his Holy Trinity a sacred mystery of the Spirit beyond, not\ncontrary to, material reason, would not blush to see his Divinity thus\ndegraded in the eyes of the stern deistical Muslim?\n\nThe Koran--the only standard of divine Truth universally admitted by\nEl Islam--consists of threefold matter: of historical and legendary\nlore, of principles moral and psychical, and of materials for a loose\nand scattered code of laws. And here, it may be observed, that, with\nperhaps the exception of the Pentateuch, which we have seen required\nits tradition, no code embodied in the sacred writings of any race\nhas sufficed to govern it. What Christian nation has ever been ruled\nby Christian law? Even its codes are either of its own invention or\nborrowed from ancient custom or translated from Pagan legislation. No\ndivine system yet promulgated to mankind has sufficed for the civil and\ncriminal wants of future and more civilized generations. And thus it\nwas with the Koran. The precepts of the Saving Faith were not fixed and\ndefinite enough for the sensuous and objective spirit of the East. In\nreligion, as in politics, wherever public opinion is lax and impotent,\nlaw is, and must be, a mass of stringent ordinances so disposed as to\nprovide for every contingency. Such codes cannot deal in principles and\nspirit; these must be extracted--by the few that require them--from a\nwell-organized system of practical precepts. Thus the Muslim in the\nearliest ages sought to supply the imperfections of the code bequeathed\nto him. A remedy was at hand. The deceased Prophet\u2019s sayings were\nstill fresh in the minds of his wives and immediate descendants, of his\ncompanions, and his early successors. All lent their best endeavours\nto the pious task. The earliest traditions were of sensible and useful\nimport. Presently the most trivial precepts and the most puerile\npractices were either forged or remembered by so-called saints who made\nthis collection the business of their lives. Thus in course of time and\nby slow degrees appeared that bulky mass of traditional lore popularly\nknown as the Ahadis or Sayings and the Sunnat or Doings of the Prophet.\n\nBy such arts were subtle practices and silly legends grafted by\nscholasticism upon the primitive annals and laws of El Islam. In that\nfaith almost every tenet or practice to which the philosopher could\nobject may be traced to the Sunnat and Ahadis; the Koran is wholly free\nfrom them. Amongst others, upon these, and upon these solely, must be\ncharged the defect of making the system eminently perceptive. Muhammad,\nlike all other Eastern lawgivers, had suited his ordinances to the\ngenius of his people by addressing them as semi-civilized men. The\nschools degraded their Muslims to the intellectual rank of babes and\nsucklings.\n\nRegarding these Sunnat and Ahadis, however, it must be borne in mind\nthat they are purely sectarian. The four self-called orthodox schools\nhold to one tradition. The principal heresies, as the Shiahs and the\nBayzawi, have their own recognized collections, whence all emanations\nfrom impure, that is to say, from other sources, have been carefully\nremoved. But El Islam has existed, and can exist, independently\nof them. Had the Wahhabis, those Puritans or rather Reformers of\nthe Saving Faith, succeeded in restoring to the Arabs their simple\nprimitive belief, little of the Ahadis and the Sunnat would have been\nleft to misguide and offend mankind.\n\nSecondly, men object that the Saving Faith is one of pure sensuality.\nIt is difficult to divine how this most erroneous estimate could have\nbeen formed except by the grossest ignorance. Possibly it was a vicious\nconclusion thus drawn: that as the Muslim\u2019s Paradise is one of sense,\nconsequently there is no limit to his sensuality in this world. But El\nJannat, or the Heavenly Garden, has many mansions; the ignorant and\nsavage, the hungry and sensual Bedawin will taste the flesh of birds,\nlive in a golden house, command any number of angelic wives, and drink\nthe nectars of Kafur and Zingibil. But, as in Christianity so in El\nIslam, eye hath not seen, nor hath ear heard, nor hath fancy conceived\nthe spiritual joys of those who in mundane life have qualified\nthemselves for heavenly futurity. The popular error that the Muslim\nProphet denied immortal souls to women, and therefore degraded them to\nthe mere instruments of man\u2019s comfort and passions, might also have\ntended to represent El Islam as a scheme of sense. Possibly, again,\nthe monogamic races of a Northern clime--for monogamy, polygamy, and\npolyandry are an affair of geography--shocked by the permission to\nmarry four wives and to maintain an indefinite number of concubines,\noverlooked in characterizing Muhammad\u2019s ordinances the strict limits\ntherein laid down for luxury and pleasure. The Muslim may not take to\nhimself a single spouse, unless able to make a settlement upon her,\nto support, clothe, and satisfy her. He must act with the most rigid\nimpartiality towards the whole household, and strictly avoid showing\nundue preference. He is allowed four wives with a view of increasing\nand multiplying his tribe. Man in hot and enervating climates coming to\nmaturity early, and soon losing the powers which he is tempted by moral\nas well as physical agencies to abuse, would never raise up a large\nfamily as the husband of only one wife. Like the Patriarchs, he must\nhave handmaids. Like the Jews, he must be allowed polygamy and power\nof divorce. These, forbidden by the ascetic Essene, are necessary to\nthe increase of mankind in the East, and no religion can consecrate an\nordinance which, directly opposed to the first law given by the Creator\nto his creatures (Genesis), tends to check that natural increase of\npopulation which is the foundation of all progress and civilization.