{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_59673/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_59673","id":"gutenberg_59673","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/59673","summary":null,"tags":["Buddhism -- Burma","Burma -- Religion","Category: History - Religious","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Gautama Buddha"],"text":"Produced by ellinora, Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed\nProofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was\nproduced from images generously made available by The\nInternet Archive/American Libraries.)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nTR\u00dcBNER\u2019S ORIENTAL SERIES.\n\n[Illustration]\n\n\n\n\n THE LIFE OR LEGEND\n OF\n GAUDAMA\n _THE BUDDHA OF THE BURMESE_.\n\n With Annotations.\n\n THE WAYS TO NEIBBAN, AND NOTICE ON THE\n PHONGYIES OR BURMESE MONKS.\n\n BY THE\n RIGHT REVEREND P. BIGANDET,\n BISHOP OF RAMATHA,\n VICAR APOSTOLIC OF AVA AND PEGU.\n\n _IN TWO VOLUMES._\n VOL. II.\n\n Fourth Edition.\n\n LONDON:\n KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TR\u00dcBNER & CO. LTD.\n BROADWAY HOUSE, CARTER LANE, E.C.\n 1912.\n\n _The rights of translation and of reproduction are reserved._\n\n Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.\n At the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\nLEGEND OR LIFE OF THE BURMESE BUDDHA, CALLED GAUDAMA.\n\n\n PAGE\n\n CHAPTER I.\n\n Buddha, being seventy-nine years old, delivers instructions\n to the Rahans\u2014Preachings in the village of Patalie\u2014Miraculous\n crossing of the Ganges\u2014Conversion of a courtesan\u2014Sickness of\n Buddha\u2014His instructions to Ananda\u2014Last moments and death of\n Thariputra\u2014His eulogium by Buddha\u2014Death of Maukalan\u2014Reflections\n of Buddha on that event 1\n\n CHAPTER II.\n\n Voyage to Wethalie\u2014Last temptation of Manh\u2014Causes of\n earthquake\u2014New instructions to the Rahans\u2014Last meal of\n Buddha\u2014His painful distemper\u2014His conversation with one\n of the Malla Princes\u2014Sign foreshowing Buddha\u2019s coming\n death\u2014Arrival in the Kootheinaron forest\u2014Buddha lays himself\n on his couch\u2014Wonders attending that event\u2014Instructions to\n Ananda\u2014Eulogium of Ananda by Buddha\u2014Conversion of Thoubat\u2014Last\n words of Buddha to the Rahans\u2014His death 28\n\n CHAPTER III.\n\n Stanzas uttered after Buddha\u2019s death\u2014Ananda informs the Malla\n Princes of Buddha\u2019s demise\u2014Preparations for the funeral\u2014Arrival\n of Kathaba at the spot where the body was exposed to public\n veneration\u2014He worships the body\u2014Wonder on that occasion\u2014The\n burning of the corpse\u2014Partition of the relics made by a Pounha\n called Dauna\u2014Extraordinary honours paid to the relics by King\n Adzatathat\u2014Death of that king and of Kathaba 75\n\n CHAPTER IV.\n\n After Buddha\u2019s death, zeal of Kathaba in upholding genuine\n doctrines\u2014He selects five hundred elders to become members of\n a council or assembly\u2014Radzagio is fixed upon for the holding\n of the council\u2014He repairs thither with a portion of the\n appointed members\u2014Behaviour of the amiable Ananda previous to\n his departure for Radzagio\u2014King Adzatathat supports Kathaba\n in his views\u2014The hall for holding the council is prepared by\n his orders\u2014Ananda is qualified in a miraculous manner for\n sitting as a member of the council\u2014Holding of the council\n under the presidency of Kathaba\u2014Establishment of the Religious\n era\u2014Destruction of Wethalie by Adzatathat\u2014The successors of\n that Prince\u2014In the days of King Kalathoka a second council is\n held at Pataliputra under the presidency of Ratha\u2014Causes that\n provoked the holding of a second assembly 101\n\n CHAPTER V.\n\n Kalathoka is succeeded by his eldest son, Baddasena\u2014And\n finally by the youngest, Pitzamuka\u2014This prince is killed and\n succeeded by a chief of robbers, named Ouggasena-nanda\u2014King\n Tsanda-gutta\u2014King Bandasura\u2014Miraculous dreams of\n Athoka\u2019s mother\u2014King Athoka\u2014His conversion\u2014His zeal for\n Buddhism\u2014Finding of the relics\u2014Distribution of them\u2014Third\n council held under the presidency of Mauggalipata\u2014Preaching\n of religion in various countries, and particularly in\n Thaton\u2014Voyage of Buddhagosa to Ceylon\u2014Establishment of religion\n in Pagan\u2014Various particulars relating to the importation of the\n Scriptures in Burmah 123\n\n AN ABSTRACT OF A FEW SMALL DZATS, AND OF TWO PRINCIPAL ONES,\n KNOWN AS NEMI AND DZANECKA 153\n\n REMARKS ON THE SITES AND NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PLACES\n MENTIONED IN THE LEGEND OR LIFE OF GAUDAMA 177\n\n THE SEVEN WAYS TO NEIBBAN 189\n\n Art. I.\u2014Of the Precepts 191\n\n Art. II.\u2014Of Meditation and its various Degrees 202\n\n Art. III.\u2014Of the Nature of Beings 212\n\n Art. IV.\u2014Of the Cause of the Form and of the Name, or of\n Master and Spirit 218\n\n Art. V.\u2014Of the True Meggas or Ways to Perfection 227\n\n Art. VI.\u2014Of the Progress in Perfect Science 233\n\n NOTICE ON THE PHONGYIES, OR BUDDHIST MONKS, SOMETIMES CALLED\n TALAPOINS 241\n\n Art. I.\u2014A short Parallel between the Brahminical and\n Buddhistic Religious Orders 244\n\n Art. II.\u2014Nature of the Religious Order of Phongyies 251\n\n Art. III.\u2014Hierarchy of the Order 261\n\n Art. IV.\u2014Ordination, or Ceremonies observed at the Admission\n into the Society 272\n\n Art. V.\u2014Rules of the Order 282\n\n Art. VI.\u2014Occupations of the Buddhist Monks 296\n\n Art. VII.\u2014Religious Influence of the Phongyies\u2014Respect and\n Veneration paid to them by the Laity 303\n\n ADDENDA 321\n\n ON THE WORD \u201cNAT\u201d 324\n\n\n\n\nLEGEND OF THE BURMESE BUDDHA CALLED GAUDAMA.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n _Buddha, being seventy-nine years old, delivers instructions\n to the Rahans\u2014Preachings in the village of Patalie\u2014Miraculous\n crossing of the Ganges\u2014Conversion of a courtesan\u2014Sickness of\n Buddha\u2014His instructions to Ananda\u2014Last moments and death of\n Thariputra\u2014His eulogium by Buddha\u2014Death of Maukalan\u2014Reflections\n of Buddha on that event._\n\n\nDuring all this time Buddha was travelling about the country, preaching\nthe law to those that were worthy to obtain the deliverance. He had\nreached his seventy-ninth year.[1] At that time there were eighteen\nmonasteries in the neighbourhood of Radzagio, peopled by a great number\nof religious. On a certain day, Buddha said to Ananda, \u201cInvite all\nthe Rahans to assemble in the Gny-Moora hall.\u201d When they had gathered\ntogether in that place, Buddha repaired thither, and spoke to them\nas follows: \u201cBeloved Bickus, as long as you shall remain united, and\ncontinue to hold regular meetings, you shall certainly prosper and\nflourish\u2014as long as you shall agree together, and come unitedly to a\ndecision on all principal affairs, so that you will impose no obligation\nwhere there is no precept, and that you will fervently observe all the\ncommands, strictly adhering to all the rules of your profession, you\nwill ever be in a prosperous condition. It is required that you should\nbehave respectfully towards your superiors, yielding due obedience to\ntheir injunctions. Beware of passions, and particularly of concupiscence,\nlest you should ever be brought under their tyrannical yoke. Love retreat\nand solitude; endeavour to observe your regulations, as well as all\nthe ordinances and ceremonies of the law. Let it be a pleasure to you\nto receive kindly good religious who may come to your monasteries, and\nconverse with them. Avoid carefully to take pleasure in what you do or\nsay, or pride yourselves in the number of your attendants. Shun bad\ncompany; apply yourselves diligently to acquire knowledge and wisdom;\nmeditate on the great truths, mutability, pain, and unreality. As long as\nyou observe those important points and adhere to them, you shall prosper\nand be ever respected by all. Moreover, you will be thereby enabled to\navoid all that which is base and unbecoming in your sacred calling.\u201d\n\nWhen the instruction was over, Buddha called Ananda and bade him inform\nthe Rahans to hold themselves ready for going to Ampaladaka.\n\nWhilst staying in a dzeat or bungalow, Thariputra approached Buddha,\nand having paid him his respects, said to him, \u201cO most illustrious\nBuddha, there is no one that surpasses, or that is even equal to you\nin the knowledge of the law. There has never been, nor will ever be, a\nbeing that can be compared to you. This is what elicits my admiration\ntowards and love for your person.\u201d Buddha replied, \u201cYou are not mistaken,\nThariputra; blessed are they who, like you, know the value and the\nscience of a Buddha.\u201d Desiring to try the wisdom of his great disciple,\nhe added, \u201cBeloved son, how do you know that no one can be compared to\nme, and that my knowledge of the law is unrivalled?\u201d Thariputra answered,\n\u201cI have not the knowledge of the present, nor of the past and future, but\nI understand the law; through you, O most glorious Buddha, I have come\nto that understanding; you have said that you have infinite wisdom, hence\nI conclude that you know the present, the past, and the future\u2014you are\nto be ever praised; you are most excellent, ever glorious, and free from\nall passions, and therefore to you I attribute all the qualities inherent\nin him who is invested with the Buddhaship.\u201d From Ampaladaka Buddha\nwent to the large village of Nalanda, where he was well received by the\ninhabitants. He preached to them and made a short stay with them.\n\nPhra summoned again Ananda to his presence, and directed him to tell\nthe Rahans to be ready for a voyage, as he desired to go to the village\nof Patalie. When he arrived at that place, the people prepared for him\nthe dzeat[2] or hall, which had been erected by the order of King\nAdzatathat, for receiving the Letziwy princes of Wethalie, who had come\nto a conference for settling some affairs with him. Everything being\nready, they invited Phra, who by his silence testified his acceptance of\ntheir invitation. Water to drink, rinse the mouth, and wash his hands\nand feet, was ready. Buddha sat leaning against the central post of\nthe hall, facing the east. His disciples remained behind in a humble\nposture, whereas the people sat opposite to him, having their faces\nturned towards the west. Phra began to explain to the numerous hearers\nthe demerits and punishments attending the trespassing of the precepts\nof the law, and the advantages reserved to those who religiously observe\nthem. \u201cDarakas,\u201d said he, \u201cwhoever trespasses the moral precepts, or is\nremiss in observing them, will see his happiness and fortune gradually\ndecreasing, and his good character falling away. He will ever live in a\nsad state of doubt and uncertainty, and at last, when death shall have\nput an end to his present existence, he will fall into hell. But the lot\nof the faithful observer of the great precepts shall be widely different.\nHe will obtain riches and pleasures, and gain an honourable reputation.\nHe will be welcome in the assemblies of princes, pounhas, and Rahans;\ndoubt shall never enter his mind, and his death will open before him the\nway to the pleasant seats of Nats.\u201d The people were so much taken up with\nthe preaching that they remained in the dzeat until a very late hour. At\nlast they paid their homage to Buddha, rose up, turned on the right, and\ndeparted.\n\nIt is in the following year that the same king built the city of\nPatalibot or Pataliputra, on that same spot. In anticipation of that\nevent, Buddha foretold that the village would become a great city,\nwhich would obtain a renowned celebrity among all other cities. Thither\ncountless merchants would resort from all parts of Dzampoodipa. At\nthe same time he predicted the great calamities that would befall it.\nInternal discords, fire, and inundation of the Ganges would gradually\nwork out its total destruction.\n\nIn the morning Buddha went to the southern bank of the Ganges, and\npreached the law to some pounhas, who, in return, made him offerings and\npaid him much respect. He stood on that place as if waiting for some\nboat to cross the mighty stream. Some of the people were looking out for\nboats, others were busily engaged in preparing rafts. Whilst they were\nmaking all the necessary arrangements, Buddha stretched both arms and\nfound himself, with all his Rahans, on the opposite bank. Turning his\nface in the direction of those who were in search of boats and rafts, he\nsaid: \u201cHe who has crossed the sea of passions is an Ariah. The practice\nof the great duties are the boats and rafts whereupon he contrives to\ncross the sea of passions. He who desires to pass a river wants the\naid of rafts and boats, which are made up of different pieces of wood\njoined together; but he who has become an Ariah by the knowledge of the\ngreat roads that lead to perfection, weakens all passions and extricates\nhimself from the whirlpool of concupiscence: he can also, without the\nhelp of boats or rafts, cross rivers.\u201d\n\nPhra informed Ananda that he intended to go to the village of Kantikama.\nHaving reached that place, he explained to the Rahans the glorious and\nsublime prerogatives of Ariahs. Thence he passed over to the village of\nNadika. It was in that place that Ananda asked him what had become of a\ncertain Rahan, named Thamula, and of a certain Rahaness, named Anaunda,\nwho had both just died. \u201cThe Rahan,\u201d answered Buddha, \u201chas conquered\nall his passions and obtained the state of Neibban. As to the Rahaness,\nshe has gone to one of the seats of Brahmas: thence she will migrate to\nNeibban without reappearing in the world of passions.\u201d\n\nBuddha went to the country of Wethalie with his disciples, and dwelt\nin a beautiful grove of mango-trees. There he earnestly recommended\nhis disciples to have their minds always attentive and ready to engage\nin serious reflections and meditations. In Wethalie lived a famous\ncourtesan, named Apapalika. She had her dwelling in a beautiful place,\nnear to an extensive and delightful grove, planted with mango-trees.\nShe went along with others to hear the preaching of Gaudama, which\nhad the good effect of disposing her to make a great offering to the\ndistinguished preacher and his followers. Buddha was submissively\nrequested to come on the following day with all the Rahans to receive\nhis food. The invitation was graciously accepted. The courtesan hastened\nto prepare the meal for Buddha and his followers. On the same day\nhe preached the law to a number of young princes who had offered to\nsupply him with his meal on the following day. He refused to accept the\ninvitation, because he had already promised to Apapalika to go to her\nplace for the same purpose. The princes had come in their finest and\nrichest dress; in their deportment they vied in beauty with the Nats.\nBut foreseeing the ruin and misery that was soon to come upon them all,\nBuddha exhorted his disciples to entertain a thorough contempt for things\nthat are dazzling to the eyes, but essentially perishable and unreal in\ntheir nature. The princes were greatly disappointed at the preference\ngiven to the courtesan. On the following day, Gaudama went to the grove\nof mango-trees, attended by all his Rahans. After the meal, Apapalika\npresented the grove to Gaudama, who readily accepted the pious gift.\n\nHaving remained a while on this spot, Buddha went to the village of\nWeluwa, where he spent the forty-fifth and the last season. There he\nassembled the Rahans and said to them: \u201cI intend to spend the season\nin this place, but you have my permission to go and remain in the\nneighbouring districts.\u201d The reason that induced him to part for a while\nwith his disciples was the smallness of the place and the difficulty\nof procuring rice, whilst in the contiguous districts there were many\nmonasteries and an abundance of all the necessaries of life. He would\nnot, however, allow them to withdraw to too great a distance, for two\nreasons: first, because he knew that in ten months hence he would attain\nthe state of Neibban; and, second, because he desired to see them\nassembled in his place several times every month, that he might have\nopportunity to preach the law, and deliver to them his final instructions.\n\nWhilst he was living in that place Buddha was visited with a most painful\ndistemper, which threw him into a state of prolonged agony. But owing\nto the absence of his disciples, and knowing besides that this was not\nthe spot he was to select for his last moments, he overcame, by his\nincomparable power, the evil influence of the illness, and entering\nsoon into a state of absolute trance, he remained therein for a while.\nAwakening from that situation, he appeared anew with his strength and\nusual vigour. When he came out from the monastery to take his wonted\nwalk, Ananda went into his presence, and expressed to him the profound\ngrief felt by all those who had heard of his illness. \u201cWhen I saw you\nill, O illustrious Buddha,\u201d said the faithful Ananda, \u201cI was so deeply\naffected that I could scarcely hold up my head or draw my breath. I\nalways cherished the hope that you would not go to Neibban ere you had\npreached once more the law to us all.\u201d \u201cAnanda,\u201d replied Buddha, \u201cwhy are\nthe Rahans so much concerned about my person? What I have preached has no\nreference to what is within me or without me. Besides me there is no one\nelse to preach the law. Were they not looking upon me as such, it would\nbe perfectly useless to attempt to preach to them. I am now very old; my\nyears number eighty. I am like an old cart, the iron wheels and wood of\nwhich are kept together by constant repairing; my earthly frame is kept\nentire and whole by the force and power of trance. O Ananda, I feel truly\nhappy whenever I consider the state of Arahat, which is the deliverance\nfrom all the miseries of this world, whilst at the same time it sets a\nbeing free and disentangled from all visible and material objects. As to\nmy disciples, as long as my religion shall last they ought to rely on\nthemselves, and take refuge in the law, for there is no other refuge.\nThey will truly rely on themselves when, by a careful attention, profound\nreflection, and true wisdom, they will be bent upon the destruction of\nconcupiscence and anger, and engaged on meditating upon the constituent\nelements of this body.\u201d Such were the instructions he gave to Ananda.\n\nHaving spent the season in the village of Welouwa, the most excellent\nBuddha desired to return by the same way he had previously followed to\nthe country of Thawattie. Having arrived there, he took up his residence\nin the monastery of Dzetawon.[3] The great disciple Thariputra, having\njust returned from begging his rice, hastened to render to Buddha the\nusual services. He swept the place, spread the mat, and washed his\nfeet. These duties being performed, he sat in a cross-legged position,\nentered into a state of trance for a while, whence having awakened, he\nthought within himself as follows: Has it been the custom in former\nages for the Buddhas to arrive first at the state of Neibban, or for\ntheir great disciples to precede them in that way? Having ascertained\nthat the latter alternative always happened, Thariputra examined his\nown existence, and found that the period of his life was not to extend\nbeyond seven days. He next considered what place was the fittest for\nhim to depart from and go to Neibban. The remembrance of his mother\noccurred to his mind, and he said to himself, My mother has given birth\nto seven Rahandas, and she has not as yet taken refuge in the three\nprecious things\u2014Buddha, the law, and the assembly of the perfect. Is\nshe capable of understanding and knowing the four ways to perfection?\nYes, she is indeed. But who is destined to preach to her? I am the\nperson who ought to perform such a good office to her. I will go, teach\nher, and, by my instructions, make her renounce her false belief and\nembrace the true one. The very room I was born in shall be the spot\nwherefrom I shall depart for the rest of Neibban. On this day I will ask\nBuddha\u2019s leave to go to my birthplace. Having come to this resolution,\nhe called the faithful Tsanda, and said to him, \u201cGo and summon my five\nhundred Rahans to attend at my place.\u201d Tsanda departed forthwith, and\nsaid to the Rahans, \u201cThe great Thariputra desires to go to the village\nof Nalanda; be ready to accompany him; arrange everything in your own\nplace, take up your pattas and tsiwarans.\u201d The five hundred Rahans\nimmediately complied with the request, and were ready to follow their\nmaster. Thariputra, having disposed everything in his own cell, rose up,\nand casting an attentive and serious look upon the place he was wont to\nsit on during the day, he said, \u201cThis is the last time I will ever see\nthis place; never will I any more enter into this cell.\u201d Thereupon he\nleft the spot followed by the five hundred Rahans, went to the presence\nof Gaudama, and humbly requested permission to go and quietly enter\ninto the state of Neibban, and thereby be delivered from the whirlpool\nof endless existences. Gaudama asked him in what place he intended to\nobtain Neibban? Thariputra replied: \u201cIn the country of Magatha, in the\nvillage of Nalanda,[4] in the very room where I was born.\u201d \u201cYou alone,\nO Thariputra,\u201d said Buddha, \u201cknow the time of your entering the state of\nNeibban. As it is difficult, if not impossible, ever to find among all\nmy disciples one like unto you, I desire you to preach once more to the\nassembly of Rahans.\u201d Thariputra, knowing that Buddha wished him at the\nsame time to show a display of his power, prostrated himself before him,\nthen rose up in the air to the height of one palm-tree, and came down to\nworship Buddha. He rose seven times in succession, each time higher by\nthe length of a palm-tree than the preceding one. On the last time he\nstood in the air for a while, and announced the law to the multitude of\nRahans and people; then coming down, he submissively requested Buddha to\nwithdraw into the interior of the monastery. Buddha, complying with his\nwishes, entered into a hall studded with diamonds. Thariputra, having\nbowed towards the four points of the compass, said: \u201cO most glorious\nBuddha, a hundred thousands of worlds ago I was prostrated at the feet of\nBuddha Anaumadathi, and earnestly prayed that I might enjoy the happiness\nof seeing all successive Buddhas that would appear during the period of\nmy countless existences. My prayer has been heard, and now I contemplate\nyou, O most glorious Buddha, and it is the last time that I will ever\nenjoy your presence. Now, O Buddha, worthy to be adored by all rational\nbeings, I will soon be free from the thraldom of existences, and this\nexistence shall be the last; this my prostration before you shall be the\nlast. The end of my life is near at hand: seven days hence, like a man\nwho rids himself of a heavy load, I will be freed from the heavy burden\nof my body.\u201d He raised his joined hands to his forehead, and from the\nextremities of his ten fingers rays of glory shot forth. In this position\nhe bowed to Buddha, and withdrawing slowly, with his face towards Buddha,\nhe continued bowing down as long as he could see him, because it was for\nthe last time. When Buddha was out of sight he took his departure. At the\nsame time the earth trembled with a tremendous shake. Buddha said to the\nRahans that surrounded Thariputra: \u201cBeloved children, your elder brother\nis departing; accompany him for a while.\u201d The people, too, hearing that\nThariputra was going away, came forward, and gathering in large crowds,\nsaid to each other: \u201cThe great Thariputra, having obtained leave from\nBuddha, is going to prepare himself for the state of Neibban; let us\nfollow him, that we may still enjoy his presence.\u201d Whereupon taking\nflowers and perfumes in their hands, they ran in the direction he had\ntaken, with dishevelled hair, crying aloud, with tears and lamentations,\n\u201cWhere is Thariputra?\u201d Having come up to him, they said: \u201cIllustrious\nRahan, you have left Buddha; whom do you now intend to join?\u201d Thariputra,\nfull of the most affectionate feelings towards the people, mildly desired\nthem not to accompany him farther, and he added a few last words,\nenjoining upon them ever to remember Buddha and the Rahans. During the\nseven days that his journey lasted, Thariputra never ceased to praise and\nexalt the affection and kindness the people bore to him.\n\nIt was a little before dark when the great Rahan arrived at the entrance\nof the Nalanda village. He went to rest at the foot of a banyan-tree\nclose to that spot. At that time there came a young man, his nephew,\nnamed Ooparewata, who, perceiving Thariputra, bowed down before him, and\nstood in that place. The great Rahan said to him: \u201cIs your grandmother at\nhome?\u201d Having been answered in the affirmative, he continued addressing\nhim: \u201cGo now to her, and tell her to prepare for me the room wherein I\nwas born, and a place for these five hundred Rahans that accompany me. I\nwill stay for awhile in the village, and will go to her house somewhat\nlater.\u201d The lad went in all haste to his grandmother\u2019s house, and said to\nher: \u201cMy uncle is come, and is staying at the entrance of the village.\u201d\n\u201cIs he alone?\u201d inquired the grandmother, \u201cor has he with him a numerous\nretinue? For what purpose is he coming here?\u201d The young man related to\nher all the particulars of his interview with his uncle. Noopathari,\nthe mother of Thariputra, thought within herself, Perhaps my son, who\nhas been a Rahan from his youth, desires in his old age to leave his\nprofession. She, however, gave orders to have the desired room cleaned,\nand a place prepared for all his attendants.\n\nIn the evening, the great disciple went to his mother\u2019s house with all\nhis followers. He ascended to the room prepared for him and rested\ntherein. He bade all the Rahans withdraw and leave him alone. They had\nscarcely departed, when a most violent disease seized Thariputra, which\ncaused an abundant vomiting of blood, so great, indeed, that the vessel\ninto which it flowed could not hold it. His mother, at the sight of such\nan awful distemper, did not dare to approach, but retired, with a broken\nheart, into her own room, and leaned against the door. At that time,\nfour great Nats, a Thagia their chief, and four Brahmas, came to see\nhim, and to minister to him during his painful illness; but he bade them\nretire. His mother, seeing the coming and going of so many distinguished\nvisitors, and the respect they paid to her son, drew near to the door of\nhis room, and calling the faithful Tsanda, inquired of him wherefore so\nmany distinguished individuals had come. Tsanda explained to her that the\ngreat Nats and a chief Thagia had come to visit and assist her son, and\nenjoy the presence of the great Rahan. Meanwhile he informed the patient\nthat his mother wished to see him. Thariputra replied, that the moment\nwas not a proper one, and he asked his mother the motive of her untimely\nvisit. \u201cBeloved son,\u201d said she, \u201cI am come here to contemplate your ever\ndear countenance. But who are they that have just come to see you?\u201d\nThariputra explained to her how he had been visited by Nats, Thagias,\nand Brahmas. His mother inquiring of him if he were greater than any one\nof these, he unhesitatingly replied, that he was more excellent than any\nof them. His mother thought within herself: If my son be so exalted, how\nmuch more must Buddha be! Her heart then overflowed with the purest joy.\n\nThariputra rightly understood that the moment had come to preach the\nlaw to his mother. He said to her, \u201cWoman, at the time my great teacher\nwas born, when he obtained the supreme intelligence, and preached the\nmost excellent law, a great earthquake was felt throughout ten thousand\nworlds. No one has ever equalled him in the practice of virtue, in\nunderstanding, wisdom, and in the knowledge of and affection for the\ntranscendent excellencies of the state of Arahat.\u201d He then went on\nexplaining to her the law, and many particulars relating to the person\nof Buddha. \u201cBeloved son,\u201d said his mother, delighted with all that she\nheard, \u201cwhy have you been so late in acquainting me with such a perfect\nlaw?\u201d At the conclusion of the instruction, she attained the state of\nThautapan. Thariputra replied, \u201cNow, woman, I have repaid you for all the\nlabours you have bestowed on me in bearing, nursing, and educating me;\ndepart from me and leave me alone.\u201d[5]\n\nThariputra inquired of the devoted Tsanda whether the moment had come.\nHaving been informed that it was nearly daylight, he requested to be set\nup. By his order all the Rahans were called to his presence, and he said\nto them, \u201cFor the last forty-four years you have ever been with me; if I\nhave offended any one of you during all that time, I beg to be pardoned.\u201d\nThe Rahans answered him: \u201cGreat teacher, we have lived with you during\nthe last forty-four years, and have been your inseparable attendants,\nfollowing you everywhere, as the shadow follows the body. We have never\nexperienced the least dissatisfaction with you, but we have to request\nyour forbearance with us and pardon for ourselves.\u201d\n\nIt was on the evening of the full moon Tatsaongmon (November), when\nThariputra went to his mother\u2019s place, and lay down in the room wherein\nhe had been born. During the night he was attacked with the most\ndistressing distemper. In the morning, at daylight, he was habited with\nhis tsiwaran and made to lie on his right side. He entered into a sort of\necstasy, passed successively from the first state of Dzan to the second,\nthird, and fourth, and thence dived into the bottomless state of Neibban,\nwhich is the complete exemption from the influence of passions and matter.\n\nNoopathari, bathed in her tears, gave full vent to her grief and\ndesolation. \u201cAlas!\u201d exclaimed she, looking on the lifeless body, \u201cis\nthis my beloved son? His mouth can no more utter a sound.\u201d Rising up,\nshe flung herself at his feet, and with a voice ever interrupted by sobs\nand lamentations, said, \u201cAlas! beloved son, too late have I known the\ntreasure of perfections and excellencies that was in you. Had I been\naware of it, I would have invited to my house more than ten thousand\nRahans, fed them, and made a present of three suits of dresses to each\nof them. I would have built a hundred monasteries to receive them.\u201d\nDay[6] having dawned, she sent for the most skilful goldsmiths, opened\nher chests, and gave them a great quantity of gold. By her command, five\nhundred small piathats and as many dzedis were prepared: the outsides\nwere all covered with gold leaves. The great Thagia sent down on the spot\na number of Nats, who made also the same number of religious ornaments.\nIn the middle of the city a high square tower was erected; from its\ncentre a tall spire rose to an immense height. This principal one was\nsurrounded by a great number of smaller ones. Men and Nats mingled\ntogether, uniting in their endeavours to do honour to the deceased. The\nwhole place was lined with countless beings, vieing with each other in\ntheir efforts to show the utmost respect, joy, and exultation on this\nextraordinary occasion.\n\nThe nurse of Thariputra, named Rewati, came and deposited round the\nmortal remains three golden flowers. At that very moment the great Thagia\nmade his appearance, surrounded with myriads of Nats. As soon as the\nmultitudes perceived him, they withdrew hastily to make room for him.\nIn the midst of the confusion, Rewati fell down, was trampled upon,\nand died. She migrated to the fortunate seat of Tawadeintha, became a\ndaughter of Nats, and inhabited a niche made with the most consummate\nskill, and adorned with the richest materials. Her body shone like a\nbeautiful statue of gold, and was three gawoots tall. Her dress exceeded\nin richness, variety, and beauty all that had ever been hitherto seen.\n\nOn the following day, Rewati came from her glorious seat to the spot\nwhere crowds of people surrounded the body of the deceased. She\napproached with the dignified countenance and majestic bearing of a queen\nof Nats. No one recognised her, though the eyes of all were riveted\non her person, encompassed with the splendour of Nats. While all the\nspectators, overawed by the presence of that celestial being, remained\nmotionless with a silent admiration, Rewati said to them, \u201cHow is it that\nnone of you recognise me? I am Rewati, the nurse of the great Thariputra.\nTo the offering of the three golden flowers made by me and placed at\nthe feet of the mortal remains of the great Rahan, I am indebted for\nthe glory and splendour of my present position.\u201d She explained at great\nlength the advantages procured by doing meritorious actions. Having stood\nfor awhile above the cenotaph, whereupon they had deposited the body of\nthe deceased, she came down, turned three times round it, bowing down\neach time, and then returned to the blissful seat of Tawadeintha.\n\nDuring seven consecutive days, rejoicings, dancings, and amusements\nof every description were uninterruptedly kept up in honour of the\nillustrious deceased. The funeral pile was made of scented wood; upon\nit they scattered profusely the most rare and fragrant perfumes. The\npile was ninety-nine cubits high. The corpse having been placed upon it,\nfire was set to it by means of strings made of flowers and combustibles.\nDuring the whole night that the ceremony lasted, there was a constant\npreaching of the law. Anoorouda extinguished the fire with perfumed\nwater. Tsanda carefully and piously collected the remaining relics, which\nwere placed in a filter. \u201cNow,\u201d said he, \u201cI will go to Buddha with these\nrelics, and lay them in his presence.\u201d With his companion Anoorouda, he\ntook, together with the relics, the patta and tsiwaran of the deceased,\nand returned to Buddha to relate to him all the particulars concerning\nthe last moments of his great disciple.\n\nTsanda was the younger brother of the great Thariputra. It was to him\nthat the honour belonged of being the person selected to convey to Buddha\nthe precious relics. When, however, he had come to the monastery, he\nwas unwilling to go alone into Buddha\u2019s presence. He went first to\nAnanda, his intimate friend, and said to him, \u201cMy brother Thariputra\nhas obtained the state of Neibban. Here are the patta, tsiwaran, and\nrelics,\u201d exhibiting before him, one after the other, those precious\narticles. Both went together to Buddha\u2019s place, and laid at his feet the\npatta, tsiwaran, and relics of the great disciple. Buddha, placing the\nrelics on the palm of his right hand, called all the Rahans and said to\nthem, \u201cBeloved Rahans, this is all that remains of one who, a few days\nago, was performing wonders in your presence, and has now reached the\nstate of Neibban, something resembling a pure white shell. During an a\nthingie and hundred thousands of worlds, he has perfected himself by\nthe practice of virtue. Beloved children, he could preach the law like\nanother Buddha. He knew how to gain friends; crowds of people followed\nhim to hear his instructions. Excepting me, no one in ten thousand\nworlds was equal to him. His wisdom was at once great and cheerful, his\nmind quick and penetrating. He knew how to restrain his desires, and\nto be easily satisfied with little. He loved retirement. He severely\nrebuked evil-doers. Beloved children, Thariputra renounced all pleasures\nand gratifications to become a Rahan; he always shunned strifes and\ncontentions, as well as long and idle conversations. His patient zeal\nfor the diffusion of my religion equalled the thickness of the globe. He\nwas like a bull, the horns of which have been broken. My beloved Rahans,\nlook once more at the relics of my wise son, Thariputra.\u201d Buddha in this\nmanner eulogised the virtues of the illustrious deceased in five hundred\nstanzas.[7]\n\nOn hearing all that Buddha had said to honour the memory of Thariputra,\nAnanda was filled with sentiments of the tenderest emotion. He could\nnot refrain from shedding abundant tears. Buddha quickly remarked all\nthat was taking place in his faithful and loving attendant, and said to\nhim, \u201cAnanda, on former occasions I have, in my preachings, endeavoured\nto shelter your soul from the impressions caused by such and like\nemotions. Two things can alone keep us separated from father, mother,\nbrothers, sisters, &c.,\u2014in a word, from all that we most cherish, viz.,\ndeath and distance. I, though a Buddha, have been exposed to all those\nchanges brought on by distance when I practised the great virtues in the\nsolitude, when I displayed wonders and spent a season in the seat of\nTawadeintha. In those circumstances, distance kept me far from all those\nthat were dearest to me. Would it not have been considered as useless, if\nnot unbecoming, to shed tears either on my account or that of others? Can\nthere ever be a time when any, how painful soever, occurrence may warrant\nwailing and lamenting?\u201d With these and other considerations, Buddha\nsoothed the affliction of Ananda, and filled his soul with consolations.\n\nBuddha, to complete, as it were, the work of praises in favour of his\ngreat disciple, caused a dzedi to be erected in his honour near the\nentrance of the Dzetawon monastery. Having satisfied the sacred duty of\ngratitude towards the greatest of his disciples, Gaudama resolved to\nleave the monastery of Dzetawon for the country of Radzagio. Ananda was,\nas usual, directed to inform the Rahans to hold themselves ready for\nimmediate departure.\n\nThe most excellent Phra having reached Radzagio, which he was to visit\nfor the last time, took his abode into the Weloowon monastery. He had not\nstayed long in that place when the other great disciple, Maukalan, went\nto Neibban. Here are the particulars respecting the last moments of the\nillustrious companion of Thariputra. The heterodox Rahans, who lived in\na state of complete nakedness, were extremely jealous of the popularity\nof Buddha, and coveted the abundant alms that were offered to him and his\ndisciples. Maukalan, who was living on the Isigili mountain, in the cave\nof the dark rock, was supposed, on account of his great attainments and\nprofound science, to be the cause of the great respect the people paid\nto his master. They resolved to kill him. For that purpose they armed\nfive hundred robbers, and gave them one thousand pieces of silver to\nperpetrate the horrible crime. The assassins went twice to the cave; but\ntheir victim twice escaped their fury. At last, owing to the influence\nof a former bad deed, Maukalan resigned himself into the hands of the\nruffians, who put him to death. They beat him so severely, that his\nlifeless remains were no more than a heap of mangled flesh, which they\nthrew into the midst of bushes. The news of the appalling murder spread\nrapidly through the country. King Adzatathat had the murderers arrested.\nHaving known from their own confession that the naked Rahans were the\ninstigators of the murder, he had them likewise arrested. In front of his\npalace he ordered one thousand holes to be dug; in each hole a criminal\nwas sunk up to his navel. All the ground was then overspread with straw,\nwhich being set fire to, all the wretches soon perished.\n\nOn hearing such news the disciples were greatly grieved, and asked\neach other what might have been the cause which had brought the aged\nMaukalan to such a cruel end. Buddha, appearing suddenly among them,\nsaid, \u201cBeloved sons, what is the subject of your conversation?\u201d They\nreplied that they were conversing on the tragical death of their great\ncompanion. \u201cI declare unto you,\u201d retorted Buddha, \u201cthat Maukalan has\nmet a well-merited death. In one of his former existences, my beloved\nson, at the instigation of his wife, misled his aged and blind parents\ninto a forest, where, leaving them alone, he went away for awhile. On\nhis return, affecting the manners and voice of a highwayman, he killed\nhis parents, and threw their bodies into a thicket. For this crime he\nhas suffered the torments of hell during one thousand years, and has had\nto undergo the cruel death that has put an end to his last existence.\u201d\nHaving thus spoken, he ordered that a dzedi should be erected in honour\nof Maukalan near the gate of the Weloowon monastery.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n _Voyage to Wethalie\u2014Last temptation of Manh\u2014Causes of\n earthquake\u2014New instructions to the Rahans\u2014Last meal of\n Buddha\u2014His painful distemper\u2014His conversation with one\n of the Malla princes\u2014Sign foreshowing Buddha\u2019s coming\n death\u2014Arrival in the Kootheinaron forest\u2014Buddha lays himself\n on his couch\u2014Wonders attending that event\u2014Instructions to\n Ananda\u2014Eulogium of Ananda by Buddha\u2014Conversion of Thoubat\u2014Last\n words of Buddha to the Rahans\u2014His death._\n\n\nHaving left Radzagio Buddha intimated to Ananda that he wished to return\nto Wethalie. On his way to the right bank of the Ganges, he arrived at\na place called Oukkatsela, where he preached on the death of his two\ngreatest disciples. Thence he crossed the mighty stream and shaped his\ncourse towards Wethalie. On the day that he entered the city he went in\nquest of his food. Having partaken of what he had received, he called\nAnanda, bade him take his mat and cushion, and follow him to the Tsapala\ndzedi, where he intended to spend a part of the day. Complying with the\ncommand, Ananda followed Buddha, and with him went to the beautiful site\nof Tsapala, to the place prepared for his master. Ananda approached Phra,\nand, respectfully prostrated, said to him, \u201cThis is, indeed, a very\nagreeable place.\u201d Whereupon Buddha, rejoicing, praised the different\nsites of that country which were in the neighbourhood of the Wethalie\ncity, as well as the dzedis that adorned them, and added, \u201cAnanda, every\nwise person ought to be earnest in perfecting himself in the four laws\nof edeipat. Having advanced in the practice of these laws, he can, if he\nchoose to do so, remain in a state of fixity during a whole revolution\nof nature, and even more. I, the Buddha, have become perfect in those\nlaws, and I may remain as I am now during an innumerable number of\nyears.\u201d Three times the same words were repeated. But Ananda, entangled\nas yet in the meshes of the tempter Manh Nat, remained prostrated before\nBuddha. It never came to his mind to entreat him to remain longer\non earth for the benefit of mortals, who would derive the greatest\nadvantages from his presence.\n\nAt that time Ananda rose up, with his mind troubled by the influence of\nthe evil one, withdrew from Buddha\u2019s presence and went to the foot of\na tree at a small distance. He had scarcely left Buddha alone when the\nNat Manh, perceiving that Buddha remained alone for awhile, approached\nnear his person, and keeping at a respectful distance, said to him,\n\u201cGreat, illustrious, and glorious Phra, who preachest an excellent law,\nit is now time for you to enter into the state of Neibban. You said in\nformer times, that as long as your disciples were not much advanced in\nknowledge, as long as they had not obtained a thorough command over their\nheart, mouth, and senses, as long as they were still wanting in firmness\nand diligence for hearing and understanding the law, or unequal to the\ntask of preaching the law, you would not go to Neibban. Now the Rahans,\nmembers of the assembly and your disciples, both males and females, are\nthoroughly instructed in all the parts of the law; they are firm in\ncontrolling their passions; they can preach the law to the other mortals;\nthe Nats and Brahmas have heard your preachings, and countless numbers\namong them have obtained the deliverance; the time, therefore, is come\nfor you to enter into the state of Neibban.\u201d Buddha knowing the wicked\none, with his evil dispositions, replied, \u201cHa! wretched Manh, do not\nconcern yourself about me. Ere long I will go to Neibban.\u201d\n\nWhilst he was near the dzedi of Tsapala, Buddha, in a moment of perfect\ncalmness of mind, entered into a sort of extraordinary state of\ncontemplation, in which, for the first time, he mastered completely\nthe principles of life, and appeared as if he had abandoned life. But\nit ought not to be understood that he parted with life, as a man lets\ngo a stone that he has in his hands; but he estranged himself from the\nmaterial life, renounced it, and placed himself beyond the reach of the\ninfluence that produces reward in the material or immaterial seats, and\nabove that other influence which, procuring merits or demerits, keeps\na being in the whirlpool of transmigration. As a mighty warrior on the\nbattle-field throws down every barrier or obstacle that he meets, so\nBuddha broke down all the ties that had hitherto linked him to the state\nof existence.[8] At that very instant the earth trembled with such\nviolence that it caused the hairs of one\u2019s head to stand on end. Then he\nsaid to all present, \u201cI am delivered from the influence of the world of\nmatter, of the world of passions, and from every influence that causes\nthe migration from one existence to another. I enjoy now a perfect calm\nof mind; like the mighty warrior who on the field of battle has conquered\nall his enemies, I have triumphed over all passions. I have mastered\nexistence itself by destroying the principle that causes it.\u201d These\nwords were uttered by Phra, lest perhaps some people might infer that he\nentered into the extraordinary state on which he mastered the elements of\nlife, from fear caused by the language of the tempter, inviting him to go\nforthwith to Neibban.\n\nAnanda, having felt the earthquake, respectfully approached Buddha and\nprostrated himself before him. Withdrawing then to a becoming distance,\nhe asked him the causes that produce the extraordinary and terrifying\nphenomenon of earthquakes. \u201cMy son,\u201d answered Buddha, \u201ceight causes make\nthe earth tremble: 1st, The earth lies on a mass of water, which rests on\nthe air, and the air on space; when the air is set in motion, it shakes\nthe water, which in its turn shakes the earth; 2d, any being gifted\nwith extraordinary powers; 3d, the conception of Phralaong for his last\nexistence; 4th, his birth; 5th, his becoming a Buddha; 6th, his preaching\nthe law of the wheel; 7th, his mastering and renouncing existence;\n8th, his obtaining the state of Neibban. These are the eight causes of\nearthquakes. Ananda, a little while after having become a Buddha, I\nwas in the solitude of Ouroowela, on the banks of the river Neritzara,\nunder the shade of a banyan-tree planted by some shepherds. The wicked\nNat came into my presence and requested me to go forthwith to Neibban.\nI refused then to comply with his demand, and said to him, \u2018Wretched\nManh, my disciples, members of the assembly, either males or females,\nthe believers, either men or women, have not yet acquired sufficient\nknowledge, prudence, and penetration, courage, and resolution. They have\nnot been as yet properly instructed in the most essential and highest\narticles of the law; they are unable to teach others: my religion is not\nyet resting on a strong foundation. The time, therefore, is not yet come\nfor me to enter into the state of Neibban. Now, near this very dzedi of\nTsapala, he has come anew and told me the same thing. Do not trouble\nyourself, miserable wretch, have I said to him; three months hence, I\nwill obtain the state of Neibban. On this occasion I have fallen into the\nstate in which I have mastered the principles of life by the means of the\nfour laws of edeipat.\u2019\u201d[9]\n\nAnanda said to Phra: \u201cIllustrious Buddha, please to remain during a whole\nKalpa in this world for the benefit of men, Nats, and Brahmas.\u201d \u201cAnanda,\u201d\nreplied Phra, \u201cyour present request is too late and cannot be granted.\u201d\nThree times the faithful disciple begged of his great teacher this\nfavour, and three times he received the same refusal. \u201cDo you believe,\nO Ananda, that I know the four ways that lead to science and wisdom,\nand that I am perfect in the four laws of edeipat?\u201d \u201cI do believe it,\u201d\nanswered Ananda. \u201cDo you recollect, O Ananda, that a little while ago I\nsaid to you three times that he who was perfect in the laws of edeipat\ncould remain, if he chose, during an entire Kalpa in this world? I added\nthat I was thoroughly acquainted with these four laws; but you remained\nsilent, and made no demand of me to remain longer in this world. The\ntime for making this request is now irrevocably past. The term of my\nlife is for ever fixedly determined. Now, Ananda, let us go to Mahawon\nKootagara in the forest of the sala-trees.\u201d Having reached the place and\nstayed therein for a few days, he desired his faithful attendant to go to\nWethalie and assemble all the Rahans in the Gnyipoora hall. When they had\nall assembled in that place, Ananda informed Buddha that his order had\nbeen duly executed. Phra went to the hall, and sat in the place prepared\nfor him. He then, addressing the assembly, said: \u201cMy beloved children,\nthe law which my supreme wisdom has discovered, I have announced for your\nbenefit and advantage. You have attentively and perseveringly listened\nto it, firmly adhered to its tenets, and zealously propagated them. Now\nmy religion shall last for a long period, and prove the source of great\nblessings to all Nats. But to the end that my religion may last long,\nshine forth with splendour, and be productive of incalculable benefits,\nit is necessary that great attention should be paid to the thirty-seven\nlaws from which all good works proceed.[10] These laws you have been\nacquainted with by my preachings; it is to you to announce them to all\nbeings. Meditate with unremitting attention on the principles of change\nand mutability. As to me, ere long I will go to Neibban; three months\nmore, and this last drama shall be over.\u201d\n\nIn the morning Buddha, putting on his dress, went out to beg his food,\ncarrying the patta on his left arm. When he had eaten his meal, he looked\nwith the steadiness of an elephant over the whole country. The reason\nwhy he cast a look like an elephant over Wethalie is, as he explained it\nto Ananda, the following:\u2014The neck-bone of all Buddhas is not like the\nlinks of a chain, but consists of one single solid bone: hence when they\nwish to consider some object lying behind they cannot turn their heads\nbackwards, but the whole body, like that of the elephant, must follow the\nsame motion. On this and other occasions of this kind, our Buddha had not\nto make any effort, but the earth turning round, like the wheel of the\npotter, brought the object to be looked at before him. The great city of\nWethalie was within three years to be destroyed by King Adzatathat. As\nBuddha had always received many marks of respect and attention from the\ninhabitants of that city, he felt the greatest commiseration for them.\nHis last glance was a sorrowful farewell he bade to the devoted city.\nThis is the motive that induced Buddha to cast a last look over it.\n\nBuddha went to a place called Pantoogama. He passed successively through\nHatti, Tsampou, and Appara, and thence to Bauga. In the latter place he\npreached the four laws of Padesa. Summoning Ananda to his presence, he\ndesired him to inform the Rahans to hold themselves ready to go to the\nPawa country. Having reached that district, he went with all his Rahans\nto live in a monastery built in a grove of mango-trees erected by Tsonda,\nthe son of a wealthy goldsmith. Tsonda had previously seen Buddha, and\nobtained the state of Thautapan. His gratitude induced him to build a\nmonastery, which, together with the grove, he had given over to Buddha.\nHis arrival at that place happened on the 14th of the waxing moon of\nKatson.\n\nInformed that Phra had come to the monastery, Tsonda repaired hastily\nthither, prostrated himself before him, and having taken a seat at a\nbecoming distance, requested Buddha to accept the meal he would prepare\nfor him and all the Rahans. Buddha by his silence acquiesced in the\nrequest. Tsonda rose up, bowed down, and turning to the right, left the\nmonastery. During the whole night, all sorts of the choicest dishes were\nprepared. He had a young pig, neither fat nor lean, killed, and the\nflesh dressed with rice in the most exquisite manner. The Nats infused\ninto it the most delicious flavour. At daybreak, everything being ready,\nTsonda went to the monastery, and invited Buddha and all the Rahans to\ncome and partake of the meal that was ready for them. Buddha rose up,\nand, carrying his patta, went to Tsonda\u2019s house, where he sat in the\nplace prepared for his reception. He took for himself the pork and rice,\nbut his attendants feasted upon the other dishes. When he had eaten, he\ndesired Tsonda to bury in the earth the remains of the pork and rice,\nbecause no one in the Nats\u2019 or Brahmas\u2019 seats but himself could digest\nsuch a food. A little while after, Buddha was seized with a violent\nattack of dysentery, the pain whereof he bore with the greatest patience\nand composure. He suffered so much, not because of the food he had taken,\nas he would otherwise have been exposed to the same distemper. The pain\nwas rather alleviated by the eating of the pork and rice, because the\nNats had infused therein the choicest flavour.\n\nBuddha desired Ananda to be ready to go to the town of Koutheinaron.\nWhile on the way he felt very weak, and retired under the shade of\na tree, commanding Ananda to fold his dugout to sit upon. When he\nhad rested a little, he called Ananda and said to him: \u201cAnanda, I am\nvery thirsty; bring me some water.\u201d Ananda replied: \u201cOne of the Malla\nprinces, named Poukatha, has just passed through the Kakouda river with\nfive hundred carts, and the water is quite muddy.\u201d The Malla princes\nruled by turn over the country. When the time for ruling had not yet\ncome, or had passed, many of them devoted their time to the pursuit of\ntrade. Notwithstanding this objection, Buddha repeated three times the\ninjunction. Ananda at last took up Phra\u2019s patta and went to the stream to\nfetch water. How great was his surprise when he found the water clear and\nlimpid. He said to himself: \u201cGreat indeed is the power of Buddha, who has\nworked such a wonderful change in this stream.\u201d He filled the patta with\nwater and brought it to his great teacher, who drank of it.\n\nPrince Poukatha had been a disciple of the Rathee Alara. He came to\nBuddha, and said to him, whilst he was under the shade of the tree:\n\u201cGreat indeed is the peace and calm composure of mind of the Rahans. On\na former occasion,\u201d added he, \u201cwhilst the Rathee Alara was travelling,\nhe went to rest under the shade of a tree, at a small distance, by the\nwayside. A merchant with five hundred carts happened to pass by. A man\nthat followed at a distance came to the place where Alara was resting,\nand inquired of him if he had seen the five hundred carts that had just\npassed by. Alara replied that he was not aware that any cart had come in\nsight. The man at first suspected that Alara was unsound in his mind, but\nhe was soon convinced that what he was at first inclined to attribute to\nmental derangement was caused by the sublime abstraction of the Rathee\nfrom all that was taking place.\u201d\n\nBuddha having heard this story, rejoined: \u201cWhich is, in your opinion,\nthe more wonderful occurrence, to see a man in his senses and awake not\nto notice the passing of five hundred carts or even of one thousand, or\nto see another man, equally awake and in the enjoyment of his mental\nfaculties, who did not hear the violence of a storm, a heavy fall of\nrain, accompanied with loud peals of thunder and uninterrupted flashes\nof lightning? In former times, I, the Buddha, was sitting under a small\nshed. A most violent storm came on; peals of thunder resounded more\nawfully than the roaring of the sea, and lightnings seemed to rend the\natmosphere in every direction. At that time two brothers were ploughing\nin a field with four bullocks. They were all killed, men and bullocks, by\nlightning. A man came to me whilst I was walking in front of the shed,\nand told me that he came to see the accident that had just happened,\nand asked me some particulars concerning it. I answered him that I was\nnot aware that any storm had raged near this place, nor any accident\nattended it. The stranger inquired of me whether I was asleep; or if\nnot, whether I was in possession of my senses. I answered him that I\nwas not asleep, and that I was in the perfect enjoyment of my mental\nand physical faculties. My answer made a powerful impression upon him:\nhe thought within himself that great and wonderful is the power of\nThamabat, which procures to the Rahans such an imperturbable calm of\nmind, which cannot be disturbed by the mightiest convulsions of nature.\nNow, Prince Poukatha, in whom do you think that the greatest calm of mind\nhas prevailed?\u201d \u201cMost excellent Phra,\u201d replied the prince, \u201cthe great\nrespect I bore formerly unto the Rathee Alara has disappeared like the\nchaff before the wind, and run out like the water of a rapid stream. I\nam now like a man to whom the true road has been pointed out, who has\ndiscovered hidden things, and who has a shining light before him. You\nhave announced to me the true law, which has dispelled the cloud of\nignorance and brought happiness and calm to my hitherto disturbed soul.\nFrom this moment I believe in Buddha, the law, and the assembly, and to\nthe end of my life I will ever remain a believer.\u201d The Prince called\na young man, and directed him to go and bring two beautiful and rich\npieces of cloth having the colour of pure gold thread. When they had\nbeen brought over, the prince, holding them in his hand, said: \u201cO most\nglorious Buddha, these pieces of cloth I have occasionally worn: they are\nin colour like gold, and the tissue is of the finest description; please\nto accept them as an offering I make to you.\u201d Phra desired him to present\none of the pieces to himself, and the other to Ananda, that his merits\nmight be greater, since the offering would be made to Buddha and to the\nassembly in the person of Ananda. This attention in favour of Ananda was\nalso intended to reward him for his unremitting exertions during the\ntwenty-five years he had served Buddha with the utmost respect, care, and\naffection, without having received any adequate return for his services.\nBuddha preached afterwards the law to the prince. When the instruction\nwas over, Poukatha believed in, and firmly adhered to, the three precious\nthings, and became a sincere convert. He rose up, prostrated himself\nbefore Buddha, turned on the right, and departed.\n\nAnanda, after the prince\u2019s departure, brought the two dresses to the\ngreat Phra, who put one on his shoulders, whilst the other was girded\nround his waist. His body appeared shining like a flame. Ananda was\nexceedingly surprised. Nothing of this kind had as yet happened. \u201cYour\nexterior appearance,\u201d said he to Buddha, \u201cis at once white, shining, and\nbeautiful above all expression.\u201d \u201cWhat you say, O Ananda, is perfectly\ntrue. There are two occasions when my body becomes extraordinarily\nbeautiful and shining: the first was on the night I obtained the supreme\nintelligence; and the second now, when I am about to enter into the state\nof Neibban. Doubtless, O Ananda, on the morning after this very night, in\na corner, near the Koutheinaron city, that belongs to the princes Malla,\nin the forest of sala-trees, I will go to Neibban. The shining light\nemanating from my body is the certain forerunner of this great event.\u201d\n\nAnanda, summoned by Buddha to his presence, received the order to move\nto the banks of the Kakouda stream.[11] Having reached the place, Buddha\ndescended into the stream, bathed, and drank some water. Thence he\ndirected his steps towards a grove of mango-trees. Ananda had remained\nto dry the bathing-robes of his master. Phra called the Rahan Tsanda,\nand directed him to fold in four his dugout, because he wished to rest.\nThe order having been complied with, Buddha sat down, lying on his right\nside, with the solemn and fearless appearance of a lion. During his short\nsleep Tsanda watched by his side. Ananda soon came up. Buddha called him,\nand said, \u201cThe meal which the goldsmith\u2019s son has prepared for me, which\nI have eaten, is my last meal. He is, forsooth, much grieved because of\nthe illness that has come upon me after having eaten at his place.[12]\nGo now to him, and make him acquainted with the merits he has gained\nin making an offering to me. Two meals that I have taken during this\nexistence are equally deserving of the greatest rewards. The first was\nthe Nogana, served up to me a little while before I obtained first the\nNeibban of Kiletha, or the destruction of passions, and subsequently\nthe supreme intelligence; the second is the one just offered to me by\nthe goldsmith\u2019s son, when I ate the dish of rice and pork. That is the\nlast food I will ever take until I attain the state of Neibban, that is\nto say, the Neibban of Khandas, or the destruction of all the supports\nof existence. Both these meals were excellent, and are deserving of an\nequal reward; viz., beauty, a long life, happiness, a large crowd of\nattendants, the happiness of the Nats\u2019 seats, and all sorts of honours\nand distinction. Such are the merits reserved to Tsonda, the son of the\ngoldsmith; go and mention them to him, that his sorrow may be assuaged.\u201d\nGaudama uttered on this occasion the following stanzas:[13] \u201cAlms-deeds\ncan defend from and protect against the influence and the sources of\ndemerits, which are man\u2019s true enemies. He alone who is full of merits\nand wisdom shuns evil doings, puts an end to concupiscence, anger, and\nignorance, and reaches Neibban.\u201d Buddha, calling Ananda, said to him,\n\u201cLet us now go to the bank of the river Hignarawati, in the forest of\nsala-trees belonging to the Malla princes.\u201d Attended by a crowd of\nRahans, he went to the bank of the stream. The forest was on a tongue\nof land, encircled on three sides by the river. \u201cAnanda,\u201d said Buddha,\n\u201cyou see those two lofty trees on the skirt of the wood; go and prepare\na resting-place for me between those two trees, in such a way that, when\nreclining thereupon, my head should be turned towards the north. The\ncouch must be arranged in such a manner that one extremity may be near\none tree, and the other extremity close to the opposite tree. Ananda, I\nam much fatigued, and desire to rest.\u201d Though Buddha\u2019s strength was equal\nto that of a thousand koudes of black elephants, it forsook him almost\nentirely from the time he had eaten the dish of Tsonda\u2019s rice and pork.\nThough the distance from the place of Pawa to the forest of sala-trees\nin the district of Koutheinaron is but three gawots, he was compelled to\nrest in traversing it twenty-five times, and it was by dint of great\nexertions that he reached the place after sunset. Four places along the\nroad from Pawa to Koutheinaron became subsequently celebrated by the\nresort of many pilgrims who visited them.\n\n[_Remarks of the Burmese Translator._\u2014It has been often asked why Phra\nallowed his body to experience fatigue. The reason of his conduct was\nto convey instruction to all men, and to make them fully prepared to\nbear pain and sickness. Should any one ask why Buddha exerted himself so\nmuch to go to Neibban in that particular place, it should be answered\nthat Buddha saw three reasons for acting in the manner he did. 1st. To\npreach the great Soodathana. (This is the story of a prince called Maha\nSoudana, who ruled over the country of Kousawatti. At the conclusion\nBuddha declares that in that great prince the law of mutability has acted\nthroughout his life with an irresistible force; while, as for himself,\nhe now delights at being emancipated from its thraldom, and longs to be\nfreed from the prison of his body.) 2d. To instruct Thoubat and lead him\nto perfection. 3d. To secure that the disputes that were to arise on\naccount of the division and possession of his relics should be quieted by\nthe Pounha Dauna, who would fairly and peaceably effectuate the partition\nof those sacred remains.]\n\nPhra, having reached the couch, lay down on his right side with the\nnoble composure and undaunted fearlessness of a lion.[14] The left leg\nwas lying directly on the right one; but in order to avoid pain and\nthe accompanying trouble, the situation of the two legs was such as to\nprevent the immediate contact of the two ankles and knees. The forest of\nsala-trees lies at the south-west of the city of Koutheinaron. Should any\none wish to go to the city from the forest, he must first go due east,\nand then turn north. The place, therefore, where Phra stood was a tongue\nof land, surrounded on three sides by the river.\n\nWhen Buddha was reclining on the couch, the two sala-trees became\nsuddenly loaded with fragrant blossoms, which gently dropped above and\nall round his person, so as almost to cover it. Not only these two trees,\nbut all those of that forest, and also those in ten thousand worlds,\nexhibited the same wonderful and graceful appearance. All the fruit-trees\nyielded out of season the best fruits they had ever produced; their\nbeauty and flavour exceeded all that had ever been seen. The five kinds\nof lilies shot forth from the bosom of the earth, and from every plant\nand tree; they displayed to the astonished eyes the most ravishing sight.\nThe mighty mountain of Hymawonta, which is three thousand youdzanas in\nextent, shone with all the richness of the colours of the peacock\u2019s\ntail. The Nats, who watched over the two ingien or sala-trees, showered\ndown without interruption the most fragrant flowers. From the seats\nof Nats, the flower Mandarawan, which grows on the banks of the lake\nMandawan, and glitters like the purest gold, with leaves expanding like\nan umbrella, was showered down by the Nats, together with powder of\nsandal-wood and other odoriferous plants. The Nagas and Galongs, joining\nthe Nats, brought from their respective seats all kinds of flowers and\nperfumes, which they let drop like dew over and about Buddha\u2019s sacred\nperson. Phra, seeing the wonderful display performed by men, Nats, Nagas,\nand Galongs, to do him honour, and hearing the sweet accents of Nats\u2019\nvoices, singing his praises, called Ananda and said to him, \u201cYou witness\nall that display[15] which is intended to do me honour; it is not as yet\nworthy of me, who possess the knowledge of the most sublime law. No one\ncan be my true follower, or accomplish the commands of the law, by such\na vain and outward homage. Every Rahan or Rahaness, every believer, man\nor woman, who practises the excellent works leading to perfect happiness,\nthese are the persons that render me a true homage, and present to me a\nmost agreeable offering. The observance of the law alone entitles to the\nright of belonging to my religion. Ever remember this, O Ananda, and let\nevery believer in my religion act up to it.\u201d\n\nWhy did Buddha, on this last occasion, lay little stress on the offerings\nthat were made, whilst on former occasions he had much extolled the\ninnumerable merits to be derived from the making of offerings? The\nreason of his conduct was to give every one to understand that religion\ncould not subsist unless by the practice of all the duties it commands,\nand that it would soon disappear were it supported only by alms-deeds,\nofferings, and other outward ceremonies. Alms-deeds are productive of\ngreat rewards, but the practice of virtue alone secures to religion a\nprolonged existence.\n\nAt that time an illustrious Rahaness, named Oupalawana,[16] at a single\nword from Buddha, lowered her fan and went to sit at a certain distance.\nAnanda, who had seen this Rahaness attending assiduously on Buddha\u2019s\nperson during more than twenty seasons, was surprised at seeing that,\nwithout any apparent reason, she had been desired on that occasion to\nwithdraw to a distance. Phra, reading in the soul of Ananda his innermost\nthoughts, said to him, \u201cAnanda, I am not displeased with Oupalawana; but\nher body being of a very large size, it prevents the myriads of Nats that\nhave come from ten thousand worlds to see and contemplate me on this\nsupreme moment. The Nats can see through the bodies of the generality of\nmen, but this power falls short with persons much advanced in merits. I\ntherefore desired her to remove a little far, that the Nats might not be\nangry at not seeing my person.\u201d\n\nAnanda put a great many questions to Buddha, which are related at full\nlength in the Parinibana Thoots.\n\nHe asked him, among other topics, how the Rahans were to behave when\nwomen should resort to their monasteries.[17] \u201cAnanda,\u201d answered Buddha,\n\u201ca Rahan, desirous to free himself from the sting of concupiscence and\nkeep his heart firm and steady, ought to have his door shut, and never\nlook at the women coming to the monastery or standing at the entrance;\nbecause through the eyes concupiscence finds its way into the heart,\nand shakes its firmest purposes.\u201d \u201cBut,\u201d replied Ananda, \u201cwhat is to be\ndone when they come over to bring food to the inmates of the monastery?\u201d\n\u201cAnanda,\u201d said Buddha, \u201cin such a case no conversation is to take place\nwith them. Much safer and better it would be to hold conversation with\na man who, sword in hand, would threaten to cut off our head, or with a\nfemale Biloo ready to devour us the moment we open the mouth to speak.\nBy conversing with women, one becomes acquainted with them; acquaintance\nbegets familiarity, kindles passion, leads to the loss of virtue, and\nprecipitates into the four states of punishment. It is, therefore, most\nprudent not to have any conversation with them.\u201d \u201cWhat is to be done,\nO Buddha, in cases when women come to the monastery to hear religious\ninstructions, to expose their doubts, to seek for spiritual advice, to\nlearn the practice of religious duties, and render becomingly certain\nservices to the Rahans? Should a Rahan be silent on such occasions, they\nwill ridicule him and say, \u2018This Rahan, forsooth, is deaf or too well\nfed; he therefore cannot speak.\u2019\u201d \u201cAnanda,\u201d replied Buddha, \u201cwhen on\nsuch occasions a Rahan is obliged to speak, let him consider as mothers\nthose who are old enough to be mothers, as elder sisters those who appear\na little older than he, as younger sisters or children those that are\nyounger than he. Never, O Ananda, forget these instructions.\u201d\n\nAnanda inquired of Buddha what ceremonies were to be performed on his\nmortal remains after his demise. \u201cAnanda,\u201d replied Buddha, \u201cdo not be\nmuch concerned about what shall remain of me after my Neibban, but be\nrather earnest to practise the works that lead to perfection. Be not over\nsolicitous concerning the affairs of this life, where the principle of\nchange is ever entire; put on those inward dispositions which will enable\nyou to reach the undisturbed rest of Neibban. There are many among the\nprinces, rich men and pounhas who are well disposed towards me, and who\nwill gladly perform all the usual ceremonies on my remains.\u201d \u201cThey will,\u201d\nreplied Ananda, \u201cno doubt come to me, and ask advice as to the most\nsuitable mode of arranging everything in a becoming manner.\u201d \u201cAnanda,\u201d\nanswered Buddha, \u201chere are the funeral ceremonies performed after the\ndeath of a Tsekiawaday king. When such a monarch is dead, they wrap his\nbody with a new fine cloth of Kathicaritz, surround it with a thick\nlayer of the whitest cotton, wrap it again with a second cloth of the\nsame country, place over it another layer of cotton, and repeat the same\nprocess five hundred times. The body, thus prepared, is deposited in an\nopen coffin, gilt outside, and rubbed inside with fragrant oil. Another\ncoffin, also gilt, is turned over it as a covering. The pile is made of\nsandal and other odoriferous woods; flowers, perfumes, and scented water\nare profusely spread over it. The coffin having been placed on the pile,\nfire is set to it. Similar ceremonies shall be performed on my body after\nmy death. On the spot where four roads meet, a dzedi is to be erected.\nWhoever shall come to that place and make offerings of flags, umbrellas,\nflowers, and perfumes, shall thereby perform an act of religion, and\ngive a token of his respect and affection for my person.[18] He shall\ngain many merits; among others, a complete exemption from all troubles\nand disquietudes during a long period. Ananda, four sorts of persons are\ndeserving of the honour of having dzedis erected after their death: 1.\nThe Buddha who possesses the infinite science; 2. A semi-Buddha; 3. A\nRahanda; 4. The Tsekiawaday king. He who builds a dzedi in honour of\nBuddha, shall, after his death, migrate to a place of rest in the seats\nof Nats. To him that shall build a dzedi in honour of a semi-Buddha,\nan inferior honour shall be awarded in a lower seat of Nats, and a\nsimilar reward shall be enjoyed by those who erect dzedis in honour of\nRahandas and Tsekiawaday kings. It may be asked why the honour of a dzedi\nis conferred on a king who lives in the world, enjoys its pleasures,\n&c., whilst it is denied to a Rahan, who has renounced the world, and\npractised the excellent works. Formerly, in Ceylon, the dzedis erected\nin honour of deceased Rahans became so numerous that they threatened\nto cover the superficies of the whole country. It was then resolved\nthat none should be built for Rahans, though it is acknowledged that\nthey deserve such distinction. The same reason does not exist for a\nTsekiawaday king, who is alone, and appears in the world at but distant\nintervals. But all the Rahans that are full of merits are deserving,\nafter their demise, of all honours, except that of a dzedi.\u201d\n\nWhen Buddha had finished his instruction, Ananda thought within himself:\nPhra, the most excellent among all beings, has just taught me how\nto honour dzedis and other religious monuments raised to the glory\nof religion; he has pointed out to me the source of merits; he has\nindicated to me the sure way to deal with women, when they resort to\nour monasteries for the purpose of hearing the preaching of the law,\nand, finally, he has declared that there were but four sorts of persons\ndeserving of the honour of a dzedi after their death. From the tenor of\nthese instructions, I know with certainty that on this very day Buddha is\nto enter the state of Neibban. Unwilling to show his profound affliction\nin the presence of his illustrious master, he retired into the hall of\nthe Malla princes close by, and leaning on the door-bolt, wept bitterly,\nand said, \u201cAlas! the most excellent Buddha soon shall be no more. By what\nmeans shall I obtain the three last degrees of perfection? Who shall be\nmy teacher? To whom shall I henceforth bring water in the morning to\nwash the face? Whose feet shall I have to wipe dry? For whom shall I\nprepare the place for sitting, and the couch for sleeping? Whose patta\nand tsiwaran shall I have to hold ready, and to whom shall I render the\nordinary services?\u201d In the midst of sobs and wailings, he was giving vent\nto his deep affliction.\n\nIt was not long ere Buddha, not observing the faithful Ananda among the\nRahans, said, \u201cMy dear Rahans, where is Ananda?\u201d Having been informed\nof all that was taking place, he desired a Rahan to go and call Ananda.\nThe message having been conveyed rapidly to Ananda, he hastened to come\nback into the presence of Buddha, whom he saluted as usual, and then\ntook his seat. Buddha, addressing him, said, \u201cO Ananda, your tears and\nlamentations are to no purpose; do not give yourself up to disquietude;\ncease to shed tears. Have I not previously said to you that distance or\ndeath must separate us from the dearest objects? In the body there is a\nprinciple which causes its existence and its preservation as long as the\nopposite principle of destruction does not prevail. It is true you have\nministered unto me for many years with all your strength and the most\nperfect devotedness. But you shall reap the reward due for so many good\noffices. Apply yourself to the exercise of Kamatan, and soon you shall be\nfreed from the world of passions and the influence of mutability.\u201d\n\nAddressing then with a gentle voice all the Rahans present, Buddha began\nto praise Ananda, saying, \u201cBeloved Rahans, Ananda[19] has been during\nmany years my faithful and devoted attendant. He has served him who\nis worthy to receive all offerings, and is, moreover, acquainted with\nall the laws of the physical and moral world. Ananda is a true sage;\nhe is well versed in all that relates to my person; he can show to the\nmale Rahans and female Rahans, as well as to the crowds, the time, the\nmoment, and the place to approach my person and pay the honours due to\nme. Ananda is graceful and full of amiability amidst all other Rahans. He\nhas heard and seen much; he shines in the midst of the assembly. Rahans\nwill come from a distance, on hearing all that is said of his graces, to\nsee and admire him; and all will agree in saying that what they observe\nsurpasses all that they had heard. Ananda will make inquiries regarding\ntheir health; they, on hearing his words, will be filled with joy. He\nwill then keep silent, and they will retire with an increased desire\nto listen to him. He will say to the female Rahans that will come to\nsee him, \u2018Sisters, observe the eight precepts.\u2019 On hearing Ananda, they\nwill be exceedingly glad. He will then remain silent, and his silence\nwill grieve them. The laymen and laywomen on hearing all that is said of\nAnanda shall come to contemplate him. He will say to them, \u2018Adhere to the\nthree precious things; observe the five great commands; keep the four\ndays of worship of each month; pay honour and respect to your father and\nmother; feed the Rahans and pounhas that observe strictly the law.\u2019 They\nwill all be delighted at hearing his instructions. His silence will leave\nthem earnestly wishing to hear something else from him. Beloved Rahans,\nAnanda much resembles a Tsekiawaday king. Like him, he is exceedingly\nbeautiful, amiable, and lovely; he can fly through the air; he can teach\nthe people and justly administer the law.\u201d\n\nWhen Buddha had finished his discourse, Ananda said: \u201cO illustrious\nBuddha, it is not becoming your dignity that you should go to Neibban\nnear such a small city, and in a place almost surrounded by forests. We\nare in the neighbourhood of the great countries of Tsampa, Thawattie,\nThakila, and Baranathee. The kings, pounhas, noblemen, and people of\nthose countries are full of love and reverence for your person. They\ncould render greater honours to your mortal remains.\u201d \u201cAnanda,\u201d replied\nBuddha, \u201cdo not call the country of Koutheinaron a small country. I have\non former occasions often been to this place and extolled its riches\nand crowded population. This is the place where it is most becoming I\nshould enter into the state of Neibban. Go now to the city and inform\nthe Malla princes that to-morrow morning, at the break of the day, the\nmost excellent Buddha shall go to Neibban. Let them not have reason to\ncomplain hereafter that they have not received a timely information of\nthis event, nor say that they had not had a last opportunity to come\nand see me.\u201d Ananda, putting on his dress and carrying his patta, went\nalone to the city. At that moment the princes were assembled in the hall\nto deliberate upon some important affair. As soon as the message was\ndelivered, the princes, with their wives, their sons, and daughters,\nbegan to cry aloud, \u201cAlas! the most excellent Buddha is too soon going to\nNeibban.\u201d Some appeared with dishevelled hair; some lifted their hands to\ntheir foreheads; some, crying out and wailing, threw themselves on the\nground, rolling and tossing about, as persons whose hands and feet had\nbeen cut off. They all set out in haste with Ananda at their head towards\nthe place where Buddha was lying on his couch. All of them were admitted\ninto the presence of Buddha and paid their respects to him.\n\nIn the city of Koutheinaron lived a certain personage holding heretical\nopinions.[20] His name was Thoubat, a pounha of the Oudeitsa race, who\nwore a white dress. His mind, hitherto uncertain and unfixed, hesitated\nbetween the belief in Buddha\u2019s doctrines and his former opinions.\nHaving been informed that there was a Buddha in the neighbourhood, and\nthat he was soon to go to Neibban, he desired to see him, and, in his\nconversation, to clear up his doubts. His age was not great, but he\nenjoyed such a renown for learning that he was called the master of\nmasters. Thoubat went at first to Ananda, stated to him that he felt\nirresistibly a strong attachment to, and a sincere affection for, the\ngreat Buddha, that his mind was preyed upon by doubts and uncertainties,\nand that he hoped a short conversation with the great Gaudama would\nrelieve his mind from its present painful situation. Ananda, fearing\nthat such a conversation might be much protracted, refused to admit\nThoubat into the presence of Buddha, representing his extreme weakness\nand inability to speak much. Thoubat made several entreaties, but with\nno better success. Ananda persisted in his refusal to introduce him.\nBuddha, hearing some noise, inquired from Ananda what was the cause\nof the noise he heard. Ananda related to him all that had taken place\nbetween him and Thoubat. \u201cAllow him to come,\u201d said Buddha; \u201cI wish to\nhear him. Soon he shall be enlightened and convinced. I have come to this\nspot for the very purpose of preaching to him the most perfect law.\u201d\nAnanda returned to Thoubat, and said to him, \u201cThe most excellent Buddha\ndesires to see you.\u201d Thoubat, full of joy, arrived in the presence of\nBuddha, saluted him, and, sitting at a becoming distance, said to him,\n\u201cDo the six celebrated teachers, who are always attended by a great\nnumber of disciples, who are famous amidst other doctors, know all laws?\nAre there some laws they are unacquainted with? or do they teach some\ndoctrines which they but partially understand?\u201d Buddha having gently\nreminded Thoubat that such questions were not suitable and unprofitable,\nsaid, \u201cO Thoubat, I will preach to you the law; listen with attention to\nmy words, and treasure them in your heart. No heretic has ever known the\nright ways that lead to perfection, and, in the religion of heretics,\nno one can obtain the state of Thautapan, and become a Rahanda. But in\nmy religion there are found persons that have become Thautapan, Anagam,\n&c., and finally Rahandas. Except in my religion, the twelve great\ndisciples who practise the highest virtues, and stir up the world to\nfree it from its state of indifference, are not to be met with. They are\nnot to be found among heretics. O Thoubat, from the age of twenty-nine\nyears up to this moment, I have striven to obtain the supreme and perfect\nscience, and I have spent to that end fifty-one years, following the\nways of Ariahs, that lead to Neibban.\u201d On hearing these words, Thoubat,\noverwhelmed with joy, endeavoured, by several similitudes, to express to\nhis great instructor the pleasure he had derived from his preaching. \u201cO\nmost illustrious Buddha,\u201d added he, \u201cnow I believe in you, and adhere\nto all your doctrines; I wish to become a Rahan. But it is a custom\nwith you, not to admit to the dignity of Rahan a heretic who is newly\nconverted, except after a four months\u2019 probation. I wish to remain during\nthat period as a probationer, and beg afterwards to be admitted among\nthe Rahans.\u201d Buddha, who knew the fervour of the new convert, desired to\ndispense in his case with the four months\u2019 probation. He called Ananda\nand commanded him to admit Thoubat to the dignity of Rahan. Ananda\nforthwith led Thoubat into a becoming place, poured water over his head,\nwhilst repeating certain forms of prayer, shaved his head and beard, put\non him the tsiwaran, and taught him to repeat the formulas whereby he\nprofessed to take refuge in Buddha, the law, and the assembly. When this\nwas done, Thoubat was conducted into the presence of Phra, who desired\nhe should be promoted to the dignity of Patzin, and instructed in the\nknowledge of Kamatan. Thoubat went into the garden, walked for a while,\nand soon learnt the forty Kamatans. He was the last convert Buddha made,\nbefore he entered the state of Neibban.\n\nBuddha, calling Ananda and all the Rahans, said to them: \u201cWhen I shall\nhave disappeared from the state of existence, and be no longer with you,\ndo not believe that the Buddha has left you, and ceased to dwell among\nyou. You have the Thoots and Abidama which I have preached to you; you\nhave the discipline and regulations of the Wini. The law, contained in\nthose sacred instructions, shall be your teacher after my demise. By the\nmeans of the doctrines which I have delivered to you, I will continue to\nremain amongst you. Do not, therefore, think or believe that the Buddha\nhas disappeared or is no more with you.\u201d\n\nA little while after, Buddha, addressing the Rahans, gave them some\ninstructions regarding the attention and respect the Rahans were to pay\nto each other. \u201cAs long,\u201d said he, \u201cas I have been with you, you have\ncalled one another by the name of Awoothau, but after my demise you will\nno more make use of such a title. Let those who are more advanced in\ndignity and in years of profession call those that are their inferiors by\ntheir names, that of their family, or some other suitable appellation;\nlet the inferiors give to their superiors the title of Bante. Ananda, let\na Rahan Hauna be visited with the punishment of Brahma.\u201d \u201cBut what is\nthis punishment?\u201d replied Ananda. \u201cThe Rahan Hauna is indiscreet in his\nspeech; he says indiscriminately all that comes into his head. Let the\nother Rahans avoid speaking with him, or even rebuking him. This is the\npunishment of Brahma.\u201d\n\nAddressing again all the assembled Rahans, Buddha said to them[21]: \u201cMy\nbeloved Bickus, if among you there be one that has any doubt respecting\nBuddha, the law, the assembly, the ways of perfection, and the practice\nof virtues, let him come forward and make known his doubts, that I may\nclear them up.\u201d The Rahans remained all silent. The same question was\nthree times repeated, and three times the Rahans continued silent. Then\nhe added: \u201cMy beloved Bickus, if you have any respect for my memory,\ncommunicate your dispositions towards my person and doctrines to the\nother Rahans whom you shall hereafter meet with.\u201d The Rahans still\nremained silent. Ananda then said to Buddha: \u201cO most exalted Buddha,\nis it not truly surprising that among so many not one should be found\nentertaining any doubt respecting your doctrine, but all should feel\nso strong an attachment to it?\u201d \u201cAnanda,\u201d replied Buddha, \u201cI knew well\nthat doubt and false doctrine could never be harboured in the soul of\na true Rahan. Supposing a number of five hundred Rahans, and taking\nthe one who is the last in merits, he is at least a Thautapan, and as\nsuch there is no demerit in him that could lead him to one of the four\nstates of punishment; his heart is fixed upon the first way that leads to\nperfection, and he constantly strives to advance to the three superior\nways of perfection. No doubt, therefore, and no false doctrine can ever\nbe found in a true Rahan.\u201d\n\nAfter a short pause, Buddha, addressing the Rahans, said: \u201cBeloved\nBickus, the principle of existence and mutability carries along with it\nthe principle of destruction. Never forget this; let your minds be filled\nwith this truth; to make it known to you, I have assembled you.\u201d\n\nThese are the last words Buddha ever uttered. As a man who is about\nto undertake a long journey takes an affectionate farewell of every\none of his relatives and friends, and fondly embraces successively all\nof them, Buddha likewise wished to visit for the last time the abodes\nwherein his soul had so amorously dwelt during his long and lofty mental\nperegrinations. He entered into the first state of dzan, then the second,\nthe third, and the fourth: he ascended therefrom successively to the\nfirst, second, third, and fourth immaterial seats. When he had reached\nthe fourth state, which is the farthest boundary of existence, Ananda\nasked the Rahan Anoorouda whether Phra had completed his Neibban. \u201cNot\nas yet,\u201d answered Anoorouda, \u201cbut he has reached the last stage of\nexistence.\u201d A little while after, Buddha had entered into the perfect\nstate of Neibban.[22]\n\nThus in the first watch of the night he had preached the law to the Malla\nprinces; at midnight he had converted the heretic Thoubat; and in the\nmorning watch he had instructed the Rahans. It was not quite full dawn of\nthe day when he entered the state of Neibban, in the 148th year of the\nEetzana era, on the full moon of Katson, on a Tuesday, a little before\ndaybreak.[23]\n\nNot to leave out a single particular connected with the epochs of\nGaudama\u2019s life, the Burmese author sums up all that has already been\nrelated on this subject, by stating that he was conceived in his\nmother\u2019s womb, in the year 67 of the Eetzana era, under the constellation\nOuttarathan, and born in 68, under the constellation Withaka, on a\nFriday. He went into the solitude in the year 96, on a Monday. He became\na Buddha in the year 103, on a Wednesday (Withaka). In the year 148,\non the full moon of Katson, on a Tuesday (Withaka), he expired; on the\n12th, after the full moon of the same month, his corpse was laid on the\nfuneral pile.\n\nAt the very moment he had yielded up the ghost, a tremendous earthquake\nwas felt throughout the whole world; it took place with such a violence\nthat it filled every one with fear and trembling, and caused their hair\nto stand on end.