{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_59501/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_59501","id":"gutenberg_59501","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/59501","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Language & Communication","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Grammar, Comparative and general -- Early works to 1800","Language and languages -- Early works to 1800"],"text":"Produced by David Starner and the Online Distributed\nProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This book was\nproduced from scanned images of public domain material\nfrom the Google Books project.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n                              HIEROGLYFIC:\n                                   OR,\n                       A Grammatical Introduction\n                                   TO\n                   An Universal Hieroglyfic Language;\n                              CONSISTING OF\n                        ENGLISH SIGNS and VOICES.\n\n                                  WITH\n\n          A Definition of all the Parts of the ENGLISH, WELSH,\n                       GREEK, and LATIN Languages;\n\n      Some Physical, Metaphysical, and Moral cursory Remarks on the\n            Nature, Properties, and Rights of Men and Things.\n\n     And Rules and Specimens for composing an Hieroglyfic Vocabulary\n        of the Signs or Figures, as well as the Sounds of Things,\n      upon rational and philosophical Principles, and the primitive\n                            Meaning of Names.\n\n                             By ROW. JONES.\n\n            \u201cExpatiate free o\u2019er all this Scene of Man,\n            A mighty Maze! yet not without a Plan.\u201d\n\n    LONDON: Printed by JOHN HUGHS, near Lincoln\u2019s-Inn-Fields; And\n    sold by Messrs. DODSLEY, in Pall-Mall; DAVIS, in Piccadilly;\n    SHROPSHIRE, in Bond-Street; ELMSLEY, late VAILLANT, in the\n    Strand; OWEN, at Temple-Bar; and CROWDER, in Pater-Noster-Row.\n    Of whom may be had, the Origin of Language and Nations, by the\n    same Author; Price 5s. and his Postscript 1s. in Sheets. 1768.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nThe subject of this inquiry, tho\u2019 of that importance as to demand the\ncare and attention of the ablest writers, is perhaps the least understood\nof any branch of science. This being in a great measure owing to the\npresent corrupt state of languages, and the wrong course and direction of\nlexicographers in the investigation of them, the Writer of this essay,\ntherefore, without presuming to instruct his readers in any common\ntrack of literature, only submits to their perusal some discoveries,\nwhich perhaps may be of service towards the restoration of language\nand primitive knowledge, and excite the curiosity of those of greater\nlearning and penetration, and engage them, if possible, in a research\nworthy of their contemplation, the restoration of the first universal\nlanguage of mankind. For although the ground-work, which chiefly depends\non the author\u2019s own discoveries, may be sketched out by himself, without\nthe parts and learning of an Aristotle, yet it must be confessed that the\nfinishing strokes in any new abstruse branches of literature deserve a\nmore masterly hand. However, since we are here indiscriminately permitted\na decent exercise of our faculties upon the most serious subjects, it is\nto be hoped no unpardonable offence has been committed, in submitting\nthe following sheets to the judgment and decision of men of candor and\nlearning. If they should in any degree approve of the writer\u2019s labours,\nhe will then be justified this intrusion into the province of the\nliterati, with all his defects and inaccuracies. But should the contrary\nhappen after an impartial and candid examination, he must then acquiesce\nwith the common fate of his fellow-labourers, and impute his errors or\nmistakes to the intensity of his zeal for the service of mankind, more\nparticularly Britons of all denominations. But to be condemned unheard,\nin a country that boasts so much of its liberties, especially those of\nthe press, must be without a precedent.\n\nHowever customary it has been for writers to take notice of the\nperformances of former authors upon the like subjects, in order to shew\nthe necessity or utility of their own; yet, as no person ever treated\nthis subject upon the present plan, and the author is not so vain as to\nimagine that any thing he could have advanced might have been sufficient\nto attract those that have been long accustomed to the clod-cutting\ntraces, and the voice of prejudice or mere sounds, and he presumes not\nto teach any particular language or doctrine, it shall be declined as\nuseless in the present case; and we shall proceed here to what seems to\nbe more proper and necessary for the illustration of the subject in hand,\nnamely, to transcribe some notes taken in the course of these inquiries,\nintroductory to a rational grammar. And first of the nature and state of\nman.\n\nMan, in the sense of language, is to be considered as a compound of all\nbeings, a microcosm in his form, and a general intelligent echo of the\ndivine fiat by his speech; a vegetable, by his manner of growth and\nnourishment; an animal by his motion, respiration, and feeling; and a\nspiritual being from his thinking or intelligent faculties; his animal\npart being probably formed with the other animals, out of the dust of\nthe earth, and his intelligence in its first state, that tree of life,\nbreath, or superaddition breathed into his nostrils by the creator,\nby which he became a living soul. The essence of this celestial and\nterrestrial system or compound being will probably remain indefinable,\nuntil man shall recover his primitive existence, as the tree of life;\ntho\u2019 the tree of knowledge of good and evil in the mean time furnish him\nwith sufficient means for his happiness here, and existence hereafter as\nthe tree of life; for his organs of sensation, in contact with external\nobjects and impressions, form in the sensory the various modes of\nfeeling, and those images are perceived by the will; which has not only a\nnilling power of permitting those images to remain without any additional\nlight, as the mere images of sensation fit only for the government of\nanimal bodies; but also of willing or presenting them to the reflecting\nfaculty of the soul for the formation of sentimental ideas, to be\nregistered in the memory, and employed by the mind in its intelligent,\nrational, wise and virtuous operations, for the illumination and conduct\nof a reasonable being, appointed by Providence lord of the creation.\n\nThe human will being the sole energy of all voluntary motions in man,\nand motions continuing in direct lines or courses, if not diverted\ntherefrom, most probably would have continued its pure intuitive course\nand direction towards goodness, virtue, and true happiness, without the\npower of nilling or depravely contradicting its original nature, as the\ntree of life, had not the serpent interposed and put the fruit of the\ntree of knowledge of good and _evil_ in its way. And as man in his state\nof innocence, before his fall, must, as the tree or breath of life, have\nbeen furnished with the knowledge of good, so it seems probable that\nMoses by the tree of knowledge of good and _evil_, meant the generative\npowers, or certain characters or letters representing them, engraved on\nthe _bark_ of the tree of knowledge of good and evil, furnishing the\nfirst pair, in their state of innocence, with two sorts of ideas or\nknowledge, and the means of gratifying their lust, as well as pride or\ncuriosity of knowing good and evil, like their superiors; mankind before\ntheir fall being probably capable of seeing each others ideas, without\nthe use of sounds; and of propagation after the manner of the second Adam.\n\nSince those animals, which are endued with the organs of speech, are\nincapable of articulating any conceptions, it is reasonable to suppose\nthat the animal part of man alone, without the assistance of the\nintelligent or rational, must be so likewise. It is therefore probable\nthat the human will, agreeable to the notes or ideas impressed on the\nmemory, plays upon the fibres, the simple tones of articulation; which\nin their passage, with respiration, thro\u2019 the lungs, stomach, windpipe,\nlarynx, and mouth, are by the glotis, tongue, lips, muscles, and other\norganical powers, which assume literal figures, modulated into articulate\nsounds, both simple and compound, agreeable to the nature of things and\ntheir ideas, as impressed in the human sensory. And as man is furnished\nwith ideas chiefly by the means of speech, the tree of knowledge of good\nand evil seems to be no improper metaphor of the human voice or _person_,\nor the Dryades and Hamadryades, nor the tree of life, of man\u2019s intuitive\nstate of knowledge and virtue.\n\nIt is yet the general opinion that human speech derives its origin\nsolely from the arbitrary composition or invention of man, without any\nconnexion with nature or the intervention of Providence. However true\nsuch bold and presumptuous doctrines may be with respect to some of the\ncorrupt compounded parts, which chiefly occasioned the great variety and\nconfusion of languages, yet articulate sounds, the materials of speech,\nclearly appear to have been the gift of Providence, and always the same\nin all countries; as for instance, an Indian, as well as an European, in\nexpressing the idea of length, will contract and lengthen the organs of\narticulation, so as to form an acute sound, and the shape of the letter\ni; and to express breadth they will alike extend them, like the letter o,\nto express a broad or grave sound; and so in other cases, though they\ndiffer as to the manner of compounding those sounds; more especially\non account of the great loss of primitives amongst the Indians. And\nit cannot be otherwise, since the scripture proves that Adam named\nthings agreeable to their nature, under the inspection and direction of\nProvidence.\n\nAgain, to suppose man of himself, without the intervention of Providence,\ncapable of forming the materials of his own speech, must be as absurd\nas to imagine that he formed the materials of his own ideas or himself,\nsince speech depends on the original frame of man, and the shape of\nhis organs, and abstract and complex ideas on names, as the means of\nforming and registering them in the memory. Nor does it appear to be less\nso, to imagine dumb men, without inspiration, capable of fixing upon\narbitrary signs of language, or advancing in knowledge, or at least, of\nforming so perfect a system, without being previously taught the use of\nletters and characters, the elements and principles of languages; more\nespecially such of the sounds and figures, as were not to be met with\nin any other parts of nature, and the unintuitive, vicious, privative,\nand negative parts both of knowledge and language, which depend on the\nhieroglyfic, sacred, or _secret_ characters. And, whatever may be the\ndisguise of arbitrary or corrupt dialects, they will all appear upon due\nexamination to derive their origin from the original tree of knowledge;\nand was it not for the difference of climates, constitutions, habits,\nmanners, and other accidents, which demand the aid of grammar, it seems\nprobable, since characters represent the figures of things, and letters,\nor natural articulate sounds subsist in the very frame of man, the very\nideas causing vibrations in the speaker, are felt by the hearer, and\nthe elements of speech are universally the same, that languages would\nnaturally fall, or at least, like the English, incline to their primitive\nuniversal state, and the same combination and construction of particles\ninto words and sentences, if the particles of all languages were\nprecisely defined according to their primitive meaning; there being in\nman an innate potency of recurring to, as well as an impotency of erring\nor deviating from the original modes of speech, as well as perceptions,\nand of becoming virtuous and vicious by turns.\n\nLanguages, it is true, have been fluctuating, and in particular the\nEnglish; which was originally the Celtic or Phrygian, brought by our\nancestors, the Titans, in the first westward migration, from the lesser\nAsia, thro\u2019 Greece and Italy into ancient Celtica; and which on the\narrival of the Romans in Italy partook of the Greek dialects, and\nfurnished the Romans with a considerable part of the Latin tongue. Some\nof the Aborigines of Italy, Spain, and Gaul, having afterwards fled\nfrom the Roman yoke into Germany, without their priests and druids, who\nhad before retired into Britain, their language as well as knowledge\nreceived an ebb, though no foreign admixture. But their priests and bards\ndenominated in the writings of the British poets, the Luchlin colony,\nand in Germany and Italy, by the names of Longobards, and Lombards, _the\ngreat bard nation_, and speaking the British language in Germany, being\ndrove by the Romans out of Britain, into Germany and Denmark, their\nlanguage as well as knowledge received some increase from the mother\ntongue; which then in its turn began to sink in Britain. And thus all the\ndialects of ancient Celtica are but different dialects of the old Celtic\nlanguage, which first made its way into Europe, and so they ought to be\ndeemed by lexicographers in their definition of vocables. But of all\nthose dialects, the English in respect to the copiousness, strength, and\nsimplicity both of its vocables and construction, seems to be the best\nfund for an universal language of any upon earth.\n\nIt may not perhaps seem improper here to explain some other abstruse\nprinciples in physics and metaphysics, from the meaning of vocables, as\nthey too seem to explain the principles of rational grammar. There are,\nit seems, in physics, discoverable by the signification of words, three\nuniversal principles or genusses of things, namely, space, matter, and\nmotion; which, as to their essences, if essence, nature, and quality\ndiffer in ought but form, are indefinable. But with respect to their\nmodes, properties, and forms, space is distance every way, whether\nwith or without body; with it, it is extension or capacity; without\nit, a vacuum; quantity, mensuration, number, place or matter extended,\na continent, an island, length, breadth, figure, thickness, an inch,\na foot, a yard and such things being its modes. Matter, whatever its\nessence may be, is an indivisible impenetrable atom or corpuscule; of\nwhich two or more assembled or cohered, form a particle, and larger\ncohesions or combinations of those form sensible bodies, which are\nchiefly distinguishable in language by their forms; though they have such\nproperties and modes, as length, breadth, and thickness, or extension,\nsolidity, or an assemblage excluding all other bodies from its place,\ndivisibility or the separation of its quantity, mobility, passiveness,\nand figure, or that length and breadth without thickness, which present\nthemselves to the eye. And as to the active qualities of matter, they\nseem to be all intentional, as fluidity, softness, rarity, heat, and\nother modes of motion; all the rest being passive, and arising merely\nfrom the different texture, disposition, and combination of bodies; or\na privation of the former; as, firmness, hardness, density, coldness,\ndryness, and rest. Motion is the successive passage or change from once\nplace or state to another. Of which there are three sorts expressible\nby language, viz. the energic, generative, and local; which with their\nvarious modes or actions are expressible by verbs.\n\nThe metaphysical part of man, which derives its origin from the Creator\u2019s\nimpression, or the essence of the thinking soul, altho\u2019 it has no more\nconsciousness or knowledge of its own essence, than those of other\nbeings; nor perhaps the means of its present modes of conception, without\nthe use of those bodily organs, to which the all-wise Creator was pleased\nto confine it for a time, and the presence of internal objects, any\nmore than the organs of sensation feel the touch without the contact of\nexternal objects, is still in the fool, as well as philosopher, when\nfurnished with proper organs, equally capable of that innate potency\nof expressing its own qualities and actions, as is evident from our\nuniversal acknowledgement of a creator, and the different powers of\nthose fools who are capable of lucid intervals. And however different\nour reasonings may be concerning the attributes of the infinite Creator,\nfrom the variousness of objects and different degrees of volition, there\ncan be nothing more absurd than to affirm that the human soul cannot be\nimpressed with the image of its Creator, because at times it expresses\nor affects no consciousness of it; consciousness being rather an energic\naffirmation or quality of the soul, than its essence, as an involuntary\nanimal or vegetable motion is an act, rather than the cause of motion.\nSuch perceptions however as it does express of spiritual beings, have\nprivative, energic, or moral names; which are formed by the symmetry,\nand just measures and proportions of parts and modes of motion; from\nwhence moral notions also derive their origin, as shall be shewn in the\ncourse of the following work, as shall also as to our mistaking infinite\nduration for time.\n\n    Tho\u2019 metaphysics aid the moral plan,\n    \u201cThe proper study of mankind is man;\u201d\n    His language part we now presume to scan,\n    A mighty maze to be without a plan;\n    \u2018A _wild_ where weeds promiscuous shoot,\n    Or garden tempting with forbidden fruit;\u2019\n    The tree of life, once, branches, stem, and root,\n    Of knowledge too, since _vices_ on it shoot.\n    The garden cleared of the tares and weeds,\n    Gives willing force, and cogitation speeds.\n    \u2018Then, as life can little more supply,\n    Than just to look about us, and to die;\n    Expatiate free o\u2019er all this scene of man,\n    A mighty maze! yet not without a plan.\u2019\n    Plain truth, not _person_, is my utmost hope,\n    I tell you truly in the sense of Pope.\n\n_Wild_ signifies a wood, or the place of the higher growth, and is an\nemblematical expression for the tree of knowledge of good and evil, the\n\u03a5\u03bb\u03b7, matter or sound of human speech, as \u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03bf\u03c2 seems to be of its ideal\nproperty.\n\n_Person_ is a compound of p\u00ear-son, _sweet sound_; p\u00ear also signifies any\nsweet ripe fruit, as figs or figes, according to the Welsh; which perhaps\nresembles that which gave man the denomination of person, _the sound of\nthe apple or afal_, and to the _fallen_ angel that tempted Eve, the name\nof di-afal or devil, _the apple God_; and figes and vices signify the\nsame thing; the v consonant and digamma being the same, and g being an\ninflection of the radical c. See _person_, _wood_, &c. in the vocabulary.\n\nThe fall of man has laid us under a sort of charm, which nothing can\nremove but a thorough taste of the tree of knowledge, and avoiding its\nvicious branches as much as possible. Had that great reasoner Mr. Lock\nbeen so happy as to attend a little more to the tree of knowledge,\ninstead of intirely rejecting the divine origin of human speech, and\ninnate principles of thinking, he might have reasoned well upon _right_\nprinciples, instead of misleading and confirming us in our errors, as\nwithout doubt was his intention.\n\nThe learned Hermes, the very best of modern grammarians, whose ingenious\nperformance, had it sooner come to my perusal, might have charmed me\nout of my present labours, to acquiesce with his opinions, seems to be\na little affected by this fort of charm, and perhaps is as much deluded\nfrom his subject by the language, learning, and beauties of the Greeks\nand Romans, as the late author of the short introduction to the English\nlanguage, by some of our modern barbarisms, the very exceptionable parts\nof our language.\n\n\n\n\nGRAMMAR.\n\n\nGrammar is the right method of expressing the ideas of things by signs\nand sounds adapted for the sensation of the eye and ear, according to\ntheir hieroglyfic nature, forms, and modes, and that \u03b5\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b5\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 or\nintelligent echo, with which man was originally endued by his Creator.\n\nIt consists of three parts or sorts of names, viz. letters, considered as\ncharacters or the figures of things, and as signs of articulate sounds;\ntheir combination into particles and nouns; and their construction into\nphrases, propositions, and sentences. And, according to the present state\nof languages, etymology may be admitted as a fourth division of grammar.\n\n\nLETTERS.\n\nLetters, as \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 or characters, either really or emblematically\npersonate, and represent things and ideas; and as notes of articulate\nsounds signify internal conceptions, and express them to others. They\nconsist of various sorts, such as simple characters to denote elements\nor principles; compounds to express complex ideas, and things; the\ndividers of parts; actives, energies, and affirmatives; and privatives,\nand negatives. These are the smallest or elementary parts of language,\nas atoms are of matter and action of motion; an assemblage thereof form\nparticles, as of atoms do those of matter; and a combination of either\nform more sensible bodies, and so on to the construction of larger forms,\nmasses or sentences; letters having been formed in their shapes and\nsounds, agreeable to ideas and things, and having a natural connection\ntherewith; and length and breadth affecting the eye in the same manner as\ntheir vibrations do the ear, and a combination of both the human will and\nperception.