{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_61751/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_61751","id":"gutenberg_61751","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/61751","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Other","Category: History - Warfare","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Swords"],"text":"THE\n BOOK OF THE SWORD\n\n\n LONDON: PRINTED BY\n SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE\n AND PARLIAMENT STREET\n\n\n\n\n THE\n BOOK OF THE SWORD\n\n BY\n RICHARD F. BURTON\n MA\u00ceTRE D\u2019ARMES (BREVET\u00c9)\n\n [Illustration]\n\n _WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS_\n\n London\n\n CHATTO AND WINDUS, PICCADILLY\n\n 1884\n\n [_All rights reserved_]\n\n\n \u2018He that hath no Sword (-knife = \u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1), let him sell his\n garment and buy one.\u2019 _St. Luke_ xxii. 36.\n\n \u2018_Solo la spada vuol magnificarsi._\u2019\n (Nothing is high and awful save the Sword.)\n _Lod. della Vernaccia_, A.D. 1200.\n\n \u2018But, above all, it is most conducive to the greatness of\n empire for a nation to profess the skill of arms as its\n principal glory and most honourable employ.\u2019\n BACON\u2019S _Advancement of Learning_, viii. 3.\n\n \u2018The voice of every people is the Sword\n That guards them, or the Sword that beats them down.\u2019\n TENNYSON\u2019S _Harold_.\n\n\n +--------------------------------------------------+\n | |\n | TO |\n | |\n | THE MEMORY |\n | |\n | OF |\n | |\n | MY OLD AND DEAR COLLEGE FRIEND |\n | |\n | ALFRED BATE RICHARDS |\n | |\n | WHO |\n | |\n | IN YEARS GONE BY |\n | |\n | ACCEPTED THE DEDICATION OF THESE PAGES |\n | |\n +--------------------------------------------------+\n\n\n\n\n FOREWORD.\n\n\u2018I wanted a book on the Sword, not a treatise on Carte and Tierce,\u2019\nsaid the Publisher, when, some years ago, my earliest manuscript was\nsent to him.\n\nIt struck me then and there that the Publisher was right. Consequently\nthe volume was re-written after a more general and less professional\nfashion.\n\nI have only one wish that reader and reviewer can grant: namely, a fair\nfield and no favour for certain \u2018advanced views\u2019 of Egyptology. It\nis my conviction that this study, still in its infancy, will greatly\nmodify almost all our preconceived views of arch\u00e6ological history.\n\n RICHARD F. BURTON.\n\n TRIESTE: _November 20, 1883_.\n\n\n\n\n INTRODUCTION.\n\n\nThe history of the Sword is the history of humanity. The \u2018White Arm\u2019\nmeans something more than the \u2018oldest, the most universal, the most\nvaried of weapons, the only one which has lived through all time.\u2019\n\nHe, she, or it\u2014for the gender of the Sword varies\u2014has been worshipped\nwith priestly sacrifices as a present god. Hebrew revelation represents\nthe sharp and two-edged Sword going out of the mouth of the King of\nKings, and Lord of Lords. We read of a \u2018Sword of God, a holy Sword,\u2019\nthe \u2018Sword of the Lord and of Gideon\u2019; and \u2018I came not to send peace\nbut a Sword,\u2019 meaning the warfare and martyrdom of man.\n\nOn a lower plane the Sword became the invention and the favourite arm\nof the gods and the demi-gods: a gift of magic, one of the treasures\nsent down from Heaven, which made Mulciber (\u2018Malik Kab\u00edr,\u2019 the great\nking) divine, and Voelunder, Quida, Galant, or Wayland Smith a hero.\nIt was consecrated to the deities, and was stored in the Temple and in\nthe Church. It was the \u2018key of heaven and hell\u2019: the saying is, \u2018If\nthere were no Sword, there would be no law of Mohammed\u2019; and the Moslem\nbrave\u2019s highest title was \u2018Sayf Ullah\u2019\u2014Sword of Allah.\n\nUniformly and persistently personal, the Sword became no longer an\nabstraction but a Personage, endowed with human as well as superhuman\nqualities. He was a sentient being who spoke, and sang, and joyed, and\ngrieved. Identified with his wearer he was an object of affection, and\nwas pompously named as a well-beloved son and heir. To surrender the\nSword was submission; to break the Sword was degradation. To kiss the\nSword was, and in places still is, the highest form of oath and homage.\n\n Lay on our royal Sword your banished hands\n\nsays King Richard II. So Walther of Aquitaine:\u2014\n\n Contra Orientalem prostratus corpore partem\n Ac nudum retinens ensem hac cum voce precatur.\n\nThe Sword killed and cured; the hero when hopeless fell upon his Sword;\nand the heroine, like Lucretia and Calphurnia, used the blade standing.\nThe Sword cut the Gordian knot of every difficulty. The Sword was the\nsymbol of justice and of martyrdom, and accompanied the wearer to the\ntomb as well as to the feast and the fight. \u2018Lay on my coffin a Sword,\u2019\nsaid dying Heinrich Heine, \u2018for I have warred doughtily to win freedom\nfor mankind.\u2019\n\nFrom days immemorial the Queen of Weapons, a creator as well as a\ndestroyer, \u2018carved out history, formed the nations, and shaped the\nworld.\u2019 She decided the Alexandrine and the C\u00e6sarian victories which\nopened new prospects to human ken. She diffused everywhere the bright\nlights and splendid benefits of war and conquest, whose functions are\nall important in the formative and progressive processes. It is no\nparadox to assert _La guerre a enfant\u00e9 le droit_: without War there\nwould be no Right. The cost of life, says Emerson, the dreary havoc of\ncomfort and time, are overpaid by the vistas it opens of Eternal Law\nreconstructing and uplifting society; it breaks up the old horizon, and\nwe see through the rifts a wider view.\n\nWar, again, benefits society by raising its tone above the ineffable\nlittleness and meanness which characterise the every-day life of the\nmany. In the presence of the Great Destroyer, petty feuds and miserable\nenvy, hatred, and malice stand hushed and awe-struck. Very hollow in\nthese days sounds Voltaire\u2019s banter on War when he says that a king\npicks up a parcel of men who have nothing to do, dresses them in blue\ncloth at two shillings a yard, binds their hats with coarse white\nworsted, turns them to the right and left, and marches them away to\nglory.\n\nThe Sword and only the Sword raised the worthier race to power upon\nthe ruins of impotent savagery; and she carried in her train, from\ntime immemorial, throughout the civilised world, Asiatic Africa,\nAsia, and Europe, the arts and the sciences which humanise mankind.\nIn fact, whatever apparent evil the Sword may have done, she worked\nfor the highest ultimate good. With the Arabs the Sword was a type of\nindividuality. Thus Shanfara, the fleet-foot, sings in his _Lamiyyah_,\n(L-poem):\u2014\n\n Three friends: the Heart no fear shall know,\n The sharp white Sword, the yellow Bow.\n\nZayd bin Ali boasts, like El-Mutanabbi:\u2014\n\n The wielded Sword-blade knows my hand,\n The Spear obeys my lusty arm.\n\nAnd Ziy\u00e1d El-Ajam thus writes the epitaph of El-Mughayrah: \u2018So died he,\nafter having sought death between the spear-point and the Sword-edge.\u2019\n\nThis \u2018Pundonor\u2019 presently extended westward. During the knightly ages\nthe \u2018good Sword\u2019 of the Paladin and the Chevalier embodied a new\nfaith\u2014the Religion of Honour, the first step towards the religion of\nhumanity. These men once more taught the sublime truth, the splendid\ndoctrine known to the Stoics and the Pharisees, but unaccountably\nneglected in later creeds:\u2014\n\n Do good, for Good is good to do.\n\nTheir recklessness of all consequences soared worlds-high above the\nvarious egotistic systems which bribe man to do good for a personal and\nprivate consideration, to win the world, or to save his soul. Hence\nAristotle blamed his contemporaries, the Spartans: \u2018They are indeed\ngood men, but they have not the supreme consummate excellence of loving\nall things worthy, decent and laudable, purely as such and for their\nown sakes; nor of practising virtue for no other motive but the sole\nlove of her own innate beauty.\u2019 The \u2018everlasting Law of Honour binding\non all and peculiar to each,\u2019 would have thoroughly satisfied the\nStagirite\u2019s highest aspirations.\n\nIn knightly hands the Sword acknowledged no Fate but that of freedom\nand free-will; and it bred the very spirit of chivalry, a keen personal\nsentiment of self-respect, of dignity, and of loyalty, with the noble\ndesire to protect weakness against the abuse of strength. The knightly\nSword was ever the representative idea, the present and eternal symbol\nof all that man most prized\u2014courage and freedom. The names describe\nher quality: she is Joyeuse, and La Tisona; he is Z\u00fa \u2019l-Fik\u00e1r (sire of\nsplitting) and Quersteinbeis, biter of the mill-stone. The weapon was\neverywhere held to be the best friend of bravery, and the worst foe\nof perfidy; the companion of authority, and the token of commandment;\nthe outward and visible sign of force and fidelity, of conquest and\ndominion, of all that Humanity wants to have and wants to be.\n\nThe Sword was carried by and before kings; and the brand, not the\nsceptre, noted their seals of state. As the firm friend of the\ncrown and of the ermine robe, it became the second fountain of\nhonour. Amongst the ancient Germans even the judges sat armed on the\njudgment-seat; and at marriages it represented the bridegroom in his\nabsence. Noble and ennobling, its touch upon the shoulder conferred the\nprize of knighthood. As \u2018bakhshish\u2019 it was, and still is, the highest\ntestimony to the soldier\u2019s character; a proof that he is \u2018brave as\nhis sword-blade.\u2019 Its presence was a moral lesson; unlike the Greeks,\nthe Romans, and the Hebrews, Western and Southern Europe, during its\nchivalrous ages, appeared nowhere and on no occasion without the Sword.\nIt was ever ready to leap from its sheath in the cause of weakness and\nat the call of Honour. Hence, with its arrogant individuality, the\nSword still remained the \u2018all-sufficient type and token of the higher\nsentiments and the higher tendencies of human nature.\u2019\n\nIn society the position of the Sword was remarkable. \u2018Its aspect was\nbrilliant; its manners were courtly; its habits were punctilious, and\nits connections were patrician.\u2019 Its very vices were glittering; for\nmost of them were the abuses which could not but accompany its uses.\nIt bore itself haughtily as a victor, an arbitrator; and necessarily\nthere were times when its superlative qualities showed corresponding\ndefects. Handled by the vile it too often became, in the \u2018syllogism of\nviolence,\u2019 an incubus, a blusterer, a bully, a tyrant, a murderer, an\nassassin, in fact \u2018death\u2019s stamp\u2019; and under such conditions it was a\n\u2018corruption of the best.\u2019 But its lapses were individual and transient;\nits benefits to Humanity were general and ever-enduring.\n\nThe highest period of the Sword was the early sixteenth century, that\nmighty landmark separating the dark Past from the brilliant Present\nof Europe. The sudden awaking and excitement of man\u2019s mind, produced\nby the revival of learning and the marriage-union of the West with\nthe East; by the discovering of a new hemisphere, the doubling of the\nworld; by the so-called Reformation, a northern protest against the\nslavery of the soul; by the wide spread of the printing-press, which\nmeant knowledge; and, simultaneously, by the illumination of that\nelectric spark generated from the contact of human thought, suddenly\nchanged the status of the Sword. It was no longer an assailant, a\nslaughterer: it became a defender, a preserver. It learned to be shield\nas well as Sword. And now arose swordsmanship proper, when the \u2018Art of\nArms\u2019 meant, amongst the old masters, the Art of Fence. The sixteenth\ncentury was its Golden Age.\n\nAt this time the Sword was not only the Queen of Weapons, but the\nweapon paramount between man and man. Then, advancing by slow,\nstealthy, and stumbling steps, the age of gunpowder, of \u2018villanous\nsaltpetre,\u2019 appeared upon the scene of life. Gradually the bayonet, a\nmodern modification of the pike, which again derives from the savage\nspear, one of the earliest forms of the _arme blanche_, ousted the\nSword amongst infantry because the former could be combined with\nthe fire-piece. A century afterwards cavalrymen learned, in the\nFederal-Confederate war, to prefer the revolver and repeater, the\nbreech-loader and the reservoir-gun, to the sabre of past generations.\nIt became an axiom that in a cavalry charge the spur, not the Sword,\ngains the day. By no means a unique, nor even a singular process of\nprogress, is this return towards the past, this falling back upon\nthe instincts of primitive invention, this recurrence to childhood:\nwhen the science of war reverted to ballistics it practically revived\nthe practice of the first ages, and the characteristic attack of\nthe savage and the barbarian who, as a rule, throw their weapons.\nThe cannon is the ballista, and the arblast, the mangonel, and\nthe trebuchet, worked not by muscular but by chemical forces. The\ntorpedo is still the old, old petard; the spur of the ironclad is the\nlong-disused embolon, rostrum, or beak; and steam-power is a rough,\ncheap substitute for man-power, for the banks of oarsmen, whose work\nhad a delicacy of manipulation unknown to machinery, however ingenious.\nThe armed nations, which in Europe are again becoming the substitutes\nfor standing armies, represent the savage and barbarous stages of\nsociety, the proto-historic races, amongst which every man between\nthe ages of fifteen and fifty is a man-at-arms. It is the same in\nmoral matters; the general spread of the revolutionary spirit, of\nrepublicanism, of democratic ideas, of communistic, socialistic, and\nnihilistic rights and claims now acting so powerfully upon society\nand upon the brotherhood of nations, is a re-dawning of that early\nday when the peoples ruled themselves, and were not yet governed by\npriestly and soldier kings. It is the same even in the \u2018immaterials.\u2019\nThe Swedenborgian school, popularly known by the trivial name\n_Spiritualism_, has revived magic, and this \u2018new motor force,\u2019 for such\nI call it, has resurrected the Ghost, which many a wise head supposed\nto have been laid for ever.\n\nThe death-song of the Sword has been sung, and we are told that \u2018Steel\nhas ceased to be a gentleman.\u2019[1] Not so! and by no means so. These\nare mere insular and insulated views, and England, though a grand\nfigure, the mother of nations, the modern Rome, is yet but a fraction\nof the world. The Englishman and, for that matter, the German and\nthe Scandinavian, adopted with a protest, and right unwillingly,\nswordsmanship proper\u2014that is, rapier and point, the peculiar and\nespecial weapon, offensive and defensive, of Southern Europe, Spain,\nItaly, and France. During the most flourishing age of the Sword it is\nrare to find a blade bearing the name of an English maker, and English\ninscriptions seldom date earlier than the eighteenth century. The\nreason is evident. The Northerners hacked with hangers, they hewed with\nhatchets, and they cut with cutlasses because the arm suited their bulk\nand stature, weight and strength. But such weapons are the brutality\nof the Sword. In England swordsmanship is, and ever was, an exotic;\nlike the sentiment, as opposed to the knowledge, of Art, it is the\nproperty of the few, not of the many; and, being rare, it is somewhat\n\u2018un-English.\u2019\n\nBut the case is different on the continent of Europe. Probably at no\nperiod during the last four centuries has the Sword been so ardently\nstudied as it is now by the Latin race in France and Italy. At no time\nhave the schools been so distinguished for intellectual as well as for\nmoral proficiency. The use of the foil \u2018bated\u2019 and \u2018unbated\u2019 has once\nmore become quasi-universal. A duello, in the most approved fashion of\nour ancestors, was lately proposed (September 1882) by ten journalists\nof a Parisian paper, to as many on the staff of a rival publication.\nEven the softer sex in France and Italy has become cunning of fence;\nand women are among the most prosperous pupils of the _salles d\u2019armes_.\nWitness, for instance, the ill-fated Mdlle. Feyghine of the Th\u00e9\u00e2tre\nFran\u00e7ais, so celebrated for her skill in \u2018the carte and the tierce and\nthe reason demonstrative.\u2019\n\nNor is the cause of this wider diffusion far to seek. In the presence\nof arms of precision, the Sword, as a means of offence and defence,\nmay practically fall for a time into disuse. It may no longer be the\narm paramount or represent an idea. It may have come down from its\nhigh estate as tutor to the noble and the great. Yet not the less it\nhas, and will ever have, its work to do. The Ex-Queen now appears as\ninstructress-general in the art of arms. As the mathematic is the basis\nof all exact science, so Sword-play teaches the soldier to handle every\nother weapon. This is well known to Continental armies, in which each\nregiment has its own fencing establishment and its _salle d\u2019armes_.\n\nAgain, men of thought cannot ignore the intrinsic value of the Sword\nfor stimulating physical qualities. _Ce n\u2019est pas assez de roidir\nl\u2019\u00e2me, il faut aussi roidir les muscles_, says Montaigne, who also\nremarks of fencing that it is the only exercise wherein _l\u2019esprit s\u2019en\nexerce_. The best of callisthenics, this energetic educator teaches the\nman to carry himself like a soldier. A compendium of gymnastics, it\nincreases strength and activity, dexterity and rapidity of movement.\nProfessors calculate that one hour of hard fencing wastes forty ounces\nby perspiration and respiration. The foil is still the best training\ntool for the consensus of eye and hand; for the judgment of distance\nand opportunity; and, in fact, for the practice of combat. And thus\nswordsmanship engenders moral confidence and self-reliance while it\nstimulates a habit of resource; and it is not without suggesting, even\nin the schools, that \u2018curious, fantastic, very noble generosity proper\nto itself alone.\u2019\n\nAnd now when the vain glory of violence has passed away from the Sword\nwith the customs of a past age, we can hardly ignore the fact that\nthe manners of nations have changed, not for the best. As soon as the\nSword ceased to be worn in France, a Frenchman said of his compatriots\nthat the \u2018politest people in Europe had suddenly become the rudest.\u2019\nThat gallant and courteous bearing, which in England during the early\nnineteenth century so charmed the \u2018fiery and fastidious Alfieri\u2019\nlingers only amongst a few. True the swash-buckler, the professional\nduellist, has disappeared. But courtesy and punctiliousness, the\npoliteness of man to man, and respect and deference of man to\nwoman\u2014that _Frauencultus_, the very conception of the knightly\ncharacter\u2014have to a great extent been \u2018improved off.\u2019 The latter\ncondition of society, indeed, seems to survive only in the most\ncultivated classes of Europe; and, popularly, amongst the citizens\nof the United States, a curious oasis of chivalry in a waste of bald\nutilitarianism\u2014preserved not by the Sword but by the revolver. Our\nEngland has abolished the duello without substituting aught better for\nit: she has stopped the effect and left the cause.\n\nSo far I have written concerning the Sword simply to show that my work\ndoes not come out \u2018a day after the fair\u2019; and that there is still a\npowerful vitality in the heroic Weapon. The details of such general\nstatements will be established and developed in the following pages.\nIt is now advisable to introduce this volume to the reader.\n\nDuring the \u2018seventies\u2019 I began, with a light heart, my Book of the\nSword, expecting to finish it within a few months. It has occupied me\nas many years. Not only study and thought, but travel and inspection,\nwere found indispensable; a monograph on the Sword and its literature\ninvolved visiting almost all the great armouries of continental\nEurope, and a journey to India in 1875\u20136. The short period of months\nserved only to show that a memoir of the Sword embraces the annals of\nthe world. The long term of years has convinced me that to treat the\nsubject in its totality is impossible within reasonable limits.\n\nIt will hardly be said that a monograph of the Sword is not wanted.\nStudents who would learn her origin, genealogy, and history, find\nno single publication ready to hand. They must ransack catalogues\nand books on \u2018arms and armour\u2019 that are numbered by the score. They\nmust hunt up fugitive pamphlets; papers consigned to the literary\nstore-rooms called magazines; and stray notices deep buried in the\nponderous tomes of _Recueils_ and general works on Hoplology. They must\nwade through volume after volume of histories and travels, to pick up\na few stray sentences. And they will too often find that the index\nof an English book which gives copious references to glass or sugar\nutterly ignores the Sword. At times they must labour in the dark, for\nmen who write seem wholly unconscious of the subject\u2019s importance. For\ninstance, much has been said about art in Japan; but our knowledge of\nher metallurgy especially of her iron and steel works, is elementary,\nwhile that of her peculiar and admirable cutlery is strangely\nsuperficial. And travellers and collectors treat the Sword much as they\ndo objects of natural history. They regard only the rare, the forms\nwhich they ignore, or which strike the eye, and the unique specimens\nwhich may have no comparative value. Thus they neglect articles of far\nmore interest and of higher importance to the student, and they bring\nhome, often at great expense, mere lumber for curiosity shops.\n\nThe difficulty of treating the Sword is enhanced by the peculiar\nindividuality which characterises it, evidenced by an immense variety\nof physique, and resulting as much from unconscious selection as\nfrom deep design. One of the characteristics of indigenous art is\nthat no two articles, especially no two weapons, are exactly alike;\nand yet they vary only within narrow and measurable limits. The\nminute differenti\u00e6 of the Sword are endless. Even in the present day,\nswordsmen will order some shape, size, or weight which they hold\u2014often\nunwisely enough\u2014to be improvements on the general. One man, wishing\nto strengthen his arm, devises a weapon fit for a Titan and finds it\nworse than useless. A tale is told of a Sheffield cutler who, having\nreceived from Maroccan Mogador a wooden model to be copied in steel,\nmade several hundred blades on the same pattern and failed to find a\nsingle purchaser. Their general resemblance to the prevailing type\nwas marred by peculiarities which unsuited them for general use; they\nwere adapted only to individual requirement, each man priding himself\nupon his own pattern having some almost imperceptible difference.\nSuch variations are intelligible enough in the Sword, which must be\nmodified for every personality, because it becomes to the swordsman a\nprolongation of his own person, a lengthening of the arm. The natural\nresults are the protean shapes of the weapon and the difficulty of\nreducing these shapes to orderly description. I cannot, therefore,\nagree with a President of the Anthropological Institute (\u2018Journal,\u2019\nOctober 1876) when he states: \u2018Certainly the same forms of Sword might\nbe found in different countries, but not of so peculiar a nature (as\nthe Gaboon weapon) unless the form had been communicated.\u2019 Shapes\napparently identical start up spontaneously, because types are limited\nand man\u2019s preferences easily traverse the whole range of his invention.\n\nThus the stumbling-block which met me on the threshold was to\nintroduce sequence, system, and lucid order into a chaos of details.\nIt was necessary to discover some unity, some starting-place for\nevolution and development, without which all treatment would be vague\nand inconsequent. But where find the clue which makes straight the\nlabyrinthine paths; the _point de mire_ which enables us to command the\nwhole prospect; the coign of vantage which displays the disposition of\ndetails, together with the _nexus_, the intercommunication, and the\nprogress of the parts and the whole?