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n _Stanzas uttered after Buddha\u2019s death\u2014Ananda informs the Malla\n princes of Buddha\u2019s demise\u2014Preparations for the funeral\u2014Arrival\n of Kathaba at the spot where the body was exposed to public\n veneration\u2014He worships the body\u2014Wonder on that occasion\u2014The\n burning of the corpse\u2014Partition of the relics made by a pounha\n called Dauna\u2014Extraordinary honours paid to the relics by King\n Adzatathat\u2014Death of that king and of Kathaba._\n\n\nOn the occasion of the Buddha\u2019s Neibban, the chief of Brahmas uttered\nthe following stanzas:\u2014\u201cO Rahans, the great Buddha who has appeared in\nthis world, who knew everything, who was the teacher of Nats and men,\nwho stood without an equal, who was mighty and knew all laws and all the\ngreat principles, the most excellent and glorious Buddha, is gone to\nNeibban. Where is the being who shall ever escape death? All beings in\nthis world must be divested of their terrestrial and mortal frame.\u201d\n\nThe chief Thagia, on the same occasion, repeated aloud the following\nwords:\u2014\u201cO Rahans, the principle of mutability is opposed to the principle\nof fixity. It carries with it the elements of creation and destruction.\nThere is no happiness but in the state of Neibban, which puts an end to\nall changes.\u201d\n\nThe great Anoorouda said in his turn: \u201cO Rahans, the most excellent\nBuddha, free from all passions, has entered, by this death, into the\nstate of Neibban. He whose soul, ever firm and unshaken, was a stranger\nto impatience and fear, has gone out from the whirlpool of existences,\nand is no longer subject to the coming into existence and to the\ngoing out therefrom. Passions have no more influence upon him. He is\ndisengaged from the trammels of mutability, and has ended like the light\nof a lamp, the oil of which is exhausted.\u201d\n\nAnanda added: \u201cO Rahans, when the great Buddha, full of the most\ntranscendent excellencies, attained the state of Neibban, the earth\nquaked with that violence which fills the soul with fear, and causes the\nhair of the head to stand on an end.\u201d\n\nAfter the demise of Buddha, the Rahans that had reached the two states\nof Thautapan and Thakadagan, lifting to the forehead their joined\nhands, began to wail and loudly lament. Men threw themselves down on\nthe ground, bitterly lamenting the loss the world had sustained. They\nall exclaimed, \u201cThe glorious and illustrious Buddha has too soon gone\nto Neibban. He who never spoke but good and instructive words, he who\nhas been the light of the world, has gone too soon to Neibban.\u201d In these\nand other words they gave utterance to their grief and affliction, with\ntears and lamentations. The Rahans who had reached the two last states\nof perfection, the Anagans and Rahandas, more calm and steady in their\nmind, were satisfied with repeating in solemn tones, \u201cThere is nothing\nfixed in the principle of mutability. Buddha, entering in the current of\nchange, could not but die; his body was to be destroyed.\u201d They remained\nmeditating on this great truth, retaining an unchangeable and calm\ncomposure.\n\nAnoorouda, assembling together all the Rahans, said to them, \u201cCease\nnow to weep and lament; banish sorrow and affliction from your hearts;\nremember presently what the most excellent Buddha has told us, that all\nthat exists is liable to destruction, which it can never escape. What\nwill become of Nats and men? What will they say when they see the Rahans\ndelivered up to grief, and giving vent to it in loud wailings?\u201d\n\nAnanda inquired from Anoorouda what actually took place among the Nats\non the occasion of the death of the great Buddha. He was told that some\nof them, lifting up the joined hands to the forehead, loudly wept and\nlamented; but others more wise, bearing in mind what Buddha had said\non the subject of the principle of mutability, remained wrapt up in a\nsolemn and resigned composure of mind. Anoorouda spent the remainder of\nthe night in preaching the law. He said to Ananda, \u201cGo now to the city\nof Kootheinaron, say to the Malla princes that the great Buddha is gone\nto Neibban; that they ought to dispose everything for the funeral.\u201d At\ndaybreak Ananda put on his tsiwaran, and, taking his patta, went alone to\nthe city. He met the princes assembled in the public hall, deliberating\non what was to be done when Phra should have gone to Neibban. He said\nto them, \u201cO princes of the Wathita race, the great Buddha has gone to\nNeibban; the moment is come for you to go to the spot where are his\nmortal remains.\u201d When the princes heard this sad news from the mouth of\nAnanda, they, with their wives and children, began to wail and lament,\nand give all the marks of the deepest grief, unceasingly repeating, \u201cThe\nmost excellent Buddha, who was infinitely wise and knew all laws, has too\nsoon gone to Neibban.\u201d The princes, now selecting one of their family,\ndirected him to go throughout the city and collect all the richest and\nrarest perfumes, to keep in readiness the drums, harps, flutes, and all\nother musical instruments, and have them carried to the place where the\nremains of Buddha were lying. Having reached the spot, the princes began\nto make offerings of flowers and perfumes with the greatest profusion, in\nthe midst of dancings, rejoicings, and the uninterrupted sounds of all\nthe musical instruments. A temporary canopy was erected with the finest\npieces of cloth, and they remained under it during seven consecutive\ndays. After this lapse of time, eight of the youngest and strongest\nprinces, having washed their heads and put on their finest and best\ndresses, prepared to carry the corpse to a place situated in the south\nof the city, where they intended to have it burned. In spite of their\nunited efforts, they could not remove it from the place it was laid on.\nAnoorouda, consulted on the subject of this extraordinary and unexpected\noccurrence, said, \u201cO princes, your intent does not agree with that of the\nNats. You wish, after having performed all ceremonies about the corpse,\nto carry it to a certain place in the south of the city; but the Nats\nwill not agree to this; they intend to accompany the corpse with music,\ndancings, singings, and offerings of flowers and perfumes. They desire\nthat the corpse should be carried to the western side of the city, thence\nto the northern one, afterwards to re-enter through the northern gate,\nand go to the middle square; thence to sally forth, through the eastern\none, and take the body to the place called Makula-bandan, where the Malla\nprinces are wont to assemble for their festivals and rejoicings.\u201d \u201cLet it\nbe done,\u201d answered all the princes, \u201caccording to the wishes of the Nats.\u201d\n\nThe funeral procession then set out.[24] The Nats in the air honoured\nthe corpse with their music, singing, and the showering down of flowers\nand perfumes. Men did the same all round the corpse. The way which the\nprocession slowly moved through was strewed with the finest and choicest\nflowers. When the _cort\u00e8ge_ had reached the centre of the city, the\nwidow of General Bandoola, named Mallika, hearing of the approach of the\nfuneral procession, took a magnificent piece of cloth, called Mahalatta,\nwhich she had never worn since her husband\u2019s death. She perfumed it with\nthe choicest essences, and, holding it in her hands until the procession\nreached the front of her house, she desired the bearers to wait for a\nwhile, that she might offer to the body her beautiful piece of cloth,\nand extend it over it. Her request was granted. By a very happy chance,\nthe cloth had the desired dimensions in breadth and length. Nothing\ncould equal the magnificent sight of the body; it looked beautiful, like\na statue of gold, when covered with that splendid cloth, finely worked\nand adorned with the richest embroidery. The _cort\u00e8ge_ having reached\nthe place Matulabandana, where the funeral pile was erected, the corpse\nwas lowered down. The princes inquired from Ananda what was to be done\nto perform in a becoming manner the last rites over Buddha\u2019s remains.\nFaithful to the last request of Buddha, Ananda said to them that on this\noccasion they were to observe the same ceremonies as were prescribed\nfor the funerals of a Tsekiawade prince. The body was forthwith wrapt\nup with a fine cloth, covered with a thick layer of cotton; to which a\nsecond succeeded, and then another layer of cloth, and so on, until the\nsame process was repeated five hundred successive times. When this was\ndone, the corpse was placed in a golden coffin, and another of the same\nform and size was turned over it as a covering. A funeral pile, made with\nfragrant wood and sprinkled with the choicest perfumes, was prepared.\nUpon it the coffin was pompously deposited.\n\nAt that time, the great Kathaba, attended by five hundred Rahans, was\ngoing from the city of Pawa to the city of Kootheinaron. On their way, at\nnoon, the heat was so excessive that the soil appeared to burn like fire\nunder their feet. The Rahans, extremely fatigued, desired to rest during\nthe remainder of the day, intending to enter the city of Kootheinaron\nduring the cool of the night. Kathaba withdrew to a small distance from\nthe road, and, having extended his dugout under the shade of a large\ntree, rested upon it, refreshing himself by washing his hands and feet\nwith water poured from a vessel. The Rahans followed the example of\ntheir chief, and sat down under the trees of the forest, conversing\namong themselves upon the blessings and advantages of the three precious\nthings. Whilst they were resting, a heretic Rahan appeared, coming\nfrom the city of Kootheinaron, on his way to that of Pawa, carrying in\nhis hand a stick, at the extremity of which there was a large flower,\nround like a broad cupboard, forming as it were an umbrella over his\nhead. Kathaba perceiving the man at a distance with that extraordinary\nflower, the Mandawara, _Erithrina fulgens_, thought within himself, \u201cIt\nis very rare ever to see such a kind of flower; it appears only through\nthe miraculous power of some extraordinary personage and on great and\nrare occasions. It shot forth when my illustrious teacher entered his\nmother\u2019s womb, when he was born, when he became Buddha, wrought miracles\nat Thawattie, and came down from the seat of Tawadeintha. Now that my\ngreat master is very old, the appearance of this flower indicates that\nhe has gone to Neibban.\u201d Whereupon he rose from his place, wishing to\nquestion the traveller; but he desired to do it in such a way as to show\nhis great respect for the person of Buddha. He put on his cloak, and,\nwith his joined hands raised over his forehead, went to the traveller and\nasked him whether he knew his great teacher, the most excellent Buddha.\nThe ascetic answered that he knew him well; but that seven days ago he\nhad reached the state of Neibban, and it was from the place where this\noccurrence happened that he had brought the Mandawara flower. He had\nscarcely said this word, when those among the Rahans who had but entered\ninto the two first ways of perfection began to wail and loudly lament\nover this untimely occurrence, exhibiting every sign of the deepest grief\nand greatest desolation. The others that were more advanced in perfection\nremained calm and composed, remembering the great maxim of Buddha, that\neverything that has come into existence must also come to an end.\n\nThe name of this heretic was Thoubat.[25] He had been previous to his\napparent conversion a hermit, leading an ascetic\u2019s life. Subsequently he\nbecame a disciple of Gaudama, but retained in his heart an ill feeling\ntowards his spiritual master, which revealed itself in the manner he\ncommunicated the sad news to Kathaba and his companions. Seeing them\npenetrated with the deepest affliction, and exhibiting in an unfeigned\nmanner the grief which weighed on their heart, he said to them: \u201cWhy do\nyou weep and cry? You have no reason for doing so; we are now freed from\nthe control of the great Rahan. He was always telling us: Do this, or do\nnot do that. In every way he annoyed and vexed us. Now every one can act\nas he pleases.\u201d\n\nThe Rahan Thoubat bore envy and revenge towards Buddha for the following\nreason. Formerly he was a barber in the village of Atooma, where he\nthen became a Rahan. At the time we speak of, Buddha was coming to that\nplace, attended by twelve hundred Rahans. Thoubat wished to make an\noffering to Buddha and his followers and give them food. For this purpose\nhe resorted to the following very questionable expedient for obtaining\nfrom the villagers rice and other eatables, and preparing them for the\ngreat occasion. Thoubat had two sons who wore the dress of Samane. He\ngave to each of them a pair of scissors, and desired them to go through\nthe street of the village and shave the head of all the children they\nmight meet with, as a token of their entering into religion. The order\nwas punctually executed. The parents of the lads were then told, that on\nsuch an occasion it was customary to make considerable offerings. The\noffered articles, however, would be on this occasion employed for feeding\nthe great Gaudama, who was expected in the place with a great number of\ndisciples. All the people brought in large offerings of various articles\nof food, such as rice, oil, butter, and other comestibles. In this\nmanner, by means of such an expedient, the cunning Thoubat, without any\ncost to himself, was able to make a great display of the choicest dishes\nto be laid before Gaudama and his disciples on their arrival to Atooma,\nand earn for himself the reputation of a very liberal and generous man.\nBuddha, acquainted with his conduct on the occasion, refused to accept\nthe offering, and forbade all his followers to eat of the food prepared\nby Thoubat. From that time the latter ever entertained ill-feeling\ntowards Buddha, though he did not dare openly to give vent to his passion.\n\nKathaba was thunderstruck at hearing such an unbecoming language[26] from\nthe mouth of the Rahan Thoubat. He said to himself: \u201cIf at this time,\nwhen there are only seven days since Buddha entered Neibban, there are\nto be found people holding such a language, what will happen hereafter?\nThese persons will soon have followers who will embrace the profession\nof Rahans, and then the true religion shall be totally subverted: the\nexcellent law shall be in the hands of such persons like a heap of\nunstrung flowers that are scattered by the wind. The only remedy to\nsuch an impending misfortune is to assemble a council composed of all\nthe true disciples, who, by their decisions, shall insure stability to\nreligion, and fix the meaning of every portion of the law, contained in\nthe Wini, the Thoots, and the Abidama. I am, as it were, bound to watch\nover the religion of Buddha because of the peculiar predilection he has\never shown to me. On one occasion I walked with Buddha the distance of\nthree gawots; during that time he preached to me, and at the end of\nthe instruction we made an exchange of our tsiwarans, and I put on his\nown. He said: \u2018Kathaba is like the moon: three times he has obtained\nthe inheritance of the law. His affection to my person, his zeal for\nmy religion, have never been equalled. After my demise, it will behove\nhim to stem the current of evil, to humble the wicked, and condemn\ntheir false teachings as subversive of the genuine doctrine. With such\nenergetic means, my religion shall remain pure and undefiled, and its\ntenets shall not be lost and drowned in the midst of the raging waves of\nerrors.\u2019 Therefore,\u201d said the great disciple, \u201cI will hold an assembly\nof all the disciples, for the promotion and exaltation of the holy\nreligion.\u201d This design Kathaba kept perfectly secret, and made known to\nno one.\n\nAt that time, four of the ablest Malla princes, having washed their\nheads, and each put on a fine new dress, tried to set fire to the funeral\npile, made of sandal and other odoriferous woods, and one hundred and\ntwenty cubits high. Their efforts proving useless, all the other princes\njoined them, in the hope that, by their united exertions, they would be\nable to set fire to the pile. Fans made of palm-leaves were vigorously\nagitated over the heap of coals; bellows made of leather blew in the\nsame direction; but all the efforts were of no avail. The princes,\nsurprised and disheartened, consulted Anoorouda as to the cause of such\na disappointment. Anoorouda said to them, that the Nats did not approve\nof their proceedings; they wished that the great Kathaba should arrive\nand venerate the corpse, ere it be consumed by fire. No fire could be\nlighted before the great Rahan had made his appearance.\n\nThe people, hearing the answer of Anoorouda, wondered at the transcendent\nmerit of the great Kathaba, and anxiously waited for his arrival. They\nsaid to each other, \u201cWho is this distinguished Rahan? Is he white or\nblack, short or tall?\u201d They took perfumes, flowers, and flags, and went\nout to meet him and honour him in a becoming manner.\n\nWhen the great Kathaba arrived in the city of Kootheinaron, he without\ndelay repaired to the place where the funeral pile was erected. He\nadjusted his clothes in the most becoming manner, and, with his hands\njoined to the forehead, three times turned round the pile, saying at each\nturn, \u201cThis is the place of the head; that is the place of the feet.\u201d\nStanding then on the spot opposite to the feet, he entered into the\nfourth state of dzan for a while. His mind having emerged therefrom, he\nmade the following prayer:\u2014\u201cI wish to see the feet of Buddha, whereupon\nare imprinted the marks that formerly prognosticated his future glorious\ndestiny. May the cloth and cotton they are wrapped with be unloosened,\nand the coffin, as well as the pile, be laid open, and the sacred feet\nappear out and extend so far as to lie on my head.\u201d He had scarcely\nuttered his prayer, when the whole was suddenly opened, and there came\nout the beautiful feet, like the full moon emerging from the bosom of a\ndark cloud. The whole assembly burst into loud applauses and continued\ncheers on seeing this matchless prodigy. Kathaba, stretching his two\nhands, that resembled two lilies just blooming, held both feet firmly by\nthe heels, placed them on his head, and worshipped. All his disciples\nfollowed his example, and worshipped. Perfumes and flowers were profusely\noffered by the crowd. When this was done, the feet slowly withdrew into\ntheir place, the pile and coffin resumed their natural position. As the\nsun and the moon disappeared below the horizon, so the feet of Buddha\ndisappeared, buried as it were, in the folds of cloth and cotton. The\npeople, at this moment, wept and loudly wailed: their affection for\nBuddha was evinced on this occasion more forcibly than when he entered\nthe state of Neibban.\n\nThe feet had hardly been concealed from the sight of the people, when,\nwithout the interference of any one, fire caught the pile, and soon\nset it in a blaze of flames. The skin, the flesh, the muscles, the\nentrails, and liver of the body were all consumed, without leaving any\ntrace of ashes and charcoal; as butter or oil, poured on a great fire,\nburn and are consumed without anything remaining. Of the body all had\ndisappeared except the relics. All the pieces of cloth that served to\nwrap up the body, except the outermost and innermost, were all consumed.\nThe relics of former Buddhas, whose lives were very long, resembled a\nlump of gold. Our Buddha, whose life had been comparatively of a short\nduration, had said whilst yet alive: \u201cDuring my lifetime, religion has\nnot been sufficiently diffused; those, therefore, who, after my Neibban,\nshall obtain of my relics a small portion, be it but of the size of a\nmustard-seed, and build a dzedi to place them in, and worship and make\nofferings to them, shall obtain a place of happiness in one of the seats\nof Nats.\u201d Among the relics were the four canine teeth, the two bones that\nconnect the shoulders with the neck-bone, and the frontal bone. These are\nthe seven great relics. They were in a state of perfect preservation,\nnot at all damaged by fire, and are called Athambinana. Besides these\nrelics there were some others of a smaller dimension, in sufficient\nquantity to fill up seven tsarouts. Here is the size and shape of those\nsacred remains: the smallest were of the size of a mustard-seed, and\nresembled the bud of the Hing-kow; the middle ones equalled the size of a\nrice-grain, divided into two parts, and looked like pearls; the largest\nwere of the size of a pea, and appeared like gold.\n\nWhen the pile was consumed by fire, water came down from the sky, as\nthick as the arm, which soon extinguished the fire. The Malla princes\npoured also upon it an immense quantity of scented water. During all the\nwhile the pile was burning, streams of flames issued from the leaves and\nbranches of the trees, shining forth with uncommon brightness, without\nburning the trees; insects of every description were seen flying in\nswarms on those trees, without receiving the least injury.\n\nIn the place where the corpse had been exposed during seven days, the\nrelics were deposited during the same length of time, and offerings\nof perfumes and flowers were incessantly made. Above them, a canopy\nbespangled with gold and silver stars was raised, and bouquets of flowers\nand perfumes were hanging therefrom. From that place to the one where\nthe ornaments were deposited, the road was lined on both sides with fine\ncloth; the road itself was covered with the finest mats. Above the road\nwas spread a splendid canopy bespangled with golden stars and flowers.\nThe interior of the building was richly decorated; perfumes and flowers\nwere seen hanging from the canopy. Around the building, masts were\nplanted, and adorned with the five sorts of flags. Plantain-trees were\nplanted on both sides of the road, and jars of cool water were laid down\nat a very short distance one from the other. From posts of well-polished\nwood were suspended lamps to be lighted day and night. The box,\ncontaining the relics, was placed on the back of a richly-caparisoned\nelephant, and the precious remains were honoured in every possible\nway by offerings of flowers and perfumes; by dancing, singing, music,\nrejoicings, and loud acclamations. The Malla princes, to insure the\nsafety of the relics, had a line of elephants drawn round the place,\nthen a second line of horses, then a third of chariots, then a fourth of\nwarriors. Such precautions were taken both for insuring the safety of the\nrelics, and allowing time to everybody to come and do honour to them.\n\nAt that time the courtiers of King Adzatathat,[27] knowing well the\ntender affection their royal master bore to Buddha\u2019s person, were\nreluctant to convey to him the sad intelligence of his demise, for fear\nof causing in him too great an affliction. They took every possible\nprecaution, and devised various means for preparing the king\u2019s mind to\nbear with composure the loss he had sustained. As soon as the monarch\nunderstood what the courtiers intended to say, he fainted three times\nin succession. Each time steam baths and an abundant pouring of water\nover the head restored him to consciousness. When he became sensible,\nhe wailed and lamented for a long time. Recovering from the shock of\nhis deep affliction, he desired to assuage the grief caused by Buddha\u2019s\ndeath by procuring some of his relics. For that purpose a messenger was\ndespatched to the Malla princes with the following request: \u201cYou are\nthe descendants of the great Thamadat; I too, who rule over the Magatha\ncountry, boast of the same noble origin. For this reason, I put forward\nmy claim for obtaining the possession of some of Buddha\u2019s relics, which\nare now his representatives. I will give directions for the erection of a\nbeautiful and tall dzedi wherein they shall be deposited. I and my people\nshall have thus an object of worship.\u201d The princes of Wethalie and of\nthe neighbouring states sent a similar request. Those of Kapilawot and\nAlekapa followed their example. The kings of Rama and Pawa, the pounhas\nof Withadipa also sent in their reclamations, with a threat of having\nrecourse to the force of arms, if their demands should be disregarded.\nThey soon followed their messengers at the head of their troops.\n\nThe Malla princes, on receiving those messages, consulted among\nthemselves as to what was to be done. They agreed that, the relics of\nBuddha being the most valuable possessions in the world, they would\nnot part with them. Many angry words were exchanged among contending\nparties. They were almost ready to draw the sword when a celebrated\npounha, named Dauna, made his appearance. He stood on an elevated spot,\nand making a sign with his hand, began to speak in a language calculated\nto soothe the irritation of the parties. Great was his influence over\nall, since there was scarcely a man in the island of Dzampoudipa who\ndid not acknowledge Dauna as his teacher. \u201cO kings and princes,\u201d said\nhe, \u201chear one word that I have to say to you. Our most excellent Buddha\nalways extolled the virtue of forbearance; but you are ready to fight\nfor the possession of his relics. This is not good. Let all of you be\nnow of one mind, with cheerful dispositions. I will divide the relics\ninto eight equal portions. Let every one be ever solicitous to multiply\nin all directions dzedis in honour of him, who was possessed of the five\nvisions, that many may feel affection for the most excellent one.\u201d Dauna\nwent on explaining more fully the two stanzas he had recited, saying: \u201cO\nkings and princes, our most excellent Buddha, previous to his obtaining\nthe Buddhaship, whilst he was even an animal, still more a man and a Nat,\npractised the virtue of patience; he always recommended it in all his\nsubsequent preachings. How could you have recourse to open violence, to\nwarlike weapons, for his relics? You are kings of eight countries; come\nto a quiet and peaceable arrangement on this subject; speak to each other\nwords of peace and good-will. I will have the relics divided into eight\nequal parts. You are all equally worthy to receive your share.\u201d\n\nThe kings, on hearing the words of Dauna, came to the place where he\nstood, and entreated him to make eight equal portions of the relics.\nDauna assented to their request. They went with him to the place of the\nrelics. The golden coffin that contained them was opened, and there\nappeared to their regards all the relics beautiful like gold. The princes\nseeing them said: \u201cWe have seen the most excellent Buddha gifted with the\nsix glories, and all the bodily qualifications of the most accomplished\nperson: who could believe that these are the only things that remain\nof him?\u201d They all wept and lamented. Whilst they were overwhelmed with\ngrief, Dauna abstracted one of the canine teeth and concealed it in the\nfolds of his turban. All the relics were duly apportioned to all the\nkings. A Thagia, who had seen the doing of Dauna, took adroitly the\ntooth, and without being perceived carried it into the Nats\u2019 seats, and\nplaced it in the Dzoolamani dzedi. When the partition was over, Dauna was\nsurprised not to find the tooth he had stolen: he did not, however, dare\nto complain, as his pious fraud would have been discovered. To console\nhimself for such a loss, he asked for the possession of the golden vessel\nwherein the relics had been kept. His demand was favourably received, and\nthe golden vessel was given to him.\n\nThe Maurya princes, who ruled over the country of Pipilawana, hearing\nwhat had been done by Adzatathat and other kings, went also with a great\nretinue to the city of Kootheinaron. The Malla princes informed them that\nthe relics had already been divided, and that there remained nothing but\nthe coals of the funeral pile. They took them away, built a large pagoda\nover them, and worshipped. The places where the relics were deposited are\nRadzagio, Kootheinaron, Wethalie, Kapilawot, Allakapata, Rama, Pawa, and\nWitadipakka.\n\nKing Adzatathat ordered a beautiful and well-levelled road, eight\noothabas broad, to be made from the city of Kootheinaron to that of\nRadzagio. The distance is twenty-five youdzanas. He wished to adorn it,\nin all its length, in the same manner as the Malla princes had done the\nroad leading from the place where the cremation of the corpse had taken\nplace to that where the relics had been deposited. At fixed and proper\ndistances houses were built for resting and spending the night. The\nking, attended by a countless crowd of people, went to take the relics\nand carry them into his country. During the journey, singing, dancing,\nand playing of musical instruments were uninterrupted. Offerings of\nperfumes and flowers were incessantly made by the people. At certain\nintervals they stopped during seven days, when fresh honours were paid\nto the relics in the midst of the greatest rejoicings. In this manner\nseven months and seven days were employed in going over the distance\nbetween the two countries. At Radzagio the relics were deposited in a\nplace prepared for that purpose, and a dzedi was erected over them. The\nseven other kings built also dzedis over the relics they had obtained.\nDauna built one, too, over the golden vessel, and the Maurya princes\nerected likewise one religious monument over the coals. Thus there were\nat that time ten dzedis, situated respectively in Radzagio, Kootheinaron,\nWethalie, Kapilawot, Allakapata, Witadipaka, Rama, Pawa, the Dauna\nvillage, and Papilawana. The partition of the relics happened on the\nfifth of the waxing moon of Nayon (June). There were altogether eight\ntsarouts of relics; that is to say, a basketful. Each prince had one\ntsarout; that is to say, two pyis. The upper right canine tooth was taken\nto the Nats\u2019 seats; the lower right tooth was carried to the Gandala\ncountry; the upper left tooth was removed to Kalingga, and the lower left\ntooth to the Naga seat. The other teeth and hairs of the head and body\nwere distributed by the Nats in a great number of other worlds.\n\nWhen the funeral ceremonies were completed, and the distribution of the\nrelics effected in a manner satisfactory to all parties, Kathaba, who was\nthe acknowledged head of the assembly, advised King Adzatathat to do away\nwith the Eetzana era, and establish a new one, that would be called the\nera of religion, beginning with the year of Buddha\u2019s Neibban, that is to\nsay, on the year 148 of the Eetzana era. The king joyfully assented to\nthe pious request of the Buddhist patriarch, and was exceedingly rejoiced\nto have this opportunity of affording a fresh token of the great esteem\nhe had for Buddha\u2019s person.\n\nMany years afterwards, the great Kathaba entertained some fear in his\nmind respecting the safety of the relics, distributed over eight distinct\nplaces, viz., Kootheinaron, Radzagio, Kappila, Allakabat, Watadipaka,\nRama, Pawa, and Wethalie.[28] He wished to have them all put together\nin a safe and secure place, where they could be preserved until better\ncircumstances would afford an opportunity to bring them forth, and expose\nthem to the respect and veneration of the true believers all over the\nDzampoudipa island. For this purpose, in the year of religion 20, he\nwent to King Adzatathat and said to him that precautions were to be\ntaken for securing the preservation of the relics. The king asked him\nby what means all the relics could be had from those who now possessed\nthem. Kathaba replied that he would know how to manage such a delicate\naffair. He went to the seven kings, who gave to him all the principal\nrelics, keeping beside themselves only what was strictly necessary to\nbe deemed an object of worship and good-will towards Buddha\u2019s person.\nOne exception was made in favour of the relics deposited in the village\nof Rama, because they were in future times to be carried to Ceylon and\nplaced in the great wihara or pagoda. All the relics having been brought\nto Radzagio, Kathaba took with him those pious articles, and went out\nof the city. He directed his steps in a south-eastern direction, loaded\nwith this precious burden, which he carried all the way. Having reached\na certain spot, he made the following prayer:\u2014\u201cMay all the rocks and\nstones of this place disappear, and there be, in place thereof, a fine\nsandy soil; may water never issue from this spot.\u201d Adzatathat ordered\nthe soil to be dug very deep. With the earth bricks were made, and eight\ndzedis were built. This was done for the express purpose of preventing\npeople suspecting the real object that both Kathaba and the king had\nin view. The depth of the hole was eighty cubits. Its bottom was lined\nwith iron bars. To that bottom was lowered a chapel monastery made of\nbrass, similar in shape and proportions to the great wihara of Ceylon.\nSix gold boxes containing the precious relics were placed in this chapel\nmonastery. Each box was enclosed in one of silver, the latter in one\nadorned with precious stones, and so on, until eight boxes were placed\none within the other. There were also arranged 550 statues, representing\nBuddha in 550 preceding existences described in the sacred writings,\nthe statues of the eighty great disciples, with those of Thoodaudana\nand Maia. There also were arranged 500 lamps of gold and 500 lamps\nof silver, filled with the most fragrant oil, with wicks made of the\nrichest cloth. The great Kathaba, taking a leaf of gold, wrote upon it\nthe following words:\u2014\u201cIn aftertimes a young man, named Piadatha, shall\nascend the throne, and become a great and renowned monarch under the name\nof Athoka. Through him the relics shall be spread all over the island of\nDzampoodipa.\u201d King Adzatathat made new offerings of flowers and perfumes.\nAll the doors of the monastery were shut, and fastened with an iron bolt.\nNear the last door he placed a large ruby, upon which the following words\nwere written: \u201cLet the poor king who shall find this ruby present it to\nthe relics.\u201d A Thagia ordered a Nat to watch over the precious deposit.\nThe Nat disposed around it the most hideous and terrifying figures, armed\nwith swords. The whole was encompassed by six walls made of stone and\nbrick; a large slab of stone covered the upper part, and upon it he built\na small dzedi.\n\nFive years afterwards, that is to say, in the twenty-fifth year of the\nreligious era,[29] King Adzatathat died; and, likewise, all those that\nhad been present on this occasion disappeared one after the other from\nthe scene of this world. A small dzedi indicated the place where the\nsacred relics had been religiously deposited. But in due course of time,\nthe place, being no longer heeded by the people, soon became overgrown\nwith bushes, which screened from sight the modest monument itself. The\nrelics remained buried in that manner in the bosom of the earth, until\nafter a long period of time there was to appear at last a mighty ruler,\nfull of zeal for the promotion of religion, who would be worthy to render\na becoming honour to the relics, and to distribute them throughout the\nlength and breadth of the island of Dzampoodipa. This great event shall\nbe narrated in a following chapter.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n _After Buddha\u2019s death, zeal of Kathaba in upholding genuine\n doctrines\u2014He selects five hundred elders to become members of\n a council or assembly\u2014Radzagio is fixed upon for the holding\n of the council\u2014He repairs thither with a portion of the\n appointed members\u2014Behaviour of the amiable Ananda previous to\n his departure for Radzagio\u2014King Adzatathat supports Kathaba\n in his views\u2014The hall for holding the council is prepared by\n his orders\u2014Ananda is qualified in a miraculous manner for\n sitting as a member of the council\u2014Holding of the council\n under the presidency of Kathaba\u2014Establishment of the religious\n era\u2014Destruction of Wethalie by Adzatathat\u2014The successors of\n that prince\u2014In the days of King Kalathoka a second council is\n held at Pataliputra, under the presidency of Ratha\u2014Causes that\n provoked the holding of a second assembly._\n\n\nHaving completed the narrative of all that relates to the relics, we\nhave to trace back our steps, and give an account of the development and\nspread of Buddhism into various countries.\n\nAfter the cremation of Buddha\u2019s mortal remains and the distribution of\nthe relics, peaceably managed by the Pounha Dauna, Kathaba, on account of\nthe high esteem Buddha ever had for him\u2014esteem which he had manifested\nin a striking manner when he invested him with his one robe\u2014considered\nhimself as having been thereby especially appointed to provide effectual\nmeans for placing the law on an unshaken foundation. As a monarch before\nhis death appoints his son to succeed him, to wield the supreme power and\nkeep it in his family, in a like manner Buddha had appointed his eldest\nspiritual son to take his place. Being, therefore, the acknowledged\nhead of the assembly, he had but one object in view, the maintenance of\nthe doctrines and institutions of his great master in their original\npurity, and the establishment of religion on a firm basis. When on his\nway from the town of Pawa to that of Kootheinaron, to be present at the\nfuneral of Buddha, he had met with a Rahan, who had given him particulars\nrespecting the last moments and death of Gaudama, and at the same time\nhad dared to express feelings of satisfaction on that mournful occasion\nin the following manner: \u201cNow that our master has gone to Neibban, he\nwill be no longer amongst us, to tell us, \u2018You must do this, you have to\nshun that; such a regulation ought to be observed; such a duty is to be\nperformed.\u2019 We shall hear no longer the reproaches he was wont to address\nto us. At present we are at liberty to do what we like, and to follow\nour own inclinations.\u201d Such unbecoming, nay, impious language, stung to\nthe quick the ardent soul of the venerable Kathaba. From that moment\nhe was daily engaged in revolving in his mind, and examining within\nhimself, what would be the best course to be entered upon, in order to\nkeep intact the doctrines he had heard from the mouth of Buddha himself,\nand establish upon a firm basis the religious institutions he so much\nvalued. \u201cAs soon,\u201d said he within himself, \u201cas the funeral of the most\nexcellent Phra shall have been performed with a becoming solemnity, I\nshall congregate together the most zealous and learned members of the\nassembly, and, with their united efforts and energy, I will oppose the\nspreading of false doctrines, which obscure the true ones. I will put\ndown the newly-invented erroneous disciplinary regulations, by setting in\na strong light the genuine ones. To prevent, in future, the re-occurrence\nof similar evils so detrimental to religion, all the preachings of Buddha\nas well as the disciplinary rules shall be arranged under several heads,\nand committed to writing. The books containing the above shall be held up\nas sacred.\u201d[30]\n\nAgreeably to the plan he had fixed upon twenty days after Buddha\u2019s\ndemise, the great Kathaba, profiting by the circumstance that had brought\ntogether so many Rahans from all parts to the town of Kootheinaron,\ncommunicated his views to all the Rahans congregated in that place.\nHaving received from all his brethren a suitable encouragement, Kathaba\nselected from among them four hundred and ninety-nine of the most\nlearned. They were all Rahandas, that is to say, they had all reached the\nlast degree of perfection, with the exception of Ananda, who was but a\nThautapan, and, therefore, had only entered into the current that was to\ndrift him to perfection.\n\nIt may be asked why Ananda was selected as a member of the future\ncouncil, since, in point of spiritual attainments, he was very inferior\nto all his brethren upon whom Kathaba\u2019s selection had fallen. Let it\nnot be believed that he owed this distinction to his royal extraction,\nor to his being first cousin to Buddha and the friend of Kathaba, or to\nthe venerable appearance which grey hairs imparted to his person. His\nbrethren were full of love and esteem for him. They had the greatest\nregard for all that he said, because, having always attended on Buddha\u2019s\nperson during twenty-five years, lived with him in the greatest\nintimacy, and followed him as the shadow does the body, he was perfectly\nconversant with the doctrines of Gaudama, which he had heard expounded\non all occasions and to all sorts of people. All the religious were\nunanimous in declaring him worthy to be associated with those who were to\ncompose the synod. Kathaba was delighted at such an opinion, which agreed\nso well with his own.\n\nKathaba examined afterwards what was the most befitting place for holding\nthe council. Having reviewed successively the various cities situated\nin the neighbourhood of Kootheinaron, he was pleased with none of them.\nRadzagio appeared to him in every respect the best place that could be\nselected. The city and its suburbs were very populous; the people lived\nin affluent circumstances; alms could easily be procured even for a large\nassembly during any period of time; monasteries about the city were both\nnumerous and of great extent. All these advantages combined together\ninduced Kathaba to give the preference to that city. To this his brethren\nunanimously assented.\n\nWhen these preliminaries had been settled, Kathaba, on the fifth of the\nwaxing moon of Nayon, spoke as follows to the members of the future\ncouncil: \u201cBrethren, you have before you forty days to prepare yourselves,\nand dispose everything to hold yourselves ready for beginning the great\nand important affair for which we have to assemble at Radzagio. Let none\nof you bring forward any pretext for postponing his going to the place\nthat has been fixed upon, such as sickness, or the consideration of\nparents, friends, relatives, or even teacher. Every one of us must be\nprepared to forsake everything to promote the great object we have in\nview, the exaltation of religion.\u201d\n\nWhen he had spoken in this manner he took with himself two hundred and\nfifty religious, and shaped his course in the direction of Radzagio.\nSome while afterwards Anoorouda, attended by nearly a similar number\nof brethren, went to the same place by following another road. The\nvenerable pounha remained in Kootheinaron with seven hundred brethren.\nThe other religious, not designated by Kathaba, withdrew into various\nother localities.\n\nWhilst these things were taking place, the ever kind-hearted and\naffectionate Ananda availed himself of a portion of the forty days\nallowed by Kathaba to proceed to Radzagio, to give full scope to the\nfeelings of love he entertained for the person of Buddha. He employed\na part of that time in revisiting the various places that had been\nthe favourite resorts of his beloved departed master, the Dzetawon\nmonastery in particular. Full of love for the memory of Buddha, he was\nseen entering into the monasteries where he was wont to serve him daily\nwith a most affectionate regard, his eyes bathed in tears, and doing,\nout of respect for him, the same humble but devoted services. He swept\nthe room, made the bed, brought the water in the same way as if Buddha\nhad been present. With a low tone of voice, often interrupted by sobs,\nhe was heard repeating, with the accent of a deep sadness, tempered by\nlove, \u201cThis is the place where the most excellent Phra sat down; this\nis the bed upon which he slept; this is the verandah through which he\npaced to and fro; this is the place where he bathed;\u201d and on each spot\nhe stood awhile and shed abundant tears. At such a sight the people felt\ntheir love towards Buddha\u2019s person increasing tenfold. They accompanied\nhis loving disciple, joined him in his pious offices, and with him wept\nas bitterly, in remembering the person of the great teacher, his manners\nand his preachings, as they did when they heard of his death. Having\nperformed all these pious duties, Ananda left that place, and hastened to\nthe city of Radzagio.\n\nWhen all the religious had congregated, the occupants of the eighteen\nmonasteries that were spread in the neighbourhood of Radzagio had to\nleave them, and make them over to the new-comers. All the five hundred\nreligious spent the festival day of the full moon of Watso together\nwith the occupants of those places. After the performance of the usual\ndevotions they were left alone in the undisturbed possession of the\nabove-named monasteries. But the buildings were found in such a bad order\nthat they required important and immediate repairs. Moreover, they were\nin a state of unbearable uncleanness, and it was deemed necessary to\nhave them well rubbed and washed. The cause of this disordered state was\nthis: when the occupants of those places heard of the approaching death\nof their great teacher, they had hastened to Kootheinaron, and there was\nno one left to take care of the dwellings and keep them in good order.\nTo have the evil remedied, Kathaba, accompanied by a large retinue of\nhis most remarkable brethren, went on the second day after the full moon\nof Watso to the palace of King Adzatathat, who received him with every\nmark of respect, and immediately inquired about the object of his visit.\nKathaba explained to the monarch the purpose of his coming to Radzagio\nwith five hundred of the most distinguished religious. \u201cI desire,\u201d\nsaid he, \u201cto confute error and to proclaim truth. My greatest wish is\nto promote the sacred cause of our holy religion. For that purpose I\nhave, with the concurrence of all my brethren, resolved to hold a synod\ncomposed of the principal members of the assembly. We ask from you, O\nKing, the favour of causing the eighteen monasteries of Radzagio to be\nrepaired for our dwelling, and also to give orders for the erection of a\nspacious hall, which shall be the place of our meetings for discussing\nvarious subjects relating to religion.\u201d\n\nAdzatathat joyfully assented to the proposal and demands of the Buddhist\npatriarch. He gave full liberty for the holding of the council, saying,\n\u201cMy power and that of the law are now at your command.\u201d He gave immediate\norders for putting in perfect order the dwelling-place of the Rahans.\nOn the southern face of Mount Webhara there was a cave which had been a\nfavourite place of resort with Buddha during the seasons that he spent\nat Radzagio in the Weloowon or bamboo-grove monastery. That spot was\nfixed upon as the fittest for the holding of the assembly. Adzatathat\nsummoned to his presence the most skilful workmen, and commanded them\nto exert all their skill and talents in erecting a hall worthy of the\nassembly that was to meet within its precincts. The ground was first\nencircled with a fence. A fine flight of steps, made with the utmost\ncare, led from the bottom of the hill to the spot where was built the\nmagnificent hall, decorated with a profusion of the choicest ornaments,\nand surpassing in beauty and elaborate work the stately dwellings of\nprinces. Five hundred mats for the accommodation of the religious were\ndisposed in the south of the hall. The seat of the president was placed\nopposite, in the northern part. In the centre, but facing the east, a\nseat resembling a pulpit was raised; upon it was laid a beautiful fan,\nmade of ivory. When the work was finished, Adzatathat informed Kathaba\nthat the work was completed, and the hall ready for the projected\nmeetings.\n\nIt was on the full moon of the Wakhaong (August) that the first\nconference was to take place and the council to be opened. On the day\nprevious some Rahans made a remark on the circumstance of Ananda being\nallowed to become a member of the council, though he was but a Thautapan,\nand had still to ascend the three other steps of Thakadagan, Anagan, and\nRahanda before he became an Arahat. This remark, made with very little\nmoderation, greatly affected and grieved the tender heart of Ananda. No\ntime was to be lost; he knew that on the following day the council would\nbe opened, and he could scarcely hope to be tolerated as an exception in\nthe midst of his brethren. He withdrew to a quiet and retired place, and\nresolved to do his utmost to obtain that which he felt he was in need\nof. He began to meditate with much attention; but the desired object of\nhis wishes was as yet far from him. He thought of Buddha. Whilst he was\ncontinuing his mental labour until midnight, he heard a voice telling\nhim to apply himself to the labour of a higher order, to Kamatan. This\nwas a flash of light that illuminated his mind. The exercise lasted until\na little before daybreak. At that time Ananda left the walking place, and\nwent to his room to take a little rest. He sat on his bed. Between the\nshort time that it took to raise his feet from the ground and lay the\nhead over the pillow, Ananda was delivered from the bands that keep a\nbeing in the whirlpool of existences, and he became a Rahanda.\n\nOn the fifth of the waxing moon of Wakhaong the 499 venerable members,\nattired in their cloaks and carrying the mendicants\u2019 pots, assembled in\nthe hall at the entrance of the Webhara cave. Each member occupied his\nown place; Ananda\u2019s alone was without its occupant. On a sudden, by the\npower of the virtue now inherent in his person, Ananda appeared among\nhis brethren. The appearance of his face resembled a ripe palm fruit.\nIt was beautiful as the moon at its full emerging from the bosom of a\ncloud; as a newly polished precious stone on a piece of fine cloth; as\nthe water-lily blooming in the rays of the morning sun. It reflected the\ninward perfection which had just been communicated to him, and exhibited\nit in unmistakable signs to the assembled religious.\n\nEvery arrangement being completed, and the members occupying in silence\ntheir respective seats, Kathaba three times praised Buddha. He then asked\nthe fathers of the assembly which of the three parts\u2014the instructions,\nthe discipline, or the metaphysics\u2014deserved the priority in the\ndiscussions that were to begin. They answered that the discipline, being\nthe soul and ornament of religion, deserved the preference. He asked\nthem to appoint him whom they thought the fittest to occupy the pulpit.\nThey were unanimous in selecting Oopali, though Ananda was worthy of\nsuch a distinction. The reason of the selection is the following: On one\noccasion Buddha had openly declared that among all the religious, or\nthe members of the assembly, Oopali was the most fervent in observing\nthe regulations of the Wini. Then Kathaba said, \u201cBrethren, since you\nhave given the preference to the venerable Oopali, let him have it.\u201d The\nvenerable Oopali said in his turn, \u201cBrethren, hearken to my words: having\nbeen selected by the assembly to answer all the questions relating to\nthe Wini, I accept the honourable task thus imposed upon me.\u201d When he\nhad spoken he rose from his place, threw a part of his cloak upon one\nshoulder, bowed to the members of the assembly, went to the pulpit, sat\ndown, and held the ivory fan in his hand.\n\nKathaba, from his own seat, addressed Oopali, and said, \u201cVenerable\nOopali, in what place has the most excellent Phra enacted the commandment\nrespecting the first of the four sins, called Paradzika?\u201d Oopali\nanswered, \u201cIn the country of Wethalie.\u201d \u201cTo whom was allusion made when\nthis commandment was published?\u201d \u201cAllusion was made to Thoudein, the\nson of Tananda Pounha.\u201d \u201cWhat was the cause of such an enactment?\u201d \u201cThe\nsin of fornication he had committed.\u201d The president, addressing the\nassembled fathers, said, \u201cBrethren, you have all heard what regards the\ncircumstances connected with the first Paradzika. Let this article be\nnoted down, and its admission and sanction be proclaimed aloud.\u201d It was\ndone so. All the members accepted it. At that moment an earthquake was\nfelt. The same method was observed as regards the three other Paradzika.\nThey were unanimously accepted by the members of the assembly. Oopali\nwas successively questioned by the president upon the other regulations\nof the Wini, viz., the 13 Thingaditheit, the 2 Donay-a-niga, the 30\nNiseggi Padzeit, the 92 Padzeit, the 4 Walidathani, the 75 Theikkabot,\nwhich are named Adikarana-thama; in all, 227 regulations. Moreover,\nthere were added the 80 (Banawara) Khandaca and the 25 Parawira. These\nseveral divisions form the collection called Wini Pitagat. When the final\nsanction had been given to all those points a mighty earthquake was felt\na second time. The venerable Oopali laid down the ivory fan, rose up,\ncame down from the pulpit, reverentially saluted all the brethren, and\nreturned to his own seat.\n\nThe president, addressing the company, said, \u201cBrethren, hearken to my\nwords. If it be your good pleasure, we shall discuss at present the\nthoots or the instructions orally delivered unto us by our most excellent\nmaster. Whom shall we appoint to answer the questions I shall put him\non this subject?\u201d They unanimously elected Ananda, who, having always\nand on all occasions accompanied Buddha, was better acquainted with his\npreachings than any other religious. Then the president added, \u201cBrethren,\nif it be agreeable to you, I will duly question the venerable Ananda.\u201d\nThe latter likewise said, \u201cBrethren, hearken to my words. Since it is\nacceptable to you, I will answer all the questions on the thoots which\nour venerable president shall put to me.\u201d Then he rose from his seat,\narranged his cloak on one of his shoulders, respectfully bowed to the\nassembly, and, ascending the steps of the pulpit, he sat down, and held\nin his hand the ivory fan.\n\nThe president, addressing the assembly, said, \u201cBrethren, in the thoots\nthere are several parts or divisions. There is the division called\nThingiti, which has also subdivisions. Which shall I fix upon to begin\nour session?\u201d They answered, \u201cLet us begin with the Diga-thingiti,\nwhich contains thirty-five thoots, and out of this the Silakhanda which\nincludes thirteen sermons or thoots.\u201d It was on the first, called\nBhramadzala, that the questions were put. The president put the following\nquestions to the venerable Ananda: \u201cIn what place was the Bhramadzala\nthoot preached?\u201d He answered, \u201cIn the Mingoon hall, situated in the\nmiddle of a grove of mango-trees half-way between Radzagio and the\nvillage of Nalanda.\u201d \u201cTo whom was allusion made?\u201d \u201cTo Thouppya, a holder\nof false doctrines, and to a young man named Bramada.\u201d \u201cFor what reason\nwas such allusion made?\u201d \u201cBecause both had been ungrateful to Buddha.\u201d\nSimilar questions were put for each thoot of this division, and suitable\nanswers were given in a like manner. The same mode of proceeding was\nobserved for each sermon or thoot of the following divisions. When\nall the explanations had been given by the speaker, all the assembled\nbrethren, with a perfect unanimity, assented to all that had been said.\n\nWhen the work on the thoots was completed, the whole collection was\ncalled the Pitagat Thoots. Ananda rose from the pulpit, placed the ivory\nfan upon the table, respectfully bowed to the assembly, and returned to\nhis own place.\n\nThe president, addressing again the assembly, requested them to designate\nhim who, in their opinion, appeared to be best fitted for answering\nall questions on the third part of the sacred scriptures, the Abidama.\nThey unanimously selected the venerable Anooroudha. When the choice had\nbeen fixed upon and agreed to, Anooroudha accepted the honour conferred\non him, rose from his seat and saluted his brethren. He then gravely\nascended the pulpit, sat down, and held the ivory fan in his hand.\n\nThe president questioned him on the seven divisions of the Abidama,\nfollowing the same order he had observed previously in treating of\nthe two first parts called Pitagat. The occupant of the pulpit having\nreturned due answers, and the assembly having testified their approbation\nin a unanimous manner, the council was brought to a close. It had\nlasted seven months, from the full moon of Wakhaong to the full moon of\nTabaong.[31]\n\nThe first council is called Pitzasatika Sangarana, because it was\ncomposed of five hundred religious. It is also named Terika-sangarana,\nbecause it was composed of religious of the first order. The soul\nof Kathaba, at the happy conclusion of this important undertaking,\noverflowed with the purest joy. He felt that with such a work the\nreligious institutions rested on a strong basis, and would last the whole\nperiod of 5000 years assigned to the duration of religion by Gaudama\nhimself.\n\nIt was at the conclusion of the council that King Adzatathat, with the\nconcurrence of the Buddhist patriarch, did away with the Eetzana era, and\nsubstituted the religious era beginning in the year 148 of the said era;\nthat is to say, on the year of Gaudama\u2019s death, on a Monday, the first of\nthe waxing moon of Tabaong.\n\nHere is inserted, as a genealogical link, the names of the kings who\nreigned at Pataliputra, from Adzatathat to Kalathoka, under whose reign\nthe second council was held.\n\nAgreeably to the prediction of Gaudama respecting the calamities\nthat were to befall Wethalie on the third year of the religious era,\nAdzatathat, having contrived to sow, through the instrumentality of a\nfamous pounha, the seed of dissension among the princes of that city,\nflung himself on a sudden with a large force on the devoted city,\npossessed himself of it, and totally destroyed it. On his return to his\nown territories, the conqueror carried away as captives three hundred\nof the princes and nobles of the conquered state. His reign lasted\naltogether thirty-five years. He died in the year 25 of the religious\nera. He was slain by his own son Oudaia-badda, who succeeded him and\nreigned until the year 40. He was in his turn murdered by his son\nAnoorouda, who also fell after a short reign by the hand of his son and\nsuccessor, Manta. This prince reigned until the year 49. He met with a\nsimilar tragical end. His son Nagata-saka killed him and ascended the\nthrone. He reigned until the year 53. The people of Pataliputra, justly\nshocked at the horrible and barbarous murders which incessantly sullied\nthe very steps of the throne, revolted against the race of these bloody\nprinces, and put an end to the line of kings who are aptly called the\nparricide kings.\n\nAmong the three hundred princes and nobles whom Adzatathat had brought\nover from Wethalie, one of them had a daughter remarkable for the\nattractions of her person and the accomplishments of her mind. She was by\nthe order of the king raised to the position of a courtezan in Radzagio.\nWhilst engaged in that course she had a male child, whom, with unnatural\nfeelings, she ordered to be thrown during the night into the midst of\nbushes, outside the city. A Naga guardian of the place watched over the\ninfant and carefully protected him. On the following morning, the king,\nhappening to pass by, heard the sound thoo-thoo many times repeated. It\nwas the Naga who made this noise in order to attract his attention. The\nking having sent one of his officers to the spot the sound was coming\nfrom, was informed that an infant still alive was lying there under\nthe guard of a Naga. Moved with compassion, he ordered the child to be\nforwarded to his palace and had him carefully brought up. On account\nof the sound thoo-thoo which had been heard, and of the Naga that had\nbeen met on the spot, the child was named Thoo-thoo-naga. He grew up and\nbecame an accomplished prince. The people, who had rid themselves of the\nline of parricide kings, unanimously proclaimed him king in 63.\n\nThat monarch, not unmindful of his mother\u2019s origin, re-established the\ncity of Wethalie, and fixed in it the royal residence. From that time\nRadzagio lost her rank of royal city, which she never after recovered. He\ndied in 81, and was succeeded by his son Kalathoka, who, as we shall see\nsubsequently, had a long reign of twenty-eight years.\n\nWe must show now how there has ever been a regular and uninterrupted\nsuccession of eminent doctors, who have successively communicated to\neach other the genuine doctrine, from Buddha down to the time of the\nthird council, that is to say, during more than two hundred years. The\nvenerable Oopali had learned the Wini at the feet of Buddha himself, and\nhad for his chief pupil the venerable Dantaka, who in his turn became\nthe teacher of the venerable Thaunaka. The latter was the instructor of\nthe venerable Seiggiwa, who also brought up in the knowledge of the true\ndoctrine the venerable and renowned Mauggalipatta. Dantaka belonged,\nby birth, to the pounha race of Wethalie. Having become a patzin, he\nattained to so great a proficiency in the religious science, that Oopali\nappointed him the instructor of a thousand religious in the three\nPitagats. Thaunaka was the son of a rich merchant. He became a convert to\nBuddhism, and entered as a religious at Radzagio. His remarkable mental\nattainments induced his superior to give him the charge of initiating\nothers into the knowledge of the sacred doctrines. Seiggiwa was the\nson of a nobleman of Pataliputra. On a certain day he went with many\ncompanions into the monastery of Thaunaka, and found him in a state\nof trance. The young visitor wondered at what he saw. From admiration\nhe passed to respect and love, and wished to become a disciple under\nhim. He succeeded so well in his studies that he merited to become the\nmaster of the most celebrated of all, Mauggalipatta. Previous to his\npresent existence, the latter was in one of the seats of Brahmas. He\nwas incarnated in the womb of a pounha woman. When he was born, he grew\nup and showed a decided inclination to become a Buddhist, and tread in\nthe footsteps of Gaudama. It was in 163 that the future president of the\nthird council became a patzin.\n\nIn the 20th year of the reign of Kalathoka, in the year 100, there\nhappened a sort of schism amongst the Rahans of Wethalie. Those of\nthe Weitzi district, little regarding the positive injunctions of the\nWini, indulged in certain practices openly at variance with them. This\noccasioned strong remonstrance on the part of the Rahans living in the\nwestern district, called Pawera. The dispute among the religious was soon\nnoised abroad and caused some scandal. It was the following incident\nwhich revealed all the peril.\n\nThe venerable Ratha was then living in the monastery, situated in the\nMahawon, in the district of Wethalie. Chancing to travel through the\nWeitzi district, he heard that on festival days the Rahans were wont\nto place near the entrance of their monasteries certain vessels half\nfull of water, and advised the people to put therein, each of them, a\npiece of silver, saying that the produce would be employed in purchasing\ndresses and the other utensils required by the Rahans. They also allowed\nas lawful the use of spirits, and were not very particular respecting\nthe observance of the law of celibacy. Ratha was greatly scandalised at\nall that he saw. He boldly told the people that it was not good to make\nofferings of money, because it was unlawful for religious to possess any.\nHe made similar observations respecting the other trespassings.\n\nOn the following festival day no money was offered. The Rahans were much\nincensed at such a neglect. Ratha said to the people: \u201cLaymen, because\nof such irregularities, the beauty of the days of worship is fading, the\nglory of religion is darkened. Buddha in his days forbade the offering\nof money, the use of liquors, and several other practices which are now\nintroduced in this place. By the innovators I am held up as a reviler\nof the Rahans, and as one deficient in benevolence towards you. I, as\nwell as the Rahans of the royal race, attend only to the prescriptions\nof the Wini, such as they have been laid down and published by Buddha.\u201d\nThe people replied to him: \u201cVenerable Ratha, you are a true Rahan, and\nyou follow the right way. Pray stay with us and be our teacher; we will\nabundantly supply you with the necessaries of life.\u201d Ratha, going on his\nway, was always followed by the people, who, in token of their respect\nand love, accompanied him to the Kootagara monastery, in the midst of the\nforest of sala trees.\n\nThe guilty Rahans, hearing of all that had been said and fearing the\nparamount influence of the venerable Ratha over the people, said to\nthem: \u201cWe shall not join with the Rahans of the royal race. We shall\nhold no intercourse with them. We shall expel Ratha from this district.\u201d\nWith these dispositions they encouraged each other in the determination\nto offer a most decided opposition and maintain their newly invented\npractices.\n\nOn his side, the venerable Ratha, anxious for the safety of the genuine\npractices, and zealous for the exaltation of religion, hastened to\nKothambi to warn the religious of that and the neighbouring districts\nagainst the evil practices of the Weitzi Rahans. To those whom he could\nnot meet in person he sent letters and messengers to say to them:\n\u201cBrethren, before the evil-doers succeed in their iniquitous efforts\nto subvert religion, and render doubtful and uncertain the genuine\nregulations of the Wini, ere they have time to set up false tenets, let\nus assemble, and with our united efforts give strength and confidence to\nthe good and righteous, and crush the wicked and the impious.\u201d\n\nAt that time there lived on a mountain, in the Upper Ganges, a celebrated\nreligious, named Samputa-kami. He was 120 years old, and had been a\ndisciple of Ananda. To him the zealous Ratha applied in order to have the\nquestions at issue with the Weitzi Rahans finally settled. He minutely\nexplained to him the ten points of discipline on which they were at\nvariance with the Wini. Samputa-kami fully agreed with the proposal, and\nwas of opinion that there should be held a general assembly, in which the\npoints in dispute should be examined and the schism put an end to.\n\nSome religious, about sixty in number, appeared to have a leaning towards\nthe schismatical party. They resolved to go to Thaurya, where lived the\ncelebrated Rewati, whose extraordinary wisdom equalled the quickness and\nflash of the lightning. The venerable Rewati, hearing of their wicked\ndesign, would not, in his abhorrence for their opinions, meet them on\nany account. He left his own place, and went from Thaurya to the town of\nSankasa. When he had heard that they were following him, and were already\nclose to the place he lived in, he removed to Kaiinna-goutra, then to\nOudampara, subsequently to Eggalamoura and to Tharaudzati.\n\nAt the same time, it happened that Ratha, with the venerable Tsamputa,\nwished to go and have a meeting with Rewati, in order to place him on his\nguard and to bring him over to their party. They met him at Tharaudzati\nin the evening, and during the whole night made him acquainted with all\nthe doings of the Weitzi Rahans, and begged him to declare openly which\nof the two parties was in the right. Rewati at once pronounced in favour\nof the Pawera Rahans, and condemned the opposite party on each of the ten\npoints in dispute, and looked upon them as innovators and schismatics.\n\nDuring that time the schismatic Rahans were not idle. They wished also\nto draw Rewati to their party. Having ascertained that he lived in\nTharaudzati, they went by boat and ascended the river as far as that\nplace. They carried with them many presents suitable for religious.\nHaving landed, they took their quarters under a large tree. Rewati,\nknowing their wicked intent, would not receive their presents, nor hold\ncommunion with them. Undismayed by this first check which they had\nreceived, they tried to obtain access to the master by means of the\ndisciple. They offered him some presents, which in his simplicity he\naccepted. Meanwhile they urged him to prevail upon his teacher to give\nthem a favourable hearing. He only once made the attempt to introduce the\nsubject with the greatest caution. Rewati, however, was on his guard: he\nadministered to his imprudent disciple such a rebuke as to deter him from\nmaking any further attempt. His name was Outtara. He and all the Rahans\nwent to Wethalie.\n\nTo calm the heat of discussion, and bring the question at issue to a\ncomplete settlement, the Walikarama monastery in Wethalie was selected\nas the fittest place for holding a general assembly, where both parties\nwould attend, and endeavour to come to a mutual understanding. Out of an\nimmense number of religious, 700, the most conspicuous for their learning\nwere selected by Ratha and Rewati to be members of the assembly. But to\nrender the discussion clearer and easier, it was agreed that each of the\nten points should be first discussed by eight Rahans, four from each\nparty. Rewati, Samputa, Ratha, and Thoumana represented the western or\northodox party: Samputa-kami, Thala, Koudyabantaka, and Wathakami acted\nfor the opposite party.\n\nIt was evident that in this dispute the question was not about the\nPitagat itself; this was admitted by both parties. The difficulty\naffected certain points of discipline, ten in number, which were to be\nsettled by the authority of the Kambawa and Patimauk. The eight delegates\nhaving met in a private hall of the monastery, Rewati was desired to\nquestion the venerable Samputa-kami on the ten points on which there was\ndisagreement. He said: \u201cIs it lawful to add to the food that is received\nsome salt or other condiments?\u201d Samputa-kami answered: \u201cIt is not\nlawful.\u201d \u201cIn what place was that point settled?\u201d \u201cIn Wethalie, as being\ncontrary to the spirit of the Wini.\u201d \u201cWhat sin is entailed on him who\ndoes such a thing?\u201d \u201cThe sin of Patzeit.\u201d Questions of a similar import\nwere put as regards the drinking of milk in the afternoon, the use of\nwaters half-fermented, the drinking of spirits, the receiving of gold and\nsilver. Answers were given agreeably to the tenor of the Wini regulations.\n\nWhen the eight delegates had come to a decision upon the ten points\nof discipline, they went into the great hall where the 700 Rahans\nwere assembled. Ratha was the president of the assembly. Samputa-kami\nwas desired to ascend the pulpit and hold the fan. The president said\nto the assembled Rahans: \u201cBrethren, if it be pleasing to you, I will\ninterrogate the venerable Samputa-kami on the Wini, and on the ten points\nin discussion.\u201d He followed the same order that had been observed in the\nfirst meeting of the eight Rahans. The answers were unanimously received\nand approved of by the whole assembly. Then the president said: \u201cAll\ndiscussion concerning the ten points is now over; let every one accept\nthe decisions of the assembly and act agreeably to them.\u201d\n\nThis second council is called Thattasakita, or the assembly of the 700\nRahans. It was held in 102, under the reign of Kalathoka. That prince\nappears to have favoured the party of the Weitzi Rahans. The assembly\nlasted eight months. The canon of scriptures was likewise arranged and\ndetermined as it had been done by Kathaba in the first council.\n\nAmong the principal members of the assembly were Samputa-kami, Thala,\nKoudzasambita, Rewati, Thauna, and Samputa, who had been disciples of\nAnanda. Thoumana and Wauthabakami had been disciples of the venerable\nAnoorouda.\n\nPartly from the countenance given by the king to the condemned party,\nand partly from the obstinacy shown by the easterners in resisting\nthe decisions of the council, the Buddhistic society was divided into\ntwo great factions. The latter, that is to say the Weitzi Rahans,\nestablished the great school called the Maha Thingika. The Tera-thaka\nwas that of the orthodox; it never changed in doctrine or in discipline.\nUntil the third council, that is to say, during the space of more than\na century, eighteen different schools branched off.[32] Of these,\nseventeen offered the sad spectacle of important changes in points of\ndiscipline and of doctrine. But the Terawada never changed: it retained\nboth doctrine and discipline in their original purity. All the different\nschools received their denomination from their respective founders.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n _Kalathoka is succeeded by his eldest son, Baddasena\u2014And\n finally by the youngest, Pitzamuka\u2014This prince is killed and\n succeeded by a chief of robbers, named Ouggasena-nanda\u2014King\n Tsanda-gutta\u2014King Bandasura\u2014Miraculous dreams of Athoka\u2019s\n mother\u2014King Athoka\u2014His conversion\u2014His zeal for Buddhism\u2014Finding\n of the relics\u2014Distribution of them\u2014Third council held under the\n presidency of Mauggalipata\u2014Preaching of religion in various\n countries, and particularly in Thaton\u2014Voyage of Buddhagosa to\n Ceylon\u2014Establishment of religion in Pagan\u2014Various particulars\n relating to the importation of the scriptures in Burmah._\n\n\nAt the conclusion of the synod, Samputa-kami and several of the most\ndistinguished members of the Buddhistic assembly, astonished at the\nprogress of schism and dissension which the united voices of seven\nhundred religious had not been able entirely to root up, endeavoured\nto divine, as far as human wisdom could reach, what would be in after\ntimes the fate of religion. They foresaw that one hundred and twenty\nyears hence, there would be at Pataliputra a mighty ruler full of love\nfor religion, and zealous for its propagation, who would do much to\npromote its exaltation. But before the reign of that pious monarch they\nsaw distinctly that there would appear many heretics, fond of their own\nwill, coining doctrines of their own invention, and that they would\nthereby inflict the most serious harm on religion. They had, however,\nthe consolation to know that this was to come to pass after their death.\nBut who was the fortunate being who was destined to check effectually\nthe coming evil? They saw him in one of the seats of Brahmas. His name\nwas Teissa. In due time he would come down to the seat of man, operate\nhis incarnation in the womb of a pounha female, named Maugali, and would\nafterwards become a famous religious under the name Mauggalipatta. This\nvision filled their souls with the purest joy, which was increased by\nthe view of the expansion and development which religion would receive\nthrough the zeal of that great personage.\n\nAfter a reign of twenty-eight years, King Kalathoka died, leaving nine\nsons, the eldest of whom was named Baddasena. They all reigned one after\nthe other through a period of thirty-three years. The last of them,\nPitzamuka, was the youngest. During his reign a gang of robbers desolated\nthe country of Magatha. On a certain day a man named Ouggasena, having\nfallen in with that gang, inquired of them what pursuit they followed in\norder to obtain their livelihood. They plainly told him that they knew\nnothing about the tillage of the fields, and were unacquainted with the\nbusiness of trade; they had no other way left for maintaining themselves\nbut to seize by force whatever they chanced to meet. Ouggasena, taken up\nwith the boldness of these desperadoes, offered to join their company\nwith his eight brothers. The offer was gladly accepted. It happened\nafterwards that in one of their depredatory expeditions their chief was\nslain. Ouggasena was appointed by common consent to take his place.\nBeing of a bold and lofty daring, he said to his associates: \u201cFriends,\nit does not suit brave and enterprising men as you are to confine your\nattacks to petty villages and small towns: you ought to aim higher.\u201d\nHe then represented to them in forcible language that King Pitzamuka\nwas deficient in courage, and neglected entirely the duties of a king.\n\u201cThe moment is favourable,\u201d added he, \u201cto attack Pataliputra itself.\u201d\nHis opinion was universally accepted. The king, fonder of pleasure than\nof business, offered little resistance. He was killed at the taking\nof his capital, and Ouggasena sat on the throne, under the name of\nOuggasena-nanda.\n\nHe was succeeded by his eight brothers. They reigned successively during\nthe short period of twenty-two years. The last of them was called\nDzananda. These princes were not followers of Buddha, but they supported\nthe party of the pounhas, to which they adhered. Their generosity towards\nthe pounhas was very great. They fed daily a great number of them in\ntheir own palace.\n\nAmong the pounhas who were maintained by the king\u2019s liberality,\nthere was one named Dzanecka, who was much versed in the science of\nastrology. Being once in the country, he saw in himself certain signs\nindicating that one day he would become a king. Having communicated\nthis intelligence to his mother, she wisely advised him to ignore such\ndangerous signs, which would inevitably bring the king\u2019s anger upon him,\nand expose him to great perils. Dzanecka was wise enough to comply with\nhis mother\u2019s wishes.\n\nOn a certain day Dzanecka returned to Pataliputra, from the country\nplace where his mother lived. On his arrival, he, in company with his\nbrethren, went to the palace to receive alms, that were to be distributed\nin the king\u2019s presence in a large hall, fitted for that special purpose.\nHe occupied the foremost rank. The king, who saw him, could not help\nremarking something extraordinary in his person. Suspicions arose in his\nbosom respecting the fidelity of that pounha. He instantly felt angry\nwith him. Unable to control his passions, he ordered one of his officers\nto turn him out of the palace without giving him anything. The pounha had\nbut to obey the unwelcome summons. Stung to the quick by shame and rage,\nhe rose from his place. When he was just crossing the threshold of the\nhall\u2019s entrance, he took off his caste\u2019s string, and cut it in pieces;\nhe likewise broke his mendicant\u2019s pot, and flung all against one post of\nthe door of the hall, uttering at the same time imprecations, and praying\nthat the king might never from that day enjoy rest. He ran away as far as\nhe could, and under a disguise he eluded the pursuit of those that had\nbeen sent to arrest him. He escaped into Tekkaso. There he plotted the\ndestruction of the king.\n\nIn one of his rambles through the country, Dzanecka met by chance a\nchild, whom he knew to belong to a royal race. He at once adopted him,\nand brought him up with the greatest care and attention. It was not long,\nhowever, ere he found out that the signs prognosticating promotion to\nroyalty were rather doubtful and somewhat insufficient. He could not rely\non him for the execution of the important and long-cherished design he\nhad in his heart. He had now to look out for some other one, who could\nafford him a greater subject for hope and confidence. Chance soon served\nhim admirably well, to the utmost of his wishes.\n\nAfter the destruction of Wethalie by Adzatathat, the princes that had\nescaped from the massacre had fled in an eastern direction, and built\na city called Maurya. New misfortunes having befallen them, they were\nobliged to search for safety in precipitate flight. One of the wives of\nthose princes, being in the family way, was led to the city of Pouppaya.\nHaving been delivered of a son, she had the barbarity to order the little\ncreature to be put into a jar, which was cast in a neighbouring cow-pen.\nThe Nats watched over the child, and the bull of the herd, stationing\nitself near the infant, kept, with his horns and feet, at a distance any\nanimal that came near. The cow-keeper, observing what was taking place,\ntook the child and gave it to his wife Tsanda to bring him up as if he\nwere their own child. He was called from the name of his adopted parents,\nTsanda-gutta.\n\nWhen the lad had come to the age to play the cowherd, he assumed among\nhis fellow-herdsmen all the ways and manners and deportment of a king.\nHe appointed some of them his ministers; others were invested with other\nmock dignities. He would sit on a tribunal, decide small cases, and\nstrictly enforce the execution of his sentences.\n\nThe Pounha Dzanecka, who was living in the neighbourhood, hearing all\nthis, wished to see the extraordinary boy. He recognised at a glance in\nthe lad the sure signs foreshadowing his coming greatness. He purchased\nhim for the sum of one thousand pieces of silver, and brought him up\nalong with his other adopted son. Each of the boys had a splendid\nnecklace of gold. On a certain day, Dzanecka ordered Pouppata, for\nsuch was the name of the first adopted son, to take a sword and go to\nTsanda-gutta whilst asleep, and take from him his necklace of gold,\nwithout, however, cutting the thread, or even unloosing it. Pouppata,\nagreeably to his father\u2019s order, went near the place where his brother\nwas sleeping. He stood over him, and examined attentively by what means\nhe could execute his father\u2019s order. After many fruitless combinations,\nfinding it impossible to do so, he went back to his father and related\nhis disappointment. Dzanecka, without addressing him a word of blame,\nremained silent.\n\nA few days afterwards, Dzanecka called Tsanda-gutta, and commissioned\nhim to take a sword, and during his brother\u2019s sleep to steal away from\nhim his gold necklace, carefully avoiding either to cut the string or to\nuntie it. Tsanda-gutta went to the place where his brother was sleeping.\nAfter a few moments of reflection, seeing but one way to obey his\nfather\u2019s order, he cut off at once his brother\u2019s head, and brought entire\nthe necklace of gold, which he placed at his father\u2019s feet. The latter,\nwithout giving a sign of approbation or displeasure, remained silent.\n\nDzanecka gave all his treasures to Tsanda-gutta. Having pointed out to\nhim and minutely explained the course he had to follow for obtaining the\nhigh station he was destined to, the pounha repaired to some other place,\nbidding him remember him after he became a king. With the treasures left\nat his disposal, Tsanda-gutta levied men, and went on from success to\nsuccess, until he possessed himself of Pataliputra and killed Dananda.\nHe received the water of consecration, and began his reign in 163. That\nmonarch seems to have been accustomed to the use of poisons. For it\nhappened that, on a certain day, his first queen, belonging to the Maurya\nrace, tasted a mouthful of a dish prepared for the king. This caused\nher death. At the time of that fatal occurrence she was far advanced in\npregnancy. The king, without a moment\u2019s delay, ordered her belly to be\nopened; the infant was taken out and put in the belly of a goat freshly\nslain. The child lived, and was called Bandasura.\n\nTsanda-gutta, after a reign of twenty-four years, died in 187, and was\nsucceeded by his son Bandasura, only sixteen years old. Both the father\nand the son were supporters of the pounhas, and fed daily an immense\nnumber of them in their palace. Bandasura reigned twenty-seven years,\nthat is to say, until the year 214. He had altogether 101 sons. His first\nqueen, called Damma, had become the mother of two sons, called Athoka and\nTeissa. When she was pregnant of the first, she had five dreams: First,\nshe thought she was stretching her two feet, one resting on the sun, and\nthe other on the moon; second, it appeared to her that she was devouring\nthe stars; third, she fancied she was eating the clouds; fourth, she\nimagined she was eating the worms\u2019 dunghills; fifth and finally, she\nimagined she was eating the leaves of all the trees. According to the\nprediction of the soothsayers, the five dreams meant that the son\nwhom she had in her womb would rule over the whole of the island of\nTsampoudipa; that he would destroy all his brothers, who would unite to\ndispute the throne with him; that he would disperse all the heretics\nor upholders of false tenets, who, like clouds, obscure the glory of\nreligion; that he would possess all above the earth to the height of one\nyoudzana, and all below the earth to an equal depth.\n\nWhen Athoka was sixteen years old, his father sent him to Outzeni to\ngovern that city, and the territories annexed to it. On his way to\nthat city, Athoka had to pass through Wedika, distant fifty youdzanas\nfrom Pataliputra, in an eastern direction. The town had been founded\nby the princes of Kapilawot, when that city had been almost destroyed\nin the days of Buddha. In that place he married the daughter of a rich\nman, named Dewa. After his arrival at Outzeni, Athoka\u2019s wife presented\nhim first with a son, who was named Maheinda, and subsequently with a\ndaughter, called Seingamitta. Athoka remained nine years at Outzeni. At\nthe end of that period, hearing that his father lay dangerously ill,\nhe hastened to Pataliputra, to assist him and render all the services\ndictated by filial love. On his return, having to pass through Wedika, he\nleft in that place his wife and his two children. A little while after\nhis arrival at his father\u2019s capital, the king breathed his last, and\nAthoka was proclaimed king.\n\nThe new monarch, however, found himself soon surrounded by many enemies.\nWith the exception of Teissa, who was born from the same mother, all his\nbrothers conspired against him. The oldest of all, named Thoumana, was\nthe originator and leader of the rebellion. After a protracted struggle,\nAthoka\u2019s good fortune prevailed. His rebellious brother Thoumana was\novercome and made a prisoner; soon after, he was put to death. The same\nsad and cruel fate befel the other ninety-eight brothers. But it took\nthree years before Athoka could free himself from all his enemies. On the\nfourth year after his accession to the throne, that is to say, in 218,\nhe received the royal consecration, and in honour of his mother took the\nname of Dammathoka. He obtained a universal sway all over Dzampoudipa.\n\nUp to the period of his consecration, Athoka had always favoured the\npounhas. In imitation of his father\u2019s conduct, he fed daily an immense\nnumber of them in his palace. They all dressed in white clothes. It was\nonly after he had received the royal consecration that he became a\nconvert to Buddhism, through the instrumentality of his own nephew, the\nRahan Nigrauda. A few particulars respecting this celebrated religious\nmay not be unacceptable to the reader.\n\nAfter Thoumana\u2019s death, his wife Thoumana-dewi was near the moment of her\nconfinement. Under disguise, she contrived to baffle the snares of her\nhusband\u2019s enemies and elude their pursuit. She went to the neighbourhood\nof the village of Dountsanka, a little distant from Pataliputra in an\neastern direction, and rested under a banyan tree. A small shed was\nprovided for her, and the head man of the village, who looked upon her as\nhis daughter, supplied her with food. She was delivered of a son, whom\nshe named Nigrauda. When he was about seven years old he was confided to\nthe care of the venerable Varuna, who instructed him in his monastery,\nand taught him the Kamatan. He became a religious, and was made a patzin.\nThe monastery of the venerable Varuna was not very distant from the\nsouthern gate of the city.\n\nOn a certain day the young religious Nigrauda rose up at an early hour,\nand having paid his respects to his great instructor, put on his cloak,\nand, taking under his arm the mendicant\u2019s pot, left his monastery,\nentered the city by the southern gate, and shaped his course towards the\neastern one, with the intention of going to visit his mother. At that\nvery moment King Athoka was standing over the lion\u2019s gate of his palace\nenjoying the cool of the morning breeze. He saw the young religious\npassing with a grave and steady step. All was graceful and dignified in\nhis deportment. A placid joy, a serene modesty, and a majestic appearance\nbeautified his countenance to such an extent that, at the first look,\nthe king felt an irresistible affection for the young Samane. Without\na moment\u2019s delay he despatched an officer to call him. With a kind and\naffectionate tone the king invited him to ascend the steps of his palace,\nand insisted on serving him with his meal. When the repast was over,\nAthoka said: \u201cYoung Samane, do you know well all the doctrines taught by\nyour instructor?\u201d \u201cI am somewhat acquainted with them,\u201d replied Nigrauda\nmodestly. \u201cIf such be the case, will you be pleased to explain them to\nme?\u201d He then said in reply: \u201cHe who is diligent in practising the duties\nthat procure merits enjoys true happiness; he shall be exempt from death.\nHe who neglects the duties that procure merits is unhappy, and is in a\nstate of death.\u201d The king, delighted with the instruction delivered to\nhim by the young Samane, offered him several presents suitable to the\nreligious profession. But Nigrauda would not accept them, except in the\nname and for the benefit of his instructor; because it was he who had the\ncharge of teaching people to avoid evil, to do good, and to practise the\nreligious duties. As to him, he was but a disciple. Athoka was greatly\npleased with the modesty and disinterestedness of the young Samane.\n\nOn other occasions the king sent for Nigrauda, and heard his instructions\nwith such a good result that he gradually became a perfect convert.\nBy the advice of his spiritual guide, Athoka made daily presents to a\ncertain number of religious of the Buddhistic persuasion. The number\nof the religious who every day attended the court to receive presents\ngradually swelled to the amount of 60,000. Nigrauda instructed his royal\npupil on the three Saranans and the five precepts. He infused into his\nsoul a tender love for Buddha and his religion. The great change in the\nking\u2019s dispositions happened on the fourth year after his coronation. Up\nto that time he had favoured the party of the pounhas, as his father and\ngrandfather had done. He was in the habit of daily affording food and\nmaintenance to sixty thousand pounhas wearing the white dress.\n\nNot satisfied with the liberal offerings of every day, the king said to\nthe Rahans: \u201cMy intention is to build a great number of dzedis in all the\ncities of Dzampoudipa. But where are to be found the relics of the most\nexcellent Buddha, that they may be divided and enshrined in the principal\ndzedis?\u201d By his order the relics were searched for in every direction.