\n\nLaying aside these considerations as too shallow for discussion, can\nwe call that faith sensual which forbids a man to look upon a statue\nor a picture? Which condemns even the most moderate use of inebrients,\nand indeed is not certain upon the subject of coffee and tobacco?\nWhich will not allow even the most harmless game of chance or skill?\nWhich rigorously prohibits music, dancing, and even poetry and works\nof fiction upon any but strictly religious subjects? Above all things,\nwhich debars man from the charms of female society, making sinful a\nglance at a strange woman\u2019s unveiled face? A religion whose votaries\nmust pray five times a day at all seasons, in joy as in sorrow, in\nsickness as in health? A system which demands regular almsgiving and\nforbids all manner of interest upon money to those who would be saved?\nWhose yearly fast often becomes one of the severest trials to which\nthe human frame can be exposed? To whom distant pilgrimage with all\nits trials and hardships is obligatory at least once in life? Whose\nProphet exclaimed, like the Founder of Christianity, [Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0642\u0631\n\u0641\u062e\u0631\u064a: Al-faqru fakhary][217] (Poverty is my pride), and who taught his\nfollowers that two things ruin men, \u201cmuch wealth and many words\u201d?\n\nThose who best know El Islam, instead of charging it with sensuality,\nlament its leaven of asceticism. They regret to see men investing these\nfair nether scenes with mourning hues; \u201cthe world is the Muslim\u2019s\nprison, the tomb his stronghold, and Paradise his journey\u2019s end.\u201d But\nthis could not be otherwise. Asceticism and celibacy are the wonted\ngrowth of hot and Southern climates, where man appears liable to a\nmanner of religious monomania. The Brahman householder, after doing\nhis duty to mankind by becoming a husband and the father of a family,\nought by the law of Menu to leave the world and to end life a Sanyasi\namongst the beasts of the jungle. No religion is more monastic than\nBuddhism; yet it is atheistic. Thus the votaries of this organized\nsystem of selfishness, this vast scheme of profits and losses, reduced\nto regularity, are deprived of all hope in death, and yet live the\nmost comfortless and unnatural of lives. \u201cThe world knows nothing of\nits greatest men,\u201d is true in more views than one. To the Muslim, time\nis but a point in illimitable eternity, life is but a step from the\nwomb to the tomb. He passes from this world directly into the other,\nbut not into a new existence; its every aspect and circumstance is as\nfamiliar to his mind as is the routine of earthly existence. He has no\ngreat secret to learn. The Valley of Death has no shadow for him;[218]\nno darkness of uncertainty and doubt horrifies his fancy. So it came\nto pass that, although Muhammad expressly and repeatedly declared,\n\u201cThere is no monkery in El Islam,\u201d few schemes have produced a more\nsystematic or rigid asceticism. Even before his death monasticism\nbegan to appear; and now the Muslim world is overrun with Sufis and\nKalandars, with Fakirs and Derwayshes, with Santons and recluses.\n\nThe third error is that the Founder of the Saving Faith began his\nministry as an enthusiast and ended as an impostor. This is the\nimproved modern fashion of treating the \u201cperjuryose lying Machomete\u201d\nof our forefathers. We are less gross and dogmatical than they were,\nthough scarcely more charitable or philosophical. The recognized proofs\nof \u201cimposition\u201d seem to be:\n\nFirstly, the convenient appearance of the Ay\u00e1t, or inspired Versets.\nBut what would have been their use had they not descended when wanted\nto solve a difficulty or convey a precept? Do we doubt the Books\nof Moses because Revelation is conducted upon precisely the same\nprinciple? And who will deny that enthusiasm would have produced them\nmore effectually than fraud? It is a general rule that to deceive\nothers well we must first deceive ourselves. He that would be believed\nin by others must thoroughly believe in himself. Is it likely that such\nmen as Abubekr and Umar would become the victims of a mere fraud, so\npalpable to every petty annalist and compiler in this our modern day?\nNeither they nor Muhammad even at his dying hour seem to have doubted\nhis inspiration. The Prophet\u2019s last words were, \u201cPrayer! Prayer!\u201d And,\naccording to the Shiahs, a few minutes before breathing his last he\ncalled for an inkholder and a pen to write the name of his successor.\nIs this the death-bed scene of a hypocrite or an impostor?\n\nSecondly, the delivery of the inspiration by the Archangel Gabriel,\nand the frequent visions of heaven and heavenly beings recorded by\nthe Muslim Prophet. Without having recourse to any other explanation,\nare not instances of the kind perpetually recorded in the history of\nmankind? And granting that such apparitions are purely subjective,\nshall we charge with fraud all those subject to them? How often has\nthe Founder of Christianity appeared to the highly imaginative races\nof Southern Europe? How frequently have fervent Muslims been favoured\nwith \u201ca call\u201d by Muhammad and Ali? Physicians and men of science have\naccounted for these seemingly marvellous apparitions by natural causes.\nWhy then, unless by the action of mere prejudice, should we determine\nthe same thing to be imposture in one man and yet regard it with\nreverence in another? Who also has even ventured to decide what the\n_modus inspirandi_ or the divine afflatus really is? The most ancient\ntheory apparently is that angels ([Greek: \u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9: angeloi]) were used\nas messengers between God and man; and thus the Muslims, whose tenets\nare identical in this point with the Jews, rank angelic below human\nnature.