\n\nCharacters, which consist of irregular lines, circles, or curves, are\nincapable of general signs or meanings, or representing many things; but\nstrait lines, and circles, and their division and multiplication, like\nthe Roman, only are capable of that hieroglyfic, universal representation\nand meaning, which the first universal language must be supposed to\nexpress, and as most other characters seem to be only deviations from\nthe Roman, from mere affectation, or for the conveniency of sculpture,\nthere seems to be no great absurdity in supposing that Adam was furnished\nwith _those_ characters, and instructed in their sounds; that they\ncontinued in general use until the confusion of Babel, when mankind began\nto make use of the noise or sounds of cattle instead of human voices;\nand that the Romans were furnished with those characters by the Tuscans\non their arrival in Italy. Nor does it seem in the least probable that\nthose nations which had been destined by Providence to be the possessors\nof the most distant countries westward from Asia, who made their way\nthither accordingly, along the Mediterranean coasts, through Crete,\nGreece, Sicily, Egypt, Mauritania, Tuscany, Spain, Gaul, and Britain,\nwere in Asia at the time of the confusion. And as those characters\nare adapted only for the Celtic, Phrygian, or British language, which\nresolves the names of places of the several countries through which it\npassed, preferable to the more modern dialects thereof, and C\u00e6sar thought\nthat Druidism began in Britain; it seems very probable that Mercury,\nGomer, or Hermes, and other Druids, leaders of the western colonies,\nwere always possest of those _secret_ characters; it being certain that\nthe Gauls before C\u00e6sar\u2019s time had the use of letters. Besides, ancient\nhistory takes notice of the hieroglyfics, as consisting of the figures\nof animals, parts of human bodies, and mechanical instruments invented\nby Thoth the first Hermes, which were afterwards translated into Greek,\nand deposited in books in the Egyptian temples, and which the learned\nsupposed to be sacred characters.\n\nThe characters of the first language were without doubt simple, requiring\nbut few rules for their combination and construction; and yet must\nhave been expressive of all the natural signs and sounds of things;\nfor such certainly ought to be the construction of a language proposed\nfor an universal assent; and such in my opinion is the English, whose\nvocables are hieroglyfic; and their meaning agreeing with the picturesque\ncombination. These were the ancient characters, engravings, or \u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03bc\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1;\nand their sounds were the \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c7\u03b1, _the chief sounds_; and which we shall\nhere proceed to explain, together with the Greek characters.\n\n  Eng. Welsh.  Greek.       Greek names.\n  and Roman.\n\n  a, \u0251.        \u03b1.           Alpha, the call upon parts.\n\n  b.           \u03b2, \u03d0.        Beta, upon the beasts of the fields.\n\n  c, k, q.     \u03ba.           Kappa, the action upon parts.\n\n  d, dd.       \u03b4.           Delta, the division or race of things.\n\n  e, \u025b, h, \u025c.  \u03b5, \u03b7, \u03f6, \u0397.  Epsilon and Heta, the clitoris, erectors, and\n                              all the interjectory generative springs.\n\n  f, \ufb00.        \u03c6.           Phi, the penis in action and generative\n                              qualities.\n\n  g.           \u03b3, \u0393.        Gamma, the testicles, or an action about the\n                              mother.\n\n  i, j.        \u03b9.           Jota, the rays of the sun upon things.\n\n  l, ll.       \u03bb.           Lamda, things extended or place.\n\n  m.           \u03bc.           Mv, man\u2019s body, and things about as surrounding\n                              man.\n\n  n, ng.       \u03bd.           Nv, in man, or betwixt his thighs, human will\n                              and the negatives.\n\n  o.           \u03bf, \u03c9, \u03a9.     Omicron and Omega, the little and great circle\n                              of space, place, and motion.\n\n  p.           \u03c0, \u03a8, \u03c8.     Pe and Psi, the penis not in action, and animal\n                              and other dead parts.\n\n  r.           \u03f1, \u03c1.        Rho, the eccho or sound of animals, &c.\n\n  s, \u017f, z.     \u03c3, \u0396, \u03b6.     Zigma and Zeta, sounds in general.\n\n  t, T, th.    \u03c4, \u0398.        Tau and Theta, man\u2019s possessions, properties,\n                              extension, &c.\n\n  v, u, U, w.  \u03c5, \u03a5.        Upsilon, the upper springs, as man\u2019s face, &c.\n\n  x, ch, wh.   \u039e, \u03be, \u03c7.     Chi or _\u03c7i_, animal, gutteral, and sounds of\n                              superior actions.\n\n    Transcriber\u2019s Note: This table is included as an image in the\n    HTML version, as some of the characters in it may have more\n    than one interpretation.\n\nThis alphabet consists of seven vowels or voices, which in their own\nnature, actively, and without any super-addition, yield compleat\narticulate sounds, particles, or names, and hieroglyfically represent\nthe elementary or active parts of the human body, and nature, as similar\nthereto, namely, a, e or h, i, o, u, w or \u03c9, \u03a5; and of other characters\nor letters, which are called consonants from their yielding articulate\nsounds only in company with vowels. Of these b, c, d, f, g, l, m, p,\nt, are also hieroglyfic representations of the various parts of the\nhuman body and other things as similar thereto; and they are mutable\nand inflectory in the pronominal cases, from the less animate, slow,\nand almost silent radical state, both as to the sense and sound, to the\nrougher, louder, and more animate and active sounds and things; as for\ninstance, c, p, \u03c4, the most silent, as expressive of material or passive\nsubstances or local inanimate actions inflect into g, b, d, which are\nsomewhat louder and rougher, as being expressive of the higher and more\nactive things and actions of men and animals; and those again into the\nstill louder and rougher sounds of ch, ff, th, as those are expressive\nof the most energic actions or modes of motion; but when g, b, d, are\nthe radicals of inflection, they again inflect into ng, f, m, dd, n,\nand in some dialects the l and r have the aspirates ll and rh for the\nradicals, as has been shewn in my former treatises. To the loss of these\ninflections may in a great measure be imputed the great variety and\nconfusion of languages; new dialects having been formed by changing the\nradicals and misapplying the inflectories, as father for pater, brother\nfor frater, and mother for mater. b, c, d, j, k, p, q, t, as yielding\nlittle or no sounds, without the assistance of vowels, are called mutes;\nl, m, n, r, f, s, as having imperfect obscure sounds without the company\nof vowels, have been distinguished as semivowels; and l, m, n, r, also\nas liquids from their flowing in particles, as in, \u00eef, \u00eel, \u00eem, \u00een, \u00eer,\nthe flow of the sun\u2019s rays, light, motion, liquid, and life or qualities\nupon the lower world of beings and things; but the distinctions of mutes\nand semivowels seem trifling, as most letters seem to be vowels in some\ndegree.\n\nHere, before we proceed to explain the figures and powers of letters, it\nmay not perhaps be improper to observe that the parts, affections, and\nideas of the human pair, incorporated, as in the figures at the end of\nthis essay, were the archetypes or patterns of the original characters,\nwhose figures and sounds are descriptive of the universe; that letters\nand particles have two sounds, the masculine and feminine, the active\nand passive, or the short and long; that a particle or syllable cannot in\nthe genuine sense of language consist of more than two letters; and that\nthere are not in fact any such things as dipthongs; those now supposed to\nbe such, being two or three particles of one vowel each, which formerly\nwas a common method of composition, as appears by the following piece of\nancient poetry; in which there is no consonant made use of, the r being\nonly a letter of sound.\n\n    Oer iu yr eira ar yr yri,\n    Oi riu or awyr i rewi;\n    Oer iu yr ia oi riu ri\n    Ar eira oer iu yr yri.\n\nThus Englished.\n\n    From its high hill cold is ice,\n    Cold is the snow on Snowden;\n    Its nature from the sky to freeze\n    On snow so cold is Snowden.\n\nThe letter o is an indefinite circle, signifying the universe, motion,\nspace, the sun\u2019s figure and motion, and all or ol, extension of length,\nbreadth, and thickness; and it is expressible of parts only by a\ndiminution of its general sense; as in b-ol, a ball or part of all, or-b,\na circle part, w-or-l-d, a man\u2019s circle part or place of life, b-or-d-er\nthe circle part of the possessions and 10, one circle, which being\nrepeated comprehends all numbers. This, like all other original letters,\nhas two sounds, the long and the short, as in _on_, _one_, _ton_, _tone_;\nand its shape or figure was taken from the circumference of the human\npair close together, face to face, which is man\u2019s chief circle place,\nsignified by the term _world_. The Greek \u03c9 is a double \u03c5 as has been\nexplained in my former treatise.\n\nThe letter i is an indefinite line, representing man in his primitive\nstate of innocence, as it does still his body, as a line, without its\nextension, and his head and senses by its dot; and in a secondary sense\nare expressed by this line and dot, length or heighth towards the sun,\nthe sun-beams, fire, heat, and other qualities both spiritual and\nanimal, as still flowing upon man, and other things as relative to him,\nand originally perhaps centering in himself, and since his fall only\nrelatively. But though man and nature have been impaired by original\nsin, they still seem to be invested with certain springs, energies, or\nreturns of those ilations and qualities, as, thinking, willing, voice\narticulate, powers generative and growth; whereby the human species may\nbe extended, and acquire so much knowledge and virtue, as, with the\nblessing of Providence, to be capable of being reinstated. The chief\nof which springs is expressed by the letter u, a compound of two i\u2019s\nsignifying man\u2019s compound of male and female, and spirit and matter, with\na c at their bottom, springing them upwards; by y as to the generative\nand vegetative parts, which also is expressive of woods and other growth;\nit being a compound of i j, and half of the spring c, as not being\nexpressive of the spirit of man. The i also expresses man as an upright\nline placed in the centre of all worldly beings and substances, to whom\nthey bear a relation, as shall be shewn under adverbs. The u vowel seems\nto derive its figure from the human face, the seat of the voice, and\nthe heart, and the feminine or consonant v from the vagina, if it be\nan original letter, but, from its sound, it seems to supply the place\nof the digamma. The y or \u03a5 resembles trees, plants and vegetables, and\nthe j consonant is the half of it, and sometimes made use of instead of\ng, to express some of the generative parts and qualities. These vowels\nhave each two sounds, the high and low, long and short, or grave and\nacute, viz. i, as in, _in_, _high_, or _i_, go thou; the u vowel, as,\nin, _unction_, _united_; and the y as the u in unction and y in hyssop;\nbut the w has only one long sound, as in _woman_, _womb_, _wood_, and it\nis mostly applicable to spirituals, man, and things belonging to him;\nthe wh has the gutteral sound of the Welsh ch, or the Greek \u03c7 as in\n_where_, _why_; the j consonant has the sound of g in _generation_; and\nthe v consonant that of the soft flowing f of the Welsh, or as in _verb_,\n_vice_; thus supplying the softer sound and meaning of the digamma.\n\nThe letters a, e, h, \u03b5, \u03b7, \u0397, in their primary sense signify the male and\nfemale posteriors, the clitoris, erectores, &c. the impulse and springs\nof generation, and the earth and water place of man; whence a came to be\nan expression for the element earth or matter and things hard, rough,\nor interjectory, and \u03b5 for the element of water and any feminine, soft,\nor passive parts or things, but the interjectory aspirate e or _he_ is\nmasculine, and the \u03b5 has one spring resembling that of rain. The a has\nproperly two sounds, as in _animal_, _have_, or _name_, but not that\nof o or the northern a in _all_; the masculine e or he has an aspirate\nsound, as in _hero_, and a mute one, as in _echo_; and the feminine \u03b5\nwas originally sounded soft, like the French cedill \u00e7, as in _fleece_,\n_vice_, and the use of this character and sound ought to be continued or\nthe soft c should be marked with a cedill to prevent the confusion of the\nhard and soft sounds of c; but more of this elsewhere.\n\nThe letters c, k, q, g, \u03b3, wh, ch, \u03ba, \u03c7, \u039e, \u03be signify actions of\ndifferent sorts and degrees, viz. c as the half of o, signifying motion,\nand k and q, as significant of its sound, signify the modes of common\nlocal motions or actions; and the hard c also represents half the round\nof the posteriors, as o doth the whole of the male and female together,\nas the feminine or soft c doth the other half; g or \u03b3 represent the\ntesticles or half the gamma, f being the other half, and the generative\nand growing parts of man and nature; and the rest are their gutteral\ninflections expressive of animal sounds and actions. The palatals should\nbe sounded hard and short, as in _quick_, the soft c in some cases as the\nfeminine \u03b5 before explained, and s before the vowel i, the superlative\ngutteral sorts, as the wh in _where_, _why_, and the Welsh _chwa_,\n_chwant_, and g or \u03b3 as in _egg_, _edge_. All these characters are\nnothing more than compounds of c, h, s, as will be shewn hereafter.\n\nThe letters d and b put together, thus, db, as compounds of i and o, or\nlength and breadth, are expressive of man and woman\u2019s body part, from\nthe thigh to the part of the body which the elbow reaches, and all other\nliving beings so extended, as \u03c4 does the extension of matter, but being\nagain divided into d and b, they express living things, or the qualities\nof parts and diminutives of bodies, and emblematically spirits and\nprivatives, as p does parts of matter, as divisor of \u03c4. The d and b ought\nto be sounded alike in all languages, as, _de_, _be_, and dd, as _the_,\nbut letters are farther explained in the former treatise.\n\nT represents man\u2019s legs together, with the feet upwards, and both toes\nturned outwards as upright and traverse lines, extension and man in his\ntemporal state, turned out of paradise, under the sky, topsy turvy, and\nall things as relative to him, and the line upon which time or the manner\nof reckoning the distances of actions are measured. T sounds alike in\nall languages, and th and \u03b8 as in _the_, _Thebes_, and those are the\ninflections of T.\n\nThe letters p, ph, ff, f, \u03c0, \u03c6, \u03c8, signify material or dead parts, or\ntheir qualities, as p divides T; ph is p high, up, or active; the digamma\n\u03c6 or f, the p inflecting the gamma; and \u03c8 actions of a lesser nature,\nas growth. The p and \u03c0 sound alike in all languages, ph, ff as \u03c6\u03c5\u03c9,\n_fusee_, or _fun_, \u03c8 as in _Psalms_, it being only a compound of p, and f\nas the v consonant in _verb_, but these letters are farther explained in\nthe former treatise.\n\n_m_ represents a man\u2019s body and arms or wings from the top of b and d,\nor the elbow part of the body, up to the neck, and the world, forms,\nand things, as surrounding and belonging to man, as shall be further\nexplained amongst the particles. It sounds the same in all languages. _n_\nis the thighs, with the parts above them, forming a traverse line, and\nthe vacancy betwixt the same when extended, signifying to be in, or in\nexistence or possession, having f and d for its auxiliaries, but before\nthe vowels or springs it expresses a negative or privative; and it has no\nparticular sound.\n\n\u1efa, L, \u03bb, are T or man\u2019s legs, once put together, separated, and as\ndivisors of T, which signifies space or extension, are expressive of\nparticular lengths and breadths, and their places, qualities, &c. The L\nor \u03bb is sounded as eel or \u00eel and \u1efa has an aspirate hissing sound in the\nWelsh, Spanish, and some other dialects.\n\nThe letters r, \u03f1, \u03c1, \u03a1, R, represent animals and their parts, and their\nmouths as the place of sound; S being added to P, as a sound, forms R,\nthe sound as well as part of an animal; and they are all to be sounded\nas in _viper_, except where they happen to be radical letters, and then\nwith an aspirate h as in _rhyme_. The S, \u03c3, Z, are also letters of sound,\nbut express no part of man, and are rather the shape of some animal of\nthe serpentine kind, the waving of the breath or water, &c. They have\ntwo sounds, the hard and soft, as in _loss_, _zone_. This explanation\nof letters, together with what has been given already in my former\ntreatises, and shall be added amongst the particles, will, it is to be\nhoped, be deemed satisfactory, as to the sense and origin of letters,\nand the sacred characters; notwithstanding the pretensions lately set up\nfor those of irregular lines, curves, and windings, which can express\nbut few things, and the remarks of another ingenious gentleman, as to\nthe non-entity or insignificancy of the Hieroglyfics; his enquiry having\nbeen confined to the vulgar sorts, or the paintings or engravings of\nanimals, &c. when it now appears the Hieroglyfics consisted only of those\nfew sacred or _secret_ characters. The hints and specimens here given of\nthe method of combining the hieroglyfic figures, being as compleat as\nthe press will admit of; and a process thereof, thro\u2019 the whole of the\nEnglish language, considering the corrupt state of languages, tho\u2019 the\nEnglish is as capable of an hieroglyfic combination as any, requiring\nmuch loss of time, trouble, and expence, and perhaps the aid of a Hunter\nand a Hill, and some other reasons occurring, the author hopes he shall\nbe excused for proceeding no further at the present, in the combination\nof characters.\n\n\nOf Particles and Syllables.\n\nA Particle is a simple articulate sound and sign of one or two\ncharacters or letters; but a syllable sometimes by the cutting off of\nvowels, becomes a combination of more letters, which is yet commonly\npronounced as a simple articulate sound; there being a natural relation\nand agreement betwixt the signs and sounds of letters, and ideas and\nthings. Particles and syllables were originally framed according to\ntheir hieroglyfic shape, the natural sounds of ideas and things, and the\nsense and value of letters, as has been already explained; and therein\nthe quantity of the action of sound was measured and proportioned to the\nmotion, action, or energy of the thing to be expressed, as the high,\nloud, acute, or short accent, for an active or energic particle, and the\nlow, grave, and long, for a passive, substantive, or a negative one.\n\nAnd altho\u2019 some letters, as a, e, y, p, t, and some particles in words\nare so fixed by the addition of y, ty, ive, and other terminations,\nas of themselves to be always substantive and long, as to quantity\nand accent; yet those passive and long letters and particles, by the\naddition of an active vowel, consonant, or particle, will become active\nand short. Hence the best way of spelling or pronouncing must be to\ndivide the particles of compound names according to the original manner\nof their combination, sense, and sounds, and when a vowel is cut off,\nits consonant, with the remaining vowel, or with the most valuable, if\nthere should be any doubt, as in the following examples, ex-ec-ra-ble,\nco-re-spond-ing, pro-ble-m-at-ic-al-ly, un-ec-spect-ed-ly, prin-ce,\no-af, o-ther, o-ver, ub-iqu-i-ty. Those sorts of names and their\ncompounds according to their significations and nature in language, are\ndistinguishable into the following sorts, viz. Articles to substantive\nand identify names; nouns substantive, or the names of substances;\npronouns, which collectively express nouns and antecedent parts of\nsentences; adjectives, which are added to the names of substances, to\nexpress their qualities and accidents; actives, or the names of actions,\nverbs, energies, and affirmatives of being, acting, and feeling; adverbs\nor additional words, to express quantities, qualities, distances, modes,\nand energies of actions and things, with their degrees; prepositions to\ndenote and connect situations, and conjunctions or connectives of names,\nproportions, and sentences.\n\nAs the right apprehension of the hieroglyfic primitive language very\nmuch depends on a clear illustration of particles, which as sorts of\ncompound letters, together with the primitive hieroglyfic letters,\ncomprehend all the materials of the first universal language, the\nfollowing addition is here made to what has been already published on the\netymology of particles; the radicals being placed in each class before\ntheir inflections and transponents. Ab, eb, af, ef; ba, be, fa, fe. These\nexpress the generas and species, as well as causes and effects of animal\nlife, beings, and growth of the earth and water, both male and female,\nas in ab-ba, eb-riety, af-ect, ef-ect, ba-by, be-an, fa-ther, fe-male,\nfa-ar-am-er, ba-ar-en-ess.\n\nIb, if, bi, fi. These are expressive of the qualities flowing from above,\nlike the sun\u2019s rays upon man and inferior beings, and their return of\nlife, as in l-ib-eral, l-\u00eef, bi-le, fi-eld.\n\nUb, uf, bu, fu. These are the springs or returns of the above qualities\nin man and other beings, as in ub-erty, h-uf, bu-d, fu-el, ub or\nspringing upwards.\n\nOb, of, bo, fo. These signify out of, or from the circle of life or\nsight, or dead, as in ob-lation, ob-livion, of-fering, of, bo-dy, bo-ne,\nfo-reign.\n\nAc, ec, ag, eg, ach, ech, ang, eng, ca, ce, ga, ge, cha, che, nga, nge.\nThe first sort of particles denote the several motions and actions\nof earth and water or matter, both animate and inanimate, and their\ntransponents express their contraries, such as, rest, confinement, shuts\nor inclosures, as in, ac-t, ec-stacy, ec-ho, ag-ain, eg-g, ach-ieve,\nach-os or cause, spe-ech, bre-ech, ech-uin or a loan, ang-er, eng-age,\nca-ab-age, ca-ge, ce-iling, ce-ll, ke-ep, ga-te, ge-ld, cha-os, che-st,\nche-fn or her back, gnad or gned, or finished, kna-ve, kne-ad.\n\nIc, ig, ich, ing, ci, gi, chi, ngi. These are the principles, qualities,\nand beginning of motion, the first or chief action, or creation of heat,\nman, and things, and their returns, as in h-ic, or the man action,\nig-menos or proceeded, ig-neous, h-igh, wh-ich, ich-od, ing or acting,\nas a man in the line of possession, th-ing, k-ing or ci-ing, the chief\nin the line of possession, the rest are the inflections of ci or chief\ninflected thus, ci, _a chief_, gi, _his chief_, chi, _her chief_, ngi,\n_my chief_.\n\nUc, ug, uch, ung, cu, qu, chu, ngu. These are the springs or returns\nof those acts from man and other beings upwards, and the species of\ngenerations, productions, and energies therefrom, as in uc, uc\u2019s-or,\ncl-uck, h-ung, ug-ly, ug-ies, uch-el, cu-san or kiss, cu-r or care, cu-b,\nCu-pid, gu-ide, gu-ilt, gu-st, gu-t, chuck, chu-rl, chu-ith or breath,\nknow-ledge, gnu-eid or making.\n\nOc, og, och, ong, co, go, cho, ngo. These are the most occult actions\nas proceeding from the hind part of the human circle, or from the sight\npart of the circle, occurrences, and coalescence of actions and motions\ncircular, and their species and productions, as in oc-ult, oc-currence,\nog-le, och-i-my or filth to me, och or oh fie, th-ong, co-alescence,\nco-herence, go-re, cho-ler, ngo or my memory.