\nThe dzedis already built in Wethalie, Kapilawot, Allakappa, Pawa, and\nKoutheinaron were all demolished. An exception was made in favour of the\ndzedi in the village of Rama. The Nagas, guardians of the place, would\nnot allow that monument to be touched. In vain did the workmen strive\nwith pickaxes to demolish the dzedi. Their instruments broke in pieces as\nsoon as they came in contact with the building. But in none of them could\nthe precious deposit be found. The king commanded that the demolished\nsacred monuments should be rebuilt precisely in the same shape and form\nas they stood previously. Athoka, disappointed but undismayed by his\nwant of success, directed his steps towards Radzagio, and resolved not\nto relax in his exertions until he had found the precious object of his\neager desires. Having arrived at that place, he assembled all the Rahans\nand people, and inquired if there was no person who could lead him in the\nway to discover the relics. In the crowd there was a Rahan one hundred\nand twenty years old, who said that when he was a Samane about seven\nyears old, his superior directed him to take some flowers and perfumes,\nand, leading him to a retired place, said to him, \u201cYou see that dark bush\nin the middle of which there is a small stone dzedi; let us prostrate\nourselves before it and make our offering.\u201d When this was done he added\nwith a solemn tone of voice, \u201cYoung Samane, observe well this spot, and\never remember it.\u201d He said nothing more, and we returned to our home.\n\u201cThis is doubtless,\u201d said the king, \u201cthe very spot I am searching after,\nwithout having ever been able hitherto to discover it.\u201d The king and\nhis people hastened to the indicated place. Great offerings were made\nto the guardian Nat in order to propitiate him. The Nat, assuming the\nshape of a young man, removed all the obstacles that obstructed the way\nto the place. When the king was near the first door, he discovered the\nruby whereupon was seen the above-related inscription. On touching the\nbolt the door was suddenly opened, when, to the great surprise of all\npresent, the lamps that had been lighted two hundred and eighteen years\nago were found burning and full of oil; the flowers, without the least\nsign of withering, were as fresh and beautiful as those in the gardens;\nthe smell of the perfumes seemed to be even more exquisite than that of\nnew ones. The king, taking the gold leaf, read the inscription concerning\nhim. He took all the relics, except a few that he left therein, replaced\nand arranged everything as he had found it. The finding of the relics\nhappened in 218.[33]\n\nAll that has been herein above related respecting the partition of the\nrelics by Dauna, &c., has been extracted from the book called Nibana\nThoot. But he who wishes to know all the particulars concerning the\nplaces where the relics have been deposited, &c., must have recourse to\nthe books called Data Win and Nalatadata Win.\n\nOn a certain day a likeness of Buddha was placed before the eyes of\nAthoka. The king was delighted with it. He wished to multiply the number\nof statues, so that they could be seen in every part of his dominions.\nHe gave orders for the building of monasteries in the 84,000 towns of\nhis immense dominions. This happened in 220 of the religious era. It was\nbut three years afterwards, that is to say, in 223, that the dedication\nor consecration of the dzedis took place, in which portions of the\nrelics were to be enshrined. Throughout his realm the king issued a\nproclamation inviting all the people to attend to the observance of the\neight precepts. The royal mandate was duly attended to, and the religious\nfestival celebrated with the greatest solemnity. On that occasion the\nking made abundant donations to the religious, and strove to display his\nzeal for the promotion of religion.\n\nDelighted with all that he had done, the king said to the venerable\nMauggalipata: \u201cI have endeavoured to labour for the exaltation of\nreligion by every means in my power. I have built religious monuments\nthrough the length and breadth of my dominions; I have made offerings\non the grandest scale. May I now consider myself as entitled to the\ninheritance of religion?\u201d The venerable Mauggalipata replied: \u201cGreat\nprince, you have indeed done much towards the advancement of the good\ncause. But something else more excellent still is to be performed that\nyou may acquire a right to the inheritance of religion.\u201d \u201cWhat is\nthat?\u201d asked the king. \u201cIt is most perfect and meritorious,\u201d replied\nMauggalipata, \u201cthat you should consecrate your son Maheinda and your\ndaughter Singameitta to the service of religion.\u201d Athoka immediately\nasked his son, who was eighteen years old, whether he would like to\nbecome a religious. Maheinda answered in the affirmative. He was\nforthwith ordained Samane. Mauggalipata acted on the occasion as\npresident, and Mahadewana as master of the ceremonies. Singameitta was\nsimilarly ordained. The president was Dammapata, and the person acting\nin the ceremony was Oopali. This happened in 223. Maheinda learned the\nPitagat under the immediate superintendence and tuition of Mauggalipata\nhimself. His proficiency both in the study of religious science and in\nthe practice of virtue was so great that his teacher placed him at the\nhead of a thousand Rahans, whom he was commissioned to instruct.\n\nThe great liberality of the king towards the Buddhists, the efforts that\nhe made for the promotion of the new religion he had embraced, alarmed\nthose who belonged to the opposite party. The pounhas saw themselves\nwithout support, and unable to provide for their maintenance. They had\nrecourse to the following expedient to secure their livelihood, and also\na well-concerted plan to weaken their enemies. They all assumed the\nyellow dress, entered into the Buddhistic monasteries, and affected to be\nconverts, without being so in reality. They retained their own opinions,\nand even as regards regulations they refused to comply with some of the\nordinances of the Wini. Some of them fed large fires; others exposed\nthemselves to various degrees of excessive heat; others affected the\nmania of fixing their eyes upon the sun in the morning, and following\nit in its course during the whole day.[34] Many appeared to lay little\nstress on several portions of the Pitagat. As a matter of course, the\ntrue religious were much scandalised at such a conduct, and refused to\nhold communion with them on the days of worship. This state of things,\nafter having lasted seven years, produced an irritation that could be no\nlonger tolerated. Mauggalipata, disgusted at such a perturbation, left\nMaheinda at the head of the community, and withdrew to the Ahan Ginga\nmountain to enjoy some tranquillity.\n\nKing Athoka was informed of the prevailing disorder. With the view of\npacifying the inmates of the monasteries, he sent an officer of his\nhousehold with stringent orders to oblige the two parties to come to\nan understanding, to communicate with each other, and to worship in\ncommon on the festival days. The officer went to one of the monasteries,\nexplained the royal order, and drew his sword, threatening to cut off\nthe head of the first Rahan who would dare to offer opposition. One of\nthe orthodox party came forward, and having explained the true state of\nthings, concluded by firmly stating that he would not hold communion with\nheretics. The officer in vain expostulated, and entreated the religious\nnot to be so tenacious in his views, but rather to show a willingness\nto obey the king\u2019s orders, for the sake of peace. The latter persisted\nin his refusal. The officer, carried away by passion, struck off the\nhead of the refractory Rahan. An immense uproar followed this tragical\noccurrence. All hopes of bringing about a pacification were then at an\nend. The officer withdrew from the monastery, and related to the king all\nthe particulars as they had occurred.\n\nAthoka bitterly deplored the murder that had been committed on a saintly\npersonage, and reproached the officer with having outstepped the orders\nhe had received. His religious feelings were grievously hurt, and his\nconscience greatly alarmed. He sent for several religious, and consulted\nthem as to whether he was responsible for the murder committed by his\nofficer. The spiritual advisers did not agree in their decision. Some\nof them were of opinion that the king was answerable for the doing of\nhis messenger; others declared that the king, having given no order to\nthe effect of using violence, the officer alone was responsible for the\nmurder. Such conflicting opinions increased the king\u2019s perplexities, and\nthrew him in a state of great anxiety and uneasiness.\n\nSome courtiers, grieved at the sadness which overspread their master\u2019s\nmind, advised him to send for the celebrated Mauggalipata, and abide\nby the decision of that eminent man, whose knowledge was unsurpassed.\nThe king gladly accepted the proposal. A messenger with a great retinue\nwas at first sent to the place of Mauggalipata. The king\u2019s desires were\nrespectfully explained. But the old ascetic refused to quit his abode of\npeace. A second messenger was despatched, but with no better success. At\nlast a third one was sent on the same errand, with several religious.\nThe latter, who knew the great zeal of Mauggalipata for promoting the\ncause of religion, represented to him the imminent dangers religion was\nthreatened with, and entreated him to come, and by his presence save it\nfrom an approaching ruin. On hearing this sad news the old man no longer\nhesitated. He immediately left his abode, went in the boat prepared for\nhim, and gently sailed down the mighty stream to Pataliputra. The news\nof his coming down was spread in a moment. When the boat was reported to\nbe near the city, the king, with his whole court, hastened to the banks\nof the Ganges. On her nearing the bank, Athoka went knee-deep into the\nstream, and helping the venerable Mauggalipata with his royal hand out of\nthe boat, led him into a garden, where a suitable place had been prepared\nfor his residence. There he sat at his feet, and rendered to him the same\nhumble services which a disciple is wont to tender to his teacher.\n\nThe king, anxious to alleviate his scruples and relieve his much-troubled\nconscience, related the particulars of the case of the Rahan\u2019s murder,\nand concluded by asking whether he was to be considered as responsible\nfor the death of the religious. Mauggalipata said, \u201cO king, had you,\nwhen you despatched the officer, the intention of having any refractory\nRahan put to death?\u201d \u201cNo,\u201d replied the king. \u201cSince you gave no such\norder to your officer, and you had no intention that any disobedience\nto your orders should be visited with capital punishment, the murder of\nthe religious can in no way be imputed unto you, because intention is\nthe thing that makes actions good or bad, and entails merits or sin on\nthe perpetrator.\u201d Athoka recovered at once his peace and tranquillity of\nmind. Meanwhile he entreated the venerable Mauggalipata to labour for the\nextinction of schism and the exaltation of religion.\n\nSeven days after the arrival of the great religious, a vast hall was\nerected in the grove where Mauggalipata was living. At the end of it a\nfine pavilion made of cloth of various and bright colours was prepared\nfor the accommodation of the monarch. Each religious had then to be\nexamined separately in the presence of Mauggalipata on the doctrines\nand practices he held as genuine and good. Those whose doctrines and\nobservances were found to be at variance with the Pitagat were expelled\nfrom the assembly, stripped of the canonical robe, and compelled to\nresume the white dress, that is to say, the one befitting the pounhas.\nThe presence of the king silenced all murmurs, and rendered any attempt\nat resistance impossible. In this manner the orthodox Rahans were\nseparated from the heterodox ones.\n\nTo heal the wounds inflicted on religion by schism, to restore purity of\ndoctrine, and confirm the genuineness of the canon of scriptures, such as\nhad been done by Kathaba in the first council, and by Ratha in the second\none, Mauggalipata, with the concurrence of the pious Dammathoka, resolved\nto hold a third council. From the Rahans then present at Palibotra he\nselected a thousand, and with them he regulated the Pitagat. The council\nwas opened in the year 235, and ended in 236 = to 307 B.C. It was\npresided over by Mauggalipata, who was seventy-two years old.[35]\n\nAt the conclusion of the council, the president, who was acknowledged\nthe head of the Buddhists, thought of extending the sway of the new\nreligion through the whole of Dzampoudipa. Hitherto it had been confined\nwithin the limits of Magatha. Now the time had come to extend it far and\nwide among the nations and tribes of the whole world. To carry out such\na bold and comprehensive plan, Mauggalipata made an appeal to the ablest\nand most zealous members of the council, and charged a certain number of\nthem to go and preach the true law in the countries beyond the boundaries\nof Magatha. The venerable Mitzaganti with four companions, was directed\nto proceed to the country of Kashmera-gandara. Rewati was ordered to go\nto Mahithakan-pantala. Gaunaka-damma Reckita went to Aparanta. Maha-damma\nReckita was sent to the Mahrata country. Damma Reckita received a mission\nto proceed to Yaunaka, which is the country inhabited by the Pantsays.\nThe venerable Mitzi directed his steps, in company with several brethren,\ntowards some parts in the Himalayas. Thauna and Outtara proceeded in\na south-eastern direction to the country of Souwana-boumi. Finally\nMaheinda, Ittia, Outtia, Thamala, and Baddathala went to establish\nreligion into the island of Tappapani (Ceylon).[36]\n\nGreat success attended the preachings of the Buddhist heralds. If credit\ncan be given to all that is related in the books on this subject,\nreligion must have taken deep root in the heart of the people dwelling in\nthose distant lands.\n\nAs regards Ceylon, there is an important fact to be stated. It appears\nthat until the year of religion 454, the knowledge of the Pitagat was\ntransmitted by means of oral tradition. The heads of monasteries required\nfrom their pupils to know the whole collection by heart. It is probable\nthat one portion of the scriptures was learned by one section of the\ncommunity, and another by another. In this manner the whole Pitagat was\nknown in each monastery, and could be rehearsed in full by the inmates.\nThis state of things lasted two hundred years. The great inconvenience\nnecessarily attending it was soon felt so keenly that some means had to\nbe devised in order to render the study of the sacred books surer and\neasier. In the reign of King Watakamani five hundred religious assembled\nin the village of Mallaya, and wrote the whole Pitagat in Sanscrit,\nand with the Sanscrit characters. Under the reign of that monarch a\ngreat dearth prevailed all over the island. Numerous Buddhist religious\ncrossed over to the continent, and established religion in many parts\nof the southern portion of the peninsula. That prince also built the\nfamous Bayagiri monastery. With the Mahawihara already existing, and the\nDzetawon monastery subsequently erected, there sprung up three distinct\nschools. The latter was erected in 811, in the time of King Mathena\nof Ceylon. But the teaching of the Mahawihara was the only one truly\northodox. After a protracted existence, they were all merged in the\nMahawihara school, under the reign of Thiri Singa-bodiparanna-maba, in\nthe year of the Pouppa-dzau era (Pagan era), 522; of religion, 1714 = to\n1161 A.D.\n\nThe venerable Thauna and Outtara of the pounha race came to the district\nof Thaton,[37] which is called Souwana-boumi, in the country of\nRamagnia, for the purpose of establishing religion in that distant land,\nwhich lies south-east of Mitzima. Thiri-mathauka was the king who at\nthat time reigned at Thaton. Previous to the arrival of the Buddhist\nmessengers of peace, the town was desolated by the ravages of Biloos,\nwho, coming from the sea, devoured all the newly-born infants. A great\nconsternation and panic had seized the inhabitants when they saw the two\nstrangers, clothed in yellow robes, setting their feet upon the shore.\nThey mistook them for monsters of a new description, who were coming to\nincrease their misfortune. They ran to arms, and were preparing to attack\nthe two religious. The latter, perceiving the danger that threatened\nthem, said with a meek tone of voice to the infuriated mob, \u201cWhy do you\nattack us? We are not Biloos, nor are we come hither with any hostile\nintention. Know ye that we profess a religion which forbids us to take\naway intentionally the life of even the smallest insect, to rob, to\ncommit adultery, and to use spirituous and intoxicating liquors. By our\nregulations we are allowed to eat rice but once in a day.\u201d On hearing\nthe explanations given by the two strangers, the people of Thaton were\nquieted. They received them with kindness, and treated them with great\nrespect. By the power inherent in the two religious, the sea-Biloo was\nput to flight, and was seen no longer. The king and the people, grateful\nfor the service they had received, and delighted with the new doctrine\npreached to them, accepted joyfully the five precepts, and promised to\nobserve them. An immense number of men and women were converted. Among\nthe new converts, a great many embraced the religious life.\n\nKing Thiri-mathauka was informed that, a little while after Gaudama\u2019s\ndeath, a Rahan, named Gambawatti, had brought thirty-three teeth of\nBuddha, and deposited them in a dzedi upon the mount Inda-danoo, which\nlies north-east of Thaton. Moreover, he had heard that after the eighth\nseason, Gaudama had gone to Mitila. Whilst he dwelt into that place, it\nhappened that a certain Rahan came to remember of some of his relatives\nwhom he had known during a former existence. He saw them living in\nThaton. He then earnestly supplicated his great master to condescend to\ngo to that place and preach the law to his relatives. Gaudama, complying\nwith the request, resorted thither through the air, attended by a great\nretinue. He preached the law, and previous to his departure, gave to the\nruler of Thaton eight hairs of his head. Relying on the accuracy of the\ninformation, Thiri-mathauka felt a great desire to find out the precious\nrelics, in order to have them distributed in eleven towns of Henzawatti,\nin eleven towns of Kouthein, and in eleven towns of Mouttama. These three\ncountries constitute what is called Ramagnia. All happened agreeably\nto his wishes. The relics were duly found on mount Inda-danoo, in the\nvery dzedi in which they had been enshrined, and were distributed in the\nvarious towns, as above mentioned. It is probable that there occurred at\nThaton the same curious fact which we know to have taken place in Ceylon,\nviz.: Religion was propagated at first by the means of oral tradition.\n\nThe first one who made an attempt to possess himself of a copy of the\nsacred scriptures was Buddhagosa, a religious of Thaton, of the pounha\nrace. That man embarked at Thaton, which was then on or near the sea.\nThat place is in the Ramagnia country, and is inhabited by a people\ncalled Moun. He sailed to Ceylon in the year of religion 943,[38] under\nthe reign of King Mahanama. He resided three years on that island, wrote\nthe Pitagat on palm leaves with the Burmese characters which was found\nwritten in the language and characters of Ceylon. In another manuscript\nwe read that he translated into Pali the scriptures which were in the\nlanguage of Ceylon. Buddhagosa remained three years in Ceylon, in order\nto complete the work he had undertaken. During his stay in that island\nthe people were so much pleased with him that they made him many and\ncostly presents on his leaving their country. He brought over with him to\nSouwana-boumi, which is in the Ramagnia country, a complete collection of\nthe scriptures.\n\nIn or about the year of the Pagan era 419,[39] the forty-second, some\nsay, the forty-fourth king of Pagan, named Anaurata, having invaded\nthe Ramagnia country, possessed himself of the Moun\u2019s territories and\nentered triumphant into the venerable city of Thaton. He took away from\nthat place the collection of scriptures brought over from Ceylon by\nBuddhagosa, as well as the most learned among the Rahans. With the aid\nof these distinguished Rahans, religion was then firmly established in\nPagan. He became master of the whole of the Ramagnia country, which\nincludes Henzawatti, Mouttama, and Kouthein.\n\nWe have alluded briefly to the reconciliation that has taken place in\nCeylon between the three great schools. Two of them, the Bayagiri and\nthe Dzetawon, merged into the great Mahawihara school, which had always\nheld up the orthodox doctrines. In the year that followed that event\u2014that\nis to say, in the year of religion 1714 of the Pagan\u2019s era 522[40]\u2014many\nRahans, natives of Thaton, Pagan and other places in Ramagnia, attended\nby a large retinue, crossed over to Ceylon for the express purpose of\nworshipping the relics and the Bodi tree, and making themselves perfectly\nacquainted with the genuine doctrine and discipline. As a matter of\ncourse, they joined the Mahawihara school. They remained on that island\nduring nearly one year. One of the party, named Tsapada, who was but a\nyoung Samane, was raised to the dignity of Patzin, according to the rules\nand regulations adopted by the Mahawihara. The party, having performed\ntheir devotions, and penetrated themselves with the spirit of the\ncommunity in which they had spent a year, returned to their countries.\nThe young religious, who had been but recently ordained, applied to his\nsuperior and obtained permission to remain behind in Ceylon for the\npurpose of studying the Pitagat and mastering its contents.\n\nAfter ten years of unwearied application he went back with four\ncompanions, named Maheinda, Thiwali, Ananda, and Rahula. After their\nlanding in the neighbourhood of Cape Negrais, they spent a year in\nKouthein, and finally reached Pagan in the eighth year of the reign of\nKing Narapati-sisoo of the Pagan era 534 = to 1173 A.D. In this manner,\nby the exertions of those five religious, the religion of Ceylon was\nfirmly established and set up in Pagan. In this manner the doctrines and\ninstitutions preached and set up in Ceylon by Maheinda and his companions\nwere blended with the doctrines and institutions which the venerable\nThauna and Outtara had established in Thaton. Both flourished in Pagan\nand were much extended.[41]\n\nThe brilliant and glorious reign of Narapati-sisoo was soon followed by\na series of misfortunes, which contributed to the weakening of his great\nempire, and finally brought on its total overthrow. Pagan was taken by\nforeign invaders. In the midst of such calamities three noblemen, named\nRadzasingian, Asinkara, and Sihasoo, set themselves up as kings, the\nfirst in Miyntsain, the second in Pekkara, and the third in Pinlay, in\nthe year 662 = to 1301 A.D. The King of Miyntsain, having treacherously\nenticed Kiantza, the king of Pagan, to visit him in his new capital,\ndetained him under various pretexts, and finally had him murdered.\nThaunit, the son of Kiantza, hearing of his father\u2019s detention, ascended\nthe throne of Pagan, and reigned twenty-two years. He was succeeded by\nhis brother Mouhnit, who reigned forty-three years. With him ended the\nline of Pagan kings in 730 = to 1369 A.D.\n\nSihasoo, the King of Pinlay, reigned in that place twelve years, and\nin 684 removed the seat of royalty to Panya. In that place there were\nsuccessively five kings, whose aggregate number of years on the throne\namounts to fifteen.\n\nOne son of Sihasoo, named Athinkara-dzau-goun, established royalty in\nTsitkain in 684 = to 1323 A.D. Under the reign of his son and successor,\nnamed Thirimega, a canine tooth of Gaudama was brought to Tsitkain. The\nking had the precious relic placed in a golden casket, and enshrined in a\nturret of his palace. He daily worshipped it.\n\nThirimega having died, his two sons Dzeta and Tissa quarrelled about the\ncrown. Neither of them ever had the title of king; both of them oppressed\nthe country during nine years. The son of Dzeta, named Budadasa, became\nking, and reigned during twenty-nine years. It was under the reign of\nthat monarch that five venerable religious, who were well versed in the\nscience of the Pitagat, translated the whole compilation, which was in\nSanscrit, into the language of Ceylon (Pali).[42]\n\nTsitkain ceased to be a royal residence in 725 = to 1364 A.D., and in\nthe following year the city of Ava was founded on the sixth of the\nwaxing moon of Tabaong, on a Tuesday at noon, under the constellation\nPounna-pha-shou.\n\nOn the following year, Mouhnit, king of Pagan, died at the age of\nsixty-four, after a reign of forty-three years, with whom ended the\nline of the Pagan monarchs. In the great city of Ava religion greatly\nflourished, and in 1134 = to 1773 A.D., this book was composed[43] in\nthe province of Dybayen.\n\nFor the purpose of creating and increasing feelings of affection towards\nthe most excellent Buddha,[44] who is greater than the three rational\nbeings, towards his glorious perfections, as well as the law and the\nassembly, I have, to the best of my abilities, endeavoured to translate\nfrom the Pali into Burmese the sacred book called Malla-linkara-wouttoo,\nor history of the most excellent flower.\n\n\n\n\nAN ABSTRACT OF A FEW SMALL DZATS, AND OF TWO PRINCIPAL ONES, CALLED NEMI\nAND DZANECKA.\n\n\nThe writer has thought that it would not be without interest to the\nreader to make a few remarks respecting the five hundred and ten Dzats\nso famous amongst the Burmese, and to give as a specimen of those\ncompositions the abbreviated translation of some of those fabulous\naccounts. We will begin with a few of the small Dzats, and end with the\ncompendious summaries of two of the great ones, known under the names of\nNemi and Dzanecka. The Buddhists of these parts maintain that all the\nDzats contain a short and concise narrative of some of the circumstances\nattending certain existences of Gaudama, when he was born in the state\nof animal, man, prince, nobleman, poor, rich, Nat, &c. The narrator is\nno other than Gaudama himself, who is supposed to have condescended to\nmake his disciples and the crowds of hearers acquainted with certain\nparticulars relating to his person whilst he was passing through the\nslow process of metempsychosis and gradually gravitating towards the\nperfection he had at last reached. In fact, each of these pieces is\nprefaced with these words: When the most excellent Buddha was in such a\nmonastery, surrounded with his disciples, he spoke as follows, &c.\n\nIt is not improbable that some of these stories may have been told by\nGaudama for the two following purposes: First, to impress his hearers\nwith a profound respect for his incomparable wisdom, which enabled him to\npenetrate into the deep recesses of the past, and to bring to light some\nevents hitherto buried in its dark bosom. The second and principal object\nhe had in view was to give some important lessons to his disciples, to\ncorrect some of their defects, and stir up others to the practice of the\nhighest deeds which he had himself performed during former existences. On\nhis respect Gaudama followed the practice of all Eastern sages, who had\nrecourse to the use of parables, similitudes, apologues, &c., in order to\nconvey, under a gentle, amiable, graceful, and interesting form, the most\nimportant instructions, designed to enlighten the mind and correct the\nheart.\n\nThe collection or compilation comprises most of those fables that are\nto be met with amongst most of the Asiatic nations, whence they have\nfound their way to Europe, first among the Greeks, and next the Western\nnations. The writer has been not a little surprised to find in that\ncollection a number of fables the very same as those so inimitably\nnarrated by the great French fabulist, the good La Fontaine. This is\nanother confirmation to the old adage, There is nothing new under the sun.\n\nThese stories have certainly an Indian origin; at least the Burmans have\nreceived them, as almost all the things that are connected with their\nreligion, from that quarter. Under despotic governments, the plain and\nnaked truth cannot show itself, or make its voice to be heard, without\nexposing its friends to the most imminent dangers on the part of those\ntyrants who practically maintain that their will must ever stand above\ntruth and reason. Stories nicely told were the pleasing and innocent but\nnecessary dress which that sacred goddess was obliged to wear in order\nto make her presence supportable to the despots, and help her friends\nto find favour with those whose absolute and uncontrollable sway made\neverybody bow the head in their awful though detested presence.\n\nThe first five hundred stories have, it seems, no historical value\nwhatever. They are most of them short and concise. But the last ten may\nvery likely contain many facts or allusions to individuals and places\nthat might afford a clue to some parts of the history and geography of\nIndia in days of a remote antiquity. A complete translation of the ten\nDzats might not be without interest, provided such a work be accompanied\nwith copious notes, made by a competent person, well acquainted with the\nancient history of India.\n\nAll the stories end with a most important disclosure made by Gaudama\nhimself. The personage that has played the most important and\npraiseworthy _r\u00f4le_ is, as a matter of course, our Buddha himself.\nThose who befriended him, assisted him, and rendered him any services,\nare those who subsequently became his favourite and most distinguished\ndisciples and hearers; whilst those who acted in any reprehensible\nmanner, who opposed him and did him harm, afterwards became the\nindividuals who were in his days heretics or holders of false doctrines,\nand in particular his arch enemy, the notoriously wicked Dewadat.\n\nThe compilation of all these stories is prefaced as follows:\u2014In the\ncountry of Amarawadi lived a pounha named Thoumeda. After the death\nof his father he became the owner of a considerable estate. Having\nenjoyed it during many years, he began to reflect on the many and\nvarious accidents attending human life, and came to the resolution of\nleaving the world. He therefore distributed in alms all his riches, and\nwithdrew into solitude, to lead an ascetic life. He soon reached a high\ndegree of perfection. At that time Deipinkara, one in the series of the\ntwenty-eight Buddhas, came to that country, attended by 400,000 Rahans,\nto beg his food. Our Rathee Thoumeda, having nothing to offer to the\ngreat Buddha and the assembly, came, threw himself at his feet, and\ndelivered himself up soul and body to his service. In another compilation\nit is stated that Thoumeda had volunteered his services to level a\nportion of a road that Deipinkara was to follow. The work was finished,\nwith the exception of a small gap that was not yet filled, when the\nBuddha made his appearance. The hermit, without a moment\u2019s hesitation,\nflung himself on the ground, and bridged the place with his own body.\n\nIt was at the sight of such a perfect abnegation of self that Buddha gave\nto Thoumeda the assurance that one day he would become a Buddha. On that\noccasion great wonders took place.\n\nFrom that time he began to practise with a fervent earnestness the great\nvirtues and perfections prescribed by the law. The whole period of time\nthat elapsed from the time Gaudama was the pounha Thoumeda to the time\nhe became Prince Wethandara\u2014that is to say, reached that existence\nwhich immediately preceded the last one, when he became Buddha\u2014is of\nfour thingies and one hundred thousand worlds or revolutions of nature.\nA detailed account of the most meritorious and interesting actions\nperformed by him during several existences that illustrated that almost\nincalculable period is to be found in the great dzedi of Ceylon.\n\nThe accounts must be short and concise, otherwise the dzedi above\nreferred to, how large soever we may suppose it to have been, could never\nhave held them.\n\n\n_THE FOX AND THE LION._\n\n1. When the most excellent Buddha was in the Dzetawon monastery,\nsurrounded by his disciples, desiring to correct a religious who was in\nthe habit of keeping bad company, he narrated the following story: At the\ntime that the Princes Bramanas reigned at Baranathee, Phralaong was then\na lion, father to two little ones, one male and the other female. The\nfirst was named Menandza. The lion\u2019s household, when Menandza was grown\nup and had married, was composed in all of five individuals. Menandza,\nstrong and bold, went out every day in quest of prey for the support of\nhis four relations that remained in the den. One day, in the middle of\none of his predatory excursions, he happened to meet with a fox, which\nwas lying on his belly, in a most respectful posture. On being asked\nby the proud lion, with a terrific voice, heightened by a threatening\nglance, what he was doing, the fox respectfully answered: \u201cI am humbly\nprostrated here to do homage and pay my respects to your majesty.\u201d\n\u201cWell,\u201d said Menandza; and he took him alive to his den. As soon as the\nfather saw the fox, he said to his son: \u201cMy son, the fox is an animal\nfull of cunning and deceit, faithless, without honour, addicted to all\nwicked practices, and always engaged and embroiled in some bad affairs;\nbe on your guard; beware of such a companion, and forthwith send him\naway.\u201d Unheeding his father\u2019s wise advice, Menandza persisted in his\nresolution, and kept his new friend with him.\n\nOn a certain day the fox intimated to Menandza that he longed to eat\nthe flesh of a young colt. \u201cWhere is the place these animals are wont\nto graze?\u201d asked Menandza. \u201cOn the banks of the river of Baranathee,\u201d\nreplied the fox. Both started immediately for the indicated spot. They\nsaw there a great number of horses bathing in the river. Menandza, in\nan instant, pounced upon a young one, and carried it to his den. \u201cIt is\nnot prudent,\u201d said the old father, \u201cto eat those animals which belong\nto the king. One day he will cause you to be shot from a distance with\narrows, and kill you. No lion that eats horse-flesh has ever lived long.\nFrom this day cease to attack those animals.\u201d Deaf to such wholesome\nwarnings, Menandza continued to carry destruction among the horses. News\nwas soon conveyed to the king that a lion and a fox were making great\nhavoc among his horses. He ordered the animals to be kept within the\ntown. The lion, however, contrived to seize some and carry them away.\nOrders were given to keep them in an enclosure. Despite this precaution,\nsome horses disappeared. Enraged at this, the king called a bowman and\nasked him whether he could transfix a lion with his arrows. The bowman\nsaid that he could do it. Hereupon, leaving the king, he went and hid\nhimself behind a post, waiting for the offender. It was not long ere he\nmade his appearance; but the cautious fox had remained somewhat to the\nrear, hidden in a drain. In one start, the lion, with the quickness of\nlightning, was on the wall, and straightway he went to the stable. The\nbowman said within himself: \u201cThe lion\u2019s movements are very quick; I will\nwait until he come back loaded with his prey.\u201d He had scarcely revolved\nthis thought in his mind, when the lion was already on his way back\ncarrying a horse. The bowman, all ready, shot an arrow that transfixed\nthe fierce animal. The lion made a start, crying with a terrific voice,\n\u201cI am wounded.\u201d The fox, hearing his friend\u2019s accents, and the sharp\nwhistling of the bow-string, knew at once what had happened. He said to\nhimself, shaking his head: \u201cThere is no friendship, forsooth, with the\ndead; my friend has fallen under the bowman\u2019s arrow; my life is safe; I\nwill go back to my former place.\u201d\n\nThe wounded lion, making a last effort, went back to his den, and dropped\ndead at its entrance.\n\nMenandza\u2019s relatives, perceiving the wound and the blood gushing out of\nit, understood at once that he had been shot through with an arrow, and\nthat the fox was the cause of his miserable and untimely end. His mother\ngave vent to her grief as follows: \u201cWhoever associates with the wicked\nshall not live long; behold my Menandza is no more, because he followed\nthe fox\u2019s advice.\u201d The father, in his turn, bewailed the loss of his\nson: \u201cHe who goes in company with the wicked shall meet with some evil\nfate; witness my son, whom his desolate mother sees weltering in the very\nblood she gave him.\u201d His sister cried aloud: \u201cHe who does not follow the\nadvice of the good shall repent of it; he is mad, and, like my brother,\nshall come to an untimely and cruel end.\u201d Menandza\u2019s wife exclaimed: \u201cHe\nwho belongs to a superior rank ought to beware to associate with those\nof a rank inferior to his own, otherwise he soon becomes as despicable\nas those he associates with. He loses his position, and becomes the\nlaughing-stock of all.\u201d\n\nBuddha concluded his discourse with this reflection, that no one ought\nto keep company with those that are wicked and of an inferior position.\nThe religious profited so well by the lecture that he broke at once with\nhis former friends, and soon reached the state of Thautapan. The fox has\nbeen since Dewadat, Menandza, the religious, the object of the lecture,\nMenandza\u2019s sister, Oopalawon; his wife, Kema; his mother, Yathaudara; his\nfather, Phralaong.\n\n\n_THE JACKAL AND THE HUNTER._\n\n2. When the most excellent Phra was in the Weloowon monastery, alluding\nto Dewadat, who aimed at harming him, he spoke as follows: \u201cAt the time\nthe Princes Bramanas reigned at Baranathee, Phralaong was then a jackal,\npresiding over 500 other jackals of his own tribe. His dwelling-place\nwas in a cemetery. One day it happened that the inhabitants of Radzagio\nmade a great feast, where every one ate and drank as much as he liked.\nThe repast was nearly over when some one asked for a last piece of meat,\nto give the finishing-stroke to his appetite. He was told that not the\nsmallest morsel remained. On hearing this unwelcome news, he rose up,\nlaying hold of a wooden club, and went straight to the cemetery. Then\nstretching himself on the ground, he lay down as if dead. Phralaong,\ncautiously drawing near to the pretended dead body, smelt it from a\nbecoming distance, and soon discovered the snare laid for him. Coming\nup close to him, he suddenly seized the club with his teeth, pulling it\nwith all his might. The young man did not let go his hold. The animal,\nwithdrawing, said to the hunter: \u201cYoung man, I perceive now that you\nare not dead.\u201d The hunter, goaded with shame and anger, rose up, and\nwith more energy than dexterity flung his club at the jackal; but he\nmissed him. \u201cGo away,\u201d said he, \u201cwretched beast; you may boast that you\nhave escaped this time.\u201d \u201cYes,\u201d mildly replied the jackal; \u201cI have been\nsaved from your club; but no one shall ever be able to preserve you from\nthe punishment in the eight great hells.\u201d Having thus spoken, he soon\ndisappeared. The young man, having washed away in the ditch the dust that\ncovered him, walked back, quite disappointed, into the town. The hunter\nwas the same that subsequently became Dewadat. As to the jackal, he is\nthe same that has since become Buddha.\n\n\n_THE PIGEON AND THE HUNTER._\n\n3. When Phra was in the Dzetawon monastery, desiring to give instruction\nto the young son of a nobleman, named Ootara, he spoke as follows. At the\ntime the Princes Bramanas reigned at Baranathee, Phralaong was a pigeon.\nThere was then a man in that country who was wont to catch pigeons, bring\nthem to his house, and carefully feed them until they became fat, when\nhe then sold them at a high rate. Together with other pigeons, Phralaong\nwas caught and brought over to the house. But he would not peck the grain\nthat was spread before him. \u201cShould I eat,\u201d said he to himself, \u201cI will\nsoon get fat, and then be sold like others.\u201d He soon became wretchedly\nthin. Surprised at this, the hunter took the pigeon out of the cage,\nplaced it on the palm of his hand to examine it more closely and find the\ncause of its great leanness. Phralaong, watching the opportunity of a\nfavourable moment when the attention of his guardian was called to some\nother object, flew away to his own old place, leaving the hunter quite\nvexed at and ashamed of his confiding simplicity. The hunter is in these\ndays Dewadat; and the pigeon is now Buddha himself.\n\nHere is the abridgment of two stories, well known to the readers of\nfables.\n\n4. When Phralaong was a deer, he became intimate friend with the bird\nkhaoukshia and a turtle. On a certain night it happened that a hunter\nhaving laid down his net, the deer was caught. A tortoise that was near\nto the place came and bit the net; the deer then soon made his escape\nfrom the dangerous position he was in. Whilst this was going on the\nfriendly khaoukshia, perceiving the danger his friend was in, amused the\nhunter by flying right and left close to him, to retard his progress\ntowards the place where the net was laid. Mad at the escape of the\ndeer, he seized the turtle and thrust her into his bag. But the wily\nbird contrived by its peckings to make a large hole in the bag, and the\ntortoise too made her escape.\n\n5. One day Phralaong, being then a husbandman, observed once, to his\ngreat surprise, that a lion of an uncommon size paid frequent visits to\nhis rice field, and ate and destroyed many of the young plants. On a\ncertain occasion he examined closely the intruder, and perceiving the\nextremities of his feet, he discovered that the pretended lion was but a\ncolt that had clothed himself in a lion\u2019s skin.\n\n\n_NEMI._\n\nWhen the most excellent Buddha was in the country of Mitila, he went,\nattended by a great many Rahans, to the monastery of Meggadawa, situated\nin the middle of a beautiful grove of mango trees. He spoke as follows\nto the assembly: \u201cBeloved Bickus, in former times I lived in this very\nplace where we are now congregated, and was the ruler of the country of\nMitila.\u201d He then remained silent. Ananda respectfully entreated him to\ncondescend to narrate to them some of the principal events that happened\nat that time. Buddha assented to the request, and said: \u201cFormerly there\nreigned at Mitila a prince named Minggadewa. During 82,000 years he\nremained a prince, and spent all his time in the enjoyment of all sorts\nof pleasure; he was crown prince of that country during the same space of\ntime, and reigned as king during a similar period.\u201d\n\nOn a certain day the barber of the king having detected a grey hair on\nthe royal head, exhibited it to his astonished regards. The king, struck\nat such a sight, soon understood that this object was the forerunner of\ndeath. He gave up the throne, and resolved to become a Rahan. Having\nput into execution his resolve, he practised with the greatest zeal the\nhighest virtues, and after his death migrated to one of the fortunate\nseats of Brahmas. The 82,000 princes who succeeded him followed his\nfootsteps, inherited his virtues, and after their demise obtained a place\nin the same seat.\n\nPrince Minggadewa, who had opened the way to such a succession of pious\nmonarchs, perceiving that his race was near being extinct, left the seat\nof Brahmas and took flesh in the womb of the queen of the king who then\ngoverned Mitila. On the tenth month the queen was delivered of a son, who\nreceived the name of Nemi. The pounhas who were invited to the palace to\ntell the horoscope of the royal child assured the king that this child\nwould follow the example of all his predecessors who had left the throne\nand embraced the profession of Rahans.\n\nFrom his tender age the young prince displayed the most liberal and pious\ndispositions in making abundant alms, and fervently observing all the\nreligious practices. All the inhabitants of that kingdom followed his\nexample, and when some one died, he migrated to one of the Nats\u2019 seats.\nDuring those happy times, hell seemed to have become quite unnecessary.\n\nOn a certain day Nemi appeared to be most anxious to know which was the\nmost excellent practice, the bestowing of alms, or the observance of the\nprecepts. The great Thagia came down from his glorious seat, encompassed\nwith an incomparably shining brightness, and went to the place where the\nprince was busy revolving this thought in his mind. The angelical visitor\ntold him that the bestowing of alms could only procure an admittance into\nthe seats of Nats, but that a perfect compliance with the ordinances\nof the law opened the way to the seats of Brahmas. As soon as he had\ngiven his decision, he returned to his blissful seat. On his arrival\nhe found crowds of Nats given up to rejoicings. The Thagia gave them a\ndetailed narrative of all that he had seen on earth during his errand,\nand in particular eulogised at great length the religious dispositions\nof Prince Nemi. Enraptured with the heart-moving description they heard,\nall the Nats at once exclaimed that they wished to see in their seats\nso accomplished and virtuous a prince. The Thagia commanded a young\nNat, named Matali, to have his carriage ready, depart for the country\nof Mitila, and bring to this fortunate seat the ruler of that country.\nMatali, bowing before the Thagia, forthwith left the seat of Nats in a\nmagnificent chariot. It was then the day of the full moon, when all the\ninhabitants of Mitila were busily engaged in discharging their prescribed\nreligious duties. On a sudden there appeared, issuing from the east, the\nmagnificent and bright equipage of the Nat, splendidly emerging from the\nbosom of clouds at the same time as the moon in its full. Surprised at\nsuch an unexpected sight, all wondered, and believed that two moons were\nmiraculously rising on that occasion. They were soon undeceived by the\nnearer approach of Matali\u2019s carriage. The messenger went to the king, and\nconveyed to him the intelligence that the Nats were exceedingly anxious\nto see him. Without a moment\u2019s hesitation the king stepped into the\ncarriage, and abandoned himself to the guidance of his heavenly guide.\n\u201cTwo roads are now opened before us,\u201d said Matali, \u201cthe one through the\ndismal dungeons, where the wicked are consigned to undergo punishment for\ntheir offences, and the other through the blissful seats, where the good\nare enjoying the rewards allotted to them for their virtues. Which of the\ntwo do you wish to follow?\u201d The prince said that he wished to visit both\nplaces. Matali answered in a mild tone of voice that his request should\nbe complied with.\n\nThe celestial guide directed his rapid course through the regions of\ndesolation, where dwells an eternal horror. The first object they met\nwith was a broad and deep river, filled with frightful whirlpools, where\nthe water seemed as if boiling. It was glowing like a flame, and the\nwhole mass of water appeared like a lake of fire. The river is called\nWattoorani. On the banks of that river stand the infernal ministers,\narmed with all sorts of sharp-edged instruments, cutting, wounding,\npiercing the unfortunate wretches, who try to get out of that horrible\nand burning water. They are forcibly pushed again into the same place of\ntorments, and tumble over pointed darts, whence they are taken up and\nroasted on living coals. Nothing is heard but the horrifying howlings\nand yells of those unfortunate beings, who are waiting with the greatest\nimpatience the moment of their deliverance. \u201cWhat are the crimes,\u201d asked\nthe terrified prince, \u201cthat have committed the unfortunate inhabitants of\nthis place to undergo such unheard-of sufferings?\u201d \u201cThey are,\u201d replied\nMatali, \u201cthe persecutors of the weak, the heartless oppressors of the\npoor, &c., who are doomed to undergo such punishments.\u201d Thence the guide\ndrove rapidly to another place, where dogs, each with five hideous\nheads, famished eagles, and devouring crows, fed with a ravenous hunger\non the bodies of unfortunate victims, the flesh of which is incessantly\nreproduced to afford a continual prey to these never-satiated ferocious\nanimals. \u201cThese,\u201d said Matali, \u201csuffer for having done no good to their\nfellow-creatures, for preventing others to do some, and for having borne\nenvy to their neighbours.\u201d\n\nHere follows a long description of the other places of hell, given to\nNemi by his celestial guide. We omit it, lest its tedious and revolting\nparticulars tire and disgust the reader. Suffice it to mention that the\ntorments of Tantalus are described here with a horrifying correctness,\nsuch as almost casts into the shade the description given to us by the\nLatin poet.\n\nHaving ranged the various regions of hell, and heard all the particulars\ngiven to him by Matali, Nemi was suddenly brought over to the beautiful,\nsmiling, and blissful seats of the blessed. He soon descried at a\ndistance the celebrated palace, made of diamonds, disposed in an immense\nsquare of twelve youdzanas on each side, and five stories high; then the\ngarden, the tank, and the padetha tree. In that palace Biranee occupied a\nsplendid apartment; she was then lying on a soft sofa, surrounded by more\nthan a thousand beauties. \u201cWhat good works,\u201d asked Nemi, \u201chas Biranee\npractised, to deserve such a magnificent reward?\u201d Matali replied, \u201cThis\ndaughter of Nats was formerly a slave in the house of a pounha. She\nwas always very attentive to all the duties of her position, and at the\nsame time regularly observed the precepts of the law. On a certain day\nher mistress, who was wont to feed eight Rahans daily, fell into a fit\nof anger, and said that she was unable to bear any longer the fatigue\nattending the maintenance of these religious. But the young slave, full\nof religious zeal, took upon herself the labour of feeding the Rahans.\nFor this good and meritorious work she is enjoying the happiness of her\npresent position.\u201d\n\nNemi was successively led into the various seats of the inhabitants of\nthose blissful regions, and his guide explained at great length the good\nworks that had procured to each of them the respective happy situation\nwhich they enjoyed, and occasionally mentioned the period of time they\nwere allowed to dwell in those abodes of unparalleled happiness. He\nwas finally introduced to the presence of the great Thagia, who is the\nchief of all Nats. Having finished the survey of all the seats of Nats,\nNemi was brought back to the seat of men in his own capital by the same\ncelestial guide.\n\nOn his return Nemi saw himself surrounded by his pious subjects, who\neagerly inquired of him all the particulars respecting his journey. He\nminutely explained to them all that he had seen both in the region of\nhell and in those of Nats, and concluded by exhorting his people to be\nliberal in bestowing alms, that they might hereafter be admitted to share\nin the enjoyment of the Nats\u2019 happiness.\n\nNemi, perceiving that his hairs were turning grey, became still more\nzealous in the practice of alms-deeds, and resolved to embrace the\nprofession of Rahans. But previous to his taking such a step he had his\nson Ralaradzana appointed to succeed him. With that prince terminated the\nlong succession of kings who in the decline of their lives became Rahans.\n\n\n_DZANECKA._\n\nThis is one of the best written Dzats possessed by the Burmese. The\nwriter has translated it from beginning to end; but he will give here\nonly an outline of its contents. The narrator, as usual, is our Buddha\nhimself, when he was in the Weloowon monastery, surrounded by the members\nof the assembly and a crowd of hearers.\n\nIn the country of Mitila there reigned a king named Dzanecka, who had\ntwo sons called Arita Dzanecka and Paula Dzanecka. After a long and\nprosperous reign he passed to another existence. Arita Dzanecka, having\ncelebrated his father\u2019s obsequies and made the usual purifications,\nascended the throne. He confirmed his younger brother in the situation of\ncommander-in-chief, which he had hitherto held.\n\nOn a certain day a vile courtier, by a false report, awakened in the\nking\u2019s breast sentiments of jealousy and suspicion against his brother\u2019s\nfidelity. The innocent prince was cast into a dungeon; but in the virtue\nof his innocence he found means to make his escape, went to a part of the\ncountry where he had powerful supporters, and soon found himself in a\ncondition to bid defiance to his brother. The king assembled his troops;\na battle ensued, in which the king was slain, and Paul Dzanecka ascended\nthe throne.\n\nThe queen, who was with child, on hearing the news of such a disaster,\nwent to the treasury, took some ornaments of the purest gold and the most\nvaluable precious stones, and placed the whole in a basket. She then\nspread out rice so as to cover the treasure, and extended an old and\ndirty cloth over the opening of the basket. Putting on the dress of one\nof the meanest women, she went out of the town, carrying the basket over\nher head. She left the city through the southern gate and passed into the\ncountry without being noticed by the guards.\n\nHaving gone to a certain distance from the place, the queen did not know\nwhich way to direct her steps. She sat in a dzeat during the heat of the\nday. Whilst in the dzeat she thought of the country of Tsampa, where some\nof her relatives lived, and resolved to go thither. She began to make\ninquiries at the people that were passing by respecting the route she\nwould have to follow.\n\nDuring this time the attention of a Nat was suddenly attracted by the\ninspiration of Phralaong, who was in the queen\u2019s womb, to the sad\nposition his mother was in. He, leaving forthwith his blissful seat,\nassumed the appearance of an old man guiding a carriage along the road.\nHe came close to the dzeat and invited the queen to ascend his carriage,\nassuring her that he would convey her safely to Tsampa. The offer\nwas accepted. As the queen was far advanced with child, she had some\ndifficulty in getting into the conveyance, when that portion of the earth\nwhich she was standing upon suddenly swelled and rose to the level of the\ncarriage. The queen stepped into the chariot and they departed. During\nthe night they arrived at a beautiful place close to the neighbourhood of\nTsampa. The queen alighted in a dzeat. Her celestial guide bade her to\nwait until daybreak before she ventured into the city, and returned to\nthe seat of Tawadeintha.\n\nDuring that very night a famous pounha, attended by five hundred of his\ndisciples, had left the town at a late hour, to take a walk by moonlight\nand enjoy the cool of the night and a bath in the river. Pamaouka, for\nsuch is the name of the pounha, came by chance to the very place where\nthe queen was seated. His disciples continued their walk and went on\nthe bank of the river. She appeared full of youth and beauty. But by\nthe virtue of Phralaong the pounha knew that she was in the family way,\nand that the child she bore was a Phralaong. Pamaouka alone approached\nclose to the queen and entreated her to entertain no fear whatever;\nthat he looked upon her as his sister. The queen related to him all the\nparticulars of her misfortune. The great pounha, moved with compassion,\nresolved to become her supporter and protector. At the same time he\nrecommended her to say that he was her brother, and when his disciples\nshould come back, to shed tears in token of the tender emotion she felt\nat meeting with him. Everything having been arranged, Pamaouka called\nhis disciples, told them how happy he was at having found his sister,\nfrom whom he had parted many years ago. Meanwhile he directed them to\ntake her to his house, and recommended her to the special care of his\nwife. As for him, he would be back soon after having performed the usual\nablutions. The queen was welcome in the pounha\u2019s house, and treated with\nthe greatest care and tenderest affection. A little while after she was\ndelivered of a beautiful child, resembling a statue of gold. They gave\nhim the name of Dzanecka.\n\nHaving reached the years of boyhood, he was one day playing with boys\nof his own age, when, by way of teazing, they called him the son of\nthe widow. These keen tauntings made him urge his mother to reveal to\nhim the name of his father. It was then that he knew the author of his\nbirth. Pamaouka taught him all the sciences known in those days, such as\nmedicine, mathematics, &c. At the age of sixteen years young Dzanecka had\ncompleted all his studies.\n\nDzanecka resolved to devote himself to trade, and acquire thereby ample\nmeans to reconquer one day the throne of his ancestors. With a part of\nthe treasure his mother had brought with her, he was in a position to fit\nout a ship in company with several other merchants. He resolved to sail\nfor a place called Caumawatoura. He had scarcely been at sea two days\nwhen a mighty storm came on. The vessel, after having held out some time\nagainst the roaring and raging billows, at last gave way, and was broken\nin pieces. All the crew and passengers, amounting to 700, miserably\nperished in the sea, without making the least effort to save themselves.\nOur Phralaong, on the contrary, seizing the extremity of a log of wood,\nswam with all his strength, resolved to struggle to the last against\nadversity. Mighty were his efforts for several days. At last a daughter\nof Nats, whose duty it was to watch over the sea, saw his generous and\ncourageous behaviour, took pity on him, and came to his assistance.\nThere followed a sort of dialogue between her and Dzanecka. The latter\ndisplayed his undaunted courage and firm purpose. The former admired\nthe more his determined resolution. She resolved to save him from the\ndangerous position. Taking him in her arms, she carried him, according to\nhis wishes, to the country of Mitila, in the garden of mango-trees, and\nplaced him on the very table-stone where his ancestors were wont to enjoy\nthemselves with a numerous retinue. Phralaong immediately fell asleep.\nThe daughter of Nats, having enjoined the Nat, guardian of the place, to\nwatch over the prince, returned to her blissful seat.\n\nOn the very day that the vessel was wrecked the ruler of Mitila died,\nleaving one daughter, named Thiwalee. Previous to his giving up the ghost\nand ascending to the seats of Nats, the king had ordered his ministers\ninto his presence, and enjoined on them to select for the husband of his\ndaughter a man remarkable for the beauty and strength of his body, as\nwell as by the acuteness and penetration of his mind. He was to be able\nto bend and unbend an enormous bow, a feat which the united efforts of\na thousand soldiers could scarcely achieve, and find the place where he\nhad concealed sixteen golden cups. On the seventh day after his death,\nthe ministers and pounhas began to deliberate among themselves about the\nchoice of a match worthy of the princess. Several competitors offered\nthemselves for the hand of Thiwalee, but they were all rejected. At last,\nnot knowing what to do, they resolved to leave to chance the solution\nof the difficulty. They sent out a charmed chariot, convinced that by\nthe virtue inherent in it they would find out the fortunate man whose\ndestinies were to be united to those of the princess. The chariot was\nsent out attended by soldiers, musicians, pounhas, and noblemen. It\ncame straight forward to the mango-trees garden, and stopped by the\nside of the table-stone Phralaong was sleeping upon. The pounhas, on\ninspecting the hands and feet of the stranger, saw unmistakable signs\nforeshowing his elevation to the royal dignity. They awakened him by the\nsound of musical instruments, saluted him king, and begged of him to put\non the royal dress, mount on the chariot, and proceed triumphantly to\nthe royal city. He entered the palace through the eastern gate. Having\nbeen informed of the king\u2019s last intentions, he forthwith bent and\nunbent the bow, found out the sixteen golden cups, and was duly united\nto the beautiful and youthful Thiwalee. All the people showed signs of\nthe greatest rejoicings; the rich made him all sorts of offerings; the\npounhas in white costume, holding the sacred white shell, adorned with\nflowers and filled with water, with their bodies bent forward, poured\nrespectfully the water, imploring blessings on the new monarch.\n\nWhen the rejoicings were over, the king rewarded the pounha Pamaouka, who\nhad been as a father to him during his exile. He applied himself to do as\nmuch good as he could in relieving the poor, and promoting the welfare\nof all. He delighted in mentioning to his courtiers his misfortune, and\nthe great efforts he had made to extricate himself from difficulties. He\npraised the reward which attended generous efforts, and exhorted them\nnever to flinch under difficulties, but always to exhibit a strong and\nunconquerable resolution under all trials, because it must sooner or\nlater be crowned with success.\n\nDuring the 7000 years that he reigned over Mitila with the queen\nThiwalee, he faithfully practised the observances of the law, governed\njustly, fed the Rahans and Pitzega-buddhas, and gave abundant alms to the\npoor.\n\nOn the 10th month Thiwalee was delivered of a son, whom they called\nDigaout. On a certain day, the king, having received from his gardener\nsome mangoes full of flavour and beauty, wished to go to the garden to\nsee the tree that yielded such delicious fruits. When he arrived at the\nplace, he saw two mango-trees, one with a luxuriant foliage, but without\nfruits, the other loaded with fruits. The monarch approached the tree,\nriding his elephant, and plucked some mangoes, which he ate and found\ndelicious. Thence he proceeded further to inspect the other parts of the\nextensive garden. The courtiers and the people that followed plucked\nfruits from the same tree, and did it with such eagerness that they left\nneither fruits nor leaves on the tree.\n\nOn his return the king was surprised to see the fruitful tree destitute\nof both leaves and fruits, whilst the barren one had a beautiful\nappearance. The monarch, after a lengthened dialogue with his courtiers,\nconcluded as follows: \u201cThe riches of this world are never without\nenemies; he who possesses them resembles the fruitful mango-tree. We\nmust look out for goods that excite neither envy, jealousy, nor other\npassions. The Rahans and Pitzega-buddhas alone possess such riches. I\nwill take a lesson from the barren mango-tree. That I may cut off and\neradicate the troubles, vexations, and anxieties of life, I will renounce\neverything and embrace the profession of Rahan.\u201d\n\nWith this idea strongly impressed on his mind, Dzanecka came back to his\npalace. He forthwith sent for the general of his troops, and directed\nhim to place a strong guard in front of his apartment, and allow no one\nfor four consecutive months to come into his presence, not even the\nqueen, but only him who would bring his daily meal. He gave orders to\nhis ministers to judge with impartiality, agreeably to the law. Having\nthus arranged everything, he withdrew alone to the upper apartment of his\npalace. Here follows a stanza in praise of the prince, who had separated\nfrom his queen, concubines, and all the pleasures and honours attending\nroyalty.\n\nDzanecka alone began to meditate on the happiness of the life of\npounhas and Pitzega-buddhas; he admired their poor diet, their zeal in\npractising the observances of the law, their earnest longings after the\nhappiness of Neibban, their disengagement from the ties of passions,\nthe state of inward peace and fixity which their souls enjoyed. In\nhis enthusiasm he venerated them with a holy fervour, called them his\nmasters and preceptors, and exclaimed: \u201cWho will teach me to imitate\ntheir lives, and help me to become similar to them?\u201d In ten stanzas\nDzanecka reviews successively all that had belonged to him, his capital\nwith its stately edifices, fine gates, the three walls and ditches, the\nbeautiful and fertile country of Wintzearitz, the palace with its lofty\ndomes and massive towers, the beautifully ornamented throne, the rich\nand magnificent royal dresses, the royal garden and tank, the elephants,\nhorses, and chariots, the soldiers, the pounhas, the princes, his queen\nand concubines. He then concludes each stanza with the following words:\n\u201cWhen shall I leave all these things, become poor, put on the humble\nhabit of Rahans, and follow the same mode of a perfectly retired life?\u201d\nWith these and similar reflections Dzanecka endeavoured to sunder one\nafter the other many threads of passions, to pull down successively the\nbranches of the impure tree, until he could give a final stroke to the\nroots.\n\nAt the conclusion of four months\u2019 retirement, Dzanecka sent for a\nfaithful servant, and directed him to procure for him the various\narticles of the dress of a Rahan. He had his head and beard shaved; put\non the cherished habit, and placing a staff in his hand walked out of his\napartments, and directed his course towards the gate, with the dignified\ndeportment of a Rahan of sixty years\u2019 profession.\n\nQueen Thiwalee was tired of having been so long deprived of her husband\u2019s\ncompany. She summoned seven hundred of the handsomest damsels of the\npalace to go with her to the king, and by the efforts of their united\ncharms entrap him in the net of passion and prevail upon him to come\nback to their society. When they ascended the stair-case, they met with\nDzanecka in his new attire. None recognised him; but all paid him due\nreverence as some holy personage that had come to give instructions to\nthe king. Having reached the apartment and seen the royal dress set\naside, and the beautiful and long black hairs laid on one of the sofas,\nthe queen and her attendants soon understood the sad and heart-rending\nintimation which these objects were designed to convey. She ran in all\nhaste with all her retinue down the stairs and overtook the new Rahan at\nthe moment he was crossing the outer gate of the palace. Every means that\ncould be devised to make impression on the king\u2019s heart were resorted\nto by the queen and the damsels, in order to prevail upon him to forego\nhis resolution. Tears, cries, wailings, striking of the breast, display\nof the most graceful and seducing forms, supplications, entreaties, were\nall used in vain; the new Rahan, unmoved and firm, continued his course,\nprotesting that passions and concupiscence were dead in him, and that\nwhat could be said or done to engage him to change his resolution was\nin vain. During his progress towards the solitude of Himawonta, he was\ncomforted and encouraged by the advice and instruction of two Rathees,\nwho from their solitude flew through the air to witness the beautiful\nstruggle between passions and virtue, and help him not to flinch before\nthe repeated obstacles the queen put in his way, to retard, impede,\nand prevent the execution of his holy design. The names of these two\ninstructors were Narada and Migalzein; they were clothed in the skins\nof panthers. They instructed him in the duties of his new calling, and\nexhorted him to root out of his heart with perseverance all passions, and\nin particular concupiscence and pride.\n\nComforted with such timely instructions, the new Rahan felt himself more\nthan ever fixed in his resolution. On his way to the solitude, Dzanecka\narrived one evening at the gates of a town called Daunu. He passed the\nnight under a tree, at a distance from the queen and the crowd that\nfollowed her. On the morning he entered the town, and went, as usual,\nalong the streets to beg his food. He happened to stop for a while at the\nshop of a man that was fabricating arrows. Dzanecka, seeing the workman\nshutting one eye and looking with the other to see if the shaft of the\narrow was straight, asked him the reason of his doing so, as he would see\nbetter with both eyes than with one. The workman told him that it was not\nalways good that each object in this world should have a match. \u201cShould\nI,\u201d said he, \u201clook on this shaft with both eyes, my sight, distracted\nby several objects, could not perceive the defects of the wood, &c.,\nbut by looking on it with only one eye the least irregularity is easily\ndetected. When we have a work to perform, if there be two opposite wills\nin us, it cannot be regularly made. You have put on the habit of Rahan;\nyou have apparently renounced the world; how is it that you are followed\nby such a large retinue of women and other attendants? It is impossible\nto attend well to the duties of your profession, and at the same time\nkeep such a company.\u201d This cutting remark made a deep impression on\nDzanecka. He had gone over a little distance, when he met a number of\nlittle girls playing together. One of them had a silver bangle on each\nhand, with one of gold on the right hand. When she agitated the right\nhand, the two bangles hitting each other produced a sound. Dzanecka,\nwilling to try the wit of the little creature, asked her the reason why\nthe movement of one hand produced a sound, whilst that of the other did\nnot. She replied, \u201cMy left hand, that has but one bangle, is the image\nof the Rahans who ought to be alone. In this world, when an object has\nits match, some collision and noise inevitably result. How is it that\nyou, who have put on the habit of Rahan, allow yourself to be followed by\nthat woman who is still full of freshness and beauty? Is she your wife or\nsister? Should she be only your sister, it is not good that she should be\nwith you. It is dangerous for Rahans to keep the company of women.\u201d\n\nThis sharp lecture, from the mouth of a little girl, produced a deep\nimpression on our Rahan. He left the city. A large forest was in the\nvicinity: he resolved to part company with the queen at once. At the\nentrance he stopped awhile, and paused for a moment. There, on a sudden,\nstretching his arm, he broke the small branch of a tree, and showing it\nto Thiwalee he said, \u201cPrincess, you see this small branch; it can never\nbe reunited to the stem it has been taken from. In like manner, it is\nimpossible that I should ever go back with you.\u201d On hearing the fatal\nwords the queen fainted. All her attendants crowded round her, to afford\nher some relief. Dzanecka himself, in the tumult and confusion that\nwas going on, stole away with rapidity and disappeared in the forest.\nThe queen was then carried back to Daunu by her attendants, whence\nthey all returned to Mitila. Alone in the solitude, Phralaong enjoyed\nthe sweets of perfect contemplation during a period of three thousand\nyears. Thiwalee, on her part, resolved to renounce the world and follow\nthe example of her husband. She became a Rahaness, in one of the royal\ngardens, during the same period of years, and subsequently migrated to\none of the seats of Brahmas, called Brahma-parithitsa.\n\nAt the conclusion of the narrative Buddha added: \u201cMani-megala, the\ndaughter of Nats, who saved me in the midst of the sea, is now my beloved\nfair disciple of the left, Oopalawon. The little girl who gave me such a\nwholesome instruction, at the gate of the town of Daunu, is now Kema, my\nfair disciple of the right. The Rathee Narada has since become my great\ndisciple Thariputra, whose wisdom is second only to my own. The other\nRathee Miga-dzein is now my disciple Maukalan, whose power for displaying\nwonders yields only to mine. The arrow-maker has since become Ananda, my\nfaithful and dutiful attendant. Queen Thiwalee has become the Princess\nYathaudara. As to Prince Dzanecka, he is now the Phra who is before you\nand addresses you, who is perfectly acquainted with all the laws and\nprinciples, and who is the teacher of men, Nats, and Brahmas.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nREMARKS ON THE SITES AND NAMES OF THE PRINCIPAL PLACES MENTIONED IN THE\nLEGEND.\n\n\nThe identification of the places mentioned in the course of the Life of\nGaudama is certainly a great desideratum. This difficult and laborious\ntask has been boldly undertaken by several government servants of both\nservices. Great and important successes have attended their efforts. One\nof the most successful among them has been Major-General Cunningham,\nthe arch\u00e6ological surveyor to the government of India. The sphere of\nhis laborious and scientific researches has extended over north and\nsouth Behar, the cradle of Buddhism, and some parts of the Punjaub and\nPeshawar. Under his direction excavations have been made, inscriptions\nfound and deciphered, the nature and dimensions of old ruined monuments\ncorrectly ascertained. In his valuable reports may be found important\nelements for reconstructing the history and geography of ancient India.\nHe has been greatly assisted by the history of the voyages of the Chinese\npilgrim, Hwen Thsang, who spent sixteen years in travelling throughout\nIndia, and visiting all the places rendered famous by the actions\nconnected with the life of Buddha, and the spread of his doctrines and\ninstitutions. The voyage began in 629 and ended in 645 of the Christian\nera. The itinerary begins with the starting of the traveller from a city\non the banks of the Hoang-ho. He shaped his course through the centre of\nTartary, entered by the northern extremity of the plateau of Panin into\nwhat is called now Independent Tartary, visited Samarcand, where there\nwere no Buddhists, but only fire worshippers. Thence he passed over to\nBalk, where he found religion in a flourishing condition. He ascended\nthe mighty Hindu Kush mountains, penetrated into Cabul and Peshawar,\ncrossed the Indus at Attock, and turning abruptly to the north, visited\nOudiana, where he found dzedis and monasteries on the grandest and most\nmagnificent scale, and came back to Attock, following the western bank of\nthe Indus. He then proceeded through the Punjaub to Mathura, and minutely\nexamined all the Buddhistic monuments to be found in the territories\nsituated between the Ganges, the Gunduck, and Nepaul. He went to Benares,\nPataliputra, and all the places in Magatha, or south Behar, where his\nreligious curiosity could be satisfied. Thence he shaped his course in an\neastern direction, and visited the whole of Bengal. He passed to Orissa,\nvisited many places in Central India and a portion of the Upper Deccan.\nHe went to Molwa and Guzerat, returned to Magatha, and began his homeward\nvoyage. He recrossed the Indus at Attock, followed up the valley of the\nCabul river, and with unheard-of difficulties and dangers passed over the\nHindu Kush range. His route across Chinese Tartary led him back through\nKashgar, Yarkand, and Khotan, to his native place.\n\nIt is a matter of surprise to see how acute in his observations, correct\nin his descriptions, and exact in his measurements, our pilgrim has been.\nWith his book in hand, the above-named eminent arch\u00e6ologist was enabled,\nin many instances, to identify at once mere mounds of ruins, and satisfy\nhimself that they were the remnants of the monuments described by our\npilgrim. When he entertained any doubts in his mind, he had recourse to\nexcavations, which, in most instances, demonstrated the perfect accuracy\nof Hwen Thsang.\n\nNearly two hundred years previous to the voyage of Hwen Thsang, another\nChinese pilgrim named Fa-hian had undertaken a similar journey. Impelled\nby a purely religious zeal, he came to India for the sole purpose of\nvisiting the places rendered famous and venerable by the birth, life,\ndoings, and death of Foe, the same personage who is known in these parts\nunder the name Buddha Gaudama. His object was also to make a complete\ncollection of all the religious books acknowledged as genuine in India,\nand carry them with him to China. The errand of Hwen Thsang had a similar\nobject.\n\nOur worthy traveller, according to his account, passed through Southern\nThibet, Little Tartary, and visited successively Cabul, Cashmere,\nCandahar, and the Punjaub. Following a nearly south-eastern direction,\nhe reached Mathura on the Upper Jumna, crossed the Ganges at Kanouj,\nat the confluence of the Kali with that river, travelled almost in an\neastern direction through Oude, and crossed the Gogra near the Fyzabad.\nKeeping close to the eastern bank of that stream, he struck in a slightly\nnorthern direction, passing the Rapti south of Goruckpore, and followed\nthe same course, nearly to the western bank of the Gunduck. From thence\nhe shaped his course in a south-easterly direction, parallel to the\ncourse of that river, which he crossed a little higher up the place\nwhere it empties into the Ganges. Following then a southern direction,\nhe crossed the Ganges near the place where the city of Patna is now.\nFrom thence our pilgrim travelled in a south-easterly direction, crossed\nsuccessively the Morhar and the Fulgo, examined all the places in the\nneighbourhood, south and south-west of Behar, which are so celebrated\nin Buddhistic annals. After having spent three years in India, busy\nin mastering the Pali language and collecting copies of the religious\nworks, he then embarked on the Ganges. Near its mouth he went on board\nof a ship bound to Ceylon. After having visited that celebrated island,\nFa-hian sailed in the direction of the Malayan Archipelago, called at\nJava, and safely arrived at his country, after having performed one\nof the most extraordinary and difficult journeys any man could have\nundertaken in those ancient times. It was in the beginning of the fifth\ncentury that this feat was performed in the space of more than seven\nyears. He spent three years in India, and two at Ceylon.\n\nThe Chinese original of Fa-Hian has been translated into French by A.\nRemusat. The English version from the French is accompanied by the\nannotations of Remusat and those of other celebrated Orientalists. The\nbook of Hwen Thsang has been translated by M. Julien. For the loan of\nthese two works the writer is indebted to the ever-obliging kindness\nof the worthy and learned Chief Commissioner of British Burma, Col. A.\nP. Phayre. From these works we have extracted the above and following\nparticulars.\n\n1. The name given by northern Buddhists to Buddha is Thakiamuni, which\nmeans the religious of the Thakia family. He belonged to the Kshatria, or\nthe warriors\u2019 caste. The name Gaudama, according to the opinion of the\nlate E. Burnouf, is the name of the religious instructor of his family,\nwhich members of families of that caste often adopted. This instructor\nmight have been a descendant of the celebrated philosopher Gotama,\nmentioned in certain writings, but distinct from our Buddha.\n\n2. Kapila, or Kapilawot, the birthplace of Buddha, was situated on the\nleft bank of the Gogra, straight north of Benares.\n\nIt was a heap of ruins when Fa-Hian visited it, and the country almost a\ndesert. Some are of opinion that it was situated near the mountains that\nseparate Nepaul from Goruckpore, on the river Rohini, a mountain stream,\nfeeder of the Rapti. But this assertion has very few supporters, and\nappears improbable.\n\n3. The river Anauma cannot be the Amanat in Behar, south of Patna.\nIt is probably one of the feeders of the Gogra, and to be met with\nhalf-way between Kapila and Radzagio, the site of which city, as will be\nsubsequently seen, lies close to modern Behar. The legend bears out this\nsupposition. Buddha travelled thirty youdzanas from Kapila to the river\nAnauma, thence thirty to Radzagio. The youdzana of those times in Magatha\nis supposed to have been equal probably to seven miles.\n\n4. Oorouwela was one of the mountains famous for the number of the\nhermits that withdrew thither for the purpose of meditation. It is not\nfar from Gaya Buddha.\n\n5. The river Neritzara, in Mongol, Nirandzara, is a considerable stream\nflowing from the south-west. It unites with the Monah and forms the Fulgo.\n\n6. Baranathee is beyond doubt the famous city of Benares. The Burmans\ncall it by name of Baranathee, or rather Varanasi. The town is so named\nfrom its situation between the small river Varana and the Asi, a mere\nbrook. The solitude of Migadawon, whither Buddha went to preach the\nlaw to the five Rahans that had served him during the six years of\nmortification which he spent in the forest of Oorouwela, lies in its\nvicinity. Benares is famous in the Buddhistic annals, because in its\nneighbourhood the law of the wheel, or rather the super-excellent law\nof the four sublime truths, was announced for the first time. Migadawon\nmeans the deer-forest. It lies three and a half miles from Benares in\na northern direction. It is said that, after having travelled nine\nmiles from the Bodi tree, Buddha had to go over a distance of eighteen\nyoudzanas ere he reached Benares, making a total of about 120 miles.\n\n7. Radzagio, or Radzagihra, was the capital of Magatha or South Behar.\nIts situation is well ascertained. Its ruins have been minutely described\nby several travellers. It was situated on the left bank of the same\nsmall river as Behar, but a few miles south of that place. The mountains\nor peaks surrounding that ancient city are full of caves, tenanted in\nformer ages by Buddhist ascetics. The mountain Gayathitha, where Buddha\npreached his famous sermon, lies in the neighbourhood. It is perhaps the\nsame as the Gridrakuta, or the Vulture\u2019s Peak.\n\n8. The Buddhist annals often mention the country of the middle or\nMitzima-desa. It comprised the countries of Mathura, Kosala, Kapila,\nWethalee, and Magatha; that is to say, the provinces of Agra, Delhi,\nOude, and South Behar.\n\nMagatha, south of the Ganges, had for capital at first Radzagio, until\nKalathoka, a hundred years after the death of Gaudama, transferred the\nseat of his empire to Pataliputra, or Palibothra. The celebrated Weloowon\nmonastery was situated in the neighbourhood of Radzagio, and was offered\nto Buddha by King Pimpathara, the ruler of that country.\n\n9. Kosala is the same as the kingdom of Ayodya, now called Oude.\nThawattie, or Crawastu, was the capital of a district of that country. It\nwas situated nearly at the same place where at present stands the modern\ntown of Fyzabad. According to the legend, the distance from Radzagio to\nThawattie is forty-five youdzanas of about seven miles. Twelve hundred\npaces from that city was to be met the renowned monastery of Dzetawon,\nor the grove of the victorious. Many ruins that have been visited and\nexamined leave no doubt regarding the certain position of Thawattie.\n\n10. Thing-ka-tha, or Tsam-pa-tha, lies in an eastern direction between\nMathura and Kanouj, near the site occupied by the town of Ferruckabad.\nCaptain A. Cunningham has met with the ruins of that place in the\nvillage of Samkassa, on the left bank of the Kalinadi, twelve cos from\nFerrukabad. According to a popular tradition, it was destroyed in 1183 by\nthe King of Kanouj, at the instigation of the Brahmins, who endeavoured\nby every means in their power to sweep all the remnants of Buddhism from\nthose parts of the peninsula. It was in that place that Buddha arrived\non his return from the seats of Nats, whither he had gone to preach the\nlaw to his mother. According to the legend, the distance from Thawattie\nto Thing-ka-tha is thirty youdzanas in a westerly direction. Fa-Hian says\nthat he saw in one of the temples of that place the ladder Buddha had\nused when he came down from the seats of Nats.\n\n11. The village of Patali is the very place where was subsequently\nestablished the renowned city of Palibothra, capital of Magatha.\nThe place had reached the height of its glory when Megasthenes, the\nambassador of Seleucus, visited it in the reign of Chandragupta. In the\ntime of Buddha it was but an insignificant place. There was, however,\na sort of fort to arrest the inroads of some troublesome neighbours.\nBuddha, when he passed through that place, predicted that it would become\na flourishing town. The prediction began to have its accomplishment one\nhundred years after his death, when King Kalathoka left Radzagio, and\nremoved the seat of his empire to Palibothra near the place where the\nmodern city of Patna stands.\n\n12. The town of Wethalie is supposed to have stood north of Patna on\nthe Gunduck, not far from the place where that river joins the Ganges.\nThe large village of Besarh, twenty miles north of Hajipur, occupies a\nportion of the place on which stood Wethalie. In the seventh century\nBuddhism was there on its decline; false doctrines, as says one of the\nChinese pilgrims, were much prevailing. Nothing was to be seen at that\ntime but a ruined town and many monasteries, almost deserted, and also\nfalling into decay. Many signs of ancient ruins are also to be met\nwith between Besarh and Bakra; they belong to the same city, which was\nboth populous and wealthy. Its circumference was about twelve miles,\nincluding the two modern places of Bakra and Besarh. All the mounds of\nruins have been carefully searched and described by A. Cunningham, and\nthe sites of ancient tanks exactly laid down. There is a curious episode\nin the legend connected with the name of Wethalie. A courtesan, who,\ndespite her dishonourable calling, occupied a brilliant position in the\ncountry, courted the favour of feeding Buddha with all his followers.\nThe latter accepted her invitation, and received a beautiful grove,\nwhich she presented to him and to the assembly. It does not appear that\nher avocation was looked upon as a disgraceful one. It is probable that\npersons of this description were as much for the intellectual as for the\nsensual enjoyments of their visitors. There existed in Greece and at Rome\nsomething similar to what is here alluded to. According to Plutarch,\nAspasia at Athens was courted by Pericles on account of her high literary\nattainments and political abilities. Socrates visited her sometimes in\ncompany with his disciples. Visitors took occasionally their wives to\nher place, for the purpose of enjoying the charms of her highly refined\nand instructive conversation. The same philosophical biographer does not\nscruple to quote sometimes the sayings of the celebrated Roman courtesan,\nnamed Flora.\n\n13. Nala or Nalanda was a Brahmin village about seven miles north of\nRadzagio. It was the birthplace of the great disciple Thariputra. It\nseems that there was there a sort of Academia, whither the learned of\nRadzagio resorted to discourse on moral and philosophical subjects. The\nmagnificent ruins, which subsist up to this day in that locality, have\nbeen minutely examined, measured, and described by several visitors. The\ngreat temple must, in the opinion of A. Cunningham, have been built in\nthe sixth century of our era.\n\n14. Kootheinaron is the place in the neighbourhood of which Buddha\nentered into the state of Neibban, or died. Some antiquarians, laying\nmuch stress on the name of a village up to this day called Kushia, have\nplaced the position of Kootheinaron on the road between Betiah and\nGoruckpore. On that spot is to be seen a pyramidical-looking mound of\nbricks, over which spreads a large banyan tree. But, from the narrative\nof the legend, we must look for the site of Kootheinaron nearer to the\nriver Higniarati or Gunduck, since the spot where Gaudama died was near\nto the city, and is described as surrounded on three sides by the river.\nKootheinaron was situated a little north or north-west of Betiah, on or\nnear the banks of the Gunduck. There too ruins are to be seen, which\ndoubtless will prove to be those of Kootheinaron. The name may have\nsubsequently migrated to the locality above mentioned.\n\n15. Papilawana, the capital of the Mauria princes, was situated between\nthe Rapti and the Gunduck, nearly east of Goruckpore. South of that place\nFa-Hian visited the dzedi of the coals. The Mauria princes, agreeably to\nthe text of the legend, having come too late for sharing in the partition\nof the relics, took with them the coals that remained after the cremation\nof Buddha\u2019s remains, carried them into their country, and built a dzedi\nover them. It was not far from that place that the Brahmin Dauna built\nanother dzedi over the vessel that had contained Buddha\u2019s relics.\n\n16. The village of Rama is the same as the Ramaganio of the Cingalese\ncollection. The two Chinese pilgrims in their relations call that place\nLan-mo. Can it be that the modern Ramnagar is indicative of the ancient\nRamaganio? At all events we would not be far from the truth if we place\nit between the Gogra and the Rapti, but nearer to the latter, almost due\nwest of Goruckpore.\n\n17. The Pawa town is supposed by A. Cunningham to have occupied the\nsame site as the large village of Padarawana, twelve miles to the west\nof the river Gunduck, and forty miles north-north-east of Goruckpore. A\nlarge mound of more than 200 feet in length by 120 in breadth exists in\nthat locality. From the excavations made on the place, it is supposed\nthat there was a courtyard, with cells for monks, on each side, the\ncentre being, as was often the case, occupied by a dzedi. The people of\nPawa obtained one-eighth of the relics, after the cremation of Buddha\u2019s\nremains, and built one dzedi over them.\n\n18. Kapilawot, or Kapilawastu, was situated between Fyzabad and\nGoruckpore, but a little nearer to the latter place. It was on or near\nthe banks of the Gogra. The small river Rohini formed the boundary\nbetween the territory of Kapilawot and that of Kaulia.\n\n19. Gaya and Buddha-Gaya are two distinct places. The first is well\nknown as the town of Gaya. The second lies six miles southward, and is\nfamous as the locality of the Pipal or Bodi tree, under which Gaudama\nobtained the Buddhahood. A tree of the same description is still to be\nseen on the same spot. The present one was in full vigour in 1811, when\nDr. Buchanan saw it. He describes it as not being more than a hundred\nyears old. A. Cunningham says that it is now much decayed. One large\nstem with three branches on the westward side are still green; but the\nother branches are barkless and rotten. Hwen Thsang, in his itinerary,\nspeaks of an early renewal of that tree by King Purna Varmma, after its\ndestruction by King Sasangka, who, with a true Brahminical and inimical\nfeeling, dug up the very ground on which it had stood, and moistened the\nearth with sugar-cane juice, to prevent its renewal. The same eminent\narch\u00e6ologist describes a massive brick temple, standing east of the\nBodi tree, and with great plausibility maintains that it is the same\nwhich has been described by the above-named Chinese pilgrim. As Fa-Hian\nis silent respecting that temple, A. Cunningham concludes that it was\nerected during the sixth century of the Christian era, when Buddhism,\nunder the favour of King Amara-sinha and some of his successors, regained\na vigorous ascendancy at least in Magatha. It is probable that all the\ntemples, the ruins of which have been examined at Buddha-Gaya, Nalanda,\nand Behar, having a similarity in architectural plans and ornaments, were\nerected during the sixth and a part of the seventh century of our era.