\n\nTwo different systems of that \u2018classification, which defines the\nmargin of our ignorance,\u2019 are adopted by museums; and, consequently,\nby the catalogues describing them. I shall here quote only English\ncollections, leaving to the Continental reader the task of applying\nthe two main principles locally and generally. These are, first, the\nTopical or Geographical (_e.g._ Christy collection), which, as the\nwords denote, examines the article itself mainly with reference to its\nmedia, nature and culture, place and date; and which considers man and\nhis works as the expression of the soil that bears him. The second is\nthe Material and purely Formal (General A. Pitt-Rivers\u2019 collection),\nwhich regards only the objects or specimens themselves, without respect\nto their makers or their media; and which, by investigating the rival\nlaws of continuity and of incessant variation, aims at extending our\nknowledge of mankind. Both plans have their merits and their demerits.\nThe Topical is the more strictly anthropologico-ethnological, because\nit makes the general racial culture its prominent feature; but it\nfails to illustrate, by juxtaposition, the origin, the life, and the\ndeath of a special article. The Formal proposes to itself the study of\nspecific ideas; it describes their transmissions and their migrations;\nand it displays their connection and sequence, their development\nand degradation. It exemplifies the law of unconscious selection,\nas opposed to premeditation and design. Thus it claims superior\nsociological interest, while it somewhat separates and isolates the\narticle from its surroundings\u2014mankind.\n\nAgain, it would be unadvisable to neglect the chronological and\nsynchronological order (Demmin\u2019s). This assists us in tracing with\na surer hand the origin and derivation; the annals, the adventures,\nand the accidents of an almost universal weapon, whose marvellously\nchequered career excels in dignity, in poetry, and in romance, anything\nand everything the world has yet seen. And here I have not been\nunmindful of Dr. Arthur Mitchell\u2019s sensible warning that \u2018the rude\nform of an implement may follow as well as precede the more finished\nforms.\u2019[2] Due regard to dates enables us to avoid the scandalous\nconfusion of the vulgar museum. Demmin found a large number of swords\ncatalogued as dating with the time of Charles the Bold, when the shapes\nproved that they belonged to the late sixteenth and even to the early\nseventeenth centuries. I was shown, in the museum of Aquileja, a \u2018Roman\nsword\u2019 which was a basket-hilted Venetian, hardly two hundred years\nold. It is only an exact chronology, made to frame the Geographical\nand the Formal pictures of the weapon, that can secure scientific\ndistribution.\n\nIn dealing with a subject which, like the Sword, ranges through the\nworld-history, and which concerns the human race in general, it would,\nI venture to opine, be unwise to adopt a single system. As clearness\ncan be obtained only by methodical distribution of matter, all the\nseveral processes must be combined with what art the artificer may.\nThe Formal, which includes the Material, as well as the shape of the\nweapon, affords one fair basis for classification. The substance, for\ninstance, ranges from wood to steel, and the profile from the straight\nline to the segment of a circle. The Topical, beginning (as far as we\nknow) in the Nile Valley, and thence in ancient days overspreading\nAfrica, Asia, Europe, and America, determines the distribution and\nshows the general continuity of the noble arm. It also readily\nassociates itself with the chronologico-historical order, which begins\n_ab initio_, furnishes a proof of general progress, interrupted only by\nfitful stages of retrogression, and, finally, dwells upon the epochs of\nthe highest interest.\n\nAfter not a little study I resolved to distribute the \u2018Book of the\nSword\u2019 into three parts.\n\nPart I. treats of the birth, parentage, and early career of the Sword.\nIt begins with the very beginning, in prehistoric times and amongst\nproto-historic peoples; and it ends with the full growth of the Sword\nat the epoch of the early Roman Empire.\n\nPart II. treats of the Sword fully grown. It opens with the rising\ncivilisation of the Northern Barbarians and with the decline of Rome\nunder Constantine (A.D. 313\u2013324), who combined Christianity with\nMithraism; when the world-capital was transferred to Byzantium, and\nwhen an imitation of Orientalism, specially of \u2018Persic apparatus,\u2019\nled to the art decay which we denote by the term \u2018Lower Empire.\u2019 It\nproceeds to the rise of El-Islam; the origin of ordered chivalry and\nknighthood; the succession of the Crusades and the wars of arms and\narmour before the gunpowder age, when the general use of ballistics by\nmeans of explosives became the marking feature of battle. This was the\npalmy period of the Sword. It became a beautiful work of art; and the\nhighest genius did not disdain to chase and gem the handle and sheath.\nAnd its career culminates with the early sixteenth century, when the\nweapon of offence assumed its defensive phase and rose to a height of\nsplendour that prognosticated downfall, as surely as the bursting of a\nrocket precedes its extinction.\n\nPart III. continues the memoirs of the Sword, which, after long\ndeclining, revives once more in our day. This portion embraces\ndescriptions of the modern blade, notices of collections, public and\nprivate, notes on manufactures; and, lastly, the bibliography and the\nliterature connected with the Heroic Weapon.\n\nPart I., contained in this volume, numbers thirteen chapters, of which\na bird\u2019s-eye view is given by the List of Contents. The first seven\nare formally and chronologically arranged. Thus we have the Origin of\nWeapons (Chapter I.) showing that while the arm is common to man and\nbeast, the weapon, as a rule, belongs to our kind. Chapter II. treats\nof the first weapon proper, the Stone, which gave rise to ballistics\nas well as to implements of percussion. Follows (Chapter III.) the\nblade of base materials, wood, stone and bone, materials still used\nby races which can procure nothing better. From this point a step\nleads to the metal blade, in its origin evidently a copy of preceding\ntypes. The first, (Chapter IV.) is of pure copper, in our translations\ngenerally rendered by \u2018brass\u2019 or \u2018bronze.\u2019 The intermediate substances\n(Chapter V.) are represented by alloys, a variety of mixed metals;\nand they naturally end with the so-called \u2018age\u2019 of early iron, which\nprevailed throughout Europe at a time when the valleys of the Nile and\nthe Tigris-Euphrates wrought blades of the finest steel. This division\nconcludes with a formal and technical Chapter (VII.) on the shape of\nthe Sword and a description of its several parts. Here the subject does\nnot readily lend itself to lively description; but, if I have been\ncompelled to be dull, I have done my best to avoid being tedious.\n\nThe arrangement then becomes geographical and chronological. My next\nfive chapters are devoted to the Sword in its topical distribution and\nconnection. The first (No. VIII.) begins with the various blade-forms\nin ancient Egypt, which extended throughout the then civilised world;\nit ends with showing that the Nile valley gave their present shapes\nto the \u2018white arm\u2019 of the Dark Continent even in its modern day, and\napplied to the Sword the name which it still bears in Europe. The\nsecond (No. IX.) passes to Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor, lands\nwhich manifestly borrowed the weapon from the Egyptians, and handed it\non to Assyria, Persia, and India. The arms and armour of the \u2018great\nInteramnian Plain\u2019 afford material for a third (Chapter X.). Thence,\nretracing our steps and passing further westwards, we find manifest\nderivation and immense improvement of the Egyptian weapon in Greece\n(Chapter XI.), from which Mycen\u00e6 has lately supplied bronze rapiers\nperfectly formed as the steels of Bilboa and Toledo. The fifth Chapter\n(No. XII.) continues the ancient history of the Sword by describing\nthe various blades of progressive Rome, whose wise choice and change\nof arms enabled her to gain the greatest battles with the least amount\nof loss. To this I have appended, for geographical and chronological\nsymmetry, in a sixth and last chapter (No. XIII.), a sketch of the\nSword among the contemporary Barbarians of the Roman Empire, Dacians,\nItalians, Iberians, Gauls, Germans, and the British Islands. This\nportion of the Sword history, however, especially the Scandinavian and\nthe Irish, will be treated at full length in Part II.\n\nHere, then, ends the First Part, which Messrs. Chatto and Windus have\nkindly consented to publish, whilst my large collection of notes, the\nlabour of years, is being ordered and digested for the other two. I may\nfairly hope, if all go well, to see both in print before the end of\n1884.\n\nIn the following pages I have confined myself, as much as was possible,\nto the Sword; a theme which, indeed, offers an _embarras de richesses_.\nBut weapons cannot be wholly isolated, especially when discussing\norigins: one naturally derives from and connects with the other; and\nthese relations may hardly be passed over without notice. I have,\ntherefore, indulged in an occasional divagation, especially concerning\nthe axe and the spear; but the main line has never been deserted.\n\nNor need I offer an excuse for the amount of philological discussion\nwhich the nomenclature of the Sword has rendered necessary. If I have\nopposed the Past Masters of the art, my opposition has been honest,\nand I am ever open to refutation. Travellers refuse to believe that\n\u2018Aryanism\u2019 was born on the bald, bleak highlands of Central Asia, or\nthat \u2018Semitism\u2019 derives from the dreary, fiery deserts of Arabia. We\ndo not believe India to be \u2018the country which even more than Greece or\nRome was the cradle of grammar and philology.\u2019 I cannot but hold that\nEngland has, of late years, been greatly misled by the \u2018Aryan heresy\u2019;\nand I look forward to the study being set upon a sounder base.\n\nThe illustrations, numbering 293, have been entrusted to the artistic\nhands of Mr. Joseph Grego, who has taken a friendly interest in the\nwork. But too much must not be expected from them in a book which\nintends to be popular, and which is, therefore, limited in the matter\nof expense. Hence they are fewer than I should have desired. The\nlibraries of Europe contain many catalogues of weapons printed in folio\nwith highly finished and coloured plates which here would be out of\nplace. That such a work upon the subject of the Sword will presently\nappear I have no doubt; and my only hope is that this volume will prove\nan efficient introduction.\n\nTo conclude. I return grateful thanks to the many _mitwerkers_ who have\nassisted me in preparing this monograph; no more need be said, as all\nnames will be mentioned in the course of the work. A journey to the\nGold Coast and its results, in two volumes, which describe its wealth,\nmust plead my excuse for the delay in bringing out the book. The\nmanuscript was sent home from Lisbon in December 1881, but the \u2018tyranny\nof circumstance\u2019 has withheld it for nearly two years.\n\n RICHARD F. BURTON.\n\n_Postscript._ An afterthought suggests that it is only fair, both\nfor readers and for myself, to own that sundry quotations have been\nborrowed at second-hand and that the work of verification, so rightly\nenjoined upon writers, has not always been possible. These blemishes\nare hardly to be avoided in a first edition. At Trieste, and other\nplaces distant from the great seats of civilisation, libraries of\nreference are unknown; and it is vain to seek for the original source.\nIndeed, Mr. James Fergusson once wrote to me that it was an overbold\nthing to undertake a History of the Sword under such circumstances.\nHowever, I made the best use of sundry visits to London and Paris,\nBerlin, Vienna, and other capitals, and did what I could to remedy\ndefects. Lastly, the illustrations have not always, as they ought, been\ndrawn to scale, they were borrowed from a number of volumes which paid\nscant attention to this requisite.\n\n\n\n\n LIST OF AUTHORITIES.\n\n\n _Academy (The)_, a Weekly Review of Literature, Science, and Art.\n\n Agricola, _De Re Metallic\u00e2_, First published in 1551.\n\n Akermann (J. Y.), _Remains of Pagan Saxondom_. London: Smith,\n MDCCCLV.\n\n Amicis (Edoardo de), _Marocco_. Milan: Treves, 1876.\n\n Ammianus Marcellinus, Historian of the Lower Empire. Fourth century.\n\n Anderson (J. R.), _Saint Mark\u2019s Rest: the Place of Dragons_, edited\n by John Ruskin, LL.D. Allen: Sunnyside, Orpington, Kent, 1879.\n\n Anderson (Joseph), _Scotland in Early Christian Times_. Rhind\n Lectures in Arch\u00e6ology for 1879. Edinburgh: Douglas, 1882.\n\n _Anthropologia_ (London Anthropological Society. Established Jan.\n 22, 1873; first number, Oct. 1873; died after fifth number,\n July 1875.)\n\n _Anthropological Institute (The Journal of)_. London: Tr\u00fcbner.\n\n _Anthropological Review_, Vol. I.-III. London: Tr\u00fcbner, 1863\u201365.\n\n Antiquaries of London (Society of), from the beginning in 1770 to\n 1883.\n\n _Antiquities of Orissa_, by Rajendralala Mitra, 2 vols. fol.;\n published by Government of India.\n\n Apuleius (A.D. 130).\n\n _Arch\u00e6ologia, or Tracts relating to Antiquity_, published by the\n Society of Antiquaries of London, from the commencement in 1749\n to 1863.\n\n Arch\u00e6ological Association, vol. iv., _Weapons, &c., of Horn_.\n\n _Arch\u00e6ology (Transactions of the Society of Biblical)_, London:\n Longmans; beginning in 1872.\n\n Aristophanes.\n\n Aristotle, _Meteorologica, &c._\n\n Arrian (Flavius), A.D. 90, _Anabasis, &c._\n\n _Athen\u00e6um (The)_, Journal of English and Foreign Literature, &c.\n\n Athen\u00e6us (A.D. 230), _Deipnosophists_.\n\n Baker (Sir Samuel White), _The Nile Tributaries_. London:\n Macmillan, 1866. _The Albert Nyanza._ London, 1868.\n\n _Balthazar Ribello de Arag\u00e3o; Viagens dos Portuguezes, Collec\u00e7\u00e3o de\n Documentas_, por Luciano Cordeiro, Lisboa, Imprensa Nacional,\n 1881. The learned Editor is Secretary to the Royal Geographical\n Society of Lisbon.\n\n Barbosa (Duarte), _A Description of the Coasts of East Africa\n and Malabar_, translated for the Hakluyt Society, London, by\n Honourable Henry E. (now Lord) Stanley, 1866. Written about\n A.D. 1512\u201314, and attributed by some to Magellan.\n\n Barth (Henry), _Travels, &c., in Central Africa_ 1849\u20131855; 5\n vols., 8vo. London: Longmans, 1875.\n\n Barth\u00e9lemy (Abb\u00e9 J. J.), _Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Gr\u00e8ce,\n &c._, 5 vols. 4to. Paris, 1788.\n\n Bataillard (Paul) _On Gypsies and other Matters_, Soci\u00e9t\u00e9\n Anthropologique de Paris, 1874.\n\n Beckmann (John), _A History of Inventions, Discoveries, and\n Origins_, translated by W. Johnston. London: Bell and Daldy,\n 1872 (fourth edition, revised). It is a useful book of\n reference and wants only a few additions.\n\n Berosus (B.C. 261), _Fragments_, edit. M\u00fcller.\n\n Bollaert (William), _Antiquarian, Ethnological, and other\n Researches_. London: Tr\u00fcbner, 1860.\n\n Bologna, _Congr\u00e8s d\u2019Arch\u00e9ologie et d\u2019Anthropologie Pr\u00e9historiques,\n Session de Bologna_, 1 vol. 8vo. Fava and Garagnani: Bologna,\n 1871.\n\n Bonnycastle (Captain R. H., of the Royal Engineers), _Spanish\n America, &c._ Philadelphia: A. Small, 1817.\n\n Borlase (William), _Observations on the Antiquities, &c., of the\n County of Cornwall_. Oxford, 1754.\n\n Boscawen (W. St. Chad), Papers in Society of Biblical Arch\u00e6ology.\n\n Boutell (Charles), _Arms and Armour_. London, 1867.\n\n Brewster (Sir David), _Letters on Natural Magic_, 12mo. London,\n 1833.\n\n Brugsch (Heinrich), _A History of Egypt under the Pharaohs, &c._,\n by Henry Brugsch-Bey (now Pasha). Translated from the German by\n the late Henry Danby Seymour; completed and edited by Philip\n Smith, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1879. The first part has\n been published in French, Leipzig, 1859. The archaistic German\n style of _Geschichte Aegypten\u2019s_ is very difficult.\n\n _Bulletin de l\u2019Institut \u00c9gyptien._ Cairo: Mour\u00e8s, 1882.\n\n Bunsen (Baron C. C. J.), _Egypt\u2019s Place in Universal History, &c._,\n with additions by Samuel Birch, LL. D., 5 vols. 8vo. London:\n Longmans, 1867.\n\n Burnouf (\u00c9mile), _Essai sur le Veda, ou \u00c9tudes sur les Religions,\n &c., de l\u2019Inde_, 1 vol. 8vo., 1863. \u2018L\u2019Age de Bronze,\u2019 _Revue\n des deux Mondes_, July 15, 1877.\n\n Burton (R. F.), _A Complete System of Bayonet Exercise_. London:\n Clowes, 1853. The _Athen\u00e6um_, Nov, 24, 1880. _Camoens, his Life\n and his Lusiads_, 2 vols. 12mo., Quaritch, 1881. _To the Gold\n Coast for Gold_. London: Chatto and Windus, 1883.\n\n C\u00e6sar (Julius), _Opera Omnia_, Delphin edit., variorum notes, 4\n vols. 8vo. Londini, 1819.\n\n Calder (J. E.), _Some Account of the Wars of Extirpation and Habits\n of the Native Tribes of Tasmania_, Journ. Anthrop. Instit.,\n vol. iii. 1873.\n\n Cameron (Commander Verney Lovett, C.B., D.C.L., &c.), _Across\n Africa_. London: Daldy and Isbister, 1877.\n\n Camoens, _Os Lusiadas_.\n\n _Catalogue du Bulak Mus\u00e9um_, by the late Mariette-Bey (afterwards\n Pasha). Cairo: A. Mour\u00e8s, imprimeur-\u00e9diteur.\n\n _Catalog. Die Ethnographisch-Anthropologische Abtheilung des\n Museums Godefroy in Hamburg_, vol. i. 8vo. L. Frederichsen u.\n Co. 1881.\n\n Caylus (Comte de), _Recueil d\u2019Antiquit\u00e9s \u00c9gyptiennes, &c._, 8 vols.\n 4to. Paris, 1752\u201370.\n\n Celsus (A. Cornelius), _De Medicin\u00e2_, edit. princeps. Florenti\u00e6, a\n Nicolao impressus, A.D. 1478.\n\n Chabas, _\u00c9tudes sur l\u2019Antiquit\u00e9 Historique d\u2019apr\u00e8s les sources\n \u00c9gyptiennes_, 1872.\n\n Chaillu (Paul B. du), _Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial\n Africa, &c._ London: Murray, 1861. The _Gorilla-book_.\n\n Chapman (Captain George), _Foil Practice, with a Review of the Art\n of Fencing_. London: Clowes, 1861.\n\n Clapperton (Captain H.), _Journal of a Second Expedition into\n Africa_, 1 vol. 4to. London, 1829.\n\n Clermont-Ganneau (Charles), _Horus et Saint George, &c._ Extrait de\n la _Revue Arch\u00e9ologique_, Dec. 1877. Paris: Didier et C^{ie}.\n The author is a prolific writer and a highly distinguished\n Orientalist.\n\n Cochet (Jean Beno\u00eet D\u00e9sir\u00e9, Abb\u00e9), _Le Tombeau de Child\u00e9ric I.,\n Roi des Francs_. Restitu\u00e9 \u00e0 l\u2019aide de l\u2019arch\u00e9ologie et des\n d\u00e9couvertes r\u00e9centes, 8vo. Paris: 1859.\n\n Cole (Lieutenant H. H., of the Royal Engineers), _Catalogue of\n Indian Art in the South Kensington Museum_.\n\n \u2014\u2014 _Illustrations of Ancient Buildings in Kashmir_, prepared\n under the authority of the Secretary of State for India\n from photographs, plans, and drawings taken by order of the\n Government of India. London, 1869. 4to.\n\n \u2014\u2014 _The Architecture of Ancient Delhi, especially the buildings\n around the Kutb Minar_, fol. London, 1872.\n\n Cooper (Rev. Basil H.), _The Antiquity and the Use of Metals and\n especially Iron, among the Egyptians_, Transac. Devonshire\n Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, 1868.\n\n Cory (Isaac Preston), _Ancient Fragments of the Ph\u0153nician,\n Chald\u00e6an, Egyptian, Tyrian, Carthaginian, and other writers_,\n 8vo. London, 1832. Very rare. New edit. Reeves and Turner:\n London, 1876.\n\n Crawfurd (John), _On the Sources of the Supply of Tin for the\n Bronze Tools and Weapons of Antiquity_, Trans. Ethnol. Soc.,\n N.S., vol. iii. 1865.\n\n Cunningham (General A.), _The Bhilsa Topes, &c._, 8vo. London,\n 1854. _L\u00e1dak, &c._, royal 8vo. London, 1854. _Arch\u00e6ological\n Survey of India_, 6 vols. 8vo. Simla, 1871\u201378.\n\n Czoernig (Baron Carl von), jun. _Ueber die vorhistorischen Funde im\n Laibacher Torfmoor_. Alpine Soc. of Trieste, Dec. 8, 1875.\n\n Daniel (P\u00e8re Gabriel), _Histoire de la Milice Fran\u00e7oise, et des\n Changemens qui s\u2019y sont faits, depuis l\u2019\u00e9tablissement de la\n Monarchie Fran\u00e7oise dans les Gaules, jusqu\u2019\u00e0 la fin du R\u00e9gne\n de Louis le Grand_, 7 vols. 8vo. \u00c0 Amsterdam; au d\u00e9pens de la\n Compagnie (de J\u00e9sus), MDCCXXIV. It is a standard work as far as\n it goes.\n\n Davis (Sir John F.), _The Chinese: a general Description of the\n Empire of China and its Inhabitants_, 2 vols. 8vo. London:\n Knight, MDCCCVI.\n\n Day (St. John Vincent), _The Prehistoric Use of Iron and Steel_.\n London: Tr\u00fcbner, 1877. When sending me a copy of his learned\n and original study, Mr. Day wrote to me that he is bringing out\n a second edition, in which his \u2018collection of additional matter\n will modify and correct certain of his former views.\u2019\n\n Demmin (Auguste), _Illustrated History of Arms and Armour_,\n translated by C. C. Black, M.A. London: Bell, 1877. The\n illustrations leave much to be desired; the Oriental notices\n are deficient, and the translator has made them worse.\n Otherwise the book gives a fair general and superficial view.\n\n Denham (Major Dixon), Clapperton and Oudney\u2019s _Travels in Northern\n and Central Africa_, in 1822\u201324, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1826.\n\n Deschmann und Hochstetter, _Pr\u00e4historische Ansiedlungen, &c., in\n Krain_. Laybach, 1879.\n\n Desor (Edouard), _Les Palafittes, ou Constructions lacustres du lac\n de Neuch\u00e2tel_. Paris, 1865. _Die Pfahlbauten des Neuenberger\n Sees._ Frankfurt a. M., 1866. Desor et Favre, _Le Bel Age du\n Bronze lacustre en Suisse_, 1 vol. fol. Neufch\u00e2tel, 1874.\n\n Diodorus Siculus (B.C. 44), _Bibliotheca Historica_, P.\n Wesselingius, 2 vols. fol. Amstelod., 1746.\n\n Dion Cassius (nat. A.D. 155).\n\n Dionysius of Halicarnassus (B.C. 29), _Opera Omnia_, J. J. Reiske,\n 6 vols. 8vo. Lipsi\u00e6, 1774.\n\n Dodwell (Edward), _A Classical and Topographical Tour through\n Greece_, 1801\u20136, 2 vols. 4to. London, 1819.\n\n Douglas (Rev. James, F.A.S.), _N\u00e6nia Britannica_, 1793, folio.\n\n D\u00fcmichen, _Geschichte des alten Aegyptens_. Berlin, 1879.\n\n Ebers (Prof. George), _Aegypten und die B\u00fccher Moses_. Leipzig,\n 1868. Followed by sundry Germano-Egyptian romances, _An\n Egyptian Princess_, _Uarda_, _&c._\n\n Edkins (Rev. Dr.), _China\u2019s Place in Philology: an Attempt to show\n that the Languages of Europe and Asia have a Common Origin_.\n London, 1 vol. 8vo., 1871.\n\n Ellis (Rev. William), _Polynesian Researches_. London: Murray, 1858.\n\n Elphinstone, _History of India_, 2 vols. 8vo. 1841.\n\n _Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica._\n\n \u2014\u2014 _Metropolitana._\n\n \u2014\u2014 _Penny_ (one of the best).\n\n \u2014\u2014 _Knight\u2019s._\n\n Engel (W. H.), _Kypros: eine Monographie_. 2 vols. 8vo. Berlin:\n Reimer, 1841.\n\n _Ethnological Society of London (Journal of)_ 7 vols. 8vo.\n 1848\u201365.\n\n Eusebius (Bishop of C\u00e6sarea, A.D. 264\u2013340), _Histori\u00e6 Ecclesiastic\u00e6\n Libri Decem_; denuo edidit F. A. Heinichen, 3 vols. 8vo.\n Lipsi\u00e6, 1868.\n\n Evans (Dr. John), _The Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain_,\n 1 vol. 8vo. London: Longmans, 1872. _The Ancient Implements\n of Great Britain and Ireland_, ibid. 1881. Both works are\n admirably well studied and exhaust the subjects as far as they\n are now known.\n\n Ewbank (Thomas), _Life in Brazil_, 1 vol. 8vo. New York,\n 1856; London: Sampson Low and Co., 1856. The Appendix is\n anthropologically valuable.\n\n Fairholt (F. W.), _A Dictionary of Terms of Art_, 1 vol. 12mo.\n Virtue and Hall, London, 1849.\n\n Farrar (Canon), _Life, &c., of Saint Paul_. Cassell and Co.:\n London, Paris, and New York (undated).\n\n Ferguson (Sir James), _Transactions of the Irish Association_.\n\n Fergusson (James), _A History of Architecture_, 4 vols. 8vo.\n London, 1874\u201376.\n\n Festus (Sextus Pompeius), _De Verborum Significatione_, K. O.\n M\u00fcller. Lipsi\u00e6, 1839. The Grammarian lived between A.D. 100\n (Martial\u2019s day) and A.D. 422 (under Theodosius II.).\n\n Ficke, _W\u00f6rterbuch der Indo-germanischen Grundsprache, &c._\n G\u00f6ttingen, 1868.\n\n Florus (Ann\u00e6us: _temp._ Trajan), _Rerum Romanarum libri IV._,\n Delphin edit., 2 vols. 8vo. Londini, 1822.\n\n Fox (A. Lane-, now Major-General A. Pitt-Rivers). This\n distinguished student of Anthropology, who ranks foremost\n in the knowledge of early weapons, happily applied the idea\n of evolution, development, and progress to his extensive\n collection, the work of some thirty years. To show the\n successive steps he grouped his objects according to their\n forms and uses, beginning with the simplest; and to each class\n he appended an ideal type, towards which the primitive races\n were ever advancing, making innumerable mistakes, in some cases\n even retrograding, but on the whole attaining a higher plane.