{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_60228/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_60228","id":"gutenberg_60228","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/60228","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Other","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Proverbs, Hebrew"],"text":"STUDIES IN LIFE\n                         FROM JEWISH PROVERBS\n\n\n\n\n                            STUDIES IN LIFE\n\n                                 FROM\n\n                            JEWISH PROVERBS\n\n                                  BY\n\n                        W. A. L. ELMSLIE, M.A.,\n\n                 Fellow of Christ\u2019s College, Cambridge\n\n                                LONDON\n\n            JAMES CLARKE & CO., 13 & 14 FLEET STREET, E.C.\n\n\n\n\n                                  To\n\n                                MY WIFE\n\n                \u201cForsan et h\u00e6c olim meminisse juvabit\u201d\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\n\nA writer of many books once said to me that he regretted every preface\nhe had written. Seeing that I have the highest respect for his talents,\nI am constrained to take to heart the moral, which (particularly in a\nbook on proverbs) would seem to be \u201cleast said, soonest mended.\u201d But\nwhatever else he may choose to leave unsaid, an author is expected to\ngive away his secret in the preface, making known his intentions as\ndiscreetly as he can but still explicitly. That duty accomplished, he is\nat liberty to give thanks, and so conclude.\n\nThe greater part of this volume (Chapters V. to XII.) is occupied with a\nstudy of the teaching of \u201cWisdom\u201d among the Jews in Palestine during the\nHellenistic Age, so far as the subject is represented in the two great\ncollections of Jewish sayings, the _Book of Proverbs_ and\n_Ecclesiasticus_. It would be too much to claim that in these chapters\nthe book breaks new ground, for the importance of the Hellenistic period\nis recognised by students of history, and there have been many\ncommentaries on the _Book of Proverbs_, nor has _Ecclesiasticus_ been\nwithout its expositors. But the historian devotes himself to the\nrelation of events, and the commentator is busy with the thoughts of the\nseveral proverbs or with the textual difficulties they present, rather\nthan with their precise historical setting. Here an endeavour has been\nmade to bring the proverbs into close connection with the history, and\nit is hoped that not only do the proverbs thereby acquire fresh\ninterest, but also that there emerges a picture of the men who made them\nand used them in the furtherance of morality and faith. Even to\nprofessed students of Jewish history the makers of the \u201cWisdom\u201d proverbs\nare apt to remain distant and shadowy figures; but we cannot afford to\nneglect any of the makers of the Bible, and I venture to think that the\nmethod followed in this volume makes it possible to appreciate the\noutlook of these men, to realise their difficulties, and if not to\nsympathise wholly with their views, at least to feel that they were very\nhuman. Whether this brief sketch is successful in attaining its object\nor not, it is certain that the subject deserves more attention than it\nhas hitherto received.\n\nBesides the numerous maxims in _Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_, there\nare some interesting popular proverbs in the historical and prophetical\nbooks of the Old Testament. To these a part of Chapter IV. will be\ndevoted. Occasional references will also be made, especially in the\nsecond half of the book, to proverbial sayings taken from the Rabbinical\nliterature of the Jews. The titles of Chapters XIII. to XX. sufficiently\nindicate the nature of their contents, and require no further comment\nhere.\n\nIn translating the proverbs the Revised Version has been used as a\nbasis, but liberty has been exercised in making any alterations that\nseemed desirable on textual or literary grounds. Most of the changes\nthus introduced will readily explain themselves to those who are\nacquainted with the original texts or may care to consult modern\ncommentaries, such as that of Professor Toy on _Proverbs_\n(International Critical Commentary) and of Dr. Oesterley on\n_Ecclesiasticus_ (Cambridge Bible Series).\n\nAny volume, such as this, that touches a wide range of subjects must\nhave correspondingly many obligations. I welcome this opportunity of\nrecording my gratitude to the authors whose writings are referred to in\nthe following pages, and in particular I desire to acknowledge my\nindebtedness to the Right Rev. E. L. Bevan\u2019s illuminating work on the\nHellenistic period, to the writings of Professor Toy and Dr. Oesterley\nmentioned above, and to Professor C. F. Kent\u2019s short study and analysis\nof _Proverbs_ in his book _The Wise Men of Ancient Israel_.\n\n                                                              W. A. L. E.\n\nChrist\u2019s College, Cambridge.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER                                                             PAGE\n\nI THE CHARACTERISTICS OF PROVERBS                                     13\n\nII THE PROVERBS OF THE JEWS                                           28\n\nIII FORGOTTEN YEARS                                                   43\n\nIV THE DAY OF SMALL THINGS                                            60\n\nV IRON SHARPENETH IRON                                                75\n\nVI A SOWER WENT FORTH TO SOW                                         100\n\nVII MEN AND MANNERS                                                  108\n\nVIII THE IDEAL                                                       136\n\nIX THE EXALTATION OF WISDOM                                          166\n\nX THE HILL \u201cDIFFICULTY\u201d                                              178\n\nXI HARVEST                                                           194\n\nXII VALUES                                                           214\n\nXIII NATURE IN THE PROVERBS                                          229\n\nXIV HUMOUR IN THE PROVERBS                                           237\n\nXV FROM WISDOM\u2019S TREASURY                                            245\n\nXVI THE BODY POLITIC                                                 248\n\nXVII A CHAPTER OF GOOD ADVICE                                        261\n\nXVIII CONDUCT                                                        265\n\nXIX FAITH                                                            273\n\nXX THE GIFT OF GOD                                                   280\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nThe Characteristics of Proverbs\n\n\nMost writers on proverbs have thought it necessary to attempt a\ndefinition of their subject, but the task is difficult, and the phrase\nthat will silence criticism has yet to be produced. Lord Russell\u2019s\nepigram describing a proverb as \u201cThe wisdom of many and the wit of one\u201d\nis as good as any, but it leaves so much unsaid that as a definition it\nis certainly inadequate. On the other hand, it is a true remark, and the\nfacts it emphasises may conveniently be taken as the point from which to\nbegin this study.\n\nNo saying is a proverb until it has commended itself to a number of men;\nthe wisdom of one is not a proverb, but the wisdom of many. Countless\nfine expressions well suited to become proverbial have perished in the\nspeaking, or lie forgotten in our books. To win wide acceptance and then\nto keep pace with the jealous years and remain a living word on the lips\nof the people is an achievement few human thoughts have compassed; for\nthousands that pass unheeded only one here or there, helped by some\nhappy quality, or perhaps some freak of fortune, is caught from mouth to\nmouth, approved, repeated and transmitted. Every accepted proverb has\ntherefore survived a searching test, all the more severe because\njudgment is not always passed upon the merits of the case. Popular\nfavour is at the best capricious, and often an admirable saying has died\nout of use and a worse become famous. But of one thing we can be\ncertain: general recognition is never won except by that which expresses\nthe beliefs, or appeals to the conscience, or touches the affections of\naverage men. However many the defects of any given proverb may happen to\nbe, it is sure to possess some quality of human interest.\n\nIn the second place, it is generally true that, although proverbs have a\nsovereign right to utter commonplace, there is no such thing as a dull\nproverb. No matter how pedestrian may be its doctrine, somewhere in its\nexpression will be manifest the \u201cwit of one\u201d--a flash of insight or\nimagination, a note of pathos or power. Of course, many sayings through\nage and the changes of fashion have lost their savour for us, but--the\npoint is important--even these are not inevitably dull. _All_ were once\npiquant. If we could but recapture the attitude of the men who made the\nphrase proverbial, its interest would be felt again. But although it\nthus appears that proverbs are essentially human and generally witty,\nthe study of them is attended by certain difficulties. It is wise,\ntherefore, to acknowledge at the outset the obstacles that will beset\nour path; to be forewarned is to be forearmed.\n\nMany proverbs have achieved popularity, not on account of what they say,\nbut of the way they say it; the secret of their success has been some\nspice of originality or of humour in their composition. Originality,\nhowever, is a tender plant, and nothing fades more quickly than humour.\nA graphic or unexpected metaphor will delight the imagination for a\nlittle while, but how swiftly and inexorably \u201cfamiliarity breeds\ncontempt\u201d; a phrase which is itself a case in point. Whenever therefore,\nin studying the Jewish proverbs, we come upon famous and familiar words,\nwe must endeavour to let the saying for a moment renew its youth, by\ndeliberately quickening our sympathy and attention, by counting it\ncertain that words which have not failed through so many centuries to\ntouch the hearts and minds of men deserve from us more than a passing\nglance of recognition.\n\nMany proverbs speak truth, but a true word can be spoken too often.\nEvery preacher in Christendom knows how little, through much iteration,\nthe words \u201cHope\u201d and \u201cLove\u201d may convey to his hearers, although most men\nare conscious that of the realities of Hope and Love they cannot possess\ntoo much. So also with the truths expressed in proverbs. For example,\nmany excellent men have lacked only promptitude to win success, and we\nhave need to be warned thereby; but when the fact is put before us in\nthe words \u201cProcrastination is the thief of time,\u201d what copybook boredom\nrises in our indignant soul! We will not learn the lesson from so stale\na teacher. Every effort to indicate the genius of proverbs is attended\nby this disadvantage of verbal familiarity; and, of course, it is the\nfinest sayings that suffer most. But just here the tragedy of the great\nEuropean War lends unwelcome aid. The intensity of human experience has\nbeen raised to a degree not known for centuries; and, as a recent writer\nin the _Spectator_ admirably puts it, \u201cIn all times of distress dead\ntruisms come to life. They confront the mind at every turn. We are\namazed at the vividness of our thoughts, and confounded at the banality\nof their expression. We imagined that only fools helped themselves out\nwith the musty wisdom of copybooks, but now it seems that even a fool\nmay speak to the purpose. There is nothing so new as trouble, nothing so\nthreadbare as its expression. \u2018All is fair in love and war\u2019.... How\nvividly that falsehood has been impressed upon us by our enemies. Yet\nhow dull and indisputable it seemed such a little while ago. Even those\nof us who have least personal stake in the war grow terribly impatient\nat its slow movement. Almost every man who buys an afternoon paper\nthinks of the \u2018watched pot.\u2019 How many people have lately known the\nheart-sickness of \u2018hope deferred\u2019? \u2018Dying is as natural as living\u2019: that\nis a dull enough expression of fact, when death is far off: but, when it\nis near, it cuts like a two-edged sword.\u201d[1] Life for the present\ngeneration has verily been transformed; it is both more terrible and\nmore inspiring, more poignant in its sorrows, more thrilling in its\nachievements and its joys: all things are become new. Once we could say\nglibly, \u201cThe heart knoweth its own bitterness,\u201d using the phrase to\npoint a trivial trouble, but not now; and perhaps never again in our\nlife-time. Thank God, it is not only the sorrowful sayings which rise in\nour heart with new meaning, but also those which speak of courage and\nstrength, of loyalty and faith.\n\nThere is a third danger against which we require to be on guard.\nProverbs cannot be absorbed in quantity. Like pictures in a gallery,\nthey stand on their rights, each demanding a measure of individual\nattention and a due period for reflection. Many chapters in the _Book of\nProverbs_ are unpalatable reading, not because they are prosy, but\nbecause they are composed of independent maxims connected by no link of\nlogical sequence or even of kindred meaning. To read consecutively\nthrough a series of these self-contained units is to impose an\nintolerable strain on the mind. The imagination becomes jaded, the\nmemory dazed by the march of too swiftly changing images. The\ndisconnected thoughts efface one another, leaving behind them only a\nblurred confusion. This will appear the more inevitable the more clearly\nwe realise what a proverb is. For consider: not one nor two but\ncountless observations of men and things have gone to the making of a\nsingle proverb; it is the conclusion to which a thousand premisses\npointed the way; it is compressed experience. And further, a proverb\nusually gives not just the bare inference from experience, but the\ninference made memorable by some touch of fancy in the phrasing. Hence\nthe meaning of a proverb is not always obvious, that it may seem the\nsharper when perceived. Some curious comparison, some pleasing\nillustration, is put forward to catch and hold attention until, from the\ntrain of thought thus raised, a truth leaps out upon us or a fact of\nlife confronts us, familiar perhaps but now invested with fresh dignity.\nA proverb is not, as it were, a single sentence out of the book of human\nlife, but is rather the epitome of a page or chapter; or, if you please,\ncall it a summary, now of some drama of life, now of an epic or lyric\npoem, now again of a moral treatise. From a literary point of view\nproverbs are rich, over-rich feeding. They cloy. There is in the _Book\nof Proverbs_ a remark that adroitly puts the point:\n\n    _Hast thou found honey?\n    Eat so much as is convenient for thee_ (Pr. 25^{16}).\n\nIt follows that frequent quotation of proverbs will be apt to fatigue\nthe reader, yet the danger is one which cannot wholly be avoided in this\nvolume. Something, however, can be done by setting limitations on the\nscope of our subject, and in the following pages no attempt will be made\nto present any systematic survey of the whole immense field of Jewish\nproverbs, ancient, medi\u00e6val, and modern. Attention will be given chiefly\nto two pre-Christian collections--the _Book of Proverbs_ and\n_Ecclesiasticus_--and, even so, many good sayings in those books will be\nleft unnoticed. Moreover, proverbs are not quite chaotic, for all their\nnatural independence. They are like a forest through which many paths\nconduct; by following now one, now another topic it is possible to\npenetrate in various directions, as inclination prompts. But, even so,\nthe peril of wearying the reader by over-many proverbs will only be\nlessened not removed; wherefore again--\u2019tis a word of high\nwisdom--_Hast thou found honey? Eat so much as is convenient for thee._\n\nEnough of difficulties and dangers! Woe to him who goes \u201csupping sorrows\nwith a long spoon\u201d! A happier task, however, does remain, before we set\nsail upon our quest: we have still to count our blessings. What are the\nvirtues of proverbs? What the interests we may hope to find in our\nsubject?\n\nThe proverb does for human life something that science does for the\nworld of Nature: it rouses the unseeing eye and the unheeding ear to the\nmarvel of what seems ordinary. As for Nature, most of us who are not\nscientists are still deplorably blind to her perfections, but popular\ntext-books have so far succeeded that we confess our ignorance with\nshame, and some are even penitent enough to desire that they might grow\nwiser. We are at least aware that there is nothing in the world not\nwonderful. We used to pass the spider\u2019s web in our gardens with never a\nthought, but now--is not Le Fabre whispering to us of \u201crays equidistant\nand forming a beautifully regular orb,\u201d of \u201cpolygonal lines drawn in a\ncurve as geometry understands it.\u201d \u201cWhich of us,\u201d says he, pricking our\nhuman vanity, \u201cwould undertake, off-hand, without much preliminary\nexperiment and without measuring instruments to divide a circle into a\ngiven quantity of sectors of equal width. The spider, though weighted\nwith a wallet and tottering on threads shaken by the wind, effects the\ndelicate division without stopping to think.\u201d[2] The astronomer does not\nguard his secrets like the jealous astrologer of old; so that now-a-days\nmany a man who possesses neither the higher mathematics nor a telescope\nknows more than his eyes can show him of the marvels of the stars and\nthe mystery of space. Professor J. A. Thompson writes of _The Wonder of\nLife_, and behold! even he that hath no skill in biology may learn that\nthe barren seashore is a teeming world, more strange than fairyland.\nScience does not make Nature marvellous; she lifts the veil of ignorance\nfrom our mind. Proverbs perform the same service for the life of man.\nTaking the common incidents of experience, they point out their meaning.\nPerceiving the principles in the recurrent facts of life, they discover\nand declare that the commonplace is more than merely common. That is a\ntask greater and more difficult than at first sight may appear: as has\nbeen well said, \u201cThere is no literary function higher than that of\ngiving point to what is ordinary and rescuing a truth from the obscurity\nof obviousness.\u201d[3] Most men are slow, desperately slow, to perceive the\nsignificance of the experiences they encounter daily; yet from the iron\ndiscipline of these things none of us can escape. They are our life-long\nschoolmaster, and woe betide the man who from that stern teacher learns\nnothing or learns amiss. Nor is it sufficient that the facts should be\nbrought before us. As a rule, the truth requires to be pushed home. Ask\nus not to observe that the reasoning faculties of the human being are\nseriously and sometimes disastrously perturbed by the impulses of\naffection; but tell us \u201cLove is blind,\u201d and--perhaps--we shall not\nforget.\n\nProverbs are superlatively human. Suffer the point to have a curious\nintroduction. In certain ancient colleges it is the custom on one Sunday\nin each year to hold in the chapel a service of Commemoration, when the\nnames of all those who were benefactors of the college are read aloud.\nFew ceremonies can convey more impressively the continuity of the\ngenerations, the actual unity between the shadowy past and the vivid\npresent which seems to us the only _real_ world. The roll may begin far\nback in the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries, commencing with the\nnames of the Founder and a few medi\u00e6val Benefactors (some of them famous\nmen), but steadily and swiftly the years move onwards as the roll is\nread, until, listening, we realise that in another moment what is called\nthe past will merge into the present. Somehow the magical change takes\nplace; the past is finished, and the record is telling now \u201cthe things\nwhereof we too were part,\u201d ending perhaps with the name of one whom we\ncalled \u201cfriend,\u201d who sat beside us in the chapel--was it only a year ago\nto-day? On these occasions the lesson is usually taken from a chapter in\n_Ecclesiasticus_ known as _The Praise of Famous Men_:--_Let us now\npraise famous men and our fathers that begat us. The Lord manifested in\nthem great glory, even his mighty power from the beginning. Such as did\nbear rule in their kingdoms and were men renowned for their power,\ngiving counsel by their understanding; such as have brought tidings in\nprophecies; leaders of the people by their counsels, and by their\nunderstanding men of learning for the people--wise were their words in\ntheir instruction; such as sought out musical tunes, and set forth\nverses in writing; rich men furnished with ability, living peaceably in\ntheir habitations: all these were honoured in their generations, and\nwere a glory in their days. There be of them that have left a name\nbehind them, to declare their praises. And some there be which have no\nmemorial; who are perished as though they had not been and are become as\nthough they had not been born._ What! even of those who were _famous_\nmen?... _perished as though they had not been and become as though they\nhad not been born_. The verdict is too hard. Granting that they missed\ngenius, did they not live nobly, speak wisely, make many beautiful\nthings, do generous deeds, giving of themselves the best they had to\ngive? But ... _as though they had not been_. Surely they merited some\nkinder fate than that? And what of the multitudes of the unrenowned? If\nthe famous are nothing, then the rest of men are less than nothing and\nvanity, and, dying, they certainly can leave no trace behind them, no\nword to carry the tale of how once they laboured, loved, hoped, endured.\nAll their exquisite human longings, all their pleasant thinking, must be\nfor ever lost? No! for proverbs are the memorial of ordinary men; their\nvery accents; record of their intimate thoughts and judgments, their\njests and sorrowings, their aspirations, their philosophy. And this even\nfrom distant ages! There are proverbs old as the Iliad. Men of genius\nhave not a monopoly of immortal words. Perhaps at the start one man of\nkeen wit was needed to invent the happy phrase or the smart saying, but\nbefore it became a proverb countless ordinary folk had to give it their\napproval. We know that every popular proverb has seemed good to a\nmultitude of men. Essentially therefore it has become their utterance,\nand is filled with their personality. And, of course, proverbs are not\nonly a memorial of the unknown dead; they are equally a language of the\nunknown and unlearned living. The humblest of men experience deep\nemotions which, however, they cannot articulate for themselves.\nProverbs, we repeat, come to the rescue of the unlettered, supplying\nwords to fit their thoughts, unstopping the tongue of the dumb. Just\nwhat effects this simple treasury of speech has had in history who can\ncalculate, but that it has not been slight is dexterously suggested by\nthese words of anger and chagrin which Shakespeare makes Coriolanus\nspeak:\n\n                            \u201cHang \u2019em,\n    They said they were an hungry, sighed forth proverbs;\n    That _hunger broke stone walls_, that _dogs must eat_,\n    That _meat was made for mouths_, that _the gods sent not\n    Corn for the rich men only_; with these shreds\n    They vented their complainings.\u201d\n\nPoor wretches! with their \u201cmeat was made for mouths.\u201d Doubtless they\nshould have prepared for the most noble Coriolanus a treatise setting\nforth their preposterous economics, and humbly praying that in due\ncourse their petition might be brought before the Senate. But--\u201cdogs\nmust eat.\u201d Faugh! \u201cNo gentleman,\u201d said Lord Chesterfield, \u201cever uses a\nproverb.\u201d Perhaps not, in an age of false gentility. But men of genius\nin many a century have taken note of their rich humanism and their value\nas a real, though undeveloped, science of life. Aristotle, Bacon,\nShakespeare, Montaigne, Cervantes, Hazlitt, Goethe, thought fit to use\nthem. Despite my Lord Chesterfield, let us continue the subject.\n\nIn the third place, proverbs are like a mirror in which the facts and\nideals of society may be discerned. This is so obvious a truth that its\nimportance may be under-estimated until it is realised how clear and\ndetailed the reflection is. Proverbs prefer the concrete to the\nabstract. They contain many allusions[4] that are like windows opening\non to the land of their birth and offering glimpses of its life and\nscenery--the rain and the sunshine ripening its fields and vineyards;\nthe valleys and mountains, the open country, the villages, and towns.\nThe activities and interests of the inhabitants are still more clearly\ndisclosed. Manners and morals are laid bare, all the more faithfully\nbecause the witness is often unintentional. \u201cProverbs,\u201d said Bacon,\n\u201creveal the genius, wit, and character of a nation.\u201d In them Humanity,\nall reticence forgotten, seems to have cried its thoughts from the\nhousetops and proclaimed its hidden motives in the market-place. Suppose\nthat almost all other evidence for the history of Italy or Spain were\nblotted out but the national sayings were left us, there would still be\nrich material for reconstructing an outline of the characteristics and\nnot a little of the fortunes of those peoples. In respect of national\ndisposition how terribly would the lust for vengeance appear as the\nbesetting sin of Italy: _Revenge is a morsel fit for God_--_Revenge\nbeing an hundred years old has still its sucking teeth_. From the\ncopious store of Spanish proverbs could be substantiated such facts as\nthe Moorish occupation of Spain, the power and pride of her medi\u00e6val\nchivalry, and the immense influence for good and evil which the Church\nof Rome has wielded in the length and breadth of the country.\n\nArchbishop Trench lays stress upon this quality of proverbs. Speaking of\nBurchardt\u2019s _Arabic Proverbs of the Modern Egyptians_, he remarks,[5]\n\u201cIn other books others describe the modern Egyptians, but here they\nunconsciously describe themselves. The selfishness, the utter extinction\nof all public spirit, the servility, which no longer as with an inward\nshame creeps into men\u2019s lives but utters itself as the avowed law of\ntheir lives, the sense of the oppression of the strong, of the\ninsecurity of the weak, and generally the whole character of life, alike\noutward and inward, as poor, mean, sordid, and ignoble ... all this, as\nwe study these documents, rises up before us in truest, though in\npainfullest, outline. Thus, only in a land where rulers, being evil\nthemselves, feel all goodness to be their instinctive foe, where they\npunish but never reward, could a proverb like the following, _Do no good\nand thou shalt find no evil_, ever have come to the birth\u201d: altogether a\nblack picture of Mohammedan society. It is a healthier, happier scene\nthat the Jewish proverbs will unfold to us.\n\nThe last general characteristic of proverbs, to which we need pay\nattention, is their inexhaustible variety. The world is their province.\nReligion and ethics, politics, commerce, agriculture, handicrafts,\nriches and poverty, diligence and idleness, hope and contentment, unrest\nand despair, laughter and tears, pride and humility, love and hatred:\nwhat is there you can name that we cannot set you a proverb to match it?\nProverbs enter the palace unsummoned, take stock of his Majesty, and\nthen inform the world what they think of his doings. They sit with my\nLord Justice on the bench, and he shall hear further of the matter if he\njudge with respect of persons. But lo and behold! they also keep company\nwith highwaymen and thieves, and the tricks of most trades are to them\nno secret. Proverbs are at home with men of every degree: they dine at\nthe rich man\u2019s table, they beg with Lazarus by the gate; and shrewdly do\nthey analyse the world from both points of view. Chiefly, however, they\nhave dwelt in a myriad normal homes, where neither riches nor poverty is\ngiven, but where a hard day\u2019s work, a sufficient meal, and a warm fire\nin the evening have loosened tongues and opened hearts. Whereupon these\nunconscionable guests proceed to criticise the family. They interfere\nbetween husband and wife, parents and children, and teach all of them\nmanners with an unsparing frankness. They play with the children,\ncounsel their parents, and dream dreams with the old. Again, proverbs\nare both country-dwellers and town-dwellers. Have they not observed the\nways of wind and water, sunshine and silvery starlight, seen the trees\ngrow green and the seeds spring into life, the flowers bloom and the\nharvest ingathered? Yet also they have spent the whole year in the city,\nwalking its streets early and late, strolling through the markets and\nbargaining in the shops. Ubiquitous proverbs! There is nothing beyond\ntheir reach, nothing hid from their eyes.\n\nThe advantages of this abundant variety are clear. Almost any topic of\nhuman interest will find sufficient illustration in proverbs. Frequently\na saying will be found useful from more than one standpoint: vary the\ntopic and the same material may appear in new and unexpected guise. On\nthe other hand, whatever subject be chosen, a serious difficulty will be\nencountered. As soon as the proverbs bearing upon it have been gathered\ntogether, an extreme confusion of opinion will be apparent. The trumpet\ngives a most uncertain sound! Thus, let ethics be our starting-point.\nMany, no doubt, will be the maxims that breathe an easy, practical\nmorality, and these, being careful not to be righteous overmuch, may\nseem tolerably compatible one with another; but then in violent contrast\nwill be some that soar to the very heavens, and some also that surely\nemanate from hell. These will suffice from the devil\u2019s forge: _Dead men\ntell no tales_--_Every man has his price_--or this Italian proverb,\n_Wait time and place for thy revenge, for swift revenge is poor\nrevenge_. For the heavenly, here are two from ancient Greece, _The best\nis always arduous_[6]--_Friends have their all in common_[7]; or this\ntender English one, _The way to heaven is by Weeping-Cross_, or this\nstrong Scottish phrase, _The grace of God is gear enough_[8]. Verily,\nproverbs do battle one against another. Trench quotes the following:\n_The noblest vengeance is to forgive_ compared with the infamous _He who\ncannot avenge himself is weak, he who will not is vile_. _Penny wise\npound foolish_ is cried in our one ear; _Take care of the pence, and the\npounds will take care of themselves_ in the other. Could anything be\nmore disconcerting to our hope of investigating the ethical system of\nproverbs? But in like manner their social teaching at first sight seems\na wilderness of contradiction, their theology a babel of conflicting\ntongues. The natural perplexity thus occasioned can, however, be\nresolved very simply. Two points must be kept in mind. First, that when\nwith rough and ready justice men are classified as pious or wicked,\nclever or stupid, generous or miserly, hopeful or despondent, rich or\npoor, young or old, wise or ignorant, and so forth, these terms do\nrepresent real distinctions between persons, although perhaps no one\ncategory suffices fully to describe any given individual; and second,\nthat a proverb necessarily expresses a sentiment shared by a number of\npeople. It follows that what we ought to seek in proverbs is not one\npoint of view but many. We shall find the attitude of various classes\nand types of men. We shall see life as it appears now in the eyes of the\njust and the merciful, now of the evil and the cunning. Here in one\ngroup of sayings will be the way the world looks to a lazy man, here\nagain are the convictions of the unscrupulously shrewd. Here is some\ncomplacent merchant\u2019s view of social questions, here the exhortations of\nan idealistic soul. When once this fact about proverbs is recognised,\nthe difficulty of their contradictoriness instantly is removed. Instead\nof feeling that they speak in hesitating accents, we discover that they\nare answering our questions, not with _one_, but with many voices, far\nfrom uncertain in their tone. The confusion vanishes. We find ourselves\nlistening to the speech of men who, differing sometimes profoundly one\nfrom another, have sharply defined ideas, and can utter their thoughts\nwith brevity, force, and wit.\n\nIt will be seen that our object is wide and deep, and that there are\nmany avenues of approach to it. One road, however, would seem to be\nimpossible--proverbs as literature. That an occasional popular saying\nwould have some touch of literary value, is, of course, to be expected.\nBut a winged word now and then, a lovely image flitting once in a while\nacross the plains, will not justify the topic, \u201cProverbs as literature.\u201d\nThe individual proverb failing, what hope is there that a collection of\nthem will come nearer the mark? Suppose the very best of our English\nproverbs were gathered together, there might be much to interest, amuse,\nor edify our minds, but literature such an assemblage would assuredly\nnot be. The vital element of unity would be lacking. As well string the\ninterjections and conjunctions of our language into verse, and call the\nresult a poem! And yet the incredible has happened. Once a collection of\nproverbs was so made as to be literature--but where and when must be\nleft for the next chapter to relate.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nThe Proverbs of the Jews\n\n\nOf the facts we have been considering one is specially relevant to the\nsubject, not only of this volume but of the series in which it forms a\npart--namely, the intimately human quality of proverbs. Mr. Morley has\ncalled them \u201cThe guiding oracles which man has found out for himself in\nthat great business of ours, of learning how to be, to do, to do without\nand to depart.[9]\u201d The Humanism of the Bible ought therefore to be\nvisible nowhere more clearly than in Israel\u2019s proverbs, _if_ these are\nto be found within its pages. But stay! What right have we to expect\ntheir presence? Surely little or none, if the Bible is what many persons\nconceive it to be--only a book of religious teachings. For consider the\nreasonable expectation, and contrast the extraordinary facts. In such a\nbook we might reasonably expect to find a few proverbs: that a king\nshould quote a saying to suit his purpose, a counsellor press home his\nwisdom with some well-known maxim, or a prophet edge his appeal by the\nuse of a popular phrase--that would be quite natural, and indeed occurs.\nBut actually (and here is the astonishing matter) there are proverbs by\ntens and by hundreds, gathered together in one Book of the Bible,\nfollowing verse by verse, chapter by chapter, till they choke one\nanother through sheer profusion, like flowers in an unkept garden. Thus\nin five chapters of the _Book of Proverbs_ (13-17) there are 154\nseparate adages. So strange a phenomenon challenges attention. It might\nbe supposed that the Hebrew language had been ransacked for proverbs,\nbut that suggestion will not stand scrutiny. On investigation, the Book\nproves to be no deliberate, systematic, attempt to collect the Hebrew\nproverbs. Thus, when we look for the few, but famous, popular sayings\nthat occur in the historical and prophetic writings of the Old\nTestament, we find that _not one_ of them is included. As for system, a\ncasual glance will demonstrate its absence. In most chapters of\n_Proverbs_ not even an effort is made to classify the material. The Book\ncannot be explained as an anthology of Hebrew sayings--the most witty or\nworldly-wise, the most moral or religious. Whatever the explanation,\nhere assuredly is something less artificial than an anthology. Good,\nbad, and indifferent proverbs alike are present. Many of the sayings\nunmistakably reflect a conception of morality more practical than\nexalted, and some appear grossly utilitarian. Time and again the\nconsequences of sin are na\u00efvely presented as the reasons for avoiding\nit, whilst the rewards of virtue are emphasised unduly. Later on we\nshall find reasons for holding that the utilitarian attitude is not\nfundamental, and therefore not so destructive of the ethical value of\nthese proverbs as it might seem. But until both the circumstances which\ngave rise to the proverbs and the ends they were meant to serve are\nunderstood, until (as it were) we have seen the men who spoke the maxims\nand the people who repeated them, that more generous judgment is\nscarcely possible; and meantime, be it freely admitted, there are many\nthings in the Book not agreeable to modern ethical taste. Religiously,\ntoo, the _Book of Proverbs_ is on the surface disappointing. Neither the\nfire of the Prophets\u2019 faith is visible, nor the deep passion of the\nPsalmists\u2019 longing after God. Who amongst us, seeking spiritual help,\nwould choose a chapter in _Proverbs_ when the Gospels or the Letters of\nSt. Paul are open to him? So then on literary, ethical, and religious\ngrounds there are plain reasons why this Book has lost something of its\nformer favour. Contrast the estimation in which it was held only two\ngenerations ago. Ruskin records that four chapters of _Proverbs_, the\nthird, fourth, eighth and twelfth, were amongst those portions of the\nBible which his mother made him learn by heart and \u201cso established my\nsoul in life\u201d; they were, he declares, \u201cthe most precious and on the\nwhole essential part of all my education.\u201d Not so long ago, _Proverbs_\nwas a text-book in many schools; probably it is nowhere so used\nto-day.[10]\n\nEven if neglect of this part of the Scripture is partly chargeable to\nheightened standards of ethics or theology, the loss incurred is great.\nAs a matter of fact, depreciation of its ethical temper is often based\non inaccurate notions, often is exaggerated. In comparison with our\nfathers, who without commentaries read through their Bibles from cover\nto cover, we have not gained as we should; for, whilst we pride\nourselves (with what measure of justice is uncertain) on being more\nsensitive to religious values, they were far better acquainted with the\nreligious facts. They at least knew the contents of Scripture; we, who\nhave at our disposal abundance of interpretative help whereby to learn\nthe nature of the Bible and with instructed minds consider its spiritual\nworth, too often are ignorant both of text and commentary. Doubtless the\nfault is due to certain characteristics of our time. This is a feverish\nimpatient age; if our mental fare is not served us like our daily\ninformation, put up into easy paragraphs, so that he who runs may read,\nwe will not stay to seek it; and the Old Testament is not an easy book,\nthough it answers patience with astonishing rewards. Candidly, how does\nit stand with knowledge of the Bible at the present time? In charity let\nthe question be addressed only to those who have a genuine interest in\nthe Christian religion, desiring to rule their lives by its ideals and\ncherishing its promises. Even to such persons what is the Bible? A few\nthere are who have found or made opportunity for serious consideration\nof its Books, and these have certainly felt the fascination of the vast\nand varied interests that have won and retained for biblical study the\nlife-long service of many brilliant scholars. But to the others, and\nobviously they are thousands of thousands, the Bible is essentially the\nbook of religion. As such, the New Testament means the Gospel\nnarratives, some immortal chapters from St. Paul, a few verses in\n_Hebrews_, and St. John\u2019s vision of that City where _death shall be no\nmore_. And what--religiously--in similar fashion is the Old Testament,\nexcept a few, comforting, beautiful Psalms; some childhood memories of\nAbraham, Joseph, Moses, generous David and brave Daniel; a tale or two\nof Elijah; a procession of Kings, and an uncharted sea of grand but most\nperplexing Prophets? Asked for a more general account, some would\ndescribe the Old Testament as a record of the laws, history, and\nreligious ideas of the Hebrew people; others would answer that it is\n\u201cpart of the Word of God,\u201d but they might all be at a loss to say what\nis the religious value of _Leviticus_, what the spiritual relation\nbetween _Genesis_ and the _Gospel_, between _Kings_ and _Chronicles_,\nbetween _Job_ and _Revelation_. Probably the great majority of men at\nthe present time would be quite willing to confess that their knowledge\nof the Bible is vague and insufficient, but few, we believe, would\nsuspect that there is anything wrong with the basis from which their\nthinking proceeds: so firmly is it fixed in men\u2019s minds that the Bible\nis merely the book of religion. The Bible is that, but more also, more\nand yet again more. And how easily we might have realised the fact!\nOught not the presence of these surprisingly heterogeneous proverbs\nalone to have stirred our curiosity, and so compelled the enlargement of\nour thoughts about the Old Testament? Without needing to be urged, men\nshould, of their own accord, have perceived the astonishing range of\ninterest and the wealth of literature the Bible contains, and should\nhave seen in this variety a clue that would lead them by pleasant paths\nto treasures artistic and intellectual as well as religious. Thereby no\nloss could ensue religiously, but on the contrary gain. The greater our\nrecognition of the artistic qualities of the sacred literature, the more\nexact and full our understanding of the history of the Jews and of their\nbeliefs and interpretation of life, so much the more wonderful will the\nactual development of religion in Israel be seen to be. This is the\npoint to which the above remarks are meant to lead. If the Biblical\nproverbs compel as a first conclusion the recognition of how much more\nthe Old Testament is than a text-book for theology, that is a minimum\nand an initial discovery; our appreciation of its meaning will assuredly\nnot end there. The growth, in Israel, of the knowledge of God into a\nhigh and holy faith is an indisputable fact. Increase your comprehension\nof the circumstances attending this development, and your faith in the\nreality of a self-revealing God should increase also.\n\nSo much for the presence of these proverbs in the Bible. Now consider\nthe affirmation with which the first chapter concluded: that proverbs\nhave once been literature. That claim may be advanced on behalf of the\nsayings of the _Book of Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_. It is of course\nobvious that the difficulty which has to be overcome is the essential\nindependence of proverbial sayings: each is so relentlessly complete in\nitself. How can they be so related to each other as to acquire the\nhigher unity indispensable for literature? The lack of system in the\n_Book of Proverbs_ has already been admitted frankly; but the point must\nagain be emphasised. So far from the five chapters with the 154 maxims,\nreferred to above, being exceptional they are typical of the greater\nportion of the Book. Continually we encounter the same astonishing\ndisregard for consecutive, or even cognate, thought in the grouping of\nthe proverbs. And yet, despite this fact, the attentive reader will\nbecome conscious of a subtle unity pervading the Book. The impression\nwill grow that the confusion is not absolute; somehow it is being held\nwithin bounds, whilst here and there chaos has evidently yielded to the\ncommand of a directing purpose. Obstinate independents as proverbs are,\none discovers that here their masses, unruly though they still may be,\nhave nevertheless become an army, a host sufficiently disciplined to\nserve a common end. As with a complicated piece of music through the\nintricacies of the notes runs ever an underlying theme, so here through\nthe medley of disparate sayings can be heard the preaching of one great\nthought--\u201cWisdom.\u201d Behind the proverbs, behind the Book, we discover\nmen, preachers and teachers of an Idea, enthusiasts for a\nCause--\u201cWisdom.\u201d Just what that phrase implied, just what manner of men\nthose advocates of Wisdom were, we shall see in due course. The point\nfor the moment is that these Jewish proverbs were not gathered\nhaphazard, nor simply as _a_ collection of Jewish proverbs; but for the\nexpress purpose of illustrating, developing, and enforcing the\nconception of Wisdom. Thus, through the influence of this specific\nintention, they received in sufficient measure the unity of literature.\nThis fact is of the utmost importance for our subject, for it means that\nthese proverbs may be considered not merely one by one but in their\ntotality; that is, in their combination as text-books inculcating\nWisdom. So regarded, they afford a glimpse of a remarkable class of men\nin the intensely interesting century or two when the intellectual\nfoundations of Western civilisation were being laid down. No doubt each\nproverb bears the impress of reality and has its individual interest, is\n(as it were) a coin struck out of active experience; but the same may be\nsaid of the collected proverbs _as a whole_, and because the whole has\nits own significance, the parts acquire a meaning and value they would\nnot otherwise possess. The Jews are an astonishing people. St. Paul\nperceived that they had a genius for religion, but they have had genius\nfor many other things besides, as their strange fortunes testify. Their\nhand prospers, whithersoever it is turned. Who but the Jews can claim to\nhave had a Golden Age in proverbs? In utilising their popular sayings\nfor a definite purpose, and in thus making them literature, the Jews\nsucceeded in a feat that other nations have scarcely emulated, far less\nequalled. Moreover in the process the Jews made their proverbs\nsuperlatively good. Some think that for wit and acuteness the ancient\nsayings of the Chinese are unsurpassed; for multitude and variety those\nof the Arabs and the Spaniards. But the Jewish proverbs of this \u201cWisdom\u201d\nperiod excel all others in the supreme quality of being possession of\nall men for all time. They are marvellously free from provincial and\ntemporary elements; and this is the more remarkable in that the Jews\nwere intensely nationalistic, and their literature, as a rule, is\nsteeped in racial sentiment. Of these proverbs, however, very few must\nbe considered Hebraic in an exclusive sense, or indeed Oriental. The\nmass of them have been at home in many lands and many centuries, because\nthey speak to the elemental needs of men. Again and again they touch the\nvery heart of Humanity. They are universal. But that is the\ncharacteristic of genius. If therefore proverbs be our study, we could\nask no better subject than these proverbs of the Jews.\n\nEven so our theme is far from easy. Life, when visible before us, can\nwith difficulty be portrayed. Harder by far is it to recall life from\nliterature, translating the symbols of letters into the sound of speech\nand looking through words into the colour and movement of the scenes\nthat by the magic of human language are there preserved, accurately\nenough, yet only like pale shadows of the reality. Hardest of all is it,\nwhen the documents to be studied are records of a far-past age and the\nlife that of an alien people. But how well worth every effort is the\ntask! \u201cMany of us,\u201d writes Mark Rutherford, \u201chave felt that we would\ngive all our books if we could but see with our own eyes how a single\nday was passed by a single ancient Jewish, Greek, or Roman family; how\nthe house was opened in the morning; how the meals were prepared; what\nwas said; how the husband, wife, and children went about their work;\nwhat clothes they wore, and what were their amusements.\u201d[11] Information\nso detailed as Mark Rutherford desired will not be afforded by the\nJewish proverbs. Nevertheless they are full of frank, intimate, comment\non the ways of men and women, and of reflection on the experiences we\nall suffer or enjoy, and certainly should learn how best to encounter.\nIf they yield less than might be wished for, still what they show is\nshown in the na\u00efve and homely fashion that is so illuminating. Such\nbeing the difficulty of our task, and such the encouragement to pursue\nit, the reader will perhaps permit at the outset a short statement\nmentioning the writings where Jewish proverbs are to be found, and\ngiving somewhat fuller information regarding the dates and composition\nof the two works from which the material of the following chapters will\nchiefly be derived.\n\n\nTHE SOURCES OF JEWISH PROVERBS\n\nI. OCCASIONAL PROVERBS. In the historical and prophetical Books of the\nOld Testament there are to be found some popular sayings current in\nearly Israel. Though few in number, they possess considerable interest,\nand will therefore be discussed in Chapter IV.\n\nII. THE BOOK OF PROVERBS. This Book is the principal \u201csource\u201d of the\nproverbs considered in this volume. Unlike modern writings, which are\nusually the work of one author and will rarely require a longer period\nthan five or ten years for their composition, many of the Books of the\nBible have reached their _present form_ as the outcome of a protracted\nprocess of compilation and revision perhaps extending over many\ngenerations and involving the work of numerous writers. The words of\nearlier authors were utilised again and again in later times by others\nwho, having somewhat similar ideas and purposes in view, exercised\ncomplete liberty in reproducing, or modifying, or adding to the material\nthey found to hand.[12] Such a book is _Proverbs_. The consequence is\nthat the question of date and authorship cannot be answered in a\nsentence. The problem of the _structure_ of the Book rises as a\npreliminary subject.[13]\n\n(a) _Structure._ The _Book of Proverbs_ in its present form represents\nthe combination of five originally independent collections of the single\nproverbs which are of course the ultimate material of the Book. There is\nsome evidence that these five collections were themselves built out of\nstill smaller groups of proverbs, but such subdivisions cannot be traced\nwith certainty, and for our purpose may be neglected. The five main\nsections are as follows:--(_a_) In chs. 1-9, a number of epigrams,\nsonnets, and discourses in praise of wisdom. (_b_) In chs.\n10^{1}-22^{16}, a collection of two-line (\u201cunit\u201d) proverbs. (_c_) In\nchs. 22^{17}-24^{22} and 24^{23-34}, two very similar collections of\nfour-line (\u201cquatrain\u201d) proverbs. (_d_) In chs. 25-29, a collection of\ntwo-line proverbs. (_e_) In chs. 30, 31, epigrams, sonnets, and an\nacrostic poem.\n\n(b) _Date and Authorship._ Both in its component parts and as a\ncomposite whole the _Book of Proverbs_ is an anonymous work. It is true\nthat titles, such as \u201cThe proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of\nIsrael\u201d (Pr. 1^{1}), are prefixed to several portions of the Book[14],\nbut they do not imply authorship, although to those unacquainted with\nthe nature of ancient books that may seem the necessary meaning. Their\nsignificance will be considered later, on p. 71.\n\nThe date of origin and the authorship of single proverbs are seldom\ndiscoverable: a tantalising circumstance for those who would write about\nthem. And yet, perhaps, their reticence is wise. It may be that some of\nthe noblest sayings have sprung from the lips of a poor man in a peasant\nhome; and there are fools who would thenceforth despise them for their\nbirth. Of the individual sayings in the _Book of Proverbs_ a few, in\nmatter if not in exact phrase, may go back to ancient days; some may be\ndue to Solomon himself or date from his period; but the vast\nmajority[15], for cogent reasons of style, language, tone, ethical and\nsocial customs and so forth, are post-exilic--that is, not earlier than\nabout 450 B.C.; nor on the other hand are they later than about 200\nB.C., by which time the several sections had been combined to form\nsubstantially the present Book.[16]\n\nSomething may be said concerning the relative priority of the five\nsections of the Book. Internal evidence points to sections _b_ and _d_\nas the oldest portions, then section _c_; sections _a_ and _e_ (_i.e._,\nchs. 1-9, 30, 31) being probably the latest groups. But of the precise\ndate when these collections were severally formed and combined, and of\nthe names of the men by whom the work was done, we are unaware.\nFortunately our ignorance of detail is but a negligible trifle compared\nwith our firm knowledge of the general fact that _in their present form\nthese proverbs belong to the period_ 350-200 B.C., _and their authors\nand compilers were men who styled themselves \u201cThe Wise,\u201d and were known\nin the Jewish community by that term_. A hundred and fifty years may\nseem a wide margin, but it is a mistake to wish it less; if anything, it\nought to be increased. For the point to be grasped is that _Proverbs_\nrepresents the thoughts and ideals of the Wise throughout that whole\nperiod (350-200 B.C.) and even longer. The exact dates of the\ncombination and final revision of the component collections of sayings\nare therefore questions of minor importance. The Book is not to be\ntreated as a fixed literary product of any one particular year, but as\nrepresentative of the teachings of the Wise during very many years.\n\nTo the same class of men we owe, besides _Proverbs_, other famous\nwritings, of which two, _Job_ and _Ecclesiastes_, were also included in\nthe Old Testament Canon, and two are to be found in the Apocrypha,\nnamely, _Ecclesiasticus_ (or, as it is often called, _The Wisdom of Ben\nSirach_) and the _Wisdom of Solomon_. Of these four writings the two\nfirst, _Job_ and _Ecclesiastes_, are considered in other volumes of this\nseries,[17] and therefore, except for one or two quotations, will not be\nutilised here, although they both contain a number of proverbial\nsayings. The _Wisdom of Solomon_ also will seldom be noticed in this\nbook: it is much later in date than _Proverbs_, and is not a collection\nof proverbs, but a set of discourses in praise of Wisdom.\n\nIII. Ecclesiasticus. On the other hand, the book of _Ecclesiasticus_ or\n_The Wisdom of Ben Sirach_, is--next to _Proverbs_--the source from\nwhich we shall derive most material. Like _Proverbs_ it is a storehouse\nof sayings about Wisdom, but fortunately, unlike _Proverbs_, it is not\nanonymous, and can be dated with some exactitude. The author or compiler\nof the book was one, Jesus ben (_i.e._, Son of) Sirach, who lived in\nJerusalem about 250-180 B.C., his volume being finished about 190 B.C.\nSome fifty years later his grandson, then living in Egypt, translated it\ninto Greek, and until recently the book was known to us only in its\nGreek form. Now, however, a large part of the original Hebrew text has\nbeen recovered, with the happy result that the Greek version can\nfrequently be checked and obscurities be removed by means of the Hebrew.\n\nBesides the single, \u201cunit,\u201d proverbs, there are in _Ecclesiasticus_, and\nin _Proverbs_ also though to a less extent, a number of short sonnets\nand essays. These longer passages will be freely referred to, but\nperhaps a word in justification will here be in place. It has been said\nwith truth, that \u201coften a parable is an elaborate proverb, and a proverb\nis a parable in germ.\u201d That comment excellently indicates the nature of\nthe passages in question; most of them are expansions of some brief\ngnomic phrase[18]. When, for example, in E. 20^{14^{f}} we read, \u201c=The\ngift of a fool shall not profit thee, for his eyes are many instead of\none=; _he will give little and upbraid much and he will open his mouth\nlike a crier; to-day he will lend and to-morrow he will ask it again:\nsuch an one is a hateful man_....\u201d it is obvious that the verse is only\nan elaboration and explanation of the enigmatic proverb printed in heavy\ntype.\n\nIV. THE NEW TESTAMENT. Scattered through the pages of the New Testament\nare more allusions to popular sayings than one would readily expect.\nAlmost all offer interesting comment on the life and manner of the\ntimes; but, unfortunately, they will fall outside the scope of this\nbook, except for occasional references.\n\nV. Finally, a great number of Jewish proverbs are mentioned in the\npost-Biblical RABBINICAL writings--the tractates of the _Mishna_, the\n_Midrashim_, and _Talmuds_. Embedded in a vast and difficult literature\n(how difficult only those know who have attempted seriously to study\nit), these later Jewish sayings have been somewhat inaccessible to\nGentile students. They are interesting in many ways, but the development\nof our subject in this volume will give opportunity for the mention only\nof a few. Should any reader desire to know more of these Rabbinic\nsayings, he can now be referred to a small but trustworthy collection\nrecently made by A. Cohen and published under the title _Ancient Jewish\nProverbs_.\n\nThe question is, What can the Jewish proverbs tell us about human life?\nThe conclusion of the first chapter left us perplexed by indicating too\nmany paths that might be followed. This chapter solves the difficulty by\nsuggesting that these proverbs will have a great deal to say to us, if\nwe choose to treat them in their historical aspect. To do so is to\nfollow the king\u2019s highway; but when the plain road promises an\ninteresting journey, it is folly to search for bypaths. The human story\nseems naturally to divide into past and present; and, because the\npresent immediately concerns us, we are all tempted to ignore the past\nand count it negligible. To the uneducated man the past is dead; and he\nfails to perceive that, if the facts of history are unknown, the\npresent, though it may fascinate, will prove bewildering. The truth is\nthat history is one and continuous, the present is organically related\nto the past, and the division between them in our thought is artificial\nand perilously misleading. Nothing is of greater practical value than to\nlearn and ponder the narrative of the past, provided heart and mind are\nkept alert to discern the guidance it continually offers to ourselves.\nTo neglect its lessons is to starve the power of judgment in the\npresent. Much that by our own unaided trials can only be learnt slowly,\npainfully, and at great hazard, may be discovered swiftly and securely\nby observation of the experience of other men. In this spirit let our\nstudies of the Jewish proverbs be first of the _past_: what glimpses of\nformer days are discernible in their homely words?\n\nLet us commence as if we had some leisure at our disposal, and let us\nuse it by following up occasional traces of very ancient times. Then we\nshall proceed to the more strenuous and more rewarding task of\nrecovering a picture of the stirring years when Wisdom was moulding the\nJewish proverbs to her urgent needs. Always, however, as the records\nyield up these tales of byegone days we are to keep in mind ourselves\nand our own generation, striving so to interpret the fortunes of men of\nold that we in our turn may learn from them how to avoid folly, endure\ntrials, use success, and discover the secret of content. Finally we\nshall gather such of the proverbs as may please our fancy, and briefly\nconsider them in themselves for their perennial, as opposed to their\noriginal or historical, interest.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III\n\nForgotten Years\n\n\nThe past of human life offers an unimaginably long vista for our\ncontemplation. Vastly many more are the years that have been forgotten\nthan those that are remembered. Mr. Stephen Graham is therefore quite\nright when, in his book _The Way of Martha and the Way of Mary_, he\ninsists that Christianity after nineteen hundred years is still a young\nreligion, its doctrines imperfectly understood, its possibilities not\nyet unfolded. But for that matter history itself is young, since history\nknows at the most some six or seven thousand years of human history, and\nMan has been on earth hundreds of thousands of years. Glimpses of human\nlife in those dim and distant ages are occasionally possible (as we are\nabout to observe in the Jewish proverbs) and have a certain fascination;\nbut their interest is apt to be overwhelmed by the disquieting ideas\nwhich the thought of so vast a stretch of time naturally raises in our\nmind. In comparison, our personal hopes seemed dwarfed into utter\ninsignificance, and it is no comfort when a Psalmist (more than twenty\ncenturies ago) suggests that to the Deity time may be a very little\nthing: _Thou turnest man to destruction, and sayest, Return, ye children\nof men. For a thousand years in Thy sight are but as yesterday when it\nis past, and as a watch in the night_. God may expend so many myriad\nyears as seemeth good to Him in the making of sun, moon, and stars,\nearth and sea--what matter? But when the living bodies of men are racked\nwith pain, when tyranny endures and love and liberty are delayed, then\nwhat is the millenial patience of God but terrifying? _We_ cannot wait\nfor its slow maturing. Does He not know that we who would see the\nsalvation of the Lord in the land of the living are ready to faint?\n\nPerhaps, however, our distress arises from the adoption of a mistaken\nstandpoint. For, first, let the question be considered not from the\npoint of view of God\u2019s patience but of His greatness, and the infinitely\nlong development will seem less dreadful. The immensity of time may then\nbe regarded, not as a token of God\u2019s indifference to man, but as a\nmeasure of His eternal majesty, and as evidence of an intention sublime\nbeyond our present power to apprehend, yet not antagonistic to the value\nof the individual being--as indeed the author of _Isaiah_ 40 perceived:\n_Why sayest thou, O Jacob, and speakest, O Israel, My way is hid from my\nGod and my glory is forgotten by my God? Hast thou not known? hast thou\nnot heard? the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the\nearth, fainteth not, neither is weary; there is no searching of His\nunderstanding._ And, secondly, there is something to be said regarding\nthe brevity of our bodily existence, to which an analogy will furnish\nthe best introduction. Suppose that men were able to perceive the world\nof Nature only in its immensities, seeing the oceans but not the\ntumbling waves, seeing the plains but not each green or golden field,\nwould they not fail to perceive an incalculably great portion of earth\u2019s\nbeauty? How unutterably more wonderful are all natural objects when the\nmicroscope reveals the marvel of every particle. The tree is loveliest\nto him who has an eye to see the perfection of each leaf or knows the\nmiracle of its growth from a single seed or shoot. Is it not possible\nthat something similar is true of the human spirit in its apprehension\nof reality? Suppose that our personality was unable to taste life except\non the grand scale, so that for man a thousand years were only a\npassing moment, experienced only \u201cas a watch in the night,\u201d would not\nthe half of life\u2019s glory then be hidden from those who were ignorant of\nwhat _one_ year can be? May not participation in reality on a small\nscale--time felt as a day, an hour, a minute--be indispensable if the\nhuman spirit is to grasp the amazing fulness of conscious life?\nApparently circumscribed by the limit of our three score years and ten,\nare we here to learn that consciousness, even when measured in days and\nminutes, is of eternal worth and pure delight? For we do learn that\nlesson. We do discover that an instant of perfect and unselfish\ntenderness may be of immeasurable value. Perchance Man can never love\nGod till he has loved his brother, never know with the Divine knowledge,\nuntil in faith, hope, and charity he has desired to win the knowledge\nwhich is in part. The cup of cold water must first be given lovingly\nunto the least of His brethren, or we shall never comprehend to give it\ninto the hand of Christ Himself. \u201cHe that is faithful over a few\nthings,\u201d said Jesus, \u201cshall be set over many.\u201d Perhaps only to those who\nhave sought to find Heaven in life _sub specie temporis_ can life _sub\nspecie eternitatis_ be imparted; for to know life fully must be to know\nnot only its infinite extension and its Divine splendour, but also the\nexquisite perfection of its fleeting moments.\n\n\nI\n\nProverbs are one of the most ancient inventions of Man, far older than\nhistory. Four centuries before the birth of Christ, Aristotle, gazing as\nfar into the past as his glance could reach, saw proverbs still\nbeckoning him back. He spoke of them as \u201cfragments of an older wisdom\nwhich on account of their brevity or aptness had been preserved from the\ngeneral wreck and ruin.\u201d Even the _Book of Proverbs_, late as it is in\ndate, has features which, if we follow out their significance, will\nlead us back to the life of men in long forgotten years. The signs, of\ncourse, are slight, but they are none the less real; and even a faint\ntrace may be a sure thread of guidance. Only some grooves upon the\nsurface of the rock, but the lines were indubitably made by the movement\nof ice in the glacial age. Only a piece of jagged flint, but the edge we\nfinger was chipped by human hands for an object conceived in a human\nbrain. See how the conical marks where each stroke of the hammer fell\nare still as clear and purposeful as on the day when they were made.\nFlaking a flint is skilled work: the blows must be cunningly aimed and\nexactly struck, or the stone will be shattered instead of sharpened.\nThis one, being well wrought, is doubtless a Neolithic weapon. But here\nis a specimen more rude and primitive. It is probably a thousand years\nolder than the one we have just examined. Nevertheless, we know that it\nalso was worked by man, and that human eyes chose it and human hands\nheld it, and fashioned it, in days when man shared Europe with the\nmammoth.\n\nWhat faint but real traces of a far antiquity can be seen in the Jewish\nproverbs?\n\n(1) The first trace is to be found in the Numerical Sayings, a curious\ntype of aphorism, half proverb and half riddle. Four of these occur in\n_Proverbs_ 30.\n\nFOUR THINGS UNSATISFIED.\n\n    _Three things there be unsatisfied,\n    Yea! four that say not \u201cEnough\u201d--\n    The land of death; the barren womb;\n    Earth unsated with water;\n    And fire that says not \u201cEnough\u201d_ (Pr. 30^{15b, 16}).\n\nFOUR SMALL WISE THINGS.\n\n    _There be four things upon the earth small but exceeding wise_:\n\n    _The_ ANTS--_a people little of strength, but in summer\n         they store up food_:\n\n    _The_ CONIES--_these be a feeble folk, but they make their\n         homes in the rock_:\n\n    _The_ LOCUSTS--_are they that have no king, but they march\n         in an ordered host_:\n\n    _The_ LIZARDS--_on which thou canst lay thine hand, though\n         they dwell in his majesty\u2019s court_ (Pr. 30^{24-28}).\n\nFOUR THINGS UNBEARABLE.\n\n    _Beneath three things the earth doth tremble,\n    Yea beneath four it cannot bear up--\n    Beneath a slave become a monarch;\n    Beneath a fool that is filled with meat;\n    Beneath an old-maid that hath found a husband;\n    Beneath a handmaid heir to her mistress_ (Pr. 30^{21-23}).\n\nFOUR STATELY THINGS.\n\n    _There be three things of stately step,\n    Yea, four of stately gait--\n    The_ LION, _that is the strongest beast,\n    And flees before no foe;\n    The ...; the_ HE-GOAT _too;\n    And the_ KING, _when_ ...[19](Pr. 30^{29-31}).\n\nSimple as these riddles may be, they imply or make definite allusion to\nmany things; a settled community, a king, an army trained and\ndisciplined, economic foresight, dramatic changes in social rank, laws\nof natural inheritance, acute reflections on the fate of man and on\nhuman character--surely a picture too elaborate for pre-historic years?\nCertainly, and for these particular proverbs, no such claim is advanced:\nthe lingering trace of a forgotten world is in their form, _numerical_\nproverbs. Those just quoted are, as it were, links in a long chain,\nwhich we may follow backwards or forwards. The former process will lead\nto the result we seek; but first, for convenience and in further\nillustration, let us notice some, still later, examples of these\nproverbs. Two more are included in the Book of Proverbs, one of which\nwill be quoted below (p. 51): here is the other.\n\nSEVEN HATEFUL THINGS.\n\n    _There be six things Jehovah hates,\n    Yea, seven which he abominates--\n    Haughty eyes, a lying tongue,\n    And hands that innocent blood have shed,\n    A mind devising wicked plans,\n    Feet that be swift to do a wrong,\n    A witness false declaring lies,\n    And he who stirs up friends to strife_ (Pr. 6^{16-19}).\n\nThough cast in the same mould, this saying with its insistence on\njustice, truth, honesty of purpose and humility of spirit, certainly\nreflects a later and more complex stage of thought than the na\u00efve\nconundrums quoted above from Pr. 30. Indeed, it may be no earlier than\nthe third century, the golden age of proverb-making, to which period\nbelongs also the following sentence from Ben Sirach\u2019s book: _There be\nnine things that I have thought of and in my heart counted happy, and\nthe tenth I will utter with my tongue_--_A man whose children give him\njoy: a man that liveth to see his enemies fall: happy is he whose wife\nhath understanding, and he that hath not slipped with his tongue, and he\nthat hath not had to serve an inferior man: happy is he that hath found\nprudence: and he that discourseth in the ears of them that listen. How\ngreat is he that hath found wisdom! And above him that feareth the Lord\nis there none. The fear of the Lord surpasses all things; and he that\nholdeth it, to whom shall he be likened?_ (E. 25^{7-11}).[20]\n\nTurn next to the _Sayings of the Fathers_, a treatise of Jewish ethical\nreflections, compiled in the first and second centuries A.D., and in the\nfifth chapter will be found a series of \u201cnumerical\u201d observations. It\nmust suffice to quote but one: _There are four types of moral character.\nHe that saith \u201cMine is mine and thine is thine\u201d is a character neither\ngood nor bad, but some say \u2019tis a character wholly bad.[21] He that\nsaith \u201cMine is thine and thine is mine\u201d is a commercially minded\nman.[22] He that saith \u201cMine and thine are thine\u201d is pious: \u201cMine and\nthine are mine,\u201d the same is wicked._ For a last and latest example a\nmodern saying current among the Jews and Arabs of Syria, can be cited:\n_There are three Voices in the World--that of running water, of the\nJewish Law, and of money_.\n\nSo much for the later links in the chain, but what of its beginning? Why\ngive thoughts in stated number? Is it a writer\u2019s trick to catch our\nfancy? _That_ it may be in the later, but certainly not in the early\ninstances. There is only unconscious art in such an unsophisticated,\nchild-like verse as the FOUR STATELY THINGS. \u201cChild-like,\u201d that is the\nword we require to describe these riddles. True; but when were the Jews\nand their Semitic ancestors children? Before Abraham was called, when\nalmost the world itself was young.\n\nFor a moment permit your thoughts to be drawn back a very great way, and\nconsider the rude and inefficient life of early man. Unaided by the\nnumberless resources, mental and material, that enrich our civilised\nlife, dwelling in forests, caverns and rude huts of stone or earth,\nwell-nigh defenceless against the larger animals, haunted and harried by\na thousand perils real and imaginary, so man once lived and worked and\nthought, and by his thinking accomplished marvels. \u201cFrom the moment,\u201d\nwrites A. R. Wallace, \u201cwhen the first skin was used as a covering, when\nthe first rude spear was formed to assist in the chase, when fire was\nfirst used to cook his food, when the first seed was sown or shoot\nplanted, a grand revolution was effected in Nature, a revolution which\nin all the previous ages of the earth\u2019s history had had no parallel; for\na being had arisen who was no longer necessarily subject to change with\nthe changing universe--a being who was in some degree superior to\nNature, inasmuch as he knew how to control and regulate her action, and\ncould keep himself in harmony with her, not by a change in body, but by\nan advance in mind.\u201d[23] But it was not enough that the individual\nshould think. The secret of human success has lain in the ability to\ncommunicate ideas. Yet, to this day, with what effort we find words to\nbody forth our thoughts and feelings! Try to conceive how difficult was\nthe formulation and transmission of ideas in those forgotten centuries.\nImagine the tribesmen gathered home for the day and seated around their\nfire. Here is one who has had a thought when out hunting, which would\namuse or interest the rest, if only it could be made articulate. But\nnone can read, and none can write, and language is in its infancy. How\nthen can he find a way to tell it, and they perceive his meaning, and\nall _remember_? By means of proverbs; not the neat epigram of later\nages, but yet sayings which for all their simplicity were embryonic\nproverbs. Earliest and easiest type of all was the bare\ncomparison--_this is like that_--a type which, it is interesting to\nnote, may be illustrated by one of the oldest phrases in the Bible:\n_Like Nimrod a mighty hunter before the Lord_ (Gen. 10^{9}). And the\nmethod of comparison never ceased to be a favourite mould for the\nformation of proverbs, as some polished examples from _Proverbs_ will\nserve to show: _As the swallow ever flitting and flying, so the curse\nthat is groundless alighteth not_ (Pr. 26^{2}). _The way of the wicked\nis like the darkness: they know not whereon they stumble_ (Pr. 4^{19}).\nAnother device for communicating thought and storing wisdom was the\nriddle, and this also, under slight disguise, has its lineal descendants\nin the Biblical proverbs. Thus Pr. 16^{14}, _Pleasant words are as an\nhoneycomb, sweetness to the soul and health to the body_, was once most\nprobably a reply to the question, _What is sweet as honey?_ Another\nexample is Pr. 22^{1}: someone would ask, _What is worth more than\ngold?