\nThe inference therefrom is that Buddhism was flourishing in Magatha at\nthat period. Hwen Thsang, who has visited and described those monuments\nin or about 625, speaks of them in the highest terms. How long lasted the\nprosperous days of Buddhism in those parts? It is difficult to state with\nany degree of accuracy. But it seems probable that it maintained itself\nin a satisfactory condition until the beginning of the tenth century. It\nhad then to give way before the irresistible and triumphant ascendancy of\nBrahminism.\n\nTo the south-east of the great temple is a small tank which is probably\nthat of the Naga, who protected Buddha during one of the several stations\nthat he made round the Bodi tree.\n\n20. Anawadat is the name of a lake famous in Buddhist sacred history.\nIts etymological meaning is, agreeably to some savans, exempt of tumult,\nand, according to others, not brightened. This last appellation is\nowing probably to the high peaks that surround it and prevent its being\nbrightened by the rays of the sun. This is certainly the famous and\nextensive lake, which covers a portion of the high table-land of Pamir.\nIt has been visited and described by Lieutenant Wood. What he states\nfrom a careful observation on the spot agrees well with what is found\nin the itineraries of the Chinese travellers. From that high plateau\nwhich embosoms the lake flows in an eastern direction one of those small\nstreams that form the river Ganges; whilst, in an opposite direction, the\nOxus, issuing from the western slope, shapes its course nearly towards\nthe west.\n\n21. Udiana is a country the position of which is fixed on the banks\nof the Indus, between Cabul and Cashmere, west of the latter country.\nGandara is, it appears, the country called Candahar by the Mussulmans,\nlying between the Swat and the Indus. The Burmese author mentions always\nKashmera along with Gandara. This would indicate that the two places\nare in the vicinity of each other, and that they formed primitively one\nand the same state. Yaunaka is perhaps the peninsula of Guzerat. But\nthe writer entertains serious doubts on this subject. It might be the\ncountries situated west of the Hindu Kush, that is to say, the ancient\nBactriana. The Burmese author states that Yaunaka was inhabited by a\npeople called Pantsays. What people were they? Is it an allusion to the\nGreeks that had settled in Bactriana? It is not without interest to\nhear our Chinese traveller stating that religion was flourishing in the\nabove-mentioned countries, whilst in the Punjaub he met with religious\nwith whom he declined holding intercourse, and of whom he speaks in\nrather unfavourable terms. Hence we may conclude that heretical opinions\nwere then prevailing in that country, and that doctrines at variance with\nthose of Buddha had already taken a deep root, and in their growth almost\nchoked genuine Buddhism, if it had ever been the prevailing creed in the\nland of the five rivers.\n\n22. On his way down the Ganges, our pilgrim does not appear to have left\nhis boat for any considerable time; he contents himself with mentioning\na fact that to some may appear somewhat doubtful, viz., the flourishing\ncondition of the Buddhist religion as far as the neighbourhood of\nthe present metropolis of India. He speaks of the kingdom of Champa.\nCampapuri, or Karnapura, was the capital of that state. It was situated\non the site of the present Bhagulpore, or not far from it. Thence Fa-Hian\ncame to the state of Tamaralipti. The town which bore that name is the\nmodern Tumlook, on the right bank of the Hoogly, not far from Calcutta.\nIt was at that port that he embarked on board of a ship bound to Ceylon.\nTamaralipti must have been a famous sea-port several centuries before\nFa-Hian\u2019s days. We are informed that Maheinda and his companions, who\nwere appointed to proceed to Ceylon to preach Buddhism to the people of\nthat island, embarked at the same place.\n\n\n\n\nTHE SEVEN WAYS TO NEIBBAN.\n\n\nThis is an abridgment of all the principles that constitute the system of\nBuddhism. In the LEGEND OF BUDDHA the reader has become acquainted with\nthe life of the founder of Buddhism, the establishment of his religion,\nand the promulgation of his chief doctrine. In the following pages he\nwill find compressed within narrow limits the several observances to be\nattended to in order to reach the goal of quiescence. As it is chiefly\nand principally by the help of meditation and contemplation that such a\npoint can ever be attained, the reader must be prepared to wade up to his\nvery chin in the somewhat muddy waters of metaphysics if he has a wish to\npenetrate into the very sanctuary of Buddhism.\n\nTo encourage the reader, and console him in the midst of his fatiguing\njourney through such dreary tracts, the writer would remind him that he\nhas first borne up the fatigues of such a journey, and that, impelled\nby friendly feelings, he has endeavoured to smooth the rugged path in\nbehalf of those that would follow him on the same errand. How far he\nhas succeeded in his well-meant efforts he will not presume to state.\nBut he will say this much, that if his success be commensurate with\nhis exertions he may entertain a well-founded hope that he will not be\naltogether disappointed in his anticipation, and feel somewhat confident\nthat he has afforded to the uninitiated some help to go over the\ndifficult ground of metaphysics.\n\nFollowing, in this instance, the line of conduct he has adopted through\nthe foregoing pages of this book, the writer will allow the Buddhist\nauthor to speak for himself and explain his own views on the different\nsubjects under consideration. His sole aim will ever be to convey as\nfaithfully and as succinctly as possible the meaning of the original\nhe has under his eyes. The task, however simple it may appear, is far\nfrom being an easy one, as the Burmese are utterly incapable of fully\nunderstanding the metaphysical portion of their religious system.\nTheir ignorance is calculated to render even more obscure what is _per\nse_ almost beyond the range of comprehension, because they must have\nfrequently put an erroneous interpretation on many Pali words, the\nmeaning of which is far from being accurately determined.\n\nOur Buddhist doctor begins his work with enumerating the advantages to be\nderived from a serious and constant application to the earnest study of\nthese seven ways. \u201cSuch an exercise,\u201d says he, \u201chas the virtue to free us\nfrom all evils; it expands the intelligence in the highest degree, and\nleads straight to Neibban. Man, through it, is delivered from all errors,\nis happy, and becomes during his life an honour to the holy religion of\nBuddha.\u201d\n\nThe various subjects he intends to treat of in this work are arranged\nunder seven heads, which are laid down in his own original way as\nfollows:\u2014The observance of the precepts and the practice of meditation\nare the two-fold foundation of the spiritual edifice. The consideration\nof the nature and form of matter shall be the right foot of the sage;\nthe investigation about the causes and principles of living beings\nshall be as his left foot; the application of the mind to find out the\nfour high-roads to perfection, and the obtaining the freedom from all\npassions, shall be as his right and left hands; and the possession of\nthe perfect science or knowledge shall be as his head. The happy man who\nshall have reached so far will be certain to obtain the deliverance.\n\nThis summary is thus divided by our guide into seven distinct parts,\nwhich will be condensed into six articles.\n\nIt is as well to add that this work, an abridged translation of which is\nnow set before the reader, was composed at first in the Siamese language\nat Bangkok, and has been subsequently translated into Burmese. We find,\ntherefore, that all the principles expounded throughout are received as\ngenuine on the banks of the Irrawaddy as well as on those of the Meinam,\nand may be looked upon as a faithful exposition of the highest tenets\nof Buddhism, such as they are held in both countries. This observation\nconfirms a notion which has been denied by many, viz., that the chief\ndoctrines of Buddhism are pretty nearly the same in all the places where\nit has become the dominant creed. The discrepancies to be met here and\nthere relate principally to practices and observances which present to\nthe eyes of the observer an infinite variety of hues and forms. When\nBuddhism was established in several countries, it did not destroy many\nobservances and practices that were found deeply engrafted on the customs\nand manners of the people; it tolerated them, and made with them a tacit\ncompromise. As, for instance, the worship of Nats existed among the\ntribes of the Irrawaddy valley long before the introduction of Buddhism.\nMost of the superstitious rites now prevailing in Burmah originate from\nthat belief. With the Chinese the worship of ancestors continues to\nsubsist side by side with Buddhism, though the latter creed has nothing\nto do with it. In Nepaul and at Ceylon, Hindu superstitions obtrude\nthemselves on the view of the observer to such an extent that it is not\neasy to state which of the two creeds obtains the preference.\n\n\nARTICLE I.\n\nOF THE PRECEPTS.\n\nOur author, in a truly philosophical spirit, at first puts to himself the\nthree following questions: What is the origin of the law? What is man,\nthe subject of the law? What is the individual who is the promulgator of\nthe law? The three questions he answers in the following manner: 1st.\nAll that exists is divided into two distinct parts, the things which are\nliable to change and obey the principle of mutability, such as matter,\nits modifications, and all beings which have a cause;[45] and those which\nare eternal and immutable, that is to say, the precepts of the law and\nNeibban. These have neither author nor cause; they are self-existing,\neternal, and placed far beyond the reach of the influence that causes\nmutability. 2d. As to the publisher of the law, Buddha, he is a mere\nman, who during myriads of centuries has accumulated merits on merits,\nuntil he has obtained the Neibban of Kiletha, or the deliverance from\nall passions. From that moment till his death this eminent personage is\nconstituted the master of religion and the doctor of the law. Owing to\nhis perfect science he finds out and discovers all the precepts that\nconstitute the body of the law. Impelled by his matchless benevolence\ntowards all beings, he promulgates them for the salvation of all. He is\nnot the inventor of those precepts; he merely discovers them by the power\nof the supreme intelligence, in the same manner as we perceive clearly\nduring the night, by the help of a light, objects hitherto wrapped in\nutter darkness. 3d. Man, who is to be subjected to the observance of the\nlaw, is distinguished by the following characteristics. He possesses more\nknowledge than the animals and other beings, except the Nats and Brahmas;\nhis intelligence and thoughts reach farther than those of other beings;\nhe is capable of reflecting, comparing, drawing inferences, and observing\nfreely the rules of life;[46] despite the allurement of his passions, he\ncan free himself from the three great passions, concupiscence, anger, and\nignorance; finally, he is a descendant from those Brahmas who, in the\nbeginning of this world, came from their seat, lived on earth, and, by\ntheir eating the rice _Tsale_, lost all their glorious privileges, and\nbecame beings similar to those who are known to us under the denomination\nof men.\n\nThe great end to be aimed at in the observance of the precepts of the law\nand the exercise of meditation is the obtaining of a state of complete\nindifference to all things. The state of indifference alluded to does not\nconsist in a stupid carelessness about the things of this world. It is\nthe result of a knowledge acquired with much labour and pain. The wise\nman who has possessed himself of such science is no longer liable to the\ninfluence of that vulgar illusion which makes people believe in the real\nexistence of things that have no reality about them, but subsist only\non an ephemeral basis, which incessantly changes and finally vanishes\naway. He sees things as they truly are. He is full of contempt for things\nwhich are at best a mere illusion. This contempt generates a complete\nindifference for all that exists, even for his own being. He longs for\nthe moment when it shall be given to him to cast away his own body, that\nhe may no longer move within the circle of endless and miserable forms of\nexistence. In this sense must be understood the state of perfect quietism\nor indifference, which is the last stage the wise man may reach by the\nhelp of the science he possesses. The religious of the Brahminical creed\nhave professed the same indifference for all the accidents of life.\nHence our Buddha, when he became a perfected being, looked on the wicked\nDewadat with the same feelings as he did on the great Maia, his mother.\nNumberless Rathees or anchorites have ever been eulogised for having\nallowed themselves to be devoured by ferocious beasts or bit by venomous\nsnakes, rather than offer the least resistance that could exhibit a sign\nof non-indifference. Entire was their unconcern towards their very body,\nwhich they knew well is, as everything else, a compound of the four\nelements, a mere illusion, totally distinct from self.\n\nFive commandments constitute the very basis whereupon stand all morals,\nand are obligatory on all men without exception. They include five\nprohibitions. (It is not a little surprising that the five precepts\nobligatory on all men are merely five prohibitions designed not to teach\nmen what they have to do, but warning them not to do such things as are\ninterdicted to them. This supposes that man is prone to do certain acts\nwhich are sinful. The Buddhist law of the five precepts forbids him to\nyield to such propensities, but it does not teach him particular duties\nto perform. It does not elevate man above his original level, but it aims\nat preventing him from falling lower.) The five prohibitions are: Not to\ndestroy the life of any being; not to steal; not to commit adultery; not\nto tell lies; not to drink any intoxicating liquors or beverages.\n\nOur author seems to be a perfect master in casuistry, as he shows the\ngreatest nicety and exactness in explaining all the requisite conditions\nthat constitute a trespassing of those precepts. We will give here but\na few samples of his uncommon proficiency in this science. As regards\nthe first prohibition, he says, five things are necessary to constitute\nan offence against the first commandment, viz., a being that has life,\nthe intention and will of killing that being, an act which is capable of\ninflicting death, and the loss of life of that being consequent on the\ninflicting of that action. Should but one of these conditions be wanting,\nthe sin could not be said to have taken place, and therefore no complete\ntrespassing of the first prohibition.\n\nAgain, as regards the second precept, five circumstances or conditions\nare necessary to constitute a trespassing, viz., an object belonging\nto another person, who neither by words nor signs showed any intention\nto part with it; the knowing that the owner intends to keep possession\nof it; having the actual intention to take away secretly or forcibly\nthat object; an effort to become possessed of the thing by deceiving,\ninjuring, or by mal-practices causing the owner or keeper of the thing to\nfall asleep; and, finally, removing the thing from its place, however\nshort may be the distance, should it be but that of the length of a hair\nof the head.\n\nFor the infraction of the third precept the following conditions are\nrequired: the intention and will of sinning with any person of another\nsex, which comes within the denomination of Akamani-jathan, that is to\nsay, persons whom it is forbidden to touch; acting up to that intention\nand the consummating of such an act. Women that fall under the above\ndenomination are divided into twenty classes. The eight first classes\ninclude those that are under the guardianship of their parents or\nrelatives; the ninth class comprises those affianced before they be of\nage; the tenth, those reserved for the king. Within the ten other classes\ncome all those who, owing to their having been slaves, or from any\nother cause, have become concubines to their masters, or married their\nseducers, &c.\n\nThe fourth prohibition extends not only to lies, but likewise to slander,\ncoarse and abusive expressions, and vain and useless words. The four\nfollowing conditions constitute a lie, viz., saying a thing that is\nuntrue; the intention of saying such a thing; making manifest such\nan intention by saying the thing; and some one\u2019s hearing and clearly\nunderstanding the thing that is uttered. That the sin of medisance may\nbe said to exist, it is required that the author of it should speak with\nthe intention of causing parties to hate each other or quarrel with\neach other, and that the words spoken to that end should be heard and\nunderstood by the parties alluded to.\n\nThe fifth precept forbids the drinking of Sura and Meria, that is to say,\nof distilled liquors and of intoxicating juices extracted from fruits\nand flowers. The mere act of putting the liquor in the mouth does not\nconstitute a sin; the swallowing of it is implied.\n\nBesides these five general precepts, obligatory on all the faithful\nwithout exception, there are three other precepts, or rather counsels,\nthat are strongly recommended to the Upasakas, or pious laymen. They\nare designed as barriers against the great propensity inherent in nature\nwhich causes men to exceed in all that is used, through the senses of\ntaste, hearing, seeing, smelling, and feeling. They are so many means\nthat help to obtain a sober moderation in the daily use of the things of\nthe world.\n\nThe first counsel regulates all that regards eating. It forbids using any\ncomestible from noon to daybreak of the following morning. The second\ninterdicts the assisting at plays, comedies, and the use of flowers\nand essences with the intention of fondly handling and smelling them.\nThe third prescribes the form and size of beds, which ought never to\nbe more than one cubit high, plain and without ornaments. The use of\nmattresses and pillows, filled with cotton or other soft substances, is\npositively prohibited. The very intention of lying upon these enervating\nsuperfluities, and _a fortiori_ reclining on them, constitutes the\nbreaking of such a command.\n\nThese three latter precepts are to be observed chiefly in the following\ndays, on the 5th, 8th, 14th, and 15th of the waxing moon, and on the 5th,\n8th, and 14th of the waning moon, as well as on the new moon. The pious\nUpasakas sometimes observe them during the three consecutive months of\nthe season of Lent.\n\nIn the opinion of our author those men and women are deserving of the\nrespectable title of Upasakas who have the greatest respect for and\nentertain a pious affection towards the three precious things, Buddha,\nthe law, and the assembly of the perfect. They must ever view them as\nthe haven of salvation and the securest asylums. They must be ready\nto sacrifice everything, their very life, for the sake of these three\nperfect things. During their lifetime, under all circumstances, they must\naim at following scrupulously the instructions of Buddha, such as they\nare embodied in the law and preached by the Rahans.\n\nFive offences disqualify a man for the honourable title of Upasaka, viz.,\nthe want of belief and confidence in the three precious things, the\nnon-observance of the eight precepts, the believing in lucky and unlucky\ndays,[47] or in good and bad fortune, the belief in omens and signs, and\nkeeping company with the impious, who have no faith in Buddha.\n\nWe now come to the rules which are prescribed to all the Buddhist\nreligious. They are 227 in number, and are found in a book called\nPatimauk. This book is the _vade mecum_ of all religious. They study\nit and often learn it by heart. On certain days of each month the\nreligious assemble in the Thein. The Patimauk is then read, explained,\nand commented upon by one of the elders of the fraternity. It is an\nabridgment of the Wini, the great book of discipline. It teaches the\nvarious rules respecting the four articles offered by the faithful to the\nreligious; that is to say, vestments, food, mats, and the ingredients for\nmastication. These rules likewise regulate all that relates to the mode\nof making prayers, devotions, walking, sitting, reclining, travelling,\n&c. Everything is described with a minute particularity.\n\nHere, if any interest could be awakened, would be the place to enter\ninto the system of casuistry carried by Buddhist religious to a point of\nnicety and refinement truly astonishing. Suffice it to state that they\nhave gone over the boundless field of speculative conjectures respecting\nall the possible ways of fulfilling or trespassing the precepts and\nregulations that concern the body of religious.\n\nEvery law and precept must have a sanction. This essential requisite\nis not wanting in the Buddhist system. Let us examine in what consists\nthe reward attending a regular and correct observance of the precepts,\nand what is the punishment inflicted on the transgressors of these\nordinances. As usual, we will follow our author and allow him to make\nknown his own opinions on this important subject. It is often inquired\nof us, says he, why some individuals live here during many years, whilst\nothers appear but for a short time on the scene of this world. The\nreason of the difference in the respective condition of these persons\nis obvious and evident. The first, during their former existence, have\nfaithfully observed the first command and refrained from killing beings,\nhence their long life; the second, on the contrary, have been guilty of\nsome trespassings of this precept, and therefore the influence of their\nformer crimes causes the shortness of their life. In a similar manner\nwe account for all the differences that exist in the conditions of all\nbeings. The observance or trespassing of one or several precepts creates\nthe positions of happiness and unhappiness, of riches and poverty, of\nbeauty and ugliness, that chequer the lives and positions of mortals in\nthis world.\n\nIn addition to the rewards bestowed immediately in this world, there\nare the six seats of Nats, where all sorts of recompenses are allotted,\nduring immense periods, to those who have correctly attended to the\nordinances of the law. There are likewise places of punishment in the\nseveral hells, reserved to the transgressors of the precepts. The\nconditions of animal, Athoorikes and Preittas, are other states of\npunishment.\n\nA lengthened account of all that relates to the blissful regions of\nNats and the gloomy abodes of hell is found in one of the great Dzats,\nor accounts of the former existences of Gaudama, given by himself to his\ndisciples, when he was a prince under the name of Nemi. The writer has\nread and partly translated this work, which delightfully reminded him of\nthe fine episodes on similar subjects he had read in the sixth book of\nthe \u00c6neid. The wildest, most fertile, and inventive imagination seems to\nhave exhausted its descriptive powers, on the one hand, in multiplying\nthe pleasures enjoyed in the seats of Nats, and beautifying and adorning\nthose delightful regions; and, on the other, in representing with a dark\nand bloody pencil the frightful picture of the numberless and horrid\ntorments of the regions of desolation, despair, and agony.\n\nAll that is so abundantly related of the fortunate abodes of Nats in\ntheir sacred writings supplies the Buddhist religious with agreeable and\ninexhaustible topics of sermons which they deliver to their hearers,\nto excite them more effectually to bestow on them abundant alms. The\ncredulous hearers are always told that the most conspicuous places in\nthose regions are allotted to those who have distinguished themselves by\ntheir great liberalities. We think it idle and superfluous, uninteresting\nand fatiguing to repeat those fabulous accounts of the seats of Nats and\nabodes of hell, as given at great length by Buddhist authors. The only\nparticulars deserving to be attended to are these: the reward is always\nproportionate to the sum of merits, and punishment to that of demerit.\nThere is no eternity of reward or of punishment.[48]\n\nThis first article shall be concluded by an important remark bearing\nupon the system under consideration. The seats of happiness, as already\nmentioned, are divided into two great classes; the one including the\nsuperior, and the other the inferior seats. The latter are the six\nseats of Nats, and are tenanted by beings as yet under the influence of\nconcupiscence and other passions. Those who observe the five general\nprecepts have placed, and, as it were, established themselves on the\nbasis whereupon stands perfection, but not yet in perfection itself; they\nhave just crossed the threshold thereof. They are as yet imperfect; but\nthey have prepared themselves for entering the way that leads towards\nperfection; that is to say, meditation, or the science of Dzan. The very\nreward enjoyed in those seats is, therefore, as yet an imperfection.\nThe superior seats can only be reached by those who apply themselves to\nmental exercises. These exercises are the real foundation of the lofty\nstructure of perfection and the high-road to it.\n\n\nARTICLE II.\n\nOF MEDITATION AND ITS VARIOUS DEGREES.\n\nThis and the following articles contain subjects of so abstruse and\nrefined a nature, that it would require one to possess the science of a\nBuddha to come to a right understanding of them. The difficulties arising\nfrom this study are due to the confused and very unsatisfactory ideas\nof the Buddhist philosophers respecting the soul and its spirituality,\nand perhaps to the inability of the writer to understand the vague and\nundefined terms employed to convey their ideas on these matters. The\nfield of Buddhist metaphysics is, to a European, in a great measure a\nnew one; the meaning of the terms is half-understood by the Burmese\ntranslators; definitions of terms do not convey explanations such as we\nanticipate, and ideas seem to run in a new channel; they assume, if we\nmay say so, strange forms: divisions and subdivisions of the various\ntopics have no resemblance to what a European is used to in the study of\nphilosophy. The student feels himself ushered into a new region; he is\ndoomed to find his way by groping. Finally, the false position assumed\nby the Indian philosophers, and the false conclusions they arrive at,\ncontribute to render more complicated the task of elucidating this\nportion of the Buddhist system. That the difficulties may be somewhat\nlessened, and the pathway rendered less rugged and a little smooth, the\nwriter proposes to avoid as much as it is in his power overcharging with\nPali terms the explanations he is about to afford, under the guidance of\nthe Buddhist author.\n\nIn the preceding article we have treated of meritorious actions that\nare purely exterior, and briefly alluded to the nature of the rewards\nbestowed on earth and in the six seats of Nats upon those who have\nperformed these good actions. Now we leave behind all the exterior good\ndeeds, and turn the attention of our mind to something more excellent,\nto those acts that are purely interior, and are performed solely by\nthe soul and the right exercise of its faculties; that is to say, by\nmeditation and contemplation.\n\nThe root of all human miseries is ignorance. It is the generating\nprinciple of concupiscence and other passions. It is the dark but lofty\nbarrier that encircles all beings and retains them within the vortex\nof endless existences; it is the cause of all existences, and of all\nthose illusions to which beings are miserably subjected; it causes those\ncontinual changes which take place in the production of all beings. This\ngreat cause once found and proclaimed by Buddha, it was necessary to\nprocure a remedy to counteract the action of ignorance, and successfully\noppose its progress. Another antagonistic and opposite principle had to\nbe found, adequate to resist the baneful agency of ignorance and stem\nits sad and misfortune-creating influence. That principle is science or\nknowledge. Ignorance is but a negative agent: it is only the absence of\nscience. Let knowledge be, and ignorance shall vanish away in the same\nmanner as darkness is noiselessly but irresistibly dissipated by the\npresence of light.\n\nAll beings in this universe, says our author, are doomed to be born and\ndie. We quit this place to go and live in another; we die here to be born\nelsewhere. We can never be freed from pain, old age, and death. Whether\nwe like it or not, we must suffer and always suffer. But why is it so?\nBecause we do not possess the perfect science. Were we blessed with it,\nwe would infallibly look towards Neibban, and then, escaping from the\npursuit of pain and miseries, we would infallibly obtain the deliverance\nfrom those evils which now incessantly press upon us. It rests with us\nonly to perfect our intelligence, so that we might gradually attain to\nthe perfect science, the source of all good. But by what means is so\ndesirable an end to be obtained? By the exercise of meditation, answers,\nwith a decided tone, our philosopher. This word implies, besides, our\nintellectual operations of a superior order, such as contemplation,\nvisions, ecstasy, union, &c., which are the more or less complete results\nof that intellectual exercise.\n\nThe act of meditating can take place but in the heart, where resides\nthe _mano_, or the faculty of knowing. Its object can never be but the\n_nam-damma_, literally the name of the thing; or, in other terms, the\nthings of a purely intellectual nature. But it can by no means happen\nin the seats of the other senses or organs, such as the eyes, the ears,\n&c., which are only channels to communicate impressions to the faculty of\n_mano_.\n\nThe constitutive parts of meditation are five in number. _Witteka_,\nthe action of raising the mind to an object; _Witzara_, the attentive\nconsideration of that object; _Piti_, the bringing of the soul and body\nto a state of satisfaction; _Suka_, the pleasure enjoyed in the thing\nconsidered; _Ekatta_, the perseverance or stability of the mind in\nthat object. There is also _Upekka_, which implies a greater and more\nintense degree of fixity of the mind, extending not only to one object in\nparticular, but to all things.\n\nIt may be called the absolute quietism of the soul, and the net result of\na complete course of general meditation on the universality of things. It\nis the last and highest point that can ever be reached.\n\nTo explain more fully the nature and definitions of the two first parts,\nour philosopher has recourse to the following comparison. Let us suppose\na man that has to cleanse a rusty copper vessel. With one hand he grasps\nthe vessel, and with the other he rubs it up and down, right and left.\nThis is exactly what is done by the means of Witteka and Witzara. The\nfirst gets hold of the object of meditation, and the second causes the\nmind to pass and repass over it, until it has perfectly seen it in all\nits particulars.\n\nThe third stage in the exercise of meditation is that of Piti, which\nconsists in a sort of transitory delectation, experienced by him who has\nreached that third step of mental labour. It produces on the whole frame\nthe following effects:\u2014It seems to him that is engaged in that exercise\nthat the hairs of his head stand on an end, so strong is the sensation\nhe then feels; at other times it produces in the soul sensations similar\nto that of the lightning that rends the atmosphere. Sometimes it is in a\ncommotion resembling that of mighty waves breaking on the shore; at other\ntimes the subject is, as it were, carried through the air, or only raised\nabove the ground, and occasionally it causes a chill running throughout\nall the limbs. When these results have been, through persevering efforts,\nrepeatedly experienced with an ever-increasing degree of intensity, the\nfollowing effects are attained:\u2014The body and the soul are completely\nrestrained, subdued, and composed; they are almost beyond the influence\nof concupiscence. Both acquire a remarkable lightness, so that the\nexercise of meditation offers no further trouble or labour; the natural\nrepugnance or opposition to self-recollection is done away with, then\nthe exercise of meditation becomes pleasing from the pleasurable state\nof the soul and body, and finally both parts are in a true and genuine\ncondition, so that what there was previously in them either vicious or\nopposed to truth disappears at once and vanishes away. Such are the\nvarious effects experienced by the soul that has reached the degree of\nPiti, or mental satisfaction.\n\nWhen the soul and body have thus been perfectly subdued, and freed from\nall that could wrongly affect them, the soul then reaches the state of\n_Suka_, that is to say, of perfect and permanent pleasure and inward\ndelight. The effects or results thereof are called _Samati_, or peace or\nquiescence of the soul. As a matter of course, that state of inward peace\nhas several degrees both as regards the time it lasts and the intensity\nof the affection. It lasts sometimes for a moment, or for a period of\nuncertain duration, as it happens when we reflect on some subject, or\nwe listen to a sermon. At other times its duration is longer; when, for\ninstance, we are about to enter into contemplation or ecstasy, and it\nlasts as long as we are in one of these states.\n\nFrom _Piti_ originates the _Samati-tseit_, the idea or consciousness of\ninward quiescence. It is the secondary cause of the real joy and delight,\nand is followed by an unshaken resolution to adhere to all the precepts\nof the law. It produces in the soul a certain freshness, expansion, and\nravishment in the practice of virtue. Such a state is illustrated by the\nfollowing comparison. A traveller has to go over a very difficult road;\nhe is exposed to an intense heat, and tormented with a burning thirst.\nLet us imagine the intensity of his delight when he finds himself on the\nbrink of a rivulet of clear and cool water; such is precisely the state\nof the soul under the influence of _Piti_. The state of _Suka_ follows it\nvery soon. It is exemplified by the condition of the traveller who has\nbeen perfectly refreshed and relieved from thirst and fatigue, and enjoys\nthe delightful and pleasurable effects resulting therefrom.\n\nThe last state or the crowning point to be arrived at by the means of\nmeditation is that of _Upekka_, or perfect fixity, whence originates\nan entire indifference to love or hatred, pleasure or pain. Passions\ncan no more affect the soul in that happy condition. But in this, as\nwell in the preceding states, there are several degrees, according to\nthe various objects it refers to. In the _Upekka_, relating to the five\nsenses, man is no more affected by beautiful or unseemly objects, by\nharsh or melodious sounds, &c. As to what refers to creatures, man has\nneither love nor dislike for them. Man obtains the state of _Upekka_,\nrelating to science or knowledge, by examining and considering all things\nthrough the medium of the three great principles, _aneitsa_, _duka_,\n_anatta_, that is to say, change, pain, and illusion. There is also\nthe _uirya upekka_; as when a man, after great struggles and efforts\nto obtain a certain object, sees that he cannot reach it, he becomes\nindifferent to it, and without trouble or the least disquiet gives up\nthe undertaking. There are many other effects of the Upekka mentioned\nby our author, the enumeration of which would prove tedious. What has\nbeen just stated is sufficient to afford a correct idea of the nature of\nthe highest state of meditation that the human mind can ever reach. The\nlast and most transcendent result of the condition of Upekka is this:\nwhen an individual, by successful exertions, has ascended to the top of\nthe spiritual ladder, there is a certain virtue that attracts everything\nto him. He becomes a centre to which all appear to converge. He is like\nthe central point of our planet, that ever remains distinct from the\nbodies it incessantly draws to itself. Seated in the centre of the most\ncomplete quietism, the sage contemplates, without the least effort, the\nunclouded truth that indefinitely unfolds itself before him. Hence, as\nour author observes, the sage that has reached the state of Upekka has\nno more to pass successively through the four preceding stages to be\nenabled to meditate; that is to say, he no more requires the help of\nthought, reflection, satisfaction, and pleasure. He is in the middle of\nthe cloudless atmosphere of truth which he enjoys, and therein remains as\nunmoved as truth itself.\n\nAs stated in the previous article, the observance of the precepts, or the\nperformance of exterior good actions, draws abundant rewards upon those\nwho faithfully comply with them. These rewards are bestowed either in the\nseat of man or in the six abodes of Nats, which we will agree to call the\nsix inferior heavens, where concupiscence as yet holds its empire.\n\nThe inward good deeds produced by the operation of the intellectual\nfaculties of the soul being of an incomparably greater value than the\nexternal ones, the recompense of the former is of a higher order than\nthat of the latter. Hence there are twenty superior heavens reserved to\nthe sages that have made progress in meditation.[49] The accounts of\nthe Buddhists respecting the extent of these seats, their respective\ndistance in a perpendicular direction, the myriads of centuries to stay\nin each of them, &c., are puerilities not worth attending to, and in\nno way belonging to the genuine and original Buddhism. They are the\ninventions in subsequent ages of individuals who wished to emulate their\nneighbours and rivals, the Hindus, at a time when the latter substituted\nthe gross and revolting idolatry of the Puranas for the purer doctrines\nof the Vedas. But what is directly to our purpose is the distinction\nof these twenty seats into two classes. The first comprises sixteen\nseats, under the designation of _Rupa_, or matter; the second includes\nfour seats, called _Arupa_, or immaterial abodes or conditions. Here\nare located on a grand and immense scale, according to their respective\nproficiency in science and meditation, the beings that have striven to\nadvance in knowledge by the exertion of the mental faculties. The general\nappellation given to each class bears a great meaning, and therefore\ndeserves explanation. In the sixteen seats of _Rupa_ are placed the\ncontemplatives who have as yet a body, and have not been hitherto able to\ndisengage themselves from some affection to matter. The subjects of their\nmeditations are still the beings inhabiting this material world, together\nwith some of the _Kathain_, or coarser portion of their being. But in\nthe four seats called _Arupa_, which terminate the series of Buddhist\nheavens, the contemplatives are destitute of shape and body; they are\nalmost brought to the condition of pure spirits. In their sublime and\nlofty flight in the regions of spiritualism, they seem to have bid a\nlast farewell to this world, and to be no longer concerned with material\nthings.\n\nLet us glance rapidly over these various seats, and pay a visit to the\nbeings that have been rewarded with a place in them, owing to their\ngreat proficiency in the mental exercise of meditation. We will begin\nwith the lowest seat, and from it successively ascend to the loftiest.\nWe must bear in remembrance that there are, as above stated, five\ndegrees of meditation or five parts, viz., perception, reflection,\nsatisfaction, happiness, and fixity. He who has been much exercised in\nthe first degree shall inhabit one of the three first seats of Rupa.\nThose who, leaving aside the first degree, shall delight in the second\nand third, shall inhabit, according to their respective progress, one\nof the three following seats. Those who take delight only in the fourth\ndegree, having no further aid of the three first parts, perception,\nconsideration, and satisfaction, shall be located in the seventh,\neighth, and ninth seats. When the fifth degree of Dzan, or meditation,\nhas been attained, that is to say, when a privileged contemplative\nis able to meditate and contemplate, without having recourse to the\nrepresentation and consideration of the object, without allowing himself\nto be influenced by pleasures or joy, then he has attained to the state\nof fixity and indifference; he occupies the tenth and eleventh seats.\nThe five remaining seats bear the collective name of _Thoodawata_, or\nabodes of the pure or perfect, that is to say, the dwelling-place of\nthose who have entered into the current of perfection. They are inhabited\nby the Kaliana Putadzans, and the four sorts of contemplatives called\nThautapan, Thakadagan, Anagan, and Rahandas. The latter have entered into\nthe _Thoda_, or current of perfection. The Thautapans and Thakadagans are\npure and exempt from all influence of demerits; the Anagans are delivered\nfrom the five concupiscences. The Rahandas are enjoying a perfect\nindifference for all. They are strangers to such language as this: I am\ngreat, I am greater, I am greatest. Such terms of comparison are but mere\nillusions; they are deceitful sounds that confuse, distract, and bewilder\nthe ignorant.\n\nAbove the _Thoodawata_ seats are the four called _Arupa_, or immaterial.\nThe denizens of these places first recognise that the miseries attending\nman in this world have their origin in the body. They then conceive\nthe utmost disgust and horror for it; they long for the dissolution of\nthis agent to all wickedness. So great is their horror for bodies and\nmatter, that they no longer select them for subjects of meditation;\nthey endeavour to cross beyond the limits of materiality, and launch\nforth into the boundless space, where this material world does not seem\nto reach. The inhabitants of the first seat have assumed for their\nsubject of meditation the _Akasa_, the air, the fluid of the atmosphere,\nor the space. Those of the second meditate on the _Winiana_, or the\nspirit, or life of beings, taken in an abstract sense; those of the\nthird contemplate the _Akintzi_, or immensity; those of the fourth,\n_Newathagnia_, lose themselves in the infinity.\n\nBy what mental process has the sage to pass in order to reach the\nfirst degree of sublime contemplation? He will have to begin with the\nconsideration of the form of some material object, say one of the four\nelements. Let him afterwards set aside those _Kathain_, or material\nportions of the element brought under consideration, and occupy his mind\nwith the ether, or fluid, or space; the former, that is to say, the\nkathain, shall disappear to give place to something divested of all those\ncoarser forms, and the mind shall be fixed only on the _akatha_. The sage\nthen shall repeat ten hundred thousand times these words,\u2014The space or\nair is infinite, until there will appear at last the first _tseit_, or\nidea of _arupa_. In a similar manner, the _tseit akan_, or the idea of\nconformity with purpose, disappears; then begins the science of _upekka_,\nor indifference, with its four degrees; the idea that then succeeds is\nprecisely that of _akasa ananda_, or infinite ether, or space. This\nunintelligible mental process is explained by a comparison. If they\nshut with a white cloth the opening of a window, the persons inside the\nroom, turning their eyes in the direction of the opening, see nothing\nbut the white cloth. Should the cloth be suddenly removed, they perceive\nnothing but that portion of the space corresponding with the extent of\nthe window. The piece of cloth represents the material forms, that are\nthe subjects of meditation, or contemplation, of those living in the\nseats of _Rupa_; the free opening of the window exemplifies the subjects\nof contemplation reserved to the first class of _arupa_. Having reached\nso far, the contemplative soon feels the utmost disgust for all material\nforms, and is entirely delivered from the three _Thagnia_, or false\npersuasions, supplied by matter, by the action of the senses, and by the\nresult of merits and demerits. He is displeased with all the coarser\nforms of beings. The action of the contemplative has its sphere in the\n_mano_, or seat of knowledge. The ideas originating from the action of\nthe senses have no share in that purely intellectual labour. In that\nstate, the sage has fallen into a condition of so perfect abstraction,\nthat all the accidents on the part of the elements can produce no effect\nover him. The action of the senses is completely suspended during all\nthe time that the contemplation lasts. In fact this is nothing else but\n_thamabat_, or ecstasy.\n\nThe same course of meditation must be followed by the sages inhabiting\nthe other three seats; only the object to be contemplated will be\ndifferent.\n\nHaving explained the important subject of meditation, endeavoured to\nshow the different parts or degrees of that intellectual exercise, and\ngiven a faint outline of the recompenses bestowed on those that have\ndistinguished themselves by proficiency in that exercise, we have now\nto follow our author, and, with him, make ourselves acquainted with the\nprincipal subjects that attract the attention of the contemplative.\n\n\nARTICLE III.\n\nOF THE NATURE OF BEINGS.\n\nThe Buddhist philosopher, in his earnest prosecution after the antidote\nof ignorance, that is, science, rightly states that all beings, and\nman, in particular, must ever be the first and most interesting subject\nthe sage has to study. The knowledge of man in particular constitutes\na most important portion of the science he must acquire, ere he can\nbecome a perfect being, and be deemed worthy to be admitted to the state\nof Neibban. In the very limited sketch of this part of the work under\nconsideration, the attention of the reader will be directed on man as\nthe most interesting of all beings. With our Buddhist author, therefore,\nhe will take human beings as the subject of his investigations.\nProvided with the philosophical dissecting knife, he will anatomise\nall the component parts of that extraordinary being, whose nature has\never presented an insoluble problem to ancient sages. What is to be\nsaid on this subject will be sufficient to convey a correct idea of the\nmode of reasoning and arguing followed by Buddhist philosophers, when\nthey analyse other beings and select them for the subjects of their\nmeditations.\n\nAt the very beginning, our author proclaims this great maxim: All beings\nliving in the three worlds, heaven, earth, and hell, have in themselves\nbut two things or attributes, _Rupa_ and _Nam_, form and name. Accustomed\nas we are to a language that expresses clear and distinct notions, we\nwould like to hear him say, in nature there are but two things, matter\nand spirit. But such is not the language of Buddhists, and I apprehend\nthat were we giving up their somewhat extraordinary, and, to us, unusual\nway of expressing their ideas, we could not come to a correct knowledge\nof the notions they entertain respecting the nature of man. Let us allow\nour author to speak for himself, and, as much as possible, express\nhimself in his own way. By _rupa_, we understand form and matter; that\nis to say, all that is liable _per se_ to be destroyed by the agency of\nsecondary causes. _Nam_, or _nama_, is the thing, the nature of which\nis known to the mind by the instrumentality of _mano_, or the knowing\nprinciple. In the five aggregates constituting man, viz., materiality or\nform, the organs of sensation, of perception, of consciousness, and those\nof intellect, there is nothing else to be found but form and name. We\nare at once brought to this materialist conclusion, that in man we can\ndiscover no other element but that of form and that of name.\n\nTo convey a sort of explanation of this subject, our author gives here\na few notions respecting the six senses. I say six senses, because with\nhim, besides the five ordinary senses, he mentions the _mano_, or the\nknowing principle that resides in the heart, as one of the senses. The\norgans or faculties of seeing, hearing, feeling, tasting, smelling, and\nknowing, he calls the inward senses. These same organs, as they come in\ncontact with exterior objects, are called exterior senses. The faculty\ninherent in each of the senses whereby is operated the action between\nthe organ and its object is designated by the appellation of the life\nof the senses, as, for instance, the eye seeing, the ear hearing, &c.\nIn this treble mode of considering the senses, what do we meet with but\nform and name, ideas and matter? Supposing the organ of seeing to exist,\nand an object to be seen, there will necessarily result, as an essential\nconsequence, the perception or idea of such a thing. Even as regards the\n_mano_, where there exists the heart on one side, and truth on the other,\nthere will follow immediately the idea or perception of truth.\n\nThis materialist doctrine, if the meaning of our author be accurately\nunderstood, is further confirmed by the method he proposes for carrying\non the investigation respecting the nature of things. He who desires\nto penetrate deeply into such a sublime science must have recourse to\nthe help of meditation. Having selected an object, he considers it by\nthe means of _witekka_. He passes successively through the ideas and\nimpressions he derives from the contemplation of such an object. He\nthen says to himself: the ideas obtained by means of _witekka_, or the\nfirst degree of dzan, or meditation, are nothing but _nam-damma_, since\ntheir nature is to offer themselves to the _arom_, as the thought to its\nobject. But where is the seat of that _arom_? It resides in the substance\nof the heart, which, in reality, affords asylum both to it and to the\n_nam-damma_. It is nowhere else to be found. But what is the heart?\nWhence does it come? By what is it formed? To these three questions we\nanswer, that the heart is composed of the four elements. It is but one\nand the same thing with them. This startling doctrine is explicit, and\nexcludes at once the idea of a spiritual substance.\n\nOur author has now reached the elements of the parts constituting all\nthat exists with a form. He boldly asserts that all that has an existence\nis but an aggregate of earth, water, fire, and air; all the forms are but\nmodifications and combinations of the four elements. The bare enumeration\nof this general principle is not sufficient to satisfy our philosopher.\nHe wishes to know and explain the reason of everything. Here begins an\nanalysis entirely unknown to our chemists and philosophers of the west.\nThe body is divided into thirty-two parts, which are often enumerated\nin formulas of prayer by pious Buddhists. Each of these thirty-two\nparts is subdivided into forty-four. The hair, how slender soever it\nappears, is submitted to that minute analysis. The result of this subtle\ndivision is to show what is the proportion of each element that enters\ninto the formation of these atomical parts. We have not the patience\nto write down these uninteresting details, nor do we believe that the\nreader will be displeased if we spare him the trouble of going over such\nworthless nomenclature. There is another division of matter, or body,\ninto forty-two parts, called _akan_. This is based upon the distinction\nof the four elements that enter unequally into the formation of the body;\ntwenty parts belong to the earth, twelve to water, six to fire, and six\nto wind. Then again the body is divided into sixty parts; the division\nis based upon the distinction of the ten constitutive parts belonging to\neach of the senses, as it will be hereafter explained. The object which\nBuddhist philosophers have in view in entering into so many divisions and\nsubdivisions of the forms of the body is to prove, in their opinion to\ndemonstration, that, by the nicest analysis of every part of the body,\nwe find in the end nothing but the primary elements that are called the\nsupports of all that exist.\n\nWe have now to follow our author through a path more difficult than the\npreceding one, and hear him explain the theory of ideas and their various\nmodifications. These, says he, are known, not by their forms, since they\nhave none, but only by their name. Through the practice of reflection\nand meditation we become acquainted with them. We call them _arupa\ndamma_, things without a form or shape. They are designated under the\nname of _tseit_ and _tsedathit_,[50] that is to say, ideas and the result\nof ideas. Where are these ideas to be met? Where have they their seat?\nIn the six senses and nowhere else, is the answer. Having already become\nacquainted with the organs of the senses, it will be easy to find out the\nideas that are as the tenants of the senses.\n\nAll the _tseits_ inhabiting the organs of sense are called _loki\ntseit_, that is to say, ideas of the world, because they are to be met\nwith in all the beings as yet subjected to concupiscence. They are\ndistinct from _lokoudra tseits_, which belong properly to the beings\nfree from passions, and who have entered into the four _megga_, or ways\nto perfection. The _tseits_ of this world are eighty-one in number,\nclassified as follows: the perception of each of the five organs, and the\nperception of the respective faculties of those organs. This gives ten\ntseits. There are three for the sense of the heart, the perception of the\nsubstance of the heart, of its faculty of knowing, and of the object of\nits knowledge.\n\nEach of the six senses has ten constitutive forms or parts, viz.: earth,\nwater, fire, air, colour, odour, taste, fluid, life, and the body\nattached primitively thereto. Now there is an action from each of these\nforms upon the subject. Thence ten _tseits_ to each of the six senses.\n\nThere are no words so ill defined and so ill understood by our\nphilosopher as the two words Tseit and Tsedathit. The first in a moral\nsense means idea, thought, perception, etc.; in a physical sense it means\nthat secondary cause created by _kan_, producing the living being, the\nsenses wherein reside the moral _tseit_. Tsedathit, being the result of\nideas, must, of course, have likewise two meanings. In the first place it\nwill designate the impressions made upon us by ideas; in the second, it\nwill mean the secondary cause or life in the body, or the modifications\nof the principles of corporeal life.\n\nThis being premised, we may a little understand our author when he says:\nThere are seven _tsedathits_ existing at the same time as the eighty-one\nabove-mentioned _tseits_, viz.: _pasa tsedathit_, so called because it\nis the real effect of the tsedathit to attain its object, and, as it\nwere, to touch it. We may call it the agreement between the idea and\nits object. _Wedana tsedathit_, the feeling of the impression of an\nidea; _thagnia tsedathit_, the comprehension of the object; _dzetana\ntsedathit_, the inclination for the object; _eketa tsedathit_, the\nfixity on the object; _dziwi-teindre tsedathit_, the observance of what\nrelates to form and name; and _mana sikaramana tsedathit_, consciousness.\nIt is evident, therefore, that the tsedathit is neither the idea nor the\nobject of the idea, but the result from the idea that has come in contact\nwith an object. These seven results are, if we may say so, the third part\nof the idea. They do not give occasion to modifications of ideas. But\nthose which really give rise to the greatest variety of results are the\n_akuso tsedathit_, or the results of evil thoughts and ideas, and their\nopposite, or _kuso tsedathit_, or the consequence of good and virtuous\nthoughts. To mention here all the _kuso_ and _akuso tsedathit_ would be\nbut a dry exposition of the nomenclature of the vices and virtues, such\nas is met with in the catalogues of Buddhist moralists. They are all\nenumerated in the preceding note.\n\n\nARTICLE IV.\n\nOF THE CAUSE OF THE FORM[51] AND OF THE NAME, OR OF MATTER AND SPIRIT.\n\nThe duty of our intelligence is to investigate the cause of all the\nmodifications of forms and names. This being effected, we are delivered\nfrom all doubts and disquietude. When we perceive such a form, such an\nidea, &c., we are able forthwith to account for its causes. In this study\nwe must copy the conduct of the physician, who, when attending a patient,\nsits by his bedside, closely examines the nature of the distemper and the\ncauses that have given rise to it, in order to find out counteracting\nagents or remedies to check its progress at first, and gradually to\nuproot it from the constitution. In the moral order, the philosopher\ntoo has to examine the nature of all moral distempers, ascertain the\nprinciples or causes they spring from, and thereby become qualified to\ncure those disorders.\n\nThe beings that inhabit the three worlds, says our author, must have a\ncause. To say that they exist of themselves and without a cause is an\nabsurdity. The very dissimilarity we observe among them indicates that\ntheir mode of existence results from certain causes. We, however, cannot\nagree with our antagonists, the Brahmins, who maintain that Maha Brahma\nis the cause of all that exists. This being is not out of the circle of\nRupa and Nam; he is himself a compound of Nam and Rupa, that is to say,\neffect but not cause. In vain our opponents will add that all that is\ndistinct of Maha Brahma is subjected to a cause, but that the Rupa and\nNam, constituting his essence, are without a cause. This is removing\nthe difficulty a little further, without advancing a step towards its\nsolution; our answer must ever be the same.\n\nBefore expounding the opinions of our philosopher on this important\nsubject, it is necessary to state the views entertained by that class of\nphilosophers whose doctrines appear to have taken root in these parts.\nIt is easy to perceive that they are modifications of the opinion of the\nHindus on the same subject, and akin to that respecting the Adi Buddha,\nor supreme Buddha.\n\nSome doctors maintain that there is a first cause or being that has\nmade matter and spirit. Others, admitting the eternal co-existence of\nmatter and of the supreme being, say that he is the remote cause of the\norganisation of matter, as we at present see it. But all agree in this,\nthat no one can ever come to the knowledge of that first cause, and it is\nimpossible ever to have an idea of it. Hence it is the height of folly\nand rash presumption to attempt to come to the knowledge of what is\nplaced beyond the range of human investigation. It behoves us to apply\nall the powers of the mind to discover the immediate cause that certainly\nproduces existence.\n\nThe sage, to be worthy of his sublime calling, must remain satisfied\nwith striving to find out that immediate cause which brings into action\nthe form and name, and causes the appearance of all those modifications\nwhich we call beings or forms of existence. He ought to strive to account\nfor the organisation of matter and all its modifications, by discovering\nthe hidden spring that effectually sets all in motion, in action, in\ncombination of existences.\n\nNow, our author puts this important question: What thing is to be\nconsidered as the mover of the forms and ideas? We know, says he, that\nthe human body has its beginning in the womb of the mother; we are\nacquainted with its position in that f\u0153tid and narrow prison; its being\nsurrounded with nerves, veins, &c., having above it the new elements,\nand under it the old ones. The manner in which the body originates in\nthe womb much resembles the process by which worms and insects are\nformed in rotten substances, and in putrid and stagnant water. But\nthis is not accounting for the real cause of living bodies. The real\ncauses, according to some doctors, are five in number, viz., ignorance,\nconcupiscence, desire, _kan_ (the influence of merits and demerits),\nand _ahan_ (the aliments). They concur together in the formation of the\nliving body in the following manner. Ignorance, concupiscence, and desire\ngive asylum to the body, as the mother supplies the infant with a refuge\nin her womb. Kan, like the father, is the cause productive of the body.\nAhan affords nourishment to the body.\n\nThe ideas are but the result of the formation of the organs of senses.\nLet us suppose, for instance, the organ of seeing. The _Tsekkou Wignian_,\nthat is to say, the life of the eyes, or the ideas connected with the use\nof that sense, presupposes two things, the organ and a form or an object\non which the organ acts. These existing, there necessarily result the\nidea of vision, the perception, &c., in a word, all the ideas arising\nfrom the action of the eyes upon various objects. The same mode of\narguing is employed relatively to the other five senses.\n\nOther philosophers argue in the following way. The primary causes of all\nideas and thoughts are disposed under two heads, that of ideas which\nhave a fixed place, and that of those that have no fixed place. Under\nthe first head are comprised the six _Ayatana_, or seats of senses, and\nthe six _Arom_, or the objects of senses. Thence flow all the ideas and\nconsequences that relate to merit and demerit. Under the second head\nare placed the causes or agents that produce ideas and thoughts, the\nexercise of the intellect holding the first rank. He who applies his\nmind to the meditation of what is good, such as the commands and other\nparts of the most excellent law, and labours to find out that all that\nis in this world is subjected to change, pain, and illusion, opens at\nonce the door to the coming in of the _tseit_, or ideas connected with\nmerit. On the other hand, the application of the mind to things bad and\nerroneous, contrary to the prescriptions of the holy law, generates the\nidea of demerit. Such are the causes of the ideas and thoughts. As to\nthe cause of form, they assert that _kan_, _tseit_, fire, and _ahan_\nare the sole agents in the formation of the living body. Kan, as the\nworkman, makes the body and sets in it all that relates to its good and\nbad qualities. The _tseit_, seventy-five in number, are also principles\nof the existence of the body, of which forty-four are called Kamawatzara\ntseit; they relate to the demerit and merit of those who are still under\nthe influence of concupiscence; fifteen _rupa_ watzara tseit, relating\nto beings in the seats of rupa; eight _arupa_ watzara tseit, relating to\nthose in the seats of arupa; eight _lokoudara_ tseit, relating to the\nbeings that have entered on the four ways of perfection. The _Tedzo-dat_,\nor the element of fire, contributes its share by the head and rays of\nlight, and _ahan_ by supplying the required aliments.\n\nSome other philosophers account for the causes of form and ideas\nfollowing this course of argument. The form and ideas that constitute\nall beings are liable to miseries, old age, and death, because there is\ngeneration and death. Generation exists because there are worlds, worlds\nexist because there is desire, desire exists because there are organs,\norgans exist because there are form and name, form and name exist because\nthere are concepts, concepts exist because there is merit and demerit,\nmerit and demerit exist because there is ignorance. The latter is,\nindeed, the real cause of all forms and ideas. There is no doubt but this\nlatter opinion is the favourite one with our author. It is based upon the\ntheory of the twelve Nidanas, or causes and effects, and appears to be\nthe orthodox opinion, and bears the stamp of great antiquity.\n\nHaving thus accounted in the best way he could for the existence of all\nthat relates to the beings in the three worlds, our author fondly dwells\non the benefits that accrue from the knowledge of causes. It dissipates\nall the doubts that had previously darkened the mind; it quiets all the\nanxieties of the heart, and affords perfect peace. For want of it, the\nimpious fall from one error into another; the disciples of Buddha are\nchiefly perfected by its help.\n\nWe read in the Buddhist scriptures that a Brahmin went to consult Buddha\non some points that much perplexed his mind. He said to him, \u201cI am beset\nwith doubts respecting the past, the present, and the future. Respecting\nthe past, I ask myself, Have I passed through former generations or\nnot? What was my condition during those existences? My answer is, I am\nignorant on all those points. What was my position previous to those\ngenerations? I know it not. As to the present, is it true that I exist?\nor is my existence but an illusion? Shall I have to be born again or not?\nWhat are those living beings that surround me at present? Are they but so\nmany illusions which deceive me by their appearance of reality? On these\npoints I am sunk in complete ignorance. The future is likewise full of\ndoubts and most perplexing uncertainties. Shall I have other generations\nor not? What shall be my condition during these coming existences? A\nthick veil hides from my eyes all that concerns my future destiny. What\nare the means to clear up all those doubts that encompass me on all\nsides?\u201d\n\nBuddha said to him, \u201cReflect first on this main point, that what we are\nwont to call self, or _moi_, is nothing but name and form\u2014that is to say,\na compound of the four elements, which undergoes perpetual changes under\nthe action or influence of _Kan_. Having acquired the conviction of the\ntruth of this principle, it remains with you to investigate carefully\nthe causes which produce both name and form. This simple examination\nwill lead you at once to the perfect solution of all your doubts. Behold\nthe difference that exists between the holders of false doctrines and\nthe true believers. The former, whom we may almost call animals, never\ntake the trouble to examine the nature of beings or the causes of their\nexistence. They are stubbornly attached to their false theories, and\npersist in saying that what the ignorant, delivered up to illusion, are\nused to call an animal, a king, a subject, a foot, and a hand, &c., is\nreally an animal, a king, a subject, a foot, and a hand, &c.; whilst\nall living beings and their component parts are nothing else but name\nand form\u2014that is to say, a compound made up of the four elements. Those\nimpious are delivered up to error; hence it happens that they follow all\ndifferent ways. We reckon among them more than sixty different sects, all\nat variance among themselves, but all uniting in a common obstinacy to\nreject the true doctrine of Buddha. They are doomed to move incessantly\nwithin the circle of endless and wretched existences.\n\n\u201cHow different is the condition of the true believers, our followers!\nThey know that the living beings inhabiting the world have a beginning.\nBut they are sensible of the folly of attempting to reach this beginning\nor first cause. This is above the capacity of the loftiest intelligence.\nIt is evident, for instance, that the seeds of plants and trees, which\nare continually in a state of reproduction, have a beginning; but what\nthat beginning is, no one presumes to determine. So it is with man and\nall living beings. They know well, too, that what is vulgarly called man,\nwoman, eyes, mouth, are all illusory distinctions, vanishing away in the\npresence of the sage, who sees nothing in all that but name and form,\nthe production of Kan and Wibek, that is to say, of the first and second\ncauses. These two things are not the man and the woman, &c., but they are\nthe efficient causes of both. What we say respecting man and woman may be\napplied to animals and to all other beings. They are all the productions\nor results of Kan and Wibek, quite as distinct from these two agents as\neffect is distinct from its cause. To explain this doctrine, Buddhists\nhave recourse to the comparison of a burning-glass. When there is such\nan instrument in one hand, and the rays of the sun pass through it to\nthe other, fire is then produced; but fire is quite distinct from the\ntwo causes that have concurred jointly in producing it. Our disciples,\ntoo, are aware that the five _khandas_, or aggregates constituting a\nliving being, succeed each other at each generation, but in such a way\nthat the second generation partakes or retains nothing of the _khandas_\nof the first. But the causes producing them\u2014such as Kan and Wibek\u2014never\nchange; they ever remain the same. Let us suppose lamps lighted up. If\nthey burn always, it is owing to the action of individuals that supply\nthem with oil, and light them as soon as they are extinguished. Such is\nthe condition of the _khandas_. Those which belong to one existence have\nno more in common with those of the following one than the fire of the\nlamp just lighted anew has with that of the fire of the lamp that has\njust died away. As to the way beings are reproduced, we say that when\na man is dying, the last _tseit_ having appeared and soon disappeared,\nit is succeeded forthwith by the _patti_ tseit or the tseit of the new\nexistence; the interval between both is so short that it can scarcely\nbe appreciated. This first _tseit_ has nothing in common with the last\none. It is, let it be well remembered, the production of _kan_, or of the\ninfluence of merits and demerits, as well as the _khandas_ above alluded\nto.\u201d\n\nThis article is by far the most important of all. The latter part, in\nparticular, elucidates in a distinct manner the genuine opinions of\nBuddhism on points of the greatest concern. We may sum up the whole as\nfollows:\u2014\n\n1. There is a first cause that has acted in bringing into being all that\nexists; but that first cause is unknown, nor can we ever come to the\nknowledge of it.\n\n2. The immediate causes of all the modifications of beings, or states of\nbeing, are ignorance and _kan_.\n\n3. All beings are but compounds of the four elements. The intellectual\noperations are carried on by the instrumentality of the heart, in the\nsame manner as vision is obtained by the means of the eye and of an\nobject to act upon.\n\n4. Each succeeding existence is brought on and modified by the action of\nKan, or the influence of merits and demerits.\n\n5. The component parts of a new being are in no way connected with\nthose of the previous being. This is the key to the difficulty many\npersons find in accounting, in a Buddhistic sense, for the process of\nmetempsychosis. A new term ought to be coined to express that doctrine.\n\n6. The question respecting Neibban may be theoretically resolved without\ndifficulty, by application of the principles contained in this and the\npreceding article. There is no doubt that the solution forced upon the\nmind from what has been above stated is that the end of the perfected\nbeing is annihilation. Horrifying as this conclusion is, it is not, after\nall, worse than that which is the terminus of the theories of some modern\nschools. What an abyss is the poor human mind liable to fall into when it\nceases to be guided by Revelation!\n\n\nARTICLE V.\n\nOF THE TRUE MEGGAS OR WAYS TO PERFECTION.\n\nThe subject under consideration is a very important one. It comprehends\nand comprises a summary of many particulars already alluded to in the\nforegoing two articles. The reader will find the path he has to follow\nless rugged, and the ground he will have to go over not so arid.\n\nOur author seems to lay great stress on this special point. The sage,\nsays he, who is desirous to arrive at the supreme perfection, must apply\nall the powers of his mind to discern the true ways from the false ones.\nMany are deceived in the midst of their researches after wisdom. The real\ncriterion between the true and false ways is this: when, in considering\nan object, and making a philosophical analysis of it, the sage finds\nit somehow connected with concupiscence and other passions so far that\nhe cannot, as it were, dissolve it by the application of the three\nprinciples of aneitsa, duka, and anatta\u2014that is to say, change, pain,\nand illusion, then he must conclude that he is out of the right ways;\nthe high road to perfection is barred before him. But on the contrary,\nwhenever, by the appliance of the three great principles, he sees that\nall the objects brought under his consideration are nothing more or less\nthan the mere compound of the four elements, divested of these illusory\nappearances which deceive so many, then he may be certain that he is\nin the right position, and is sure of making progress in the way to\nperfection.\n\nTo facilitate the study of the _Meggas_, Buddhists have classified all\nreal and imaginary beings under a certain number of heads. The sage, to\ncomplete his laborious task, has to examine separately each of these\nsubjects and submit them to the following lengthened, difficult, and\ncomplicated process. He takes up one subject, attentively considers its\nexterior and interior compound parts, its connection and relation with\nother things, its tendency to adhere to or part with surrounding objects.\nPursuing his inquiries into the past, he endeavours to make himself\nacquainted with the state and condition of that object during several\nperiods that have elapsed; when his mind is satisfied on this point he\nfollows up in future the same object, and calculates from the experience\nof the past what change it may hereafter become subjected to. This study\nenables him to perceive distinctly that it is subjected to the three\ngreat laws of mutability, pain, and illusion. This conviction once deeply\nseated in his soul, the sage holds that object in supreme contempt; far\nfrom having any affection for or attachment to it, he feels an intense\ndisgust at it, and longs for the possession of Neibban, which is the\nexemption from the influence of mutability, pain, and illusion.\n\nWhat we have now stated is tolerably clear and intelligible; but what\nfollows is less evident. It partakes of that obscurity and complication\nso peculiar to Buddhist metaphysics. This state of things is created and\nmaintained chiefly by a mania for divisions and subdivisions that would\nhave puzzled even the schoolmen of the middle ages. We have to listen to\nwhat our author says respecting the method to be observed in carrying on\nthe great examination of all subjects of investigation. If that labour be\npatiently and perseveringly prosecuted until all the objects of inquiry\nbe exhausted, ample and magnificent shall be the reward for such labours.\nThe sage will be in possession of the perfect science; Neibban will\nappear to him; he will long for it, and unremittingly shape his course in\nits direction: in a word, he shall have reached the acme of perfection.\nSeated on that lofty position, enjoying a perfect calm in the bosom of\nabsolute quietism, the sage is beyond the reach of passions; there is no\nillusion for him; he has cut the last thread of future generations by the\ndestruction of the influence of merits and demerits; he has obtained\nthe deliverance from all miseries; he has reached the peaceful shores of\nNeibban. But such a prize is not easily obtained; it is to be purchased\nonly at the expense of an immense amount of lasting and strenuous mental\nexertion.\n\nThe sage, agreeably to the old and always true saying, Know thyself,\nvery properly begins his mightily difficult task with the examination\nof the five aggregates constituting a living being, the organs of the\nsix senses, and all that relates to them. Then he applies himself to the\nstudies of the five Dzan, or the parts of meditation and contemplation,\nand to all that is connected with the seats of Rupa and Arupa. All the\nobjects of examination ranged on that scale are 600 in number. We shall\nrapidly glance over this table, indicating but the heads of the principal\ndivisions.\n\nWe ought not to forget that the five aggregate, or _khandas_,\nconstituting a living being, are form, sensation, perception,\nconsciousness, and intellect. Supposing that we take the first of those\nattributes as subject of examination. We must represent it to the mind,\ncarefully examine it in all its bearings and properties, respecting the\npast, the present, and the future. We must proceed on and bring it in\ncontact with the three great principles of aneitsa, duka, and anatta,\nand inquire whether form be changeable or not, passive or impassive,\ntransient or permanent. We thereby acquire the knowledge of the following\ngreat truth; viz., form is essentially liable to change, pain, and\nillusion. The examination of each of the four other attributes is\nproceeded on in a like manner, and a similar result ensues.\n\nThe six organs of the senses come next under consideration. These are\nthe eyes, the ears, the nose, the tongue, the body, or rather the skin\nthat envelops it, and the heart in a physical sense, and _mano_ in a\nmoral one. Each of the six senses partakes of the eleven conditions\nor attributes we are about to describe; and each of these eleven\nattributes being brought successively into relation with each of the six\nsenses, must be considered, as above stated, under the treble relation\nto mutability, pain, and illusion. This will supply the inquirer with\na good amount of information. But to shorten this long enumeration, we\nwill mention now successively those eleven attributes the senses may\nbe affected by, and make the application of all to one of the senses,\nthe eye. The same process may be easily repeated for each of the other\nsenses. Nothing is to be changed but the name of the sense that has\nbecome the subject of examination.\n\n1. _Ayatana_, the door, the opening of each of the senses. Applied to the\neye, it is the opening through which exterior sensations are communicated\nto the heart by the organ of seeing.\n\n2. _Arom_, the object of each of the senses. With regard to the eye, it\nis the appearance or form perceived by the eye; with respect to the ear,\nit is the sound.\n\n3. _Winian_, the action of perceiving and knowing. Applied to the eyes,\nit is the eye seeing and perceiving, or the sight.\n\n4. _Phasa_, literally the feeling or coming in contact with objects,\napplied to each of the senses. With the eye, it is the passive and\nactive impression it derives from the objects it considers, and which it\nconveys to the heart. With the ear it is the impression it receives, and\nsimilarly communicates to the heart.\n\n5. _Wedana_, the sensation of pain or pleasure obtained through the\nsenses. With the eye it is the sensation created by the sight of objects\nperceived by the eye, and communicated to the heart.\n\n6. _Thangia_, the idea or persuasion resulting from the six senses, or,\naccording to some doctors, the identity of the appearance with reality.\nWith the eye, it is the conviction we have that such an object, perceived\nby the eyes, is round or square, &c., according to the impressions\nreceived by that organ.\n\n7. _Dzetana_, the inclination or rather adhesion to good or bad,\nconsequently to the impressions received from each of the six senses.\n\n8. _Tahna_, concupiscence originating from the impressions of\nagreeableness communicated by the six senses.\n\n9. _Witeka_, the idea or representation of objects to the mind through\nthe agency of the senses.\n\n10. _Witzara_, the consideration of the objects offered to the mind by\nthe instrumentality of the senses.\n\n11. _Dat_, the matter or elements of the six senses, or, to speak the\nlanguage of our author, that on which the organs rest, that which\nsupports them.\n\nAfter the examination of the senses and of the eleven subjects just\nrelated, we find the almost boundless field of inquiry to expand in\nproportion as we appear to make rapid progress. Then come successively\nfor examination: 1. The ten _Kasaings_, or the ten parts or elements\nto be found in each part of a living being, viz., earth, water, fire,\ncolour, odour, flavour, and grease, to which we add the _Dziwa_ or life,\nand that of the organ to which belongs the part under consideration. 2.\nThe thirty-two _Akan_, or thirty-two parts of the living body, of which\nthe first are the hairs, the beard, the nails, the teeth, &c. 3. The\ntwelve _Ayatana_, or seats of the six senses. Each sense is double, as\nfar as it is considered in a double capacity, that of receiving and that\nof transmitting the impressions. 4. The eighteen _Dat_, or matter of\nthe six senses. The organs afford six _Dat_; the objects that act upon\nthe organs supply six other _Dat_; and the last six are afforded by the\nobjects submitted to the action of the senses. 5. The twenty-two _indre_,\nor faculties or capabilities of the organs. Each organ has three.\nThe eye, for instance, is capable of receiving an impression and of\ntransmitting it; the eye really receives and transmits impressions. The\n_mano_, or heart, being a double organ, has six faculties; three if it\nbe considered physically, and three if morally or intellectually. 6. The\nnine _Bon_, or seats occupied by the Brahmas. 7. The five _Rupa Dzan_,\nor degrees of contemplation proper to the Brahmas who have a form. 8. The\nfour _Megga_, or ways that lead near to Neibban. They are followed by the\nBrahmas occupying the four superior seats of _Rupa_. 9. The _Arupa Dzan_,\nor contemplation proper to those who inhabit the four immaterial seats.\n10. The nineteen _Damma_. This word means what we know as certain by the\nuse of our mental faculties. When the _mano_, by a right use of its three\nfaculties, has freed itself from the principle of illusion and error,\nthen there will be the sixteen virtues or good qualities, known by the\nname of _Phola_ and _Megga_. 11. Finally, the twelve _Patan_, or elements\nthat are in the _mano_, which constitute the memory, and enable man to\nremember, and silently repeat the impressions transmitted by the senses.\n\nSuch is the immense extent of observations the sage has to range for\nobtaining the perfect science. This task is truly an Herculean one; very\nfew can perform it.\n\nBefore coming to the last article, the writer will make a remark tending\nto show that there is more of the analytic spirit in all what is told\nus by Buddhist philosophers respecting those abstruse subjects than one\nmay be tempted to give them credit for. We have seen that the number\nof precepts and counsels is almost countless, yet it is agreed by all\ndoctors that the five general precepts are the basis of all, and that he\nwho observes them in all their bearings is as much advanced in the path\nof righteousness as can be expected. Again, Buddhists can never exhaust\nthe stores of all that they have to say about the mental operations and\nmeditation. Yet all is summed up in the comparatively short doctrine\nof _tseit_ and _tsedathit_. The living beings are by them infinitely\nmodified, yet after all we find everything condensed in two words, Nama\nand Rupa. The theory respecting the generation of beings and their mutual\ndependence upon each other is a boundless field. We find, however,\nthat, after all, _kan_, or the influence of merits and demerits, is\nthe sole cause of and agent in the existence and modification of all\nbeings. Mental operations are numbered by hundreds, but the six senses\nare, after all, the foundation on which that enumeration is raised. The\ngeneral principles and primary ideas of all these metaphysical theories\ndoubtless belong to genuine and early Buddhism. But such plain and\nelementary principles having been got hold of by heads of philosophical\nschools, and worked upon in their intellectual laboratory, there have\ncome out therefrom at various periods those theories which have given to\nthe doctrines of Buddhism so many different hues, and at the same time\ncontributed so much to puzzle and torment the European student.\n\n\nARTICLE VI.\n\nOF THE PROGRESS IN PERFECT SCIENCE.\n\nIn the preceding article we have reviewed the whole scale of beings, and\nanalysed summarily some of them, merely to show the way to the general\nanalysis of all others. The ultimate result of such an investigation is\nto acquire the conviction that all beings are subjected to mutability,\npain, and illusion. This conviction, once seated in the soul, generates\na generous contempt for such miserable objects. In this article we must\nsee by what means this philosophical sentiment may be firmly rooted\nin the soul, and man may finally entertain a thorough disgust for all\ncreatures, even for his own body. This loathsomeness for all that exists\nis immediately followed up by an ardent desire of becoming free and\ndisentangled from all the ties and trammels that encompass other beings.\nWhen a man has become familiar with such a conviction to the extent\nthat his thoughts, desires, and actions are entirely regulated by its\nimmediate influence, he is free from the errors that deceive almost all\nother beings; he sees things as they are in their nature, and appreciates\nthem by their real value. He estranges himself from them. He is in mind\nin the state of Neibban, until death will complete outwardly what was\nalready existing inwardly in his mind.\n\nWe are all aware, says our author, that the principle of instability\npervades all that exists in hell, on earth, and in the superior seats.\nBut this important science is with many too superficially and but\nimperfectly understood. Our great object is to root it deeply in our\nmind, so that we might ever be preserved from those false impressions\nwhich too often tempt us to believe that mutability and changes are\nnot affecting all beings. What are the obstacles that oppose in us the\nprogress to true science? There are three. The first is _Santi_, or\nduration of existence. We allow ourselves to be lulled into the opinion\nthat our life shall be much longer prolonged; that we have as yet\nmany days, months, and years to spend in this world. This groundless\nsupposition prevents us from attending to the principle of mutability.\nTo counteract this dangerous impression, let us examine how all things\nare born only soon to die, and therefore let us have always death present\nto our mind. Let us consider the short duration and vanity of our being,\nthen we will soon be convinced that the form of the body is like the\nwaves of the sea, that swell for a moment and soon disappear; that\nsensation is produced like froth from the dashing of the waves; that the\n_Thangia_, or persuasion we acquire, has no more stability or reality\nthan lightning; that the _Sangkara_, or concept, or production, is like\nthe plantain-tree without strength, and that the view of objects through\nour senses deserves no more credit than the words of a quack. Let us\nreason in a similar manner on the ephemeral existence of all the beings\nthat are in this world; we will easily come to a similar conclusion, that\nthey are the victims of mutability, incessantly tossed about as a piece\nof wood by the billows of the sea.\n\nA second obstacle to our perceiving the great principle that pain\nis heavily weighing on all creatures is the _iriabot_, or the four\nsituations or positions which the body assumes, viz., sitting, standing,\nlying, and walking. If a man enjoys good health, he owes it chiefly to\nthe change of situation. Were he doomed to occupy always the same place,\nor remain in the same situation, he would feel quite miserable. He\nmomentarily relieves himself from his temporary afflictions by a change\nof situation. This relief makes him forgetful of the great principle\nof _duka_. But in truth our body is like a patient that requires the\nconstant attendance of the physician. We must feed it, refresh it, wash\nit, clothe it, &c., to save it from hunger, thirst, dirt, and cold. What\nis all that but a sad and constant proof that we are slaves to pain?\nThere is nothing but pain and affliction in this wretched world. The same\nfate awaits all other beings; they are all in a state of endurance and\nsuffering, proclaiming aloud the irresistible action of duka.\n\nA third obstacle to our being convinced that all is illusion in this\nworld is that false persuasion which makes us to say, This is a foot, a\nhand, a woman, &c.; whilst these things have no reality, no consistence,\nbut are mere shades, ready at any moment to vanish and disappear.\nThese and like expressions being always used, impart at last a sort of\nconviction that they are true; but, after all, what are all these things\nbut a compound of the four elements, or more simply nama and rupa?\n\nIn addition to this examination, the sage considers also our ideas\nand the operations of our mental faculties. Here he sees these ideas\nappearing for a moment and then disappearing; he concludes that ideas\nare likewise subjected to the great law of mutability. He finds as much\nmisery in his own mind as he has met with in the exterior objects; all\naround his mind is only illusion. When he has reached this point, he is\ndelivered at once of the three _Nimeit_ that make one believe that there\nis something real in birth, existence, and action. The destruction of all\nbeings, of all things, is ever present to his mind. In such a state, the\nsage is free from all erroneous doctrines; he is disgusted with life;\nthe exercise of meditation is easy to him, and almost uninterrupted. He\nis free from all passions.\n\nOur author has another chapter devoted to the consideration of the\nmiseries attending all living beings. To make us better informed\non this subject, he desires the sage to meditate upon the miseries\nattending birth, existence, old age, and death; he wishes him to examine\nattentively the condition of all creatures, that he might never be\nseduced by the dazzling appearance that encompasses them. He insists\nat great length upon the dangers surrounding the wise man, as yet\ncompelled to remain in contact with this material world. To make us\nbetter understand this subject, he makes use of the following similitude.