\n The papers from which I have quoted, often word for word, in\n my first chapters, are (1) \u2018Primitive Warfare,\u2019 sect. i.,\n read on June 28, 1867 (pp. 1\u201335, with five plates), and Sect.\n ii., \u2018On the Resemblance of the Weapons of Early Races, their\n Variations, Continuity, and Development of Form,\u2019 read on June\n 5, 1868 (pp. 1\u201342, with eight diagrams); and (2) \u2018Catalogue\n of the Anthropological Collection lent for Exhibition in the\n Bethnal Green Branch of the South Kensington Museum, with (131)\n Illustrations;\u2019 pt. I. and II. (III. and IV. to be published\n hereafter), 1874, &c., 8vo., pp. 1\u2013184. The collection, then\n containing some 14,000 objects, left Bethnal Green for the\n Western Galleries of the Museum in South Kensington. After a\n long sojourn there it was offered to the public; but England,\n unlike France, Germany, and Italy, has scant appreciation\n of anthropological study. At length it was presented to the\n University of Oxford, where a special building will be devoted\n to its worthy reception. I have taken the liberty of suggesting\n to General Pitt-Rivers that he owes the public not only the\n last two parts of his work, but also a folio edition with\n coloured illustrations of the humble \u2018Catalogue.\u2019\n\n Genthe (Dr. Hermann), a paper on \u2018Etruscan Commerce with the\n North,\u2019 _Archiv f\u00fcr Anthrop._, vol. vi. (from his work _Ueber\n den estruskischen Tauschhandel nach Norden_). Frankfurt, 1874.\n\n Gladstone (Right Hon. W. E.), _Juventus Mundi_, 1 vol. 8vo. London,\n 1869. \u2018Metals in Homer,\u2019 _Contemporary Review_, 1874.\n\n Glas (George), \u2018The History of the Discovery and Conquest of the\n Canary Islands,\u2019 _Pinkerton, Voyages_, vol. xvi.\n\n Goguet (Antoine Yves), _De l\u2019Origine des Lois, des Arts, et des\n Sciences, et de leur progr\u00e8s chez les anciens peuples_ (par\n A. Y. G., aid\u00e9 par Alex. Conr. Fug\u00e8re), 3 vols., plates, 4to.\n Paris, 1758. Numerous editions and translations.\n\n Goguet (M. de), _The Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, and their\n progress among the most Ancient Nations_. English translation\n by Thompson, 3 vols., plates, 8vo. Edinburgh, 1761.\n\n Gozzadini (Senator Count Giovanni), _Di un antico sepolcro a\n Ceretolo nel Bolognese_. Modena: Vincenzi, 1872. The author\n has taken a distinguished place in antiquarian anthropology\n by his various and valuable studies of Etruscan remains found\n in and around Felsina, now Bologna. I have ventured upon\n suggesting to him that these detached papers, mostly printed by\n Fava, Garagnani, and Co., of Bologna, should be collected and\n published in a handy form for the benefit of students.\n\n Graah (Captain W. A.), _Narrative of an Expedition to the\n Eastern Coast of Greenland, &c._ Translated from the Danish\n (Copenhagen, 1832) by C. Gordon Macdougall, 8vo. London, 1837.\n\n Grant (Captain, now Colonel, James A.), _A Walk across Africa, or\n Domestic Scenes from my Nile Journal_. Blackwoods: Edinburgh,\n MDCCCLXIV.\n\n Grose (Captain Francis), _Military Antiquities respecting the\n History of the British Army. From the Conquest to the Present\n Time._ A new edition with material additions and improvements,\n 2 vols. 8vo. London, printed for T. Egerton, Whitehall; and\n G. Kearsley, Fleet Street, 1801. The first edition appeared\n in 1786, and the learned author died (\u00e6t. 52) of apoplexy at\n Dublin, May 12, 1791.\n\n Grote (George), _History of Greece_, 12 vols. 8vo. 1846\u201356.\n\n Guthrie (Mrs.), _My Year in an An Indian Fort_. Hurst and Blackett:\n London, 1877.\n\n Hamilton (Will. J.), _Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus, and\n Armenia, &c._, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1842.\n\n Hanbury (Daniel), _Science Papers, &c._, edited with Memoir by\n Joseph Ince, 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1876.\n\n Heath (Rev. Dunbar Isidore), _Exodus Papyri_, 8vo. London, 1855.\n _Ph\u0153nician Inscriptions._ London, Quaritch, 1873. \u2018Hittite\n Inscriptions,\u2019 _Journ. Anthrop. Institute_, May, 1880.\n\n _Herodotus_, Rawlinson\u2019s, 4 vols. Murray, 1858. This valuable work\n wants a second edition revised.\n\n Herrera (Antonio, chief chronicler of the Indies), _Historia Geral,\n &c._, VIII. Decads, 4 vols. folio. Madrid, 1601.\n\n Hesiod, _Opera et Dies; Scutum, &c._ Poet\u00e6 Minores Gr\u00e6ci, vol. i.\n\n Holub (Dr. Emil), _Seven Years in South Africa_, 2 vols. 8vo.\n Sampson Low and Co. 1881.\n\n Homer, _Opera Omnia_, by J. A. Ernesti. 5 vols. 8vo. Glasgow, 1814.\n\n Horatius, _Opera Om._, ex edit. Zeunii. Delphin edit., 4 vols. 8vo.\n Londini, 1825.\n\n Howorth (H. H.), \u2018Arch\u00e6ology of Bronze.\u2019 _Trans. Ethno. Soc._, vol.\n vi.\n\n Humboldt (Baron Alexander von), _Personal Narrative of Travels\n to the Equinoctial Regions of America_, 3 vols. 8vo. Bohn\u2019s\n Scientific Library, London, 1852.\n\n _Iron, an Illustrated Weekly Journal of Science, Metals, and\n Manufactures in iron and Steel_, edited by Perry E. Nursey,\n C.E., to whom I have to express my thanks.\n\n Isidorus Hispalensis (Bishop of Seville, A.D. 600\u2013636), _Opera\n Omnia_ (including the \u2018Origines\u2019 and \u2018Etymologies\u2019), published\n by J. du Breul, fol. Parisiis, 1601.\n\n Jacquemin (Raphael), _Histoire G\u00e9n\u00e9rale du Costume, &c._ Du IV^{me}\n au XIX^{me} Si\u00e8cle (A.D. 315\u20131815). Paris.\n\n J\u00e4hns (Major Max), _Handbuch einer Geschichte des Kriegswesens von\n der Urzeit an zur Renaissance_. Technischer Theil: Bewaffnung,\n Kampfweise, Befestigung, Belagerung, Seewesen. Leipzig: Grunow,\n 1880. Major J\u00e4hns, an officer upon the General Staff of the\n German army, has produced in 1 vol. imp. 8vo. (pp. 640) a most\n laborious and useful work, accompanied by an atlas of one\n hundred carefully drawn plates. He quotes authorities literally\n by the hundred. The work amply deserves to be translated into\n English, but its public would, I fear, be very limited.\n\n Josephus (Flavius).\n\n Justinus (Frontinus). _History, Fourth and Fifth Century_, abridged\n from Trogus Pompeius.\n\n _Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana_, part i., with a preface and\n introduction. Printed for the Hindu Kama Shastra Society of\n London, 1883; for private circulation only. The poet whose name\n was Mallinaga or Mrillana (of the Vatsyayana family) lived\n between the first and sixth century of the Christian \u00c6ra. This,\n too, is only known by his poetry. Hindu-land is rich in Kama\n literature.\n\n Keller (Dr. Ferdinand), _Die K\u00e4ltischen Pfahlbauten in den\n Schweizer Seen_. Z\u00fcrich, 1854\u201366. There is an English\n translation _The Lake Dwellings of Switzerland_.\n\n King (late Dr. Richard), _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, vols. i. and ii.\n\n Klemm (Dr. Gustav Friedrich), _Werkzeuge und Waffen_. Leipzig,\n 1854. An edition of Klemm\u2019s (G. F.), _Die Werkzeuge und\n Waffen, ihre Entstehung und Ausbildung_, with 342 woodcuts in\n the text, 8vo. Published at Sondershausen, 1858. _Allgemeine\n Culturwissenschaft_, 2 vols. with woodcuts, 8vo. Leipzig,\n 1854\u20135.\n\n Kolben (Peter), _Present State of the Cape of Good Hope, &c._, 2\n vols. 8vo., 1738.\n\n Kremer (Ritter Adolf von), _Ibn Chaldun und seine\n Culturgeschichte_. Wien, 1879.\n\n Lacombe, _Les Armes et les Armures_. Paris, 1868.\n\n _Land and Water_, weekly paper published by William Bates; it\n contains many articles by the late lamented Mr. Frank Buckland,\n F.Z.S.\n\n Latham (John): this \u2018Assistant-Commissioner for Exhibitions\u2019 (1862,\n 1867, and 1873), who succeeded in business Messrs. Wilkinson\n and Son of Pall Mall, and who lately died, gave me copies of\n his two excellent papers, (1) \u2018The Shape of Sword-blades,\u2019 and\n (2) \u2018A Few Notes on Swords in the International Exhibition\n of 1862\u2019 (_Journal of the R.U.S. Institution_, vols. vi. and\n vii.). With the author\u2019s permission I have freely used these\n two valuable professional studies, especially in Chapter\n VII. The late Mr. Latham was a practical Swordsman, and his\n long experience as a maker of the \u2018white arm\u2019 renders his\n information thoroughly trustworthy. I wish every success to his\n son, who now fills his place in an establishment famous for\n turning out good work.\n\n Latham (Robert Gordon), _Ethnology of the British Islands_, 1 vol.\n 12mo. London, 1852. _Descriptive Ethnology_, 2 vols. 8vo. 1859.\n\n Layard (Sir Henry Austen), _Nineveh and its Remains_, 2 vols. 8vo.,\n 1849. _Monuments of Nineveh_, 1st and 2nd Series, 1849\u201353. _A\n Popular Account of Discoveries at Nineveh._ London: Murray,\n 1851. _Fresh Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon_,\n 1 vol. 8vo. London: Murray, 1853.\n\n Legge (Dr. James), _The Chinese Classics_, 3 vols. 8vo. London,\n 1861\u201376; vol. i., \u2018Confucius\u2019; ii., \u2018Mencius\u2019; iii., \u2018She-King\n or Book of Poetry.\u2019\n\n Lenormant (Fran\u00e7ois), _Manuel d\u2019Histoire Ancienne de l\u2019Orient_,\n 2 vols., 12mo. Paris, 1868. _Les Premi\u00e8res Civilisations_, 3\n vols. 12mo. Paris, 1874. Germ. Trans., Jena, 1875.\n\n Lepsius (Dr. Richard), _Denkm\u00e4ler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien\n nach den Zeichnungen der Preussischen Expedition. Denkm\u00e4ler\n aus Aegypten und Aethiopien_ (1842\u201345). Berlin, 1849\u201359.\n _Discoveries in Egypt, &c._, translated by Kenneth R. H.\n Mackenzie, 8vo. London, 1852. _Die Metalle in den Aegyptischen\n Inschriften_ (Akad. der Wiss., A.D. 1871), the latter\n translated into French 1877.\n\n Lindsey (Dr. W. Lauder), _Proceedings of Society of Arts of\n Scotland_, vol. v. 327.\n\n Livy.\n\n Lopez (Vicente Fidel), _Les Races Aryennes du P\u00e9rou, &c._ Paris:\n A. Franck, 1871. A copy was sent to me by my old friend John\n Coghlan, C.E., of Buenos Ayres.\n\n Lubbock (Sir John W.), _Pre-historic Times_, 1 vol. 8vo., 1865.\n _Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia_ (Nillson\u2019s), 3rd edit.\n London, 1868. _Origin of Civilisation, &c._, 8vo. London, 1870.\n\n Lucan.\n\n Lucretius.\n\n Luynes (Duc de), _Numismatique et Inscriptions Cypriotes_. Paris,\n 1852.\n\n Lyell (Sir Charles), _Principles of Geology_. London: Murray,\n 1830\u20133. _The Antiquity of Man from Geological Evidences._\n London: Murray, 1863.\n\n Major (R. H.), _The Select Letters of Columbus, &c._ London:\n Hakluyt Soc., MDCCCLX.\n\n _Manava-Dharma-Sh\u00e1stra_ (Laws of Menu), translated by Houghton.\n London, 1825.\n\n Manetho (B.C. 285).\n\n Marchionni (Alberto), _Trattato di Scherma, &c._ Firenze: Bencini,\n 1847.\n\n Markham (Clements R.), _Pedro de Cieza_ (_Cie\u00e7a_) _de Leon_, 1869.\n _Commentaries of the Yncas_, 1871. _Reports on the Discovery of\n Peru_, 1872. All printed by the Hakluyt Society.\n\n Massart (Alfred), _Gisements M\u00e9tallif\u00e8res du district de\n Carthag\u00e8ne_ (_Espagne_). Li\u00e8ge, 1875.\n\n Massey (Gerald), _A Book of the Beginnings_. London: Williams and\n Norgate, 1881. Two volumes were first published, and the two\n concluding are lately issued. A learned friend writes to him:\n \u2018I find little to remark upon or criticise. You seem to have\n got down far below Tylor, and to be making good your ground\n in many matters. If people will only read your book, it will\n make them cry out in some way or other. But you require a\n populariser, and may have to wait a long time for one.\u2019\n\n Mela (Pomponius), _De Situ Orbis_ (A.D. 41\u201354). This little work\n deserves a modern English translation; but what can be said\n of geographers whose Royal Geographical Society has not yet\n translated Ptolemy?\n\n Meyrick (Sir Samuel Rush), _Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armour\n as it existed in Europe, particularly in Great Britain, from\n the Norman Conquest to Charles the Second, with a Glossary of\n Military Terms of the Middle Ages_. I quote from the Second\n Edition. 3 vols. atlas 4to. London: Bohn, 1844. The first\n edition was published in 1824 without the supervision of the\n author, who found fault with it, especially with the colouring.\n The next edition, in 1844, was enlarged by the author with\n the assistance of friends, Mr. Albert Way and others. It\n was followed by _Engraved Illustrations of Ancient Arms and\n Armour_, the artistic work of Mr. Joseph Skelton.\n\n Milne (John), \u2018On the Stone Age of Japan,\u2019 _Journ. Anthrop.\n Instit._, May 1881.\n\n Mitchell (Dr. Arthur), \u2018The Past in the Present,\u2019 &c., _Rhind\n Lectures_, 1876\u201378, 1 vol. 8vo. Edinburgh: Douglas, 1880.\n\n Montaigne (Michel de), _Essais_, translated by William Hazlitt.\n London: C. Templeman, MDCCCLIII. (3rd edition).\n\n Monteiro and Gamitto, _O Muata Cazembe_, 1 vol. 8vo. Imprensa\n Nacional, Lisboa, 1854.\n\n Moore, _Ancient Mineralogy_.\n\n Moorcroft (William) and Trebeck (George), _Travels in the Himalayan\n Provinces of Hindustan and Punjab, &c., from 1819 to 1825_,\n 8vo. London: Murray, 1841.\n\n Morgan (Lewis), _The League of the Iroquois_.\n\n Mortot, \u2018On the Swiss Lakes,\u2019 _Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Vaudoise_,\n vol. vi., _&c._ \u2018Les M\u00e9taux dans l\u2019Age du Bronze\u2019 (_M\u00e9m. Soc.\n Ant. du Nord_, 1866\u201371).\n\n Mortillet (Gabriel de), \u2018Les Gaulois de Marzabotto dans l\u2019Apennin,\u2019\n _Revue Arch\u00e9ologique_, 1870\u201371. This anthropologist has\n published largely, and did good work at the Congress of Bologna.\n\n Movers, _Die Ph\u00f6nizier_. Berlin, 1840\u201356. The book is somewhat\n antiquated, but still valuable.\n\n Much (Dr. M.), \u2018Ueber die Priorit\u00e4t des Eisens oder der Bronze\n in Ostasien,\u2019 _Trans. Anthrop. Soc. of Vienna_, vol. ix.\n Separat-Abdruck.\n\n M\u00fcller (Prof. F. Max), _Chips from a German Workshop_, 2 vols. 8vo.\n London, 1867. _Lectures on the Science of Language_, 2 vols.\n 12mo. London, 1873 (7th edit.). _Introduction to the Science of\n Religion_, 12mo. London, 1873.\n\n Neuhoff, _Travels in Brazil_. Pinkerton, vol. xiv.\n\n Nillson (Prof. Sven), _The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia_,\n translated by Sir John Lubbock. He is illustrated by Colonel\n A. Lane-Fox (_Prim. Warf._, p. 135) and by Wilde (_Catalogue,\n &c._).\n\n Oldfield, \u2018Aborigines of Australia,\u2019 _Trans. Ethnol. Soc._, new\n series, vol. iii.\n\n Oppert (Professor), _On the Weapons, &c., of the Ancient Hindus_.\n London: Tr\u00fcbner, 1880.\n\n _Opusculum Fidicularum, the Ancestry of the Violin_, by Ed. Heron\n Allen. London: Mitchell and Hughes, 1882. The author kindly\n sent me a copy of his work.\n\n Orosius (Presbyter Paulus, A.D. 413), _Historiarum Libri Septem_.\n The Anglo-Saxon version of Aelfred the Great; translated,\n &c., by Daines Barrington, 1 vol. 8vo. London, 1773, and by\n Bosworth, 1859.\n\n Osburn (William), _Monumental History of Egypt_, 2 vols. 8vo.\n London, 1854.\n\n Owen (Prof. Richard), _On the Anatomy of Vertebrates_, 3 vols. 8vo.\n London, 1866\u201368.\n\n Palestine Exploration Fund, founded 1865; publishes Quarterly\n Statement. The Society\u2019s office, 1 Adam Street, Adelphi, W.C.\n\n Palma (General Luigi di Cesnola), _Cyprus, its Ancient Cities,\n Tombs, and Temples_, 8vo. London: Murray, 1877. _Cypern._ Gena:\n Leipzig, 1879.\n\n Palma (Major di Cesnola), \u2018On Ph\u0153nician Art in Cyprus,\u2019 _Brit.\n Arch\u00e6ol. Assoc._, Dec. 6, 1882.\n\n Paterculus (C. Velleius, B.C. 19).\n\n Pausanias (_temp._ Antonin. Pius), _Periegesis_ (_or Itinerary_)\n _of Greece_. The work of a good traveller, translated by Thomas\n Taylor, 3 vols. 8vo. London, 1824.\n\n Percy (Dr. John), _Fuel, Fireclays, Copper, Zinc, Brass, &c._\n London: Murray, 1861. _Metallurgy: Iron and Steel_, ibid.,\n 1864. _Lead_, 1870. _Silver and Gold_, part i., 1880. These\n works are too well known and too highly appreciated to be\n noticed except by name.\n\n Petherick (John), _Egypt, the Soudan, and Central Africa_, 8vo.\n Blackwoods, Edinburgh, MDCCCLXI. The late author was a Cornish\n miner who had the honesty not to find coal for Mohammed Ali\n Pasha of Egypt.\n\n Petronius Arbiter.\n\n Phillips (Prof. John A.), _A Guide to Geology_, 12mo. London,\n 1864. \u2018A Manual of Metallurgy, or a Practical Treatise on\n the Chemistry of the Metals,\u2019 illustrated. London, 1864:\n _Arch\u00e6ological Journal_, vol. xvi.\n\n Philo Jud\u00e6us (A.D. 40).\n\n Pigafetta (Antonio, of Vicenza, who accompanied Magalhaens, the\n first circumnavigator, 1519\u20131522), _Primo Viaggio intorno al\n Globo_, 4to. Milan, 1800; published by Amoretti. He was best\n known before that date by Ramusio\u2019s work.\n\n Poly\u00e6nus the Macedonian dedicated his 8 books of 900 \u03a3\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03b3\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\n to M. Aurelius and L. Verus (A.D. 163).\n\n Polybius (nat. circ. B.C. 204), \u03a0\u03c1\u03b1\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03af\u03b1, not _Historia_.\n _Historiarum qu\u00e6 supersunt._ Lips.: Holtze, 1866; 5 books and\n fragments out of 40. The writer was a captain in the field\n besides being an authority on military art, a politician, and a\n philosopher, who composed for instruction, not for amusement.\n\n Pollux (Julius, A.D. 183), _Onomasticon_.\n\n Porter (Rev. J. L.), author of _A Handbook for Travellers in Syria\n and Palestine_. London: Murray, 1868 (1st edition).\n\n Porter (Sir Robert Ker), _Travels in Georgia, Persia, Armenia,\n Ancient Babylonia, &c._ (1817\u201320), 2 vols. 4to. London:\n Longmans, 1821\u201322.\n\n Procopius (nat. circ. A.D. 500), _Histories, &c._\n\n Ptolmey, _Geographia_.\n\n Ramusio (Giambattista, of Treviso, nat. 1485), _Raccolta di\n Navigazioni e Viaggi_, 3 vols. fol., 1550\u201359; the first\n collection of the kind, which gave rise to many others.\n\n Rawlinson (Canon George), _The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient\n Eastern World, &c._, 4 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1862\u201366.\n\n _Records of the Past_, being English translations of the Assyrian\n and Egyptian monuments, published under the sanction of the\n Society of Biblical Arch\u00e6ology, vol. i. (of 12), 12mo. London,\n 1874.\n\n _Revue Arch\u00e9ologique_ (under the direction of J. Gailhabaud), ann\u00e9e\n 1\u201316. Paris, 1844\u201359, 8vo. Nouvelle S\u00e9rie, ann\u00e9e 1, vol. i.\n &c., 1860, 8vo. _Table D\u00e9cennale_, nouvelle s\u00e9rie, 1860\u20131869,\n dress\u00e9e par M. F. Delaunay. Paris, 1874, 8vo. In progress.\n\n Rhind (A. Henry), _Thebes, its Tombs and their Tenants, &c._ 1862.\n\n Richtofen (Baron Ferdinand von), _China, Ergebnisse eigener Reisen\n und darauf gegr\u00fcndeter Studien_. Vol. i. published in 1877;\n vol. ii. (4to.), Remier: Berlin, 1882. It has not yet found a\n translator.\n\n Rivero (Mariano y Eduardo de) y Tschudi (Juan Diego de),\n _Antiguedades Peruanas_, 1 vol. 4to., with Atlas. Vienna, 1851.\n _Travels in Peru_, by J. J. von Tschudi, in 1838\u201342; was\n translated from the German by T. Ross, 8vo. London, 1847.\n\n Rossellini (Prof.), _I Monumenti dell\u2019 Egitto e della Nubia_. Pisa,\n 1832\u201341.\n\n Rossignol (J. P.), _Les M\u00e9taux dans l\u2019Antiquit\u00e9_. Paris: Durand,\n 1863.\n\n Roteiro (Ruttier) _da Viagem de Vasco da Gama_, corrected by the\n late Professor Herculano and Baron do Castello de Pavia.\n Imprensa Nacional, Lisboa, MDCCCLI. (2nd edition).\n\n Roug\u00e9 (Vicomte E. de), _Rituel Fun\u00e9raire des Anciens Egyptiens,\n &c._, imp. folio. Paris, 1861\u201366.\n\n Rougemont, _L\u2019Age de Bronze_, 1866.\n\n Rowbotham (J. F.), \u2018On the Art of Music in Prehistoric Times,\u2019\n _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._, May, 1881.\n\n Sacken (Baron E. von Osten-), _Das Grabfeld von Hallstadt und\n dessen Alterth\u00fcmer_. Vienna, 1868.\n\n Sainte-Croix (Baron de), _Recherches Historiques et Critiques sur\n les Myst\u00e8res du Paganisme_, revues et corrig\u00e9es par Silvestre\n de Sacy, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1817.\n\n Sallust.\n\n Sayce (Rev. A. H.), \u2018On the Hamathite Inscriptions,\u2019 _Trans. Soc.\n Bibl. Arch\u00e6ol._, vol. iv. part 1. Mr. Sayce has read other\n papers containing notices of more modern \u2018Hittite\u2019 finds; but I\n have failed to procure copies.\n\n Schliemann (Dr. Henry), _Troy and its Remains_, translated and\n edited by Philip Smith. London: Murray, 1875. _Mycen\u00e6 and\n Tiryns_, ibid. 1878. _Ilios_, ibid. 1880.\n\n Scott (Sir Sibbald David), _The British Army, its Origin, Progress,\n and Development_, 2 vols. London and New York: Cassell, Petter,\n & Galpin, 1868.\n\n S\u00e9vez, notice of Japanese Iron-works in _Les Mondes_, tome xxvi.,\n Dec. 1871.\n\n Silius Italicus (nat. A.D. 25).\n\n Smith (Captain John), _General Historie of Virginia, New England,\n and the Summer Isles, &c._, fol. London: Pinkerton, xiii.\n He made his first voyage in 1606, and his second in 1614,\n when he changed \u2018North Virginia\u2019 into \u2018New England.\u2019 On his\n third (1615), he was captured by a Frenchman and landed at La\n Rochelle.\n\n Smith (George), _Assyrian Discoveries_. London: Sampson Low & Co.,\n 6th edit., 1876. The learned author wore himself out by travel,\n and died young.\n\n Smith (Rev. W. Robertson), _The Old Testament in the Jewish\n Church_. Edinburgh: Blacks, 1881.\n\n Smith (Dr. William), _Dictionaries_. London: Taylor & Walton\u2014\n\n 1. _Greek and Roman Geography_, 2 vols. 8vo. 1856\u201357.\n\n 2. _Greek and Roman Antiquities_, 1 vol. 8vo. 1859.\n\n 3. _Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology_, 3 vols. 8vo.\n 1858\u201361.\n\n 4. _Of the Bible_, 3 vols. 8vo. 1863.\n\n Solinus (Ca. Jul. Polyhistor, _alias_ \u2018Pliny\u2019s Ape\u2019), _Geographical\n Compendium_.\n\n Speke (Captain James Hanning), _Journal of the Discovery of the\n Source of the Nile_. Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1863.\n\n Spensley (Howard), _Cenni sugli Aborigeni di Australasia, &c._\n Venezia: G. Fischer, 1881.\n\n Stade (Hans), _The Captivity of Hans Stade_, translated for the\n Hakluyt Society by Mr. Albert Tootal of Rio de Janeiro. London,\n 1874.\n\n Stanley (Henry M.), _Through the Dark Continent, &c._ London:\n Sampson Low, & Co., 1874.\n\n Stephens (J. Lloyd), _Incidents of Travel in Central America,\n Chiapas, and Yucatan_, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1842. Germ.\n trans., Leipzig, 1843.\n\n Stevens (the late Edward T.), _Flint Chips, a Guide to Prehistoric\n Arch\u00e6ology, as illustrated in the Blackmore Museum, Salisbury_,\n 8vo. London: Bell and Daldy, 1870.\n\n Strabo (B.C. 54?).\n\n Suetonius (C. Tranquillus).\n\n Tacitus (Cornelius).\n\n Taylor (Rev. Isaac), _Etruscan Researches_. London: Macmillan, 1874.\n\n Texier, _Description de l\u2019Asie Mineure_. Paris, 1849\u201352.\n\n Theophrastus (B.C. 305), _Opera Gr\u00e6ca et Latina_, J. G. Schneider,\n 5 vols. 8vo. Lipsi\u00e6, 1818\u201321.\n\n Tylor (E. B.), _Anahuac_. London, 1861. _Primitive Culture._\n London: Murray, 1871 (Germ. trans., 1873). _Researches into the\n Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilisation_,\n plates. London: Murray, 1870.\n\n Ure (Andrew), _Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines_.\n London, 1863.\n\n Vallancey (General), _Collectanea de Rebus Hibernicis_, 6 vols.\n Dublin, 1770\u20131804.\n\n Varnhagen (the late F. Adolpho de): _Historia Geral do Brazil_, 2\n vols. 8vo. Laemmert: Rio de Janeiro, 1854, Useful as \u2018documents\n pour servir.\u2019\n\n Varro (Terentius, nat. B.C. 116), _De Lingua Latina_.\n\n Vegetius (Fl. Renatus, A.D. 375\u201392), _De Re Militari_.\n\n Virgil.\n\n Vitruvius (M. Pollio, B.C. 46), _Architecture_, 5 vols. 4to. Utini,\n 1829.\n\n Volney (Const. F.), _\u0152uvres_, 8 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1826.\n\n Waitz (Professor, Dr. Theodor), _Anthropologie der Naturv\u00f6lker_.\n Leipzig, 1859\u201372. The first volume, _Introduction to\n Anthropology_, was translated by J. F. Collingwood and\n published by the Anthropological Society of London, 8vo.,\n Longmans, 1863. The manuscript of the second volume of this\n valuable work, also by Mr. Collingwood, was long in my charge;\n but the low state of anthropological study in England (and\n other pursuits unprofessional, and consequently non-paying)\n prevents its being printed.