\n\nAd, add, ed, edd, da, dda, de, dde. These are expressive of diminution,\nprivation and division of earth, water, matter, growth, parts, and\nother things; and as such an addition to the goods and possessions of\nman, as in add, ad-eg or de-crease, had or seed, ed-ible, da or goods,\ndda his goods, de-arth, de-ath, de, dde, the or a thing. Id, idd, di,\nddi, signify the division, qualities, and action of man, or the human\nintellect, spirits, and privatives, as in, id-ea, idd-o, or the human\nproperties, di-vision, di-minish, yn ddi-rgel or secretly.\n\nUd, udd, du, ddu. These are the spring or return of human intelligence,\nas divided or exercised, and their species and negatives, as in, h-ud\nor fascination, cy-h-udd-o, to confess one\u2019s crimes, du-bious, du-ll or\njudgment, du-tifull, i-ddu-n, to a man.\n\nOd, odd, do, ddo. These signify the division of the circle of motion, or\na circle of actions called time, present and past, as in, oed or age, od\nor life, odd or the past action or age, do or it has been done, or it is\npast, ddoe or yesterday.\n\nAh, eh, ih, oh, uh, ha, he, hi, ho, hu. These express the different\nimpulse or energies of the human passions and affections, and are\nexplained amongst the adverbs; of which species of names they seem to be.\n\nAi, ei, ii, oi, ui, and their transponents, signify motions local as of\nmoving, walking, or driving, actions and affections of generation and\ngrowth, man out of possession, man\u2019s visage, and affirmations of yea, and\nthe sun\u2019s motion darting its rays by io; but an h is commonly added to\nthe radical as an additional energy.\n\nAl, el, la, le. The extension of earth and water, or place in general,\nand qualities and animal sounds as extended, as al high in alps and\naltus, el low or in hell, el-egy, la-nd or surface, le or p-la-ce,\nterresti-al, aquati-le, c-all, kn-ell, la-ment, le-gible.\n\nIl, li, signify an ilation and extension of the sun\u2019s rays, so as\nto cause light, with its returns, effects, or lights below; and all\nintentional qualities, and emblematically intelligence as proceeding\nfrom the divine censory, as in \u00eel-ation, \u00eel-um-ine, ho-\u00eel the sun or the\nglorious light, h-\u00eel, its flowing rays and the human race, li-ght, li-u\nor colou-r, li-ke, or the action of light, \u00eel-ustrate. Ul, lu, signify\nthe return or spring of the human light as extended by male and female\nin their rays and race, and in a more compounded manner than li, as in\nv-ul-tus or visage, r-ule or the light, lu a family.\n\nOl, lo, signify _all_ or place, or space extended, and the circle of\nmotion, as in oll or all, b-oll or ball, lo-cus place lo-st.\n\nAm, em, ma, me. These express the existence, forms, and modes of man,\nearth, and water, as material beings, as in, am, the about or existences,\nam-bit, am-ple, mam, mater or mother, ma-es a field, ma-ith and ma-int,\nquantity, size, and extensiveness.\n\nIm, mi, are expressive of man\u2019s present existence or state in this world,\nwith respect to his superior and more excellent qualities, than his\nanimal state, as in im-agination, im-mense, im-mortal, im-pulse, im-pio\nto shoot upwards, im-adel to depart, mi, me, mi-di-le, me in the divided\nplace, that is, the line betwixt his superior and inferior beings, myn or\nmi-in, by my life.\n\nUm, mu, signify man\u2019s spring of enlarging himself in his present state,\nand at last, through death, of returning to an immortal one, as in\num-pire, h-um-an, h-um-ble, n-um-erous, mu-te, d-um-b, mu-af, the\ngreatest, mu-ch, mu-l-tiply, mum, mu-my, mu-se.\n\nOm, mo, signify all forms, modes, and species, as in om-in-is all in the\nlower parts, ombredd or abundance, omnific, mo-on, mo-ns or mo-untain,\nmo-r the sea, mo-ral, mo-re.\n\nAn, en, na, ne. These signify the existence of earth and water or matter,\nand the negative, as in an-y, the earth in, an-au, natural growth, en the\nfirmament, en-d, en-crease, na no matter, ne-b, nobody, or being, ne-st.\n\nIn, ni, are affirmative of existence and non existences, generally as,\nin, include, in-carnation, ni or not, ni-d-ulation, ni-ght, ni-m.\n\nUn, nu, as in and ni are affirmations, relative to man, spirits, beings\nand things unseen, as, un, one or the uni-verse, un-ite, un-i-versal,\nun-i-form, nu-gacity, nu-de, nun or nu-un.\n\nAp, ep, af, ef, pa, pe, pha, phe. These are the divisors of T, signifying\nthe extension of this system, into parts of earth and water, or material\nsubstances and things, as, ap, from, ap-erture, pa what part, pe-th or\npa-rt, ep, ef, or eph, privatives and used as terminations as parts of\nwater, as are op and oph; it being absurd to suppose O all to be a part,\nor ip, up, or ub, which imply no extension and are springs upwards, to be\ndivisible. See the Postscript.\n\nAr, er, ra, re, signify earth and water or matter, as in ar-able, ac-ar,\nbran-ar, fallow-land, e-ar-th, or the elements of both earth and water,\nab-er, running water or harbour, go-er, a rivulet or shore, ra-bet,\nra-ble, er-uption, re-turn, re-flow, re-nt.\n\nIr, ri, are the sun beams or rays, heat and fire; also heighth, length,\ndistance, and direct motion, as in ir-a or ir-e, f-ir-e, h-ir or length,\nri heighth, ri-ght, ri-fe, pelyd-ir the rays of the sun.\n\nUr, ru, signify man inclusive of all his energies, springs, and superior\nqualities, as ur-tue or virtue, t-ru-th, ur-th, worth or value, ur-d or\nword, ur-dd, hon-ur, or honour, ur-ship or worship, ru-in-wedd, divine\nproperty, ru-ler, rue.\n\nOr, ro, are the circle of extension, place and distance from the line\nof possession, as in b-or-der, or, a circle, f-or the things within the\nborders of possession, or-der, or from, or-b, ro-me, from me, round.\n\nAs, es, is, os, us, sa, se, si, so, su. These are expressive of earth and\nwater, men and things seen and sounded, the earth\u2019s surface, the place of\nrest or lowest place; sound and sight in general, as is and si; os and so\na greater extension thereof; us and iu, the human, sweet, or persuasive\nsound or person.\n\nAt, et, ath, eth, ta, te, tha, the. These express entities, properties,\nextensions, possessions, and limits of earth and water, and other things\nunder the sky, as in at, ath-wart, et-ernal, eth-icks, ta-me, ta-n or\nfire, ta-acs or tax, te-rm, te-mpest, te-mple, te-mion, tha-n, tha-t,\nthe, the-m, the-re, the-nce, the-ory.\n\nIt, ith, ti or ty, thy. These are expressive of entities, properties,\nextensions, and existences in general under the firmament, as it, ith or\nthine, time, thi-ef, thy, thing, thi-s, ti-ll, it-in-e-rant.\n\nUt, uth, tu, thu, are the return, spring or extension of man and things\nin growth, generation, and volition by labor, industry, and wisdom, as\nin ut as, ut-most, ut-erus, ut-ility, ut-terly, mo-uth, tu or thou,\naber-thu, to sacrifice, tu a house or possessions, tu-tor, tu-g. Ot,\noth, to, tho, are the circle and extent of possessions, properties,\nmotions, and things, as in hot, oth, from thy possession, to, top, to-il,\nto-parch, tho, tho-rough, tho-ught.\n\nOu is woe or a man out of the circle of life; and UU or w is the spring\nof springs.\n\nOf those sorts of names are formed the more complex, such as those\nnames, phrases, or propositions called words merely by a combination\nof the proper sorts, either with or without an elision of consonants.\nIn the latter case, the less expressive, valuable, or necessary may\nbe cut off when two vowels occur in composition, as its consonant\nwill in some measure preserve its sound in company with a more worthy\nvowel; and all active radical vowels ought to be dropped in the names\nof substances and things, as appears by the following examples, viz.\nblackish or b-li-ack-ish, _a thing without light_; blessedness or\nbi-il-ess-ed-in-ess, _life flowing down upon the world_; brutish,\nor ab-ru-ti-ish, _he is from the property of truth_; clamorous or\nac-al-am-or-us, _a great calling action about us_; cliverly, or\nci-liv-erly, _like the water clan_; creating or ac-ci-ir-at-ing,\n_the chief or first motion to extension and action_; crocodile or\nac-ir-oc-o-di-il, _an angry acting, deceitful water animal_; dread or\nid-ir-ad, _at the fire_; flow or af-il-ow, _a spring of the rays of the\nsun_; frost or af-oer-st, _the lower parts at a stand from the cold_; and\ncold is from ac-ol-id _to be without sun_; glorifying or ag-lo-ri-fying,\n_the doing of an high action in an extensive place_; gnaw or ag-in-w,\n_the acting in of an animal_; grass or ag-ar-as, _the action upon the\nground_; place or p-la-ce, _a part of the earth\u2019s_ extension; property or\npe-or-pe-er-ty, _entity or possession of the parts of land and water or\nof this globe_; scull or si-cau-al, _the sight shut_; sky or is-kay, _the\ncovering of below_; slack or is-al-ack, _a low or slow action_; small or\nis-am-il, _the rays of the sun about below_; snail or si-in-na-il, _it\nis in without light_; speak or si-pe-ak, _the action of the sound part_;\nspy or si-pe-y, _the seeing thing_; star or sta-ir, _the standing fires_;\ntrace or tir-race, _the land race_; and race or ir-ace, is a _long\naction_.\n\n\nARTICLE.\n\nThe article, \u03b1\u03c1\u03b8\u03c1\u03b1, partakes of the nature of pronouns; and in apposition\nor concord with another name, either active or substantive, determines it\nto be a substantive, or the name of a substance, with its identity and\nnumber.\n\nThere are two sorts of articles, viz. _the_ and _an_; an becomes _a_ or\n_any_ before a consonant, and either of them being placed in apposition\nto an active convertible name, convert it into a substantive, as _to\nform_ into _a form_, _to chase_ into _a chase_. And, names being first\nformed in the plural number, both these then stood as signs of the\nsingular number; but since plural names have been taken as singular, and\nnew signs have been added thereto to form plurals, _the_ is also put in\napposition to plural names, to indentify the person or thing meant or\nspoken of.\n\nExample; Some may still imagine _the_ signification of _an_ article\nor _a_ letter, and perhaps more compound names to be indefinable, and\nthe article to be useless; tho\u2019 _the_ definitions here given thereof\nevidently shew _the_ contrary; and the Greeks and Romans not only made\nuse of the genders \u03bf, \u03b7, \u03c4\u03bf, and hic, h\u00e6c, hoc, but also of a declining\narticle at the end of nouns, as the Welsh did _un_ and _yr_, which last\nbefore a consonant sunk into y _the_, inflecting with the following\nradical consonant; and other nations have made use of the article. _To_\ndispute the utility of the article seems therefore absurd, but it may be\n_a_ dispute, whether either determine _any_ particular individual, or\nonly some third person alluded to, pointed at, meant or spoken of in\ndiscourse, or in the line of possession; \u03bf, \u03b7, \u03c4\u03bf, hic, h\u00e6c, hoc, this,\nthat, yr, un, le, ein and der expressing as much.\n\n\nOf Nouns Substantive.\n\nA Noun Substantive denotes a substance, as a spirit, an animal, a\nvegetable, or any other thing that may be conceived to subsist, as\n_agreeableness_, _agility_, _acceleration_; which, tho\u2019 their qualities,\n_agreeable_, _agile_, _accelerate_, are indefinite or indeterminate, yet\nby the signs, _ness_, _ty_, _ion_, signifying substances, properties,\nand the sun\u2019s motion, acquire such a determinate meaning as to become\nsubstantives, and to shew their meaning without being joined with any\nother word. And all names, whether of substances, qualities, or other\nthings, to which the articles _an_ or _the_, or any other substantive\nsigns are joined or set in apposition, are nouns substantive.\n\nThere are in the English language more substantive names than seem to be\nnecessary for an universal language, besides the synonymas of various\nother dialects, which are incongruous in sense, with the hieroglyfic\nsigns, and tend to darken and confound the natural sense and sounds of\nnames and things. Tho\u2019 the English vocables are explained elsewhere,\nwe shall here take notice of some peculiarities of that nature in the\nEnglish substantives.\n\nBl-ab, b-abe; ebb, gl-ebe; rib, tr-ibe; kn-ob, gl-obe; t-ub, t-ube; where\nthe final _e_ should be dropped, and the remaining vowel marked with a\ngrave accent, as tub, t\u00f9b.\n\nB-ack, b-ake; b-eck, b-eke; l-ick, like, link; p-ock, p-oke, m-uck,\np-uke. These might be wrote as lic, l\u00ecc.\n\nAx, sex, ra-dix, ox, ux, as acs or ach as formerly. Ach, be-ach, spe-ech,\nst-ich, l-och, n-och, touch.\n\nM-atch, l-etch, itch, b-otch, sm-utch.\n\nH-ac, ar-se, ace, dice, d-oce, d-uce.\n\nH-ag, l-eg, g-ig, l-og, h-ug.\n\nAge, b-adge, coll-ege, edge, se-ige, br-idge, d-oge, l-odge, subterf-uge,\nb-udge.\n\nAight, eight, f-ight, f-ought, o-ught. These eight last classes are\nmade use of to express the three subsisting sorts of actions, viz. the\nlocal or inanimate, the generative and energic, when the first might be\nexpressed by c, the second by g, and the third by ch, as, ac, \u00e0c, and\na\u00e7 with a cedille, that is, the acute, the grave, and soft or feminine;\nag, \u00e0g, \u0101g for the short, long, and soft of the generative species of\nmotion; and ach, \u00e0ch, and \u0101ch, the last to be sounded like the Welsh ch\nor the English _wh_ in what or where, for the acute, grave, and gutteral\nof energies and animal motions; so that these three letters, which the\nWelsh inflect so as to express the cases and genders by the difference\nof acute, grave, and gutteral, might very well serve for all the uses of\nthe eight last classes of names, should the whole be deemed necessary.\nBut, those of the third, fifth, eighth, and ninth classes are compound\nsounds expressed by a combination of characters, which ought not to be\nkept together but in terminations; they having been corruptly introduced\ninto languages by the Greeks and Romans, in order to express qualities\nand pleasant sounds contrary to the nature of things.\n\nBre-ad, bl-ade, br-ed, br-eed, ma-id, si-de, c-od, c-ode, b-ud, pr-ude,\nshould be wrote and accented as ud, \u00f9d.\n\nSt-af, st-ave, be-ef, be-eve, l-ife, ol-ive, beho-of, beho-ove, c-ave,\nmight be made staff and st\u00e0f, as formerly.\n\nAn-im-al, male, h-ell, h-eel, circ-le, Apr-il, v-ill, b-ile, car-ol,\npar-ole, c-ull, b-ull, m-ule, might be wrote and accented al, \u00e0l, el, \u00e8l,\nil, \u00ecl, not eel, ol, \u00f2l, ul, \u00f9l; or as the Welsh and Spanish aspirate ll.\n\nH-am, l-ame, sarc-asm, anth-em, th-eme, apoth-egm, cla-im, cl-ime,\nquiet-ism, wisd-om, h-ome, mikrocosm, ch-um, h-ume, usm. Here the final e\nmight be dropped, and the Greek compounds have no particular meaning; all\nbeing alike expressive of the forms of substances and things.\n\nMe-an, m-ane, g-ang, p-en, obsc-ene, chall-enge, p-in, p-ine, th-ing,\nmo-ti-on, t-ong, b-un, b-ung. These signify various existences and\nthings, and are properly accented; but the final e might be exchanged in\nwriting, for the grave accent, m\u00e0n.\n\nAttend-ance, abstin-ence, prov-ince, sc-once, d-unce. These may do as to\northography and accent, and signify the ens or essence of various things,\nas, ance of earthly substances, ens those of water, ince of things in\ngeneral, once of motion, and unce of man, as in dunce or di-unce a\nprivative of the human essence.\n\nAnt, ag-ent, m-int, f-ont, h-unt, signify the possession of the earth\nand water or property, properties in general, the property of motion\nand human property, that is of hunting or driving to and fro in the\npossessions.\n\nG-ap, g-ape, sle-ep, p-eep, tr-ip, tr-ipe, h-op, h-ope, s-up, d-upe,\nshap, ship, shop. Here the grave accent might serve for the final e; the\nmeaning thereof being the division generally of matter into substances or\nparts, except the terminations shap, ship, and shop, signifying from high\nor high.\n\nCell-ar, c-are, be-er, p-er, or pear, f-ir, fire, clam-or, st-ore, c-ur,\ncens-ure, am-our or am-ur, here the final e might be dropped; and ar\nsignifies upon, \u00e0r earth, er since, \u00e8r water, ir high or to, \u00ecr fire, or\nfrom, \u00f2r an extension of possession, or a circle, ur or wr a man.\n\nLam-as, ass, g-aze, ash, be-ast, actr-ess, sque-ese, fl-esh, ap-ish-ness,\napt-ness, ch-est, bl-iss, s-ize, f-ish, l-ist, m-oss, d-oze, osh, c-ost,\nb-uss, f-uze, bush, b-ust, might be all expressed and accented as, as,\n\u00e0s, ash, ast to express the affirmations and energies of affections,\nproperties, and things.\n\nP-at, p-ate, p-et, def-ete, b-it, b-ite, kn-ot, m-ote, c-ut, mute, p-ath,\nt-eeth, fa-ith, m-oth, mo-uth. These express the identity and property\nof different parts or things, and the final e might be exchanged for the\ngrave accent.\n\nAbili-ty, agili-ty, ami-ty, du-ty, antipa-thy, apa-thy, sympa-thy. These\nsignify different general properties and qualities of things.\n\nAristocra-cy, oligar-chy, ordina-ry, mason-ry, orator-y, lecher-y,\ngrocer-y, orthodox-y, ha-y, ho-y. The cy and chy signify different\nqualities, and the y is the Welsh _the_.\n\nMa-w, me-w, mo-w, and s or es for substantives of a plural nature. This w\nsignifies different springs.\n\nSubstantives are distinguished by grammarians into appellatives or\ngeneral names of things common to many individuals, as _man_, _river_,\n_month_, _wind_; and proper names, appropriated only to individuals,\nas, _George_, _Britain_, _London_, _October_, _Libs_, which admit of\nneither articles or plurality of numbers. But all words, excepting one\nor an, according to their natural meaning seem to me to be appellative\nand capable of being applied to things of a plural nature, were their\nprimitive sense understood, as for instance, _George_, which originally\nsignified _a chief of the circle nation_, as an appellative name of a\nmagistrate, in the same manner as King, Prince, Duke, or any other;\nbut when its original meaning was lost, and it came to be adopted as a\nChristian name by different families, it was thence supposed to be a\nmere arbitrary term, imposed as the name of an individual; and so as\nto Britain, London, October, Libs, Thames, Avon, which were originally\nappellatives or common expressions for _the sea coast_, _long towns_,\n_the eighth month from the spring_, _the west south-west, or Libian\nwind_, _the limits of the Iceni_, and _Rivers_. So that these names,\nso long as their original meanings were understood, were as much\nappellative or common expressions, as man, river, month, wind, or any\nother common names, and as capable too of a plural or singular sense,\nin concord with the articles or demonstrative pronouns; as, _a_, _the_,\n_this_, or _that_, chief of the circle nation or long town, &c. Hence\nthe distinction of common and proper names seems to be frivolous and\nunnecessary.\n\nAll substantives were originally appellative and plural, and the\narticles and demonstrative pronouns were set in apposition or as\nterminations thereto, to determine their singular nature as well as the\nidentity of the individual. But as they are now mostly understood as\nthe signs of single things, the English method of adding s or es as a\nplural termination, should be generally followed as the best method;\nunless substantives and their articles should be restored to their\noriginal sense and use; but in either case the particles, an or en, as\nterminations of plural names, when the sense will admit of their being\nsingular, and en does not express the male and female of the same kind,\nas men does both man and woman, seem to be improper. Nor is it best so\nto continue the use of such plurals, as mice, lice, teeth, feet, geese,\nbut rather mus, lus, toth, fot, gus, which are so in their nature, as\nexpressing the little eaters, the little family, the grinders, the movers\nand the water nation. It is however certain that the numbers of nouns are\nin their nature but two, singular and plural, one and two or many, but\nwhether they are expressed by one or an, and two or as and es seems not\nto be very material, tho\u2019 as and es were the primitive signs, as, _as_\nsignified the masculine gender, and _es_ the feminine. And numbers and\ngenders ought to be the same.\n\nThere were originally no other distinction of genders of nouns than\nthe masculine and feminine, and which were distinguishable only by\nthe signification of vocables; and whatever other arbitrary modes\nand distinctions as to genders of nouns and their declensions or\ninflections have been arbitrarily made by other nations, the English\nstill in fact adhere to the original masculine and feminine genders,\nthe only distinction of nature, _as_ and _es_; for were the meaning\nof substantives precisely understood, they would all appear to be\neither masculine or feminine, at least, as relative to man and woman,\nor according to their active and passive, or hard and soft sounds. Nor\ndo the English adjectives or pronouns vary as to genders, numbers, or\ncases, as has been supposed; but naturally agree in concord, without any\nvariation or inflection thereof, from their primitive state.\n\nIndeed if the Welsh modes of inflection derive their origin from the\noriginal language, which was musical, and vocables could be reduced to\ntheir true primitive state, perhaps it might be the best way, but as that\nmight be impracticable or too arduous a task, we may as well stick to\nour old English voices, which deviate so very little from the primitive\nlanguage.\n\nAnd, as to any variation of cases or the declension of nouns, the English\nstill remains in the primitive state of language without any; their\nprepositions being fully expressive of the situation and direction of\nactions and things, and those of other nations being altogether arbitrary\nand calculated more for the sake of variety and preservation of vocables,\nthan from any necessity, as their prepositions and vocables might in\ntheir primitive state be as expressive, and agree in concord, like the\nEnglish, which has no other state or case, than that in which names were\noriginally formed, or the nominative, as will appear to any one, that\nwill be at the trouble of a deliberate consideration of the origin,\nframe, and construction of the English language, whatever may have been\nadvanced by our modern grammarians, as to the variation of the genitive\nor possessive case.\n\n\nOf Pronouns or general Personates.\n\nPronouns, so called from their being supposed to be mere substitutes\nof nouns, ought according to their signification to be deemed either\nsubstantives or adjectives; for as general signs they serve to personate,\ndemonstrate, relate, and interrogate persons, things, and parts of\ndiscourses; and being all demonstrative and interrogative, they are\nproperly distinguishable only into the following sorts, viz.\n\n    Personals.                      Possessives.      Relatives.\n\n  1. I, me, myself;               my - own, mine;   one, any, none.\n\n  2. Thou or you, thee, thyself;  thy - thine;      this, each, every,\n                                                      either.