_ and when the listeners had guessed in vain give his answer, _A\ngood repute_. But better than any one comparison, more memorable than\nthe single question, was the _numerical_ riddle; for instance\nthis--_What four things are beyond our power to calculate?_\n\n    _There be three things too wonderful for me,\n    Yea, four which I do not comprehend--\n    The way of an eagle in the air;\n    The way of a serpent upon a rock;\n    The way of a ship in the midst of the sea;\n    And the way of a man with a maid._--(Pr. 30^{18, 19}).\n\nBy sayings such as these were thought and experience acquired and\ntransmitted in forgotten years. When complex thinking was impossible,\nwhen minds were dull and expression feeble, these primitive proverbs by\nthe barb of their wit or fancy, fixed themselves deep in the memories of\nmen.\n\n(2). The last quotation has in early Indian literature a close parallel\nbeginning thus:\n\n    _The paths of ships across the sea,\n    The soaring eagle\u2019s flight, Varuna knows_....\n\nand another of the numerical sayings from the same chapter of _Proverbs_\nhas an even closer parallel:\n\n    _There be three things unsatisfied,\n    Yea, four that say not \u201cEnough\u201d:\n    Death, and the barren womb,\n    Earth, never sated with water,\n    And fire that says not \u201cEnough.\u201d_ (Pr. 30^{15, 16}),\n\ncompared with:\n\n    _Fire is never sated with fuel;\n    Nor Ocean with streams;\n    Nor the God of death with all creatures;\n    Nor the bright-eyed one (i.e., woman) with man._ (Hitopade\u00e7a 2, 113).\n\nThese resemblances of thought and phrase between India and Palestine\nprovide another hint of far-past days by raising the question of the\nwandering of proverbs. Variations of the same tales and sayings occur\namong so many different peoples throughout Europe and Asia, that the\npossible rise of similar ideas, finding somewhat similar expression, in\nthe various races, seems insufficient to account for the phenomena;\nrather we must suppose that tales and phrases circulated from tribe to\ntribe over an amazing stretch of territory and in very early times.\nWhat, for example, may be inferred from the correspondence between these\nJewish and Indian sayings? Does it preserve a glimpse of some one man,\ninterested in the reflections and questionings of his people, who once\nages ago travelled out of India, following the immemorial trade-routes\nwestwards across Arabia till he reached Palestine, and in the mind of\nsome kindred soul left a memory of his wise words? Either that, or\nperhaps many minds were needed to transmit the thought from East to West\nor West to East; so that almost one might think of the words as having\nhad wings on which they flew from camp to camp along the routes,\nalighting wherever men gathered for trade and found time for friendly\nintercourse. The subject might be developed at some length; but, try as\nwe may, the details of these migrations hide themselves in the mists of\na too distant past, and we catch but a glimpse of scenes we can never\nmore make clear. It is better to give more time to certain general\ncharacteristics of the Jewish proverbs.\n\n\nII\n\nThe abnormal aptitude of the Jews for proverb-making and their love of\nconcrete expression are ultimately due to the conditions of early\ncenturies. Of these two features it will be convenient to consider the\nsecond first.\n\nThe land of Palestine, home of the Jews from about 1200 B.C., lies\nbetween an ocean of water and an ocean of sand: on the west its coasts\nare washed, but not threatened, by the Mediterranean Sea; on the east\nand on the south it has to wage incessant warfare against the indrifting\nsands. The country is an oasis snatched from the great deserts and kept\nfrom their insidious grasp only by the toil and ingenuity of man. Behind\nPalestine looms Arabia, and beneath the Jew is the Arab. Throughout the\nlast five thousand years the population of Palestine (excepting the\nPhilistines on the coast) has been formed by layer after layer of\nArabian immigrants, who have invaded the fertile lands, sometimes by the\nrush of sudden conquest, but also by steady, peaceful infiltration.\nDespite much intermarriage with the earlier Canaanites there was always\na passionate strain of the desert in Jewish blood, and throughout its\nwhole history in Palestine Israel had to live in uneasy proximity to its\nkinsfolk, the wild nomads who roamed the deserts to the east and south.\nConsequently the ultimate back-ground of the Old Testament writings is\nnot Palestine but Arabia, a land which sets a deep and lasting impress\non its children. A life wild yet monotonous in the extreme, rigid in\nits limitations but unbridled in its licence within those limitations:\nsuch is the rule imposed by the vast wilderness on the men who have to\nwander its blazing solitudes. Arabia produces four paradoxes in the\nintellect and characters of its nomadic tribes.[24] First, \u201cthe\ncombination of strong sensual grossness with equally strong tempers of\nreverence and worship.\u201d Second, \u201ca marvellous capacity for endurance and\nresignation broken by fits of ferocity: the ragged patience bred by\nfamine. We see it survive in the long-suffering, mingled with outbursts\nof implacable wrath, which characterises so many Psalms. These are due\nto long periods of moral famine, the famine of justice.\u201d Third,\ningenuity of mind and swift perception, but without that power or\ninclination for abstruse or sustained argument which the Western world\nhas inherited from the Greeks. Fourth, a subjective attitude to the\nphenomena of nature and history, combined with an admirable realism in\ndescribing these phenomena.\n\nFor thousands of years before Israel entered Canaan and became a nation\nits ancestors were nomads of Arabia. It would be strange indeed if the\ngreat desert which so subtly and irresistibly sets its spell upon the\nhuman spirit had left no trace on Jewish proverbs. Yet the trace is not\nevident in points of detail. Most of the sayings we shall study in this\nvolume represent the thoughts of certain post-exilic Jews. Where then\ndoes the mark of the desert linger? First in the peculiar _concreteness_\nof the proverbs. All proverbs tend to concrete expression, but in this\nrespect the Jewish ones are only equalled by those of the Arabs\nthemselves; and this quality is shown not only in the early but also in\nthe later sayings. Let us illustrate the point before suggesting its\nultimate cause. The Jew said, \u201cTwo dogs killed a lion,\u201d[25] where we\nsay, \u201cUnion is strength.\u201d We say, \u201cFamiliarity breeds contempt\u201d; they\nsaid, \u201cThe pauper hungers without noticing it.\u201d[26] Our tendency is to\nconsider riches and poverty, but they talked of the rich man and the\npoor. The most remarkable example of this tendency is the conception\nthat gives unity to the _Book of Proverbs_, namely the idea of Wisdom.\nHere, if anywhere, one would expect the abstract to be maintained. But\nthe individualising instinct has conquered, and in the loftiest passages\nof _Proverbs_ we shall find Wisdom praised, not as an idea, but as a\nperson, represented as a woman of transcendent beauty and nobility. Such\nabnormally concrete thinking may have its disadvantages, but at least it\nwill have one satisfactory quality--_humanism_. Men who thought not in\ngeneralisations but in particular instances, who saw not classes but\nindividuals, could not help being great humanists. If now we ask whence\nthe Jewish mind received this tendency, our thoughts will have to travel\nback till we discern a group of black hair-cloth tents out in the\nArabian Wilderness. In the tents are men who have learnt to pass safely\nacross the deserts and are at home in them as a seaman on the seas; wild\nmen and strong and confident, yet never careless, knowing that they can\nrelax vigilance only at the risk of life. For these wastes are not empty\nbut treacherous; apparently harmless, in reality full of peril. Security\nin the desert depends on acute and untiring observation. No amount of\nabstruse reasoning, no ability in speculative thought, will save life\nand property there, if the first sign of a lurking foe is passed\nunnoticed in the trying and deceitful light. Every faculty must be\ntrained to the swift perception of concrete facts, faint signs of\nmovement, the behaviour of men and beasts. The great sun in heaven may\nbe trusted to rise and set: why speculate on the mystery? While we are\nlost in thought the sons of Ishmael may fall upon us. \u201cThe leisure of\nthe desert is vast, but it is the leisure of the sentinel.... To the\nnomad on his bare, war-swept soil few things happen, but everything that\nhappens is ominous.\u201d\n\nKeen observation, then, more than any other quality, is required by\nArabia from its children. But observation is the quintessence of the art\nof proverb-making, provided it be combined with practice in the\nexpression of one\u2019s thoughts. As for practice in talk, one might readily\nsuppose that the solitudes would have made their peoples tongue-tied. In\npoint of fact the contrary is true, and the skill of the Jews in the\ndevising of proverbs, no less than their love of concrete expression,\ngoes back to habits engendered by this desert existence. Arabian life\nprovided not only long leisure for reflection but also opportunity for\nsocial intercourse in the small tribal groups; so that the nomads came\nto have a passion for story-telling and for all manner of sententious\ntalk, witness the customs of the Bedouin to this day and the immense\ncollections of Arabian proverbs. Hour after hour, with Eastern\ntirelessness, the tribesmen, gathered at the tent of their sheikh, would\nlisten approvingly to the eloquence bred of large experience and shrewd\njudgment. Here is the scene painted in the words of Doughty\u2019s _Arabia\nDeserta_: \u201cThese Orientals study little else [than the art of\nconversation and narrative], as they sit all day idle in their male\nsocieties; they learn in this school of infinite human observation to\nspeak to the heart of one another. His tales [referring to a Moorish\nrogue, Mohammed Aly], _seasoned with saws which are the wisdom of the\nunlearned_, we heard for more than two months; they were never-ending.\nHe told them so lively to the eye that they could not be bettered, and\npart were of his own motley experience.\u201d The Israelites carried this\nhabit with them from Arabia into their settled homes in Canaan. Here is\na similar scene in the hall of a modern Palestinian village-sheikh: \u201cWe\nwere seated on mats, spread with little squares of rich carpet round\nthree sides of a hollow place in the floor, where a fire of charcoal\nburned, surrounded by parrot-beaked coffee pots. This was the hearth of\nhospitality, whose fire is never suffered to go out; near it stood the\ngreat stone mortar in which a black slave was crushing coffee-beans. The\ncoffee, deliciously flavoured with some cunning herb or other, was\npassed round. But the conversation which followed was the memorable part\nof that entertainment. In the shadow at the back the young men who had\nbeen admitted sat in silence. The old men, elders of the village\ncommunity, sat in a row on stone benches right and left of the door. The\nsheikh made many apologies for not having called on us at the tents--he\nhad thought we were merchantmen going to buy silk at Damascus. Then\nfollowed endless over-valuation of each other, and flattery concerning\nour respective parents and relations.... The elders sat silently leaning\nupon their staves, except now and then, when one of them would slowly\nrise and expatiate upon something the sheikh had said--perhaps about\ncamels or the grain crop--beginning his interruption almost literally in\nthe words of Job\u2019s friends: \u201cHearken unto me, I also will show mine\nopinion. I will answer also for my part, I also will show mine opinion.\nFor I am full of matter, the spirit within me constraineth me.\u201d[27] So\nhas it been in Palestine time out of mind, and it is in settings of this\ndescription that we must imagine the art of proverb-making developing in\nIsrael.\n\nSuch, then, is the significance of these features which we have been\nconsidering--the numerical proverbs, parallels with sayings of other\nnations, the love of the Jews for proverbs with their consequent skill\nin making them, and their remarkable _penchant_ for concrete expression.\nOtherwise, antiquity has left few traces in the Jewish proverbs. That,\nhowever, is but natural, since proverb-making was a living art among the\npeople. New maxims kept coming into use, and they crowded out of memory\nthe favourites of byegone generations. Doubtless a few of the sayings in\nthe _Book of Proverbs_ are ancient, though just how old we cannot tell.\nFor example, P. 27^{20}, _Sheol and Abaddon are never filled, and the\neyes of man are never sated_ may be co-\u00e6val with the fear of death and\nthe passion of greed. Cheyne discovers a relic of \u201cthat old nomadic love\nof craft and subtlety\u201d in the saying (Pr. 22^{3}), _A shrewd man sees\nmisfortune coming and conceals himself, whereas simpletons pass on and\nsuffer for it_; but his interpretation of the verse seems somewhat\nforced. The following, however, in matter and perhaps in form also may\nbe nearly as ancient as the settled occupation of the land:\n\n  _Remove not the ancient landmark which thy fathers set up._ (Pr. 22^{28}).\n\nNothing could well be easier than the removal of those\nlandmarks--insignificant heaps of stone, set at the end of a wide\nfurrow. But from earliest times the East has counted them adequate\nguardians of the fields, and from generation to generation, by consent\nof all decent-minded men, they have stood inviolate. Other nations, as\nwell as Israel, called them sacred. Greece, and Rome too, gave them a\ngod for their protection, Hermes of the Boundary, beside whose shrine of\nheaped-up stones travellers would stay to rest, and, rested, lay an\noffering of flowers or fruit before the kindly deity:\n\n     \u201c_I, who inherit the tossing mountain-forests of steep Cyllene\n     stand here guarding the pleasant playing-fields, Hermes, to whom\n     boys often offer marjoram and hyacinths and fresh garlands of\n     violet._\u201d[28]\n\nEven the thief and murderer, we are told, would hesitate before the\nwickedness of moving these simple, immemorial heaps of stone: such was\ntheir sanctity. What unutterable contempt for the laws of God and man is\ntherefore revealed in the multiple witness of the Old Testament[29]\nagainst the rich and powerful in Israel, that _they_ scrupled not to\nremove the landmarks of their poorer brethren? Thieves and murderers\nwould have kept their hands clean from such pollution:\n\n    _Remove not the landmark of the widow,\n    Into the field of the orphan enter not;\n    For mighty is their Avenger,\n    He will plead their cause against thee_ (Pr. 23^{10, 11}).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nThe Day of Small Things\n\n\nPopular as the custom of making and of hearing \u201cwise words\u201d may have\nbeen in ancient Israel, it is not surprising that only five or six\nproverbial sayings are recorded in the early writings of the Old\nTestament. For proverbs are not likely to receive mention in literature.\nThey are too plain for the poet, too vague for the historian, too\ncomplaisant for the law-maker. And even these five or six, it appears,\nhave been preserved not for any merit they possess as proverbs: one is\nof local interest only, two are picturesque, but obscure, two are the\nmerest truisms. The right question, therefore, is not \u201cWhy are there so\nfew?\u201d, but \u201cWhy have _these_ sayings been rescued from oblivion?\u201d; and,\nbeing preserved, \u201cWhy should they receive our attention?\u201d\n\nSuppose that in Britain fifty or a hundred years hence men should quote\n\u201cIt\u2019s a long, long way to Tipperary,\u201d when they seek an expression for\nthe pathos and heroism that mark the acceptance of a difficult and\nperilous task--if those words live, why will they live? Obviously for no\nintrinsic merit, but for the undying memory of men who counted not their\nlives dear unto themselves. So with these early proverbs in the Bible.\nEach of them came into quickening contact with a great personality, or\nplayed a part in one of those fateful moments when the fortunes of a\npeople or the trend of human thinking has been determined this way or\nthat. They have lived because each has been touched by the passion of\nhumanity. Therefore we have to study them not in isolation from the\ncontext, but in close connection with the scene or circumstance that\ngave them unexpected immortality.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n(1) In days when Jerusalem was not yet Jerusalem, City of David, but\nonly _Jebus_, a stronghold of the Canaanites, there had been built in\nthe limestone uplands of Jud\u00e6a an Israelitish village, _Gibeah_,\nsituated (as the name implies), on a hill-top, doubtless for such\nsecurity as the rising ground afforded.\n\nAt the time we are concerned with, Israel stood in sore need of every\nprotection her settlements could find. Baffled by the great Canaanite\nfortresses, the invading Hebrews had never become absolute masters of\nthe land, and of recent years their fortunes had altogether failed under\nthe counter-pressure of new invaders, the Philistines, who had seized\nthe coast of Canaan and whose restless armies came sweeping up the\nvalleys that lead to the highlands from the plain along the sea. The\nraiders harried the Jud\u00e6an villages, slaying the men and carrying the\nwomen, children and cattle captive to the lowlands. The villages were an\neasy prey, and the spirit of the Israelites was broken by the miseries\nof these repeated ravages. Wandering bands of religious devotees,\npreaching remembrance of the power of Jehovah, kept the embers of\ncorporate feeling from flickering out; but, at the best, their wordy\nwarfare must have seemed a feeble answer to the mail-clad giants of the\nPhilistine hosts.\n\nImagine that we are standing on the hill of Gibeah, looking down the\nsteep pathway which leads up to the village. A few days ago a young man,\naccompanied by a servant, went out to search the countryside for some\nstrayed animals. All in Gibeah know him well, Saul, the son of Kish, a\nproper man, tall and powerful, one who in happier days might have been\na leader in Israel. Saul and his servant are returning and have almost\nreached the foot of the ascent to the village. Last night they were with\nSamuel at Ramah, and at day-break secretly the seer had anointed the\nyouth to be king over Israel; but of these events we are ignorant as\nyet; we do not know that the Saul who went out will return no more. Idly\nwatching from the hill-top, we observe a company of devotees, who have\nspent the night in Gibeah, descending the slope towards Saul. As they\napproach, Saul stops and, to our faint surprise, is seen to be in speech\nwith them. Question and answer pass. Suddenly our listless attention\nchanges to astonishment. Below, excitement is rising, and on none has it\nfallen more than on Saul! He begins to talk and gesticulate like a man\ninspired. We raise a shout and the folk come running, and, as they see\nbeneath them Saul now in an ecstasy, the incredulous cry breaks forth\n_Is Saul also among the prophets?_\n\nWhat is the interest of this famous scene? That a proverb was born that\nday in Israel? That it marked the commencement of a new stage in the\nnational life of Israel? More than that. The real interest is in the\ntransformation effected by the recognition of a personal duty. Young men\nlike the Saul who went out to seek the lost animals are useful members\nof a State, but, had Saul remained unaltered, what waste of his latent,\nunsuspected power! Saul had met devotees many times before, but their\nwords had roused no energies in him. One touch of the faith of Samuel,\none illuminating moment of consciousness that _to him_ God had spoken,\nand--Saul was a king, and Israel again a people; despair became hope,\nand hope achievement. It has always been so, whenever men have listened\nto the summons of personal religion. We go upon our ordinary path a\nhundred times and return as we went, uncomprehending; but if once God\nmeets us on the way, whether He speak by the mouth of a prophet, or, as\nnow, by the shock of war, the miracle is effected: we are changed into\nanother man.\n\n(2) The scene of the second of these early proverbs is the steep and\nrugged country that mounts from the floor of the Dead Sea valley near\nEngedi. But the setting of the incident matters little; its point is all\nin the play of character between two great personalities--Saul, now\nnearing the dark finish of his reign and haunted by the thought that at\nhis death the throne will pass from his house; and David, with youth and\na good conscience to support him but fleeing for his life from the\njealous king and hard pressed by the royal soldiery. Saul has entered a\ncave, unaware that David is hiding in its recesses. David suffers him to\ngo out unharmed and still ignorant of his peril; but quietly he follows\nSaul to the sunlight at the cave\u2019s mouth, and standing there, as the\nKing moves off, he calls, \u201cO my lord the King!\u201d At the clear, musical,\nvoice of the man he half-loves, half-hates, and cannot kill, Saul in\nastonishment turns to hear these words: \u201c_Wherefore hearkenest thou to\nmen\u2019s words saying \u2018Behold David seeketh thy hurt\u2019? Behold this day the\nLord had delivered thee into mine hand in the cave: and some bade me\nkill thee; but mine eye spared thee and I said \u2018I will not put forth\nmine hand against my lord, for he is the Lord\u2019s anointed.\u2019 Moreover, my\nfather, see, yea, see the skirt of thy robe in my hand: for in that I\ncut the skirt of thy robe and killed thee not, know thou and see that\nthere is neither evil nor transgression in my hand, and I have not\nsinned against thee, though thou huntest after my soul to take it. The\nLord judge between me and thee, and avenge me of thee: but mine hand\nshall not be upon thee. As saith the proverb of the ancients_, Out of\nthe wicked cometh forth wickedness: _but mine hand shall not be upon\nthee_.\u201d We can see how David meant it, that proverb of the ancients. It\nleapt to his lips in eager protestation. How could Saul deem him\ncapable of a deed of foulest treachery? Why could he not see that only\nout of the basest of men could such dire wickedness proceed? But into\nthe mind of Saul the saying sank with double edge. What had _he_ done\ntowards the making of this scene--that red mist of passion when he flung\nthe javelin; those cold and cunning plots to lure David into adventure\nthat would be his death; the unrelaxing hunt to catch and kill? Saul for\nan instant saw his soul laid bare by the ancient proverb: he at least\nwas a man from whom great wickedness had come, and \u201cA good tree cannot\nbring forth corrupt fruit, neither can a corrupt tree bring forth good\nfruit.\u201d _And Saul lifted up his voice and wept. And he said to David,\n\u201cThou art more righteous than I, for thou hast rendered unto me good,\nwhereas I have rendered unto thee evil.\u201d_ A few years later the King lay\ndead and vanquished on Mount Gilboa. From that day to this men have not\nceased to find in him a text for moralising, with some justice but with\nstrangely little sympathy, seeing that he sinned in one thing and paid a\nheavy penalty. Which was the real Saul? The King crazy with murderous\nhatred, or the man who answered David\u2019s generosity in those noble words,\nwho once \u201cwas among the prophets,\u201d who had made Israel again a people\nand so long time had held the Philistines at bay? It does not greatly\nmatter if men reply \u201cthe mad Saul, who died believing himself forsaken\nof God\u201d; and so push their moralisings home. But on which Saul does the\nDivine judgment pass? One man, more than all others, had reason to\ncondemn, and he did more than pardon. He sang of Saul slain on Gilboa,\n_How are the mighty fallen?... Saul and Jonathan were lovely and\npleasant in their lives, and in their deaths they were not divided._\n\n(3) In the books of Jeremiah and Ezekiel two popular sayings are\nmentioned, which may be considered together, for their burden is one.\n\n(_a_) _Behold, everyone that useth proverbs shall use this proverb\nagainst thee saying_, =As is the mother, so is the daughter= (_Ezekiel_\n16^{44}).\n\n(_b_) _But it shall come to pass that like as I have watched over them\nto pluck up and to break down and to overthrow and to destroy and to\nafflict; so will I watch over them to build and to plant, saith the\nLord. In those days they shall say no more_, =The fathers have eaten sour\ngrapes, and the children\u2019s teeth are set on edge=. _But every one shall\ndie for his own iniquity: every man that eateth the sour grapes his\nteeth shall be set on edge_ (_Jeremiah_ 31^{28-30}); and to the same\neffect, this from Ezekiel, _The word of the Lord came unto me saying,\nWhat mean ye that ye use this proverb concerning the land of Israel,\nsaying_, =The fathers have eaten sour grapes, and the children\u2019s teeth\nare set on edge=? _As I live, saith the Lord God, ye shall not have cause\nany more to use this proverb in Israel. Behold, all souls are Mine: as\nthe soul of the father so also the soul of the son is Mine: the soul\nthat sinneth, it shall die. But if a man be just, and do that which is\nlawful and right ... hath spoiled none by violence, hath given his bread\nto the hungry, and hath covered the naked with a garment ... he is just,\nhe shall surely live, saith the Lord God_ (_Ezekiel_ 18^{1^{ff}}).\n\nHeredity, the question at issue in these passages, presents a more\ncomplex and stringent problem to the modern mind than to the ancient.\nBut it would be a great error to suppose that the Jewish thinkers were\nless concerned about it, or that its consequences seemed to them less\nbitter. Indeed for the Hebrews the problem had a sinister back-ground\nwhich for us has sunk far out of sight. The solidarity of the tribe or\nfamily was a fearsome reality in days when for the sin of one member\nvengeance would fall upon the whole community or household. Recollect\nthe story of Achan, who stole from the sacred spoil a Babylonish mantle,\nsilver, and a wedge of gold: _Wherefore Joshua and all Israel with him\ntook Achan_ AND _his sons and his daughters and his oxen and his asses\nand his sheep and his tent and all that he had, and burned them with\nfire and stoned them with stones_.[30] There was a grim wisdom in the\nancient procedure. Man has had a stern fight for existence. How far can\nhe tolerate \u201chandicaps\u201d in the contest? What can be expected from\nchildren of corrupt and vicious parents? Good citizens? \u201cMen do not\ngather grapes of thorns.\u201d Yet who could fail to see that the children\nwere so far innocent; and therefore, whilst Achan died unpitied and\nforgotten, perhaps their young voices and terror-stricken looks remained\nan uneasy memory in the minds of those who stood consenting unto their\ndeath? Was it necessary that the child should be irretrievably ruined\nthrough his father\u2019s guilt?\n\nBy the time of Jeremiah and Ezekiel, as the quotations show, the problem\nhad deepened and become general. In the perils, hardships, and disasters\nwhich marked the decline and fall of the Jud\u00e6an kingdom men felt that\nthe whole nation was suffering the consequences of their fathers\u2019\niniquities, and bitterly they quoted the saying _The fathers have eaten\nsour grapes, and the children\u2019s teeth are set on edge_. That way lay\ndespair: Let us too eat of the grapes and drink of their wine and be\nmerry, since to-morrow we die! Even the prophets experienced the\ntemptation to hopelessness; as when Ezekiel, wrestling with Judah sunk\nin the old sins, thinks that in future days men will still have to cast\nat her the charge of idolatries handed down from the ancient Canaanites:\n_as is the mother so is the daughter_. But Jeremiah and Ezekiel both\nfought their way through to a new conception of life, and this it is\nwhich is proclaimed in the two chief passages quoted above. Deliverance\nfrom the entail of evil is, they declare, possible; man is not\nimmovably fastened in chains which his ancestors have forged.\n\nSo stands religion to-day, claiming power in the building of human\ncharacter. Fuller recognition and much deeper comprehension of the works\nof heredity (as also of environment) are desirable and are not inimical\nto a religious interpretation of human nature. Religion lays stress on\nthese two points. First, the fact that if there is an entail of evil\nthere is also an entail of good, together with the judgement that the\ninheritance of good is the greater and ought to be made supreme: that as\nSt. Paul insisted _Where sin did abound, grace doth much more\nabound_[31]. And, secondly, religion insists on the reality of that\npower of self-determination which would seem to be characteristic of\nevery living being and in Man to be of primary importance. All that we\nmay become does not follow inexorably from what we now are. What we have\nbecome was not wholly involved in what we were. Crude determinism is\neither an Eastern idleness or a pedant\u2019s nightmare, and freedom, though\nit slips through the meshes of our clumsy analysis is a reality. To each\nin measure it is given, though one may misuse it into the atrophy of\nevil habit, whilst another may use it unto the liberty of the children\nof God. We inherit, but, inheriting, we also originate. We are created,\nbut are also creators. We are pressed by our environment, but our\nenvironment may become Christ, whose service is perfect freedom.\n\n(4) One other embedded proverb occurs in a passage of _Ezekiel_ (12^{21,\n22}): _And the word of the Lord came unto me saying, \u201cSon of man, what\nis this proverb that ye have in the land of Israel saying_, =The days are\nprolonged, and every= =vision faileth=?\u201d Other lands besides Israel have\nechoed those despairing words. It is hard not to feel in a\ncity-settlement that \u201cthe days are prolonged\u201d; hard in a half-filled\nchurch not to wonder if \u201cevery vision faileth.\u201d But a true man will\nstill hold to the instinct that somehow his hopes are certainties, and\nwill make answer with Israel\u2019s prophet thus: _Tell them therefore, \u201cThus\nsaith the Lord God: I will make this proverb to cease, and they shall no\nmore use it as a proverb in Israel; but say unto them, \u2018The days are at\nhand, and the fulfilment of every vision.\u2019\u201d_\n\nA man who finds himself without confidence in God or man might save\nhimself from pessimism by a study of the intellectual, moral and\nspiritual achievements of the Hebrew prophets.[32] Looking back on\nJewish history it is manifest that the spiritual longings of these great\npersonalities were realised to a wonderful extent and in ways impossible\nfor themselves or their contemporaries to perceive or anticipate. Things\ndid work together for good to those Jews who sought to discover the will\nof God and, despite perplexity and hardship, refused to abandon their\nimperfect but advancing faith. Thus even the Exile, apparently the\ndissolution of Israel\u2019s life, proved to be the very means of its\npreservation and subsequent extension to a position of world-wide\ninfluence. No one who has realised on the one hand the overwhelming\ndifficulties against which the prophets had to contend, the frankness\nwith which they faced the naked facts, their own agonising struggle of\nsoul against doubt and despair, and on the other side the ultimate\nvindication of their faith; no one with that knowledge clear before him\nwill find it easy wholly to despair of men, or to cast from him for ever\nthe hope of God.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nBesides these few incidental proverbs, the pre-exilic literature of the\nOld Testament fortunately has preserved occasional glimpses of the\n_makers of proverbs_ in Israel, and to these we now turn. We shall then\nbe prepared to study the special development of Jewish proverbs which\nfurnishes the chief interest of our subject. It will be convenient first\nto set down the evidential passages consecutively, and afterwards to\nconsider their significance.\n\n(_a_) The narrative in _2 Samuel_ 14^{1^{ff}} relating the stratagem by\nwhich Joab succeeded in reconciling King David to his son Absalom begins\nthus: _Now Joab the son of Zeruiah perceived that the king\u2019s heart was\ntowards Absalom. And Joab sent to Tekoa and fetched thence_ =a wise\nwoman=.\n\n(_b_) The second passage is in _2 Samuel_ 20^{16-22}--Joab, as David\u2019s\ngeneral, having pursued the rebel Sheba into the North of Israel, has\ncompelled him to take refuge in the town of Abel, and is on the point of\nbreaching the wall and capturing the city, when _there cried unto him_ =a\nwise woman= _out of the city ... and she said unto him \u201cThere is a\nsaying_, =To finish your business ask counsel at Abel=.\u201d[33] _Thou seekest\nto destroy a city and a mother in Israel. And Joab answered and said,\n\u201cFar be it from me that I should swallow and destroy. But ... Sheba the\nson of Bichri ... deliver him only, and I will depart from the city.\u201d\nAnd the woman said unto Joab, \u201cBehold, his head shall be thrown to thee\nover the wall.\u201d_ =Then the woman went unto all the people in her wisdom.=\n...\n\n(_c_) The famous passage in which the wisdom of King Solomon is\nextolled, _1 Kings_ 4^{29-34}: _And God gave Solomon wisdom and\nunderstanding exceeding much and largeness of heart, even as the sand\nthat is on the sea shore_. =And Solomon\u2019s wisdom excelled the wisdom of\nall the children of the East= (_i.e._ Arabia) =and all the wisdom of\nEgypt=. _For he was wiser than all men: than Ethan the Ezrahite, and\nHeman, and Calcol, and Darda, the sons of Mahol: and his fame was in\nall the nations round about._ =And he spake three thousand proverbs=: _and\nhis songs were a thousand and five. And he spake of trees, from the\ncedar that is in Lebanon unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall;\nhe spake also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of\nfishes._\n\n(_d_) _Isaiah_ 29^{13, 14}: _And the Lord said, Forasmuch as this people\ndraw nigh with their mouth, and with their lips do honour me, but have\nremoved their heart far from me and their fear of me is a commandment of\nmen which hath been taught them; therefore behold I will again do a\nmarvellous work among this people ... and_ =the wisdom of their wise men=\n_shall perish, and the understanding of their prudent men shall be hid_.\n\n(_e_) _Jeremiah_ 18^{18} (cp. 8^{8} and 9^{23}): _Then said they, Come\nand let us devise devices against Jeremiah; for the law shall not perish\nfrom the priest, nor_ =counsel from the wise=, _nor the word from the\nprophet_.\n\nOf these passages the first two show that there was a \u201cWisdom\u201d in Israel\nbefore Solomon, that it was concerned with prudential counsel as to the\nconduct of life, and was associated with the use of maxims, some of\nwhich had passed into well-known proverbs; and further that certain\npersons (often, perhaps generally, women) were recognised as of\npre-eminent skill in this giving of advice; and that townships\n(doubtless with a shrewd eye to the increase of their commerce) vied one\nwith another in vaunting their respective sages. Slight as this evidence\nmay be, it is sufficient, because it is in accord with the facts of\nlater periods and with that liking for sententious talk which we have\nnoted as characteristic of the Semites from very early ages. Observe\nalso how in the third passage the wisdom of Solomon is not regarded as a\nquality peculiar to himself. True, he possessed wisdom in a rare or\nsuperlative degree, but it was _comparable_ with the \u201cWisdom of the\nEast\u201d (Arabia) and the \u201cWisdom of Egypt.\u201d Nor was Solomon alone in his\nwisdom. To him the first place; but he had great rivals whose names\nposterity thought worth preserving. One suspects that the King\u2019s\nreputation for sagacity may have been enhanced by his royal estate, and\nthat in the passage quoted from the _Book of Kings_ we see him through\nthe haze of grandeur with which later generations encircled his reign.\nEven so, the tradition of his wisdom stands, and like all firm\ntraditions has a basis in fact. What inferences should we draw? Not that\nthe three thousand proverbs with which tradition credited Solomon are\nthose preserved in the _Book of Proverbs_, despite the fact that the\nmain sections of the Book are prefaced by titles ascribing them to\nhim.[34] A few of the proverbs may have been spoken by Solomon himself\nor at his court by persons renowned for sagacity, but nothing more than\nthat is probable.[35] Two positive conclusions seem tenable. First,\nthat King Solomon made a profound impression on his contemporaries by\nreason of his subtle judgment, and his ability to express his thoughts\nin just such moralistic maxims, comparisons, parables, and fables, as\nthe Wise were wont to use. In fact, the King was a Wise-man and a\nWise-man was King.[36] No wonder that his renown grew until he became,\nso to speak, the patron saint of Wisdom in Israel, with whose authority\nany \u201cWise\u201d words might fittingly be associated. But further in view of\nthe aptitude shown by the King for the art of the Wise, it is reasonable\nto believe that their prestige at this period must have been greatly\nenhanced in the estimation of all classes. The man of Wisdom was\n_persona grata_ at Court. And what more is needed to secure a\nreputation?\n\nHence it is not unexpected, though very interesting, to find two or\nthree centuries later that when Isaiah and Jeremiah speak of the Wise\nthey refer to them as an influence in the land ranking with the prophets\nand the ceremonial religion. To the true prophets it appeared to be an\ninfluence not always for good, or even inimical to their moral idealism.\nThus Isaiah declares that in the glorious day when Jehovah reveals His\ntruth _the Wisdom of the wise men shall perish_ (_Isaiah_ 29^{14}); and\nJeremiah gives as the reason why his enemies consider that his death or\nimprisonment would be small loss to the nation their belief that \u201c_the\nlaw shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the\nword from the prophet_\u201d (_Jer._ 18^{18}).\n\nThis evidence might be augmented by passages in the _Book of Job_,\nwhere, for instance, the wisdom of Israel is described as an ancient,\nthough living, tradition: it is _that which wise men have told from\ntheir fathers_ (_Job_ 15^{18}.) But enough has been said. To sum up, it\nappears that the Hebrews, like their near kinsmen the Arabs, loved to\nlisten to the conversation of those, who, having ripe experience, shrewd\nwits, and a sharp tongue, were able to cast their reflections on life\ninto parables and maxims which the hearer could readily remember.\nPersons with an aptitude for such discourse were acknowledged among\ntheir fellows as \u201cwise.\u201d Anyone with the necessary intelligence and\ndignity might acquire this reputation. The Wise were never sharply\ndifferentiated from the rest of the community; they did not become a\nstrict order or a caste like the priests, but remained a type or class;\na class, however, of such importance that it could be spoken of in the\nsame breath with the prophets and the priests. Egyptian analogies\nsuggest that the Wise may have taken on themselves duties in the\ninstruction of the young: but just what these early sages said and\nthought we cannot ascertain. Nor is it likely we have lost much in\nconsequence. Some of their favourite sayings may eventually have been\nincorporated in the _Book of Proverbs_, but the antagonism of the great\nprophets shows that they were not enthusiasts for reform, and doubtless\nthe bulk of their maxims were prudential counsels suitable to the\nstandards of the age. In short, their teaching must have been desultory,\nlacking the inspiration of a definite purpose and a clearly conceived\nideal. Thus far we find nothing that matters to the modern world,\nnothing to awaken more than a flicker of our interest. No reason has yet\nappeared to prompt the hope that Israel would make more of her Wisdom\nthan Edom or Egypt of theirs, and that was little enough. In all this we\nfind only \u201cthe Day of Small Things,\u201d and need dwell no longer on its\ntrifles. But equally we ought to avoid the folly of despising it. The\nHebrews, after all, were not precisely as their neighbours of Philistia,\nEdom, or Egypt. Behind them they had, as a people, an astonishing\nhistory, and in their midst a succession of amazing men, the prophets\nwho had prophesied to them words which it was not possible should die,\nseeds of the ultimate Wisdom. In Judah there was growing up a capacity\nfor faith, a spiritual interpretation of life and an enlightenment of\nmoral conscience unique in the ancient world. Hence Israel\u2019s Wise-men\nwere not as other Wise-men; they had great potentialities. At length,\nafter the exile, circumstances came to pass which favoured the\ndevelopment of latent genius in these men. All that had been needed was\nan immediate stimulus, a liberating idea, a flash to kindle the flame.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nIron Sharpeneth Iron\n\n\nLife is very jealous of its secrets, and it is only by irrepressible\nquestioning that man has read what he has read of the truth. The\ninsurgent \u201cWhy?\u201d of our early years is perhaps the one childish\nthing weought to cherish to our dying day. All sorts of\nevil things--surface-familiarity, routine, but above all\nself-satisfaction--combine to stifle and to end our curiosity; at length\nwe acquiesce in and forget our ignorance, and thereafter stand with our\nprejudices cumbering the ground for those who would go further.\nQuestioning is health to the soul, and perhaps success is to be measured\nnot by the fulness of the answers we receive but by our eagerness in\nasking.\n\nAlmost everyone knows that there is in the Bible a _Book of Proverbs_. A\nfew of its sayings are in daily use. Most men have read a chapter or\ntwo. But at that point knowledge is apt to flag. What lack of\nenterprise! It is like giving up an excursion at the first mile-stone.\nWhy should there be a _Book of Proverbs_? Why did men think it worth\ntransmitting, and why did they finally count it sacred literature? Why\nhas it just the form it has? How comes it, for instance, that single\nsayings have sometimes blossomed into little essays, and brief\ncomparisons grown into finished pictures? What is the note of clear\nintention which pervades the chapters and gives them a certain unity and\nindividuality? Zeal and energy characterise the Book. Zeal for what? The\nprevious chapter indicates that the answer to that last question may be\nstated concisely in the one word \u201cWisdom,\u201d the meaning of which\nsubsequent pages will unfold. The aim of the present chapter is to\ndiscover an adequate reason for the _zeal_.\n\nNot seldom it happens that enthusiasm for a cause is first provoked by\nopposition. For example, belief that international relationships ought\nto be governed by ethical principles was generally and genuinely held by\nthe vast majority of English-speaking people in 1914; but the belief\nlacked energising force. It seemed enough to entertain it. Of the\nexistence of a fundamentally different conception--that Might is the\nultimate right in national affairs--we were of course aware, but the\nknowledge did not disturb us greatly. We fondly imagined that after some\nmore debate, and a little more reflection, so unenlightened and\nunneighbourly a notion must disappear. When, however, Germany suddenly\nput false theory into infamous practice, mark how our amiable opinion\nbecame not only an urgent and indispensable ideal, but a definite policy\nwhich must at all costs be upheld and made effective, if humanity was to\nbe saved from the yoke of an utterly immoral tyranny. In a moment we\nrealised the awful immediacy of the issue that had been at stake. The\ndebate was not as we supposed, on paper. Here was no wordy strife. Nay!\nthe battle at our gates was not confined even to the quick bodies of\nmen; it penetrated to the very mind and spirit, so that almost St.\nPaul\u2019s words seemed again in place: \u201cOurs is not a conflict with mere\nflesh and blood, but with ... the spiritual hosts of evil arrayed\nagainst us in the heavenly places.\u201d[37]\n\nSimilarly it was an insistent menace that roused the fervour of the\nWise-men of Israel. Subtle but deadly opposition compelled them either\nto champion their cause or see it fall. Wisdom in consequence acquired a\nfirmer outline. Because another Creed was in the air, it also became a\ndefinite \u201cWay of life.\u201d The issues were clarified, the trend of things\nrevealed. It was felt there were but two paths for a man to choose, now\nsharply defined and seen to lead in opposite directions:\n\n    _Hear, O my son, and receive my sayings,\n    And the years of thy life shall be many.\n    I have taught thee in the way of Wisdom,\n    I have led thee in paths of uprightness.\n    When thou goest thy steps shall not be straightened,\n    And if thou runnest thou shalt not stumble.\n    Take fast hold of instruction; let her not go:\n    Keep her, for she is thy life.\n      Enter not into the paths of the wicked,\n    And walk not in the way of evil men.\n    Avoid it, pass not by it;\n    Turn from it, and pass on.\n    For they sleep not except they have done mischief;\n    And their sleep is taken away unless they cause some to fall.\n    For they eat the bread of wickedness\n    And drink the wine of violence.\n      But the path of the righteous is as the shining light,\n    That shineth more and more unto the perfect day.\n    The way of the wicked is as darkness\n    They know not at what they stumble._ (Pr. 4^{10-19})[38].\n\nWhat then, was Wisdom\u2019s opponent? Not Folly in the perennial sense, else\nwhere was the novelty of the situation? The foe was Folly masquerading\nas Wisdom, a specious spurious Wisdom which, said the Jewish moralists,\ndespite appearances was No-Wisdom. But if it was not the reality, it was\nvery like it; for the false Wisdom was beautiful, brilliant, and\nexceedingly effective, had all the rights of sovereignty save one, all\nthe qualities of permanence save one--a firm basis in morality. It\nlacked only the \u201cfear of the Lord,\u201d which the Jew defined as \u201cto depart\nfrom evil,\u201d and which he held to be the one possible foundation for the\ntruly wise life. Not having that, it was but the devil robed as an angel\nof light, Folly of Follies, a Temple of Wisdom founded upon the sand.\n\nIn order to do justice to the efforts made by the Jews of the third and\nsecond centuries B.C. to maintain an intellectual, moral and spiritual\nindependence in face of the new learning, or rather the new manner of\nlife we are about to describe, it is necessary to appreciate not only\nthe force of the attack but also the limited resources of the defence.\nLet us begin therefore by striving to realise the position of the\nPalestinian Jews in the ancient world.[39] The overwhelming religious\nimportance of the Jews has so distorted the proportions of that world\nthat even the professed student of antiquity finds it difficult to\nrecover the true perspective and realise their geographical and\nhistorical insignificance. Without pausing to reflect, answer this\nquestion, \u201cWhich were the chief nations of antiquity?\u201d \u201cThe Jews, the\nGreeks, the Romans,\u201d is perhaps the reply that would rise most readily\nto your lips. But as well might one classify the inhabitants of the\nmodern Western world into Manxmen, Europeans, and Americans! \u201cWhich were\nthe famous countries of the pre-Christian era?\u201d \u201cPalestine, Egypt,\nAssyria, and Babylonia,\u201d might be our response. But the Egyptians and\nBabylonians did not hang with breathless interest on the fortunes of\nPalestine, as we are naturally prone to imagine. They cared no more for\nthe fate of Jerusalem than modern Europe does for the fortunes of\nMonaco. Now and again a king of Egypt marching north along the\nPhilistine plain, or a grand monarch of Babylon, sweeping south to the\nborders of Nile, might turn aside a fraction of his host to ravage and\novercome the Jud\u00e6an highlands. But, as a rule, Jerusalem, not being on\nthe main track of conquest, was not vitally affected by the coming and\ngoing of the huge armies that issued periodically from the northern and\nsouthern Empires.\n\nAnd next consider how unimportant even in Palestine were the Jews of\npost-exilic days. The history of that country is familiar to us only\nfrom the records of the Jewish Scriptures. If with the same fulness we\ncould hear the story from the standpoint of Israel\u2019s neighbours the\nproportions of things might seem immensely changed. How hard it is to\nremember that Solomon in all his glory had no authority in Philistine\ntowns thirty miles away; and that Hiram of Tyre doubtless considered\nhimself every whit as great a lord as the ruler of Jerusalem, and\nperhaps more highly civilised, certainly his superior in the matter of\narts and crafts. In 722 B.C., with the capture of Samaria, the northern\nkingdom of Israel passed out of history, and with the influx of alien\nsettlers into its desolated territory the district became semi-heathen.\nIn 586 B.C. a like fate befell the little kingdom of Judah, the Temple\nof Jerusalem being burnt, the city walls destroyed and the upper classes\ncarried off to Babylonia. Thereafter for a period of a century and a\nhalf Jerusalem existed only as an enfeebled, unfortified township. The\nreturn of exiles from Babylon in the reign of Cyrus (537 B.C.), though\nthe fame of it bulked large in Jewish tradition, was no great increase\nof strength, perhaps little more than the accession of a few influential\nfamilies. Not until a century later in the time of Nehemiah, about 432\nB.C., did the Jews feel that their political history had recommenced;\nand, even so, the work of Nehemiah was not the creation of a kingdom for\nhis people but the circumvallation of their one city. With its walls\nrestored Jerusalem might again be said to exist, a defenced city, no\nlonger dependent on the mercy of petty and jealous neighbours. But the\nterritories of the Jews remained much as before; namely the fields and\nlittle villages to a distance of some ten or fifteen miles around\nJerusalem. Nor was there any considerable extension of purely Jewish\nland until the successes of the Maccabees were gained in 166 B.C. To sum\nup. Even after the work of Nehemiah had been accomplished, the Jewish\nState in Palestine was still no more than an insignificant upland\ncommunity, a drop in the ocean of pagan races enclosing it; a tract some\nfifteen miles in length and breadth with Jerusalem as its only city.\nDoubtless the Jews were encouraged by the prosperity of their kinsfolk\nin the great cities of Babylonia, Syria and Egypt. But that was a source\nonly of moral or financial help, not of physical protection: and to the\neast were the wild nomadic tribes, and south of Jerusalem the\ntreacherous Edomites, and to the north the worse than alien Samaritans,\nwhose Temple on Mount Gerizim challenged Jerusalem\u2019s last glory, its\nspiritual pre-eminence. Galilee was heathen land; on the west were the\nsplendid heathen cities of the coast; and far to the distant south\nbeyond mysterious Nile and away to the most distant north ranged the\nvast territories of heathen monarchs before whose military power and\nworldly splendour Jerusalem was altogether less than nothing and vanity.\n\nIn 332 B.C. a thunderbolt smote all the countries of the near East. In\nthat year a European army, led by the young king of Macedonia, Alexander\nthe Great, invaded Asia Minor--with such astonishing effects that the\nevent marks the commencement of a distinct epoch in history, the Greek\nor Hellenic age. Military conquests prove sometimes to be of small\nconsequence in the great movement of human affairs, and famous battles\noften have decided no more than that so many thousand men should die\nuntimely deaths and that this royal house instead of that should hold\nthe throne: an almost meaningless result. Only those wars are decisive\nwhich, like the present one, involve the dominance of one or other of\ntwo divergent conceptions or ideals of human life. Now the conquests of\nAlexander were of this latter character; and, that being so, their\nsignificance has to be measured not only from the standpoint of events\nbut also from the history of ideas. At this point then--the coming of\nthe Greeks to the East--let our narrative be checked for a moment that\nwe may reach the same event by following up a different line of thought,\nnamely the history of the development of human society. What is the\nsignificance of Alexander from that point of view? Our aim in examining\nthe question will have to be threefold; to present (of course, in\nsimplest outline) _first_, the ruling principles of the Eastern or\nOriental manner of life; _secondly_, the Western--that is, the Greek or\nHellenic--ideals; and _thirdly_, the attempt of Alexander and his\nsuccessors to impose this Hellenic culture upon the Easterns and, in\nparticular, upon the Jews in Palestine.\n\n1. First, of ancient Oriental life. In a previous chapter it was said\nthat behind Palestine looms Arabia and beneath the Jew is the Arab. From\nbefore the dawn of history the immense grass-lands of Arabia have been\npeopled by small nomadic tribes who derived a sufficient livelihood from\nthe flocks they possessed and followed. All the organised life of the\nSemitic races, with whom alone we are here concerned, has its instincts\nrooted in this nomadic existence, about which much might profitably be\nsaid; but only one point is essential, and to that our remarks will be\nconfined. It is that these pastoral communities have solved the problem\nof life under existing circumstances. The rigid limitations of their\nphysical surroundings dictates a narrow circle of ambitions beyond which\nthey do not pass, so long as the conditions remain unchanged. For not\nonly have they discovered how to live, but they have found out the best\nway of living, within their simple, monotonous world. Therefore they\ncontinue, but they do not change. Progress was practically unthought of,\ncertainly undesired; and in fact the life of the modern Bedouin of\nArabia is still in its essentials the same as that depicted in the _Book\nof Genesis_. But about 3000 B.C., for the first time though not the last\ntime in history, Arabia became overcrowded, in the sense that its\npasturage was insufficient to sustain the population, and multitudes of\nnomads, hunger-driven, poured forth into the fertile territories\nbordering the deserts. There the arts of agriculture and of building\nwere learnt, settled communities formed, tribal organisation yielded to\nlarger groups, kingdoms arose, and eventually great empires. But the\ncivilised life of the Semites proved to be as lacking in the instinct\nfor progress, whether material, moral or intellectual, as in its simpler\nway the original pastoral existence has been. Life in Semitic towns\nbecame richer and more complex up to a certain point, but there ambition\nfaded, and the ingrained habit of acquiescence in existing circumstances\nprevailed, hindering and preventing further growth. Thus, politically,\nthis eastern civilisation was characterised by the mass of the people\nseeking no share in their own government. They were content to be ruled\nby authorities whom they seldom created and never effectively\ncontrolled. It has been truly said that the kings of the East fought\nover the heads of their subjects. The affairs of a baker in Jerusalem, a\nmerchant in Gaza, a craftsman in Tyre (provided the victorious army left\nhim alive) were unaltered by the rise and fall of his rulers. To the\nbulk of the inhabitants of the Palestinian towns it mattered little\nwhether they were temporarily independent or were under the heel now of\nBabylon, now of Egypt, now of Persia. Men hoped for no more than that\ntrade should be possible, food obtainable, and that the injustice in\nthe realm should be--not abolished (no one was so mad as to entertain\nthe notion) but--kept within tolerable bounds. For the rest, what more\ncould a man desire than to live as had his father before him? Ancestral\ncustom held the whole of life in its paralysing grasp, and choked\ninitiative. The potter sought no new patterns; what was wrong with the\nold? Why devise a new method of ploughing, when the old way grew the\ncrops? Innovation was an altogether hateful thing. Hence, however\npopulous Eastern towns might grow, however active and prosperous their\ncommerce, life in them was essentially stationary, its ambitions\nlimited, its possibilities achieved. In all Palestine there was but one\nspark of unexhausted thought; namely, the conception of God which the\ngreat prophets of Israel had discovered and transmitted to their people.\nEvidently a nation which remembered such words as these: _I hate, I\ndespise your feasts, and I will take no delight in your solemn\nassemblies. Yea, though ye offer me your burnt offerings and meal\nofferings I will not accept them: neither will I regard the peace\nofferings of your fat beasts. Take thou away from me the noise of thy\nsongs; for I will not hear the melody of thy viols. But let justice roll\ndown like waters, and righteousness as a mighty stream_[40]--that nation\nis not finished; it has living seed within its soil. Yes, but against\nthis confident assertion recall how shrunken and enfeebled the Jewish\ncommunity had become. Further, remember that in all things except their\nreligion and their morality these Jews were part and parcel of the\ngeneral Oriental civilisation. In their civil occupations, their\ncommercial and agricultural methods, they also were just as much slaves\nof tradition and as content with their bondage, as were their\nneighbours. \u201cSlaves of tradition,\u201d how much the words cover! If even\ndimly we could realise the misery, disease and squalor of the poor, the\ndegradation of womanhood, in those tradition-ridden Eastern towns; if we\ncould taste like gall and bitterness in our own experience one\nthousandth part of the injustice and cruelties of those \u201ccontented\u201d\ndespotisms; \u201cA stationary civilisation, having reached the limit of its\nambitions\u201d--how easily the phrase is framed!--if we could feel how much\nthat meagre consummation left to be desired, the words would seem to be\nwritten in blood and blotted with tears!\n\n2. Meanwhile in Europe, across the blue seas of the Eastern\nMediterranean, a new thing had come to pass: an organisation of human\nlife different in form and in intention because different in mind and\nspirit. By its means the intellectual powers and artistic achievements\nof man were swiftly to be raised to an unimagined splendour, and, even\nso, _to remain unexhausted_: we say \u201cunexhausted\u201d because the inspiring\nand energising ideas which Greek genius was the first to realise and\naccept have never ceased to operate, being in fact the intellectual\nprinciples upon which Western civilisation has been constructed, and\nproviding the ideal towards which the development of society is still\ndirected. Doubtless there is terribly much to deplore in modern life; we\nare far from wisdom, peace and true prosperity; it may be doubted\nwhether the conditions of the poor under modern industrialism are not,\nin places, worse than anything even the East can show. And yet there is\none incalculable difference revolutionising the whole prospect. Unlike\nthe East, we do not acquiesce in existing evils. We are not exhausted,\nnot apathetically willing to accept things as they are. We spurn as\nnonsense and cowardice any suggestions that the limit of human\ndevelopment has been attained. Vehemently and hopefully we insist on the\nachievement of better things. Not all the errors of the past and the\nresultant evils of the present daunt us. We are rebels against our\nfailures, and our discontent is the measure of our vitality. This\ninstinct for improvement, which is the characteristic of Western life,\nwe owe--an infinite debt--to the people whose coming into history we\nhave now, briefly, to relate.\n\nAs early as before 2000 B.C., the islands of the Eastern Mediterranean,\ntogether with certain parts of the mainland of Greece, were the home of\na vigorous sea-faring people, possessing remarkable artistic talent.\nTheir civilisation is now known by the name Minoan. Somewhere between\n1200 and 1100 B.C. catastrophic disaster befel this race. Out of the\nimmense grass-lands which stretch from the plains of Hungary in Europe\neastward right across central Asia there issued a multitude of men,\nmoving southward with their wives and families. The invaders swept down\ninto Thessaly and Greece, filling the mainland and pressing onwards\nacross the sea to the \u00c6gean Isles, massacring or enslaving the Minoan\ninhabitants. But if the newcomers at first brought ruin to a more highly\ndeveloped race, they had their own virtues. They carried with them a\nfresh vigour, like a breeze from the north. Hardy and simple, they were\nnot rude savages; they had learnt the use of wheeled vehicles, they had\ntamed the horse, and above all they possessed, as individuals, a certain\nsturdy independence and an uncommon open-mindedness. Fortunately, the\nolder population was not extinguished; large numbers survived as slaves,\nand from these in time the \u201chorse-tamers\u201d--as the conquerors loved to\nstyle themselves--learnt for themselves the secrets of the Minoan arts\nand crafts. With astonishing rapidity they were to improve upon their\nteachers.\n\nOwing to the mountainous character of Greece and the indentations of its\ncoast, the invaders were split into many separate communities, each\neasily controlling the small plains and valleys in the immediate\nneighbourhood, but finding it difficult, if not unnatural, to extend its\nrule beyond the mountain passes. For defensive purposes the members of\nthese small groups naturally tended to inhabit a single fortified town,\nwhich became the all-absorbing centre of the tiny state; the town being,\nas it were, a stronghold and its territories a garden round it. Thus\nthere came into existence what is known as \u201cthe Greek City-State.\u201d Like\nthe Arabian tribes who also had passed from nomadism to settled life,\neach of these new communities fell for a time under some form of\ndespotic government, now the rule of one man, a King or \u201cTyrant,\u201d now of\na clique of rich and powerful persons, an Aristocracy. But there was\nsomething in the character of the Greeks which proved intolerant of such\norganisation, and, unlike the Arabians, they passed beyond that\nexperience and developed a novel and, as events were to prove, an\ninvaluable social system to which they gave the name \u201cDemocracy.\u201d The\nfoundation principle of the democratic state lay in the conviction that\nevery adult free-born citizen, being an integral part of the state,\ncontributing to its prosperity and security, was entitled to a share in\nits government. Slaves were outside the franchise, but all others\nwhether base-born or noble, rich or poor, clever or stupid, were\ncitizens--each with a vote and a voice in the direction of public\npolicy, internal and external. To this citizen-body belonged the power\nof electing from among themselves officers, both civil magistrates and\nmilitary commanders, to whom administration was _temporarily_ entrusted,\nand who were ultimately responsible for their actions to the\ncitizen-body. Under happy fortune this system was adopted as the\nconstitution of society in the leading Greek cities. Mark the mental and\nmoral qualities thereby engendered. In the first place men became\nexhilaratingly conscious that they possessed individual freedom combined\nwith corporate strength. Each citizen felt himself to be of political\nimportance, an organic part of the state, entitled on the one hand to a\nshare in its glory and its privileges, and on the other responsible\nhimself for the general welfare. How can the epoch-making importance of\nthis fact adequately be emphasised? In primitive patriarchal society the\nindividual had been free but only within the narrow limits imposed by\nthe rigidity of custom and the bare simplicity of rudimentary life. And\ncivilised town-life of the Eastern type, as we have seen, was complex\nand magnificent in many ways, but nevertheless had missed the secret of\nadvancing freedom. Intellectually it hated novelties. Politically it\nmade men either kings or the slaves of kings, giving them either too\ngreat importance or none at all. Hence the larger the Eastern town, the\nmore powerful and extensive the State, the less was the mass of the\npeople personally concerned in their civil or military affairs.\n\u201cFreedom\u201d in an Eastern city meant anarchy. The Greeks succeeded in\nbringing freedom and civilisation into organic union. So far from\nchoking liberty, the connection of each Greek citizen with his city was\nperceived to be the very cause of the freedom he enjoyed, the means by\nwhich his privileges were multiplied and secured. Hence the greater the\norganisation of society the greater the opportunities each citizen\nacquired for the development of personal talent and inclination. It is\nassuredly no exaggeration to describe such an achievement as\n\u201cepoch-making.\u201d\n\nAlong with political freedom went mental freedom. Interchange of opinion\ntook place easily and continually between all grades of the free\ncommunity. The general obligation to promote the social, commercial, and\nmilitary well-being of the state stimulated discussion and gave to\ndebate the piquancy and solemnity of serious issues. A Greek might be\npoor, but he could hold up his head with the richest as a member of the\ncitizen army and the citizen electorate; and in the citizen assembly he\nneed not be a gray-beard to be reckoned wise. Mental ability became the\ntest of worth, and the benumbing tyranny of tradition was overthrown; at\nleast its unquestioned rule was at an end. Custom must henceforth submit\nto criticism and seek to justify itself. Enterprise, enquiry, innovation\nbecame the order of the day. It was the emancipation of the human\nintelligence.\n\nMoreover, since the rough work of society was performed by the slave\npopulation, Greek citizens found much leisure at their disposal. Herein\nwas obviously a danger, but also an opportunity; and fortunately the\ngenius of the people was not found wanting, so that, in the early days\nthe Greeks turned their leisure to good purpose, physical and\nintellectual. Part of their leisure was devoted to physical exercises,\nrunning, wrestling, boxing, throwing the _discus_, chariot-racing; and\nin the healthful competition of these games in stadium and hippodrome\nthey found continual pleasure. But their ardour for mental exercise was\neven keener. They began to think with restless energy and with brilliant\nresults; men of genius, poets, historians, philosophers, and artists, by\ntheir matchless achievements raised the intellectual interests of their\ncontemporaries to an extraordinary extent. In general, the Greeks\nacquired a wonderful feeling for proportion and natural rhythmic beauty.\n\u201cNothing in excess\u201d became their motto, but what was meant thereby was\nno timid mediocrity, but an avoidance of extreme, wherever the extreme\nwas grotesque or foolish. Men sought an equipoise of perfection, and\nfelt infinite delight in the increasing measure of their success. Within\na few hundred years the Greeks had produced masterpieces of art and\nliterature which few nations have been able even to rival, none to\nsurpass.\n\nIn short, three characteristics distinguished Greek or Hellenic\ncivilisation: First, _Emulation_. Men vied one with another, vied with\ntheir own past efforts. They sought to excel and achieved excellence.\nSecond, _Intellectualism_. The critical faculties of the mind were\nincreasingly released from the trammels of tradition. Reason became the\ntouchstone of life in all its aspects; and thus, just as in our own age,\nthe immense destructive and constructive energies of the free\nintelligence were ceaselessly set to work. Third, _Patriotism_. This\nthird quality calls for fuller comment, for it was the main source of\nGreek morality. Greek religion contributed something to the growth of\nmoral principles, but less than one might imagine. Its ethical interest\nfor the most part was limited to inculcating the fear lest Divine\nvengeance should follow _gross_ outrage of the normal decencies of life.\nDoubtless also the artistic sense fostered love of the good, since, as a\nrule, what is wicked appears to men to be ugly; yet the fruits from this\nsource also were not much to boast of. But from the intense patriotism\nfostered by the City-States came great moral consequences. The interests\nof the State claimed men\u2019s allegiance, and the claim was nobly answered.\nNot only great-hearted leaders but also masses of ordinary men were\nwilling to set the public weal above their individual prosperity or\nsecurity. In striving to be noble citizens men became noble men.\nThousands and thousands were conscious that they could not live unto\nthemselves--without shame. Altruism was a searching reality in their\nlives, and its burdens were loyally, even gladly, accepted. Men were\nvery zealous for their city, longing for its honour and renown, ready to\ntoil for it, to face hardship and peril on its behalf, and for its\nsafety to die unflinchingly. And no less measure of sacrifice was all\ntoo frequently required from the citizens of these ambitious and\nwar-like little States. Let their own words tell how they met the\nsupreme call: \u201cThrough these men\u2019s valour, the smoke of the burning of\nwide-floored Tegea went not up to heaven, who chose to leave the city\nglad and free to their children, and themselves to die in the forefront\nof the battle.\u201d[41] Or, best of all, take Simonides\u2019 epitaph on the\nAthenians fallen at Plataea:--\n\n    \u201cIf to die nobly is the chief part of excellence,\n    To us of all men Fortune gave this lot;\n    For hastening to set a crown of freedom on all Hellas,\n    We lie possessed of praise that grows not old.\u201d\n\nSurely no one can fail to hear in those words and in the spirit of this\nGreek life the music of familiar things, things which we have taken to\nour heart. That is because the thoughts of Hellas are the source from\nwhich our own intellectual and social ideas have been derived.\n\nBut Hellenic life was not sunshine without shadow. For all its power and\nbrilliance Greek society was exposed to many perils and was guilty of\nserious mistakes. These, however, we have here no need to discuss in\nfull. It is enough to note that, when-and-where-soever the necessity for\nardent patriotism was absent or unfelt the Greek conception of life\nlacked adequate moral incentive, and sinister conditions which were a\nvery black shadow in a fair world could and did arise. Much might also\nbe said regarding the jealousies of the petty cities, whence came\nwarfare constant, embittered, and suicidal. Nevertheless it remains\nabsolutely true, that compared with the stagnation of Eastern\ncivilisation, Hellenism was life and health. Judge from one token, the\nepitaphs just quoted. Men could not write like that in Palestine or\nBabylon, because they never died for such a cause.\n\nIn the years between 359 and 338 B.C. the independent Greek cities were\nall forced to admit the suzerainty, first of Philip II., king of\nMacedon, and, after his assassination in 336, of his son Alexander, who\nwas to be remembered throughout history as Alexander the Great. The\nhumiliation was not in any way a crushing blow to the spirit of Greece.\nTo the yoke of Philip and Alexander the city-states could submit with a\ngood grace, for the Macedonians were of the same ancestry as the Greeks,\nand for years had been to all intents and purposes a part of the Greek\nworld; and Alexander was wholly Hellenic in his upbringing and his\nideas. Had he not been educated by the great philosopher, Aristotle? In\n334 B.C., the young king organised an army of Macedonians and Greeks and\nset forth to make a grand assault upon the nations of the East: a\nstupendous task, but the enterprise appealed to the Greeks as a poetic\nrequital of the awful peril one hundred and fifty years before when\nXerxes of Persia at the head of a horde of Orientals had crossed to\nGreece and almost blotted out its rising life. If the task was colossal\nand the force to achieve it tiny, the results staggered the imagination\nof the world. The huge Persian Empire crumbled at the touch of Greek\nmilitary prowess, directed by the genius of Alexander. In three years\nthe young Macedonian had become absolute master of Western Asia Minor,\nof Egypt, Syria, Babylonia, and Persia. In 326 B.C. he pushed his\nconquests to the Punjab, and in 325 he died; but _Hellenism did not die\nwith him_. The East had seen many conquerors rise and sweep through its\nlands in triumph, and had continued to dream its long dreams. But the\nmilitary achievements of Alexander were only the beginning of his work.\nWhat stirred the East to its depths was the fascination of the ideas\nthat had accompanied him and that he deliberately sought to establish\namong the conquered peoples; with what measure of success it now remains\nto consider.\n\n3. A stormy period followed Alexander\u2019s death. Eventually his Eastern\ndominions were divided between two of his generals; Ptolemy, who took\npossession of Egypt, and Seleucus, who became ruler of Syria and the\nMesopotamian territories. Happily it is not necessary to follow\nthe confused struggles that ensued between them and their\nsuccessors--struggles in which Palestine, situated between the rival\nkingdoms, was continually involved. The point to be observed is that\nboth Ptolemy and Seleucus were Hellenes, as also were most of their\nleading men, and both they and their successors prosecuted, with all\npossible energy, Alexander\u2019s policy, the Hellenising of the East.\nConsider the forces directed to the attainment of that object.