\n\n Wilde (Sir William R.), _Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities\n in the Royal Irish Academy_. Dublin: Academy House, 1863. _A\n Descriptive Catalogue of Materials in the Royal Irish Academy_,\n 8vo., 1857\u201361. It is regretable that part 1, vol. ii., of this\n admirable work, which has become a standard upon the subject,\n has not been printed; nor has the public been informed of\n any arrangements for publishing. For permission to make use\n of the cuts, which were obligingly furnished to Mr. Grego, I\n am indebted to the courtesy of the Council, Royal Society of\n Antiquaries of Ireland.\n\n Wilkinson (Sir J. Gardner), _The Manners and Customs of the\n Ancient Egyptians, their Private Life, Government, Laws,\n Arts, Religion, and History_ (originally written in 1836), 6\n vols. 8vo. London: Murray, 1837\u201341. The author abridged his\n life-labour with the usual unsuccess, and called it _A Popular\n Account of the Ancient Egyptians_, 2 vols. post 8vo. London:\n Murray, 1874.\n\n Wilkinson (the late Henry, the eminent Sword-cutler in Pall Mall),\n _Observations on Swords; to which is added Information for\n Officers going to join their Regiments in India_. Pall Mall,\n London. No date.\n\n Willemin, _Choix des Costumes Civiles et Militaires_. Paris, 1798.\n\n Wilson (Daniel), _Arch\u00e6ology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_.\n Edinburgh: Sutherland and Knox, 8vo., MDCCCLI. _Prehistoric\n Man_, 2 vols. 8vo. London: Macmillan, 1862.\n\n Wright (the late Thomas), \u2018On the True Assignation of the Bronze\n Weapons,\u2019 &c., _Trans. Ethno. Soc._, new series, vol. iv.\n\n Woldrich (Prof. A.), _Mittheilungen der Wien. Anthrop. Gesell._\n Wien, 1874.\n\n Wood (John George), _Natural History of Man, being an Account of\n the Manners and Customs of the Uncivilised Ways of Men_, 2\n vols., 1868\u201370, 8vo.\n\n Wors\u00e4ae (J. J. A.), _Afbildninger fra det Kon. Mus. for Nordiske\n Oldsager i Kj\u00f6bnhavn_, Ordnede og forklarede af J. J. A. W.\n (aided by Magnus Petersen and Aagaard). Kj\u00f6bnhavn: Kittendorf,\n and Aagaard, 1859. The order is in careful accordance with\n the _Three Ages_. Wors\u00e4ae\u2019s _Prehistoric Annals of Denmark_\n were translated by W. J. Knox, 8vo., London, 1849, and there\n is a _Leitfaden der Nordischen Alterthumerskunde_ by Wors\u00e4ae,\n Kopenhagen, 1837.\n\n Wurmbrand (Count Gutaker), _Ergebnisse der Pfahlbauuntersuchungen_.\n Wien, 1875.\n\n Yule (Colonel Henry), _The Book of Marco Polo the Venetian_, 2nd\n edit. London: Murray, 1875. The learned and exact writer\n favoured me with a copy of his admirable work, without which it\n is vain to read of \u2018The Kingdoms and the Marvels of the East.\u2019\n\n\n\n\n CONTENTS.\n\n\n CHAPTER PAGE\n\n FOREWORD ix\n\n INTRODUCTION xi\n\n LIST OF AUTHORITIES xxiii\n\n I. PREAMBLE: ON THE ORIGIN OF WEAPONS 1\n\n II. MAN\u2019S FIRST WEAPONS\u2014THE STONE AND THE STICK. THE EARLIEST\n AGES OF WEAPONS. THE AGES OF WOOD, OF BONE, AND OF HORN 16\n\n III. THE WEAPONS OF THE AGE OF WOOD: THE BOOMERANG AND THE SWORD\n OF WOOD; OF STONE, AND OF WOOD AND STONE COMBINED 31\n\n IV. THE PROTO-CHALCITIC OR COPPER AGE OF WEAPONS 53\n\n V. THE SECOND CHALCITIC AGE OF ALLOYS\u2014BRONZE, BRASS, ETC.: THE\n AXE AND THE SWORD 74\n\n VI. THE PROTO-SIDERIC OR EARLY IRON AGE OF WEAPONS 97\n\n VII. THE SWORD: WHAT IS IT? 123\n\n VIII. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT EGYPT AND IN MODERN AFRICA 143\n\n IX. THE SWORD IN KHITA-LAND, PALESTINE AND CANAAN; PH\u0152NICIA AND\n CARTHAGE; JEWRY, CYPRUS, TROY, AND ETRURIA 172\n\n X. THE SWORD IN BABYLONIA, ASSYRIA AND PERSIA, AND ANCIENT\n INDIA 199\n\n XI. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT GREECE: HOMER; HESIOD AND HERODOTUS:\n MYCEN\u00c6 220\n\n XII. THE SWORD IN ANCIENT ROME: THE LEGION AND THE GLADIATOR 244\n\n XIII. THE SWORD AMONGST THE BARBARIANS (EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE) 262\n\n CONCLUSION 280\n\n INDEX 281\n\n\n\n\n LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.\n\n\n FIG. PAGE\n\n 1. INDIAN W\u00c1GH-NAKH 8\n\n 2. W\u00c1GH-NAKH, USED BY MAR\u00c1TH\u00c1S 8\n\n 3. BALISTES CAPRISCUS; COTTUS DICERAUS; NASEUS FRONTICORNIS 9\n\n 4. SPEAR OF NARWHAL; SWORD OF XIPHIAS; RHINOCEROS-HORN; WALRUS\n TUSKS 10\n\n 5. NARWHAL\u2019S SWORD PIERCING PLANK 10\n\n 6. METAL DAGGERS WITH HORN CURVE 10\n\n 7. M\u00c1DU OR M\u00c1RU 11\n\n 8. THE ADAGA 12\n\n 9. SERRATED OR MULTIBARBED WEAPONS 13\n\n 10. WEAPONS MADE OF SHARK\u2019S TEETH 13\n\n 11. ITALIAN DAGGER, WITH GROOVES AND HOLES FOR POISON 13\n\n 12. SWORD WITH SERRATED BLADE OF SAW-FISH 13\n\n 13. ANCIENT EGYPTIANS THROWING KNIVES 18\n\n 14. JAPANESE WAR-FLAIL 21\n\n 15. TURKISH WAR-FLAIL 21\n\n 16. MORNING STAR 21\n\n 17. DEER-HORN ARROW-HEAD 24\n\n 18. HORN WAR CLUBS WITH METAL POINTS 24\n\n 19. DOUBLE SPEAR AND SHIELD 24\n\n 20. SPINE OF DIODON 24\n\n 21. WALRUS TOOTH USED AS SPEAR POINT; TOMAHAWK OF WALRUS TOOTH 24\n\n 22. STING OF MALACCAN LIMULUS CRAB 25\n\n 23. THE GREENLAND NUGUIT 25\n\n 24. NARWHAL SHAFT AND METAL BLADE 25\n\n 25. JADE PATTU-PATTUS 25\n\n 26. BONE ARROW-POINT FOR POISON; IRON ARROW-HEAD FOR POISON 26\n\n 27. WILDE\u2019S DAGGER 26\n\n 28. HOLLOW BONE FOR POISON 26\n\n 29. BONE KNIFE 26\n\n 30. BONE ARROW-POINT ARMED WITH FLINT FLAKES 26\n\n 31. BONE SPLINTER EDGED WITH FLINT FLAKES 26\n\n 32. HARPOON HEAD 29\n\n 33. LIS\u00c1N IN EGYPT AND ABYSSINIA 32\n\n 34. LIS\u00c1N OR TONGUE 32\n\n 35. TRANSITION FROM THE BOOMERANG TO THE HATCHET 34\n\n 36. AUSTRALIAN PICKS 34\n\n 37. INDIAN BOOMERANGS 35\n\n 38. BOOMERANG AND KITE 36\n\n 39. AFRICAN BOOMERANGS 36\n\n 40. TRANSITION FROM THE MALGA, LEOWEL OR PICK TO THE BOOMERANG 37\n\n 41. THE STICK AND THE SHIELD 38\n\n 42. THROW-STICKS 38\n\n 43. OLD EGYPTIAN BOOMERANG 39\n\n 44. BULAK SWORD 39\n\n 45. HIEROGLYPHIC INSCRIPTION ON WOODEN SWORD OF BULAK 39\n\n 40. TRANSITION FROM CELT TO PADDLE SPEAR AND SWORD FORMS 41\n\n 47. CLUBS OF FIJI ISLANDS 41\n\n 48. WOODEN SWORDS AND CLUBS OF BRAZILIAN INDIANS 41\n\n 49. PAGAYA, SHARPENED PADDLE 42\n\n 50. CLUBS 43\n\n 51. PADDLES 43\n\n 52. SAMOAN CLUB 44\n\n 53. WOODEN SABRE 44\n\n 54. WOODEN CHOPPER 44\n\n 55. KNIFE (WOOD), FROM VANNA LAVA 44\n\n 56. IRISH SWORD 45\n\n 57. WOODEN RAPIER-BLADE 45\n\n 58. FRAGMENTS OF STONE KNIVES FROM SHETLAND 46\n\n 59. FLINT DAGGERS 46\n\n 60. AUSTRALIAN SPEARS ARMED WITH FLINTS AT SIDE 48\n\n 61. SWORD OF SABRE FORM, WITH SHARKS\u2019 TEETH 48\n\n 62. DITTO, ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN 48\n\n 63. WOOD- AND HORN-POINTS 49\n\n 64. MEXICAN SWORD OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, OF IRON WOOD, WITH\n TEN BLADES OF BLACK OBSIDIAN FIXED INTO THE WOOD 49\n\n 65. MAHQUAHUITLS 50\n\n 66. MEXICAN WARRIOR 50\n\n 67. MEXICAN SWORD, IRON-WOOD, ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN 50\n\n 68. MEXICAN SPEAR-HEAD (FIFTEENTH CENTURY), BLACK OBSIDIAN,\n WITH WOODEN HANDLE 50\n\n 69. NEW ZEALAND CLUB 50\n\n 70. AUSTRALIAN SPEARS, WITH BITS OF OBSIDIAN, CRYSTAL, OR GLASS 51\n\n 71. ITALIAN POISON DAGGERS 51\n\n 72. ARAB SWORD, WITH DOWN-CURVED QUILLONS, AND SAW BLADE 51\n\n 73. SEPHURIS AT WADY MAGHARAH (OLDEST ROCK TABLETS). THIRD\n DYNASTY 61\n\n 74. SORIS AND THE CANAANITES AT WADY MAGHARAH (OLDEST ROCK\n TABLETS), FOURTH DYNASTY 61\n\n 75. TABLET OF SUPHIS AND NU-SUPHIS AT WADY MAGHARAH. (FOURTH\n DYNASTY.) 62\n\n 76. THE WINGED CELT, OR PALSTAVE 71\n\n 77. COPPER CELTS IN THE DUBLIN COLLECTION 72\n\n 78. SCYTHE-SHAPED BLADE 73\n\n 79. STRAIGHT BLADE 73\n\n 80. STRAIGHT BLADE 73\n\n 81. SCYTHE-SHAPED BLADE 73\n\n 82. FINE SPECIMEN OF EGYPTIAN DAGGER IN POSSESSION OF MR. HAYNS,\n BROUGHT BY MR. HARRIS FROM THEBES 80\n\n 83. BRONZE KNIFE, FROM THE PILE-VILLAGES OF NEUCH\u00c2TEL 82\n\n 84. PERUVIAN KNIFE. METAL BLADE, SECURED IN A SLIT IN THE HAFT\n BY STRONG COTTON TWINE 82\n\n 85. OLDEST FORM (?) 88\n\n 86. METAL CELTS 88\n\n 87. KNIFE FOUND AT R\u00c9ALON (HAUTES ALPES) 88\n\n 88. THE GLAIVE 89\n\n 89. EGYPTIAN AXES OF BRONZE 89\n\n 90. IRISH BATTLE-AXE 91\n\n 91. AXE USED BY BRUCE 91\n\n 92. GERMAN PROCESSIONAL AXE 91\n\n 93. HALBARDS 92\n\n 94. HALBARDS 93\n\n 95. BECHWANA\u2019S CLUB AXE; THE SAME, EXPANDED; THE SAME, BARBED;\n SILEPE OF THE BASUTOS; HORSEMAN\u2019S AXE OF THE SIXTEENTH\n CENTURY 93\n\n 96. HINDU HATCHET FROM RAJPUTANA 94\n\n 97. GERMAN HATCHET OF BRONZE PERIOD 94\n\n 98. BURGUNDIAN AXE; FRANCISQUE OR TAPER AXE 94\n\n 99. IRON SCRAMASAX 94\n\n 100. SCRAMASAX 94\n\n 101. GUNNAR\u2019S BILL 95\n\n 102. VOULGES 95\n\n 103. EGYPTIAN SACRIFICIAL KNIVES (IRON) 101\n\n 104. IRON SMELTING FURNACE AMONGST THE MAR\u00c1VE PEOPLE 118\n\n 105. PORTABLE AFRICAN BELLOWS 121\n\n 106. THE ITALIAN FOIL 125\n\n 107. POMMEL; QUILLONS; PAS D\u2019ANE 125\n\n 108. DOUBLE GUARD (GUARD AND COUNTERGUARD) 125\n\n 109. STRAIGHT QUILLONS AND LOOPS 125\n\n 110. FANTASTIC FORM 125\n\n 111. THE THREE FORMS OF THE SWORD 126\n\n 112. DELIVERING POINT 127\n\n 113. THE INFANTRY \u2018REGULATION\u2019 SWORD 129\n\n 114. SCYMITAR 130\n\n 115. CLAYMORE 130\n\n 116. } DIAGRAMS ILLUSTRATING THE DIRECT }\n\n 117. } AND THE OBLIQUE CUT } 130\n\n 118. SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES 131\n\n 119. FOIL WITH FRENCH GUARD 133\n\n 120. REGULATION SWORD FOR INFANTRY 133\n\n 121. SCYMITAR-SHAPE 133\n\n 122. YATAGHAN 134\n\n 123. ORNAMENTAL YATAGHAN AND SHEATH 134\n\n 124. SECTIONS OF THRUSTING-SWORDS 135\n\n 125. PIERCED BLADE 136\n\n 126. PIERCED BLADE AND SHEATH 136\n\n 127. FLAMBERGE 136\n\n 128. GERMAN MAIN-GAUCHE 136\n\n 129. PATERNOSTER 136\n\n 130. MALAY KR\u00cdS 137\n\n 131. WAVE-EDGED DAGGER 137\n\n 132. SAW-TOOTH BLADE 137\n\n 133. MAIN-GAUCHE 137\n\n 134. SWORD-BREAKERS 138\n\n 135. ONE-EDGED WAVE BLADE 138\n\n 136. COUNTERGUARD 138\n\n 137. TOOTHED-EDGE 138\n\n 138. HOOKED-EDGE 138\n\n 139. EXECUTIONER\u2019S SWORD 139\n\n 140. JAPANESE TYPE 139\n\n 141. CHINESE SABRE-KNIFE 139\n\n 142. OLD PERSIAN SWORD 139\n\n 143. SCYMITAR 139\n\n 144. OLD TURKISH 140\n\n 145. CHINESE 140\n\n 146. OLD TURKISH SCYMITAR 140\n\n 147. THE D\u00c1O 140\n\n 148. SAILOR\u2019S CUTLASS 140\n\n 149. HINDU KIT\u00c1R 140\n\n 150. GOLD COAST 141\n\n 151. BRONZE DAGGER; SWORD 145\n\n 152. SINGLE-STICK IN EGYPT 153\n\n 153. EGYPTIAN SOLDIER AND SHIELD 153\n\n 154. EGYPTIAN SOLDIERS 153\n\n 155. EGYPTIAN SOLDIER 153\n\n 156. EGYPTIANS FIGHTING, FROM PAINTINGS OF THEBES; EGYPTIAN\n SOLDIERS, FROM THEBAN BAS-RELIEFS 153\n\n 157. BRONZE HATCHETS IN WOODEN HANDLES, BOUND WITH THONGS 154\n\n 158. POLE-AXES 154\n\n 159. KHETEN OR WAR-AXES 154\n\n 160. DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE EGYPTIAN KHOPSH (KOPIS), WITH EDGES\n INSIDE AND OUTSIDE 156\n\n 161. EGYPTIAN SLING; UNKNOWN WEAPON; SHEATHED DAGGER; HATCHET;\n SCORPION, OR WHIP-GOAD 157\n\n 162. EGYPTIAN DAGGERS 157\n\n 163. EGYPTIAN DAGGER OF BRONZE IN BRITISH MUSEUM 157\n\n 164. OFFICER OF LIFE-GUARD TO RAMESES II., APPARENTLY ASIATIC 157\n\n 165. BRONZE SWORD, FOUND AT AL-KANTARAH, EGYPT 157\n\n 166. AXE; SPEAR-HEAD; KHOPSH; LANCE-HEAD 158\n\n 167. BELT AND DAGGER 158\n\n 168. EGYPTIAN DAGGERS 158\n\n 169. ASSYRIAN DAGGERS, SHEATHS, AND BELTS 159\n\n 170. SHORT SWORD FROM CAUCASUS 160\n\n 171. EGYPTIAN CHOPPER-SWORDS 160\n\n 172. EGYPTIAN KHOPSH 160\n\n 173. BRONZE DAGGERS AND SHEATH 161\n\n 174. SHAPES OF EGYPTIAN BLADES 161\n\n 175. SWORD-DAGGERS 161\n\n 176. ABYSSINIAN SWORD, A LARGE SICKLE 164\n\n 177. SMALLER ABYSSINIAN BLADE 164\n\n 178. ABYSSINIAN SWORD IN SHEATH 164\n\n 179. FLISSA OF KABYLES 164\n\n 180. DANKALI SWORD 165\n\n 181. CONGO SWORD 165\n\n 182. UNYORO DAGGER-SWORD 166\n\n 183. ZANZIBAR SWORDS 166\n\n 184. GOLD COAST SWORDS 167\n\n 185. ASHANTI SWORD-KNIFE 167\n\n 186. SWORDS OF KING GELELE OF DAHOMY 167\n\n 187. BEHEADING SWORD 168\n\n 188. WASA (WASSAW) SWORD 168\n\n 189. KING BLAY\u2019S SWORD 168\n\n 190. CAPTAIN CAMERON\u2019S MANYUEMA SWORDLET, SHEATH, AND BELT 169\n\n 191. POKW\u00c9 OF THE CAZEMBE\u2019S CHIEFS 170\n\n 192. GABOON SWORDS, BOTH EVIDENTLY EGYPTIAN 170\n\n 193. CLEAVER OF THE HABSHI PEOPLE 170\n\n 194. FRANKISH BLADE, WITH MID-GROOVE OUT OF CENTRE 171\n\n 195. CYPRIAN DAGGER 173\n\n 196. NOVACULA 189\n\n 197. NOVACULA? 189\n\n 198. NOVACULA, SICKLE? RAZOR? 189\n\n 199. SILVER DAGGER 189\n\n 200. COPPER SWORD FROM THE \u2018TREASURY OF PRIAM\u2019 192\n\n 201. MARZABOTTO BLADE 195\n\n 202. ASSYRIAN SWORD 199\n\n 203. ASSYRIAN LANCE, WITH COUNTER-WEIGHT 203\n\n 204. ASSYRIAN SPEAR-HEAD 203\n\n 205. ASSYRIAN \u2018RAZOR\u2019 203\n\n 206. BABYLONIAN BRONZE DAGGER; ASSYRIAN SWORDS; ASSYRIAN\n BRONZE-SWORD 204\n\n 207. DAGGER-SWORD IN SHEATH 204\n\n 208. DAGGER-SWORD 204\n\n 209. CLUB-SWORD 204\n\n 210. FANCY SWORD 204\n\n 211. ASSYRIAN SWORDS 205\n\n 212. ASSYRIAN SWORDS 205\n\n 213. ASSYRIAN DAGGER 205\n\n 214. ASSYRIO-BABYLONIAN ARCHER 206\n\n 215. ASSYRIAN FOOT SOLDIER 206\n\n 216. ASSYRIAN SOLDIER HUNTING GAME 206\n\n 217. FOOT SOLDIER OF THE ARMY OF SENNACHERIB (B.C. 712\u2013707) 206\n\n 218. ASSYRIAN WARRIOR, WITH SWORD AND STAFF 206\n\n 219. ASSYRIAN WARRIORS AT A LION HUNT 206\n\n 220. ASSYRIAN EUNUCH 206\n\n 221. BRONZE SWORD, BEARING THE NAME OF VUL-NIRARI I., FOUND NEAR\n DIARBEKR 208\n\n 222. PERSIAN ARCHER 209\n\n 223. PERSIAN WARRIOR 209\n\n 224. THE PERSIAN CIDARIS, OR TIARA 209\n\n 225. PERSIAN ACINACES 210\n\n 226. PERSIAN ACINACES 210\n\n 227. SWORD FROM MITHRAS GROUP 210\n\n 228. SWORD IN RELIEF, PERSEPOLIS SCULPTURES 210\n\n 229. PERSIAN ACINACES 211\n\n 230. DAGGER-FORMS FROM PERSEPOLIS 211\n\n 231. ACINACES OF PERSEPOLIS 212\n\n 232. ACINACES OF MITHRAS GROUP 212\n\n 233. HIND\u00da WARRIORS 215\n\n 234. JAVANESE BLADE, SHOWING INDIAN DERIVATION; HIND\u00da SABRE 215\n\n 235. BATTLE-SCENE FROM A CAVE IN CUTTACK, FIRST CENTURY A.D. 216\n\n 236. THE FIRST HIGHLANDER 217\n\n 237. ARJUNA\u2019S SWORD 217\n\n 238. JAVANESE SCULPTURES WITH BENT SWORDS 218\n\n 239. PESH\u00c1WAR SCULPTURES 218\n\n 240. TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORD AND ALABASTER KNOB, MYCEN\u00c6 223\n\n 241. GOLD SHOULDER-BELT, WITH FRAGMENT OF TWO-EDGED BRONZE\n RAPIER 228\n\n 242. BLADE FROM MYCEN\u00c6 229\n\n 243. A LONG GOLD PLATE 229\n\n 244. WEAPONS FROM MYCEN\u00c6 229\n\n 245. SWORD BLADES FROM MYCEN\u00c6 229\n\n 246. SWORD BLADES FROM MYCEN\u00c6 230\n\n 247. BRONZE LANCEHEAD (?) 230\n\n 248. TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORD AND DAGGER 230\n\n 249. TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORDS AND ALABASTER KNOB 231\n\n 250. RAPIER BLADES OF MYCEN\u00c6 232\n\n 251. WARRIOR WITH SWORD 232\n\n 252. BRONZE SWORD FOUND IN THE PALACE, MYCEN\u00c6 233\n\n 253. BRONZE DAGGER: TWO BLADES SOLDERED 233\n\n 254. PH\u00c1SGANON 235\n\n 255. GREEK PH\u00c1SGANA 235\n\n 256. SHORT SWORD (PH\u00c1SGANON) OF BRONZE, FOUND IN CRANNOG AT\n PESCHIARA, AND PROBABLY GREEK 235\n\n 257. TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORD AND ALABASTER POMMEL 236\n\n 258. KOPIS WITH POMMEL 236\n\n 259. KOPIS WITH HOOK 236\n\n 260. KUKKRI BLADE OF GHURKAS 236\n\n 261. THE DAN\u00cdSKO 237\n\n 262. GREEK XIPHOS 238\n\n 263. GALLO-GREEK SWORD 238\n\n 264. GALLO-GREEK SWORD 238\n\n 265. MAYENCE BLADE 238\n\n 266. GALLO-GREEK BLADE AND SHEATH 238\n\n 267. BRONZE PARAZONIUM 239\n\n 268. \u2018HOPLITES\u2019 (HEAVY ARMED) 240\n\n 269. GREEK COMBATANTS WITH SWORD AND LANCE 240\n\n 270. ROMAN SOLDIER 246\n\n 271. HELMETS OF HASTARII (FROM TRAJAN\u2019S COLUMN); HELMETS OF\n HASTARII; BRONZE HELMET (FROM CANN\u00c6) 246\n\n 272. HASTATUS (FROM TRAJAN\u2019S COLUMN) 247\n\n 273. CENTURION\u2019S CUIRASS, WITH PHALER\u00c6 OR DECORATIONS 248\n\n 274. ROMAN SWORD; GLADIUS 255\n\n 275. BRONZE TWO-EDGED EARLY ROMAN ENSIS 255\n\n 276. SWORD OF ROMAN AUXILIARY 255\n\n 277. ROMAN SWORD 255\n\n 278. SWORD AND VAGINA (SHEATH) 256\n\n 279. SWORD AND VAGINA (SHEATH) 256\n\n 280. THE PUGIO 256\n\n 281. TWO-EDGED ROMAN STILETTOS 257\n\n 282. SWORD OF TIBERIUS 258\n\n 283. GERMAN OR SLAV SWORD 263\n\n 284. SCRAMASAX FROM HALLSTADT 263\n\n 285. DANISH SCRAMASAX 263\n\n 286. BLADE AND HANDLE OF BRONZE WITH PART OF EAGLE 265\n\n 287. GALLIC SWORD OF BRONZE 266\n\n 288. SWORD FOUND AT AUGSBURG 270\n\n 289. BRONZE 271\n\n 290. THE SPATHA OF SCHLESWIG 272\n\n 291. SHORT KELTIC SWORD 272\n\n 292. DANISH SWORD 274\n\n 293. BRITISH SWORD, BRONZE 278\n\n\n\n\n THE BOOK OF THE SWORD.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER I.\n\n PREAMBLE: ON THE ORIGIN OF WEAPONS.\n\n\nMan\u2019s civilisation began with Fire\u2014how to light it and how to keep it\nlit. Before he had taken this step, our primal ancestor (or ancestors)\nevidently led the life of the lower animals. The legend of \u2018Iapetus\u2019\nbold son\u2019 Prometheus, like many others invented by the Greeks, or\nrather borrowed from Egypt, contained under the form of fable a deep\nTruth, a fact, a lesson valuable even in these days. \u2018Forethought,\u2019\nthe elder brother of \u2018Afterthought,\u2019 brought down the _semina flamm\u00e6_\nin a hollow tube from Heaven, or stole it from the chariot of the\nSun. Here we have the personification of the Great Unknown, who,\nfinding a cane-brake or a jungle tree fired by lightning or flamed by\nwind-friction, conceived the idea of feeding the \u03c3\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u1f78\u03c2 with\nfuel. Thus Hermes or Mercury was \u2018Pterop\u00e9dilos\u2019 or \u2018Alipes;\u2019 and his\nankles were fitted with \u2018Pedila\u2019 or \u2018Talaria,\u2019 winged sandals, to show\nthat the soldier fights with his legs as well as with his arms.[3]\n\nI will not enlarge upon the imperious interest of Hoplology: the\nhistory of arms and armour, their connection and their transitions,\nplays the most important part in the annals of the world.\n\nThe first effort of human technology was probably weapon-making.\nHistory and travel tell us of no race so rude as to lack artificial\nmeans of offence and defence.[4] To these, indeed, man\u2019s ingenuity and\nartistic efforts must, in his simple youthtide, have been confined. I\ndo not allude to the complete man, created full-grown in body and mind\nby the priestly castes of Egypt, Ph\u0153nicia, Jud\u00e6a, Assyria, Persia,\nand India. The _Homo sapiens_ whom we have to consider is the \u2018Adam\nKadmon,\u2019[5] not of the Cabbalist, but of the anthropologist, as soon\nas he raised himself above the beasts of the field by superiority of\nbrains and hands.\n\nThe lower animals are born armed, but not weaponed. The arm, indeed, is\nrather bestial than human: the weapon is, speaking generally, human,\nnot bestial. Naturalists have doubted, and still doubt, whether in\nthe so-called natural state the lower animals use weapons properly\nso termed. Colonel A. Lane Fox, a diligent student of primitive\nwarfare, and a distinguished anthropologist,[6] distinctly holds\nthe hand-stone to be _the_ prehistoric weapon. He quotes (Cat. pp.\n156\u201359) the ape using the hand-stone to crack nutshells; the gorillas\ndefending themselves against the Carthaginians of Hanno; and Pedro\nde Cieza (Cie\u00e7a) de Leon[7] telling us that \u2018when the Spaniards [in\nPeru] pass under the trees where the monkeys are, these creatures\nbreak off branches and throw them down, making faces all the time.\u2019\nEven in the days of Strabo (xv. 1) it was asserted that Indian monkeys\nclimb precipices, and roll down stones upon their pursuers\u2014a favourite\ntactic with savages. Nor, indeed, is it hard to believe that the\nSimiads, whose quasi-human hand has prehensile powers, bombard their\nassailants with cocoa-nuts and other missiles. Major Denham (1821\u201324),\na trustworthy traveller, when exploring about Lake Chad, says of the\nquadrumans of the Yeou country: \u2018The monkeys, or, as the Arabs say, men\nenchanted (_Beny Adam meshood_),[8] were so numerous that I saw upwards\nof a hundred and fifty assembled at one place in the evening. They did\nnot appear at all inclined to give up their ground, but, perched on the\ntop of a bank some twenty feet high, made a terrible noise, and, rather\ngently than otherwise, pelted us as we approached within a certain\ndistance.\u2019 Herr Holub,[9] also, was \u2018designedly aimed at by a herd of\nAfrican baboons perched among the trees;\u2019 and on another occasion he\nand his men had to beat an ignominious retreat from \u2018our cousins.\u2019\n\u2018Hence,\u2019 suggests Colonel A. Lane Fox, \u2018our \u201cpoor relation\u201d conserves,\neven when bred abroad and in captivity, the habit of violently shaking\nthe branch by jumping upon it with all its weight, in order that the\ndetached fruit may fall upon the assailant\u2019s head.\u2019 In Egypt, as we see\nfrom the tomb-pictures, monkeys (baboons or cynocephali) were taught to\nassist in gathering fruit, and in acting as torch-bearers. While doing\nthis last duty, their innate petulance caused many a merry scene.[10]\n\nI never witnessed this bombardment by monkeys. But when my regiment\nwas stationed at Baroda in Gujar\u00e1t, several of my brother officers\nand myself saw an elephant use a weapon. The intelligent animal,\nwhich the natives call H\u00e1thi (\u2018the handed\u2019[11]), was chained to a\npost during the dangerous season of the wet forehead, and was swaying\nitself in ill-temper from side to side. Probably offended by the sudden\nappearance of white faces, it seized with its trunk a heavy billet,\nand threw it at our heads with a force and a good will that proved the\nworst intention.\n\nAccording to Captain Hall\u2014who, however, derived the tale from the\nEskimos,[12] the sole living representatives of the pal\u00e6olithic age in\nEurope\u2014the polar bear, traditionally reported to throw stones, rolls\ndown, with its quasi-human forepaws, rocks and boulders upon the walrus\nwhen found sleeping at the foot of some overhanging cliff. \u2018Meister\nPetz\u2019 aims at the head, and finally brains the stunned prey with the\nsame weapon. Perhaps the account belongs to the category of the ostrich\nthrowing stones, told by many naturalists, including Pliny (x. 1),\nwhen, as Father Lobo explained in his \u2018Abyssinia,\u2019 the bird only kicks\nthem up during its scouring flight. Similar, too, is the exploded\nshooting-out of the porcupine\u2019s quills, whereby, according to medi\u00e6val\n\u2018Shoe-tyes\u2019[13] men have been badly hurt and even killed. On the other\nhand, the Emu kicks like an Onager[14] and will drive a man from one\nside of a quarter-deck to the other.\n\nBut though Man\u2019s first work was to weapon himself, we must not believe\nwith the Cynics and the Humanitarians that his late appearance in\ncreation, or rather on the stage of life, initiated an unvarying and\nmonotonous course of destructiveness. The great tertiary mammals which\npreceded him, the hoplotherium, the deinotherium, and other -theria,\nmade earth a vast scene of bloodshed to which his feeble powers could\nadd only a few poor horrors. And even in our day the predatory fishes,\nthat have learned absolutely nothing from man\u2019s inhumanity to man,\nhabitually display as much ferocity as ever disgraced savage human\nnature.\n\nPrimitive man\u2014the post-tertiary animal\u2014was doomed by the very\nconditions of his being and his media to a life of warfare; a course\nof offence to obtain his food, and of defence to retain his life.\nUlysses[15] says pathetically:\n\n No thing frailer of force than Man earth breedeth and feedeth;\n Man ever feeblest of all on th\u2019 Earth\u2019s face creeping and crawling.\n\nThe same sentiment occurs in the \u2018Iliad\u2019; and Pliny, the pessimist,\nwrites\u2014\u2018the only tearful animal, Man.\u2019\n\nThe career of these wretches, who had neither \u2018minds\u2019 nor \u2018souls,\u2019\nwas one long campaign against ravenous beasts and their \u2018brother\u2019\nman-brutes. Peace was never anything to them but a fitful interval of\nrepose. The golden age of the poets was a dream; as Videlou remarked,\n\u2018Peace means death for all barbarian races.\u2019 The existence of our\nearliest ancestors was literally the Battle of Life. Then, as now, the\nGreat Gaster was the first Master of Arts, and War was the natural\ncondition of humanity upon which depends the greater part of its\nprogress, its rising from the lower to the higher grade. Hobbism, after\nall, is partly right: \u2018Men were by nature equal, and their only social\nrelation was a state of war.\u2019 Like the children of our modern day,\nhelpless and speechless, prim\u00e6val Homo possessed, in common with his\nfellow-creatures, only the instincts necessary for self-support under\nconditions the most facile. Uncultivated thought is not rich in the\nproductive faculty; the brain does not create ideas: it only combines\nthem and evolves the novelty of deduction, and the development of what\nis found existing. Similarly in language, onomatop\u0153ia, the imitation\nof natural sounds, the speech of Man\u2019s babyhood, still endures; and to\nit we owe our more picturesque and life-like expressions. But, despite\ntheir feeble powers, compulsory instruction, the Instructor being Need,\nwas continually urging the Savage and the Barbarian to evolve safety\nout of danger, comfort out of its contrary.