\n\n  3. He, she, it, him, her,       her, its - hers;  that, some, another,\n     himself, herself;                                such.\n\n  4. We, us, ourselves;           our - ours;       who, whose, whom.\n\n  5. Ye or you, yourselves;       your - yours;     which.\n\n  6. They, them, themselves;      their - theirs;   what.\n\nTho\u2019 the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin pronouns are, with the other\nparts of speech, all defined in the vocabulary at the end of this\nessay, it may not be improper here to observe in general, as to their\nsignification, that the first personal pronoun substantively, and not\nsubstitutionally signifies man as an indefinite line placed alone or by\nhimself in the centre of things before his extension or division into U\nthe male and female spring; the 2d, the-o-U or y-o-U, the _off man_ or\nwoman; 3d, man extended into T, or in his race and possessions; and hi\nand shi, the male and female forms and existences; 4th, mankind; 5th, the\nfirst and second female persons; 6th, all mankind, persons, and things,\nexcept the first second and third persons singular. The possessives\nexpress all things to be _in man_, as one universal possessor; and to\nrelate to his descendents as their qualities and properties. The relative\nand interrogative _which_ is a compound of wch-ich signifying the above\naction, as _ich_ means the first act of motion or creation, and uch man\u2019s\nutmost return of that act or spring upwards. And so used as a general\nrelative and interrogative of all actions, as _who_ is of persons, and\n_what_ of things, and as to the rest they are particularly explained in\nthe vocabulary.\n\nThe personal pronouns and such of the possessives and relatives as will\nnot join with substantives in construction, are substantives, and the\nrest are adjectives; and pronouns like other English nouns, have no\nvariation or declension of person, number, gender, or case, but each is\nan original, distinct name. So that to attempt any further distinction\nof pronouns, like all other unnecessary distinctions, would tend to the\nconfusion, rather than the illustration of language, and they perhaps\nmight be better distinguished by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or their original\nsignification of 1st, 2d, 3d, persons singular and plural; tho\u2019 such\nnames as have no foundation in nature, may require more arbitrary rules\ntowards their explanation.\n\n\nOf Nouns Adjective and Participle.\n\nAdjective and participle nouns are _added_ to substantives and\npropositions, as expressive of the attributes or qualities, affections,\nand accidents of things, as in the following example; The _preying_ beast\nwas _daring_; the astonished guese are _fled_, _lost_, or _stolen_; and\nhe is still _pursuing_ a fled, lost, or stolen gus, in order to make a\n_sweet_ morsel of its garbage; but all such sensations are _nauseous_\nto human nature. But qualities were originally expressed by the verbal\nactives, with few particles, and the compounded sorts were adjected\nthereto.\n\nAnd qualities being the effects of light, heat, and motion, flowing upon,\nwarming or penetrating bodies differently modified in various degrees,\nand the sensations thence produced in us, as those of colours, tastes,\nsounds and feeling, rather than any internal offences or properties of\nmatter or substances, adjectives assert or express their subsistence\nas the attributes of various substances and things, as the following\nspecimen of English adjectives shews.\n\nThere are no adjectives terminating in b except _ib_, which signifies\nlife to beings, as in glib _liquid_, and bib to _drink_; for ab, eb, ob,\nub, signifying from or out of life, would be improper to express life\nto things, as descending upon, and penetrating them, so as to give them\nmotion, growth, generation, and sensation. Nor is there any adjective\nterminating in the letter p, it being expressive only of the parts of\nmatter, as divisor of a, e, o, and t.\n\nAc, ec, ic, oc, uc, and their softer inflections, are expressive of the\ndifferent modes of motion, as local, generative, and energic actions\nand their contraries, as in, weak, _our action_, black, _shut from the\nlight_, slack and lag, _a low or earthly action_, meek, _a feminine\naction_, epic, _an action past_, like _the first action of light_, high,\n_man acting_, light, _its active property_, coasting, _acting along the\nedge or lower part of the possessions_, big, _a thing swoln with heat_,\nnigh, _acting in_, mock, _the motion of the cheek_, strong, _the property\nof the sun\u2019s motion below_, much, _the upper parts_.\n\nAd, ed, id, od, ud, signify an addition and division of qualities\nemanating on men, animals, and substances of earth and water, as in bad,\n_an earthly life_, broad, _an addition of country_, dead, _matter without\nthe addition of quality_, sad, _a low addition or quality_, glad, _that\nof being high_, mad, _the addition of being dumb_, or, _a brute_, red,\n_a diminution of the colour of light_, aged, _a past or diminished\naction_, cold, _the passive quality of being deprived of the sun\u2019s\naction_, blind, _deprived of animal light_, mid, _dividing the center\nof existence_, insipid, _a thing deprived of the internal taste_, arid,\n_the earth deprived_, calid, _deprived of a covering from the heat_,\ntid, _property diminished_, acid, _deprived of action_, acrid, _depraved\naction of fire_, wild, _deprived of volition_, odd, _deprived of or out\nof the circle of possession_, ward, _the spring or the division of man\nand woman_, rude, _the privation of truth_, crude, _a rude action_.\n\nAf, ef, if, uf, with the inflections ave and ive, affirm the various\nstate and situation of men and things in life, as, deaf, _he is deprived\nof sense_, safe, _he is standing_, slavish, _he is low_, brave, _he is\na warm or spirited being_, chief, _he is the first_, active, _it is the\nproperty of action_, dative, _he or it is giving to_, accusative, _it\nis acting at us_, abusive, _he is from us_, captive, _he is taken_,\nabortive, _he is from the border of possessions_, adjective, _it is cast\nto_, gruff, _he is an angry man_, bluff, _he is an hairy man_.\n\nAl, el, il, ol, ul, express the qualities of earth and water, as to the\nparts of extension and place, the ilation of the sun\u2019s light thereon, all\nextension and human intelligence, as in, actual, _upon or in the state\nof action_, aerial, _in the state of air_, adverbial, _in the state of\nan adverb_, real, _upon the return of matter_, usual, _upon the state of\nus_, genial, _in the state of generation_, bestial, _upon the property\nof the lower beings_, annual, _upon the return of the year_, able,\n_from hell_, or _being deprived of light_, ample, _an extensive place_,\ngenteel, _the first race_, level, _the place of the female extension_,\nsingle, _acting in a place_, little, _an extension of the rays of light_,\nagile, _the acting light_, chill, _without light_, civil, _a race living\ntogether_, evil, _privation of light_, idle, _about a place_, oll or\nall, _a circle extended_, whole, _man\u2019s place of action_, full, _man\nenlightened_, artful, _the light of man upon properties_, dull, _without\nhuman light_.\n\nAm, im, om, um, are expressive of the different forms, modes, and\nexistences of the circumambient bodies, as lame, _the mode of crawling_,\nwarm, _man covered about_, dim, _without extension_, firm, _the fire\nabout_, some, _the things seen and sounded_, dumb, _an earthly being_.\n\nAn, en, in, on, un, signify existences of earth, water, and motion in\ngeneral, and of man, as, mean, _me in earth_, human, _an earthly one_,\nsane, _sound one_, profane, _from purity_, clean, _an action of light\nupon matter_, ashen, _the lower one_, oak being the higher, even,\n_springing_, serene, _the stars in_, divine, _God in_, supine, _the low\nand up in_, benign, _being in_, twain, _two in_, one or un, _the spring\nor man in_, alone, _in the state of one_, none, _no one in_, boon, _the\nfood one_, wrong, _a man from acting upright_, dun, _the daily one_,\nyoung, _the growing one_.\n\nAr, er, ir, or, ur, are properties of earth, water, fire, extension,\nand human nature, as in clear, _the action of light upon_, dear, _upon\nthee_, near, _the not upon_, bitter, _the biting water_, eager, _water\nfrom action_, tender, _thin water_, dire, _he is hot_, intire, _in\npossession_, sore, _from the lower_, future, _the man in embrio to be\nborn_, pure, _a man\u2019s part_, immature, _too soon at man_.\n\nAs, es, is, os, us, affirm the different qualities of mankind and things,\nas, base, _a low or earthy thing_, adverse, _a spring downwards_,\ndiverse, _a divided spring_, worse, _a low man_, aguish, _it is from a\nspring_, apeish, _he is a son_, wise, _he is man_, actuose, _it is all\nactive_, close, _it is all shut_, globose, _it is all round as a ball_,\njocose, _it is all joy_, noise, _it is all nose_, as voice is all vocal,\nor the sound of the cheeks, upish, _he is up_, abstruse, _from our\nproperty_, astonish, _it is the tone of an ass or brutes_, babish, _that\nof a baby_, copious, _a copy of man_, ingenious, _internally generated in\nus_.\n\nAt, et, it, ot, ut, with their inflections and compounds signify property\nor in possession and existence, as, great, _the action of fire at or upon\nthe possessions_, last, _upon the lowest possession_, agast, _acting\nupon the lowest possession_, past, _a thing in the lowest possession or\nexistence_, vacant, _a thing without possession or property_, radiant,\n_a division of rays upon the possessions_, sweet and secret, _female\nproperties_, absent, _without possession or property_, agent, _acting in\npossession_, fit, _it is property_, apt, _a proper thing_, first, _the\nfire of life to the lower possessions_, instinct, _in action within_,\nwhite, _the upper property_, or _the firmament_, hot, _the action of the\nsun on things_, absorpt, _without a part of the circle of possession_,\nboth, _man and woman_, moist and most, _things on the ground_, abrupt,\n_from the earth up into the possessions_, just, _the property of\nmankind_, curst, _a man\u2019s action of the lower property_, occult, _actions\nwithout the property of light_, ancient, _one first in possession_,\ndecent, _fair in possession_, acute, _a springing property_.\n\nY, ly, ty, thy, are expressive of properties, existences, and qualities\ngenerally, as in, any _the one in action or possession_, many, _the more\nin action or possession_, dry, _the thing without water_, airy, _the\nair_, ashy, _the ash_, barrenly, _the barren race_, brotherly, _the\nbrother race_, happy, _the hap_, holy, _the high all_, sappy, _the sap_,\nforty, _the four tyes, times, rounds or tens_, swarthy, _the men of\nlower property_, wry, _from upright_; and thus are definable all other\nEnglish, Greek, Welsh, and Latin adjectives. These have been taken at\nrandom, and the Greek and Latin terminations of adjectives being all in\nas, es, eis, os, \u00f2s, oos, ous, us, on, and er, are mere affirmatives, by\nthe sight, sound, spring, and motion of things.\n\nSo that adjectives and participles are names, which imply assertions\nand attributes, as those of qualities, affections, and properties of\nsubstances and things generally; but making no compleat sense, nor\ndetermining any particular thing without being joined to another word as\n_a daring_, _a daring man_. In the English language they are not varied\nin respect to genders, numbers, cases, or otherwise, except as to the\ndegrees of comparison.\n\nThe three degrees of comparison mentioned by grammarians, are the\npositive, comparative, and superlative; the positive is the state in\nwhich the name was originally put; the comparative is formed by adding\n_er_, a spring beyond the original state, to the quality, where they\nwill agree in concord, as, deep, _deeper_, _deepest_, high, _higher_,\n_highest_, sweet, _sweeter_, _sweetest_; _est_ signifying a spring beyond\nthe limits of the possessions; forming the superlative degree; but where\nthose syllables will not so agree with the names and in participles, as\nin _aerial_, _ingenious_, _copious_, _daring_, _loving_, _loved_, the\ncomparative must be formed, by setting _more_, that is, mo-er a great\nspring, in apposition to the name; and the superlative by the addition of\n_most_, signifying a spring beyond the limits of the possessions.\n\n\nOf Prepositions\n\nA Preposition is a substantive part of speech set before other names,\nmost commonly substantives, either in apposition, as, _before a noun_,\nor in composition, as, _preposition_, to denote the situation or place\nof action, or rest of the things, to which they are joined; at the same\ntime implying their similar relations or kindred; and connecting the\nnames of substances, as, _from_ this book, _with_ the pen of the writer;\nor _from thence_, it may be inferred that prepositions are of themselves\nsignificant of things. But the use of prepositions or the names of cases\nare best understood from the following explanation thereof.\n\nIt is observable that O is an universal expression for the circle of\nmotion and extension; that i signifies a perpendicular line or man placed\nin its center; and that this line, with a traverse one, expressed by T or\n\u22a5 and signifying mankind and other beings and things as extended, and\nthe properties of man denote the nominative case, or that in which they\nwere first named; and all the other cases, as they happen upon, up or\ndown, or to or from either of these lines, are distinguished as in the\nfollowing example.\n\n[Illustration]\n\nThese prepositions are definable as follows.\n\nIn, with, within, to, into, unto, at, towards. In, signifies man placed\nin the center of existences, as a middle being, partaking of, and\nconnecting matter with spirit; with is the spring of i into male and\nfemale, and T their possessions inflected; within is the same in the\ncircle of possession: to is T-O, the property of motion from T to the\ncircle of motion; into the same within the possessions; unto, at, and\ntowards, the same towards man or the line of possession; afore, before,\nagainst, signify things or parts in and out of the borders of possession.\n\nAfter, behind, since, according to. After is off T or the border of\npossession; behind is to be after man in possession; since, having been\nin possession; according to, agreeing together in acting; between,\nbetwixt, among, amongst, for, from, about; for, the parts or things of\nthe circle of possession; about and from the parts or things within the\ncircle of possessions of men; between and betwixt, the line i dividing\nthe possessions; among and amongst, the things about the circle of\npossession. Above, up, on, upon; above, the upper spring of the human\nsight; up, the spring part, on and upon the sky.\n\nUnder, below, beneath, down. Under, not sprung within or up the\npossessions; down, not sprung in; below, from being up; beneath, to be\nnot in possession.\n\nOut, of, from, out of, without. Out, from the possessions of men and\nthings; of, the things within the borders; from, the surrounding parts\ntherein; without, out of possession.\n\nBy, through, over, over and above, besides, beyond, except, until. By,\nthe part; besides, below the part; beyond, by the upper covering; thro\u2019,\nfrom the possessions; over, from the spring of sight; except, acting out\nof the possession part; until, during the spring or possession of light;\nthe two last names serve also for conjunctions.\n\n\nCONJUNCTIONS.\n\nA Conjunction is an active part of speech, that connectively or\ndisjunctively joins together words and sentences, as the names of\nactions, as prepositions do those of substances. They have been divided\nby grammarians into various sorts; tho\u2019 the only significant distinction\nseems to be into copulatives, connectives, and disjunctives, as the two\nformer sorts absolutely connect and coalesce both the sentences and\ntheir meaning, or when the expression is only of mere local or inanimate\nmotion, barely move on, connect, and continue the sentence or discourse,\nwithout any compatibility of meaning; and the latter sorts conditionally,\nexceptionably, or interrogatively do the same. Of the first class are,\nand or ond, _on in division or discourse_, but, _be it as or by man and\nthings soon_, yet, _it is or springs_, also, _on so_, likewise, _the\nsame way_, still, _light on things_, altho\u2019, _upon to_, notwithstanding,\n_not opposing the former action_, however, _be the spring of action as\nit may_, nevertheless, _without any spring_, as, _the earth seen_, as\nwell as, _its surface or under it out of sight_, for, _the part in the\ncircle_, therefore, _the parts and spring within the circle_, wherefore,\n_the parts in which circle_, because, _by our own actions_, that,\n_towards possession_. And the disjunctives are the following; or, _the\npromiscuous things within the circle of possession_, either, _action\nor matter_, nor, _not the things promiscuously within the circle of\npossession_, neither, _no action or rest_, till or untill, _during the\nspring of light on the possessions_, whilst or while, _the action of the\nupper light on the possessions_, if, _life or is it life?_ unless, _my\nspring out_, except, _acting from the parts of possession_, besides, _by\nthe side_; and with which sense the Welsh, Greek and Latin conjunctions\ncorrespond, as appears by an analysis thereof at the end of this essay.\n\nAn example of their use and construction.\u2014Was it pride _and_ folly, _or_\navarice and envy, that caused the confusion of human speech? It was\n_neither_ the one or the other, _but_ the effect of some supernatural\ncause, _as_, the scripture informs us. _Nor_ is it probable, that so\ngreat a deviation could have naturally happened; _unless_ there was some\nvery great wilful perversion of the original language, _whilst_ mankind\nwere contending for possessions _as well as_ power. _Nevertheless_\nthe first language is _still_ recoverable, _notwithstanding_ its many\ndivisions and great disguise, _if_ the subject be adverted, after a\nright method. And _altho\u2019_ it may be _also_ attended with some labor to\nmankind, _except_ those already skilled in languages, _yet_ it may be\nattained by any English reader, that will endeavour it, _for_, _however_\nlanguages may differ, as to the manner of combination or construction\nof names and sentences, they are certainly one and the same in their\nprinciples, and _likewise_ in their particles; _because_ the letters and\nparticles of all languages appear by this essay to be still the same.\n_Besides_, as human speech derives its origin from a supernatural cause,\nits various dialects cannot differ as to their materials. _Wherefore_\nthen so many different opinions concerning these matters, _but_ from our\nown remissness? Let us _therefore_ exert our faculties in the laudable\nundertaking of recovering the first universal language, _that_ we may be\nthereby restored to our senses, which seem to be equally perverted.\n\n\nVERBS.\n\nVerbs are either simple or compound. The simple are those springs or\nenergic signs in human speech, which, mark the relation and connection\nof the subject and attribute of a proposition; and affirm or deny the\nagreement or disagreement betwixt things, as, man _is_ an animal.\nCompound or concrete verbs also include adjectives and participles; or\nthe qualities and attributes of the subject of a proposition, as, man\n_thinks_ or think is; sometimes only the subject, as _mae_, _eimi_, _I\nam_, or _sum_; and frequently the subject, affirmation and attribute,\nas, _walketh_, man is upon action. In some dialects verbs have been so\nmodified, as to denote or imply the modes, times, persons, genders, and\nnumbers of the things affirmed; and nominally distinguished, as verbs\nactive, passive, neuter, personal, impersonal, regular, irregular,\nauxiliary, and substantive; tho\u2019 according to their real use and\nsignification, all verbs seem to be substantive and auxiliary, and\neither singly, or conjunctively, with adjectives or participles, formed\ninto attributive or compound verbs, express all modes of actions and\naffirmations, as appears by the following instances; sum, I am, or,\n_it is man\u2019s existence_, es, the second person created or the feminine\ngender, est, the second, first, and a third person born of the first and\nsecond, fui, _I have lived or been_, fuisti, _thou hast lived or been_,\nfuit, he the person born, hath lived or been; amo, I love or _am for a\nwoman_, the first person, amas, the feminine the second person, amat,\nthe third person produced, the third person, am-avi for ui in fui, _he\nhas loved or been loved_, the past tense; doceo, I teach or _give the\nlowering action to man_, the first person, doc-es, the second person\nor feminine gender, doc-et the third proceeding from the other two,\ndoc-ui, as in fui, I have lived or been taught, the past tense; lego I\nread or _recall_, the first person, leg-is the second, leg-it the third,\nand leg-i, _man read_ the past; audio, I hear, or, _spring the passive\nsense_, au-di-is, au-di-it and au-di-vi, I have lived or been heard;\nand the conjugating particles seem to be the degrees of comparison, as,\na, e, i, or as, es is, male, female, mankind, or earth, water and fire,\nor motion and existences in general; and the persons of U _man_, and\nthence all things of the masculine gender the first person, as, es, or is\nsignifying the feminine in different degrees and qualities, the second,\nand at, et, it, the rest of mankind and things, the third person, am-us,\nem-us, im-us, all men of the male kind of the first person plural, atis,\netis, itis, all except the first person singular of the second, and ant,\nent, int, all mankind and things in different degrees, except the first\nand second person singular, of the third person plural; and thus may be\nexplained all the Latin and Greek modes of conjugating verbs.\n\nVerbs are farther distinguished by grammarians into active, passive,\nand neuter, as being expressive of actions, passions, or neither the\none or the other, but mere being or existing, as, _I love_, _am loved_,\n_live_, _walk_, _or stand_; tho\u2019 according to the signification of words,\nthere does not seem to be any real ground for the latter distinction,\nfor _to love_, _to be loved_, _to live_, _sleep or rest_, must signify\neither actions, active passions and energies, or their privation and\npassiveness. So that the distinction in this respect might be more\nproperly made into active and passive only, agreeable to the masculine\nand feminine, the only proper distinction of nouns as to genders; all\nactions, substances, and things, at least, as having relation to mankind,\nbeing either masculine or feminine, and the distinctions made by the\nGreeks and Romans being mostly arbitrary and contrary to the meaning of\nwords which ought to determine the genders of nouns.