\n\nThirdly, the change from peaceful to warlike language, from the arts of\neloquence and persuasion to the propagandism of fire and steel. But did\nnot the Founder of Christianity declare, \u201cI came not to send peace, but\na sword\u201d (Matt, x. 34)? And did Moses disdain to place carnal weapons\nin the hands of his people? The great Lawgiver of Israel sanctioned\nthe murder in cold blood of women and childish captives. Even kings\nwere hewed in pieces before the Lord. These atrocities were strictly\nforbidden by Muhammad. Even forcible proselytism was not allowed. The\n_prot\u00e9g\u00e9_ of El Islam paid a small capitation tax, and was allowed to\npractise his faith and to worship his God as his law directed. Had,\nmoreover, the Prophet forged the fresh order to propagate his scheme\nby the sword, surely he was not so shallow an impostor as to leave\nbehind him those peaceful revelations which might so easily have been\ncast into the fire. No; the man honestly believed, like Moses, that the\nvoice of Allah spoke within him.\n\nThe fourth error is that Muhammad, unable to abolish certain\nsuperstitious rites and customs of the ancient and Pagan Arabs,\nincorporated them into his scheme, and thus propitiated many that\nbefore avoided him. We have seen that the same might be objected to\nMoses. But Muhammad may surely have believed in the defilement of\nAllah\u2019s holy places by Pagans, and have restored them to their pure\noriginal purposes. Thus the Kaabah, that Pantheon of the idolater, was\ngiven to El Islam as the house built by Abraham and Ishmael. And what\nantiquary so wise as to declare that the Friend of God did not visit\nMecca and there lay the foundations of a mosque and an abode?[219] The\ngigantic tombs of Adam and Eve at Mecca and Jeddah were in the olden\ntimes places of litholatry. Yet might not the numerous Arab Christians,\nin whose religion Muhammad believed before the old dispensation was\nabrogated by a new scheme, have had traditions concerning the meeting\nof our first parents on the Mount of Arafat, and their sepulture in\nthe Holy Land? Mecca was at that time consecrated by no less than five\nreligions. The Guebre had established there the Shrine of Saturn. The\nHindu had made it the residence of the third person of his triad. The\nPagan Arabs had erected there a gigantic Pantheon. The Jews revered it\nbecause, as Ibn Shaybat relates, Moses and Aaron performed pilgrimages\nthere; when the famous Tobba Judaized, he invested the house with a\nsplendid curtain. And, finally, the Christians, according to some\nauthors, had procured admission into the Kaabah for the images of the\nVirgin and Child. Colonists and expatriated men readily connect the\nremarkable events and incidents of their religion and history with\nthe strange objects revered in foreign lands. The Muslims in Sindh, as\nan instance, have occupied in force most of the sacred places of the\nHindus; often, too, both Monotheist and Polytheist worship at the same\nshrine. The original Yoni becomes a Da'asah, or footprint of Hazrat\nAli; and the sacred alligator of the Hindus is revered as the creation\nof a Muslim saint. Thus in Ceylon Buddha\u2019s retreat has become Adam\u2019s\nPeak. The description of St. Mary and the Holy Infant resting in the\nshade of the sycamore tree of Heliopolis in the old apocryphal gospels\nis clearly borrowed from the old Egyptian symbol, Isis with Horus in\nher lap sitting under the Hiero-sycaminon. In the incorporations of\ntraditions then current amongst the Arab Christians there is no valid\nreason for charging Muhammad with fraud.\n\nTo rank the Saving Faith amongst the religions of the world, it is\nnecessary briefly to relate what its founder did for mankind. A youth\nof noble origin, but fallen fortunes, as was the Prophet of Nazareth,\nhe was strengthened like the Jewish Lawgiver Moses by travel, solitude,\nand meditation. Jebel Hira was his Mount Horeb. But though surrounded\nby learned Jew and Christian, his education was defective; and though,\na genuine Arab, he thought strongly and clearly, and he was a perfect\nmaster of eloquence, he had none of that knowledge which passes for a\npreternaturalism amongst a barbarous people. His probity won for him\nin early manhood the surname of El Amin, or the Trusty, and his noble\nqualities enabled him to marry the wealthy widow in whose service he\nhad lived a hireling.\n\nAfter a long course of meditation, fired with anger by the absurd\nfanaticism of the Jews, the superstitions of the Syrian and\nArabian Christians, and the horrid idolatries of his unbelieving\ncountrymen, an enthusiast too--and what great soul has not been an\nenthusiast?--he determined to reform those abuses which rendered\nrevelation contemptible to the learned and prejudicial to the vulgar.\nHe introduced himself as one inspired to a body of his relations and\nfellow-clansmen. The step was a failure, except that it won for him\na proselyte worth a thousand sabres in the person of Ali, son of Abu\nTalib. With an uncommon mixture of prudence and energy he pursued his\ntask till he overcame the hate, the ridicule, and the persecution of\nsuch men as Abubekr, Umar, and Usman. Expelled by the violence of\nhis enemies, he fled his native city--a wonderful contrast to the\nfierceness and the impatience of his race. But after a long course of\nmeekness and longsuffering in the work of proselytizing, his spirit,\nlike that of Moses, rose high against violence and oppression, and at\nlast--for he was an Arab--abrogating his peaceful precepts he appealed\nto the God of Battles in his combat for a righteous cause. Heroes and\nmighty men like Hamzah Khalid and Amru el Ays flocked to his standard,\nand his personal valour and high qualities as a guerilla soldier soon\nled him on to fortune. After several years\u2019 exile, he re-entered as a\nvisitor the walls of his native city, whence he had fled persecuted and\nproscribed. And he lived long enough to witness the splendid success of\nhis early projects.