\n\nFor man, compelled by necessity of his nature to weapon himself,\nbears within him the two great principles of Imitation and Progress.\nBoth are, after a fashion, his peculiar attributes, being rudimentary\namongst the lower animals, though by no means wholly wanting. His\ncapacity of language, together with secular development of letters and\nliterature, enabled him to accumulate for himself, and to transmit\nto others, a store of experience acquired through the medium of the\nsenses; and this, once gained, was never wholly lost. By degrees\nimmeasurably slower than among civilised societies, the Savage digested\nand applied to the Present and to the Future the hoarded wisdom of\nthe Past. The imitative faculty, a preponderating advantage of the\nfeatherless biped over the quadruped, taught the former, even in his\ninfancy, to borrow _ad libitum_, while he lent little or nothing.\nAs a quasi-solitary Hunter[16] he was doomed to fray and foray, to\ndestroying others in order to preserve himself and his family: a\ncondition so constant and universal as to include all others. Become a\nShepherd, he fought man and beast to preserve and increase his flocks\nand herds; and rising to an Agriculturist, he was ever urged to break\nthe peace by greed of gain, by ambition, and by the instinctive longing\nfor excitement.[17]\n\nBut there was no absolute point of separation, as far as the material\nuniverse is concerned, to mark the dawn of a new \u2018creative period\u2019; and\nthe _Homo Darwiniensis_ made by the Aristotle of our age, the greatest\nof English naturalists, is directly connected with the _Homo sapiens_.\nThere are hosts of imitative animals, birds as well as beasts; but the\ncopying-power is essentially limited. Moreover, it is \u2018instinctive,\u2019\nthe work of the undeveloped, as opposed to \u2018reasoning,\u2019 the process of\nthe highly-developed brain and nervous system. Whilst man has taught\nhimself to articulate, to converse, the dog, which only howled and\nwhined, has learned nothing except to bark. Man, again, is capable of\na development whose bounds we are unable to determine; whereas the\nbeast, incapable of self-culture, progresses, under the most favourable\ncircumstances, automatically and within comparatively narrow bounds.\n\nUpon the imitative faculty and its exercise I must dwell at greater\nlength. It is regretable that the delicious wisdom of Pope neglected\nto point out the great lesson of the animal-world in suggesting and\nsupplying the arts of offence and defence:\u2014\n\n Go, from the creatures thy instructions take...\n Thy arts of building from the bee receive;\n Learn from the mole to plough, the worm to weave;\n Learn from the little nautilus to sail,\n Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.[18]\n\nMan, especially in the tropical and sub-tropical zones\u2014his early, if\nnot his earliest, home, long ago whelmed beneath the ocean waves\u2014would\nderive many a useful hint from the dreadful armoury of equinoctial\nvegetation; the poison-trees, the large strong spines of the Acacia and\nthe Mimosa, _e.g._ the Wait-a-bit (_Acacia detinens_), the Gleditschia,\nthe Socotrine Aloe, the American Agave, and the piercing thorns of\nthe _Caryota urens_, and certain palms. The aboriginal races would be\nfurther instructed in offensive and defensive arts by the powerful and\ndestructive _fer\u00e6_ of the sunny river-plains, where the Savage was\nfirst induced to build permanent abodes.\n\n[Heading: _DISTRIBUTION OF WEAPONS._]\n\nBefore noting the means of attack and protection which Nature\nsuggested, we may distribute Hoplology, the science of arms and weapons\nof offence and defence, human and bestial, into two great orders, of\nwhich the latter can be subdivided into four species:\u2014\n\n 1. _Missile._\n\n 2. _Armes d\u2019hast._\u2014_a._ Percussive or striking; _b._ Thrusting,\n piercing, or ramming; _c._ Cutting or ripping; _d._ Notched or\n serrated.\n\nColonel A. Lane Fox (\u2018Prim. Warfare,\u2019 p. 11) thus classifies the\nweapons of \u2018Animals and Savages\u2019:\u2014\n\n _Defensive._ | _Offensive._ | _Stratagems._\n Hides | Piercing | Flight\n Solid plates | Striking | Ambush\n Jointed plates | Serrated | Tactics\n Scales | Poisoned | Columns\n | Missiles | Leaders\n | | Outposts\n | | Artificial defences\n | | War cries\n\nMy list is less comprehensive, and it bears only upon the origin\nof the _Arme blanche_.\n\nI. As has been said, the missile, the \u03b2\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, is probably the first\nform of weapon, and is still the favourite with savage Man. It favours\nthe natural self-preservative instinct. _El-Khauf maks\u00fam_\u2014\u2018fear is\ndistributed,\u2019\u2014say the Arabs. \u2018The shorter the weapon the braver the\nwielder\u2019 has become a well-established fact. The savage Hunter, whose\ntime is his own, would prefer the missile; but the Agriculturist,\ncompelled to be at home for seed-time and harvest, would choose the\nhand-to-hand weapon which shortens action. We may hold, without\nundue credulity, that the throwing-arm is common to beasts, after a\nfashion, and to man. Among the so-called \u2018missile fishes\u2019[19] the\nToxotes,[20] or Archer, unerringly brings down insects with a drop\nof water when three or four feet high in the air. The Ch\u00e6todon, or\narcher fish of Japan, is kept in a glass vase, and fed by holding flies\nat the end of a rod a few inches above the surface: it strikes them\nwith an infallible aim. This process is repeated, among the mammalia,\nby the Llama, the Guanaco and their congeners, who propel their\nacrid and fetid saliva for some distance and with excellent aim.[21]\nAnd stone-throwing held its own for many an age, as we read in the\nfifteenth century:\u2014\n\n Use eke the cast of stone with slynge or honde;\n It falleth ofte, yf other shot there none is,\n Men harneys\u00e8d in steel may not withstonde\n The multitude and mighty cast of stonys.[22]\n\nII. The stroke or blow which led to the cut would be seen exemplified\nin the felid\u00e6, by the terrible buffet of the lion, by the clawing\nof the tiger and the bear, and by the swing of the trunk of the\n\u2018half-reasoner with the hand.\u2019 Man also would observe that the zebra\nand the quagga (so called from its cry, _wag-ga, wag-ga_[23]), the\nhorse and the ass, the camel, the giraffe, and even the cow, defend\nthemselves with the kick or hoof-blow; while the ostrich, the swan,\nand the larger birds of prey assault with a flirt or stroke of the\nwing. The aries or sea-ram (_Delphinus orca_) charges with a butt.\nThe common whale raises the head with such force that it has been\nheld capable of sinking a whaler: moreover, this mammal uses the huge\ncaudal fin or tail in battle with man and beast; for instance, when\nengaged with the fox-shark or thresher (_Carcharias vulpes_).[24]\nThese, combined with the force of man\u2019s doubled fist, would suggest\nthe \u2018noble art\u2019 of boxing: it dates from remote antiquity; witness\nthe cestus or knuckle-duster of the classics, Greeks, Romans, and\nLusitanians. So far from being confined to Great or Greater Britain,\nas some suppose, it is still a favourite not only with the Russian\npeasants, but also with the Hausas, Moslem negroids who did such good\nservice in the Ashanti war. A curious survival of the feline armature\nis the Hindu\u2019s W\u00e1gh-nakh. Following Demmin, Colonel A. Lane Fox[25] was\nin error when he described this \u2018tiger\u2019s-claw\u2019 as \u2018an Indian weapon of\ntreachery belonging to a secret society, and invented about A.D. 1659.\u2019\nDemmin[26] as erroneously attributes the W\u00e1gh-nakh to S\u00edvaj\u00ed, the\nPrince of Mar\u00e1th\u00e1-land in Western India, who traitorously used it upon\nAfzal Khan, the Moslem General of Aurangzeb, sent (A.D. 1659) to put\ndown his rebellion.[27] A meeting of the chiefs was agreed upon, and\nthe Moslem, quitting his army, advanced with a single servant; he wore\na thin robe, and carried only a straight sword. S\u00edvaj\u00ed, descending from\nthe fort, assumed a timid and hesitating air, and to all appearance\nwas unarmed. But he wore mail under his flimsy white cotton coat, and\nbesides a concealed dagger, he carried his \u2018tiger\u2019s-claw.\u2019 The Khan\nlooked with contempt at the crouching and diminutive \u2018mountain rat,\u2019\nwhom the Moslems threatened to bring back in cages; but, at the moment\nof embracing, the Mar\u00e1th\u00e1 struck his W\u00e1gh-nakh into his adversary\u2019s\nbowels and despatched him with his dagger. The W\u00e1gh-nakh in question is\nstill kept as a relic, I am told, by the Bhonsl\u00e1 family.[28] Outside\nthe hand you see nothing but two solid gold rings encircling the\nindex and the minimus; these two are joined inside by a steel bar,\nwhich serves as a connecting base to three or four sharp claws, thin\nenough to fit between and to be hidden by the fingers of a half-closed\nhand. The attack is by ripping open the belly: and I have heard of\na poisoned W\u00e1gh-nakh which may have been suggested by certain poison\nrings in ancient and medi\u00e6val Europe.[29] The date of invention is\nabsolutely unknown, and a curious and instructive modification of it\nwas made by those Indians-in-Europe, the Gypsies.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 1.\u2014INDIAN W\u00c1GH-NAKH.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 2.\u2014W\u00c1GH-NAKH, USED BY MAR\u00c1TH\u00c1S (India Museum.)]\n\nIII. The thrust would be suggested by the combats of the goat, the\nstag, and black cattle, including the buffalo and the wild bull, all\nof which charge at speed with the head downwards, and drive the horns\ninto the enemy\u2019s body. The gnu (_Catoblepas G._) and other African\nantelopes, when pressed by the hunter, keep him at bay with the point.\nIn Europe \u2018hurt of hart,\u2019 a ripping and tearing thrust, has brought\nmany a man to the grave. The hippopotamus, a dangerous animal unduly\ndespised, dives under the canoe, like the walrus, rises suddenly, and\nwith its lower tusks, of the hardest ivory, drills two holes in the\noffending bottom. The black rhinoceros, fiercest and most irritable\nof African fauna, though graminivorous, has one or two horns of\nwood-like fibre-bundles resting upon the strongly-arched nasal bones,\nand attached by an extensive apparatus of muscles and tendons. This\narmature, loose when the beast is at peace, becomes erect and immovable\nin rage, thus proving in a special manner its only use\u2014that of war. It\nis a formidable dagger that tears open the elephant and passes through\nthe saddle and its padding into the ribs of a horse. The extinct\nsabre-toothed tiger (_Machairodus latidens_), with one incisor and five\ncanines, also killed with a thrust. So, amongst birds, the bittern,\nthe peacock, and the American white crane peck or stab at the eye;\nthe last-named has been known to drive its long sharp mandibles deep\ninto the pursuer\u2019s bowels, and has been caught by presenting to it a\ngun-muzzle; the bird, mistaking the hole, strikes at it and is caught\nby the beak.[30] The hern defends herself during flight by presenting\nthe sharp long beak to the falcon. The pheasant and partridge, the\ndomestic cock and quail, to mention no others, use their spurs with\na poniard\u2019s thrust; the Argus-pheasant of India, the American Jacan\u00e1\n(_Parra_), the horned screamer (_Palamedea_), the wing-wader of\nAustralia (Gregory), and the plover of Central Africa (Denham and\nClaperton), carry weapons upon their wings.\n\n[Heading: _THE ARMS OF ANIMALS._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 3.\n\n 1. BALISTES CAPRISCUS;\n 2. COTTUS DICERAUS;\n 3. NASEUS FRONTICORNIS.]\n\nAccording to Pliny (viii. 38) the dolphins which enter the Nile are\narmed with a knife-edged spur on the back to protect themselves\nfrom the crocodiles. Cuvier refers this allusion to the _Squalus\ncentrina_ or _Spinax_ of Linn\u00e6us. The European \u2018file-fish\u2019 (_Balistes\ncapriscus_), found in a fossil state, and still existing, though\nrare in British waters, remarkably shows the efficiency, beauty, and\nvariety of that order\u2019s armature. It pierces its enemy from beneath\nby a strong erectile and cirrated spine on the first anterior dorsal;\nthe base of the spear is expanded and perforated, and a bolt from the\nsupporting plate passes freely through it. When the spine is raised, a\nhollow at the back receives a prominence from the next bony ray, which\nfixes the point in an erect position. Like the hammer of a fire-piece\nat full cock, the spear cannot be forced down till the prominence is\nwithdrawn, as by pulling the trigger. This mechanism, says the learned\nand experienced Professor Owen,[31] may be compared with the fixing and\nunfixing of a bayonet: when the spine is bent down it is received into\na groove in the supporting plate, and thus it offers no impediment to\nswimming.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 4.\u20141. SPEAR OF NARWHAL; 2. SWORD OF XIPHIAS; 3.\nRHINOCEROS-HORN; 4. WALRUS TUSKS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 5.\u2014NARWHAL\u2019S SWORD PIERCING PLANK.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 6.\u2014METAL DAGGERS WITH HORN CURVE.]\n\nThe pugnacious and voracious little \u2018stickleback\u2019 (_Gasterosteus_) is\nsimilarly provided. The \u2018bull-head\u2019 (_Cottus diceraus_, Pallas[32])\nbears a multibarbed horn on its dorsum, exactly resembling the spears\nof the Eskimos and the savages of South America and Australia. The\nyellow-bellied \u2018surgeon\u2019 or lancet-fish (_Acanthurus_) is armed, in\neither ocean, with a long spine on each side of the tail; with this\nlance it defends itself dexterously against its many enemies. The\n_Naseus fronticornis_ (Lac\u00e9p\u00e8de) bears, besides the horn-muzzle,\ntrenchant spear-formed blades in the pointed and serrated tail.\nThe sting-fish or adder-pike (_Trachinus vipera_) has necessitated\namputation of the wounded limb: the dorsals, as well as the opercular\nspines, have deep double grooves in which the venomous mucous secretion\nis lodged\u2014a hint to dagger-makers. The sting-rays (_Raia trygon_\nand _R. histrix_[33]) twist the long slender tail round the object\nof attack and cut the surface with the strong notched and spiny\nedge, inflicting a wound not easily healed. The sting, besides being\npoisonous, has the especial merit of breaking off in the wound: it\nis extensively used by the savages of the Fiji, the Gambier, and the\nPellew Islands, of Tahiti, Samoa, and many of the Low Islands.[34]\nThese properties would suggest poisoned weapons which cannot be\nextracted. Such are the arrows of the Bushman, the Shoshoni, and the\nMacoinchi of Guiana, culminating in the highly-civilised stiletto of\nhollow glass.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 7.\u2014M\u00c1DU OR M\u00c1RU.]\n\nThe sword-fish (_Xiphias_), although a vegetable feeder, is mentioned\nby Pliny (xxxii. 6) as able to sink a ship. It is recorded to have\nkilled a man when bathing in the Severn near Worcester. It attacks\nthe whale, and it has been known to transfix a vessel\u2019s side with its\nterrible weapon. The narwhal or sea-unicorn (_Monodon monoceros_)\ncarries a formidable tusk, a Sword-blade of the same kind similarly\nused.[35]\n\nHere may be offered a single proof how Man, living among, and\ndependent for food upon, the lower animals, borrowed from their habits\nand experience his earliest practice of offence and defence. The\nillustration represents a \u2018Singhauta,\u2019[36] \u2018M\u00e1du\u2019 or \u2018M\u00e1ru\u2019 (double\ndagger), made from the horns of the common Indian antelope, connected\nby crossbars. In its rude state, and also tipped with metal, it is\nstill used as a weapon by the wild Bh\u00edls, and as a crutch and dagger\nby the Jogis (Hind\u00fas) and Fakirs (Hind\u00eds or Moslems), both orders\nof religious mendicants who are professionally forbidden to carry\nsecular arms. It also served for defence, like the parrying-stick of\nAfrica and Australia, till it was fitted with a hand-guard, and the\nlatter presently expanded into a circular targe of metal. This ancient\ninstrument, with its graceful curves, shows four distinct stages of\ndevelopment: first, the natural, and, secondly, the early artificial,\nwith metal caps to make it a better thrusting weapon. The third process\nwas to forge the whole of metal; and the fourth and final provided\nit with a straight, broad blade, springing at right angles from the\ncentral grip. This was the \u2018Adaga\u2019[37] of medi\u00e6val writers.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 8.\u2014THE ADAGA.]\n\nIV. The first idea of a trenchant or cutting instrument would be\nsuggested by various reeds and grasses; their silicious leaves at\ncertain angles cleave to the bone, as experience has taught most\nmen who have passed through a jungle of wild sugar-cane. When\nfull-grown the plants stand higher than a man\u2019s head, and the\nflint-edged leaves disposed in all directions suggest a labyrinth of\nsword-blades. Thus the Mawingo-wingo (_Pennisetum Benthami_), like\nthe horse-tail or \u2018shave-grass\u2019 of Spain, was used as knives by the\nexecutioners of Kings Sunna and Mtesa of Uganda, when cutting the\nhuman victims to pieces.[38] Of the same kind are the \u2018sword-grass\u2019\nand the \u2018bamboo-grass.\u2019 Many races, especially the Andamanese and the\nPolynesian Islanders, make useful blades of the split and sharpened\nbamboo: they are fashioned from the green plant, and are dried and\ncharred to sharpen the edge. Turning to the animal world, the cassowary\ntears with a forward cut, and the wounded coot scratches like a cat.\nThe \u2018old man kangaroo,\u2019 with the long nail of the powerful hind leg,\nhas opened the stomach of many a staunch hound. The wild boar attacks\nwith a thrust, followed by a rip, cutting scientifically from below\nupwards. This, as will appear, is precisely the plan adopted by certain\nancient forms of sabre, Greek and barbarian, the cutting edges being\ninside, not outside, the curve. I may add that the old attack is one of\nour latest improvements in broadsword exercise.[39]\n\nThe offensive weapon of the sting-ray, and of various insects, as well\nas the teeth of all animals, man included, furnish models for serrated\nor saw-edged instruments. Hence Colonel A. Lane Fox observes:[40] \u2018It\nis not surprising that the first efforts of mankind in the construction\nof trenchant instruments should so universally consist of teeth, or\nflint-flakes, arranged along the edge of staves.\u2019 But evidently the\nknife preceded the saw, which is nothing but a knife-blade jagged.\nOther familiar instances would be the multibarb stings of insects,\nespecially that of the common bee. Again, we have the mantis, an\northopter of the Temperates and the Tropics, whose fights, enjoyed by\nthe Chinese, are compared with the duels of sabrers. For the rasping\nblow and parry they use the forearm, which carries rows of strong\nsharp spines; and a happy stroke beheads or bisects the antagonist.\nTo this category belongs the armature of the saw-fish (_Pristis_),\na shark widely distributed and haunting the arctic, temperate, and\ntropical seas. Its mode of offence is to spring high from the water and\nto fall upon the foe, not with the point, but with either edge of its\nformidable arm: the row of strong and trenchant barbs, set like teeth,\ncuts deeply into the whale\u2019s flesh. Hence, in New Guinea, the serrated\nblade becomes a favourite Sword, the base of the snout being cut and\nrounded so as to form a handle.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 9.\u2014SERRATED OR MULTIBARBED WEAPONS.\n\n 1. Sting of the common Bee; 2. Sting of Ray.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 10.\u2014WEAPONS MADE OF SHARKS\u2019 TEETH.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 11.\u2014ITALIAN DAGGER, WITH GROOVES AND HOLES FOR\nPOISON.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 12.\u2014SWORD WITH SERRATED BLADE OF SAW-FISH.]\n\nThus man, essentially a tool-making animal, and compelled by the\nconditions of his being to one long battle with the brute creation,\nwas furnished by his enemies, not only with models of implements and\ninstruments, and with instructions to use them, from witnessing the\ncombats of brutes, but actually with their arms, which he converted\nto his own purposes. Hence the weapon and the tool were, as a rule,\nidentical in the hands of prim\u00e6val man; and this forms, perhaps, the\nchief test of a primitive invention. The earliest drift-flints \u2018were\nprobably used as weapons both of war and the chase, to grub roots, to\ncut down trees, and to scoop out canoes.\u2019[41] The Wat\u00fasi of Eastern\nAfrica make their baskets with their sharpened spear-heads; and the\nso-called K\u00e1firs (Amazulu, &c.) still shave themselves with the\nassegai. Hence, too, as like conditions engender like results, the arms\nand implements of different races resemble one another so closely as to\nsuggest a common origin and actual imitation, even where copying was,\nso to speak, impossible.\n\nLet us take as an instance two of the most widespread of weapons.\nThe blow-pipe\u2019s progressive form has been independently developed\nupon a similar plan, with distinctly marked steps, in places the most\nremote.[42] Another instance is the chevaux-de-frise, the spikes of\nmetal familiar to the classics.[43] They survive in the caltrops or\nbamboo splints planted in the ground by the barefooted Mpangwe (Fans)\nof Gaboon-land and by the Rangos of Malacca.\n\nIn the early days of anthropological study we read complaints that\n\u2018it is impossible to establish, amongst the implements of modern\nsavages, a perfectly true sequence,\u2019 although truth may be arrived\nat in points of detail; and that \u2018in regard to the primary order of\ndevelopment, much must still be left open to conjecture.\u2019 But longer\nlabour and larger collections have lately added many a link to the\nbroken chain of continuity. We can now trace with reasonable certainty\nthe tardy progress of evolution which, during a long succession of\nages, led to the systematised art of war. The conditions of the latter\npresently allowed society periods of rest, or rather of recovery; and\nmore leisure for the practice which, in weapons as in other things,\n\u2018maketh perfect.\u2019[44] And man has no idea of finality: he will stop\nshort of nothing less than the absolutely perfect. He will labour at\nthe ironclad as he did the canoe; at the fish-torpedo as he did the\npetard.[45]\n\n[Heading: _ARMS AND ARTS._]\n\nFrom the use of arms, also, arose the rudimentary arts of savage\nman. Music began when he expressed his joy and his sorrow by cries\nof emotion\u2014the voice being the earliest, as it is still the best, of\nmusic-makers. It was followed by its imitations, which pass through\nthree several stages, and even now we know nothing more in the way of\ndevelopment.[46] When the savage clapped together two clubs he produced\nthe first or drum-type; when he hissed or whistled he originated the\npipe-type (syrinx, organ, bagpipe, &c.); and the twanging of his bow\nsuggested the lyre-type, which we still find\u2014\u2018tickling the dried guts\nof a mewing cat.\u2019[47] Painting and sculpture were the few simple lines\ndrawn and cut upon the tomahawk or other rude weapon-tool. \u2018As men\nthink and live so they build,\u2019 said Herder; and architecture, which\npresently came to embrace all the other arts, dawned when the Savage\nattempted to defend and to adorn his roost among the tree branches or\nthe entrance to his cave-den.[48]\n\nAfter this preamble, which has been longer than I expected, we pass to\nthe first or rudest forms of the Weapons Proper used by Savage Man.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER II.\n\n MAN\u2019S FIRST WEAPONS\u2014THE STONE AND THE STICK. THE EARLIEST AGES OF\n WEAPONS. THE AGES OF WOOD, OF BONE, AND OF HORN.\n\n\nWhat, then, was Man\u2019s first weapon? He was born speechless and\nhelpless, inferior to the beasts of the field. He grew up armed, but\nbadly armed. His muscles may have been stronger than they are now; his\npoor uneducated fisticuff, however, could not have compared with the\nkick of an ass. As we see from the prognathous jaw, he could bite, and\nhis teeth were doubtless excellent[49]; still, the size and shape of\nthe maxilla rendered it an arm inferior to the hy\u00e6na\u2019s and even to the\ndog\u2019s. He scratched and tore, as women still do; but his nails could\nhardly have been more dangerous than the claws of the minor felines.