\nA man worn out with fatigue enters a cave wherein he longs to enjoy a\nrefreshing rest. He is just lying down in the hope of abandoning himself\nto the sweet delight of undisturbed repose, when, on a sudden, he\nperceives close by him an infuriated tiger. At that moment all idea of\nrest, of sleep, of happiness, vanishes away; he is taken up solely with\nthe imminent danger of his position. Such is the position of the sage\nwho, living among creatures, may be tempted to allow himself to look\non them with an idea of enjoyment. But when he has come to that state,\nto be disgusted with all the modifications matter is subjected to, he\nis likened to the pure swan who never sets his feet in low and dirty\nplaces, but delights to rest on the bosom of a beautiful lake, of limpid\nand clear water. Our sage, who has in abhorrence all the filth of this\nmiserable world, is delighted only in the consideration of truth. He is\ndispleased with the world and all things that are therein. His mind is\nbusily engaged in finding out the most effectual means to break with this\nworld, and rend asunder the ties that retain him linked to it. He is like\na fish caught in the net, or a frog seized by a snake, or a man shut up\nin a dungeon. All three strive, to their utmost, to escape the danger\nthat threatens them and regain their liberty. Such is the condition of\nthe perfect who has attentively considered the many snares that are\naround them. He, too, has but one object in view, that of freeing himself\nfrom them and obtaining the deliverance.\n\nThe best and surest means to save himself from the dangers attending\nexistence is a profound and unremitting meditation on the three great\nprinciples: aneitsa, duka, and anatta. We will select among many\nreflections supplied by our author, a few on each of these principles,\nto convey to the reader some ideas respecting the subjects that engross\nmuch of the attention of the Buddhist sage. Most of these reflections are\nstrikingly true, and could as well find place in the mind of a Christian\nas in that of a Buddhist.\n\nSpeaking of _aneitsa_, our author says: Let us reflect on this, that\nthere is nothing permanent or stable in this world. We hold all things as\na sort of borrowed property, or on tenure; we are by no means proprietors\nof what we possess. We acquire goods but to lose them very soon. All in\nnature is subjected to pain, old age, and death; everything comes to an\nend, either by virtue of its own condition, or by the agency of some\nexternal cause. Shall we ever be able to find in this world anything\nstable? No; we leave one place, but only to go and occupy another, which,\nin its turn, is soon vacated. No one is able to enumerate the countless\nchanges that incessantly take place. What exists to-day disappears\nto-morrow. In fact, all nature is pervaded from beginning to end by the\nprinciple of mutability, which incessantly works upon it.\n\nOn the miseries of this world our philosopher speaks as follows: Pain\nis the essential appendage of this world. Survey, if you can, the whole\nof this universe, and everywhere you will find a heavy load of pain and\nafflictions, so harassing and oppressing that we can scarcely bear them\nwith a tolerable amount of patience. Look at birth, examine existence\nduring its duration, consider senses, the organs of our life. In every\ndirection our eyes will meet with an accumulation of pain, sufferings,\nand miseries; on every side we are beset with dangers, difficulties, and\ncalamities; nowhere lasting joy or permanent rest is to be found. In vain\nwe may go in quest of health and happiness; both are chimerical objects\nnowhere to be met with. Everywhere we meet with afflictions.\n\nIn speaking of the _anatta_, or illusion in which we are miserably rocked\nas long as we stay in this world, our philosopher is equally eloquent.\nIf we consider with some attention this world, we will never be able\nto discover in it anything else but name and form; and, as a necessary\nconsequence, all that exists is but illusion. Here is the manner we must\ncarry on our reasoning. The things that I see and know are not myself,\nnor from myself, nor to myself. What seems to be myself is in reality\nneither myself nor belongs to myself. What appears to me to be another is\nneither myself nor from myself. The organs of senses, such as the eyes,\nthe ears, &c., are neither myself nor to myself. They are but illusions,\nor as nothing relatively to me. The form is not a form; the attributes of\na living being are not attributes; beings are not beings. All that is an\naggregate of the four elements, and these again are but form and name,\nand these two are but an illusion, destitute of reality. In a being,\nthen, there are two attributes, form and sensation, that appear to have\nsome more consistency than other things. Yet they have no reality; their\nnature and condition is to be destitute of all reality and stability.[52]\nPenetrated with the truth of these and like considerations, the sage\ndeclares at once that all things are neither himself nor belong to\nhimself. Nothing, therefore, appears worthy his notice. He at once\ndivorces himself from the world and all the things that are therein. He\nwould fain have nothing to do with it; he holds it in supreme contempt\nand utter disgust.\n\nHe who has reached this lofty point of sublime science is at once secure\nfrom the snares of seduction and the path of error. He will escape\nfrom the whirlpool of human miseries, and infallibly reach the state\nof Neibban. The most perfect among the perfect are so much taken upon\nwith and deeply affected by the view of Neibban, that they tend in that\ndirection without effort. Others, somewhat less advanced in the sublime\nscience, discover, it is true, the state of Neibban at a distance, but\nits sight is as yet dimmed and somewhat obscured. They want as yet to\ntrain up their mind to and perfect it in the exercise of that meditation\nof which we have given an abbreviated analysis.\n\n\n\n\nNOTICE ON THE PHONGYIES, OR BUDDHIST MONKS, SOMETIMES CALLED\nTALAPOINS.[53]\n\n\nIn the foregoing pages we have first given a sketch of the life of the\nfounder of Buddhism, and in the accompanying notes endeavoured to explain\nthe more important particulars respecting the extraordinary religious\nsystem he has established. Subsequently, in the way to Neibban, we have\nlaid down, in as few words as possible, the great metaphysical principles\nupon which is raised the great structure of Buddhism, and pointed out the\nway leading to the pretended perfection, or rather the end of perfection,\nNeibban. It seems to be necessary to devote a particular notice to the\nreligious Order which forms the most striking feature of that religion,\nwhich has extended its sway over so many nations. The association of\ndevotees holds the first rank among the followers of Buddha; it comprises\nthe _\u00e9lite_ of that immense body. The system of discipline to which the\nBuddhist religious are subjected, is the highest practical illustration\nof the doctrines and practices of Buddhism. We may see reflected in that\ncorporation the greatest results that the working of these religious\ninstitutions can ever produce. All that Buddha, in his efforts, has\nbeen able to devise as most fit to lead man to the perfection, such as\nhe understood it, will be found in the constitutions of that order. It\nis a living mirror in which we may contemplate the masterpiece of his\ncreation. The Buddhist religious constitute the thanga, or assembly of\nthe perfect, that is to say, of the disciples who have left the world,\nconformed their life to that of their teacher, and striven to acquire\nthe science that will qualify them for entering into the way leading\nto perfection. They are the strict followers of Buddha, who, like him,\nhave renounced the world, to devote themselves to the two-fold object of\nmastering their passions and acquiring the true wisdom which alone can\nlead to the deliverance.\n\nThe best method for obtaining correct information respecting the Buddhist\nreligious is not, it seems, to consider their order from an abstract\npoint of view, but rather in connection with the religion it has sprung\nfrom, as affording a perfect exemplification of its highest practices,\nmaxims, and tendencies, as well as of the real nature and true spirit of\nthat creed.\n\nBuddhism is evidently an off-shoot of Brahminism. We find it replete with\nprinciples, practices, observances, and dogmas belonging to the great\nHindu system. Gaudama, being himself a Hindu, reared in a Hindu society,\ntrained up in the Hindu schools of philosophy, could not but imbibe, to\na great extent, the opinions and observances of his contemporaries. He\ndissented from them, it is true, in many important points, but in the\ngenerality of his teachings he seems to have agreed with them. He found\nexisting in his times a body of religious and philosophers, whose mode of\nlife was peculiar and quite distinct from that of the people. When he\nlaid the plan for the religious institution he contemplated to establish,\nhe found around him most of the elements he required for that work. He\nhad but to improve on what he saw existing, and make his new order agree\nwith the religious tenets he innovated.\n\nIn the hope of tracing up the ties of relationship that must have existed\nbetween the religious of the Brahminical order, and those of the Buddhist\none, the writer will begin this notice with establishing a short parallel\nbetween the former, such as they are described in the Institutes of\nMenoo, and the institution of the latter, such as it is explained in the\nWini, or Book of discipline. Afterwards the nature of the Buddhist order\nand the object its members have in view in embracing it will be examined;\nnext to that, the constituent parts of that body and its hierarchy shall\nreceive a due share of attention. We will describe at the same time the\nceremonies observed on the solemn occasion of admitting individuals into\nthe religious society, and expound briefly the rules that direct and\nregulate the whole life of a professed member as long as he remains in\nthe brotherhood. It will not be found amiss to inquire into the cause\nand nature of the great religious influence undoubtedly possessed by the\nmembers of the order, and examine the motives that induce the votaries\nof Buddhism to show the greatest respect and give unfeigned marks of the\ndeepest veneration to the Talapoins or Phongyies. This will be concluded\nwith a short account of the low and degraded state into which the\nsociety has fallen in these parts, particularly in what has reference to\nknowledge and information.\n\n\nARTICLE I.\n\nA SHORT PARALLEL BETWEEN THE BRAHMINICAL AND THE BUDDHISTIC RELIGIOUS\nORDERS.\n\nIt has been stated, on apparently incontrovertible grounds, in the\nforegoing pages, that Buddhism has originated to a considerable extent\nfrom Brahminism. The following remarks will corroborate the statement,\nand give an additional weight to the reasons already brought forward. In\nfact, both systems have the same objects in view, viz., the disentangling\nof the soul from passions and the influence of the material world, and\nits perfect liberation from metempsychosis and the action of matter. The\nfinal end to be arrived at is, however, widely different. The perfected\nBrahmin longs for his absorption in the infinite being; the perfect\nBuddhist thirsts after a state of complete isolation, which is nothing\nshort of total annihilation. But the means for obtaining the ardently\ncoveted perfection are in many respects the same. The moral observances\nenforced by both creeds differ so little from each other that they\nappear to be almost identical. In both systems, moreover, we find a\nbody of individuals who aim at a complete and perfect observance of the\nhighest injunctions, striving to reach the very summit of that perfection\npointed out by the founders of their respective institutions: these are\nthe Brahminical and Buddhist religious. To glance over the regulations\nenjoined on the Brahmins, such as we find them in the Institutes of\nMenoo, and those prescribed by the Wini to the Talapoins, cannot fail\nto be truly interesting. A summary comparison will enable the reader to\nperceive at once how closely allied are the two creeds, and how great is\nthe resemblance between them both. He will see on the clearest evidence\nthat to Buddha is not to be ascribed the merit of having originated so\nmany fine moral precepts and admirable disciplinary regulations, but\nthat he found in his own country, in the schools where he studied wisdom,\nalready well-known, pure moral precepts, actually discussed, studied, and\nby many strictly observed, together with the disciplinary regulations. He\nwas brought up in a society which beheld with astonishment and admiration\na body of religious men entirely devoted to the great work of securing\nthe triumph of the spiritual principle over the material one, and\nendeavouring by dint of the greatest and severest austerities, the most\nrigorous penances, and the most entire renouncing of all this material\nworld, to break down the material barriers that had hitherto kept the\nsoul captive, and prevented her from taking her flight into regions of\nblissful freedom and perfect quiescence. There is, however, a remarkable\ndifference between the sacerdotal caste of Brahmins and the members\nof the Buddhist monkish institution. The position of the former is\nhereditary; he is rendered illustrious by his lineage and descent. That\nof the second is personal, and ends with him; it is the result of his\nown free choice; he derives all the glory that shines round him from his\nvirtuous life and a strict adherence to the institutions of the Wini. The\nBrahmin owes everything to religion and to birth. The Buddhist religious\nis indebted for all that he is solely to religion; the monk\u2019s title to\ndistinction is the holy mode of the saintly life that he has embraced.\nBoth are the greatest and most distinguished in their respective\nsocieties; but merit and intrinsic worth alone elicit veneration and\nrespect in behalf of the humble religious, whilst the casual birth of the\nBrahmin from individuals belonging to the highest caste centres upon his\nperson the reluctant homage of men belonging to inferior castes, who, in\nvirtue of the prejudices in which they are reared, consider themselves\nobliged to do homage to him. The person of both is sacred and looked upon\nwith awe and veneration, but from somewhat opposite and different motives.\n\nNotwithstanding these and many other differences and discrepancies,\nit is not the less striking to find in the Brahminical body, such as\nit is constituted by the regulations of the Vedas, the germ of all the\nprincipal observances enjoined on the Buddhist that leaves the world, to\nfollow the path leading to perfection.\n\nThe life of a Brahmin, not as it is now, but as it originally was, and\nnow ought to be, if the regulations of the Vedas had not been partly set\naside, is one of laborious study, austerity, self-denial, and retirement.\nThe first quarter of his life is spent in the capacity of student. His\ngreat and sole object is the study of the Vedas, and the mastering of\ntheir contents. Worldly studies are not to be thought of. He is entirely\nunder the control of his preceptor, to whom he has to yield obedience,\nrespect, and service in all that relates to his daily wants. He must,\nmoreover, daily beg his food from door to door. The Buddhist novice\nlikewise withdraws from his family, enters the monastery, lives under\nthe discipline of the head of the house, whom he obeys and serves in\nhis daily necessities, and devotes all his undivided attention to the\nstudy of religious books. He pays no regard to worldly knowledge. He has\nlikewise to go out every morning to beg the food that he will use during\nthe day.\n\nThe second quarter of the Brahmin\u2019s life is thus employed. He marries\nand lives with his family, but he must consider his chief employment to\nbe the teaching of the Vedas and a zealous discharge of the religious\nobservances and of all that relates to public worship. He must sedulously\nabstain from too sensual and worldly enjoyments, even from music,\ndancing, and other amusements calculated to lead to dissipation. The\nBuddhist monkish institution being not hereditary, and its continuance\nand development having not to depend upon generation, its members are\nbound to a strict celibacy, and to an absolute and entire abstinence\nfrom all sensual and worldly enjoyments inconsistent with gravity,\nself-recollection, and self-denial. Their chief occupation is teaching\nto children the rudiments of reading and writing, that they might read\nreligious books, which are the only ones used in schools. He must pay a\nstrict regard to devotional practices, and take care that the religious\nobservances and ceremonies be regularly attended to in his monastery.\n\nThe third quarter of his life is spent by the Brahmin in solitude as\nan anchorite. He dwells in the forests, where he must procure what is\nnecessary for food and raiment. The latter article is looked after\nwhen he thinks it to be a requisite to cover his nakedness. With many\nof them fanaticism has so far prevailed over reason and the sense of\ndecency that they live in a state of disgusting nakedness. The roots of\nplants, the fruits and leaves of wild trees, will supply the needful for\nthe support of nature. That time too must be devoted to the infliction\nof the severest penances and to the practice of the hardest deeds of\nmortification. To the Buddhist monk solitude and retirement must ever be\ndear. Ascetic life is much recommended, and praised as most excellent.\nIt was formerly much in use among religious Buddhists. In Burmah several\nplaces are pointed out with respect as having been sanctified by the\nresidence of holy anchorites. Now in our days a few zealots, to bear, as\nit were, witness to this ancient observance, retire into solitude during\na portion of the three months of Lent. The spirit of mortification and\nself-renouncing is eminently Buddhist; but from the very days of Gaudama\nwe remark a positive tendency on the part of his religious to give up and\nrenounce those unnatural and ultra-rigorous penances regularly observed\nby their brethren of the opposite creed. The principle is cherished by\nthem, but the mode of carrying it into practice is more mild, and more\nconsonant with reason and modesty.\n\nThe last portion of the Brahmin\u2019s life is devoted likewise to meditation\nand contemplation. He is no more subjected to the ordeal of rigorous\npenances; nature has been subdued; passions silenced and destroyed;\nthe soul has obtained the mastery over the body and the material\nworld. She is free from all the trammels and obstacles that impeded\nher contemplation of truth. She is ready to quit this world, as the\nbird leaves the branch of the tree when it pleases him. The Buddhist\nreligious, having likewise crushed his passions and disentangled his soul\nfrom affection to matter, delights only in the contemplation of truth.\nAs the mighty whale sports in the bosom of the boundless ocean, so the\nperfected Buddhist launches forth into abstract and infinite truth,\ndelights in it, completely estranged from this world, which meditation\nhas taught him to consider as a mere illusion, as destitute of reality.\nHe is then ripe for the so ardently coveted state of Neibban.\n\nWhen Buddha originated the plan of a society of religious, and framed the\nregulations whereby it was to be governed, he had but to look around him\nfor patterns of a religious life. The country where he had been born,\nthe society in which he had been brought up, swarmed with religious\nfollowing the different systems of philosophy prevailing in those days.\nHe saw them, conversed with them, and for some time lived in their\ncompany under the same disciplinary institutions. He was, therefore,\nthoroughly conversant with all that in his days constituted a religious\nlife. But the same bold and enterprising spirit which made him dissent\nfrom his masters and contemporaries on many important questions of morals\nand metaphysics, and induced him to improve, as he thought, and perfect\ntheories in speculative and practical philosophy, impelled him also to\ndo something similar respecting the disciplinary regulations to which\nhis religious were to be hereafter subjected. We freely confess that\non this latter point he was eminently successful. The body of Buddhist\nreligious is infinitely superior in most respects to the other societies\nof Indian religious. The regulations of the former breathe a spirit\nof modesty, mildness, and unaffectation, which in a striking manner\ncontrasts with those disgusting exhibitions of self-inflicted penances\nso fondly courted by Brahmins, where immodesty seems to dispute the palm\nwith cruelty. Buddha opened the door of his society to all men without\nany distinction or exception, implicitly pulling down the barriers raised\nby the prejudices of caste. Did he in the beginning of his public career\nlay down the plan of destroying all vestiges of caste, and proclaiming\nthe principle of equality amongst men? It is, to say the least, very\ndoubtful. The equalising principle itself was never distinctly mentioned\nin his discourses. But he had sown all the elements constitutive of that\nprinciple in his instructions. Every member put on the religious dress\nof his own free choice, and set it aside at his pleasure; no hereditary\nright, therefore, could be thought of; the dying religious could bequeath\nto his brethren but the example of his virtues. His complete separation\nfrom the world had broken all the ties of relationship. The double vow of\nstrict poverty and of celibacy, cutting the root of cupidity and sensual\nenjoyments, precluded him from aiming at the influence and power which is\nconferred by wealth and rank. With the Brahminical religious the case is\nthe very reverse. His sacerdotal caste, exclusive of his personal merits,\nconfers on him an almost divine sacredness, which is to be propagated\nby generation. He may possess riches and have a numerous posterity. He\nis, therefore, almost irresistibly impelled to seize on a power which is\nforced on him by the treble influence of birth, religion, and wealth.\n\nThe subject of the comparison between the two societies of religious\nmight receive further developments, but what has been briefly stated\nappears sufficient to bear out the point it was intended to establish,\nviz., the close resemblance subsisting between the two religious orders\nin both systems, and the necessary inference that the order of Buddhist\nreligious is an improvement on the orders of religious subsisting in\nIndia in the days of Gaudama.\n\nThere is another characteristic of the religious order of Buddhists\nwhich has favourably operated in its behalf, and powerfully contributed\nto maintain it for so many centuries in so compact and solid a body that\nit seems to bid defiance to the destructive action of revolutions. We\nallude to its regularly constituted hierarchy, which is as perfect as it\ncan be expected, particularly in Burmah and Siam. The power and influence\nof him whom we may call the general of the order in Burmah, and who is\nknown under the appellation of Tha-thana-paing, when, as was very often\nthe case, backed by the temporal power, was felt throughout the whole\ncountry, and much contributed to maintain good order and discipline in\nthe great body of religious. The action of the provincial or superior\nof the religious houses of a province is more directly and immediately\nfelt by all the subordinates. It does not appear that the religious of\nthe Hindu schools, at least in our days, possess such an advantage that\nthey may well envy their brethren of the Buddhist sect. The members of\nthe Brahminical body are not kept together by the power and government\nof superiors, but by regulations that are so deeply rooted and firmly\nseated in the mind of individuals that they are faithfully observed. The\nsuperiority of caste, connected too with a certain amount of spiritual\npride, has been hitherto sufficient to maintain that body distinct and\nseparate from all that is without itself. The religious spirit that\npervades that body in our days seems to have abated from its original\nfervour and energy. The Brahmin has maintained with the utmost jealousy\nthe superiority that caste confers upon him, but appears not to have been\nso particular in keeping up the genuine spiritual supremacy, which a\nstrict adherence to the prescriptions of the Vedas must have ever firmly\nsecured to him.\n\n\nARTICLE II.\n\nNATURE OF THE RELIGIOUS ORDER OF PHONGYIES.\n\nHe who has not seriously studied the religious system of Buddhism, nor\nacquired accurate notions of its doctrinal principles, is scarcely\ncapable of forming a correct opinion of the religious order of those\naustere recluses, whom Europeans, with a mind biassed by educational\ninfluence, denominate priests of Buddha. Were we to apply to the members\nof that order the notions generally entertained of a priesthood, we\nwould form a very erroneous conception of the real character of their\ninstitution. For in every religious system admitting of one or several\nbeings superior to man, whose providential action influences his\ndestinies either in this or the next world, persons invested with a\nsacerdotal character have always been considered as mediators between men\nand the acknowledged deity, offering to the supreme being on all public\noccasions the prayers and sacrifices of the people, and soliciting in\nreturn his gracious protection. When in the early ages of the world the\nsacerdotal dignity was coupled with the patriarchal or regal ones, when\nin the succeeding ages there existed a regular and distinct priesthood,\nsuch as subsisted under the Mosaic dispensation, or among the Greeks,\nRomans, Gauls, &c., the priests were looked upon as delegates of the\npeople in all that related to national worship, carrying on in the\nname of the Deity the mysterious intercourse that links heaven to\nearth. Priesthood, therefore, necessarily implies the belief in a being\nsuperior to man and controlling his destinies. The moment such a belief\nis disregarded, the very idea of priesthood vanishes. Buddhism, such at\nleast as it is found existing in Ceylon, Burmah, Siam, and other places,\nis a purely atheistical religious system, and presents the solitary\ninstance, at least as far as my information goes, of a religious creed,\nadmitted by various nations, the doctrines of which are not based upon\nthe notion of a supreme being controlling more or less the affairs of\nthis world. In support of an assertion that may appear to many somewhat\nhazardous, we will briefly lay down the leading tenets of the Buddhistic\ndoctrine.\n\nAccording to that system, matter is eternal. The existence of a\nworld, its duration, destruction, and reproduction, all the various\ncombinations and modifications matter is liable to, are the immediate\nresults of the action of eternal and self-existing laws. Through life\nman is subjected to the continual but successive influences of his good\nand bad deeds. This double influence always attends him through his\nnumberless existences, and inevitably awards him happiness or misfortune,\naccording as the respective sum of good or evil predominates. There\nexists an eternal law, which, when obliterated from the memory of men,\ncan be known again, and, as it were, recovered only and thoroughly\nunderstood by the incomparable genius and matchless wisdom of certain\nextraordinary personages, called Buddhas, who appear successively and\nat intervals during the various series or successions of worlds. These\nBuddhas announce that law to all the then existing rational beings.\nThe great object of that doctrine is to point out to those beings the\nmeans of freeing themselves from the influence of passions, and becoming\nabstracted from all that exists. Being thereby delivered from the action\nof good or evil influence, which causes mortals to turn incessantly in\nthe whirlpool of never-ending existences, men can obtain the state of\nNeibban, or rest, that is to say, according to the popular opinion, a\nsituation wherein the soul, disentangled from all that exists, alone\nwith herself, indifferent to pain as well as to pleasure, folded, as it\nwere, upon herself, remains for ever in an incomprehensible state of\ncomplete abstraction and absolute rest. I say that such is the popular\nopinion, fortunately unbiassed by scholastic theories. But the opinion of\nthe Buddhist doctors respecting Neibban is that it means the negation\nof all states of being; that is to say, a desolating and horrifying\nannihilation. A Buddha is a being who, during myriads of existences,\nslowly and gradually gravitates towards this centre of an imaginary\nperfection by the practice of the highest virtues. Having attained\nthereto, he becomes on a sudden gifted with a boundless genius, wherewith\nhe at once discovers the wretched state of beings and the means of\ndelivering them from it. He thoroughly understands the eternal law which\nalone can lead mortals in the right way, and enable them to come out of\nthe circle of existences, wherein they have been unceasingly turning and\nmoving in a state of perpetual agitation, opposite to that of fixity or\nrest. He preaches that law whereby man is taught the practice of those\nvirtues which destroy gradually in him all evil influences, together with\nevery affection for all that exists, and brings him at last to the end of\nexistence, the possession of Neibban. His task fulfilled, Buddha dies,\nor rather, to use the language of Buddhists, he enters into the state\nNeibban. In that situation, which is truly inexplicable, he knows nothing\nof and enters no wise into the affairs of this world. He is as if he was\nnot or had never been. He is indeed annihilated.\n\nBuddhists venerate three precious things\u2014Buddha, his law, and the\nassembly of the just or perfect\u2014in the same sense as we venerate and\nadmire what is morally good and beautiful, such as virtue considered\nabstractedly, and the acts originating from it. The statues of the last\nBuddha Gaudama are honoured by his followers, not with the idea that\ncertain powers or virtues are inherent in them, but solely because they\nare the visible representations of Buddha, who, according to Buddhists,\ndesired that the same honours should be paid to them as would be offered\nto his person, were he yet living among them. This faint outline of the\nBuddhistic creed is sufficient to bear out the above assertion, that it\nis in no wise based on the belief in a supreme being, but that it is\nstrictly atheistical, and therefore that no real priesthood can ever be\nfound existing under such a system. It may prove, too, of some assistance\nfor better understanding what is to be said regarding the subjects of\nthis notice.\n\nThe Talapoins are called by the Burmese Phongyies, which term means great\nglory: or Rahans, which means perfect. They are known in Ceylon, Siam,\nThibet, under different names, conveying nearly the same meaning and\nexpressing either the nature or the object of their profession.\n\nWhat induces a follower of Buddha to embrace the Talapoinic state?\nWhat is the object of his pursuit in entering on such a peculiar and\nextraordinary course of life? The answer to these questions will supply\nus with accurate notions of the real nature of this singular order of\ndevotees. A Buddhist on becoming a member of the holy society proposes\nto keep the law of Buddha in a more perfect manner than his other\nco-religionists. He intends to observe not only its general ordinances\nobligatory on every individual, but also its prescriptions of a higher\nexcellency, leading to an uncommon sanctity and perfection, which can\nbe the lot of but a comparatively small number of fervent and resolute\npersons. He aims at weakening within himself all the evil propensities\nthat give origin and strength to the principle of demerits. By the\npractice and observance of the highest and sublimest precepts and\ncounsels of the law, he establishes, confirms, and consolidates in his\nown soul the principle of merits, which is to work upon him during the\nvarious existences he has as yet to go through, and gradually lead him\nto that perfection which will qualify him for and entitle him to the\nstate of Neibban, the object of the ardent desires and earnest pursuit of\nevery true and genuine disciple of Buddha. The life of the last Buddha\nGaudama, his doctrines as well as his examples, he proposes to copy with\na scrupulous fidelity and to follow with unremitting ardour. Such is the\ngreat model that he proposes to himself for imitation. Gaudama withdrew\nfrom the world, renounced its seducing pleasures and dazzling vanities,\ncurbed his passions under the yoke of restraint, and strove to practise\nthe highest virtues, particularly self-denial, in order to arrive at a\nstate of complete indifference to all that is within or without self;\nwhich is, as it were, the threshold of Neibban.\n\nThe Talapoin, fixing his regards on that matchless pattern of perfection,\nwould fain reproduce, as far as it lies in his power, all its features\nin his own person. Like Buddha himself, he parts with his family,\nrelatives, and friends, and seeks for admission into the society of the\nperfect; he abandons and leaves his home, to enter into the asylum of\npeace and retirement; he forsakes the riches of this world to practise\nthe strictest poverty; he renounces the pleasures of this world, even the\nlawful ones, to live according to the rules of the severest abstinence\nand purest chastity; he exchanges his secular dress for that of the new\nprofession he enters on; he gives up his own will, and fetters his own\nliberty, to attend, through every act and all the particulars of life,\nto the regulations of the brotherhood. He is a Talapoin for himself and\nfor his own benefit, to acquire merits which he shares with nobody else.\nOn the occasion of certain offerings or alms being presented to him by\nsome benevolent admirers of his holy mode of life, he will repay his\nbenefactors by repeating to them certain precepts, commands, and points\nof the law; but he is not bound by his professional character to expound\nthe law to the people. Separated from the world by his dress and his\npeculiar way of living, he remains a stranger to all that takes place\nwithout the walls of his monastery. He is not charged with the care of\nsouls, and therefore never presumes to rebuke any one that trespasses the\nlaw, or to censure the conduct of the profligate.\n\nThe ceremonies of the Buddhistic worship are simple and few. The Talapoin\nis not considered as a minister whose presence is an essential requisite\nwhen they are to be performed. Pagodas are erected, statues of Buddha\nare inaugurated, offerings of flowers, tapers, and small ornaments are\nmade, particularly on the days of the new and full moon, but on all those\nsolemn occasions the interference of the Phongyie is in no way considered\nas necessary, so that the whole worship exists independently of him. He\nis not to be seen on the particular occasions of births and marriages. He\nis, it is true, occasionally asked to attend funerals; but he then acts,\nnot as a minister performing a ceremony, but as a private person. He is\npresent for the sake of receiving alms that are profusely bestowed upon\nhim by the relatives of the defunct.\n\nThe Buddhists have three months of the year, from the full moon of\nJuly to the full moon of October, particularly devoted to a stricter\nobservance of the practices and ceremonies of the law. Crowds of people\nof both sexes resort to the pagodas, and often spend whole nights in\nthe buildings erected close to those places. The most fervent among\nthem fast and abstain from profane amusements during that period; they\ndevote more time to the reading of their sacred books and the repetition\nof certain formulas calculated to remind them of certain important\ntruths, or intended to praise the last Buddha Gaudama and the law he has\npublished. Alms pour more abundantly into the peaceable dwellings of\nthe pious recluses. During all the time the Talapoin quietly remains in\nhis place, without altering his mode of life, or deviating in the least\nfrom his never-changing usages and ordinary habits. By the rules of his\nprofession he is directed to pay, during that time, a particular regard\nto religious observances, to join his brethren from time to time in the\nrecital of certain formulas, and in the reading of the book embodying\nthe regulations of the profession. He enjoys, as usual, the good things\nwhich his liberal co-religionists take pleasure in proffering to him. On\ntwo occasions the writer has seen, and on many has heard of Talapoins\nwithdrawing during the three months of Lent to some lonely place,\nliving alone in small huts, shunning the company of men, and leading\nan eremitical life, to remain at liberty to devote all their time to\nmeditations on the most excellent points of the law of Buddha, combating\ntheir passions, and enjoying in that retired situation a foretaste of the\nnever-troubled rest of Neibban.\n\nIn many respects the Talapoinic institutions may be likened to those\nof some religious orders that appeared successively in almost every\nChristian country previous to the era of the Reformation, and that are,\nup to this day, to be met with amidst the Churches of the Latin and Greek\nrites. Like the monk, the Talapoin bids a farewell to the world, wears a\nparticular dress, leads a life of community, abstracts himself from all\nthat gives strength to his passions, by embracing a state of voluntary\npoverty and absolute renunciation of all sensual gratifications. He\naims at obtaining, by a stricter observance of the law\u2019s most sublime\nprecepts, an uncommon degree of sanctity and perfection. All his time\nis regulated by the rules of his profession, and devoted to repeating\ncertain formulas of prayers, reading the sacred scriptures, begging alms\nfor his support, &c.\n\nThese features of exterior resemblance, common to institutions of\ncreeds so opposite to each other, have induced several writers, little\nfavourable to Christianity, to pronounce without further inquiry that\nCatholicism has borrowed from Buddhism many ceremonies, institutions, and\ndisciplinary regulations. Some of them have gone so far as to pretend\nto find in it the very origin of Christianity. They have, however, been\nably confuted by Abel Remusat, in his _Memoir_ entitled \u201cChronological\nResearches into the Lamaic Hierarchy of Thibet.\u201d Without entertaining in\nthe least the presumptuous idea of entering into a controversy entirely\nforeign to his purpose, the writer will confine himself to making one\nor two remarks calculated to show that the first conclusion is, to say\nthe least of it, a premature one. When in two religious creeds, entirely\nopposed to each other in their ultimate object, there are several minor\nobjects equally set forth by both, it will necessarily happen that, in\nmany instances, means nearly similar will be prescribed on both sides\nfor effectually obtaining them, independent of any previously concerted\nplan or imitation. The Christian system and the Buddhistic one, though\ndiffering from each other in their respective objects and ends, as much\nas truth from error, have, it must be confessed, many striking features\nof an astonishing resemblance. There are many moral precepts equally\ncommanded and enforced in common by both creeds. It will not be deemed\nrash to assert that most of the moral truths prescribed by the Gospel are\nto be met with in the Buddhistic scriptures. The essential, vital, and\ncapital discrepancy lies in the difference of the ends to which the two\ncreeds lead, but not in the variance of the means they prescribe for the\nattainment of them. The Gospel tends to reunite man to his Maker, points\nout to him the way he must follow for arriving at the possession and\nenjoyment of Him who is the great principle and end of all things, and\nteaches him, as a paramount duty, to conform his will and inclinations\nto His commands. Buddhism tends to abstract man from all that is without\nself, and makes self his own and sole centre. It exhorts him to the\npractice of many eminent virtues, which are to help him to rise to an\nimaginary perfection, the summit of which is the incomprehensible state\nof Neibban. It is the mildest expression which the writer can command\nwhen he has to speak of so sad a subject, the final end of a Buddhist. It\nwould be more correct to say at once that the pretended perfect being is\nled, by the principles of his creed, into the dark and fathomless abyss\nof annihilation.\n\nIf the end aimed at by the followers of Buddha is widely different from\nthat which the disciples of Christ strive to obtain, the means prescribed\nfor the attainment of these two ends are, in many respects, very\nmuch similar to each other. Both creeds teach man to combat, control,\nand master the passions of his heart, to make reason predominate over\nsense, mind over matter, to root up from his heart every affection for\nthe things of this world, and to practise the virtues required for\nthe attainment of these great objects. Is there anything surprising\nthat persons, having, in many respects, views nearly similar, resort\nto means or expedients nearly alike for securing the object of their\npursuit, without having ever seen or consulted each other? He who\nintends to practise absolute poverty must of course abandon all his\nearthly property. He who proposes renouncing the world ought to withdraw\nfrom it. He who will lead a contemplative life must look out for a\nretired place, far from the gaze and agitation of the world. To control\npassions, and particularly the fiercest of all, the sensual appetite,\nit is required that one should keep himself separate from all that is\ncalculated to kindle its fires and feed its violence. Every profession\nhas its distinctive marks and peculiar characteristics. Hence peculiarity\nof dress, manners, and habits in those who have adopted a mode of life\ndiffering from that of the rest of the community. He who has bound\nhimself to the daily recitation of certain prayers or devotional formulas\na certain number of times will have recourse to some instrument, or\ndevise some means for ascertaining the number of times he has complied\nwith his regulation in this respect. He, too, who is eager to acquire\nself-knowledge and to carry on a successful war with himself will apply\nto a guide to whom he will lay open his whole soul, and ask spiritual\nadvice that will enable him to overcome the obstacles he meets on his way\nto perfection.\n\nThese and many other points are common to all those that intend to\nobserve not only the precepts but also the mere counsels of their\nrespective creeds. Causes being the same, in many instances, in both\nsystems, consequences almost analogous must inevitably result therefrom.\nReligious institutions always bear the stamp of the religious ideas that\nhave given rise to them. They, together with their rules and regulations,\nare not the principle, but the immediate consequence or offspring of\nreligion, such as it is understood by the people professing it. They\nexemplify and illustrate religious notions already entertained, but they\nnever create such as are not yet in existence. When the learned shall\nhave collected sufficient materials for giving an accurate history of\nthe origin, progress, spread, and dogmatical revolutions of Buddhism, it\nwill not be uninteresting to inquire into the causes that have operated\nin communicating to two religious systems essentially differing in\ntheir respective tendencies so many points of resemblance. But that\nstudy is yet to be made. We know very little on all those points. The\nbest informed are compelled to acknowledge that in the present state\nof information we are still in the dark, the thickness of which is\noccasionally relieved by a few transient and uncertain glimpses which\nare insufficient to enlighten the mind, and enable the searcher after\ntruth to guide safely his steps. In reading the particulars of the life\nof the last Buddha Gaudama, it is impossible not to feel reminded of\nmany circumstances relating to our Saviour\u2019s life, such as it has been\nsketched out by the evangelists. The origin of the close affinity between\nmany doctrinal points and maxims common both to Christianity and Buddhism\nhaving been ascertained, it will not be difficult to find out and\nexplain how the votaries of both have come to adopt so many practices,\nceremonies, observances, and institutions nearly similar.\n\nHaving endeavoured to explain the nature of the institution of the\nTalapoins, and the object aimed at by its professed members, we will now\nproceed to examine its systematical organisation, or sacred hierarchy.\n\n\nARTICLE III.\n\nHIERARCHY OF THE ORDER.\n\nIt is somewhat surprising to find in the middle of half-civilised\nnations, such as the Burmese, Siamese, Cingalese, and Thibetans, a\nreligious order, with a distinct and well-marked hierarchy, constitutions\nand regulations, providing for the admission of members, determining\ntheir occupations, duties, obligations, and their mode of life, and\nforming, as it were, a compact, solid, and perfect body, that has\nsubsisted, almost without change, during several centuries, and\nsurvived the destruction of kingdoms, the fall of royal dynasties, and\nall the confusion and agitation produced by political commotions and\nrevolutions. It is in Thibet that the order is found existing in the\ngreatest perfection, under the fostering care of the Grand Lama, or\nHigh Priest, who combines in his own person the regal as well as the\nsacerdotal dignity and power. In the city of Lassa, a pontifical court,\nan elective sacerdotal chief, and a college of superior Lamas impart to\nthe order dignity, decency, respectability, and stability, which insure\nits continued existence, and more or less extend its influence over its\nmembers living in distant countries. The period of the introduction of\nBuddhism from India into Thibet is very uncertain, if not quite unknown.\nBuddhist annals mention that after the holding of the third council,\n236 years after Gaudama\u2019s death, some missionaries were deputed by the\npresident of that assembly to go and preach religion in some parts of\nthe Himalayan range. We may suppose that this had reference to the\nsouthern slopes of the mountains. Be that as it may, it appears certain\nthat the establishment of a pontifical chief or sovereign, with royal\nprerogatives, was set up by one of the grandsons of the great Tartar\nwarrior Gengis in or about the middle of the thirteenth century. In\nother countries, where the order has no connection whatever with the\ncivil power, we can scarcely expect to see it surrounded with an equal\nsplendour, or subsisting in the same state of splendour and regularity.\nThough this is the case in Burmah, it is impossible not to acknowledge\nthe fact that the regulations of the Wini are more carefully attended\nto in this country than in Thibet. The conduct of the monks here is\nincomparably more regular. The public could not bear an open dereliction\nof the duties imposed by the vows of poverty and chastity. But, if\ncredit be given to the narratives of travellers, the Thibetan monks do\nnot scruple to forsake occasionally those duties, without appearing to\nfear the rising of a popular cry of indignation, on account of their\nmisbehaviour in points considered of such vast importance. Extraordinary,\nindeed, would be its vital energies, were the remotest parts of this\ngreat and far-spread body to receive the same impulse and exhibit the\nsame symptoms of vitality as those nearest to the heart or principle\nof life. Having never met with any detailed particulars regarding the\nThibetan monks, we must remain satisfied with laying before the reader an\naccount of all that relates to the constituent parts of the order, such\nas they are found existing in Burmah and developed in the sacred writings.\n\nThe whole fraternity is composed, 1st, of young men who have put on\nthe Talapoinic dress without being considered professed members of the\nfraternity, or having hitherto passed through a certain ordeal somewhat\nresembling an ordinary; they are called _Shyins_; 2d, of those who,\nhaving lived for a while in the community in a probationary state, are\nadmitted professed members with the ceremonies usually observed on such\noccasions, whereby the title and character of Phongyie are solemnly\nconferred; they are denominated _Patzins_; 3d, of the heads of each house\nor community, who have the power to control all the inmates of the house;\n4th, of a provincial, whose jurisdiction extends over all the communities\nspread in the towns and villages of the province or district; 5th,\nof a superior general, residing in the capital or its suburbs, called\n_Tsaia-dau_, or great master, having the general management and direction\nof all the affairs of the order throughout the empire. He is emphatically\ncalled by the name of Tha-thana-paing, which means that he has the power\nover religion. Let us say something upon each of these five degrees of\nthe Buddhistic hierarchy.\n\nIt is an almost universal custom among the Burmese and Siamese to cause\nboys who have attained the age of puberty, or even before that time, to\nenter for a year or two one of the many Talapoinic houses, to put on the\nyellow dress, for the double purpose of learning to read and write, and\nof acquiring merits for future existences. On the occasion of the death\nof certain persons, it happens sometimes that a member of the family will\nenter the community for six months or a year. When a young lad is to make\nhis first entrance into a house of the order, he is led thereto, riding\non a richly caparisoned pony, or sitting in a fine palanquin carried on\nthe shoulders of four or more men. He is allowed to use one or several\ngold umbrellas, which are held opened over his head. During the triumphal\nmarch he is preceded by a long line of men and women, attired in their\nrichest dresses, carrying a large quantity of presents destined for the\nuse of the inmates of the _Kiaong_ (such is the general name given to all\nthe houses of the brotherhood in Burmah) which the young postulant is to\nreside in. In this stately order the procession, attended with a band\nplaying on various musical instruments, moves on slowly and circuitously\nthrough the principal streets of the town towards the monastery that has\nbeen fixed upon. This display of an ostentatious pomp is, on the part of\nthe parents and relatives, an honour paid to the postulant who generously\nconsecrates himself to so exalted a calling, and on the part of the\nyouth a last farewell to worldly vanities. He has no sooner descended\nfrom his splendid conveyance and crossed the threshold of the kiaong\nthan he is delivered by his parents into the hands of the superior, and\nplaced under his care. His head is instantly shaved; he is stripped of\nhis fine secular dress, and habited in the plain and humble yellow garb;\nhe must lay aside every sort of ornament, and remain contented with the\nunassuming simplicity becoming his new position. The kiaong is to become\nhis home, and its inmates are substituted in the room of his father and\nmother, brothers and sisters.\n\nThe duty of the young shyin is to minister to the wants of the elders of\nthe house, to bring and place before them at fixed times the usual supply\nof water, the betel-box, and the daily food; to attend them on some\npious errand through the town or the country. A portion of his time is\ndevoted to acquiring the art of reading and writing, and occasionally the\nelements of arithmetic. There are five general precepts obligatory on all\nmen; but the shyin is bound to the observance of five additional ones,\nmaking ten altogether, by which he is forbidden\u20141st, to kill animals;\n2d, to steal; 3d, to give himself up to carnal pleasures; 4th, to tell\nlies; 5th, to drink wine or other intoxicating liquors; 6th, to eat after\nmid-day; 7th, to dance, sing, or play on any musical instrument; 8th, to\ncolour his face; 9th, to stand on elevated places, not proper for him;\n10th, to touch or handle gold or silver.[54] The trespassing of the five\nfirst precepts is visited with expulsion from the kiaong; but that of the\nfive last may be expiated by a proper penance.\n\nThe young shyins, as before observed, do not remain in the kiaong beyond\nthe period of one or two years; they generally leave it and return to\na secular life. There are, however, some of them, who, fond of the\neasy and quiet life of Talapoins, or actuated by other motives, prefer\nremaining longer in those places of retirement. They betake themselves\nto the study of the duties, rules, and obligations of the professed\nmembers of the society; they pay more attention to the reading of\nreligious books, and endeavour to obtain the required qualifications.\nBeing sufficiently instructed on all these points, and having attained\nthe age of twenty years, they are solemnly admitted among the professed\nmembers of the brotherhood under the name of Patzin. The interesting\nceremonies observed on the occasion will hereafter be fully described.\nThe state of Patzin is, therefore, properly speaking, that of Phongyie,\nthough that name is sometimes reserved for him who is the head of a\nmonastery. Every other step or promotion in the hierarchy is purely\nhonorary, in so far that it does not impose upon him who is so promoted\nany new duty or obligation different from what is obligatory on every\nprofessed member; but it confers a power or jurisdiction for commanding,\ncontrolling, and governing all the brethren under his care. In virtue\nof such distinctions, a superior, how high soever his rank may be, is\nbound to the observance of the same rules, duties, and obligations as the\nlast Patzin; his sacred character is not enlarged or altered; he is only\nentrusted with a certain amount of jurisdiction over some of his brethren.\n\nThe Talapoin is bound to his community, so that in every kiaong or\nhouse of the order there are ordinarily to be met several Patzins and\na good number of shyins. Each kiaong has a chief who presides over the\ncommunity, under the appellation of Tsaya, or, as is more often the case,\nunder that of Phongyie. He is, in most instances, the nominee of the\nindividual who has built the monastery, and who is vested with a kind of\nright of patronage to appoint whom he likes to be the head of the house\nhe has erected. He who is the head of the house has power over all the\ninmates, and every one acknowledges him as his immediate superior. He has\nthe management of all the little affairs of the community, enforces the\nregular observance of the rules and duties of the profession, corrects\nabuses, rebukes the trespassers, spurs the lazy, excites the lukewarm,\nkeeps peace and maintains good understanding amongst his subordinates.\nHe receives, in his official character, the pious visitors who resort\nto his monastery, either for the sake of making voluntary offerings in\ntoken of their respect for and admiration of his eminent sanctity, or\nfor conversing with him on some religious subjects, which, let it be\nsaid quietly, out of deference to human frailty, sometimes make room\nfor those of a worldly character. If the alms-givers or advice-seekers\nbelong, as often happens, to the fair and devout sex, they must remain at\na distance of six or twelve cubits, as the place may allow, from their\npious adviser. It is supposed that a nearer proximity might endanger the\nvirtue of the holy recluse.\n\nIn every town a considerable number of kiaongs are found, either in the\nsuburbs or within the walls, in a quarter reserved for the purpose.\nIn every village the kiaong is to be met with, as the parson\u2019s house\nin our villages of Europe. The poorest place is not without a small\nand often very humble house for the Phongyie who resides there, if not\nduring the whole year, at least during the rainy season. One or several\ndzedis, a sort of flagstaff painted, and with some of its parts gilt,\nbearing the emblem of the sacred bird henza, or Brahminical duck, at\nthree-fourths of its height, from which hang down gracefully several\nstreamers, amid a grove of fruit trees, indicate to the traveller the\nhabitation\u2014sometimes humble, sometimes stately\u2014with its superposed three\nroofs, where the Rahans dwell. The kiaong is also a place where the\ntraveller is well received, and can stay for a day or two. During the\ndry season, when there are few boys remaining with the Phongyies, it is\na place much safer than the dzeats. The inmates are generally very glad\nto receive strangers, who by their conversation afford them some moments\nof pleasant diversion which relieve the habitual monotony of their life.\nThese various communities are placed under the jurisdiction of a general\nsuperior, or a provincial named Tsaia-dau, or great master; they form,\nunder his authority, a province of the order; a division much similar\nto that of several religious orders in Europe. He enjoys a large share\nof public respect and veneration. His kiaong outshines the others in\nsplendour and decorations. The first and wealthiest inhabitants of the\nplace are proud to call themselves his disciples and supporters, and to\nsupply him liberally with all that he may require. His chief duty is to\nsettle disputes that not unfrequently arise between rival communities.\nThe demon of discord often haunts these abodes of peace and retirement.\nThe authority of the provincial interferes to put down feuds and\ncontentions, which envy and jealousy, the two great enemies of devotees,\nnot unfrequently excite. When a Talapoin is accused of incontinence\nor other serious infringement of the vital rules of the profession,\nhe is summoned to the tribunal of the Tsaya-dau, who, assisted and\nadvised by some elders, examines the case and pronounces the sentence.\nSuperior intellectual attainments do not appear to be the essential\nqualifications for obtaining this high dignity. The writer has met with\ntwo or three of these dignitaries who, in his opinion, were vastly\ninferior to many of their subordinates in talents and capacity. They were\nold and good-natured men, who had spent almost all their lives within\nthe precincts of the monastery. Their dress, manners, and habits were\nentirely similar to those of their brethren of inferior grade.\n\nIn the capital, or its suburbs, of the kingdom of Ava, where is the\nkey-stone of the Talapoinic fabric, the _superlatively_ great master\nresides. His jurisdiction extends over all the fraternity within the\nrealm of his Burmese majesty. His position near the seat of government,\nand his capacity of king\u2019s master or teacher, must have at all times\nconferred upon him a very great degree of influence over all his\nsubordinates. He is honoured with the eminent title of _Tha-thana-paing_,\nmeaning that he has power and control over all that appertains to\nreligion. It does not appear that peculiarly shining qualifications\nor high attainments are required in him who is honoured with such a\ndignity. The mere accidental circumstance of having been the king\u2019s\ninstructor when he was as yet a youth is a sufficient, nay, the only\nnecessary recommendation for the promotion to such a high position. Hence\nit generally happens that each king, at his accession to the throne,\nconfers the highest dignity of the order on his favourite Phongyie.\nIn that case the actual incumbent has to resign the place to his more\ninfluential brother, and becomes an ordinary member of the fraternity,\nunless he prefers leaving the society altogether, and re-entering the\nlay condition. Great indeed is the respect paid by the king to the head\nPhongyie. When on certain days of worship he is invited to go to the\npalace and deliver some instructions to his majesty, the proud monarch\nquits the somewhat elevated place he occupies, and takes one almost on a\nlevel with that of the courtiers, whilst the venerable personage goes to\nsit on the very same carpet just vacated by the king. When he happens to\ngo out and visit some monasteries or places of worship, he is generally\ncarried on a gilt litter, in great state, attended by a large number of\nhis brethren and a considerable retinue of laymen. During the passage,\nmarks of the greatest respect are given by the people. The monastery\nhe lives in is on a scale of splendor truly surprising. Its form and\nappearance are similar to that of other religious houses, but in variety\nand richness of decorations it surpasses them all. It is entirely gilt\nboth inside and out; not only are the posts covered with gold leaves, but\noften they are inlaid with rubies, which I suppose are of the commonest\ndescription and of little value.\n\nTo confer an additional sacredness to his person and position, the\n_Tha-thana-paing_ lives by himself, with but one or two Phongyies, whom\nwe may consider as his secretaries or major-domos, who remain in an\napartment near to the entrance, to receive visitors and usher them into\nthe presence of the great personage. Besides, there are lay guardians who\ntake good care that not the least noise should ever disturb the silence\nof the place.\n\nWhen the writer first visited that dignitary, he was much amused, on his\napproach to the place, to meet with those mute guardians, who by all\nsorts of signs and gestures were endeavouring to make him understand that\nhe must walk slowly and noiselessly, and beware to speak aloud. When\nadmitted to the presence of the Tsaya-dau, he was not a little surprised\nto find a man exceedingly self-conceited, who thought that to him alone\nbelonged the right of speaking. His language was that of a master to\nwhom no one was expected to presume to offer the least contradiction. He\nappeared quite offended when his visitor was compelled to dissent from\nhim on certain points brought forward during the conversation. He was\nthen about fifty years old. He was, for a Burman, of a tall stature,\nwith regular and handsome features. The face was a little emaciated,\nas becomes a monk. His spiritual pride cast a darkish and unpleasant\nappearance on his person. He spoke quickly and sententiously; appearing\nall the while scarcely to notice his interlocutor. Admiration of self\nand vanity pierced through the thin veil which his affected humility\nspread over his countenance. The writer left him with an impression very\ndifferent from that which a worthy English envoy, in the end of the last\ncentury, entertained of a similar personage, whose mild, benign, and\npious exterior captivated him to such an extent as to elicit from him a\nrequest to be remembered in his prayers.\n\nIn our days, the power of the Tha-thana-paing is merely nominal;\nthe effects of his jurisdiction are scarcely felt beyond his own\nneighbourhood. Such, however, was not the case in former times. Spiritual\ncommissioners were sent yearly by him, to examine into and report on the\nstate of the communities throughout the provinces. They had to inquire\nparticularly whether the rules were regularly observed or not, whether\nthe professed members were really well qualified for their holy calling\nor not. They were empowered to repress abuses, and whenever some unworthy\nbrother, or _black sheep_, was found within the enclosure of a monastery,\nhe was forthwith degraded, stripped of the yellow garb, and compelled\nto resume a secular course of life. Unfortunately for the welfare of\nthe order, those salutary visits no more take place; the wholesome\ncheck is done away with. Left without a superior control, the order has\nfallen into a low degree of abjectness and degradation. The situation\nof Talapoins is often looked upon now as one fit for lazy, ignorant,\nand idle people, who, being anxious to live well and do nothing, put\non the sacred dress for a certain time, until, tired of the duties and\nobligations of their new profession, they retire and betake themselves\nanew to a secular life. This practice, as far as my observation goes,\nis pretty general, if not almost universal. There are, however, a few\nexceptions. Though labouring under many serious disadvantages, the\nsociety continues to subsist with all its exterior characteristics; the\nvarious steps of its hierarchy are as well marked and defined now as they\nwere before under more favourable circumstances. Its framework remains\nentire, but the materials composing it are somewhat imperfect and unsound.\n\nThere is in that religious body a latent principle of vitality, that\nkeeps it up and communicates to it an amount of strength and energy\nthat have hitherto maintained it in the midst of wars, revolutions,\nand political convulsions of all descriptions. Whether supported or\nnot by the ruling power, it has remained always firm and unchanged. It\nis impossible to account satisfactorily for such a phenomenon, unless\nwe find a clear and evident cause of such an extraordinary vitality; a\ncause independent of ordinary occurrences, time, and circumstances; a\ncause deeply rooted in the very soul of the populations, that exhibit\nbefore the observer this great and striking religious feature. That\ncause appears to be the strong religious sentiment, the firm faith that\npervades the masses of Buddhists. The laity admire and venerate the\nreligious, and voluntarily and cheerfully contribute to their maintenance\nand welfare. From its ranks the religious body is constantly recruited.\nThere is scarcely a man that has not been a member of the fraternity for\na certain period of time.\n\nSurely such a general and continued impulse could not last long, unless\nit were maintained by a powerful religious conviction. The members of the\norder preserve, at least exteriorly, the decorum of their profession.\nThe rules and regulations are tolerably well observed; the grades of\nhierarchy are maintained with a scrupulous exactitude. The life of the\nreligious is one of restraint and perpetual control. He is denied all\nsorts of pleasures and diversions. How could such system of self-denial\nbe ever maintained, were it not for the belief which the Rahans have in\nthe merits that they amass, by following a course of life which, after\nall, is repugnant to nature? It cannot be denied that human motives often\ninfluence both the laity and the religious, but divested of faith and\nof the sentiments inspired by even a false belief, their action could\nnot produce, in a lasting and persevering manner, the extraordinary and\nstriking fact we witness in Buddhistic countries.\n\n\nARTICLE IV.\n\nORDINATION, OR CEREMONIES OBSERVED AT THE ADMISSION INTO THE SOCIETY.\n\nWe will now explain rather minutely, and describe as accurately as\npossible, the various ceremonies performed on the occasion of the\npromotion of a shyin to the rank of patzin, or professed member. It\nmust be borne in mind that this ordeal through which he has to pass, or\nordination, as we may aptly perhaps term it, which he has to receive,\ndoes not confer any peculiar character, or give any special spiritual\npower to the admitted candidate; but it merely initiates him to a more\nperfect course of life, and makes him the member of a society composed of\nmen aiming at a higher degree of sanctity or perfection. The incumbent\nmust be provided for the ceremony with a dress such as is used in the\ncommunity; he must be found exempt from certain moral and physical\ndefects that would render him unworthy of being admitted a member of\nthe order; he must pledge himself to a rigorous observance of certain\nregulations which form the constitutions of the society.\n\nThe place where the ceremony is to be performed is a hall measuring\nat least twelve cubits in length, not including the space occupied by\nthe Rahans whose presence is required on the occasion. The assembly of\nPhongyies, or Rahans, must include ten or twelve members at least if the\nceremony be performed in towns, and four or six if it be in the country.\nHe who presides over the ceremony is called Upitze, meaning master or\nguide; he has an assistant, named Cambawa Tsaia, whose office it is to\nread the sacred Cambawa, or book of ordination, to present the candidate\nto the Upitze and his assembled brethren, to put to him the requisite\nquestions as prescribed by the ritual, and to give him instructions on\ncertain points, the ignorance of which would prove highly prejudicial\nto and greatly offensive in a professed member of the order. All the\nregulations prescribed and the ceremonies observed on the occasion are\ncontained in a book written in Pali, the sacred language. This book may\nbe aptly termed the ritual of the Buddhists. It is held in great respect,\nand some copies written on sheets of ivory with gilt edges are truly\nbeautiful, and bespeak the high value Buddhists set on the work. The\ncopyists have retained the use of the old square Pali letters, instead\nof employing the circular Burmese characters. All the ordinances and\nprescriptions in this book are supposed to have been promulgated and\nsanctioned by no less an authority than Gaudama himself, the last Buddha\nand the acknowledged originator and founder of the Talapoinic order.\nHence the high respect and profound veneration all Buddhists bear to its\ncontents. The candidate, previously to the beginning of the ceremony,\nmust be provided, as aforesaid, with his _patta_, or mendicant\u2019s pot,\nand a _tsiwaran_, the clerical dress or monkish habit. The _patta_ is an\nopen-mouthed pot of a truncated spheroidal form, wherein each member of\nthe brotherhood must receive the alms which every morning he goes to\ncollect in the streets.\n\nThe _tsiwaran_ or yellow[55] garment, the only dress becoming a Rahan,\nis composed first of a piece of cloth bound to the loins with a leathern\ngirdle, and falling down to the feet; second, of a cloak of a rectangular\nform, covering the shoulders and breast and reaching somewhat below the\nknee; and, third, of another piece of cloth of the same shape, which is\nfolded many times and thrown over the left shoulder, the two ends hanging\ndown before and behind. Another article always required for completing\nthe full dress of the Rahan is the _awana_, a sort of fan made of palm\nleaves, set in light oval-shaped wooden frame, with a serpentine handle,\nsomewhat resembling in appearance the letter S.\n\nThe Burmese translator of the Pali text has interpolated his work with\nmany remarks tending to elucidate the text, and to show the various\nmotives and reasons that have induced Gaudama to decree and publish as\nobligatory the regulations laid down in the sacred Cambawa. It must be\nborne in mind, too, that the omission of some essential parts of the\nceremonies annuls _de facto_ the ordination, whilst the non-compliance\nwith others of minor importance, though not invalidating the act of\nadmission into the sacred family, entails sin upon all members of the\nbrotherhood assembled _ex officio_ for the ceremony. The reader must\nbe prepared to observe many points of close resemblance between the\nceremonies observed at the reception of a monk, or the ordination of a\npriest, and those performed in these parts on the solemn occasion of\nadmitting a candidate to the dignity of Patzin.\n\nThe preparations for the solemnity being completed, and the assembled\nfathers having occupied their respective seats under the presidence of\nthe Upitze, the candidate is introduced into their presence attended\nby the assistant or reader of the Cambawa, and carrying his patta and\nyellow garments. He is enjoined to repeat distinctly thrice the following\nsentence to the Upitze, kneeling down, and his body bent forward,\nwith his joined hands raised to the forehead: \u201cVenerable President, I\nacknowledge you to be my Upitze.\u201d These words having been three times\nrepeated, the assistant, addressing himself to the candidate, says: \u201cDost\nthou acknowledge this to be thy patta, and these thy sacred vestments?\u201d\nTo which he audibly answers, \u201cYes.\u201d\n\nUpon this the translator remarks that, on a certain day, a Rahan that had\nbeen ordained without being supplied with either _patta_ or _tsiwaran_\nwent out quite naked, and received in the palms of his joined hands\nthe food offered to him. So extraordinary, one would have said so\nunedifying, a proceeding having been mentioned to Gaudama, he ordered\nthat henceforward no Rahan should ever be ordained unless he had been\npreviously interrogated regarding the patta and the vestments. Any\ndisobedience to this injunction would entail sin on the assembled fathers.\n\nThe assistant having desired the candidate to withdraw from the assembly\nto a distance of twelve cubits, and the latter having complied with his\nrequest, he turns towards the assembled fathers and addresses them as\nfollows: \u201cVenerable Upitze, and you brethren herein congregated, listen\nto my words. The candidate who now stands in a humble posture before you\nsolicits from the Upitze the favour of being honoured with the dignity\nof patzin. If it appears to you that everything is properly arranged and\ndisposed for this purpose, I will duly admonish him. O candidate, be\nattentive unto my words, and beware lest on this solemn occasion thou\nutterest an untruth or concealest aught from our knowledge. Learn that\nthere are certain incapacities and defects which render a person unfit\nfor admittance into our order. Moreover, when before this assembly thou\nshalt be interrogated respecting such defects, thou art to answer truly,\nand declare what incapacities thou mayest labour under. Now this is not\nthe time to remain silent and decline thy head; every member of the\nassembly has a right to interrogate thee at his pleasure, and it is thy\nbounden duty to return an answer to all his interrogations.\u201d\n\n\u201cCandidate, art thou affected with any of the following complaints:\nthe leprosy, or any such odious maladies? Hast thou the scrofula or\nother similar complaints? Dost thou suffer from asthma or coughs?\nArt thou afflicted with those complaints that arise from a corrupted\nblood? Art thou affected by madness or the other ills caused by giants,\nwitches, or evil spirits of the forests and mountains?\u201d To each separate\ninterrogation he answers: \u201cFrom such complaints and bodily disorders I am\nfree.\u201d \u201cArt thou a man?\u201d \u201cI am.\u201d \u201cArt thou a true and legitimate son?\u201d\n\u201cI am.\u201d \u201cArt thou involved in debts?\u201d \u201cI am not.\u201d \u201cThe bounden man and\nunderling of some great man?\u201d \u201cNo, I am not.\u201d \u201cHave thy parents given\nconsent to thy ordination?\u201d \u201cThey have given it.\u201d \u201cHast thou reached the\nage of twenty years?\u201d \u201cI have attained it.\u201d[56] \u201cAre thy vestments and\nsacred patta prepared?\u201d \u201cThey are.\u201d \u201cCandidate, what is thy name?\u201d \u201cMy\nname is Wago,\u201d meaning, metaphorically, a vile and unworthy being. \u201cWhat\nis the name of thy master?\u201d \u201cHis name is Upitze.\u201d\n\nThe assistant, having finished the examination, turns his face towards\nthe assembled fathers, and thus proceeds: \u201cVenerable Upitze, and ye\nassembled brethren, be pleased to listen to my words. I have duly\nadmonished this candidate, who seeks from you to be admitted into our\norder. Does the present moment appear to you a meet and proper time that\nhe should come forward? If so, I shall order him to come nearer.\u201d Then\nturning to the candidate, he bids him come close to the assembly and ask\ntheir consent to his ordination. The order is instantly complied with\nby the candidate, who, having left behind him the distance of twelve\ncubits that separated him from the fathers, squats on his heels, the body\nbending forward and the hands raised to his forehead, and says: \u201cI beg,\nO fathers of this assembly, to be admitted to the profession of Rahan.\nHave pity on me; take me from the state of layman, which is one of sin\nand imperfection, and advance me to that of Rahan, a state of virtue and\nperfection.\u201d These words must be repeated three times.\n\nThe assistant then resumes his discourse as follows: \u201cO ye fathers here\nassembled, hear my words. This candidate, humbly prostrated before you,\nbegs of the Upitze to be admitted into our holy profession; it seems\nthat he is free from all defects, corporal infirmities, as well as\nmental incapacities, that would otherwise debar him from entering our\nholy state; he is likewise provided with the patta and sacred vestments;\nmoreover, he has asked, in the name of the Upitze, permission of the\nassembly to be admitted among the Rahans. Now let the assembly complete\nhis ordination. To whomsoever this seems good, let him keep silence:\nwhosoever thinks otherwise, let him declare that this candidate is\nunworthy of being admitted.\u201d And these words he repeats three times.\nAfterwards he proceeds: \u201cSince, then, none of the fathers object, but all\nare silent, it is a sign that the assembly has consented; so, therefore,\nbe it done. Let therefore this candidate pass out of the state of sin and\nimperfection into the perfect state of Rahan, and thus, by the consent\nof the Upitze and of all the fathers, let him be ordained.\u201d\n\nAnd he further says: \u201cThe fathers must note down under what shade, on\nwhat day, at what hour, and in what season the ordination has been\nperformed.\u201d\n\nThis being done, the reader of the sacred Cambawa adds: \u201cLet the\ncandidate attend to the following duties, which it is incumbent on him to\nperform, and to the faults hereafter enumerated, which he must carefully\navoid.\n\n\u201c1. It is the duty of each member of our brotherhood to beg for his\nfood with labour, and with the exertion of the muscles of his feet; and\nthrough the whole course of his life he must gain his subsistence by the\nlabour of his feet. He is allowed to make use of all the things that are\noffered to him in particular, or to the society in general, that are\nusually presented in banquets, that are sent by letter, and that are\ngiven at the new and full moon and on festivals. O candidate, all these\nthings you may use for your food.\u201d To this he replies, \u201cSir, I understand\nwhat you tell me.\u201d\n\nThe assistant resumes his instructions: \u201c2. It is a part of the duty of\na member of our society to wear, through humility, yellow clothes, made\nof rags thrown about in the streets or among the tombs. If, however, by\nhis talents and virtue one procures for himself many benefactors, he\nmay receive from them for his habit the following articles, cotton and\nsilk, or cloth of red[57] and yellow wool.\u201d The elect answers, \u201cAs I am\ninstructed, so I will do.\u201d\n\nThe instructor goes on: \u201c3. Every member of the society must dwell in\nhouses built under the shade of lofty trees.[58] But if, owing to your\nproficiency and zeal in the discharge of your duties, you secure to\nyourself powerful supporters who are willing to build for you a better\nhabitation, you may dwell in it. The dwellings may be made of bamboo,\nwood, and bricks, with roofs adorned with turrets or spires of pyramidal\nor triangular form.\u201d The elect answers: \u201cI will duly attend to these\ninstructions.\u201d\n\nAfter the usual answer, the instructor proceeds: \u201c4. It is incumbent upon\nan elect to use, as medicine, the urine of the cow, whereon lime and the\njuices of lemon or other sour fruits have been poured. He may also avail\nhimself, as medicines, of articles thrown out of bazaars and picked up\nin corners of streets. He may accept, for medicinal purposes, nutmegs\nand cloves. The following articles may also be used medicinally\u2014butter,\ncream, and honey.\u201d\n\nNow the assistant instructs the new religious on the four capital\noffences he must carefully avoid, under penalty of forfeiting the dignity\nhe has just attained to, and solemnly warns him against committing one\nof them. Those sins are fornication, theft, murder, and spiritual pride.\nThe committing of one of these sins by religious after their ordination,\nin the days of Gaudama, induced him to declare those excluded _de facto_\nfrom the society who had been guilty of such offences; and he enjoined\nthat the assistant should immediately after the ceremony solemnly\nadmonish the newly ordained Patzin carefully to shun such odious offences.\n\nThe assistant, without delay, proceeds as follows: \u201cO elect, being now\nadmitted into our society, it shall be no longer lawful for you to\nindulge in carnal pleasures, whether with yourself or animals. He who is\nguilty of such sin can no longer be numbered among the perfect. Sooner\nshall the severed head be joined again to the neck, and life be restored\nto the breathless body, than a Patzin who has committed fornication\nrecover his lost sanctity. Beware, therefore, lest you pollute yourself\nwith such a crime.\n\n\u201cAgain, it is unlawful and forbidden to an elect to take things that\nbelong to another, or even to covet them, although their value should not\nexceed about six annas (one-fourth of a tical). Whoever sins even to that\nsmall amount is hereby deprived of his sacred character, and can no more\nbe restored to his pristine state than the branch cut from the tree can\nretain its luxuriant foliage and shoot forth buds. Beware of theft during\nthe whole of your mortal journey.\n\n\u201cAgain, an elect can never knowingly deprive any living being of life, or\nwish the death of any one, how troublesome soever he may prove. Sooner\nshall the cleft rock reunite so as to make a whole, than he who kills\nany being be readmitted into our society. Cautiously avoid so heinous a\ncrime.\n\n\u201cAgain, no member of our brotherhood can ever arrogate to himself\nextraordinary gifts or supernatural perfections, or, through vainglory,\ngive himself out as a holy man; such, for instance, as to withdraw\ninto solitary places, and, on pretence of enjoying ecstasies like the\nAriahs, afterwards presume to teach others the way to uncommon spiritual\nattainments. Sooner may the lofty palm-tree that has been cut down become\ngreen again, than an elect guilty of such pride be restored to his holy\nstation. Take care for yourself that you do not give way to such an\nexcess.\u201d The elect replies as before: \u201cAs I am instructed, so I will\nperform.\u201d Here ends the ceremony. The elect joins the body of Rahans, and\nwithdraws in their company to his own kiaong.\n\nIt has already been mentioned that this ceremony or ordination does not\nimpart any spiritual character inherent in the person of the elect; but\nit is a mere formality he has to go through, to enter into the family of\nthe perfect. The admitted member is not linked indissolubly to his new\nstate; he is at liberty to leave it when it pleases him, and re-enter\nsecular life. He may, moreover, if inclined, apply for re-admission into\nthe order, but he must go through the same ceremonies that were observed\non his first ordination. It is not very common to meet among the Burmese\nRahans men who from their youth have persevered to an old age in their\nvocation. Those form the rare exceptions. They are very much respected,\nand held in high consideration during their lifetime, and the greatest\nhonours are lavished upon their mortal remains after their demise. They\nare often designated by the honourable denomination of \u201cpure from their\ninfancy.\u201d\n\n\nARTICLE V.\n\nRULES OF THE ORDER.\n\nThe obligations inherent in the dignity of Patzin, and the multifarious\nduties prescribed to the Buddhist monks, are contained in a book called\nPatimauk, which is, properly speaking, the manual of the order, and the\n_Vade Mecum_ of every Talapoin, who is obliged to study it with great\ncare and attention. It is even ordered that on festival days a certain\nnumber of recluses shall meet in a particular place called Thein, to\nlisten to the reading of that book, or at least a part of it; that every\nbrother should have always present to his mind the rules and regulations\nof his profession, and be prompted to a strict observance of all the\npoints they enforce. This injunction is a very proper one, since it is a\nfact confirmed by the experience of ages that relaxation and dissipation\nfind their way in all communities at the very moment the rules are\npartially lost sight of. So attentive to this duty are some Phongyies\nthat they can repeat by heart all the contents of the Patimauk. We have\nread the book with a good deal of attention. Many wise and well-digested\nrules are to be met with here and there, but they are merged in a heap of\nminute, not to say ridiculous and childish, details, not worth repeating.\nIn order, however, to give a correct and distinct outline of the mode of\nlife, manners, habits, and occupations of the Talapoins, we will extract\nfrom it all that has appeared to be interesting and calculated to attain\nthe above purpose, leaving aside the incongruous mass of useless rubbish.\n\nEvery member of the order, on his entering the profession, must renounce\nhis own will and bend his neck under the yoke of the rule. So anxious\nindeed has been the framer of its statutes to leave no room or field open\nto the independent exertions of the mind, that every action of the day,\nthe manner of performing it, the time it ought to last, the circumstances\nthat must attend it, have all been minutely regulated. From the moment\na Rahan rises in the morning to the moment he is to go to enjoy his\nnatural rest in the evening, his only duty is to obey and follow the\never-subsisting will and commands of the founder of the society. He\nadvances in perfection proportionately to his fervent compliance with the\ninjunctions of, and to his conscientiously avoiding all that has been\nforbidden by, the sagacious legislator. The trespassing of one article\nof the rule constitutes a sin. The various sins a Rahan is liable to\ncommit are comprised under seven principal heads. 1st, the Paradzekas;\n2d, the Thinga-de-ceits; 3d, the Patzei; 4th, the Toolladzi; 5th, the\nDuka; 6th, the Dupaci; and 7th, the Pati-de-kani. These seven kinds of\nsins are subdivided and multiplied to the number of 227, which constitute\nthe total amount of sins either of commission or omission that a Phongyie\nmay commit during the time that he remains a member of the holy society.\nThe Paradzikas are four in number: fornication, theft, killing, and\nvainglory in attributing to one\u2019s self high attainments in perfection.\nA recluse, on the day of his admission, is, as before related, warned\nnever to commit these four sins, under the penalty of being excluded\nfrom the society. They are irremissible in their nature. The meaning of\nthis is, He who has had the misfortune of yielding to temptation, and\ncommitting one of these four offences, is no longer to be considered as a\nmember of the Thanga, or of the assembly of the perfect. He is _de facto_\nexcluded from the society. He may exteriorly continue to be a member of\nthe Thanga, but inwardly he really no longer belongs to it. All other\noffences are subjected to the law of confession, and can be expiated by\nvirtue of the penances imposed upon the delinquent after he has made a\npublic avowal of his sins.\n\nThe reader will no doubt be startled by the unexpected information that\nthe practice of confession has been established among the Talapoins, and\nis up to this day observed, though very imperfectly, by every fervent\nreligious. Some zealous Patzins will resort to the practice once, and\nsometimes twice a day. Here is what is prescribed on this subject in\nthe Wini, or book of scriptures, which contains all that relates to the\nPhongyies, the Patimauk being but a compendium of it: when a Rahan has\nbeen guilty of a violation of his rule, he ought immediately to go to his\nsuperior, and, kneeling before him, confess his sin to him. Sometimes\nhe will do this in the Thein, the place where the brothers assemble\noccasionally to speak on religious subjects or listen to the reading of\nthe Patimauk in the presence of the assembly. He must confess all his\nsins, such as they are, without attempting to conceal those of a more\nrevolting nature, or lessening aggravating circumstances. A penance is\nthen imposed, consisting of certain pious formulas to be repeated a\ncertain number of times during the night. A promise must be made by the\npenitent to refrain in future from such trespasses. This extraordinary\npractice is observed now, one would say, _pro forma_. The penitent\napproaches his superior, kneels down before him, and having his hands\nraised to his forehead, says: \u201cVenerable superior, I do confess here all\nthe sins that I may be guilty of, and beg pardon for the same.\u201d He enters\nupon no detailed enumeration of his trespasses, nor does he specify\nanything respecting their nature and the circumstances attending them.\nThe superior remains satisfied with telling him: \u201cWell, take care lest\nyou break the regulations of your profession; and henceforward endeavour\nto observe them with fidelity.\u201d He dismisses him without inflicting\nany penance on him. Thus an institution, so well calculated to put a\nrestraint and a check upon human passions, so well fitted to prevent\nman from occasionally breaking commands given to him, or at least from\nslipping into the dangerous habit of doing it, is now, by the want of\nfervour and energy in the hands of that body, reduced to be no more than\nan useless and ridiculous ceremony, a mere shadow of what is actually\nprescribed by the Wini.\n\nThe punishments inflicted for the repeated transgressions of one or\nseveral points of the rule are, generally speaking, of a light nature,\nand seldom or never corporeal, as flagellations, &c. The superior\nsometimes orders a delinquent to walk through the courtyard during the\nheat of the day for a certain time, to carry to a distance a certain\nnumber of baskets-ful of sand, or a jug of water. Meekness, being a\nvirtue most becoming a recluse, forbids the resort to penances of a more\nsevere nature.\n\nHumility, poverty, self-denial, and chastity are to him who has received\nthe order of Patzin cardinal and most essential virtues, which he ought\nto practise on all occasions. He must, in all his exterior deportment,\ngive unequivocal marks of his being always influenced by the spirit they\ninspire. The framer of the rules and regulations of the order seems to\nhave had no other object in view than that of leading his brethren by\nvarious ways and means to the practice of these virtues, and inculcating\non their minds the necessity of attending to the observances prescribed\nfor this purpose. It is from this point we must view the statutes of the\nfraternity in order to understand them well and rightly, and appreciate\nthem according to their worth and merit. We would indeed form a very\nerroneous opinion of institutions of past ages if we were to examine\nthem, to praise or blame them, without a due regard being paid to the\nspirit that guided the legislator, and to the object he aimed at when he\nlaid them down. Our own ideas, customs, manners, and education will often\ndispose us to disapprove at first of institutions made in former ages,\namongst nations differing from us in all respects, under the pretext\nthat they are not such as we would have them to be now, making unawares\nour own prejudices the standard whereby to measure the merit or demerit\nof all that has been established previously to our own times. The\ninstitutions of the middle ages, a celebrated modern historian has said,\nare intelligible to him that has entered into the spirit of those days,\nand who thinks, feels, and believes as did the people of those bygone\ncenturies. This observation holds good to a certain extent, and, _mutatis\nmutandis_, in respect to Buddhistic institutions. The whole religious\nsystem must be understood, the object which the founder of the order had\nin view ought to be distinctly remarked and always borne in mind, ere we\npresume to pronounce upon the fitness or unfitness of the means he has\nemployed for obtaining it.