\n\nThe powerful influences of the royal courts in Egypt and Syria saw to it\nthat throughout the length and breadth of their kingdoms places of\nhonour were reserved for Greeks and such Orientals as might show\nthemselves capable of appreciating and adopting Hellenic culture. To be\na Greek, if not by race, then by imitation, became the only avenue to\nwealth or fame or royal favour.\n\nAlexander, however, had seen that if Hellenism was permanently to subdue\nand recreate the East it must touch not only the interests of such as\nare clothed in soft raiment and in kings\u2019 courts live delicately, it\nmust be made a reality daily affecting the life of common folk; and with\nthe foresight of genius he himself pointed the way to secure that end.\nRealising the organic connection between the Greek ideals and the Greek\ncity, he established at strategic points of his Empire new cities\nplanned on the Hellenic model. The Ptolemaic and Seleucid kings\npersevered in this scheme. New cities of the Grecian type were founded\nin their realms, and the old towns were conformed to the new order of\nthings so far as might be. In all important centres the essential\naccompaniments of Hellenic life were introduced: new political\norganisation for the election of magistrates, and buildings to meet the\nsystem; a hall for the Senate, shady pillared galleries where the free\ncitizens might gather to lounge and talk, baths and gymnasia, a stadium\nand a hippodrome for the games, and for the drama a theatre. With such\ninterests and amusements the imagination of the common folk was stirred\nand pleased. The youth of the cities became enthusiastic for the\ngaieties and glories of the competitive games. Guilds of athletes were\nformed and received the privilege of wearing a special dress, \u201ca\nbroad-brimmed hat, a fluttering cloak broached about the shoulders, and\nhigh laced boots.\u201d[42] In great public processions these young men\nmarched as a special class, wearing crowns of gold, and bearing witness\nto the wealth and pride of their respective cities by the colours and\nrich embroideries of their attire. But staider folk than the young and\nfashionable were also caught in the wide-spread nets of Hellenism. The\nwealth of the Greek cities and the royal favour shown them attracted\ncommerce, and sleepy Eastern merchants discovered that if they wished to\ndo business they must conform to the prevailing tastes; so that Greek\nbecame the language of the market-place as well as of the Court.\nFinally, the learning and skill of the East confessed its conqueror.\nGreek art and Greek literature, Greek science and philosophy made the\nolder Eastern styles seem worthless in comparison. Within two centuries\nfollowing the death of Alexander the near East had been transformed.\nHellenism had cast its spell over the whole of life.\n\nThe period is one of profound interest for the study of humanity. On the\none hand it did much to secure the perpetuation of the intellectual\nmethods of the Greeks, which might have perished had they not been\nextended beyond the frontiers of the small Greek States in Europe; and\non the other hand it showed that the East can change. Human nature is\nnot, as some would have us believe, divided for ever into irreconcilable\nsections. There are no unbridgeable gulfs between the Eastern and the\nWestern mind. If the modern Westernising movements in China or India\nshould fully succeed, they will but demonstrate anew what was proved\nlong ago in Asia Minor during the three critical centuries before\nChrist. The challenge these facts present to those who suppose that\nChristianity cannot become a universal faith is obvious. We must not\nattempt to give a detailed picture of Hellenism. But even these outlines\nare enough to show how thoroughly and dramatically the immemorial\nfashions of the East had been upset and new ambitions kindled, so that\nmen must have felt as if they had been emancipated from the dead past\nand told to make trial of a new form of life, one that was already\nbrilliant and delightful, but was most of all thrilling in its unknown\npossibilities. The peoples that walked in darkness thought they had seen\na great light.\n\nOne fact, however, and that of prime importance, has been left out of\ncount in this description of the situation. Hellenism in the East had a\nfatal deficiency; it lacked the keen patriotism that inspired the life\nof the old Greek cities. In Athens men had known that only by the\nmaintenance of their best ideals could Athens lead the intellect of\nGreece, only by discipline and self-sacrifice could the foe be driven\nfrom Athenian fields, could Athens rule the seas, could Athens be free\nand Athens glorious. But citizens of some Hellenised city of Syria\nexperienced no such sentiments. Their politics were urban not imperial,\nacademic not matter of life and death. To be a captain in the armies of\nPtolemy or Seleucus might be a convenient way of gaining a livelihood\nand might lead to fame, fortune and favour; but after all, to fight in\nthose ranks was to fight for kings\u2019 glories, not for hearth and home.\nThe ambitions of the petty states of Greece had had certain evil\naspects; strifes, jealousies, envyings were ever present among them,\nbleeding the higher interests of their common civilisation. Nevertheless\nthe need for passionate devotion to one\u2019s city had been the root of\nHellenic virtue, and _that_ not even Alexander\u2019s genius could transplant\nto Asiatic soil.\n\nMoreover, even such faint assistance as Greek religion gave to morality\nfailed the Hellenism of the East. By Alexander\u2019s time the early\nconceptions of the gods had been riddled by criticism, and as yet\nneither philosophy nor mysticism had discovered for morality a basis\nintelligible and acceptable to ordinary men. The earnest spirits of the\nday were aware of the danger ahead. They foresaw that, if society\ncontinued on its present course unchecked, its moral bankruptcy must\nbring disaster. For not all the Greeks were eating, drinking, and making\nmoney: some were asking questions about life to which a _demoralised_\nHellenism could give no satisfying answer. And the problem was more than\nmerely intellectual. The perils and pains of actual life made the enigma\na personal agony for many men, who saw that \u201cthey were being carried\nonward into a future of unknown possibilities, and whatever might lie on\nthe other side of death, the possibilities on the hither side were\ndisquieting enough. Even in our firmly ordered and peaceful society,\nhideous accidents may befall the individual, but in those days when the\nworld showed only despotic monarchies and warring city-states, one must\nremember that slavery and torture were contingencies which no one could\nbe sure that the future did not contain for him.\u201d In the old days it had\nbeen possible to appeal for succour to deities not wholly inhuman in\ntheir ways and thoughts. \u201cIf now that hope faded into an empty dream,\nman found himself left naked to fortune. With the mass of passionate\ndesires and loves he carried in his heart, the unknown chances of the\nfuture meant ever-present fear.\u201d[43] The situation called for remedy.\nHellenism itself evolved the Stoic philosophy as a possible solution for\nits urgent problems.[44] Our contention is that in their own sphere and\nin their own fashion the Jewish proverbs, as used at this period by the\nWise in Jerusalem, were, like Stoicism, an answer to the moral\ninstability which contemporary Hellenism had spread abroad.\n\nBut even if Hellenism could have entered Syria in its purest form, it\nwould have needed all its nobility to overcome the vices ingrained in\nthe East. When it came to the task with faith in the high gods shaken\nand falling, with the spur of patriotism left behind in Greece, no\nwonder that the ugly elements hitherto held in check in the city-states\nfed themselves fat amid the ancient evils of the Oriental world.\nParticularly in Syria did the baser tendencies of Hellenism run riot.\nLife there did indeed become richer, richer in iniquity. If facts have\nany meaning, then the history of Syria and Egypt in the Hellenic age\ncries aloud in witness of the futility of a civilisation, however\nbrilliant, that lacks a basis of moral idealism: \u201cOther foundation can\nno man lay than that which is laid.\u201d The fine culture of the Hellenised\nlands was dependent on the wrongs and miseries of countless slaves; the\ncities were filled with glittering, venal women; and the general\npopulation sank deeper and deeper in corruption, gluttony, and license.\nEven the games in Syria were made to pander to the base side of human\nnature; and, although ideally the cult of athletics might be an\nexcellent thing, \u201cin its actual embodiment it could show all degrees of\ndegradation.\u201d Life in the Syrian towns became for the most part a\nstudied gratification of the grosser senses. Here is the accusation of\nan eye-witness, a Syrian Greek named Poseidonius, who lived about 100\nB.C.: \u201cThe people of these cities are relieved by the fertility of their\nsoil from a laborious struggle for existence. Life is a continual series\nof social festivities. Their gymnasiums they use as baths, where they\nanoint themselves with costly oils and myrrhs. In the public banqueting\nhalls they practically live, filling themselves there for the better\npart of the day with rich foods and wines; much that they cannot eat\nthey carry away home. They feast to the prevailing music of strings. The\ncities are filled from end to end with the noise of harp-playing.\u201d\n\nAnd yet it was a great and wonderful age. Although the nobler qualities\nof the Greek cities could not be made to grow in the new soil, the\ngenius of the Greek intellectual attitude to life was rescued from the\nbickerings and fatal factions of the little states and was successfully\ncommunicated to the larger world, to become in time the priceless\nheritage of Western civilisation. Rightly conceiving that the spiritual\naspect of human life is the supreme thing, we are accustomed to divide\nhistory into the period before and the period after the birth of Christ;\nbut were attention to be confined solely to the mental development of\nmankind, the dividing line would be found in the coming of the Hellenic\nmethods of thought.\n\nThe bearing of these facts upon our subject is not far to seek. In face\nof the subtle influences that were transforming their environment how\nfared it with the Palestinian Jews? Jerusalem was sheltered by its\noutlying position from the full tide of Hellenism. Had it not been so,\nits special characteristics could scarcely have been preserved; it would\nhave become as one of the cities of the coast. But if Jerusalem was not\nswept away by the flood, that does not imply that the rain of new ideas\nwas not falling in its streets and markets. From 300 to 200 B.C.\nPalestine was controlled by the Ptolemaic Kings of Egypt, from 198 B.C.\nby the Syrian Seleucids. This change of authority imposed no check upon\nthe progress and vigour of the Hellenistic movement. Greek cities sprang\nup throughout the land, and older towns were eager to adapt themselves\nto the new models. Shortly after the death of Alexander, Samaria and\nPtolemais (Acco) had already become centres of Greek influence, and\nthere was a group of Greek cities beyond Jordan. Imagine too how quickly\nand how effectively the ideas of the Jews in Jerusalem would be affected\nby intercourse with the flourishing colonies of their brethren now\nthoroughly at home in the great centres of Greek dominion in Egypt,\nSyria and Babylon. It is not surprising therefore to find a Greek writer\nabout 250 B.C. observing that \u201cmany of the traditional ordinances of the\nJews are losing their hold.\u201d And if any reader wishes further\nconfirmation, he need only turn to the works of _Josephus_, and note the\nrelish with which that writer tells the story of Joseph the son of\nTobiah, nephew of the High-Priest, who by his insolent wit won favour at\nthe Egyptian Court, and battened for a while on the extortionate taxes\nhe wrung from the towns of southern Syria: a repulsive character but\nquite evidently a popular hero in the estimation of many of his Jewish\ncontemporaries. Picture the coming and going of Greek traders in the\nbazaars of Jerusalem, and the journeying of Jewish merchants to and from\nthe markets of the Hellenic cities. Consider what it meant that the\nimmense mercantile centre of Alexandria, with its tempting opportunities\nto the acute and enterprising Jew, lay only a few days\u2019 journey to the\nsouth. In short, Hellenism was swiftly becoming the very atmosphere men\nbreathed. Certainly its manifold allurements were only too visibly and\ntemptingly displayed before the eyes of the young and ambitious in\nJerusalem. And yet Hellenism had met its match in the strange city of\nZion. Greek met Jew, and in the struggle the Wise-men of Israel played\nno insignificant part. For they marshalled and moulded their proverbs\ntill they represented the Wisdom of Israel set over against the\nworldly-wisdom[45] of Greece. They counselled a way of life which was\n_not_ the seductive Greek way. They sturdily opposed another doctrine to\nthe fashionable immorality of Hellenism with its overwhelming prestige\nand ostensible success. For several generations the attack of the new\ncivilisation came by way of peaceful penetration, which was perhaps\nharder to resist than open enmity, since nobody could deny the good in\nHellenism, its beauty, and its cleverness, if only it had been pure in\nheart. Later, as we shall see, the campaign was to be conducted with all\nthe devices of reckless and inhuman violence. Hebraism against\nHellenism! All Egypt, Syria, and Persia had made scarcely an effort to\nresist the spell of the new learning and the new ways. At first sight\nthen how unequal the contest! A stiff moralism preaching against the\npleasures of sin to hot-blooded, able, and ambitious men. A clique of\nobscurantists arrayed not against a kingdom or an empire but against a\nmagnificent, world-conquering civilisation. The Jews maintain their\nground? Impossible! No, not wholly so; for this battle, like another\nwhich touches us more closely, was ultimately spiritual; and because the\nJews held a conception of the nature and destiny of man deeper, truer,\nthan even the Greeks had found, Hebraism in the end proved stronger than\nHellenism with all its genius and all its works.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI\n\nA Sower went forth to Sow\n\n\nLet us imagine two of the Wise-men meeting in the streets of Jerusalem\nand conversing. That is easier proposed than effected: bold words, to be\nfollowed by small performances. For the outlines of ancient Jerusalem\nare none too clear, and again in what tongue shall our Wise-men\nconverse? In ancient Hebrew or in modern English? Modern English from\ntheir lips will seem incongruous, and Hebrew is not so widely known as\nit deserves. Before we can make so much as a beginning we are compelled\nto compromise: let them talk in Hebraic English. But the difficulties\nneed not discourage us overmuch, for in this case even a half-done task\nwill be worth the doing, and there are some circumstances in our favour.\nThe topography of old Jerusalem may be uncertain, but our knowledge of\nthe influences, events and tendencies of the period in question is\nconsiderable. Therefore although the conversation between the Wise-men\nmust be imaginary, it need not be fancy-free. We can make them say such\nthings as can be inferred from the historical situation, and the talk\ncan be so directed as to help our immediate purpose, discovering what\nwere the dominant fears and ambitions of the Wise. Moreover, however\nimperfectly this aim be realised, the picture can hardly fail to help us\nacross the gulf which divides the abstract or general conception from\nthe concrete or particular embodiment, a matter of vital importance for\nthe comprehension of these Jewish proverbs. It is not sufficient to\nimagine the Wise as a class. Doubtless most Wise-men conformed to a\ntype, and they were a class in the community in that they shared a\ngeneral attitude towards life; but this bond of union was loose enough\nto leave room for great variety of interest, beliefs, and moral\nqualities. And just this diversity within the unity is the point on\nwhich stress should be laid; for it explains the individualism of the\nJewish proverbs, and is the secret of their broad humanity.\n\nIt is the month of June in the year 203 B.C. Ptolemy Philopator, the\nruler of Egypt, has died the previous year, and is succeeded on the\nthrone by Ptolemy Epiphanes, a child of four years old. The situation\npoints to the renewal of warfare between the great Empires. Embarrassed\nby the weakness of its young king, Egypt is in obvious danger from the\nrestless ambition both of Philip of Macedonia and of Antiochus III of\nSyria. But although the East is uneasy, the storm has not yet broken.\nPalestine is still controlled by the Egyptians, and a garrison of\nPtolemy\u2019s soldiers lives at ease in the citadel of Jerusalem. Zion is at\npeace; her harvests of barley and wheat have been gathered in; the\nfirst-ripe figs have fallen and already are on sale in the markets, and\nthere is prospect of a plentiful later crop. Imagine that we are\nwatching the city, as the day is about to break. The last hour of the\nnight is ending. Low down in the Eastern sky a faint tinge of blue\nappears, with shades of purple and pink above it, fading upwards into\nthe dark of the night sky overhead. Soon the horizon flushes into red,\nchanging swiftly to deep yellow as the first rays of the sun rise over\nthe hills.[46]\n\nThe guard of the Levites on duty at the Temple stands watching for the\ndawn, and as soon as the sunlight touches Hebron, just visible to the\nsouth, they raise a shout, heralding the day and summoning the people to\nhasten to the celebration of the morning sacrifice.[47] From the\ncitadel the trumpets of the soldiers take up the sound and call the\ngarrison from sleep. Soon the whole city is astir. Day has begun, and\nits hours are precious before the sun grows hot beyond endurance. The\ngates open, and first the cattle-dealers and money-changers begin to\npass along the narrow lanes, hurrying ahead of the people to the\nTemple-court. Shopmen appear and busy themselves preparing their booths\nin the bazaars. From his house in one of the narrow streets a dignified\nman of rather more than middle age, Judah ben Zechariah, comes out and,\nturning in the direction of the Temple mingles, with the stream of\nworshippers who purpose to be present at the offering of the sacrifice.\nLet us keep him in sight. When the ceremony at the temple is ended, he\nmakes his way without haste through the tangle of streets towards the\nNorthern wall and the Fish gate. There in the open space near the gate,\njust inside the city, he stops, and stands watching the passers by. A\ncompany of Tyrians, pagans all of them, files in through the gate,\nbringing fish for Jerusalem from the Phoenician markets. They are\nfollowed by a long caravan of forty or fifty mules laden with wheat from\nthe north, and their drivers, like the Tyrians, are also pagan. Judah is\nHebrew of the Hebrews, and the sight does not please him. After a while\nas he stands there a friend approaches and gives him greeting--Joseph\nben Abijah, one who, like Judah, had reputation as a Wise-man. \u201cPeace be\nto thee, Judah.\u201d \u201cAnd may Jehovah bless thee, my brother,\u201d answered\nJudah, \u201cand may He increase thee to a multitude; for truly there be few\nthis day in Israel such as thou, who keepest faith before God and before\nmen. Behold now this long time stand I here, Joseph, to see them that\npass by, and I swear unto thee that for one man of Israel there be nine\nfrom the ends of the earth, worshippers of strange gods. Men call this\ncity Zion; but where are Zion\u2019s children? From end to end the streets\nare full of these Gentiles. Moreover, look yonder!\u201d (a company of the\ngarrison came swinging down to change guard at the Gate)--\u201cthese\nsoldiers of Ptolemy! Mark well their heathen insolence, their pride and\ntheir contempt for us. Are we not the bondservants of Egypt, even as our\nfathers were? I tell thee, Joseph, it is not well with Israel.\u201d\n\n\u201cNay! thou art over-anxious, Judah. The land is at peace. The harvests\nare good, trade prospers and extends; we and our wives and our children\ndwell in safety. None hinders us in our worship. Why then take so sore\nto heart these Gentiles? _They_ are the slaves, who in their folly\nworship dumb and senseless images. Is not Israel free in her God?\nMoreover--a word in thine ear--how thinkest thou, Judah? Will Ptolemy\nmuch longer lord it over us in Zion? Or are his times come near to an\nend?\u201d\n\n\u201cHush! see that none hear thee. I also think his day is at an end. But\nfor what then shall we look? For the dreams of the prophets? For the Day\nof the Lord? Ah, would that the Lord might rend the heavens and come\ndown, but I, for one, do not look for these things to come to pass at\nthis time, Joseph. And except the Lord deliver us wherein shall we hope?\nNay, Zion, is still far from salvation. We shall change the bondage of\nEgypt for the yoke of Syria, and her little finger will be thicker than\nthe loins of Egypt. Antiochus is ten times more Greek than Ptolemy.\nVerily, the whole world becometh Greek. Traders and talkers, how they\nthrong in our streets and multiply in our midst! And whether they be\nrich and noble or poor and the servant of servants, behold how they\ndespise us and make mock of us, the people of the one true God! And how\nwith their vainglory and their wicked wisdom--for, as the Lord liveth,\n\u2019tis not the wisdom of God--they do bewitch fools and entice them away.\nThou sayest, \u2018Israel is free in its God\u2019; but I say \u2018How long shall God\nfind faith in Israel?\u2019 If then Ptolemy be cast down and Antiochus be\nlifted up over us, wherein is our advantage? How wilt thou save this\npeople from following wholly after the thoughts and customs of the\nGreeks? Again, thou speakest of peace and good harvests, but how long\nshall peace and prosperity be permitted us? If that whereof we speak\nshould come to pass, it shall not be without war and desolation. Who\nknows but that Jerusalem shall soon be a besieged and captured city? As\nfor the Day of the Lord, the prophet hath said \u2018The Lord will hasten it\nin His time\u2019 and his word is good; but alas! I fear that ours is better:\n_Hope deferred maketh the heart sick_.\u201d\n\nSaid his friend, \u201cI also--thou knowest it, Judah--am not of the\ndreamers, and know well that they who in our days see visions are\nprophets in name and not in truth. And the true prophets did not live\nfor ever. Nevertheless their word liveth; and have not we that are Wise\nlearnt from them that fear of Jehovah which is to turn from evil and do\ngood, so that in measure their mantle is fallen upon us and we are\nbecome their successors, and according to their commandments so we\nteach? Yea, I say that their word _hath_ overtaken this people, not for\nevil but for good; since of all the Jews who is there that doth not from\nthe heart know that the Lord our God is one God, and that the gods of\nthe heathen are nought and their images wood and stone? Wherefore,\nJudah, I fear not the Greeks so much as thou. For if a Jew from among us\ngo forth unto them and learn their skill and follow their fashions, yet\nhe will not reverence their gods. Moreover, remember, Judah, those that\nfight for us in the strife. If God hath not raised up a prophet in\nIsrael these many years, are not the Priests and Levites become a strong\ntower of defence? In all their interpretation of the Law of Moses, they\ndo well: for they seek to establish justice and mercy between a man and\nhis brethren, and to confirm the fear of Jehovah\u2019s Name. It is written,\n_The Law of the Lord is perfect, making clean the heart_; and these men\nlove its statutes wholly. Thou dost not think that _they_ will become\nGreeks?\u201d\n\n\u201cNot all of them, Joseph; yet of the great priests many are evil. They\nlive for place and power, not for the pure service of their God, and if\nthe day come when it shall profit them these would surpass the Greeks in\nthe fashions of the Greeks. But concerning the Levites and the Scribes\nthou sayest right; for they truly have set their hearts upon their work:\nalbeit zeal for the Law will not save Israel. If only the ritual be\nobserved and the services in the Temple maintained, if the feasts be\nduly kept, they deem all things are well. They would have all men more\nLevite than themselves. But what answer is that to the young who crave\nfor fortune, favour, and fulness of pleasures like the unbridled\nheathen? Some it may satisfy, but thou knowest that more turn empty\naway; and all of them understand that the Greeks will feed their desires\nfull. Come now: tell me, I pray thee: this very year how many are gone\nhence to seek fortune in the markets of Ptolemais? How many to the court\nof Antiochus, aye! from the noblest of our families? How many to be made\ncaptains in his armies and in Ptolemy\u2019s? Perchance it is well for thee,\nJoseph, whose son is a scribe well spoken of and one day will be counted\na Wise-man and a fearer of God even as thou, his father, art: but my\nson, my son, is in Alexandria, though I besought him with tears that he\nwould not go.\u201d\n\n\u201cJudah, I verily knew that it was for this cause thine heart was sad.\nNevertheless I would comfort thee, my friend. Hear now my words. They\nare not all lost to Zion that are gone forth from Zion\u2019s gates. Thou\nknowest there is no evil in thy son. Take heart. Are not the families of\nour people there in Egypt many and prosperous? Thy son will be a loyal\nJew in Egypt, not forsaking his father\u2019s faith. I am persuaded he will\nsend his tribute to the Temple when the time comes round. Aye! and thine\neye shall see him again ere long returning to keep the feast at\nJerusalem and to make glad thine heart. My brother, hear thou the\nthought which the Lord hath given me concerning this thing. It is\nwritten that all flesh shall come to worship before the Lord in His holy\nhill; but how shall this thing come to pass? They chant in the Temple of\nHis outstretched arm and His mighty acts. What if the stretching out of\nHis arm is in the going forth of these His children unto the ends of the\nearth; seest thou not how that already praise is offered to His Name in\nmany lands, and His glory is exalted among the heathen? In the Temple\nthey sigh for the day when all peoples shall come crouching to Zion; but\nwhat if thy son, and others even as he, have gone to prepare the way of\nthe Lord and to make straight His paths, and in Alexandria, Babylon, and\nAntioch are beginning the victory of our God, a victory which shall be\n(as saith Zechariah) \u2018_not by might, nor by power, but by my Spirit,\u2019\nsaith the Lord_? So shall thy son\u2019s going be turned to God\u2019s glory, and\nperchance it hath happened in accordance with His will. Saith not Isaiah\nthat _His ways are not our ways, nor His thoughts as our thoughts_? And\nwhen thou sayest of the priests and scribes that all their care is for\nthe Law and the Temple, and that they know not how to speak unto the\nheart of these young men, in truth thy reproach is just. But herein is\nour work. _We_ have the answer for this need in Israel. Have we not\ncounsel for success in life _with_ allegiance to our God; so that our\nwords are from the Lord, though we praise not the Law daily neither make\nmention of the prophet\u2019s hopes? If then we be found faithful and our\ntask well done, none in Israel shall reckon that Wisdom is of the Greeks\nonly, but rather that their Wisdom is found folly in the latter end.\nHonour, long life, and riches are in our words and they that hearken\nunto us shall find them and yet shall not depart from justice nor hate\nmercy. He that heareth our words and learneth our Wisdom shall even\ndwell with the Greeks and be wiser than they, being delivered from the\nsnares of their iniquities and the vanity of their faiths. So shall it\nbe with thy son, my brother. He will not forget thy instruction. And\nlike him there shall be many who, though they go forth from Jerusalem,\nwill yet give diligent heed unto our precepts, and with them shall go\nWisdom to be a guide unto their feet that they shall not stumble. Yea,\neven of those that in Zion seem to heed us not, some perchance shall\nremember in a distant land, and so be saved from falling. But, come,\nthou knowest this even as I, though sorrow for a moment had hidden it\nfrom thine eyes. With the blessing of God we do not labour in vain.\u201d\n\n\u201cFriend, thou comfortest well; and in my soul I know that these thy\nwords are true, and that our work is of God, and that our children\u2019s\nchildren shall see the reward of all our labours. But as for this\ngeneration many there be that scorn and few that hear.\u201d\n\n\u201cBe our zeal the greater then!\u201d responded Joseph, \u201cWhat saith the\nprophet?--_Precept on precept, line upon line_; and for us therefore\n\u2018Proverb on proverb,\u2019\u201d\n\nThe older man smiled at him gently, pleased by the words and spirit of\nhis friend: \u201cThou art a true friend and wise counsellor, ben Abijah. And\nnow let us leave this place, and, if it seem good to thee, let us pass\nthrough the streets and take note of them that buy and sell; for the\nheat is not yet upon us and the markets are full this day. Comest thou\nwith me?\u201d\n\n\u201cI come gladly. Thou shalt see--we shall find one here, one there, that\nhath need of our wisdom; and perhaps to-day we shall even catch the ear\nof the multitude, and many will give heed both to hear and to receive\nour teaching.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII\n\nMen and Manners\n\n\nStudents of the Old Testament do not require to be told that the\nuniversalism of the _Book of Proverbs_ is a remarkable fact. But even\nthose whose knowledge of Jewish history is not exact, and who have not\nmade a comparative study of the post-exilic writings, need have no\ndifficulty in perceiving how strange it is, if they will give the\nbriefest consideration to the following points. Just how free are these\nsayings from indications of the national aspirations or religious\npeculiarities of the Jews? Never once in the whole _Book of Proverbs_ is\nmention made of Israel or of any synonym for Israel! Not a word is said\nof the nation\u2019s past history or present fears and hopes; the word\n\u201cprophet\u201d never once occurs, although the influence of prophetic\nteaching is frequently manifest; Priests, Levites, Temple and even\nJerusalem are absolutely ignored; \u201csacrifice\u201d is mentioned four times in\ndisparagement; _To do justice and judgement is more acceptable to the\nLord than sacrifice_ (Pr. 21^{3}; cp. 15^{8}; 17{1{(mg)}}; 21^{27}): and\n\u201cofferings\u201d once incidentally: _I have peaceofferings with me_ (Pr.\n7^{14}). Even the divinely appointed Law is passed silently by; it is\nneither commended nor condemned. True, the word \u201claw\u201d is often found in\n_Proverbs_, but the law which men are there bidden to observe is not the\nprecepts, ritual or moral, of the great Pentateuch, not the Law of\nMoses, but the doctrine laid down by the Sage and his _confr\u00eares_! Ben\nSirach differs from the Sages represented in _Proverbs_ to this extent\nthat once or twice he identifies the Law of Moses with the Divine\nWisdom, and asserts that Wisdom has chosen Zion for her\nresting-place.[48] Otherwise his book has precisely the same broadly\nhumanistic and super-national character.\n\nClearly one need not be an expert in Jewish history to see that all this\nis startling; but it seems little less than astounding as soon as it is\nbrought into comparison with the passionate patriotism and religious\nexclusiveness that characterise other books of the Old Testament, not\nonly those that set forth the Law, but also such prophecies as _Isaiah_\n40-66, or again the _Psalms_. For example, contrast the ecclesiastical\nversion of Israel\u2019s history given in the Books of _Chronicles_, _Ezra_,\n_Nehemiah_, which in its present form is the work of a Levite of\nJerusalem writing about 350-250 B.C., _i.e._, at the very period of this\nWisdom preaching. A glance will show that the narrative of the\nChronicler is consistently intended to set forth the praises and virtues\nof the holy city, Jerusalem, and its inhabitants, the true \u201cIsrael.\u201d\nFrom first to last his work burns with national devotion, and the events\nof history are by him so related as to make prominent the honours due to\nthe divine Law of Moses, wherein he sees the nation\u2019s eternal hope and\nsure defence. Greater contrast there could scarcely be. The seeming\nindifference of _Proverbs_ and Ben Sirach would be explained if the\nSages had been irreligious or mere worldly-wise men, contemptuous of\naltruistic, national sentiment. But their doctrine is in no way\nanti-national: there is absolutely no whisper of polemic against Judaism\nor even depreciation of its special tenets. Neither were they\nirreligious; that is quite certain. Although on the surface there is no\nwarm glow of religious zeal, again and again \u201cthe fear of Jehovah,\u201d said\nthey, \u201cis the foundation of Wisdom.\u201d The Sages, at least the majority\nof them, were respectable, earnest, and God-fearing Jews. It seems to\nthe present writer psychologically incredible to suppose that such\npersons in Jerusalem of 300-200 B.C. were, in their heart of hearts,\nunmoved by the extraordinary distinctive sentiments of their race. Why\nthen the apparent apathy shown in their proverbs?\n\nIt is true that a taste for aphoristic ethical teaching was manifesting\nitself at this period in various countries besides Jud\u00e6a, and that such\nmoralistic teaching always tends to be cosmopolitan, but we find therein\nno adequate explanation of the astonishing facts just mentioned. It is\nmore to the point to follow up a hint suggested by the conversation of\nthe two Wise-men depicted in the preceding chapter. Hellenism seemed to\nbe in the ascendant, as no observant person in Jerusalem of the third\ncentury could fail to perceive; equally, no sober-minded pietist of the\nold school could be blind to its demoralising tendencies, and no patriot\nfail to dread its disintegrating effect on Judaism. How to encounter the\ninsidious and attractive force that threatened the overthrow not only of\nJewish nationality but of Jewish virtue: that was the problem for every\nloyal Jew. The Priests and Levites of the Law of Moses were fighting the\nfoe in one way. The Wise had chanced on another weapon for the fray. In\nthe old, common-sense maxims of their fathers, which being rooted in\nIsrael\u2019s religious faith and enriched by the ethical idealism of the\ngreat prophets presented a general moral standard, or at least a moral\nardour, clearly superior to the normal tone of the neighbouring Hellenic\ncities, the Wise perceived they had an instrument for countering the\nperil on its more mundane side. Their duty was to teach men that in\norder to get on in life it was not necessary, even in the clamorous\nconfident Hellenic atmosphere, to fling morality overboard and laugh at\nthe fear of Jehovah. To suppose that all, or even the majority, of the\nWise-men consciously formulated this point of view is of course not\nessential: many of them may have been actuated by an instinctive rather\nthan a reasoned antagonism to the spirit of the age. The point is that,\nviewing the teaching of wisdom on the one part and the circumstances of\nthe period on the other, this is the _r\u00f4le_ the Wise in actual fact\nfulfilled. Now it is evident that the nature of the work presented to\nthem was such as to make the advocacy of nationalism or even of the duty\nof conformity to the Law somewhat irrelevant for them. It was for others\nto enjoin these things. The Wise kept to their own path. Broad-minded\nyet loyal Jews, they were engaged on a task that happened to be\nnaturally independent of the ritual injunctions of the Law and of any\nimmediate political concerns.[49] It was their business to urge\nmorality, and to be very practical in so doing; to tell men how to get\non and not be blackguards; to persuade men that the wages of sin is not\nvictory but death--a noble task, however matter-of-fact the means they\nused for its achievement.\n\nWe believe, then, that the universalism of these proverbs is to be\nexplained chiefly as the mark of the Wise-men\u2019s ability to keep to the\npoint, not as evidence either of lack of patriotism or of indifference\nto the national faith. They were speaking to the heart on the common\nthings of daily life that men of all races necessarily share with one\nanother. Consequently--perhaps without their knowing or intending\nit--what they said transcended time and country. It was none the less\nwork for their people. As we hope to show later, there is good reason to\nbelieve that the plain, common-sense morality of the Wise preserved for\nJudaism the respect and affection of many ordinary men, whom the\nLevites, with all their enthusiasm for the specific forms of the\nnational worship, would have lost. Religion has no right to despise or\noverlook even the least of its advocates. There was One who said, \u201cHe\nthat is not against us is on our part.\u201d\n\nReviewing the argument of these pages and the suggestions of the last\nchapter, we conclude that, whilst the ranks of the Wise were wide enough\nto include men of diverse character and outlook, they must be credited\nwith having had a definite standpoint and a method of their own well\nsuited to the circumstances of their times.\n\nLet us now turn our attention from the Wise themselves to the men they\nobserved. Let us walk with Judah and Joseph through the busy streets,\nand take our stand with them in the open spaces by the city-gates, and\noverhear their comments on the scenes of human intercourse which met\ntheir eyes. Let us, as it were, join some group that has gathered round\nto enjoy their talk, to applaud their maxims and their morals, to laugh\nas the characteristics of this man or of that are hit off in some shrewd\nepigram, and perhaps--if need be--to take to heart the lesson.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIn the popular talk there were doubtless many sayings concerning the\nhabits of the various craftsmen and traders--the potter, the\nsandal-maker, and so forth--but (perhaps because the purpose of the Wise\nwas so broadly humanistic in its outlook) such specialistic sayings are\nrare in the literature the Sages have left us. A few, however, do occur\nin which men are pictured from the standpoint of their external\nrelationships, and with these we may conveniently begin.\n\nFirst, then, an observation so faithful to human nature that it has\nnever lost its spice and is appropriate in all countries, although it\nmust always have had peculiar pungency in the deceitful, haggling,\nEastern marts. Behold the bargain-hunter drawn to the life:\n\n    _\u201cIt is nought, it is nought,\u201d saith the buyer;\n    But when he is gone on his way then he boasteth_ (Pr. 20^{14}).\n\nNot a man in old Jerusalem but must have felt the dry humour and the\naccusing truth. But here is the other side of the transaction:\n\n    _A merchant shall hardly keep himself from doing wrong,\n    And a huckster shall not be acquitted of sin.\n    Many have transgressed for the sake of gain,\n    And the fortune-hunter requires a blind eye.\n    As a nail will stick fast between the joinings of stones,\n    So will sin thrust in between buying and selling_ (E. 26^{29}-27^{2}).\n\nSix of one and half a dozen of the other, but perhaps neither buyer nor\nseller were such rogues as they are painted! Let us allow a discount for\nthe epigram.\n\nOf the man in debt, a problem for society in all periods, the Sages said\nplainly but sufficiently:\n\n    _The rich man lords it over the poor,\n    And the borrower is the lender\u2019s slave_ (Pr. 22^{7}).\n\nBen Sirach, however, was much more graphic; says he,\n\n    _Many have treated a loan as a windfall,\n    And have been a plague to those that helped them.\n    Till the loan is lent, he will kiss a man\u2019s hand,\n    And for his neighbour\u2019s money will speak right humbly;\n    But when payment falls due, he prolongs the days,\n    And girds and grumbles and says, \u201cHard times\u201d_ (E. 29^{4, 5}).\n\nSupport for Ben Sirach\u2019s description might still be obtained.\n\nThe rendering of assistance to unfortunate members of the community has\nalways been a prominent and admirable feature of Jewish society, and\nquotations to be given later on will bear witness to the esteem in\nwhich the Sages held the practice of charity. But the alms-giving was\nnot wide enough, or else not deep enough or (it may be) not wise\nenough--as our own is not yet--to succour the lowest _stratum_ of\nsociety. Remember Lazarus at the rich man\u2019s gate: apparently there were\nsuch as he in Ben Sirach\u2019s time, whether brought low by misfortune or by\nfault:\n\n    _My son, lead not a beggar\u2019s life;\n    It is better to die than to beg.\n    A man that looketh unto the table of another,\n    His life is not to be counted life_ (E. 40^{28-29}).\n\nIn E. 38, Ben Sirach discusses an ancient and unsettled\ncontroversy--subject, the doctor. As he devotes half a chapter to the\nmatter, we may reasonably assign it a paragraph.\n\nIt would seem that in those days the medical profession was under a\nslight cloud. Some people (and for these we have no mercy: they were\ndoubtless prescribing for others, not for themselves) were of opinion\nthat all sorts of healing were an invention of iniquity and an attempt\nto thwart God\u2019s will. Ben Sirach enters a healthy-minded protest against\nthese fanatical obscurantists, insisting on the healing properties of\nplants: _Was not water made sweet with wood to acquaint every man of\nGod\u2019s power?_ (E. 38^{5}); an allusion to _Exod._ 15^{25}. More damaging\nis the unspoken but obvious implication of the sober-minded Chronicler\nwhen he records concerning King Asa that _in the thirty and ninth year\nof his reign Asa was diseased in his feet; his disease was exceeding\ngreat; yet in his disease he sought not to the Lord, but to the\nphysicians. And Asa ... died in the one and fortieth year of his reign_\n(_2 Chron._ 16^{12}). But to this the physician may make a weighty\nanswer. Until later times than Asa\u2019s it seems possible that orthodox\nmedical practice was in the hands of the priestly classes, and therefore\nit may be suspected that Asa is censured for having committed the\nunpardonable wickedness of daring to call in one of the non-priestly\npractitioners, dealers in herbs and incantations, outsiders, quacks,\ncharlatans, impostors all of them. But unfortunately, whatever the\nrights and wrongs of Asa\u2019s case, it must be admitted that the profession\ndid not wholly succeed in quelling the doubts about its merits.\n_Physician, heal thyself_--so ran the proverb in our Lord\u2019s time (_Luke_\n4^{23}), and is it not written of a certain poor woman that _she had\nsuffered many things of many physicians, and had spent all that she had,\nand was nothing better, but rather worse_ (_Mark_ 5^{26})? Moreover,\nreluctantly, we have to notice that the _Mishna_, still later, gives\nutterance to the disconcerting opinion that _the best of physicians is\ndeserving of Gehenna_ (_Kidd_, 4^{14}). Well, well, it is a vexed\nquestion. With relief let us turn, in conclusion, to Ben Sirach\u2019s\naltogether cheerier view. _The Lord_, says he, _created medicines out of\nthe earth, and a prudent man will not despise them. Wherefore, honour a\nphysician as thou needest him with the honours due; for verily the Lord\nhath created him. For from the Most High cometh his healing, and from\nthe king he shall receive a gift.... My son, in thy sickness be not\nnegligent, but pray unto the Lord, and He shall heal thee. Put away\nwrong-doing, and order thine hands aright, and cleanse thine heart from\nall manner of sin. Offer a sweet offering and a memorial, set in order a\nfat offering as best thou art able. Then give place to the physician,\nand let him not go from thee, for thou hast need of him. There is a time\nwhen in their hands is the issue for good: they also shall beseech the\nLord that He may prosper them to find out what is wrong and to save the\nlife_ (E. 38^{1-15})--then, as the conclusion of the passage, in the\nGreek text come these words which read like a very doubtful compliment,\n\n    _He that sinneth before his Maker--\n    Let him fall into the hands of the physician_.\n\nBut Ben Sirach must be acquitted of malice, for the Greek text turns out\nto be a mistranslation of the original Hebrew which fortunately has here\nbeen recovered; and all ends happily thus:\n\n    _He that sinneth before his Maker\n    Will behave himself proudly before a physician_.\n\nGood doctrine! Sound therapeutics and sound theology are allies, not\nenemies.\n\nReference to the special trades may be few, but some of those few are\nmemorable. Thus the only allusion in _Proverbs_ to the unskilled\nlabourer is one of the poignant sayings of the Book:\n\n    _The labourer\u2019s appetite laboureth for him,\n    For his mouth constrains him to toil_ (Pr. 16^{26}):\n\nHunger! that unwearying goad of men, so beneficial to the race, so\npitilessly cruel to the individual.\n\nBen Sirach gives us a glimpse of many men in some graphic verses--the\nploughman, the cattle-driver, the engraver, the smith, the potter:\n\n    _The wisdom of the scribe cometh by opportunity of leisure,\n    And he that hath little business shall become wise.\n    How shall he become wise that holdeth the plough,\n    That glorieth in the shaft of the goad,\n    That driveth oxen, and is busied in their labours,\n    And whose discourse is of the stock of bulls?\n    He will set his heart upon the turning of furrows,\n    And his wakefulness is to give his heifers their fodder.\n    So is every artificer and workmaster\n    That passeth his time by night as by day,\n    Cutting gravings of signets,\n    And his diligence is to make great variety:\n    He will set his heart to preserve likeness in his portraiture,\n    And will be wakeful to finish his work.\n    So is the smith sitting by the anvil\n    And considering the unwrought iron;\n    The vapour of the fire will waste his flesh,\n    And with the heat of the furnace will he contend;\n    The noise of the hammer will be ever in his ear\n    And his eyes upon the pattern of the vessel:\n    He will set his heart upon perfecting his works,\n    And he will be wakeful to adorn them perfectly.\n    So is the potter sitting at his work,\n    And turning the wheel about with his feet;\n    Who is alway anxiously set at his work,\n    And all his handicraft is by number;\n    He will fashion the clay with his arm,\n    And bend its strength in front of his feet;\n    He will apply his heart to finish the glazing,\n    And he will be wakeful to make clean the furnace._\n\n    _All these put their trust in their hands,\n    And each becometh wise in his own work.\n    Without these shall not a city be inhabited\n    And wherever they sojourn they will not hunger.\n    They shall not be sought for in the council of the people,\n    And in the assembly they shall not mount up on high;\n    They shall not sit on the seat of the judge,\n    Nor understand the covenant of judgement,\n    Neither shall they declare instruction and judgement,\n    And among them that speak proverbs they shall not be found.\n    But they will maintain the fabric of the world,\n    And in the handiwork of their craft is their prayer_ (E. 38^{24-34}).\n\nThe passage is so interesting an illustration of the attitude of the\neducated Jews towards manual labour that a digression is irresistible.\nAmong the Greeks all humbler forms of labour were heartily despised. In\nancient society so much of the rough work was performed by slaves that\nthe fortunate classes could and, as a rule, did find occupation in\nmilitary, political, commercial, and literary or artistic affairs. Even\nthe farmer was reckoned of small account, because, despite the honest\nworth of his occupation, his busy life and practical interests denied\nhim the intellectual leisure of the town population. The Romans had\ncertain incidents in their historical traditions that gave to\nagriculture a measure of honour, at least in theory. Otherwise their\nstandpoint was much the same as that of the Greeks. But the Jews\nmaintained a more generous and a very sensible attitude, as is\nexemplified by this quotation from Ben Sirach. They recognised the\nlimitations imposed by hard toil, but at the same time they saw that it\nhad an essential part to play in the economy of the whole, and therefore\nthey freely acknowledged its merits:\n\n    _Hate not laborious work,\n    For toil hath been appointed of God_ (E. 7^{15}).\n\nNevertheless Ben Sirach is well pleased that God had not made him a\nfarmer or a smith. It is evident that he did not deem the art of the\ncraftsman compatible with learning; and, since he loved his scribe\u2019s\nlife, his satisfaction at having full leisure to prosecute the search\nfor Wisdom is very human and pardonable. All the same, some may feel\nthere is a touch of intellectual snobbery in his tone. If so, his\nsuccessors, the Rabbis of later Judaism, did not follow him in the\nfault. They took the view that the degrading tendencies of certain\noccupations must be frankly recognised, but that there were many trades\nrequiring manual toil which ought to be highly esteemed.[50] In that\nmost interesting work of the first and second century A.D., _The\nSayings of the_ [Jewish] _Fathers_, we read that Shemaiah said, _Love\nwork_. Rabbi Meir, however, said cautiously, _Have little business, and\nbe busy in the Law_. It is said in the Talmud (_Kidd_, 99a) that\n_Whosoever doth not teach his son work, teacheth him to rob_. These\nremarks scarcely carry the question beyond Ben Sirach\u2019s view. But many\nof the Rabbis went much further and urged that religious and\nintellectual studies were not profitably undertaken unless accompanied\nby some acquaintance with manual labour. Thus, said Rabbi Gamaliel\n(about 90 A.D.), _An excellent thing is study of the Law combined with\nsome worldly trade ... but all study of the Law apart from manual toil\nmust fail at last and be the cause of sin_. Another, and a powerful,\nsaying is this: _Flay a carcase in the street and earn a living, and say\nnot, \u201cI am a famous man, and the work is beneath my dignity.\u201d_ St. Paul\nwill doubtless occur to many as an instance of a great scholar who was\nproud to know and to exercise the trade of tent-making. Recall how\nearnestly he protested to the Christians of Corinth his independence of\ntheir monetary help (cp. _Acts_ 18^{1-3}; _1 Cor._ 4^{12}, _2 Cor._\n11^{9}). This admirable association of labour and learning persisted\namong the Jews, and their history contains many examples of splendid men\nwho combined the virtues of great scholarship with the pursuit of some\nhumble means of livelihood. Some of the best-known Rabbis of the Middle\nAges supported themselves by labouring as carpenters, shoemakers,\nbuilders, bakers, and so forth.\n\nOf the numerous sayings concerning wealth and poverty we may mention\nsome that bring before us the concrete picture of men rich and poor.\nHere is one that is eloquent of the bitterness of the contrast:\n\n    _The rich man\u2019s wealth is his strong city;\n    The poor man\u2019s poverty is his undoing_ (Pr. 10^{15}).\n\nEven to-day, in a land where Justice is designed to be even-handed, but\nmust needs be approached through the lawyer, who imagines that the rich\nand the poor stand on level terms? Even among the well-to-do the\nmajority of men would think twice before engaging in legal warfare with\na millionaire or a railway company.\n\nOf the friendlessness of the poor there are these pathetic proverbs:\n\n    _Wealth addeth many friends,\n    But the poor is separated even from the friend he hath_ (Pr. 19^{4}).\n\n    _The poor is hated even of his own neighbour,\n    But the rich hath many friends_ (Pr. 14^{20}).[51]\n\nAnd this from Ben Sirach:\n\n    _My son, deprive not the poor of his living,\n    And make not the needy eyes to wait long_ (E. 4^{1}).\n\nDo not those eyes stare hungrily from the proverb, and seem to gaze\nafter us as we hurry on?\n\nA sterner note is heard in this almost ironical observation:\n\n    _A rich man toileth in gathering money, and when he resteth\n         he is filled with his good things:\n    A poor man toileth in lack of substance, and when he\n         resteth he cometh to want_ (E. 31^{3}).\n\nTwo beautiful passages in the _Book of Proverbs_ recognise that the\nproblem of success goes deeper than riches:\n\n    _Better a dinner of herbs where love is,\n    Than a fatted ox and hatred therewith_ (Pr. 15^{17}).\n\n    _Remove far from me vanity and lies:\n    Give me neither poverty nor riches;\n    Feed me with the food that is needful for me:[52]\n    Lest I be full, and deny Thee, and say, \u201cWho is the Lord?\u201d\n    Or lest I be poor, and steal,\n    And use profanely the name of my God_ (Pr. 30^{8, 9}).\n\nBoth grand sayings. The last is a really noble prayer for the Golden\nMean, and at the same time an effective accusation which we know to be\nonly too true of many self-confident rich men on the one hand, and many\nembittered poor men on the other.\n\nFinally, let us ruminate on the fact that wealth and dyspepsia are old\nacquaintances: _Better is a poor man, being sound and of good\nconstitution, than a rich man that is plagued in his body_, says Ben\nSirach (E. 30^{14}); and doubtless he had plenty of shocking examples to\nconfirm his opinion, if there be any truth in Poseidonius\u2019 description\nof the Hellenic cities whose citizens \u201cpractically lived in the\nbanqueting halls,\u201d and were wont to pocket what they could not there\ndevour.\n\nIn the next place we may turn to proverbs dealing with character.\nFastening upon one outstanding quality, for the moment they identify the\npersonality with it. And if that is never entirely fair to any human\nbeing--because even the best of us is, for instance, never perfectly\nbrave, nor the worst of us wholly mean--nevertheless it is good to be\ntold bluntly whither the bias of our nature tends. To isolate the\nVirtues and the Vices and to hold them up for praise or blame has ever\nbeen a favourite and a successful method of moral education.\n\nThe quotations that follow are, as it were, swift portraits, some of\nthem only lightning sketches, seizing in outline some obvious feature;\nbut others (for all their brevity) are so full of life and colour, and\noften so tellingly correct, that no comment is needed to enforce the\njustice or importance of what is said. They have been compared to\n\u201cMeissonier pictures: minute, graphic, realistic, unromantic; pictures\ndrawn not by Fancy but by Observation\u201d[53]:--\n\n\nTHE MEAN MAN\n\n    _Riches are not comely for a niggard,\n    And what shall a covetous man do with money?\n    He that gathereth by miserliness gathereth for others,\n    And others shall revel in his goods_ (E. 14^{3, 4}).\n    _The miser hasteth after riches\n    And knoweth not that want shall come upon him_ (Pr. 28^{22}).\n\n\nAND THE GENEROUS\n\n    _There is that scattereth, and increaseth yet more;\n    And there is that withholdeth, and it tendeth only to want.\n    The liberal man shall prosper the more,\n    And he that nourisheth others shall himself be\n         nourished_ (Pr. 11^{24, 25})--\n\nBut appearances are sometimes deceptive:\n\n    _There is that feigneth himself rich, yet hath nothing;\n    And there is that feigneth poverty, yet hath great wealth_ (Pr. 13^{7}).\n\nThere are numerous sayings dealing with the tale-bearer and the\nmischief-maker, for slander was a prominent evil of the crowded Oriental\ncities:\n\n\nTHE SLANDERER\n\n    _The liar disseminates strife:\n    The whisperer parteth friends_ (Pr. 16^{28}).\n    _For lack of wood the fire goes out,\n    And where there is no whisperer, contention ceaseth_ (Pr. 26^{20}).\n\n\nTHE MISCHIEF-MAKER\n\n    _An evil man digs a pit of mischief\n    And on his lips is a fire that burns_[54] (Pr. 16^{27}).\n    _An evil man, a sinful man, deals always in crooked speech.\n    He winks his eyes and shuffles his feet,\n    And his fingers make secret signs:\n    His thoughts are all plots,\n    He plans ceaselessly mischief;\n    A spreader of discord.\n    Wherefore, his ruin shall come in an instant.\n    Like a flash he\u2019ll be broken, and that beyond mending_ (Pr. 6^{12-15}).\n\n\nTHE BOASTER\n\n    _As clouds and wind that yield no rain,\n    So is he who brags of gifts ungiven_ (Pr. 25^{14}).\n\n\nTHE SELF-CONFIDENT MAN.\n\n    _The fool is quite certain his way is right,\n    But the wise man listens to counsel_ (Pr. 12^{15}).\n    _Seest thou a man wise in his own conceit?\n    There is more hope of a fool than of him_ (Pr. 26^{12}).\n\n--the last, a saying that increases in force when a little later we come\nto note just what the Wise-men thought of a fool! With these proverbs on\nthe Proud we may conveniently group some sayings on the man whose tongue\nruns away with his discretion:\n\n\nTHE GARRULOUS MAN\n\n    _The tongue of the Wise distils knowledge,\n    But the mouth of fools poureth out folly_ (Pr. 15^{2}).\n    _A fool\u2019s mouth is his destruction,\n    His lips are the snare of his soul_ (Pr. 18^{7}).\n    _A fool\u2019s vexation is instantly known,\n    But a prudent man ignores an affront_ (Pr. 12^{16}).\n\nHow true! Most normal persons have acquired the power to delay or\nsuppress the answer that rises to the lips in anger, but which of us\nwould not confess that it was hard to learn this wisdom and that it is\nnever easy to observe its teaching? The temptation to blurt out all our\nthought in time of trouble or vexation is always with us. In the\nhot-tempered East restraint was even more necessary than it is amongst\nourselves, and one is therefore not surprised to find the absence of\nthis virtue receiving the same fearsome condemnation as self-confidence:\n\n    _Seest thou a man that is hasty of speech?\n    There is more hope of a fool than of him_ (Pr. 29^{20}).\n\nNext, a group of proverbs concerning certain persons who to their own\ngreat surprise have missed success in society. The list may begin with a\ncharacter one scarcely expects to meet in Scripture:\n\n\nTHE PRACTICAL JOKER\n\n    _As a madman that casteth firebrands, arrows and death,\n    So is he who deceives his neighbour and cries,\n         \u201cI was only in jest\u201d_ (Pr. 26^{18, 19}).\n\nThen some advice to\n\n\nTHE BOOR IN SOCIETY[55]\n\n    _When thou sittest to eat with a ruler\n    Bear in mind his lordship\u2019s presence;\n    And if thou be a hearty eater,\n    Put a knife to thy throat_ (Pr. 23^{1-3}).\n\nAnd, thirdly, in two proverbs,\n\n\nTHE INOPPORTUNE MAN\n\n    _As one that taketh off a garment in cold weather,\n    And as vinegar upon a wound;\n    So is he that singeth songs to a heavy heart_ (Pr. 25^{20})[56].\n\n    _He that blesseth his friend with a loud voice,\n         rising early in the morning;\n    It shall be counted a curse unto him_ (Pr. 27^{14}).\n\nThe last saying prompts the thought that Mr. E. V. Lucas is also among\nthe Sages, for has he not given it as his opinion that \u201cearly rising\nleads to self-conceit, intolerance, and dulness after dinner\u201d? \u201cThe old\npoet,\u201d says he, \u201cwas right--\n\n    \u2018When the morning riseth red\n    Rise not thou but keep thy Bed;\n    When the Dawn is dull and gray\n    Sleep is still the better way:\n    Beasts are up betimes, but then\n    They are beasts and we are men.\u2019\u201d\n\nThe last of the social failures is the Flatterer, oily and ingratiating,\nbut treacherous and in the end exposed:\n\n\nTHE FLATTERER\n\n    _The words of a flatterer are like dainty morsels\n    Going down to the innermost parts of the body_ (Pr. 18^{8}).\n\n    _A man that flattereth his neighbour\n    Spreadeth a net for his feet_ (Pr. 29^{5}; cp. 26^{28}).\n\n    _He that rebuketh a man shall afterward find more favour\n    Than he that flattereth with the tongue_ (Pr. 28^{23}).\n\nTheophrastus, a Greek writer, has left us certain character-sketches of\nAthenian society about 300 B.C., many of which might profitably be\nstudied in relation to these Hebrew epigrams. His essay on _The\nFlatterer_ is a case in point. Here is the Greek conception:--\n\n\u201cFlattery may be considered as a mode of companionship, base but\nprofitable to him who flatters. The flatterer is a person who will say\nas he walks with another, \u2018Do you see how people are looking at you?\nThis happens to no man in Athens but you.\u2019... With these and the like\nwords he will remove a morsel of wool from his patron\u2019s coat; or, if a\nspeck of chaff has been laid on the other\u2019s hair by the wind, he will\npick it off, adding with a laugh, \u2018Do you see? Because I have not met\nyou for two days, you have had your beard full of white hairs--although\nno one has darker hair for his years than you?\u2019 Then he will request the\ncompany to be silent while the great man is speaking, and will praise\nhim too in his hearing, and mark his approbation at a pause with \u2018True\u2019;\nor he will laugh at a frigid joke and stuff his cloak in his mouth as if\nhe could not repress his amusement. He will request those who pass by to\n\u2018stand still until His Honour has passed.\u2019... When he assists at the\npurchase of slippers, he will declare that the foot is more shapely than\nthe shoes. If his patron is approaching a friend, he will run forward\nand say \u2018He is coming to you\u2019; and then, turning back, \u2018I have announced\nyou.\u2019... He is the first of the guests to praise the wine, and to say\nas he reclines next the host, \u201cHow delicate is your fare,\u2019 and (taking\nup something from the table) \u2018Now this--how excellent it is.\u2019... He\nwill take the cushions from the slave in the theatre and spread them on\nthe seat with his own hands. He will say that his patron\u2019s house is well\nbuilt, his land well planted, and that his portrait is excellent.\u201d[57]\nEven when full allowance is made for the unity of authorship and the\nconscious and careful artistry of the Greek writing, it must be felt\nthat comparison between the Hebrew portrait and the Greek is scarcely\npossible, the advantage is so entirely with the latter. The Wise were\nperhaps unusually dull in their _dicta_ concerning the Flatterer, but at\ntheir best they never come within sight of the brilliant detail that\nmakes the Greek portrait live before our eyes. It is all the more\nsignificant therefore that the Hebrew has hit the one point that the\nGreek ignores or overlooks: the moral issues of flattery. Theophrastus,\nthe artist, observes that flattery is a base employment; with its evil\nand disastrous consequences he does not trouble himself. The Wise miss\nalmost everything except that: _A man that flattereth his neighbour_,\nsaid they, _spreadeth a net for his feet_. They offer an unadorned\nassertion; but, taken to heart, it would prove more useful to society\nthan all the subtlety of the Athenian delineation. Note then in passing\nhow the contrast is an epitome of the struggle between the two\nworld-ideas, Hellenic and Jewish; on the one hand the overwhelming charm\nand skill of the Greek, and on the other the unfailing instinct of the\nHebrew for the one thing the Greek world lacked.\n\n\nTHE LAZY MAN\n\nIn the lazy man the Wise found a subject that stirred not only their wit\nbut also their eloquence. In two instances proverb has expanded to\nbecome a parable and a picture, both of which arrive at the same\nconclusion. The parable is very famous--\n\n    _Go to the ant, thou sluggard,\n    Consider her ways and be wise,\n    Which, having no chief, overseer or ruler,\n    Provideth her meat in the summer\n    And gathereth her food in the harvest.\n    How long wilt thou sleep, O sluggard?\n    When wilt thou arise from thy slumber?\n    Yet a little sleep, a little slumber,\n    A little folding of the hands to sleep--\n    So shall thy poverty come as a robber,\n    And thy want as an armed man_ (Pr. 6^{6-11}).\n\nBut the picture deserves to be no less familiar:\n\n    _I passed by the field of the slothful,\n    By the vineyard of the witless man:\n    And lo! it was all grown over with thorns,\n    Its surface was covered with nettles,\n    Its stonewall was broken down.\n    Yet a little sleep, a little slumber,\n    A little folding of the hands to sleep--\n    So shall thy poverty come as a robber,\n    And thy want as an armed man_ (Pr. 24^{30-34}).\n\nBesides these longer sketches there are several brief and pithy words\nabout the lazy man. First, a delightful \u201chit\u201d at him to whom any excuse\nfor idleness is better than none:\n\n     _The sluggard saith, \u201cThere is a lion outside. I shall be slain in\n     the streets!\u201d_ (Pr. 22^{13}).\n\nAnd here are two beautiful verses which breathe the very air of\nindolence:\n\n    _As the door turneth upon its hinges,\n    So doth the sluggard upon his bed.\n    The sluggard burieth his hand in the dish;\n    It wearyeth him to bring it to his mouth again_ (Pr. 26^{14, 15}).\n\nThe verse immediately following (Pr. 26^{16}) will serve to conclude\nthis topic, for it shows the sluggard to be own cousin to the type of\nman whom next we shall consider:\n\n    _The sluggard is wiser in his own conceit\n    Than seven men that can render a reason._\n\nAs the Wise went through the streets of Jerusalem and stood to teach in\nits open spaces, they observed certain men of various occupations,\ndiffering one from another both in social rank and in mental ability,\nwhom nevertheless they classed under one category--THE SONS OF FOLLY.\nThere were, of course, distinctions in the nature of their folly. The\nAuthorised and Revised Versions are content to differentiate only three\ntypes, namely--Simpletons[58] (whether from lack of brain or lack of\ninstruction, \u201cDullards\u201d), Scorners[59], and Fools. The Hebrew text goes\nfurther and classifies the last named, the Fools, into (1) _Ivvillim_,\nthose whose folly is due chiefly to the unrealised weakness of their\nnature--ignorant, vain, confident, headstrong, infatuate persons: in a\nword, \u201cstupid fools\u201d; and (2) _Kesilim_, whose is the folly of a gross\nand sensual nature, men who are morally, rather than mentally,\nunresponsive to the finer aspects of life--insensate, brutish persons,\n\u201ccoarse fools\u201d; and (3) the _Nabal_, the man who is deliberate in his\nwrong-doing, the \u201cFool of Fools,\u201d but whose folly is only folly,\nprovided the moral instinct of Humanity is sound and the law of the\nUniverse is ultimately against evil and Man was meant for God and\ngoodness. He it is of whom a Psalmist, getting to the very root of the\nproblem, says _The fool hath said in his heart: \u201cThere is no God.\u201d_\nHaving made the fundamental error, his whole judgment of life has become\nperverted. Probably he is an astute person; but the greater his ability,\nthe greater and more pernicious will be his folly. Naturally, this fool\nand the scorner were often one and the same person. The Wise speak\nlittle of him, except in his capacity as a scorner; but they recognise\nthat he is terrible. One of the four things that cause the earth to\ntremble, say they, is when a man of this sort is filled with meat (Pr.\n30^{22}). Elsewhere (Pr. 17^{7}) they remark sarcastically that _Honest\nwords do not become a fool_--decency would be out of keeping with his\ncharacter. So much for \u201cthe Fool _par excellence_.\u201d\n\nThe rest of the sayings about \u201cfools\u201d are concerned with those of the\nfirst and second types. If it were our intention to go into the teaching\nfully, the nice distinctions of the Hebrew would have to be observed\nwith care.[60] But now that the _Nabal_ has been considered, it will be\nsufficient to follow the classification of the English Bible--scorners,\nsimpletons, and fools--allowing the precise distinction between the\n_weak_ and the _coarse_ fool to lapse.\n\nThe _Simpleton_ is one type; his folly may, and should be, cured by\ninstruction. But he is disappointingly dull of hearing and \u201cslow at the\nuptake\u201d: _How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity?_ cries\nWisdom to them (Pr. 1^{22}). Nevertheless, although the teacher may fail\nto give them efficient brains, he can perhaps save them from evil and,\nin a quiet, humble way they may learn that fear of the Lord which is a\nsufficiency of true Wisdom. Wherefore on the whole the Wise spoke to\nthese men sympathetically and hopefully: so in the exordium which states\nthe purpose of the _Book of Proverbs_ we are told that it is meant _to\ngive prudence to the simple_ (Pr. 1^{4}).\n\nTo the average fool the Wise were severe. Were they fair in being so?\nSurely many of these fools were either weak-willed or coarse, as the\ncase might be, because they were just uninstructed \u201csimpletons?\u201d No!\nThese are they who have opportunity but refuse or neglect it. Therefore\ntheir condition is culpable, and the Wise do well not to mince matters\nconcerning the folly of their conduct. Such persons require to be\nkicked into sense, and the Wise were of opinion that in some instances\nthe kicking might with advantage begin by being physical. Hold! Of whom\nare we speaking? Of the inhabitants of Jerusalem? Yes, but, suppose we\nwere analysing the population of our own times, would there not be more\nthan a few found guilty of just such folly--men and women\n_undisciplined_ in mind and soul? Possessing plenty of wits and much\ncapacity for moral feeling, they fling their chances aside. It is a\nperilous attitude towards the realities of life, for refusal to learn\ngrows ever easier as life goes on. What chance do thousands give\nthemselves of acquiring Christian faith, or even of maintaining or\nimproving their intellectual and moral qualities? Do they seek for the\ngood in the Christian Churches, or for the faults, and so miss the good?\nHow much study have they given to the knowledge of God in Christ? Many\nhave consulted their Bradshaw more often than their Bible. What efforts\ndo they make to apprehend the meaning and value of Christianity in face\nof modern knowledge and in view of modern conditions? \u201cLast Sunday you\nmanaged to evade the message which God sent you: that makes it much\neasier to evade the message He sends you to-day. Next Sunday you will be\nalmost totally indifferent. Soon you will get out of reach of His word\naltogether, saying it does you no good. Then you will deny that it is\nHis word or His message.\u201d[61] This reference to Church-going is of\ncourse but one point out of many: the principle at issue is one which\nvitally concerns the whole of a man\u2019s attitude to life. The fool is\nalmost unteachable, and that of course is his supreme peril. He is so\nself-confident, so unreasonable, so certain he is right and others\nwrong. He does not dream of becoming wiser, because already he knows\nhimself to be as wise as Solomon. Therefore the Sages are justified in\ntheir unsparing rebukes. What is wrong with the fool, is primarily his\nmoral condition; and accordingly for the moment we need not trouble to\ndistinguish between the weak fool and the coarse. What is censured in\nthem both is neither their present silliness nor their grossness, but\ntheir unwillingness to learn. They have what amounts to an error of\nmoral vision, and they desperately need to realise the fact. Mr.\nChesterton has somewhere said, \u201cThe fool is one who has an impediment in\nhis thought. It is _not_, as the modern fellows say, put there by his\ngrandmother. I have wandered over the world (so to speak) trying to find\nsome faithful, simple soul who really believed in his own grandmother.\nHe does not exist. The first act of the fool, when he is articulate, is\nto teach his grandmother how to suck eggs. Fools have no reverence.\nFools have no humility.\u201d Doubtless a man must not be blamed for the\ninitial quality of his mind, and possibly the Wise were too caustic to\nthe congenitally stupid. But then the Wisdom they were teaching was not\nintellectually difficult to acquire; it was not book-learning but that\nWisdom which is from on high and can be revealed to babes and sucklings.\n\nAs for the third class, the Scorner or Chief Fool; he too suffers from\ncorruption of moral vision. But with him the distortion is desperate: he\ncalls white black and black white. For this alert, deliberate Fool, the\nWise had little hope or none at all; he has chosen the path of Folly\nwith his eyes open. All they can do is to meet his scorn with a greater\nscorn, and make their appeal in his hearing. One does not wonder that\nthe Wise were baffled by this type of man. There is hope of such a\nperson, but the hope is in the fact of Christ. This Fool has wit enough\nto rethink the situation, if he chose. He may some day have imperative\ncause to reconsider his view of life, and so may discover first that\nChrist is truth, and then learn that Christ can pardon.\n\nWe turn now to the sayings themselves, or rather to a selection from\nthem, for the sons of Folly provoked very many proverbs.\n\nA number are humorous and spicy--the sort of phrases that might catch\nthe ear of a crowd, raise a laugh at the fool\u2019s expense, and remain\nfixed in the hearer\u2019s memory by the barb of wit. Think, for instance, of\nthe feeble, vacillating eyes that so often accompany and reflect a weak\nintellect or character:\n\n    _Wisdom stands ever before the mind of a prudent man,\n    But the eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth_ (Pr. 17^{24}).\n\nand for comment on the mind behind the eyes, this will do:\n\n    _The mind of a fool is like a cartwheel,\n    And his thoughts like a rolling axle-tree_ (E. 33^{5}).\n\nThe Wise laid their finger with much accuracy on the salient features of\nthe foolish character. Thus in the dullard they point to his credulity,\n_The simpleton believeth every word, but the prudent looketh well to his\ngoing_ (Pr. 14^{15}). The fool is apt to be greedy of reward, _The fool\nwill say \u201cI have no friend and I have no thanks for my good deeds_ (E.