\n\nHe had, however, the hand, the most perfect of all prehensile\ncontrivances, and Necessity compelled him to use it. The stone, his\nfirst \u2018weapon,\u2019 properly so called, would serve him in two ways\u2014as a\nmissile, and as a percussive instrument. Our savage progenitor, who\nin days long before the dawn of history, contracted the extensor and\nrelaxed the flexor muscles of his arm when flinging into air what he\npicked up from the ground, was unconsciously lengthening his reach\nand taking the first step in the art and science of ballistics. His\ndescendants would acquire extraordinary skill in stone-throwing, and\nuniversal practice would again make perfect. Diodorus of Sicily (B.C.\n44),[50] who so admirably copied Herodotus, says that the Libyans \u2018use\nneither Swords, spears, nor other weapons; but only three darts and\nstones in certain leather budgets, wherewith they fight in pursuing\nand retreating.\u2019 The W\u00e1nshi (Guanches) Libyan or Berber peoples of the\nCanarian Archipelago, according to C\u00e0 da Mosto (A.D. 1505), confirmed\nby many, including George Glas,[51] were expert stone-throwers. They\nfought their duels \u2018in the public place, where the combatants mounted\nupon two stones placed at the opposite sides of it, each stone being\nflat at top and about half a yard in diameter. On these they stood fast\nwithout moving their feet, till each had thrown three round stones at\nhis antagonist. Though they were good marksmen, yet they generally\navoided those missive weapons by the agile writhing of their bodies.\nThen arming themselves with sharp flints (obsidian?) in their left\nhands, and cudgels or clubs in their right, they fell on, beating and\ncutting each other till they were tired.\u2019 An instance is mentioned in\nwhich a Guanche brought down with a single throw a large palm-frond,\nwhose mid-rib was capable of resisting the stroke of an axe. Kolben,\nwho wrote about a century and a half ago, gives the following account\nof the ape-like gestures of the Khoi-Khoi or Hottentots[52]:\u2014\u2018The most\nsurprising strokes of their dexterity are seen in their throwing of\na stone. They hit a mark to a miracle of exactness, though it be a\nhundred paces distant and no bigger than a halfpenny. I have beheld\nthem at this exercise with the highest pleasure and astonishment, and\nwas never weary of the spectacle. I still expected after repeated\nsuccesses, that the stone would err; but I expected in vain. Still went\nthe stone right to the mark, and my pleasure and astonishment were\nredoubled. You could imagine that the stone was not destined to err,\nor that you were not destined to see it. But a Hottentot\u2019s unerring\nhand in this exercise is not the only wonder of the scene; you would be\nequally struck perhaps with the manner in which he takes his aim. He\nstands, not still with a lift-up arm and a steady staring eye upon the\nmark, as we do; but is in constant motion, skipping from one side to\nanother, suddenly stooping, suddenly rising; now bending on this side,\nnow on that; his eyes, hands, and feet are in constant action, and you\nwould think that he was playing the fool, and minding anything else\nthan his aim; when on a sudden, away goes the stone with a fury, right\nto the heart of the mark, as if some invisible power had directed it.\u2019\n\nNearer home the modern Syrians still preserve their old dexterity: I\nhave often heard the tale, and have no reason to doubt its truth, of\na brown bear (_Ursus syriacus_) being killed in the Libanus by a blow\nbetween the eyes.[53] When the Arab Bedawin are on the raid and do not\nwish to use their matchlocks, they attack at night, and \u2018rain stones\u2019\nupon the victim. The latter vainly discharges his ammunition against\nthe shadows flitting ghost-like among the rocks; and, when his fire\nis drawn, the murderers rush in and finish their work. The use of the\nstone amongst the wild tribes of Asia, Africa, and America is almost\nuniversal. In Europe, the practice is confined to schoolboys; but the\nwild Irish, by beginning early, become adepts in it when adults. As a\nrule, the shepherd is everywhere a skilful stone-thrower.\n\nTurner makes the \u2018Kawas\u2019 of Tanna, New Hebrides, a stone as long\nas, and twice as thick as, an ordinary counting-house ruler: it is\nthrown with great precision for a distance of twenty yards. The same\nauthor mentions stones rounded like a cannon-ball, among the people\nof Savage Island and Eromanga. Commander Byron notices the stones\nmade into missiles by the Disappointment Islanders. Beechey, whose\nparty was attacked by the Easter Islanders, says that the weapons,\ncast with force and accuracy, knocked several of the seamen under\nthe boat-thwarts. Crantz tells us that Eskimo children are taught\nstone-throwing at a mark as soon as they can use their hands. The late\nSir R. Schomburg describes a singular custom amongst the Demarara\nIndians. When a child enters boyhood he is given a hard round stone\nwhich he is to hand-rub till it becomes smooth, and he often reaches\nmanhood before the task is done. Observers have suggested that the only\nuse of the practice is a \u2018lesson in perseverance, which quality, in the\nopinion of many people, is best inculcated by engaging the minds of\nyouths in matters that are devoid of any other incentive in the way of\npractical utility or interest.\u2019\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 13.\u2014ANCIENT EGYPTIANS THROWING KNIVES.]\n\nIn more civilised times the knife, as a missile, would take the place\nof the stone. We find that the ancient Egyptians[54] practised at a\nwooden block, and the German _Helden_ (champions), seated on settles,\nduelled by casting three knives each, to be parried with the shield.\nThe modern Spaniards begin to learn when children the art of throwing\nthe _facon_[55], _cuchillo_ or clasp-knife. The reapers of the Roman\nCampagna, mere barbarians once civilised, also \u2018chuck\u2019 the sickle with\na surprising precision.\n\n[Heading: _THE BOW._]\n\nThe habit of stone-throwing would presently lead to the invention of\nthe sling, which Meyrick considers,[56] strange to say, the \u2018earliest\nand simplest weapon of antiquity.\u2019 The rudest form of this pastoral\nweapon used only on open plains, a ball and cord, was followed by\nthe various complications of string- or thong-sling, cup-sling, and\nstick-sling. The latter, a split stick which held the stone till the\nmoment of discharge, may have been the primitive arm: Lepsius shows\nan Egyptian using such a sling and provided with a reserve heap of\npebbles. Nilsson suggests that David was thus weaponed when Goliath\naddressed him, \u2018Am I a dog that thou comest to me with staves?\u2019\u2014that\nis, with the shepherd\u2019s staff turned into a sling. And this form\nsurvived longest in the Roman \u2018fustibulus,\u2019 which the moderns corrupted\nto \u2018fustibale\u2019[57]: the latter, with its wooden handle, was used in\nEurope during the twelfth century, and was employed in delivering\nhand-grenades till the sixteenth. The primitive ball-and-cord, known\nto the ancient Egyptians, is still preserved in the Bolas of the\nSouth American Gaucho. A simultaneously invented missile would be the\nhurling or throwing-stick and its modification, the Boomerang, of which\nI have still to speak. The application of elasticity and resilience\nbeing now well known, would suggest the rudest form of the bow[58] and\narrow. This invention, next in importance (though _longo intervallo_)\nto fire-making and fire-feeding, is the first crucial evidence of the\ndistinction between the human weapon and the bestial arm. Nilsson and\nmany others hold the invention to have been instinctive and common to\nall peoples; and we cannot wonder that it was made the invention of\ndemi-gods\u2014Nimrod, Scythes[59] the son of Jupiter, or Perses son of\nPerseus.[60] The missile arm at once showed man and beast separated\nby an extensive difference of degree, if not of kind, and it has\nplayed the most notable part, perhaps, of all weapons in the annals of\nhumanity or inhumanity. It led to the Greek _gastrapheta_, the Roman\n_arcubalista_ (crossbow[61]); to the _palintonon_ or _balista_, and\nthe arblast (an enlarged species of the _arcus_, intended for throwing\ndarts of giant size); to the _Belagerungs-balister_, a fixed form; to\nthe catapult, _enthytonon_, _tormentum_, scorpion or _onager_,[62] and\nto other formidable forms of classical artillery which preceded the\n\u2018cheap and nasty\u2019 invention of chemical explosives.\n\n[Heading: _THE CLUB._]\n\nSo much for the Hand-stone as the forefather of missiles and of\nballistic science. Held in the fist it would give momentum, weight\nand velocity, force and bruising power, to the blow. Thus it was the\nforerunner of the club, straight and curved; the flail, the _b\u00e2ton\nferr\u00e9_, the \u2018morning star,\u2019 the \u2018holy-water sprinkler,\u2019 and a host of\nsimilar weapons[63] that added another and a harder joint to man\u2019s\narm. Clubs\u2014which in practice are aimed at the head, whereas the spear\nis mostly directed at the body[64]\u2014would be easily made by pulling up\na straight young tree, or by tearing down a branch from the parent\ntrunk and stripping it of twigs and leaves. The club of Australia,\na continent to which we look for original forms, has the branching\nrootlets trimmed to serve as spikes; moreover, the terminal bulge has\nbeen developed in order to stop or parry the assailant\u2019s weapon. In\nfact the swell, ball, lozenge, or mushroom-head was the first germ of\nthe Australasian shield. The next step would be to fashion the ragged\nstaff with fire, with friction, and with flint knives, shells or other\nscrapers, into a cutting as well as a crushing instrument; and here we\nhave one of the many origins of the Sword and of its diminutives, the\ndagger and the knife. Pointed at the end, it would become the lance\nand spear, the spud, spade, and palstave, the _pilum_, the dart, the\njavelin, and the assagai.\n\nNot a few authorities contend that the earliest weapons, the most\nconstant in all ages and continuous in all countries, were the\nspear and the axe. The first would be a development of the pointed\nhand-celt[65]; the latter of the leaf-formed or almond-shaped tool.\nBut firstly, these would be mostly confined to countries with a\nwell-developed Stone Age[66]; and secondly, the conversion of the\nhand-stone into an _arme d\u2019hast_ would assuredly be later than the club\nand the sharpened stick or stake.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 14.\u2014JAPANESE WAR-FLAIL.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 15.\u2014TURKISH WAR-FLAIL.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 16.\u2014MORNING STAR.]\n\nHerodotus, the father of ancient history in its modern form, a\ntravelled student and a great genius, whose prose poem\u2014for such it\nis\u2014has proved incomparably more useful to us than any works of his\nsuccessors, when describing a rock-sculpture of Sesostris-Ramses (ii.\n106) makes him carry in his right hand a spear (Egyptian), and in his\nleft a bow (Lybian or Ethiopian). Hence some writers on Hoplology have\nheld that he considered these to be the oldest of weapons. But the\nancients did not study prehistoric man beyond confounding human bones\nwith those of extinct mammals. Augustus C\u00e6sar was an early collector,\naccording to Suetonius (in \u2018August.\u2019 c. xxii.). \u2018Sua vero ... excoluit\nrebusque vetustate ac raritate notabilibus; qualia sunt Capr\u00e6is immanum\nbelluarum ferarumque membra pr\u00e6grandia, qu\u00e6 dicuntur gigantum ossa et\narma heroum.\u2019[67] The Emperor (whom the late Louis Napoleon so much\nresembled, even in the matter of wearing hidden armour[68]) preferred\nthese curiosities to statues and pictures. The ancients also, like\nMarco Polo and too many of the moderns, spoke of the world generally\nafter studying a very small part in particular. The Halicarnassian here\nevidently alludes to an epoch which had made notable advances upon the\nQuaternary Congener of the Simiads. We must return to a much earlier\nage. Lucretius, whose penetrating genius had a peculiar introvision,\nwrote like a modern scientist:\u2014\n\n Arma antiqua manus, ungues dentesque fuerunt,\n Et lapides et item sylvarum fragmina rami;\n Posterius ferri vis est, \u00e6risque reperta,\n Sed prius \u00e6ris erat, quam ferri cognitus usus.[69]\n\nGentleman Horace is almost equally correct:\u2014\n\n Quum prorepserunt primis animalia terris,\n Mutum et turpe pecus, glandem atque cubilia propter\n Unguibus et pugnis, dein fustibus, atque ita porro\n Pugnabant armis qu\u00e6 post fabricaverat usus.[70]\n\nHow refreshing is the excellent anthropology of these pagans after the\nmarvel-myths of man\u2019s Creation propounded by the so-called \u2018revealed\u2019\nreligions.\n\n[Heading: _THE \u2018AGES.\u2019_]\n\nFor the better distribution of the subject I shall here retain the\nobsolete and otherwise inadmissible, because misleading, terms\u2014Age\nof Stone, Age of Bronze, Age of Iron.[71] From the earliest times\nall the metals were employed, without distinction, for weapons\noffensive and defensive: besides which, the three epochs intermingle\nin all countries, and overlap one another; they are, in fact, mostly\nsimultaneous rather than successive. As a modern writer says, like\nthe three principal colours of the rainbow, these three stages\nof civilisation shade off the one into the other; and yet their\nsuccession, as far as Western Europe[72] is concerned, appears to be\nequally well defined with that of the prismatic colours, though the\nproportion of the spectrum may vary in different countries. And, as\na confusion of ideas would be created, especially when treating of\nthe North European Sword, by neglecting this superficial method of\nclassification, I shall retain it while proceeding to consider the\ndevelopment of the White Arm under their highly conventional limits.\n\nI must, moreover, remark that the ternary division, besides having no\nabsolute chronological signification, and refusing to furnish any but\ncomparative dates, is insufficient. Concomitant with, and possibly\nanterior to, the so-called Stone Age, wood, bone, teeth, and horn were\nextensively used; and the use has continued deep into the metal ages.\nThroughout the lower valley of the River of the Amazons, where stone\nis totally wanting, primitive peoples must have armed themselves with\nanother material. The hard and heavy trees, both of the Temperates and\nthe Tropics, supplied a valuable material which could be treated simply\nby the use of fire, and without metal or even stone. Ramusio speaks\nof a sago-wood (_Nibong_ or _Caryota urens_) made into short lances\nby the Sumatrans: \u2018One end is sharpened and charred in the fire, and\nwhen thus prepared it will pierce any armour much better than iron\nwould do.\u2019[73] The weapon would be fashioned by the patient labour\nof days and weeks, by burying in hot ashes, by steaming and smoking,\nby charring and friction, by scraping with shells and the teeth of\nrodents, and by polishing with a variety of materials: for instance,\nwith the rasping and shagreen-like skin of many fishes, notably the\nray; with rough-coated grasses, and with the leaves of the various\n\u2018sandpaper-trees\u2019 which are hispid as a cat\u2019s tongue. And the first\nstep in advance would be dressing with silex, obsidian, and other\ncutting stones, and finishing with pumice or with the mushroom-shaped\ncorallines. I shall reserve for the next chapter a description of the\n_sabre de bois_, unjustly associated in the popular saying with the\n_pistolet de paille_.\n\n[Heading: _THE \u2018BONE AGE.\u2019_]\n\nBone, which includes teeth, presented to savage man a hard and\ndurable material for improving his coarse wooden weapons. Teledamus\nor Telegonus, son of Circe and founder of Tusculum[74] and Pr\u00e6neste,\naccording to tradition slew his father, Ulysses, with a lance-head\nof fish bone\u2014_aculeum marin\u00e6 bellu\u00e6_. The teeth of the Squalus and\nother _gigantum ossa_ or megatherian remains supplied points for the\nearliest projectiles, and added piercing power to the blow of the\nclub. That a Bone Age may be traced throughout the world,[75] and that\nthe phrase a \u2018bone- and stone-using people\u2019 is correct, was proved\nby the Weltausstellung of Vienna (1873), whose splendid collection\nfound an able describer in Prof. A. Woldrich.[76] The caves of\nvenerable Moustier (D\u00e9partement Dordogne), of Belgium, and of Lherm\n(D\u00e9partement Arri\u00e8ge) contributed many jawbones of the cave bear\n(_Ursus spel\u00e6us_); the ascending ramus of the inferior maxilla had been\ncut away to make a convenient grip, and the strong corner-teeth formed\nan implement or an instrument, a tool or a weapon. The caves of Peggau\nin Steiermark (Styria), of Palkau in Moravia, and the Pfahlbauten[77]\nor Pile-villages of Olm\u00fctz, produced a number of bone articles and\nremnants of the cave bear. These rude implements remind us of the\nweapon used to such good effect by the Biblical Samson, the Hebrew type\nof Hercules, the strong man, the slayer of monsters, and the Sun-god\n(Shams\u00fan).[78]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 17.\u2014DEER-HORN ARROW-HEAD. (S. America.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 18\u2014HORN WAR CLUBS WITH METAL POINTS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 19.\u2014DOUBLE SPEAR AND SHIELD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 20.\u2014SPINE OF DIODON.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 21.\u20141. WALRUS TOOTH USED AS SPEAR POINT; 2.\nTOMAHAWK OF WALRUS TOOTH.]\n\nThe wilder tribes of Cambodia convert the bony horn of the\nsword-fish into a spear head, with which they confidently attack the\nrhinoceros.[79] At Kotzebue Sound Captain Beechey found lances made\nof a wooden staff ending in a walrus-tooth; and this defence was also\nadapted to a tomahawk-point. The New Guinea tribes tip their arrows\nwith the teeth of the saw-fish and the spines of the globe-fish\n(_Diodon_ and _Triodon_). The horny style of the Malaccan king-crab\n(_Limulus_), a Crustacean sometimes reaching two feet in length, is\nalso made into an arrow-pile.[80] The Australians of King George\u2019s\nSound arm their spears with the acute barbules of fishes; and the\nnatives of S. Salvador, when discovered by Columbus, pointed their\nlances with fish-teeth. The Greenlander\u2019s \u2018nuguit\u2019 (fig. 23) is\nmentioned by Crantz as armed with the narwhal\u2019s horn, and the wooden\nhandle is carved in relief with two human figures. By its side is\nanother spear (fig. 24) with a beam in narwhal-shape, the foreshaft\nbeing composed of a similar ivory, inserted into the snout so as to\nrepresent the natural defence. Here we see the association in the\nmaker\u2019s mind between the animal from which the weapon is derived and\nthe purpose of destruction for which it is chiefly used. It also\nillustrates the well-nigh universal practice amongst savages of\nmaking their weapons to imitate animate forms. The reason may be a\nsuperstition which still remains to be explained.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 22.\u2014STING OF MALACCAN LIMULUS CRAB.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 23.\u2014TUE GREENLAND NUGUIT.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 24.\u2014NARWHAL SHAFT AND METAL BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 25.\u2014JADE PATTU-PATTUS.]\n\nForeshafts and heads of bone are still applied to the arrows of\nthe South African Bushmans. They alternate with wood, chert, and\nmetal throughout the North American continent, from Eskimo-land to\nCalifornia. A notable resemblance has been traced between the bone-club\nof the Nootka Sound \u2018Indians,\u2019 and the jade Pattu-Pattu or Meri of New\nZealand. Hence it has been suspected that this short, flat weapon, oval\nor leaf-shaped, and made to hold in the hand, as if it were a stone\ncelt, was originally an imitation of the os humeri. Like the celt,\nalso, is the stone club found by Colonel A. Lane Fox in the bed of the\nBawn river, north Ireland.[81]\n\nThe long bones of animals, with the walls of marrow-holes obliquely\ncut and exposing the hollow, were fastened upon sticks and poles,\nforming formidable darts and spears. The shape thus suggests the bamboo\narrow-heads of the North Americans, whose cavity also served to carry\npoison.[82] They would, moreover, easily be fashioned by fracture, and\nby friction upon a hard and rough-grained substance, into Swords and\ndaggers. The Fenni, or Finns, of Tacitus (\u2018Germ.\u2019 c. 46), having no\niron, used bone-pointed arrows. The Innuits, or Eskimos, of Greenland\nand other parts of the outer north, form with the ribs of whales their\nshuttles as well as their Swords. In \u2018Flint Chips\u2019 we find that the\nancient Mexicans had bone-daggers. Wilde[83] gives a unique specimen of\nsuch a weapon found in the bed of the River Boyne \u2018in hard blue clay,\nfour feet under sand, along with some stone spear-heads.\u2019 Formed out of\nthe leg-bone of one of the large ruminants, it measures ten and a sixth\ninches long, the rough handle being only two and a half inches[84]; the\nblade is smooth, and wrought to a very fine point. This skeyne (the\nIrish \u2018scjan\u2019[85]) looks like a little model of a metal cut-and-thrust\nblade (fig. 27). Equally interesting is the knife-blade (fig. 29) found\nwith many other specimens of manufactured bone in the Ballinderry\n\u2018Crannog\u2019[86] (county Westmeath): the total length is eight inches,\nand the handle is highly decorated. Other bone knives are mentioned in\nthe \u2018Catalogue\u2019 (pp. 262\u201363). Bone prepared for making handles, and\neven ferules, for Swords and daggers is also referred to (p. 267):\nthe material, being easily worked and tolerably durable, has, indeed,\nnever fallen into disuse. In the shape of ivory,[87] walrus-tusk, and\nhippopotamus-tooth it is an article of luxury extensively used in the\npresent day for the hafts of weapons and domestic implements. Lastly,\nbone served as a base to carry mere trenchant substances. The museum\nof Professor Sven Nilsson[88] shows (fig. 31) a smooth, sharp-pointed\nsplinter, some six inches long, grooved in each side to about a quarter\nof an inch deep. In each of these grooves, fixed by means of cement,\nwas a row of sharp-edged and slightly curved bits of flint. A similar\nimplement (fig. 30) is represented in the illustrated catalogue of the\nMuseum of Copenhagen. Of this contrivance I shall speak at length when\ntreating of the wooden Sword.[89]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 26.\u20141. BONE ARROW-POINT FOR POISON; 2. IRON\nARROW-HEAD FOR POISON. (S. America.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 27.\u2014WILDE\u2019S DAGGER.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 28.\u2014HOLLOW BONE FOR POISON.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 29.\u2014BONE KNIFE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 30.\u2014BONE ARROW-POINT ARMED WITH FLINT FLAKES.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 31.]\n\n[Heading: _\u2018AGES\u2019 BEFORE THE \u2018STONE AGE.\u2019_]\n\nWhile bone was extensively used by primitive Man, horn was the\nsuccedaneum in places where it was plentiful. The Swiss lake-dwellings\nhave yielded stag\u2019s horn and wooden hafts or helves, with bored holes\nand sockets; borers, awls or drills; mullers, rubbers, and various\nother instruments. The caverns of the Reindeer period in the south of\nFrance are not less rich. Stag-horn axes are common in Scandinavia,\nand one preserved by the Stockholm Museum bears the spirited outline\nof a deer. Beads, buttons, and other ornaments are found in England.\nThis material, when taken from the old stag, is of greater density\nthan osseous matter and of almost stony hardness, as the cancellated\nstructure contains carbonate of lime; moreover it was easily worked by\nfire and steam.\n\n[Heading: _THE \u2018HORN-AGE.\u2019_]\n\nDiodorus (iii. cap. 15) describes the Ichthyophagi as using antelopes\u2019\nhorns in their fishing, \u2018for need teacheth all things.\u2019 The earliest\nmention of a horn-arm is by Homer (\u2018Iliad,\u2019 ii. 827, and iv. 105),\nwho describes Pandarus, the Lycian, son of Lycaon, using a bow made\nof the six-spans-long[90] spoils of the \u2018nimble mountain-goat.