\n\nFor humility\u2019s sake every Talapoin is bound to shave every part of\nhis body. In complying with this regulation he must consider that the\nhairs that are shaved off are useless things, serving merely for the\npurposes of vanity, and he ought to be as unconcerned about them as\na great mountain which has been cleared of the trees on its summit.\nInfluenced by the same spirit, the religious must always walk barefooted,\nexcept in case of his labouring under some infirmity, or for some other\ngood reason; he is then allowed to use a certain kind of plain and\nunornamented slipper, the shape, colour, and dimensions of which are\ncarefully prescribed by the rule. When the Rahans travel from one place\nto another, they are allowed to carry with them the broad fan, made of\npalm-leaves, and a common paper umbrella to protect their bare head from\nthe inclemency of the weather, or screen it from the heat of the sun.\nTheir dress, consisting, as above mentioned, of three parts, is as plain\nas possible. According to the Patimauk, each separate part must be made\nof rags picked up here and there, and sewed together by themselves. This\nregulation, though disregarded by many, is to a certain extent observed\nby the greater number, but in a manner rather contrary to the spirit, if\nnot to the letter, of the rule. On their receiving from benefactors a\npiece of silk or cotton, they cut it into several small square parts,\nwhich they afterwards contrive to have stitched in the best way they\ncan, so as to make their vestments according to the prescription of\nthe statutes. The vestment ought to be of one colour, yellow in those\ncountries in which Mahometanism does not prevail. The yellow colour is a\nmark of mourning, as the black is amongst most of the nations of Europe.\n\nSeven articles are considered as essential to every member of the holy\nfamily, viz., the kowot, thin-bain, dugout (the three pieces constituting\nhis vestment), a girdle, a patta, a small hatchet, a needle, and a\nsmall apparatus for straining the water he drinks. The entire number of\narticles he is permitted to use and possess amounts to sixty. They are\nall plain, common, almost valueless, offering no incentive to cupidity\nand leaving him who is only possessed of them in the humble state of\nstrict poverty.\n\nThe possession of temporal goods is strictly forbidden to the Rahans,\nas calculated to hinder them from meditating upon the law and attending\nto the various duties of the profession. Nothing indeed opposes a\nstronger barrier to the attainment of the perfect abnegation of self\nand a thorough contempt for material things, than the possession of\nworldly property. Hence a true Rahan has no object which he can, properly\nspeaking, call his own. The kiaong wherein he lives has been built by\nbenefactors, and is supplied by them with all that is necessary or useful\nto him. Food and raiment are procured for him without his having to feel\nconcerned about them. The pious liberality of his supporters assiduously\nprovides for his wants. But it is expected that he shall never concern\nhimself with worldly business or transactions, of whatever nature they\nmay be. He can neither labour, plant, traffic, nor do anything with the\nintent of deriving profit therefrom. Agreeably to the maxim, \u201cSufficient\nto the day is the evil thereof,\u201d the Rahan cannot make any stores for\nthe time to come. He must trust in the never-failing generosity and\never-watchful attention of his supporters for his daily wants. Now, let\nit be said to the praise of the Buddhists, that he is seldom disappointed\nin the reliance he places on them.\n\nThat he may be more effectually debarred from a too easy and frequent\nuse of the things of first necessity, a Talapoin is bound to go through\na tedious ceremony, called Akat, or presentation, before he can lawfully\ntouch anything. When he has occasion for food, drink, or anything else,\nhe turns to his disciples and tells them to do what is lawful. Whereupon\none of them, or several, as circumstances may require, rises from\nhis place, and, taking the thing or things he wants with both hands,\napproaches him respectfully, and presents to him the articles, saying,\nThis is lawful. Then the Rahan takes the things into his own hands, and\nuses them or lays them by, as may suit his convenience. When a thing is\npresented, the disciple must be at a distance of some cubits, otherwise\nthe recluse is guilty of a sin; and if what he receives is food, he\ncommits as many sins as he eats mouthfuls. Gold and silver being the\ntwo greatest feeders of covetousness, the rule forbids the Phongyies to\ntouch them, and _a fortiori_ to have them. But on this point, however,\nhuman covetousness has broken through the strong barriers the framer of\nthe statutes has wisely devised for effectually protecting recluses from\nits dangerous allurement. Gold and silver are not indeed touched by the\npious devotees, but the precious and dazzling metals are conventionally\nhanded to the disciples, who put them into the box of the superior, who,\nwhilst bowing obsequiously to the letter of the rule, disregards its\nspirit. Sometimes an innocent _ruse_ is resorted to by a greedy religious\nfor silencing the remorse of his conscience; he covers his hands with\na handkerchief, and without scruple receives the sum that is offered\nto him. It would be unfair to pass a general and sweeping sentence of\ncondemnation for covetousness upon all the members of the fraternity.\nThere are some whose hands have not been polluted by the handling of\nmoney, and whose hearts have always been, we may say, strangers to the\ncravings of the _auri sacra fames_; but it cannot be denied that many\namong them are insatiable in their lust for riches, and not unfrequently\nask for them.\n\nNo Rahan can ever ask for anything; he is allowed to receive what is\nspontaneously offered to him. In this point too the spirit of the rule is\nfrequently done away with. The recluse will not ask an object he covets\n(I beg his pardon for making use of such a term) in direct words; but\nby some indirect means or circuitous ways he will give significantly to\nunderstand that the possession of such an object is much needed by him,\nand that the offering of it would be a source of great merits to the\ndonor. In this manner he moves the heart of his visitor, and soon kindles\nin his breast a desire to present the thing, almost as eager as his own\nis to receive it.\n\nCelibacy is strictly enjoined on every professed member of the society.\nOn the day of his reception he is solemnly warned by the instructor never\nto do anything contrary to that most essential virtue. The founder of\nthe order and the framer of its statutes has entered, on this subject,\ninto the most minute details, and prescribed a multitude of regulations\ntending to fortify the Rahans in the accomplishment of the solemn vow\nthey have made, and to remove from them all occasions of sin, even the\nmost distant. We must give him credit for an uncommon acquaintance\nwith the weakness of human nature, as well as with the violence of\nthe fiercest passion of the heart, since he has laboured so much to\nstrengthen and uphold the former, and bridle the latter by every means\nhis anxious mind could devise. He was deeply read in the secrets of\nthe human heart, and knew well that the surest tactics for carrying on\nsuccessfully the warfare between the spirit and the flesh consist in\nrather avoiding carefully the encounter of the enemy, and skilfully\nman\u0153uvring at a distance from him, than in boldly encountering him in\nthe open field. Hence the repeated injunctions to shun all the occasions\nof sin.\n\nThe Phongyies are forbidden to stay under the same roof, or to travel in\nthe same carriage and boat, with women; they cannot receive anything from\ntheir hands. To such a height are precautions carried that the religious\nare not permitted to touch the clothes of a woman, or caress a female\nchild, however young, or even handle a female animal.[59]\n\nWhen visited in their dwellings by women, who resort thither for the\npurpose of making offerings, or listening to the recital of a few\npassages of the sacred books, they must remain at a great distance from\nthem, and be surrounded by some of their disciples. The Phongyies are\nto look upon the old ones as mothers and upon the young as sisters. The\nconversation must be as short as decency allows, and no useless or light\nexpressions be ever uttered. On the festival days, when crowds of people,\nmen and women, go to the kiaongs to hear the _tara_, or some parts of\nthe law repeated, the Rahans, arrayed in front of the congregation, keep\ntheir fans before their faces all the while, lest their eyes should meet\nwith dangerous and tempting objects. Much greater precautions are still\nrequired in their intercourse with the Rahanesses, a sort of female\nrecluses, whose institute is greatly on its decline in almost all parts\nof Burmah. For better securing the observance of continence, a Phongyie\nnever walks out of his monastery, or enters a private dwelling, without\nbeing attended by a few disciples. Popular opinion is inflexible and\ninexorable on the point of celibacy, which is considered essential to\nevery one that has a pretension to be called a Rahan. The people can\nnever be brought to look upon any person as a priest or minister of\nreligion unless he live in that state. Any infringement of this most\nessential regulation on the part of a Rahan is visited with an immediate\npunishment. The people of the place assemble at the kiaong of the\noffender, sometimes driving him out with stones. He is stripped of his\nclothes; and often public punishment, even that of death, is inflicted\nupon him by order of government. The poor wretch is looked upon as\nan outcast, and the woman whom he has seduced shares in his shame,\nconfusion, and disgrace. Such an extraordinary opinion, so deeply rooted\nin the mind of a people rather noted for the licentiousness of their\nmanners, certainly deserves the attention of every diligent observer of\nhuman nature. Whence has originated among corrupted and half-civilised\nmen such a high respect and profound esteem for so exalted a virtue?\nWhy is its rigorous practice deemed essential to those who professedly\ntend to an uncommon degree of perfection? Owing partly to the weight of\npublic opinion, and partly to some other reasons, the law of celibacy,\nexternally at least, is observed with a great scrupulosity, and a breach\nof it is a rare occurrence. As the rule, in this respect, binds the\nPhongyie only as long as he remains in the profession, he who feels his\nmoral strength unable to cope successfully with the sting of passion\nprefers leaving the fraternity and returning to a secular life, when he\ncan safely put an end, by a lawful alliance, to the internal strife,\nrather than expose himself to a transgression which is to entail upon him\nconsequences so disgraceful.\n\nThe sagacious legislator of the Buddhistic religious order, pre-occupied\nwith the idea of elevating the spiritual principle above the material\none, and securing to reason a thorough control over bodily appetites, has\nprescribed temperance as a fundamental virtue essential to every Rahan.\nIn common with all their fellow-religionists, the Rahans are commanded\nto abstain from the use of spirituous liquors and of intoxicating\nsubstances. Such a prohibition is the wisest step that Gaudama could\nhave adopted to preserve his followers from the shameful vice of\ndrunkenness. All uncivilised people make use of spirits for the sole\npurpose of creating in them the effects of intoxication. Were it not\nfor such an excellent regulation, the members of the Thanga would soon\nbecome, by their excesses, the laughing-stock of the laity. The time\nallotted for taking their meals extends from daybreak to the moment the\nsun has reached the middle of its course; but as soon as the luminous\nglobe has passed the meridian, the use of food is strictly interdicted.\nA stomach, more or less loaded with nutritive substances taken in the\nevening, weighs down the body, enervates the energies of the soul, clouds\nthe intellect, and renders a man rather unfit to devote himself to the\nhigh exercises of study, meditation, and contemplation, which ought to\nbe the principal occupations of a fervent Rahan. He is allowed to make\ntwo meals in the forenoon, but it is expected that he will eat no more\nthan is required to support nature. He must always take his meals in\ncompany with the members of his community. To stifle the craving of\ngluttony and eradicate immoderate desires, he ought to repeat frequently\nwithin himself the following sentence: \u201cI eat this rice, not to please\nmy appetite, but to satisfy the wants of nature;\u201d just as he says when\nhe puts on the habit, \u201cI dress myself, not for the sake of vanity,\nbut to cover my nakedness.\u201d Rice and vegetables are, according to the\nstatutes, the staple food of the Phongyies; the use of fish and meat is\ntolerated, and now it has become a daily prevailing custom which has\nrendered the practice a lawful one. Strictly speaking, a Talapoin must\nremain satisfied with rice and various sorts of boiled vegetables which\nhe has received in his patta during his morning perambulations through\nthe streets of the place.\n\nAs it happened among the Romans that the law repressing convivial\nsumptuousness and luxury proved an ineffectual barrier against gluttony\nand other passions, so amidst the Rahans the strict regulations\nprescribing a poor and unsavoury diet have been obliged to yield before\nthe tendencies to satisfy the ever-increasing demands of appetite. Most\nof the Phongyies give to dogs, or to the boys who live in the monastery,\nthe vulgar food they have begged in the streets, and feed on aliments\nof better quality supplied to them regularly by some persons in easy\ncircumstances, who call themselves supporters of the kiaong and of its\ninmates. The ordinary fare consists of rice and several small dishes for\nseasoning the rice, in which are some little pieces of flesh, dressed\naccording to the culinary abilities of the cooks of the country, which\nare not certainly of the highest order. To this are added some of the\nfruits of the season accompanied by sweetmeats, which female devotees\nare wont everywhere so carefully to prepare and so fondly to offer to\nthose who are the objects of their pious admiration and respect. The\naliments supplied to the humble recluses are of the best description for\nthe country they live in. One would say that they live on the fat of the\nland. The most delicate rice and the finest fruits invariably find their\nway to the monasteries. But withal, the Phongyies are not to be charged\nwith the sin of intemperance or gluttony.\n\nThe quantity of food they may take is also an object of regulation, as\nwell as the very mode of taking, and even of swallowing it. Each mouthful\nmust be of a moderate size; a second ought not to be carried to the mouth\nbefore the first has been completely disposed of by the masticatory\nprocess, and found its way down through the \u0153sophagus. The contrary would\nbe considered gluttony, and an evident sign that the eater has something\nelse in view besides appeasing the mere wants of nature. It is rather an\namusing sight to gaze at the solemn indifference of a Talapoin taking his\nmeal. One would be tempted to believe that he is reluctantly submitting\nto the dire necessity of ministering to the wants of a nature too low\nand material. The rule forbids Talapoins to eat human flesh, or that of\nthe monkey, snake, elephant, tiger, lion, and dog.[60] As a mitigation\nof the severity of the disciplinary regulation prohibiting the recluses\nfrom taking any food from twelve o\u2019clock in the day until the next\nmorning, the use of certain beverages is permitted during that time, such\nas cocoa-nut water, the juice of the sugar-cane, and other refreshing\ndraughts.\n\nThe rule being silent regarding the consumption of the betel-leaf and\nother ingredients constituting the _delicious_ mouthful for masticatory\npurposes, the Talapoins avail themselves largely of the liberty left\nto them on this subject. The quantity of betel and other accompanying\nsubstances which they consume is truly enormous. These articles hold\na pre-eminent place amongst the objects that are presented to the\ninmates of monasteries. The dark-red substance adhering to the teeth and\noccasionally accumulating at the corners of the mouth, the incessant\nmotion of the lower jaw, the stream of reddish spittle issuing frequently\nfrom the lips of the Talapoins, are unquestionable proofs of both their\nardent fondness and copious consumption of that harmless narcotic.\nExcept during the short moments allotted for taking meals, a Rahan\u2019s\nmouth is always full of betel, and the masticating or chewing process is\nincessantly going on.\n\nA great modesty must distinguish a member of the family of the perfect\nfrom a layman; that virtue must shine forth in his countenance,\ndemeanour, gait, and conversation. Any sign on his face indicating\nthe inward action of anger or any other passion is found unbecoming\nin a person whose composedness and serenity of soul ought never to be\ndisturbed by any inordinate affection. He never speaks precipitately\nor loudly, lest it might be inferred that passion rather than reason\ninfluences him. Worldly or amusing topics of conversation are strictly\ninterdicted, either with his brethren or laymen. The rule requires him to\nwalk through the streets with affected simplicity, avoiding hurry as well\nas slowness, keeping his eye fixed on the ground in front, looking not\nfurther than ten or fifteen cubits.\n\nCuriosity tends to expand the soul on surrounding objects; but a Rahan\u2019s\nprincipal aim being to attend diligently to himself, to prefer the care\nof self before all other cares, and to concern himself very little about\nall that takes place without, he assiduously labours to keep his soul\nfree from vain inquiry, from eager desire of hearing news, and from an\nidle or unnecessary interference in things or matters strange to him.\nIt seems that he has the wise saying always present to his mind, \u201cWhere\nart thou when thou art not present to thyself? And when thou hast run\nover all things, what profit will it be to thee if thou hast neglected\nthyself?\u201d During his perambulations he never salutes or notices the\npersons he meets on his way; he is indifferent to the attentions and\nmarks of the highest veneration paid to him by the people; he never\nreturns thanks for offerings made to him, nor does he repay with a\nsingle regard the kindness proffered to him. Objects most calculated to\nawaken curiosity by their novelty and interest ought to find him cold,\nindifferent, and unconcerned. His self-collection accompanies him\neverywhere, and disposes his soul to an uninterrupted meditation on some\npoints of the law. It is a counsel of the Wini to observe particularly\nthe four cleannesses, viz., great modesty in the streets and public\nplaces, the confession of all failings, the avoiding of all occasions\nof sins, and the keeping oneself free from the seven kinds of sin. Such\na wise injunction can only be attended to and observed by keeping a\nvigilant watch over the senses, which are the very gates leading into the\nsanctuary of the soul. We could enter into fuller and more particular\ndetails regarding the regulations of the Talapoinic order, but they would\nprove little interesting, and only corroborate what has been previously\nstated, that every action of a brother, even the most common, such as\nthe manner of sitting, rising up, sleeping, eating, &c., has become the\nobject of the legislative attention of the founder of the order. Nothing\nseems to have escaped his clear foresight, and he has admirably succeeded\nin leaving no room for the exercise of individual liberty. The rule is as\na great moral being whose absolute commands must be always obeyed. Every\nindividual is bound to lay aside his own self, and unconditionally follow\nthe impulse of his guiding influence.\n\n\nARTICLE VI.\n\nOCCUPATIONS OF THE BUDDHIST MONKS.\n\nThe whole life of a recluse being confined within a narrow compass, we\nwill have very little to say regarding his daily occupations. As soon as\na Talapoin has left at an early hour the sleeping horizontal position,\nhe rinses his mouth, washes his face, and recites a few formulas of\nprayers, which he lengthens or shortens according to his devotion. He\nattires himself in his professional costume, gets hold of his mendicant\u2019s\npot, and sallies forth, in company with some brethren or disciples, in\nquest of his food. He perambulates the streets in various directions,\nand, without any solicitation on his part, receives the rice, curry,\nvegetables, and fruits which pious donors have been preparing from two\nto three o\u2019clock in the morning, watching at the door of their houses\nthe arrival of the yellow-clad monks. Having received what is considered\nsufficient for the day, he returns to the monastery, and sets himself to\neat either what he has brought, or something more delicate and better\ndressed which his supporter, if he has any, has sent to him.\n\nOn the principal festivals, or on extraordinary occurrences, abundant\nalms are brought to his domicile. Sometimes he is called by a pious\ndonor to come and receive them in the pagodas, or in large temporary\nsheds erected for the purpose reserved for the occasion. They consist\nchiefly of mattresses, pillows, betel-boxes, mats, tea-cups, and various\narticles he is allowed to make use of. On these occasions he repays\nhis benefactors by repeating to them the five great precepts, and some\nof the principal tenets of the Buddhistic creed, and the chief points\nof the law. He enumerates at great length the numerous merits reserved\nto alms-givers. On this point it must be confessed that he is truly\neloquent, and his language flowing and abundant: his expressions are\nready at hand and most glowing, calculated to please the ears of his\nhearers and warm their souls to make fresh efforts in procuring him\nmore copious alms. Occasionally he will recite long praises in honour\nof Gaudama, the last Buddha, for having during his previous existence\npractised eminent virtues, and thereby qualified himself for the high\ndignity of Phra. The sermon goes on sometimes in Pali or sacred language,\nwhich neither he nor his hearers can understand.\n\nThe Phongyies are sometimes requested to visit the sick, not so much\nfor the purpose of ministering to the spiritual wants of the sufferer\nas for affording him some relief by his presence. It is believed that\nthe appearance of a holy personage may have some effect in freeing the\ndiseased from his distemper, and frightening the evil spirits that may\nbe the mischievous agents in harming patients. The visitor repeats over\nthem some points of the law that are intended to act as antidotes against\nthe agency of the wicked one. Phongyies are very particular on the point\nof etiquette. When one of them has to enter into upper-storied houses,\nthe yellow-habited religious, previous to his venturing into the lower\nstory, will make it sure that there is no one, and particularly no woman,\nin the upper apartments, as it would be highly unbecoming that any man,\nand _a fortiori_ a woman, should have their feet above his head. To avoid\nsuch an indecorous contingency, in case the sick person lies in a room\nupstairs, the Phongyie has recourse to an expedient few, I presume, would\nhave thought of. By his direction a ladder is brought, the lower part\nof which rests on the street, and the upper leans on one of the upper\nwindows; up goes the pious visitor, who by such a contrivance reconciles\nthe observance of etiquette with the compliance to his duty. The writer\nconfesses that he was much amused the first time that he witnessed such\na feat performed at Penang by a Siamese Phongyie. The little crowd,\nattracted by this novelty, exhibited a curious mixture of feelings.\nSome laughed; many remained silent; but their deportment was evidently\nindicative of the respect and admiration that seemed to them to inspire\nthe scrupulously tender conscience of the religious.\n\nWe must allow that the Talapoins confer a truly invaluable benefit upon\nthe people of these countries by keeping up schools, where the boys\nresort for the purpose of learning to read, write, and acquire the\nrudiments of arithmetic. In this respect they are eminently useful, and\nthe institution, though to a certain extent burthensome to the people,\nin this respect deserves well of the country. The many abuses that at\npresent attend it are almost fully atoned for by the great service its\nmembers gratuitously render to their countrymen. There are no other\nschools than those under their management. The tyrannical governments\nof Siam and Burmah do not take any steps to propagate instruction among\ntheir subjects, whom they look upon as slaves, fit only for bodily\nlabour. The houses of Talapoins are so many little seats of elementary\nlearning; and as they are very numerous throughout the country, every\nfacility is afforded to male children to learn to read and write. The\nfemale children are excluded from partaking of this great boon by the\nstrictness of the monastic regulations. It is a great misfortune, much\nto be lamented, as one half of the population is thus doomed to live\nin perpetual ignorance. Owing to the gratuitous education given by the\nBuddhist monks, there are very few men throughout the breadth and length\nof Burmah who are not able to read and write. It is true that too often\nthe knowledge thus acquired is very superficial and incomplete. But as\nregards the other half of the population, it may be stated that scarcely\na woman among thousands can be found capable of spelling one word.\n\nThe Talapoins being much addicted to sloth and indolence, the schools\nare undoubtedly miserably managed. The boys are often left to themselves\nwithout regular control or discipline. When a boy enters the monastery\nas student, his teacher places into his hands a piece of blackened\nboard, whereupon are written the first letters of the alphabet. The\npoor lad has to repeat over and over the name of the letters, crying\naloud with all the powers of his lungs. He is left for several weeks at\nthe same subject, until his instructor is satisfied that he knows his\nletters. In the next step the boy is directed to study the symbols of the\nvowels which are to be joined with consonants so as to form syllables\nand words. When this is done he is initiated into the art of uniting\ntogether and articulating properly the several consonants with the\nsymbolic characters. He slowly shapes his course through the apparently\nmuch-complicated system of all the combinations of letters, so as to be\nable to spell correctly all the words of the language. Owing to the lack\nof order and method on the part of the teachers, boys spend a long time,\nsometimes one or two years, in mastering those difficulties, which, if\nproperly explained, would much shorten the time usually devoted to such a\nstudy.\n\nThe Burmese alphabet, with the various combinations of letters and\nsymbols for making words, is based on a most perfect and scientific\nmethodical and simple process, borrowed from the Sanscrit. The method is\nplain and easy, as soon as it is understood. Any person that has received\nsome education, and whose mind is somewhat developed, will be able, with\nthe occasional assistance of an intelligent master, to go all over the\nvarious combinations in less than two months. The results derived from\nthe method adopted by the Burmans are so great and complete that, after\nhaving gone over the general alphabet with attention, the beginner is\nable to read all the Burmese words he may meet with. We do not mean, of\ncourse, to say that he will be able to pronounce every word correctly.\nThis is another thing altogether. But it is no less evident that the\nsystem used by Burmese in the combinations of letters leads to results\ninfinitely more satisfactory than those obtained through the system of\nelementary reading and spelling used in Europe.\n\nUnacquainted with the rules of grammar, the teachers are incapable\nof imparting any sound knowledge of the vernacular language to their\nnumerous pupils. Hence writing, as far as orthography goes, is extremely\nimperfect; the spelling of words, having no fixed standard, varies\nto an indefinite extent. As soon as the scholars have mastered the\ndifficulties of the long and complicated alphabet, some portions of\nthe sacred writings are put into their hands for reading. The result\nis that the Burmese in general acquire some knowledge, more or less\nextensive, of their religious creed. Though none among them can be found\nwho understands comprehensively the Buddhistic system, yet most of them\nare possessed of a certain amount of more or less limited information\nconcerning Buddha and his law. In this respect they are perhaps ahead\nof many nominal Christians in several countries of Europe, who dwell in\nlarge manufacturing towns and remote country districts and belong to the\nlower classes, and who live without even a slight acquaintance with the\nessential tenets of the Christian creed.\n\nIn addition to the eminently useful task of teaching youth, the\nBuddhistic recluse devotes occasionally some portion of his time to the\nuseful labour of copying manuscripts on palm-leaves, either for his\npersonal use or to increase the small library of his monastery. The work\nis considered as a very excellent one, deserving of great merits, and\nmuch recommended by the rules of the society. It is a matter of regret\nthat the native laziness of the Phongyies, as well as their total want\nof order in acquiring knowledge, thwart to a great extent the practical\nworking of the wise provisions made by the framer of the rules. Were it\nnot for such causes, copies of all the best and most interesting works on\nthe religious system of Buddhism would be greatly multiplied, and could\nbe easily procured; whilst now they are exceedingly scarce and hardly to\nbe had at all. The few copies to be had with much difficulty are to be\npaid for very high. All the books are made of palm-leaves. The leaves are\nabout twenty inches in length, and from three to four in breadth. On each\nface of the leaf from seven to nine or ten lines are written. A copyist\nuses a style of iron by way of pen. With the sharp point he scratches the\nepidermis of the leaf to form the letters. In order to render the letters\nperfectly visible, he rubs over the page just written with a piece of rag\nsome petroleum, which, penetrating into the parts scratched by the style,\ncauses the letters to become quite distinct and apparent.\n\nThe Talapoins spend the best part of the day sitting in a cross-legged\nposition, chewing betel and conversing with the many idlers that are\nalways to be found in great numbers about their dwellings. When tired\nof the vertical position, they adopt the horizontal one, reclining the\nhead on pillows and gently submitting to the soporific influence of good\nMorpheus. They have always in their hands a string of beads, on which\nthey are wont to repeat certain devotional formulas. The most common is\nthe following, \u201cAneitsa, duka, anatta;\u201d meaning that everything in this\nworld is subjected to the law of change and mutability, to that of pain\nand suffering, and to that of entire and uninterrupted illusion. There\nis, indeed, an immense field opened to a reflecting mind by these three\nvery significative expressions for carrying on serious and prolonged\nmeditation; but none of the Talapoins, at least of those I have been\nacquainted with, are capable of understanding comprehensively their\nmeaning. They often repeat the forty great subjects of meditation, and\nthe rule enjoins them to be zealously addicted to contemplation, which is\npronounced to be the chief exercise of a true follower of Buddha. But how\ncan there ever be expected from weak and ignorant persons the habitual\npractice of so high an exercise, requiring an intellectual vigour of the\nvery first order? They must repeat on their beads at least a hundred\nand twenty times a day the four following considerations on the four\nthings more immediately necessary to men, food, raiment, habitation, and\nmedicine: \u201cI eat this rice, not to please my appetite, but to satisfy the\nwants of nature. I put on this habit, not for the sake of vanity, but\nto cover my nakedness. I live in this kiaong, not for vainglory, but to\nbe protected from the inclemency of the weather. I drink this medicine\nmerely to recover my health, that I may with greater diligence attend to\nthe duties of my profession.\u201d\n\n\nARTICLE VII.\n\nRELIGIOUS INFLUENCE OF THE PHONGYIES\u2014RESPECT AND VENERATION PAID TO THEM\nBY THE LAITY.\n\nWhen we speak of the great influence possessed by the religious order\nof Buddhist monks, we do not intend to speak of political influence.\nIt does not appear that in Burmah they have ever aimed at any share\nin the management or direction of the affairs of the country. Since\nthe accession of the house of Alomphra to the throne, that is to say,\nduring a period of above a hundred years, the history of Burmah has\nbeen tolerably well known. We do not recollect having ever met with one\ninstance when the Phongyies, as a body, have interfered in the affairs\nof the State. They also seem to remain indifferent to family or domestic\naffairs. The regulations they are subjected to, and the object which\nthey have in view in entering the religious profession, debar them\nfrom concerning themselves in affairs that are foreign to their sacred\ncalling. But in a religious point of view alone, their influence is a\nmighty one. Upon that very order hinges the whole fabric of Buddhism.\nFrom it, as from a source, flows the life that maintains and invigorates\nreligious belief in the masses that profess that creed. We may view the\nmembers of the order as religious, and as instructors of the people at\nlarge, and principally of youth. In that double capacity they exercise a\ngreat control and retain a strong hold over the mind of the people.\n\nThere is in man a natural disposition and inclination to admire\nindividuals who, actuated by religious feelings, are induced to leave\nthe world and separate from society in order to devote themselves\nmore freely to the practice of religious duties. The more society is\ncorrupted, the more its members value those persons who have the moral\ncourage to estrange themselves from the centre of vice, that they may\npreserve themselves from contamination. In fact, religious are esteemed\nin proportion to the extent of the contempt they have for this world.\nThe Phongyies occupy precisely this position in the eyes of their\nco-religionists. Their order stands in bold relief over the society they\nbelong to. Their dress, their mode of life, their voluntary denial of all\ngratification of sensual appetites, centre upon them the admiring eyes of\nall. They are looked upon as the imitators and followers of Buddha; they\nhold ostensibly before ordinary believers the pattern of that perfection\nthey have been taught so fondly to revere. The Phongyies are as living\nmementoes, reminding the people of all that is most sacred and perfect in\npractical religion. No one will deny that the view of a body of religious\nexisting in a community, keeping an intercourse with its members, must\never have a powerful tendency to foster religious feelings in the mind of\na half-civilised people as the Burmese are. It is in this manner that the\nPhongyies command the respect and veneration of the people, and exercise\na considerable amount of religious influence over the masses.\n\nBut in the capacity of instructors of the people, the members of the\norder act as yet more directly and actively upon the people. In Burmah\nthere are no schools but those kept by the religious. The monasteries\nare as so many little seminaries where male children receive elementary\ninstruction. The knowledge that is imparted to them by their masters is\nnot secular, but purely religious. It is a point upon which the undivided\nattention of a keen observer must be centred in order to understand the\nfull meaning of the following remarks. We do not mean to say that the\ninstructor has always present to his mind, as a professor, the direct\nteaching of religious tenets; but the fact is that no information is\nconveyed to the pupils except that which comes from religious books. No\nother books are ever used in schools.\n\nAs soon as boys are able to read, religious books are put into their\nhands. During all the time they remain at school they go over books that\nhave a direct reference to religion. Without even being aware of it,\nthey imbibe religious notions, and become acquainted with some parts\nof the religious creed, particularly with what relates to Gaudama\u2019s\npreceding and last existence. When they grow up to manhood, if they\nhappen to read, they have, as a general practice, no other books but such\nas have a reference to religion. When people assemble together, either\nin the dzeats on the occasion of festival days, or at home on other\npublic occasions, particularly in the days following the death of some\nrelatives, one or several elders read some passage of their scriptures,\nand thereby supply topics for conversation of a religious turn. This\nstate of things originates almost entirely in the early education\nreceived in the monasteries at the hands of their masters, the Phongyies.\nIt powerfully contributes to popularise and foster religious notions,\nwhilst it indirectly heightens and brightens in the eyes of the people\nthe position of the religious.\n\nMoreover, the early intercourse between the youth and their masters tends\nto bring into closer contact and union both the religious and the laity.\nIt draws nearer the ties that bind together these two fractions of the\nBuddhist society. The relation thus established between the teachers\nand the taught is further strengthened by the fact that the greatest\nnumber of the male portion of the community become affiliated, during a\nlonger or shorter period, to the society, and subjected to its rules and\nregulations; they are cast in the mould of religious, and retain during\nthe remainder of their life some of the features that have been at an\nearly period stamped on their young minds. Their memory remains loaded\nwith all that they learned by heart during the days they spent in the\nmonasteries as students or members of the society.\n\nThough the Phongyies or Talapoins are not remarkable for their zeal\nin delivering instructions or sermons to the people, they discharge\noccasionally that duty on the eve of and during festival days, and on\nall occasions when considerable offerings are brought to them in their\nmonasteries. Sometimes, too, they are requested to go to certain places\nprepared for that purpose, to deliver instructions and receive offerings\ntendered to them by some pious laymen. The preaching never consists in\nexpounding the text of the religious books, and developing certain points\nof the law; it is a mere rehearsal and repetition of the precepts of\nthe law or of regular formulas in praise of Gaudama, and an enumeration\nof the merits to be gained by those who bestow alms on them. These and\nsimilar circumstances much contribute to keep up the position of the\nreligious, and aid them in retaining a powerful religious hold over their\nrespective communities. We repeat it as our deliberate opinion, that upon\nthe religious association under consideration principally rests, as on a\nstrong basis, the great fabric of Buddhism. Were such an institution to\ngive way and crumble to the dust, the vital energies of that false creed\nwould soon be weakened and completely paralysed. Buddhism would yield\nbefore the first attack that would be skilfully and vigorously directed\nagainst it.\n\nIn Burmah the Phongyies are highly respected by every member of the\ncommunity. When they appear in public, walking in the streets, they are\nthe objects of the greatest attention. The people withdraw before them\nto leave a free passage. Women are seen squatting on both sides of the\nway, through respect for the venerated personages. When visited in their\ndwellings, even by persons of the highest rank, the etiquette is that\nevery visitor should prostrate himself three times before the head of\nthe monastery, uttering the following formula:\u2014\u201cTo the end of obtaining\nthe remission of all the faults I have committed through my senses, my\nspeech, and my heart, I make a first, second, and third prostration in\nhonour of the three precious things\u2014Phra, his law, and the assembly of\nthe perfect. Meanwhile, I earnestly wish to be preserved from the three\ncalamities, the four states of punishment, and the five enemies.\u201d To\nwhich the recluse answers:\u2014\u201cFor his merit and reward, may he who makes\nsuch prostrations be freed from the four states of punishment, the three\ncalamities, the five sorts of enemies, and from all evil whatsoever. May\nhe obtain the object of all his wishes, walk steadily in the path of\nperfection, enjoy the advantages resulting therefrom, and finally obtain\nthe state of Neibban.\u201d On the visitor withdrawing from his presence, the\nthree prostrations must be repeated; he then stands up, falls back to a\ndistance of ten feet, as it would be highly unbecoming to turn the back\nsuddenly on the holy man, wheels round on the right, and goes out. This\nusage is doubtless very ancient, and is at the same time looked upon as a\nvery important one. In the Life of Gaudama we have seen it mentioned on\nall occasions when visitors went to pay their respects to him. Princes\nand nobles observed the ceremony with the utmost punctuality.\n\nThe best proof of the high veneration the people entertain for the\nTalapoins is the truly surprising liberality with which they gladly\nminister to all their wants. They impose upon themselves great\nsacrifices, incur enormous expenses, place themselves joyfully in narrow\ncircumstances, that they might have the means to build monasteries with\nthe best and most substantial materials, and adorn them with all the\nluxury the country can afford.[61] Gold is often profusely used for\ngilding the posts, ceiling, and other parts of the interior, as well as\nseveral trunks or chests for storing up manuscripts. Two or three roofs\nsuperposed upon each other (a privilege exclusively reserved to royal\npalaces, pagodas, and kiaongs) indicate to the stranger that the building\nis a monastery. The recluse\u2019s house is well supplied with the various\narticles of furniture becoming the pious inmates. The individual who\nbuilds at his own expense such a house, assumes the much-envied title\nof _Kiaong-taga_, or supporter of a monastery. This title is for ever\ncoupled with his name: it is used as a mark of respect by all persons\nconversing with him, and it appears in all papers or documents which\nhe may have to sign. The best, finest, and most substantial articles,\nif allowed by the regulations as fit for the use of the Talapoins, are\ngenerously and abundantly afforded by benevolent persons. When the king\nis religiously inclined, the best and most costly presents he receives\nare deposited in the monasteries, to adorn the place or hall where the\nprincipal idol is.\n\nGovernment does not interfere or give any assistance in building pagodas\nor kiaongs; nor does it provide for the support of the pious Rahans;\nbut the liberality of the people amply suffices for all contingencies\nof the kind. When a man has made some profit by trading, or any other\nway, he will almost infallibly bestow the best portion of his lucre in\nbuilding a kiaong, or feeding the inmates of a religious house for a few\nmonths, or in giving general alms to all the recluses of the town. Such\nliberality, which is by no means uncommon, has its root, we believe, in a\nstrong religious sentiment, and also in the insecurity\u2014nay, the danger\u2014of\nholding property to a large amount.\n\nWhen a Talapoin is addressed by a layman, the latter assumes the title\nof disciple; and the former calls him simply Taga, or supporter. The\nattitude of the layman in the presence of the Phongyie is indicative of\nthe veneration he entertains towards his person. He squats down, and he\nnever addresses the yellow-dressed individual without joining his hands\nin token of respect, and raising them up with a little motion indicative\nof intended prostration. As there is in Burmah a court language, so there\nis a language, or rather a certain number of expressions, reserved to\ndesignate things used by Talapoins, as well as most of the actions they\nperform in common with other men, such as eating, walking, sleeping,\nshaving, &c. The very turn of the commonest sentence is indicative of\nrespect when speaking to a Rahan. He is called Phra, the most honourable\nterm the language can afford. His person is sacred, and no one would\ndare to offer him the least insult or violence. The influence of the\nTalapoin upon the people is considerable, in proportion to the great\nrespect borne to his sacred character. So extraordinary has it been on\ncertain occasions, that Phongyies have been seen rescuing forcibly from\nthe hands of the police culprits on their way to the place of execution.\nNo resistance, then, could be made by the policemen without exposing\nthemselves to the danger of committing a sacrilege, by lifting their\nhands against them when such an occurrence takes place. The liberated\nwretches are then forthwith led to the next monastery. Their heads having\nbeen shaved, they are attired in the yellow garb, and their persons\nbecome at once sacred and inviolable.\n\nThe veneration paid to Talapoins during their lifetime accompanies them\nafter their death. Their state is considered as one of peculiar sanctity.\nIt is supposed that their very bodies too partake of the holiness\ninherent in their sacred profession. Hence their mortal remains are\nhonoured to an extent scarcely to be imagined. As soon as a distinguished\nmember of the brotherhood has given up the ghost, his body is opened, the\nviscera extracted and buried in some decent place without any particular\nceremony, and the corpse embalmed in a very simple manner by putting\nashes, bran, and other desiccative substances into the abdominal cavity.\nIt is then swathed with bands of linen, wrapped round it many times,\nand a thick coat of varnish laid upon the whole. On this fresh varnish\ngold leaves are sometimes placed, so that the whole body is gilded\nover from head to feet. When the people are poor and cannot afford to\nbuy gold for the above purpose, a piece of yellow cloth is considered\nas the most suitable substitute. The body, thus attired, is laid in a\nvery massive coffin, made, not with planks, but of a single piece of\ntimber hollowed in the middle for receiving the earthly frame of the\ndeceased. A splendid cenotaph, raised in the centre of a large building\nerected for the purpose, is prepared to support a large chest wherein\nthe coffin is deposited. The chest is often gilt inside and out, and\ndecorated with flowers made of different polished substances of various\ncolours. Pictures, such as native artists contrive to make, are disposed\nround the cenotaph. They represent ordinarily religious subjects. In\nthis stately situation the body remains exposed for several days, nay\nseveral months, until preparations are completed for the grand day of\nthe obsequies. During that period festivals are often celebrated about\nit, bands of music play, and people resort in crowds to the spot for the\npurpose of making offerings to defray the expense to be incurred for the\nfuneral ceremony. When the appointed day for burning the corpse at last\narrives, the whole population of the town will be seen flocking in their\nfinest dresses to witness the display of fireworks which takes place on\nthe occasion of burning the corpse. A funeral pile of a square form is\nerected on the most elevated spot. Its height is about fifteen feet,\nand it ends with a small room made for receiving the coffin. The corpse\nhaving been hoisted up and laid in the place destined for its reception,\nfire is set to the pile in a rather uncommon way. An immense rocket,\nplaced at a distance of about forty yards, is directed towards the pile\nby means of a fixed rope guiding it thereto. Sometimes the rocket is\nplaced on a huge cart, and pushed in the direction of the pile. In its\nerratic and uncertain course it happens occasionally that it deviates\nfrom its course, and plunges into the ranks of the crowd, wounding and\nkilling those it meets. As soon as it comes in contact with the pile,\nthe latter immediately takes fire by means of combustibles heaped for\nthat purpose, and the whole is soon consumed. The few remaining pieces\nof bones are religiously collected, and buried in the vicinity of some\npagoda. Here ends the profound veneration, amounting almost to worship,\nwhich Buddhists pay to their recluses during their life and after their\ndemise.\n\nTwo chief motives induce the sectaries of Buddha to be so liberal towards\nthe Talapoins, and to pay them so high a respect; viz., the great merits\nand abundant rewards they expect to derive from the plentiful alms they\nbestow upon them, and the profound admiration they entertain for their\nsacred character, austere manners, and purely religious mode of life. The\nfirst motive originates from interested views; the second has its root\nin that regard men naturally have for persons who distinguish themselves\nfrom others by a more absolute self-denial, a greater restraint and\ncontrol of their passions, a renouncement of permitted pleasures\nand sensual gratifications from religious motives. According to the\nfundamental dogma of Buddhism, any offering made to, or indeed any action\ndone for the benefit of, a fellow-man is deserving of reward during\nfuture existences, such as digging a well, building a resting-place,\na bridge, &c.; but far more abundant are the merits resulting from\npresenting a Talapoin with one or several articles necessary to his daily\nuse, as they increase proportionately to the dignity of the person to\nwhom the things are offered. We may judge from the following instance\nof the plentiful harvest of merits which a supporter of Phongyies\nis promised to reap hereafter: He who shall make an offering of a\nmendicant\u2019s pot or Thabeit shall receive as his reward cups and other\nutensils set with jewels; he shall be exempted from misfortunes and\ncalamities, disquietude and trouble; he shall get without labour all that\nis necessary for his food, dress, and lodging; pleasure and happiness\nshall be his lot; his soul shall be in a state of steadiness and\ntranquillity, and his passion for the sex shall be considerably weakened.\nThe offering of other objects secures to the donor wealth, dignity, high\nrank, pleasure, and an admittance into the fortunate countries or seats\nof the Nats, where all the things are to be met with and enjoyed that are\ncalculated to confer on man the greatest sum of happiness. The people\nbelieve unhesitatingly all that is said to them in this respect, and\nthey gladly strip themselves of many valuable things in order to obtain\nand enjoy, during coming existences, the riches and pleasures promised\nto them by their Rahans. The insecurity of property under tyrannical\nrulers may operate to a certain extent in determining people to part with\ntheir riches, and consecrate them to religious purposes, rather than\nsee themselves violently deprived of them by the odious rapacity of the\nvile instruments of the avarice, tyranny, and cruelty of their heartless\nprinces and governors.\n\nIt can scarcely be a matter of wonder that Buddhists so much honour and\nrespect a Talapoin, when we consider that, in their opinion, he is a\ntrue follower of Buddha, who strives to imitate his great prototype in\nthe practice of the highest virtues, particularly in his incomparable\nmortification and self-denial, that he might secure the ascendancy of\nthe spiritual principle over the material one, weaken passions which are\nthe real causes of the disorder that reigns in our soul, and finally\ndisengage her from their baneful influences, and from that of matter in\ngeneral. He is exceedingly reserved and abstemious regarding food, the\nuse of creatures, and the enjoyment of pleasures, in order to secure to\nreason the noblest faculty of an intelligent being, a perfect control\nover the senses. He is indeed in the right way leading to Neibban,\nthe summit of perfection. In the opinion of a Buddhist, nobody can be\ncompared to a true and fervent Rahan in sterling worth and merit. His\nmoral dignity and elevation cast into the shade the dazzling splendour\nthat surrounds loyalty. He is a pious recluse, a holy personage, a true\nmember of the holy Thanga, and deserving, therefore, of the highest\nadmiration and respect.\n\nAs a consequence of the profound veneration in which Talapoins are\npublicly held, they are exempted from contributing to public charges,\ntribute, _corv\u00e9es_, and military service. It is an immense favour,\nparticularly among the nations of Eastern Asia, where the rulers look\nupon their subjects as mere slaves and tools under their command for\nexecuting the absolute orders of their capricious fancy. Under the\npresent ruler of Burmah, the fathers and mothers of Phongyies are\nbenefited by the fact of their sons being in a monastery. They are\nexempted from paying taxes, and are treated with some attention by the\nofficials who wish to ingratiate themselves in the favour of his most\nBuddhist majesty. They have often the honorary affixes joined to their\nnames.\n\nIn concluding this notice, we will briefly sketch the actual situation\nof the Talapoinic order in those parts where we have had the opportunity\nof observing it, and will allude to the causes that have operated in\nseducing it into vices, abuses, and imperfections which are lowering\nit greatly in the opinion of all foreigners and of a few well-informed\nnatives.\n\nThe first and principal cause that has brought the Society into\ndisrepute and opened the door to numberless abuses is the total absence\nof discernment in the selection of the individuals that seek for an\nadmittance therein. Every applicant is indiscriminately received as\na member of the brotherhood. No previous examination takes place for\nascertaining the dispositions, capacity, and science of the postulant.\nNo inquiry is ever made regarding the motives that may have induced\nhim to forsake the world and take so important a step. His vocation is\nexposed to no trial. He has but to present himself and he is sure to\nbe immediately received, provided he consent to conform exteriorly to\nthe usual practices of his brethren. No account is taken of his former\nconduct. The very fact of his applying to be admitted into the society\nof the perfect atones amply for all past irregularities. The only\nrespectability inherent in the modern Talapoins is that derived from the\nsacred yellow dress he wears. It may aptly be said of him that he is\nmonk by the fact of his wearing the canonical dress. The houses of the\norder are, in many instances, filled with worthless individuals totally\nunfit for the profession, who have been induced by the basest motives to\nenter into them, chiefly by laziness, idleness, and the hope of spending\nquietly their time beyond the reach of want, and without being obliged to\nwork for their livelihood. In confirmation of this, I will mention the\nfollowing instance. During the second year of my stay in Burmah, I had\nwith me, in the capacity of servant, an old stupid native. On a certain\nday he gravely told me that he intended to leave my service and become a\nPhongyie. I laughed at first at what I considered to be very presumptuous\nand impertinent language. The old man, however, kept his word. Having\nleft my house a few days after our conversation on the subject of his new\nvocation, I heard no more of him till it happened a few months after that\nI met him in a monastery, attired in the full dress of a Phongyie, and\nso proud of his new position that he hardly condescended to put himself\non a footing of equality with his former master.\n\nIgnorance prevails to an extent scarcely to be imagined among the\ngenerality of the Phongyies. I have met with a great number of laymen who\nwere incomparably better informed, and far superior in knowledge to them.\nTheir mind is of the narrowest compass. Though bound by their profession\nto study with particular care the various tenets of their creed and all\nthat relates to Buddhism, they are sadly deficient in this respect.\nThey have no ardour for study. While they read some book, they do it\nwithout attention or effort to make themselves fully acquainted with the\ncontents. There is no vigour in their intellect, no comprehensiveness\nin their mind, no order or connection in their ideas. Their reading is\nof a desultory nature, and the notions stored up in their memory are at\nonce incoherent, imperfect, and too often very limited. They possess no\ngeneral or correct views of Buddhism. I never met with one who could\nembrace the whole system in his mind and give a tolerably accurate\naccount of it. The only faculty that they cultivate with great care is\nmemory. It is surprising to hear them repeating by heart the contents\nof a book they have studied. As the number of books is very limited in\ncountries where the art of printing has not been introduced, the pupils\nof the monasteries are compelled to commit to memory the greatest portion\nof the books they study. He who has lived in Burmah must have often\nheard, to his great surprise, laymen repeating, during sometimes a whole\nhour, formulas in Pali, or religious stories in Burmese, which they had\nlearned in the school, or when they had put on the monkish habit.\n\nPhongyies are fond of exhibiting their knowledge of the Pali language, by\nrepeating from memory, and without stammering or stumbling, long formulas\nand sentences; but I have convinced myself that very few among them\nunderstood even imperfectly a small part of what they recited. Those\nwho enjoy popularly a reputation for uncommon knowledge affect to speak\nvery little, show a great reserve, despising as ignorant the person that\napproaches their abodes or holds conversation with them. But silence,\nwhich in a learned man is a sign of modesty, is too often with them a\ncloak to cover their ignorance, and a cunning device for disguising pride\nunder the garb of humility. The latter virtue, though much recommended\nin the Wini, is not a favourite one with the Talapoins. It is indeed\nimpossible that they could ever understand or practise it, since they are\nunacquainted with the two great ways that lead to it, viz., a profound\nknowledge of God and a thorough knowledge of self. Talapoins, who are\ndistinguished among their brethren for their great austerity of manners\nand more perfect observance of their regulations, are the most unpleasing\nbeings the writer has ever met with.\n\nThey are cold, reserved, speaking with affected conciseness: their\nlanguage is sententious, seasoned with an uncommon dose of pretension.\nSentences falling from their lips are half finished, and involved in a\nmysterious obscurity, calculated to fill with awe and admiration their\nnumerous hearers; a certain haughtiness and contempt of others always\nshows itself through their affected simplicity and humble deportment.\nVanity and selfishness, latent in their hearts, force themselves on the\nattention of an acute observer. In their manners they are occasionally so\naffected by a ridiculous reserve that one might be tempted to think that\ntheir brain is not quite sound. Talapoins, in general, entertain a very\nhigh idea of their own excellence; and the great respect paid to them by\nthe people contributes not a little to foster it, and make them believe\nthat nobody on earth can ever be compared to them. To such a height has\ntheir pride reached that they believe it would be derogatory to their\ndignity to return civility for civility, or thanks for the alms people\nbestow on them.\n\nThe most striking feature in the character of the Talapoins is their\nincomparable idleness. We may say that, in this respect, they resemble\ntheir countrymen, who are very prone to that vice. Two causes of a very\ndifferent nature seem, in our opinion, to act together on the people of\nthese countries to produce such a result. The first is a physical one;\nthe heat of the climate, coupled with a perpetual uniformity in the\ntemperature, producing a general relaxation in the whole system, which\nis never combated or counteracted by an opposite action or influence.\nThe second cause is a moral one, the tyranny of the despotic governments\nruling over the populations of Eastern Asia. Property is everywhere\ninsecure. He who is suspected of being rich is exposed to numberless\nvexations on the part of the vile satellites of tyranny, who soon find\nout some apparent pretext for confiscating a part or the whole of his\nproperty, or depriving him of life, should he dare to offer resistance.\nIn such a state of things every one is satisfied with the things of first\nnecessity. Want forms the strongest tie that binds together individuals\nand races, and at the same time holds out the most powerful incentive to\nexertion. The people of these parts have but few wants, and therefore\nthey lack inducement to labour for acquiring anything beyond what is\nstrictly necessary. Emulation, ambition, the desire of growing rich,\nwhich are the main springs that move man to exertion, disappear and leave\nhim in an abject and servile indolence, which soon becomes his habitual\nstate, and the grave wherein is entombed all his moral energy.\n\nLike their countrymen, Phongyies are exposed to the influence of the\nabove causes, but their mode of life is a third additional reason\nwhy they are more indolent than others. They have not to trouble or\nexert themselves for the articles required for their subsistence\nand maintenance; these are abundantly supplied to them by their\nco-religionists. They are bound, it is true, to read, study, and\nmeditate; but their ignorance and laziness incapacitate them for\nsuch intellectual exercises. They remain during the best part of the\nday sitting in a cross-legged position, or reclining, or sleeping, or\nat least attempting to do so. They occasionally resume the vertical\nposition to get rid of _ennui_, one of their deadliest enemies, and by\nrepeated stretchings of arms and legs, and successive yawnings, try to\nfree themselves from that domestic foe. The teaching of their scholars\noccupies a few of them for a short time in the morning and in the\nevening. They are often relieved from their mortal _ennui_ by visitors as\nidle as themselves, who resort to their dwellings to kill time in their\ncompany.\n\nTo keep up respectability before the public, the Rahans assume an\nair of dignity and reserve. They avoid all that could lead them into\ndissipation. Exterior continence is generally observed, and though there\nare occasional trespasses, it would be unfair to lay on them generally\nthe charge of incontinence. Their life so far may be considered as\nexemplary. Though partly divested of that open-heartedness which is a\npeculiar characteristic of their countrymen, they are tolerably kind\nand affable with strangers. They, however, cannot relinquish in their\nconversation with them a certain air of superiority, inspired by the\nadmiration of self and the high opinion they entertain of their exalted\nprofession and sacred character. They are unwilling to see them sitting\nunceremoniously close to themselves; and when this cannot be avoided,\nthey seek for an opportunity of removing to another place a little\nmore elevated than that occupied by the visitor, as it would be highly\nunbecoming that laymen should ever presume to sit on a level with a\nrecluse. Such a step would imply a sort of equality between them both,\nwhich is never to be dreamt of. Their smooth and quiet countenance,\ntheir meek deportment, are, as it were, slightly fretted with a certain\nroughness and rudeness peculiar to individuals leading a retired life,\nand estranging themselves, to a certain extent, from the place of society.\n\nIn the foregoing pages we have endeavoured to give a faithful account of\nthe great religious order existing in countries where genuine Buddhism\nis the prevailing creed. We have been obliged, for the sake of truth,\nto mention many abuses that have slowly crept into it; but we never\nentertained the slightest intention of casting a malignant contempt\nor a sneering ridicule upon its members. Most sincerely we pity those\nunfortunate victims of error and superstition who are wasting their\ntime and energies in the fruitless pursuit of an imaginary felicity. No\nlanguage can adequately express the ardour and intensity of our desires,\nsighs, and prayers to hasten the coming of the day when the thick mist\nand dark cloud that encompass their souls shall be dissipated, and the\nSun of Righteousness shall shed into them his vivifying beams. However\ndeplorable their intellectual blindness may be, we always felt that they\nhave a right to be fairly and impartially dealt with. The religious order\nthey belong to is, after all, the greatest in its extent and diffusion,\nthe most extraordinary and perfect in its fabric and constituent parts,\nand the wisest in its rules and prescriptions, that has ever existed\neither in ancient or modern times without the pale of Christianity.\n\n\n\n\nADDENDA.\n\n\nMany persons have often put to the writer the following question:\u2014Is it\ncredible that the founder of Buddhism established from the beginning\na body of religious, with so perfect an hierarchy and so complete an\norganisation as to elicit the wonder and astonishment of all those who\ncontemplate it with a serious attention? No doubt, Buddhists attribute to\nGaudama all the regulations contained in the Patimauk, or the book of the\n_enfranchisement_; they maintain that the contents of Cambawa, or book\nfor the ordination of Patzins, have been arranged by the same hand. But\nthe absurdity of such an assertion cannot fail to strike the eyes of even\na superficial observer. These two books, with their elaborate divisions\nand subdivisions, must have been gradually prepared and arranged at an\nepoch when Buddhism had taken deep root and spread its branches far and\nwide, and had become the dominant religion in the countries where it is\nflourishing. To confer splendour on the admittance of individuals into\nthe body of monks, the rules of the Cambawa were enacted. To render the\nlife of religious an object of greater veneration in the eyes of the\ncommunity, the regulations of the Patimauk were devised, and were very\nlikely brought, by a slow process, to the state of completeness we see\nthem at present.\n\nThough Gaudama had nothing to do with the redaction of the books under\nexamination, he is, nevertheless, the author of the principal and most\nimportant regulations. It is in the Thoots or instructions he has\ndelivered on different occasions that we must search for discovering the\ngerm and origin of the principal points contained in the Patimauk and\nthe Cambawa. At the conclusion of many of his instructions we find some\nhearers believing in him, and applying for admittance into the society\nof his disciples. When he approved of their dispositions, the applicants\nhad but to renounce the ordinary pursuits of life, exchange their dress\nfor the one regularly prescribed, and engage to live in a state of strict\nchastity: they then became at once members of the Thanga, without having\nto go through a prescribed ordeal. Faith in Buddha on the one hand, and\non the other willingness to live in poverty and chastity, were the only\nrequisites for obtaining admittance into the spiritual family of Buddha.\nThe applicants were obliged to live in poverty, and depend for their\nfood on the alms they could procure by begging. Hence they were called\nBickus, or mendicants. They had to wear a dress made with rags picked up\nin cemeteries and stitched together. They placed themselves under the\nguidance of Gaudama, and denied to themselves all sensual gratifications.\nSuch were the first and principal obligations imposed on the new converts\nwho embraced a religious life. The Bickunies, or women who had embraced\nthe holy profession, were gradually subjected to the same regulations.\nThe minor details of the rule were introduced as consequences flowing\nfrom the general principles. This has been the work of time, and perhaps\nof one of the councils.\n\nIt does not appear from the instructions of Gaudama that the steps of the\nhierarchy were defined and fixed by him, as they have subsequently been.\nWe remark in the assembly, the Bickus, or mendicants, constituting the\ngreat mass of the religious, then the _Thera_, or, as the Burmans write\nit, _Mathera_, the ancients, or members of the assembly distinguished\nby their age and proficiency in learning and virtue, and the Aryias,\nor those who had made the greatest progress in meditation and\ncontemplation, and had entered into the current of perfection.\n\nIt has been asked also whether those who had reached one of the four\nMeggas\u2014that is to say, who had become a Thautapan, a Sakadagam, &c.\u2014were\nalways members of the Thanga, and could not live in the world. From\nthe tenor of certain passages in the life of Gaudama we see that many\npious laymen became Thautapan, Sakadagam, and even Anagam; that is to\nsay, followed the three first Meggas, though they continued to live in\nthe world. The father of Buddha, King Thoodaudana, the father of Ratha\nand many others, reached one of the above-mentioned states, though they\ncontinued to follow the ordinary pursuits of life. This fact deserves\nattention, because it shows that the institutions of Gaudama rested\non a broad basis, and that a life in the world was not an obstacle to\nfollowing the ways of perfection.\n\n\n\n\nON THE WORD \u201cNAT.\u201d\n\n\nIn a note on the Nats, the writer, having expressed the opinion that\nthe word \u201cNat,\u201d used by Burmans, was derived from the Sanscrit term\nNath, which means lord, Major Phayre gave it as his decided opinion\nthat the expression was a purely Burmese one, not at all derived from\nthe Sanscrit. Leaving aside the etymological question, of which it may\nbe said that _adhuc sub judice lis est_, we are happy to communicate to\nthe reader the following reflections that have come from the pen of that\ndistinguished scholar, who is so intimately acquainted with all that\nrelates to Buddhism.\n\n\u201cThe modern Burmans acknowledge the existence of certain beings which,\nfor want of a better term, we will call \u2018almost spiritual beings.\u2019 They\napply to them the name Nat. Now, according to Burmese notions, there are\ntwo distinct bodies or systems of these creatures. The one is a regularly\nconstituted company, if I may say so, of which Thagya Meng is the chief.\nMost undoubtedly that body of \u2018Nat\u2019 was unknown to the Burmans until they\nbecame Buddhists. Those are the real Dewah or Dewata.\n\n\u201cBut the other set of Nats are the creatures of the indigenous\nsystem, existing among all the wild tribes bordering on Burmah. The\nacknowledgment of these beings constitutes _their only worship_. On\nthese grounds I consider that the Burmese acknowledged and worshipped\nsuch beings before they were converted to Buddhism.\n\n\u201cNow, if they acknowledged such beings, they, no doubt, had a name for\nthem, similar in general import to the \u2018fairy, elf,\u2019 and so on among\nthe inhabitants of Britain for beings of a quasi-spiritual nature. I\nmay observe there is a complete analogy in the state of Burmese belief\nin the existence of such beings and that which prevailed formerly in\nEurope, and some remnants of which may be found even now existing among\nthe uneducated. I mean that before the Anglo-Saxon tribes were converted\nto Christianity the belief in fairies and elfs was universal. With\nChristianity came a belief in a different order of spiritual beings, and\nwith that a new name derived from the Latin, angel. This is somewhat\nanalogous to the state of things among the Burmese before and after their\nconversion to Buddhism.\n\n\u201cBut to return to the Burmese. They, when they received Buddhism, appear\nto have generally retained their vernacular name for the beings called in\nPali _Dewa_. Why this should be done is certainly not apparent. Why have\nthe English and all Teutonic nations retained the ancient name _Evil_,\nand spirits, though they adopted with Christianity a new term for good\nspirits generally? I allude to the term _Devil_, which, there is no\ndoubt, is philologically connected with that Pali word Dew-a or _Dev_-a.\n\n\u201cRegarding the meaning of the word _Nat_ in Pali, I have no Pali\ndictionary, but I have the ordinary Oordoo Dictionary, which includes all\nordinary Sanscrit words. I find there the Sanscrit word \u2018Nath,\u2019 and the\nmeaning rendered \u2018master, husband, lord.\u2019 There is nothing to show that\nit refers to any supernatural being, but is only a term of respect. As\nsuch it might in Pali be made applicable to Nats. In Burmese, the people\nwho _believe_ in Nats seldom use that word, but some honorific phrase.\nSome fishermen I knew quarrelled about their shares in a pool of water.\nIn the case they constantly referred to the share of the \u2018Ashing-gyee,\u2019\nwho was no other than the presiding Nat of the said pool.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n\n[1] The first particular related at length by the compiler of this work\nis one of peculiar interest. Buddha summons the Rahans to his presence,\nthrough the ever faithful and dutiful Ananda, and addresses to them\ninstructions which form the basis of the duties and obligations of all\ntrue disciples. He styles them Bickus\u2014that is to say, mendicants\u2014to\nremind them of the spirit of poverty and of the contempt of worldly\nthings which must ever be dear to them. The epithet \u201cbeloved\u201d is always\nprefixed to the word Bickus, as conveying an idea of the true and pure\naffection the master bore to his disciples, or rather his spiritual\nchildren. Buddha charges them at first to be always diligent in holding\nassemblies, where religious subjects should be discussed, controversies\nsettled, and unity of faith secured. This obligation has long been held\nas a binding one by the primitive Buddhists, as mention is always made\nin their books of the three great assemblies held during the three first\ncenturies of the Buddhistic era, when the sacred writings were carefully\nrevised, amended, and, as it were, purged of all spurious doctrines. It\nwas during the last council that the canon of scriptures was adopted,\nwhich has ever since been maintained by orthodox Buddhists. Nothing can\nbe wiser than the desire he so strongly expresses that no one should ever\npresume to alter the true and genuine nature of the precepts, by making,\naccording to his whim, light what is heavy, or obligatory what is but a\nmatter of counsel. He expresses the strongest wish to see them always\nunited among themselves, and fervent in the observance of the precepts\nof the law. He establishes as a fundamental principle the obedience to\nsuperiors. There is no society of a religious character among heathens\nwhere the various steps of the hierarchy are so well marked and defined\nas in the Buddhistic institution. The whole body of religious has a\ngeneral superior in each province, exercising a thorough control over\nall the houses within the limits of the province; he may be looked upon\nas a regular diocesan. In each house of the order there is a superior,\nhaving power and jurisdiction over all the inmates of the place. Under\nhim we find the professed members of the society, then those who may be\ncalled novices, and last of all the postulants and disciples allowed to\nwear the clerical dress, or yellow garb, without any power or authority,\nand being looked upon merely as students in the way of probation. In\nhis charge to his disciples, Buddha lays much stress upon the necessity\nof destroying in themselves the principle of passion, and in particular\nconcupiscence. The general tendency of all his preachings is to teach men\nthe means of freeing themselves from the tyrannical yoke of passions.\nNo one, indeed, can obtain the state of perfect quiescence or Neibban\nunless he has annihilated in himself all passions, and thereby qualified\nhimself for the practice of all virtues. The character of the great body\nof religious Buddhists is clearly set forth in the exhortations their\ngreat master directs to them to love retreat and solitude. The noise,\ntumult, and bustle necessarily attending the position of a man living\nin the world are entirely opposed to the acquirement of self-knowledge,\nself-possession, and self-control, so much required in a religious. As\nlong, concludes Buddha, as you shall remain faithful to your regulations\nyou will prosper, and secure to yourselves and your order the respect\nand admiration of all. He winds up his speech by exhorting them to act\nin a manner ever becoming their sacred calling. The greatest moralist,\npossessing the most consummate and perfect knowledge of human nature,\ncould not lay down wiser regulations for setting on a firm and lasting\nfoundation a great and mighty institution, destined to spread itself\nfar and wide amidst nations and tribes, and subsist during an unlimited\nperiod.\n\n[2] A dzeat is a building erected by the piety of Buddhists for the\npurpose of affording shelter and a place of rest to devotees, travellers,\nand strangers. These buildings are to be found at the entrance of towns,\nin villages, and often in the neighbourhood of pagodas. Those of Burmah\nare erected in the plainest manner. A verandah in front extends to the\nfull length of the building, a spacious hall running parallel to the\nverandah occupies the remaining place. There is no partition between\nthe hall and the verandah. It happens sometimes that a space at one of\nthe hall\u2019s corners, screened by mats or dry leaves, offers an asylum\nto him who does not like to mix with the _vulgus_. The carelessness of\nGovernment in all that relates to the comfort of the people is amply\ncompensated by the zeal of pious laymen, who readily undertake the\nerection of those works of public utility in the hope of securing to\nthemselves the attainment of merits to be enjoyed perhaps in this, but\ncertainly in some future existences.\n\nIn Burmah proper some of the dzeats are, for the country, beautiful\nbuildings. The edge of the roof and the front part are covered with a\nprofusion of sculptures and carvings that vie with those that adorn the\nfinest monasteries. This fact, among many, indicates the truly beneficent\nand philanthropic influence exercised by some tenets of Buddhism over\nthe followers of that creed. Pride and vainglory may have their share in\nthe erection of those monuments of benevolence, but it is not the less\ncertain that those who build them yield first and principally to the\nstrong influence of religious feeling.\n\nOn this occasion Buddha preached to the crowd, when we see a line of\ndistinction well drawn between the assembly of the disciples of Buddha\nand those we may merely style hearers. The latter are addressed by the\nname of darakas, meaning laymen that hear the preaching. A daraka is not\nas yet a perfect convert, and therefore not a member of the assembly of\nthe perfect. The daraka differs from the Upasaka. The latter is not only\na mere hearer of the law; he is a firm believer, and fervently practises\nthe precepts: he is among laymen a pious Buddhist; the former is not so\nforward: he begins to hear and believe the doctrines preached to him.\nHe has already some faith in Buddha; he is under instruction, but he\ncannot be called a professed disciple. The rewards of faith are both\nof a natural and supernatural order. Riches, happiness, an honourable\nreputation, are promised to the faithful observer of the law. He is to\nbe ever free from doubts, since faith makes him adhere firmly to all\nthe instructions of Buddha; and after his death he is to migrate to\nsome of the seats of Nats. The trespassing of the law is to be attended\nwith poverty, shame, and misery, doubts in an unsettled mind, and at\nlast punishment in hell. That place of suffering is minutely described\nin Buddhistic works. Such a description appears, in the opinion of the\nwriter, of no importance to those who desire to understand not the\nsuperficial portion of Buddhism, but its fundamental and constitutive\nparts. Hell is a place of punishment and torment, as the Nats\u2019 seats are\nplaces of reward and happiness. There is no eternity of sufferings; the\nunfortunate inhabitant of those dark regions is doomed to remain there,\nuntil the sum of his offences has been fully atoned for by sufferings.\nWhen the evil influence created by sin is exhausted, punishment ceases\ntoo, and the wretched sufferer is allowed to migrate to the seat of\nman in order to acquire merits and prepare himself for happier future\nexistences.\n\nIn recording the account of the conversion of a courtesan named\nApapalika, her liberality and gifts to Buddha and his disciples, and\nthe preference designedly given to her over princes and nobles, who,\nhumanly speaking, seemed in every respect better entitled to attentions,\none is almost reminded of the conversion of the woman that was a sinner\nmentioned in the Gospel.\n\n[3] The duties performed by Thariputra on this occasion exhibit more\nfully than language can express the profound veneration he entertained\nfor Buddha. He was with Maukalan the most distinguished member of the\nassembly; he occupied the first rank among the disciples; in point of\nintellectual and spiritual attainments and transcendent qualifications,\nhe stood second to none but to Buddha. Notwithstanding his exalted\nposition, he did not hesitate to render to his superior the lowest\nservices. The high opinion he had of Buddha\u2019s supereminent excellencies\nprompted him to overlook his own merit, and to admire without reserve\nthat matchless pattern of wisdom and knowledge. Hence the inward\nsatisfaction he sweetly enjoyed in serving as an humble disciple him\nwhose unutterable perfections cast in the shade his far-famed and\nmuch-praised acquirements. The unaffected humility of the disciple does\nthe greatest credit to the sterling worth of his inward dispositions, and\nconveys the highest idea of the respect and veneration entertained for\nthe master\u2019s person.\n\nIn the houses where Buddhist monks are living it is a fixed rule that\nthe superior and elders of the institution should be attended in the\nminutest services by the youngest members wearing the canonical dress.\nThe framer of the disciplinary regulations, intending, on the one hand,\nto confer dignity on the assembly, and, on the other, to oppose a strong\nbarrier to covetousness and to all inordinate worldly affections,\nwisely laid down a stringent order to all the members of the society\nnever to touch or make use of any article of food, dress, &c., unless\nit had previously been presented to them by some attendant, layman or\nclerical. Hence when water is needed for washing the head, hands, and\nfeet, or for rinsing the mouth, when meals are served up, when offerings\nare made, a young postulant, holding a vessel of water on the board\nwhereupon are placed the dishes, or the articles intended to be offered,\nrespectfully approaches the elder, kneels before him, squatting on his\nheels, lays before him the object to be presented, bows down with the\njoined hands raised to the forehead, resumes then the article with his\ntwo hands, presents it, with the upper part of the body bent in token of\nrespect. Before accepting it the elder asks, Is it lawful? The answer,\nIt is lawful, having been duly returned, the article is either taken\nfrom the hand of the offerer, or he is directed to place it within the\nreach of the elder. Any infraction of this ceremonial is considered as\na sin. In the presence of the people the monks never fail to submit to\nthat somewhat annoying etiquette. Their countenance on such occasions\nassumes a dignified and grave appearance, that has always much amused\nthe writer whenever he had the opportunity of witnessing this ceremony,\nwhich is called Akat. There is no doubt but this custom is a very ancient\none. We find it blended to a certain extent with the manners of the\nnations inhabiting eastern Asia. It is minutely described in the Wini,\nand carefully observed by the inmates of the Buddhistic monasteries. It\nagrees remarkably well with the spirit that has originated, promulgated,\nand sanctioned the disciplinary regulations. He who in this instance\nwould look at the mere skeleton of the rule without any reference to the\nobject aimed at by the legislator would show himself in the light of a\nvery superficial observer. This, unfortunately, is too often the case\nwhen we scorn and laugh at customs, the demerit of which consists simply\nin not being similar to ours, whereas the commonest sense tells us that\nwe ought to judge them in connection with the institutions they have\nsprung from, and the end aimed at by him who has established them.\n\nThe narrative of Thariputra\u2019s departure for his birthplace and of his\nlast moments suggests to the mind several reflections. He is certain of\nthe last day of his existence; he foresees with a prophetic glance that\nhis mother is well prepared for hearing profitably the preaching of the\nmost perfect law. By the incomparable powers of his memory he relates to\nBuddha that 100,000 revolutions of nature ago he was possessed with the\nstrong desire of seeing him and hearing his instructions, &c. How can\nthese particulars be accounted for, according to Buddhistic notions? The\nspring all evils or demerits flow from is ignorance. A being is imperfect\nin proportion to his being sunk deeper in the bosom of ignorance. On the\ncontrary, a being perfects himself in proportion to the efforts he makes\nfor dispelling the thick cloud of ignorance that encompasses his mind.\nThe more a man grows in the knowledge of truth the farther he removes the\nhorizon of darkness. He who has made the greatest and most persevering\nefforts in fervently prosecuting the work of searching truth by studying\nthe law that teaches the way of reaching it, contemplates and enjoys a\nportion of truth commensurate to his efforts and success. A Buddha, who\nhas reached the last boundaries of knowledge, has therefore triumphed\nover ignorance and indefinitely enlarged the sphere of truth. He enjoys,\nin fact, a cloudless sight of all that exists; his science is unlimited,\nextending over all the countless series of worlds, which, in the opinion\nof the Buddhists, are supposed to form a system of nature. Thariputra,\nthough much advanced in perfection, had not as yet reached its acme. His\nknowledge, however, was wonderfully great and extensive; it enabled him\nto obtain a clear insight into the darkness of the past and a distinct\nforesight of the future.\n\n[4] The village of Nalanda, the site of which is at present occupied by\nthat of Baragaon, was the birthplace of the great disciple Thariputra.\nHis illustrious companion in religion, Maukalan, was born in the village\nof Kaulita, about one and a half miles south-west of that place.\nNalanda, says Fa-Hian, the Chinese traveller, lies one youdzana north of\nRadzagio, that is to say, seven English miles according to Cunningham\u2019s\nmeasurement, and is seven youdzanas or forty-nine miles distant from the\ntree Bodi. It was the great seat of Buddhistic learning, renowned all\nover India. Now the whole site is covered with ancient tanks and mounds\nof ruins on an immense scale, offering fine specimens of sculpture. The\ngreat monastery and five smaller ones were all within one enclosure. A\nrow of lofty conical mounds, running north and south, 1600 feet by 400,\nindicates the place and extent of those religious buildings. Outside of\nthe enclosure there were several temples. General Cunningham fixes the\nera of the construction of those edifices between A.D. 425 and 625. Among\nthe several proofs adduced in support of his opinion there is one that\nappears conclusive. Fa-Hian, who visited all the places famous in the\nhistory of Buddhism, and describes them with a minute attention, simply\nalludes to Nalanda as the birthplace of Thariputra, without saying a word\nabout monasteries or temples, whilst Hwe-Thsang, who visited the same\nspot in the beginning of the seventh century, describes the splendid\ntemples and monasteries which he saw, and from his statement we infer\nthat the principal edifices were not inferior to those of Buddha Gaya in\nsize and height. Some of them reached to a height of 170 and 200 feet.\nThe greatest was 300 feet high. The number and extent of the tanks is\ntruly surprising. Two of them, in the north-east, were nearly a mile in\nlength, while another in the south was half a mile.