\n\nAbolishing all belief in a local or personal God, he announced to his\nArabs the One Supreme, now in terms as terrible as man could bear,\nthen in words so lofty and majestic that they sank for ever into the\nheart-core of his followers. He broke to pieces with his own hand\nthe images of the Kaabah, and he witnessed the total extinction of\na gigantic idolatry--a work of itself sufficient to immortalize the\nmemory of one reformer. He said of the Deity, \u201cHe is not enclosed by\nthe bonds of space or by the limits of time; he hath no form which\nrequireth a former from whom he is free; and whatever concerning him\nentereth thy mind to that he is the contrary.\u201d He preached Allah, the\nGod unapprehensible, incomprehensible, omnipotent, all-beneficent,\nspiritual, and eternal.\n\nHe revived the earliest scheme of Mosaicism and the pristine simplicity\nof Christianity by making every man priest and patriarch of his own\nhousehold. Preceding faiths had attempted to elevate human nature above\nitself, and had, as might be expected, degraded the object of their\nendeavours. He inculcated the dignity of man instead of perpetually\npreaching human degradation, he respected mortal nature, and therefore\nhe made his scheme eminently practical with something of a higher\nflight. He did away with the incestuous marriage with a father\u2019s widow;\nhe abolished the Wad el Banat, or the murderous inhumation of female\nchildren. He corrected the laxity and immorality of the age by making\ndrinking and gambling penal offences, and by forbidding modest women to\nappear in public unveiled. Finally, to mention no other great and good\nworks, by the enunciation of a modified Fatalism--they greatly err who\nconfound it with an absolute Predestination--he attempted to check that\ntendency of self-mortification which he could not wholly expel from\nthe affections of his countrymen. He died, not like an enthusiast or\nan impostor, but as one true to the tenets and practices of his life;\nand he bequeathed to the world a Law and a Faith than which none has\nbeen more firmly or more fervently believed in by mankind, whose wide\nprevalence--wider indeed than that of any other creed--alone suffices\nto prove its extrinsic value to the human family. This much did\nMuhammad for his fellow-creatures.\n\nCan we wonder that the Arabian Prophet, finding himself, despite the\naccidents of fortune, of time, and place, so much in advance of his\nage, so solitary a being amongst the fanatic, the superstitious, and\nthe debased, fondly believed himself Allah\u2019s Apostle, and the chosen\ninstrument of man\u2019s regeneration? Considering the ardent temperament\nof the Arab, his high development of veneration, and his discerning\nthe divine hand in every human work and change, can we marvel that he\nattributed the fire of his soul and the strong workings of his mind\nto a something preternatural--an inspiration or a revelation? The\ncelebrated mystic Mansur el Hallaj was stoned by the crowd for using\nthe words, \u201cI am Truth\u201d (_i.e._ the Lord). But his Sufi confraternity\nstill explain away the apparent irreverence of the saying, and believe\nhim to have been, as was said of Spinoza, a God-intoxicated man.\n\nMuhammad\u2019s mission, then, was one purely of reform. He held that four\ndispensations had preceded his own, and that his object was to restore\ntheir pristine purity. But the Adamical had been obsoletized by the\nNoachian scheme; and this by the Mosaic, which in its turn becoming\ndefunct, had left all its powers and prerogatives to Christianity; thus\nalso the latter dispensation in the fulness of time had been superseded\nby the revelations of El Islam, the Saving Faith. All the past was now\neffete and abrogated. All the future would be mere imposture; for his\nwas the latest of religions, he the Soul of the Prophets. He accused\nthe Jews and Christians of entire corruption, of spiritual death,\nand preached to them with fervour a new faith, a doctrine of life. He\nopenly charged them with having altered and remodelled their sacred\nwritings.[220] Nor could this charge be denied. It is now, and was\nthen, impossible to discover what Moses wrote or what was written for\nhim by Ezra the scribe and other compilers. The difference of style and\nlanguage, the frequent changes from the first person to the third, and\nfinally the account of the Lawgiver\u2019s death and burial conclusively\nprove that the Pentateuch had in its present state more than one\nauthor. Probably the original draught was concise and short.\n\nEven the Koran contained little that was new. With the exception of\nsome legends, the addition of some regulations touching the daily\nprayers and the purification of property, with a few ordinances as that\nof Diyat or blood-money, disallowed by the Pentateuch (Numb. xxxv. and\nDeut. xix.), but rendered necessary by the state of Arab society, and\nsome dietetic modifications--the camel for instance and the horse were\nrecognized as pure food,--the Koran might almost be extracted from the\nMosaic and Rabbinical writings, from the Evangelists and apocryphalists\nof the Christian era. There is also but little to commend in it, except\nits fiery and commanding eloquence. As a code of laws it is eminently\ndefective. He who could write such a work could have written much\nbetter. Muhammad, however, relied for the success of his mission upon\nfar higher claims than any book.\n\nMuhammad laid no claims to prophecy or to miracles. He called himself\nEl Ras\u00fal, and El Nabbi, the announcer of good tidings from Allah to\nthe Adamites. He did not give his name to a new system of belief; his\nordinances were designated in a mass as El Islam, the Salvation or the\nSaving Faith. His night journey to heaven, the subject of so much\nopprobrious declamation, was either a vision or a dream. The splitting\nof the moon, a tale so monstrously told by his posterity, rests upon\nno broader basis than a line in the Koran which might properly be\ntranslated: \u201cThe hour [of Judgment] shall come, and the moon shall\ncleave asunder.