\u2019 The\nweapon may have retained the original form. The early Greek types\nwere either simple or composite. The Persians[91] preferred, and till\nlately used, wood and horn, stained, varnished, and adorned as much as\npossible. Duarte Barbosa[92] describes the Turkish bow at Hormuz Island\nas \u2018made of buffalo-horn and stiff wood painted with gold and very\npretty colours.\u2019 The \u2018Hornboge\u2019 occurs in the \u2018Nibelungenlied,\u2019 and the\nHungarians appeared in Europe with horn-bows and poisoned arrows.\n\nThe bows of the Sioux and Yutahs are of horn, backed with a strip of\nraw hide to increase the spring. The Blackfoot bow is made from the\nhorn of the mountain-sheep (Catlin), and the Shoshone of the Rocky\nMountains shape it by heating and wetting the horn, which is combined\nwith wood (Schoolcraft). The Eskimos of Polar America, where nothing\nbut drift-timber is procurable, are compelled to build their weapons\nwith several bits of wood, horn, and bone, bent into form by smoking or\nsteaming.\n\nAdmirable bows of buffalo-horn\u2014small, but throwing far, and strong\u2014are\nstill made in the Indus-valley about Multan. For this use the horns are\ncut, scraped, thinned to increase elasticity; joined at the bases by\nwooden splints, pegs, or nails, and made to adhere by glue and sinews.\nMan would soon learn to sharpen his wooden shafts with horn-points, the\nspoils of his prey. Hence the ancient Egyptians applied horn to their\nlight arrows of reed.[93] The Christy collection contains an arrow\nfrom South America (?) armed with a pile of deer-horn. The Melville\nPeninsula, being scant of materials, uses as arrow-piles the horns of\na musk-ox (_ovibos_, more _ovis_ than _bos_), and the thinned defences\nof the reindeer strengthened by sinews. Antelope-horns are still used\nas lance-points by the Nubians, the Shilluks, and the Denkas of the\nUpper Nile; by the Jibbus of Central Africa, and by the tribes of the\nsouthern continent.[94] The \u2018Bantu\u2019 or Kafir races, Zulus and others,\nmake their _kiri_ (kerry) either of wood or of rhinoceros-horn. It\nvaries from a foot to a yard long, and is capped by a knob as large\nas a hen\u2019s egg or a man\u2019s fist: hence it is called \u2018knob-stick\u2019 or\n\u2018throw-stick.\u2019 The Ga-ne-u-ga-o-dus-ha (deer-horn war-club) of the\nIroquois ended in a point of about four inches long; since the people\nhad intercourse with Europeans they have learned to substitute metal.\nThe form suggests that the _martel-de-fer_ of Persia and India, used by\nEurope during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, was derived from a\nweapon of this kind: suitable points for arming it have been found in\nEngland and Ireland. The Dublin Museum (case 21, Petrie) contains an\nantler of the red deer converted into a thrusting weapon. The Jumbiyah\n(crooked dagger) of the Arabs, the Khanjar[95] of Persia and India,\nwhence the Iberian Alf\u00e2nge (El-Khanjar) and our silly \u2018hanger,\u2019 shows\nby form and point that it was originally the half of a buffalo-horn\nsplit longitudinally. The modern weapon, with metal blade and ivory\nhandle, has one side of the latter flat, betraying its origin by\nretaining a peculiarity no longer required. The same is the case when\nthe whole Jumbiyah is, as often happens, made of metal[96] (fig. 6, p.\n10).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 32.\u2014HARPOON HEAD.]\n\nThe sufficiency of horn for the slender wants of uncivilised\ncommunities was admirably illustrated by the discovery of a Pfahlbau,\nor crannog, some three miles south of Laibach, the capital of Carniola,\nand a little north of the Brunnsdorf village. The site is a low\nmountain-girt basin, formerly a lake or broad of the Lai-cum-Sava\nriver, and still flooded after heavy rains. Surface-finds were picked\nup in 1854\u201355, and regular explorations began in July 1875.[97] During\nthat year two hundred articles were dug up. The material was chiefly\nstag-horn, tines, and beams, the latter often cut at the burr or\nantler-crown. The chief objects\u2014many of them artistic as those of the\nFrench \u2018Reindeer epoch\u2019\u2014were hatchets, hammers, needles, spindles, and\npunches of horn and split bone; fish-hooks, pincers, and skin-scrapers\nof hog\u2019s tusks; with ornaments set in bone, and teeth bored for\nstringing. Many of these articles showed signs of the saw-kerf or notch\nwhich had probably been cut with sanded fibre acting like a file.\nThere were harpoon-heads of peculiar shape, supposed to be unpierced\nwhistles, the hole not having been bored through[98]: evidently they\nwere made to \u2018unship\u2019 when striking the Welsen (_Siluri_) of the\nold lake, some of which must have been six feet long. The wooden\nforeshaft, joined by a string to its head, acted as float, and betrayed\nthe position of the prey. This is the third stage of the harpoon:\nthe first would be merely a heavy, pointed stick, and the second a\nspear with barbs. There were six horn _Dolche_ (daggers), and one\npeculiar article, an edge of polished stone set in a horn-handle: the\nlatter shows at once the abundance of game, and the value and rarity\nof the mineral, which probably belonged only to the rich. The eight\nstone implements were of pal\u00e6olithic type; the few metal articles\u2014a\nleaf-shaped sword-blade, a rude knife, lance-heads, arrow-piles,\nneedles, and bodkins\u2014were chiefly copper, five only being bronze;\nand the pottery corresponds with that of the neolithic period in the\nmuseums of Copenhagen and Stockholm. Thus the find, like several in\nSwitzerland, showed a great preponderance of horns, bones, and teeth\nduring a transitional age when the rest of Europe was using polished\nstone and metal.[99]\n\nPrehistoric finds are still common in the Laibacher moorground\n(1882). Lauerza, a hamlet on the edge of the swamp, supplied (Nov.\n7) a large stone-axe (_Steinbeil_), pierced and polished, of the\nquartzose conglomerate common in the adjacent highlands. This article\nwas exceptional, most of the stone implements being pal\u00e6olithic. At\nAussergoritz appeared remnants of pottery and Roman tiles, a broken\nhairpin of bronze, a spear of Roman type, and a \u2018palstab,\u2019[100] also\nof bronze: the latter is the normal chisel-shaped hatchet with the\nflanges turned over for fitting to the handle; it measures 16\u00b75 cent.\nlong by 3\u00b75 of diameter at the lower part. The sands of Grosscup also\nyielded sundry fine bronze armlets of Etruscan make found upon embedded\nskeletons. All the finds have been deposited in the Provincial Museum\nat Laibach.\n\nThe use of horn, like that of bone, has survived to the present day,\nand still appears in the handles of knives, daggers, and swords. It is\nof many varieties, and it fetches different prices according to the\ntexture, the markings, and other m\u00eenuti\u00e6 known to the trade.[101]\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER III.\n\n THE WEAPONS OF THE AGE OF WOOD: THE BOOMERANG AND THE SWORD OF\n WOOD; OF STONE, AND OF WOOD AND STONE COMBINED.\n\n\n _The Sword of Wood._\n\nThe \u2018Age of Wood\u2019 began early, lasted long, and ended late. As the\npractice of savages shows, the spear was originally a pointed stick\nhardened in the fire; and arrows, the diminutives of the spear, as\ndaggers are of the Sword, were tipped with splinters of bamboo, whose\nTab\u00e1shir or silicious bark acted like stone. The Peruvians, even after\nthey could beat out plates of gold and silver, fought with pikes having\nno iron tips, but with the points hardened in the fire.[102] The same\nwas the case with the Australians,[103] who, according to Mr. Howard\nSpensley,[104] also fashioned Swords of very hard wood: the Arabs of\nthe Tih\u00e1mat or Lowlands of Hazramaut (the Biblical Hazramaveth) are\nstill compelled by poverty to use spears without metal. I pass over the\ngeneral use of this world-wide material to the epoch when it afforded a\ntrue Sword.\n\nThe wooden Sword, as we see from its wide dispersion, must have\narisen spontaneously among the peoples who had reached that stage of\ncivilisation where it became necessary.[105] These weapons were found\nin the hands of the Indians of Virginia by the well-known Captain John\nSmith. Writing in 1606, Oldfield describes swords of heavy black wood\nin the Sandwich Islands, and Captain Owen Stansley in New Guinea. Mr.\nConsul Hutchinson notes the wooden swords used by the South American\nItonanamas, a sub-tribe of the Maxos. Those preserved in Ireland and\nothers brought from the Samoa Islands will be noticed in a future page.\nThey may mostly be characterised as flat clubs sharpened at the edge,\nand used like our steel blades.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 33.\u2014LIS\u00c1N IN EGYPT AND ABYSSINIA.]\n\nThe shape of the wooden sword greatly varies, and so does its origin.\nMr. Tylor fell into the mistake, so common in these classifying,\ngeneralising, and simplifying days, of deriving the sabre, because it\nis a cutting tool, from the axe, and the tuck or rapier from the spear\nbecause it thrusts. Wooden sword-blades alone have three prototypes,\nviz.:\u2014\n\n 1. The club.\n 2. The throw-stick.\n 3. The paddle.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 34.\u2014LIS\u00c1N OR TONGUE.]\n\nI. The Bulak Museum (Cairo)[106] shows two good specimens of the\nancient \u2018Lis\u00e1n\u2019 (\u2018tongue\u2019-weapon) club or curved stick. The first\nbattles, says Pliny (vii. 57), were fought by the Africans against\nthe Egyptians with clubs which they called _phalang\u00e6_. The shorter\nclub-sword (1 ft. 11 in.) has a handle ribbed with eighteen fine raised\nrings. The longer or falchion-shaped weapon (2 ft. 5 in.) is hatched\nat the grip with a cross pattern. Both are of hard wood blackened by\nage, and both have the distinct cutting edge. The ancient war-club was\ntipped with metal and whipped with thongs round the handle for firmer\ngrasp, like the Roman fasces. The modern Lis\u00e1n-club, made of tough\nmimosa-wood and about 2\u00bd ft. long, is still used in close combat by the\nNegroid tribes of the Upper Nile. To the Bish\u00e1rins and Amri the Lis\u00e1n\nsupplies, at dances and on festal occasions, the place of the sword. In\nAbyssinia there is a lighter variety (1 ft. 6 in.) banded alternately\nwith red, blue, and green cloth, and protected by a network of brass\nwire. The Ababdeh (modern \u00c6thiopians), content with this, the spear,\nand its pendant the shield, fear not to encounter tribes whose arms are\nthe matchlock and a \u2018formidable looking, but really inoffensive sword\nwith a wondrous huge straight blade.\u2019 These pastoral Nomads are of a\npeculiar and interesting type. The short stature and the well-curved\nand delicate limbs, whose action is quick, lithe, and graceful as the\nleopard\u2019s, connect them with the Bedawin of Arabia; while the knotted\nand spiral locks standing on end, and resembling when tallowed a huge\ncauliflower, affiliate them to the African Somal. Their arms are more\nextensive than their dress, a mere waist cloth, the primitive attire of\ntropical man; and they live by hiring their camels to caravans.\n\nThe Dublin Museum[107] also shows the transitional forms between the\nclub and the Sword. The weapon (_a_) numbered 143 is some twenty-five\ninches long: the second (_b_) is labelled \u2018No. 144, wooden club-shaped\nimplement, twenty-seven inches long.\u2019\n\nThe club of the Savage developed itself in other directions to the\nshepherd\u2019s staff, the bishop\u2019s crozier, and the king\u2019s sceptre; hence,\ntoo, the useless b\u00e2ton of the field-marshal, and the maces of Mr.\nSpeaker and My Lord Mayor. Here we may answer the question why the\nfield-marshal should carry a stick instead of a Sword. The unwarlike\nlittle instrument is simply the symbol of high authority:[108] it is\nthe rod, not of the Lictor, but of the Centurion, whose badge of office\nwas a vine-sapling wherewith to enforce authority. Hence Lucan (vi.\n146) says of gallant Captain Cassius Sc\u00e6va who, after many wounds, beat\noff two swordsmen:\u2014\n\n Sanguine multo\n Promotus Latiam longo gerit ordine vitem.\n\nThis use was continued by the drill-sergeant of Europe from England\nto Russia. The club again survives in the constable\u2019s staff and the\npoliceman\u2019s truncheon.\n\n[Heading: _THE BOOMERANG._]\n\nThe form of throwing-stick, which we have taught ourselves to call\nby an Australian name \u2018boomerang,\u2019[109] thereby unduly localising an\nalmost universal weapon from Eskimo-land to Australia, was evidently\na precursor of the wooden Sword. It was well known to the ancient\nEgyptians. Wilkinson shows (vol. i. chap. 4) that it was of heavy\nwood, cut flat, and thus offering the least resistance, measuring 1\nft. 3 in. to 2 ft. long by 1\u00bd in. broad. The shape, however, is not\nthe usual segment of a circle, but a shallow S-curve inverted (\u01a7),\nmore bent at the upper end, and straighter in the handle. One weapon\n(p. 236) seems to bear the familiar asp-head.[110] The British Museum\ncontains a boomerang brought from Thebes by the Rev. Greville Chester,\nand a facsimile was exhibited by General Pitt-Rivers.[111] The end\nis much curved; the blade has four parallel grooves, and it bears\nthe cartouche of Ramses the Great. In no instance have we found the\nround shape and the returning flight of its Australian congener. Three\nillustrations[112] show a large sportsman (the master) bringing down\nbirds which rise from a papyrus-swamp, while a smaller figure (the\nslave) in the same canoe holds another weapon at arm\u2019s length.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 35.\u2014TRANSITION FROM THE BOOMERANG TO THE HATCHET\n(AUSTRALIA).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 36.\u2014AUSTRALIAN PICKS.\n\n 1, 2. Pick of New Caledonia; 3. Malga or Leowel Pick.]\n\nStrabo[113] describes the (Belgian) Gauls as hunting with a piece of\nwood resembling a pilum, which is hand-thrown, and which flies to a\ndistance farther than an arrow. He calls it the \u0393\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u1f78\u03c2, which is also\ndescribed as a pilum, dart, or javelin by Polybius;[114] but evidently\nthis Grosphus means the throw-stick, usually termed by the Greeks\n\u1f00\u03b3\u03ba\u03cd\u03bb\u03b7 (Ancyle). Silius Italicus arms in the \u2018Punica\u2019 one of the Libyan\ntribes which accompanied Hannibal with a bent or crossed _cateia_: the\nlatter is identified with the throw-stick by Doctor (now Sir) Samuel\nFerguson, poet and antiquary.[115] The encyclop\u00e6dia of Bishop Isidore\n(A.D. 600\u2013636) explicitly defines the _cateia_ to be \u2018a species of bat\nwhich, when thrown, flies not far by reason of its weight; but where\nit strikes it breaks through with extreme impetus, and if it be thrown\nwith a skilful hand it returns to him who threw it:\u2014rursum redit ad eum\nqui misit.\u2019 Virgil also notices it:\u2014\n\n Et quos malifer\u00e6 despectant m\u0153nia Abell\u00e6\n Teutonico ritu soliti torquere cateias. (_\u00c6n._ vii. 740).\n\nJ\u00e4hn (p. 410)[116] remembers the _Mi\u00f6lner_, or hammer of Thor, which\nflew back to the hand.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 37.\u2014INDIAN BOOMERANGS.\n\n 1. War Hatchet, Jibba Negros; 2. Steel Chakra, or Sikh Quoit; 3.\n Steel Collery; 4, 5. Collery of Madras, with knobbed handle.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 38.\u2014BOOMERANG AND KITE.]\n\nIt has been noted that this peculiarity of reversion or back-flight\nis not generic, even in the true boomerang, but appertains only to\nspecific forms. Doubtless it was produced by accident, and, when found\nuseful for bringing down birds over rivers or marshes, it was retained\nby choosing branches with a suitable bend. The shapes greatly differ in\nweight and thickness, in curvature and section. Some are of the same\nbreadth throughout; others bulge in the centre; while others are flat\non one side and convex on the other. In most specimens the fore part\nof the lath is slightly \u2018dished\u2019: hence the bias causes it to rise in\nthe air on the principle of a screw-propeller. The thin edge of the\nweapon is always opposed to the wind, meeting the least resistance. The\naxis of rotation, when parallel to itself, makes the missile ascend\nas long as the forward movement lasts, by the action of the atmosphere\non the lower side. When the impulse ceases it falls by the line of\nleast resistance, that is, in the direction of the edge which lies\nobliquely towards the thrower. In fact, it acts like a kite with a\nsuddenly broken string, dropping for a short distance. But as long as\nthe boomerang gyrates, which it does after the forward movement ends,\nit continues to revolve on the same inclined plane by which it ascended\nuntil it returns to whence it came. This action would also depend upon\nweight; the heavy weapons could not rise high in the air, and must drop\nby mere gravity before coming back to the thrower.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 39.\u2014AFRICAN BOOMERANGS.\n\n 1, 2. Hunga-munga; 3. African Weapon; 4. Kordofan Weapon; 5. The\n same developed; 6. Faulchion of Mundo Tribe; 7. The same developed;\n 8. Jibba Negros; 9. Knob-stick; 10. Ancient Egyptians (Rosellini);\n 11. Old Egyptian; 12\u201315. Tomahawks of Nyam-Nyams; 16. Fan (Mpangwe)\n Tomahawk; 17. Dor Battle-axe; 18. Dinka and Shilluk Weapon.]\n\nFrom Egypt the weapon spread into the heart of Africa. The Abyssinian\n\u2018Trombash\u2019 is of hard wood, acute-edged, and about two feet long; the\nend turns sharply at an angle of 30\u00b0, but the weapon does not whirl\nback.[117] The boomerang of the Nyam-Nyams is called _kulbeda_. Direct\nderivation is also shown by the curved iron projectile of the Mundo\ntribe on the Upper Nile, a weapon of the same form being represented\non the old Egyptian monuments. The \u2018hunga-munga\u2019 of the negros south\nof Lake Chad, and the adjoining peoples, shows a further development\nof spikes or teeth disposed at different angles, enabling the missile\nto cut on both sides. The varieties of this form, with a profusion of\nquaint ornaments, including lateral blades which answer the purpose\nof wings, and which deal a severer wound, are infinite. Denham and\nClapperton give an illustration of a Central African weapon forming\nthe head and neck of a stork. So the Mpangwe negros[118] of the Gaboon\nRiver, West Africa, shape their missiles in the form of a bird\u2019s head,\nthe triangular aperture (fig. 40, No. 5) representing the eye.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 40.\u2014TRANSITION FROM THE MALGA, LEOWEL OR PICK TO\nTHE BOOMERANG (AUSTRALIA).]\n\nThe throwing-stick has been found in Assyrian monuments: Nemr\u00fad\nstrangling the lion holds a boomerang in his right hand. Thence the\nweapon travelled East; and the Sanskrit \u00c1stara, or Scatterer, was\nextensively used by the pre-Aryan tribes of India. The Kolis, oldest\nknown inhabitants of Gujar\u00e1t, call it \u2018Katuriyeh,\u2019 a term probably\nderived from \u2018Cateia\u2019; the Dravidians of the Madras Presidency know\nit as \u2018Collery,\u2019 and the Tamulian Kallar and Marawar (of Madura),\nwho use it in deer-hunting, term it \u2018Valai Tadi\u2019 (bent stick). The\nPudukota Rajah always kept a stock in arsenal. The length greatly\nvaries, the difference amounting to a cubit or more; and three feet by\na hand-breadth may be the average. The middle is bent to the extent\nof a cubit; the flat surface with a sharp edge is one hand broad.\n\u2018Its three actions are whirling, pulling, and breaking, and it is a\ngood weapon for charioteers and foot soldiers.\u2019 Prof Oppert, writing\n\u2018On the Weapons, &c. of the ancient Hindus\u2019 (1880), tells us that the\nMuseum of the Madras Government has two ivory throw-sticks from Tanjore\nand a common wooden one from Pudukota; his own collection contains\nfour of black wood and one of iron. All these instruments return,\nas do the true boomerangs, to the thrower. The specimens in the old\nIndia-House Museum conform with the natural curvature of the wood,\nlike the Australian; but, being thicker and heavier, they fall without\nback-flight. Not a few of the boomerangs cut with the inner edge, the\nshapes of the blade and of the grip making them unhandy in the extreme.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 41.\u2014THE STICK AND THE SHIELD.\n\n 1. Various forms of Australian Tamarang or Parrying Shields;\n 2. Shield of Mundo Negros; 3. Negro parrying Shield; 4. Old\n Egyptian Parrying Shield; 5. Dowak straight flat Throw-stick\n (Australia); 6. Boomerang that does not return; 7. Boomerang\n that does return.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 42.\u2014THROW-STICKS.\n\n 1. Australian Tombat; 2. Malga War-pick; 3\u20136. Australian Waddy\n Clubs; 7. Hatchet Boomerang.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 43.\u2014OLD EGYPTIAN BOOMERANG.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 44.\u2014BULAK SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 45.\u2014HIEROGLYPHIC INSCRIPTION ON WOODEN SWORD, OF\nBULAK.]\n\nFrom the throw-stick would naturally arise the Chakr\u00e1, the steel wheel\nor war-quoit, which the Ak\u00e1lis\u2014a stricter order of Sikhs\u2014carried in\ntheir long hair, and launched after twirling round the forefinger.[119]\nThe boomerang-shape is also perpetuated in the dreaded Kukkri or Gurkha\nSword-knife, now used, however, only for hand-to-hand fighting. I\nhave mentioned the Cuchillo or Spanish clasp-knife- and the Italian\nsickle-throwing. The Australian weapon was unknown, like the shield, to\nTasmania, whose only missile was the Waddy or throw-stick.\n\nAs the Australian club, swelling at the end, developed itself in one\ndirection, to the Malga (war-pick) and hatchet, so on the other line it\nbecame, by being narrowed, flattened, and curved, the boomerang and the\nboomerang-sword. Finally, the immense variety of curves\u2014some of them\nbending at a right angle\u2014were straightened and made somewhat long-oval\nand leaf-shaped for momentum and impetus.\n\n[Heading: _THE BOOMERANG-SWORD._]\n\nThe direct descent of the curved wooden Sword of Egypt from the\nboomerang is shown in many specimens. The blade becomes narrow,\nflat, and more curved; the handle proves that it is no longer a\nmere missile, and the grip is scored with scratches to secure a\nfirmer grasp.[120] The best specimen known to me is in the Bulak\nMuseum.[121] It is a light weapon of sycomore wood, measuring in\nlength 1 m\u00e8tre 30 cent. (4 ft. 3 in.), in breadth nearly 15 cent. (6\nin.), and in thickness 0\u00b72 cent. (0\u00b778 in.), while the depth of the\nperpendicular connecting the arc with the chord is 10 cent. But what\nmakes it remarkable is that the Sword bears at one side the so-called\n\u2018Cartouche\u2019[122] of King Ta-a-a (17th dynasty), and at the other end of\nthe same side in a parallelogram the name and titles of Prince \u2018Touaou,\nthe servant of his master in his expeditions.\u2019 This fine specimen was\nfound with the mummy and other articles at the Drah Abu\u2019l-Neggah, the\nTheban cemetery.\n\nThe paddle or original oar, mostly used by savages with the face to\nthe bow,[123] is of two kinds. The long, pointed spear-like implement\nserves, as a rule, for deeper, and the broad-headed for shallower,\nwaters. Both show clearly the transitional state beginning with the\nclub and ending with the Sword.\n\nMr. J. E. Calder,[124] describing the Catamaran of the swamp tea-tree\n(_Melaleuca_, sp.) on the southern and western coasts of Tasmania,\nsays (p. 23): \u2018The mode of its propulsion would shock the professional\nor amateur waterman. Common sticks, with points instead of blades,\nare all that were used to urge it with its living freight through the\nwater, and yet I am assured that its progress is not so very slow.\u2019\nSpears were employed in parts of Australia to paddle the light bark\ncanoes,[125] and the Nicobar Islanders have an implement combining\nspear and paddle: it is of iron-wood, and of pointed-lozenge shape,\nabout five feet in length.[126]\n\n[Heading: _THE CLUB-SWORD._]\n\nThe African paddles, usually employed upon lagoons and inland waters,\nare broad-headed, either rounded off or furnished with one or more\nshort points at the end. Every tribe has its own peculiarities, and a\npractised eye easily knows the people by their paddles. A broad blade,\nalmost rounded and very slightly pointed, is also made in the Austral\nIsles, in the Kingsmill Islands, and in the Marquesas.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 46.\u2014TRANSITION FROM CELT TO PADDLE SPEAR AND SWORD\nFORMS.