\n\nThe inference to be drawn from the above is, that during the fifth and\nthe sixth century of our era, Buddhism was in a flourishing condition\nin the country of Magatha or South Behar, since the finest and loftiest\nstructures in the shape of monasteries and temples have been raised\nwithin that period, both at Nalanda and Buddha Gaya. It appears that,\nduring the three first centuries of the Christian era, its fortune\nalternated, and met with varied results, agreeably to the favourable\nor unfavourable dispositions of the rulers of the country towards the\nfollowers of the philosopher of Kapilawot. This succession of successes\nand reverses reveals the important fact that Buddhism had not struck deep\nroot in the heart of the inhabitants of Central India, since its fate\ndepended from the will and opinions of the monarch, and was almost at\nthe mercy of his caprices. Moreover, in the country north of the Ganges,\nsuch as Wethalie, Thawattie, Kapilawot, places which had been favoured\nwith Buddha\u2019s incessant preachings, religion was on its decline at the\ntime of Fa-Hian\u2019s visit, that is to say, in the beginning of the fifth\ncentury; monasteries were deserted and emptied, dzedies were crumbling\ndown and fast decaying. In some instances, heretics, that is to say,\npounhas, occupied the dwellings formerly tenanted by holders of the\n_genuine_ doctrines. This unexpected sight very much grieved the heart\nof the good Chinese pilgrim. It must be regretted that we have not the\nwritten journals of some other Chinese travellers in the eighth or ninth\ncentury to reveal to us the state and condition in which they found the\nmagnificent temples of Nalanda and Buddha Gaya when they visited them.\n\n[5] The conduct of Thariputra on this occasion wears an appearance of\nrudeness towards his aged mother, which at first hurts the feelings of\nhuman nature. But a close examination of all the circumstances connected\nwith this last episode of the great disciple\u2019s life, shows that he was\nfar from being divested of filial piety. He leaves his beloved master,\nundertakes a long and fatiguing journey for the sole purpose of preaching\nthe law to his mother, and conferring upon her a boon of greater value\nthan that he had received from her. In return for all the favours\nbestowed upon him by his mother, he initiates her in the knowledge of\ntruth, and enables her to enter into the great ways that lead to the\ndeliverance, that is to say, to the state of Neibban. It cannot be denied\nthat his language on this occasion partook of an austere tone, sounding\nharsh to the ears of worldly men, but it must be borne in mind that\nThariputra was an old ascetic, dead to all affections of nature, looking\nupon truth alone in an abstractively pure form, without any regard to\nmaterial objects. He loved the law of truth, which he had learned from\nBuddha, and afterwards preached to others with an unparalleled zeal and\nfervour. The spirit of Buddha lived in him: he desired to see all beings\navailing themselves of the means of salvation which he had it in his\npower to impart unto them; he loved them all with an equal affection; the\nstate of ignorance they were sunk in deeply affected his compassionate\nsoul, and he had but one desire, that of dispelling the thick mist of\nignorance by the pure light of truth.\n\nWhen the instruction to his mother was over, Thariputra desired to be\nleft alone with his disciples. His last words to them bespeak the humble\nsentiments of his mind. Though the first member of the assembly of the\nperfect, he begs pardon of his inferiors for the causes of offence he may\nhave unwillingly given them during the period they had lived together:\nregardless of all the good he had done unto them, he feels that he could\nnot well part with them ere he had atoned to them for any wrong, however\ninvoluntary, he might have done to some of them.\n\nFor those uninitiated in Buddhistic metaphysics it is not easy to\nunderstand and distinctly to appreciate the situation of Thariputra at\nhis last moments. It is stated that he fell into ecstasy or trance,\nthough his soul remained as yet connected with this world by slender and\nalmost invisible ties. This was the last and mighty struggle of a being\nto disengage himself from the trammels of existence and become free from\nall exterior influence. Soaring above all that exists, Thariputra\u2019s soul\npassed successively through the four stages he had so often visited,\nwhilst engaged in the arduous effort of investigating truth, preparing\nto enter the fifth and last one, where he was to stay finally and\nperpetually, without any further change, in a state of quiescence. When\nthe sage, during his meditations, has brought his mind to bear upon\nsome object, he wishes to contemplate attentively and thoroughly to\ncomprehend, he at first gets hold of that object by his thought, he then\nexamines it by means of reflection: the knowledge he thus acquires never\nfails to create a pleasurable sensation; this pleasure or satisfaction\nconveys to the soul enjoyment and happiness; he loves the truth he has\ndiscovered, and he rests fixedly in it. This is the last stage he ever\ncan or wish to reach. What has human mind, indeed, to do, after having\nfound truth, but to cling to it, and remain ever attached to it? During\nthe last trance, Thariputra, with his almost immensely developed mental\nfaculties, knew comprehensively truth, reflected on it, felt a pleasure\nin considering it, enjoyed it, or rather fed upon it, and at last adhered\nso perfectly to it, that he became, as it were, merged into it. He then\nhad reached the state of Neibban, where he was for ever exempt from\nthe influences created and put in motion and activity by matter and\npassions in every state of existence. Buddhists, in Burmah, at least,\nowing to their very limited and imperfect education, are unable to give\nany satisfactory or even intelligible account of the state of Neibban\nor perfection. What is here but superficially stated, has been found in\none of the last Buddhistic compositions on this and other metaphysical\nsubjects. Fuller particulars shall, hereafter, be given as to the state\nof Neibban, when the death of one greater than Thariputra shall be\nrelated.\n\n[6] In Burmah, when a person has just given up the ghost, the inmates\nof the house send for musicians, who soon make their appearance with\ntheir respective instruments. They forthwith set to work, and keep up\nan incessant noise during the twenty-four hours that elapse before the\ncorpse is removed to the place where it is to be burnt. Relatives,\nfriends, and elders resort to the deceased\u2019s house for the ostensible\npurpose of condoling with those who have lost their kinsman, but in\nreality for sharing in the mirth and amusements that go on in such\noccasions. Strange to say, the thought of death strikes no one\u2019s mind;\nthe fate of the deceased is scarcely pitied, nay, remembered. Were it\nnot for the presence of the corpse, and the perhaps conventional cries\nand lamentations of some old women at certain intervals, no one could\nimagine, still less find out, the real motive that has induced such a\ncrowd to assemble on that spot.\n\nIf the departed belong to a respectable family in tolerably good\ncircumstances, the funeral ceremony is arranged in the following manner:\nPresents, intended as offerings for the Buddhist monks, having been made\nready, they are invited for the occasion, and their presence is expected\nin numbers proportionate to the amount of offerings. The procession\nstarts from the deceased\u2019s house, and directs its course towards the\nplace of burning or the cemetery. It is headed by the yellow-dressed\nmonks, carrying their broad, palm-leaf fans on the shoulder, and attended\nby their disciples. Next follow the bearers of the offerings in two\nlines. They are partly men and partly women, but walk separately and\napart from each other. The coffin appears next, laid on thick poles, and\ncarried by six or eight men. In front of the coffin, and sometimes at the\nsides, are arranged the musicians, who perform all the way without an\ninstant\u2019s interruption. Behind the coffin are grouped the male relatives,\nfriends, &c., and lastly the procession is closed by crowds of women,\nattired in their finest dress. The coffin is beautifully decorated,\nand carried on the shoulders of six or eight stout young men by means\nof bamboos or poles. An unnatural merriment is allowed, and generally\nkept up all the way to the cemetery, and fantastic gestures and dances\nare performed by the bearers and their friends to the imminent danger\nof upsetting the coffin. The burning place is generally without the\nprecincts of the town, and in the vicinity of some large pagodas. The\nfuneral pile is of a very simple structure; its shape is that of an\noblong square of a moderate size. Two large pieces of wood are at first\nlaid parallel, at a distance of eight feet; other logs of wood, disposed\nat about six or eight inches from each other, are laid across the two\nfirst mentioned, so that their extremities are supported on these two\npieces. A second set of logs is laid at right angles with the first; a\nthird one placed across the second, and so on, until the pile is three,\nfour, or five feet high. The coffin is deposited upon it. Fire is set\nbelow the pile by means of inflammable materials which soon communicate\nfire to the logs the pile is made of. The whole is soon in a blaze and\nrapidly consumed by the devouring flames. The bystanders talk, laugh, or\nbusy themselves in stirring the fire. As to the Talapoins, they sometimes\ntake position under a neighbouring shed, repeat a few passages of\nBuddha\u2019s law, and when they are tired they give orders to their disciples\nto take up the offerings and then go back to their peaceable abodes. Very\noften they do not take the trouble of muttering prayers; they depart\nforthwith, followed by the offerings intended for them.\n\nThe fire being extinguished, the ashes, charcoal, &c., are carefully\nsearched, and the particles of bones discovered are piously collected by\nthe nearest relatives, and then buried in a hole dug for that purpose\nnear some pagoda.\n\nPersons in good circumstances keep up for seven days in their houses\na sort of solemnisation of the funeral. Every day, in the evening\nparticularly, musicians are kept up playing until a very late hour at\nnight. The house is all the while crowded with people, who come for the\npurpose of enjoyment. Some play at various games; others drink tea; all\nchew betel-leaves\u2019 tobacco in profusion. Sometimes stories relating to\nGaudama\u2019s former existences are read and listened to by the elders of the\nparty. This mode, intended either to do honour to the deceased\u2019s memory\nor to afford relief to the grief of relatives, is rather expensive, and\nmight often prove a heavy drain on the limited means of most of the\nfamilies. But the spirit of mutual assistance on this occasion removes\nthe difficulty. Every visitor, according to his means, makes a present of\nsome money to the master of the house. Though the present of the greatest\nnumbers of visitors is comparatively small, yet, when added together,\nthere is a considerable sum, which is generally more than sufficient\nto defray all expense that may be incurred. This custom or system of\nvoluntary contributions burdens no one in particular, whilst it enables\na family to make a show of liberality which, otherwise, would almost\nprove ruinous in many instances. The custom of burning the dead prevails\namongst the Hindus, the Cingalese, Nepaulese, Burmese, Siamese and\nCambodians. Though holding the tenets of Buddhism, the Chinese have never\nadopted this usage. The Mahomedans, living in Hindustan and the countries\nof eastern Asia, retain the custom of burying the dead. Buddhists have\ndoubtless received that practice from the Hindus.\n\n[7] The custom of making funeral orations for the purpose of eulogising\ndistinguished individuals after their demise is of the highest antiquity.\nThe sacred records bear witness to its existence amongst the Jews. The\npresent legend offers repeated instances of _eulogia_ made to honour the\nmemory of the dead. On this occasion Buddha would not leave to another\nthe honour of extolling the extraordinary merits and transcendent\nexcellencies of the illustrious Thariputra. But he had a higher object in\nview when he exhibited to the eyes of the assembled Rahans the relics of\nthe deceased, which were all that remained of so celebrated a disciple,\nwho had lived with them for so many years, and had just parted from them.\nIt was impossible to give them a more forcible illustration of the truth\nhe had so often announced to them, that there is nothing permanently\nsubsisting in this world, but that all things are liable to a perpetual\nand never-ending change. The stern Buddha gently rebuked the amiable\nAnanda for the signs of inordinate grief he gave on this occasion;\nbecause, said he, the law of mutability acting upon all that surrounds\nus, we must ever be prepared to be separated from what is dearest to our\naffections; grief on such occasions is useless, and quite inconsistent\nwith the principles of a wise man.\n\nTo honour the memory of Thariputra, and perpetuate the remembrance of\nhis virtues, Buddha directed that a dzedi should be erected on the very\nspot where he had heard the news of his death. A dzedi is a religious\nmonument very common in Burmah, and to be seen on all rising grounds in\nthe neighbourhood of towns. Within the enclosure of all monasteries, a\ndzedi is invariably erected; it is the only purely religious building to\nbe found in Burmah. The traveller in that country is always delighted,\nand experiences the most pleasurable sensations on approaching some town\nor village, when he sees several dzedis of various heights raising their\nwhite cones capped with the gilt crown from the bosom of beautiful groves\nof tall cocoa-nut trees, graceful areca palms, and massive tamarind,\nmango, and jack trees, all loaded with a green and luxuriant foliage.\nWhen the monument is on a grand scale, niches are made in the middle\nof each side of the square, facing the four points of the compass. In\nthose niches are placed statues of Buddha, exhibiting him in the usual\ncross-legged position. The size of those religious monuments varies much\nin dimensions. They range from the height of a few feet to the colossal\nproportions of the tall Dagon Pagoda at Rangoon.\n\nThe custom of raising monuments over the ashes of religious distinguished\nby their virtues and extraordinary attainments, is a very ancient one,\ncoeval in all probability with the first ages of Buddhism. They were\nreal tumuli, surmounted with some ornaments in the shape of a cone. Such\nornaments are seen towering over nearly all the religious monuments\nin Burmah. Royalty, in its head paraphernalia, and in its abode, has\nappropriated them to its own uses. We may at once infer that they are\nof a Hindu origin. The great monarchs who are called Tsekiawade kings,\nbecause they ruled over the whole of the Dzampoudipa island, were,\naccording to Buddha\u2019s opinion, entitled to the honour of a dzedi after\ntheir demise.\n\n[8] It is very difficult to understand the extraordinary state in which\nBuddha placed himself on this occasion. It must have been a remarkable\noccurrence, since it caused a violent commotion which shook our planet.\nThe only interpretation that can be put on the terms used to describe\nthis particular action of Buddha is this: He renounced existence, that\nis to say, not only the actual existence that he enjoyed, but also all\nother forms of existence. He severed connection with this and other\nworlds; he broke the ties that had hitherto retained him linked to a form\nof existence. He had come now to the end of all transmigrations. By the\npower of his will, he placed himself in the state of complete isolation\nfrom all that exists, even from self, that is to say, into Neibban, a\nstate which death was soon to realise and render visible to the eyes of\nhis disciples. It is not death that causes a being to reach the state\nor condition of Neibban, but it is the abstraction from all conceivable\nforms of existence that constitutes its very essence. The expression\nmade use of by our author to designate the particular condition in which\nGaudama brought himself, and which caused a terrific shake of the earth,\nis this: He parted with the life of change, of mutability, that is to\nsay, he had nothing more to do with existences, which, in the opinion of\nBuddhists, are produced by the principle of mutability. Buddha called\nhimself Zina, or conqueror, after he had obtained the perfect mastery\nover his passions. We may give him the same title on the occasion when he\nhas obtained the mastery over existence itself. This last achievement is\nthe greatest of all: the first one was only preparatory to securing the\nsecond one. The writer is well aware that such a language is at variance\nwith the notions that the reader is familiar with. To understand its true\nand correct meaning one must be initiated into the doctrines of Buddhism.\n\nThe preaching of the law of the wheel, which is mentioned as one cause\nthat produces the phenomena of earthquake, took place, as above related,\nin the Migadawon forest, or the Deer\u2019s grove, near Benares, in the very\nbeginning of Buddha\u2019s public life, after he had left the Bodi tree. The\npreaching of the law of the wheel is nothing else than the manifestation\nof the four sublime and transcendent truths, which, as mentioned in\nforegoing pages, constitute the essence of Buddha\u2019s doctrines.\n\n[9] The particulars of the apparition of the evil one, or the tempter,\nrelated by Buddha himself to the faithful and amiable Ananda, show the\nincessant efforts made by Manh to render abortive, to a certain extent,\nthe benevolent mission undertaken by Buddha to procure deliverance to\nnumberless beings, and supply others with adequate means for entering\ninto, and steadily following, the way that leads to it. He had been\ndefeated in his endeavours to prevent Phra from leaving the world and\nobtaining the Buddhaship. He had been thwarted in his wicked designs to\nweaken the effects of Buddha\u2019s preachings. Heretics of all sorts had been\nsummoned to his standard, to carry on a most active warfare against his\nopponents, but he had failed in all his attempts. Buddha had now almost\ncompleted the great and beneficial work he had undertaken: his religious\ninstitutions, known over a vast extent of territory, and zealously\npropagated by fervent and devoted disciples, seemed to be now firmly\nestablished. The edifice, indeed, was raised, but it required the action\nof a finishing hand; the key-stone was yet wanting in the vault to render\nit complete and durable. Manh was aware of all that; hence his last and\nwily effort for impeding the finishing and perfecting of a work he had\nvainly opposed in its beginning and during its progress.\n\nThe line of distinction between the members of the assembly and the mass\nof those who merely believed in the doctrines of Buddha, without leaving\nthe world, is plainly drawn by Buddha himself; therefore, there can\nbe no doubt that, from the origin of Buddhism, there existed a marked\ndifference between the body of laymen and that of Rahans. Again, the body\nof the perfect, or those who formed what may emphatically be termed the\nassembly, was composed of men and women, living, as a matter of course,\nseparately, in a state of continence, and subjected to the disciplinary\nregulations which we find embodied in the Wini. In Burmah, vestiges of\nfemale devotees, living secluded from the world, are to be met with in\nmany places, but, as already noticed in a foregoing remark, the order\nof religious females has much fallen off. Its professed members are\nfew in number, and the exterior observance of the regulations is much\nneglected. The comprehensiveness of Buddhism, its tendency to bring all\nmen to the same level, and allow of no difference between man and man\nbut that which is established by superiority in virtue, its expansive\nproperties, all those striking characteristics have mightily worked in\nelevating the character of the woman, and raising it to a level with that\nof man. Who could think of looking upon the woman as a somewhat inferior\nbeing, when we see her ranking, according to the degrees of her spiritual\nattainments, among the perfect and foremost followers of Buddha? Hence\nin those countries where Buddhism has struck a deep root and exercised a\ngreat influence over the manners of nations, the condition of the woman\nhas been much improved and placed on a footing far superior to what\nshe occupies in those countries where that religious system is not the\nprevalent one, or where it has not formed or considerably influenced the\ncustoms and habits of the people.\n\n[10] The Buddhists of these parts, following the track of their\nancestors, or rather copying their writings, are fond of arbitrary\ndivisions in all that concerns the different parts of their metaphysics.\nBuddha, on this occasion, alludes to thirty-seven articles, which may\nbe considered as the foundation whereon rests philosophical and moral\nwisdom. They are called _Bodi-pek-kera_; meaning, I believe, points or\narticles of wisdom. They are subdivided into seven classes. In the first\nare enumerated the four subjects most deserving of attention, viz., the\nbody, the heart, the sensations, and the law. In the second are described\nfour objects extremely worthy of our efforts, viz., preventing the law\nof demerits to come into existence; preventing its developments, when it\nexists; causing the law of merits to come into existence, and furthering\nits progress when it is already existing. In the third are found likewise\nfour points meriting control, viz., one\u2019s will, one\u2019s heart, one\u2019s\nefforts, and one\u2019s exertions. In the fourth class we find enumerated\nfive pre-eminently necessary dispositions or inclinations; that is to\nsay, disposition to benevolence, to diligence, to attention, to steady\ndirection towards what is excellent, and to considerate wisdom.\n\nThe fifth class comprises the _pola_, or rewards or good effects\nresulting from the above inclination, viz., perfect benevolence,\ndiligence, attention, steadiness in what is excellent, and considerate\nwisdom.\n\nThe sixth class comprehends the seven following virtues, which enable\nman to raise himself very high in the scale of perfection:\u2014Attention,\nconsideration of the law, diligence, equanimity of the soul, constancy in\ngood, fixity, and delight.\n\nThe seventh class comprises the ways that lead to good and perfection.\nThey are eight in number:\u2014Perfect doctrine, intention, language, actions,\nregular mode of life, diligence, attention, and fixity in good.\n\nA volume might be written upon these thirty-seven principles or points\nof moral philosophy, by way of comment and explanation; but we think\nit better to leave the reader to make his own reflections, and run at\nliberty over this broad field of metaphysics.\n\n[11] The Kakouda stream was one of the arms or channels of the little\nGundak. It is at present dried up, but up to this day are to be seen\nseveral marks indicating the ancient bed of that stream.\n\nThe river Hiranyawati is one of the channels of the little Gundak,\nwhich was flowing a little west of the city of Koutheinaron. The Gundak\nbeing very winding in its course, and the mass of water being sometimes\nvery considerable, there is to be seen a great number of old channels,\nnow dried up, or occasionally filled in the time when inundation is\nprevailing. For this reason, it becomes difficult in some instances to\nfollow the Chinese pilgrim, Hwen Thsang, through his minute and accurate\ndescription of the places he has visited. The mounds of ruins which\nstud the ground may not be always correctly identified, because they\nare not at present, relatively to the river, in the same position as\nthat mentioned in his interesting itinerary. However, there are here and\nthere some remnants of the old channels which are sufficient to guide\nsafely the sure and patient Government Arch\u00e6ological Surveyor, who now\ndoes so much, with the assistance derived from the books of the two\nChinese pilgrims, to find out and identify on the spot most of the places\nand localities mentioned in the Buddhist writings. It is not a little\nsurprising that we should have to acknowledge the fact that the voyages\nof two Chinese travellers, undertaken in the fifth and seventh centuries\nof our era, have done more to elucidate the history and geography of\nBuddhism in India, than all that has hitherto been found in the Sanscrit\nand Pali books of India and the neighbouring countries.\n\nThe young religious who is called Tsanda was the younger brother of\nThariputra. He seems to have shared with Ananda the honour of attending\non Buddha\u2019s person.\n\nThe forest which was close to the vicinity of Koutheinaron was planted\nwith trees which the Burmans call ingien, the Bengalies, sal. The latter\nname is evidently the Sanscrit and Pali appellation of the tree, which\nthe Burmese author has retained but once or twice throughout the course\nof his work, and wrote Sala. It is the _Shorea robusta_.\n\nThe four laws of edeipat, which, in the opinion of Buddha, can confer\nto him who knows and possesses them the extraordinary privilege of an\nindefinitely prolonged existence, are, absolute power over the will,\nabsolute power over the mind, absolute power of exertion, absolute power\nover the means to attain any object. How can a man, in the present state\nof existence, obtain the possession of such a power? The only way that a\nBuddhist has to account for it is the following:\u2014A perfect being, having\nestranged himself from all passions, from matter and its concomitant\ninfluences, solely by the power and energy of his will, acquires a\nfreedom from all impediments, an unbounded liberty of motion, and a\nlightness and swiftness which enable him to do all that he pleases. He\nis independent of the elements of this world, which can no more offer\nobstacles and resistance to his wishes. Several instances of something\napproaching to those wonderful attainments have been mentioned in the\ncourse of this work. We have seen how those much advanced in perfection\ncould raise themselves very high, and travel through the air with an\nalmost incredible velocity. This was but the beginning of far superior\nand transcendent qualifications obtained only by those that had made\ngreater progress in science, in virtue, and in the renouncing of all\nthings; in a word, by those who had mastered the four laws of edeipat.\n\nMahawon Kootagara means the hall of the upper story in the great forest.\nNot far from Wethalie there was a monastery of great celebrity, situated\nin a forest of sala-trees. It had, at least, an upper story, in which was\nthe hall where Gaudama often preached to his disciples and to the people.\n\n[12] The meal Buddha partook of in company with his disciples at Tsonda\u2019s\nresidence is the last repast he ever made. The violent distemper which\nfollowed immediately is not, says the author of the legend, to be\nattributed to the food he took on this occasion. On the contrary, that\nvery food, owing to the virtue infused therein by the agency of Nats\nand Brahmas, was rather an antidote against the illness that was to\ncome inevitably upon Phra\u2019s person. Previous to the dissolution of his\nbodily frame, it was decreed that Buddha should suffer. No occurrence\ncould ever cause or avert this tragical circumstance. He had foreseen\nit, and with perfect resignation submitted to what was absolutely to\nhappen. In the early days of Buddhism, when a deadly antagonism with\nBrahminism began to fill the peninsula of Hindustan with endless disputes\nbetween the supporters of the rival systems, Brahmins, with a cutting\nsneer, insulted their opponents by reminding them that the founder of\ntheir creed, whom they so much revered and exalted, had died from the\neffects of his having indulged too much in pork. About twenty-two years\nago, when the writer was in Burmah, he chanced to meet with a shrewd\nold Christian, who, by the way, was fonder of disputing about religion\nthan paying regard to the practice thereof. He boasted of having at his\ncommand deadly weapons against Buddhists, and unanswerable arguments to\nbear with an irresistible force on the vital parts of their creed. The\nchief one, which he always brought forward with a Brahminical scorn and\nlaugh, was that Gaudama had died from his having eaten pork. He always\ndid it with so much mirth and wit that his poor ignorant adversaries were\ncompletely overawed and effectually silenced by his bold and positive\nassertion, and left to him uncontested the field of battle, and allowed\nhim to carry away undisputed the palm of victory. This way of arguing may\nprove a very amusing one, but it can never be approved of, as error is\nnever to be combated by another error or a false supposition. The Burmese\ntranslator was doubtless aware of the weak side offered to the attacks\nof malignant opponents by the unpleasant distemper that followed the\nlast meal of Buddha. He strenuously labours to defend the character of\nhis hero by proving, in the best way he can, that such a bodily disorder\nwas necessarily to take place, in order to set in relief the patience,\ncomposure, and other sterling virtues of the founder of Buddhism. The\ntext of the legend has been read over several times with the greatest\nattention, for the purpose of ascertaining the reasons put forward to\naccount for such an occurrence, but the result has proved unsatisfactory.\nA thick veil wraps in complete obscurity this curious episode of Buddha\u2019s\nlife. All that can be said is this: it was preordained that Buddha should\nbe visited with a most painful distemper ere he attained Neibban; and so\nit happened.\n\nTo prove that the eating of pork had nothing to do with the distemper\nthat followed, we have the authority of Gaudama himself, who commended\nthe delicacy and flavour of that dish, and placed it on the same footing\nwith the delicious Nogana he ate on the morning of the day previous to\nhis obtaining the Buddhaship. He desired his ever-faithful attendant,\nAnanda, to repair to Tsonda\u2019s place, and explain to him the great rewards\nreserved to him for having made the offering of such an excellent food.\n\nThe practical working of the Buddhistic system relatively to almsgiving\ndeserves some notice. A man bestows alms on the Rahans, or spends money\ntowards promoting some religious purpose; he does so with the belief\nthat what he bestows now in the way of alms will secure to him countless\nadvantages in future existences. Those favours, which he anticipates to\nenjoy hereafter, are all of a temporal nature, relating only to health,\npleasures, riches, honours, and a long life either in the seat of man or\nin the seats of Nats. Such is the opinion generally entertained by all\nBuddhists in our days. Talapoins make the preaching of the law consist\nchiefly in enumerating the merits and rewards attending the bestowing\nof alms on persons devoted to a religious mode of life. In this respect\nthe practical result of their sermons is certainly most beneficial to\nthemselves. The spiritually-minded Buddha seems to have levelled a blow\nat concupiscence and covetousness by openly stating that alms have not\nthe power to stem the current of demerits, to give rise and energy to the\nprinciple of merits, or to lead to wisdom, which enables man to weaken\ngradually concupiscence, anger, and ignorance, and to open and prepare\nthe path to Neibban. True knowledge, attended by the practice of the\nvirtues peculiar to those who have entered into the current of perfection\nby following the four Meggas, can alone enable a man to reach Neibban.\nMany excellent practices enforced by Buddhism have, so to speak, been\nreduced to a mere lifeless skeleton by ignorance and passions, but they\nwould appear in a very different light were they animated with the spirit\nthat has brought them into existence.\n\n[13] The observance of the five precepts incumbent upon all Buddhists\nis the foundation whereupon is to be erected the spiritual edifice; it\nis the first step towards the great ways leading to perfection; it is\npreparatory for the great exercise of meditation, by which true wisdom\nmay be acquired. The faithful who observe the five precepts and the three\nadditional counsels show that faith is living in their hearts, and give\nunmistakable marks of their zeal in the practice of religion. They are\nreal Upasakas, or laymen, fervently adhering to and taking refuge in\nBuddha, the law, and the assembly; but they cannot take rank among the\nmembers of the assembly or Thanga. Practice of and progress in meditation\ncan alone usher an Upasaka into the sanctuary of the perfect.\n\nThe rewards destined to the faithful after their death are exactly\nproportionate to their merits and the real worth of their deeds. The\nseats of Nats, placed immediately above the seat of men, but under the\nsixteen seats reserved to the perfect, are opened to the pious Upasaka\nwho migrates from the seat of probation and trial. The nature of the\npleasures enjoyed in the Nats\u2019 seats are all referable to the senses.\nAll that can be imagined best fitted for the delectation of the five\nsenses is accumulated in those blissful regions, and proffered with\nan ever-renewed profusion to their fortunate inhabitants. The vivid\nimagination of Asiatics has, one would say, exhausted its stores in\npicturing with an amazing variety the riches to be possessed there. It\nwould be of no utility to attempt to give a compendious narrative of\nwhat we meet with in Buddhistic compositions respecting those regions.\nSuffice it for our purpose to say that the distinction of sexes remains\nin the Nats\u2019 countries. In the two lowest seats connection takes place\nbetween the sexes, but no procreation ever results from it; in the third\nseats the Nats of different sexes are fully gratified by a simple kiss;\nin the fourth, by the touch of the hand; in the fifth, by merely looking\nat each other; and in the sixth, by the mere fact of their being in\nthe same place, upon which we may make two observations. The first is\nthat pleasures therein enjoyed lose their coarseness, and become more\nrefined and more perfect in proportion as the seats are more elevated.\nThe greater are the merits of the Upasaka in this life, the higher is the\nseat he is destined to occupy, and the more refined are the pleasures\nand enjoyments allotted to him. Hence our Gaudama having, during the\nexistence preceding this last one, practised moral virtues of the\nhighest order, migrated to Toocita, the fourth seat of Nats. The second\nobservation is, that the duration of the enjoyments in the Nats\u2019 seats\nincreases in an arithmetical progression; that is to say, the pleasures\nof the second seat last twice as long as those of the first or lowest\nseat. Those of the third seat last twice as long as those of the second,\nand so on to the last or highest seat.\n\nIn the sermons that the Talapoins address to the people for stirring\nup their zeal chiefly in making alms to them, they are most fluent and\nabundant in the promises of rewards in the Nats\u2019 seats, as a powerful\ninducement held out to them for keeping up their zeal in bestowing\nalms. They admirably succeed in obtaining their object with most of\ntheir hearers. It cannot be denied that those poor deluded followers of\nBuddha are fully convinced of all that is narrated to them by Talapoins\nrespecting the Nats\u2019 seats. Such is the implicit faith of the mass of the\nBuddhists. One may occasionally meet with a few individuals who laugh at\nthose fables, but these are looked upon in no better light than that of\nrationalists or freethinkers by the orthodox portion of the community.\n\n[14] The posture assumed by Buddha at this last stage of his life has\nsupplied the subject of an artistic composition to the Southern Buddhist\nsculptors. A statue representing Phra in that reclining position is to\nbe seen in almost every pagoda. Some of these statues are made on truly\ngigantic proportions. I have measured one that was forty-five feet long.\nIf we take such rough works as exhibiting the amount of skill possessed\nby natives in the art of carving, we must confess that that art is with\nthem yet in its infancy. The huge idols I have met with are never made of\nwood or hewed stones, but are built up with bricks. The artist, having\nmade in this way the principal parts of the statue, covers the whole\nwith a thick coat of mortar, the softness of which enables him without\nmuch labour to put the finishing hand to his work. These statues are\ninvariably made after a certain pattern belonging to the antiquity,\nand to an epoch when the art was yet in its very infancy: they are, in\nan artistic point of view, the worst, rudest, and coarsest attempts at\nstatuary I have ever seen. Gold is, however, profusely lavished on those\nshapeless and formless works. The big idol above referred to was covered\nwith gold, that is to say, gilt from head to feet.\n\nIdols of smaller dimensions, those in particular representing Buddha\nsitting in a cross-legged position, in the attitude of meditation, are\nlikewise wretched specimens of art. A great many are made of a soft\nstone, almost white, resembling marble in appearance, and capable of\nreceiving a most perfect polish. About three miles west of the old and\nruined city of Tsagain is a place where the manufacturing of marble idols\nis carried on to a great extent. The stone used by the carvers is brought\nfrom a place north of Amerapoora, where it is abundant. It is soft,\ntransparent, white, and sometimes, when polished, exhibits a slightly\nbluish appearance. The instruments used by the artists are simple and\nfew. Were it not for the custom which obliges them to follow always the\nsame patterns, the Burmese workmen would much improve in that branch of\nthe fine arts.\n\n[15] If Buddha ever deserved the surname of sage, it was assuredly on\nthis occasion that he entitled himself to such an honourable distinction.\nAll nature reversed its course on his account: wonders of the most\nextraordinary character loudly proclaimed his supereminent excellencies:\nthe most exalted beings united their voices in extolling his transcendent\nmerits, and showing their unbounded respect for his person; all that\ncould dazzle the eye, please the ear, and flatter the heart, was\ndisplayed on an unparalleled scale to do honour to him who was about\nto leave this terrestrial abode. Buddha, however, solemnly declares,\nand unhesitatingly says to Ananda, that such a display is infinitely\nbelow his merits and perfections, and can bear no comparison with his\nfathomless wisdom and boundless knowledge of truth. Such things, in his\nopinion, are mere externals, quite destitute of substantial worth; they\nconfer no real honour to him. They, adds he, who truly do honour to me\nare those who practise all that is enjoined by the most excellent law;\nnothing short of the observance of the law can please me; the practice of\nthe virtues leading to perfection alone give the right to be called my\ndisciple. My religion can rest firmly only on such solid foundation.\n\nThese expressions make every reader understand that, in Buddha\u2019s opinion,\nreligion is not a mere theory, teaching fine moral precepts, destined\nto excite a vain admiration in the mind, or elicit useless applauses;\nbut it is a moral and practical system, making man acquainted with the\nduties he has to perform in order to shun vice and practise virtue.\nNothing can be more explicit and positive than the notions he entertains\nof religion. They are worthy of the founder of a religious system now\nbelieved and admitted, with more or less considerable variety, by nearly\none-fourth, or at least one-fifth, of the great human family. It must\nbe admitted that the high religious sense entertained by Buddha, and\ncommunicated in all its purity to his immediate disciples, has almost\nvanished away in all Buddhist countries. With the people religion\nconsists in certain exterior observances, such as giving alms to the\nTalapoins, building pagodas, and making offerings during the three\nmonths especially consecrated to religious duties. The influence of\nreligious teachers, owing to ignorance and want of zeal, may be thought\nby many to be almost null, and scarcely felt by the masses of nominal\nBuddhists. Two causes, however, seem to be the generators and supporters\nof the religious sentiment that influences the people,\u2014education, and\nthe political institutions. The male portion of the community is brought\nup in the monasteries by the Phongyies. All the books that are put\ninto their hands, and most of those that they subsequently read, are\ntreatises on religious subjects. This system keeps up, in a wonderful\nmanner, the knowledge of religion, which exercises a great control over\nthe actions of individuals, and regulates their conduct. But, besides,\nthe religious element almost predominates in the body of the civil\nlaws; it acts indirectly upon the people, and must be allowed a great\nshare of influence in all that regards their morals. It is, therefore,\nto political institutions that Buddhism owes much for the continuation\nof its existence in these regions. Were it deprived of such a powerful\nsupport, there is every reason to believe that it could not perhaps long\nretain its hold over the masses, when regularly and extensively attacked\nby the followers of another system. But the first cause is by far the\nweightier and the more influential.\n\n[16] In the first edition of this work the writer had made an error in\nsupposing Oupalawana to have been a male religious. Another palm-leaf\nmanuscript that he has consulted leaves no doubt about her real\ncharacter. She was, among the female body of religious, the disciple\nof the left; and Kema, who had been for many years the first wife of\nKing Pimpathara, was the disciple of the right. Oupalawana belonged to\na distinguished family of Kapilawot. The female portion of the Thanga\nor assembly was constituted after the mode of the Rahans. Thariputra\nand Maukalan were respectively the disciples of the right and of the\nleft. One of the duties of the Rahaness of the left was to fan Buddha on\ncertain occasions, and render to him such services as were compatible\nwith her sex. The order of nuns in Burmah in our days has fallen very\nlow. Instead of the yellow colour, they have adopted the white one for\ntheir dress, which, in other respects, resembles that of the Phongyies.\nTheir head is shaved. They are to be seen in the neighbourhood of\npagodas, and in the streets, going about to beg the food required for\ntheir maintenance. The only large convent of those nuns which I have ever\nmet is one on the right bank of the Irrawaddy, about five miles north of\nTsagain. It contains about forty or fifty inmates. Some of them belong to\ngood families, and reside in the house for a few years, after which they\nreturn into their home. That house is under the special protection of\nthe king, who supplies the nuns with all the necessaries of life. In the\nvalley of Tavoy a small convent also has been pointed out to the writer.\nIt was situated on a beautiful spot, west of the river. When he went to\nsee it, he was surprised to meet with two or three old women, habited in\nthe canonical dress, who appeared to be wretchedly poor and slovenly in\ntheir habits. The house was in every respect in keeping with the exterior\nappearance of the tenants. The nuns do absolutely no work, except in\ncertain localities where they try to do away with a portion of their\ntime in clearing the weeds which grow so luxuriantly in the enclosure of\nsome famous pagoda. They have no schools to teach girls the rudiments of\nreading and writing. They are on this head greatly behind the Buddhist\nmonks, who have assumed to themselves the great and important task of\nteaching boys in the towns and villages.\n\n[17] The founder of Buddhism shows himself on this particular subject a\nconsummate moralist. He who could have spoken as he did on this truly\ndelicate point must have been deeply versed in the knowledge of human\nnature, and thoroughly acquainted with its frailties and weaknesses.\nBuddha desired to maintain the members of the assembly in a state of\nspotless purity. To attain that desirable object he raised the strongest\nbarrier against the wildest passion of the heart. No virtue, in his\nopinion, can withstand the incessant assaults directed against it by\ndaily and familiar intercourse with persons of another sex. He would\nhave, if possible, the inmate of a cell in a monastery out of the reach\nof temptation itself; he knows that the best tactics against such an\nenemy do not consist in boldly meeting the adversary, but rather in\ncarefully avoiding encounter with him, man\u0153uvring in such a way as to\nkeep far from him. Hence idle conversations with female visitors are not\nonly forbidden in a most positive manner, but the very sight of women is\nto be, if possible, avoided. When duty shall oblige a recluse to come\nface to face with the enemy, it is his bounden obligation to keep at as\ngreat a distance from female visitors as practicable. The subject of the\nconversation ought to be of a purely religious character; some portions\nof the law may be expounded, doubts of conscience may be proposed, and a\nsolution given to them, &c. On such occasions the spiritual adviser is\nnever to be left alone, but he must be surrounded by some of his brethren\nor disciples, at all times very numerous in the monasteries.\n\nIt is not without interest to place one\u2019s self in the centre of the\nBuddhistic system, and examine therefrom the motives that have induced\nBuddha to enjoin celibacy on all the members of the assembly, and enforce\nit with the utmost rigour by all the means that the profoundest moralist\ncould devise.\n\nThe philosophy of Buddhism has for its primary object to lead man into\nthe way of freeing himself from the influence produced upon the soul\nby exterior objects, through the medium or channel of the senses. That\ninfluence sets in motion the various passions which darken the intellect\nand trouble the heart, opposing an insuperable barrier to the acquirement\nand intuition of truth, and to the progress towards the state of\nquiescence, so ardently coveted and longed for by every true Buddhist.\nNo one is ripe for the state of Neibban as long as he retains affection\nfor things without self. The last and greatest effort of wisdom is the\nemancipation of self from every possible influence created and produced\nby objects or things distinct from self. Concupiscence, as the meaning\nof the word implies, is that disposition of the soul to search after,\nlong for, and cleave to things placed without self. Such a disposition\nis diametrically opposed to the perfect independence aimed at by a\nperfect Buddhist, and leads to results the very reverse of those to be\narrived at; it retains man in the vortex of never-ending existences,\nand precludes him from the possibility of ever reaching the state of\nNeibban. Concupiscence, taken in a more restricted and limited meaning,\nsignifying the propensity to the indulgence of sensual pleasures by the\nunion of sexes, must ever prove the greatest obstacle in the way leading\nto perfection, inasmuch as it fosters in men the strongest affection to\nexternal objects.\n\nBuddha is great, in his own opinion, because he has conquered all\npassions, not by curbing them under the yoke of reason, but by rooting\nthem out of his very being. When he wished to become an ascetic, he\npractised at first self-renouncing, not merely by giving up riches,\npalaces, dignities and honours, but chiefly and principally by denying\nto himself and for ever the enjoyment of sensual pleasures. A firm and\nunshaken resolution of parting for ever with his wife and concubines,\nand living in a perpetual celibacy, was considered as a preliminary and\nessential step for entering upon the course of life of a sincere searcher\nafter truth and perfection. During the six years he spent in solitude, he\nlaboured with unremitting zeal for securing to the spiritual principle an\nundisputed control over the material one, by stifling the vehemence and\nardour of his passions. His austerities and mortifications during that\nlong period had no other object than that of first weakening and then\nfinally destroying passions, and in particular concupiscence. When he is\npraised in the writings, he is much extolled for having come out from the\nnet of passions. His victory over concupiscence is repeatedly alluded to\nas the greatest of all achievements. The master, therefore, having laid\nsuch stress on this favourite and important maxim, could not but preach\nand enjoin it on all his future imitators and disciples. The earliest\nrecords of Buddhism bear testimony to the paramount importance attached\nto the practice of chastity. It has ever been considered as an essential\nrequirement in all those that have desired to follow the footsteps of\nBuddha and imitate his mode of life. No qualification, ever so great and\nshining, could be admitted as a substitute for chastity. Science, talent,\nzeal, and fervour could never entitle an individual to the distinction\nof member of the assembly of the perfect without having previously given\nup the gratification of sensual pleasures. Independently of what is\nfound written on this subject in the Wini, or book of discipline, the\nopinion of the Buddhist public is on this subject positive, universal,\nand absolute. He who leaves the condition of layman to become a religious\nmust live in a state of perfect continence. An infraction of the\nregulations on this point is looked upon with horror and indignation\nby the people at large. The guilty individual is inexorably expelled\nfrom the religious house, after having been previously stripped of\nhis religious dress and subjected to a humiliating degradation in the\npresence of the assembled members of the community. Nothing short of such\na severe treatment could satisfy a public so deeply hurt and offended\nin their religious feelings. How is it that the practice of perfect\ncontinence is not merely a desideratum in an individual consecrated to\nreligion, but an absolutely required qualification, which can never be\nequivalently supplied by any other moral or scientific attainment? How is\nit that such a notion is universally adhered to by nations noted for the\nundoubted laxity of their morals? Can a notion so generally believed and\nso tenaciously retained, in spite of its direct opposition to the wildest\nand the dearest passion of the heart, be ever called a prejudice? Is it\npossible to trace its connection with some of the noblest feelings of\nour nature and the most refined ideas of our mind? To a superficial and\nbiassed observer, many things appear contradictory and irreconcilable,\nwhich a serious, acute, and dispassionate inquirer after truth readily\ncomprehends, easily connects and accounts for, and satisfactorily\nreconciles one with the other.\n\n[18] It is curious to investigate the origin and the real nature of the\nworship and honour paid by Buddhists to Gaudama, to his relics, to his\nstatues, as well as to monuments erected for enshrining and sheltering\nthose objects of devotion. The attempt at elucidating this point is\nbeset with difficulties. The more we attentively reflect on the inward\noperations of the soul in all that relates to religion, the more we\nfind ourselves puzzled and hesitating in qualifying and selecting the\nappellation most befitting them.\n\nAll the simple terms of our language intended to express the several\nsorts of acts of worship and adoration paid to objects partaking of a\nreligious nature, are inadequate to represent to us, by sounds, the\nnature of the inward workings of the soul when she carries on a pious\nintercourse with the object of her devotion. The terms that are used\nmerely express to us the exterior acts of worship, as manifested by\npeculiar attitudes of the body (which vary according to the habits and\ncustoms of various nations), or singing, making offerings, and other\nvisible signs. They may be, in fact they are, used with equal fitness\nall over the world by the worshippers of the true God as well as by the\nadorers of idols. The difference between the true and false worship\ndoes not consist, therefore, in the externals, nor in the ceremonies or\nexterior signs that make impression on the ear and the eye, but it is to\nbe found in reality in the objects that the adorers have in view. Here\nlies the essential difference between the true and false worship.\n\nThis being premised, we have naturally to ask: What is Gaudama, the great\nand principal object of worship to all Buddhists? Gaudama, in their\nopinion, is a mere man, that has attained, by the practice of virtue,\nand principally by his almost infinite science, the highest point of\nperfection a being can ever reach. The first qualification entitles him\nto the unbounded admiration of his followers; it inspires them with\nexpressions the best calculated to eulogise him, and represent him as\nthe first and greatest of all beings. Again, Gaudama is represented to\nthem full of benevolence and compassion for all beings, whom he earnestly\nwishes to deliver from their miseries, and help to obtain that state in\nwhich they come for ever to a perfect rest from all transmigrations, or\nto what they emphatically call the deliverance. The second qualification\nis much insisted upon by Buddhists, and from it originate those feelings\nof love and tender affection for him who has laboured so much for\nenlightening all beings, and showing to them the way that leads to the\ndeliverance. Buddhists on this subject are very eloquent. The writer has\noften admired many fine thoughts and truly beautiful expressions he has\nmet in some writings devoted to the praises of Buddha.\n\nIt may be asked whether the followers of Gaudama in the worship they pay\nthe author of their religion expect any aid or assistance from him. The\nanswer is an easy one. Gaudama to them is no more. His interference with\nthe affairs of this world or of his religion absolutely ceased with his\nexistence. He sees no one; he hears no prayer; he can afford no help\nneither here on earth nor in any other state of existence. In fact, to\nthe Buddhists there is no Providence, and, consequently, there can be\nno real prayer, none of the feelings that constitute its essence. All\nthe worship of Gaudama may be summed up in a few words: he is admired as\nthe greatest, wisest, and most benevolent of all beings; he is praised,\neulogised as much as language can express; he is the object of a tender\naffection for the good that he has done. No idea whatever of a supreme\nbeing is to be met in the genuine worship paid to Gaudama by his most\nenthusiastic adherents. It cannot be denied that, in practice, Buddhists\nof these parts betray often without perceiving it that they have some\nvague idea about a supreme being, who has a controlling power in the\naffairs of this world and the destiny of man. But such an idea does not\ncome from their religious creed; it is the offspring of that innate\nsentiment adherent in our nature, as is maintained by some philosophers:\nor it is a remnant of a primitive tradition, which error has never been\nable entirely to obliterate, as asserted by others.\n\nThe worship paid to Buddha does not extend further than it has been above\nstated, since it is always placed on a footing of equality with the one\ndue to the law and to the assembly. These three _precious things_ are\nalways enumerated together; no distinction is made between them; they are\nequally entitled to the veneration of all believers.\n\nLet us come now to the veneration offered to the statues and relics of\nGaudama, and to the religious monuments called dzedis. In the foregoing\npages we have seen Buddha giving to two brothers who had requested him\nto supply them with some object of worship eight hairs of his head.\nAfter his death and the combustion of his body, the remaining bones, or\nparts of bones, even the very ashes and charcoals, were piously coveted,\nwith an eagerness that indicated the high value people set on these\narticles. According to several Buddhist authors, Gaudama, previous to\nhis death, intimated to his disciples that his religion was to last\nfive thousand years; that, as he would be no longer among his believers\nin a visible manner, he wished that they would keep up his statues as\nhis representatives, and pay to them the same honour they would pay to\nhis own person. Relying upon this positive injunction, the Buddhist\nlooks on the statues of Buddha as objects destined to remind him of\nBuddha: they are the visible mementoes of him who is infinitely dear\nto his affections; they put him, by their variety of shapes and form,\nin remembrance of the principal events connected with his existence.\nThe princes that have been most remarkable for their religious zeal\nand piety, such as Adzatathat and Athoka, were anxious to multiply the\nstatues of Buddha and the religious monuments, to nourish in the soul\nof all the faithful, as says our Burmese author, a feeling of tender\naffection, of lovely disposition for the person of Buddha and his holy\nreligion. The relics being articles that have been most intimately\nconnected with Buddha\u2019s person, are designed to act on the religious\nfeelings of the people even more powerfully than the statues. They are\ntreasured up with the greatest care, worshipped with the profoundest\nrespect, looked upon with a most affectionate regard. No earthly treasure\ncan be compared with them. As Buddha\u2019s sacred person is more valuable in\ntheir eyes than the whole world, his relics partake of that invaluable\nestimation. It becomes evident that the statues and relics are so much\nvalued, esteemed, and worshipped because of the intimate connection they\nhave with the person of Buddha, and the great help they afford in keeping\nalive a religious spirit and a tender affection for him.\n\nIn the worship of statues and relics, superstition has had its share\ntoo in giving an undue extension and development to the religious\n_sentiment_. This development has brought into existence the belief in\nprodigies and miracles wrought by the virtue of the relics. This popular\nerror has always found a powerful support among the ignorant masses;\nit has been much propagated by that inordinate and irrational tendency\ntowards all that is new and extraordinary. Man wants but a pretext, even\na very futile one, to give credit to the most incredible occurrences,\nwhen they have a reference to a deeply cherished, and, as it were,\nfavourite object. But in no way do we find genuine Buddhism countenancing\nsuch spiritual eccentricities or extravagances, which have their origin\nin ignorance and an inordinate fondness for the marvellous.\n\nThe articles of worship offered to or placed before the statues of\nBuddha, and the shrines supposed to contain some of his relics, are few\nand remarkable for their simplicity. They consist in flowers arranged\nin fine bouquets, in flags and streamers made of cloth, sometimes of\npaper, and cut into a great variety of figures, with considerable taste\nand skill. There are to be seen also small wax candles, little earthen\nlamps, and sometimes incense and scented wood, which are consumed in\nlarge burners, placed on pedestals made of masonry. The worshippers are\ngenerally in a squatting position, the back resting on the heels, the\nbody slightly bending forward, the joined hands raised to the forehead.\nOrdinarily a string of flowers, or little bits of wood adorned each with\na small paper flag, are held on these occasions. On the days of worship,\nparticularly during the three months of Lent, the crowd of people of\nevery age, sex, and condition, resorting to the most venerated pagoda of\nthe place, is truly extraordinary. Men and women of a certain age have\nin their hands a string of beads, upon which they repeat the formula\nAneitsa, Duka, Anatta, or some other.\n\nSince the Buddhist knows that his Buddha is no more, and, therefore,\ncan afford him no assistance whatever, that there is no virtue inherent\nin his relics or images, in fact, that there is no Providence, it is\ndifficult to account for the zeal that he often displays in honouring the\ngreat founder of his religion, and all that has a reference to him. To\naccount satisfactorily for such a moral phenomenon, we must bear in mind\nthe belief that he has in the intrinsic worth of the devotional practices\nhe performs. Those works are good _per se_; they give rise, power, and\nenergy to the law of merits, or to the good influence which will procure\nto him abundant rewards in future existences, and gradually lead him to\nthe harbour of deliverance, the object of his most ardent wishes. That\nhope is, as it were, the great feeder of his devotion.\n\n[19] On a former occasion, Buddha had raised his voice to bestow praises\non the memory of the great Thariputra, whose relics he was holding on the\npalm of one of his hands in the presence of the assembled Rahans. Now, a\nshort time before he yields up the ghost, he summons all his strength,\nand at great length passes the highest encomium on his amiable and\never-devoted attendant, the truly kind-hearted Ananda. These are the only\ntwo instances mentioned in this compilation, when Buddha has condescended\nto eulogise the great virtues and eminent merits of two disciples. In\nThariputra, Buddha extolled the transcendent mental attainments, the\nheroic achievements in the practice of virtue, the fervour and zeal for\nthe propagation of religion, which had ever distinguished the illustrious\nfriend of Maukalan. In Ananda, the searching and keen eye of Buddha\ndiscovered excellencies of a less shining and bright hue, but, in point\nof sterling worth, second to none. Ananda is a matchless pattern of\ngentleness, amiability, devotedness, and placid religious zeal. He loves\nall his brethren, and he is, in return, beloved by them all. His superior\ngoodness of heart and placidity of temper secure to him an almost\nundisputed precedence over the other members of the assembly. Tearing\nthe veil that conceals futurity from our eager regards, Buddha foretells\nthe future conquests to be made by the mild and persuasive eloquence of\nhis ever dearly beloved disciple. The far-spread fame of Ananda shall in\ndays to come attract crowds of visitors, eager to see and hear him. The\nsight of his graceful and lovely appearance shall rivet to his person the\nattention and affection of all. Enraptured at the flow of this tender,\ntouching, and heart-moving eloquence, visitors shall eagerly listen to\nhim; they will experience sadness only when his silence shall deprive\nthem of that food which their mind and heart were feasting on.\n\nThe eulogium of Ananda by Buddha is unquestionably one of the finest\npassages of the legend. Divested of its original beauties by having\npassed through several translations, it retains, however, something that\ncharms and pleases. The reader is involuntarily reminded of similar\nspecimens found here and there in the earliest records of antiquity.\n\nIn the instructions that Ananda is to give to laymen, it is somewhat\ncurious to see Buddha distinctly stating that Ananda will exhort the\npeople to make offerings both to Rahans and to pounhas; that is to say,\nto the members of the assembly, and to the Brahmins. From this passage,\nit becomes evident that, in the days of our Buddha, the two sects that\nwere subsequently to struggle during many ages for superiority over the\nIndian Peninsula, subsisted free from inimical feelings towards each\nother. It might be said that no line of separation kept them apart,\nindicating or pointing out their respective limits. The wide gap that\nwas during succeeding centuries to intervene between those two great\nreligious sects was not perceptibly felt. The levelling results of\nBuddhism had not yet awakened the susceptibilities of the proud Brahmins.\nBuddhists and Brahminists lived on friendly terms, and looked upon each\nother as brethren. The discrepancies in the respective creeds were\nregarded with indifference, as involving only philosophical subtleties,\nwell suited to afford occupation to ideologists, and give to disputants\nthe opportunity of displaying their abilities in arguing, reasoning, and\ndefining. It is not easy to determine whether the conduct of Buddha was\nregulated by a well-calculated policy, intended to calm the suspicious\nscruples of his opponents, or whether he was actuated by plain and\nstraightforward principles. It is probable that at that time many\nBrahmins followed a mode of life almost similar to that of the disciples\nof Buddha; they were, therefore, entitled to the same honours and support.\n\n[20] Buddha had so much at heart the conversion of the heretic Thoubat,\nthat the earnest desire of performing this great and meritorious action\nwas one of the three motives that induced him to select the comparatively\ninsignificant city of Koutheinaron for the last stage of his existence.\nParticulars regarding that personage would prove interesting, because he\nis the last convert Buddha made. From what has been alluded to in some\nBuddhistic writings regarding Thoubat, it is certain that he was of the\ncaste of pounhas or Brahmins. He had studied in some of the numerous\nschools of philosophy, at that time so common in India. From his way\nof addressing Buddha, there is no doubt but he was acquainted with the\nprincipal theories upheld by the most renowned masters in those days.\nIt is related of Thoubat that, in a former existence, he was tilling a\nfield with one of his brothers, when some Rahans happened to pass by.\nHis brother gave abundant alms to the holy personages, whilst Thoubat\nshowed less liberal dispositions. When, then, Buddha appeared, the law\nwas announced to the generous donor, and in company with eighteen koudes\nof Brahmas he obtained the state of Thautapan. The rather parsimonious\nThoubat obtained the favour of conversion at the eleventh hour. He must\nhave, however, subsequently atoned for this offence, as his dispositions\nseem to have been of the highest order when he came into Buddha\u2019s\npresence. In a few hours he had gone over the four ways leading to\nperfection, and had become a Rahanda.\n\nIn the days of Buddha, the philosophical schools of India seem to have\nhad six eminent teachers, whose doctrines exhibited on some points a\nconsiderable variance. In a book of religious controversy between a\nChristian and a Buddhist, composed more than a hundred years ago by a\nCatholic priest at Ava, the writer had the chance of meeting with a faint\noutline of the leading tenets maintained by the six teachers, so often\nalluded to in this compilation. One of them maintained the existence and\nagency of numberless genii, who, at their will, could favour man with\nfortune and every possible temporal benefits, as well as visit him with\ntheir displeasure, by depriving him of all happiness and heaping misery\nand all sorts of calamities over his head. Geniolatry was the necessary\nconsequence flowing from such a principle. A second teacher denied at\nonce the dogma of metempsychosis, and maintained that every being had\nthe innate power of reproducing by way of generation, &c., another being\nof similar nature. A third one had singular notions regarding the nature\nof man. He said that he had his beginning in the womb of his mother, and\nthat death was the end and destruction of his being: such a destruction\nhe called Neibban. A fourth teacher taught that all beings were without\nbeginning and ending, and that there existed no influence of good and bad\ndeeds. A fifth doctor defined Neibban, a long life like that of Nats and\nBrahmas. He saw no harm in the killing of animals, and he asserted the\nexistence of a state of reward and punishment. The last teacher boldly\nasserted the existence of a Supreme Being, creator of all that exists,\nand alone worthy of receiving adorations.\n\nThoubat\u2019s mind was rather perplexed by so many contradictory and opposite\nopinions and doctrines. He had lived, it appears, in a state of doubt\nand uncertainty, fluctuating, as it were, between conflicting theories\nwhich could not carry conviction to his soul. He had heard of Buddha and\nwished to see him, hoping that perhaps he might fall in with the truth he\nwas so ardently panting after. With these dispositions, he came to the\nspot where Buddha was lying on his couch, in the hope of easing his mind\nfrom the state of doubt and fixing it in truth. Like a man of consummate\nabilities in the way of arguing and convincing his adversary, Buddha\nsets aside all that was put forward by his antagonist, and, coming at\nonce to the point, preaches to him the true doctrine. As light dispels\ndarkness, so truth disperses the mist of error. Thoubat, seeing truth,\nat once embraced it, gladly ridding himself of the burden of errors\nthat had hitherto weighed down his soul. All his doubts vanished away,\nand he found himself, on a sudden, safely anchored in the calm and\nnever-agitated harbour of perfect truth.\n\nNext to the conversion of Thoubat, follows an interesting instruction\ndelivered to Ananda and the assembled Rahans. Here Buddha displays the\nsuperiority of his lofty mind. Clinging to the principles of abstract\ntruth, he has no regard for persons or things. This material world, man\nincluded, is, in his opinion, a mere illusion, exhibiting nothing real,\nbut only an uninterrupted succession of changes, which exclude the idea\nof immutable fixity. He apparently has no wish to infuse consolation\ninto the afflicted souls of his disciples. He supposes that, being all\ninitiated in the knowledge of truth, and having entered in the ways of\nperfection, they must know that the person of a Buddha is subjected to\nthe law of mutability, and, therefore, to destruction or to death. He\nsays plainly to them that his absence from among them is a circumstance\nscarcely worth noticing: by his doctrines contained in the Abidama, the\nThoots and the Wini, he will ever be present among them. In these sacred\nwritings they will possess something more valuable than his material\nbeing: they will have and enjoy the truth that was in him, and that he\nhas communicated to them by his oral instructions. He earnestly invites\nthem to lay stress only on that doctrine which they have received from\nhim.\n\nIt is hardly necessary to notice a serious anachronism made by the\nunskilful compiler of this legend on this occasion. We know that Buddha\nwrote nothing, and that the compilation of his doctrines with its\ndivision in three distinct portions was the work of the three great\ncouncils held after Gaudama\u2019s death or Neibban. How could the dying\noriginator of Buddhism speak of compilations of his doctrines, which were\nnot as yet existing?\n\n[21] Buddha\u2019s zeal is not chilled in the least by the cold of approaching\ndeath. His boundless knowledge enabled him at a glance to obtain the most\nintimate acquaintance with the inward dispositions of his disciples\u2019\nminds. If, therefore, he asked them three successive times whether\nthey entertained doubts on any doctrinal points, it was not to satisfy\nhimself that their faith was firm and unshaken. He wished to make them\nconscious of a fact which was felt and clearly understood by every one\nin particular, but was not as yet fully appreciated by the universality\nof his disciples. Every individual in particular was well aware of the\nunwavering dispositions of his mind respecting Buddha\u2019s teachings, but\nno one ever had the opportunity of ascertaining that all his brethren\nhad the same firmness of belief. On this solemn occasion they witnessed\nthe most comforting sight of a perfect unity of faith in all the members\nof the assembly. Buddha revealed then one great truth which no one but\nhimself could be acquainted with. A true Rahan, says he, has entered at\nlast in the first way that leads to perfection; he is, therefore, no more\nexposed to the danger of wavering in his belief; he knows enough of truth\nto adhere firmly to it, and is enabled to prosecute safely his researches\nafter what is still unknown to him. Every member of the assembly is a\ntrue believer, more or less advanced in the knowledge of the law, it is\ntrue, but at least he is conscious of his being in the right way. On\nthis subject no doubt subsists in his mind; he adheres to Buddha and his\ndoctrines as to the centre of truth, and never thinks for a moment to\nquestion the veracity of his doctor, or to call in doubt any portion of\nhis instructions.\n\nThe last words of Buddha to the assembled Bickus are designed to remind\nthem of the great and vital principle he has endeavoured to inculcate\nin their minds during the forty-five years of his preaching, viz., that\nchange and mutability are acting upon all that exists, and are inherent\nin all parts of nature. This world, therefore, offering but an endless\nvicissitude of forms, that appear and disappear, has no real existence.\nIt is an illusion from beginning to end. As long as man remains tied up,\nso to speak, to nature, he is carried away by the ever-acting principle\nof change: nowhere can he find any rest or fixity; he quits one existence\nto pass into another; he leaves one form to assume a different one. What\nhappens to man befalls all other parts of nature. From this notion,\nBuddha infers that there is nothing existing but _name_ and _form_. There\nis no substance in nature, and therefore no reality. So much stress\nwas laid by Buddha on this capital principle that he bequeathed it, as\nhis last Will, to his disciples: he wished that they should ever bear\nin their minds and remember that he came among them for the purpose of\nmaking them thoroughly acquainted with it. From this cardinal point he\ninferred the chief conclusions that form his religious system, viz.,\nmetempsychosis, the contempt of the world, and Neibban. By the law of\nendless changes, man is hurried from one state into another, or from one\nform of being into another form. Where is the wise man that could love a\nworld, or an existence therein, when he finds no substance, no reality in\nit? Is he not induced, or rather compelled, to search after a state in\nwhich he can find fixity, reality, and truth, or at least an exemption\nfrom the harassing condition of perpetual migration from one state into\nanother?\n\nThe reader who has been almost born with and educated in theistic\nnotions, and who sees in the world nothing but what has been created by\na supreme and all-wise Being, is at a loss to understand how a grave\nphilosopher, as undoubtedly Buddha was, gifted with great powers for\nobserving, arguing, discussing, and inferring conclusions, could have\nfallen into errors so glaring and so contrary to his reason. That we\nmight properly appreciate the efforts of such a genius, and have some\ncorrect ideas about his process of arguing, we must divest ourselves of\nthe knowledge supplied to us by revelation, and descend to the level\noccupied by the founder of Buddhism. Unacquainted with a first cause,\nor with the existence of a Supreme Being, he studies nature as he finds\nit. What does he see in it? Perpetual changes, endless vicissitudes.\nThe form that he perceives to-day has undergone some change on the\nfollowing day. Everything about him grows, reaches a certain point, and\nthen falls into decay. He finds nothing that stands always in the same\ncondition. Hence he proclaims the great law of mutability pervading all\nnature, and concludes that all that we feel, see, or hear, is illusion\nand deception, &c.; deprived of all reality, fixity, and substance. His\nphilosophical mind is not satisfied with such a discovery. He pants after\ntruth and reality, which are not to be found here. He feels that he\nmust disentangle himself from the condition of illusion and deception.\nBut where is reality and fixity to be found? Beyond all, that exists in\nNeibban.\n\n[22] The epoch of Gaudama\u2019s death is a point on which the various\nnations professing Buddhism do not agree. The Cingalese, Burmese, and\nSiamese annals place that event somewhat before the middle of the sixth\ncentury before the Christian era. The difference of dates is but of\na few years, and is so inconsiderable as not to be worth notice. The\nThibetans, and, as a consequence, the Mongolians with the Chinese, place\nthat event several hundred years previous to the epoch just mentioned.\nNotwithstanding this discrepancy, it seems difficult not to adopt the\nchronology of the southern Buddhists. The _savans_ in Europe, who have\nbestowed a considerable degree of attention on this interesting subject,\ngive a decided preference to the opinion of the former.\n\nWe have not to depend solely on the chronological tables of kings,\nsupplied by the Hindus, for settling this point, but fortunately we\nare put indirectly by Greek writers in possession of a fixed and\nwell-established epoch, from which we can take with a sufficient degree\nof certainty our departure for arriving at a satisfactory conclusion.\nAfter the death of Alexander the Great, Seleucus, one of his lieutenants,\nobtained for his share all the provinces situated east of the Euphrates,\nin which the Indian conquered territories were included. Seleucus, at\nfirst in person, and next by an ambassador, came in contact with a\npowerful Indian king, named Chandragupta, who had the seat of his empire\nat Palibotra or Pataliputra. This intercourse took place about 310 B.C.\nThe Hindu chronological tables mention the name of this prince as well\nas that of his grandson, called Athoka, who, according to the testimony\nof the Burmese authors, ascended the throne of Palibotra two hundred\nand eighteen years after Gaudama\u2019s death. We may suppose that Athoka\nreigned in or about 270 or 280 B.C. These two periods added together will\ngive but a sum of five hundred years. There will remain a difference of\nonly forty years, for which it is not easy to account with sufficient\nprecision, unless we suppose that the reign of Athoka began earlier\nthan is generally admitted. Cunningham has given very strong reasons\nfor fixing the period of Gaudama\u2019s death sixty-six years later than the\nusual one, hitherto generally admitted, 543; that is to say, in the\nyear 477 B.C. This new epoch enables us to adhere at once with perfect\nsafety to the computation above related, and does away with the small\ndiscrepancy of a few years that has been mentioned. Tradition and ancient\ninscriptions leave almost no doubt upon this important point.\n\nOur legend is positive in stating that Gaudama died under the reign\nof Adzatathat, as will hereafter be seen. But the Hindu chronologists\nplace the reign of that monarch about 250 or 260 years before that of\nChandragupta, who, as stated, was a contemporary of Seleucus Nicator. We\nhave, therefore, the combined authority of both foreigners and natives\nfor admitting the chronology of the southern Buddhists respecting\nthe epoch of Gaudama\u2019s death, in preference to that of the northern\nBuddhists, and for fixing that event during the first part of the sixth\ncentury before the Christian era, or rather sixty-six years later, in the\nbeginning of the fourth part of the fifth century.\n\n[23] What is Neibban, the end a true Buddhist ever longs for throughout\nhis great struggles in the practice of virtue and his constant efforts\nfor attaining the knowledge of truth, which he finally reaches when he\nhas become perfect? The writer confesses at once his inability to answer\nsatisfactorily this question, because Buddhists do not agree among\nthemselves in explaining the nature of the state of Neibban. From the\nearliest period of their religion we see the Brahmins keenly taunting\ntheir opponents for the discordance of their opinions on a subject of the\nutmost importance\u2014a subject which had ever been prominent in Buddha\u2019s\nteachings, and held up as the only one worthy of the most earnest and\nardent desires, the fittest reward of the generous and extraordinary\nexertions of a perfected being, and the final state in which his soul,\nwearied after such a prolonged spiritual warfare, longed to rest for\never. A certain school of Buddhists has maintained that Neibban implied\nthe destruction of the state of being, and consequently complete\nannihilation. This opinion is at once practically rejected by the portion\nof the southern Buddhists, who are not so well acquainted with the more\nphilosophical part of their creed. They assert that a perfected being,\nafter having reached Neibban, or having arrived at the end of his last\nexistence, retains his individuality, but they utterly fail in their\nattempts at explaining the situation and condition of a being in Neibban.\nAt a later period the opinion about a supreme Buddha, uncreated, eternal,\nand infinite, began to gain ground, and modified to a considerable extent\non many points the views of the earlier Buddhists. Neibban, according to\nthe comparatively modern school, is but an absorption into the supreme\nand infinite Buddha. This opinion so much approximates to that of the\nBrahmins that we may say it is almost the same. The means of obtaining\nperfection are somewhat different in both systems, but the end to be\nobtained is precisely the same.\n\nSetting aside idle speculations, let us try to form some idea of Neibban\nby explaining the meaning of the term, and the definition such as we find\nit in the Burmese writings.\n\nThe word Neibban, in Sanscrit Nirvana, according to its etymology, means\nwhat is no more agitated, what is in a state of perfect calm. It is\ncomposed of the negative prefix _nir_ and _va_, which means to be set in\nmotion, as the wind. It implies the idea of rest in opposition to that\nof motion or existence. To be in the state of Neibban is therefore to\nbe carried beyond the range of existence, as understood by Buddhists;\nthere can be no longer migration from one state of being to another.\nThis point is admitted by all sects of Buddhists. To the idea of Neibban\nis often attached that of extinction, as a lamp which ceases to burn\nand whose light becomes extinct when the oil is exhausted. The sum of\nexistence being exhausted, a being ceases to be or to move within the\nrange of existence; he becomes extinct relatively, at least to all kind\nof existences we have a notion of. In conversing with the Buddhists of\nBurmah, the writer has observed that the ideas of rest and extinction\nare invariably coupled with the notion of Neibban. In their rough\nattempt at explaining the inexplicable nature of that state they had\nrecourse to several comparisons intended to convey to the mind that they\nbelieved Neibban to be a state of undisturbed calm and a never-ending\ncessation of existence, at least such as we have an idea of in this\nworld. When questioned on the situation of Buddha in Neibban, they answer\nthat they believe him to be in a boundless space or vacuum beyond the\nboundaries ever reached by other beings, alone by himself, enjoying,\nif the expression be correct, a perfect rest, unconcerned about this\nworld, having no further relation with all existing beings. They assert\nthat he is to remain for ever a stranger to all sensations of either\npain or pleasure. But it must be borne in mind that this is the popular\nopinion rather than the philosophical one. Talking one evening with a\nwell-informed Burman on Neibban, the light of a lamp that was burning on\nthe writer\u2019s table happened to die away for want of oil. The Buddhist,\nwith an exulting tone of voice, exclaimed, \u201cDo not ask any more what\nNeibban is; what has happened to the lamp just now, tells you what\nNeibban is. The lamp is extinct because there is no more oil in the\nglass. A man is in Neibban at the very moment that the principle or cause\nof existence is at an end or entirely exhausted.\u201d How far such an answer\ncan satisfy a superficial mind like that of a half-civilised Burman, it\nis difficult to say; but it appears certain that he does not carry his\nresearches nor pursue his inquiries beyond these narrow boundaries. Any\nfurther attempt to penetrate deeper into the darkness of Neibban is, in\nhis opinion, presumptuous and rash.\n\nBuddhist metaphysicians in India, in their foolish efforts to survey\nthat _terra incognita_, have originated several opinions that have had\ntheir supporters in the various schools of philosophy. The more ancient\nphilosophers or heads of schools, in attempting to give an analysis\nof a thing they knew nothing about, approximated to the opinion that\nNeibban is nothing more or less than a complete or entire annihilation.\nFollowing the course of arguments, and admitting their premises, one is\nreluctantly compelled to come to the awful conclusion that the final end\nof a perfected Buddha is the destruction of his being, or annihilation.\nThis opinion is still further corroborated by the short exposition of\nBuddhist metaphysics at the end of this volume. The crudest materialism\nis openly and distinctly professed. There is nothing in man distinct from\nthe six senses. The faculty of perceiving the object they come in contact\nwith is inherent in their nature. The sixth sense, that is to say, the\nheart, has the power of perceiving ideas, that is to say, things that\nhave no form or shape. But this power is not distinct from the living\nsense; it disappears when the life of that sense is extinct, or, in other\nterms, when the heart is destroyed. To the holders of such an opinion the\ncessation of existence, the going out of the circle of existences, by the\ndestruction of kan, or the influence of merits and demerits, must be and\ncannot but be complete annihilation.\n\nFrom a long period the plain sense of the masses of believers,\nunprejudiced by sophistical bias, revolted against such a doctrine, and\nat once rejected the horrible conclusion arrived at by former disputants.\nNo one in practice openly admits that Neibban and annihilation are\nsynonymous terms. If their views can be properly understood, we may infer\nfrom what they say that a being in Neibban retains his individuality,\nthough isolated from all that is distinct from self. He sees the abstract\ntruth, or truth as it is in itself, divested of the material forms\nunder which we in our present state of existence but imperfectly see\nit. Passions and affections are not to be found in such a being; his\nposition, in truth, can scarcely be understood and still less expressed\nby us, who can never come in communication with an object but through our\npassions and affections. We know that there exists a spiritual substance,\nbut we can have no distinct idea of it. We vouch for its existence by\nwhat we observe of its operations, but it is impossible for us to explain\nits nature. It is not, therefore, surprising that Buddhists should be\nat a loss to account for the state in which a perfected being is when\nin Neibban. The idea of a state of apathy or rest must be understood\nas expressing simply a situation quite opposite to that of motion, in\nwhich all beings are as long as they are within the pale of existences.\nIf it be admitted that the perfected being retains in Neibban his\nindividuality, it must be inferred that he becomes, as it were, merged\ninto the abstract truth in which he lives and rests for ever. But we must\ndistinctly state anew that this view is in opposition to the doctrines of\nthe earliest Buddhists, and the philosophical principles and inferences\nmaintained as genuine. This contradiction illustrates the truth of a\nremark made above, that error can never entirely obliterate from man\u2019s\nmind the knowledge of certain fundamental truths, which are almost\nconstitutive of his moral being.\n\nLet us come now to a definition of Neibban translated from Pali by the\nBurmans. Neibban is the end of all existences, the exemption from the\naction of _kan_, _i.e._, the good or bad influence produced by merits or\ndemerits; of _Tsit_, _i.e._, the principle of all volitions, desires,\nand passions; of the seasons, and of taste or sensations. What means\nthis rather curious, not to say almost unintelligible, definition? To\nunderstand it the reader must be aware that _kan_ is the principle which\ncauses all beings to move incessantly from one existence into another,\nfrom a state of happiness to one of unhappiness, from a position where\nmerits are acquired into another where further merits are to be obtained\nand greater proficiency in perfection secured, from a state of punishment\nor demerits into a worse one, &c. _Kan_ may be called the soul of\ntransmigration, the hidden spring of all the changes experienced by an\nexisting being. In Neibban the law of _kan_ is destroyed, and therefore\nthere are no more changes or transmigrations.\n\nBy _Tsit_ is understood the principle of all volitions and desires.\nBuddhist metaphysicians, always fond of divisions and classifications,\nreckon one hundred and twenty _Tsits_. Some are the root of all demerits,\nand their opposites are the principles of merits. Some have for object\nmatter this material world; others have for object the immaterial world,\nor, as I believe, ideas and things that have no form. The last of tsits,\nand of course the most perfect, is entire fixity. This is the last stage\never to be reached by a perfected being in the world of existences. One\nstep further, and he has reached the undisturbed shores of Neibban. In\nthat latter state there is no more operation of the mind or of the heart;\nor at least there is no intellectual working, such as we conceive it in\nour actual condition.\n\nThe word _Udoo_, or season, is evidently used for designating a\nrevolution of nature. The meaning is obvious, and affords no difficulty.\nIn Neibban there is neither nature nor revolutions of nature. Neibban, if\na state it be, lies in vacuum or space far beyond the extensive horizon\nthat encircles the world or worlds, or systems of nature.\n\nThe word _Ahara_, which literally means taste, is intended to designate\nall sensations acquired through the senses. By means of the senses,\nindeed, we obtain perceptions and acquire knowledge; but the perfected\nbeing having come to the possession of universal science, no further\nknowledge is needed; the senses are, therefore, useless. The senses,\nmoreover, are the appendage of our nature, as it is during its\nexistences. Neibban putting an end to further existences, it destroys\nalso the constituent parts or portions of our being.\n\nAdmitting that the above definition of Neibban is a correct one, and that\nit has been understood in a purely Buddhistic sense, we may conclude\nthat in that state there is no more _influence_, and consequently no\ntransmigration, no volition of the mind, no desires of the heart, no\nmateriality, and no sensations. The difficulty as to whether Neibban\nis annihilation seems all but entirely and completely solved. There is\nanother way of arriving at a similar conclusion. Let us ascertain what\nare the constituent parts of an intelligent being, and then inquire\nwhether these parts are entirely destroyed and annihilated in Neibban.