\u201d Probably this absurdity was the invention of followers\nwho determined to dispute for their lawgiver with Joshua\u2019s command over\nthe host of heaven. An ignorant Afghan is said to have boasted that his\nPir, or spiritual pastor, the celebrated poet Abd el Kahman, was in the\nhabit of making night journeys like Muhammad to Paradise, and to have\nbastinadoed the holy man severely when, taxed with impiety, he denied\nthe irreverent assertion. Such a Muhaddis, or relater of the Prophet\u2019s\nsayings, as Abu Hurayrah, the Father of the Kitten, may fairly, to\njudge him by his recognized writings, be suspected of such a forgery.\nMuhammad the more especially disdained the claim to miraculous powers\nwhich, as those who know Eastern lands, belong to every petty saint and\nvillage santon. The \u201cmost extraordinary of ordinary men,\u201d the historian\nHume, inferred that, because he himself had never seen a miracle, no\none else ever saw a miracle. The Oriental traveller will disbelieve in\nmiracles for the opposite reason--because he has seen so many.\n\nThe rapid and extensive spread of El Islam, considered by the Faithful\na remarkable instance of divine aid, is to be accounted for without\nthe intervention of a Deity. The Arabs poured forth from their great\ncentre, till the whole surplus population was exhausted. Everywhere\nthey appeared as liberators of slaves, especially in Turkey and Persia,\nwhere an artificial and over-refined state of society had produced\ntyrannical despots, an innumerable and insatiable nobility, and a\npeople robbed and spoiled. Another circumstance favoured the growth of\n\u201cthe Religion of the Heavens and the Earth.\u201d Whether we consider the\nArabs to have been the aborigines of their native wilds, or, as the\nmodern theory is, we derive them from the Highlands of \u00c6thiopia, it is\ncertain that their great success lay amongst a kindred people speaking\ncognate languages. From the earliest times, indeed, Arabia had sent\nforth several extensive streams of emigration. Essentially an Asiatic\nform of belief, El Islam could not progress beyond the barriers opposed\nto it by geography. Not having a St. Paul to modify, to change it, the\nSaving Faith broke upon the rock of a new race.\n\nBut this I claim for El Islam.\n\nThe recurring purpose which runs through the world is chiefly\nmanifested by the higher esteem in which man holds man. David made him\nlittle lower than the angels. Christianity, a system of asceticism,\nconfirmed this estimate: we are fallen beings, fallen not through\nour own fault; condemned to eternal death, not by our own demerits;\nransomed by a Divine Being, not through our own merits. El Islam, on\nthe contrary, raised man from this debased status, and with the sound\ngood sense which characterizes the creed inspired and raised him in the\nscale of creation by teaching him the dignity of human nature. Thus\nmodern Spiritualism is giving a shock to Christianity, whereas El Islam\nhas power to resist it.\n\nBut, however El Islam prospered amongst the kindred races, it fell flat\nelsewhere. No power of propagandism availed in China. In Southern Spain\nthe faith maintained itself for a long time; its letter and spirit,\nhowever, were almost lost. The Zegris and Abencerrages were European\nknights, not Eastern. And when pushed forward into a Northern people,\na single destructive defeat sufficed to set for it bounds which it has\nnever attempted to cross. In Hungary and Austria again, with a tenfold\npower, it failed to establish a footing; and when \u201cHoly Russia\u201d became\nsufficiently united to be powerful, El Islam was cast out like a corpse.\n\nAgain, what reconciled the ancient Muslim and endears the modern\nto his creed is its noble simplicity. The votary has little or\nnothing comparatively speaking to pay for his moral and spiritual\nnecessary--religion. He has no tithes, and few fees. His places of\nworship are built and maintained by religious bequests, carefully\nguarded by law and custom. Muhammad Ali, it is true, confiscated\nthe \u201cWakf\u201d left to many of the Cairene mosques and tombs. He also,\nfollowing the example of Turkey, substituted at Mecca and El Medinah\nyearly pensions for the produce of their ancient extensive church\nlands. But he carried out these measures among Egyptians, a race of men\nwhose languor and apathy require repeated inducements to fight for the\nfaith; in Kabul and Bokhara the boldest and most powerful extortioners\nwould hardly venture upon such a sacrilege. The Islam Muslim, moreover,\nhas no priesthood; those whose duty it is to preach and pray to the\npeople are not churchmen; they temporarily receive from the Wahil, or\nmosque-warden, a few piastres per month; but all must live by some\nhonest secular calling. Even the Sultan, the Defender of the Faith, the\nRepresentative of the Khalifs, and the Vicegerent of Allah upon earth,\ndoes not disdain handicraft, to make and sell toothpicks. Finally, the\nMuslim has no baptism; he is circumcised by a barber; he can marry\nhimself with a reason for deviating from popular custom; and he can be\nbathed, buried, and prayed over by any lay fellow-religionist.\n\nIt is generally believed in Europe that El Islam is on the decline;\nand the old prejudices bequeathed by Crusades tend to make the\nassertion popular. It is based upon insufficient grounds. With as much\ncorrectness might the Muslim predict the present fall of Christianity\nby the heresies and schisms that distract the Church, from the wide\nspread of visionary Swedenborgians and of the shallow imposture\nMormonism.