\n20^{16}); and grudging in his charity, _To-day he will lend but\nto-morrow he will ask it again_ (E. 20^{15}), although himself a\nspendthrift, _Precious treasure abides in the Wise man\u2019s house, but a\nfoolish man swallows it up_ (Pr. 21^{20}, cp. Pr. 14^{1}). He is a\nblusterer, _A Wise man is cautious and avoids misfortune, but the fool\nrageth and is confident_ (Pr. 14^{16}); shallow and frivolous, _As the\ncrackling of thorns under a pot, so is the laughter of a fool_\n(_Ecclesiastes_ 7^{6}); garrulous, saying what he thinks before he\nthinks what he says, _The heart of fools is in their mouth, but the\nmouth of wise men is in their heart_. (E. 21^{26}); changeable and\nunreliable, _The foolish man changeth as the moon_ (E. 27^{11}); _Take\nnot counsel with a fool, for he will not be able to conceal the matter_\n(E. 8^{17}). He is a bully often, but his courage is unstable, _Pales\nset on a high place will not stand against the wind; so the cowardice in\na foolish heart will not bear up against any fear_ (E. 22^{18}). He\naspires to be witty, but seldom has wit enough, _The legs of the lame\nhang loose: so does a parable in the mouth of fools_ (Pr. 26^{7}).\n\nNevertheless the fool\u2019s pride and self-confidence is complete, _The way\nof the foolish is right in his own eyes_ (Pr. 12^{15}; cp. 14^{3},\n28^{26}); so that he loses sense of the awfulness of evil and even\nenjoys it, _It is as sport to a fool to do wickedness_ (Pr. 10^{23}, cp.\n13^{19}); sneering at those who fain would give him guidance, _A fool\ndespiseth his father\u2019s correction ... a fool scorns his mother_ (Pr.\n15^{5, 20}); and hating information, _A fool hath no delight in\nunderstanding_ (Pr. 18^{2}). Thus it is almost useless to attempt to\ninstruct a fool--here is a counsel of despair, _Speak not in the hearing\nof a fool, for he will despise the wisdom of thy words_ (Pr.\n23^{9})--and here is the sigh of the weary teacher, _Wherefore is there\na price in the hands of the fool to buy wisdom, seeing that he hath no\nwits?_ (Pr. 17^{16}). _The inward parts of a fool are like a broken\nvessel, and he will hold no knowledge_ (E. 21^{14}). _He that teacheth a\nfool is as one that glueth a potsherd together_ (E. 22^{7}). The fool,\nin fact, is in uttermost peril of being incorrigible, _He that\ndiscourseth to a fool is as one discoursing to a man that slumbereth; at\nthe end thereof he will say \u201cWhat is it?\u201d_ (E. 22^{8}). Altogether it is\nhard to suffer fools gladly:\n\n    _A stone is heavy and the sand weighty,\n    But a fool\u2019s vexation is heavier than both_ (Pr. 27^{3}).\n\nWherefore the Wise dealt them some shrewd blows, being well aware that\nthe skin of the dullard and the scornful was tough:\n\n    _A whip for a horse, a bridle for an ass,\n    And a rod for the back of fools_ (Pr. 26^{3}).\n\n    _As a dog returneth to his vomit,\n    So a fool repeateth his folly_ (Pr. 26^{11}).\n\n    _A rebuke entereth deeper into a sensible man\n    Than a hundred stripes into a fool_ (Pr. 17^{10}).\n\n    _Though thou shouldst bray a fool in a mortar,\n    Yet will his folly not depart from him_ (Pr. 27^{22}).\n\nIt may be thought that some of these words are over-bitter and even\nsavage. If so, the plea can be advanced that there was probably much\nprovocation. The Scorner seems to have been a familiar figure, and he\nwas doubtless clever enough to upset with his mockery many an audience\nto which the Wise-man was holding forth. _He that correcteth a scorner\ngetteth to himself insult, and he that reproveth a wicked man getteth\nhimself reviling_ (Pr. 9^{7})--_that_ sounds like the fruit of\nexperience, and there is much that is suggestive in this saying\nalso--_The proud and haughty man, scorner is his name, he worketh in the\narrogance of pride_ (Pr. 21^{24}). But if the Wise suffered at times,\none gathers that they found no small consolation for their hurt dignity\nin such reflections as these:\n\n    _Answer not a fool according to his folly\n    Lest thou be like unto him_ (Pr. 26^{4}).\n\n    _Judgements are prepared for scorners,\n    And stripes for the back of fools_ (Pr. 19^{29}).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII\n\nThe Ideal\n\n\nThe Wise were not cynical persons intent on the faults and failings of\nhumanity. The sayings recorded in the preceding chapter give their\ncomments on the abnormal elements of society, and do not represent their\ngeneral outlook on life. The real centre of their interest was the\nordinary man. They were well aware that for one incorrigible fool or one\nnotorious flatterer there are a hundred, or a thousand, average persons\nwho, if they do not grow better, will assuredly grow worse; and to these\nthe bulk of their instruction was directed. The Wise therefore ought not\nto suffer in our estimation, because we have arbitrarily chosen to set\ntheir critical opinions in the foreground. And if it be insisted that,\nin point of fact, criticism of others is a prominent feature of the\nproverbs, the reply is first, that we are not endeavouring or expecting\nto prove the Wise innocent of all censoriousness or occasional snobbery;\nand secondly, that criticism is an almost indispensable weapon for\npractical moralists. Human beings hate to be lectured directly on their\nweaknesses; yet when the faults of others are being exhibited they will\nlisten merrily and attentively, notwithstanding the possibility that\nsome shrewd blow may come knocking at the gates of conscience. Every\nteacher knows that the average man will be left only offended and\nunbelieving if he is told bluntly how much his small failings leave to\nbe desired; but show him by a shocking example whither the way of pride\nor folly tends and he will often take to heart the lesson. It might\ntherefore be claimed that in a sense all the proverbs were addressed to\nthe normal, teachable man, even those which rebuke an extreme fault in\nan extreme manner being meant for the ears of others besides the\nhardened sinner against whom they were ostensibly directed.\n\nCertainly the great majority of the proverbs are applicable to the\naffairs of the rank and file of men. So keen were the Wise on the task\nof admonishing and encouraging very ordinary men that they uttered many\na commonplace in a fashion too simple to be memorable or even\nmomentarily interesting to any person of alert intelligence.\nNevertheless such material cannot be neglected here, and ought not to be\ndespised. It must not be neglected, just because it is actually a large\nsection of our subject matter; it ought not to be despised, for it all\nhelps to show the humanism of the Wise, testifying that they were honest\nand practical teachers rather than clever writers anxious only to\ncompile a book of skilful proverbs. _That_ teacher is to be condemned\nwho cannot, or will not, relate his thinking to the capacities of his\nhearers. The Wise deserve praise because they said a great deal that\neven the simpleton could not plead was beyond him.\n\nWe have begun, it seems, by tasting some of the spices with which the\nWise seasoned their counsel. We come now to the solid matter of their\ndoctrine. By noting the qualities they praised or blamed, the deeds\nwhich won their approval or their censure, we shall gain a general\nconception of their aspirations. What were their ideals for men as\nindividuals, as members of a family, as citizens of a State?\n\n\nI.--THE INDIVIDUAL\n\nThe threefold division just suggested--man in his individual, domestic\nand political relationships--seems simple and natural, but proves\ndifficult to maintain, because the first category in reality trespasses\non the other two. Strictly speaking, none of the virtues and the vices\nconcern the individual alone. If a man ruin his health by intemperate\nindulgence of fleshly desires, doubtless he is himself the prime\nsufferer, but obviously the State loses something thereby, and woe\nbetide his family! Still, such a quality as Temperance may reasonably\nenough be classed as a personal virtue, being primarily an aspect of\nMan\u2019s duty to himself. But what shall be said of duties such as\nGenerosity, Forbearance, Deceitfulness, the exercise of which might be\nreckoned almost as much Man\u2019s duty to his neighbours in family or State\nas to himself? In which division shall we reckon these? For convenience,\nlet these also be considered under the first heading as personal, rather\nthan social, qualities. Enough material will still remain for use in the\nsecond and third sections of our topic.\n\n\n(_a_) VIRTUES OF RESTRAINT. A convenient starting-point for our review\nof the characteristics the Wise desired to see in the individual is\nprovided by certain negative virtues of restraint, which the proverbs\nfrequently enjoin.\n\n[Sidenote: I OF THE APPETITE]\n\nThe duty of Moderation in eating and drinking is sufficiently, though\nnot urgently, commended: _He that loveth pleasure shall come to want,\nand he that loveth wine and oil shall not be rich_ (Pr. 21^{17})--_A\ncompanion of gluttonous men shameth his father_ (Pr. 28^{7}). Again,\n_Wine is a mocker, strong drink a brawler, and whoso erreth therein no\nwise man is he_ (Pr. 20^{1}; cp. 23^{29-35}). Not that the Wise were\nadvocates of an ascetic abstinence: they did no more than commend\nmoderation.[62] Thus Ben Sirach, who certainly enjoyed banqueting on\ngood food and good wine, contents himself with advising the\ninexperienced \u201cnot to eat greedily lest he be hated\u201d; _How sufficient_,\nsays he, _to a well-mannered man is a very little, and he doth not\nbreathe hard upon his bed. Healthy sleep cometh of moderate eating; he\nriseth early and his wits are with him. The pain of wakefulness and\ncolic and griping, these go to the insatiable man_ (E. 31^{19-20}).\n\n[Sidenote: II OF ANGER]\n\nThe duty of curbing anger is emphasised in several telling proverbs.\nDoubtless the evil consequences of unbridled passion are more evident\namong the quick-tempered peoples of southern and eastern lands; but the\nnortherner is apt to be sullen, and perhaps what he gains by initial\nrestraint he loses through the permanence of his indignation. Who dare\naffirm that a warning against wrath is not sorely needed in all lands\nand all centuries? What havoc has been wrought in human affairs by\npassion, be it sullen or sudden! Not even poverty is chargeable with\ncausing more pain and misery. In delivering their admonitions the Wise\ntook up no specially exalted standpoint: they were content to note the\nplain consequences of anger--its disastrous effect on society, _An angry\nman stirreth up strife and a wrathful man abounds in transgression_ (Pr.\n29^{22}, cp. 15^{18}); and how that the angry man (too weak to conceal\nhis emotions, _A fool uttereth all his anger but a wise man keepeth it\nback and stilleth it_ [Pr. 29^{11}]), must himself suffer in the end,\n_He that is soon angry will deal foolishly and a man of wicked desires\nis hated_ (Pr. 14^{17}). And again to much the same effect they said in\na phrase that has become immortal, _He that is slow to anger is better\nthan the mighty, and he that controlleth his temper than he that taketh\na city_ (Pr. 16^{32}). How excellent that last proverb is! \u201cSo hot,\nlittle man, so hot?\u201d The British Government has discovered the uses of\nadvertisement for thrusting facts before the unobservant: one may\ndisapprove the practice but not on the ground that it is ineffective.\nWhat if this proverb (and a few other valuable sayings that the Jewish\nSages could supply) were to appear one fine day on a million placards\nthroughout the Kingdom? Would the money go wasted, or would there be the\nswiftest and most economical reform on record?\n\n[Sidenote: III OF SPEECH]\n\nClosely associated with restraint of passion is restraint of speech, a\nduty which is considered in several forceful proverbs: _Death and life\nare in the power of the tongue, and they that love it shall eat the\nfruit thereof_ (Pr. 18^{21})--_He that guardeth his mouth keepeth his\nlife, but he that openeth wide his lips shall have destruction_ (Pr.\n13^{3}). Of the specious dignity that silence for a time confers, they\nsaid with truth and humour: _Even a fool when he holdeth his peace is\ncounted wise; when he shutteth his lips he is esteemed as prudent_ (Pr.\n17^{28}). On the other hand, speaking the right word at the right time\nwon their keen approval. Was it not the very art in which they\nthemselves sought to excel? _A man hath joy in the answer of his lips,\nand a word in due season how good it is_ (Pr. 15^{23}).\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n(_b_) THINGS TO AVOID. Much can be learnt regarding the ideals of the\nWise by observing what they counselled men to shun. Thus the sayings on\nthe Sluggard (p. 128) might be used to show how they hated Indolence:\n_As vinegar to the teeth and as smoke to the eyes, so is the sluggard to\nthem that send him_ (Pr. 10^{26}). They censured Disdain and Pride: _He\nthat despiseth his neighbour is void of wisdom_ (Pr. 11^{12})--_Pride\ngoeth before destruction and a haughty spirit before a fall_ (Pr.\n16^{18}). Ingratitude is dealt with in a restrained but memorable\nsaying, _Whoso rewardeth evil for good, evil shall not depart out of his\nhouse_ (Pr. 17^{13}); and there are these two splendid proverbs against\nRevenge, _Say not, \u201cI will recompense evil\u201d: wait on the Lord, and he\nwill save thee_ (Pr. 20^{22})--and _Rejoice not when thine enemy\nfalleth, and let not thine heart be glad when he is overthrown, lest the\nLord seeing it be displeased, and transfer his anger from him to thee_\n(Pr. 24^{17-18})[63]. Recall, by way of contrast, the terrible Italian\nproverbs quoted in Chapter I. (p. 23); remember the innate ferocity,\nderived from the ancient custom of the Desert vendettas, that has always\ncharacterised the quarrels of the near East; and the wonder of such\ngenerous and noble exhortations as these in the Jewish proverbs cannot\nfail to be perceived.\n\nHere is a vice which the Wise counted worse even than anger: _Wrath is\ncruel and anger is overwhelming but who can stand against Jealousy_ (Pr.\n27^{4})? They repeatedly point out the evil of contentiousness: _As\ncoals to the hot embers and wood to fire, so is a quarrelsome man to\ninflame strife_ (Pr. 26^{21})--_It is an honour for a man to keep aloof\nfrom strife, but every fool sheweth his teeth_ (Pr. 20^{3}). One proverb\nmakes use of two curious similes to enforce the lesson, _Lay thine hand\nupon thy mouth; for, as the churning of milk bringeth forth butter, and\nas wringing of the nose bringeth forth blood, so the forcing of wrath\nbringeth forth strife_ (Pr. 30^{33}) and another with a touch of dry\nhumour remarks, _He seizes a dog by the ears who meddles with a quarrel\nnot his own_ (Pr. 26^{17}), _i.e._, having once taken hold he cannot let\ngo!\n\nWhat the Wise thought of Slander and of Flattery has been indicated\nsufficiently in the preceding chapter.\n\nDissimulation and Treachery stirred them to a fine contempt: _Fervent\nlips and a wicked heart are an earthen vessel plated with silver. He\nthat hateth dissembleth with his lips, but layeth up deceit within him:\nwhen he speaketh fair, believe him not; for in his heart are seven\nabominations. Though his hatred cloak itself with guile, his wickedness\nshall be shown openly before the congregation_ (Pr. 26^{23-26})--brave\nwords and vigorous! One feels very sure that the Empire which betrayed\nits mind in the Hymn of Hate would need to show more than the penitence\nof fair words on fervent lips before it could hope for clemency from\nthis Sage.\n\n(_c_) THE VIRTUES. So much for the Vices. It is time to consider the\npositive qualities that the Sages praised, and the foregoing picture of\nguile raises thoughts of its opposite. Let us begin therefore with the\npraises of True Friendship. Ben Sirach expands the subject into a little\nessay: _If thou wouldest get thee a friend, get him by dint of trial,\nand be not in haste to trust him. For there is a friend that is such for\nhis own occasion, and he will not continue in the day of thine\naffliction. And there is a friend that turneth to an enemy, and he will\nbe openly at strife with thee to thy confusion. And there is a friend\nthat is a companion at the table_ (_i.e._, a \u201ccupboard-lover\u201d), _and he\nwill not remain in the hour of thy distress.... A faithful friend is a\nstrong defence, and he that hath found him hath found a treasure. There\nis nothing can be exchanged for a faithful friend, and his excellency is\nbeyond all price. A faithful friend is a medicine of life, and they that\nfear the Lord shall find him_ (E. 6^{7{ff}}). To match any single\nproverb against such words is a hard test, yet there is one that not\nonly can bear the ordeal but is perhaps the finest of all epitomes of\nfriendship: _A friend is always friendly, born to be a brother in\nadversity_ (Pr. 17^{17}, mg. R.V.).\n\nSeeing that the Wise saw in the fool\u2019s pride and self-sufficiency his\nworst and fatal error, it is only to be expected that they should lay\nconstant stress on the duties of preserving an open mind and continuing\namenable to instruction and reproof: _Take fast hold of instruction; let\nher not go, for she is thy life_ (Pr. 4^{13})--_Whoso loveth correction\nloveth knowledge, but he that hateth reproof is a boor_ (Pr.\n12^{1})--_He that being often reproved hardeneth his neck shall suddenly\nbe broken, and that beyond mending_ (Pr. 29^{1}).\n\nNo less prominent and much more remarkable (seeing how profoundly and\npersistently falsehood in speech has beset the Oriental character) is\nthe demand for Truthfulness: _A righteous man hates deception_ (Pr.\n13^{5}). We are told that only truth endures: _The lip of truth shall be\nestablished for ever, whereas a lying tongue is but for a moment_ (Pr.\n12^{19}). Sincerity of character is often extolled in plain speech and\nin metaphor: _The righteousness of the perfect shall make straight his\nway_ (Pr. 11^{5})--_The mouth of the righteous is a fountain of life_\n(Pr. 10^{11})--_The tongue of the righteous is like choice silver_ (Pr.\n10^{20})--_The lips of the righteous feed many_ (Pr. 10^{21})--_The\nthoughts of the righteous are just_ (Pr. 12^{5})--_The heart of the\nrighteous studieth what to answer, but the mouth of the wicked poureth\nout evil things_ (Pr. 15^{28}).[64]--_The fruit of the righteous is a\ntree of life_ (Pr. 11^{30}). Integrity of purpose is even more\nbeautifully commended in this memorable proverb: _He that loveth\npureness of heart, and on whose lips is grace, the king shall be his\nfriend_ (Pr. 22^{11}).\n\nPerhaps not a few of the Wise wore an air of superiority to their\nneighbours; some may have given God thanks that they were not as other\nmen; but assuredly not all fell victims to what was for them a natural\ntemptation, and justice demands that full weight be assigned to the\nnumerous sayings in which they castigate Vanity or praise Humility. For\ninstance, _When pride cometh_, said they, _then cometh shame, but with\nthe lowly is Wisdom_ (Pr. 11^{2}).\n\nTo be temperate in body and mind, energetic, peaceable, honest and\ntruthful, teachable, sincere, loyal and honourable--evidently the Wise\nmade no small demand on human nature. But above and beyond these\nqualities, and very wonderful in the old Oriental world, are these\nvirtues, which the Wise expected good men to possess and\nshow--consideration for others, helpfulness, mercy, kindness of word and\ndeed, and even forgiving love. They declare that, _Whoso mocketh the\npoor reproacheth his Maker, and he that is glad at calamity shall not go\nunpunished_ (Pr. 17^{5}). The righteous ought to be a guide to his\nneighbour (Pr. 12^{26}); and (as an arresting passage insists) the\nobligation must not be shuffled off or wilfully ignored: _Deliver them\nthat are carried away unto death and them that are tottering to the\nslaughter see that thou hold back. If thou sayest, \u201cBehold we knew not\nthis,\u201d doth not He that weigheth the hearts consider it? And he that\nkeepeth thy soul doth He not know it? And shall he not render to every\nman according to his work_ (Pr. 24^{11, 12})? As regards the broad\nsocial applications of this proverb, the deep guilt of all nations\nleaves little to choose between them. But taking the command on its more\nintimate and individual aspect, does it not utter a warning that the\naverage Briton has peculiar need to hear? For our national character is\nsuch that we hate interfering with another man\u2019s way of life; we are\neven shy of rebuking the young. There is, of course, a virtue in our\nnatural tolerance, for men cannot be school-mastered into mending their\nways. But conscience will admit that much of our non-interference is\nmere shirking of duty, a passing-by on the other side. If we were less\nfrightened to warn or to help others, less anxious how our words would\nbe received and whether we might be snubbed and made uncomfortable or\ncalled a Pharisee, it may be that, whenever we did so warn or help, we\nshould do it with a better grace and therefore more effectually. Since\nnine out of ten are wont to err on the side of silence, we reiterate the\ninjunction ... _them that are tottering to the slaughter see that thou\nhold back_. There are times when diffidence may be a sin, and the fear\nof contention cowardice.\n\nConcerning Mercy in deed or thought and Honesty in speech the Wise\nsaid, _Let not mercy and truth forsake thee. Bind them upon thy neck,\nwrite them on the tablet of thine heart; so shalt thou find favour and\ngood repute in the sight of God and man_ (Pr. 3^{3, 4}). There are\nphrases concerning Kindness which live in the memory and touch the\nheart: _The healing tongue is a tree of life_ (Pr. 15^{4})--_There is\nthat speaketh rashly like the piercings of a sword, but the tongue of\nthe Wise is health_ (Pr. 12^{18}), and a saying that for all its\ngentleness holds the conscience in a vice-like grip: _A soft answer\nturneth away wrath_ (Pr. 15^{1})--so hard to believe when occasion\npresses, but proved true a thousand thousand times. And here, in\nconclusion, are three, wonderful, winged proverbs, which haunt one with\nthe magic of their moral challenge: _Say not, \u201cI will do so to him as he\nhath done to me, I will render to the man according to his work\u201d_ (Pr.\n24^{29})--_If thine enemy be hungry give him bread to eat, if he thirst\ngive him water to drink; for thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head,\nand the Lord shall reward thee_ (Pr. 25^{21}).\n\n    _Hatred stirreth up strife,\n    But love covereth all transgressions_ (Pr. 10^{12}).[65]\n\nSo much for Man, the individual. To finish the outline of the Wise-men\u2019s\nideal we have still to consider the proverbs concerning family life and\nthe wider relationships of the State.\n\n\nII.--FAMILY LIFE\n\nA slight acquaintance with Oriental life will suggest the probability\nthat in the family, as the Wise conceived it, fathers and sons were the\nonly important figures; and Jewish proverbs at first sight confirm the\nconjecture: \u201cDaughters,\u201d says Kent[66], \u201care passed by with a silence\nthat is significant.\u201d But, significant of what? Not that they were\nill-used or neglected or unloved in Hebrew homes, but that the Wise not\nunnaturally acquiesced in the normal conditions of Oriental existence\nwhich inevitably made a daughter of much less importance than a son. A\ngirl was debarred from the manifold interests of commercial, social, and\npolitical affairs; she could not, like a son, perpetuate the family\nname; nor could the parents hope to see in her the support and strength\nof their old age. The Wise never attempted to ignore facts, and they\nnever aimed at nor imagined revolutions in the fundamental circumstances\nof society as they found it. But we have to confess that Ben Sirach does\nmore than acquiesce in the recognised limitations of daughters. He was\nreprehensibly querulous upon the subject, and we fear lest some who read\nmay find it difficult to forgive him for such a ridiculous exhibition of\nmasculine stupidity. Says Ben Sirach (and from the slow shake of his\nhead we infer this to be no hasty _dictum_, but the result of his mature\nand cautious consideration), _A daughter is a secret cause of\nwakefulness to a father, and anxiety for her putteth away sleep.... Keep\na strict watch over a headstrong daughter, lest she make thee a\nlaughing-stock to thine enemies, a byword in the city, and notorious\namong the people_ (E. 42^{9-11}).\n\nCloser scrutiny of the Wise-men\u2019s thoughts about family life reveals\nsomething surprising and gratifying. It might have been expected that in\nany Eastern society Woman would continue all her days to be held in\nsmall esteem, carrying a heavy yoke for scant reward. But the Hebrew\nproverbs testify on the contrary that when a Jewish woman grew up and\nbecame wife or mother she stepped at once into a noble and influential\nposition, enjoying a real share in the honour or prosperity of her\nhusband, and entitled equally with him to the obedience and devotion of\nher children. No less than the father she was reckoned by the Wise to be\nthe children\u2019s guide and counsellor. She had reasonable opportunity for\nsocial intercourse with other persons than the members of her own\nhousehold, and within her own house was trusted with responsibilities\nthat gave her a large share in the making or marring of its happiness\nand fortunes. The Wise-men\u2019s ideal of married life is presented in a\nfamous panegyric, which deserves to be given at length, for some writers\nhave declared--not unreasonably in view of the immemorial inferiority to\nwhich the women of the East have been condemned--that it is the most\nremarkable feature of the _Book of Proverbs_.\n\n\nTHE WISE AND LOYAL WIFE[67]\n\n    _A virtuous woman who can find?\n    For her worth is far above rubies.\n    The heart of her husband trusteth in her,\n    And he shall have no lack of gain.\n    She doeth him good and not evil\n    All the days of her life.\n    She seeketh wool and flax,\n    And worketh it up as she pleaseth.\n    She is like the merchant-ships,\n    Bringing her food from afar.\n    She riseth also while it is yet night,\n    And giveth food to her household.\n    She examines a field and buyeth it;\n    With her earnings she planteth a vineyard.\n    She girdeth herself with strength,\n    And maketh strong her arms.\n    She perceives that her profit is good;\n    Her lamp goes not out by night.\n    She puts out her hand to the distaff,\n    And layeth hold on the spindle.\n    She extendeth her hand to the poor;\n    Yea, she reacheth forth her hands to the needy._\n    She feareth not snow for her household,\n    For all her household are clothed with scarlet.\n    She maketh her cushions of tapestry;\n    Her clothing is fine linen and purple.\n    Her husband is distinguished in the gates,\n    When he sitteth among the elders of the land.\n    She maketh linen cloth and sells it,\n    And delivereth girdles to the merchants.\n    Strength and dignity are her clothing,\n    And she laughs at the time to come.\n    Her speech is full of wisdom,\n    And kindly instruction is on her tongue.\n    She looketh well to the ways of her household\n    And eateth not the bread of idleness.\n\nIndustrious, skilful, wise, provident and kind, she is rewarded by the\npraise and affection of husband and children--\n\n    _Her husband also, and he praiseth her saying:_\n\n    _\u201cMany daughters have done excellently\n    But thou excellest them all.\u201d_\n\nWherefore despite the despondent query, _A virtuous woman who can find?_\nwhich somewhat quaintly introduces this eulogy, we may believe that the\nideal thus pictured was a reality in many Jewish homes. To be critical,\nthe poem has a touch of the _Hausfrau_ conception which is none too\npleasing, but it does not set out to say everything about Woman, and one\nmight fairly read some romance between the lines; certainly the\nenthusiasm of the last verse has a note of something deeper than \u201cthanks\nfor value received.\u201d To give further assurance, if that be required, we\nmay also quote this happy saying, _Whoso findeth a wife findeth a good\nthing, and obtaineth favour from the Lord_ (Pr. 18^{22}).\n\nThe treatment of children advocated by the Wise is accurately, although\ntoo succinctly, summarised in the notorious \u201cSpare the rod and spoil the\nchild\u201d doctrine (cp. Pr. 13^{24}). Thus we are told, _The rod and\nreproof give wisdom, but a child left to himself causeth shame to his\nmother_ (Pr. 29^{15})--_Withhold not correction from a child, for if\nthou beat him with the rod he shall not die. Thou shalt beat him with\nthe rod, and shalt deliver his soul from Sheol_ (Pr. 23^{13, 14}). All\nthis sounds merely harsh. But the splendid records of Jewish family life\nmake one suspect that the Wise were sterner in their words than in their\ndeeds, that at least their justice was often tempered with mercy and\ntheir discipline with genuine affection. Ben Sirach, the most severe, is\nalso the most encouraging. Here is a truly forbidding passage: _Pamper\nthy child, and he shall make thee afraid; play with him and he will\ngrieve thee. Laugh not with him, lest thou have sorrow with him and thou\nshalt gnash thy teeth in the end. Give him no liberty in his youth, and\nwink not at his follies. Bow down his neck in his youth, and beat him on\nthe sides while he is a child, lest he wax stubborn and be disobedient\nunto thee, and there shall be sorrow unto thy soul_ (E. 30^{9-12}). But\nagainst its ferocious energy set the kindly, peaceable atmosphere of\nthis exhortation in which Ben Sirach expands the fifth commandment on\nthe relations of children to parents: _He that giveth glory to his\nfather shall have length of days, and he that hearkeneth to the Lord\nshall bring rest to his mother. In word and deed honour thy father that\na blessing may come upon thee from him: for the blessing of the father\nstablisheth the children\u2019s houses, but the curse of the mother rooteth\nout the foundations.... My son, help thy father in his old age, and\ngrieve him not as long as he liveth. If he fail in understanding, have\npatience with him, and dishonour him not all the days of his life. For\nthe relieving of thy father shall not be forgotten, and over against thy\nsins it shall be set to thy credit. In the day of thine affliction it\nshall be remembered to thine advantage, to put away thine iniquities as\nthe heat melteth hoar-frost_ (E. 3^{6-9, 12-15}). Further, the severity\nof the Wise regarding children might seem less repellent if we\nappreciated more keenly the circumstances of their age. Probably their\nstern discipline has to be set against a background of disastrous\nslackness. How were children brought up in the Gr\u00e6co-Syrian cities? Were\nthey sent forth untutored to join the mad dances of unbridled\ninclination? Was there in but too many Jewish, as well as Hellenic,\nhomes appalling blindness to the need of control and moral training?\nGreat allowance must be made for the Wise, if they were under the\nnecessity of pointing a contrast. And who can deny the essential wisdom\nof their attitude? Who dare say that kindness does not lie in an excess\nof discipline rather than in an excess of indulgence? _Train up a child\nin the way he should go, and even when he is old he will not depart from\nit_ (Pr. 22^{6}). As to the value which the Wise attached to the virtue\nof filial duty, if further evidence than the quotation just given from\nBen Sirach is needed, it lies to hand in proverbs that condemn the deeds\nof unnatural children, who used violence to their parents (Pr. 19^{26}),\nor mocked and robbed them (Pr. 30^{17}; 28^{24}). Listen to the\nindignation in this utterance: _Whoso curseth his father and mother, his\nlamp shall be put out in blackest darkness_ (Pr. 20^{20}).\n\nThe servants of the household are less noticed in the proverbs than one\nwould expect. Usually they were slaves, and the _status_ to our mind\nsuggests hardships and injustice. But the remarkable provisions laid\ndown in the Hebrew Law regarding Hebrew slaves greatly alleviated their\nlot, preventing or mitigating cruelties which frequently befell the\nslaves of the Gentile nations. Few topics, in fact, more arrestingly\ndemonstrate the superiority of the moral feeling of the Jews as compared\nwith the Greeks or Romans than the treatment accorded to their\nrespective slaves. In ordinary circumstances the life of the Jewish\nslave was not unhappy, and to gain freedom might be disaster rather than\nbenefit.[68] The trustworthy slave found satisfactory and sometimes\nhonourable position in many Jewish households: he was in reality, though\nnot in theory, a member of the home. On the other hand, among the Greeks\nand Romans the slave was regarded strictly as property, not necessarily\nto be treated as a human being. If a man chose to misuse or destroy his\n\u201cproperty,\u201d so be it! It was solely his affair. If he chose to wreak his\nanger at a certain cost to himself, no more need be said on the subject.\nDoubtless theory and practice did not always agree, and some Roman\nslaves were happy and well cared for, and some Jewish were miserable.\nBut, generally speaking, it is true that the Jews were more humane to\ntheir servants than the Gentiles, although the evidence of the proverbs\nwould not lead one to think so. Here, for instance, is a sufficiently\nsinister saying: _A servant will not be corrected by words, for though\nhe understand he will not answer_ (Pr. 29^{19}). Similarly when Ben\nSirach counsels a measure of restraint in dealing with a slave he does\nso on the Gr\u00e6co-Roman ground that he is part of one\u2019s possessions, and\ntherefore not to be spent foolishly (E. 33^{30, 31}); and he says\nbluntly and indeed brutally, _Fodder, a stick, and burdens for an ass;\nbread and discipline, and work for a servant. Set thy servant to work,\nand thou shalt have rest: leave his hands idle, and he will seek\nliberty. Yoke and thong will bow the neck, and for an evil servant there\nare racks and tortures. Set him to work, as is fit for him; and if he\nobey not, make his fetters heavy_ (E. 33{24-28}). On the other side,\nhowever, may be set this proverb: _A servant that acteth wisely shall\nhave rule over a son that doeth shamefully, and shall inherit among the\nbrethren_ (Pr. 17^{2}), and Ben Sirach does something to redeem himself\nin these gentler sentiments, _Entreat not evil a servant that worketh\ntruly nor a hireling that giveth thee his life. Let thy soul love a wise\nservant; defraud him not of liberty_ (E. 7^{20, 21}).\n\n\nIII.--IDEALS OF SOCIETY\n\nThe duties of men in general social relationships afforded a wide field\nfor the application of wisdom. In expressing their views on these\ntopics, the Sages said little that was original, much that was truly\nwise.\n\nThe perfect State will be one in which justice between man and man never\nfaileth, and its operation must range from the highest to the lowest in\nthe land. As for the great ones of the earth, the fateful consequences\nof their conduct is emphasised as follows: _As a roaring lion and a\nranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over a poor people_ (Pr.\n28^{15})--_By justice the king establisheth the land, but he that\nexacteth gifts overthroweth it_ (Pr. 29^{4}); and that the latter type\nof monarch or official was, alas! more than an evil dream is na\u00efvely\nvouched for by the existence of a most unideal, if frank, intimation\nthat _A gift in secret pacifieth anger, and a present in the purse\nstrong wrath_ (Pr. 21^{14}). Princes are exhorted to temperance, _\u201cIt is\nnot for kings, O Lemuel, it is not for kings to drink wine, nor for\nprinces to say \u2018Where is strong drink?\u2019 lest they drink and forget the\nlaw, and pervert the judgement of the afflicted\u201d_ (Pr. 31^{4, 5}); to\njustice, and consideration of the lowly, _The king that faithfully\njudgeth the poor, his throne shall be established for ever_ (Pr.\n29^{14}); to kindness and truth, _Mercy and truth preserve the king, and\nhe upholdeth his throne by mercy_ (Pr. 20^{28}). Two other sayings are\nworthy of mention; one a subtle proverb, _It is the glory of God to\nconceal a thing, but the glory of kings to search out a matter_ (Pr.\n25^{2}); the other ominous, _The heaven for height, and the earth for\ndepth, and the heart of kings is unsearchable_ (Pr. 25^{3}).\n\nBut this demand for right-dealing is extended throughout the body\npolitic: honesty was required in the courts of law from the witness (Pr.\n24^{28}) and from the judge (Pr. 17^{23}); from dealers in shop and\nmarket (Pr. 20^{23}); and generally from all men, in a saying which is a\nsignificant and ringing echo of the Prophets\u2019 work in Israel: _To do\njustice and judgement is more acceptable to the Lord than sacrifice_\n(Pr. 21^{3}).\n\nTurning next to the disorders of society we find that the Wise set their\nface against the following offences. Land-grabbing, they declare, is a\nsin God will assuredly punish (Pr. 23^{10, 11}), and so also oppression\nof the poor, _Rob not the poor because he is poor, nor crush the\nafflicted in the gate; for the Lord will plead their cause and despoil\nof life those that despoil them_ (Pr. 22^{22, 23}). Warnings are given\nagainst lawlessness: _Envy not thou the man of violence, and choose none\nof his ways; for the perverse are an abomination unto the Lord, but His\nfriendship is with the upright_ (Pr. 3^{31, 32}); and in Pr. 1^{11ff},\nthere is an amusing description of outlaws enticing a novice to join\nthem: \u201c_Come with us, let us lay wait for blood.... We shall fill our\nhouses with spoil. Thou shalt cast thy lot amongst us; we will all have\none purse._\u201d Against drunkenness there is this effective saying: _Who\nhath woe? who hath sorrow? who hath quarrels? who hath complainings? who\nhath wounds without cause? who hath dimness of eyes? They that tarry\nlong at the wine, that go to seek out mixed wine. Look not thou upon the\nwine when it is red, when it sparkles in the cup, when it goeth down\nsmoothly. At the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an\nadder_ (Pr. 23^{29-31}). Still greater stress was laid on the peril of\nunchastity, and there are many earnest entreaties to shun the seductions\nof wicked women (cp. Pr. 5^{1-14}; 6^{20-}7^{27}): _My son, attend to my\nwisdom, incline thine ear to my understanding, that thou mayest preserve\ndiscretion and thy lips keep knowledge. For the lips of a strange woman\ndrop honey, and her mouth is smoother than oil; but her latter end is\nbitter as wormwood, sharp as a two-edged sword: her feet go down to\ndeath, and her steps take hold on Sheol._ The spread of Hellenic\ncivilisation in Palestine had increased luxury and sensuality, and in\nthese matters the Wise doubtless were combating the most prominent vices\nof the age. Another common fault of town life which merited and received\ntheir vehement rebuke was malice against neighbours: to the portrait of\nthe Slanderer already given (see p. 122) two proverbs may here be added:\n_Devise not evil against thy neighbour seeing he dwelleth securely\nbeside thee_ (Pr. 3^{29})--and this grand one, _Whoso diggeth a pit\nshall fall therein, and he that rolleth a stone, it shall return upon\nhim_ (Pr. 26^{27}).\n\nSeveral interesting maxims of the Wise concerning Wealth and Poverty are\nkept for consideration in a subsequent chapter, and some have already\nbeen recorded, but the topic is one so intimately affecting the common\nweal that here also it must receive mention. These Wisdom proverbs are\nsometimes charged with exhibiting too mundane an attitude towards\nriches, so frankly and unreservedly do certain of them recognise the\nmaterial advantages wealth confers. For the moment, however, we are not\nconcerned with a general judgment but with noting ideals. Isolating\ntherefore the nobler sayings, we find emphasis rightly laid on the broad\ndistinction between just and unjust gains. For the former riches, which\nwere the reward of diligence and shrewd but upright conduct, there is\ncordial approbation. Our deeper modern perplexities as to the proper\ndistribution of wealth was of course beyond the Wise-men\u2019s ken; it is\nenough that we find them clear on the issue presented to their day and\ngeneration: _The treasures of wickedness, said they, profit nothing_\n(Pr. 10^{2})--_Better is the poor that walketh in his integrity than he\nthat is perverse in his ways, though he be rich_ (Pr. 28^{6})--_Better\nis a little with righteousness than great revenues with injustice_ (Pr.\n16^{8}), and lastly the noble passage (Pr. 30^{7-9}, see p. 121) in\npraise of the Golden Mean will perhaps be remembered.\n\nFurther the Sages were stern in denunciation of greed and of\nindifference to the needs of the poor and defenceless: for instance, _He\nthat augmenteth his substance by usury and interest gathereth for him\nthat hath pity on the poor_ (Pr. 28^{8})--_The Lord will root up the\nhouse of the proud, but he will establish the property of the widow_\n(Pr. 15^{25}); and correspondingly, they exalted the virtues of\ngenerosity and kindly help _He that giveth unto the poor shall not lack,\nbut he that hideth his eyes shall have many a curse_ (Pr.\n28^{27})--_Withhold not good from them to whom it is due, when it is in\nthy power to do it. Say not unto thy neighbour, \u201cGo, and come again, and\nto-morrow I will give,\u201d when thou hast it by thee_ (Pr. 3^{27, 28}).\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe ideals of the Sages, so far as they are immediately visible in the\nproverbs, have now been given, at least in broad outline. It remains to\nsum up and to consider the result. Of the vices condemned, deeds of\nviolence and sins of the flesh are prominent enough, but (and the fact\nis remarkable) almost equal stress is laid on the iniquity of many of\nthe sins of the spirit. Thus, pride, jealousy, malice, revenge,\ncontentiousness, and all forms of dishonesty, guile, and treachery are\nthe way of the wicked; whereas humility, charity, peaceableness, purity\nof heart, and honest purpose mark the upright man. To be indolent,\nobstinate, and passionate in speech or action is characteristic of the\nfool intellectual and the fool ethical; whereas the sensible man is\ndiligent, faithful to his friends, helpful to his neighbours, tactful\nand teachable. On the last point the Wise were urgent, and they deserve\npraise for their insight: that men have need to be apt to learn, not\nmerely when they are young and ignorant, but after they have attained\nmaturity and learnt much, is doctrine as important as it is unpopular.\nThe frigid discipline advised by the Sages for the upbringing of\nchildren must be admitted to be harsh, but perhaps the conditions of the\nage almost dictated it, and at least it reflects the value that the Wise\nmost rightly placed on learning young. Moreover, stern as their rule may\nseem, they did not deem it incompatible with the growth of affection and\ntrust between fathers and sons. Of womanly virtue they held a high\nideal, and the esteem felt for the good wife and wise mother was, for\nthe ancient world, extraordinarily great. Ideal relations between master\nand servant were conceived in terms of fidelity, care for the interests\nof both parties, and possibly of friendship. In the perfect State there\nwould be an upright government, riches acquired by just means only, and\ngenerous care to preserve the poor from suffering. There would be\ncommercial honesty, thrift and industry; no slander, no impurity, no\nimpiety, but only honourable and prudent conduct: in short, a peaceful,\nprosperous, kindly and contented society, devoted primarily to the\npursuit neither of comfort nor of pleasure nor of riches, but of high\nWisdom. Finally, as the climax, we must remember those exalted proverbs\ndemanding the exercise of mercy, forgiveness, mutual help and love.\n\nThe standard of character the Wise thus set before men is open to\nadverse comment. It savours of salvation by merit. That therefore it\nfalls below the Christian ideal, and below the majestic and penetrating\nconception of human possibilities that the great Hebrew Prophets urged,\nis undeniable. But such radical criticism may for the moment be put\naside; later on we shall discuss what may be the relative values of the\nWise-men\u2019s words and works. For the present all that is desirable is to\nconsider certain surprising features which the reader may have noted in\nthis outline of Good and Evil.\n\nFirst, then, there are curious deficiencies in the list of the Virtues.\nSeveral qualities we admire are ignored or touched rarely and with\nhesitation, as for example Courage. But, _with one exception_, these\ngaps in the Ideal are not so serious as might appear. The proverbs do\nnot show all that was in their authors\u2019 minds and hearts. Altogether\nfallacious, as we shall see later, would be the notion that the prudence\nof the Wise was really pusillanimous, that they had in reality no place\nfor courage in their conception of life, as they have little or no room\nfor its mention in their proverbs. The valid inference from these\nabsences is only that, as Toy says, \u201cthe Wise attached more importance\nto other qualities as effective forces in the struggle of life.\u201d But\nwhat can possibly be said concerning the apparent absence of Religion,\nthe exception alluded to above? That which one looked to find in the\nforeground of the picture--where is it? Yet even in this point the plea\njust made might be repeated. The immediate object of the Wise was to\ncommend certain ethical conduct as being, despite appearances, the right\nline to follow in order to command true success in the contingencies of\ndaily life; and in pursuance of that task they could say a great many\nthings without requiring to express their views on ritual worship or\ntheological belief. Still, when the point at issue is a man\u2019s love for\nreligion, to plead simply that he more or less ignored it in his\nteaching because other qualities seemed more effective in the struggle\nof life, would verily be a thin apology. The real reply to this serious\ncharge is vastly stronger. It is the admission that our exposition of\nthe Wise-men\u2019s thoughts has not been fair to them. One emphatic and\nreiterated proverb of theirs, which is evidently a key-proverb and\ninterpretative of the general tenor of all their teaching, has not yet\nbeen given, and _it_ is essentially religious:\n\n    _THE FEAR OF THE LORD IS THE FOUNDATION OF WISDOM:\n    AND THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE HOLY ONE IS UNDERSTANDING_ (Pr. 9^{10}; 1^{7}).\n\nConsider the implication. The word \u201cfoundation\u201d (usually rendered\n\u201cbeginning\u201d) in Hebrew unites the notions both of \u201cbeginning\u201d and\n\u201cbest\u201d; and \u201cfear,\u201d of course, is to be interpreted religiously as\n\u201creverence\u201d not as \u201cterror.\u201d Such awe of God (say the Wise) is to be\nreckoned the commencement of Wisdom and also Wisdom\u2019s quintessence: it\nis both the root and the fruit of perfect living. Now Wisdom was the\nsublime source to which the Sages traced back even the simplest of their\ncounsels, and the most practical of their observations on men and\naffairs; it was the creative sun, the derivative proverbs being, as it\nwere, the rays by which its light is distributed over the whole of life.\nBut now it appears that this sun and centre of all things itself was\nconceived as rising out of religious faith, for when the Sages\nconsidered this high Wisdom and asked what was _its_ sum and substance,\nthey answered, \u201cThe fear of the Lord,\u201d and, when they wondered what\nmight be _its_ origin, again they answered, \u201cGod.\u201d The fundamental\nimportance of this one saying would therefore be obvious even if it\nstood alone as a solitary expression of faith. But other religious\nproverbs occur as we shall note in due course; for example, Ben Sirach\u2019s\nopening words, _All wisdom cometh from the Lord, and is ever with him_\n(E. 1^{1}), or this--_Trust in the Lord with all thy heart, and lean not\non thine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he\nshall make plain thy path_ (Pr. 3^{5, 6}). Such sayings may not be\nnumerous in comparison with the secular sayings, but there are enough of\nthem to show that the great proverb quoted above is not an isolated\nsentiment of formal piety thrust into a mass of worldly-wisdom for\nappearance\u2019s sake. The soul of the Wise-men cannot accurately be gauged\nby deducting the few religious from the many non-religious proverbs, and\ndrawing the inference that these men must have cared very little for God\nand overwhelmingly much for worldly prosperity. Human nature guards its\nsecrets from such cynical or mechanical treatment. Rather will it be\ntrue that when, as here, even one earnest plea is made for the love of\nGod as the ultimate inspiration of conduct, _that_ will give us the\nheart of the whole matter to which all else is subsidiary and only to be\ninterpreted in and through the underlying religious faith.\nMatter-of-fact, prudential, moralisms might be far more numerous than\nthey are in these Jewish proverbs, and still it would not follow that\nthe Wise-men were devoid of religious feeling or fervour. Some doubtless\nwere, but others assuredly were not, and _all_ (save an occasional\nsceptic) would have stoutly maintained the view that their counsel was\nderived from the ultimate, fundamental doctrine of \u201cthe fear of the\nLord.\u201d\n\nThe second obvious point of criticism is the indefiniteness apparent in\nthis so-called Ideal of the Wise. Their ethic may justly be called\nredundant, or defective, or both; and in truth their Utopia, even in its\nbroad outline, does seem too confused and too fragmentary to provide any\ncoherent scheme. Contrast the relatively clear-cut work of the Hellenic\nthinkers who, starting also from similar vague popular notions of\nethics, correlated, combined, and sifted the material until, as in the\nStoic and other philosophies, precisely formulated systems were\nelaborated. Was not the Jewish lack of method fatal to effective\nteaching? No. The Wise did not, indeed could not, construct a strict\nunity out of their free-and-easy, uncorrelated aims. But they were not\ncandidates for a degree in Moral Sciences, nor are their doctrines here\nexhibited as a satisfactory substitute for modern social philosophy.\nTheir thinking, as a matter of fact, was definite enough to serve their\nday and generation. The position was not quite so serious as it may\nappear from a theoretical point of view. In reality, the Sages knew very\nwell what they were aiming at, and had a reasonably clear idea of the\ntype of character they wished to see developed in themselves and other\nmen. Now it is fortunate that in the pages of _Ecclesiasticus_ we\npossess not a little information about the thoughts, habits, and\nfortunes of its author, Jesus ben Sirach; for this man, though doubtless\nnot a perfect embodiment of Wisdom, provides just what we most require\nat this point of our study--a historical figure, and an admirable and\ntypical representative of his class. To envisage him will humanise our\nnotion of the Wise-men and may give to their ideals a coherence which in\nthe abstract they may seem to lack.\n\nJesus ben Sirach was a Jew of Jerusalem who lived about 250 to 180 B.C.;\nthat is, well on in the period of Hellenic influence. By profession a\nscribe, he seems all his days to have been a man of earnest mind,\nnaturally inclined to intellectual and literary pursuits. He was of good\nfamily, and presumably possessed of considerable means, to judge by his\nlife-long leisure for study, the tone of his remarks on wealth, his easy\nand regular participation in social entertainment, and his foreign\ntravels, which provided the one stirring episode in a placid career.\nFrom some remarks in his book we gather that his travels were undertaken\nwhilst he was still a young man. Just when and where he journeyed is\nuncertain, but since he says that he came into touch with a foreign\nCourt, in all probability he visited the great cities of Egypt and the\nCourt of Alexandria. The important point is that his tour was not\nwithout excitement and real peril (E. 34^{12}, 51^{3{ff}}). Through some\nlying and malicious gossip he had the misfortune to incur royal\ndispleasure, suffered imprisonment, and, in his own firm opinion, was\nfor a time in gravest danger of losing his life. Such an experience is\ninevitably a severe test of any man\u2019s mettle, and is doubly sure to\nproduce a deep impression on the mind of one so naturally unadventurous\nas Ben Sirach. His comments on the matter are therefore a valuable clue\nto his character. He took the view that his travels, notwithstanding the\ndanger, had been a great and lasting benefit, an experience in which\nanyone who aspired to be counted wise would do well to imitate him. It\nhad proved worth all the hardship and anxiety--a fine broadening\ninfluence: _He that hath no experience knoweth few things, but he that\nhath travelled shall increase his skill. Many things_, he reflects,\n_have I seen in my wanderings_ (E. 34^{10}). The other impression left\nby his adventures was the paramount value of Israel\u2019s Wisdom. In the\nhour of his danger he would have perished but for the principles of\ndiscreet and honest conduct in which Wisdom had instructed him. (E.\n34^{12}).\n\nHe returned from abroad to settle for the rest of his days in beloved\nJerusalem, where he became an honoured citizen, a man of considerable\nweight socially as well as intellectually, and a notable exponent of\nWisdom, whose advice in the manifold affairs of daily life was sought\nand respected. There are grounds for thinking that for some years he may\nhave conducted a regular school for instruction in the science of\nWisdom. He was a thorough townsman, loving the busy life of his city,\nkeenly observant of its varied occupations and appreciative of all\nopportunities of human intercourse. So far from thinking of him as a\nscholarly recluse, careless of all save his duties as a scribe or\nteacher, we have to picture a man who enjoyed dining out with his\nfriends; no glutton, yet a frank connoisseur of food and wine. Feasting\nhe considered a subject not to be trifled with, as is shown by the rules\nfor polite behaviour, which he is careful in all seriousness to detail\nin his book. As for his faults, one suspects that in public he was\ninclined to be dictatorial and perhaps pompous, but he possessed a\nsaving grace of humour. In his home, if we are to trust his own\nassertions, he must have been a strict disciplinarian. Many of his\nsayings are too worldly-wise to be commendable. Now and then he is\ncynical, and for the out-and-out fool he allows no hope: to essay\nteaching such an one is as futile as glueing a broken potsherd together\n(E. 22^{7}); and again, _Seven days are the days of mourning for the\ndead, but for a fool all the days of his life_ (E. 22^{12})! Still, Ben\nSirach was no pessimist about humanity, and his judgments of men for the\nmost part are kindly and hopeful.\n\nThe outstanding feature of his personality was his _breadth_ of\ninterest. \u201cWhether it is upon the subject of behaviour at table, or\nconcerning a man\u2019s treatment of a headstrong daughter, or about the need\nof keeping a guard over one\u2019s tongue, or concerning the folly of a fool,\nor the delights of a banquet, or whether he is dealing with\nself-control, borrowing, loose women, slander, diet, the miser, the\nspendthrift, the hypocrite, the parasite, keeping secrets, giving alms,\nstanding surety, mourning for the dead, and a large variety of other\ntopics--he has always something to say, which for sound and robust\ncommon-sense is of abiding value.\u201d[69]\n\nExcept that he puts the point in his own way, there is in matter or\nopinion little in Ben Sirach\u2019s book that could not be paralleled from\nthe _Book of Proverbs_. But in manner an interesting difference is\nobservable. _Ecclesiasticus_ is far and away superior in point of\nliterary charm. It has the merit of constant variety, and in places real\ngrace of expression, for to a much greater degree than in the _Book of\nProverbs_ Ben Sirach has developed the brief unit-proverb into epigrams\nand sonnets, short essays, eulogies and longer odes; and although the\nunit-proverb is still frequent, it is no longer the sum and substance of\nthe book. Thus by the skilful use of the more elaborate forms, the\nalmost unrelieved disjointedness that detracts so seriously from the\npleasure of reading _Proverbs_ is triumphantly overcome.\n\nIn criticism of Ben Sirach\u2019s ethical attainments, one is inclined to\ncall attention to the juxtaposition of great and little matters which he\nperpetrates in his book: a feature also to be observed in _Proverbs_.\nQuestions of fundamental moral law and trivialities of etiquette are\nastonishingly conjoined, apparently without his feeling the least sense\nof the absurdity. Thus he bids his pupil be ashamed \u201cof unjust dealing\nbefore a partner and a friend, of theft in the place where he sojourns,\nand of falsifying an oath and a covenant, and of _leaning on the table\nwith the elbow when at meat_\u201d (E. 41^{17-19})! Manners and morals, one\nis driven to suppose, had not been sufficiently differentiated in\ngeneral opinion. Then also, just when our respect for Ben Sirach is\nquietly increasing, he is apt to dismay us by interjecting some most\nunideal observation, as when immediately after delivering a stinging\ncensure on lying speech, he remarks (E. 20^{29}) that gifts which _blind\nthe eyes of the Wise, and are a muzzle on the mouth_, are an effective\nway of appeasing influential persons. Nevertheless, as one reads his\nbook, the conviction deepens that Ben Sirach was sincere and earnest in\nhis profession of morality, and such falls from grace as the proverb\njust quoted are probably due to his anxiety to give an honest\nrepresentation of the facts of life. It has been said in his favour that\nhe was no platitudinarian, by which, of course, is not meant that his\nbook contains no platitudes, but only that in face of the supreme\nproblems of human existence he did not cravenly blink the facts, but\nfaced them and sought to do justice to them; as for instance when,\nwriting of death, he owns that to a healthy and prosperous man it is\nwholly a \u201cbitter remembrance\u201d (E. 41^{1}).\n\nFrom youth to his dying day this man loved and served Wisdom, and his\nvolume is a storehouse of many noble and valuable thoughts. It may be\ncharged against the authors of _Proverbs_ that they paid scant regard to\nthe peculiar national aspirations of their race. If so, Ben Sirach can\nbe acquitted on that score. He had a thoroughly patriotic outlook, for\nhe makes it quite clear that to his mind Judaism was the real home of\nWisdom and the truly wise man is a loyal Jew obedient to the Law. His\nsense of the marvel of the world as a revelation of divine power, which\nhe expresses in two chapters of considerable ability, shows that he was\nnot without poetic feeling.[70] All his thinking rested on belief in a\ngreat and holy God, Source of all Wisdom, in whom he exhorts men to put\ntheir trust, from whom they must ever seek guidance.\n\nA worthy citizen! Of whom does he remind us? Surely of such a man as was\nHorace, strolling on the Appian Way, pleased with himself and with his\nfortunes, much interested in the pageant of life, keenly observant both\nof the faults and the graces of his fellows, humorous, shrewd and\nkindly? Or of Chaucer, part courtier, part business man of London town,\nyet with a quick eye and swift sympathy for the deeper issues in the\nhuman drama? Or (to come nearer our own days) of Pepys, with his\nmatter-of-fact ways, his sturdy, average morality, and his honest\nenjoyment of the good things of life? Or of Dr. Johnson, with his\nnatural pomposity and his big, generous soul? Yes, of all these; but Ben\nSirach had one great quality that perhaps none of these possessed to the\nsame extent--a most earnest sense of duty in regard to his fellow men, a\nwhole-hearted desire to give them the advantage of the lessons life had\ntaught him.\n\nPerhaps the reader is disappointed still. When the utmost has been said\nfor these ideals, he may feel that there is no new insight into the\nmystery of things, and no irresistible appeal to conscience. But\nremember that even an imperfect Cause and an inadequate Ideal, provided\nthe fundamental aim be generous and sound, may be the source of real and\nlasting benefits to men, for life is such that the goal we fain would\nreach instantaneously must, as a matter of fact, be approached by small\nadvances, which therefore ought not be despised. The Wise, it is true,\nwere neither perfect Saints nor complete Philosophers, but our subject\nis the Humanism of the Jewish proverbs, and if even this Ben Sirach,\nmodel pupil of Wisdom, is not a wholly inspiring figure--is he not very\nhuman? Moreover, the utmost has not yet been said on behalf of the\nSages.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX\n\nThe Exaltation of Wisdom\n\n\nContinuing the criticism of the ideal or ideals of the last chapter, it\nmay be said that the morality commended is not unusual nor markedly\nsuperior to that of other peoples. Do not many of these proverbs state\nthe merest _a b c_ of ethical sentiment, for which any civilised nation\ncould produce a parallel in its proverbs? The charge is not only true in\na general way, it has special force in view of the circumstances of the\nfourth to the second centuries B.C. For there is evidence of a\nwidespread tendency to sententious moralising in that period, and, had\nwe so desired, this Jewish movement might have been considered only as\npart of a larger whole.[71] Among the Greeks, especially in Asia Minor,\nthis was the age when several gnomic poets, such as Menander and\nPhocylides, won fame and popularity by their moral aphorisms, and indeed\nthe Jewish proverbs have many opinions in common with contemporary\nHellenic sayings. In Egypt also there was current a collection of\nethical observations, the Precepts of Ptah-hotep and the Maxims of Aniy,\nso closely resembling the form and sentiment of the average Jewish\nproverb that it has been suggested that the Sages of Palestine were\ndirectly influenced by these Egyptian teachings. Certainly the\nresemblances are striking. These Egyptian books \u201cinculcate the study of\nWisdom, duty to parents and superiors, respect for property, the\nadvantages of charitableness, peaceableness and content, of liberality,\nchastity, and sobriety, of truthfulness and justice; and they show the\nwickedness and folly of disobedience, strife, arrogance and pride, of\nslothfulness, interference, unchastity, and other vices. \u201cWhat then? Is\nthe idealism of the Jews decreased in value because other nations also\nhad moral ambitions? Judging from the facts of history, the elements of\nmorality, and of commonsense, too, need constant iteration in all\nlanguages and all periods, not excluding the present. To discover that\nmost of the Jewish proverbs are far from unique is no real loss, indeed\nthe danger lies rather in the other direction. If it could be shown that\nthese maxims were unlike those current elsewhere among men, the\naccusation would be serious, for then this volume must needs be written,\nnot on the humanism, but on the unhumanism of a part of the Bible. The\ncharge that the Jewish maxims are not unusual is to be admitted\nand--dismissed.\n\nMore disquieting would be the contention, which the number of\nself-regarding maxims readily suggests, that the general moral tone of\nthese proverbs is not merely normal but actually low. There is no\ndenying the unblushing utilitarianism that at times crops out. It is\nsaid: _I (Wisdom) walk in the paths of righteousness, in the midst of\nthe paths of judgement, that I may cause those that love me to inherit\nsubstance and that I may fill their treasuries_ (Pr. 8^{21})--_The\nreward of humility and the fear of the Lord is riches and honour and\nlife_ (Pr. 22^{4}). This sounds even more reprehensible than the famous\ndefinition of Christianity as \u201cdoing good for the sake of the kingdom of\nheaven.\u201d It seems suspiciously like doing good for the sake of the\nkingdoms of this earth! But, hear the defence. First it has already been\nurged that general judgments on the proverbs _as a whole_ require most\ncareful handling, if they are to be even moderately fair: let the\nutilitarian sage bear his own sin; his brother who said, \u201cLove covereth\nall transgressions,\u201d ought not to be implicated in his fall. Secondly,\nthere is the sensible, though not lofty, argument that since the Wise\nwere dealing with men tempted to throw off even ordinary moral restraint\nin the burning desire to get all possible prosperity and enjoyment out\nof life, if they had pitched their key much higher it is very probable\nthey would have received no hearing at all. Modern students of ethics\nare well aware that pleasure, however often it may accompany good\nconduct, cannot be made the motive for virtue. But the Wise were less\nsophisticated than ourselves, and it was therefore easy for them to make\nthe mistake of expressing in too commercial a fashion their conviction\nthat \u201chonesty is the best policy\u201d[72]; and even if they did sometimes\nover-emphasise the thought of external reward, we should remember that\nperhaps it was the only way to catch the ear of certain men and draw\nthem back from the hot pursuit of Folly. The third point will be\nsurprising to those who are not aware how late in Jewish history was the\ndevelopment of a worthy conception of immortality and the just judgment\nof the soul after death. Compared with the Christian, who starts from\nthe belief that \u201cGod is not the God of the dead, but of the living\u201d, and\nthat the consequences of good or evil conduct reach onwards beyond the\ngrave, the Wise-men of Israel were cruelly handicapped in their\nconsideration of the moral problem. Oesterley with justice pleads in\nextenuation of Ben Sirach\u2019s stress on the worldly advantages of Wisdom,\n\u201cThis is natural in a writer whose whole attention is concentrated on\nthe present life, and who has nothing but the vaguest ideas about a life\nhereafter.\u201d[73] Fourthly, the Wise were not conscious of their\nutilitarianism. Of course it is bad to be utilitarian at all, but it is\nbetter to be so unintentionally than deliberately. The ancients did\nnot, could not, speak or write with that precise realisation of the\nimplications of words, which often does, and certainly should,\ncharacterise a modern thinker. While therefore the Wise cannot be\nexonerated from blame in this respect, there is not a little to be said\nin mitigation of their offence.\n\nBut the last plea we have to advance on their behalf is the best; and\nindeed it is the main apology we wish to make for all their\nshortcomings--\n\nA man\u2019s utterances are often an inadequate expression of his soul. Our\nfinal estimate ought to be based, not on the proverbs themselves, singly\nor collectively, but on what is behind them, the character of the\nspeakers. The question is, Were these sayings just verbal piety and\nrespectable commonplace, or were they, so to speak, waves borne on the\nswell of an advancing tide, having beneath and behind them the deep\nimpulse of a live enthusiasm? What manner of men were the Sages at\nheart--mere talkers, seeking the mental satisfaction of turning a neat\nphrase and sunning themselves in popular esteem, or men genuinely\nconcerned for the moral welfare of their fellows? One we have already\nconsidered and not found him altogether wanting. Much can be forgiven if\nonly the majority of the Wise were like Ben Sirach, in earnest about\ntheir task. We ventured to describe him as a typical Wise-man, but what\nground is there for that assertion?\n\nNow this vital question is not an easy one to investigate and answer,\nsince concerning the individual Sages, except Ben Sirach, no personal\ninformation has been transmitted, and we have therefore only their\nsayings from which to draw a conclusion. Even so the material is perhaps\nsufficient. Surely there is a valuable hint to be found in the \u201cstrict\nattention to business\u201d of _Proverbs_ as well as _Ecclesiasticus_; both\nof these books preach at us incessantly from their text \u201cWisdom.\u201d Why is\nit that every word they contain is directed to the end of moral\nimprovement? Must there not have been a remarkable concentration on\nmoral interests to account for the comparative absence of what one might\ndescribe as the neutral, non-moral observations on life, which are\ncommon in the proverbs of every other nation?[74] Fortunately however,\nthere is one much stronger piece of evidence available. It has been\nexplained that the abstract conception \u201cWisdom\u201d represented the teaching\nof the Wise in epitome, and was the unification in thought of their\nmanifold opinions. It follows that what they said, or left unsaid, about\n\u201cWisdom\u201d furnishes an admirable test of their sincerity, revealing the\npresence or absence of enthusiasm for their work. Wisdom was the Cause\nthey championed against Folly: it will be easy to tell whether they\ntruly loved it. If they had been only clever people, content to parade\ntheir shrewdness, or comfortable upholders of law and order, proclaiming\nthe maxims of respectability with a business eye to the security of\ntheir own possessions, then inevitably they would have betrayed\nthemselves by giving an exposition of Wisdom coldly intellectual. But\nthe opposite is what has happened, and the warmth and passion as well as\nthe reverence, of their words in honour of Wisdom bear eloquent,\nunconscious testimony to the admiration and affection in which the Sages\nheld their calling. Hear then the Praises of Wisdom--\n\n_Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom, and the man that getteth\nunderstanding; for the merchandise of it is better than silver, and the\ngain thereof than fine gold. She is more precious than rubies, and none\nof the things that thou canst desire are comparable unto her...._ (Pr.\n3^{13-15}): surely a disconcerting verse for upholders of the supposed\nutilitarianism of the proverbs? Again, _How much better is it to get\nWisdom than gold! Yea to get understanding is to be chosen rather than\nsilver_ (Pr. 16^{16}, cp. 8^{10})--so much for the Sages\u2019 notion of\ncomparative values. In chapter 9 of _Proverbs_, by a touch of fine\nimagination, Wisdom is daringly pictured as a noble Lady, bidding guests\nto her banquet. She is the counterpart of Madam Folly, who also gives a\nbanquet and who thus invites a passer-by: _Stolen waters are sweet, and\nbread eaten in secret is pleasant_, (to which the Wise add in caustic\ncomment as they see the foolish one enter: _But he knoweth not that the\ndead are there, that her guests are in the depth of Sheol_, Pr. 9^{17,\n18}). But, in contrast, Wisdom--_Wisdom hath builded her house, she hath\nhewn out her seven pillars: she hath killed her beasts, she hath made\nready her wine, and furnished her table. She hath sent forth her\nmaidens; on the highest parts of the city she crieth aloud, \u201cWhoso is\nignorant, let him turn in hither\u201d; and to him that is void of\nunderstanding she speaketh, \u201cCome, eat ye of my bread, and drink of the\nwine which I have made ready\u201d_ (Pr. 9^{1-5}). Ben Sirach knew that\nWisdom was high, and he does not disguise that only by long, unwearying\nefforts can her favour be attained. But the reward, says he, outweighs\nthe toil, and he bids men seek her: _At the first she will bring fear\nand dread upon a man and torment him with her discipline, until she can\ntrust his soul and has tested him by her judgements_ (E. 4^{17}; cp. E.\n6^{19-25}). Nevertheless, he says, _Come unto her with all thy soul, and\nkeep her ways with thy whole power. Search and seek, and she shall be\nmade known unto thee, and when thou hast hold of her, let her not go.\nFor in the end thou shalt find her to be rest, and she shall be changed\nfor thee into gladness. Her fetters shall be to thee a covering of\nstrength, and her chains a robe of glory_ (E. 6^{26-29}).\n\nWisdom is the source of all right and noble conduct, the principle that\nin all things ought to regulate men\u2019s lives. Casting behind him the grim\nfacts of Hellenistic courts, and perhaps of high society in Jerusalem\nalso, one wise man, seeing in vision the world as it should be, put\nthese glowing, optimistic words into the mouth of Wisdom: _By me kings\nreign, and princes decree justice. By me princes rule, and nobles, even\nall the judges of the earth_ (Pr. 8^{15, 16}).\n\nBut all these praises are slight compared with the thoughts inspired by\nthe supreme conviction that Wisdom itself is derived from God and dwells\nin His Presence: \u201cThe Wisdom that illumines the lives of the good is a\nreflection of the full-orbed wisdom of God.\u201d[75] It is the ineffable\ncounsel of the Almighty, the power by which He created heaven and earth\n(Pr. 3^{19f}), the principle through which the universe is still\nsustained. In face of this belief praise rose into exultation, and\nWisdom was reverently but enthusiastically conceived as that which had\nbeen ordained of God from eternity to be His counsellor in the work of\nCreation and His daily delight:\n\n    _Jehovah formed me first of His creation,\n      Before all his works of old.\n    In the earliest ages was I fashioned,\n      Even from the beginning, before the earth.\n    When there were no depths was I brought forth,\n      When there were no fountains brimming with water.\n    Before the mountains were sunk in their bases,\n      Before the hills was I brought forth;\n    Or ever He had made the earth and the fields,\n      Or the first clods of the world.\n    When He established the heavens I was there,\n      When he drew the circle over the abyss;\n    When He made firm the skies above,\n      And set fast the fountains of the deep;\n    When He gave the sea its bounds,\n      And fixed the foundations of the earth,\n    Then was I with Him as a foster-child,\n      And daily was I His delight,\n    As I played continually before His eyes,\n      Played o\u2019er all the habitable world.\n    So now, my children, hearken unto me,\n      Receive my instruction and be wise;\n    For happy is the man that heareth me,\n      Happy are those that keep my ways,\n    Watching daily at my gates,\n      And waiting at my gate-posts.\n    For he that findeth me findeth life,\n      And winneth favour from Jehovah;\n    But he that misseth me wrongeth himself:\n      All that hate me love death._ (Pr. 8^{22-36}).