\n\nVerbs have a designation of person, corresponding with the personal\npronouns; of number with the singular and plural of nouns, of tenses\nas representing present, past, and future actions and things; and of\nmodes or the manner in which they ought to be expressed. But whatever\nnecessity there may be for a great variety of modes and tenses in\ndialects, constructed upon arbitrary principles, it does not appear that\nany more than one is needful for a natural language, or that the modes of\nconjugating verbs or any other, are in fact expressible by human speech\nany otherwise than by the whole form or order of inflection and things.\nAnd tho\u2019 present, past, and future, seem to be necessary expressions,\naccording to our present mode of conception, yet they are not in reality\nany representation of time, but of our manner of dividing or reckoning\nthe changes of motions or number of actions in extension, which in the\neternal state of spirits, or perhaps in a vacuum, might be deemed as one\nintire action or the present tense.\n\nSimple verbs or affirmatives are all substantive and incapable of being\ninflected themselves, but serve as auxiliaries in the affirmations and\ninflections of compound verbs, tho\u2019 alone, without the assistance of\ncompound verbs sufficient to express every mode of affirmations, of\nactions and things, and fully correspond with the nouns and pronouns,\nas for instance, _I am doing_, _have done_, _may_, _can_, _will_,\n_shall_, _must_, or ought to do; thou, _art doing_, hast done, &c; he,\nshe, a man, or, John _is doing_, _hath done_, _speaks_, _speaketh_, &c.\nWe _are_ or _were doing_, _have done_, &c; besides, _id_, _ed_, with\ntheir inflections ith and eth, and also _is_, added as affirmations in\nthe third person singular to compound verbs; which express attributes,\naffirmations, and persons, and sometimes the subject and number, tho\u2019\nthe number is commonly implied by the noun or pronoun. In the following\nspecimen of conjugating verbs, the persons, number, and actions or\ntenses are expressed by different words, with very few variations of\nterminations.\n\n\nThe Modes of Conjugating VERBS.\n\n  Numbers. Persons.\n                                    The present,\n\n                         Absolute.               Conditional.\n\n            1 {  I   { am, be, have, do,     } may, can, would,\n              {      { love, teach, read,    } should, or ought,\n              {      { hear.                 } to be, have, do, love,\n              {      {                       } teach, read, hear.\n              {\n              {      { are, be, have,        }\n  Singular. 2 { you  { do love,              }\n              {      { teach, read, hear.    }\n              {\n              {      { is, hath, doth,       }\n              { he   { loveth or loves,      }\n            3 {      { teaches, reads,       }\n              {      { hears.                }\n\n              {      { are, be, have, do,    }\n            1 { we,  { love, teach,          }\n              {      { read, hear.           }\n  Plural.   2 { ye,\n            3 { they,\n\n                                        past,\n\n                         Absolute.               Conditional.\n\n            1 {  I   } was, have been,       } might, could, would,\n              {      } had, did,             } should, ought to have been,\n              {      } loved, taught or      } had, done, loved, taught or\n              {      } teached, read, heard. } teached, read, heard.\n              {\n              {\n  Singular. 2 { you\n              {\n              {\n              {      { was, or hath been,    }\n              { he   { had, done, loved,     }\n            3 {      { taught, read, heard.  }\n              {\n\n              {      { were, or have been,   }\n            1 { we,  { had, done, loved,     }\n              {      { taught, read, heard.  }\n  Plural.   2 { ye,\n            3 { they,\n\n                                 and future tenses.\n\n                         Absolute.               Conditional.\n\n            1 {  I   } shall, will or must   } shall, will, or must\n              {      } be, had, done, loved, } have been, had,\n              {      } taught, read, heard.  } done, loved, taught,\n              {      }                       } read, heard.\n              {\n              {\n  Singular. 2 { you\n              {\n              {\n              {\n              { he\n            3 {\n              {\n\n              {\n            1 { we,\n              {\n  Plural.   2 { ye,\n            3 { they,\n\n                                     Imperative.\n\n            1   Let me be, have, do, love, } Let us be, have, &c.\n                teach, read, hear.         }\n                                           }\n  Singular. 2   Be, have, do, love,        } Be, have, &c. ye      Plural.\n                teach, read, hear, thou    }\n                                           }\n            3   Let him be, have, do,      } Let them be, have, &c.\n                love, teach, hear.         }\n\n         Infinitive.                     Participle.\n\n     To be, have, do, love,          Being, having, doing,\n      teach, read, hear.              loving, &c.       present.\n\n     To have been, had, done,        Been or having,\n       loved, taught, read, heard.     had, &c.          past.\n\nThe feminine or endearing inflections of the second persons _thou_ and\n_ye_ have been omitted, as needless, since they all agree with the\npronouns _you_ and _ye_, and the only changes are from are and be to\n_art_ and _beest_, have to _hast_, were to _wert_, shall and will to\n_shalt_ and _wilt_, and might to _mightest_, and do to _dost_; but to\nmake use of them in the masculine gender, would be depreciating it. And\nthe participle perfect, being superfluous, it has been likewise omitted;\nfor as _ing_ the present is compleat, so is _ed_ for the past or the\nprivative of springs or actions.\n\nThe signification of the conjugating verbs in the four languages is as\nfollows, viz. 1. Am, mae, \u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9, sum, _in full form of existence_; be, fi,\n\u03c6\u03c5\u03c9, fio, _I live_; can, dichon, \u03b4\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, possum, _in act_ or able to\nact; may, amhay, \u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03b9, sim, _about acting_; would, could, should, might,\nought, buasun, \u03b5\u03b9\u03b7\u03bd, essem, _the will or act sprung or past_; shall,\nwill, must, byddaf, \u03b5\u03c3\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, ero, _the lower acting up, the spring of\nhuman light, the lower things sprung up_; was oeddun, \u1fc6\u03bd, eram, _man or\nspring past_; have been, bum, \u1fc6\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd, fui, _acted in life_. 2. Are, ere,\nor art, beest, wit, or idwit, \u03b5\u03b9\u03c2, es, _the lesser spring, and it is the\nspring of life_. 3. Is, it is, fi, id, idiu, \u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, est, _it is seen,\nsounded, smelt_, &c; hath, _it acts_; had or ha-ed, _action past_; hadst,\n_a female action past_; do or dost, _motion past_. 4. Are, ym, \u03b5\u03c3\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd,\nsumus, _men in the spring_; were, buasom, \u03b5\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1, eramus, _men sprung_.\nLet, bydd, \u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf, esto, _extend_ or take thy place; to be, bod, \u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9,\nesse, _the property of motion to beings_, which converts substantives\ninto adjectives; ing, _in action_; it is not, nid, \u03bf\u03c5\u03ba \u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9, non est,\n_there is no motion_.\n\nAll English verbs which vary from this mode of inflection being erroneous\nand irregular, ought not to be established by grammatical rules, but\nrestored to the primitive state in the present tense, and marked in\nthe past tense with the proper accent; or if it should appear to be\nnecessary, to add proper conjugations. But as verbs lose their qualities\nor active state in the past tense, the English verbs ending in d and t\nin the past tense, have been very properly diminished and substantived,\nand accordingly contracted in their sounds, of ed to that of d and t, as\ntaught from teached, when the ch was accented hard, and a like the German\na or o, felt for feeled, checkt for checked, slept for sleeped, left for\nleaved, gilt for gilded, bled for bleeded, fed for feeded, had for haed,\nfed for feeded, fled for flyed, sold for selled, and such others as are\nso contracted without any other variation, that are capable of a past\ntense, except, _let_, _put_, _do_, _think_, and other imperatives, which\ncan form no perfect past tense, without the aid of the auxiliary verb\n_have_, to express some degree of human energy or return to the creative\nfiat. And as all other tenses seem to be arbitrary and indefinite, the\nbest way of expressing the minuter divisions of actions must be by\nadverbs or numerals.\n\nAnd as there is no sort of foundation or necessity for the participle\nperfect, the best way of correcting those verbs which are supposed to\nbe irregular therein, would be to drop it as superfluous, and fully\nas well expressed by the past tense, as help, helped, without holpen,\ncleave, cleaved, or cleft, instead of cleave, clave, clove and cloven,\nhang hanged, for hang hung. And as to the forming a regular past tense,\nby reducing irregular verbs to their primitive state in the present\ntense, the following may perhaps be no improper observation, viz. _all_\nin fall, before the corrupt sound of the northern a, as that of o, was,\nas it ought to be, accented, like _ale_ in pale, and marked with a long\naccent, as signifying _from high_; its past tense accented short, as\n_all_ in shall; and wrote _fall_ and not fell; the e not having then\ntaken the place of a, nor a, that of o; shake, signifying _a passionate\naction of a subject_, is properly accented and wrote in the present\ntense, but its past tense having partaken of the northern accent, it\nthen came to be wrote and accented _shook_, instead of _shaked_, which,\nnotwithstanding its long establishment by vulgar custom ought to be\nrectified accordingly; and so as to swear, heave, freeze, abide, strike,\ndig, and various other instances, where the e has assumed the place of a,\na of o, o of a, e, i, or u, of i, or any other change of vowels from the\npresent, to form the past tense; except such as _do_ and _did_, which are\ndifferent words, and of themselves incapable of any inflection. And the\nEnglish terminations _an_ and _en_, borrowed from the northern dialects,\nadd nothing to the meaning of our names, but the English, or Engli-Saxon\nnames, are of a southern or Celtic origin, and as fully expressive of the\nmeaning to which they are applied without them; except where they are\nadded to form the singular number, or to active names as substantiving\narticles, as in all other Celtic dialects.\n\n\nADVERBS.\n\nAdverbs are certain energic or active particles or _additional_ verbs\nadded to, or joined with other names in propositions, to denote the\ndegrees and manner of things, as to quantity, situation, quality,\nmotion, and rest. Of quantity, as less, lesser, least, much, more,\nmost, great, greater, greatest, long, longer, longest, short, shorter,\nshortest, broad, broader, broadest. Of situation or place, as where,\nwhither? up, down, above, below, high, higher, highest, here, there,\nyonder, far, farther, farthest, within, without, upwards, downwards,\nforwards, backwards, and such as are expressive of the situation of\nbodies in motion, or at rest. Of qualities, as wisely, knowingly,\nsensibly, decently, likely, fairly, warmly, foolishly, beastly, coldly,\nhardly, and such as express intentional qualities. Of motion and rest;\nas comprehending affirmatives, interrogatives, interjectories, and those\nimproperly called adverbs of time, as, when? now, anon, then, yesterday,\nto-day, to-morrow, henceforwards, ever, never, how often? often,\noftener, oftenest, once, twice, thrice, seldom, however, away, begone,\nadieu, speedily, slowly, verily, yes, yea, no, why, however, perhap,\nalternately, as, alack, ha, alas, ho, oh.\n\nThere are no other sorts of adverbs, expressive of the order, time, or\nmanner of things, as appears by the definition of those of the four\nlanguages in the vocabulary; nor does it thence appear that there is in\nfact above three sorts of adverbs, namely, quantity or extension or bulk\nof bodies; quality or an illation of light, heat and motion thereon,\nand penetrating the same, expressed by _ly_, as _ty_ does extension in\nsubstantiving qualities; and motions energic, animate, and local, with\nthe contraries, as privation, rest, and matter. And the degrees, like\nadjectives, are compared by adding _er_ and _est_, as comparative and\nsuperlative, to the positive or the state or degree of beings and things\nin act, or putting _more_ or _most_ in apposition thereto.\n\nThe degrees of distance and situation, are reckoned like prepositions,\nupon lines, upright, across, or slantways, extended from the centre of\naction or existence in our system where man is supposed to stand; or upon\nman as a mikrocosm standing up with arms extended; his head representing\nthe unseen celestial system, being the superlative degree upwards, the\nextent of his sight or the sky, the comparative, his body or the world,\nthe positive, upwards, downwards, and crosswise, his limbs below the\nparts of generation, as representing the parts below the earth\u2019s surface\nor growth part, the comparative downwards, and beyond it the superlative,\nthe extent of view, the comparative sideways, and beyond it the\nsuperlative, as appears by the definition of Adverbs in the vocabulary.\nAnd tho\u2019 interjections are supposed to add nothing to the sentence, they\ncertainly express the sorts and degrees of energy with which the whole is\naffirmed.\n\n\nSYNTAX.\n\nHaving thus explained the several parts of a rational grammar, it now\nremains only to lay down some general rules for their construction,\ninto simple and compound sentences, according to their natural concord,\ngovernment, and arrangement.\n\nAll the parts of speech, which were originally only particles of one\nor two letters, having naturally coalesced and united, in more complex\nnames, and words or propositions, without the assistance of art, so\nin all languages, like the English, in which respect both the simple\nand complex names still retain their primitive state, without any loss\nof their natural powers of construction, by any arbitrary addition or\ncombination of artificial signs or modes of concord, like the Greek and\nLatin, the parts both simple and complex being precisely understood,\nwill still be governed by their meaning, and naturally coincide in\nsentences, in the same manner as the ideas of a person unacquainted\nwith the artificial rules of logick, are by their natural relation\nlogically connected and formed into regular thesises, hypothesises and\nsynthesises. As for instance; a person, who perfectly knows the meaning\nof the parts, can in his mind form and express the following sentences;\ntwo and two of any thing are, _is_ or is to be sounded four, and not\nthree; and should they happen to be horses, whether with or without\nshoes, they must be the horses of some man, rather than those of a cow;\nbut if they are delivered, in whatever place they stand, it must be to\nand from some place, and by and to some body, or if they should only be\ncalled, it ought to be done by their right names. Or; supposing Adam,\n_i_, or any one know myself or himself to be the first man, inhabiting\nspace, and that his length and breadth of extension, was at all times or\nupon all motions, and as much more, as he or i might by the extension of\nthe arms acquire, without dispossessing another, were our own property,\ni might, as the first existence and proprietor here of the kind, call\nmyself the first, one, or i. If I had a wife and a son, who had a wife\nand a son, and had been taught to tell seven in English, with their\nprecise meaning, I might as my next relation, as well as the second\nperson in existence, name my wife two or thou, my son, as the third in\nbeing and possession, I might name he, him, or three, which make up the\nnumber of the singular stock; and as to the plural number or stock, the\nfirst and second person of the singular, and the son which sprung from\nthem, with his son being four in number, and the first spring of the\nsecond stock might be named _we_, as the first person plural; the two\nwives _ye_, the second persons plural of the kind or genders; and all\nother persons excepting those of the singular number, as the grandson\nand his offspring, the sixth person from the first or the third in the\nsecond generation or plural number, _they_. Then if the first man or any\nother perfectly understood the meaning of all other names and energies,\nwhich appear to be as equally related to the nature of things as these,\nhe could have no difficulty of putting them together according to true\nconcord, as the meaning and signification would not permit him to err;\nnor indeed is the English to be taught by any other significant rules.\nThe parts of speech being precisely understood, the best way then of\nacquiring the right English construction, is carefully to observe the\nmanner and style of the best English writers, and to procure an habit\nthereof by reading and writing, rather than be perplexed by innumerable\ntedious and unmeaning rules of phrases, sentences, distinctions, and\nvariations of names, from their natural order; for which there is no sort\nof foundation in the English, or any other language of nature.\n\nBut since the English language is that here proposed as an universal one,\nit may not however be improper to take some little farther notice of the\nrules of English Syntax. In all languages to form a right sentence the\nwords must agree in construction with one another, as to case, number,\ngender, and person, either according to the natural order of things, or\nsome arbitrary mode of concord and government, by a variation of the\nterminations substituted in lieu thereof in particular languages. But the\nEnglish doth so only from the sense of the words, without any variation\nof terminations, except that es or s signifying the feminine gender,\nis sometimes added to form the plural number of substantives, and the\nsubstantive verb _is_, or the pronouns _it_, _with_ its inflections, to\nform the third person singular of verbs, and as and es in some instances,\nto express the masculine and feminine genders.\n\nAnd though it has no other case but the nominative, or any variation\nof cases at all, yet all English verbs agree with the substantives in\nnumber and person, without any exception; and the state or situation of\nsubstantives are expressed by prepositions set in apposition thereto in\nthe same manner as the articles; nor have the adjectives any variations,\nbesides the degrees of comparison; and yet both they and participles\nagree with the substantives in gender, number and case; and when two\nsubstantives of different sorts of things come together, the place,\nstate, or case of the last is expressed by the preposition _of_ or-\u2019s,\nsignifying _of his_; unless the latter substantive is of the same sort\nwith, or explains the former; in which case they are both of the same\ncase, state, or situation. Conjunctions, adverbs, and relatives, serve to\nconnect sentences, as prepositions do words. The relatives _who_, _what_,\nand _which_, and all other English names as well as things, must agree\nwith the antecedents as their originals, whether persons, actions, or\nsubstantives. When two verbs come together, the latter is to be in the\ninfinitive mode.\n\n\nVOCABLES.\n\n    _An additional vocabulary of primitive nouns defined, with a\n    separate explication of pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, and\n    prepositions; which compleats what has been already published,\n    of the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin primitive names, and\n    fully explains the nature and origin of all the vocables and\n    parts of those several languages._\n\nABHOR, DETEST, HATE; CASHAU, TROI YMAITH; MUDASOMAI, STUGEO, AVERSOR,\nODIO HABEO. These signify to turn from one with a scornful note of\nexclamation, or scornful motion or manner.\n\nABLE; GALLU, DICHONI; DUNAMAI, POSSUM. To be up or high in existence.\n\nACCEPT, TAKE, SNATCH; CYMERYD, DERBYN, CIPIO; DECHOMAI, LAMBANO, ARPASO;\nACCIPIO, CAPIO, RAPIO. To enter into possession of places and things.\n\nACCURATE; DYFAL, MANWL; AKRIBOS; EXQUISITUS. Active in running to, seeing\nsmall things, and above active in things.\n\nACORN; MES; BALANOS; GLANS, the lesser or beast food.\n\nACT, DO, MAKE; AG, EGNI, GWNEID; AGO, POIEO; AGO, FACIO, the moving or\nacting quality or property.\n\nADD, GIVE, PUT; RHOI, DODI, DODIAT; DIDOMI, TITHEMI, EPITITHEMI; DO,\nADDO, PONO, to act, put, or add, from one thing to another.\n\nADMIRE, WONDER; RHYFEDDU, ANRHYFEDDI; AGAO, THUMASO; DEMIROR, ADMIROR, to\ndivide or advert the action of the great high light or the sun.\n\nADORN, DECK, DRESS; HARDDU; KOSMEO, KAZO, AGALLO; ORNO; to add to, or\nupon the lower covering.\n\nADVERB; RHAGFERF; EPIRREMA; ADVERBIUM, signify additional or increased\nverbs. See the vocabulary of adverbs.\n\nAGREEABLE, GRATEFUL, THANKFUL; DIOLCHGAR; LAROS; GRATUS, acting together\nwith equal spring or warmth, or equally in the division of the high light.\n\nAIR; AUIR; AER; AER, water and fire, the earth\u2019s spring.\n\nALE, BEER; CORW; ZUTHOS; CEREVISIA, the nourishing, feeding, and\nrejoicing liquid in a secondary sense.\n\nALL or OLL, WHOLE; OLL, CUBOL; PAS, OLOS; Omnis, Totus, all space,\nextension, and existence.\n\nAM, to be; BOD, MAE; EIMI; SUM, to live or be in existence.\n\nAMAZEMENT, ASTONISHMENT; SYNDOD; THAMBOS; STUPOR, the lower existences or\nbeings without sight.\n\nANCHOR; ANGOR; ANKURA; ANCHORA, from acting.\n\nANOTHER; AIL, NAILL, ARALL; ALLOS, ETEROS; ALIUS, ALTER, from their\npossessions, or the country, or luminaries from in a primary sense.\n\nANT, PISMIRE; MYRGRYG; MYRMOS; FORMICA, the community, or the little\nactive millions in a secondary sense.\n\nAPE, MONKEY, BABOON; EPA, MONCI; PITHEX, KERKOPITHEKOS; CERKOPITHECUS,\nCYNOCEPHALUS, a man dog, an offspring or a dog like man.\n\nAPPLE, PUPIL of the EYE; GLEINI; GLENE; PUPILLA, our action, spring, or\npart of light.\n\nARRIVE, COME; DYFOD, CYNHYRCHU; ERCHOMAI; VENIO, to be together upon one\nspot or possession.\n\nARROW, DART, JAVELIN; SAETH, PICCELL, TAFL; OISTOS, BELOS, ATOS; SAGITTA,\nTELUM, JACULUM, upon the line, stretch or spring.\n\nARTERY; RHEDWELI; AORTE; ARTERIA, the spring of life.\n\nAS MUCH; CYMAINT; TOSOS; TANTUS, the first action or motion seen in\nextension.\n\nASH; ONEN; OREINE; ORNUS, FRAXINUS, the lowest, highest, or brittle one.