[221] Turkey and Egypt may show traces of latitudinarianism,\neven as France and Germany have done; no Muslim people, however, has\nyet ventured to abolish El Islam by law. But Arabia and Afghanistan\nstill stand firm as in the first ages of the faith. Generally it may be\nremarked that in Eastern religions the propagandism and missioning of\nthe West has tended to strengthen and confirm the tenets against which\nthey have been directed. Thus Hinduism, after giving a few outcasts to\nChristianity, has entrenched itself behind the stronghold of Vedantism;\nthe learned are pure Deists, the ignorant pure idolaters. Buddhism\nremains untouched, and the very nature of its encyclopedian tenets\nrenders it unassailable. Even the sect of Guebres has been strengthened\nby polemical arguments, and bids fair to rival its antagonists in\ndisputative theology. In spite of the mighty force brought against\nit, the Parsee converts to Christianity might be numbered on a man\u2019s\nfingers. Nor can these faiths yield to compulsion. The laws of Menu,\nof Zoroaster, and of Muhammad have still bulwarks not easily to be\nbattered down. And should Christianity, as it has often threatened,\never meet the Saving Faith in mortal conflict, and the Cross assail the\nCrescent in the latest of crusades, the Muslim scimitar, rusty as it is\nwith the rust of ages, will prove the good metal of which it was in the\nbeginning forged.\n\nSupposing, however, El Islam abolished by civilization, underminded\nby the slow action of the Christian Powers closing around it, or\nbecome decrepit from old age, what would be the result? Some renewal\nessentially the same, formally different; some revival of its eternal\nprinciple, Monotheism, disguised under a fresh garb of those outward\naccidents that constitute a religion. Such has ever been the history of\nthe world\u2019s creeds. At all times\n\n                  emerging from the storm,\n    Primeval faith uplifts her changeful form,\n    Mounts from her funeral pile on wings of flame,\n    And soars and shines another and the same.\n\nFINIS.\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[211] Existence of God is not \u201cthe common and almost universal belief\nof mankind.\u201d The truth that there is a God is usually thus demonstrated:\n\n1. Physical argument, in which effects and events are traced to causes,\ntill arrival at a First Cause, uncaused.\n\n2. Argument from final causes and design, of which innumerable\nevidences in physical and mental worlds point to a Great Original\nDesigner.\n\n3. Moral argument, based upon innate feeling of obligation and\nresponsibility.\n\n4. Historical argument and the consensus of mankind.\n\n[212] The idea that man is a compound being, consisting partly of\nspirit and partly of matter, mysteriously linked together, and acting\nand reacting upon each other, is a neocosmic dream. Savages hold mind\nto be a property of matter, like philosophers.\n\n[213] [Chap i. 46.]\n\n[214] Deuteronomy ix. 9. The term was forty days and nights. Amongst\nMuslims this has become the recognized period of isolation for those\nwho are being initiated in mystical and magical practices. It is,\nhowever, directly opposed to the spirit and letter of El Islam.\n\n[215] A modern philosopher was accustomed to say: \u201cAnd as for that\nChristianity which is such, according to the fashion of modern\nphilosophers and pantheists, without a personal God, without\nimmortality, without an individuality of man, without historical\nfaith--it may be a very ingenious and subtle philosophy, but it is no\nChristianity at all\u201d (Niebuhr).\n\n[216] Shakespeare, _Hamlet_, Act III., scene ii.\n\n[217] [_The program you use to display the Arabic may reverse the word\norder. Reading right to left, the first word is_ \u0627\u0644\u0641\u0642\u0631.--_Transcriber_.]\n\n[218] \u201cI think,\u201d said Captain Wyatt, \u201cthe Red Indians die better than\nwhite men; perhaps from having less fear about the future.\u201d An acute\nconjecture!\n\n[219] Some geographers identify Massa, the town and castle of the\nseventh son of Ishmael (Gen. xxv. 14), with Mecca.\n\n[220] Muhammad probably little thought how much more directly this\ncharge was to be brought against his own revelations. The Ay\u00e1t, or\ninspired versets, were jotted down without order or time in the Musnad\ncharacter, which admitted no \u201cvowel points,\u201d upon palm leaves, shoulder\nblades of sheep, and similar wild substitutes for paper. In this state\nthey were cast into a box, and consigned to the keeping of Hafsah, one\nof the \u201cMothers of the Muslims.\u201d After the Prophet\u2019s death they were\ndrawn from their concealment in a state of disorder, which explains\ntheir present confusion. An edition of the Ay\u00e1t was first published by\nAbubekr, who called it the Koran, or \u201cWhat shall be read.\u201d This work\nwas full of errors. The second issue was from the hands of Usman, one\nof whose modern titles is \u201cScribe of the Koran.\u201d His subjects, however,\nput him to death, though he had surrounded himself with a rampart\nof sacred writings, for his impiety in meddling with inspiration.\nFinally, Ali the Khalif, who was more of a scholar than most Arabs,\nwho wrote poetry, indited proverbs, and according to some improved the\nsyllabarium by the invention of vowel points, recalled all others,\nand issued his own. The Shiah schism to the present day declare that\na whole Juz, or section, of which the Koran now contains thirty, was\nomitted and destroyed by the Khalifs hostile to Ali as it was in his\npraise. Some passages from the lost revelation are actually quoted in\ntheir theological works. It is true that nothing in the sacred writings\nof the Muslims, not a jot or tittle, can be altered, added, or omitted.\nLike the Jews, they have numbered and recorded every letter and vowel\npoint. Unfortunately they have taken this wise step too late; as the\nEastern proverb is, they have looked to halter and heel-ropes after the\nhorse is stolen.