[76]\n\nIn similar language Ben Sirach imagines Wisdom proclaiming her glory in\nthe very presence of God Himself:\n\n    _I came forth from the mouth of the Most High,\n      And like a cloud I covered the earth;\n    I had my dwelling in the high places,\n      And my throne was in the pillar of cloud;\n    I alone compassed the circuit of heaven\n      And walked in the depth of the abysses,\n    In the waves of the sea and through all the earth;\n      And in every people I got me a possession.\n    With all these I sought for a resting-place--\n      \u201cIn whose lot shall I find a lodging?\u201d\n    Then the Creator of all commanded me,\n      Even he that formed me, pitched my tent\n    And said, \u201cIn Jacob be thy dwelling,\n      And in Israel thine inheritance.\u201d\n    In the beginning, before the world, He fashioned me,\n      And to all eternity shall I fail not.\n    In the holy tabernacle I ministered before Him,\n     And thus was I established in Zion;\n    Yea, in the beloved city He gave me resting-place,\n     And in Jerusalem was my dominion_ (E. 24^{3-11})[77].\n\nSuch words would have set the Greeks, as they set us, asking questions:\n\u201cIs it implied that Wisdom is an entity distinct from God?\u201d; \u201cHow far is\nit fair to see Greek influence in this apparent ascription of\npersonality to Wisdom?\u201d Both questions may be considered together. Too\nmuch stress cannot be laid on the firm hold which Monotheism had\nobtained in post-exilic Judaism; to the Jews of the Hellenic age the\nunity of God was a fundamental tenet. But the Jewish mind was as yet\nunphilosophical, not from lack of intelligence but from lack of\ninclination or initial suggestion. Hebrew thought started from the\nexistence of God as an axiom, and was content to use the fact of\nconscience as the key to the interpretation of life, whereas Greek\nthought had naturally inclined towards making intellectual speculation\nthe basis of its endeavour to attain through truth, morality, and beauty\nto the secret of life and the knowledge of God. Consequently many\nutterances that inevitably raise metaphysical questions in our minds,\nand would have philosophical meaning if spoken by a Greek, were put\nforward by the Jews most simply, without consideration of inherent\nintellectual problems. Of this character are the praises of Wisdom:\nalthough language is used that would fittingly be applied to a personal\nbeing, there was no intention to personify Wisdom as some kind of\nsub-divine Being other than God. The Wise intended only to declare\ntheir fervent belief that the Wisdom they studied, loved, and trusted,\nwas transcendently great, was _God\u2019s_ Wisdom, was \u201cfrom above.\u201d Wisdom\nin these proverbs was not consciously deemed to be more than an\nattribute of God, and phrases that seem to us to overstep the bounds and\nconfer personality are to be regarded as an enthusiasm of the heart not\nimplying metaphysical conclusions as to the ultimate nature of Deity.[1a]\nThis is the language not of philosophy but of affection and reverent\nesteem. From an early age there was a strong tendency in Hebrew thought\ntowards clothing abstract and collective terms in the warm language of\npersonal life, and the books of _Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_ may\nfairly be considered a natural development of pure Hebrew tradition.[2a]\nAnd yet there are \u201csigns of the times\u201d about them. The description of\nWisdom we are discussing would read strangely in pre-exilic Hebrew\nbooks; and so the question of Greek influence may still be pressed. In\nthe opinion of the present writer the influence, if any, is confined to\na slight unintentional colouring. Seeing that the Wise stood out against\nthe pressure and menace of unscrupulous, secular Hellenism, and that\nthey lived at a period when Greek intellectual prowess had not yet\nbrought its full weight to bear on Palestinian, or at least on Jud\u00e6an,\nthought, it is a reasonable conjecture that any trace of new philosophy\nin the proverbs has been introduced unwittingly and unwillingly. The\ngeneral soundness of this opinion becomes vividly apparent, if the two\npassages quoted above are compared with the eulogy given in a Jewish\nwork of considerably later date, the _Wisdom of Solomon_. There Wisdom,\nArtificer of all things, is described as\n\n    _A spirit, quick of understanding, holy,\n    Only-begotten, manifold, subtle, mobile,\n    Pure, undefiled, clean,\n    Inviolable, loving the good....\n    For Wisdom is more mobile than any motion,\n    Yea, she pervadeth and penetrateth all things\n    By reason of her pureness;\n    For she is a breath of the power of God,\n    And a pure effulgence of the Almighty._\n\n    (_Wisdom of Solomon_, 7^{22ff}).\n\nand in one verse (W.S. 9^{4}) Wisdom is actually called _She that\nsitteth beside Thee on Thy throne_, astonishing words from a Jew. The\natmosphere of Hellenic philosophy being here unmistakable, the contrast\nbetween the language of this passage and the restrained phraseology of\n_Proverbs_ and _Ecclesiasticus_ is accordingly significant.\n\nAs the _Book of Job_ is treated in another volume of this series, the\nreference to it must here be brief, but a chapter on the Exaltation of\nWisdom must not close without some mention of the wonderful poem in that\nBook, where also confession is made of the sublimity of Wisdom, but it\nis insisted that Wisdom dwells far beyond the reach of mortals, unknown\nand unknowable, save to the inscrutable Deity who wills not to reveal\nits secrets unto suffering man. Each section of this great passage\nbegins with the haunting question, _But Wisdom--whence cometh it, and\nwhere is the place of understanding?_ We quote the last stanza only.\n\n    _But Wisdom--whence cometh it,\n      And where is the place of understanding?\n    It is hid from the eyes of all creatures,\n      And concealed from the fowls of the air.\n    Abaddon and Death acknowledge:\n      \u201cBut a rumour thereof have we heard.\u201d\n    God alone hath perceived the way to it,\n      He knoweth the place thereof--\n    Even He that made weights for the wind\n      And meted the waters by measure,\n    When He made a law for the rain,\n      And a way for the flash of the thunders.\n    Then did He see it and mark it:\n      He established and searched it out_ (Job 28^{20-27}).[78]\n\n\u201cThe Humanism of the Bible\u201d--who would ask finer acknowledgment of one\naspect of life, its profound mystery; who could fail to hear in those\ngrand but desolate words the pathos of our mortal ignorance voicing its\nimmortal longing? Happier than this poet, and more in accord with\nordinary human experience, were the Wise-men of _Proverbs_; for theirs\nwas the faith that, though Wisdom might dwell in the innermost light of\nGod\u2019s presence, the boon of its guidance was not wholly denied to men.\nThey praised its exceeding great glory, acknowledging its transcendence,\nyet quietly rejoicing in the measure of knowledge they were conscious of\nreceiving:\n\n    _Wisdom is the principal thing,\n      Therefore get Wisdom:\n    Yea! with all that thou hast gotten\n      Get understanding_ (Pr. 4^{7}).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X\n\nThe Hill \u201cDifficulty\u201d\n\n\nThe Wise had not found the last secrets of Wisdom. There were ranges of\nhuman nature beyond their imagining, there were paths to salvation not\nvisible from the highroad of respectability. Perhaps they suspected as\nmuch in moments when the sublimity of Wisdom towered over them. But\nusually no doubt they felt convinced that, given an unquestioning\nacceptance of their precepts, this world would be made perfect. Better\nit would have been, but that is all. Perfection is higher than climbing\nhumanity believes, and short cuts to the summit prove delusive.\nMechanical obedience to rules and regulations for our conduct will\ncertainly not suffice, for character fails to ripen in that dry soil. So\nto reverence the past as to accept its thoughts as finished standards,\nrequiring from us only the repetition of the lips and not the\nre-affirmation or re-statement of heart and intellect, is to exclude the\npossibility of progress; and that, racially, is the unpardonable sin.\nTradition, an invaluable servant, is a fatal master. God means us to own\nno ultimate authority save His eternal and ever-present Spirit. There\nwas room in the world for many a Ben Sirach, but there was even more\nroom for men like St. Peter and St. Paul, who could break free from\nconventional standards of morality, and penetrate further into the\nexceeding great and precious promises of God.\n\nMoreover it would have been disastrous for the Wise themselves, had the\nworld accepted their way of life as indisputable truth. Think what\nwould have happened to their characters, already inclined to\nsuperiority, if with one accord men had bowed down to their every word\nand received their maxims as beyond the breath of criticism. The point\nof course, is not one that the Sages would have appreciated. Few men can\nresist the impression (and those few must be cold-blooded,\nunenthusiastic souls) that all would be well, provided their lightest\nword was law. What a truly delightful world, where one\u2019s judgments met\nonly with reverent and grateful admiration! Yet were God to give us the\ndesire of our hearts, we might construct a universe excellent according\nto our standard, and be left ourselves the only insufferable persons in\nit. \u201cSweet are the uses of adversity.\u201d\n\nThere was, however, little danger of the Wise being spoilt by\napprobation. They may have had a sufficiently good conceit of\nthemselves, but they cannot possibly have been ignorant that many of\ntheir neighbours held them in very different esteem; and whenever a\nWise-man in old Jerusalem put his heart into the effort to guide his\nbrethren into the path of understanding he can have been under few, if\nany, delusions regarding the obstacles in the way. In the last two\nchapters we have been picturing life as the Wise desired it to be, not\nas they actually found it. Our next duty is to descend from these\nheights to the plain where opposition waited to test what stuff the\nWise-men\u2019s dreams were made of. Not without courage, not without\npatience, were they able to keep these ideals in their hearts.\n\nThe discouragements they suffered are written large across the face of\nthe literature. Consider first the reception accorded to their teaching.\nAll the Jews were not lovers of Understanding, nor was Jerusalem a State\nwherein the dictates of celestial Wisdom ruled with unquestioned sway.\nNo doubt the note of confidence which pervades _Proverbs_ and\n_Ecclesiasticus_ implies that many people respected the Wise-men\u2019s\ndignity and paid deference to their speeches. But the presence of\noutspoken hostility is not a whit less clear. They did not preach\nunchallenged at the entry of the Gates. On the contrary the number and\nseverity of the proverbs denouncing \u201cscorners\u201d show that the irreverent\nwere a vigorous section of the population. We have to bear in mind that\nthe Gateway was open to all-comers, and _Psalm_ 1^{1} (_Blessed is the\nman that sitteth not in the assembly of the scornful_) supplies a hint\nthat the scoffer (and his friends) may have had an inconvenient habit of\nclaiming his own corner of the ground, and that not infrequently it\npleased him to be merry at the Wise-man\u2019s expense, now pretending he\ncould not, or would not, hear the sermon (_A scorner heareth not\nrebuke_, Pr. 13^{1}), now deriding the doctrine (_I have called and ye\nhave refused, I have stretched out my hand and no man regarded: Ye have\nset at nought all my counsel and would have none of my reproof_, Pr.\n1^{24^{f}}); now encouraging others to make vexatious interruptions\n(_Cast out the scorner, and contention shall go out_, Pr. 22^{10}).\nSage-baiting seems to have been a joke that waxed not stale with\nrepetition: \u201c_How long_,\u201d asks one Wise man pathetically, \u201c_how long\nwill scorners delight in their scorning_\u201d (Pr. 1^{22})? _He that\nreproveth a scorner getteth himself insult_ (Pr. 9^{7})--behold a sage\nby the street-corner, wise in words but by no means so sharp in\nrepartee, shaking a puzzled head and wondering what the laughter had\nbeen about and why his audience had so speedily melted away.\n\nBesides these cynical persons--the scorners or intentional fools--there\nwere fools-by-birth, whether dull-witted or coarse-natured or both,\n\u201cSimpletons\u201d, to whom the Wise were perhaps less charitable than is\nmeet. But then \u201csuffering fools gladly\u201d belongs to the apostolic ethic;\nand it vexed the Wise to think how much breath they had wasted in\nseeking to teach these folk. Glorious Wisdom stirred no enthusiasm in\ntheir obtuse souls, and the shafts of morality seldom discovered a\njoint in the armour of their self-content. Wherefore, concerning these\nalso went up the cry, \u201c_How long, ye simpletons, will ye love\nsimplicity_\u201d (Pr. 1^{22})? And when we read that _the sluggard is wiser\nin his own conceit then seven men that can render a reason_ (Pr.\n26^{16}), who can fail to see a baffled Sage turning wearily and\ndisgustedly away? Towards the dull-witted is due mercy and patience; but\noh! those self-satisfied, petty persons, ignorant of their ignorance,\ninto whose mental darkness no new illuminating thought can penetrate.\nThese were the prime objects of the Wise-men\u2019s indignation--and\nlegitimately; for in all ages they have been the curse of society, the\nmainstay of old abuses, rocks which have to be blasted from the path of\nprogress. Of your charity, then, bear in mind that the Wise did not\nlecture picked pupils only, but faced the contradictions and stupidities\nof the highway, and endured the disappointment of seeing men hostile or\nindifferent to their teaching.\n\nBut the point will bear further consideration. Two types of opponents\nmay be distinguished. First, the actively hostile, whose manner of life\nwas in violent contradiction to the Wise-men\u2019s principles, men who must\noften have hated them for their moralising efforts. In the mirror of the\nsayings we observe the immoral, the cruel, the violent, plotters of\nmischief against their neighbours, whose deeds were evil, whose words\nscorched like a fire (Pr. 16^{27}); dishonest dealers and pitiless\nusurers, who robbed the poor and crushed the defenceless (Pr. 22^{22});\nmen who lured others into wickedness; bloodthirsty men, thieves,\ncut-throats, and reckless outlaws (Pr. 1^{11^{ff}}). Against these\nWisdom, for all its exaltation, must often have seemed powerless.\nSecondly, there was the mass of the indifferent, who, being neither very\ngood nor very bad, did not think Wisdom mattered very much or that it\nwas any special concern of theirs: a type with abundant representatives\nto-day. Why will they not comprehend that it is to them, almost more\nthan to any others, that Wisdom is crying aloud; and that their\nco-operation is desperately needed for the advancement of mankind? Why\ndo they saunter so carelessly down the streets of life, sometimes to\nfall into sore disaster from which a little Wisdom, had they sought it,\nwould have saved them? Why do they always pass \u201cthe preacher for next\nSunday\u201d without a second thought? Ah! these are they that require a full\nchurch and good music and a first-rate sermon. But if _they_ attended,\nthe churches would be full and the choirs strong; and sermons have a way\nof winning home when men are out not for oratory, but to seek the truth\nof God.\n\nCertainly the Wise were not ignorant of the problem of the inattentive.\nSomething of disappointment and perplexity lies behind the reiterated\nappeals of the _Book of Proverbs_: _Hear, O my son, and receive my\nsayings._ ... _My son, let them not depart from thine eyes._ ... _Hear,\nmy son, the instruction of a father, and attend to know, for I give you\ngood doctrine._ Granted that the exhortation tended to become a set\nphrase, and that \u201cmy son\u201d was often spoken to an eager pupil or an\nattentive class in the Wise-man\u2019s house, it was also used in the market\nplace, and for one man that stopped and responded how many passed by\nunheeding? _Doth not Wisdom cry and Understanding put forth her voice?\nIn the streets she takes her stand; beside the gates, at the portal of\nthe city, at the entrance of the gates she cries aloud_ (Pr.\n8^{1-3})--frequently, we may suspect, with small result. See, yonder is\nAlexander ben Simeon, young, confident and well-to-do, proud to think\nthat his parents have called him by the name of the great Greek\nconqueror. He comes strolling through the bazaar to the gate of the\ncity. There two voices accost him. One, that of his friend Aristobulus:\n\u201cGreeting, Alexander! Hast heard news of the boxing? \u2019Tis said that\nAristonicus is beaten in the Olympic _pankcration_. \u2018By whom?\u2019 By\nCleitomachus of Thebes.[79] But I swear it cannot have been by fair\nmeans. How sayest thou?\u201d The other voice was that of Judah the Wise,\nwho, perceiving the two young men in talk, approached them hopefully and\nearnestly, though of course with all necessary dignity. \u201cA wise son,\u201d\nsaid he, \u201cmaketh a glad father, but a foolish son is a heaviness to his\nmother. Now, therefore, my sons, hearken unto me, for blessed are they\nthat keep my ways. Treasures of wickedness profit nothing, but\nrighteousness....\u201d Unfortunately the last words were not heard by\nAlexander and Aristobulus. They were already some distance off, hunting\nfor the man who had spread the rumour of the downfall of Egyptian\nathletics.\n\nBut others besides the young could be deaf to good counsel. Jerusalem\nhad many confident citizens of middle life, into whose soul the cares of\nthe world and the deceitfulness of riches and the lusts of other things\nhad entered, choking the Word: _the rich man\u2019s wealth is his strong\ncity, and as an high wall in his imagination_ (Pr. 18^{11}), said the\nWise with a sigh. There is one proverb that suggests where the most\ngrievous personal disappointment of the Wise lay: namely, in those,\nwhether boy or man, who said \u201cI go, Sir; but went not\u201d: _Cease, my son,\nto hear instruction, only to err from the words of knowledge_ (Pr.\n19^{27}). Surely there was sorrow in the heart of him who uttered those\nwords of warning?\n\nIn the next place consider the hindrances that the general conditions of\nthe age placed in the path of morality. These also are not difficult to\nperceive. The moral corruption of the luxurious Hellenic cities may have\nbeen perfectly obvious and the danger unmistakably clear, but dazzling\nopportunities, political, social, and commercial, also lay waiting\nthere for the young and ambitious Jew. Is it to be wondered if many a\nlad was ready to make a bid for fortune, and let his morality take its\nchance? Important families of Jerusalem, with a handsome son who might\nperhaps win favour at the foreign courts or shekels in their markets,\nwill have had little love for old-fashioned, moralistic Wiseacres, who\nforsooth were stupid enough to oppose \u201cthe onward march of progress.\u201d\n\nOne passage (Pr. 1^{10-19}), addressed to \u201cmy son,\u201d urges him not to\ntake up highway robbery as a career: _If they say, \u201cLet us lay wait for\nblood, let us lurk privily for the innocent without cause\u201d ... consent\nnot thou_, but there cannot have been much outlet for promising youths\nin that direction; it is perhaps a formal rather than a serious warning.\nMuch more prominent were the sensual temptations to which prosperous\npersons were exposed, temptation to indulgence in gluttonous feasting\nand drunken revelry. Such vices were alluring to an extent unknown to us\nwho live in an age when society is no longer slave-ridden, when the\nwealthy can have as many duties to occupy their energies as the poor,\nand when it is no longer gentlemanly to be drunk. You cannot make a\ndrunken man wise until you have sobered him. But the evils of\nintoxication, though real enough, were less serious in old Jerusalem\nthan in modern cities, and in wine the Wise saw an enemy only where\npronounced abuse was present. Complete abstinence is unmooted, and even\ntemperance is demanded in very temperate terms. Ben Sirach bestows an\nencomium on wine taken in moderation. _Wine_, says he, _is as good as\nlife to men, if thou drink it in its measure. What life is there to a\nman that is without wine? And it hath been created to make men glad.\nWine drunk in season and to satisfy is joy of heart and gladness of\nsoul_ (E. 31^{27^{f}}). He observes its quarrelsome tendencies, but\nthinks it necessary only to counsel tact! _Rebuke not thy neighbour at a\nbanquet of wine, neither set him at nought in his mirth. Speak not unto\nhim a word of reproach, and press him not then for repayment of a debt_\n(E. 31^{31}). In like manner _Proverbs_ 31^{6, 7} is not suitable as a\ntext for a Temperance address, even if (which is doubtful) it be partly\nmetaphorical: _Give strong drink unto him that is ready to perish, and\nwine unto the bitter in soul: let him drink and forget his poverty and\nremember his misery no more_. Here\u2019s a stick to beat the teetotallers\nwithal! How one can imagine some foolish persons discovering that even a\ntext is worth picking up (if it will serve to throw at an opponent), and\npouncing gleefully upon these sayings. \u201cFoolish persons\u201d? Yes,\n\u201cfoolish\u201d; for the effects of alcohol in the development of modern\nsociety have been, and are, calamitous to the material as well as the\nspiritual progress of the race. Moreover, even the Wise were insistent\nin denunciation of _excessive_ drinking. Said Ben Sirach, _Wine drunk\nlargely is bitterness of soul with provocation and wrath.[80]\nDrunkenness increaseth the rage of a fool unto his hurt; it diminisheth\nstrength and addeth wounds_ (E. 31^{29, 30}; cp. Pr. 20^{1},\n23^{29^{ff}}, quoted pp. 138, 232). There is no possible doubt what\ntheir attitude would have been towards the facts of the modern Drink\nQuestion. Had they seen one thousandth part of the moral and material\nlosses consequent upon drunkenness and heavy drinking in the great\nEuropean or American cities, the book of their proverbs would have been\nreplete with commands and entreaties for reform.\n\nIn respect of the relations of the sexes, the _morale_ of the\npost-exilic Jewish state was high. Monogamy was the custom, and the\nvirtuous wife received a degree of honour unequalled in the old Oriental\nworld. There are, however, in the proverbs frequent warnings against\nadultery; but, as the Hebrews were more outspoken than ourselves on\nsuch matters, it may be that the prominence of the subject points not\nso much to the prevalence of the offence as to the indignation with\nwhich it was regarded. Yet it must be borne in mind that the crowded\ncity life of the period increased temptations to that sin. More serious\nsocially was the evil of venal women. Schechter[81] is of opinion that\nthe repeated denunciations of \u201cstrange women\u201d exaggerate the low state\nof morality in Jerusalem, but, with all reasonable allowance for\nrhetoric, it is certain that the peril was never absent from the streets\nof Jerusalem, and in the brilliant cities of Egypt and Syria, so close\nat hand, licence walked unrestrained and unrebuked. The Wise knew only\ntoo well how powerful and deadly a foe this evil could prove to their\nhopes for men.[82]\n\nThe arch-enemy, not only of Idealism, but of the mildest proposals for\nreform has ever been the selfish individual. Turn to the proverbs, many\nof which have already been quoted, about rich men, about money-lenders,\nfalse-witnesses, slanderers, oppressive rulers and unjust judges; and it\nbecomes easy to realise how strong was the opposition confronting the\npreachers of Wisdom.[83]\n\nFinally, recollect the gulf between a reform in words and its\ntranslation into fact. With all our political machinery designed to\nyield better legislation, how difficult it is to give effect to the will\nof the wiser and nobler members of the community. Ancient society found\nit incalculably harder to redress its wrongs. Grievances were not always\nstifled; they might be aired in moderation and provided the charge was\nvague. But, short of revolution, how was it possible to bring adequate\npressure to bear on the guilty, strongly entrenched in their high\noffices by birth and wealth and autocratic might? These and similar\nconsiderations will suggest the external difficulties of the life in\nwhich the Wise were placed.\n\nTo the \u201cfightings without,\u201d however, must next be added a tale of \u201cfears\nwithin.\u201d The Old Testament writers were not unconscious of the\nintellectual problems of religion. It is true that they do not debate,\nor often doubt, the _existence_ of God. But the question of the Being of\nGod is, in a sense, academic; the question of His character and relation\nto men is vital; and this problem the Jews felt as acutely and faced as\nhonestly as any modern men can do. Many of them had encountered\nrealities of experience sterner than most modernists have known--at\nleast until 1914. Some of the Sages, no doubt, were unspeculative\npersons, content with traditional beliefs. But others there were not\nblind to any of the poignant elements of life. All may have assumed God\nas a fact, but some realised that only if God be just and holy and\nmerciful, was the ground of morality solid beneath their feet. Men who\nmaintained that in the fear of the Lord and honourable conduct is found\nthe key to a successful career, could not ignore the fact that in\nreality the wicked were frequently prosperous and the good subject to\nmisfortune, injustice, pain, and bitter hardships. How could such things\nbe in the world of a righteous God? Not until the post-exilic period was\nit vividly realised by a number of Jewish thinkers how obdurate these\nfacts are to an optimistic interpretation of life, and how they menace\nnot only belief in a gracious God, but also the whole structure of\nmorality. In many of the later Psalms, and in portions of the Wisdom\nliterature, to which the _Book of Proverbs_ belongs, the stringency of\nthe problem is clearly recognised, and the struggle for faith grows\ncorrespondingly severe. Men cried to God to sustain their trust despite\nthe awful enigmas of suffering and wrong. They wrestled agonisingly with\nthe facts, turning now to one, now to another, explanation, if in any\nwise hope in God might be preserved.\n\nOur consideration of the great subject must here be confined to\nconsidering the proverbs of the period. From these it appears that the\nrank and file of the Wise-men either did not feel the problem in its\nacutest form or failed to reach those heights of spiritual insight that\nsome of the Jews attained. In the proverbs a variety of sensible but\nunsatisfactory arguments are put forward. One method of defence was to\nchallenge or deny the reality of the facts alleged: _There shall no\nmischief happen to the righteous, but the wicked shall be filled with\nevil_ (Pr. 12^{21})--_Say not thou, \u201cI will recompense evil.\u201d Wait on\nthe Lord, and he shall save thee_ (Pr. 20^{22})--_The Lord is far from\nthe wicked but he heareth the prayer of the righteous_ (Pr.\n15^{29})--_The Lord will_ =not= _suffer the soul of the righteous to\nfamish, and he thrusteth away the desire of the wicked_ (Pr. 10^{3}). No\none capable of sympathy with human perplexity will dismiss such\nassertions as merely stupid. Pathetically insufficient they may be, but\nthese are the words of men convinced that somehow their instinct for God\nand the moral life is sound; and there is grandeur in the unyielding\ndefiance. Another favourite reply was to insist on the solid rewards of\nvirtue or to maintain that in the end it is honesty that pays best: _The\nwicked earneth deceitful wages, but he that soweth righteousness hath a\nsure reward_ (Pr. 11^{18})--_He that soweth iniquity shall reap\ncalamity_ (Pr. 22^{8}). The Wise liked also to dwell on the fear of\nretribution which is likely to haunt the evil-doer: _His own iniquities\nshall take the wicked, and he shall be holden in the cords of his sin_\n(Pr. 5^{22}), a retort to the power of which many a villain, dogged by\nthe thought of exposure, could bear witness. After all, there generally\nis _human_ justice to be considered, although the _divine_ seem far\naway. Sometimes The Wise had recourse to the suggestion that _the fear\nof the Lord prolongeth life, but the years of the wicked shall be\nshortened_ (Pr. 10^{27}). Some, more daringly, declared that the agony\nof a single day or hour might redress the balance; thus Ben Sirach: _It\nis an easy thing in the sight of the Lord to reward a man in the day of\nhis death according to his ways. The affliction of an hour causeth\nforgetfulness of delight, and in the last end of a man is the revelation\nof his deeds. Call no man blessed before his death_[84]; _and_ (yet\nanother suggestion) _a man shall be known in his children_ (E.\n11^{26-28}). This further possibility that Justice, if nowhere manifest\nin a man\u2019s own life, will certainly appear in the fortunes of his\ndescendants, is emphasised also in several Psalms and in passages of the\n_Book of Job_ (_e.g._, _Job_ 5^{4}), and apparently was more satisfying\nto the Jews than it would be to ourselves. A new argument, too vague to\nbe consoling, is hinted in Pr. 16^{4}, where it is declared that _God\nhath made everything for its own end, even the wicked for the day of\ntrouble_.\n\nThese answers, of course, do not cut deep enough, and their inadequacy\nreflects adversely on the value of the Wise-men\u2019s judgments of life. But\nthree important points must be noted in extenuation. First, the best\nthat Israel\u2019s Wisdom had to say on the sore problem was not said in the\nproverbs to which we are here limiting attention. If anyone desires to\nknow how unflinchingly certain Wise-men and other Jews could face the\nfacts and uphold their faith, he must turn to the _Book of Job_, to the\n_Psalms_, to _Daniel_ and the daring aspirations of Apocalyptic writers.\nSecondly, there was as yet among the Jews no active belief in the\ncontinuance of personal consciousness after physical death, and thus the\nmoral problem raised by the suffering of good men was immensely harder\nfor them than it is for ourselves. The Hebrews from earliest times had\nbelieved vaguely that a phantom-like continuation of individuality\nawaited good and bad alike in the underworld of _Sheol_; but that\nexistence was not reckoned to be \u201clife\u201d in any real sense; certainly it\nwas not thought that a man could receive the reward of his merits in\n_Sheol_, the land of shades. _Sheol_ offered no solution, or even\nalleviation, of the moral enigma confronting the Wise. If there was to\nbe a Divine vindication of morality, in their opinion it must needs be\nshown on earth, either in the life-time of the sufferer himself or in\nthat of his children. In the period we are considering, reason and\nintuition were already pointing the Jewish thinkers to a higher doctrine\nof human immortality; but no traces of the great liberating conception\nhave made their appearance in the proverbs.[85] The attitude of the Wise\ntowards death may be grasped from Ben Sirach\u2019s words: _When a man is\ndead he shall inherit creeping things and beasts and worms_ (E.\n10^{11})--_Thanksgiving perisheth from the dead, as from one that is\nnot; he that is in life shall praise the Lord_ (E. 17^{28}). Death to\nBen Sirach is a great silencing fact, not a mystery provoking thought.\nSometimes he speaks of it very quietly: _All things that are of the\nearth turn to the earth again, and all things that are of the waters\nreturn to the sea_ (E. 40^{11}), and he bids men fear it not, seeing\nthat death comes to us all: _Fear not the sentence of death. Remember\nthem that have been before thee and that come after. This is the\nsentence from the Lord over all flesh, and why doest thou refuse when it\nis the good pleasure of the Most High? Whether thou livest ten or a\nhundred or a thousand years, there is no inquisition of life in the\ngrave_ (E. 41^{3, 4}). The same unquestioning acquiescence appears in\nthe helpless commonplace of the following: _O death, how bitter is the\nremembrance of thee to a man that is at peace in his possessions, unto\nthe man that is at ease and hath prosperity in all things, and that\nstill hath strength to enjoy luxury. O death, acceptable is thy sentence\nto a man that is needy and that faileth in strength, that is in extreme\nold age and is distracted about all things, and is perverse and hath\nlost patience_ (E. 41^{1, 2}); and still more grimly in his\nunconsciously brutal counsel to beware of long sorrow for the dead: _My\nson, let thy tears fall over the dead, and as one that suffereth\ngrievously begin lamentation, and wind up his body according to his due,\nand neglect not his burial. Make bitter weeping and passionate wailing,\nand let thy mourning be according to his desert, for one day or two,\nlest thou be evil spoken of; and so be comforted for thy sorrow. For of\nsorrow cometh death, and sorrow of heart will bow down the strength. Set\nnot thy heart upon him, forget him, remembering thine own last end.\nRemember him not, for there is no returning again: him thou shalt not\nprofit, and thou wilt hurt thyself_ (E. 38^{16ff}).\n\nThis great difference of outlook would of itself incline one to a\nlenient judgment on the imperfections of the proverbs. But thirdly, and\nchiefly, remember that the Wise-men lived in a world that knew not\nJesus, a world in which the supreme moral fact had not yet appeared.\nTherefore they lacked what we possess--the assurance that nothing,\ntribulation or anguish or persecution, or famine, nakedness, peril or\nsword, can sunder the spirit of Man from the love of Him whom to know is\nlife eternal. To them it was not possible, as it is for us, to confront\nthe reality of evil with the greater reality of good, to answer the\nmystery of present suffering with the deeper mystery of the peace of\nChrist.\n\nLastly, the noblest of the proverbs has been kept in reserve till now.\nSaid one of the Sages, perceiving that suffering (be it justly or\nunjustly incurred) is at least an efficient teacher: _My son, despise\nnot the chastening of the Lord, neither be weary at his reproof. For\nwhom the Lord loveth he reproveth, and paineth the son in whom he\ndelighteth_ (Pr. 3^{11, 12}). The author of _Hebrews_ 12, writing to men\nenduring great distress but with the fact of Christ before them, thought\nfit to quote those words; and we also will do well to ponder them. It is\nreasonable to believe that hardships (which judged from certain aspects\noften are unjust), even such terrible hardships as men sometimes endure,\nare inevitable in a world where moral personality is in the making: not\notherwise could God Himself make man \u201cin His own image\u201d; not otherwise\ncould even He create beings who should learn to seek the Truth, and to\nwill the Good, in freedom. It is easy to see that courage, to take one\ninstance, cannot be disciplined in sham fight, but only in the hazard of\nreal risks. So also, it may be, all other fruits of the Spirit will grow\nfor men nowhere save on the rugged slopes of the hill called\n\u201cDifficulty.\u201d The Wise, therefore, despite their perplexities, were not\npessimistic. But, though they resolutely drove out despair, they knew\ndepression: _Even in laughter the heart may be sorrowful, and the end of\nmirth be heaviness_ (Pr. 14^{13}), and _A faithful man who can find?_\n(Pr. 20^{6})? To at least one of the Sages God seemed far distant,\nsilent and inscrutable. Thus Pr. 30^{1-4}--_The Words of Agur, ... I\nhave wearied myself, O God, I have wearied myself, and am consumed, I\nsurely am more foolish than other men, and no wisdom have I acquired to\ngive me knowledge of the Holy One. Who hath ascended up into heaven and\ndescended?... What is his name and his son\u2019s name, if thou knowest?_ The\nsturdy rebuke that immediately follows, (Pr. 30^{5-6})--_Every word of\nGod is tried. He is a shield to them that trust in Him. Add not thou\nunto His words, lest He reprove thee, and thou be found a liar_, is the\nsentiment of another and a happier man than Agur.\n\nSuch was the world in which the Wise had to labour and to think. How\nlike our own! How sobering in the discipline it imposes on the idealist!\nTo one who reads without consideration of the back-ground the\nsententiousness of these Jewish proverbs may soon prove irksome. But the\nfault becomes bearable, and the Wise grow very human, when we recognise\nthat for all their bold words, they were not always confident of their\ncreed, and that to many an earnest man among them the preaching of\nmorality must at times have seemed a weary and a fruitless task.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI\n\nHarvest\n\n\nWe have seen the Wise at work, breaking up the hard ground, ploughing\nthe field and scattering the seed. Came ever their toil to harvest? And\nsince the world is the field, to what place in the wide world, what\npoint of time in the world\u2019s long story, ought our search to be\ndirected? \u201cThey that sow in tears,\u201d said a brave man long ago, \u201cshall\nreap in joy; though he goeth on his way weeping bearing forth the seed,\nhe shall come again rejoicing bringing his sheaves with him,\u201d--and his\nwords encourage us to search for effects of the Wise-men\u2019s teaching in\nthe immediate history of their times. No matter how often the Psalmist\u2019s\nexpectation has gone unfulfilled, something in us cries assent to his\ndaring, and we shall therefore follow his guidance; nor shall we look in\nvain. But one knows that the proverb Jesus quoted to His disciples, _One\nsoweth and another reapeth_, is more often true to the facts of life;\nand therefore, following its warning, we must be prepared also to seek\ntraces of the Wise-men\u2019s influence in times and places unforeseen by\nthem.\n\nSo wide a range of human history thus opens for consideration that the\ntask we are attempting in this chapter is necessarily difficult. It is\nstill further complicated by the problem of analysis. For example, to\nsay bluntly that in the modern determination to remedy existing evils in\nour social organisation the Christian Church may see the harvest of its\nlabours is ultimately true, but it is not the whole truth, and because\nthere is so much more to be said on the matter the statement might be\nchallenged as actually untrue by those whose thoughts leap at once to\nthe chequered official record of the Church in the last few centuries.\nBut the opposition with which such cut-and-dry assertions are received\noften requires only a more careful analysis for its removal. Quite\ncertainly, despite the antagonism of certain professed Christians, the\npenetrative influence of the regular preaching and teaching of\nChristianity, especially during the last generation or so, has done more\ntowards rousing and enlightening the national conscience regarding\nsocial conditions than can easily be measured; but the social movement\nof to-day also owes much to the rise of ambitions that naturally\naccompany the increase of wealth, to scientific invention, to popular\neducation, and to other factors that might be mentioned. The progress of\nmankind is the product of many influences that have worked together for\ngood, and the ethical and intellectual condition of a people at any\ngiven period is like a garment woven from many threads but without seam.\nAnalysis of history is desirable; but to attempt an analysis so subtle\nthat we can say, \u201cJust so much is due to this influence from the past,\nso much to that,\u201d is always difficult, if not impossible. In part of\nwhat follows we must be content to describe certain events and\ncircumstances concerning which we make no greater (but also no less) a\nclaim than that the Wise were a _contributory_ cause, their words and\ntheir example having co-operated with the work of others in producing\nthe result described.\n\nWhere then, may it be said, that the seed they sowed took root and\nripened? One general answer may be given instantly--Wherever the Bible\nhas been known and read: a result immeasurably exceeding the utmost\nexpectations of the Wise. Who among them ever hoped that their proverbs\nwould receive a place in a Book destined to exercise pre-eminent moral\nand spiritual force throughout the world, and that through all these\ncenturies the best part of their wisdom, wit, and idealism would be\nknown and esteemed in a myriad Gentile homes?\n\nFor closer consideration three themes may profitably be singled out; the\nfirst being that of immediate Jewish history in Palestine, by which is\nmeant the critical centuries 350 to 150 B.C. This topic will first be\ndiscussed generally, and then attention will be concentrated on certain\nevents during the years 200 to 150 B.C., when the struggle between\nJudaism and Hellenism came to a climax and was decided.\n\n\nI\n\n(_a_) Less than justice is done to the Wise in the picture of\npost-exilic Judaism usually presented to students. They are not wholly\nignored, but their value as a formative influence in the community of\nJerusalem and Jud\u00e6a, we venture to think, has been insufficiently\nappreciated. For this misjudgment there are several plain reasons which\nwill prove to be well worth examining.\n\nIn the first place, the absence of theological fervour in the proverbs,\ntheir matter-of-fact standpoint, and the doubtful propriety of certain\nsayings have been disappointing and even disconcerting to many readers\nof the Bible. Judged too hastily by the superficial features of their\nwritings, the Wise have been dismissed either as altogether wanting or,\nat best, as of small moral and religious importance. But how serious an\nerror that method of rough-and-ready judgment may induce, can readily be\nimagined. It is much as if some future historian, attempting to estimate\nthe value of Christianity to this generation, had to derive his opinion\nfrom a survey of the volumes of sermons published, many of which he\nmight be inclined to criticise on the ground that they were concerned\nwith the inculcation of commonplace moral duties. There is far more\nbehind such a book as _Proverbs_ than can appear in it. The Wise have\nbeen considered too much from the literary point of view, too little\nfrom the human.\n\nBut, secondly, it is not surprising that the attractive, \u201chuman\u201d aspect\nhas been overlooked or underestimated. We miss the warmth of personal\nhistory in the proverbs. One\u2019s interest is stirred so much more deeply\nby persons than by things or even ideas; and the proverbs are so coldly\nimpersonal that only close scrutiny, such as we have here attempted,\nreveals the Wise as men. They _may_ often have been pompous,\nself-satisfied folk, but it cannot be denied that in their writings they\nwere anything but self-advertising, saying many things about Wisdom and\nnext to nothing about themselves.\n\nEven more serious for their repute than this praiseworthy self-reticence\nis, thirdly, the fact that the Wise soon vanish from the surface of\nJewish affairs, apparently as completely as the prophets. But again\nappearance is misleading, and the explanation that can be found for this\nfact deserves to be set forth at some length, because it is likely to\nhelp us further in the understanding of our subject. Commencing perhaps\nas early as the latter part of the fifth century, B.C., there developed\nin the loyal Jewish community, alongside of the elaborate worship of the\nTemple, a custom of meeting together for purposes of religious\nexhortation and prayer, and, above all, for study of the great Law which\nwas increasingly felt to be the strength and heart of Judaism. At these\nmeetings, or _Synagogues_, the delivery of a moral discourse would be\nappropriate, perhaps was formally arranged, and the speaker selected for\nthis purpose must often have been one of those known as the Wise. But\ncommendation and exposition of the Law was even more in place on these\noccasions, and this duty would naturally be entrusted to one of those\nwho were making the exact interpretation of the Law a life-long interest\nand indeed a profession; that is, to one of those who are familiar to\nus by the title \u201cScribe.\u201d Now it is easy to see that the functions of\nthe Wise and of the Scribes were not far sundered, and these \u201csynagogue\u201d\nmeetings must have done much to promote and hasten the approximation of\nthe two classes.[86] Indeed the process of fusion can be watched in the\npages of Ben Sirach\u2019s book. From it we learn that Ben Sirach, prominent\nas a Wise-man, was himself professionally a Scribe, and he praises that\noccupation as the best of all careers, the one most suitable for a\ndisciple of Wisdom (E. _Prologue_ and 39^{1-3}). What more was needed\nthan that the Sages should recognise in the Law of Moses the mysterious\nWisdom which they served? And we find this very identification expressly\nmade by Ben Sirach, who declares (in reference to certain wonders of\nWisdom he has set forth in previous verses) that _All these things are\nthe book of the covenant of the most high God, even the Law which Moses\ncommanded us_ (E. 24^{23}; cp. 15^{1}, 19^{20}, etc.). What happened is\nclear. From about the beginning of the second century B.C. the functions\nof moral exhortation--the special sphere of the Wise, at least in\npublic--were discharged by persons who were Scribes; henceforth, to put\nit briefly, the Wise were mostly Scribes, and the Scribes were mostly\nWise. The disappearance of the Wise-men is thus explained; seated in\nMoses\u2019 seat, they have passed out of our sight and so out of mind; or,\nif dimly recognised by us in their new character, they have been\ninvolved in the Scribes\u2019 not wholly merited disfavour.[87]\n\nIn the fourth place, the Wise have also suffered unduly from the\noverwhelming prestige customarily assigned to the Law in post-exilic\ntimes. Many scholars have so sat in its shadow that they seem to lose\nsight of all other elements in the situation, nay! even to have\nforgotten the sunny side of the Law itself. Jerusalem is sometimes\npictured as a city of ecclesiastical lawyers, and the Jews as a\ncongregation clustered round a book of rules; an exaggeration and\nmisconception that might never have gained favour, had the mass of\nspiritual exposition and reflection embodied in early Rabbinical\nliterature been more accessible to Christian students. It is a question\nof proportion. Without denying that the Law had become the\nrallying-point of distinctive Judaism and was destined to obtain a\nparamount place in Jewish life and thought, we have to insist that it\nheld no monopoly of influence in the period before 150 B.C., when the\nWise were still distinctively the Wise. Jewish legalism may already have\nbecome an important fact in the national consciousness, but plenty of\nroom remained for Jewish humanism. We would insist that whilst the Law\nhad one great rival--the spirit of indifference to all its teaching\nwhich the growth of Hellenic fashions favoured--it had also coadjutors.\nThere were other spiritual influences at work, moulding the standards\nand ideals of the Jews; one of these was the study and appreciation of\nthe writings of the great Prophets of Israel, whence before long came\nthe high aspirations of the Apocalyptic school of thinkers; and another\nwas the example and teaching of the Wise. Consider the point in view of\nthe normal qualities of human nature. What impresses ordinary folk? How\ndo they learn new knowledge? Men are impressed by worth and dignity in\ntheir teachers, the Easterns in particular paying even undue deference\nto age and prosperity. And most men learn by small degrees: as Isaiah\nput it, they need to be taught precept upon _precept, line upon line,\nhere a little, and there a little_. Is not that exactly what the Wise\nwere best fitted to give them--precept upon precept? Here were some of\nthe most honourable and prosperous citizens of the day, not keeping\ntheir Wisdom jealously to themselves, but counting it their serious duty\nto impart the secrets of success; now teaching chosen pupils; now\nmingling in the open with all sorts and types of men (Did not Wisdom cry\naloud and utter her voice in the broad places, and cry her message in\nthe chief place of concourse, even at the entering in of the gates, cp.\nPr. 1^{20}, 8^{1-3}?); everywhere upholding reverence towards God and a\nstandard of morality, if not perfect, at least far superior to average\nattainments. Day in, day out, the social and personal idealism, and the\nwholesome vigorous commonsense of these proverbs were being instilled\ninto the ears of the people by teachers whose prosperous respectability\nalone was enough to gain them popular attention. Must it not be that all\nthis had effect, and great effect, on the Jewish community? The Law no\ndoubt enlisted the prime devotion of the pious, the prophets appealed\nmost to the enthusiast, but the Wise must have had the ear of the\nordinary folk--that is, of the majority of men.\n\n(_b_) Detailed proof of the conclusion thus drawn from general\nconsiderations is of course not available. There is, however, one\ndirection in which immediate evidence of the Wise-men\u2019s influence may be\nsought, namely in the issue of the struggle between Judaism and\nHellenism. To this end let us briefly pass in review certain events of\nthe years 200 to 150 B.C. It will already be clear to the reader how\nslight was the chance of the older Jewish habits persisting in face of\nthe full tide of new life and thought, which was steadily smoothing them\naway as waves will melt sandcastles on the shore. By the end of the\nthird century the infection of Hellenism was rife, not only in the upper\nclasses, but in all grades of Jewish society; \u201ceven in the very\nstrongholds of Judaism it modified the organisation of the State, the\nlaws, public affairs, art, science and industry, affecting even the\nordinary things of life and the common associations of the people.\u201d[88]\nBlack as was the outlook for Judaism at this date, it was soon to grow\nmuch worse. Early in the second century the leading families of\nJerusalem had become thoroughly Hellenic in their point of view, and,\nworst of all, in 174 B.C. the office of the High Priesthood fell by\nintrigue into the grasp of an unscrupulous man, Joshua or (to use the\nGreek name which he adopted and preferred) Jason. This Jason, to curry\nfavour with the Syrian king, set to work to complete the transformation\nof Jerusalem into a Grecian city. Accordingly a gymnasium was now built,\nand so popular was the High Priest\u2019s policy, so forgotten the\nold-fashioned sentiment, that even the Priests were found willing to\nparticipate actively in the competitions of the public athletic games.\nThe unholy zeal of the more ardent Hellenists, however, crystallised\ninto definite shape such opposition as still existed. A body of men,\nconvinced upholders of strict Judaism, now drew together and became\nknown as _Hasidim_, _i.e._, \u201cThe Conscientious\u201d or \u201cThe Faithful\u201d; but\ntheir ranks were recruited largely from the poorer classes, they lacked\nintellectual prestige, and no doubt their opposition to Hellenism in\nsome respects had the weakness of mere unreasoning conservatism. The\nparty did not seem fitted either to grow in numbers or to continue\nthrough many years, and with its passing the old Jewish piety bade fair\nto perish finally.\n\nBut at this stage occurred one of the most astonishing _d\u00e9nouements_ in\nhistory. In 175 B.C. Antiochus IV Epiphanes began to reign over the\nSyrian dominions: a remarkable but dangerous man, eccentric to the verge\nof insanity; inordinately vain, yet endowed with great ability, energy,\nand ambition. Soon after his accession certain tumults took place in\nJerusalem. The rioting was directed against Syrian authority, but did\nnot amount to anything which could fairly be construed as rebellion,\nbeing in fact mere faction-fighting. None the less Antiochus, whose\nexchequer happened to be in sore straits for money, made the occurrence\na pretext, first, for plundering the Temple of its treasures and, two\nyears later, for inflicting on the Jews a cruel punishment. Entering the\ncity in 168 B.C. he razed its walls, and desecrated the Temple in an\nabominable fashion, sacrificing swine on the altar and converting it\ninto a sanctuary for Hellenic worship. Still more important, however,\nwas his resolve once and for all to stamp out any obscurantists among\nthe Jews who might presume any longer to follow their ancestral customs\nand oppose the Greek culture. Then began throughout the Jewish province\na fierce persecution. In all towns and villages men and women were\nsought out and slain--whosoever was found guilty of practising Jewish\nobservances, or possessed a copy of the Jewish Law, or refused to offer\nworship at a heathen shrine. The position of the loyal Jews soon became\ndesperate. The threat of torture and death was stamping out relentlessly\nthe last flicker of resistance. Many of the _Hasidim_, refusing to make\nthe great surrender, died for their faith, and the small companies who\nescaped to the deserts for refuge, though steadfast in determination to\nresist, were in despair, feeling that Jehovah had forsaken His people\nutterly. A famous passage in 1 Maccabees (2^{29-38}) relates how one\nthousand of them, men, women and children, pursued into the wilderness\nby the Syrian troops, were overtaken on a Sabbath day, and how (rather\nthan violate the laws of the Sabbath by fighting) they sought neither\nto escape their enemies by flight nor yet to defend themselves, but\nstood and met death in heroic silence.\n\nSuch was the condition of affairs when suddenly a change came over the\ncharacter of the Jewish resistance. A certain Mattathias, a priest of\nthe village _Modein_, with his five sons (one of whom was the famous\n_Judas_, afterwards surnamed _Maccabeus_), indignant at what was taking\nplace, and convinced of the futility of such passive martyrdom as had\nled to the massacre just mentioned, struck a blow for freedom, and began\nto organise active opposition. The _Hasidim_ fell in with the new\npolicy, and men rallied to the support of Mattathias and his sons. It\nwas as if the latent patriotism of the Jews had waited only for a spark\nto kindle it, had required only action on lines of sufficient common\nsense to offer a faint chance of success in combating Antiochus. The new\narmy that sprang dramatically into being was fortunate in its commander.\nUnder the brilliant leadership of Judas Maccabeus surprising victories\nwere gained, and after vicissitudes of fortune which it is not in point\nhere to record, there emerged a Jewish State, free from the tyranny of\nSyria, and eager to preserve the essence of that moral monotheistic\nfaith which had been Israel\u2019s one unique glory.\n\nBut whence this astonishing revival? The _Hasidim_ were none too\nnumerous, and if, as is entirely probable, a large proportion of their\nmen were advanced in years, they can hardly have been the most efficient\nportion of the Maccabean armies from a military point of view. Victories\nin war are won by young, vigorous men, and the swift triumph of the\nMaccabees implies the adhesion to their cause of numbers of young Jews\nfrom within and without Jerusalem; and that again is explicable only by\nthe presence in the nation of a strong undercurrent of respect for the\nolder, distinctive Judaism. Things were not quite so desperate as they\nhad seemed. Hellenism had progressed far; but it had not eaten out the\nheart of the people. Obviously if all the young Jews had been convinced\nHellenists, content to follow the lead of the high-priestly party to any\nlengths and wholly contemptuous of Israel\u2019s former piety, they would\nhave looked on with indifference, or even approval, while the last\nremnants of the puritanical _Hasidim_ and the villagers of Modein were\nbeing blotted out. But from that attitude they had evidently been saved,\nand it is fair to acknowledge that the Wise must have done much to\nachieve that consummation. Their broadminded outlook, their sensible but\ngenuine piety, their solid worth of character, their shrewd yet earnest\nand at times enthusiastic teaching, all had helped effectively to\nmaintain regard for the old-fashioned interpretation of life that rested\non \u201cthe fear of the Lord.\u201d With the example of the Wise-men before them,\nthere must have been many who, though they felt that Hellenism was\nwonderful, yet knew in their soul that Judaism also was great and wise.\nSo soon therefore as the vileness of a bloody and remorseless\npersecution clarified the moral issue and compelled a choice, men were\nfound who could make the right resolve to fight for their liberty and\ntheir fathers\u2019 God. The result of the Maccabean conflict was a real\ndecision; the tide had turned, and the losing battle was not lost.\nHellenic thought and method would in days to come mould and modify the\nJewish people in many ways, but its strangle-hold on the vital point of\nJewish religion was loosened, never to be renewed. The spiritual genius\nof Judaism could breathe again. Henceforth, to quote a memorable saying\nof Wellhausen, \u201cin a period when all nationalities and all bonds of\nreligion and national customs were being broken up in the seeming cosmos\nand real chaos of the Gr\u00e6co-Roman Empire, the Jews stood out like a rock\nin the midst of the ocean. When the natural conditions of independent\nnationality all failed them, they nevertheless artificially maintained\nit with an energy truly marvellous, and thereby preserved for\nthemselves, and for the whole world, an eternal good.\u201d\n\n\nII\n\nThe second field in which one may reasonably look for signs of the\nWise-men\u2019s labours is of course subsequent Jewish history, the question\nbeing, \u201cDid the teaching of the Wise slip out of sight and memory when\nthe crisis we have described was ended, and when the professors of\nWisdom became the Scribes and were more and more absorbed in purely\nscribal interests, or did it escape oblivion and continue a living\ninfluence in the life of the Jews?\u201d The ground that must furnish an\nanswer to our question is chiefly the presence or absence of references\nto these proverbs, or of imitations and echoes of them, in the later\nJewish literature. To begin with, however, there is one clear,\nindependent proof of the esteem in which at any rate the _Book of\nProverbs_ came to be held, and that is its inclusion in the Hebrew\nBible. This fact alone is irrefutable and sufficient testimony that the\nthoughts of the Wise never ceased to influence the minds and characters\nof loyal Jews. So much for _Proverbs_, but what of _Ecclesiasticus_? It\nalso was far from being forgotten. Though it failed to secure a place in\nthe Hebrew Canon, it was included in the Septuagint[89], the Bible of\nthe Greek-speaking Jews of Egypt. The Talmud in one ultra-orthodox\npassage forbids quotations to be made from Ben Sirach\u2019s book, but\nactually there are quotations from it in the Talmud itself! In fact, a\nvast number of references might be adduced from the whole range of\nJewish literature testifying both to the popularity of these two great\ntreasuries of the Sages\u2019 sayings, and to the steady appreciation of\nproverbs old and new, which the Jews displayed.\n\nTo set forth proof of this assertion even in barest outline would\ninvolve technicalities that might be wearisome. We give therefore but\ntwo or three points in illustration. Perhaps the most interesting, and\nfor Gentile readers the most accessible, source of evidence is a work of\nthe first and second century A.D., a compendium of the ethical ideas and\nideals of certain famous Jewish teachers, bearing the title _Pirke\nAboth_, that is _The Sayings of the Fathers_.[90] Throughout this\ntreatise the influence of the Wisdom writings is clearly indicated by\nthe sententious style that characterises the several _Sayings_, as well\nas by the numerous direct references to _Proverbs_. A few quotations\nwill bring this out, and at the same time illustrate the high ideals,\ncuriously but often very attractively expressed, of which the book is\nfull:--\n\n_Ben Zoma said, \u201cWho is mighty? He who subdues his nature, for it is\nwritten \u2018He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty\u2019_ (Pr.\n16^{32})._\u201d_[91]\n\n_Antigonous of Soko used to say, \u201cBe not like servants who work for\ntheir Lord with a view to receiving recompense, but be as slaves that\nminister without seeking for reward, and let the fear of heaven be upon\nyou.\u201d_[92]\n\n_Rabbi Chananiah said_--something that might have averted the European\nwar, and made Germany a blessing instead of a curse, had her rulers and\nthinkers accepted his deep counsel!--_\u201cWhenever in any man his fear of\nsin comes before his wisdom his wisdom endures, but whensoever a man\u2019s\nwisdom comes before his fear of sin his wisdom doth not endure._\u201d[93]\n\n_Rabbi Judah ben Thema said, \u201cBe bold as a leopard, and swift as an\neagle, and fleet as a hart, and strong as a lion to do the will of thy\nFather which is in heaven.\u201d_[94]\n\nAnd there was Rabbi Samuel the Little, who chose for his life\u2019s motto\njust one verse of _Proverbs_ (24^{17}), and added thereto no word in\ncomment: \u201c_Rejoice not when thine enemy falleth, and let not thine heart\nbe glad when he stumbleth_.\u201d[95]\n\nSo the topic might be pursued, and from _Midrash_ and _Talmud_ might be\ndrawn examples in plenty, both references to the ancient proverbs and\nquotations of new ones--words of wit and humour, of prudence and fine\nidealism--applied to all manner of human intercourse, and witnessing\nabundantly that in Israel Wisdom was still known of her children. Space\nmust be found for just these three observations on married life:\n\n     _Whose wife dies in his lifetime, the world becomes dark for him_\n     (C. 55)[96].\n\n     _He who loves his wife as himself and honours her more than\n     himself_ ... it is _of him the Scripture saith \u201cThou shalt know\n     that thy tent is in peace\u201d_ (C. 55).\n\nAnd, lastly, this gentle and subtle saying:--\n\n     _If thy wife be short, bend down and whisper to her_ (C. 55).\n\nIf Wisdom is an influence at all, it is always an intimate influence\nworking in homes and individual consciences as well as in street and\nmarket-place, so that besides noting the frequent mention of proverbs in\nthe literature, consideration should also be paid to the vigour of\nJewish morality in the Christian era. Perhaps the simplest and most\nhuman point at which to test the matter briefly will be the ethic of the\nJewish home. Dispossessed of their native land and scattered to a\nthousand different cities, the Jews were compelled to work out their own\nsalvation under great and increasing difficulties.[97] _God_, says a\nsignificant Talmudic comment, _dwells in a pure and loving home_; and no\none, aware of the evils that were rampant in the decaying paganism of\nthe Gr\u00e6co-Roman Empire and persisted, still powerful though not\nunrebuked, in the slowly developing society of nominally Christian\nEurope, would deny that the isolated and often harassed communities of\nthe Jews did their utmost to make that noble saying a reality,\nmaintaining with amazing courage and pertinacity a splendid ideal of\nfamily and communal existence. A discussion of the topic in the _Jewish\nEncyclop\u00e6dia_ concludes with the following affirmation: \u201cThroughout\nthese centuries of persecution and migration the moral atmosphere of the\nJewish home was rarely contaminated, and it became a bulwark of moral\nand social strength, impregnable by reason of the religious spirit which\npermeated it.\u201d And in elucidation of what was involved in the\npersecution referred to let this one grim statement speak: From the\nsixteenth century, and earlier, regulations were enforced compelling the\nJews of numerous large cities to reside in certain confined areas,\n\u201cghettos.\u201d Nevertheless the dreadful overcrowding to which this led\nresulted in no serious moral evils: \u201cThe purity of the Jewish home-life\nwas a constant antidote to the poisonous suggestions of life in slums,\nand it was even able to resist the terrible squalor and unhealthiness\nwhich prevailed in the miserable and infamous Roman ghetto, where at one\ntime as many as 10,000 inhabitants were herded into a space less than a\nsquare kilometre. In the poorer streets of this ghetto several families\noccupied one and the same room. The sufferings of the Jews in that hell\nupon earth were not diminished by the yearly overflowing of the Tiber\nwhich made the Roman ghetto a dismal and a plague-stricken swamp.\u201d[98]\n\nOf course many things worked together to sustain the morality of the\nJewish people--the long-suffering of the Psalmists, the golden promises\nof the mighty Prophets, and the strength of the ancient Law. But surely\nalso that store of homely, yet stirring and challenging, proverbs which\nthe Wise-men had created, may claim a real share in the magnificent\nresult? And if, quite rightly, it be insisted that the Law, with its\nfascination of hallowed customs and manifold spiritual suggestions,\nplayed the all-important part, then in reply we may still enter the plea\nthat, as Ben Sirach had felt and said, for the Jew the Law was Wisdom\nand Wisdom had become the Law.\n\n\nIII\n\nIn the third place, the words of the Wise were given an honoured place\nin the mind of the Lord Jesus Christ. To some that may be an unexpected\nstatement. It is well-known that Jesus was intimately familiar with the\ndoctrine of the Prophets, and many have perceived how conscious He was\nof all that is admirable in the Law, the spiritual essence of which He\nfulfilled. But, though His interest in the Wise is seldom noted, it is\nno less true that He had considered deeply and sympathetically the idea\nof the Divine Wisdom, and was familiar with the famous proverbs that\nsought to apply its guidance alike to the greatest and the least of our\naffairs. Just how often a memory of Wisdom is traceable in the recorded\nwords of Jesus cannot be determined with certainty. _Verbatim_ allusions\nare rare, perhaps because the ideas of the Wise and their more memorable\nsayings had become so familiar in our Lord\u2019s time as to be common ground\nbetween hearer and teacher, so that often it was only the point made by\nthe Wise that was hinted at, or caught up and given some new turn and\nemphasis. But echoes from the thoughts and images of the proverbs are so\nfrequent in the Gospels that together they furnish ample evidence of His\nhaving known and valued the ancient treasury of Wisdom. The evidence is,\nof course, cumulative, and its strength must not be judged by the\nfollowing few illustrations.[99]\n\nNo fewer than seven of the eight Beatitudes (_Matt._ 5^{3ff}) recall\nproverbs of the Wise; what had been, as it were, a seed of thought in\nthe proverb finding ripe expression in the Beatitude. For instance,\n_Blessed are the poor_ (_i.e._, humble) _in spirit, for theirs is the\nkingdom of heaven_, said Jesus--_Better_, said the Wise, _is it to be of\na lowly spirit with the poor, than to divide the spoil with the proud_\n(Pr. 16^{19}). With Jesus\u2019 condemnation of mischievous talk, _Every idle\nword that men shall speak they shall give account thereof in the day of\njudgement; for by thy words shalt thou be justified, and by thy words\nthou shalt be condemned_ (_Matt._ 12^{36, 37}), compare Pr. 18^{20, 21}\n_Death and life are in the power of the tongue; and they that love it\nshall eat the fruit thereof_ (also Pr. 13^{2}, 15^{4}, 21^{23}, etc.).\nWith the teaching, _Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon the earth\n... but in heaven_, compare Pr. 11^{4, 28}, 15^{16}, 16^{8}, etc. _Give\nus this day our daily bread_ seems to echo Pr. 30^{8}: _Give me neither\npoverty nor riches; feed me with the bread that is needful for me_. In\nthe command for generous dealing, _Give to him that asketh thee, and\nfrom him that would borrow of thee turn not away_ (_Matt._ 5^{42}),\nthere is perhaps a precise reminiscence of Pr. 3^{28}: _Say not unto thy\nneighbour, \u201cGo and come again\u201d when thou hast it with thee_ (cp. also\nPr. 19^{17} with _Matt._ 25^{40}); and again when Jesus encouraged His\ndisciples saying _Be not anxious how or what ye shall speak.... For it\nis not ye that speak but the spirit of your Father which speaketh in\nyou_ (Matt. 10^{19, 20}), perhaps the very words of Pr. 16^{1} were in\nHis memory: _The plans of the heart belong to man, but the answer of the\ntongue is from the Lord_?\n\nSome of the immortal images in our Lord\u2019s parables may have been painted\nfrom the thought suggested by a proverb. In the parable of _Luke_\n14^{7-11}, the command not to seek the highest seats at the banquet may\noriginate in the saying of Pr. 25^{6} as much as in the concrete\nexamples of the failing which contemporary life no doubt afforded. So\nalso the famous parable of the two houses, one built on rock, the other\non sand, perhaps goes back to the seed-thought in Pr. 12^{7}: _The\nwicked are overthrown and are not, but the house of the righteous shall\nstand_; and the proverb _Boast not thyself of to-morrow, for thou\nknowest not what a day will bring forth_, Pr. 27^{1}, might be text for\nChrist\u2019s parable of the rich man and his barns (_Luke_ 12^{16-21}).\nAgain when Jesus, speaking of the kingdom of heaven, likens it to a\nmarriage feast (_Matt._ 22^{1-14}; etc.) and elsewhere compares it in\nits infinite value to a hidden precious pearl, there are details in the\nlanguage used which suggest that the picture of Wisdom\u2019s banquet (Pr.\n9^{1-5}), and the proverbs on the incomparable worth of Wisdom were not\nfar distant from His mind.\n\nMore important than even the certain or possible verbal reminiscences of\nthe proverbs is the resemblance between the manner of Jesus\u2019 teaching\nand the manner of the Wise. Like them, He also taught in the streets,\nseeking the people where they were most easily to be found; and though\nHis words were infinite in depth of insight and spiritual grandeur, He\nwas wont to clothe them in simple language--now quoting a telling\nproverb, _Physician, heal thyself_, now kindling imagination by a\nfamiliar but graphic metaphor or comparison that went home to the heart,\nand challenged the conscience, and was comprehensible to learned and\nunlearned equally. Like the Wise, He spoke constantly on those simple\nbut supreme issues which concern every man that cometh into the world;\nand His highest doctrine was often cast, like the lessons of ancient\nWisdom, in brief sentences that refused to be forgotten: _Blessed are\nthe pure in heart, for they shall see God--He that findeth his life\nshall lose it, and he that loseth his life for My sake shall find it_.\nMany readers will realise that the deepest thing concerning the relation\nbetween Jesus Christ and Wisdom has not yet been referred to, but that\nwe deliberately reserve. Enough has been said for the present purpose.\n\nWho in face of all these facts would dare to maintain that the Wise-men\ntoiled to no purpose. Their love\u2019s labour was not lost. In the issue of\nthe struggle with Hellenism and the revival of the Jewish national\nconsciousness with its unique moral and religious features, some of them\nwitnessed a result such as their teaching, whether they were fully\nconscious of the fact or not, had tended to achieve.\n\nBut also there came gradually in later generations, and in lands of\nwhich they had not so much as heard, a rich reward of which the end is\nnot yet in sight. Could they but have foreseen even a small corner of\nthis ultimate harvest field, how completely depression would have\nvanished, and all mistrust of God\u2019s dealings with faithful men been\nlifted from their minds! Their proverbs were laid on the foundation of a\nreligious and ethical idealism, and if some have proved to be only wood,\nhay and stubble, others were gold, silver and costly stones, and these\nhave obtained a place in the temple of eternal Truth. Doubtless the\nimperfections of the Wise were great and their failures and\ndisappointments many, but all the time they were building far better\nthan they knew. Is it not always so with every courageous effort after\nrighteousness, every honest search for the kingdom of the living God?\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII\n\nValues\n\n\nOur fathers required no volumes on the Humanism of the Bible. They felt\nthemselves close-linked with its heroes; Patriarchs, Judges, Warriors,\nKings, and Prophets were their kith and kin, not in blood, but in the\nnearer relationship of human experience. Saul, in his pride, his\njealousy and desolate death, stood in warning beside them; David,\npattern of faith and fortitude in adversity, was at their right hand, so\nthat in their distresses men would take courage, remembering that David\nalso had cried unto the Lord and been delivered. But the perspective of\nthe years has ceased to be foreshortened, and between our generation and\nthe old world of the Bible a great gulf now seems fixed. Nevertheless\nour fathers were right, and we are wrong. Saul and David and the men of\nthe Bible are not separated from us by 3,000 years, nor yet by one year,\nfor difference of race and custom are trivialities compared with the\nfundamental conditions of life and the unalterable principles of\ncharacter. Our predecessors may have made too light of the differences,\nbut that is a small fault compared with the modern tendency to ignore\nthe resemblances: not to ask \u201cWhat do these men and these events say to\nus concerning the eternal things we share with them?\u201d is to miss the one\nthing needful.\n\nTo illustrate the argument, recollect that skeleton of dates, _William\nthe Conqueror_ 1066 ... which not so long ago did duty in our schools\nfor the record of the glory of England. What could have been more\nineffective for revealing the soul of history? Now-a-days, the tale is\nbetter told but, even so, be the events narrated never so graphically,\nunless they are conceived in relation to ourselves we are little\nbenefited. To use the famous simile of the prophet, bone may come to its\nbone, and sinews be upon them, and flesh come up and skin cover them\nabove, until the very semblance of men rises before our eyes; but there\nwill be no breath in them. Only when it is realised how out of the\nliving past has grown the living present, only then enters the breath of\nGod into the men of old and they live and stand up upon their feet, an\nexceeding great army--to our aid in the shaping of what is to be.