\n\nASK, SEEK, SEARCH; CEISIO, CHWILIO, DYMUNO; EROTAO, DIZO, ETAZO, DEOMAI,\nZETEO; QU\u00c6RO, EXAMINO, QU\u00c6SO, acting after, seeing for, &c.\n\nASSEMBLY, COMPANY, MULTITUDE; CYNLLEIDFA, LLIOS, TURFA, CYMANFAI; OMILOS,\nAGELE, PLETHOS; C\u00c6TUS, GREX, TURBA, many living or being together in the\nsame part, place or country.\n\nASSIDUOUS, DILIGENT; DIVID, PARHAUS; LIPARES, EPIMELES; ASSIDUUS,\nDILIGENS, it is slavish, everlasting or never-failing.\n\n\nB.\n\nBANQUET, FEAST; CYFEDDACH; EUOCHIA; CONVIVIUM, living high together.\n\nBASHFULNESS; GWILDER; AIDOS; VERECUNDIA, a man full low and inactive.\n\nBASTARD; ORDDERCHFAB; NOTHOS; NOTHUS, a lesser son of the house, as born\nof a concubine, dwelling in the house, and not spurious, as when the\nfather is unknown.\n\nBE, BE BORN, GO; BOD, WYF, MYNED; GEINOMAI, EO, TUNCHANO; SUM, FIO, to\nbe, move or live within the circle of existence.\n\nBEAKE, BILL; PIG, GYLFIN; RHUNCHOS; ROSTRUM, the place of food, the nose\nor small divided end or edge.\n\nBEEHIVE; CYCHGWENYN; KUPSELE; ALVEARE, a shut upon bees.\n\nBEETLE; CHWIL; KANTHAROS; SCARAB\u00c6US, the blast race.\n\nBEG; GOFYN ELUSEN; LISSOMAI; IMPLORO, acting or asking earnestly for food\nor the palace gift.\n\nBEGUILE; TWILLO; DELEO; DECIPIO, to be without light or sight.\n\nBLAMELESS; DIGWL; AMUMON; INCULPATUS, to be unculled, or without\ndetraction.\n\nBOLD or BALD; HY; ITES; AUDAX, the high and active.\n\nBOND-SERVANT or SLAVE; GWAS CAETH; LATRIS; SERVUS, a confined servant.\n\nBOSOM; MYNWES; KOLPOS; SINUS, the hollow inside part of man.\n\nBRANCH; CANGEN; ERNOS; RAMUS, a spring on a lower.\n\nBRANDISH; CYNHYRFU; PALLO; VIBRO, to lift up or move the foot, arm, or\nother thing, with a spring so as to give it a shake.\n\nBRIGHTNESS; DISGLEIRDEB; AIGLE; SPLENDOR, the action of the high light on\nthe lower parts.\n\nBROIL; CRASU; OPTAO; TORREO, to heat without water.\n\nBRUSH, YSCUBO; KOREO; VEREO, to spring upon the lower parts.\n\nBUG or WOODLOUSE; CYNRHON; LORIS; CIMEX, a thing with a spear end acting\ninto another thing.\n\n\nC.\n\nCABBAGE; BRESYCH; KROMBE; BRASSICA, a shut upon the springing up.\n\nCABLE; RHAFANGOR; KALOS; RUDENS, a shut from acting.\n\nCANAL; CANOL, CAFN; SOLEN; CANALIS, a shutting in.\n\nCANON; CANON; KANON; CANON, a shut upon action.\n\nCARD; CRIBO; KNAPTO; CARMINO, acting into a thing with an edge.\n\nCARVE; CARFIO; GLAPHO; SCULPO, acting into or upon a thing.\n\nCATTLE; ANIFALTYN; KTENOS; JUMENTUM, the acting or drawing animals.\n\nCAVIL; CELLWAR; SKOPTO; CAVILLOR, acting or seeking to catch one slyly by\nwords.\n\nCAVITY; CEUEDD; KOTULE; CAVITAS, a place shut from sight.\n\nCHAFE or be ANGRY; DIGIO; ECHTHEO; INDIGNOR, to be heated or fired.\n\nCHAPEL; CAPAL; KLISIA; CAPELLA, the primitive places of devotion being\nopen and uncovered like Stonehenge, these signify such places covered at\nthe top.\n\nCHAPMAN; MERCHNATUR, PORTHMON; EMPOROS; MERCATOR, the portman or\nmarketman, or the chief of buying and selling, formerly set over all\nsorts of sales and markets.\n\nCHARIOT; CERBYD; RHAIDON, ARMA; CURRUS, RHEDA, the running or fighting\ncar or carriage.\n\nCHASTE; DIHALOG; AGNOS; CASTUS, undefiled or covering or keeping close\nthe female property.\n\nCHICKEN; CIW; POLOS; PULLUS, the first of the animal.\n\nCLOSET; CELL; MUCHOS; CELLA, a shut out of sight, or the resort of the\nMuses.\n\nCOAL; GLO; ANTHRAX; CARBO, a thing that has the action of the sun or\nfire, that is, a burning thing.\n\nCOFFER, COFFIN; ARCH, CIST; KIBOTOS; ARCA, a covering upon man or other\nthing.\n\nCOMB; CRIB; KTEIS; PECTEN, see CARD.\n\nCOME; CYNHYRCHU; IKNEOMAI; VENIO, to be together in one place.\n\nCONDUIT; MYNEDIAD; AMARA; MEATUS, a water shut so inclosed as to go\ntogether.\n\nCONE; CYN; CONOS; CONUS, a thing high and solid.\n\nCONJUNCTION; CYSYLLTIAD; SUZEUXIS; CONJUNCTION, a joining together. See\nthe list of conjunctions hereafter.\n\nCRAB, CRANC; KARKINOS; CANCER, an inclosed thing in the water.\n\nCRIER; RHYNGYLL; KERUX; PR\u00c6CO, one that calls or speaks between.\n\nCROW; BRAN; KORAX; CORVUS, a braying or croaking animal.\n\nCROWD; GYR; AGURIS; COETUS, a company of men or animals.\n\nCRUDE or CRYSTAL; CRYSIAL; KRUSTALLOS; CRYSTALLUS, a shining thing with\nthe crust or covering upon.\n\nCUBE; CYFOCHOR; KUBOS; CUBUS, equal sides.\n\n\nD.\n\nDAMAGE; DAMUEN, COLLED; BLABE; DAMNUM, for the place of the cattle.\n\nDANGER; PERYGL; KINDUNOS; PERICULUM, a place where the fire acts upon the\nparts.\n\nDASH; YSIGO, TARO; PROSKROUO; ALLIDO, to act or throw from high to the\nground.\n\nDAUGHTER; MERCH; THUGATER; FILIA, my race or female offspring.\n\nDEFILE, HALOGI; MIAINO; F\u00c6DO, to act in or upon one, or deprive one of\nhis daughter.\n\nDEPTH; DYFNDER; BATHOS; PROFUNDITAS, the ground of a dark part.\n\nDINNER; CINIO; ARISTOS; PRANDIUM, a meal at the breaking up of the first\nplowing of the day.\n\nDISSIPATE; DIFRODI; DIASPAO; DISSIPO, to deprive the country.\n\nDISTASTE; CAWDD; PTAISMA; OFFENSA, separate or go off this part?\n\nDO; GWNEID; AGO; AGO, to act or move.\n\nDOWRY; CYNESGAETH; PHERNE; DOS, the female gift.\n\nDRONE; EILIW, DIFFIGR; PHUKOS; FUCUS, one deprived of his sight or other\nenergic force.\n\nDROUGHT; SYCHDER; AUCHMOS; SICUTAS, the action of the firmament upon the\nlower parts, or being deprived of water.\n\nDWARF; COR, NAR; NANOS; NANUS, one not high grown, or just upon the\nground.\n\n\nE.\n\nENDEVOR; YMGAIS; PEIRASO; CONOR, to get up from being down or below.\n\nENRAGE; SWMBYLU; KENTEO; STIMULO; to act or prick into.\n\nEQUAL; GWASTAD, CYSTAL; OMALOS; \u00c6QUUS, even, upon the same stand or\ntogether.\n\nESTABLISH; SEFYDLU; BEBAIO; STABILIO, to rest the beast, or make them\nstand upon a particular part or spot.\n\nETERNITY; TRAGWYDDOLDEB; AIDIOS, AION; \u00c6TERNITAS, the circle of motion or\naction in extension, this world or during all spring.\n\nEXCUSE; ESGUSODI; APOLOGEOMAI; EXCUSO, to speak for the absent.\n\nEXERCISE; YMARFER; ASKEO; EXERCEO, to be out upon the spring.\n\nEXTINGUISHED; DIFOD; SBENNUO; EXTINGUO, to put a thing out of its\nexistence.\n\n\nF.\n\nFABLE; CHWEDL; AINOS; APOLOGUS, speaking of actions past.\n\nFABRICATE; GWNEITHR; TEUCHO; FABRICO, the action or work of a man, or\nman\u2019s hand, or in building.\n\nFADE; GWIFO; MARAINO; MARESCO, to be from springing, or growing, or dying.\n\nFAN; WYNTYLL; LIKMOS; VENTILABRUM, wind sprung by the hand.\n\nFASTING; IMPRYDIOL; NESTIS; JEJUNUS, lessening food or the season of\nfeeding.\n\nFASTEN or FIX; YMWTHIO; PEGNUO; COMPINGO, acting a thing lower in.\n\nFATE; COEL, DAMWAIN; AISA; SORS, where the action stands still or the\nthing falls.\n\nFATHER; TAD; PAPPAS, PATER; PAPPA, PATER, the seeding property, or a part\nof our property.\n\nFEMALE; BENW; THELUS; FEMINA; signify the mother of the male.\n\nFESTIVAL; GWIL; EORTE; FESTUM, the season.\n\nFETTER; TROEDOG; PEDE; PEDICA, a shut upon the feet.\n\nFIBRE; MANWYTHI; IS; FIBRA, the sounding small veins within.\n\nFIELD; MAES; AGROS; AGER, pasture or ploughed ground.\n\nFILE; LLIF; RHINE; LIMA, the sharp flower.\n\nFILL; LLENWI; ADO; SATIO, adding to place or extended parts.\n\nFILLET; TALAITH; KREDEMNON; VITTA, upon or about the head.\n\nFILTH; BYDREDDI; THOLOS; SORDES, the things along the ground.\n\nFINISH; DIBENU; ANUO; PERFICIO, to be in.\n\nFIRTREE; FYNIDWYDD; ELATE; ABIES, the long strait growth.\n\nFLEAS; CHWAIN; PSULLOS; PULEX, the leapers or flyers.\n\nFLOURISH; BLODEUO; THALLO; FLOREO. See the next.\n\nFLOW; LLIFO; RHEO; FLUO, in a primary sense signify an ilation of the\nsun\u2019s rays, or of its return of life, as growth, the flowing or reflowing\nof water, and other similar things.\n\nFLY; HEDEG; IPTAMAI; VOLO, to spring forward or lengthwise.\n\nFLY; GWYBED; MUIA; MUSCA, the blown things.\n\nFORBID; GWAHARDD; EIRGO; VETO, the action of woe, or stopping upon an\naction of driving.\n\nFORM; FURF; MORPHE; FORMA, things in the circle of life or existence in\ntheir primitive sense.\n\nFOUNDATION; SYLFAEN; THEMELON; FUNDAMENTUM, the quality of things, or the\norigin of property.\n\nFOUR; PEDAIR; TESSARES, TETOR; QUATUOR, are expressive of the firmament\nor light, mentioned in Genesis to be the work of the fourth day of the\ncreation, as appears by my former treatise upon this subject.\n\nFREE; RHYDD; ELEUTHEROS; LIBER, in their primary sense signify the action\nor flow of the sun\u2019s rays.\n\nFRIEND; CYFALL; PHILOS; AMICUS, another equal.\n\nFRIGHTEN; DYCHRYNU; ATUSO; TERREFACIO, from the action of the high fire\nor thunder.\n\nFRINGE; GODRE; KROSSOS; FIMBRIA, the edge round a thing.\n\nFROTH; EWIN; APHROS; SPUMA, springing on the water.\n\nFULL; LLAUN; PLEOS; PLENUS, in their primary sense signify the hand or\nother things extended with bodies.\n\nFUNERAL; ANGLADD; KTEREA; EXEQUI\u00c6, an interring.\n\nFURY; CYNDDAREDD; ERINNUS; FURIA, an infusion of fire.\n\n\nG.\n\nGARDEN; GARDD; ORCHOS; HORTUS, were the first inclosed grounds, which\nin Britain and other countries from an apprehension of deluges, were at\nfirst on the entrances of mountains, promontories or garths.\n\nGATHER; CITYRRU; AGEIRO; CONGREGO, to heap together.\n\nGAZE; YMSYNIED; THEAOMAI; CONTEMPLOR, to think or look on a thing or\nplace.\n\nGIRD; GREGISU; ZONNUO; CINGO, about a man\u2019s lower covering.\n\nGLEBE; GLYB, PORFA; BOLOS; GLEBA, the place of feeding or growth.\n\nGLITTER; DISGLEIRIO; AMARUSSO; FULGO, the action of the high light upon\nthe lower parts.\n\nGNASH; RHINCIAN; RHOIGEO; STRIDEO, the sound of acting between two things.\n\nGO or MOVE; MYNED; BAINO; EO, man going, moving or springing.\n\nGOOD; DAIONUS; AGATHOS or EVS; BONUS, the root or spring of us.\n\nGRAPE; GRAWNWIDD; STAPHULE; UVA, a growth from fire and the spring of\nlife.\n\nGRASSHOPPER or LOCUST; LOCUST or EDNOGUN; AKRIS; LOCUSA, things or\ngenerations that cover the ground.\n\nGREEDY; AWYDDUS; LABROS; AVIDUS, for growing or increasing.\n\nGROVE; LLWYN; ALSOS; LUCUS, a part extended with woods.\n\nGROUND; LLAWR; OUDAS; SOLUM, the part of the earth under and round about\nus.\n\nGUEST; LLETEIWR; XENOS; HOSPES, a lodger and boarder for a short time.\n\n\nH.\n\nHALF; HANER; HEMISUS; DIMIDIUS, divided in the middle.\n\nHALTER; TENYN; PHIMOS; CAMUS, a thing to draw up.\n\nHAMMER; MORTHYL; SPHURA; MALLEUS, a great stroke to drive in a lower\nthing.\n\nHAPPY; DEDWYDD; OLBIOS; FELIX, a joyful thing or springing property to\nman, all life and high life.\n\nHEARTH; AILWYD; ESCHARA; FOCUS; a thing under or covered by fire.\n\nHEIGHT; UCHELDER; UPSOS; ALTITUDO, the high possession or the parts seen\nupwards.\n\nHELM; LLIW; OIAX; GUBERNACULUM, the driver or chief of a family, country,\na ship or other thing.\n\nHELMET; HELM; KORUS; GALEA, a covering upon the upper part.\n\nHELP; CYMORTH; ONEMI; JUVO, to assist one up, or with food, or other\ncomforts of life.\n\nHOARSENESS; CRYGDER; BRANGCHOS; RACEDO, a stoppage in the throat.\n\nHOBGOBLIN or ELF; ELLYLL; MORMO; LARVA, light or appearances in the night.\n\nHOGSHEAD; CERWIN; KERAMOS; DOLIUM, a large vessel, a wine vessel, or the\nhead or chief vessel.\n\nHOPE; GOBETH; ELPIS; SPES, the future, high or all joyful thing.\n\nHOSTAGE; GWISTYL; OMEROS; OBSES, a pledge guest.\n\nHOWL; UDO; OLOLUSO; ULULO, the noise of a dog, an owl, &c.\n\nHUMMING; BWM; BOMBOS; BOMBUS, a low noise or sound, which has not the\nleast resemblance to the human voice, like that of a bittern or heron.\n\nHUMBLE; UFEDD; IKETES; SUPPLEX, from being high.\n\n\nI.\n\nIAMBIC; TROED-IO; IAMBOS; IAMBUS, the principles of speech and music, the\nshort and long feet, or the Iop\u00e6an song and dance.\n\nJAVELIN; PICELL; AKON; JACULUM, a thing acting up or darting.\n\nJAUNDICE; CRYDMELUN; IKTEROS; ICTERUS, the yellow shaking.\n\nIMPLORE; IMOFYN; LISSOMAI; IMPLORO, acting with force about, or earnestly\nseeking things.\n\nINFANT; IFANC; NEPION; INFANS, life just in action or existence.\n\nINNUMERABLE; ANIBEN; MURIOS; INFINITUS, without end.\n\nINTERPRET; DEONGLI; ERMENEUO; INTERPRETOR, to prate between, or to divide\nor distinguish a confused mass of speech or things.\n\nINTIRE; CYFAN; OULOS; INTEGER, together or in one place of existence.\n\nISTHMUS; ISDWIFOR; ISTHMOS; ISTHMUS, the land betwixt two waters or seas.\n\nITCH; CRACH; PSORA; SCABIES, a covering upon, from the lower parts.\n\nJUDGE; BARNU; DIKASO; JUDICO, the bar one or the chief speaker.\n\n\nK.\n\nKERNEL; CNYLLUN; PUREN; NUCLEUS, the inclosed pure one, or part of the\nnut.\n\nKICK; PUIO; PAIO; FERIO, to spring the paw or foot.\n\nKNEEL; CAMUGLIN; OKLASO; GENUFLECTO, to bend the knee.\n\nKNOT; COLWM; KOMBOS; NODUS; shut altogether.\n\nKNUCKLES; CYMALBYS; KONDULOS; DIGITI ARTICULUS, the joints of the finger.\n\n\nL.\n\nLEAKE; TRWYDDO; KATARREO; PERFLUO, to go through.\n\nLEAN; CUL; ISCHNOS; MACER, a thing acting or growing only in length.\n\nLEATHER; CROEN; BURSA; CORIUM, the skin or covering of an animal\nstretched.\n\nLEAVEN; SURDOES, CHWYDDDOES; ZUME; FERMENTUM, the sour, swoln, or heating\npaste.\n\nLENGTH; HYD; MEKOS; LONGITUDO, action or extension lengthwise.\n\nLEISURE; SEGURYD; SCHOLE; OTIUM, being without motion or sound.\n\nLEVEL; GWASTADHAI; NASSO; \u00c6QUO, to be standing together, even, either\nhigh or low, or up or down.\n\nLIKE; CYFELIB; ALINGKIOS; SIMILIS, in their primary sense signify life\nand light, which are alike.\n\nLOIN; LWYN; ISCHIS; LUMBUS, upon an animal within.\n\nLOITER; YMAROS; IAUO; COMMOROR, to stand still without motion.\n\nLUXURY; TRYTHYLLWCH; STRENOS; LUXUS, acting beyond the power or property\nof man.\n\n\nM.\n\nMEADOW; GWERGLADD, LEIMON; PRATUM, the place of the greater growth or\nspring.\n\nMECHANICK, ARTIFICER; SAER; BANAUSOS; MECHANICUS, a worker in arts.\n\nMELT; TODDI; MELDO; LIQUEFACIO, to diminish or destroy the compactness of\na body, to make it flow or resemble honey.\n\nMEMBER; AELOD; ARTHRON; MEMBRUM, the spring parts, branches or shanks\nabout a man.\n\nMERCURY; MORIWR; ERMES; MERCURIUS, the great seaman, his wings alluding\nto the sails of ships and their swift motion.\n\nMERCY; TRUGAREDD; ELEOS; MISERICORDIA, in their primary sense is to\nhelp one over or out of the water, and emblematically out of any other\ntrouble. It may be no improper phrase to be made use of to the old\ncarrier of Acheron.\n\nMIDDLE; CANOL; MESOS; MEDIUS, the most inclosed or shut of all.\n\nMILD; GWAR; PRAOS; MITIS, a thing without much fire or action.\n\nMILT; BLEDDYN; SPLEN; SPLEN, the life or spring of the human flood or its\ncirculation.\n\nMIND, SOUL; MEDDWL, ENAID; THUMOS, NOUS; ANIMUS, the life and light of\nman.\n\nMINGLE; CYMYSGU; KERANNUMI; COMMISCEO, to be together in, or possessing\none place.\n\nMISFORTUNE; ANFORTYN, ANDDAMWEN; DAIMON; INFORTUNIUM, no force, strength\nor comfort to man.\n\nMONSTER; ANGENFIL; PELOR; MONSTRUM, a man with a female belly or a\nprivative male.\n\nMYRTLE; MYRWYDD; MYRTOS; MYRTUS, numerous leaves on its top.\n\n\nN.\n\nNECK; GWDDF; AUCHEN; CERVIX, the breath inclosure.\n\nNECKLACE; AURDORCH; ORMOS; MONILE, surrounding the neck or a golden\ntorques.\n\nNEIGHBOUR; CYMYDOG; GEITON; VICINUS, living in the same place or together.\n\nNERVES; GIAU; NEURON; NERVUS, the spring of growth or life.\n\nNIPPLE; TIDEN; THELE; PAPILLA, the flowing part.\n\nNOISE; TROEST; DOUPOS; STREPITUS, the sound of the two feet.\n\nNUMBNESS; FERDOD; MALKE; FRIGUS, a great privation of heat.\n\n\nO.\n\nOAR; RHWYF; ERETMOS; REMUS, the rank or order of rowing.\n\nOATH; LLW; ORKION; JURAMENTUM, upon the light of man.\n\nOBSCURE; TYWYLL; AMAUROS; OBSCURUS, the circumambient air without light.\n\nOINTMENT; IRAD; MURON; UNGUENTUM, a softening at the fire.\n\nOLD AGE; HENAINT; GERAS; SENECTUS, acting to the last or utmost action.\n\nONION; WINWYN; KROMMUON; C\u00c6PE, a round, inclosed or shut thing.\n\nORGAN; ORGAN; ORGANON; ORGANUM, the human tone, song or music.\n\nOVERTAKE; CYRHAEDD; OREGO; PORRIGO, acting or reaching the confines or\nborders.\n\n\nP.\n\nPAGE; GWAS TROED; AKOLOUTHON; PEDISSEQUUS, a foot-servant, a follower, or\na horse follower.\n\nPALPITATE; LLAMU; PALLOMAI; PALPITO, to leap.\n\nPAVEMENT; PALMENT; DAPEDON; PAVIMENTUM, a good footing in the house or\npossessions.\n\nPEACE; HEDDUCH; HESUCHIA; PAX, from action.\n\nPEBBLE; CARREGAN; KOCHLAX; LAPILLUS, a little stone.\n\nPEEL; RHISGLO; OLOPTO; DECORTICO, all off the covering or lower part.\n\nPENTHOUSE; PENTYS; GEISON; SUGGRUNDA, the top of the lower house.\n\nPERFORATE; TYLLU; TRUPAO; PERFORO, in, to or through a thing.\n\nPERFUME; PERAROGLI; THUMIAO; SUFFIO, sweet smelling exhalations, as those\nof fruit, flowers, &c.\n\nPERSON; PERSON; PROSOPON; PERSONA, are defined in the former Lexicon, to\nsignify sweet sound from p\u00ear-son; but _p\u00ear_ also signifies an apple or\nany other ripe sweet fruit, as figgs or figes, according to the Welsh,\nwhich resemble that which perhaps gives man the denomination of person,\nor the sound of the apple; and the word _vices_ seems to derive its\norigin from _figes_; the v consonant and the digamma being of the same\nsignification, and g its other half, only the inflection of the radical\nc, and _diafal_ and _fall_, the Welsh names of the devil or fallen angel,\nbeing from afal an apple, as the English word _fall_ seems to be.\n\nPITCHER; DYFR LESDR; KROSSOS; HYDRIA, a water vessel.\n\nPLEASE; LLONNI; ILIAO, ADEO; PLACEO, PROPITIUS SUM, an ilation, emanation\nor addition of good qualities from above on the lower parts.\n\nPLOW; ARU; AROO; ARO, to spring or dig up the earth.\n\nPLUCK; DEORI; DREPO; DECERPO, acting or drawing a thing up or from.\n\nPOCKET; COD; PERA; PERA, a thing to shut upon.\n\nPOOL; PWLL or LLYN; LIMNE; STAGNUM, the part of standing water.\n\nPOTAGE; CAWL; ZOMOS; JUSCULUM, the pot action, the common or kitchen\nright, and culinaries.\n\nPOUND; PWIS; LITRA; LIBRA, one round or a small thing.\n\nPRAISE; MAWL; AINOS; LAUS, a great spring of light upwards from below.\n\nPRECIPICE; GORWARED; KREMNOS; PR\u00c6CIPITIUM, up downward, or from an high\npart to a lower part.\n\nPREPOSITION; RHAGTHODIAD; PROTHESIS, PREPOSITIO, a thing or word put\nbefore another word or thing, with which it has some relation or\nconnection.\n\nPRESENT; OFFRWM; PROSPHORA; OBLATUM, a thing sent before a visit by way\nof gift, as anciently accustomed, or an offering for an altar.\n\nPRINCE; BRENIN; KOIRANOS; PRINCEPS, the chief or first in action or most\nancient.\n\nPROMISE; ADDEWID; ENGUESIS; SPONSIO, a saying or answering for a thing in\naction.\n\nPRONE or READY; PAROD; PRENES; PRONUS, the part from in.\n\nPRONOUN; RHAGENW; ANTONUMIA; PRONOMEN, instead of a noun; or rather a\nprimitive or first noun.\n\nPROVOKE; GYRRU; ERETHO; IRRITO, to heat or fire.\n\nPROW; YBLAEN; PRORA; PRORA, the part from before.\n\nPUFF; CHWIFF; PNOE; FLATUS; a flowing up from a man with his breath.\n\nPUSH; GUTHEO; OTHEO; PELLO, to spring the foot or put from.\n\n\nQ.\n\nQUARREL; IMRAFAELIO; ERESCHELEO; RIXOR, the lower acting for being higher.\n\nQUICK; CUIT; OKUS; VELOX, the action of the upper light.\n\n\nR.\n\nRAGE; CYNDDAREDD; LUSSA; RABIES, a great growth or action of heat.\n\nRAIN; UMBREDD; OMBROS; IMBER, the water springing all about.\n\nRAW; AMRWD; OMOS; CRUDUS, without boiling or fire.\n\nREFUSE; YMWRTHOD; ANAINOMAI, RENUO, to spring back.\n\nREMAIN; AROS; MENO; MANEO, to be upon or within a thing or place.\n\nREMEMBER; ATGOFIO; MNAOMAI; RECORDOR, to spring back to the mind or\nmemory.\n\nRESOUND; ATSYNIO; ANTECHEO; RESONO, to spring back, or return a sound or\necho.\n\nRETURN; TROIAT; NESTEO; REDEO, to spring towards or nearer to.\n\nRIBBAND; RHYMIN; AMPUX; VITTA, a thing about the upper part of a man, or\nthe high band.\n\nRISE; DECHREU; PHUOMAI; ORIOR, ASSURGO, to spring up.\n\nROAD; FORDD; POREIA; VIA, ADITUS, the part from to.\n\nROD; GUIALEN; RAPIS; VIRGA, the springing one.\n\nROPE; RHAF; AMPRON; FUNIS, about a lower thing.\n\n\nS.\n\nSALUTE; CYFARCH; ASPASOMAI; SALUTO, to bow the head or knee, or to meet\ntogether with the like address.\n\nSCARIFY; FLEIMIO; SKARIPHAOMAI; SCARIFICO, to act into the lower parts or\ninto man.\n\nSEARCH; CHWILIO; ICHNEUO; SCRUTOR, to be upon the action of seeing or\nlooking.\n\nSECT; TYB NEULLTUOL; AIRESIS; SECTA, a flying or differing from the\ngeneral opinion.\n\nSELL; GWERTHU; POLEO; VENDO, to put a price or value upon animals.\n\nSEVEN; SAITH; EPTA; SEPTEM, action standing still.\n\nSHOOT; BRIGIN; PHRYGANON; SURCULUS, its end out of the earth in existence.\n\nSHRUB; PRYSWYDD; THAMNOS; FRUTEX, the lower, lesser or underwood.\n\nSIGH; OCHAIN; GOAO; GEMO, the acting or sounding of woe, or the\ninterjection O.\n\nSIGN; ARWYDD; SEMA; SIGNUM, the sight or view of any thing within.\n\nSIMPLE; IMPLYG; APLOOS; SIMPLEX, one part, place or action.\n\nSLANDER; ENLLIBIO; STEMBO; CALUMNIOR, to lessen in the land.\n\nSLOW; DIOFAL; GLICHROS; LENTUS, being from a high spring or not alert.\n\nSNEEZE; TISSIO; PTAIRO; STERNUO, acting or sounding up in the lesser\nsounding past.\n\nSNOW; ODI; NIPHO; NINGO, the privative water.\n\nSOB; EBYCHIO; LUSO; SINGULTIO, man\u2019s sounding or springing upwards.\n\nSOCK; SOCH; EMBATES; SOCCUS, a shut or covering about the foot or lower\nparts.\n\nSOLE; PLAN, GWADAN; PESA; PLANTA, a thing upon the surface of the ground.\n\nSOME; RHIW; ENIOS; QUIDAM, one spring or existence.\n\nSOMEBODY; RHIW UN; AMOS; ALIQUIS, one person or man.\n\nSOMETHING; RHIW BETH; TI; ALIQUID, some extension or property.\n\nSOMEWHAT; YCHYDIGBETH; OLIGON; ALIQUANTULUM, a little or a thing.\n\nSON in LAW; CHWEGR; GAMBROS; GENER, born before marriage.\n\nSOVEREIGNTY; PENADURIATH; ARCHE, PRINCIPATUS, the chief of the land.\n\nSOUTHWIND; DEHEUWINT; NOTOS; NOTUS, the wind of the right or sunside.\n\nSPARKLE; GUREICHIONEN; SPINTHER; SCINTILLA, a single springing out of the\nfire.\n\nSPECTATOR; EDRICHWR; THEOROS; SPECTATOR, the man acting to see things.\n\nSPHERE; PEL; SPHAIRON, SPHAIRA, the extension of parts as seen.\n\nSPIDER; PRYFGOP; ARACHNES; ARANEA, the acting or inclosing worm.\n\nSPOT or BLEMISH; MAN, BRICHEUN; KELIS; MACULA, the place one stands or\nacts upon in its first sense, and allusively any hidden part or blemish.\n\nSPOUSE; PRIODASEN; NYMPHA; SPONSA, our rib or female part.\n\nSPRING; GUREDD; EAR; VER, the action of man and of the lower parts\nupwards, or the return of intentional qualities ilating and penetrating\nbodies.\n\nSPRINKLE; YSGEINTIO; SKEDASO; SPARGO, the lesser parts of water acting\nupwards.\n\nSPUNGE or SPONGE; YSBONG; MADR; SPONGOS; SPONGIA, a heap growing on a\nlower thing.\n\nSQUEEZE; GWASCU; BLITTO; EXPRIMO, to bring things from, out, to, in or\ntogether, and squeeze is from ex-weeze.\n\nSTAKE; CLEDR; SKOLOPS; PALUS, inclosed parts or things.\n\nSTAMMERING; ATAL; PSELLOS; BALBUS, a stop from speaking up.\n\nSTAMP; SATHRU; KATAPATEO; PROCULCO, to stand upon a thing or place.\n\nSTICK; BACH, PASTWN; BAKTON; BACULUS, a thing to shut upon another thing.