\n\n[221] [In his _City of the Saints_, written after his visit to Salt\nLake City, and published in 1861, Burton takes a different view of\nMormonism.]\n\n\n\n\nINDEX\n\nN.B.--Numbers printed in italics refer to the footnotes.\n\n\n  Abbott, William, 18.\n\n  Abyssinians, the, 321.\n\n  _Academy_, Burton\u2019s letter to the, 136-143.\n\n  _Academy_, Bataillard\u2019s letter to the, 144-166.\n\n  Africa, the Gypsies of, 233-262.\n\n  Algeria, the Gypsies of, 258-261.\n\n  America, the Gypsies in, 282-285.\n\n  Arabshah, 190.\n\n  Armenians, the, 321.\n\n  Arnim, Count, 17.\n\n  _Arubim_, _79_.\n\n  Arya, 180.\n\n  Ascheri, 110.\n\n  Ascoli, 180.\n\n  Ashkenaz\u00edm, the, 46-56.\n\n  Asia, the Gypsies in, 211-232.\n\n  Asia Minor, the Gypsies of, 219.\n\n  Aviabron, 18.\n\n\n  Bactriana, 180.\n\n  Baramaki, the, 231, 236.\n\n  Barbary, 260, 261.\n\n  Bartalus, M., 174-176.\n\n  Basnage, 15.\n\n  Bataillard, Paul, letter to the _Academy_, 144-156;\n    _list of works by_, _157_, _158_;\n    claim to priority in discovering identity of Gypsy and Jat\n        answered, 164-171;\n    his reviews reviewed, 171-201.\n\n  _Bauer_, _17_.\n\n  Bavaria, 203.\n\n  Bearnary, 17.\n\n  Bedawin, the, 174, 199, 200, 217, 219, 230, _234_, 236, 254.\n\n  Belochis, the, 139, 142, 169, 170.\n\n  Belochistan, the Jats of, 215-217.\n\n  Belochki dialect, the, 142, 166.\n\n  Beni Aros, the, 260.\n\n  Berber (Barbar), 181.\n\n  Berbruger, M., 198.\n\n  Beth Yusuf, 111.\n\n  Black Jews, the, 58.\n\n  Bocthor, Ellious, 146, 149.\n\n  Borrow, George (quoted), _158_, _161_, 163, 165, _169_, _170_, 190,\n      192, _241_, 260, 261, 269, 281.\n\n  Boudin, Dr., 12.\n\n  Braham, 17.\n\n  Brazil, 282-285.\n\n  Brosset, 185.\n\n  Bunyan, John, supposed to be of Gypsy descent, 163.\n\n  Burnouf, \u00c9mile, 188.\n\n\n  Cairo, 238, 240.\n\n  Cantemir, Count, 17.\n\n  Cara\u00eftes, the. _See_ Kara\u00eftes.\n\n  Chinganeh, 134, 219, 220.\n\n  Ciga, 190.\n\n  Cingani, 181.\n\n  Cohen, M. J., 92 ff.\n\n  Cordova, Francisca de, _203_, 270, 271.\n\n  Crosse, A. F., _264_, 267.\n\n  Cushite theory, the, 155.\n\n\n  Damascus, 231, 232.\n\n  Darfur, 239.\n\n  Das, 182.\n\n  Davis, Dr. J. B., 143.\n\n  Denman, Major, 262.\n\n  Denmark, the Gypsy in, 203, 209.\n\n  Derush, 97.\n\n  \u201cDin\u00edm,\u201d the, 111.\n\n  Djat, the, 141, 146, 147, 148, 149, 152, 165, 183, 195.\n\n  Doba, Capt. S. de, 268.\n\n  Dunsterville, Col., 214.\n\n\n  Eben ha-Azar, 111.\n\n  Ebionites, the, 54.\n\n  Egypt, the Gypsy in, 233-257.\n\n  Egyptian religion, the, 296, 297, 298, 300, 320.\n\n  El Islam, 216, 218, 255, 321-346;\n    popular errors concerning, 322-334.\n\n  England, Gypsy in, 208.\n\n  Essene School, the, 319.\n\n  Europe, Gypsy of, 202-210, 263-281.\n\n  _Excommunication, Jewish forms of_, _82_.\n\n\n  Fagnan, M., 188, 195.\n\n  Falashas, the, 116.\n\n  Ferdoussy, 145, 148.\n\n  Fetissism, 291, 292, 293, 296, 301, 302.\n\n  Fez, 260.\n\n  Fleischer, Prof., 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 165, 184.\n\n  France, the Gypsy in, 203, 204, 209, 265, 269.\n\n  Frascator, 13.\n\n\n  Gavbar, the, 218.\n\n  Gemara, the, 100, 101, 102, 103.\n\n  Get\u00e6, the, 134, 141, 150, 165, 216.\n\n  Ghagar, the, 198, 200, 233-257.\n\n  Ghaw\u00e1zi, the, 236, 237, 252.\n\n  Gh\u00e1zieh, the, 181.\n\n  Gill\u2019s _Notices of the Jews_, 3.\n\n  Goeje, Prof. de, 136, 144, 150, 151, 152, 153, 165, 183, 188, 191,\n      192, 195, 196.\n\n  Goldsmids, the, 18.\n\n  Gondomar, 18.\n\n  Goths, the, 134, 141.\n\n  Grellman, 202, _241_.\n\n  Greece, 177, 182, 299.\n\n  Grisi, 17.\n\n  Gypsy, the, of Africa, 233-262;\n    of Algeria, 258-261;\n    of America, 282-285;\n    of Asia, 211-232;\n    of Barbary, 260, 261;\n    of Bavaria, 203;\n    of Belochistan, 215-217;\n    of Brazil, 282-285;\n    compared with the Jat, 133, 134, 137, 139 ff;\n    compared with the Jew, 5, _17_, 161, 162;\n    of Damascus, 231, 232;\n    of Denmark, 203, 209;\n    dress of, 277;\n    of Egypt, 233-257;\n    of England, 208;\n    of Europe, 202-210, 263-281;\n    famous Gypsies, 163;\n    of France, 203, 204, 209, 265, 269;\n    of Germany, 203-208;\n    of Hungary, 202, 263-269;\n    Indian affinities of, 136-143;\n    of Italy, 205, 206, 265;\n    language of, 134, 240, 279, 280;\n    of Morocco, 258-261;\n    of the Netherlands, 209;\n    of the Panjab, 211-215;\n    of Persia, 217-219;\n    of Rome, 206;\n    of Said, 237;\n    of Spain, 203, 207, 265, 269-281;\n    of Sweden, 203, 209;\n    of Switzerland, 203;\n    of Syria, 219-224.\n\n\n  _Ha-frak\u00e1 fast_, _10_.\n\n  Hagadah, the, 98.\n\n  Halakah, the, 98.\n\n  Halevi, 18.\n\n  Hamza Ispahani, 146, 148, 150, 151.\n\n  Hasse, hypothesis of, 179, 185.\n\n  Hawi, the, 234, 235.\n\n  Heine, 17.\n\n  Helebis, the, 250, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257.\n\n  Herklots, Dr., 258.\n\n  _Hermann_, _17_.\n\n  Hillel, 101.\n\n  Horus, 297.\n\n  Hoshen Mishpat, 111.\n\n  Hughes, A. W., 215.\n\n  Hungary, 202, 263-269.\n\n\n  India, 296, 297, 298, 303.\n\n  Indian mythology, 297.\n\n  Irby, O. P., 22.\n\n  Ishaz al Fasi, Rabbi, 110.\n\n  Isis, 296.\n\n  Islam. _See_ El Islam.\n\n  Ispahani, Hamza. _See_ Hamza.\n\n  Italy, 205, 206, 265.\n\n\n  J\u00e1taki language, the, 137-140, 180, 215.\n\n  Jats, the. _See_ Gypsy.\n\n  _Jerusalem, population of_, _68_.\n\n  Jesus, 313-316.\n\n  Jews, the, acclimatization, 13;\n    atrocities among, 115-129;\n    cause of vitality, 9, 10;\n    compared with Gypsy, 5, _17_, 161, 162;\n    consanguinity, 7;\n    cupidity, 18, 26, 27, 28;\n    fecundity, 5;\n    future prospects, 62-71;\n    general character of, 20-45;\n    illustrious, 17;\n    immorality, 8;\n    of the Holy Land, 46-62;\n    longevity, 14;\n    mental characteristics of, 6, 7;\n    mutable character and physique of, 6;\n    physical appearance of the Eastern, 59;\n    physique of, 6, 7;\n    _population_, _25_;\n    vitality, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13.\n\n  Jin-tchi, the, 134, 142.