\nHistory is profitable in so far as its significance for the present is\nunderstood.[100] Thus, with fine insight, the Jews perceived that even\ntheir majestic Law would be of no avail if it were heard only as the\nrecital of words delivered long ago at Sinai, and accordingly the\nexhortation ascribed to Moses in the _Book of Deuteronomy_ comes to its\nclimax in this deep saying: _The commandment is not too hard for thee,\nneither is it far off. It is not in heaven, that thou shouldest say \u201cWho\nshall go up for us to heaven, and bring it down unto us, and make us\nhear it, that we may do it?\u201d... But the Word is very nigh thee, in thy\nmouth and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it._[101]\n\nAnd so also in like manner this account of the history behind the Jewish\nproverbs has not been told in order to evoke for a brief moment\nnerveless phantoms of the Wise in ancient Israel, but with the hope that\na voice would be heard saying even of this Word \u201cIt is very nigh thee,\nin thy mouth, and in thy heart, that thou mayest do it.\u201d What is the\nsignificance _for us_ of these men and their experiences?\n\nConsider some of the features of this Movement, if so precise a term may\nfor convenience be applied to the easy, natural, teaching of Wisdom. In\nthe first place observe the thorough and effective contact established\nby the teachers of Wisdom with the people they sought to reach. One of\nthe main problems confronting Christianity is the severance of the\npotential influence of its Churches from the life of the people; verily\nMahomet sits waiting for the mountain. What then? Ought the Churches to\nbe abandoned, and men go a-worshipping in the market-place?\n\u201cImpractical--at the best it would soon lose its effect--the experiment\nhas been made, with sadly limited results\u201d: a thousand valid objections!\nBut the problem must not be dismissed so lightly with a bare\nconsideration of its obvious difficulties, for the issues at stake are\ntoo serious; the bulk of the population live perilously free from the\nstimulus of any Ideal, whether self-sought or impressed from without by\nthe teaching of others. Seeing then that the Wise succeeded where we\nhave missed the mark, their ways must at least deserve a scrutiny; here\nis a method by which the poor were preached to, and religion stood daily\nin the streets and morals in the market-place; here is idealism put in\nlanguage the unlearned could both comprehend and recollect. Indeed the\nproverb was wonderfully suited to their needs, for even its riddles were\neasily solved, not darkening counsel but devised only to awaken\ncuriosity and so assist the slow and simple mind. Of course a slavish\nimitation of the Wise-men\u2019s procedure is out of the question in modern\ncircumstances, but slavish imitation is not suggested. Said Sir Joshua\nReynolds when urging the students of the Royal Academy to the study of\nthe Old Masters, \u201cThe more extensive your acquaintance is with the works\nof those who have excelled, the more extensive will be your powers of\n_invention_.\u201d There is a force of idealism latent in almost all men, but\nit requires to be brought to the surface, examined, criticised and\njudiciously directed to the attainment of practical objects; otherwise\nthe greater part of its potential energy will never be brought into\naction; and in this easy-going land of ours there is more than normal\nscope for increased discipline of the mind. We can afford to think much\nharder than we have ever yet done without losing the virtue of humorous,\ntolerant good-nature. As Mr. Clutton Brock has said recently, \u201cThe fact\nthat some thinking is bad is not a reason why we should not think at\nall. The Germans have been encouraged by their bad thinking to exercise\ncertain virtues perversely and to bad ends, but still to exercise them\nin a manner which has astonished the world; while we have been little\nencouraged by thinking, good or bad, to exercise any virtues.\u201d[102]\nThere is ample room for more _outspoken_ interest in the ends and\nprinciples of human life, more earnest and stringent consideration of\nthe problems of social organisation--provided our discussions be\nundertaken, not in the spirit of silly contention, mere bolstering up of\nunconsidered prejudice, but in a sincerity that will be both more\ncritical and yet more humbly eager, for truth\u2019s sake, to learn one from\nanother. For it is not division of opinion, or even real conflict of\ninterest that prevents and retards reform, so much as the dead weight of\nignorance, of indifference and of paltry pride in argument--the very\nsins which in the past were the prime cause of the evils that call for\nremedy.\n\nNo less than the ancient Hebrews we moderns stand in need of the\nexhortation to let Wisdom _enter into our hearts and knowledge be\npleasant unto our souls_ (cp. Pr. 2^{10}). Neither with all our heart,\nnor even with all our mind, far less with all our soul, have we yet\nsought her whose _ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are\npeace_ (Pr. 3^{17}); nor have we understood sufficiently that _she is a\ntree of life to all that lay hold on her, and happy is every one that\nretaineth her_ (Pr. 3^{18}). Says a later Jewish proverb, _Lackest thou\nWisdom, what hast thou acquired? Hast acquired Wisdom, what lackest\nthou?_ (C. 93.)\n\nSecondly, the constant intimate contact that the Wise maintained with\nthe actualities of men\u2019s ordinary experience was beneficial not only to\nthe taught but to the teachers. It kept the Wise in touch with\nwork-a-day problems (the most difficult of tasks for the idealistic\nthinker), and so helped to make their toil productive. It taught them\nhow to bring Heavenly Wisdom down from the right hand of God that she\nmight dwell with men, and make their homes pure and loving, and their\nbusiness just, and their pleasures clean. And herein is a thought of no\nlittle encouragement for preachers and teachers in these days of not\novercrowded Churches. Somehow it seems that personal contact is\ninvaluable in the moral and spiritual education of man. That is why the\nleading article, with its scores of thousands of readers, may sometimes\nhave less effect than a good sermon heard by a few hundred. The Press\naddresses us from an Olympian but distant Fleet Street, thundering at\nus--but in cold print; whereas the parson and the teacher, if he is a\ntrue man, somewhere and to some few is a neighbour and a friend. However\nexcellent the Manual of Ethics, it will not serve to influence the lives\nof many. The Son of Man, it seems, must come eating and drinking and\nteaching in our streets.\n\nIn the next place, this Movement is an interesting and important example\nof independent as opposed to systematic instruction, illustrating both\nthe weaknesses as well as the strength of pronounced individualism, and\nsupporting the opinion that, if only one safeguard be present, the\nadvantages of individualism outweigh its dangers. Teachers less\nrestricted than the Wise it is difficult to imagine. Each was free to\ndevelop his own opinions on the nature of life and the principles of\nsuccess and failure, even to the point of open agnosticism. What\nprevents such licence from becoming chaos? The reply indicated by the\nWisdom Movement is that freedom, even extreme freedom, of judgment in\nmatters of conduct and faith will not result in chaos provided there is\nan underlying unity of aim. All the Wise were lovers of Wisdom. They\nconceived their theme in different fashions, but they had all the same\nintention--to teach and to practise Wisdom and not Folly; hence, despite\nthe diversity in their proverbs, the shifting standpoints, the variety\nof ethical standards, even the contradictions of advice, their teaching\nwas ultimately effective. If we had had space to consider their work in\nrelation to other movements in the intellectual life of that period,\nboth in Palestine and also in the wider world, it would have been easy\nto show that the immaturities in the Wise-men\u2019s thoughts, the\nuncertainties of their faith and ethic (the very points on which the\ncynical would pounce as evidence of failure) on a wider and wiser survey\nof the facts were in reality co-operating influences, clearing the way\nfor a deeper, fuller, faith. Truth is eternal, but men\u2019s apprehension of\nit is progressive; and it should be insisted that, given the presence of\none fundamental purpose so that an ultimate unity of spirit must\nnecessarily exist, divergence of opinion, even on matters of high\nimportance, does not indicate weakness or indecision or decay, but\nrather is a sign of vitality and hope. The reason for this is obvious.\nFinal statements can be made only with regard to the conceptions of the\nabstract sciences, such as mathematics, or to the judgments we can\nsometimes pass on lost causes; and on the other hand power to perceive\nthe imperfection of present attainment has ever been, and still is, the\nprime condition of human progress: \u201cGod,\u201d said John Robinson, minister\nof the Pilgrim Fathers, \u201chas yet more truth to break forth out of His\nWord.\u201d\n\nThe bearing on modern Christianity is not far to seek. A doctor recently\nremarked to the present writer that one had only to enter the several\nChurches of a certain town to discover that Christians were now in\nhopeless confusion, ignorant as to what they did or did not believe, and\nthat if the professed followers of the faith could not state their\ndoctrine coherently, others might well be excused from attempting the\ntask of ascertaining what Christianity now meant. The argument is not\nunusual, but it is profoundly mistaken. It might have been retorted that\ndivergencies of medical opinion (and many patients will bear witness\nthat they are neither slight nor few) are no indication whatever of the\nessential unsoundness of the science of medicine, but rather the\nguarantee of its advance into more accurate knowledge. Moreover had the\ncritic been in actual touch with the feeling and activities of the\nChurches in question, he would have recognised that the points of\ndisagreement, though important, were not upon the vital question of\nfaith in God and general attitude towards life; so that whilst he\npersonally might still have been unable to accept Christian belief, he\ncould not possibly have formulated such an indictment as appears above.\nThe real peril of Christian theology has not been vagueness, but the\nHellenic tendency to essay the definition of all things to the last\n_iota_. But from the perils inherent in that attitude Christianity has\nbeen delivered by the passionate instinct of mankind for truth, and by\nthe reforming energy of great individuals; and will be delivered, so\nlong as the Church has faith in the guiding Spirit of God.\n\nThere is value in the Wise-men\u2019s witness to the intimate relation\nbetween faith and morality. The religion of Israel in its higher\ndevelopment is magnificent in its clear recognition that the claim of\nGod upon man is absolute, complete and not partial--if there be one God,\nCreator of heaven and earth, then certainly He besets us behind and\nbefore and lays His hand upon us--and that the love of God and the love\nof our fellow-men must be indissolubly related, faith being the\ninspiration of morality, and moral action the necessary outcome of\nfaith. With these sublime beliefs, proclaimed by Prophets and Psalmists,\nthe Wise were in accord: they also in their more homely fashion\nrecognised the universality of the Divine claim, and its operation in\nthe realm of moral duty. Perhaps those thoughts may seem to some readers\nonly elementary and obvious ideas on spiritual things. But they ought to\nbe regarded not as elementary (and therefore of small account) but as\nfundamental and vital conceptions. Every student of comparative religion\nwould testify how great and terrible a gulf in human life was crossed\nwhen first a Hebrew Prophet conceived the thought that God desireth\nmercy and not sacrifice, not ceremonial worship but _philanthropy_ (in\nthe true sense of the word), and how glorious a hope for the future of\nreligion then dawned upon our race. Moreover the fact remains that, even\nif to many these thoughts of God and the nature of His service may be no\nnovelty, even if they have grasped the idea in its full significance and\nare conscious of its exact bearing on manifold contemporary affairs,\nthere is still room for its reaffirmation. Said a soldier in France,\nafter a discussion about Christianity to which he had listened intently\nand with some surprise, \u201cBut, as I understand it, religion is all talk\nabout heaven. What\u2019s it got to do with morality?\u201d Religion _has_ got to\ndo with morality, and morality, like the demand for truth and the\ninstinct for the beautiful, penetrates life through and through to its\nleast details. Christianity is not a bargain with the Deity entailing\nmagical immunity from hardship in this life and special privileges in\nthe next. It is such an attitude of the essential personality as should\nwholly determine our activities in each and every aspect life can\npresent to us, both now and hereafter. The scope of religion is as wide\nas our interests; and what could serve more happily to remind us of that\nfact than these Jewish proverbs which, beginning with the fear of God,\nrange from kings to labourers, from merry men to broken hearts, from\ndreams of perfect justice to cynical observations on the uses and\nadvantages of bribes? Wisdom is indeed ubiquitous: _Divers weights and\nfalse balances are an abomination unto the Lord_, say the Wise in the\nbusy mart; and then in the hour of leisure and of plenty _It is not good\nto eat much honey_--and all this in the name of transcendent Wisdom,\n_whose fruit is better than gold, yea, than fine gold_; Wisdom that was\n_set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or ever the earth was_.\n\nIncidentally we have also to note how thoroughly these proverbs, by\nreason of the range of interest of which we have just been speaking, and\nby the sensible attitude they endeavour to preserve, illustrate the\nHumanism of the Bible; for surely the most ungenerous of critics would\nnot accuse them of being unpractical or absorbed in supra-mundane\nmatters. The point has already been emphasised, and therefore we will\nnot dwell upon it again, except to remark its importance as one instance\nof a general principle: that Idealism to be effective must needs grow\nout of the soil of commonsense. There is a degree beyond which existing\nfacts must not be disregarded. For example, men have not mastered the\nart of flight by ignoring gravitation, but by having studied its laws\nand conquered the difficulties they present. In the admirable words of a\nfriend of the writer, \u201cChristian opinion is peculiarly liable to the\ndanger of running counter to the average common sense in the midst of\nwhich it finds itself; that is a natural alternative to simply falling\ninto line with current common sense views.... Thought that has its head\nin the clouds must have its feet planted firmly in sound common sense,\nif its heart is to be in the right place.... No one can think of Jesus\nas the devotee of a faddist cult. He entered whole-heartedly into the\ncommon joys and sorrows and into the common interests of the people:\ntheir wedding-feasts and their mourning for dead friends and their\nlonging for freedom from the Roman yoke.... _He entered by the open door\nof common sense, and led out the spirit of man into a larger life than\nit had ever conceived._\u201d[103] Omitting the superlative \u201cever,\u201d these\nwords in italics are wonderfully apposite in reference to the genius of\nthe Wisdom Movement in Israel.\n\nThere is value for us in the confidence which the Wise-men showed in\ntheir attitude towards life. They, like ourselves, lived in an age when\nall things were being put to trial, and doubt and perplexity were rife.\nThey were aware that even their instinctive fundamental ideas were under\nchallenge, aware that the path they followed was unfinished; and yet, as\nthe general tone of the proverbs indicates, they lived with firmness and\ndecision, and therefore achieved much. They were wise indeed in that\nthey perceived the issue between good and evil to be clear enough for a\nman to choose which of the twain he will pursue. Having chosen, these\nmen did not content themselves with expressing a timorous hope that the\nmoralistic view of life might ultimately be proved correct; they did\nbattle for righteousness, valiantly and practically. So with ourselves.\nStringent and systematic application of the test of reason is a most\nnecessary attitude to preserve, but it is not a whit less necessary,\ndespite our uncertainty regarding ultimate problems of existence, early\nin life to form a definite idea whither we wish to direct our steps. To\ndo so is the only highway to an effective life. Nor is it unreasonable\nto demand from men that much resolution, for Good and Evil do present\nthemselves quite distinctly as alternative routes. Of course, all the\ncoward in us and all the sluggard prompts a protest for delay: we see a\nhundred reasons for postponing judgment, or for arranging a compromise\nbetween the claimants; \u201cour philosophy is unsettled; we have neither\nproved God to our complete satisfaction, nor has He clearly justified\nHis ways to us: so that surely it is not reasonable to insist that we\nmake choice (and therefore, we take it, the subsidiary matter of our\nunwillingness need not arise)--let us drift a little longer through\nthese puzzling mists.\u201d Nothing but a bold decision for Wisdom or for\nFolly ever clears those mists away. To shirk the challenge (as some do\nall their lives) is easy and at first may seem the natural course to\nadopt, but it entails a heavy penalty. It deprives us of any firm\ncriterion of judgment, and we must needs go fumbling with the golden\nopportunities which come but return not. Take then the Wise for an\nexample. Uncertainty they felt, but uncertainty did not paralyse their\npower, because they met perplexities in the open field of action. From\nus, as from them, many secrets of creation are concealed; but some\nthings are certainly evil and some are pure and good. A blessing and a\ncurse are set before us, and the difference between them is in no way\nobscure. We ought to choose the blessing; and then, in faith that the\nGood is really and ultimately the True, act vigorously in support of our\nbelief. Wisdom we know and Folly we know; Christ we have seen and the\nfruits of wickedness: in the name of sanity how much clearer need the\nissue be?\n\nPassing from the methods and manner of the Movement, it is encouraging\nto turn for a moment to the thought of its success. When we measure the\nmight of the forces making against Wisdom, the numbers and influence of\nthose bent on pleasure or on riches with scant regard, or none at all,\nfor nobler possibilities in life, it is wonderful that the ideals of the\nWise should have become known to vast numbers of men in alien lands, and\nthat, enshrined in the Bible, their influence should still remain\nunexhausted. Had the memory of them continued in honour only for a\ncentury or two and been restricted to the limits of the Jewish\ncommunities, even that would have been a result exceeding what had once\nseemed probable. For Hellenism was a monstrous flood apparently\ncapable of sweeping away far larger obstacles than all Judaism\ncombined--priests, prophets, and Wise-men--could raise against its\nonset. But Wisdom and Law and Prophets survived the deluge, quite\nunharmed and indeed strengthened by the trial they had undergone. Why\nwas it so? How comes it to pass that the Wise after all do not toil in\nvain; that the Crucified conquers; that St. Paul, who in his lifetime\ncan establish no more than a few struggling Churches, eventually\ncommands the intellect of Greece and subdues the power of Rome? Surely\nbecause, in the words of yet another great passage in the Hebrew\nScriptures, Elisha\u2019s vision in beleaguered Dothan was no mirage in the\neyes of a famine-haunted man, but truth of truth, and the mountains of\nReality which compass the City of Human Faith are full of the chariots\nof the Lord of Hosts. Christianity is not dying, nor is the Church\ndoomed, nor is the work of idealists in this generation of no avail.\nRather he is blind that imagines so, blind to the armies that in the\nsoul of Man do battle for the one eternal God.\n\nSuch are some of the reflections prompted by the history of the Wisdom\nMovement. We come now to what those unacquainted with the events we have\nbeen describing may have imagined to be the only, as it is the most\nobvious and perhaps the most important, gift the Jewish Sages have left\nfor our inheriting--the proverbs themselves, considered apart from their\norigin or use in relation to any particular historical events. Not all\nthe sayings are of value in themselves, for some are trivial and some\nare obsolete, some have been said better, and a few were better left\nunsaid. But there remain many having permanent interest, and many that\nspeak deep and undying truth, truth which we, no less than our fathers,\nhave need to learn, and which those who come after us will have to learn\nor suffer loss. Had we chosen to use such proverbs as texts whereon to\nbuild discussion, illustration or enforcement of their thoughts and\ncounsels, they are enough to fill not one but many volumes of this size.\nFor stirring subjects would open up on every side. How shrewd, for\nexample, are these Jewish maxims in their insistence that principle\nshould precede practice, that success in life is won not by experiment\nunguided by fixed purpose but by the early adoption of certain great\nprinciples which our experiences will continually test and interpret,\nclarify and confirm! How sensible in their demand for the use of\nunsparing criticism--both the discipline of self-imposed criticism, and\nthe humility that will receive, and, if necessary, assent to the reproof\nof others! How true the instinct which taught them to feel that real\nWisdom is not merely an intellectual affair; so that they bid men seek\nnot learning but rather the power to use it for right purposes, not\nknowledge of fact so much as the understanding mind. It is of profound\nimportance in life this distinction between intelligence and knowledge.\nAs the late Lord Cromer remarked to one of his friends soon after the\noutbreak of the European war, \u201cI believe that Germany will live in\nhistory as the supreme example of the failure to distinguish Wisdom from\nLearning.\u201d It is Wisdom that the Jewish Sages preached. And how wise\nthey were in the emphasis they lay on the necessity of application in\nthe difficult task of awakening and cultivating the dormant powers of\nthe mind.[104] Above all, how more than wise, how humane, are they in\ndepicting Wisdom in lovely colours, not as cold and repellent, but as\nwarm and welcoming, an infinitely desirable, compassionate Friend of\nHumanity! How much we have still to learn from them in that respect, we\nwho are not yet wholly delivered from an age that of set purpose hid the\nfascinating light of knowledge under a bushel of dull and unimaginative\ndiscipline, making education seem a thing to be endured;--till we grew\nup--and depicting Morality as an All-seeing Eye, unblinkingly on the\nwatch for our misdemeanours, a sort of inescapable Super-Spy! And again,\ntreating the proverbs from this general point of view, what\ninexhaustible variety of themes would be at our disposal--education,\ncommerce, responsibility, virtue and vice, hardships, luxury, marriage\nand friendship, idleness and diligence; in fact we might talk \u201cof shoes\nand ships and sealing-wax, of cabbages and kings\u201d; an _embarras de\nrichesses_.\n\nThe remaining pages of this volume will be given to a review of certain\nof the Jewish proverbs, grouped under several topics. The principle on\nwhich these topics and the proverbs used in their illustration have been\nselected is chiefly the avoidance of repetition, so far as has proved\nreasonably convenient. Obviously, many most suitable subjects, such as\nthe personal virtues, and many sayings that might fittingly be quoted in\nexposition of the themes actually chosen for the following pages, have\nalready been utilised in our account of the Wisdom Movement. These then,\nwith a few exceptions, will not be reproduced again, partly because\nthere is little need to draw upon them, the stock of Jewish proverbs\nbeing far from exhausted, but mainly because it is to be hoped that\ntheir wit and wisdom for ourselves and for all men did not pass\nunnoticed and unconsidered in the historical setting. The sins of\nomission of which the following pages are guilty are patent even to the\nauthor. If they rouse the reader into making a better selection for\nhimself, good and again good.\n\nTo preserve a thread of connection with what precedes, we may commence\nby reviewing first _Nature_ and then _Humour_ in the Jewish sayings,\nboth of which subjects have not only a certain general interest, but\nwill help further to show how the proverbs can contribute to our\nrealisation of the Humanism of the Bible.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII\n\nNature in the Proverbs\n\n\nIn comparison with the Greeks and those peoples who have inherited\nsomething of the Grecian genius for form and colour in the world, it may\nfairly be said that the Hebrews were inartistic. When, however, they are\ncharged with being \u201cunresponsive to Nature,\u201d or \u201clacking the artistic\nsense,\u201d it is time to protest. For the Hebrews were not unobservant of\nNature or unsympathetic, and the writers of the Old Testament make many\nallusions to the scenes and processes of the visible world, and they\nrecognise its beauties and its marvels. The artist\u2019s proper quarrel with\nthe Hebrews is that very seldom did they see Nature in and for itself,\nbut almost always through the medium of its relationship to the mental\nor physical interests of Man--how far does Nature threaten or encourage\nhis faith and aspirations? What does it teach him? The Psalmist does not\ntell you \u201cwhat a glorious night it is\u201d or that \u201cthe sunset is\nmagnificent\u201d; he says that _the heavens declare the glory of God, and\nthe firmament sheweth His handiwork_. We are bidden to lift our eyes to\nthe hills, not to perceive the lights and shadows on their slopes, but\nbecause thence we may look to see the advent of our hope. Let us set two\nfamous passages in contrast, the first from Greek literature, the second\nfrom the New Testament. In one of Pindar\u2019s jewelled Odes, the\npoet--singing the praises of Iamos, a mortal born of the god Poseidon\nand a human mother--first paints in rich and glowing words a picture of\nthe infant hero laid in a cradle among the rushes, \u201chis soft body\nbedewed with light from the yellow and purple colours of the pansies,\u201d\nand then goes on to show him, now grown to manhood and tasting the first\nfresh glory of his youth, \u201cgoing down to the midst of the Alph\u00e6us\nstream, there to invoke the regard of his divine progenitor and to\nbeseech of him the favour of a hero\u2019s task--\u03bd\u03c5\u03ba\u03c4\u1f78\u03c2, \u1f51\u03c0\u03b1\u03af\u03b8\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, _by night under the open sky_.\u201d[105] No one who has ever\nfelt the magic of a star-filled night can miss the art that makes the\npassage culminate in those two words. Now compare this from the New\nTestament, of course in reference to the literary question only:-- ...\n\u201cSo when he had dipped the sop, he taketh and giveth it to Judas, the\nson of Simon Iscariot. And after the sop, then entered Satan into him.\nJesus therefore saith to him, That thou doest, do quickly. Now no man at\nthe table knew for what intent he spake this unto him. For some thought,\nbecause Judas had the bag, that Jesus said unto him, Buy what things we\nhave need of for the feast, or that he should give something to the\npoor. He then having received the sop went out straightway: _and it was\nnight_.\u201d[106] Here also is art, the highest art--it needed the darkness\nto cover Judas and make possible his sin--but the art is unconscious.\nThe words are given only as a detail of fact, an indication of time,\nadded without a thought of their effect on our emotions. The writer of\nthe Gospel is altogether absorbed in the agonising human interest of the\nscene.\n\nNo expectation therefore should be entertained that Nature in the Jewish\nproverbs will be presented with unusual beauty or close observation.\nNothing very wonderful is remarked of the world outside the little world\nof man, and the allusions almost always are made in relation to human\nhopes and fears and habits. But Nature has not been expelled from the\nproverbs; she crops out now and then, and, if we bear in mind this\nwarning against undue hopes, the subject seems worth a brief\nexamination. Well then, the following proverbs are assembled solely on\naccount of their references to natural phenomena. That is the one and\nonly pretext for their collocation. Some perchance may say that the\nexcuse is insufficient--but they forget that \u201ca touch of Nature makes\nthe whole world kin.\u201d\n\nSince tradition saith of Solomon that \u201che spake of trees from the cedar\nthat is in Lebanon even unto the hyssop that springeth out of the wall;\nhe spake also of beasts and of fowl and of creeping things and of\nfishes,\u201d we can see where we ought to make a start.\n\nWe begin with the _trees_. The _trees_ however will disappoint us.\nWisdom, we are baldly told, _is a tree of life to them that lay hold\nupon her_ (Pr. 3^{18}), and it is said (Pr. 27^{18}) _Whoso keepeth the\nfig tree shall eat the fruit thereof_. Even if we get so far as to spy a\nlittle fruit upon a tree, and imagine that we have it safely gathered,\nlo! and behold! it rolls out of our fingers. For the famous proverb,\n\n    _Like apples of gold in baskets of silver,\n    So is a word spoken in season_ (Pr. 25^{11}),\n\nis pretty but elusive, the truth being that the vague phrasing of the\nEnglish Version is due to nobody knowing what the Hebrew really means!\nThe best passage is this from Ben Sirach, _As the flower of roses in the\ntime of new fruits, as lilies at the waterspring, as the shoot of\nLebanon in time of summer, ... as an olive tree budding forth fruit, and\nas an oleaster with branches full of sap_ (E. 50^{8-10}).\n\nHere are the _birds_ in proverbs:\n\n    _In vain is the net spread in the eyes of any bird_ (Pr. 1^{17}).\n\n    _As a bird that wandereth from its nest\n    So is a man that wandereth from his home_ (Pr. 27^{8}).\n\n    _Birds resort unto their like,\n    And truth will return to them that practise it_ (E. 27^{9}).\n\n    _The eye that mocketh at a father,\n    And despiseth an aged mother,\n    The ravens of the brook shall pick it out,\n    And the young eagles shall eat it_ (Pr. 30^{17}).\n\nThe _beasts_ may be divided into the wild creatures untamed by man, and\nthe domestic animals. Some of the latter are to be seen wandering most\nnaturally through this picture of the wise farmer:\n\n    _Be thou diligent to know the state of thy flocks,\n    And look well to thy herds;\n    For riches endure not for ever,\n    Nor wealth to all generations.\n    When the hay is carried and the tender grass springeth,\n    When the grass of the mountains is gathered,\n    Then the lambs will supply thee with clothing\n    And the goats yield the price of a field,\n    And give milk enough for thy household,\n    Enough for the maintenance of thy maidens_ (Pr. 27^{23-27}).\n\nFor the _horse_ see Pr. 26^{3}, E. 30^{8} and 33^{6}; of the _dog_, whom\nwe shall meet again in the next chapter, there is a famous saying in\n_Eccles._ 9^{4}, _Better a living dog than a dead lion_.\n\nAmong the _wild animals_, the lion (Pr. 30^{30}) and the bear enjoy the\nmost fearsome reputation according to the proverbs--_The king\u2019s wrath is\nas the roaring of the lion_ (Pr. 19^{12})--_As a roaring lion and a\nranging bear, so is a wicked ruler over a poor people_ (Pr. 28^{15}).\nBut there are worse things than either--_Let a bear robbed of her whelps\nmeet a man rather than a fool in his folly_ (Pr. 17^{12})--_I will\nrather dwell with a lion and a dragon than keep house with a wicked\nwoman_ (E. 25^{16}). The references to _conies_, _locusts_, and\n_lizards_ in Pr. 30^{26f} may be remembered (see p. 47). _Wine_, said\nthe Wise, _goeth down smoothly, but_ (was there gout, or worse, in those\ndays?) _at the last it biteth like a serpent, and stingeth like an\nadder_ (Pr. 23^{32}), and the _serpent\u2019s_ elusive track across the rock\nis mentioned in Pr. 30^{19}. Perhaps these references to snakes should\nhave been placed at the head of a paragraph on _creeping things_.\nHowever that may be, one of the creeping things, being \u201cexceeding wise\u201d\n(Pr. 30^{24}), received an immortality in _Proverbs_:\n\n    _Go to the ant, thou sluggard,\n    Consider her ways and be wise_ ... (Pr. 6^{6}).\n\nCannot one see a Sage in some leisure hour, bending down to watch the\nbusy energetic little creature hurrying about its toil? And then--\u201cAha!\u201d\nsaid he, \u201cbehold a proper scourge for lazy bones\u201d!\n\nThe one reference to _fishes_ makes one wonder whether the days of yore,\nlike our own times, had their sea-serpent season. Says Ben Sirach,\n\n    _They that sail on the sea tell of the danger thereof,\n    And when we hear it with our ears we marvel.\n    Therein be also those strange and wondrous works,\n    Variety of all that hath life, the race of sea-monsters_ (E. 43^{24, 25}).\n\nThe proverbs may lack something as a text-book for young scientists; yet\nhere is the very essence of the fact of gravitation observed and duly\nnoted: _He that casteth a stone on high casteth it on his own head_ (E.\n27^{25}).\n\nTwo or three features in what one may call civilised Nature, are worth\nrecording here, although Man played the chief part in their appearing:--\n\nA glimpse of a battlemented town:\n\n    _A wise man scaleth the citadel of the mighty,\n    And bringeth down its strong confidence_ (Pr. 21^{22}).\n\nOf great ships on the sea:\n\n    _She is like the merchant ships,\n    She bringeth her food from afar_ (Pr. 31^{14}).\n\nOf a prosperous dwelling-place:\n\n    _Through Wisdom is an house builded\n    And by understanding it is established,\n    And by knowledge are the chambers furnished,\n    With all precious and pleasant riches_ (Pr. 24^{3, 4}).\n\nCuriously enough, no reference to sun, moon or stars occurs in\n_Proverbs_[107], but there are several allusions in _Ecclesiasticus_,\nespecially in one remarkable chapter of really poetic appreciation,\nwhich tells first of the wonder and the blazing intolerable heat of the\nsun (E. 43^{1-5}), and then celebrates the glories of moon and stars and\nrainbow--_the moon increasing wonderfully in her changing, a beacon for\nthe hosts on high, shineth forth in the firmament of heaven. The beauty\nof heaven is the glory of the stars, an array giving light in the\nhighest heights of the Lord: at the word of the Holy One they stand in\ndue order and sleep not in their watches. Look upon the rainbow and\npraise him that made it; exceeding beautiful in the brightness thereof.\nIt compasseth the heaven round about with a circle of glory; the hands\nof the Most High have constructed it_ (E. 43^{8-12}). Again in a\npanegyric on the virtues of Simon, the son of Onias, the high-priest\n\u201cgreat among his brethren, and the glory of his people,\u201d[108] Ben Sirach\nsays that, when the people gathered round him as he came forth out of\nthe sanctuary, he was glorious\n\n    _As the morning star from between the clouds;\n      As the moon at the full;\n    As the sun shining forth upon the Temple of the Most High;\n    And as the rainbow giving light in clouds of glory_ (E. 50^{6, 7}).\n\nThe elements and seasons, in one way or another, are referred to not\ninfrequently. For instance, Pr. 25^{13}, _As the coolness of snow in\ntime of harvest, so is a faithful messenger to them that send him_[109]:\na proverb we might appreciate more fully if either we had to go\nharvesting under an eastern sun or if His Majesty\u2019s postal system were\nsuddenly abolished.\n\n    _As clouds and wind without rain,\n    So is he that boasts of gifts ungiven_ (Pr. 25^{14}).\n\n--how tantalising to see the precious moisture far overhead and drifting\nhopelessly out of reach, in a land where rain was desperately needed!\n\nOne passage from the poetical chapter of _Ecclesiasticus_ mentioned\nabove has something of the Grecian charm, combining as it does grace of\nexpression with precise observation of Nature. Save in the spring-song\nof _Canticles_, in one or two _Psalms_ and in some exquisite chapters\n(_e.g._, chapters 28 and 38) of _Job_, it has few, if any, rivals in\nancient Jewish literature. Mark the skilful transition from the raging\nof the tempest to the stillness of the snows:--\n\n    _By His mighty power Jehovah maketh strong the clouds,\n    And the hailstones are broken small:\n    At His appearing the mountains shake,\n    And at His will the south wind rages,\n    And the northern storm and the whirlwind;\n    The voice of His thunder maketh the earth to travail.\n      Like birds flying down He sprinkleth the snow,\n    And as the lighting of the locust is the falling down thereof:\n    The eye will marvel at its white loveliness,\n    The heart be astonished at the raining of it.\n    So also the hoar-frost He spreads on the earth as salt,\n    And maketh the shrubs to gleam like sapphires_ (E. 43^{15-19}).[110]\n\nSome of the simplest allusions to natural phenomena are among the most\nmemorable of these \u201cNature\u201d proverbs perhaps because it happens that the\nclear and simple image from the world without is linked to some equally\nclear and simple, yet poignant, experience of human life:--\n\n    _As cold waters to a thirsty soul,\n    So is good news from a far country_ (Pr. 25^{25}).\n\n    _As in water face answereth to face,\n    So answereth the heart of man to man_ (Pr. 27^{19}).\n\n    _As the sparrow in her wandering, as the swallow in her flying,\n    So the curse that is causeless alighteth not_ (Pr. 26^{2}).\n\n    _Dreams give wings to fools_ (E. 34^{1}).\n\n    _The path of the righteous is like the light of dawn,\n    Shining more and more unto the perfect day_ (Pr. 4^{18}).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIV\n\nHumour in the Proverbs\n\n\nDiscretion counsels the suppression of this chapter. Justice insists\nthat it shall be written, for the Hebrews, on the evidence of the\nScriptures, have been accused of lacking humour; a much more serious\noffence than being inartistic. Humour, divine gift, is no merely\nornamental or superfluous quality we can easily afford to do without,\nbut is the active antagonist of many deadly sins. From inordinate\nambitions and peacock vanity humour is a strong deliverer. If only\nGermany could have laughed at herself now and then these past thirty\nyears! Of course the mere fact that the accusation has been levelled\nagainst the Hebrews is nothing serious, for the same charge has actually\nbeen made against the Scotch; but whilst the Scot is well able to take\ncare of his own reputation, few have been concerned to defend the Hebrew\non this score.\n\nThe Bible is on the whole a solemn book, but remember the nature of its\nsubjects. British humour is plentiful enough; but you will seek it in\nthe pages of _Punch_ rather than in our volumes of jurisprudence or in\nofficial histories or in impassioned orations urging the redress of\nwrongs, or in _The Book of Common Prayer_, or in the hymnaries. It is\nnot fair to expect that Hebrew humour will show itself to full advantage\nin the Scriptures. However, the least promising material has a way of\nsupplying against its will one form of humour--the unintentional; we can\nall quote some examples from the hymn-book. Of this _unconscious_\nhumour, the Bible has its share. Many no doubt will recall that\nstricken Assyrian army of whom it is na\u00efvely said in the Authorised\nVersion that \u201cwhen they arose early in the morning, behold, they were\nall dead corpses.\u201d So in the proverbs there are numerous sayings which\nto us are provocative of a laugh or a smile, or at least bring to memory\ncertain amusing incidents of life, but which probably were uttered by\ntheir authors without a thought of anything comical in the words. Thus,\nthe following, _There is one that toileth and laboureth and maketh\nhaste, and is so much the more behind_ (E. 11^{11}), may be meant as a\nsolemn inculcation of the doctrine \u201cMore haste, less speed,\u201d but _we_\nconjure up a vision of our fussy friend and see the fun in it. Again the\nremark (Pr. 26^{17}), _He that passeth by and vexeth himself with strife\nnot belonging to him is like one that taketh a dog by the ears_ (and\nthen finds he dare not let go!), is to us amusing but to its author may\nhave seemed merely a shrewd or apt comparison; and yet in this instance\nwe may suspect the Sage also had a smile for the impulsive man\u2019s\npredicament. Is the humour of this unconscious: _Houses and riches are\nan inheritance from fathers, but a prudent wife is from the Lord_ (Pr.\n19^{14})? Far be it from a prudent man to say.\n\nThe question of Hebrew humour, however, goes much deeper. Doubtless\nthere is a philosophy of laughter, and an ideal humour, possibly a\nstandard joke to which all other jokes imperfectly conform; but what the\ndefinition of this perfect humour may be who dare yet say? At present\nthe nations have each their own opinion and the divergencies are great.\nWe must ask of the Hebrew no more than Hebraic humour, and it does not\nnecessarily follow that his notion of fun will coincide with ours or\neven nearly resemble it. Was he humorous in an Eastern way?--nothing\nmore can reasonably be required.\n\nWhat then was the way of humour in the Semitic East? Fortunately life in\nPalestine has altered so little that modern observation can help us to\nan answer. \u201cThe first appearance of an Eastern\u201d, writes Dr. Kelman[111],\n\u201cis grave and solemn, with an element of contempt in it rather trying to\nthe stranger. The Eastern does not understand chaff, his wildest\noutbreak of humour reaching no further than those solemn and laboured\npuns of which he has always been so fond.... Perhaps it is due to the\never-present remembrance of danger that the Eastern--especially if he be\nan Arab--so often assumes a show of superiority and bullying swagger,\nwhich seem to the uninitiated quite impervious to any thought of fun.\n_But the mask is easily laid aside_, and the gravest and most\ncontemptuous Syrian will suddenly collapse into harsh laughter or forget\nhimself in childish interest. Their notion of entertainment differs so\nmuch from ours that Eastern \u201cfestivities\u201d may appear to us only\nwearisome or even ridiculous. On one occasion we arrived at our tents to\nfind a \u2018poet\u2019 or improvisator, waiting for us. The minstrel seated\nhimself on the ground, while we formed a wide circle round him, and the\ncamp-servants stood behind. From a cloth-bag he produced an instrument\nwhich bore close resemblance to a domestic shovel, much the worse for\nwear and perforated with little irregular holes as if it had been shot.\nHe began to play, and sang a selection which soon conquered any levity\nthat may have greeted his beginning. He had but a few tunes and they all\nended in the Minor _doh si lah_, the _lah_ being prolonged, diminuendo\nand tremolo, in a long wail that had a sob in it. While the wail was\ndying away his head was thrown forward and his face uplifted, the upper\nlip quivering rapidly and the eyes rolling from side to side. Then just\nas he seemed to have reached silence, came a quick spasmodic outburst,\nvery loud and clear, with vigorous accompaniment, which in its turn died\noff in the same long wail. All this must be imagined with a wonderful\nsunset of gold in a sky of indigo and grey, against which the figure of\nthe Arab sat in dark silhouette.\u201d A pleasure so ludicrously sad would\ncertainly seem to imply a lack of humour in those who can enjoy it;\nbut--\u201cthe minstrel whom we have described was quite open for joking when\nhe had emerged from his ecstasy.... Often at night there is singing\namong the servants of the camp and outbursts of hilarity can be\nheard.... When a fantazia (to celebrate the gift of a fatted sheep) was\nheld there was no possibility of mistake as to the mirth.\u201d Thus there is\ngood reason to mistrust appearances. And certainly it is inherently\nimprobable that the Hebrews should have been devoid of humour; for, as\nDr. Kelman goes on to insist, \u201cthe East is full of provocatives to\nmirth. Take the one instance of the camel. Much has been written about\nhim from many points of view, but justice has never been done to the\ncamel as a humorous animal. Yet he is the most humorous of all the\ninhabitants of the East. Beside him, with his sardonic pleasantry, the\nmonkey is a mountebank and the donkey but a solemn little ass. He has\nbeen described as \u2018the tall, simple, smiling camel\u2019; but on closer\nacquaintance he turns out to be hardly as simple as he might be taken\nfor, and if he smiles, he is generally smiling at you. The camels you\nmeet in Syria are carrying barley with the air of kings and regarding\ntheir human companions with, at best, a contemptuous tolerance.\u201d Dr.\nKelman in conclusion comments on, and cites examples of the camel\u2019s\nunsanctified capacity for conduct bearing a horrible resemblance to that\nabomination of human invention--the practical joke.\n\nTo sum up. Eastern humour is by no means non-existent, but being often\ndeliberately concealed or restrained in the presence of strangers and\nbeing of a different temper from our own, it may easily fail to be\nobserved by Western eyes. Generally speaking, it is apt to be of the\nmost awkward Order of the Camel\u2019s Hump, tending to other people\u2019s\ndisadvantage, fond of personalities, often coarse because primitive,\nand, it may be, cruel. This being so, it will now readily be understood\nthat the Bible held for its contemporaries much more wit than we are\nwont to perceive in it. Thus to many a Hebrew the incidents of Jacob\u2019s\nclever, and none too scrupulous, dealings narrated in _Genesis_ would\nseem not only edifying but also extremely amusing. From this point of\nview such a saying as (Pr. 17^{12}) _Let a bear robbed of her whelps\nmeet a man rather than a fool in his folly_ is a merry jest; other\nexamples from the proverbs will be given below.\n\nBut however plentiful this fierce and bitter kind of fun, the sting of\nthe original accusation is not drawn. After all, our conviction remains\ndeep-rooted that there is only one real humour--our humour; and no other\nbrand is genuine. What men miss, and complain of missing, is that fine\nimpartial sense of the ludicrous which is just as ready to see the\ndisproportionate in ourselves as in others. The humour we demand is that\nkindly, tolerant, variety which can laugh at our own folly with profit\nand enjoyment, and at our neighbour\u2019s without malice. But is even this\nbest of all humour absent from the Bible? Rare it may be; absent\naltogether it is not, and with a certain triumph we venture to claim its\npresence in not a few of the Wise-men\u2019s sayings, to which may be added\nan occasional proverb from the Rabbinic literature.\n\nBeginning, however, with examples of the dry or caustic type of wit,\ncamel-humour, let us take some of the sayings on Woman to illustrate the\npoint. Doubtless the ladies had a great deal to say in reply, but with\nthe customary meanness of man their remarks have been suppressed by the\nSages:\n\n    _As a jewel of gold in a swine\u2019s snout,\n    So is a fair woman without discretion_ (Pr. 11^{22}).\n\n    _It is better to dwell in the corner of the roof\n    Than in a wide house with a fractious woman_ (Pr. 25^{24}; cp. 21^{9}).\n\n     _A continual dropping in a very rainy day and a contentious woman\n     are alike_ (Pr. 27^{15}).\n\nOne saying there is on this topic, which comes nearer to our thought of\nhumour, its bitterness being forgotten in the quaintness of the simile\nemployed:\n\n    _As the going up a sandy way is to the feet of the aged,\n    So is a wife full of words to a quiet man_ (E. 25^{20}).\n\nSome of the characters pictured in Chapter VII. lent themselves to\nsarcasm, particularly the Sluggard, and the Fool; but, if certain of the\nproverbs about them may seem too heavy-handed, touched with the camel\nbrand of humour, others surely come near to being \u201cthe real thing.\u201d Of\nthe Sluggard the remark, _He that is slack in his work is brother of him\nthat is a destroyer_ (Pr. 18^{9}) is true, undeniably true, but a trifle\nicy in its wit. More amusing and much more genial were these sayings,\nwhich we may repeat from Chapter VII.: _The sluggard saith, \u201cThere is a\nlion in the way; a lion is in the streets\u201d_ (Pr. 26^{13})--_The sluggard\nburieth his hand in the dish, it wearieth him to bring it again to his\nmouth_ (Pr. 26^{15})--and, above all, the Sluggard\u2019s Anthem, _Yet a\nlittle sleep, a little slumber, a little folding of the hands to sleep_\n(Pr. 24^{33}). Of the Fool, some observations are almost savage, such as\nPr. 17^{12} (quoted above), and this--_Though thou bray a fool in a\nmortar ... yet will his folly not depart from him_ (Pr. 27^{22}). The\nfollowing are more subtle and on the whole more kind: _The legs of the\nlame hang loose, so doth a story in the mouth of fools_ (Pr.\n26^{7})--_The eyes of a fool are in the ends of the earth_ (Pr.\n17^{24})--_He that discourseth to a fool is as one discoursing to him\nthat slumbereth; at the end of it he will say, \u201cWhat is it?\u201d_ (E.\n22^{8}). But the Fool and Mr. Lazybones were ever an easy target: it\nneeded a prettier wit to slay the Self-Advertiser with a word, but does\nnot this saying despatch him neatly, _It is not good to eat much honey;\nso for men to search out their own glory is not glory_ (Pr. 25^{27})?\n\nHere is a pleasing pair of contrasts--to the disadvantage respectively\nof a would-be \u201csilent Solomon,\u201d and of a Chatterbox:\n\n    _There is that keepeth silence, for he hath no answer to make;\n    And there is that keepeth silence as knowing his time_ (E. 20^{6}).\n    _There is that keepeth silence and is found wise;\n    And there is that is hated for his much talk_ (E. 20^{5}).\n\nIn conclusion we give some proverbs that seem to the present writer\nstill more clearly to come within the category of modern humour, whether\nby reason of their sly shrewdness or some droll comparison, or even a\nfrank intention to rouse our sense of fun:\n\n     _He that pleadeth his cause first seemeth just, but his neighbour\n     cometh and searcheth him out_ (Pr. 18^{17}).\n\n     _Better is he that is lightly esteemed and hath a servant, than he\n     that makes a fine show and lacketh bread_ (Pr. 12^{9}).\n\n     _There is that buyeth much for a little and payeth for it again\n     sevenfold_ (E. 20^{12}).\n\n     _In the city my Name, out of the city my Dress_ (C. 265).\n\n     _Sixty runners may run, but they will not overtake the man who has\n     breakfasted early_ (C. 86);\n\n_Thy friend hath a friend, and thy friend\u2019s friend hath a friend_ (C.\n258)--a canny hint on Gossip.\n\n     _Confidence in an unfaithful man in time of trouble is like a\n     broken tooth or a foot out of joint_ (Pr. 25^{19}).\n\n    _If one person tell thee thou hast ass\u2019s ears, take no notice;\n    Should two tell thee so, procure a saddle for thyself_ (C. 191).\n\n_If our predecessors were angels, we are human; if they were human, we\nare asses_ (C. 141)!\n\nAs for this last observation, it may have been well enough once upon a\ntime, but of course one would not dream of asserting it now-a-days--as\nregards the present generation it would be, yes, altogether\ninappropriate. Well, let us not dispute the matter. Ancient and modern,\nEast and West, we can all unite to enjoy the honest fun and good counsel\nof Ben Sirach\u2019s advice (E. 19^{10}) to that distracted individual the\nman with a secret:\n\n_Hast thou heard a word? Let it die with thee. Be of good courage, it\nwill not burst thee!_\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XV\n\nFrom Wisdom\u2019s Treasury\n\n\n    _WISDOM EXALTETH HER SONS, AND TAKETH HOLD ON THEM THAT LOVE HER:\n    HE THAT LOVETH HER LOVETH LIFE.\n    AND THEY THAT SEEK HER EARLY SHALL BE FILLED WITH GLADNESS:\n    HE THAT HOLDETH HER FAST SHALL INHERIT GLORY_ (E. 4^{11, 12}).\n\nBut Wisdom will brook nothing less than the full purport of those\nwords--a diligent search, a genuine love, and an unrelaxing grasp--in\nexchange for her high rewards. And though it is better to find her late\nthan not at all, as a rule it is true that only the life she has entered\nearly is likely to know great happiness. Yet Wisdom makes no mystery of\nher treasures, nor hides them willingly.\n\nHere are some of her most precious truths.\n\nHow simply told! How hard to make our very own!\n\n    _As iron sharpeneth iron,\n    So man sharpeneth man._[112]\n\n    _Faithful are the wounds of a friend._[113]\n\nWho is ignorant of it? As Bacon says in his essay on Friendship, \u201cThere\nis no such flatterer as is a man\u2019s self; and there is no such remedy\nagainst flattery as the liberty of a friend.\u201d And yet how rarely, in\nactual experience, have men the grace to appreciate, or tolerate, even\nthe kindliest of their critics.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    _A soft answer turneth away wrath._[114]\n\nHave you tested the matter yet?\n\n     _He whose spirit is without restraint is like a city that is broken\n     down and hath no wall._[115]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    _Seest thou a man wise in his own conceit?\n    There is more hope of a fool than of him._[116]\n\n    _Pride goeth before destruction,\n    And a haughty spirit before a fall._[117]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    _The wicked flee when no man pursueth._[118]\n\n    _If a righteous man fall seven times, he riseth up again;\n    But the wicked are overthrown by calamity._[119]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    _He that despiseth small things shall fall by little and little._[120]\n\n    _Be not wise in thine own eyes;\n    Fear the Lord and depart from evil._[121]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    _Hope deferred maketh the heart sick;\n    But a wish fulfilled is a tree of life._[122]\n\n    _Woe unto fearful hearts and to faint hands,\n    And to the sinner that goeth two ways!\n    Woe to the faint heart, for it believeth not;\n    Therefore shall it not be defended.\n    Woe unto you that have lost your patience!\n    What will ye do when the Lord shall visit you?_[123]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    _There is no wisdom nor understanding,\n    Nor counsel against the Lord:\n    The horse is prepared for the day of battle,\n    But the victory is of the Lord._[124]\n\n    _Truth stands:\n    Falsehood does not stand._[125]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThis is a very long chapter;\n\nThink on these things.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVI\n\nThe Body Politic\n\n\nThe art of hurling texts dies out of fashion, is almost dead, perhaps\nbecause it yielded the delight of victory so seldom, but for deeper\nreasons also. It was ever a game at which two could play; the Scriptures\nproving so rich a quarry that your skilled antagonist would quote you\ntext for text. Both Socialist and Individualist have found therein\nammunition in plenty for their long quarrel, by reason of the\ndisconcerting manner in which the Bible preaches both doctrines and\ngives its sanction to neither. Thus it never so much as questions the\npropriety of individual ownership, yet on the other hand continually and\nwith awe-inspiring vehemence it is found denouncing the wickedness of\nindividual owners and the wrongs arising from their sins and\nnegligences. So for the unreflecting text-hunter confusion was apt to\ngrow worse confounded. The existence of this _impasse_, which in reality\npointed only to an error in method, has helped to create the notion,\ncharacteristic of the present time, that the Bible having failed to\nsettle the difficulty, we ought to consider our problems entirely\nwithout its aid. So completely are we now supposed to be the sole\narbiters of our conduct that, even if the Bible had been found to enjoin\n(or forbid) explicitly and beyond all possibility of doubt certain\nsocialistic measures, it would in no way follow that what may have been\nright in Jerusalem long ago is right now, or what was wrong then wrong\nnow. Up to a point this attitude is sound: not to consider our duties\nfor ourselves, as if our ancestors or any external authority could\nrightly determine them for us without our active consent, is to fall\ninto a sin that, however innocently committed, sooner or later benumbs\nthe conscience and, if historical experience has any lesson whatsoever\nto teach, paralyses social progress.\n\nBut the legitimate distrust which the modernist feels for mere\ntext-hunting can be, and often is, pushed too far. To construe it as a\nmandate contemptuously to ignore the thinking and ideals of the past is\nto be guilty of as foolish a blunder as ever was involved in the old\nmethod of determining an issue by proof-texts; for the relation between\neven the Old Testament and the social affairs of any modern community is\nfar too valuable to be disregarded with impunity; and on these three\ngrounds at least. _First_, the experiences of the Israelitish people\nconstitute incomparably the most amazing national career the world has\nwitnessed; and the story of their fortunes testifies for all time that\none nation, situated in no secluded and sheltered corner of the globe,\nbut occupying a little land encircled by vast and jealous Empires and\ncovered time and again by the surge of successive civilisations,\nprolonged its life and in all essential respects maintained its\nidentity, not by bread alone, but by words that proceeded out of the\nmouth of God. For, undeniably, Israel has preserved its continuity not\nmerely through the stormy fourteen hundred years of which the Biblical\nrecords tell, but subsequently throughout the Christian era, in virtue\nof distinctive moral and religious qualities; and whatever view a man\nmay hold regarding the truth of religion and the validity of morals, no\nserious student of human affairs can afford to overlook their practical\neffect in the history of the Jews. _Secondly_, in the course of that\nhistory (limiting our attention to the Old Testament literature) there\nappeared certain great personalities, in particular the true prophets,\nwhose insight into the problems of society, whose enthusiasm for the\nwelfare of men, and whose burning invective against all forms of\ninjustice and oppression, ought to be familiar to every man who feels\nwithin him the sense of social obligation. The example of the Prophets\nof Israel and also, though less brilliantly, of her Psalmists, her\nLaw-makers and her Wise-men, is a magnificent incentive to duty,\nquickening the conscience, stimulating one\u2019s resolution under\ndifficulties, and encouraging to good hope. _In the third place_, the\nrecord of these men\u2019s thoughts frequently deserves our _intellectual_\nconsideration. Modern industrialism has created unsolved problems of\norganisation and production, upon which it would be idle to contend that\nthe conditions of life in the Jud\u00e6an highlands offer valuable comment;\nbut since modern commerce, for all its marvellous development of wealth\nand resources, has signally failed to remove the vast inequalities\nbetween man and man, indeed has only accentuated them and made the\ncontrast still more bitter for the unskilled, the weakly, and the\nunfortunate, it follows that from the standpoint of human happiness the\nsocial problem is in its essence unchanged: the poor, in fact, are still\nwith us, with their great virtues and also their shortcomings, their\npathetic lack of opportunity, and often their failure to profit when\nthey might, and above all, with their capacity for joy and sorrow and\naspiration, which things they share with the richest in the land. No\nwonder that he who reads the Old Testament with intelligence and\nsympathy will constantly feel its words on the social needs of men not\nmerely pricking his conscience but holding and challenging the\nintellect--how wealth is made, how rightly used, how kept, how lost;\nwhat it feels like to be poor; of the duties of him that hath to him\nthat hath not; by what things a city is preserved, and of the power we\neach possess to make or unmake one another\u2019s joy in life.\n\nOn these and kindred subjects the Jewish proverbs have a vast deal to\nsay that is worthy of attention, but an outline of their comments and\npleadings has been given in the description of the Wise-men\u2019s ideals\n(Chap. VIII.). It may be hoped that the foregoing remarks will help to\nmake more clear the bearing on present social duty of the teaching there\nrelated in reference to a distant past. Here then follow only a few\nconsiderations which will suggest how the subject might be developed,\nand will at the same time give opportunity for the quotation of some\nfine proverbs not mentioned in Chapter VIII.\n\nI. In dealing with the perplexities of organised society, we moderns\npossess the advantage of high and increasing skill in the use of\nclassification, so that we are able to envisage our problems in abstract\nterms, analysing the population into reasonably exact groups, and\nconsidering the inter-relations of \u201cclasses\u201d and the reconciliation of\nclass interests one with another. This attempt, crude though it still\nmay be, to employ scientific method in the treatment of humanity is all\nto the good; but if one thing more is forgotten, our best-laid schemes\nsomehow refuse to work or are apt to work amiss. For--\u201cthe \u2018masses\u2019 and\n\u2018the poor\u2019 whom it is \u2018our\u2019 duty to keep are neither sycophants nor\ntoadies nor sponges nor are all of them at the last gasp. They resent\nthe control of their destinies by classes or persons who profess to know\nwhat is good for them. They will never become the passive instruments of\nanybody\u2019s social theory. They will trust themselves only to those who\nlove them. Individualists and socialists take note! Experts and\ndoctrinaires, be warned in time!\u201d[126] Now the Jewish proverbs, not of\nset purpose but by sound instinct, subtly and insistently remind us how\npersonal all social questions ultimately prove to be. They think and\nspeak with the individual in the foreground of the mind. They prefer\nthe concrete to the abstract, with how great advantage! Contrast the\neffect of these two passages; the occasional, abstract type, _Water will\nquench a flaming fire, and almsgiving will make atonement for sin_ (E.\n3^{30}), with the much more frequent personal presentation: _Incline\nthine ear to a poor man and answer him with peaceable words gently.\nDeliver him that is wronged from the hand of him that wronged him_ (E.\n4^{8, 9}). We discuss \u201cCapital and Labour\u201d; but the Jewish proverb says\n(Pr. 22^{2}; cp. 29^{13})\n\n    _The rich and the poor dwell together,\n    The Lord God made them both_;\n\nand how deep the proverb goes, how swiftly it strikes home and excites\nthe imagination. _Rich and poor together_, yes, in a sense--united\nwithin one city\u2019s bounds; and yet how far apart they dwell from one\nanother. How tragically far apart! But are they so greatly sundered as\nat first thought one imagines? In the things that matter\nultimately--their manhood, womanhood; their tears and laughter; their\nloves; their sinning and repenting; their strength and health; their\ndeath and immortality? Perhaps there is just one meeting-place where\nrich and poor unite and stand absolutely equal; but it is there where\nearth and heaven fade away--the great white throne of God.\n\nMark how the sense of the individual man, with whom eventually all our\nplans to remedy the mischiefs in the body politic must come to terms,\npermeates the following proverbs:--\n\n    _A good man leaveth an inheritance to his children\u2019s children;\n    But the wealth of the sinner is laid up for the righteous_ (Pr. 13^{22}).\n\n(No pious platitude this, but a keen-sighted observation of fact. It is\nseldom indeed that wealth is handed down through many generations,\nexcept in a morally \u201cgood\u201d family; and on the other hand the sinner\u2019s\nundisciplined children can usually be depended on to make ducks and\ndrakes of their inheritance).\n\n    _Whoso stoppeth his ears at the cry of the poor,\n    He also shall cry, and shall not be heard_ (Pr. 21^{13}).\n\n    _There is that scattereth and increaseth yet more;\n    And there is that withholdeth that which is meet,\n         and it tendeth only to want_ (Pr. 11^{24}).\n\n     _Hast given the poor to eat and drink, accompany them on their way_\n     (C. 208).\n\nIn the recognition of personal faults as the bane of society:\n\n    _He that covereth a transgression seeketh love,\n    But he that harpeth on a matter separateth chief friends._ (Pr. 17^{9}).\n\n    _For the drunkard and the glutton shall come to poverty,\n    And drowsiness shall clothe a man with rags_ (Pr. 23^{21}).\n\nThese few maxims might be multiplied with ease, but they are sufficient\nfor our purpose. Is it not clear how profoundly humanistic are these\nJewish proverbs in their outlook on social affairs? Except our science\nbe tempered by the same redeeming grace, we shall succeed on paper but\nfail in fact.\n\n2. The Jewish proverbs throw out a challenge to the present age in the\ndemand they make for commercial honesty and consideration of the general\nwelfare of the community. This claim is put forward in a variety of\nways, and there is no mistaking its earnestness; as in the famous\nsaying, _A false balance is an abomination unto the Lord, and a just\nweight is His delight_ (Pr. 11^{1}), a maxim reiterated in similar\nlanguage in Pr. 20^{10, 23}. Again it is said, _The getting of treasures\nby a lying tongue is a vapour driven to and fro: they that seek them\nseek death_ (Pr. 21^{6})--_Better is the poor that walketh in his\nintegrity than he that is crooked in his ways though he be rich_ (Pr.\n28^{6}); and memorably--_Better is a little with righteousness than\ngreat revenues with injustice_ (Pr. 16^{8}); to which add this\nstartlingly modern protest against the food-profiteer, _He that\nwithholdeth corn, the people shall curse him; but blessing shall be upon\nthe head of him that selleth it_ (Pr. 11^{26}). \u201cAh! but the times have\nchanged, and the complications and stringency of modern business often\nrender the employment of perfectly honest methods impractical. In those\nbyegone days a man of industry and ability had perhaps little temptation\nto double-dealing, or at least was not compelled to follow the tricks of\nthe trade in order to squeeze out a livelihood.\u201d But no! that shortcut\nout of the difficulty is barred. Ben Sirach puts the matter bluntly: _A\nmerchant_, says he, _shall hardly keep himself from wrong-doing, and a\nhuckster shall not be acquitted of sin_ (E. 26^{29}). \u201cWell, then, have\nthe proverbs any remedy to suggest? It is easy for the purist to _talk_.\nNo one wishes to deny the courage of him who maintains a life-long\nprotest against sharp practice, and we grant you the desirability of the\nprotest; we can even admit the success of one here and there who has\nundertaken it. But it may seem doubtful if such unbending rectitude\ncould be carried out generally; and at any rate, as matters stand, there\nmust be thousands of well-meaning men who to keep themselves and their\nfamilies from want and hunger must bow themselves slightly in the modern\nhouse of Rimmon\u201d--so may a plea for a reasonable latitude be advanced.\n\nWhat solution do the proverbs offer for the stern facts of present-day\ncommerce? None; but that is no reason why we, following the spirit of\ntheir teaching, should not strive to find a remedy for our more complex\nproblems, especially since the line along which progress can be made is\nsurely not difficult to discover. The root of the matter is in the fact\nthat whilst commercial dishonesty may benefit (in a material sense\nonly) certain persons, it can only do so at the expense of the many, so\nthat its elimination would necessarily conduce to the general welfare of\norganised society. Meantime it is hard for the individual to kick\nagainst the pricks of a system far greater than he, but it does not\nfollow that the _community_ of individuals is unable to fight the giant\nand slay him. Though the present situation is such that the guilt of the\nindividual is lessened (it is of course still real), the guilt of the\ncommunity in tolerating such a condition of affairs is the more\nincreased. For union is immense strength. It is the imperative duty of\nmodern man by collective action (which may require eventually to become\nworld-wide) to check, diminish and abolish those evil and improvident\nconditions which now impose such pressure upon the integrity of\nindividuals. A herculean task! What then? The resources of civilised man\nare already vast, and they increase with marvellous rapidity, We stand\nat the beginnings of organised achievement; yet already magnificent\nopportunities for the betterment of human life lie within our reach, and\nwait only the consent of mind and conscience for their realisation.\nFalse weights have continued, despite the Jewish proverb, these twenty\ncenturies and more; it does not follow that they need continue to the\ntwenty-first.\n\n3. Much of the injustice and degradation still prevalent in our\ncivilised society would be brought to an end by the force of public\nopinion, were it not for wide-spread ignorance of the facts. Sometimes\nthe ignorance is wilful blindness and no true ignorance; men refuse to\nlook or listen; but as a rule it is due to mere lack of interest and\nunimaginative carelessness. No decent man or woman could desire the\nappalling facts of child-labour in the mines and factories of this\ncountry during the first half of the last century, or, for the matter of\nthat, the facts of sweated industries at the present day; but many\nrespectable people wished not to know and vastly many more troubled not\nthemselves to know, and so the horrible and disastrous iniquities went\non year by year. Time and again the frank uncompromising proverbs of the\nJews set us an example by their bold recognition of evil. They proclaim\nit for what it is, not mincing words but denouncing wickedness\noutspokenly and vehemently. A hundred illustrations could be taken from\nthe maxims already quoted. Here, from sayings not yet mentioned, are\nthree vigorous assaults on the hypocrite, the oppressor, and the morally\nperverted.\n\n     _There is a generation that are pure in their own eyes, and yet are\n     not washed from their filthiness.... There is a generation whose\n     teeth are swords and their mouths armed with knives, to devour the\n     poor from off the earth, and the needy from among men_ (Pr. 30^{12,\n     14}).\n\n    _As one that killeth a son before his father\u2019s eyes,\n    So is he that bringeth a sacrifice from the goods of the poor.\n    The bread of the needy is the life of the poor;\n    He that depriveth him thereof is a man of blood.\n    As one that slayeth his neighbour is he that taketh away his living;\n    And as a shedder of blood is he that depriveth a hireling\n         of his hire_ (E. 34^{20-22}).\n\n     _He that saith unto the wicked \u201cThou art righteous,\u201d peoples shall\n     curse him and nations shall abhor him_ (Pr. 24^{24}).\n\n4. OF RICHES AND THE DECEITFULNESS THEREOF\n\n     _Weary not thyself to be rich.... For riches certainly make\n     themselves wings, like an eagle that flieth toward heaven_ (Pr.\n     23^{4, 5}).\n\n\u201cBelieve not much them that seem to despise riches; for they despise\nthem that despair of them.... Be not penny-wise; riches have wings, and\nsometimes they fly away of themselves, sometimes they must be set\nflying to bring in more.\u201d[127]\n\n_A good name is to be chosen rather than great riches_ (Pr. 22^{1}).\n\n\u201cI cannot call riches better than the baggage of virtue. The Roman word\nis better, _impedimenta_. For as the baggage is to an army so is riches\nto virtue. It cannot be spared nor left behind, but it hindereth the\nmarch; yea and the care of it sometimes loseth or disturbeth the\nvictory. Of great riches there is no real use except it be in the\ndistribution; the rest is but conceit.\u201d\n\n_His riches are the ransom of a man\u2019s life, but the poor heareth no\nthreatenings_ (Pr. 13^{8}).\n\n\u201cBut then you will say, they may be of use to buy men out of dangers or\ntroubles. As Solomon saith, \u2018Riches are as a stronghold, in the\nimagination of the rich man.\u2019[128] But this is excellently expressed,\nthat it is in imagination, and not always in fact. For certainly great\nriches have sold more men than they have bought out.\u201d\n\n_Wealth gotten in haste shall be diminished, but he that gathereth\nslowly shall have increase_ (Pr. 13^{11}).\n\n\u201cSeek not proud riches, but such as thou mayest get justly, use soberly,\ndistribute cheerfully, and leave contentedly.\u201d\n\n_Health and a good constitution are better than all gold, and a good\nspirit than wealth without measure_ (E. 30^{15}).\n\n_Riches profit not in the day of wrath, but righteousness delivereth\nfrom death_ (Pr. 11^{4})--\n\nwhereat the shallow-minded may smile if it please them.\n\n5. \u201cMost gracious God, we humbly beseech Thee, as for this Kingdom in\ngeneral, so especially for the High Court of Parliament: that Thou\nwouldest be pleased to direct and prosper all their consultations to the\nadvancement of Thy glory, the good of Thy Church, the safety, honour,\nand welfare of our Sovereign and his Dominions; that all things may be\nso ordered and settled by their endeavours, upon the best and surest\nfoundations, that peace and happiness, truth and justice, religion and\npiety, may be established among us for all generations.