\nIn an intelligent being, according to all doctors, we find materiality,\nsensations, perceptions, consciousness, and intellect. These five\naggregates constitute a thinking being. These, assert the same doctors,\ndo not exist in Neibban; they are destroyed. One word more and the\nquestion would be settled; but that word has not been, at least to my\nknowledge, ever distinctly uttered. It is probable that these five\naggregates or component parts are, in the opinion of many, the conditions\nof existence such as we now understand it. But it would be too hasty to\nconclude that a being under different conditions of existence could not\nretain his individuality though deprived of these five component parts.\nBuddhists, as already said, have very imperfect notions of a spiritual\nsubstance. It is not surprising, therefore, that they cannot express\nthemselves in a manner more distinct, precise, and intelligible when they\ntreat of subjects so abstruse and difficult. In practice they admit the\nexistence of something distinct from matter, and surviving in man after\nthe destruction of the material portion of his being; but their attempts\nat giving a satisfactory explanation of the nature of that surviving\nindividuality have always proved abortive. In their process of arguing\nthe learned reject such an admission.\n\nThe question, as may be inferred from the foregoing lines, if considered\nin the light of purely theoretical notions, is philosophically left\nlittle open to discussion, though it will probably ever remain without\na perfect solution. But the logical inferences to be deduced from the\nprinciples of genuine Buddhism inevitably lead to the dark, cold, and\nhorrifying abyss of annihilation. If examined from a practical point of\nview, that is to say, taking into account the opinions of the masses of\nBuddhists, the difficulty may be considered as resolved too, but in an\nopposite sense.\n\n[24] The lengthened description of Buddha\u2019s funeral has suggested the\nidea of laying before the reader a brief account of the ceremonies\nobserved by Buddhists in Burmah, when funeral rites are performed on the\nmortal remains of Talapoins, who have been eminent in the profession and\nhave spent their whole lives in monasteries. By comparing the following\naccount with the narrative of the legend, we will see that the rubrics of\nthe funeral service, in our days, are nearly the same as those existing\nat the origin of Buddhism.\n\nWhen a Buddhist recluse has given up the ghost, the corpse is carefully\nand diligently washed by laymen, or the younger inmates of the monastery.\nA large incision is made in the abdomen; its contents are taken out\nand buried in the earth without any ceremony being observed on the\noccasion. The empty cavity is filled up with ashes, bran, or some other\ndesiccative substances for preventing putrefaction. The corpse is then\ntightly wrapt with bands or swathes of a white colour from head to foot,\nand then covered with the yellow habit of the profession. Sometimes a\ncoat of black varnish is put over and then leaves of gold, so that the\nwhole body is gilt. It is afterwards bound all over with ropes tightened\nas much as possible, so as to bring it within the narrowest dimensions.\nWhen thus prepared, the corpse is placed in an open coffin. The coffin is\nmade of the trunk of a tree, rudely hollowed, and often so imperfectly\nscooped out as not to afford sufficient room for the corpse. In the\nmiddle of the interior part of the coffin, an opening, about two inches\nin diameter, has been made, to afford issue to the humours that may ooze\nout through the swathes. The coffin is unceremoniously laid on the floor\nof the monastery. A bamboo, 7 or 8 feet long, is procured; one of its\nends is inserted in the hole made in the coffin, and the other is sunk\ninto the ground below; it is the channel through which the humours flow\ninto the earth. After a lapse of ten or twelve days, the body is supposed\nto be quite dry; they set about putting a covering over the coffin and\neffectually shutting it.\n\nWhilst residing at Tavoy, I wished, on a certain day, to go and witness\nall the particulars observed on such occasions. A most opportune event\nfavoured the prosecution of my wishes. A Talapoin of my acquaintance had\ndied a fortnight before, after thirty years of profession. His body, laid\nin the coffin, was to be for ever concealed from human sight. I went\ninto the monastery, where I met a large party of the brethren of the\ndeceased, who had assembled for the ceremony. Most of them were known to\nme. My reception was at once kind and cordial. Great was my surprise at\nseeing, instead of the grief and mourning which the circumstance seemed\nto demand, laughing, talking, and amusement, going on at a rate which\nis to be called scandalous. No one appeared to take the least notice\nof the deceased, whose corpse was lying at our feet. A momentary stop\nwas put to the indecorous behaviour of the assistants by the appearance\nof two stout carpenters bringing a board four or five inches thick,\ndesigned for the cover. They vainly tried to fit it in its place; the\nhollow of the coffin was neither broad nor deep enough for holding the\ncorpse, though reduced to the smallest proportions. The operation was\nnot a very easy one to bring the board in contact with the sides of the\ncoffin, despite the resistance that was to be offered by the corpse. The\ncarpenters were determined not to be disappointed. At the two ends and\nin the middle of the coffin, ropes were passed several times round it\nwith the utmost tension, in such a manner as to have six or seven coils\nin the same place. Enormous wooden wedges were inserted right and left\nin three places between the sides and the coils. On these wedges the\nworkmen hammered with their whole strength during about twenty minutes,\nto the great amusement of all the bystanders. Each blow of the hammer\nlessened the distance between the cover and the brim of the coffin. Every\nperceptible success, gained over the latent resisting power, elicited a\nburst of applause, and a cheer to the persevering workmen. At last all\nresistance being overcome, the cover rested fixedly in its place. It is\nneedless to add that the corpse inside was but a hideous mass of mangled\nflesh and broken bones.\n\nAccording to the custom observed on such occasions, a rude building was\nerected for the purpose of placing therein the mortal remains of the\ndeceased, until preparations on a grand scale should have been made for\ndoing honour to the illustrious departed individual. That building, as\nwell as those made for a similar purpose, is but a temporary edifice\nraised for the occasion, and made of bamboos with an attap roof. In\nthe centre of that large bungalow was erected a kind of estrade, about\ntwelve feet high, well decorated. The upper part is often gilt, but\nalways plated with thin metal leaves and tinsels of various colours.\nFrom the sides hang rough drawings, representing animals, monsters of\nvarious kinds, religious subjects, and others, but rarely of great\nindecency. Around this estrade are disposed posts, from the top of which\nare suspended small flags and streamers of different forms and shapes.\nOn the summit is arranged a place for the coffin, but the four sides at\nthat place are about two or three feet higher than the level whereupon\nrests the coffin, so that it is concealed entirely from the sight of the\nvisitors.\n\nThings remained in that state for four months, that is to say, until all\nthe arrangements had been made for the grand ceremony, the expense of\nwhich is commonly defrayed by voluntary contributions. The arrangements\nbeing all complete, a day was appointed at the sound of gongs, for\nburning the corpse of the pious recluse. At noon of that day, the whole\npopulation of the town flocked to a vast and extensive plain beyond\nthe old wall and ditch in the north. Men and women, dressed in their\nfinest attire, swarmed in every direction, selecting the most suitable\nand convenient situations for enjoying a commanding view of the _f\u00eate_.\nThe funeral pile occupied nearly the centre of the plain; it was about\nfifteen feet high, of a square shape, encased with planks, which gave to\nit a neat appearance. It was large at the base, and went on diminishing\nin size in the upper part, terminating in a square platform where the\ncoffin was to be deposited. A small roof, supported on four bamboo posts,\nelegantly adorned, overshaded the platform. A huge four-wheeled cart,\ndecorated in the most fantastic manner, was descried at a distance;\nit was drawn by a great number of men, and brought to the foot of the\npile. Upon it was the coffin. Immense cheers, shouts of thousands, had\nannounced the progress of the cart with its precious relics, as it passed\nthrough the crowd. The coffin was forthwith hoisted on the platform. Mats\nwere then spread round the pile, whereupon sat numbers of Talapoins,\nreciting aloud long formulas in Pali. The devotions being performed,\nthey rose up and prepared to depart, attended with a retinue of their\ndisciples, who loaded themselves with the offerings made on the occasion.\nThese offerings consisted of plantains, cocoa-nuts, sugar-canes, rice,\npillows, mats, mattresses, &c. Masters and disciples returned to their\nmonasteries with their valuable collections.\n\nThe place being cleared, the eyes were all riveted on two large rockets,\nplaced horizontally, each between two ropes, to which they were connected\nby two side rings. One of the ends of the ropes was strongly fixed at\nposts behind the rockets, and the other was made as tight as possible at\nthe foot of the pile. At a given signal, the rockets, emitting smoke,\nrushed forward with a loud, hissing, and irregular noise, tremulously\ngliding along the ropes, and in an instant penetrating into the interior\nof the pile, and setting fire to a heap of inflammable materials, amassed\nbeforehand for that purpose. In a short while the whole pile was in\na blaze, and soon entirely consumed with the coffin and the corpse.\nThe bones or half-burnt bits of bones that remained, were carefully\ncollected, to be subsequently interred in a becoming place.\n\n[25] In the course of this work, allusion is often made to pounhas who\nappear to have led a mode of life not altogether the same, but varying\nconsiderably according to circumstances. All the pounhas were doubtless\nreligious, who practised certain duties not regarded as obligatory by\nordinary people, and lived under certain regulations, which separated\nthem more or less from society, and distinguished them from those who\nfollowed the ordinary pursuits of life. The difference among them\noriginated in a sort of religious enthusiasm, which impelled many to\nperform penitential deeds of the most cruel and sometimes revolting\nnature.\n\nSome of the pounhas are described as living in villages or towns, and\nwearing a white dress. In many of their practices they appear to have\napproximated to the Buddhist monks, except that in many instances they\nmarried. Others are mentioned as living in a state of complete nakedness,\nstaying in the midst of filth and dirt. It seems that those whom\nAlexander the Great met in some parts of the Punjaub, belonged to this\nclass. Many of these disgusting fanatics delivered themselves up to cruel\ntortures, much in the same way as we see some fakhirs and jogies do even\nin our days, and under our eyes. A third class of pounhas affected to\nlive in lonely places, on high mountains, in small huts made of branches\nof trees, and sometimes at the foot of trees, exposed to the inclemency\nof the weather. They were hermits. They clothed themselves in the skins\nof wild beasts, allowed the hairs of the head to grow to the greatest\nlength, divided them into several parts which they twisted separately\nlike a rope, so that, when looking at them, one would have thought that\ninstead of hairs, several small ropes were hanging down on the back and\nthe shoulders, giving to them the wildest and most fantastic appearance.\nSome of those hermits, famous for their science, attracted round their\npersons many pupils eager to acquire science and discipline under them.\nSuch were the three Kathabas, whom Gaudama converted during the first\nyear of his public life. Others travelled through the country, exhibiting\nthemselves in the capacity of preachers and mendicants.\n\n[26] The virtuous and zealous Kathaba was at once convinced of the\nabsolute necessity of soon holding a meeting of the wisest members of\nthe assembly, for the purpose of ascertaining, and authoritatively\ndetermining, the genuineness of Buddha\u2019s doctrines. Human passions were\nalready at work, deforming more or less in various ways the instructions\nof the great preacher. Many, laying more stress on their talents than on\nthe authority of their departed instructor, began to entertain on certain\nquestions views and opinions evidently at variance with those of Buddha.\nThe enemies of truth were numerous even during his lifetime, when as\nyet overawed by his presence and matchless wisdom. Kathaba sagaciously\nforesees that their number and boldness would soon increase to a fearful\nextent and threaten the very existence of religion. He was roused to\nexertions by such considerations, and on that very moment he resolved to\nassemble the elders of the assembly, as soon as convenient after Buddha\u2019s\nfuneral. He was, it appears, acknowledged by common consent the first\nof the disciples. He was entitled to that distinction by the renown\nof his abilities before his conversion, and by his great proficiency\nunder Buddha\u2019s teachings subsequently to that event. But a circumstance\nrelated by Kathaba clearly indicates the intimate familiarity existing\nbetween the master and the disciple, and the unbounded confidence the\nformer placed in the latter. During a walk, the two friends, if such\nan expression be allowed, had entered into a more than usual intimate\ncommunion of thoughts and feelings; the soul of the one had passed into\nthe person of the other, or rather both souls were blended together, and\nunited so as to become one in the bosom of a virtuous, high, refined,\nsublime, and philosophic friendship. They made an exchange of their\ncloaks. Kathaba, by putting on Buddha\u2019s cloak, inherited as it were his\nspirit and his authority. Hence his legitimate right to be appointed\npresident or head of the first council, assembled a little while after\nGaudama\u2019s Neibban.\n\nOur author maintains that the first council was held three months after\nGaudama\u2019s demise. This important step was taken at Radzagio, the capital\nof the kingdom of King Adzatathat, who doubtless made use of his royal\npower to secure tranquillity during the deliberations of this assembly,\nunder the presidency of Kathaba. The number of religious that formed the\ncouncil is reckoned at five hundred. Its object was, as mentioned by\nKathaba himself, to silence the voice of many who wished to innovate in\nreligious matters, and follow their own views, instead of the doctrines\nof Buddha. They wished to shake off the yoke of authority, and arrange\nall things in their own way.\n\nThe second general assembly of the Buddhist religious was held one\nhundred years later at Wethalie, in the tenth year of the reign of King\nKalathoka, under the presidency of Ratha, who was assisted by seven\nhundred religious. The object of this assembly was to regulate several\nmatters of discipline. It is probable that a spirit of innovation had\nreappeared and begun to undermine the strictness of the disciplinary\ninstitutions, threatening to weaken the ties that kept together the\nmembers of the religious body, and deprive it of that halo of sacredness\nthat had hitherto rendered it an object of so profound and general\nesteem, respect and veneration. The council, moreover, revised the canon\nof sacred books, and purified it from all the imperfections and spurious\nwritings that had been embodied in it.\n\nTwo hundred and eighteen years after Gaudama\u2019s death, King Damathoka or\nAthoka ascended the throne of Palibotra, which was the capital of a vast\nand powerful empire. It was in the seventeenth year of that monarch\u2019s\nreign that the third and last general assembly was held at Palibotra,\nunder the presidency of Maugalipata. The last and final revision of\nthe sacred scriptures was made with the greatest care and labour. The\npious Athoka lent to the decisions of the assembly the influence of the\nsecular power. The Pittagat, or the collection of the religious books,\nsuch as it now exists, is supposed to be the work of that council. In the\ntwo following chapters, the subject of the councils shall receive the\nattention it deserves.\n\nThere is a most important fact to be noticed here, which must be\nconsidered as a most remarkable result of the third assembly. It forms\nthe grandest era in the history of Buddhism, and it is carefully noted\ndown by our Burmese author. I mean the extraordinary zeal and fervour\nwhich seemed at that time to have simultaneously and powerfully acted\nfor the bringing about of this mighty but peaceful religious commotion,\nthat was to be felt, not only in the Indian Peninsula, but far beyond the\nvalley of Cashmere, the country of Guzerat in the west and north-west,\nbeyond the snowy ranges of the Himalaya in the north, and the territories\nand kingdoms in an eastern direction. King Athoka was then at the height\nof his power. His religious zeal induced him to make use of all the vast\nresources at his command to favour the development of the comparatively\nnew religion. During the holding of the council, the religious tempered,\nas it were, their zeal, fervour, devotion, and ardour for their religious\ncreed, in the middle of their conferences. They resolved to propagate\nwith unremitting zeal the tenets of the holy religion, and extend it all\nover the world. The spirit of Gaudama seemed to have been infused into\nthe soul of every individual religious. His ardent fervour glowed in the\nsoul of all, who from that period had but one desire, that of extending\nthe boundaries of their spiritual empire.\n\nThis is certainly one of those extraordinary epochs, when the indolent\nand apathetic mind of the Hindus, after centuries of a profound\nslumbering, seems on a sudden to awake, and, with an unexpected vigour\nand youthful energy, bursting forth as a terrific hurricane, brings about\nthe most astounding revolutions, or commotions, that sweep away with\nirresistible power the old political and religious forms, to establish\nnew ones on the ruins of the former. The religious zeal that seized\non the Buddhists of those days, and impelled them with an unheard-of\nresolution to disseminate their doctrines, coupled with the astonishing\nsuccess that attended their preachings, forms one of the most prominent\nperiods in the religious history of the world.\n\n[27] It is not easy to determine with precision in what year occurred the\nconversion of King Adzatathat to Buddhism. Though his father Pimpathara\nwas a zealous Buddhist from the very beginning of the preaching of\nGaudama, his son seems to have kept aloof from the religious movement\nthat took place in the royal city of Radzagio, within the precincts of\nthe royal palace, and continued to adhere to the tenets of the ancient\ncreed. His faith, however, in the hitherto national religion, that is\nto say, Brahminism, does not appear to have been deeply seated in his\nsoul. He was a shrewd, ambitious, and crafty politician; and from what we\nknow of the beginning of his reign, his political principles were of the\nmost elastic nature. Even after his conversion to Buddhism, he does not\nappear to have scrupled in the least to resort to the most questionable\nmeans for satisfying his ambition. The disputes between the upholders\nof the contending systems had, as is often the case, shaken his former\nconvictions without imparting new ones. Perhaps he remained in that\nambiguous position for a political object. He was glad to place himself\nat the head of the malcontents, who, on account of the king\u2019s religious\ninnovations, must have been numerous. Be that as it may, we see the Crown\nPrince of Radzagio receiving with open arms Dewadat, the enemy of Buddha,\nespousing his party, and looking upon him as his spiritual adviser.\nThis occurred about ten or twelve years before Buddha\u2019s death. With the\nadvice of his new friend, he compassed and effected the destruction of\nhis father three or four years afterwards, and became king in the seventh\nyear before Phra\u2019s Neibban. His conversion probably took place after the\ndeath of Dewadat, four or five years subsequent to that event; but it\nappears to have been sincere and earnest. His love for Buddha\u2019s person\nwas so intense that it atoned fully for the harm which, under his name\nand protection, Dewadat had endeavoured to inflict on his great relative.\n\nAdzatathat reigned thirty-two years, that is to say, twenty-five years\nafter Gaudama\u2019s death. Under his reign, the first council was held with\nhis consent, and a promise to make the decisions of the assembly be\nreceived with respect and strictly attended to. This is the first direct\ninterference of the secular power in matters of a purely ecclesiastical\nnature. Adzatathat was, however, too prudent in his policy to persecute\ndirectly the holders of anti-Buddhistic opinions, who as yet formed the\ngreat mass of the people. He zealously supported the new creed he had\nadopted, but he left full liberty to the followers of the pounhas. By the\nadvice of Kathaba, Adzatathat fixed the beginning of the religious era in\nthe year of Buddha\u2019s demise. It is the one which is followed by all the\nsouthern Buddhists. It was not the necessity of correcting certain errors\nin the calendar which induced the king to adopt that measure, since a\ncorrection had been made a hundred and forty-eight years ago by King\nEetzana with the assistance of a celebrated hermit. A religious motive\nalone induced the king to obtemper the solicitations of Kathaba on this\nsubject, and lay, as the point of departure for the reckoning of years,\nthe great event of the death of the founder of religion.\n\nThe two names of Pimpathara and of his son Adzatathat are indissolubly\nconnected with the origin of Buddhism and its spread through the Magatha\ncountry. To the first, Gaudama owed much for the extraordinary success\nthat attended his preachings and the conversion of remarkable personages.\nIn a country like India, the example of the king must have exerted an\nextraordinary influence over the courtiers and the wealthy and powerful\npersons. The second rendered no less important services to the cause\nof religion, by supporting openly the great Kathaba, the patriarch of\nBuddhism, and countenancing the decisions of the first council, which\nsecured unity among the members of the assembly at the very time that\nevil-minded individuals endeavoured to sow the seeds of dissension among\nthe religious, and upset the fabric which Buddha\u2019s genius and zeal had\njust set up. Under the reign of those two sovereigns religion gained a\nfirm footing in Magatha, and secured for itself an ascendancy which it\nretained with various successes for many centuries.\n\n[28] We are without any direct information concerning the history of\nBuddhism during the twenty years that elapsed after Gaudama\u2019s death. But\nwe have allusions made in several places which clearly indicate that\nthe new religion had to struggle with many difficulties before it could\ngain a firm footing in the places lying north of the Ganges. Though they\nhad been the seat of Buddha\u2019s preachings, though the people had been\nintimately acquainted with all his doings, it appears that the pounhas\ncontrived to thwart to a great extent the results of his labours. At\nKootheinaron, on the very spot rendered illustrious by his death, we have\nseen an individual rejoicing at Buddha\u2019s demise, because he would be now\nat liberty to act according to his wishes. He was not a solitary instance\nof open insubordination, since Kathaba felt that it was necessary, in\norder to check the growing evil, to assemble a council three months after\nthe death of Gaudama. This step does not appear to have produced all\nthe good effects that were anticipated. The patriarch of the Buddhistic\nChurch is represented to us as trembling for the safety of the relics.\nWhat could have caused this great anxiety? Doubtless there was a strong\nparty, either within or without the assembly, which was inimical to the\nworship paid to the remains of Buddha, and aimed at procuring their total\ndestruction. In the relation of Hwen-Thsang the writer has met with\na passage in which mention is made of a period of time when the pure\ndoctrine alone was held, and of a subsequent period when the worship of\nrelics would be prevailing. It is not improbable that in this passage\nallusion is made to the time when the relics were buried secretly, by the\ncare of Kathaba, in the neighbourhood of Radzagio, and remained concealed\nduring two hundred years. The conduct of Kathaba in securing the safety\nof the relics reveals an important fact, viz., that there existed from\nthe earliest days of Buddhism a great antipathy, in a fraction of the\ncommunity, against keeping and venerating Buddha\u2019s remains. It created a\nschism among the disciples which was never healed up, as the sequel will\nshow.\n\n[29] In the previous note on Neibban, the writer, having forgotten to\nmention the application which the Burmese make of this term to three\ndistinct objects, supplies here the omission, in the hope that what\nfollows may enable the reader to come nearer to the true Buddhistic\nmeaning of Neibban.\n\nThere are, say the Buddhist doctors, three kinds of Neibban respecting\nthe person of Gaudama\u2014the Neibban of _Kiletha_, or passions; the Neibban\nof _Khandas_, or supports of the existence of a living being; and the\nNeibban of _Datou_, or of the relics.\n\nThe first took place at the foot of the gniaong or bodi-tree, when\nGaudama became Buddha. Then, to make use of the language of Buddhists\nat that moment, the fifteen hundred passions\u2014that is to say, all\npassions\u2014were quieted, extinguished, and for ever put an end to.\n\nThe second kind of Neibban happened near the town of Kootheinaron, when\nthe five Khandas, or the constitutive parts of Gaudama\u2019s being, were\nquieted, that is to say, ceased to act, and were absolutely destroyed.\n\nThe third kind will take place at the end of the period of five thousand\nyears, reckoning from the death of Gaudama. This is the period which he\nhas assigned to the duration of his religion. Then all the relics of\nBuddha that will be still existing will be miraculously congregated on\nthe spot where stood the tree Bodi. After having been the centre of the\ndisplay of several extraordinary wonders, they will be consumed by a fire\nthat is to come out of them. They will disappear and vanish for ever, as\nthe flame that has consumed them.\n\nThe idea suggested to us by the application of the word Neibban to these\nthree objects is that of a cessation of action, cessation of existence,\nand cessation of being. Indeed, it is impossible not to see in the\nmeaning of this word the horrifying idea of absolute annihilation. The\nwriter frankly avows that he has been, during many years, unwilling to\nadopt a conclusion which the obvious meaning of the words point out\nin a clear manner. He hoped that a deeper insight into the system of\nBuddhism would lead him to a conclusion more consonant with reason. But\nhe has been completely disappointed in his expectations. By what process\nof arguing has the founder of Buddhism arrived to such a despairing\nterminus? How has he been led into that horrible abyss? How has he\ncontrived to silence the voice of conscience, and set aside the clearest\ninnate notions of the human mind? Gaudama took his departure from a\ntrue principle, viz.: that there are miseries in this world, attending\nthe condition of all beings moving within the circle of existences. But\nignorant of the real cause that has imported miseries into this world, he\nnever could discover the way by which man can convert them to a useful\nand beneficial result. He declared that all the efforts of a wise man\nought to converge towards one point, that of freeing himself from all the\nstates of existence. The four meggas or ways to perfection lead to that\ngreat result. By science, connected with the practice of virtue, the wise\nman frees himself from all passions, which are the real causes which make\na being move in the circle of existences. When they are not subdued but\nexterminated, there is no longer a cause that impels man into another\nexistence. The end of a being has come. When we speak of the end of a\nbeing, we understand its complete and entire destruction, or, in other\nterms, its Neibban. Nothing remains of him. The materialistic principles\nof genuine Buddhism forbid us to think of a soul or spiritual substance\nsurviving the destruction of the terrestrial portion of man\u2019s being.\nWhen Gaudama unfolds his precepts and maxims for guiding man in the\nacquisition of science and the destruction of his passions, he elicits\nthe admiration, nay, the astonishment of the reader, at the sight of the\nprofound knowledge of human nature which he displays. But this feeling\nsoon gives place to another of pity, sadness, and horror, when one sees\nthat he has been led to the brink of Neibban.\n\n[30] Kathaba speaks of the Pitagat or collection of the scriptures as\nof a compilation that was to be put in writing for better securing its\nfixity and permanency, and preventing, as far as human wisdom could\nreach, the introduction of new and heterodox doctrines. I feel inclined\nto believe that this expression is put into the mouth of the patriarch,\nand that in all likelihood he never uttered it. It is probable that,\nduring the first ages of Buddhism, the doctrines were not put in writing,\nbut orally transmitted. For supporting this apparently incredible\nassertion, we have the testimony of the authors of the Cingalese\ncollection, who distinctly state that, during more than two hundred\nyears after the introduction of the religion in Ceylon, tradition was\nthe only vehicle for transmitting the contents of the Pitagat. Moreover,\nit is by no means certain that the inhabitants of the Irrawaddy valley\npossessed a copy of the sacred scriptures previous to the voyage of\nBuddhagosa from Thaton to Ceylon in the beginning of the fifth century\nof our era. He went to that island for the express purpose of making a\ncopy of the Pitagat, and bringing it over to his countrymen. Be that as\nit may, the question on this subject is far from being settled. It well\ndeserves the attention of the learned. A satisfactory solution may throw\na much wanted light upon the history of early Buddhism. When we consider\nthat Maheinda, the son of the mighty and pious Athoka, was the head of\nthe mission, which, after the termination of the third council, went\nto preach religion in Ceylon, it is impossible not to suppose that he\nwould have brought over with him a copy of the collection of the sacred\nscriptures, had that collection been put in writing at the time that he\nleft Pataliputra on his pious errand.\n\n[31] The collection of the Buddhist scriptures is divided into three\nparts, called the three Pitagats, or the three baskets, respectively\nnamed the Wini Pitagat, the Thoots Pitagat, and the Abidama Pitagat. The\nmanuscript that the writer has had for his use, though correct in the\nmain, is certainly defective in the enumeration of the divisions and\nsubdivisions of the three great collections. He will, however, mention\nthem, such as they are enumerated by the Burmese author; the few errors\nthat may be detected can easily be corrected by those who have in their\npossession the Ceylonese collection, as there is no doubt that the work\nnow under consideration is an abridgment of a more voluminous compilation\nto be found in Ceylon.\n\nThe divisions of the Wini are: Bikoo Patimouk, Bikoonee Patimouk, Bikoo\nWitin (probably Bikoo Win), Bikooni Win, twelve Kandaka, and sixteen\nPariwara.\n\nThe thoots are considered as the instructions orally delivered by\nGaudama himself, either to his disciples in private, or to the assembled\nmultitudes, during the forty-five years of his public mission. In this\ncollection the disciples have learned the doctrines of the master, and\nfound all the elements necessary to compose all the treaties, which\nsubsequently have formed the collections called Wini Pitagat and Abidama\nPitagat. No one could ever believe that the author of Buddhism could\nhave busied himself in writing treatises on metaphysics, or minutely\nand elaborately publishing the regulations under which the body of his\nfollowers, called the Sanga, were to live and spend their time. In his\ninstructions Gaudama gave utterance to certain principles, which, being\nappropriated by his disciples and their successors, were enlarged,\ndeveloped, and reduced to the shape of a treatise. In fact, he sowed\nthe seed which, being let into the soil of the mind of enthusiastic\ndisciples, grew up and multiplied into the voluminous above-named\ncollections. Genuine Buddhism must be found in the thoots of the oldest\nstamp. Anywhere else we meet with the Buddhism such as it has been\ndeveloped by doctors and commentators.\n\nThere are four collections of the thoots, named Nidia Nike, Midzima Nike,\nThangoutta Nike, and Engouttara Nike. They are likewise arranged under\nfifteen heads, called: Koudakapata, Dammapata, Oodana, Ithi, Wouthaka,\nThouttanibat, Wi, Mama-wouttoo, Pita-wouttoo, Terakatta, Terikatta,\nDzattakani, Piti-sambika, Apadana, Buddha-wattoo.\n\nThe Abidamma has seven divisions, viz., Dammathingakani, Wittin,\nDatoogatta, Pouggala-pignia, Kathawattoo, Yamaik, Patan.\n\nThe attentive reader cannot be but surprised to see how the three great\ndivisions of the Buddhistic scriptures are mentioned by the members of\nthe first council as things already existing and arranged with the same\nmethod as they have been disposed during succeeding ages. It is certain\nthat such divisions of Gaudama\u2019s doctrines did not then exist at that\ntime. Are we to conclude therefrom that the fact of the holding of the\nfirst council is to be rejected as a mere invention, because the mode of\nrelating some particulars concerning that great assembly is liable to be\nseriously objected to? It seems that such a conclusion would be a too\nhasty one.\n\nFor establishing the fact of the holding of the first council, we have\nthe evidence supplied to us by all the Buddhistic writings, found in the\nvarious countries where that religion has been established. Moreover,\nseveral monuments of great antiquity allude to that first assembly. We\ncan scarcely raise a doubt upon the existence of the fact. But how are\nwe to account for the manner in which mention is made of compilations\nwhich undoubtedly were not existing at that time? The redaction of all\nthe particulars connected with the first assembly must have been made a\nconsiderable time after the holding of the said assembly, at an epoch\nwhen the Buddhistic scriptures had already been arranged under three\ndistinct heads. The author, familiar with the division or compilation\ninto three parts, called Pitagats, has arranged his narration in such a\nway as to give it a sort of agreement with a form which he thought must\nhave been as familiar to others as it was to himself. It is probable that\nmost of the points of discussion, such as we find them in the narrative,\nwere actually brought forward before the assembly, but in a shape more\nsimple and general, and less technical and positive. This is what can be\nsaid in the present imperfect knowledge of the history of Buddhism, for\nextenuating the charge of wilful forgery, which might be brought against\nthe author of the redaction. On the other hand, whilst prudent discretion\ncommands us not to be too hasty in passing a sweeping condemnation upon\nthe compilation, we must be very cautious in not admitting at once, and\nnot giving an absolute credit to all that is found in writings which do\nconvey to us many things of great antiquity, but evidently mixed with\nmultifarious details of a comparatively modern origin. This last remark\nought to be ever present to the mind of him who peruses some portions\nof the Pitagats. The huge mass of rubbish which constitutes the largest\nportion of the scriptures is the production of the various Buddhistic\nschools which flourished eight and ten centuries after the first council.\n\n[32] The few and meagre particulars which we possess respecting the\ncauses that have occasioned the holding of the second council, disclose\na curious state of things as existing in the Buddhist community. The\ndisciplinary regulations appear to have occupied a conspicuous part in\nthe discussions that took place during the period of the first century.\nSome of those regulations were of trifling importance. We wonder how the\nreligious could lay so much stress upon such a trifle as this, \u201cIs is\nlawful to put salt or other condiments into articles of food, that would\nhave been offered without such requisites?\u201d The activity displayed by\nboth parties in the controversy indicates the gradual working of opinions\nwhich in those parts had been always inimical to genuine Buddhism. In\nWethalie and Thawattie, the holders of false tenets had been at all times\nbold and numerous. In the days of Buddha, heretics were swarming in those\nplaces. In the beginning of the fifth century of our era, Fa-hian, when\nhe visited those places, says that he found that religion had almost\ndisappeared, and that heretics were prevailing in every direction. We\nmust conclude from these two circumstances that Buddhism never flourished\nin those places, or, at least, that it was never the prevailing creed of\nthe mass of the people.\n\nThe disputes that took place in those days were not looked upon as of\nserious moment, since we see several religious of eminence supporting\nthe anti-orthodox party. King Kalathoka himself was in favor of those\nwhose opinions were condemned by the council. We may also infer from\nthis sate of things, that the disciplinary regulations were far from\nbeing settled at that time. It required the experience of succeeding\ngenerations to determine exactly what was best fitted for promoting\nthe well-being of the religious body, and causing its members to live\nagreeably to the spirit which Gaudama desired to infuse into the souls\nof his followers. It cannot therefore be a matter of surprise to see the\nassembly striving, in the midst of discussions, to elaborate the framing\nof the rules destined to guide the religious in the details of their\ndaily duties. Under such circumstances there could not but be a great\nvariety of opinions, supported with that heat and ardour so peculiar to\nindividuals who live estranged from the world. Moreover, the conflicting\nopinions were maintained by the various schools, which, from the early\nperiod of the existence of Buddhism, sprung up and divided the members of\nthe religious body. Circumstantial details respecting the various schools\nwe allude to, would prove of the greatest advantage for elucidating the\nstate of the great religious system under consideration, for enabling us\nto enter into the history of its internal development, and witnessing the\nvarious incidents that have marked its progress through ages, down to the\nperiod when it gradually lost its footing in the Indian Peninsula.\n\nThe eighteen different schools which have obtained celebrity throughout\nthe Buddhist world are mentioned in the Cingalese collection, and in that\nof all the northern Buddhists, including the Chinese. In the manuscript\nwhich the writer possesses nothing is mentioned respecting these schools\nbut their respective names. Had the chief opinions held out by each\nschool been given out, they would have been expounded here at great\nlength and with a scrupulous correctness. Such not being the case, the\nauthor has thought that it was useless to the reader to lay before him a\ndry and uninteresting array of names.\n\n[33] It has been thought of some importance to mention in a particular\nnote all the principal epochs named in the course of this work, and to\nshow how they stand relatively to the Christian era. As a matter of\ncourse, the starting-point for the reckoning and computing of years is\nthe epoch of Gaudama\u2019s death, which is fixed by the southern Buddhists\nin the year 543 B.C. The exactness of this epoch has been contested by\nA. Cunningham, one of the greatest authorities in such matters. In his\nopinion, the epoch of Gaudama\u2019s Neibban ought to be placed seventy years\nlater. But as his views on this subject have not as yet been universally\nreceived by the learned in Europe, we will remain satisfied with the\nhitherto generally accepted data.\n\nThe first era is that of King Eetzana, the grandfather of Gaudama by his\nmother\u2019s side. It was made by the help and under the guidance of a famous\nhermit, named Deweela, who is mentioned as highly versed in the science\nof astronomy, such as it existed in those days. The king\u2019s object was\nto correct the glaring errors that had crept into the calendar. It is\nsaid that he did away with the era 8640 on a Saturday, on the day of the\nnew moon of Tabaong (March), and fixed the beginning of the new era on\nthe following day, that is to say, on a Sunday, the first day after the\nnew moon of the same month. This happened in the year 691 B.C. This new\nreckoning of years lasted only a hundred and forty-eight years, the epoch\nof Gaudama\u2019s Neibban, 543 B.C.\n\nThe second era, the most celebrated of all, is the religious one. King\nAdzatathat and the venerable Kathaba, actuated by the desire of rendering\never memorable the death of the founder of their religion, and paying to\nhim a homage that would be re-echoed by succeeding generations, came to\nthe resolution of doing away with the Eetzana computation, and fixed a\nnew reckoning of years, from the annual revolution which witnessed that\nevent, which, in the opinion of Buddhists, is the greatest of all. In the\nyear 148, the first day of the month of Tagoo (April), which fell on a\nSunday, was fixed as the beginning of the new computation, emphatically\ncalled the era of religion, 543 B.C. It is adopted by all the southern\nBuddhists.\n\nIn addition to this general era, Buddhist nation has had, for one reason\nor for another, particular periods, from which they have reckoned time\nand computed years. It is probable that the reform in the calendar,\nnecessitated by the errors introduced into it owing to incorrect\ncomputations, have given rise to several eras, which are generally known\nby the name of the kings under whose reign they have taken place, and by\nwhose authority they have been introduced and brought into common use.\n\nThe Burmans have the era called Dandoratha. It was introduced by\nThamugdara, or, as spelt by others, Thamugdaritz, king of Prome, in the\nyear of religion 625 = to 81 A.D. That monarch is represented as well\ninformed and skilled in the knowledge of the astronomical calculations.\nThe months were no longer in unison with the seasons. What did the royal\nreformer of the calendar do to remedy the evil? No other particular is\nmentioned in the manuscript which the writer has in his possession,\nexcept that the king did away with 622, and began the reformed\ncomputation with two, so that its beginning must be made to agree with\nthe year 79 A.D.\n\nThat era lasted only 562 years. The reformer on this occasion was\nPouppa-dzau, king of Pagan, who is represented to us as well versed in\nthe science of astronomical computations. This monarch imitated in this\nreform the conduct of the king of Prome. He did away with 560 years, and\nhad his new era to begin with two. This happened in the year of religion\n1182 = to 639 A.D. This is the common era used by the Burmese up to this\nday, and is known as the Pagan or Pouppa-dzau era.\n\nWe find also mentioned occasionally the Thaton era. It is made to begin\nwith the year of the arrival of the two Buddhist missionaries, Thauna\nand Outtara, in the great place of Thaton, in the year of religion 237 =\nto 306 B.C. Thirimathoka was, at that time, king of that country. That\nperiod of years has lasted 1362 years. It ended in the year of religion\n1599 = 1156 A.D., when the king of Pagan, Naurata-dzau, invaded the\ncountry, possessed himself of Thaton, and carried away captive the last\nking, Mein-hnit.\n\nIt is perhaps as well to mention here an epoch which has been, at all\ntimes, famous in the history of Buddhism in Burmah. I allude to the\nvoyage which a religious of Thaton, named Buddhagosa, made to Ceylon in\nthe year of religion 943 = to 400 A.D. The object of this voyage was to\nprocure a copy of the scriptures. He succeeded in his undertaking. He\nmade use of the Burmese or rather Talaing characters, in transcribing\nthe manuscripts, which were written with the characters of Magatha. The\nBurmans lay much stress upon that voyage, and always carefully note down\nthe year in which it took place. In fact, it is to Buddhagosa that the\npeople living on the shores of the Gulf of Martaban owe the possession of\nthe Buddhist scriptures. From Thaton, the collection made by Buddhagosa\nwas transferred to Pagan, 656 years after it had been imported from\nCeylon.\n\nWithout the knowledge of those various epochs, it is difficult to\nunderstand with anything approaching to clearness and exactness the\ndates that we find alluded to and mentioned in the Burmese literary\ncompositions. The foregoing particulars appear to be sufficient for all\npractical purposes.\n\n[34] From this passage we see that, in those days of remote antiquity,\nthere existed in the Indian Peninsula individuals who, led away by a\nfanaticism still existing in our own days, devoted themselves to rigorous\nand extravagant penances, often in a state of complete nakedness. In\nthe days of Alexander the Great, the same fanatics were met with in\nthe Punjaub. Such ridiculous and unnatural exhibitions, far from being\napproved of and countenanced by the founder of Buddhism, were positively\nprohibited. Though he aimed at subduing passions, and elevating the\nspiritual principle above the material one, he recommended in the\nspiritual warfare a line of conduct more consonant with reason, and\nsupplied his disciples with weapons of a far better quality and a\nsuperior description.\n\n[35] It is much to be regretted that no details concerning that third\nassembly of the Buddhists in Pataliputra could be found by the writer in\nthe manuscript he has in his possession. The cause that occasioned the\nholding of the council was the desire to establish a perfect unity in the\npractices of discipline among the religious, and to come to an agreement\non the subject of the genuineness of the scriptures.\n\nDuring the period of 236 years that elapsed from the death of Gaudama,\nBuddhism seems to have remained confined within the limits of Magatha,\nthat is to say, north and south Behar. Its hold over the mind of the\npeople within those limits appears to have been very imperfect and\nuncertain, particularly in the parts north of the Ganges. It is from the\nreign of King Athoka that the propagation of Buddhism in every direction\ndates. The uninterrupted successes which attended his arms enabled him\nto afford a powerful support to the propagators of the new religion in\nthe remotest parts which they visited. But we have no reason to suspect\nthat he had recourse to violence in order to gain proselytes. No doubt he\nprotected them, and supplied all their wants on a liberal scale. He does\nnot appear to have extended farther the effects of the countenance he\nlent to the heralds of the new religion. He built monasteries and dzedis\nthroughout the length and breadth of his immense dominions; he erected\nstone pillars, which he covered with inscriptions commemorative of his\npiety and zeal, a few of which exist up to this day. Athoka may be looked\nupon as a monarch who did more for the propagation of Buddhism in foreign\nparts than any of those who preceded him or came after him.\n\nThe establishment of Buddhism in Ceylon is mentioned at great length in\nthe writer\u2019s manuscript, but he has thought it unnecessary to relate all\nthat he has found on this subject, as being foreign to the purpose he\nhas had in view in the publication of this book. In a foregoing note it\nhas been stated how extraordinary is the fact that during more than two\nhundred years Buddhism was propagated in Ceylon solely by means of oral\ntradition without writing. The Cingalese authors are so unanimous on\nthis point that it cannot be doubted. But in the Burmese manuscript we\nhave found stated, in unmistakable expressions, that the religious who\nassembled in the village of Malliya wrote the Pitagat in Sanscrit, and\nwith the Sanscrit characters. The word made use of is _Sanskarain_, which\nsurely is designed to mean Sanscrit. How can this be reconciled with the\nundoubted fact that all the southern Buddhists have the scriptures in\nPali and not in Sanscrit, whilst the northern nations that have embraced\nBuddhism possess the scriptures in Sanscrit? Until we can obtain further\ninformation on the subject, I have no hesitation in stating that the\nBurmans, ignorant of the existence of the two distinct languages\u2014the\nPali and the Sanscrit\u2014are very apt to mistake the one for the other, and\nthat in their opinion what they call the language of Magatha, Pali, and\nSanscrit are but one and the same language, to which different names\nhave been given by ancient authors. As the translator of a manuscript,\nthe writer was bound to render into English what he has found written in\nBurmese. This is the reason why he has, against his intimate conviction,\nmade use of the word Sanscrit, applied to the first compilation of\nscriptures made in Ceylon under the reign of King Watakamani.\n\n[36] The island of Ceylon was called, says the Burmese author, in former\ntimes, by different names\u2014Audzadipa, Waradipa, Mautadipa, Singgadipa,\nSihala, and Tappapani. There is no doubt but the last name was corrupted\nby the Greeks into Tapobrane.\n\n[37] The Burmans have, from the time of their conversion to Buddhism, or\nat least from the period they became familiar with the scriptures, had\nthe mania of giving Pali names to countries, large towns, and new places\nthat were settled by the authority of the rulers, in addition to the\nordinary and common names. What has been the result of such a measure?\nThe people have continued to designate such places by the vulgar names,\nwhilst in most of the public documents and in the court they have always\nused the scientific and uncommon names. Hence has arisen a confusion in\nthe minds of the people to such an extent that in many instances they\nbelieve that two names given to the same place indicate two distinct\ntowns and localities.\n\nThe position of Thaton is well known, and is between the mouths of the\nSalween and the Tsitang rivers. Its actual distance from the sea is\nabout eight or nine miles. In the days of Buddhagosa, that is to say, in\nthe beginning of the fifth century of our era, it was a sea-port. The\nBurmese writers invariably call Thaton, not by the name of city, but\nby that of country. They add the epithet of Souwana-boumi, the land of\ngold. According to the same writers, Thaton was situated in the state\nor kingdom of Ramagnia. From what is found mentioned about Ramagnia,\nit appears that it comprised three distinct parts or districts; that\nof Kouthein, which is the present Pouthein or Bassein, including the\nterritory situated between the Irrawaddy and the mountains of Arracan;\nthat of Henthawati, between the Irrawaddy and the Tsitang river; and\nthat of Mouttama, or Martaban, between the Tsitang and the Salween.\nIt seems that the kingdom of Ramagnia extended in the north as far as\nAkaouk-taong, south of Prome. The limits that are assigned must have\nundergone considerable changes, on account of the continual wars that\nhave raged in those parts, but they are those assigned by several native\nauthors.\n\nThe people that dwelt in Ramagnia are called Moun. They are the Talaings\nor Peguans of modern times. They had attained a considerable degree of\ncivilisation at a time when the Burmans were in a state of barbarism. The\nproximity of the sea afforded them opportunities of coming in contact\nwith other nations\u2014the Hindus in particular, who appear to have settled\nat Thaton in great numbers. The Rahan Buddhagosa is said to have belonged\nto the pounha race, though he was a fervent Buddhist.\n\nThe town which was the capital of the territory called Henzawati cannot,\nwe believe, be the town which is called at present Pegu, but another one,\nmuch more ancient, the ruins of which are still visible close to the\neastern side of Pegu.\n\nThe language of the Talaings is totally different from that of the\nBurmans, but the characters for writing are somewhat the same. It is from\nthem that the latter have received their religion, the scriptures, and\nthe characters used in writing.\n\nSince the final conquest of Pegu by Alaong-phra in the middle of the last\ncentury, and the extermination of a great number of its inhabitants, the\nremaining Peguans have gradually amalgamated with the Burmans. With their\nnationality they have lost also their language to such an extent that it\nis now spoken only in a few isolated places. It is not unusual to meet\nwith descendants of Peguans whose aged parents still speak their native\nlanguage, whilst they know and speak only Burmese.\n\n[38] = to 400 A.D.\n\n[39] = to 1058 A.D.\n\n[40] = to 1161 A.D.\n\n[41] It is obvious from the testimony of Burmese writers that they\nacknowledge the fact that the Scriptures brought from Ceylon by\nBuddhagosa, and the institutions flourishing in Thaton, found their way\nto Pagan in the reign of King Naurata-dzau. They likewise affirm that\nunder the reign of Narapati-sisoo the religious who came from Ceylon,\nimbued with the spirit of the Mahawihara school, set up practices which\nwere little, if at all, observed in Pagan at that time.\n\nThere was no doubt a great revival of Buddhism in Pagan, from the days of\nKing Naurata-dzau to those of Narapati-sisoo. Most of the great monuments\nwhich excite the admiration of the travellers who visit Pagan were raised\nduring that period.\n\n[42] It is probable that our Burmese author makes here a mistake similar\nto the one alluded to in a foregoing note.\n\n[43] When the writer set at work to publish the second edition of\nthis book he had at his disposal a Burmese palm-leaf manuscript, in\nwhich he found a vast amount of information respecting the history of\nBuddha, which was wanting in the work called Malla-linkara-wouttoo, the\ntranslation of which has afforded matter for the first edition of the\nlegend of Gaudama. The work is named Tathagatha-oudana, the meaning of\nwhich is, Praises of him who has come like all his predecessors. This\nis one of Buddha\u2019s titles of honour. He is sometimes called Bagawat,\nthe blessed or benevolent; Sugatha, he who has happily come; Dzina, the\nconqueror. From what is stated at the end of the work, it appears that it\nwas composed in the town of Dibayen, sometimes called Tabayin, lying west\nof the river Mu, at a distance of about fifteen miles. The place is at\npresent in a ruinous condition. Though the province continues to bear the\nname of Tabayin, the residence of the governor is in the town of Ye-ou,\non the right bank of the Mu.\n\nThe compiler of the work was a Phongyie, who, according to his own\ntestimony, finished his task on the thirty-eighth year after he had\nbecome a Patzin, ninety-three years ago. He was, therefore, at least\nfifty-eight years old, as he could not become a Patzin before he had\nreached his twentieth year. The compilation contains 636 pages of ten\nlines each, is written on palm leaves, and forms two huge volumes. We\nmay well say that the narration begins at the beginning. The author\ninforms us of the origin, not of Gaudama, since he has obtained the\nBuddhaship, but of the being who was indeed hereafter to become a Buddha,\nbut who had to move into the circle of countless existences, slowly\ngravitating towards that perfected state in which he was to be fitted\nfor discharging the duties of a deliverer. He presents us with a sketch\nof the origin of the country of Kapilawot, and of the kings from whom\nGaudama\u2019s father descended. The above particulars were not to be found\nin the Malla-linkara. In all that relates to the birth, boyhood, &c.,\nof Gaudama, both compilations agree in the main. The variations are\nfew and unimportant. The author of the Tathagatha-oudana is immensely\ndiffuse when he relates all that took place in Buddha\u2019s mind during the\nforty-nine days that he spent around the tree Bodi. Besides the important\ntheory of the twelve Nidanas, or causes and effects, he supplies us with\na complete exposition of the whole Buddhistic system of metaphysics,\nontology, geography, and cosmography, the various seats in which all\nrational beings are placed, from the lowest hell to the last or the\nhighest of the immaterial seats. All these details are purposely omitted\nby the compiler of the Malla-linkara. Finally, the author supplies us\nwith a few particulars respecting Buddha, during the twenty first seasons\nor years of his public life. The story of Dewadat is presented at great\nlength. But what is more important, we possess in the compilation of the\nTathagatha-oudana a concise account of the three great assemblies or\ncouncils held in Radzagio, Wethalie, and Pataliputra, with the names of\nthe sovereigns who have ruled over Magatha from Adzatathat, under whose\nreign Gaudama died, to Athoka, who promoted religion more than any of his\npredecessors, and who by his royal influence supported the decisions of\nthe last council. He likewise mentions the names of the religious, who,\nafter the third council, were commissioned to go and preach religion in\nvarious countries _out of Magatha_. From this last expression we learn\nthat Buddhism, until 236 after Gaudama\u2019s death, had not extended its\ninfluence beyond the boundaries of Magatha. As a matter of course, our\nauthor dwells more particularly on the two missions that were sent,\nthe one to Ceylon and the other to Thaton. He enables us to follow the\ndevelopment of Buddhism in Pegu and Burmah, by informing us that King\nNaurata-dzau of Pagan, after the conquest of Thaton, took the king\nprisoner, seized upon the collection of the scriptures, and therewith\ncarried to his capital all the best informed of the Phongyies, in 1056\nA.D. Our author brings his narration to the time of the foundation of\nAva, in 1365 A.D.\n\nIn imitation of all other compilers, our author ends his narrative with\nthe following pious wishes. As a fit reward of the good work that I have\nhappily brought to a close, I desire to become in some future existence\na true Buddha, possessing all the science which will enable me to know\nall beings, their state and condition, and all the relations subsisting\nbetween them, and likewise to be gifted with a true compassion for and\nbenevolence towards all beings, which will prompt me to labour for their\ndeliverance. I desire that during the existences which are to precede the\nlast one, I may continually practise the ten great and principal virtues.\nMay my father, mother, relatives, teachers, and friends, have their share\nin this my good work!\n\nThough far more comprehensive than that of the author of Malla-linkara,\nthe compilation of the Tathagatha-oudana is very inferior to it as\nregards the drawing up of the subject and the disposition of its parts.\nBoth are made by Burmans. We do not mean to say that the Burmans have\nmade works of an original character. The authors have extracted from\nvarious parts of the scriptures all the materials they wanted for\ncomposing a work which might be considered as the history of the founder\nof their religion.\n\n[44] The Burmese translator of the Malla-linkara finishes his work by\ncandidly stating the motives that have induced him to undertake it.\nHe desires to create, promote, and propagate, in the heart of future\ngenerations, religious sentiments, and feelings of the tenderest\naffection for the person of Buddha and his doctrine, that is to say, the\nlaw and the assembly of the perfect. Such are the lofty objects he had\nin view when he began to write. He was encouraged in his difficult task\nby purely religious considerations, viz., the promotion and triumph of\nBuddhism. For securing the attainment of what he considered to be a most\ndesirable end, he summoned all his abilities with a most praiseworthy\nenergy and perseverance.\n\nWith a somewhat different object in view, the Burmese work has been\ntranslated into a European language. The translation has been accompanied\nwith notes intended to explain the text, which would otherwise prove,\nin many parts, almost unintelligible to the generality of readers. The\nprinciples of Buddhism, such as they are held and professed by Buddhists\nin general, but in particular by those inhabiting Burmah, have received\na certain degree of attention, and have been examined as carefully as\npossible from a Buddhistic point of view. That great religious system has\nbeen considered, as it is in itself, without any regard to its intrinsic\nmerits or demerits. The notes are not designed to be an apology or a\nconfutation of Buddhism, but an exposition of its doctrines, such as they\nare found in the best writings and believed by its votaries. When certain\ntenets or practices were to be accounted for, recourse has always been\nhad to the general principles of Buddhism and to the notions certainly\nprevailing at various periods in Buddhist countries. It is needless to\nadd that the notes, having been hurriedly written in the midst of almost\nuninterrupted and time-absorbing occupations, are destitute of pretension\neither to deep research or scientific merit. In former years, the writer\nbestowed a certain amount of time and efforts on the study of Buddhism\nin Burmah, where it has been for centuries the only religious creed. A\nportion of the knowledge thus acquired has been embodied in the foregoing\nnotes, with the intention of compressing within a narrow compass the\nelementary principles and general notions of Buddhism, affording thereby\nto the readers, who cannot have access to the voluminous writings of the\nFrench and German Orientalist _savans_, on the great religious system\nof Eastern Asia, comparatively easy means to obtain some information on\na religion, which, false as it is, deserves to be known and understood,\nsince in point of antiquity it is second to none except to Brahminism,\nand as regards diffusion extends its sway over probably one-fifth of the\nhuman race.\n\n[45] The distinction alluded to by our author is a most important\none. What does he mean when he states that all things in this world\nobey the principle of mutability, and are liable to perpetual changes\nand modifications, and that they have a cause? One would be tempted\nto believe that the Buddhists admit of a first cause. But such is\nnot the case. To understand such a language coming from a Buddhist\u2019s\nmouth, we must bear in mind the theory of the twelve Nidanas, or\ncauses and effects. Each of the Nidanas is an effect relatively to the\npreceding one, and a cause to the following one. All existing beings\nare, relatively to each other, effects and causes. All undergo the\nirresistible influence of mutability and change. The beings that reside\nin the seats of Brahma are not beyond the reach of that influence, not\neven those who dwell in the four immaterial seats.\n\nAre there things which are fixedly and everlastingly the same, upon\nwhich no change, no vicissitude can ever act? There is the law, there\nis the state of Neibban. The law is the expression of truth, which is\nreality, in contradistinction to the unreality of the visible world. The\nessence of the law is contained in the four sublime truths, which are\nemphatically called the Law of the Wheel. They are the declaration of\nthe true state and condition of all beings; they proclaim the necessity\nof putting an end to such a miserable state of things, and point out the\nsure means of freeing oneself from the miseries attending existence.\nThese truths are eternal, insomuch that what they proclaim has ever been\ntrue in all the worlds that have preceded the present one, since they\nalways resemble each other, and will ever be equally true during the\nendless series of worlds that will follow. In this sense the law, in the\nopinion of Buddhists, being the declaration of truth, or of what is,\nmust be eternal, as truth itself is everlasting. The state of Neibban,\nin contradistinction to that of existence such as we comprehend it, is\nlikewise a thing which never changes, since it is the end of changes. It\nremains always the same; it is the opposite of existence. What is then\ncalled here everlasting, or eternal, is, in the opinion of Buddhists, but\nthe things that are conceived as subsisting abstractively _per se_, and\nnever affected by the great principle of mutability that pervades all\nbeings. To sum up the whole in a few words, the science which points out\nthe means of coming out of the whirlpool of existences, and the being out\nof that circle, such are the two things which are always the same, never\nundergo any change, and are eternal.\n\n[46] In the definition of man which is given by the Buddhist author,\nwe find the words intelligence, capacity for reflecting, comparing\nand drawing inferences, &c. He who is not familiar with the revolting\nmaterialist doctrines of Buddhism would be tempted to believe that they\nadmit of a soul or spiritual principle subsisting in man. But such is not\nthe case. The faculty for performing all the functions which we rightly\nattribute to the soul resides in the sixth sense, called _mano_, or the\nheart, or the knowing principle. But this sense, in their opinion, is as\nmaterial as the eye, the ear, and the other senses. It is delightful to\nthe Christian reader to find in the midst of a heap of rubbish and fables\na few fragments of the primitive revelation. We see man coming from a\nnoble origin, appearing in this world with the most glorious privileges,\nwhich he forfeits by eating the rice called Tsale, which produced on his\nbeing the same destructive effects which the eating of the forbidden\nfruit caused on our first parents in the garden of Eden.\n\n[47] Buddhists lay the greatest stress on the belief in the three\nprecious things. It is the foundation on which rests the whole spiritual\nedifice. But it is somewhat extraordinary to see that the superstition\nof believing in lucky and unlucky days, in good and bad luck, is openly\ncondemned, and entails upon him who is addicted to it the severest\npenalty. Though such childish belief is so exceedingly common in Burmah\nthat it influences man in his daily and hourly affairs, yet we must admit\nthat it is opposed to the tenets of strict Buddhism. There can never be\nany good or bad luck in the opinion of him who has faith in the influence\nof merits and demerits. There is no other agent in this world but that\none; it is it alone that brings in and regulates all the accidents which\nattend the life of man. Such is indeed the theory of the true Buddhist.\nBut how widely differs the practice from the theory? He who has lived\nfor some time in a Buddhist country, and made himself acquainted with\nthe intimate habits of the people, will soon discover that superstitious\nideas, and, as a necessary consequence, superstitious practices, are the\nspring and prime mover of all actions from morning to night. In this\nrespect, Buddhist monks differ not from the laity; nay, they are often\nseen as the leaders of the people in the performance of rites at variance\nwith the tenets of their creed.\n\n[48] This is a consequence of the axiom established by our author,\nviz., that the principle of mutability pervades all the beings which\nreside in the thirty-one seats allotted to them. It cannot be supposed\nfor a moment, according to Buddhists, that a being, whatever may be the\namount of his merits and demerits, can ever be placed without the pale\nof the influence of his good or bad deeds. It accompanies him in all\npositions, and causes the vicissitudes that attend his existence. It\nworks upon him in hell, as well as on earth, and in the seats of Nats and\nBrahmas. Fixity is to be found nowhere except in going out of the circle\nof existences, that is to say, in Neibban. When we speak of existence\nin a Buddhistic sense, we mean _a state of being_ in any conceivable\nform or situation or place. Fixity in the enjoyment of reward or in the\nundergoing of punishment is a contradiction with the first principle\nof Buddhism. The awarder of reward or punishment is the above-named\ninfluence, which proceeds from the actions performed, and in its turn\nallots good or evil in exact proportion with the cause that has created\nit.\n\nGaudama, having wilfully and unwilfully ignored a first cause from which\nall the things that exist draw their being and life, has been forced\nto allow to an imaginary agent the very same attributes which belong\nexclusively to the supreme being. On the rock of atheism he has made a\nsad shipwreck. Apart from this capital error it is surprising to see him\nmaintaining with an admirable acuteness the existence of many fundamental\ntruths; such, for instance, as the reward of good actions and the\npunishment of bad ones. With him the doing of evil is ever attended with\nconsequences fatal to the perpetrator, whilst the performance of good\nis always accompanied with beneficial results. One would be inclined to\nbelieve that Gaudama has appropriated to himself with a great tact all\nthe truths emanating from the belief in a supreme being; and whilst he\nhas, with a barefaced and impious audacity, denied to the eternal author\nof all things the very existence, he has been placed under the necessity\nof accounting, in a most unlogical manner, for the existence of this\nworld.\n\n[49] It will perhaps be of some interest to a few of our readers to\nmention the names of the thirty-one seats in which Buddhists have located\nall beings. Let us begin with the lowest step of that immense ladder. The\nfour first steps are the four states of punishment. In them are to be\nfound living the unfortunate beings who, pursued by the inflexible law of\ntheir demerits, are doomed to atone in different ways for the evil that\nthey have done. The lowest seat is Nga-yai or hell. It is placed in the\ncentre of our planet, and subdivided into eight principal quarters, the\nlast of which is called Awidzi. The second step of the ladder is occupied\nby the seat of Animals; the third by certain monsters called Preittas;\nand the fourth by another kind of inferior beings named Athourikes. These\nfour seats are tenanted by beings who undergo punishment for the evil\ndeeds they have performed.\n\nThe fifth seat is that of Manusa, or men. The beings that occupy it\nare in a state in which they can merit or demerit. It may be called a\nposition of probation.\n\nAbove the seat of man are the six seats of Nats called Tsadoomaritz,\nTawadeintha, Yama, Toocita, Nimanarati, Pare-neimittawasawati. The\ndenizens of those seats enjoy the reward awarded to them for the\nperformance of good and meritorious exterior works.\n\nThe three places above those of Nats, called Brahma-parisitsa,\nBrahmah-parau-hita, Maha-Brahma, are occupied by the contemplatives who\nhave reached the first step of Dzan, or meditation. The three following,\nPareitta-ba, Appa-ma-naba, Appa-sara, are tenanted by the beings who have\nattained the second degree of contemplation. The three next to those\njust enumerated are: Paweitta-sou-ba, Appa-mana-sou-ba, Souba-kannaka.\nThey are the abodes of the contemplatives who have ascended to the third\nstep of meditation. The two following steps of the ladder, Wa-happala,\nA-sou-gna-sat, are tenanted by the contemplatives of the fourth degree;\nand the five that follow, viz., Awiha, Atabpa, Sou-dasa, Sou-dasi,\nAgga-nita, are occupied by the contemplatives of the fifth degree; that\nis to say, by the beings who have entered the Thoda, or current of\nperfection, and who have qualified themselves for obtaining the state of\ndeliverance, or Neibban.\n\nAbove those seats we find the four and last abodes of Arupa, without\nform. They are called: Akasanitza-yatana, Wigniana-witza-yatana,\nAkeitsignia-yatana, Newa-thagnia-nathagnia-yatana.\n\n[50] The number of tseits or ideas is one hundred and twenty, divided as\nfollows:\u2014\n\n1. The tseits or ideas of the beings as yet under the influence of\npassion; they are named Kama-watsara-tseits.\n\n2. The tseits or ideas peculiar to beings who have not as yet been\nable to raise themselves entirely above materiality; they are called\nRupa-watzara-tseits.\n\n3. There are four tseits peculiar to those beings, who, setting aside the\ncoarser portions of this world, launch forth into abstract truth, and\ndelight in the contemplation of the highest, purest, and most boundless\nthings the mind may imagine. They are known as the ideas working on what\nmay be called immaterial, impalpable objects.\n\nThe ideas of the first series belong to all the beings located in the\nfour states of punishment, in the seat of man, and in the six seats of\nNats, that is to say, in the eleven seats where is the reign of passions.\n\nThose of the second series belong to the beings located in the sixteen\nseats of the Brahmas, including those who have entered into the current\nof perfection, by following the four Meggas, and enjoying the merits and\nrewards connected with the condition of the perfect.\n\nThe ideas of the third series are the happy lot of those superior beings\nwho soar high in the regions of pure spiritualism, leaving below them all\nthe things that have a reference to this world, such as we see it.\n\nThe Tsedathits, or results essentially connected with ideas, are\nfifty-two in number. The seven enumerated at the end of this article\nare: contact, sensation, perception, inclination, fixity, command over\nself, and remembrance: they are inherent in all ideas. Six Tsedathits\nare connected with the act of perception, viz., thought, reflection,\ndecision, energy, pleasure, and liberty. Fourteen others are connected\nwith the ideas of demerits, viz., impudence, audacity in evil,\nunsteadiness, concupiscence, pride, boasting, grievous offence, envy,\nanxiety, want of respect, lowness of feelings, doubt or indecision,\ncovetousness.\n\nThe Tsedathits connected with merits are: affection for all that refers\nto religion, remembrance of all that is good, shame of all that is bad,\nfear of evil, exemption from concupiscence and from anger, serenity\nof soul, freedom from evil inclinations and evil thoughts, swiftness\nof the body and of the mind, good habits of the body and of the soul,\nuprightness in the feelings and the thoughts, good words, good actions,\ngood behaviour, compassion, joy at the prosperity of others, wisdom, or\nthe acquirement of the knowledge of truth by reflection.\n\n[51] Having in two previous notes explained what regards the ideas, and\nthe results from or the things connected with ideas, we must come to\nthe third great principle, viz., _Rupa_, or form, or matter, and state\nfurther the curious divisions of our Burmese metaphysicians. 1. The form\nof all that is visible is found in the four elements: earth, water, fire,\nand air. 2. The form for coming in contact are the five senses, the eyes,\nthe ear, the nose, the tongue, and the body, or rather the skin of the\nbody. 3. The form of the objects of the senses is likewise divided into\nfive parts, essentially connected with the five above-enumerated senses.\n4. The forms peculiar to the living beings are the male and female sexes.\n5. The forms of life taken abstractedly are the life of the body and\nthe life of language or uttered words. 6. The forms in which appearance\nexhibits itself are swiftness, softness, and acting. 7. The forms of\nthe signs of being are: the appearance of being, on coming into being,\nthe remaining into being, the fulness of the state of being, and the\ndestruction of being.\n\nThe last great principle is Neibban, that is to say, the exemption\nfrom the action of the influence originating from merits and demerits,\nfrom the volitions of the mind, from the seasons or time, and from\nnourishment, which are the causes of mutability; it is the end of\nexistence.\n\nAs regards the state of man and that of other rational beings, there are\nseveral notions which are arranged in a curious manner under several\nheads, which it is thought necessary to notice as briefly as possible. 1.\nThe five _Khandas_, or supports of man\u2019s being: materiality, sensation,\nperception, mutability, and intellect or thought. 2. The inward five\n_Ayatana_, or seats of the senses of seeing, of hearing, of smelling,\nof tasting, and of feeling. 3. The outward five _Ayatana_, or seats of\nwhat is perceived by the senses, viz., appearance or form, sound, odour,\ntaste, tangibility, and idea. 4. The ten _Dat_, or constitutive parts\nof the five senses, and of the five results of the perception of the\nfive senses, as above enumerated. 5. The four _Thitsa_, or truths: the\ntruth of the miseries attending existence; the truth of concupiscence\nor passions, the cause of all miseries; the truth of the Neibban of\npassions, or the destruction of passions, the summit of which is Neibban,\nthe truth of the Megga or ways to Neibban. 6. The twenty-two _Indray_,\nor dispositions or capacities for acting, viz., the capacity of seeing,\nhearing, smelling, tasting, feeling, of uniting one sex with the other,\nof thinking, of enjoying peace, of bearing pain, of yielding to anger,\nof enjoying pleasure, of remaining indifferent, of using exertions, of\nbeing attentive, of adhering to true doctrine, of putting on sentiments\nof benevolence, of searching after wisdom, of using meekness, of entering\nthe four ways of perfection, and of enjoying the happiness resulting\nfrom following those ways. 7. The nine _Phola_, or rewards resulting\nfrom walking in the path of perfection are: intensity of benevolence,\nof diligence, of attention, of fixity of wisdom, of shame of all that\nis bad, of fear for all that is bad, of diligence in avoiding evil,\nand the fear of hardness in sin. 8. The _Megga_, or ways, are: good\ndoctrine, good thinking, good language, and good actions. What follows\nis but a completive of the above, viz., good conduct, good diligence,\ngood attention, and good fixity. 9. The _Dzan_, or meditation, have\nfive parts, viz., thought of the object, reflection on the object,\nsatisfaction resulting therefrom, affectionate inclination for the\nobject, fixity in the object.\n\nThe writer craves the reader\u2019s indulgence in setting before him such a\ndry nomenclature; but no one can understand the language of Buddhist\nmetaphysicians, unless he has made himself familiar with the terms they\nuse, and the arbitrary distinctions they have adopted.\n\n[52] In this latter part our author clearly explains his opinion on this\nworld, that is to say, on all that exists. He states at first, in general\nterms, that what we see and perceive by means of our senses, possesses no\nreality; it is a mere illusion. Our ignorance of the real state of things\ndeceives us, by making us believe in the reality of objects that have\nnothing but an ephemeral and illusory existence. He proceeds a little\nfarther, and treats our senses in like manner. They are the instruments\nthat procure unto us a general illusion. But the senses, what are they?\nThey are distinct from us. By a strict analysis we find them to be but\na compound of the four elements, liable to dissolution and destruction.\nA living being has certain attributes which are the supports of his\nexistence; but those attributes are equally a compound of the elements,\nsubjected to the same modifications of reproduction and destruction\nand deprived of consistence. The attributes of the living beings being\ndisposed of in this manner, the being itself vanishes away. There remain\nbut name and form. But does what we call form possess a real existence?\nUndoubtedly not. It is a mere phantom, an illusion. Our author comes\nto the necessary and final consequence that there is no world really\nexisting. In fact, he denies the existence of matter and spirit. With\nsuch an abuse of the powers of reasoning, there is no wonder that he\nlooks upon Neibban, or annihilation, as the only end to be arrived at.\nMan in his opinion being but a compound of the four elements, which have\nno real existence, cannot be himself but an illusion without a reality.\nGracious Heavens! what an excess of mental aberration will man reach when\nhe is left to himself, deprived of the light from above! Never has the\nwriter witnessed such a total eclipse of human intellect.\n\n[53] The word Talapoin, imported into Europe by the writings of early\nPortuguese authors in the East Indies, derives its origin probably from\ntwo Pali words, Tala-pat, meaning the leaf of the palm-tree. These two\nwords, coupled together, are used by the Siamese to designate the large\nfan made of palm-leaves, set in a slender wooden frame, which Talapoins\ncarry with them on certain occasions when they go abroad.\n\nIn the course of this notice we will indiscriminately make use of\nthe words Phongyies, Talapoins, and Rahans to designate the Buddhist\nreligious.\n\n[54] In glancing over the latter part of Buddha\u2019s life, the reader has\nseen that the less important points of discipline have been the subject\nof much discussion in the early days of Buddhism. Among those points of\ndispute and contention were the last five articles above enumerated. The\nsecond council was assembled for the purpose of settling warm disputes\nwhich distracted the Buddhist Thanga, or Assembly, and caused great\ndisturbances. The venerable Rasa, who lived in Wethalie, a city situated\non the Gunduck, north of Hajipoor, undertook a long journey, as far as\nKosambi, for the express purpose of warning the religious of that country\nagainst the dangerous innovations which were introduced by a considerable\nbody of Rahans belonging to the eastern districts of Wethalie.\n\nThe journey was certainly a long one in a western direction. The ruins of\nthe famous city of Kosambi have been discovered at a place called Kosam,\nthirty miles above Allahabad, on the Jumna. They are most extensive, and\nat once indicate the importance that place must have had in the days of\nits prosperity. A broken pillar, the polished shaft of which must have\nmeasured 34 feet, is covered with inscriptions; it is one of the most\nimportant Buddhist relics. It is probably one of those pillars erected by\nAthoka in every part of his extensive dominions. It bears no inscription\nmore ancient than the second and third century of the Christian era. A\nsimilar one was erected at Prayag, an ancient city mentioned by Hwen\nThsang as being situated at the confluence of the Ganges and the Jumna,\nand finally destroyed by the gradual encroachments of the rivers. The\nplace remained abandoned until the days of the Emperor Akhbar, who built\na fort called Illahabas. The new city received the name of Allahabad from\nthe Emperor Shah Jehan. The famous pillar called the Allahabad Pillar\nbears three inscriptions. The first is that of Asoka, 240 years B.C.,\nrecording his edicts for the propagation of Buddhism; the second is that\nof Samudra Gupta, in the second century of our era, commemorative of\nhis extensive dominions; the third is that of Jehangir, mentioning his\naccession to the throne. The last re-setting up of this famous pillar\ntook place in 1838.\n\n[55] Among southern Buddhists, preference is given to the yellow colour\nfor the monk\u2019s habit. The juice extracted from the Jack-tree wood, by the\nprocess of boiling, supplies the necessary ingredient for dyeing.\n\n[56] The writer does not think it worth repeating the reasons that\ninduced Gaudama to lay down those several regulations. They owe their\norigin to the fact that some individuals contrived to be ordained though\nlabouring under physical defects, and thereby became a sort of standing\ndisgrace to the society. It was at the request of his father that Buddha\nforbade receiving to ordination sons who had not the consent of the\nparents, and fixed twenty years as the age requisite in him who would\noffer himself for the promotion to the order of Patzin. No slave, no\ndebtor, could be ordained, because a man in such a condition does not\nbelong to himself, and cannot dispose of his person, which to a certain\nextent is the property of his master and creditor.\n\n[57] It is probable that the allusion to the red colour has a Thibetan\norigin. The Buddhist monks of that country have adopted the red for their\ndress, in preference to the yellow, which is the canonical colour of the\nhabit of all the monks among the southern Buddhists.\n\n[58] In this part of the regulations the elect is reminded of the\nprimitive condition of the members of the society. In imitation of their\nbrethren of the Brahminical persuasion, and also for the purpose of\nliving in seclusion, the Rahans, in the beginning, were satisfied with\ndwelling in huts raised at the foot of some tall tree. As soon, however,\nas Buddhism gained footing in various countries, we see that kings,\nnobles, and wealthy persons vied with each other in erecting splendid\nhouses for the use of the monks. Gaudama himself was presented by King\nPimpathara at Radzagio with the splendid Weloowon monastery. In Thawattie\nthe rich man Anatapein offered him the famous Dzetawon monastery; and the\nrich lady Withaka of the same country gave him, as a gift, the no less\nsplendid mansion named Pouppayon.\n\nGeneral A. Cunningham has discovered the ruins of Thawattie, fifty-eight\nmiles north of Fyzabad, on the Rapti, in a place called Sahet Mahet,\nsituated between Akaona and Bulrampur, five miles from the former and\ntwelve from the latter. It was the capital of King Pathenadi, situated in\nnorth Kosala. In the Legend of Buddha we have seen how that monarch was\ndispossessed of his throne by one of his sons, and died while on his way\nto the capital of Adzatathat, his son-in-law. The ruins of the renowned\nDzetawon monastery have been identified by means of the information\nsupplied by the writings of the Chinese pilgrims we have often mentioned.\nThe monastery was distant 1200 paces from the southern gate of the city.\nThe scarcely less famous Pouppayon monastery was erected to the east\nof the Dzetawon. Mounds of ruins in that very same direction leave no\ndoubt that in their bosom the last remains of that celebrated place are\nentombed. It is said that Gaudama, being fifty-five years old, began to\nreside permanently in monasteries built for him, and that he spent, out\nof the last twenty-five seasons, nineteen in the Dzetawon and six in the\nPouppayon. According to Hwen Thsang, the place occupied by the Dzetawon\nmonastery was a square, having 1000 cubits on each face or side. Besides\nthe monastery, there were two temples and two tanks within the enclosure.\n\n[59] In treating of the precept of never touching women, it is added in\nthe Wini that this prohibition extends to one\u2019s own mother; and even\nshould it happen that she fall into a ditch, her son, if a Talapoin, must\nnot pull her out. But in case no other aid is near at hand, he may offer\nher his habit, or a stick, to help her out; but at the same time he is to\nimagine that he is only pulling out a log of wood.\n\n[60] The Phongyies profess to have a tender compassion for the life of\nanimals, and would not on any account allow themselves to be suspected of\nhaving contributed to the killing of an animal for the sake of feeding on\nhis flesh. The writer has often taken a pleasure in taunting them on this\naccount when he happened to see them eating pieces of boiled meat, by\nshowing to them that their practice was little in accordance with their\ntheory. They always answered that \u201cthey had not killed the animal, the\nflesh of which they were eating; but had merely received a piece of meat\nthat had no life. As to the man who had deprived the animal of its life,\nhe had certainly sinned, and would suffer for his misdeed. But that was\nan affair for which the perpetrator of the deed was alone answerable, and\nwhich concerned him alone.\u201d To this answer, of a rather elastic nature,\nthe writer jocosely replied that \u201cif there was no eater of meat there\nwould be no killer of animals; and that, in his opinion, if sin there\nwas, both had a share in it.\u201d Whereupon the yellow-dressed interlocutors\ninvariably laughed, and feeling that they stood on insecure ground,\nadroitly changed the subject of conversation. There is no doubt that the\nPhongyies believe that it is sinful to kill animals, but at the same time\nthey confess that it is difficult, nay, almost impossible, to live in\nthis world without committing such a trespass.\n\n[61] The writer, when he visited Bhamo two years ago, had the opportunity\nof witnessing a striking illustration of the above assertion. Living\nin a fine and substantial dzeat, in the vicinity of a large pagoda, he\nremarked an elderly Burmese woman coming every morning with some flowers,\nwhich she respectfully deposited in front of a niche tenanted by a\nhuge marble idol. She was poorly dressed, but her mien and countenance\nindicated that she had seen better days. Entering into conversation with\nher, the writer learned from her that she was the widow of a wealthy\nman who had been the principal writer of the governor. Her husband had\nspent twelve thousand rupees in building the pagoda in front of us and\nthe dzeat, and had just died when the work was completed, leaving to her\nand her only daughter nothing but the house they now dwelt in. She was\nwithout any means of support. Having been asked whether she did not feel\nsome regret that nothing had been left for her subsistence, and whether\nshe did not think her husband would have behaved better in bestowing\none-half of his money for religious purposes and keeping the other half\nfor the maintenance of his family, the old lady gently smiled, and said,\nwithout hesitation or showing the least sign of repining, that her\nhusband had acted very well and for the best; that she and her daughter,\nby their exertions, would always be able to support themselves in their\nhumble and poor condition.\n\nIn many places the traveller\u2019s eyes are attracted by the sight of a lofty\nand roomy kiaong, adorned with fine carvings. When he inquires about\nthe individual whose pious liberality has erected that edifice, he is\nsurprised and astonished to see him living in the poor and wretched house\nwhich is pointed out to him.\n\n\nEND OF VOL. II.\n\nPrinted by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO. Edinburgh & London","title":"The Life or Legend of Gaudama, the Buddha of the Burmese (Volume II)","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":123108}