\n\n  \u201cJore D\u00e9ah,\u201d 111, 113.\n\n  Joseph Karo, Rabbi, 111.\n\n  Judophobic opinion of the Jew, 62, 63.\n\n  _Jurisdiction, Jewish_, _90_.\n\n\n  Kam\u00fbz, the, 146, 148, 151, 165.\n\n  Kaoli, the, 218.\n\n  Kara\u00eftes, the, 56, 57.\n\n  Khabad, the, 54, 55.\n\n  Khasid\u00edm, the, 53, 54, 55.\n\n  Koran, the, 324, 340, 341.\n\n  Kremer, Von (quoted), _199_, 234-250, 252.\n\n  Kurbat, the, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, 250, 256.\n\n  Kurbat words, vocabulary of, 224-228.\n\n  Kushite theory, 194, 195.\n\n\n  Lane, _234_, 258.\n\n  Lemnos, 184.\n\n  \u201cLiberal\u201d opinion of Jewish future, 62.\n\n  Luri, the, 145, 146, 165.\n\n\n  Macaulay, Lord, speech of, 18, 19.\n\n  MacGregor\u2019s _Rob Roy on the Jordan_, 31.\n\n  Mackenzie, G. Muir, 22.\n\n  Maghrib\u00ed, the, 239.\n\n  Maimonides, 110.\n\n  Massena, 17.\n\n  Massorah, the, 97.\n\n  McCaul, Dr. Alexander, _37_, _75_, _85_, 88.\n\n  Mendelssohn, 17.\n\n  Mendizelal, Se\u00f1or, 17.\n\n  Metempsychosis, 295.\n\n  Meyerbeer, 17.\n\n  Mezzofanti, 269.\n\n  Midrash, the, 96.\n\n  Miklosich, 156, 177, 178, 179.\n\n  Mills\u2019 _British Jew_, 37.\n\n  Mishnah, the, 96-106.\n\n  _Montefiore, Sir Moses_, _32_, _33_.\n\n  _Mormons, the_, _97_.\n\n  Morocco, 258-261.\n\n  Moses, 302-313.\n\n  Moses of Cordova, 112.\n\n  Moses of Trani, 111.\n\n  Movers, 194.\n\n  Muhammad, attempt to poison, 33, 116;\n    life of, 334-337.\n\n\n  Nat'h, the, 143.\n\n  Nawar, the, 220, 228, 230, 231, 250, 257.\n\n  Neander, Prof., 17.\n\n  Netherlands, the, 209.\n\n  Neufville, De, 14.\n\n  Newbold, Capt., 217, 218, 219, 220, 222, 223, _238_, _239_, _240_,\n      _242_, _243_, _247_, 250, 251, 252, 253, 256.\n\n  _Noachid\u00e6, the_, _79_, _80_.\n\n  Noachid\u00e6, code of the, 78, 79.\n\n  Nott\u2019s _Physical History of the Jewish Race_, 3.\n\n\n  Offenbach, 17.\n\n  Orach Cha\u00fcin, 111.\n\n  Oral law, Jewish, 72-92, 99, 102, 117.\n\n  Osiris, 296.\n\n\n  Palestine, 219.\n\n  _Palgrave_, _17_.\n\n  Panjab, 137, 139, 140, 141, 168, 211-215.\n\n  Pantheism, 295, 298.\n\n  Parush\u00edm, the, 53, 55.\n\n  Paspati, A. G., _160_, 173, 174, 178, 182, 185, 191.\n\n  Pasquier, 269.\n\n  Pasta, 17.\n\n  Paul, 317, 318.\n\n  Perier, 159.\n\n  Persia, 217-219.\n\n  Persians, religion of the ancient, 294, 295, 297.\n\n  Peshat, the, 97.\n\n  Physician, the Jewish, 113, 114.\n\n  _Pococke, Bishop_, _219_.\n\n  Polytheism, 295.\n\n  _Postans Capt._, _167_.\n\n  Pott, Prof., 136, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 151, 154, 165, 181.\n\n  _Proselytes, Jewish_, _79_.\n\n\n  Quasimus, 114.\n\n\n  Rabanu Jacob Be-Rab, 110, 111, 113.\n\n  Rabbinical law, 72-114.\n\n  Rachel, 17.\n\n  Rasscho, Shaykh, 220, 222.\n\n  _Ratisbonne, De_, _17_.\n\n  \u201cReformed British Jews,\u201d the, 58.\n\n  Reinaud, 147, 149, 150, 151, 165.\n\n  Religion, earliest forms of, 289-302.\n\n  Remiz, the, 97.\n\n  Ricardos, the, 18.\n\n  _Roberts, Samuel_, _276_.\n\n  R\u00f6diger, 150.\n\n  Rogers, Consul E. T., 231, 232.\n\n  Rom\u00e1, the, 160, 164, 172, 175, 177, 178, 179, 180, 182, 186, 187,\n      198, 202, 221, 228, 233, 252, 261.\n\n  Roman Catholic view of Jewish future, 62, 63.\n\n  Romani-ch\u00edb, 181, 197.\n\n  Rome, 206.\n\n  Rossini, 17.\n\n  Rothschilds, the, 18.\n\n  Rouhers, the, 18.\n\n  Rumeli, 220.\n\n  Russia and the Holy Land, 66, 67, 70.\n\n\n  Sabbath, the Jewish, 74-77, 86.\n\n  _Sabbath Services, the Jewish_, _76_.\n\n  Sad\u00edk, 11.\n\n  Safed, School of, 68, 92, 106-114.\n\n  Said, 251.\n\n  Saint-Martin, V. de, 185.\n\n  Samaritans, the, 57, 58.\n\n  Sanhedrin, the, 94, 95, 96.\n\n  Santa, Dr. de Pietra, 258-260.\n\n  Saracens, 203, 205.\n\n  Scotland, 172, 178, 213, 282.\n\n  Segor, 181.\n\n  Sephard\u00edm, the, 46, 47, 48, 49, 55, 56.\n\n  Shahnameh, the, 146, 148, 150, 165.\n\n  Shalomon Alkabez, Rabbi, 111.\n\n  Shammai, 101.\n\n  Sicani, the, 180, 185.\n\n  Sidi Hamed au Muza, 260.\n\n  Siginnoi, the, 185.\n\n  S\u00edm, El, 240, 241.\n\n  Sindh, 138, 139.\n\n  Singani, 181.\n\n  Sinties, the, 184, 185.\n\n  Sleeman, W. H., 141, 165, 211, 231.\n\n  Soch\u00e6us, 11.\n\n  Sod, 98.\n\n  Soult, Marshal, 17.\n\n  Spain, 178.\n\n  Spinoza, 17, _70_, _95_.\n\n  Sweden, 203, 209.\n\n  Syria, 219-224, 228-232, 250, 320.\n\n\n  Talmud Babli, 101, 102.\n\n  Talmudic law, 72-114, 118.\n\n  Tchangar, the, 156.\n\n  Theism, 302.\n\n  Tiberias, School of, 92-106.\n\n  Ticknor, 271.\n\n  Torlonias, the, 18.\n\n  Trumpp, Dr. Ernest, 137, 156, _168_, 197.\n\n  Tschudi, 13.\n\n  Tsigans, the, 147, 152, 153, 175, 183, 185, 189, 190, 193, 198, 201,\n      263 ff.\n\n\n  Ukayl, 137.\n\n\n  \u201cWhite Jews,\u201d the, 58.\n\n  Wohl, 17.\n\n  _Wolff_, _17_.\n\n\n  Xapol, 18.\n\n\n  Yad ha-Hazaka, 110.\n\n  Yahuda, Rabbi, 94, 95.\n\n  _Yom ha-Kippur_, _65_.\n\n\n  Zengi, the, 150.\n\n  Zigeuner, the, 150, 151, 165, 192, 219, 234, _241_, 268.\n\n  Zincali, the, 187, 192, 219.\n\n  Zingaro, derivation of, 190.\n\n  Zuth, the, 146, 148, 150, 151, 152, 165, 231, _239_.\n\n\n                              PRINTED BY\n                    HAZELL, WATSON, AND VINEY, LD.,\n                         LONDON AND AYLESBURY.\n\n\n\n\nTRANSCRIBER\u2019S NOTE\n\nArchaic, obsolete and inconsistent spellings are maintained from the\noriginal book. There were no obvious misspellings. No changes were made\nto the text with the following exceptions:\n\n  --some footnotes inserted to comment about transliterations,\n\n  --for words in the Arabic alphabet (including Arabic, Persian,\n    Sindhi, etc.) or Devangari (Sanskrit, Hindi, etc.), I have included\n    a transliteration if one was not already in the text,\n\n  --all footnotes moved to the end of their chapter,\n\n  --CONTENTS, PREFACE, INDEX, and TRANSCRIBER\u2019S NOTE added to the Table\n    of Contents, and\n\n  --added this note.","title":"The Jew, The Gypsy and El Islam","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":85473}