\u201d\n\nHow the Jewish proverbs would endeavour to give effect to the prayer for\ngood government has been told already (p. 152), and it may be remembered\nthat their teaching was described as a demand for a reign of justice\nextending from the highest to the lowest in the land. But that was an\ninadequate description. Examine more carefully what they say, and it\nwill appear that the Jewish proverbs ask for more than bare justice;\nthey enjoin mercy, they plead for honour, kindness, generosity, and\naffection between man and man; in a word they plead for _humanity_ as\nthe supreme solvent of human need. And are they not profoundly and\nrebukingly right therein? Justice may be the stones of the great\nbuilding, but Love is the cement without which the fabric will not\ncohere. The stability of society depends on the good-will of\nwell-intentioned men--_By the blessing of the upright the city is\nexalted, and it is overthrown by the mouth of the wicked_ (Pr. 11^{11}).\n\n6. One other arresting feature concerning the relations of rich and\npoor. The poorer classes of Jerusalem must have had many faults, but the\nWise were very gentle towards them; scarcely ever do they reproach the\npoor _directly_ for their shortcomings. On the other hand they have no\nmercy for the sins of those in high places, their instinct seeming to be\nthat the root of evil in the State is in the neglect of opportunity on\nthe part of those who possess the means for well-doing: and this is the\nmore significant and conscience-searching in that the speakers of these\nproverbs were themselves, as a rule, members of the \u201cfortunate\u201d classes.\n\u201cThe poor, forsooth, are thieves!\u201d Are they? Then, why? _If a ruler\nhearkeneth to falsehood, all his servants are wicked_ (Pr. 29^{12}).\n\u201cThe poor are disloyal and jealous of their betters!\u201d Are they? _The\nking that faithfully judgeth the poor, his throne shall be established\nfor ever_ (Pr. 29^{14}).\n\n7. In conclusion, a few memorable proverbs that will repay\nconsideration. Here is an ambiguous maxim--from one point of view a\nplatitude, from another a deep saying:\n\n     _Sovereignty is transferred from nation to nation Because of\n     iniquity, violence and greed of gold_ (E. 10^{8}).\n\nDoes it mean that greed and evil ambitions incite nations to war, to\nconquest, and so to the acquisition of new territories? If so, we are\nnone the better for the information. Yes, but sometimes the\n\u201ctransference\u201d takes place the other way, and not as the covetous folk\ndesire it should. There have been peoples whose blind lust for power\noverreached itself, to meet with disaster and condign punishment.\nConcerning them too might it be said, though with a different accent to\nour words, \u201cSovereignty is transferred from nation to nation, because of\niniquities, violence and greed of gold.\u201d\n\nThere is no ambiguity, and no indecision, in these fine sentiments,\nwhich are none the less admirable, because they do not tell us how to\nreach the Golden Age:\n\n    _When the righteous prosper the city rejoices;\n    And when the wicked perish there are shouts of joy_ (Pr. 11^{10}).\n\n    _Righteousness exalteth a nation,\n    Whereas sin is a shame to any people_ (Pr. 14^{34}).\n\nBut of all that the Jewish proverbs have to say on the duties of our\ninterrelated lives, this is the best in that it _does_ show the gateway\nto the Golden Age, and allows no man to pass by unchallenged,\n\n    _If thou wilt lift the load I will lift it too;\n    But if thou wilt not lift it, I will not_ (C. 257).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVII\n\nA Chapter of Good Advice\n\n\nSuppose A LECTURE (subject, GOOD ADVICE) to be given in THE LARGE\nLECTURE HALL, to-night, by the Venerable Rabbi Wiseman. We go, but with\nmixed feelings, assuring ourselves we do not care a straw for his\nadvice, but we have nothing much better to do, the man has a reputation,\nand we wonder whether the hall will really be full to hear him. Somewhat\nto our surprise, the hall does fill rapidly, is full! Extraordinary how\na well-known name will draw: doubtless the man has got a \u201cfollowing\u201d in\nevery town, prepared to drink in every word he says. But that will not\naltogether account for it; there must also be a big number here to-night\nwho have come, like ourselves, out of mere curiosity. We wait the great\nman\u2019s arrival with impatience, uncomfortably conscious that we are meant\nto be edified, expectant that we shall be merely bored. (A lecture of\n\u201cGood advice,\u201d forsooth. As if we haven\u2019t a right to our own opinions,\nand are not competent to advise ourselves: it will take him all his time\nto impress us!) The Rabbi arrives, to the usual clap-clapping of his\nadmirers in the hall.... We are a little surprised at his appearance--a\nstrong face, but his best friends would not call him handsome. At the\nsame time, to give him his due, one could not call him _pompous_.... Why\ndoesn\u2019t the Chairman stop talking? Who wants to listen to him? Seeing\nthat we are \u201cin for it,\u201d let\u2019s hear what the speaker has to say, and so\nget it over--\n\nAt last the Rabbi rises, and proves wiser than we have expected; wise\nenough to be also wily. He begins with a touch of humour; we smile, are\ncaught off our guard, and for a few moments (it was all he needed) he\nhas captured our attention.\n\nHere is the thread of his remarks:\n\n    _Commend not a man for his beauty,\n    And abhor not a man for an ugly appearance._[129]\n\n    _Be willing to listen to every godly discourse,\n    And let not the proverbs of understanding escape thee.\n    If thou seest a man of Wisdom get thee betimes unto him,\n    And let thy foot wear out the steps of his doors._[130]\n\n    But, _Let thy foot be seldom in thy neighbour\u2019s house,\n      Lest he be weary of thee and hate thee_.[131]\n\n    _Answer not a fool according to his folly,\n      Lest thou be like unto him._[132]\n\n    _He that giveth answer before he heareth,\n      It is folly and shame unto him._[133]\n\n    _Learn before thou speak; and have a care of thy health,\n      Or ever thou be sick._[134]\n\n     _Prepare thy work without and make it ready for thee in the field;\n     and afterwards build thine house._[135]\n\n    _Hast spoiled thy work? Take a needle and sew._[136]\n\n      _Boast not thyself of to-morrow;\n    For thou knowest not what a day may bring forth._[137]\n\n    _Change not a friend for the sake of profit,\n      Neither a true brother for the gold of Ophir._[138]\n\n     _Laugh not a man to scorn when he is in the bitterness of his soul;\n     for there is one who humbleth and exalteth._[139]\n\n    _Reproach not a man when he turneth from sin;\n      Remember we are all worthy of punishment.\n    Dishonour not a man in his old age;\n      For some of us also are waxing old.\n    Rejoice not over one that is dead;\n      Remember that we die all._[140]\n\n    _Do no evil, so shall no evil overtake thee;\n      Depart from wrong, and it shall turn aside from thee.\n    My son, sow not the furrows of unrighteousness,\n      And thou shalt not reap it sevenfold._[141]\n\n     _Be not thou envious of evil men, neither desire to be with them,\n     for their heart studieth oppression and their lips talk of\n     mischief._[142]\n\n     _Let not thine heart envy sinners, but be thou in the fear of the\n     Lord all the day long; for surely there is a reward and thy hope\n     shall not be cut off._[143]\n\n     _Say not thou, \u201cIt is through the Lord that I fell away: for that\n     which He hateth He made not.\u201d Say not thou, \u201cIt is He that caused\n     me to err, for He hath no need of a sinful man.\u201d_[144]\n\n     _Say not, He will look upon the multitude of my gifts, and when I\n     offer to the Most High God He will accept it._[145]\n\n    _Keep thy heart with all vigilance,\n      For that is the way to life._[146]\n\n    _Be not faint-hearted in thy prayer,\n      And neglect not to give alms._[147]\n\n    _Commit thy ways unto the Lord,\n      And thy purposes shall be established._[148]\n\nA brief lecture, but none the worse for that. Much Wisdom in small\ncompass. Depart, as you must, whether touched or ostensibly indifferent.\nHowever that may be, whatever your feelings now, you cannot forget all\nhis words; some of them are fastened in the memory. One day you may act\nupon them and discover that they were wise indeed, and then you will\nwant yourself to move a vote of thanks to the lecturer.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVIII\n\nConduct\n\n\nThis chapter will prove less ambitious than its title suggests. As the\nremarks made a few pages back, on _The Body Politic_ were meant to be\ntaken in conjunction with what was said in Chapter VIII. regarding\nsocial and family conduct, so here also only a few reflections will be\ngiven in summary or in supplement of the Wise-men\u2019s ideal of personal\ncharacter. It is perhaps as well that it seems superfluous to\nrecapitulate the various attributes that the proverbs say are to be\nchosen or eschewed by the perfect man; for when the Vices have been\nassembled they form a dismal and depressing crowd, and when the Virtues\nare lined up over against them, they are a celestial host but they\nglitter on high beyond a modest man\u2019s attainment. Moreover the art of\nnoble living is best practised not by those who go spelling out the\ndetails, as if the Virtues were meant to be acquired singly or the Vices\nattacked and conquered one by one, but by those who from sound instinct\nor a wisely-trained intelligence have mastered a few great thoughts and\nassented to follow their guidance in the maze of life. It is the purpose\nof these pages to touch only on certain of these controlling facts,\nprinciples, or ideals of conduct. The task before us is therefore\nneither intricate nor long. It is simple, yet (for all its simplicity)\nserious.\n\nThere is one quality that is not so much a part of character as the very\nsoil out of which it grows--_Honesty of purpose_; if absent or only\nfitfully present, moral growth is either stunted or cut off; if\npresent, then a multitude of imperfections are found pardonable. Wise\ntherefore is the Jewish proverb that says of _Deceitfulness_, using a\nrealistic metaphor more eloquent than many words, _Bread of falsehood is\nsweet to a man, but afterwards his mouth shall be filled with gravel_\n(Pr. 20^{17}). Over against it set this strong simple plea for\n_Sincerity: Strive for the truth, unto death, and the Lord God shall\nfight for thee_ (E. 4^{28}); and then consider the implication in the\ncontrast of those maxims--that Evil is first sweet then bitter, and Good\nfirst painful then joyous. Sometimes those propositions are visibly,\ndemonstrably, true in their entirety; sometimes the second part of them\nto be credited requires faith in the spiritual nature of man. But of the\nfirst part there can be no question; \u2019tis a matter of universal\nexperience--moral victories at the first are difficult, moral defeats\neasy, _The way of sinners is smooth without stones, but at the end\nthereof is the pit of Hades_ (E. 21^{10}), a glissade to the precipice\nand over; _facilis descensus Averno_.\n\nSetting aside for the moment the influence of religious belief on\nconduct (the next chapter will have something to say upon the point), it\nwould seem that there is one outstanding quality to which the Jewish\nproverbs recur again and again, as if to tell us that here is the\nsupreme secret. That quality may be called _Receptivity_, but it has\nmany aspects for which other titles might more fittingly be used: it is\nthe willing mind, the open eye and the hearing ear; in youth it is zeal\nto learn, in manhood more often the grace to profit by mistake. So from\nteachableness it is wont to pass into penitence, the recognition of\nerror and imperfection--not passive penitence, however, but the active\ndesire to improve--and then from this virile penitence it should rise\ninto that disposition of Charity or Love towards others, which is the\nhighest virtue, without which a man may have many talents and yet profit\nnothing. Let us trace the sequence in the proverbs, commencing with the\ndesire for knowledge:\n\n    _The fear of the Lord is the chief part of knowledge,\n    But the foolish despise wisdom and instruction.\n    My son, hear the instruction of thy father,\n    And forsake not the teaching of thy mother;\n    For they shall be a chaplet of grace unto thy head\n    And ornaments round thy neck_ (Pr. 1^{7-9}).\n\n    _Yea, if thou cry after discernment,\n    And lift up thy voice for understanding;\n    If thou seek her as silver\n    And search for her as hid treasures ...\n    Then shalt thou understand righteousness and judgement,\n    And equity, yea, every good path_ (Pr. 2^{3, 4, 9}).\n\nTo him that is willing to learn, the proverbs promise rich and wonderful\nreward, and the New Testament repeats the promise:\n\n    _God scorneth the scorners,\n    But He giveth grace to the lowly_ (Pr. 3^{34}).[149]\n\n    _If thou desire wisdom, keep the commandments,\n    And the Lord shall give it unto thee freely_ (E. 1^{26}).[150]\n\nThus far the subject is familiar. Twice already reference has been made\nto this virtue of Learning-Ever. Impenitently we bring it up again,\nseeing that the Jewish proverbs are most urgent on the matter and also\nthat men to-day stand in no small need of the counsel. For all its\nvaunted liberty of thought, our age is by no means patient of personal\ncriticism, doubtless because owing to the swift and amazing increase in\ncontrol of material resources it has been peculiarly successful in\ncertain directions (not, however, the most important); and the success\nhas made us vain. To know a little about the universe (and we know no\nmore) is a very dangerous thing.\n\nBut observe how from the initial grace of an eager, receptive attitude\ntowards life, other virtues naturally appear. Frankly and patiently to\nrecognise one\u2019s errors is to increase in wisdom, to learn before it is\ntoo late, to see the pitfalls one has narrowly escaped, and so to be\nhumbled, to feel the sense of a great forgiveness vouchsafed to the\nsimple-hearted, and accordingly to be grateful and to be happy:\n\n    _He that covereth his transgressions shall not prosper:\n    But whoso confesseth and forsaketh them shall obtain mercy.\n    Happy is the man that feareth alway:\n    But he that hardeneth his heart shall fall into calamity_\n    (Pr. 28^{13, 14}).\n\nThis experience, if at all intense, has a profound effect on character;\nhe that knows he has been forgiven much will love much, and his\ngratitude towards the Giver of all mercy will spontaneously show itself\nin mercy towards other men. Others will wrong him and disappoint him\noften, but, remembering his own imperfections, he will want to judge\nthem gently and never to despair of helping them; to him it seems as if\n\u201cthey know not what they do.\u201d But this is the very disposition required\nof us in the prayer \u201cForgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that\ntrespass against us,\u201d and the question must surely be rising in the\nreader\u2019s mind, What relation can possibly be discovered between these\nhigh thoughts and the Jewish proverbs? This surprisingly intimate\nrelation--that whilst the manifestation of perfect forgiveness in\nChrist\u2019s own Person made His Prayer a new power in the world, the\nthought in this petition was not new; it goes back to these words of Ben\nSirach, _He that taketh vengeance on his neighbour will meet vengeance\nfrom the Lord, and his sins will surely be confirmed. Forgive thy\nneighbour the hurt that he hath done thee, and then shall thy sins be\npardoned when thou prayest_ (E. 28^{1, 2})! Who dares withhold his\napproval from the condition in the abstract? If we are Christians at\nall, our conscience must welcome its eternal justice, recognising that\nwe can ask no greater mercy to be extended us by God. And so we are wont\nto repeat the Prayer willingly without reservations or misgivings ...\njust until the day come when \u201cour neighbour\u201d has gotten him a name and\nwe lie dazed and bleeding from the hurt that he hath dealt us. _That_ is\nthe moment for which these words were spoken--_Let not mercy and truth\nforsake thee, bind them upon thy neck_ (Pr. 3^{3}). Know that--_By mercy\nand truth iniquity is purged away, and by the fear of the Lord men\ndepart from evil_ (Pr. 16^{6}). By the time a man has schooled himself\nto put those exhortations into practice, he will be in no danger of\ntreating forgiveness lightly: true forgiveness is conditioned by the\nMoral Law, is no futile shutting-of-the-eyes to uneradicated sin, and\nmay therefore call for faithfulness unto death and necessitate the\ngreatest sacrifice earth knows, even the Cross of Christ.\n\nAnd with the thought let us return to that saying of Ben Sirach, _Strive\nfor the truth unto death_. \u201cThe Truth\u201d is here to be interpreted in the\nfullest sense of the term; it means Righteousness or Justice; it denotes\nsincerity in things great and small, in thought word and deed. The\nproverb then may serve as a reminder of the uncompromisingly stern and\nperilous element in human experience. Until three years ago many men had\nno lively sense of that aspect of things. The sinister possibilities\nwere not absent, but often they were fallaciously concealed. When a man\ncatches the same train to town day after day and his outward\ncircumstances are uneventful and regular as some slow-moving stream, he\nmay easily be deluded into thinking that his inner, spiritual self is\nlikewise pursuing the even tenor of its way; whereas in reality it may\nbe waging a desperate battle against increasing pride, prejudice,\nhardness of heart, and a whole battalion of the Fiend\u2019s picked\nlegionaries. The Prosperous, consulting his bankbook, may easily be\nbetrayed into saying \u201cI shall not want,\u201d whilst the soul within him is\nchoking. If our essential life is spiritual and consists in our love of\nthe True, the Good, the Beautiful, riches are likely to prove a thin\narmour against the enemy. But three long and terrible years of war have\ntransformed the situation, and there are few to-day who do not know that\nthere is \u201ca striving for the truth unto death.\u201d Little need now to\nemphasise the dark side of life; myriads are but too well acquainted\nwith its tragedies.\n\nThe Jewish proverbs offer no philosophy of Suffering; for that one must\ngo to the Christian religion, which has faced the worst of the problem\nand is unique in having found a reassuring answer. When, however, we\nturn to the immediate question, how best to meet and deal with hardship,\nphysical or mental, behold! Christianity is content to appropriate the\nlanguage of a Jewish proverb and reiterate its counsel, though with a\nglorious new confidence: _Therefore let us also, seeing we are compassed\nabout with so great a cloud of witnesses, lay aside every weight, and\nthe sin that doth so easily beset us, and let us run with patience the\nrace that is set before us, looking unto Jesus, the author and perfecter\nof our faith.... For consider Him who endured such gainsaying of sinners\nagainst himself that ye wax not weary, fainting in your souls. Ye have\nnot yet resisted unto blood, striving against sin, and ye have forgotten\nthe exhortation which reasoneth with you as with sons,_\n\n    _My son, regard not lightly the discipline of the Lord\n    Nor faint when thou art reproved of him;\n    For whom the Lord loveth He disciplines,\n    And chasteneth[151] every son whom He receiveth_ (Pr. 3^{11, 12}).\n\n_It is for discipline that ye endure; God dealeth with you as with sons;\nfor what son is there whom his father doth not discipline?_ (_Hebrews_\n12^{1-7}). To use or to refuse this idea of the educative opportunity in\nsuffering makes an amazing difference to life. Says a commentator of the\nolder school writing upon this passage in _Proverbs_: \u201cFirst, _Despise\nnot_ the discipline.... Do not meet sorrow by a mere hardihood of\nnature. Let your heart flow down under trouble, for this is human: let\nit rise up also to God, for this is divine. And secondly, _Faint\nnot_.... This is the opposite extreme. Do not be dissolved, as it\nwere--taken down and taken to pieces by the stroke. You should retain\npresence of mind and exercise your faculties. If the bold would see God\nin his afflictions, he would not despise; if the timid would see God in\nthem, he would not faint.... The same stroke may fall on two men and be\nin the one case judgement, in the other love. You may prune branches\nlying withered on the ground, and also branches living in the vine. In\nthe two cases the operation and instrument are precisely alike; but the\noperation on this branch has no result, and the operation on that branch\nproduces fruitfulness.\u201d[152]\n\n    _My son, if thou comest to serve the Lord,\n    Prepare thy soul for trial.\n    Set thy heart aright and with constancy endure,\n    And be not terrified in time of calamity....\n    For gold is tried in the fire,\n    And acceptable men in the furnace of humiliation,\n    Put thy trust in God and He will help thee;\n    Order thy ways aright and set thy hope on Him_ (E. 2^{1-6}).\n\nNever in living memory has there been greater need for wise and\npersuasive advice how to conduct oneself in time of anxiety and\naffliction. In the gales of life many a ship is flung on the rocks for\nlack of a little good seamanship on board. But ships need care even when\nthey are sailing summer seas; and so, because one hopes that brighter\ndays are coming to the world and coming soon, there is room for one more\ncounsel in conclusion. Religion, and particularly Christianity, has been\nrobbed of half of its power over men\u2019s souls, by reason of the absurd\nand tragical notion that it bears chiefly on the woes of man and very\nlittle on his joys. On this score also the Jewish proverbs preach a\nuseful and pleasant sermon, with their natural honest desire for the\ngood things of life and their strong and salutary conviction that in\nWisdom--being that fear of the Lord which is to depart from evil--will\nbe found a never-failing source of refreshing happiness:\n\n    _The fear of the Lord is glory and exultation\n    And gladness and a crown of rejoicing.\n    The fear of the Lord shall delight the heart,\n    And shall give gladness and joy and length of days_\n         (E. I^{11, 12}; cp. Pr. 2^{10}, 3^{16}).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIX\n\nFaith\n\n\nBen Sirach has a wise passage in recognition of the transcendent majesty\nof God. He has been seeking to describe the marvels of the universe, and\nwords have failed him; how much more then if he should strive to declare\nthe glory of the Creator! Wonderful as the visible world may be, _Many\nthings are hidden greater than these, and we have seen but a few of His\nworks.... The Lord is terrible and exceeding great, and marvellous is\nHis power. When ye glorify the Lord praise him as much as ye can, for\neven then will He surpass. When ye exalt him, put forth your full\nstrength; be not weary; for ye will never attain_ (E. 43^{29-32}). These\nwords give the reason why expressions of belief in God so often appear\nto the unbelieving mere platitudes. Before the thought of the living\nGod, men of intense and sensitive faith are either silent, or at the\nmost will speak in simple language, being conscious that _we may say\nmany things, yet shall we not attain; and the sum of our words is \u201cHe is\nall\u201d_ (E. 49^{27}).\n\nThe Jewish proverbs recognise that God makes one fundamental demand from\nmen, namely Honesty of purpose--the very quality or attitude of soul\nwhich, as we have just seen, is so essential to the growth of moral\ncharacter:\n\n    _All the ways of a man are right in his own eyes,\n    But God weigheth the heart_ (Pr. 21^{2}).\n\n_He that sacrificeth of a thing wrongfully gotten, his offering is made\nin mockery; and the mockeries of wicked men are not well-pleasing_ (E.\n34^{18}).\n\nBen Sirach says of a sinner, confident in his wrong-doing because no man\nseeth him--_But he knoweth not that the eyes of the Lord are ten\nthousand times brighter than the sun, beholding all the ways of men, and\nlooking into secret places_ (E. 23^{19}).\n\nAnd again he writes of the hypocritically pious:\n\n_The Most High hath no pleasure in the offerings of the ungodly, neither\nis He pacified for sins by the multitude of sacrifices_ (E. 34^{19}; cp.\nPr. 21^{27}).\n\nIt does not seem probable that the Almighty will be any the better\nimpressed, should the wicked offer up hymns instead of sacrifices.\nMotive is still the criterion of worship: take heed how ye praise or\npray, lest your words be no more than the sound of a voice; take heed\nhow ye hear, lest, judging a sermon, you fail to hear God\u2019s judgment of\nyou; and above all remember that the chief act of worship, without which\nall else is in vain, must be rendered at home and in the city\u2019s streets,\nfor--said a Wise-man on whom the spirit of the prophets had\ndescended--_to do justice and equity is more acceptable to the Lord than\nsacrifice_ (Pr. 21^{3}). A plain commandment, but there is none greater:\n\u201cThou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.\u201d\n\nAnd to them that are fain to keep the commandment God giveth gifts.\n\u201cBut\u201d says one, \u201chow know you that they are _God\u2019s_ gifts? Is there a\nGod to give? Faith is very difficult to attain.\u201d Certainly faith is\ndifficult to the sophisticated in this and every age; but to the Wise it\nhas always seemed natural, and never impossible. Said a young Russian\nmodernist, \u201cI find it difficult not to believe in God.\u201d So much in\npassing; we shall return to the question a little later. Meantime,\nhowever, let us turn to what cannot be denied, the reality of the gifts\nand the axiomatic truth of the assertion that they are from God in the\nsense that they are the consequence of believing God is and is good.\n\nTo believe in the true God, the high and holy and merciful God of\nIsrael\u2019s noblest thinkers, the God and Father of the Lord Jesus Christ,\ncertainly gives men confidence and courage, not because the dangers and\ndifficulties of life are removed, but because our strength being\nincreased, it becomes possible to overcome them: _The name of the Lord\nis a strong tower; the righteous runneth into it and is safe_ (Pr.\n18^{10}). Through the new spirit that is ours, life is lifted to a\nhigher plane where we feel that, when sorrow and pain and sin have had\ntheir say, still the Lord reigneth; God is greater than His foes: _Whoso\nfeareth the Lord shall not be afraid and shall not play the coward; for\nGod is his hope_ (E. 34^{14}).\n\nTo them that seek Him God gives illumination. _Evil men understand not\njustice, but they that seek the Lord understand it altogether_ (Pr.\n28^{5})--which does not mean that the pious are omniscient, but does\nmean that to follow after truth and goodness enlightens, whereas to seek\nevil and pursue it makes men blind. Accordingly it is said, _There is no\nwisdom nor understanding nor counsel against the Lord_ (Pr. 21^{30}),\nand the truth of that great saying has been repeatedly displayed in the\nrise and fall of mighty nations and empires, as well as in the lives of\nindividuals. Selfishness is always short-sighted, snatching greedily at\nshadows and missing the best there is in life. Again, _The curse of the\nLord is in the house of the wicked, but He blesseth the habitation of\nthe righteous_ (Pr. 3^{33}); and that is true because it is seldom that\nsuch things as passion, hatred, cruelty and haunting moral fears are\nabsent from the former, and, whatever the good man\u2019s house may lack, it\nwill generally have love, joy, peace and all the fruits of the Spirit.\n\nOne remarkable proverb claims that _When a man\u2019s ways please the Lord,\nhe maketh even his enemies to be at peace with him_ (Pr. 16^{7}); and\nthe value of the saying is perhaps increased in that, regarded\npedantically, the claim breaks down, whereas on a wider consideration it\nseems to be subtly and profoundly true. Thus, our truthfulness may not\nprevent some particular individual (our enemy) from deceiving us by a\nlie, but it helps many, who might become false and some day deceive us,\nto persevere in truthfulness; and if all men really were liars, heaven\nhelp our race! Our honesty may not prevent a thief from breaking through\nand stealing, but it does make it easier for other men to be honest and\nso helps to reduce dishonesty in the world; and if all men were\ndeceivers, peaceful trade would cease. Mercy begets mercy; the kindness\nof all true men who love God and follow Christ is making the world more\nkind. In a word, the effect of righteous example is magnificently great.\nWhat matter then if the truth be superlatively phrased? Let us affirm it\nboldly: \u201cWhen a man\u2019s ways please the Lord, he maketh even his enemies\nto be at peace with him.\u201d\n\nHere is a verse that sums up the whole topic:--\n\n    _The eyes of the Lord are upon them that love Him,\n    A mighty protection and strong stay,\n    A cover from the hot blast and a shelter from the noonday,\n    A guard from stumbling, and a succour from falling.\n    He raiseth up the soul, and enlighteneth the eyes;\n    He giveth healing, life, and blessing_ (E. 34^{16, 17}).\n\nThe gifts are good. But is there a Giver, a God who cares? Why not so\nbelieve? It is neither impossible nor incredible. In the last chapter we\nshall touch further upon the great question. For the moment our concern\nis only with the answer to it that we find in the Jewish proverbs. That\nanswer is boldly affirmative. Let us begin, however, with a rather\nhesitant saying; _A man\u2019s goings are of the Lord, how then can he\nunderstand his ways?_ (Pr. 20^{24}). Possibly the author intended not to\nassert God\u2019s guidance but only to complain of the baffling character of\nour fortunes. If so, we will have none of it. If there be no God at all,\nat least let us struggle to determine our path with such intelligence as\nwe can muster. In the following, however, there is no dubiety about the\naffirmation of faith: _A man\u2019s heart deviseth his way, but the Lord\ndirecteth his steps_ (Pr. 16^{9}). Hard doctrine! theoretically possible\nperhaps, but is it probable? Certainly it is hard to believe, almost\nincredible, so long as it is considered merely from the critic\u2019s chair.\nBut the sublime hope that God careth for men displays an astonishing\nvitality; and the altogether amazing and significant fact is this, that\njust where it ought most surely to die down and be extinguished, there\nit always rises up and burns again--as now in the trenches.\n\nHere is the witness of an educated man, who had long ceased to be a\nChristian in the conventional usage of the term. He is writing freely to\none who had been more than a friend for Christ\u2019s sake, and it is fair to\ngive his words, because death is no longer a mystery to him.\n\u201cHalf-unconsciously I hummed the tune rather than the words of the\nfamous hymn [_When I survey the wondrous Cross_]; As I did so there\nappeared before me, not a vision of Christ\u2019s person, but of the meaning\nof the glorious crown of thorns He wore. The King of Heaven, the Prince\nof Peace, is a man--He took not upon Him the nature of angels. That\nwould have been easy but futile. It would not have linked Him with us\nclosely enough. So my vision told me. He must needs suffer for us....\nAnd if suffering, and forgiveness, and love of our fellows, and general\nself-forgetfulness be what is required of every one of us, how greatly\nwe all stand in need of His atonement. That was the lasting impression\nof my vision: but, subsidiary, there was another. I felt, for a moment,\na sense of divine spectatorship, as if there was but God in the world\nbesides me; and God, all-seeing, all-understanding, with whom no words\nwere necessary[153].\u201d\n\nBut also those whose training in the school of life has brought them no\nsuch command of words as had the writer of the above, have their own way\nof voicing the instinct, saying that \u201cif a fellow\u2019s name is written on a\nbullet he\u2019ll get it, and if it isn\u2019t, he won\u2019t.\u201d Press the na\u00efve\nmetaphor. Who writes the name on the bullet? Not Krupps; they are too\nbusy for that. Then is the writing the writing of God, graven upon the\nbullet? Probably the man himself would say, Fate is the writer. \u201cFate\u201d\non the lips of men who have nineteen centuries of Christian tradition\nbehind them is only another name, and imperfect, for God the Father.\nThere is fatalism and fatalism. The fatalism of men who, being conscious\n(however dimly) that duty has drawn them into a war which is at bottom\nan immense conflict of ideas and ideals regarding the use and abuse of\nnational power, feel somehow that they will not die except they were\nappointed to lay down their life for others; _that_ fatalism is\nseparated by a hair\u2019s breadth from explicit trust in the overshadowing\nlove of God. Belief in God\u2019s providence may seem difficult to the\nstudent at his ease, but it is high human doctrine. It was the doctrine\nof Jesus; and keen and earnest thinkers, and simple men and women\ninnumerable, facing the sternest facts of life, have found it possible\nto place their trust in it, and, trusting, have found themselves at\npeace.\n\n    _Be not afraid of sudden fear, nor of the desolation\n         of the wicked when it cometh;\n    For the Lord shall be thy confidence, and shall keep\n         thy foot from being taken_ (Pr. 3^{25f}).\n\nIn conclusion, here is a proverb which needs a few words of\nintroduction. The graces and benefits of religion are frequently\nassociated in the Bible with \u201cmeekness\u201d or \u201chumility.\u201d Now those English\nwords carry unfortunate associations which are absent from the Hebrew\nthey represent. The \u201chumility\u201d commended by the Prophets and Psalmists\nis a certain frank simplicity of soul--a quality from which not a few of\nthe most effective and virile personalities in the world\u2019s history have\nderived their power. It has little or nothing to do with softness or\ntimidity of character; indeed courage is its hall-mark. Those who first\nrallied round the Maccabean leaders in the struggle against an unclean\nHellenism were of \u201cthe meek ones of the earth.\u201d The Russian peasant has\nthis Biblical \u201chumility,\u201d but the proudest military empire in the modern\nworld has tasted the fortitude of his soul. Wherefore we may claim that\nthis exquisite saying is not merely beautiful, but is also profound:\n\n    _The prayer of the humble pierceth the clouds_ (E. 35^{17}).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XX\n\nThe Gift of God\n\n\nThe sayings we have been quoting in this volume for the most part belong\nto the life of ordered and peaceful society. There is no tramp of\narmies, no sense of imminent death, no outrage of gigantic suffering and\ninjustice, in the pages of _Proverbs_ or _Ecclesiasticus_. To-day,\nhowever, the ordinary problems and interests of peace-time seem\naltogether irrelevant. Twenty million fighting men in Europe, asked what\na maxim is, would talk to you of machine-guns; the maxims otherwise\ncalled proverbs belong to a different and forgotten world. For trifling\nmoralisms we have to-day neither taste nor time.\n\nBut the Jewish proverbs range wide enough to have a word for everyone,\nfor the grave or the gay, for pious or profane, for those in haste just\nas much as for those at leisure; and many of their comments on life are\nvery far removed from being trifling. In our enquiry we have met not a\nfew winged words worth capturing and holding fast even in war-time;\ngreat thoughts such as this assertion, _He that followeth after\nrighteousness shall attain unto life, but he that pursueth evil doeth it\nto his own death_ (Pr. 11^{19}), or this reassuring hint of the\nfundamental goodness of human nature, _When the righteous triumph there\nis great glorying, but when the wicked come to power men hide\nthemselves_ (Pr. 28^{12}; cp. 11^{10}), or this grand medicine for a\ntempted people, _Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a disgrace\nto any folk_ (Pr. 14^{34}).\n\nMoreover it ought to be recognised that, properly regarded, morality is\nnever unimportant; moralisms being trifling only so long as they remain\nmere words, not when they are translated into deeds. Act upon the good\nthat is found in these proverbs, and immense results would follow. But\njust there is the crux: \u201cIt is a small matter to get right principles\nrecognised, the whole difficulty lies in getting them practised. We need\na power which can successfully, contend against the storm of our passion\nand self-will.\u201d[154]\n\nNow there is one deeply significant fact which we have seen in our study\nof the Jewish proverbs, but on which we have not yet laid sufficient\nstress--the fact that they seemed to their authors to point beyond\nthemselves to a Divine Source. They were not fortuitous atoms gathered\nno man knew whence or why, but part of a marvellous system inspired and\noriginated by God, sustained by His inexhaustible power, and governed by\nHis holy purposes. Whatever may be thought regarding particular\nproverbs, no sensible person can imagine that Wisdom itself is idle or\nunimportant talk. Wisdom remains wise even in such a war as this, though\nthe nations rage and the kingdoms are moved.\n\nBut is there a Divine Wisdom? Or is the aspiring faith of men only an\nunsubstantial dream? From first to last the Jews believed that Wisdom is\na reality, and, far from weakening as the years went on, their\nconfidence even increased, and their thoughts of the wonder and glory of\nthe Heavenly Wisdom became, if possible, more sublime and yet no less\nintimate. And high as they exalted Wisdom, her chiefest glory remained\nthis, that she was willing to dwell with men. Let us take as a last\nquotation some beautiful and loving words from that late work, the\n_Wisdom of Solomon_, to which reference was made in Chapter IX:\n\n    _Wisdom is an effulgence from everlasting light,\n    A stainless mirror of God\u2019s working, and an image of His goodness.\n    And it, being one, hath power to do all things;\n    And remaining in itself, reneweth all things:\n    And from generation to generation passing into holy souls\n    It maketh men friends of God and prophets....\n    Wisdom is fairer than the sun, and above all the\n        constellations of the stars.\n    Being compared with light, it is found to be before it;\n    For to the light of day succeedeth night,\n    But against Wisdom evil doth not prevail_ (W.S. 7^{26-30}).\n\nIs there this Heavenly Wisdom? Century by century, Life is accumulating\nits patient answer to the question, building up its vast evidence that\nthe word of God endures, generation by generation confirming the\nintuition that the visible is for man the least real and that it is the\nunseen things that are eternal. But out of the midst of history there\nhas also come one finished and marvellous reply--the personality of\nJesus Christ.\n\n_Wisdom, whence cometh it? And where is the place of understanding?_\ncried one who had despaired to find an answer. But the day came when\ncertain of the Jews declared that Wisdom was _found_, that the infinite\nDivine Wisdom in its full glory had dwelt amongst us. All, and more than\nall, that had been said or thought or hoped of the Heavenly Wisdom, they\nhad discovered in Christ Jesus. For one who had been man among men to be\nthus _by Jews_ identified as the Perfect Wisdom, which was but an aspect\nof God Himself, is clearly wonderful; but just how utterly amazing it\nis, perhaps only those can realise who are conscious of the innate and\nmagnificent monotheism of the Jews, and who have listened with sympathy\nand understanding to these reverent and rapturous praises of Wisdom.\nThat a human being could possibly be felt to be the incarnation of\nWisdom\u2019s Self is a miracle. But the miracle is precisely that which has\nhappened, and it is explicable only by a cause as great as the effect;\nthat is, by the miracle of what Jesus was and is.\n\nRecognition of Christ as the Divine Wisdom, and of Wisdom as incarnate\nin Christ, permeates the tradition and theology of the New Testament. It\nis visible in almost every passage where His disciples have sought to\nexpress the mystery and majesty of Him whose human love they had known\non earth, whose divine power they now felt from heaven. The idea of\nWisdom is the basis of St. Paul\u2019s great utterances regarding Christ in\nthe _Epistle to the Colossians_; of the affirmations in _Hebrews_ that\nby Christ were the worlds made and that He is the Radiance of the Divine\nGlory and the Reflection of the Divine Being; and behind the wonderful\nopening chapter of _St. John\u2019s Gospel_ there is a hymn to the Eternal\nWisdom, which was in the beginning, and was with God, and was God.[155]\n\n_Who hath ascended into heaven and descended?_--asked a sceptical\nquestioner in the _Book of Proverbs_ (Pr. 30^{4}). _No man ascended into\nheaven, but He that descended out of heaven, even the Son of Man_, rings\nout the answer of the Gospel (_John_ 3^{13}).\n\n_If any man lack Wisdom let him ask of God, who giveth to all liberally,\nand upbraideth not; and it shall be given him_, writes St. James. Surely\nGod\u2019s gift is Christ? There are now nineteen centuries to show that\nnothing that has set itself against His wisdom has endured and been\naccepted as the truth.\n\n\u201cWe need a power which can successfully contend against the storm of our\npassion and self-will.\u201d--St. Paul affirms that the need has been met\nand answered in Christ crucified, _the Power of God and the Wisdom of\nGod_, and the Gospel holds out the same promise: _as many as received\nHim to them gave He power to become the children of God_.\n\nBut are they many who throughout these centuries have sought to find\nWisdom in Christ, and in His redeeming compassion, His perfect knowledge\nof human weakness and human need, His calm unfailing strength, His\ninfinite holiness, His glorious ideal, His faith, His sacrifice, have\ndeclared that they have found that which they sought? They are very\nmany. Already they are a multitude which no man can number--out of every\nnation and of all tribes and peoples--of whom some have sealed the\nconfession with their life-blood, and some have given equal testimony in\nthe unfaltering purity and patience of a quiet and unselfish life. Some\nof them have been learned and some unlearned in this world\u2019s knowledge,\nbut it is abundantly evident that all who have been faithful to His word\nhave possessed in its fulness the deeper Wisdom which is from above.\n\nThe sum of it all is this. Christ has come. There are those who do not\ntrouble to seek for Wisdom with their whole heart, but that is a foolish\nattitude which should be shunned. The miracle has happened, and we ought\nto face its challenge. What think ye of Christ? Whose son is He?\n\n\n\n\nIndex\n\nA BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n\nArticles on _Proverbs_, _Ecclesiasticus_, _Wisdom Literature_,\n_Hellenism_, etc., in the Encyclop\u00e6dia Brittanica (11th edition),\nHastings\u2019s Dictionary of the Bible and the Encyclop\u00e6dia Biblica.\n\nC. H. TOY, _Proverbs_ (International Critical Commentary).\nG. CURRIE MARTIN, _Proverbs_, etc. (The Century Bible).\nC. F. KENT, _Wise Men of Ancient Israel_.\nW. O. E. OESTERLEY, _Ecclesiasticus_ (Cambridge Bible\n         for Schools and Colleges).\nS. R. DRIVER, _Literature of the Old Testament_ s.v., Proverbs, etc.\nG. A. SMITH, _Modern Criticism and the Preaching of\n         the Old Testament_, ch viii.\nA. R. GORDON, _The Poets of the Old Testament_ chs. XV.-XVIII.\nC. TAYLOR, _Sayings of the Fathers_ (_Pirke Aboth_).\nA. COHEN, _Ancient Jewish Proverbs_ (Wisdom of the East Series).\nE. L. BEVAN, _The House of Seleucus_ (2 vols.)\nE. L. BEVAN, _Jerusalem under the High Priests_.\nH. P. SMITH, _Old Testament History_ chs. XVIII., XIX.\n\n\nI.--INDEX OF REFERENCES\n\nPROVERBS.\n\nver. CHAPTER I. page\n\n4                         130\n7-9                  157, 267\n10ff       153, 181, 184, 200\n17                        231\n22              130, 180, 181\n24                        180\n\n      CHAPTER II.\n\n3, 4, 9                   267\n10                   217, 272\n16-19                     186\n\n      CHAPTER III.\n\n3, 4                 145, 269\n5, 6                      158\n7                         246\n11, 12               192, 271\n13-15                     170\n16                        272\n17, 18               217, 231\n19f                       172\n25f                       278\n27, 28               155, 211\n29                        154\n31, 32                    153\n33                        275\n34                        267\n\n      CHAPTER IV.\n\n7                         177\n10-19                      77\n13                        142\n18                        236\n19                         51\n23                        264\n\n      CHAPTER V.\n\n1-14                      153\n22                        188\n\n      CHAPTER VI.\n\n6-11                 128, 233\n12-15                     123\n16-19                      48\n20-vii. 27                153\n\n      CHAPTER VII.\n\n1-27                      153\n14                        108\n20                        234\n\n      CHAPTER VIII.\n\n1-3                  182, 200\n10                        171\n15, 16                    172\n19                        222\n21                        167\n22-36                     173\n23                        222\n\n      CHAPTER IX.\n\n1-5                  171, 212\n7                    135, 180\n10                        157\n17, 18                    171\n\n      CHAPTER X.\n\n2                         154\n3                         188\n11                        143\n12                        145\n15                        119\n20, 21                    143\n22                         25\n23                        134\n26                        140\n27                        189\n\n      CHAPTER XI.\n\n1                         253\n2                         143\n4                    211, 257\n5                         143\n10                   259, 280\n11                        258\n12                        140\n18                        188\n19                        280\n22                        241\n24, 25               122, 253\n26                        254\n28                        211\n30                        143\n\n      CHAPTER XII.\n\n1                         142\n5                         143\n7                         211\n9                         243\n15                   123, 134\n16                        123\n18                        145\n19                        143\n21                        188\n26                        144\n\n      CHAPTER XIII.\n\n1                         180\n2                         211\n3                         140\n5                         143\n7                         122\n8                         257\n11                        257\n12                        246\n19                        134\n22                        252\n24                        149\n\n      CHAPTER XIV.\n\n1                         133\n3                         134\n13                        192\n15, 16                    133\n17                        139\n20                        120\n32                        190\n34                   259, 280\n\n      CHAPTER XV.\n\n1                    145, 246\n2                         123\n4                    145, 211\n5                         134\n8                         108\n16                        211\n17                        120\n18                        139\n20                        134\n23                        140\n24                        190\n25                        155\n28                        143\n29                        188\n\n      CHAPTER XVI.\n\n1                         211\n3                         264\n4                         189\n6                         269\n7                         276\n8               154, 211, 254\n9                        277\n16                       171\n18                  140, 246\n19                       210\n24                        51\n26                       116\n27                  123, 181\n28                       122\n32             139, 206, 246\n\n      CHAPTER XVII.\n\n1                        108\n2                        151\n5                        144\n7                        129\n9                        253\n10                       135\n12             232, 241, 242\n13                       140\n16                       134\n17                       142\n21                       130\n23                       153\n24                  133, 242\n28                       140\n\n      CHAPTER XVIII.\n\n2                        134\n7                        123\n8                        125\n9                        242\n10                       275\n11                  183, 257\n13                       262\n17                       243\n20, 21              140, 211\n22                       148\n\n      CHAPTER XIX.\n\n4                       120\n12                      232\n14                      238\n17                      211\n26                      150\n27                      183\n29                      135\n\n      CHAPTER XX.\n\n1                  138, 185\n3                       141\n6                       192\n10                 222, 253\n14                      113\n17                      266\n20                      150\n22                 140, 188\n23                 153, 253\n24                      277\n28                      152\n\n      CHAPTER XXI.\n\n2                       273\n3             108, 153, 274\n6                       253\n9                       242\n13                      253\n14                      152\n17                      138\n20                      133\n22                      233\n23                      211\n24                      135\n27                 108, 274\n30, 31             247, 275\n\n      CHAPTER XXII.\n\n1                   51, 257\n2                       252\n3                        58\n4                       167\n6                       150\n7                       113\n8                       188\n10                      180\n11                      143\n13             128; cp. 242\n22, 23             153, 181\n27                      113\n28                       58\n\n      CHAPTER XXIII.\n\n1-3                     124\n4, 5                    256\n9                       134\n10, 11               59, 53\n13, 14                  149\n17, 18             190, 263\n21                      253\n29-31              153, 185\n29-35              138, 233\n\n      CHAPTER XXIV.\n\n1                       263\n3, 4                    234\n11, 12                  144\n16                      246\n17, 18             141, 207\n24                      256\n27                      262\n28                      153\n29                      145\n30-34              128, 242\n\n      CHAPTER XXV.\n\n2, 3                    152\n6                       211\n11                      231\n13                      234\n14                 123, 235\n16                       17\n17                  30, 262\n19                      243\n20                      125\n21                      145\n24                      242\n25                      236\n27                 222, 243\n28                      246\n\n      CHAPTER XXVI.\n\n2                   51, 236\n3                  134, 232\n4                  135, 262\n7                  134, 242\n11                      135\n12                 123, 246\n13              242, cp.128\n14, 15             128, 242\n16                 128, 181\n17                 141, 238\n18, 19                  124\n20                      122\n21                      141\n23-26                   141\n27                      154\n28                      125\n\n      CHAPTER XXVII.\n\n1                  211, 262\n3                       134\n4                       141\n6                       245\n8                       231\n14                      125\n15                      242\n17                      245\n18                      231\n19                      236\n20                       58\n22                 135, 242\n23-27                   232\n\n      CHAPTER XXVIII.\n\n1                       246\n5                       275\n6             154, 245, 254\n7                       138\n8                       155\n12                      280\n13, 14                  268\n15                 152, 232\n17                      245\n22                      122\n23                      125\n24                      150\n26                      134\n27                      155\n\n      CHAPTER XXIX.\n\n1                       142\n4                       152\n5                       125\n11                      139\n12                      259\n13                      252\n14                 152, 259\n15                      149\n19                      151\n20                      124\n22                      139\n\n      CHAPTER XXX.\n\n1-6                     192\n4                       283\n7-9                     155\n8, 9               121, 211\n12, 14                  256\n15, 16               46, 52\n17                 150, 232\n18, 19              51, 233\n21-23               47, 129\n24-28               47, 233\n26f                     232\n29-31               47, 232\n33                      141\n\n      CHAPTER XXXI.\n\n4, 5                    152\n6, 7                    185\n10-29                  147f\n14                      233\n\n\nECCLESIASTICUS.\n\nPrologue                198\n\n      CHAPTER I.\n\n1                       158\n11, 12                  272\n26                      267\n\n      CHAPTER II.\n\n1-6                    271f\n12-14                   246\n\n      CHAPTER III.\n\n6-9                     150\n12-15                   150\n36                      252\n\n      CHAPTER IV.\n\n1                       120\n8, 9                    252\n11, 12                  245\n17                      171\n28                 266, 269\n\n      CHAPTER VI.\n\n7ff                     142\n19-25                   171\n26-29                   171\n35, 36                  262\n\n      CHAPTER VII.\n\n1-3                     263\n9, 11                   263\n10                      264\n15                      118\n18                      263\n20, 21                  152\n\n      CHAPTER VIII.\n\n5-7                     263\n17                      133\n\n      CHAPTER IX.\n\n3-9                     186\n\n      CHAPTER X.\n\n8                       259\n11                      190\n\n      CHAPTER XI.\n\n2                       262\n11                      238\n26-28                   189\n\n      CHAPTER XIV.\n\n3, 4                    122\n\n      CHAPTER XV.\n\n1                       198\n11, 12                  263\n\n      CHAPTER XVII.\n\n28                      190\n\n      CHAPTER XVIII.\n\n19                      262\n\n      CHAPTER XIX.\n\n1                       246\n2                       186\n10                      244\n20                      198\n\n      CHAPTER XX.\n\n5, 6                    243\n12                      243\n14f                      40\n15, 16                  133\n29                      163\n\n      CHAPTER XXI.\n\n6                       272\n10                      266\n14                      134\n26                      133\n\n      CHAPTER XXII.\n\n7                  134, 162\n8                  134, 242\n12                      162\n18                      134\n19                      274\n\n      CHAPTER XXIV.\n\n3-11                    174\n23                      198\n\n      CHAPTER XXV.\n\n1, 2                     48\n7-11                     48\n16                      232\n20                      242\n\n      CHAPTER XXVI.\n\n5                        48\n29ff               113, 254\n\n      CHAPTER XXVII.\n\n1, 2                    113\n9                       231\n11                      133\n25                      233\n\n      CHAPTER XXVIII.\n\n1, 2                    269\n\n      CHAPTER XXIX.\n\n4, 5                    113\n\n      CHAPTER XXX.\n\n8                       232\n9-12                    149\n14                      121\n15                      257\n\n     CHAPTER XXXI.\n\n3                       120\n12ff                    124\n19, 20                  139\n27f                     184\n29, 30, 31              185\n\n      CHAPTER XXXII.\n\n5                      133\n6                      232\n24-28                  151\n30, 31                 151\n\n      CHAPTER XXXIV.\n\n1                      236\n10                     161\n12                160, 161\n14                     275\n16, 17                 276\n18, 19                 274\n20-22                  256\n\n      CHAPTER XXXV.\n\n17                     279\n\n      CHAPTER XXXVIII.\n\n1-15                   115\n5                      114\n16ff                   191\n24-34                  117\n\n      CHAPTER XXXIX.\n\n1-3                    198\n\n      CHAPTER XL.\n\n11                     190\n28f                    114\n\n      CHAPTER XLI.\n\n1                      163\n1-4                    191\n17-19                  163\n20                     186\n\n      CHAPTER XLII.\n\n9-11                   146\n\n      CHAPTER XLIII.\n\n1-5                    234\n8-12                   234\n15-19                  235\n24-25                  233\n27-32                  273\n\n      CHAPTER XLIV.\n\n1ff                     20\n\n      CHAPTER L.\n\n6, 7                   234\n8-10                   231\n\nCHAPTER LI.\n3ff                    160\n\nGenesis =10= 9 (50); =28= 10-19 (49).\nExodus =15= 25 (114); =20= 5 (67).\nNumbers =21= 27 (69).\nDeuteronomy =27= 17 (59); =80= 11-14 (215).\nJoshua =7= 24, 25 (66).\nRuth =2= 7-14 (235).\n1 Samuel =10= 11 (62); =24= 9-13 (63); =24= 16 (64).\n2 Samuel =1= 23 (64); =14= 1ff (68); =20= 16-22 (68).\n1 Kings =4= 29-34 (69, 231).\n2 Kings =4= 18, 19 (235).\n2 Chronicles =16= 12 (144)\nJob =5= 4 (189); =15= 18 (73); =24= 2 (59); =28= 20-27(175); =28, 38= (235).\nPsalms =1= (77); =1= 1 (180); =19= 1 (229); =90= 3 (43).\nEcclesiastes =7= 6 (133); =9= 4 (232).\nCanticles =2= 11ff (235).\nIsaiah =5= 8 (59); =28= 10 (109, 200); =29= 13, 14 (70 );\n         =40= 27 (44); =55= 8 (106).\nJeremiah =18= 18 (70); =81= 28-30 (65f).\nEzekiel =12= 21, 22 (67); =16= 44 (65); =18= 1f (65).\nHosea =5= 10 (59).\nAmos =5= 21f (83).\nZechariah =4= 6 (106).\nSt. Matthew =2= 12 (283); =5= 3f (210); =5= 42, =10= 14,\n         =12= 36, =22= 1-14, =25= 40 (211).\nSt. Mark =5= 26 (115).\nSt. Luke =4= 23 (115); =12= 16-21 (211); =14= 7-11 (211).\nSt. John =1= 12 (284); =3= 13 (283); =7= 17 (267); =18= 26ff (230).\nActs =18= 1-3 (119).\nRomans =5= 20 (67); =12= 20 (145).\n1 Corinthians =1= 24 (284).\n2 Corinthians =11= 9 (119).\nEphesians =6= 12 (76).\nHebrews =12= 1-7 (270f).\nJames =1= 5 (283); =4= 6-(267).\n1 Peter =5= 5 (267).\n1 Maccabees =2= 29-38 (202).\nWisdom of Solomon =7= 22ff (176, 282); =9= 4 (176).\nSayings of the Fathers =49=, 206f.\n\n\n\n\nII.--INDEX OF SUBJECTS\n\n\nAbbreviations, 40, 205, 207.\n\nAgnosticism, 176, 192, 218.\n\nAlmsgiving, 113f\n\nAnger, 139f.\n\nAntiochus Epiphanes,  201\n\nAristotle, 45.\n\nAthletics, 88, 93, 96, 183, 201.\n\n\nBacon, Francis, 22, 245, 256.\n\nBeggar, 114.\n\nBen Sirach, 39, 160ff.\n\nBribery, 152, 163, 257.\n\n\nChildren, 145ff, 271.\n\nChronicler, 109, 114.\n\nChurch, 182, 195, 199n, 216, 220, 225.\n\nCommerce, 113, 254.\n\nCraftsmen, 116f.\n\nCromer, Lord, 226.\n\n\nDeath, 163, 168, 190f.\n\nDemocracy, 86ff.\n\nDesert, Arabian, 54f, 141.\n\nDiscipline, Self-, 139, 171, 191f.\n\nDoctor, 114f.\n\n\nEcclesiasticus, 39f, 162, 205.\n\nEducation, 149.\n\nEpitaphs, Greek, 89f.\n\n\nFarmer, 232.\n\nFatalism, 278.\n\nFlattery, 125f.\n\nFools, 129ff, 242.\n\nForgiveness, 144, 268.\n\nFriendship, 142.\n\n\nGermany, 206, 217, 237.\n\nGhetto, 209.\n\nGreek, City-State, 86ff.\n\n---- philosophy, 95n, 159, 175f.\n\n\n_Hasidim_, 201.\n\nHellenism, 84ff, 110, 196, 201f, 225.\n\nHeredity 65f.\n\nHistory, 21f, 43, 81, 194f, 214f.\n\nHonesty, 141, 143f, 153, 253f, 265, 273.\n\n\nIdealism, 213, 222.\n\nIndividualism, 218f, 252.\n\n\nJealousy, 141.\n\nJosephus, 98.\n\nJustice, 152, 258, 269.\n\n\nKing, 152, 258.\n\n\nLabour, 116ff.\n\nLaw of Moses, 38n, 104, 108, 110f, 198, 209.\n\n\nMercy, 144f, 276.\n\nMiserliness, 122.\n\nMorality, 90, 94f, 153, 181, 183ff.\n\n\nNationalism, 89, 94, 164, 174n.\n\n\nOesterley, 151, 162, 168, 267\n\nOld Testament, 249.\n\n\nPindar, 229.\n\nPoseidonius, 96, 121.\n\nPride, 123, 140, 143.\n\nProverbs:\n  Arabic, 23f;\n  Chinese, 34;\n  Egyptian, 166;\n  English, 14-25, 179, 246;\n  Greek, 25, 166;\n  humanism of, 19f, 22, 162, 227, 280;\n  Indian 51f;\n  Italian and Spanish, 23f, 141;\n  New Testament, 194, 212;\n  numerical, 46ff;\n  Scotch, 25;\n  Rabbinic, 41, 49, 55, 206f, 218, 243, 247, 253, 259, 262;\n  wandering of, 51f.\n\nProvidence, 276ff.\n\nPtolemy, 91, 97, 101, 103.\n\n\nRabbis, 119.\n\nReceptivity, 142, 171, 266.\n\nReligion, 157f, 220f, 272.\n\nRuskin, 30.\n\nRutherford, Mark, 35.\n\n\nScribe(s), 116f, 160, 198n.\n\nSeleucus, 91, 97.\n\nSheol (see Death).\n\nSlander, 122f, 154.\n\nSlaves, 86, 150f.\n\nSluggard, 127ff, 140, 242.\n\nSolomon, 37, 71f, 231, 243.\n\nSolon, 99, 189.\n\nSuffering, 187ff, 270, 275.\n\nSynagogues, 197f.\n\n\nTemperance (see Wine).\n\nTheophrastus, 126.\n\n\nUniversalism, 108f, 111.\n\nUtilitarianism, 29, 167ff.\n\n\nWealth, 119f, 154, 256f.\n\nWine, 138, 153, 161, 184.\n\nWisdom, Greek, 99, 106.\n\n---- personified, 174f, 282.\n\nWisdom of Solomon, 39, 175, 281.\n\nWoman, 146, 154, 186, 241f.\n\n\nHeadley Brothers, 18, Devonshire Street, Bishopsgate, E.C.2.; and\nAshford, Kent.\n\n\u201cTHE HUMANISM OF\nTHE BIBLE\u201d SERIES.\n\nEdited by\n\nProfessor JOHN E. MCFADYEN, B.A. (Oxon), D.D.\n\n(United Free Church College, Glasgow),\n\nand\n\nD. RUSSELL SCOTT, M.A.\n\n(Late Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholar in the University\nof Oxford.)\n\nLarge Crown 8vo, Cloth Gilt.\n\nPrice =3s. 6d.= net per Volume.\n\nThe aim of the Series is to set forth the human experience that\nunderlies, and is reflected in, the Bible. The doctrinal and theological\ntreatment of the Bible has undoubtedly tended to obscure its\ntranscendent human interest. This Series is an attempt to recover some\nof those ancient experiences and personalities which come to expression\nin the Bible, and to show how fascinating and relevant they are to the\nlife of to-day. It seeks in a broad way to interpret the spirit of the\nBiblical books with which it deals, and to indicate their permanent\nhuman interest and worth.\n\n\u201cIf the series may be judged by its first volume it promises to fulfil\nadmirably its purpose of making the Bible a more human book.\u201d--_Glasgow\nHerald._\n\n\u201cThe series promises to be a valuable contribution to theological\nthought.\u201d--_Dundee Courier._\n\n\nLondon: JAMES CLARKE & Co., 13 & 14, FLEET STREET, E.C.\n\nAnd of all Booksellers.\n\n\nPESSIMISM AND LOVE.\n\nIn Ecclesiastes and The Song of Songs.\n\nBy\n\nDAVID RUSSELL SCOTT, M.A.\n\n(Late Pusey and Ellerton Scholar in the University of Oxford).\n\n_Large Crown 8vo, Cloth Boards, Gilt._ =3s. 6d.= _net._\n\n\u201cNo more suggestive and illuminative scriptural studies have been\npublished recently.\u201d--_Irish Presbyterian._\n\n\u201cThere can be no question of the freshness of his exposition.\u201d--_Glasgow\nHerald._\n\n\u201cMr. Scott is an accomplished Hebrew scholar ... his pages contain much\nthat is illuminative of the ancient text, and much that touches the\nquick of modern needs.\u201d--_Methodist Recorder._\n\n\u201cThe volume ... very successfully attains the aim of the series which it\nso admirably opens.\u201d--Professor G. Buchanan Gray, D.D., D.Litt., in the\nMansfield College Oxford Magazine.\n\n\u201cMr. Scott\u2019s command of language is quite remarkable, and clear diction\nis combined with penetrative insight and sound judgment.\u201d--_Aberdeen\nDaily Journal._\n\n\u201cExtremely interesting and able expositions ... attractive and valuable.\nMr. Scott is heartily to be congratulated on the striking success of his\nopportune work, both as a translator and expositor.\u201d--_Dundee\nAdvertiser._\n\n\u201cAn able and exhaustive analysis and explanation of Ecclesiastes. The\nbook teems with valuable instructions for men of to-day.\u201d--_Liverpool\nCourier._\n\n\u201cThe studies and expositions will be found suggestive, practical, and\nthoroughly up to date in their application to the problems of\npresent-day life.\u201d--_Northern Whig._\n\n\u201cA very useful piece of work. It is expository and frankly homiletic.\nMr. Scott gives us a fresh translation of both the books.... This kind\nundoubtedly has its place, and it could hardly be done better than Mr.\nRussell Scott does it.\u201d--_Methodist Times._\n\n\u201cThoughtful and stimulating.... These scholarly studies will appeal not\nonly to ministers of religion and theological students, but to the\naverage reader with a taste for philosophic moralising.\u201d--_Nottingham\nDaily Express._\n\n\nTHE INDIVIDUALITY OF\nS. PAUL.\n\nBy\n\nR. H. STRACHAN, M.A.\n\n_Large Crown 8vo, Cloth Boards, Gilt._ =3s. 6d.= _net._\n\n\u201cA close and careful investigation of the teaching of the Apostle. Mr.\nStrachan\u2019s style is crisp and pointed.\u201d--_The Times._\n\n\u201cThe book represents much honest and independent thinking, and is a very\nsincere and helpful contribution to a working knowledge of St. Paul\u2019s\nlife and theology.\u201d--_The Scotsman._\n\n\u201cOf Mr. Strachan\u2019s study of the Apostle we can speak in terms of warm\ncommendation. It is a work of clear discernment and of sound judgment\n... deserves to be welcomed as a most helpful study of the individuality\nof St. Paul and as a valuable exposition of the truths which it was his\nmission to proclaim.\u201d--_Westminster Gazette._\n\n\u201cMr. Strachan writes with strength, decision, lucidity and makes Paul\nstand before us as a Christian thinker and pastor.\u201d--_Methodist Times._\n\n\u201cThe arrangement of the matter is admirable, and as a result the very\nlarge amount of information is compressed into a very small space. Among\nthe many books on this great theme, this of Mr. Strachan\u2019s alike for its\nscholarship, its humanity, and its style deserves an honoured\nplace.\u201d--_Liverpool Post._\n\n\u201cThe theological student will find Mr. Strachan\u2019s work fresh,\nstimulating and reverent. The volume is characterised by great\naccuracy.\u201d--_Aberdeen Free Press._\n\n\u201cAn important and original contribution to the understanding of the New\nTestament.\u201d--_Sheffield Daily Telegraph._\n\n\u201cUnquestionably a very striking and valuable contribution to the study\nof Paul as a man and a theologian.\u201d--_Christian World,_.\n\n\u201cEvery page bears evidence of painstaking research. The volume will\nprove of signal value to the student.\u201d--_Aberdeen Daily Journal._\n\n\nRELIGION IN SONG.\n\nSTUDIES IN THE PSALTER.\n\nBy\n\nProfessor W. G. JORDAN, D.D.\n\n(Queen\u2019s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.)\n\n_Large Crown 8vo, Cloth Gilt._ =3s. 6d.= _net._\n\nThis is a most fascinating volume. Resting on a basis of accurate\nscholarship which is never obtruded, Prof. Jordan interprets the spirit\nof the Psalter with singular felicity. In his skilful hands this ancient\nHymn Book becomes amazingly modern. His volume is eminently wise and\nhelpful. To the preacher it is a veritable gold mine, while apart\naltogether from its religious power and insight it is a literary treat.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n=_Other Volumes already arranged for_=:\n\nTHE PROBLEM OF PAIN.\n\nA STUDY IN THE BOOK OF JOB.\n\nBy Professor JOHN E. MCFADYEN, D.D.\n\n\nSTUDIES IN LIFE FROM JEWISH\nPROVERBS.\n\nBy Rev. W. A. L. ELMSLIE, Fellow of Christ\u2019s College, Cambridge.\n\n\nJESUS AND HUMAN LIFE.\n\nBy Professor JOSEPH F. MCFADYEN, M.A., Hislop College, Nagpur, India.\n\n\nLondon: JAMES CLARKE & Co., 13 & 14. FLEET STREET, E.C.\n\nAnd of all Booksellers.\n\nA CATALOGUE OF THEOLOGICAL,\nILLUSTRATED AND GENERAL BOOKS\nPUBLISHED BY JAMES CLARKE & CO.,\n13 & 14, FLEET STREET, LONDON, E.C.\n\n\nCLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO PRICES,\nWITH INDEX OF TITLES AND AUTHORS AT THE END.\n\nNew Books and New Editions Marked with an Asterisk.\n\nTHE \u201cWORSHIP-SONG\u201d SERIES.\n\nEdited by W. GARRETT HORDER\n\nIncluding\n\nWORSHIP SONG (803 Hymns).\n\nPSALMS AND CANTICLES (150).\n\nANTHEMS, ANCIENT AND MODERN (130).\n\n\nFor full particulars as to prices, etc., see separate Catalogue, which\nwill be sent post free on application.\n\n\n=12/6= net\n\n=The Marprelate Tracts.= By WILLIAM PIERCE, Author of \u201cAn Historical\nIntroduction to the Marprelate Tracts.\u201d Demy 8vo, cloth, 12s. 6d. net.\n\nThe \u201cTracts\u201d reprinted in this volume are among the most famous in\nhistory. They were read eagerly everywhere in England, from the Court to\nthe country farmhouse, when they appeared at the end of the sixteenth\ncentury. They are racy in style, and the unknown author, \u201cMartin\nMarprelate,\u201d brings great resources of wit, humour and argument to bear\nin his tremendous onslaught upon the Bishops. Mr. Pierce gives a very\nscholarly edition of the tracts, enriched by many valuable and\nilluminating notes.\n\nDr. JAMES MOFFATT, in _The British Weekly_, says:--\u201cWill rank as a\nstandard edition. It is not possible to convey any idea of the\nhistorical scholarship and research which have gone to the making of\nthis book, but Mr. Pierce will have his reward in the consciousness of\nserving the cause of religious liberty; and in the gratification of\nthose who have to study the religious situation of England during the\nsixteenth century.... Their historical importance is considerable.\u201d\n\n\u201cOne of the most valuable contributions to our history ever\nmade.\u201d--Principal W. B. SELBIE.\n\n\n=10/6= net\n\n=THE POLYCHROME BIBLE=\n\nA New English Translation of the Books of the Bible. Printed in various\ncolours, showing at a glance the composite nature and the different\nsources of the Books. With many Notes and Illustrations from Ancient\nMonuments, &c. Each volume is the work of an eminent Biblical scholar of\nEurope or America, and the whole work is under the general editorship of\nPAUL HAUPT, of Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, assisted by HORACE\nHOWARD FURNESS.\n\n=The Book of Ezekiel=. Translated by the Rev. C. H. TOY, D.D., LL.D.,\nProfessor of Hebrew and other Oriental Languages, and Lecturer on\nBiblical Literature in Harvard University. 208 pp. (89 pp. translation\nand 119 pp. notes). With nine full-page Illustrations (including a Map\nof Western Asia) and 102 Illustrations in the Notes. Cloth, gilt top,\n10s. 6d. net.\n\n_For other Volumes in this Series see page 4._\n\n\n=7/6= net\n\n=A Chronicle of the Archbishops of Canterbury.= By A. E. MCKILLIAM, M.A.\nDemy 8vo. Photogravure Portrait and 16 illustrations. Cloth boards, gilt\ntop, 7s. 6d. net.\n\n=Christ\u2019s Vision of the Kingdom of Heaven.= By JAMES STIRLING. Author of\n\u201cThe Stewardship of Life,\u201d \u201cFinders of the Way,\u201d etc. Demy 8vo. 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Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Religion and Miracle.= By GEORGE A. GORDON, D.D., Author of \u201cThrough Man\nto God,\u201d \u201cThe Christ of To-day,\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top,\n3s. 6d. net.\n\n=A Working Woman\u2019s Life.= The Autobiography of MARIANNE FARNINGHAM. Large\ncrown 8vo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Gospel of Grace.= By J. D. JONES, M.A., D.D., Author of \u201cChrist\u2019s\nPathway to the Cross,\u201d &c. Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s.\n6d. net.\n\n=The Winning of Immortality.= By FREDERIC PALMER, Author of \u201cStudies in\nTheologic Definition.\u201d Cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Christian Certitude: Its Intellectual Basis.= By E. DIGGES LA TOUCHE,\nLitt.D. Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Life in His Name.= By DAVID M. M\u2018INTYRE, Author of \u201cThe Hidden Life of\nPrayer,\u201d &c. Handsomely bound in cloth boards, gilt edges, with headband\nand marker, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Interludes in a Time of Change: Ethical, Social, Theological.= By JAMES\nMORRIS WHITON, Ph.D. (Yale), Author of \u201cDivine Satisfaction,\u201d \u201cGloria\nPatri,\u201d &c. Cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Modern Theories of Sin.= By W. E. ORCHARD, D.D. Thesis approved for the\nDegree of Doctor of Divinity in the University of London. Demy 8vo,\ncloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Evangelical Heterodoxy.= By J. MORGAN GIBBON, Author of \u201cThe Epistle to\nthe Galatians.\u201d Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Christian of To-day.= A Brief Description of His Thought and Life. By\nROBERT VEITCH, M.A., Author of \u201cThe First Christians,\u201d &c. Large crown\n8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Right Hon. H. H. Asquith, M.P.= A Biography and Appreciation. By\nFRANK ELIAS. Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Art of Sermon Illustration.= By H. JEFFS, Editor of _The Christian\nWorld Pulpit_. Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The First Things of Jesus.= By JOHN REID, M.A., of Inverness, Author of\n\u201cJesus and Nicodemus: a Study in Spiritual Life.\u201d Large crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Jesus: Seven Questions.= By J. WARSCHAUER, M.A., D.Phil., Author of \u201cThe\nNew Evangel,\u201d &c. Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Evolution of Old Testament Religion.= By W. E. ORCHARD, D.D. Large\ncrown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Church and Modern Life.= By WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D., Author of \u201cWho\nWrote the Bible?\u201d &c. Cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=My Belief.