\n\nSTRAIT; UNION, JAWN; ORTHO; RECTUS, signify the rays of light darting\nin a direct line upon, and giving increase to our globe for the common\nutility of man and beast; which being the distribution of Providence\ngives a general title to the benefit, use, and enjoyment thereof,\nas tenants in common, but so as not to exclude any co-partner of his\nexistence. But when mankind became corrupted and fond of dominion and\ndistinction, Providence was pleased to divide the earth amongst different\nfamilies or nations, as appears in Genesis, and ancient authors; and\nthose nations and families have granted their possessions and rights\nto one another, which seems to be the only natural origin of exclusive\nrights and dominion; though political rights may derive their origin from\nconveniency.\n\nSTRANGLE; TAGU; ANCHO; STRANGULO, to flatten the neck.\n\nSTRAY; CRWYDRO; ALAOMAI; VAGOR, to be upon the round in the country.\n\nSTREET; CWM; KOME; VICUS, long villages, in which tribes or certain\nportions of the people co-inhabited.\n\nSTREW; TANU; STOREO; STERNO, to extend upon the surface of the ground\nunder the sky.\n\nSTUMBLE; TRIPIO; PTAIO; C\u00c6SPITO, the foot up from the possession of the\nlower parts.\n\nSUCH; CYFRIW; TOIOS; TALIS, the above and below equal.\n\nSUFFER; GODDEF; PACHO; PATIOR, it is an action of woe.\n\nSUNBEAM; PELYDR; AKTIN; RADIUS, the action of the firmament towards the\nearth.\n\nSUPPLANT; BACHELLU; SPHALLO; SUPPLANTO, to spring the foot or lower part.\n\nSUPPOSE; DODI DAN; UPOLITHEMI; SUPPONO, to put the lowest or last, up or\nfirst.\n\nSUSPECT; EDRYCH AT; ANABLEPO; SUSPECTO, to look at our actions.\n\nSWARD or SURFACE; ARWYNEB; EPIPOLE; SUPERFICIES, at the place of the\nfoot, upon the face of the earth or downward.\n\nSWARM; HAID; SMENOS; EXAMEN, it is gone, or all about.\n\nSWEAR; TYNGU; OMNUMI; JURO, by man or all his internal property.\n\nSWEETNESS; MELYSDER; DEUKOS; DULCEDO, the property of the high great\nlight on things below.\n\nSWORD; CLEDDYF; XEPHOS, AOR; ENSIS, a thing to act with or keep from.\n\n\nT.\n\nTHINK; MEDDYLIO; ENNOEO; COGITO, the action or exercise of the internal\nlight.\n\nTHIRST; SYCHED; DIPSA; SITIS, the water drawn up by fire.\n\nTHONG; CARAI; IMAS; LORUM, a shut about an under thing.\n\nTHRESHOLD; RHINIOG; BELOS; LIMEN, the limits between the ins and outs.\n\nTHROW; TAFLU; BALLO; JACIO, to spring a thing up or slantwise.\n\nTIARA; TALAITH; KIDARIS; TIARA, a covering upon the chief actor or\nproprietor.\n\nTIE; TIDO; DEO; LIGO. These in their primary sense signify the property\nor attraction of the firmament.\n\nTONGUE; TAFOD; GLOSSA; LINGUA, the flow of things.\n\nTOP; CRIB; KOLOPHON; FASTIGIUM, the sky or covering the high end.\n\nTOUCH; CNITHIO; THEGO, PSALLO; TANGO, acting upon the upper covering or\nskin.\n\nTRACK; OL; ICHNOS; VESTIGIUM, the shadow or sign of a person or other\nthing going before another, or a continued action upon the ground.\n\nTREAD; TROEDIO; PATEO; CALCO, to put the foot upon the ground or pat.\n\nTRIFLE; OVERBETH; LEROS; NUGAMENTUM, possession without place, or a thing\nwithout spring.\n\nTRIUMPH; GORFOLEDD; THRIAMBOS; TRIUMPHUS, the praise of a man.\n\nTROUBLESOME or DIFFICULT; CALED; CHALEPOS; DIFFICILIS, the high part of a\nrock.\n\nTRUMPET; UTGORN; SALPINGX; TUBA, the springing horn.\n\nTRUNK; CYFF; KORMOS; TRUNCUS, an animal inclosure or shut; or what is\nused as such.\n\nTUMB or TOMB; BEDD; TAPHOS; TUMBA, the covering or inclosing of a body.\n\nTWIG; BLAGURYN; LUGOS; VIMEN, a growth up.\n\nTWIN; ILL DEUODD; DIDUMOS; GEMINUS, a double offspring or race.\n\n\nV.\n\nVEHEMENT; ANGERTHOL; SPHODIOS; VEHEMENS, a great action or the property.\n\nVEIN; WITHEN; PHLEPS; VENA, the place of life, as containing the water of\nlife.\n\nVENERABLE; URDDASOL; AIDESIMOS; VENERABILIS, a good and high acting man.\n\nUGLY; ANFODDUS; AMORPHOS; DEFORMIS, without form.\n\nVIAL; FIOL; PHIALE; PHIALA, upon food.\n\nVICTUAL; BWYD; SITIA; SIBARIA, the chief property or support of life.\n\nVIOLET; LLYS-ION; ION; VIOLA, the palace of Jove.\n\nVIPER; WIBER; ECHIS; VIPERA; the little hot stinger.\n\nVIRTUE; GWREDD; ARETE; VIRTUS, the spring or property of man\n\nUNDERGO; MYNEDTAN; UPDUOMAI; SUBEO, to move below an upper.\n\nUNJUST; ANGHYFIAWN; ADIKOS; INJUSTUS; unequal right, or an unequal\ndivision of that property inherently in man.\n\nVULGAR; y CYFFREDIN, y BOBL; PLETHOS, OI POLLOI; VULGUS, PLEBS, those of\ncattle understanding or living together without distinction.\n\n\nW.\n\nWALK; CERDDED; BAINO; AMBULO, a man upon action.\n\nWANTON; ANLLAD; ASELGES; LASCIVUS, living with women.\n\nWAR; CAD; MACHE; PUGNA, at action, upon the spring, great action or the\npaws in action.\n\nWAISTCOAT; HUG; CHITON; TUNICA, under the upper or lower coat.\n\nWEAVE; GWEI; UPHAO; TEXO, acting the web, or making or covering the lower.\n\nWEB; GWE, YSTOF; ISTOF; STAMEN, TELA, the lower strata or its covering.\n\nWEEP; WYLO; KLAIO; FLEO, to be from the rays of light, as plants weeping.\n\nWET, WATER; DYFRIO; DEUO; RIGO, to spring up water.\n\nWHALE; MORFIL; KETOS; COETUS, the chief or greatest sea animal.\n\nWHETSTONE; HOGALEN; AKONE; COS, acting upon the edge or upper part of a\nthing.\n\nWHEY; MAIDD; ORROS; SERUM, the water part of the cattle liquid, after a\nseparation of the coagulated parts.\n\nWHISPER; SISIAL; THRULLOS; SUSURRUS, a lesser or lower sound than calling\nor talking.\n\nWHISTLE; CHWIBANU; POPPISO; SIBILO, the pipe sound of man or other animal.\n\nWICKED; ISGELER; ALITROS; SCELESTUS, below heaven.\n\nWILLOW; HELIG; ITEA; SALIX, the water kind.\n\nWILD BEAST; GWYDDFIL, THER; FERA, the wood or country animal.\n\nWINE; GWIN; OINOS; VINUM, a divine liquid.\n\nWING; ADEN; PTERON; ALA, a thing towards the sky, or from below, up or\nhigh. ALA or MACHALE also signify the arm-pit, or below the arm or wing\nof man; from whence the wings of birds are named.\n\nWITNESS; TYST; MARTYR; TESTIS, a dying for his country.\n\nWOMB; CROTH; METRA; UTERUS, the mother earth or covering of the human\nspecies.\n\nWONDER; RHYFEDDU; THAUMASO; MIROR, the energy of man and animals on\nbeholding or contemplating the sun, with its emanation upon the lower orb.\n\nWOOD, WILD; COED, WYLLT; HYLE; SYLVA, the place of the highest growth\nor spring; and emblematically the origin of the spring, flow or growth\nof human speech, or articulate sounds or voice, as coming from the tree\nof knowledge of good and _evil_; mankind being probably before the fall\ncapable of seeing each others ideas or thoughts, so far as they were\ncapable of conversing or disputing in the state of innocence. And this\nsort of converse may be that of the Serpent and Eve, and may not be\nimproperly termed _species_, _gwedd_ or _eidos_, whence idiom, iaith, and\nidioma.\n\nWORM; PRYF; SKOLEX, VERMIS, the first form of existence.\n\nWORSHIP; ADDOLI; THRESKEUO; COLO, to the holy, or holy Trinity.\n\n\n\n\nPrepositions of the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin.\n\n\nAbove, on, up, upon; ar, gar, ub; ari, uper; super, supra. Ar\nhieroglyfically means a man\u2019s arse and in a general sense the earth upon\nwhich we are, as er does the females, and the passive element water;\nhence ari; up, ub, is the spring of p or the higher parts; on, is the\ncircle of motion and possession; so that upon is to be upon the spring or\nin motion; super, uper and supra is the spring from below up; above, the\nupper spring or bounds of the human sight.\n\nBelow, beneath, under, down; tan, odditan, ob, obri; kato, upo,\nupenerthe; sub, subter, infra. Under, not sprung up the possessions;\ndown, from springing or being up; below, from being up; beneath, a thing\nnot in the possessions; infra, in the earth part; sub, below up; subter,\nbelow the upper possessions; upo, from up; kato from the top covering;\nupenerthe, from springing to the top; obri, from springing; ob, from\nlife; tan, under the surface of the earth; and some of those in the\nhieroglyfic sense also signify the generative parts.\n\nIn, with, within, into, unto, at, to, towards; in, cyn, oddifewn, intho,\nat, i, tuagat; en, xun, entos, para, es, pros; in, cum, intus, inter,\nintra, apud, ad, versus. In, signifies man placed in the middle of\nexistences, and as betwixt matter and spirit; with, from U-T or th by\ninflection, is the spring of i, man, into male and female, and his line,\nrace and possessions; within, is the same in the circle of possession;\nto, is the circle of motion and property under the sky; into, the same\nwithin the possessions; unto, at, ad, towards, the same, springing to\nman or the line of possession, or at T or the tree; inter, into, intra,\nintho, oddifewn, entos, signify in the possessions; tuagat acting\ntowards; cum, xun, together as one; i, the line of life towards the sun,\nor man in an hieroglyfic sense; para, the part upon; pros, the part upon\nfrom; versus, a spring towards us.\n\nOut, of, from, out of, without; O, or, oddiwrth, oddiallen; ek, extos,\npeu, apo; ex, de, a, ab, extra, sine. Ut, signifying the part a man\npossesses, out, is from the part man possesses or stands upon; O is\nthe circle of view from any place one is upon or possesses; or, is a\nmaterial sound upon O, signifying a border; of, the border or possession\npart; from, the surrounding parts; without, out of the line or circle\nof possession; oddiwrth, oddiallan, and the rest, signify out of the\npossessions or parts.\n\nAbout, for; am, amfi; amphi; circum. About, is the things within the\ncircle of man\u2019s possession; am is duration and existences, beings and\nthings about him in this life or world; amfi, amphi, the things about me;\ncircum, things together, surrounding or acting about a man; for, is the\nthings of the circle of possession.\n\nAfore, before, against; rhag, cin, oflaen, erbyn; pro, gar, anti; pro,\npr\u00e6, ante. Cin is action in or the chief or first action or motion;\nrhag, the fire, or first action or motion, afore and before, in or from\nthe borders of possession; gar, acting before; pro and pr\u00e6 the first\npossessions or countries; erbyn, the seen in or springing before; anti\nand ante, the first or beginning of earthly possessions; contra, far from\nbeing together within.\n\nAfter, behind, since, according to; gwedi, arol, tuol, ynol; upo, epi,\nusteron, epithen, k\u00e2ta; post, ex, secundum. The Greek terms signify the\nparts from; after, from T or the possession; behind, to be after hi or\nman in the possessions; since, to be after being together; according to,\nagreeing together in acting; post the part from the possessions, ex, out\nof action; ar ol, upon the shade or the part covered from the sun behind\na person; tu ol, the shade or form from; yn ol, in the shade; gwedi, an\naction past.\n\nBy, through, over, over and above, besides, beyond, except; wrth, trwy,\neithr, tros, tros hynu, ond hynu, draw, tu draw; dia, ana, peri, pros,\natar, pera; per, trans, pr\u00e6ter, ultra. By, the living or dwelling part;\nwith, the possessions by man; dia, the part of the earth possessed; per\nperi, pr\u00e6ter, pera, the part upon either of earth or water; trwy and\nthrough, possessions of land and water beyond the circle of view; over,\nfrom the view of the part upon; tros, trans and pros, the part from both\nof earth and water; except, taking out; ond hynu, but that; drau or tu\ndrau, the other side or off the side of the part one possesses or place\nhe stands upon; besides, by the side or below the parts; ultra, beyond\nthe possessions or parts seen; beyond, by the upper covering.\n\nBetween, betwixt, among, amongst; rhyng, ymysg; ei, en, metaxu;\ninter. These signify the line i, dividing the things in the circle of\npossession, and the things in and about the circle of possession.\n\n\n\n\nThe Conjunctions of the English, Welsh, Greek, and Latin.\n\n\nAnd; a, ac, ag; te, kai; et, que. And or ond, on in division or\ndiscourse; ac, and ag, its inflection, and also, a, dropping the c and\ng before a consonant, signify actions in general; te, et, yet, and the\nWelsh etto, signify, again; kai and que, signify an action.\n\nIf, unless, except; os, ai, oni; ei, me; si, nisi. Ai, ei, is it the\naction of the earth or water? If, life, or is it life? Os, is it seen off\nor from? Si, is it, or is it seen. Nisi, is it not? Unless, my spring\nout; except, taking from the parts of the possession; Oni, not from; Me,\nfrom me.\n\nBut, yet, still, also, likewise, notwithstanding, although; ond, etto,\nerhyn, eisoes, yn lleiaf; aute, eti, omos, alla; autem, sed, tamen,\nquoque, etiam, lix, licet, etsi, saltem. But, by man and things seen;\netto and yet, it is or it springs; hence, eti, aute, autem, tamen, etiam;\nalso, on so; ond, it is moving; likewise, the same way; still, light\non things, although, upon to; notwithstanding, not opposing the former\naction; however, be the spring of action as it may; nevertheless, without\nany spring; erhyn, eisoes and omos, hitherto; sed, see it or if it be\nseen; quoque, acting therein, or and in which; the rest signify to be\nabove ground at least.\n\nFor, because, therefore, as, as well as; er, am, mor, fel, am hynu, or\nachos, herwydd; eri, gar, dia, oti, os, ara, ar ou; propter, nam, tam,\ntamquam, quia, ergo; for, is the proving by the evidence of the things\nwithin the circle of possession or in the world; there, in therefore,\ner, eri and herwydd, signify the spring, and, therefore, the parts and\nspring within the circle; as, the earth seen; as well as, its surface or\nunder it out of sight; wherefore, the parts in which circle; gar and ara,\nby the earth growth; am, am hynu, nam, tam and tamquam, by all things\nexisting about us; os, by the visible circle of things; dia and oti, by\nthe things possessed; quia, by your own existence; ou, by the spring of\nthe circle; because, by the actions of the visible things of this world\nor our own actions; mor, by the things about the circle or world; fel, by\nthe light; or achos, by the actions of the part of the world about us.\n\nOr, either; neu, ai, aill; nai, eite; n\u00e6, aut, vel, sive. Or, signifies\nthe circle of possession and of and from, as it is at a distance from\nus, but in this respect the things therein promiscuously, either the one\nthing or the other, as have any relation to each other; either, ai, eite\nand aut, action or matter; vel, sight or light; aill, action or light;\nsive, seen or not; neu and n\u00e6, in or spring.\n\nNor, neither; na, nac, nid, nis; mete, oude, oute; nec, neque, neu. Nor,\nnot in the world or existence, neither, no action or rest; na, no matter;\nnac, no action or matter; nid and nis, no sight or sound, or it is not;\nmete, oude or oute, the privation of things; neu, no spring; nec and\nneque, no action.\n\nTill, until; tra, cyd; eos ke, eoke; usque ad; till or until, during\nthe spring of light upon the possessions; cyd, so long as things remain\ntogether; tra, during the possession of the earth; the rest signify\nduring the co-existence of things.\n\n\n\n\nPRONOUNS.\n\n\nI, me, mine; mi, fi, fy; ego, eme, emos; ego, me, meus; i at first\nrepresented man, as a line, without his extension in matter, or in his\nfirst spiritual state, but now, as having relation to, and connection\nwith matter; me, mi, and eme, from am-i or iam, signify this i or line,\nexisting or extended with its ambient possessions. Hence T, which is\nthis line extended, under heaven, came to be the hieroglyfic expression\nfor extension and general things; and P its divider, for possessions,\nproperties, terrestial parts and particular things; ego or egu, the\nspringing U or man; emou and mei, its genitive or possessive case,\nsignify the things and possessions about man; mine is my in, in me or\nmy property; emos and meus signify the things seen about us; fi and fy\ninflect from mi.\n\nYou or thou, thee, thine; ti, dy; su, sos; tu, tuus. You from y-o-u\nsignifies the off man, thou from th-o-u, the off man or woman; thee,\nti, and tu, are the same; thine, is the off man\u2019s in or possessions;\ndy, thy possession; su the female U or woman; tuus, and sos, the female\npossessions.\n\nHe, she, him, her, his, hers, it; fe or fo, hi, ith or ei; autos, aute,\nauto; ille, illa, illud, is, ea, id, ipse, ipsa, ipsum, suus, sua, suum.\nHe or hi, the higher acting man; she, the lesser, lower, or female man;\nhim, the higher man about; her, the more passive spring; his, of man;\nhers of a woman; it, ith, id, ille, autos, &c. signify man\u2019s extension in\nhis race and possessions.\n\nWe, us, ours; ni, ein; hemeis, hemeteros; nos, noster. We or wi, those in\npossession; us, the men seen; ours, of man; ni, the men in possession;\nein, belonging to us; emeis, the men about; nos or nus, in us; noster,\nour possessions; emeteros, our surrounding possessions; o-ur, being the\ncircle of man.\n\nYe, you, yours; chwi, eich; umeis, umeteros; vos, vester. Chwi, the from\nus; ye, those from; umeis, the females about; vos, those from; yours,\nof those from; eich, of the from us; umeteros and vester, the female\npossessions.\n\nThey, them, theirs; hwynt, eu; autoi, ekeinoi, spheteroi; illi, isti.\nThese signify mankind, their race, spring, and possessions. Thus far as\nto the personal and possessive pronouns; now as to the demonstratives and\nrelatives.\n\nThis, that; hwn, hon, hyn; autos, aute, touto, ekeinos; hic, is, ille.\nThis, the man seen; that, the possession at; hwn, the man acting in; hyn,\nhe in action; hic, the man acting; is and ille, the man seen; ekeinos,\nthe man seen acting in the circle of possession; autos the same.\n\nAny, some, one; un, yr un, peth; ostis, eis, enios, deina; aliquis,\nquidam, quicunque, ullus. Un signifies man in existence, as a mikrocosm\nrepresenting our system of beings; one, is from un; any, is the earth in\nexistence; some, the seen existences; yr un the one spring of existence;\nenios and eis, in existence; ullus, a man seen; aliquis, another man\nseen; ostis, the things about in the possessions; peth, a part or thing.\n\nNone; neb; outis, oudeis; nullus. Nullus, no man seen; outis and oudeis,\nno thing or possession; none, no one; neb, nobody.\n\nAnother; arall; allos, eteros; alius, alter, uter. Arall, allos, alius,\nsignify the second; alter, uter and another, the second possession.\n\nWho, which, what, that; pwi, pa, pa un; os, he, o, poios, poia, poion,\ntis, os, ti; qui, qu\u00e6, quod, quis, qu\u00e6, quid, is, ea, id. These as\ninterrogatives signify which one, and what part or thing, and that one\nor thing? and as relative pronouns serve to express any antecedent part,\nmember or thing in a sentence, as who or wch-U, the above man, which or\nwch-ich, the above action and what or wch-at, at the above; qui or uch-i,\nthe above man, qu\u00e6 or uch-\u00e6, the above woman, and quod, the above thing.\n\n\n\n\nAdverbs of Place.\n\n\nWithin, here, endwise, straight, upright; in tho yma, ofeun, tu fewn,\ninsyth, cyfing, ar inion; endon, entautha, orthos, stenos, en brachei,\neiso; intus, introrsum, hic, vere, arrecte, strictim, anguste. Within,\nintho, endon, intus and introrsum, signify the line of man\u2019s existence,\nas his house, possession, or the part of space occupied by him, or taken\nup by his extension; endwise towards the sky or bounds of view; cyfin,\nshut close together, in length without breadth; strait, aright, arrecte\nand strictim, to be shut or pent up from roving to and fro; orthos, the\npossessions within the borders; stenos, to be within the possessions; en\nbrachei, in the high country; inion, in the line; in syth, in the place\nstanding upon; here, the length possessed by one; hic, him acting; ima,\nman or the line in the centre of existences or things; entautha, things\nin possession; eiso, within the circle or borders of the possessions.\n\nAbove, aloft, atop, upwards, lengthwise, longwise; uchod, bri, ar hyd,\nar fynu, ar dyn, ar hir bell; uperthen, ano, elkedon; supra, sursum,\nsublime, tractim, longule. Tractim, the sun\u2019s property of drawing\nupwards, above, from or beyond the bounds of view; bri, the high country\nor the firmament part; ar fynu, upon the upright; ar hyd, upon the\nlength; ar dyn, upon the sun\u2019s attracting property, or upon a draft;\nuperthen, the upper part of the line of possession; elkedon, the line of\nfire drawing upwards; ano, the sky; supra, above the earth; sursum, above\nthe part possessed, or man standing up; sublime, up in the region of\nlight; aloft, high from or above the part possessed; atop, at the top or\nthe sky; upwards, upon the spring up; up, the spring of p.\n\nBeneath, below, aground, down, under; isod, obri, tan, ilawr; upo,\nupenerthe, arden; sub, subter, humi, deorsum, funditus. Isod, below the\ncircle of possessions; ilawr, to the ground; arden, from being up;\nfunditus the bottom; deorsum and humi, from or below the part a man is\nupon; the rest are explained under the prepositions.\n\nOut, without, outwards, abroad, of, from, around; o, allan, oddiallan,\no amglych; exo, ektos, exothen, thurase, amphi; ex, foras, circum,\nextrorsum. Extrorsum, out of the border of a man\u2019s inhabited possessions;\nallan, above the place inhabited; O, the circle of possessions; around,\nthe circle of the earth inhabited; abroad, from the neighbourhood; foras,\nbelow the part of the circle; exothen, out of the inhabited possessions;\nthe rest are explained under the prepositions.\n\nBefore, facing, onwards, forwards, ahead, throughly; mlaen, rhagbron, ir\ntrwyn, oflaen, peneithaf; pros, porro, panuge; coram, prorsum, porro,\npenitus. Before, the part from man\u2019s view; facing, the part seen in\naction; porro, the part from; prorsum, the part from man\u2019s standing or\nbeing; coram, the border of the possessions; peneithaf and penitus, the\nfarthest end; ir trwyn, to the end of the possessions.\n\nBehind, astern, after all; in ol, yn olaf; ta ustata; postremo. Yn ol,\nin the shade of the man in possession; yn olaf its superlative degree;\nafter all, off the possession of the shade; astern, below the possessions\nupon; behind, to be at the back; postremo, the last part of the place\npossessed; ta ustata, the last possessions.\n\nNear, nigh; agos; engus; prope. Prope, the part from; agos, engus, and\nnigh, the first motion or action from; near, in the part upon.\n\nFar, far away; o lar bid, imhell, hirbell; porrothen, apothen, makran;\nlonge, procul, ultra, ulterius, eminus. These signify beyond the\nneighbourhood or the part inhabited upwards and sideways; as far, from\nthe part upon; o lar byd, from the dwelling place; imhell, out of the\nsight upon the line of life; hirbell, very much so; porrothen, a part\nfrom the place inhabited; longe, an extensive place; procul, the upper\ncountry; ultra and ulterius, the country seen above.\n\nAmongst, amidst, intermixedly, astray, largely, widely, hither and\nthither; rhong, rhoth, amisg, ar led, inganol, ima a thraw; metaxu, ana\nmeson, deuro, kakeise, plateos, dapsilos; large, late, intermixte, ample,\nmedie, huc atque illuc. Amysg, amidst, amongst, metaxu and intermixte,\nseparating the things in the lower circle of possessions; astray, acting\nbelow the possessions; hither and thither, from the part possessed to the\nfirmament; rhong, dividing the things within the circle of possession;\ninganol, inclosing all; ar l\u00ead, large, late, upon a wide place at large\nabout the ground; ima a thraw the part upon, and that from; dapsilos,\nthe coasts from the part upon; rhoth and euros, the extension of the\nparticles of light below; medie, dividing the parts possessed, as earth\nand water; huc atque illuc, to the man in possession, and him out of\npossession, the race of man or him in the sky; ample, the place about.