= Answers to Certain Religious Difficulties. By R. F. HORTON,\nM.A., D.D., Author of \u201cCartoons of St. Mark,\u201d &c. Large crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Story of Congregationalism in Surrey.= By E. E. CLEAL. Demy 8vo, 464\npages, 46 Illustrations on art paper and Map, cloth bevelled boards, 3s.\n6d. net.\n\n=Jesus and His Teaching.= By ERICH VON SCHRENCK, Mag. Theol. Translated by\nJ. WARSCHAUER, M.A., D.Phil. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Atonement in Modern Thought.= A Theological Symposium. By Professor\nAUGUSTE SABATIER, Professor HARNACK, Professor GODET, Dean FARRAR, Dr.\nP. T. FORSYTH, Dr. MARCUS DODS, Dr. LYMAN ABBOTT, Dr. JOHN HUNTER, Dr.\nWASHINGTON GLADDEN, Dean FREMANTLE, Dr. CAVE, Dr. R. F. HORTON, Rev. R.\nJ. CAMPBELL, Principal ADENEY, Rev. C. SILVESTER HORNE, Rev. BERNARD J.\nSNELL, and Dr. T. T. MUNGER. Cheap Edition. Large crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cThis interesting work.... Among the writers are men of great\ndistinction.... Deserves careful attention.\u201d--_The Spectator._\n\n=A Voice from China.= By GRIFFITH JOHN, D.D.Edin., Hankow. Large crown\n8vo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Story of the English Baptists.= By J. C. CARLILE. Large crown 8vo,\n320 pages, 8 Illustrations on art paper, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=The First Christians; or, Christian Life in New Testament Times.= By\nROBERT VEITCH, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Gloria Patri: or, Our Talks About the Trinity.= By J. M. WHITON, Ph.D.\n(Yale). Cloth, 3s. 6d. net\n\n=The Christ that is To Be: A Latter-Day Romance.= By Sir J.\nCOMPTON-RICKETT, M.P. New Edition. Demy 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Family Prayers for Morning Use, and Prayers for Special Occasions=.\nCompiled and Edited by J. M. G. Cloth, pott quarto, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Preaching to the Times.= By Dean H. HENSLEY HENSON. Crown 8vo, cloth\nextra, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cSound sense and scholarly solidity.\u201d--_Dundee Courier._\n\n=The Dutch in the Medway.= By CHARLES MACFARLANE. Author of \u201cThe Camp of\nRefuge,\u201d &c. With a Foreword by S. R. CROCKETT. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s.\n6d. net.\n\n=The Quickening of Caliban.= A Modern Story of Evolution. By Sir J.\nCOMPTON-RICKETT, M.P., Author of \u201cChristianity in Common Speech,\u201d &c.\nLarge crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\nTHE HUMANISM OF THE BIBLE SERIES\n\nEdited by PROFESSOR JOHN E. MCFADYEN, B.A. (Oxon), D.D. (United Free\nChurch College, Glasgow), and D. RUSSELL SCOTT, M.A., (Late Pusey and\nEllerton Hebrew Scholar in the University of Oxford). Large Crown 8vo.\nCloth Gilt. Price 3s. 6d. net per Volume. The aim of the Series is to\nset forth the human experience that underlies, and is reflected in, the\nBible. The doctrinal and theological treatment of the Bible has\nundoubtedly tended to obscure its transcendent human interest. This\nSeries is an attempt to recover some of those ancient experiences and\npersonalities which come to expression in the Bible, and to show how\nfascinating and relevant they are to the life of to-day. It seeks in a\nbroad way to interpret the spirit of the Biblical books with which it\ndeals, and to indicate their permanent human interest and worth.\n\n\u201cIf the series may be judged by its first volume it promises to fulfil\nadmirably its purpose of making the Bible a more human book.\u201d--_Glasgow\nHerald._\n\n=Pessimism and Love in Ecclesiastes and the Song of Songs=, with\ntranslations from the same. By DAVID RUSSELL SCOTT, M.A.\n\n\u201cAn able and exhaustive analysis and explanation of Ecclesiastes. The\nbook teems with valuable instructions for men of to-day.\u201d--_Liverpool\nCourier._\n\n=The Individuality of S. Paul.= By R. H. STRACHAN, M.A.\n\n\u201cEvery page bears evidence of painstaking research. The volume will\nprove of signal value to the student.\u201d--_Aberdeen Daily Journal._\n\n=*Religion in Song: Studies in the Psalter.= By Prof. W. G. JORDAN, B.A.,\nD.D.\n\nThis is a most fascinating volume, eminently wise and helpful. To the\npreacher it is a veritable gold mine, while apart altogether from its\nreligious power and insight it is a literary treat.\n\n\nOther Volumes already arranged for:\n\n=The Problem of Pain.= A Study in the book of Job. By PROFESSOR JOHN E.\nMCFADYEN, D.D.\n\n=Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs.= By W. A. L. ELMSLIE, Fellow of\nChrist\u2019s College, Cambridge.\n\n=Jesus and Human Life.= By PROFESSOR JOSEPH F. MCFADYEN, M.A. Hislop\nCollege, Nagpur, India.\n\n\nTHE MESSAGES OF THE BIBLE\n\nEdited by FRANK KNIGHT SANDERS, Ph.D., Woolsey Professor of Biblical\nLiterature in Yale University, and CHARLES FOSTER KENT, Ph.D., Professor\nof Biblical Literature and History in Brown University. Super royal\n16mo, cloth, red top, 3s. 6d. net per volume (To be completed in 12\nVolumes.)\n\nI. THE MESSAGES OF THE EARLIER PROPHETS. By Frank Knight Sanders, Ph.D.,\nand Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.\n\nII. THE MESSAGES OF THE LATER PROPHETS. By Frank Knight Sanders, Ph.D.,\nand Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.\n\nIII. THE MESSAGES OF ISRAEL\u2019S LAW-GIVERS. By Charles Foster Kent, Ph.D.\n\nIV. THE MESSAGES OF THE PROPHETICAL AND PRIESTLY HISTORIANS. By John\nEdgar McFadyen, M.A.(Glas.), B.A.(Oxon.)\n\nV. THE MESSAGES OF THE PSALMISTS. By John Edgar McFadyen, M.A.(Glas.),\nB.A.(Oxon).\n\nVII. THE MESSAGES OF THE POETS. By Nathaniel Schmidt, M.A.\n\nVIII. THE MESSAGES OF THE APOCALYPTICAL WRITERS. By Frank Chamberlin\nPorter, Ph.D., D.D.\n\nIX. THE MESSAGES OF JESUS ACCORDING TO THE SYNOPTISTS. By Thomas Cuming\nHall, D.D.\n\nX. THE MESSAGES OF JESUS ACCORDING TO THE GOSPEL OF JOHN. By James\nStevenson Riggs, D.D.\n\nXI. THE MESSAGES OF PAUL. By George Barker Stevens, Ph.D., D.D.\n\nXII. THE MESSAGES OF THE APOSTLES. By George Barker Stevens, Ph.D., D.D.\n\nVolume VI. will appear shortly.\n\n\u201cSuch a work is of the utmost service to every student of the\nScriptures.\u201d _The Dundee Advertiser._\n\n\nBy J. BRIERLEY (\u201cJ. B.\u201d)\n\n=Faith\u2019s Certainties.= By J. BRIERLEY (\u201cJ.B.\u201d), Author of \u201cReligion and\nTo-day,\u201d \u201cOurselves and the Universe,\u201d etc. Large crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, gilt top, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n=Religion and To-day.= Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n=The Life of the Soul.= Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n\u201cVigorous in thought, rich in literary allusions, and incisive in\nstyle.... Mr. Brierley is always convincing as well as\ningenious.\u201d--_Methodist Recorder._\n\n=The Secret of Living.= Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n\u201cThis author has given several thoughtful volumes, but not one in which\nthe ideal and the practical are so well blended and so skilfully\ncontrasted as in the present.\u201d--_Liverpool Courier._\n\n=Life and the Ideal.= Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n\u201cThis book is a book to read, and each section is food for constant\nreference and continued thought.\u201d--_Manchester Courier._\n\n=Aspects of the Spiritual.= Large crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 3s.\n6d. net.\n\n\u201cThese essays are equal to the best he has yet produced. 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Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cThese beautiful and charming essays.\u201d--_Hibbert Journal._\n\n=Ourselves and the Universe: Studies In Life and Religion.= Sixth Edition.\nCrown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cWe have not for a long time read a brighter, cheerier, or wiser book.\u201d\n_Daily News._\n\n=Studies of the Soul.= Eighth Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth, 3s. 6d.\n\nDR. HORTON says:--\u201cI prefer this book to the best-written books I have\nlighted on for a year past.\u201d\n\n=Our City of God.= Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cWe say without hesitation that this is a most inspiring work.\u201d\n_Westminster Gazette._\n\n\n3/6\n\n=A Gamble with Life.= By SILAS K. HOCKING, Author of \u201cTo Pay the Price.\u201d\nLarge crown 8vo, bevelled boards, 3s. 6d.\n\n\nAMELIA E. 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MORROW, M.A., Author of \u201cQuestions asked\nand answered by our Lord,\u201d etc. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt, 2s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n=*Through a Padre\u2019s Spectacles.= By J. GOLDER BURNS, C.F. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, gilt, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Poems.= By MADAME GUYON. Translated from the French by the late WILLIAM\nCOWPER, with a Prefatory Essay by D. MACFADYEN, M.A. F\u2019cap 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Appeal of Jesus.= By T. S. CAIRNCROSS, B.D., Author of \u201cThe Making of\na Minister,\u201d etc. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Chosen Twelve.= By JAMES GOLDER BURNS, B.D., of Glasgow. Crown 8vo,\ncloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Simon Peter\u2019s Ordination Day.= Studies in the Twenty-first Chapter of St.\nJohn\u2019s Gospel. By the Rev. JOHN A. PATTEN, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth boards,\n2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Ambrose Shepherd, D.D.= A Memoir and Sermons. Written by ERIC SHEPHERD.\nEdited by J. F. SHEPHERD, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, with Portrait,\n2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Making of a Minister.= By T. S. CAIRNCROSS, B.D., Author of \u201cSteps of\nthe Pulpit.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=A Pulpit Manual.= Containing Prayers of Adoration, Confession, Petition,\nThanksgiving, and Intercession; Suggestive Summaries; Orders of Service\nfor Sacraments, Marriage, Admission to Communion, Church Festivals, and\nother Public Occasions. Compiled by JAMES BURNS, M.A., Author of\n\u201cIllustrations from Art for Pulpit and Platform.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards. 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Seriousness of Life.= Sermons on Practical Subjects, with an Essay on\nPreaching. By JAMES S. RUTHERFORD, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth boards. 2s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n=Through Eyes of Youth.= A Book of Poems. By E. CECIL ROBERTS, Author of\n\u201cPhyllistrata, and other Poems.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards. 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Homes and Careers in Canada.= By H. JEFFS, Author of \u201cThe Good New\nTimes,\u201d etc. 16 Illustrations on art paper. Crown 8vo, cloth boards. 2s.\n6d. net.\n\n=Christian Union in Social Service.= By J. C. CARLILE, Author of \u201cThe\nStory of the English Baptists,\u201d etc. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n=Self-Realisation.= By C. H. BETTS, LL.D., Author of \u201cFragments of\nThought,\u201d \u201cThe Education of a Soul,\u201d \u201cLiving Pleasures,\u201d etc. Crown 8vo,\ncloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Who was Jesus?= The Answer of the New Testament. By D. H. MACONACHIE,\nB.A., B.D. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Translation of Faith.= By H. BULCOCK, B.A., B.D. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Studies in Christian Mysticism.= By REV. W. H. DYSON. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Astronomy Simplified=. By Rev. ALEX. C. HENDERSON, B.D., F.R.A.S. Crown\n8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Phyllistrata=, and other Poems. By E. CECIL ROBERTS. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Led by a Child=; and other Sermons. By Rev. ALFRED HOLBORN, M.A. Crown\n8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Our Protestant Faith.= By Rev. J. STEPHENS ROOSE, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Story of the Twelve=: A Dramatic Poem in eight books. By ARTHUR HAY\nSTORROW. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Waiting Life: By the River of Waters.= By HUBERT FOSTON, M.A., D.Lit.\nCrown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Uplifting of Life.= By Rev. JOHN REID, M.A., Author of \u201cThe First\nThings of Jesus,\u201d etc. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Unveiled Glory; or, Sidelights on the Higher Evolution.= By Rev.\nLUTHER WINTHER CAWS, Author of \u201cThe Unrecognised Stranger,\u201d \u201cThe\nUnfolding Dawn.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Looking Inwards=: Words Addressed to the Soul of the Church. By EDWARD\nSHILLITO, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Eucken and Bergson.= Their Significance for Christian Thought. By E.\nHERMANN. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Messages of Hope.= By GEORGE MATHESON, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Author of\n\u201cThoughts for Life\u2019s Journey,\u201d &c. Handsomely bound in cloth boards,\ngilt edges, 2s. 6d. net; leather, 4s. net.\n\n=Problems and Perplexities.= By W. E. ORCHARD, D.D., Author of \u201cModern\nTheories of Sin,\u201d \u201cEvolution of Old Testament Religion,\u201d etc. 304 pages,\nprinted on India paper, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Imperishable Word.= By W. CHARTER PIGGOTT. Crown 8vo, cloth boards,\n2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Constructive Christianity.= By WILLIAM SOUPER, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Peter in the Firelight.= By WILLIAM ALLEN KNIGHT, Author of \u201cOur Syrian\nGuest,\u201d \u201cNo Room in the Inn,\u201d etc. Illustrated in Colours. Fancy Cover.\nLarge crown 8vo, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=A Young Man\u2019s Ideal.= By WILLIAM WATSON, M.A., Author of \u201cPrayer,\u201d &c.\nCrown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Modern Minor Prophets.= Edited, with a Chapter on \u201cLay Preaching and its\nBy-Products,\u201d by H. JEFFS, Author of \u201cThe Art of Sermon Illustration,\u201d\n\u201cPractical Lay Preaching and Speaking to Men.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards,\n2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Fifty Years\u2019 Reminiscences of a Free Church Musician.= By E. MINSHALL.\nCrown 8vo, Photogravure Portrait, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Problems of Immanence.= Studies Critical and Constructive. By J.\nWARSCHAUER, M.A., D.Phil., Author of \u201cThe New Evangel,\u201d \u201cJesus: Seven\nQuestions,\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Sculptors of Life.= A Book for Young Men and Young Women. By THOMAS\nYATES. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=An Impregnable Faith.= A Modern Pilgrim\u2019s Progress from Scepticism\nthrough Morality and Religious Optimism to Jesus Christ and the \u201cGood\nKingdom.\u201d By Rev. DAVID MELVILLE STEWART. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s.\n6d. net.\n\n=A Lifted Veil.= A Novel. By J. G. STEVENSON. Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo, 4\nIllustrations, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Augustinian Revolution In Theology.= By Rev. THOMAS ALLIN, D.D., Author\nof \u201cRace and Religion.\u201d Illustrated by Comparison with the Teaching of\nthe Antiochene Divines of the Fourth and Fifth Centuries. Crown 8vo,\ncloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Beatitudes and the Contrasts.= By HUBERT FOSTON, M.A., D. Litt. Crown\n8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=King George and Queen Mary.= By HENRY WARWICK. Illustrated by latest\nportraits on art paper. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Letters to a Ministerial Son.= By A MAN OF THE WORLD. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Religion: The Quest of the Ideal.= By J. M. HODGSON, M.A., D.Sc., D.D.\nCrown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Universal Over-Presence.= By C. H. BETTS, Author of \u201cFragments of\nThought\u201d and \u201cThe Education of a Soul.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n=Thoughts for Life\u2019s Journey.= By GEORGE MATHESON, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E.,\nAuthor of \u201cLeaves for Quiet Hours.\u201d Cheap Edition. Cloth boards, gilt\nedges, 2s. 6d. net; leather, 4s. net.\n\n=Life\u2019s Beginnings.= Wisdom and Counsel for Daily Guidance. Fifth\nimpression. Printed on India paper and handsomely bound in leather,\nround corners and gilt edges, boxed, 2s. 6d. net (uniform with \u201cThe\nPilot\u201d). Also in silk grain cloth, 1s. 6d. net. Velvet calf, round\ncorners, gilt edges, 4s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cOne can easily understand how a compendium of the thoughts of master\nminds such as this may be a real stimulus in these days of stress. The\nbattle of the world will be entered upon with a cheerful heart after a\nthoughtful perusal of the most noble passages allotted to each day by\nthese discriminating anthologists. Should be in constant demand. One of\nthe prettiest and most acceptable gift-books this busy season has seen.\u201d\n_Dundee Advertiser._\n\n=The True Christ, and other Studies in \u201cWhatsoever things are true.\u201d= By\nW. L. WALKER, Author of \u201cThe Teaching of Christ,\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Christ In Everyday Life.= By EDWARD INCREASE BOSWORTH, Dean of Oberlin\nTheological Seminary. F\u2019cap 8vo, India paper, cloth boards, round\ncorners, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Things Most Surely Believed.= By J. D. JONES, M.A., D.D., Author of \u201cThe\nGospel of Grace,\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Lyrics of the Soul.= A Book of Poems. By MARIANNE FARNINGHAM, Author of\n\u201cHarvest Gleanings,\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt edges, 2s. 6d.\nnet.\n\n=Conquering Prayer: or, The Power of Personality.= By L. SWETENHAM, Author\nof \u201cReligious Genius.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Immanence of Christ in Modern Life.= By FREDERICK R. SWAN. With\nIntroduction by J. BRIERLEY, B.A. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Health in the Home Life.= By HONNOR MORTEN, Author of \u201cA Complete Book of\nNursing,\u201d \u201cHow to Treat Accidents and Illnesses,\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, art\nleather cloth, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Ungilded Gold; or, Nuggets from the King\u2019s Treasury.= Selected Passages\nfrom the Bible, arranged for Daily Devotional Reading (uniform with \u201cThe\nPilot\u201d). 384 pages, leather boxed, 2s. 6d. net; also silk grain cloth,\ngilt lettering, red edges, 1s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Challenge, and Other Stories for Boys and Girls.= By Rev. J. G.\nSTEVENSON, Author of \u201cThe Christ of the Children,\u201d 4to, cloth boards,\n240 pp. Eight Illustrations. 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Leaves for Quiet Hours.= By GEORGE MATHESON, F.R.S.E., D.D., LL.D.,\nAuthor of \u201cWords by the Wayside,\u201d &c. New and cheap edition. Handsomely\nbound in cloth boards, with chaste design in gold, and gilt edges, 2s.\n6d. net. Leather, 4s. net.\n\n=The Pilot.= A Book of Daily Guidance from Master Minds. Contains nearly\n2,000 of the choicest extracts systematically arranged for every day of\nthe year. Printed on India paper and handsomely bound in leather, with\nround corners and gilt edges, 2s. 6d. net; velvet calf, 3s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cA book of real daily value.\u201d--_Sheffield Telegraph._\n\n=Liberty and Religion.= By P. WHITWELL WILSON, Author of \u201cWhy We Believe,\u201d\n&c. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=Why We Believe.= Papers on Religion and Brotherhood. By P. WHITWELL\nWILSON. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=The New Testament in Modern Speech.= With notes. An idiomatic translation\ninto everyday English from the text of \u201cThe Resultant Greek Testament.\u201d\nBy the late RICHARD FRANCIS WEYMOUTH, M.A., D.Litt., Fellow of\nUniversity College, London, and formerly Head Master of Mill Hill\nSchool, Editor of \u201cThe Resultant Greek Testament.\u201d Edited and partly\nrevised by ERNEST HAMPDEN-COOK, M.A., formerly Exhibitioner and Prizeman\nof St. John\u2019s College, Cambridge. New and revised Edition. Cloth boards,\n2s. 6d. net. Leather 4s. net. Thumb Indexed, cloth, 3s. 6d. net. Leather\n5s. net. Also on Oxford India paper, cloth boards, 3s. 6d. net. Leather,\n5s. net. Persian morocco, yapp, leather lined and silk sewn, round\ncorners, red under gold, 8s. net. Turkey morocco, limp, 8s. 6d. net.\n(_See also p. 22._)\n\n=The New Evangel=: Studies in the \u201cNew Theology.\u201d By Rev. J. WARSCHAUER,\nM.A., D.Phil. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cMay be studied with advantage.\u201d--_Spectator._\n\n=The Resultant Greek Testament.= Exhibiting the Text in which the majority\nof Modern Editors are agreed. By the late RICHARD FRANCIS WEYMOUTH,\nD.Litt. Cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=A Young Man\u2019s Religion and his Father\u2019s Faith.= By N. MCGHEE WATERS.\nSmall crown 8vo, cloth boards, gilt top, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cIt is an earnestly religious and well-written work.\u201d--_The Scotsman._\n\n=The Good New Times.= By H. JEFFS, Author of \u201cPractical Lay Preaching and\nSpeaking to Men.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. 6d. net.\n\n=History of France, 1180-1314 A.D.= The Growth of the Feudal Absolute\nMonarchy. With four maps, illustrating the changes in ownership of\nterritory in France at different periods. By A. F. DODD (First Class in\nHistory Tripos, Cantab.). 2s. 6d. net.\n\n\n=2/-= net\n\n=The Church and the Next Generation.= By RICHARD ROBERTS, M.A. Crown 8vo,\ncloth boards, 2s. net.\n\n=The Story of Joseph the Dreamer=, told by Himself, and Other Poems. By\nALFRED CAPES TARBOLTON. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. net.\n\n=The Judges of Jesus=: Judas, Annas, Peter, Caiaphas, Herod, Pilate\u2019s\nWife, Pontius Pilate. By Rev. J. G. STEVENSON. Crown 8vo, cloth boards,\n2s. net.\n\n=The Value of the Old Testament.= By BERNARD J. SNELL, M.A., Author of\n\u201cThe Value of the Apocrypha,\u201d \u201cGain or Loss?\u201d &c. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards, 2s. net.\n\n=The Purpose of the Cross.= By B. G. COLLINS. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s.\nnet.\n\n=Atonement and Progress.= By NEWTON H. MARSHALL, M.A., Ph.D., Author of\n\u201cTheology and Truth.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. net.\n\n=Authority and the Light Within.= By EDWARD GRUBB, M.A. Crown 8vo, cloth\nboards. 2s. net.\n\n\n=2/-= net\n\n=Ideals for Girls.= By the Rev. H. R. HAWEIS, M.A., Author of \u201cMusic and\nMorals.\u201d New Edition, crown 8vo, handsomely bound in bevelled boards,\ngilt edges, 2s. net.\n\n\u201cA book that all parents should place in the hands of their daughters.\u201d\n\n=The Glorious Company of the Apostles.= Being Studies in the Characters of\nthe Twelve. By the Rev. J. D. JONES, M.A., D.D. Cloth boards, gilt top,\n2s. net.\n\n\u201cMany think that a readable sermon is a contradiction in terms. Let them\nread these pages and discover their mistake.\u201d--_Examiner._\n\n=The Model Prayer.= A Series of Expositions on the Lord\u2019s Prayer. By Rev.\nJ. D. JONES, M.A., D.D. New Edition, cloth boards, gilt top, 2s. net.\n\n\u201cMr. Jones brings a cultured mind, a well-stored memory, and a gift of\nspiritual insight to the illustration of the Lord\u2019s Prayer.\u201d _Sunday\nSchool Chronicle._\n\n=Simple Cookery.= Comprising \u201cTasty Dishes\u201d and \u201cMore Tasty Dishes.\u201d Over\n500 Tested Receipts. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 2s. net.\n\n\u201cA book that should be in every household.\u201d\n\n=The Children\u2019s Paul.= A Life of St. Paul specially written for the Young.\nBy Rev. J. G. STEVENSON. 4to, cloth boards, 8 Illustrations on art\npaper, 2s. net.\n\n=The Christ of the Children.= A Life of Jesus for Little People. By Rev.\nJ. G. STEVENSON. Cheap Edition. 4to, cloth boards, 12 Illustrations, 2s.\nnet.\n\n\u201cIt is the very loveliest life of Jesus for children ever written by a\nlong way.\u201d--Rev. KINGSCOTE GREENLAND in _The Methodist Recorder_.\n\n=Stories of Old. Bible Stories Retold.= By C. D. MICHAEL, Author of \u201cNoble\nDeeds,\u201d \u201cDeeds of Daring,\u201d &c. Cheap Edition. 4to, 288 pp., cloth\nboards, 8 illustrations, 2s. net.\n\n\n2/-\n\nCLARKE\u2019S COPYRIGHT LIBRARY\n\nCrown 8vo, tastefully bound in cloth boards, 2s.\n\n=The Black Familiars.= By L. B. WALFORD.\n=Kid McGhie.= By S. R. 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Author of\n\u201cAn Impregnable Faith.\u201d F\u2019cap 8vo, cloth boards, 1s. net.\n\n=The Garrisoned Soul.= Meditations on \u201cPeace, Perfect Peace,\u201d by C. E. P.\nANTRAM. Fancy cloth, 1s. net.\n\n\u201cIt is just the sort of book, chaste and beautiful, contents and binding\nalike, that would make a pretty present on a birthday or a Church\nfestival. Its size and its type make it suitable also to send to an\ninvalid. Indeed, its cheering chapters would to many such, we are sure,\nact like a tonic, and be an efficient co-worker with the\nphysician.\u201d--_Sheffield Telegraph._\n\n=Women and their Saviour.= Thoughts of a Minute for a Month. By MARIANNE\nFARNINGHAM, Author of \u201cHarvest Gleanings,\u201d &c. Cloth, 1s. net.\n\n\u201cThese \u2018thoughts of a minute for a month of mornings,\u2019 are the\noutpourings of an entirely unaffected piety.\u201d--_Glasgow Herald._\n\n=Reasons Why for Free Churchmen.= By Rev. J. D. JONES, M.A., B.D. Small\n8vo, cloth boards, 1s. net.\n\n=The Price of Priestcraft.= By HOWARD EVANS. Crown 8vo, paper covers, 1s.\nnet; cloth, 1s. 6d. net.\n\n\u201cWe wish for it a very large circulation. No one has served the cause of\nreligious freedom better than Mr. Howard Evans by his labours in the\nPress and elsewhere.\u201d--_British Weekly._\n\n=Sunday Afternoon Song Book, with Tunes.= Compiled by H. A. KENNEDY and R.\nD. METCALFE. 1s. net. Words only, 12s. 6d. per hundred net.\n\n\u201cThe airs have been selected and arranged under the editorship of Mr. R.\nD. Metcalfe, and add so much to the value of the collection that this\nedition will easily supersede all others and give the work a new\npopularity with choral societies and others interested in church music.\u201d\n_The Scotsman._\n\n=Oliver Cromwell.= By R. F. HORTON, D.D., Author of \u201cJohn Howe,\u201d \u201cThe\nTeaching of Jesus,\u201d &c., &c. Sixth Edition. Nineteenth Thousand. 1s.\n\n\u201cWorthy a place in the library of every Christian student.\u201d _Methodist\nRecorder._\n\n=Rome from the Inside; or, The Priests\u2019 Revolt.= Translated and Compiled\nby \u201cJ. B.\u201d of The Christian World. Third Thousand. F\u2019cap. 8vo, 1s.\n\n=Outline Text Lessons for Junior Classes.= By GLADYS DAVIDSON, Author of\n\u201cKindergarten Bible Stories,\u201d &c. F\u2019cap 8vo, cloth boards, 1s. net.\n\n\u201cThe book is simple and practical, and will be found suggestive and\nhelpful by teachers.\u201d--_Sunday School Chronicle._\n\n=How to Read the Bible.= Hints for Sunday School Teachers and other Bible\nStudents. By W. F. ADENEY, M.A. New and Revised Edition. Cloth boards,\n1s. net.\n\n\u201cA most admirable little work. We know of no book which deals with this\nsubject so clearly and adequately within so small a compass. It speaks\nof itself modestly as \u201cHints for Sunday-school Teachers and other Bible\nStudents,\u201d but it ls one of the very few manuals which are well worth\nthe study of the clergy.\u201d--_The Guardian._\n\n=Short Talks to Boys and Girls.= By J. C. CARLILE, Author of \u201cTalks to\nLittle Folks.\u201d Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 1s. net.\n\n=A Religion that will Wear.= A Layman\u2019s Confession of Faith. Addressed to\nAgnostics, by a SCOTTISH PRESBYTERIAN. Crown 8vo, cloth boards, 1s. net.\n\n=The Divine Satisfaction.= A Review of what should and what should not be\nthought about the Atonement. By J. M. WHITON. Crown 8vo, paper, 1s. net.\n\n=The Conquered World.= By R. F. HORTON, D.D. Cloth, 1s. net.\n\n=Health and Home Nursing.= By Mrs. LESSELS MATHER, Health Lecturer to the\nNorthumberland County Council. F\u2019cap. 8vo, cloth, 1s. net.\n\nA book that should be in every household. Contains chapters on The Care\nof the Invalid, Homely Local Applications, Feeding the Invalid,\nInfection and Disinfection, Care of the Teeth, The Value of Foods,\nInfluenza, its Causes and Prevention, Consumption, its Causes and\nPrevention, Digestion and Indigestion, Headaches, Home Nursing of Sick\nChildren, What to do till the Doctor Comes, Habit in Relation to Health,\nThe Health of the Town Dweller.\n\n=Wayside Angels, and Other Sermons.= By W. K. BURFORD. Pott 8vo, cloth,\n1s. net.\n\n=Helps to Health and Beauty.= Two Hundred Practical Prescriptions by a\nPharmaceutical Chemist. Price 1s. net.\n\n\u201cThis little book contains two hundred practical prescriptions or\nformul\u00e6, for preparations for the hair, hands, nails, feet, skin, teeth,\nand bath, in addition to perfumes, insecticides, and medicaments for\nvarious ailments. As far as possible technical language is avoided, and\nthe directions are clear and concise.\u201d--_Pharmaceutical Journal._\n\n=Morning, Noon and Night.= By R. F. HORTON, M.A., D.D. F\u2019cap 8vo,\nparchment cover with gold lettering, 1s. net.\n\n\u201cDeeply suggestive, and as earnest as its fancies are pleasing and\nquaint.\u201d _Dundee Advertiser._\n\n=Tasty Dishes.= A Choice Selection of Tested Recipes, showing what we can\nhave for Breakfast, Dinner, Tea and Supper. It is designed for people of\nmoderate means who desire to have pleasant and varied entertainment for\nthemselves and their friends. It is a book of genuine and tested\ninformation. New Edition. Thoroughly revised and brought up to date.\n130th Thousand. Crown 8vo, 1s. net.\n\n\u201cNo home ought to be without this timely, useful, and practical family\nfriend.\u201d--_Brighton Gazette._\n\n=More Tasty Dishes.= A Book of Tasty, Economical and Tested Recipes.\nIncluding a Section on Invalid Cookery. A Supplement to \u201cTasty Dishes.\u201d\nNew Edition. Price 1s. net.\n\n\u201cEvery recipe is so clearly stated that the most inexperienced cook\ncould follow them and make dainty dishes at a small cost.\u201d--_Pearson\u2019s\nWeekly._\n\n\u201cThe recipes given have been carefully tried and not been found\nwanting.\u201d _The Star._\n\n=Talks to Little Folks.= A Series of Short Addresses. By Rev. J. C.\nCARLILE. Crown 8vo, art vellum, 1s. net.\n\n\u201cNo one who reads this book can reasonably doubt that Mr. Carlile is\nmaster of the difficult art of catching and sustaining the interest of\nyoung people. He is wise enough to dispense with the preacher\u2019s\nframework, texts, introductions, &c., and at once he arrests attention\nby a direct question or a brief story.\u201d--_Literary World._\n\n=Christianity in Common Speech=: Suggestions for an Every-day Belief. By\nSir J. COMPTON-RICKETT, M.P. Demy 8vo, 1s. net.\n\n\n=1/-= net\n\nRECITATION BOOKS\n\nBy MARY E. 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Jowett presents an\ninspiriting message of comfort and hope for these times of anxiety and\nstrain. 6d. net.\n\n=Recollections of Newton House.= By REV. ISAAC HARTILL, F.R.G.S.,\nF.R.Hist.S. 64 pages, with frontispiece. 6d. net.\n\n=C. Silvester Horne.= In Memoriam. April 15th, 1865-May 2nd, 1914. 64\npages, with portrait, 6d. net.\n\n=The Birthday of Hope.= By J. D. JONES, M.A., D.D. Illustrated. Printed on\nart paper, with fancy cover and ribbon, 6d. net. Padded white cloth,\nlettering in gold, boxed, 1s. 6d. net.\n\n=The Ship\u2019s Engines. A Parable.= By the late T. CAMPBELL FINLAYSON, D.D.\nIn vellum cover, 6d. net.\n\nRev. J. H. JOWETT says:--\u201cI am so glad you are issuing the article in\nthe shape of the little booklet. I am sure it will be very helpful to\nmany people, and will bring light and leading to many bewildered souls.\u201d\n\n=England\u2019s Danger.= By R. F. HORTON, M.A., D.D. Price 6d. net. Contents:\nROMANISM AND NATIONAL DECAY; ST. PETER AND THE ROCK; TRUTH;\nPROTESTANTISM; HOLY SCRIPTURE; PURGATORY.\n\n\u201cGood fighting discourses. They contend that Roman Catholicism has\nruined every country in which it prevails and controvert the leading\npositions taken by Roman theologians.\u201d--_Scotsman._\n\n\n6d.\n\nCLARKE\u2019S SIXPENNY SERIES\n\nDemy 8vo, Paper Covers.\n\n=Studies of the Soul.= By J. BRIERLEY, B.A.\n=The Bow of Orange Ribbon.= By AMELIA E. BARR.\n=Jan Vedder\u2019s Wife.= By AMELIA E. BARR.\n=A Daughter of Fife.= By AMELIA E. BARR.\n=Ourselves and the Universe.= By J. BRIERLEY.\n\n\n=4d.= net\n\n=Holy Christian Empire.= By Rev. PRINCIPAL FORSYTH, M.A., D.D., of Hackney\nCollege, Hampstead. Crown 8vo, paper cover, 4d. net.\n\n\u201cRich in noble thought, in high purpose, in faith and in courage. Every\nsentence tells, and the whole argument moves onward to its great\nconclusion. Dr. Forsyth has put the argument for missions in a way that\nwill nerve and inspire the Church\u2019s workers at home and abroad for fresh\nsacrifice.\u201d _London Quarterly Review._\n\n\n=3d.= net\n\n=School Hymns, for Schools and Missions.= Words only. Compiled by E. H.\nMAYO GUNN. Cloth limp, 3d.; cloth boards, 6d.; music, 3s.\n\n\n=2d.= net\n\n=The Sunday Afternoon Song Book.= Containing 137 Hymns. For use at\n\u201cPleasant Sunday Afternoons,\u201d and Other Gatherings. Compiled by H. A.\nKENNEDY, of the Men\u2019s Sunday Union, Stepney Meeting House. Twentieth\nThousand, 2d; music, 1s.\n\n\u201cContains 137 hymns, the catholic character of which, in the best sense\nof the term, may be gathered from the names of the authors, which\ninclude Tennyson, Ebenezer Elliott, Whittier, G. Herbert, C. Wesley,\nThomas Hughes, J. H. Newman, Longfellow, Bonar, and others. While the\npurely dogmatic element is largely absent, the Christian life, in its\nforms of aspiration, struggle against sin and love for the true and the\ngood, is well illustrated.\u201d--_Literary World._\n\n\n\n\nINDEX OF TITLES\n\n\nPAGE\n\nAbbey Mill, The, 22\n\nAdvent Sermons, 8\n\nAmerica in the East, 5\n\nAnimal Fancy-land, 30\n\nAnimal Gambols, 30\n\nAnimal Happyland, 30\n\nAnimal Playtime, 30\n\nAnimal Picture-Land, 30\n\nAnimals in Fun-Land, 30\n\nApocalyptical Writers, The Messages of the, 13\n\nApostles, The Messages of the, 13\n\nAppeal of Jesus, The 15\n\nAround the Guns, 26\n\nAspects of the Spiritual, 14\n\nAsquith, The Right Hon. H. H., M.P., 10\n\nAstronomy Simplified, 16\n\nAtonement and Progress, 20\n\nAtonement in Modern Thought, The, 11\n\nAugustinian Revolution in Theology, 18\n\nAunt Agatha Ann, 29\n\nAuthority and the Light Within, 20\n\n\nBeads of Tasmer, The 15, 22\n\nBeatitudes and the Contrasts, The 18\n\nBetween Two Loves, 22\n\nBirthday of Hope, The, 30\n\nBlack Familiars, The, 21\n\nBorder Shepherdess, A, 15\n\nBow of Orange Ribbon, The, 31\n\nBritain\u2019s Hope, 25\n\nBrudenelle of Brude, The 22\n\nBurning Questions, 25\n\n\nCanonbury Holt, 22\n\nChallenge, The, 19\n\nChats with Women on Everyday Subjects, 24\n\nChildren\u2019s Paul, The, 21\n\nChosen Twelve, The, 15\n\nChrist and War 23, 26\n\nChrist in Everyday Life, 18\n\nChrist of the Children, The, 21\n\nChrist or Chaos?, 9\n\nChrist that is To Be, The 12\n\nChrist, The Private Relationships of, 6\n\nChrist\u2019s Pathway to the Cross, 23\n\nChrist\u2019s Vision of the Kingdom of Heaven, 4\n\nChristian Certitude, 10\n\nChristian of To-day, The, 10\n\nChristian Union in Social Service, 16\n\nChristian World Album of Sacred Songs, The, 25\n\nChristian World Album of Sacred and Standard Compositions\n         for the Pianoforte, 25\n\nChristian World Pulpit, The, 7\n\nChristianity in Common Speech, 29\n\nChronicle of the Archbishops of Canterbury, A, 4\n\nChrystabel, 22\n\nChurch and Modern Life, The, 11\n\nChurch and the Kingdom, The, 25\n\nChurch and the Next Generation, The, 20\n\nCommon Life, The, 14\n\nConcerning Conscience, 9\n\nConquered World, The, 25, 28, 30\n\nConquering Prayer, 18\n\nConstructive Christianity, 17\n\nConstructive Natural Theology, 8\n\nCrucible of Experience, The 28\n\n\nDante for the People, 7\n\nDarwin, Charles, and other English Thinkers, 6\n\nDaughter of Fife, A, 31\n\nDays of Old, 9\n\nDebt of the Damerals, The, 22\n\nDivine Satisfaction, The,  28\n\nDutch in the Medway, The, 12\n\n\nEarlier Prophets, The Messages of the, 13\n\nEcce Vir, 27\n\nEffectual Words, 8\n\nEmilia\u2019s Inheritance, 22\n\nEngland\u2019s Danger, 30\n\nEsther Wynne, 22\n\nEternal Religion, The, 14\n\nEucken and Bergson, 17\n\nEvangelical Heterodoxy, 10\n\nEverychild, 27\n\nEvolution, Life and Religion, 6\n\nEvolution of Old Testamen Religion, The, 11\n\nExposition, The Art of, 9\n\nEzekiel, The Book of, 3\n\n\nFacets of Faith, 23\n\nFaith and Form, 24\n\nFaith and Verification, 6\n\nFaith of a Wayfarer, The, 24\n\nFaith\u2019s Certainties, 14\n\nFamily Prayers for Morning Use, 12\n\nFather Fabian,  22\n\nFifty Years\u2019 Reminiscences of a Free Church Musician, 17\n\nFighters and Martyrs for the Freedom of Faith, 9\n\nFirst Christians, The, 11\n\nFirst Things of Jesus, 11\n\nFlowers from the Master\u2019s Garden, 27\n\nFor Childhood and Youth, 23\n\nFortune\u2019s Favourite, 22\n\nFortunes of Cyril Denham, The, 22\n\n\u201cFreedom of Faith\u201d Series, The, 23\n\nFriend Olivia, 5\n\nGamble with Life, A, 15\n\nGarrisoned Soul, The, 27\n\nGetting Together, 6\n\nGlorious Company of the Apostles, The, 21\n\nGod, Humanity and the War, 26\n\nGood New Times, The, 20\n\nGospel of Grace, The, 10\n\nGreat Embassy, The, 26\n\nGreat Unfolding, The, 7\n\nGrey and Gold, 22\n\nGrey House at Endlestone, The 22\n\nGrowing Revelation, The, 7\n\n\nHampstead, Its historic houses; its literary and artistic associations, 4\n\nHappy Warrior, 26\n\nHealth and Home Nursing, 28\n\nHealth in the Home Life, 19\n\nHeaven and the Sea, 9\n\nHeavenly Visions, 9\n\nHeirs of Errington, The, 22\n\nHelga Lloyd, 5\n\nHelps to Health and Beauty, 29\n\nHis Next of Kin, 22\n\nHistory of France, 1180-1314, 20\n\nHistory of the United States, A, 4\n\nHolidays in Animal Land, 30\n\nHoly Christian Empire, 31\n\nHomes and Careers in Canada, 16\n\nHorne, C. Silvester, 30\n\nHouse of Bondage, The, 22\n\nHouse of the Secret, The, 5\n\nHow to Cook, 27\n\nHow to Read the Bible, 28\n\n\u201cHumanism of the Bible\u201d Series, 12\n\nHusbands and Wives, 22\n\n\nIdeals for Girls, 21\n\nIdeals in Sunday School Teaching, 24\n\nIllustrations from Art for Pulpit and Platform, 8\n\nImmanence of Christ in Modern Life, The, 19\n\nImperishable Word, The, 17\n\nImpregnable Faith, An, 17\n\nIndividuality of S. Paul, The. 12\n\nInspiration in Common Life. 23\n\nInterludes in a Time of Change, 10\n\nIn the Father\u2019s House, 7\n\nInvisible Companion, The, 24\n\nIsrael\u2019s Law Givers, The Messages of, 13\n\n\nJan Vedder\u2019s Wife, 31\n\n\u201cJ.B.\u201d J. Brierley, his Life and Work, 7\n\nJesus and His Teaching, 11\n\nJesus and Human Life, 13\n\nJesus or Christ?, 25\n\nJesus: Seven Questions, 11\n\nJesus, The Messages of, According to the Gospel of John, 13\n\nJesus, The Messages of, According to the Synoptists, 13\n\nJoan Carisbrooke, 22\n\nJoshua, The Book of, 4\n\nJowett, J. H., M.A., D.D., 24\n\nJoy Bringer, The, 26\n\nJudges of Jesus, The, 20\n\nJudges, The Book of, 4\n\n\nKaiser or Christ, 26\n\nKingdom of th., 21\n\nKing George and Queen Mary, 18\n\nKit Kennedy: Country Boy 5, 21\n\n\nLady Clarissa, 22\n\nLast of the MacAllisters, The 15\n\nLater Prophets, The Messages of the, 13\n\nLeaves for Quiet Hours, 19\n\nLed by a Child, 16\n\nLetters of Christ, The, 23\n\nLetters to a Ministerial Son, 18\n\nLiberty and Religion, 19\n\nLife and Teaching of Jesus, Notes on the, 24\n\nLife and the Ideal, 14\n\nLife in His Name, 10\n\nLife of the Soul, 14\n\nLife\u2019s Beginnings, 18, 24\n\nLife\u2019s Little Lessons, 23\n\nLifted Veil, A, 17\n\nLooking Inwards, 17\n\nLynch, Rev. T. T.: A Memoir, 5\n\nLyrics of the Soul, 18\n\n\nMaking of a Minister, The, 15\n\nMaking of Heaven and Hell, The, 24\n\nMan on The Road, The, 23\n\nMargaret Torrington, 22\n\nMarprelate Tracts, The 3\n\nMeaning and Value of Mysticism, 5\n\nMerry Animal Picture Book, The, 30\n\nMerry Times in Animal Land, 30\n\nMessages of Hope, 17\n\nMessages of the Bible, The, 13\n\nMillicent Kendrick, 22\n\nMiss Devereux, Spinster, 22\n\nModel Prayer, The, 21\n\nModern Minor Prophets, 17\n\nModern Theories of Sin, 10\n\nMore Tasty Dishes, 29\n\nMorning Mist, A, 22\n\nMorning, Noon, and Night, 29\n\nMr. Montmorency\u2019s Money, 22\n\nMy Belief, 11\n\nMy Daily Meditation for the Circling Year, 8\n\n\nNature and Message of the Bible, The, 15\n\nNew Evangel, The, 20\n\nNew Mrs. Lascelles, The, 22\n\nNew Testament in Modern Speech, The, 19, 22\n\nNobly Born, 22\n\nOld Testament Stories in Modern Light, 24\n\nOliver Cromwell, 28\n\nOliver Westwood, 22\n\nOur City of God, 14\n\nOur Life Beyond, 27\n\nOur Protestant Faith, 16\n\nOurselves and the Universe, 14, 31\n\nOutline Text Lessons for Junior Classes, 28\n\nOverdale, 22\n\n\nPassion for Souls, The, 23\n\nPaton, J. B., M.A., D.D, 7\n\nPaul, The Messages of, 13\n\nPerson of Christ in Modern Thought, The, 5\n\nPersonality of Jesus, The, 15\n\nPessimism and Love in Ecclesiastes and Song of Songs, 12\n\nPeter in the Firelight, 17\n\nPhyllistrata and Other Poems, 16\n\nPilot, The, 19\n\nPoems. By Mme. Guyon, 15\n\nPoets, The Messages of the, 13\n\nPolychrome Bible, The, 3, 4\n\nPopular History of the Free Churches, The, 23\n\nPortrait Preaching, 7\n\nPrayer, 23\n\nPreaching to the Times, 12\n\nPrice of Priestcraft, The, 27\n\nPride of the Family, The, 22\n\nProblem of Paris, The, 13\n\nProblems and Perplexities, 17\n\nProblems of Immanence, 17\n\nProblems of Living, 14\n\nProphetical and Priestly Historians, The Messages of, 13\n\nPsalms, The, In Modern Speech and Rhythmical Form, 7\n\nPsalmists, The Messages of the 13\n\nPulpit Manual, A, 16\n\nPurpose of the Cross, The, 20\n\n\nQuaint Rhymes for the Battlefield, 26\n\nQuickening of Caliban, The, 12\n\n\nReasonable View of Life, A, 23\n\nReasonableness of Jesus, The, 24\n\nReasons Why for Congregationalists, 25\n\nReasons Why for Free Churchmen, 27\n\nRecollections of Newton House, 30\n\nReconstruction, A Help to Doubters, 7\n\nReform in Sunday School Teaching, 25\n\nReligion and Experience, 14\n\nReligion and Miracle, 10\n\nReligion in Song, 13\n\nReligion and To-day, 14\n\nReligion: The Quest of the Ideal, 18\n\nReligion that will Wear, A, 28\n\nResultant Greek Testament, The, 20\n\nRobert Wreford\u2019s Daughter, 22\n\nRomance of Preaching, 6\n\nRome from the Inside, 28\n\nRosebud Annual, The, 7, 15\n\n\nSchool Hymns, 15, 31\n\nScourge of God, The, 22\n\nSculptors of Life, 17\n\nSecret of Living, The, 14\n\nSeed of the Kingdom, The, 26\n\nSelections from Brierley, 7\n\nSelf-Realisation, 16\n\nSeriousness of Life, The, 16\n\nSermon Illustration, The Art of, 10\n\nSermons on God, Christ and Man, 8\n\nSharing His Sufferings, 24\n\nShe Loved a Sailor, 22\n\nShepherd, Ambrose, D.D., 15\n\nShip\u2019s Engines, The, 30\n\nShort Talks to Boys and Girls, 28\n\nSidelights on Religion, 14\n\nSimon Peter\u2019s Ordination Day, 15\n\nSimple Cookery, 21\n\nSimple Things of the Christian Life, The, 23\n\nSinglehurst Manor, 22\n\nSir Galahad, 26\n\nSissie, 22\n\nSmall Books on Great Subjects 25, 30\n\nSmith, John, the Se-Baptist, Thomas Helwys, and the\n         First Baptist Church in England, 6\n\nSocial Salvation, 7\n\nSong of the Well, The, 8\n\nSpoken Words of Prayer and Praise, 9\n\nSquire of Sandal Side, The, 15, 22\n\nSt. Beetha\u2019s, 22\n\nSt. Paul and His Cities, 8\n\nSt. Paul\u2019s Fight for Galatia, 8\n\nStorehouse for Preachers and Teachers, 25\n\nStories of Old, 21\n\nStory of Clarice, The, 5\n\nStory of Congregationalism in Surrey, The, 11\n\nStory of Joseph the Dreamer, The, 20\n\nStory of Penelope, The, 22\n\nStory of the English Baptists, The, 11\n\nStory of the Twelve, 16\n\nStudies in Christian Mysticism, 16\n\nStudies in Life from Jewish Proverbs, 13\n\nStudies of the Soul, 14, 31\n\nSunday Afternoon Song Book 27, 31\n\nSunny Memories of Australasia, 25\n\nSweet Peas and Antirrhinums, 26\n\n\nTale of a Telephone, A, 29\n\nTalks to Little Folks, 29\n\nTasty Dishes, 29\n\nTheology and Truth, 6\n\nThey that Wait, 30\n\nThings Most Surely Believed, 18\n\nThings that Matter Most, 8\n\nThornycroft Hall, 22\n\nThoughts for Life\u2019s Journey, 18\n\nThrough a Padre\u2019s Spectacles, 15\n\nThrough Eyes of Youth, 16\n\nThrough many Windows, 23\n\nThrough Science to Faith, 5\n\nTown Romance, A, 22\n\nTransfigured Church, The, 9\n\nTranslation of Faith, The, 16\n\nTrue Christ, The, 18\n\n\nUnfettered Word, The, 9\n\nUngilded Gold, 19, 25\n\nUniversal Over-Presence, The, 18\n\nUntil the Day Dawn,  8\n\nUnveiled Glory, The; or, Sidelights on the Higher Evolution, 17\n\nUplifting of Life, The, 16\n\n\nValue of the Apocrypha, The, 23\n\nValue of the Old Testament, 20\n\nViolet Vaughan, 22\n\nVoice from China, 11\n\nVoices of To-day: Studies of Representative Modern Preachers, 9\n\n\nWaiting Life, The; By the Riverof Waters, 16\n\nWar and Immortality, 15\n\nWarleigh\u2019s Trust, 22\n\nWay and the Work, The, 23\n\nWayfarer at the Cross Roads, The, 24\n\nWay of Prayer, The, 24\n\nWay of Remembrance, The, 26\n\nWayside Angels, 28\n\nWeek with the Fleet, A, 26\n\nWell by Bethlehem\u2019s Gate, The, 23\n\nWestminster Sermons, 10\n\nWhat is the Bible?, 9\n\nWho was Jesus, 16\n\nWho Wrote the Bible?, 25\n\nWhy We Believe, 19\n\nWinning of Immortality, The, 10\n\nWisdom of God and the Word of God, The, 9\n\nWoman\u2019s Patience, A, 22\n\nWomen and their Saviour, 27\n\nWomen and Their Work,  25\n\nWords by the Wayside,  25\n\nWorking Woman\u2019s Life, A, 10\n\nWoven of Love and Glory, 15\n\n\nYoung Man\u2019s Ideal, A, 17\n\nYoung Man\u2019s Religion, A, 20\n\n\n\n\nINDEX OF AUTHORS\n\nPAGE\n\nAbbott, Lyman, 11\n\nAdeney. W. F., 11, 28\n\nAllin, T., 18\n\nAngus, A. H., 24\n\nAntram, C. E. P., 27\n\n\nBarr, Amelia E., 5, 15, 22, 31\n\nBarrows, C. H., 15\n\nBegbie, H., 27\n\nBennett, Rev. W. H., 4\n\nBetts, C. H., 16, 18, 23\n\nBirch, E. A., 23\n\nBlack, J., 26\n\nBlake, J. M., 23, 24\n\nBlomfield, Elsie, 30\n\nBlue, A. W., 23\n\nBosworth, E. I., 18\n\nBradford, Amory H., 6\n\nBrierley, J., 7, 14, 31\n\nBrown, C., 9, 23\n\nBulcock, H., 16\n\nBurford, W. K., 16\n\nBurgess, W. H., 6\n\nBurns, David, 8\n\nBurns, Rev. J., 8, 16, 26\n\nBurns, J. Golder, 15\n\n\nCadman, S. P., 6, 26\n\nCairncross, T., S. 15\n\nCampbell, R. J., 11\n\nCarlile, J. C., 11, 16, 28, 29\n\nCave, Dr., 11\n\nCaws, Rev. L. W., 17\n\nChaplin, Gauntlett, 6\n\nCleal, E. E., 11\n\nClifford, John, 26\n\nCollins, B. G., 20\n\nCompton-Rickett, Sir J., 12, 29\n\nCowper, W., 15\n\nCrockett, S. R. 5, 21\n\nCuff, W., 25\n\nCuthbertson, W., 26\n\n\nDavidson, Gladys, 28\n\nDodd, A. F., 20\n\nDods, Marcus, 11\n\nDyson, W. H., 16\n\n\nElias, F., 9, 10\n\nEllis, J., 25\n\nElmslie, W. A. L., 13\n\nEvans, H., 27\n\n\nFarningham, Marianne, 10, 18, 25, 27\n\nFarrar, Dean 11\n\nFinlayson, T. Campbell, 30\n\nFiske, J., 4\n\nForsyth, P. T., 11, 31\n\nFoston, H., 16, 18\n\nFremantle, Dean, 11\n\nFurness, H. H., 3\n\n\nGibberd, Vernon, 23\n\nGibbon, J. Morgan, 10\n\nGiberne, Agnes, 22\n\nGladden, Washington, 7, 11, 25\n\nGodet, Professor, 11\n\nGordon, George A., 10\n\nGriffis, W. E., 5\n\nGriffith-Jones, E. 6, 26\n\nGrubb, E., 20, 24\n\nGunn, E. H. M., 15, 31\n\nGuyon, Madame, 15\n\n\nHall, T. C., 13\n\nHampden-Cook, E., 19\n\nHarnack, Professor, 11\n\nHarris, Rendel 23, 26\n\nHartill, I., 30\n\nHarvey-Jellie, W. 9\n\nHaupt, P., 3\n\nHaweis, H. R., 21\n\nHeddle, Ethel F., 22\n\nHenderson, Alex. C., 16\n\nHenson, Dean H. Hensley, 10, 12\n\nHermann, E. 5, 17\n\nHill, F. A.  4\n\nHocking, S. K.  15\n\nHodgson, J. M.  18\n\nHolborn, Alfred  16\n\nHorne, C. Silvester 6, 11, 23\n\nHorton, R. F. 7, 11, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31\n\nHumphrey, F.  23\n\nHunter, John  11\n\nHutton, J. A.  26\n\n\n\u201cJ. B.\u201d of _The Christian World_, 28\n\nJ. M. G.,  12\n\nJeffs, H., 7, 9, 10, 16, 17, 20\n\nJohn, Griffith, 11\n\nJones, J. D., 9, 10, 18, 21, 23, 25, 27, 30\n\nJones, J. P., 8\n\nJordan, W. G., 13\n\nJowett, J. H., 8, 9, 23, 24, 30\n\nJude, J. H., 25\n\n\nKennedy, H. A., 27, 31\n\nKent, C. F., 13\n\nKenyon, Edith C., 24\n\nKirk, E. B., 6\n\nKnight, W. A., 17, 23\n\n\nLa Touche, E. D. 5, 10\n\nLee, E., 5\n\nLeggatt, F. Y., 24\n\nLewis, E. W., 24\n\nLondon, Bishop of, 26\n\n\nMcEvoy, Cuthbert, 26\n\nMacfadyen, D., 15\n\nMcFadyen, J. E., 7, 12, 13, 24\n\nMcFayden, J. F., 13\n\nMacfarlane, Charles, 12\n\nM\u2018Intyre, D. M., 10\n\nMcKilliam, A. E., 4\n\nMaconachie, D. H., 16\n\nManners, Mary E., 29\n\nMan of the World, A,  18\n\nMarchant, Bessie, 22\n\nMarchant, J., 6\n\nMark, Thistelton, 23\n\nMarshall, J. S., 27\n\nMarshall, N. H.,  6, 20\n\nMason, E. A., 29\n\nMather, Lessels, 28\n\nMatheson, George, 17, 18, 19, 25\n\nMaxwell, A.,  4\n\nMeade, L. T., 22\n\nMetcalfe, R. D., 27\n\nMichael, C. D., 21\n\nMinshall, E., 17\n\nMoore, G. F., 4\n\nMorgan, G. Campbell, 23, 26\n\nMorison, F., 24\n\nMorrow, H. W., 15\n\nMorten, Honnor, 19\n\nMunger, T. T., 11\n\n\nNeilson, H. B., 30\n\n\nOrchard, W. E., 8, 10, 11, 17\n\n\nPalmer, Frederic, 10\n\nPeake, A. S., 25\n\nPharmaceutical Chemist, A., 29\n\nPierce, W., 3\n\nPiggott, W. C., 17\n\nPorter, F. C., 13\n\nPounder, R. W., 8\n\nPringle, A., 24\n\n\nReid, Rev. J.,  8, 11, 16\n\nRidgway, Emily, 26\n\nRiggs, J. S., 13\n\nRoberts, E. Cecil, 16, 26\n\nRoberts, R., 20\n\nRoose, Rev. J. S., 16\n\nRussell, F. A., 23\n\nRutherford, J. S., 16\n\n\nSabatier, A., 11\n\nSanders, F. K., 13\n\nSchmidt, N., 13\n\nSchrenck, E. von, 11\n\nScott, D. R., 14\n\nScottish Presbyterian, A,  28\n\nSelbie, W. B., 15\n\nShepherd, E., 15\n\nShepherd, J. A., 30\n\nShillito, Edward, 17\n\nSinclair, H., 9\n\nSmyth, Newman, 5, 8\n\nSnell, Bernard J., 11, 20, 23\n\nSomeren, J. Van, 7\n\nSouper, W., 17\n\nStevens, G. B., 13\n\nStevenson, J. G., 17, 19, 20, 21\n\nStewart, D. M., 17, 27\n\nStirling, James, 4\n\nStorrow, A. H., 16\n\nStrachan, R. H., 12\n\nStreet, J., 27\n\nStudd, C. D., 26\n\nSutter, Julie, 25\n\nSwan, F. R., 19\n\nSwetenham, L., 18\n\n\nTarbolton, A. C., 20\n\nTipple, S. A., 9\n\nToy, Rev. C. H., 3\n\nTymms, T. V., 6\n\nTynan, Katharine, 5\n\nTytler, S., 22\n\n\nVarley, H., 24\n\nVeitch, R., 10, 11\n\n\nWain, Louis, 29, 30\n\nWalford, L. B., 21\n\nWalker, W. L., 18\n\nWalmsley, L. S., 9\n\nWarschauer, J., 9, 11, 17, 20, 25\n\nWarwick, H., 18\n\nWaters, N. McG., 20\n\nWatkins, C. H.,  8, 26\n\nWatkinson, W. L., 23\n\nWatson, E. S.. 9\n\nWatson, W. 17, 23\n\nWeymouth, R. F., 19, 20, 22\n\nWhite, W., 5\n\nWhiton, J. M., 6, 10, 12, 28\n\nWilliams, T. R., 24\n\nWilson, P. W., 19\n\nWilson, W. E., 23, 26\n\nWimms, J. W., 23\n\nWinter, A. E., 27\n\nWood, T., 26\n\nWorboise, Emma J., 22\n\n\nYates, T., 17\n\n\nHeadley Brothers, Printers, Ashford, Kent; and Bishopsgate, E.C.\n\n\nFOOTNOTES:\n\n[1] _The Spectator_, Sept. 11, 1915.\n\n[1a] See the discussion in Abelson, _The Immanence of God in Rabbinical\nLiterature_, pp. 199ff.\n\n[2] Le Fabre, _Life of the Spider_, Ch. ix. (Eng. trans. by Teixeira de\nMattos, 1912).\n\n[2a] Cp. G. A. Smith, _Modern Criticism and the Preaching of the Old\nTestament_, p. 288.\n\n[3] R. J. Moulton, _Modern Reader\u2019s Bible_, p. 1456.\n\n[4] Cf. such sayings as \u201cCoals to Newcastle\u201d--a proverb that has a\nparallel in many countries, for example, the Greek phrase, \u201cOwls to\nAthens.\u201d\n\n[5] Trench, _Proverbs and their Lessons_, first published in 1857: a\nlearned and brilliant little volume to which the present chapter is\nindebted for several suggestions.\n\n[6] \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1f70.\n\n[7] \u03ba\u03bf\u03b9\u03bd\u1f70 \u03c4\u1f70 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c6\u03af\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd.\n\n[8] A version, doubtless, of _Proverbs_ 10^{22}.\n\n[9] John Morley, _Aphorisms: An Address to the Edinburgh Philosophical\nInstitution_ (1887) p. 7.\n\n[10] As a text-book it was at least memorable. A distinguished man of\nletters tells me that one of its injunctions, taught him in his first\nschool, he might claim never to have forgotten: _Let thy foot be seldom\nin thy neighbour\u2019s house, lest he be weary of thee and hate thee_ (Pr.\n25^{17}). His friends bear regretful and emphatic witness that the\nfacts completely justify his claim.\n\n[11] Mark Rutherford, _The Revolution in Tanner\u2019s Lane_, p. 238.\n\n[12] In the final form of the Book thus gradually evolved it is\nsometimes very easy, sometimes difficult or impossible, to distinguish\nwith exactitude the earlier from the later \u2018sources\u2019 out of which\nit has been composed; but the main stages of the compilation can\ngenerally be determined with a high degree of accuracy, just as in\nan old cathedral through the varying modes of architecture employed\nthe general history of the building is clearly visible to the trained\nperception.\n\n[13] Evidence for the statements here given is omitted, partly because\nthey are matters of general agreement among modern students of the\nBible, but still more because the full evidence has been repeatedly set\nforth in works accessible to any who may have inclination to consider\nthe subject in detail. Reference may conveniently be made to C. H.\nToy, _Proverbs_, or to the same writer\u2019s article _Book of Proverbs_,\nin the _Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica_ (11th edition); or to G. F. Moore,\n_Literature of the Old Testament_, ch. xxii. (Home University Library).\n\n[14] Cp. also 10^{1} _The proverbs of Solomon_; 22^{17} _Words of the\nWise_; 24^{23}, _These are also words of the Wise_; 25^{1} _These are\nalso proverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah,\ncopied out_; 30^{1}, _Sayings of Agur, son of Jakeh_; 31^{1}, _Sayings\nof Lemuel, king of Massa_. The last two of these titles rest on an\nuncertain Hebrew text. For the allusion to Solomon see pp. 71, 72.\n\n[15] Perhaps almost all, in their present polished form. Thus Toy\n(_Proverbs_, p. xi.) declares that \u201cnone of the aphorisms are popular\nproverbs or folk-sayings. They are all reflective and academic in tone,\nand must be regarded as the productions of schools of moralists in a\nperiod of high moral culture.\u201d This observation is generally true, and\nof great importance; but it is not to be understood as meaning that\nthe Book, or even the several sections, sprang out of nothing. In and\nbehind the finished product there may well be a great deal of earlier\nmaterial.\n\n[16] _i.e._, any subsequent changes were of a minor character,\nintroduced occasionally by some scribe or copyist. The year 200\nB.C. may reasonably be taken as the lower limit of\ndate, partly because _Proverbs_ has features (notably its attitude\nto the Mosaic Law) which suggest that it was finished earlier\nthan _Ecclesiasticus_, a work composed about 190 B.C. This\nargument, though strong, is not conclusive; but in any case the\npeaceful, comfortable, tone which pervades _Proverbs_ indicates that\nit is not later than the years of persecution preceding the Maccabean\nrevolt in 167 B.C.\n\n[17] See for _Ecclesiastes_ the volume _Pessimism and Love_ by D.\nRussell Scott; and for _Job_, _The Problem of Pain_, by J. E. McFadyen.\n\n[18] _N.B._ =Hereafter the abbreviation \u201cE,\u201d will constantly be used\nfor Ecclesiasticus, and \u201cPr.\u201d for Proverbs.=\n\n[19] The dots indicate words missing from the Hebrew text or of unknown\nmeaning.\n\n[20] Cp. also E. 25^{1, 2}; 26^{5}.\n\n[21] lit. \u201cthe character of Sodom.\u201d\n\n[22] _i.e._, He thinks the world requires nothing more than the\ninterchange of commodities. As to the way of putting it, be it\nremembered that in the Orient business transactions are, politely,\n\u201cgifts\u201d; cp. Gen. 23^{10-16}.\n\n[23] A. R. Wallace, _Natural Selection_.\n\n[24] G. A. Smith, _Early Poetry of Israel_, p. 33; and cp. Kinglake,\n_Eothen_, ch. 17.\n\n[25] Cohen, _Ancient Jewish Proverbs_, 88.\n\n[26] _op. cit._ 13.\n\n[27] Fulleylove and Kelman, _The Holy Land_, pp. 103, 104. Note the\n\u201cScriptural\u201d language. Such talk, when we find it in the Bible, is\nneither pedantic nor is it a \u201creligious\u201d dialect. To a Western it seems\naffected, but let us remember that to an Eastern our manner of speech,\nwith its tortuous sentences, might savour of an unholy cunning.\n\n[28] Appius Planius, 188 (McKail\u2019s translation).\n\n[29] e.g., _Hosea_ 5^{10}, _Isaiah_ 5^{8}, _Deut._ 27^{17}, _Job_\n24^{2}.\n\n[30] Cp. _Joshua_ 7^{24, 25}. The earliest form of the narrative\nclearly implies that all, and not Achan alone, were destroyed by\nburning or stoning.\n\n[31] Not but what the belief is at least as old as the Hebrew Law,\n_I the Lord thy God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquities of the\nfathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of them\nthat hate Me, and shewing mercy unto the_ thousandth _generation of\nthem that love Me and keep My commandments_.\n\n[32] A _study_, not a half-hearted perusal of the text in the English\nBible.\n\n[33] Cp. _Numbers_ 21^{27}, _Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say_\n\u201c_Come ye to Heshbon_,\u201d...\n\n[34] For these titles see Chapter II., p. 37. That such a phrase as\n_The proverbs of Solomon, the son of David, king of Israel_ (Pr. I^{1})\nat the head of a section does not necessarily imply or even claim\nauthorship, may seem astonishing to those unacquainted with ancient\nliterature, but it is easily understood by those who have made so\nmuch as a moderate study of the subject. The ancient title in modern\nparlance would be represented by some such heading as the following,\n\u201cA collection of sayings representative of Hebrew wisdom dedicated to\nthe memory and example of that royal lover of Wisdom, King Solomon.\u201d To\nsuppose that the propriety of the ancient procedure ought to be judged\nby modern canons of literary right and wrong would be both unjust and\nfoolish. Similarly from the heading prefixed to Pr. 25-29, _These also\nare proverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah,\ncopied out_; it does not follow that the proverbs in those chapters\nwere old in Hezekiah\u2019s time. Probably Hezekiah, like Solomon, showed\nspecial interest in literary work, and it may be that a collection of\nproverbs formed in his reign is the nucleus of the present chapters\n25-29 (So Volz, _Weisheit_, p. 95). On the other hand it is possible\nthat nothing more should be inferred than that, there being a tradition\nof literary activity in Hezekiah\u2019s reign, the compilers of the Book of\nProverbs made use of the tradition in order to indicate (by this title)\nthat in their opinion the proverbs of chaps. 25-29 were later than or\nsecondary to the \u201cSolomonic\u201d proverbs which precede in chs. 1-24 (So\nToy, _Proverbs_, \u00a7 vi., and p. 457); and see also Driver, _Literature\nof the Old Testament_, p. 405.\n\n[35] Detailed proof is impossible, and the question must be argued\non general evidence, which any modern commentary on the Book of\nProverbs will supply. Toy, _Proverbs_, \u00a7 vi. is emphatic in his view\nthat no authority whatever attaches to titles ascribing proverbs to\nSolomon. Volz (p. 95) is non-committal: \u201cWhether small fragments of\nSolomon\u2019s work have been transmitted to us cannot be determined.\u201d\nDriver, _Literature of the Old Testament_, p. 406f, is of much the same\nopinion; but, remarking that the \u201cproverbs in 10^{1{ff}} exhibit great\nuniformity of type,\u201d he remarks that \u201cperhaps this type was set by\nSolomon.\u201d\n\n[36] Compare the way in which the Greeks tended to associate all fables\nwith the name of \u00c6sop.\n\n[37] _Ephesians_ 6^{12} (Weymouth\u2019s translation).\n\n[38] Cp. the similar but more poetic description in _Psalm_ 1.\n\n[39] What follows is without reference to the ancient civilisation\nof the far East, India or China. The \u201cworld\u201d we are here considering\nmeans the civilisation of the lands bordering the Mediterranean Sea. A\nfew pages later, the terms \u201cEastern\u201d and \u201cWestern\u201d will be used with\nsimilar latitude: \u201cEastern\u201d or (\u201cOriental\u201d) denoting the peoples of\nEgypt, Arabia, Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia; and \u201cWestern\u201d the peoples\nof Greece, Macedonia, and the old Greek colonies of the \u00c6gean islands\nand the coast of Asia Minor.\n\n[40] _Amos_ 5^{21f}.\n\n[41] Simonides (MacKail\u2019s translation, _Greek Anthology_, pp. 149, 151.)\n\n[42] Bevan, _Jerusalem under the High Priests_, p. 35.\n\n[43] Bevan, _Stoics and Sceptics_, pp. 25, 26.\n\n[44] Stoicism, whilst it offered the thinker immunity from the fears of\nlife, was also adapted to the needs of the generality of men whom it\nsought to provide with principles for the stable and successful conduct\nof ordinary life. Bevan (op. cit.) points out that the system shows\nsigns of hasty construction, reflecting the urgency of the problems\nit sought to meet. Its strongly practical character is seen in the\ntendency to find expression in brief, pointed, _formul\u00e6_, catch-words,\nand maxims, evidently designed to make its doctrines easy for the\naverage man to comprehend. The resemblance to Hebrew Wisdom-teaching is\ninteresting and obvious.\n\n[45] We have to use the term \u201cworldly-wisdom\u201d and not \u201cwisdom,\u201d because\nthe Greeks also had their seekers after true wisdom at this period, as\nmay be seen in the gnomic verses of Solon, Phocylides and Theognis,\nmany of whose maxims, as well as the sayings of Stoic philosophers,\nmight be quoted to show that Hellenism was not without the protest from\nwithin itself of noble souls. The contrast suggested above is therefore\nnot one between Greek and Hebrew Wisdom-teaching, but between the\nHebrew Wisdom and the _general_ \u201cunwisdom\u201d of ordinary Hellenic life.\n\n[46] See G. A. Smith, _Jerusalem_, vol. i., ch. i., where a beautiful\ndescription of night and dawn in Jerusalem may be found.\n\n[47] Mishna, _Yoma_, 3.^{1}\n\n[48] See p. 174 and 198. Of the _Book of Proverbs_ Toy remarks that \u201cif\nfor the name Jehovah we substitute \u2018God,\u2019 there is not a paragraph or\na sentence which would not be as suitable for any other people as for\nIsrael\u201d (_Proverbs_, p. xxi.)\n\n[49] The Jews seem to have had an unusual aptitude for confining\nthemselves to particular points of view. Mark to what an extent the\nProphets ignore the Priests, and the Priests the Prophets. This makes\nit less surprising to find that the Proverbialists should ignore both.\n\n[50] Further reference may be made to Delitzsch, _Jewish Artisan Life\nin the time of Christ_, and also B\u00fcchler, _Der galilaische \u2018Am-ha-\u2019\nArets des zweiten Jahrhunderts_. Some of the trades then reckoned\nignoble seem by no means so to us; for example, tanners, weavers, and\nhairdressers were particularly despised. One Rabbi quaintly remarks:\n\u201cAss-drivers are mostly wicked, camel-drivers mostly honest, sailors\nmostly pious, the best of physicians is destined for Gehenna, and the\nmost honourable of butchers is a partner of Amalek.\u201d\n\n[51] It is good to feel that, whatever the Christian centuries have\nnot yet achieved for the regeneration of society, the \u201cpoor man\u2019s\nneighbour\u201d has redeemed his reputation from this terrible charge.\n\n[52] Cp. Matt. 6^{11}, _Give us this day our daily bread_.\n\n[53] Lyman Abbott, _Life and Literature of the Ancient Hebrews_, p. 278.\n\n[54] _i.e._, his slanders, which scorch his victims.\n\n[55] Compare the unintentionally funny passage in E. 31^{12ff}. _If\nthou sittest at a great man\u2019s table, be not greedy at it, nor say,\n\u201cWhat a lot of things are on it!\u201d... Stretch not your hand wheresoe\u2019er\nyour glance wanders, nor thrust yourself forward into the dish. Eat\nlike a man_ [_i.e_., do not gnaw or gobble as an animal would do] _what\nis set before thee, and do not bolt your food, lest you be loathed. Be\nfirst to leave off for the sake of good manners, and be not insatiate\nlest you offend._ Cp. E. 8 which also treats of \u201cHow to behave.\u201d\n\n[56] The Hebrew text of the first two lines is uncertain.\n\n[57] Theophrastus, _Characters_ (Jebb\u2019s translation), pp. 82, 83.\n\n[58] In Hebrew, _Peth\u0101\u012bm_.\n\n[59] Hebrew, _L\u0113ts\u012bm_.\n\n[60] Sometimes the whole point of a saying lies in the use of different\nterms. Thus Pr. 17^{21} seems merely redundant in the R.V., \u201cHe that\nbegetteth a fool doeth it to his sorrow; and the father of a fool hath\nno joy.\u201d But the \u201cfool\u201d of the first clause is in the Hebrew _Kes\u012bl_, a\ncoarse fool, and the \u201cfool\u201d of the second is _Nabal_; _i.e._, to have\nthe first as a son will involve some regrets, but the second robs his\nfather of all joy.\n\n[61] Horton, _Proverbs_ (Expositor\u2019s Bible), p. 347.\n\n[62] See below, ch. X., p. 184f.\n\n[63] Toy justly remarks, \u201cThe motive here assigned--fear of Jehovah\u2019s\ndispleasure--belongs to the ethical system of _Proverbs_. But this\nmotive does not impair the dignity of the moral standard presented.\nJehovah\u2019s displeasure is the expression of the moral ideal: it is one\u2019s\nduty, says the proverb, not to rejoice at the misfortunes of enemies.\nThis duty is enforced by a reference to compensation, but it remains a\nduty.\u201d\n\n[64] \u201cThe antithesis is ethical, not merely intellectual. The\nmeaning is not that the righteous speaks cautiously, the wicked\ninconsiderately; but that the good man takes care to speak what is true\nand kind, whilst the bad man, feeling no concern on this point, follows\nthe bent of his mind and so speaks evil.\u201d (Toy _ad. loc._).\n\n[65] cp. _Romans_ 12^{10}, and also p. 268.\n\n[66] _Wise Men of Israel_, p. 158.\n\n[67] (Pr. 31^{10-29}). The poem is in the Hebrew an alphabetical\nacrostic, which accounts for certain repetitions and roughnesses in the\nmovement of the thought.\n\n[68] Cp. _Luke_ 16^{3} (see Oesterley in _The Expositor_ for April,\n1903).\n\n[69] Oesterley, _Ecclesiasticus_, p. xviii.\n\n[70] E. 42, 43.\n\n[71] See Skinner in the _Jewish Quarterly Review_, Jan., 1905, p. 258.\n\n[72] A proverb which does _not_ come from the Bible, though many people\nhave supposed it does.\n\n[73] See further pp. 191f.\n\n[74] _i.e._, such proverbs as \u201cA burnt child dreads the fire,\u201d or \u201cHe\nthat is down need fear no fall.\u201d\n\n[75] Gordon, _Poets of the Old Testament_, p. 296.\n\n[76] Gordon\u2019s translation, _op. cit._, p. 296.\n\n[77] Gordon, _op. cit._, p. 298. Observe the touch of national\nsentiment which is characteristic of Ben Sirach. His view is that God\nintended good to every nation (not an easy doctrine to reach in face of\nthe enormities of which some of the heathen nations surrounding Israel\nwere capable), but, although God had offered wisdom to all, only Israel\nhad responded to the offer and so received the divine gift.\n\n[78] Gordon\u2019s translation, _op. cit._, p. 304.\n\n[79] At Olympia in the year 212 B.C. Aristonicus was the\n_proteg\u00e9_ of King Ptolemy, and champion of the Egyptian gymnasia.\n\n[80] The Hebrew text seems to have read, \u201cHeadache, shame and disgrace\nare the effect of wine drunk in provocation and wrath.\u201d\n\n[81] _Judaism_ (second series), p. 57.\n\n[82] Cp. Pr. 2^{16-19}; E. 9^{3-9}, 19^{2}, 41^{20}; and refs. on p.\n153.\n\n[83] See especially chaps. vii., viii., and xviii.\n\n[84] This maxim was familiar among the Greeks, and is quoted by\n\u00c6eschylus, Sophocles, Euripides and other writers. Tradition ascribed\nits origin to Solon, the statesman of early Athens, who was reckoned\none of the seven Sages of Greece. Its occurrence in _Ecclesiasticus_ is\nan interesting illustration of the cosmopolitan aspect of the Wisdom\nmovement.\n\n[85] Pr. 14^{32}, _The righteous hath hope in his death_ ... comes\nnearest to the idea of immortality; but the accuracy of the Hebrew\ntext is doubtful. Pr. 15^{24} and 23^{17, 18} are to be understood as\nreferring to the character of the good man\u2019s life on earth (see Toy\u2019s\nnotes on these passages).\n\n[86] \u201cThe influence of the synagogue as a religious factor, even in\nthe times of Ben Sirach, was felt more deeply than the scarcity of\nreferences to it in the contemporary literature would lead us to\nbelieve\u201d, Schechter, _Judaism_ [Second Series], p. 65; cp. J. Abrahams,\n_Studies in Pharisaism and the Gospels_, pp. 1ff.\n\n[87] The reader familiar with the Gospels should guard against the\nnotion that the Scribes were always guilty of the worst qualities that\nlegalism is apt to foster. A class ought not to be equated with its\nless worthy representatives, unless we are willing, for example, to\ncondemn the first Christians for the sins of certain orders in the\nMedi\u00e6val Church, or to saddle the eager pioneers of the Reformation\nwith the shortcomings of their followers in the eighteenth century.\n\n[88] See the article _Hasideans and Hellenism_ (_Jewish Encyclop\u00e6dia_,\nVol. VI.).\n\n[89] Commonly referred to by the abbreviation LXX.\n\n[90] See Dr. Taylor\u2019s edition (Cambridge, 1877).\n\n[91] _Aboth_, iv. 2.\n\n[92] _Aboth_, i. 3.\n\n[93] _Aboth_ ii. 13.\n\n[94] _Aboth_ v. 30.\n\n[95] _Aboth_ iv. 26.\n\n[96] N.B.--C.55=Cohen, _Ancient Jewish Proverbs_, No. 55. Quotations of\nthese later Rabbinical Jewish proverbs will be given in this manner,\nas a reference to Mr. Cohen\u2019s handbook is likely to be of more use to\nreaders than a citation of original Rabbinic sources.\n\n[97] Jew and Christian, too often ignorant of the virtues each\npossesses, are painfully conscious of one another\u2019s defects. Better\nknowledge of history would do much to relieve or lessen mutual\nprejudices. How seldom do Christians realise that some of the less\namiable qualities found in certain classes of modern Jews (Are there\nno objectionable Gentiles?) are the logical result of regulations\ndecreed by our medi\u00e6val Christian forefathers. For example, the Jews\nwere once as catholic as any other nation in the arts and industries\nthey followed for a livelihood, until legal restrictions were\nmultiplied against them. \u201cEven in Spain,\u201d writes Mr. Abrahams, \u201cJews\nwere forbidden to act as physicians, as bakers or millers; they were\nprohibited from selling brass, wine, flour, oil or butter in the\nmarkets; no Jew might be a smith, carpenter, tailor, shoemaker, currier\nor clothier for Christians ... he might neither employ nor be employed\nby Christians in any profession or trade whatsoever.... In other parts\nof England these restrictions were far more rigidly enforced than in\nSpain. In England money-lending was absolutely the only profession\nopen to the Jews. On the Continent Jews were taxed when they entered\na market and taxed when they left it; they were only permitted to\nenter the market place at inconvenient hours, _and the Church ended by\nleaving the Jews nothing to trade in but money and second-hand goods,\nallowing them as a choice of commodities in which to deal new gold or\nold iron_.\u201d (_Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_, p. 241).\n\n[98] Abrahams, _Jewish Life in the Middle Ages_, p. 68.\n\n[99] The argument is worked out at greater length by C. F. Kent, (_Wise\nMen of Israel_, pp. 176ff), in an essay to which this brief review of\nthe theme is much indebted. See also p. 268.\n\n[100] Cp. Marvin, _The Living Past_, pp. 2, 3.\n\n[101] Deut. 30^{11-14}.\n\n[102] _The Ultimate Belief_, p. 2.\n\n[103] Professor D. K. Picken, in the _Australasian Intercollegian\nMagazine_, _Dec._, 1916.\n\n[104] \u201cI know no teachers who lay more stress upon the cultivation of\nthe mental power of attention.\u201d G. A. Smith, in _Modern Criticism and\nthe Preaching of the Old Testament_, ch. VIII.\n\n[105] Pindar, _Olympian_ VI., 54^{ff}.\n\n[106] St. John, 13^{26ff}.\n\n[107] The _moon_ once (Pr. 7^{20}) but merely in indication of time.\n\n[108] He was gratefully remembered for his work in strengthening the\ndefences of Jerusalem and executing repairs to the Temple about 190\nB.C.\n\n[109] For allusions to the heat and thirst of the reapers, cp. _Ruth_\n2^{7-9}, ^{14}, and 2 Kings 4^{18, 19}.\n\n[110] The Greek text is no less effective--_And when the frost is\ncongealed it is as points of thorns_, but it is only a misreading of\nthe Hebrew.\n\n[111] \u201cThe Holy Land,\u201d pp. 209ff.\n\n[112] Pr. 27^{17}\n\n[113] Pr. 27^{6}.\n\n[114] Pr. 15^{1}; cp. 16^{32}.\n\n[115] Pr. 25^{28}.\n\n[116] Pr. 26^{12}.\n\n[117] Pr. 16^{18}\n\n[118] Pr. 28^{1}, cp. Shakespeare\u2019s \u201cConscience does make cowards of us\nall.\u201d\n\n[119] Pr. 24^{16}.\n\n[120] E. 19^{1}.\n\n[121] Pr. 3^{7}.\n\n[122] Pr. 13^{12}.\n\n[123] E. 2^{12-14}.\n\n[124] Pr. 21^{30, 31}.\n\n[125] C. 78.\n\n[126] L. P. Jacks, _From the Human End_, p. 16.\n\n[127] Bacon, _Essay on Riches_.\n\n[128] Bacon is referring to Pr. 18^{11}.\n\n[129] E. 11^{2}.\n\n[130] E. 6^{35, 36}.\n\n[131] Pr. 25^{17}.\n\n[132] Pr. 26^{4}.\n\n[133] Pr. 18^{13}.\n\n[134] E. 18^{19}; cp. _First learn, then form opinions_ (C. 217).\n\n[135] Pr. 24^{27}.\n\n[136] C. 181.\n\n[137] Pr. 27^{1}.\n\n[138] E. 7^{18}.\n\n[139] E. 7^{11}.\n\n[140] E. 8^{5-7}.\n\n[141] E. 7^{1-3}.\n\n[142] Pr. 24^{1}.\n\n[143] Pr. 23^{17}.\n\n[144] E. 15^{11, 12}.\n\n[145] E. 7^{9}.\n\n[146] Pr. 4^{23}.\n\n[147] E. 7^{10}.\n\n[148] Pr. 16^{3}.\n\n[149] Cp. _James_ 4^{6}; _1 Peter_ 5^{5}.\n\n[150] A verse which, as Oesterley observes, affords an interesting\ncombination of the doctrines of Grace and Free-will; cp. _John_ 7^{17}.\n\n[151] The quotation in _Hebrews_ is taken from the Greek (LXX) text of\n_Proverbs_: the Hebrew text of _Proverbs_ now reads \u201cEven as a father\nthe son in whom he delighteth,\u201d but the original text probably had \u201cand\npaineth\u201d instead of the words \u201cEven as a father\u201d--the difference in\nHebrew is very slight (cp. p. 192).\n\n[152] Arnot, _Laws from Heaven_, p. 130f.\n\n[153] From a letter quoted in Holmes, _Walter Greenway, Spy; and\nOthers, Sometime Criminal_.\n\n[154] Horton, _Proverbs_ (_Expositor\u2019s Bible_), p. 318.\n\n[155] See the articles by Dr. Rendel Harris on _The Origin of the\nPrologue to St. John\u2019s Gospel_ in the _Expositor_, Aug. 1916-Jan. 1917.\nNote also the acknowledgment of Christ as Wisdom, implied in the story\nof the homage of the Wise Men at His birth, _Matt._ 2^{12}.","title":"Studies in Life from Jewish Proverbs","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":101762}