\n\nThere, thereabout; yno, aco, o amgylch; ekei, autothi; illic, ibi. There,\nupon T or in the firmament; illic, ibi, and circiter, the firmament; os,\nosonte, ekei and autothi, the circle of the possessions in the sky; y no,\naco and o amgylch, the circle of the possessions about a man.\n\nHence; oddiyma; enthende; hinc. Oddiyma, from the possessions about a\nman; hinc and hence, from him in possession or action; enthende, from the\npart in possession.\n\nThence; oddiyno; autothen; illinc. Illinc, from the place in the\nfirmament here; thence, from the sky; O ddiyno and autothen, from the\npossessions yonder. Hither, hitherward, homeward, toward this way,\nhitherto, hereabout; tu ima, tu ac ima, fordd ima, dyro; proseti, entha,\ndeuro, mechri, taute; huc, adhuc, hactenus, horsum, aliquorsum, retro,\nerga, versus. Tu ima, this side of the possessions; tu ac ima, the side\nof the possessions acting here; fordd ima, the way to these possessions;\nhyd yma, upon the length here; proseti, the part from to the possessions;\nentha, into the possessions; dyro and deuro, acting or coming here;\nmechri, about acting into the possessions; taute, the possession from\nthat of man; huc and adhuc, acting towards man; hactenus, that part into\npossession; horsum, he from, to where man is; aliquorsum, another, which\nis from, to where man is; retro, returning from the possessions from;\nhither, from the firmament here; towards and the rest signify upon the\nspring to or home.\n\nThither, thitherto, that way; tu aco, fordd aco; ekeise, tede, ode;\nilluc, istuc. Thither and thitherto, from the sky or top of T, to the\npossessions at its bottom; tu aco, to the possessions from the sky;\nekeise, from the possessions in the sky lower; tede, from the high\npossessions at T; ode, from the circle of T; illuc, from the place of\nlight hither; istuc, from the place above to the lower possessions.\n\nWhere, somewhere, any where, whither, somewhither, which way, wherein,\nwhereto; pale, ible, tuafle, i riw le, tua riw le, i riw fan; pou, poi,\npoi ti ophelos, epiachou, pothi; ubi, quid, quo, quoquo, quorsum, aliquo,\naliquorsum, alicubi, uspiam. Where, somewhere and any where, acting\nor springing upwards from the part one is upon; whither, somewhither,\nwherein, whereto and which way, acting upwards from one part, place or\npossession to another; the Welsh signify, what place, to what place,\ntowards what place, to one place and to some place, and are fully\nexplained elsewhere; poi and pou the part from up; poi ti ophelos, the\npart from up, towards what or some place; epiachou, from the part acting\nupwards; pothi, the part from the possessions; ubi, springing to the high\nparts; quo, from upwards; quorsum, from the place of man\u2019s existence\nupwards; aliquorsum, from another place of man\u2019s existence upwards;\nalicubi and uspiam, from the part of man\u2019s existence upwards above the\nsky.\n\nElsewhere; yn lle arall, yn yr uchelder; allachou, allathi; alibi.\nElsewhere, from the lower place to the upper firmament; yn lle aral, in\nanother or high place; yn yr uchelder, in the firmament; allachou, in the\nplace above; allathi, in the high possessions; alibi, the high firmament.\n\nAcross, askant, askew, awry, aslant, aslope, athwart, crosswise,\ntraverse, oblique; yn groes, ar wyr, ar osgo, ar draws, ar gam; plagios,\nparableden, endiastrophos; oblique, ex obliquo, torte. Torte is a top one\non the upright line; oblique, from being an upright line; endiastrophos,\nan horizontal or meridian line; parableden, a traverse or contrary to\nan upright line; plagios, a plane one; ar gam, one upon the superficies\nof the earth; ar draws, one upon the traverse; ar osgo, upon the slope;\nar wyr, from an upright; traverse, turned towards the surface; athwart,\nat the earth part; aslope, low to the place part; aslant, low towards\nthe ground; awry, from an upright spring; askew, acting lower than the\nspring; askant, acting low towards the ground.\n\nApart, asunder, aside, besides, separately, severally, apiece; urtho i\nhun, ar neilldu, ar ben i hun, heb lau hyn, ar ddidol; choris, idia, kath\nekaston, epi toutois, alla te; seorsim, seperatim, singulatim, pr\u00e6terea.\nApart, a divided piece of earth or thing; asunder, the ground under;\naside, the part by the side; separate, a part of the earth or thing out\nof or below the possessions; several, below the high spring; urtho i hun,\na man by the side of the possessions; ar neill du, upon the other side;\nar ben i hun, at his own end; heb lau hyn, without the assistance of this\nhand; ar ddidol, upon the division of place or culling; choris, below\nthe borders; idia, the divided part; kath ekaston, by himself below the\npossessions; epi toutois, above the extent of the lower possessions;\nalla te, the upper or another possession; seorsim, below the circle or\nborders of the parts possessed; singulatim, the low inhabitant beholding\nor contemplating immensity; pr\u00e6terea, before the possessions of earth and\nwater.\n\nEverywhere; pob, pob lle, pob man; pantachou; ubique. These seem to\nexpress space, as pob, the parts from; pob lle and pob man, the parts of\nextension and existence of matter; pantachou, all upwards; ubique, beyond\nthe higher parts, though inadequate to the ideas of space or extension.\n\nNo where; nid yn un man, nid yn un lle; oudame, oudamou; nusquam. These\nsignify in no part or place, or the negatives of where, which have been\nalready explained.\n\n\n\n\nAdverbs of Time.\n\n\nWhen, whence; pan, pa bryd, or hyn, o hyn amser; otan, opothen; quando,\nquum, unde. Pan, the part in; pa bryd, the part in season; o hyn amser,\nfrom this circle upon; otan, the circle in possession; opothen, the\ncircle from the possession; when and whence, springing or acting in;\nunde, the spring in possession; hence quum and quando.\n\nHow long? how often? pa hyd, cynfynyched, pa sal gwaith? mechri ou,\nposakis? quamdiu, quoties? How long, what length of spring or action; how\noften, what action above in; pa hyd, what length of action or possession;\ncynfynyched, how often from the first; pa sal guaith, what spring of\naction; mechri ou, what acting about from the first; posakis, what acting\nand standing still; quamdiu, what rounds of the division of the spring;\nquoties, in what possession.\n\nOnce, only, only but; un waith, un amser, yn unig; apax, monon; semel,\ntantum, solummodo. Once, one action; only, one quality; un waith, one\naction, or going; un amser, one round of what is upon; yn unig, in one\naction; apax, from the action or first action; monon, the motion of the\ncircle or one motion; semel, upon the lower round; tantum, whilst in\npossession.\n\nTwice, secondly; dwywaith, ailwaith; dis, deuteron; bis, secundo. These\nsignify a division of the lower circle of motion or action.\n\nThrice, thirdly; teirgwaith, yn drydydd; treis, triton; ter, tertio.\nThese signify the action of the third day\u2019s creation, viz. the division\nor separation of land and water.\n\nFour times, fourthly; pedairgwaith, yn bedwaredd; tetrakis, tetartos;\nquater, quarto. The division of the luminaries or the action of the\nfourth day.\n\nOften, oftentimes, many times; mynych, llaergwaith; pollakis, polloston,\nsunachos; s\u00e6pe, multoties, s\u00e6penumero. Often off or above ten;\noftentimes, above ten times; many times, the small things; mynych,\nbordering on the highest; llawar gwaith, the action of the circle of\nthe hand upon the fingers, as well as a part of the action of the whole\ncircle; pollakis, a part of all the lower action; polloston, a part of\nthe lower possessions; sunachos, from the first action; s\u00e6pe, a thing,\nfrom standing still; s\u00e6penumero, a thing from standing still in the\nspring of existence.\n\nSo often; cynfynyched; tosakis; toties. So often, the lower circle above\nten; cynfynyched, the first action bordering on the highest; tosakis and\ntoties, the action of the lower or lesser circle of life.\n\nYesterday; doe; echthes; heri. Heri, the action from; yesterday, or\nyest-heri-day, the action of the day past; doe, the division or day from\nor past; echthes or ech-doe, the d inflecting into th, the action of the\npast division.\n\nErst, at first, in time past, formerly, before hand, before time,\nheretofore, yore, aforetime, agone, long ago, a great while ago,\nlaterally; erhyn, cynt, cynhyn, or blaen, er ys talm, ymlaen llaw, gynt\noll, er ys meitin; archen, protos, emprothen, pro tou prin, apotoude,\nenteuthen, palai; primo, antehac, olim, antea, abhinc, jamdudum, pridem.\nJamdudum, during the spring of time; prin, primo, protou, protos, first,\nemprothen and pridem, from the beginning of fire or motion in the lower\nexistences; er, the spring; erst, the spring of the lower possessions;\nformerly, the spring of forms; ago, the action from; while, the flowing\nof the upper light; cynt, the first action of worldly possessions; cyn\nhyn, before this time or existence; or blaen, ymlaen, and ymlaen llaw,\nfrom or before the existence of this place; gynt oll and olim, before all\nexistence here; antehac and antea, in the possession before the present;\narchen, the beginning of the present earth; er ys meitin, er ys talm and\ner hyn, this spring or possession; abhinc, from the beginning of action;\nyore, the circle of time from; palai, the part upon action.\n\nBetimes; yr inion bryd; en deonti; tempore. These signify directly in\nseason.\n\nNow, already, ever, evermore, always; yn aur, erioed, aur hon, byth, pob\namser, yn wast adol, pryd hyn, yndragywydd; nun, aei, diapantos, ede;\nnunc, jam, jamjam, semper, sempiternum, perpetuo. Now, nun, and nunc, yn\naur, aur hon, ever and evermore, in the spring; byth, the life; pryd hyn,\nthe part upon the length; yn dragywydd, in the duration of the spring;\nyn wastdol, in the state of all things; jam, the existence; semper, the\nexistence part; already, ready up; always, upwise; aei, motion or action;\nhede, the length; diapantos, all possessions; erioed, the spring of age.\n\nNever; erioed ni fu, byth ni bu; oude pote, mede pote; numquam. These\nsignify not in life, spring or existence.\n\nTo-day, in the morning, to-morrow; heddiw, yn y bore, y fory; temeron,\nproi, aurion; hodie, mane, cras. Day, heddiw and hodie, is the division\nof action; temeron, the part in action; morning, bore and fory, the\nspring of all terrestial existences; proi, the part from in; aurion, the\nspring in motion; mane, the spring in the earth; cras, the action of the\nsun or light below.\n\nA night; yn y nos; nuktos; nocte. In y nos, in no sight or light; noctu\nand the rest, in no firmament act.\n\nNext; ong, nesaf; engistos; proxime. Ong, moving on; next, the out to us;\nnesaf, the thing from us; the rest are the same.\n\nStill, yet, also, item, likewise, alike, again, eftsoon, encore, afresh,\nanew, while, well nigh, almost; hyd hyn, etto, hefyd, ymhellach, yn\ndebig, drachefn, eilwaith, yn newydd, tra, hyd tra, hyd oni, cyd ac,\ntrwy, pan, pryd, agos, oddieithr ych ydig, haeach; eti, alla, all\u2019 ede,\nomos, all\u2019omos, omoios, mechri tou, mechri nun, proseti, au, authis,\nempalin, neosti, achris, an, eos an, mikron dein, para mikron; adhuc,\ntamen, etiam, similiter, dum, iterum, rursum, item, nove, recenter, fere,\nferme. Still, an emanation of light upon the lower parts; yet, etto,\neti, etiam, item and iterum, the firmament upon the lower parts; also,\nanother sound or sound up; again, acting in; eilwaith, another action;\nau, a spring; authis, the spring of the lower possessions; empalin,\nthings up in existence; pan, a part or thing in existence; alla, being\nup; all\u2019 ede, it is up; omos, all together; all\u2019omos, up all together;\nmechri tou, until this time; mechri nun, until now; proseti, from the\nfirst to this time; neosti, newydd, nove and anew, it is in spring,\naction, or possession; an, the earth in; eos an, the from in; while,\nthe emanation of the high light; well nigh, springing up in action;\nalmost, up from below the surface; hyd hyn, this length; tra, the earth\u2019s\nduration; hyd tra, so long as the earth endures; hyd oni, so long as\nlife or motion; cyd ac, action together; truy, the duration of spring;\npryd, the part upon the length; agos, the action from; haeach, the action\nfrom; oddieithr ych ydig, little from the possession; mikron dein, until\nin possession; para mikron, until the part upon; adhuc, to this time;\ntamen, the parts about in; dum, the spring of matter; rursum, the return\nof spring to the parts about man; fere and ferme, the spring about;\nrecenter, a return of action upon the possessions.\n\nAnon, forthwith, immediately, presently, quickly, soon; ar frys, ar\nfyned, yn fuan, yn gyflym, ar fyr; autothen, parautika, autika de mala,\namesos, tacheos; illico, protinus, immediate, statim, cito. Anon, upon\nmoving or going; cito, together; soon, so on; forthwith, from the\npossessions with; immediate and immediately, me at thee in the line of\npossession; presently, before sent for; quickly, acting to you; ar frys,\nupon haste; ar fyned, upon going; yn fyan, speedily; yn gyflym, hastily;\nar fyr, shortly; autothen, springing from hence; para autika, springing\nfrom any part to him in possession; autika de mala, springing to the\npossession from any place of existence; amesos, in the midst; tacheos, on\nthe same part together; illico, from hence; protinus, the part from to\nthe possessions; statim, from any part or coast to the possessions.\n\nHenceforth, henceforward, hereafter; o-hyn-allan, ynol hyn, rhag llaw;\napo, toutou, exes; dehinc, deinceps. These signify from hence, from this\ntime, and from hence below or forward.\n\nThen; yno; tote, tunc. Tunc, the things or possessions in action; then,\nthe things or possessions in; tote, the things in the circle of beings;\nyno, in the circle.\n\nThence, thereafter, thenceforward, thenceforth; othyno, ar ol hynu;\nautothen, opote; illinc, posteaquam. These are defined before.\n\nSoon after; yn fuan arol; oligo; paulo post. Oligo, after the action\nfrom; paulo post, little after; the rest are explained before.\n\nSomewhile, awhile, sometimes, longwhile; rhiw amser, ambell waith,\nweithia, enyd o amser, yn hir o amser; epi chronon, pote, makran den;\naliquamdiu, aliquando, longe diu. Rhiu amser, the spring of existence;\nchronon, the round of existence; makran, things acting about; the rest\nare explained before.\n\nSeldom; yn anaml, yn anfynych; spanios; raro. Spanios, a less part in\nmotion; seldom, less acting about; yn anaml and yn anfynych, things and\nexistences less numerous; raro, things from the earth.\n\nPrematurely, oversoon; cin tymor; prooros; pr\u00e6mature. Cin tymor, before\nthe circle of existence; prooros, before the term; pr\u00e6mature, before the\nthings in possession; oversoon, an action before its spring or season.\n\nAnnually, yearly; pob blwyddyn; kat etos; quotannis. Yearly, every\nspring upon earth; annual, every spring up of the earth\u2019s existence; kat\netos, every spring of motion, age or action; pob blwyddyn, every life or\nexistence upon the spring.\n\nAlternately, one after another; pob yn ail; enallax; alternatim. Pob yn\nail, every other in; enallax, in another action; alternatim, another into\npossession.\n\nAt length, lastly, finally, ultimately; mhen enyd; yn olaf, yn ddiweddaf;\nyr diwedd; pote, talentaion, ta ustata, echatos; tandem, postremo,\nultimo. Mhen enyd, at the end of a length; yn olaf, the aftermost; yn\nddiweddaf, the endmost; yr diwedd, the end; pote, out of possession; ta\nustata, the last part of possession; echatos, the utmost round; tandem,\nafter or below the part in possession; postremo, after the things or\npossessions in being; ultimo, futurity or last time; at length, the end\nof a line, possession or other thing; lastly, the place of the lowest\npossessions.\n\n\n\n\nAdverbs of Quantity, Quality, and the Manner of Motions, Energies, and\nrest of Things.\n\n\nHow many, how much; pa nifer, pa rifedi, pa sawl un, pa gymaint; posi,\noson, poson; quot, quantum. These signify the parts of springs, actions\nand things interrogatively.\n\nSo much, so many; yn gymaint, cynifer; toson, tosouton; tantum, tot.\nThese signify the parts and actions seen.\n\nMore; mwy; mallon; magis. These signify a greater spring of many and much.\n\nLess; llai; elatton; meion; minor. These signify the beginning of action\nor the edge of place.\n\nAbsolutely, wholly; yn hollal; entallos; absolute. These signify the\nwhole or all, as quality; the qualities of the different sorts of things\nbeing expressed by al, el, il, ol, ul, and their transponents, according\nto the nature of the expression, and generally in the English, by _ly_\nthe flow of the sun\u2019s rays, or _y_ the, to form Adverbs from Adjectives.\n\nAdjectively; yn adroedd; epitheton; adjective. These signify something\ncast to, as its quality to a substantive.\n\nAffectionately, passionately, pathetically; yn hoffus, yn ofydus; yn\nwynfydus; pathetikos, agapetos; pathetice. These are expressive of the\nqualities or energies of those passions.\n\nAgedly; yn henaidd; palaios; seniliter, the qualities of age or being\nlong in action.\n\nArticulately; yn gymalog; enarthros; articulatim, articulate sounds, or\nthe sounds of the joints.\n\nBodily; yn gorphorol; somatikos; corporaliter, like the body.\n\nCirumstantially; yn amgylcheddol; peristatikos, circumstantialiter, like\nstanding about.\n\nColdly; oerlyd; psuchros; frigide, as deprived of the sun\u2019s heat.\n\nFiercely; yn fyrnig; agrios; ferociter, as the action of fire.\n\nNaturally; yn naturiol, anianol; kata physin; naturaliter, as the\ninternal properties of things diffused towards man.\n\nUsually; yn arferol; koine; usualiter, as usual.\n\nWisely; yn fynwyrol; sophes; sapienter, like the sight of man.\n\nWorthily; yn yrddasol; axios; digne, like the property or value of man.\n\nAs; mal; os; ut, the surface of the ground, the possessions extended or\nthe earth seen.\n\nWhy, wherefore; pa achos; par o; cur, what action, motion or spring.\n\nTherefore; felly; outos; ita, ergo, the action, spring or thing as seen.\n\nAlack, alas; och, ai ho, gwae fi; ai, O, omoi, ouai; ah, eh, hei, heu,\nehu, v\u00e6. These are interjections or energies of the passions of dislike\nand lamentation.\n\nAha: aha, wi; euge; euge, a good spring or pleasing interjection.\n\nAdieu, hail, farewell; bydd iach; vale, salve, live well, spring and\nenjoy the ilation of the sun.\n\nAmen; amen; amen, outos genoito; amen, ita fiat. Am-en for heaven, and\nlet it be so.\n\nSome sketches of the creation, the original and present state of men and\nanimals in our system of beings, the fall of man and other obscure scenes\nof antiquity, have been drawn from the sacred characters made use of by\nthe Priests and Druids to preserve their original, ancient and secret\nknowledge, in order to illustrate the present subject, and setting the\npresent confused, deluded, or enchanted state of language and knowledge\nin a right course and direction. But the press not admitting of their\nbeing exhibited in that order and mode, which seemed to be necessary\nfor a compleat transmission of the sacred hieroglyfics, the following\nspecimen must suffice for the present.\n\n[Illustration]\n\n1. The state of man previous to the formation of Eve and his essential\nmodes. 2. His compound state or the nonessential modes and division into\nparts and actions. 3. Emblems of concupiscible appetites, innate parental\ntraces, energies and passions acquired by the fall. 4. The state of man\nand woman after the fall, as enchanted and confined to place or matter.\n5. The Serpent, an emblem of speech. 6. A theta instead of the Coptic\nkei, an emblem of man\u2019s primitive state, &c. 7. Birds; but the round U is\nmade use for the Coptic e. 8. Beasts and Bulls. 9. Fishes. 10. Twigs and\ntrees. But more of this hereafter.\n\nAnd as all letters are thus deriveable from the parts of man, resembling\nall other things, Adam might be very well instructed, in their use in\nparadise;\u2014And, the divisions of time appear to have been made from the\ndays of the creation. See the former treatise.\n\n    O\u2019er plants celestial, that fell below,\n    And grafs of _serf_ which now together grow,\n    With her sword flaming round the living stem,\n    Guarding its fruit upon the side of Shem,\n    Expatiate free! \u2019tis the scene of man,\n    A mighty maze! beyond my present plan;\n    \u2018A wild where weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot;\n    Or garden, tempting with forbidden fruit.\n    Together let us beat this ample field;\n    Try what the open, what the covert yield.\u2019\n    Here to dispel prolific nature\u2019s charm,\n    Prudence forbids; tho\u2019 far from real harm;\n    And science shuns the Sympathetic touch;\n    So here we finish, lest we _feel_ too much.\n    Withall affirming of the birth of tongue.\n    If _Hiero_\u2019s right, others must be wrong.\n\nFINIS.\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Note: Changes made to the text to correct probable\nprinter errors are listed below. 1760s spelling remains unchanged.\nGreek ligatures (and mid-word \u03db) have been modernised to separate\nletters (and \u03c3\u03c4). Greek letters were occasionally printed reversed\nor upside down, probably because the typesetter wasn\u2019t familiar with\nthe alphabet, and this has been corrected without further note.\n\n    Page 13, \u201celitoris\u201d changed to \u201cclitoris\u201d (the clitoris,\n    erectors, and)\n\n    Page 17, upper case \u03a8 changed to \u03c8 for consistency with the\n    other letters in the list.\n\n    Page 21, \u201cfrem\u201d changed to \u201cfrom\u201d (proceeding from the hind\n    part)\n\n    Page 32, \u201cdiminition\u201d changed to \u201cdiminution\u201d (a diminution of\n    the colour)\n\n    Page 33, italics added (_a circle extended_)\n\n    Page 39, \u201cparticples\u201d changed to \u201cparticiples\u201d (with adjectives\n    or participles)\n\n    Page 42, verb \u201cread\u201d added to table, under first person present\n    absolute. The reader should also note the likelihood that the\n    future absolute is incorrect.\n\n    Page 43, \u201cor\u201d changed to \u201cfor\u201d (for as _ing_)\n\n    Page 43, \u201cor\u201d changed to \u201cof\u201d (it is the spring of life)\n\n    Page 43, \u201cloose\u201d changed to \u201close\u201d (as verbs lose their\n    qualities)\n\n    Page 60, vocabulary entry \u201cNeiighbour\u201d changed to \u201cNeighbour\u201d\n\n    Page 64, \u201cdistrubution\u201d changed to \u201cdistribution\u201d (the\n    distribution of Providence)\n\n    Page 75, \u201cExtrorsium\u201d changed to \u201cExtrorsum\u201d (Extrorsum, out of\n    the border)","title":"Hieroglyfic: or, a Grammatical Introduction to an Universal Hieroglyfic Language","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":29378}