\n\n 1. Wooden Club Sword from New Guinea; 2. Paddle from New\n Guinea; 3. New Zealand Pattu-Pattu, or Meri; 4. Pattu-Pattu\n from the Brazil; 5. Analogous forms; 6. Ditto, ditto; 7\u201310.\n Club Paddles from Polynesia; 11\u201313. Wooden Spears from Friendly\n Islands.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 47.\u2014CLUBS OF FIJI ISLANDS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 48.\u2014WOODEN SWORDS AND CLUBS OF BRAZILIAN INDIANS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 49.\u2014PAGAYA, SHARPENED PADDLE.]\n\n[Heading: _THE PADDLE-SWORD._]\n\nThe passage of the paddle into the Sword is well shown amongst\nthe wilder \u2018Indians\u2019 of the Brazil. The Tupis still employ the\nTacap\u00e9, Tangap\u00e9, or Iverapema, which is written \u2018Iwarapema\u2019 by Hans\nStade, of Hesse, in the charmingly na\u00efve account of his travels and\ncaptivity.[127] It was a single piece of the hard, heavy, and gummy\nwood which characterises these hot-damp regions,[128] and of different\nshapes with and without handles.[129] The most characteristic implement\nis a long and rounded shaft with a tabular, oval, and slightly-pointed\nblade: it was slung by a lanyard round the neck and hung on either\nside. With a weapon of this kind the cannibal natives slaughtered Pero\nFernandes Sardinha, first Bishop of Bahia, and all his suite; the\n\u2018martyrs\u2019 had been wrecked on the shoals of Dom Rodrigo off the mouth\nof the Coruripe River. The scene is illustrated in the \u2018History\u2019 of the\nlate M. de Varnhagen (p. 321).\n\nA similar Brazilian instrument was the Macan\u00e1, still used on the Rio\ndas Amazonas, and there called Tamarana. It retains the form of the\noriginal paddle, while for offensive purposes the pointed oval head is\nsharpened all round. In parts of the Brazil the Macan\u00e1 was a rounded\nclub; and the sharpened paddle used as a Sword was called Pagaye.[130]\nThe Peruvian Macan\u00e1 and the Callua\u2014the latter compared with a short\nTurkish blade\u2014were made of chonta-wood (_Guilielma speciosa_ and\n_Martinezia ciliata_) which was hard enough to turn copper tools.[131]\nMr. W. Bollaert[132] tells us that the \u2018Macan\u00e1 was said by some to be\nshaped like a long Sword, by others like a club.\u2019 It was both. The\nTapuyas set these broad-headed weapons with teeth and pointed bones.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 50.\u2014CLUBS.\n\n 1\u20134. Samoa Clubs; 5. Cross-ribbed Club; 6. Toothed Club (Fiji).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 51.\u2014PADDLES.\n\n 1\u20133. Spear Paddles; 4, 5. Leaf-shaped; 6. Austral Isles; 7. New\n Ireland; 8. African, from Gaboon River; 9. African, from Coast\n of Dahome.]\n\nOjeda, during his famous voyage to Carthagena, found the warlike Caribs\nwielding great Swords of palm wood, and the women \u2018throwing a species\nof lance called _Azagay_.\u2019 General Pitt-Rivers\u2019 collection has a fine\nflat Club-Sword, five feet two inches long, straight and oval pointed,\nfrom Endeavour River, Queensland, and a smaller article, about three\nfeet, with a longer handle, from Australia. Barrow River, Queensland,\nhas supplied him with a half-curved wooden blade five feet long.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 52.\u2014SAMOAN CLUB (Godeffroy Collection).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 53.\u2014WOODEN SABRE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 54.\u2014WOODEN CHOPPER.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 55.\u2014KNIFE (WOOD), FROM VANNA LAVA.]\n\n[Heading: _THE WOODEN SWORD._]\n\nThe fine Ethnological Museum of Herr Cesar Godeffroy[133] of Hamburg\nand Samoa, illustrating the ethnology of the Pacific Islands,\ncontains many specimens of the knob-stick bevelled on one side of\nthe head to an edge and gradually passing into the Sword. On the\nright-hand entrance-wall are, or were, two fine sabres (fig. 53)\nof Eucalyptus-wood, labelled \u2018Schwert von Bowen (Queensland).\u2019\nThe Sandwich Islanders, we see, still wield the Sword-club with\nsharp-cutting edges, like their neighbours of New Ireland. The savage\nSolomon Archipelago has supplied a two-handed sabre of light and\nbright-yellow wood; its longitudinal mid-rib shows direct derivation\nfrom the paddle-club. There is also a lozenge-shaped hand-club, which\nmay readily have given a model to metal-workers. It is of hard, dark,\nand polished wood, and the handle is whipped round with coir (Tafel xx.\np. 97): the length is seventy cent. by four of maximum breadth. The\nSwords are unfortunately not figured in the catalogue; but there is a\nfine wooden knife forty-nine cent. long by six cent. broad, with open\nhandle and highly-worked grip (Tafel xxi. p. 135). It comes from Vanna\nLava, Banks Group, New Hebrides, Polynesia (fig. 55).[134]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 56.\u2014IRISH SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 57.\u2014WOODEN RAPIER-BLADE (Dublin Museum).]\n\nThe wooden Sword extended deep into the Age of Metal. Articles of the\nkind have been brought from New Zealand, which are evident copies of\nmodern European weapons. Wilde (p. 452) gives the wooden Sword, found\nfive feet deep in Ballykilmunary near High Park, county Wicklow, with\nsome bog-butter, but he finds no indications of its age. The length\nis twenty inches (fig. 56). Upon the side of the blade, and of a\npiece with it, stands a projection whose purpose is unknown: it is\nevidently inconvenient for a toy; but if the relic be a model for a\nsand-mould, the excrescence would have left an aperture by which to\npour in the metal. This view is supported by the shape of the handle,\nwhich resembles the grips of the single-piece bronze Swords found in\ndifferent parts of Europe. The Dublin Museum also contains[135] a blade\napparently intended for thrusting, and labelled \u2018Wooden Sword-shaped\nObject.\u2019 The material is oak, blackened by burial in bog-earth: it has\na mid-rib, a bevelled point, and no appearance of being a model (fig.\n57).\n\n[Heading: _THE STONE-SWORD._]\n\nWhilst wood was extensively used for Swords, the Age of Stone supplied\nfew. The broad and leaf-shaped silex-flakes, dignified by the name\nof Swords, are only daggers and long knives. The fracture of flint\nis uncertain, even when freshly quarried.[136] The workmen would\neasily chip and flake it to form scrapers, axes, spear-heads, and\narrow-piles; but after a certain length, from eight to nine inches,\nthe splinters would be heavy, brittle, and unwieldy. Obsidian, like\nsilex, would make daggers rather than swords. Such are the stone\ndirk and cutlass in the Kensington Museum. Several European museums\npreserve these flat, leaf-shaped knives of the dark cherty flint found\nin Egypt. The British Museum contains a polished stone knife broken at\nthe handle, which bears upon it in hieroglyphics the name of \u2018Ptahmes\n(Ptah-son), an officer.\u2019 There is also an Egyptian dagger, of flint\nfrom the Hay Collection, still mounted in its original wooden handle\napparently by a central tang, and with remains of its skin sheath.[137]\nThe Jews, who borrowed circumcision from the Egyptians, used stone\nknives (\u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2). Atys, says Ovid, mutilated himself\nwith a sharp stone,\u2014\n\n Ille etiam saxo corpus laniavit acuto;\n\nand the Romans sacrificed pigs with flints. Several undated poniards in\nour collections are remarkable: for instance, the English daggers of\nblack and white flint, rare in Scotland and unknown in Ireland; (_a_)\nthe Iberian or Spanish blade in the Christy Collection, five and a half\ninches long, and found at Gibraltar; the Tizcuco blade of chalcedony,\neight inches long (_ibid._); (_b_) the Danish dagger in the Copenhagen\nMuseum, thirteen and a half inches long (the rounded handle makes it\na \u2018marvel of workmanship\u2019); and (_c_) the flint hatchet-sabre of the\nsame collection, fifteen and a half inches in length. It is a mystery\nhow the minute and delicate ornamentation, the even fluting like ripple\nmarks, on these Danish flint-daggers was produced.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 58.\u2014FRAGMENTS OF STONE KNIVES FROM SHETLAND.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 59.\u2014FLINT DAGGERS.\n\n _a._ Iberian or Spanish Blade (Christy Collection); _b._ Danish\n Flint Dagger; _c._ Danish Flint Hatchet Sabre.]\n\nA better substance than flint was found in the compact sandstone\nand in granitic serpentine, so called because that rock resembles a\nsnake\u2019s skin. It is easily worked, while it is harder than the common\nserpentine. A dagger or knife found beside a stone cist in Perthshire\nis described as a natural formation of mica-schiste.\n\nThe Stone Age produced nothing more remarkable than the Pattu-Pattu or\nMeri of New Zealand, which an arrested development prevented becoming\na Sword. Its shape, that of an animal\u2019s blade-bone, suggests its\nprimitive material; and New Guinea has an almost similar form, with\ncorresponding ornamentation in wood. What assimilates it to the Sword\nis that it is sharp-edged at the top as well as at the side. It is\nused for \u2018prodding\u2019 as well as for striking, and the place usually\nchosen for the blow is the head, above the ear, where the skull is\nweakest. Some specimens are of the finest green jade or nephrite,[138]\na refractory stone which must have been most troublesome to fashion.\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD OF WOOD AND STONE._]\n\nWood, however hard and heavy, made a sorry cutting weapon, and stone\na sorrier Sword; but the union of the two improved both. Hence we may\ndivide wooden Swords into the plain and the toothed blades, the latter\u2014\n\n Armed with those little hook-teeth in the edge,\n To open in the flesh and shut again.\n\nAn obvious advance would be to furnish the cutting part with\nthe incisors of animals and stone-splinters. In Europe these would\nbe agate, chalcedony, and rock-crystal; quartz and quartzite; flint,\nchert, Lydian stone, horn-stone, basalt, lava, and greenstone (or\ndiorite); h\u00e6matite, chlorite, gabbro (a tough bluish-green stone),\ntrue jade (nephrite), jadite, and fibrolite, found in Auvergne. Pinna\nand other shells have been extensively used\u2014for instance, by the\nAndamanese\u2014as arrow-heads and adze-blades.[139]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 60.\u2014AUSTRALIAN SPEARS ARMED WITH FLINTS AT SIDE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 61.\u2014SWORD OF SABRE FORM, WITH SHARKS\u2019 TEETH (South\nPacific).\n\n From the Meyrick Collection, now in the British Museum.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 62.\u2014ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN (Mexico).]\n\nTenerife, and the so-called New World, preferred the easily-cleft\ngreen-black obsidian,[140] of which the Ynkas also made their knives.\nThe Polynesian Islands show two distinct systems of attachment. In the\nfirst the fragments, inserted into the grooved side, are either tied or\nmade fast by gum or cement. In the second they are set in a row between\ntwo small slats or strips of wood, which, lastly, are lashed to the\nweapon with fibres. The points are ingeniously arranged in the opposite\ndirection, so as to give severe cuts both in drawing and withdrawing.\nThe Eskimos secure the teeth by pegs of wood and bone. The Pacho of the\nSouth Sea Islanders is a club studded on the inner side with shark\u2019s\nteeth made fast in the same manner. The Brazilian Tapuyas armed a\nbroad-headed club with teeth and bones sharpened at the point.[141] In\n\u2018Flint Chips\u2019 we find that a North American tribe used for thrusting\na wooden Sword, three feet long, tipped with mussel-shell. Throughout\nAustralia the natives provide their spears with sharp pieces of\nobsidian or crystal: of late years they have applied common glass,[142]\na new use for waste and broken bottles (fig. 70). The fragments are\narranged in a row along one side near the point, and are firmly\ncemented. There is no evidence of this flint-setting in Ireland: but\nthe frequent recurrence of silex implements adapted for such purpose\nhas suggested, as in the Iroquois graves, that the wood which held them\ntogether may have perished. We read in \u2018Flint Chips\u2019 that the Selden\nManuscript shows a flake of obsidian mounted in a cleft wooden handle,\nthe latter serving as a central support, with a mid-rib running nearly\nthe whole length. The sole use of the weapon was for thrusting.[143]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 63.\u2014WOOD- AND HORN-POINTS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 64.\u2014MEXICAN SWORD OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY, OF IRON\nWOOD, WITH TEN BLADES OF BLACK OBSIDIAN FIXED INTO THE WOOD. (This\nweapon is twenty-five inches long.)]\n\nThe people of Copan (Yucatan) opposed Hernandez de Chaves with slings,\nbows, and \u2018wooden Swords having stone edges.\u2019[144] In the account of\nthe expedition sent out (1584) by Raleigh to relieve the colony of\nVirginia, we read of \u2018flat, edged truncheons of wood,\u2019 about a yard\nlong. In these were inserted points of stag-horn, much in the same\nmanner as is now practised, except that European lance-heads have\ntaken their place. Knives, Swords, and glaives, edged with sharks\u2019\nteeth,[145] are found in the Marquesas; in Tahiti, Depeyster\u2019s Island,\nByron\u2019s Isles, the Kingsmill Group, Redact Island,[146] the Sandwich\nIslands, and New Guinea. Captain Graah notices a staff edged with\nshark\u2019s teeth on the cast coast of Greenland, and the same is mentioned\namongst the Eskimos by the late Dr. King.[147]\n\nIn the tumuli of Western North America, Mr. Lewis Morgan, the\n\u2018historian of the Iroquois,\u2019 mentions that, when opening the \u2018burial\nmounds\u2019 of the Far West, rows of flint-flakes occurred lying side by\nside in regular order; they had probably been fastened into sticks or\nswords like the Mexican. Hernandez[148] describes the \u2018Mahquahuitl\u2019\nor Aztec war-club as armed on both sides with razor-like teeth of\n\u2018Itzli\u2019 (obsidian), stuck into holes along the edge, and fastened with\na kind of gum. Mr. P. T. Stevens (\u2018Flint Chips,\u2019 p. 297) says that this\nMexican broadsword had six or more teeth on either side of the blade.\nHerrera, the historian, mentions, in his \u2018Decads,\u2019 \u2018Swords made of\nwood having a gutter in the fore part, in which the sharp-edged flints\nwere strongly fixed with a sort of bitumen and thread.\u2019[149] In 1530,\naccording to contemporary Spanish historians, Copan was defended by\n30,000 warmen, armed with these and other weapons,[150] especially with\nfire-hardened spears. The same have been represented in the sculptures\nof Yucatan, which imitated the Aztecs. Lord Kingsborough\u2019s ruinous work\non Mexican antiquities, mostly borrowed from Dupaix, shows a similar\ncontrivance (_b_ and _c_). A Sword having six pieces of obsidian in\neach side of the blade, is to be seen in a museum in Mexico.[151] A\nMexican Sword of the fifteenth century is of iron-wood, twenty-five\ninches long, and armed with ten flakes of black obsidian; and the same\nis the make of another Mexican Sword nearly four feet long.[152]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 65.\u2014MAHQUAHUITLS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 66.\u2014MEXICAN WARRIOR.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 67.\u2014MEXICAN SWORD, IRON-WOOD, ARMED WITH OBSIDIAN.\n(One metre eight inches long.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 68.\u2014MEXICAN SPEAR-HEAD (FIFTEENTH CENTURY), BLACK\nOBSIDIAN, WITH WOODEN HANDLE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 69.\u2014NEW ZEALAND CLUB.]\n\nThe next step would be to use metal for bone and stone. So the Eskimos\nof Davis Strait and some of the Greenlanders show an advance in art by\njagging the edge with a row of chips of meteoric iron.[153] This would\nlead to providing the whole wooden blade with an edge of metal, when\nthe latter was still too rare and too expensive for the whole weapon.\nThis economy might easily have overlapped not only the Bronze, but the\nIron Epoch.\n\nThe tooth-shaped edge was perpetuated in the Middle Ages, as we see\nby serrated and pierced blades of Italian daggers. That it is not yet\nextinct the absurd saw-bayonet of later years proves.\n\n[Heading: _FIRST USE OF METALS._]\n\nWe now reach the time when Man, no longer contented with the baser\nmaterials\u2014bone and teeth, horn and wood\u2014learned the use of metals,\npossibly from an accidental fire, when\n\n ... a scrap of stone cast on the flame that lit his den\n Gave out the shining ore, and made the Lord of beasts a Lord of men.\n\nThe discovery of ore-smelting and metal-working, following that of\nfire-feeding, would enable Man to apply himself, with notably increased\nsuccess, to the improvement of his weapons. But many races here stopped\nshort. The Australian, who never invented a bow, contenting himself\nwith the boomerang, could not advance beyond the curved and ensiform\nclub before he was visited by the sailors of the West. His simplicity\nin the arts has constituted him, with some anthropologists, the living\nexample of the primitive and prehistoric _genus homo_.[154] The native\nof New Guinea, another focus of arrested civilisation, was found\nequally ignorant of the metal blade. The American aborigines never\ntaught themselves to forge either cutting or thrusting Swords; and they\nentertained a quasi-superstitious horror of the \u2018long knife\u2019 in the\nhands of the pale-faced conqueror. This is apparently the case with\nall the lower families of mankind, to whom the metal Sword is clean\nunknown. If the history of arms be the history of our kind, and if the\nmissile be the favourite weapon of the Savage and the Barbarian, the\nmetal Sword eminently characterises the semi-civilised, and the use of\ngunpowder civilised, man.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 70.\u2014AUSTRALIAN SPEARS, WITH BITS OF OBSIDIAN,\nCRYSTAL, OR GLASS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 71.\u2014ITALIAN POISON DAGGERS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 72.\u2014ARAB SWORD, WITH DOWN-CURVED GUILLONS AND SAW\nBLADE. (Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Artillerie, G. 413, inscription not legible.)]\n\nA chief named Shongo, of Nemuro, in Japan, assured Mr. John Milne[155]\nthat, \u2018in old times, when there were no cutting tools of metal, the\npeople made them of Aji, a kind of black stone, or of a hard material\ncalled ironstone. Even now implements of this material are employed by\nmen who dwell far in the interior.\u2019 Here, then, is another instance of\nthe stone and the metal \u2018Ages\u2019 overlapping, even where the latter has\nproduced the perfection of steel-work.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER IV.\n\n THE PROTO-CHALCITIC OR COPPER AGE OF WEAPONS.\n\n\nI will begin by noticing that the present age has settled a question\nwhich caused much debate, and which puzzled Grote (ii. 142) and\na host of others half a century ago, before phosphor-bronze was\ninvented. This was the art of hardening (not tempering) copper and its\nalloys. All knew that these metals had been used, in cutting the most\nrefractory substances,[156] granite, syenite, porphyry, basalt, and\nperhaps diorite,[157] by the ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Trojans,\nand Peruvians. But none knew the process, and some cut the knot by\nquestioning its reality. When you cannot explain, deny\u2014is a rule with\nmany scientists. The difficulty was removed by the Uchatius-gun,[158]\nlong reported to be of \u2018steel-bronze,\u2019[159] but simply of common\nbronze hardened by compression. At the Anthropological Congress of\nLaibach[160] (July 27\u201329, 1878), Gundaker Graf Wurmbrandt, of Pettau,\nexhibited sundry castings, two spear-heads and a leaf-shaped blade of\nbright bronze (Dowris copper) adorned with spirals to imitate the old\nweapons. They were so indurated by compression that they cut the common\nmetal.\n\nAgain, at the Anthropological Congress of Salzburg (August 8, 1881),\nDr. Otto Tischler, of Prussian K\u00f6nigsberg, repeated the old experiment,\nshowing how soft copper and bronze could be hardened by the _opus\nmallei_ (simple hammering). Moreover his metal thus compressed could\ncut and work the common soft kinds without the aid of iron or steel.\nHe exhibited two bronze plates in which various patterns had been\npunched by bronze dies. The hammering, rolling, beating, and pressing\nof copper for the purpose of hardening are well known to modern, and\ndoubtless were to ancient workmen. The degree of compression applied is\nthe feature of the discovery, or rather re-discovery.[161]\n\nIt may be doubted whether old Egypt and Peru knew our actual process\nof hydraulic pressure, whose simplest form is the waterfall. But they\napplied the force in its most efficient form. The hardest stones\nwere grooved to make obelisks; the cuts were filled with wedges of\nkiln-dried wood, generally sycomore; and the latter, when saturated\nwith water, split the stone by their expansion. And we can hardly deny\nthat a people who could transport masses weighing 887 tons[162] over a\nbroken country, from El-Suwan (Assouan) to Thebes, a distance of 130\nmiles, would also be capable of effecting mechanical compression to a\nhigh degree.\n\nBuffon (\u2018Hist. Nat.\u2019 article \u2018Cuivre\u2019) believed in the \u2018lost art.\u2019\nRossignol[163] (pp. 237\u2013242) has treated of the _trempe_ (\u03b4\u03b9\u03ac \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2) _que les anciens donn\u00e8rent au cuivre_; and relates that the\nchemist Geoffrey, employed by the Comte de Caylus, succeeded in\nhardening copper and in giving it the finest edge; but the secret was\nnot divulged. Mongez, the Academician, held that copper was indurated\nby immersion and by gradual air-cooling, but that _la trempe_ would\nsoften it.[164] In 1862 David Wilson, following Proclus and Tzetzes,\ndeclares the process of hardening and tempering copper so as to give\nit the edge of iron or steel, a \u2018lost art.\u2019 Markham[165] supposes\nthat the old Peruvians hardened their copper with tin or silica; and\nhe erroneously believes that tin is scarcely found in that section of\nSouth America.\n\nModern arch\u00e6ological discovery has suggested that in many parts of the\nworld we must intercalate an age of virgin Copper between the so-called\nStone and Bronze Periods. The first metal, as far as we know, was the\nstream-gold, washed by the Egyptians; and, as Champollion proved, the\nhieroglyphic sign for N\u00fab (gold) is a bowl with a straining-cloth\ndripping water.[166] The fable of glass-discovery by the Sidonians\non the sands of the Belus,[167] a tale which has _le charme des\norigines_, explains, I have said, how a bit of metalliferous stone,\naccidentally thrown upon the fire in a savage hut, would suggest one\nof the most progressive of the arts. And soon the \u2018featherless biped,\u2019\nlike the Mulciber and the Mammon of Milton\u2014\n\n Ransack\u2019d the centre, and with impious hands\n Rifled the bowels of their mother earth\n For treasures better hid.\n\nThe greater antiquity of copper in Southern Europe was distinctly\naffirmed, as has been seen, by the Ancients. The use of sheeting, or\nplating, on wood or stone was known as long ago as the days of Hesiod\n(B.C. 880\u2013850?):\n\n \u03a4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03b4\u2019 \u1f26\u03bd \u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03b1 \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5\u03cd\u03c7\u03b5\u03b1, \u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bf\u03b9 \u03b4\u03ad \u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9,\n \u03a7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1ff7 \u03b4\u2019 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c1\u03b3\u03ac\u03b6\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf, \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 \u03b4\u2019 \u03bf\u1f50\u03ba \u1f14\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5 \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2.\u2014_Erga_, 149.\n\n Copper for armour and arms had they, eke Copper their houses,\n Copper they wrought their works when naught was known of black\n iron.[168]\n\nCopper sheets[169] were also used for flooring, as we learn from the\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2 (Copper threshold) of Sophocles (\u2018\u0152dip. Col.\u2019); and\nthe treasury-room of Delphi, as opposed to the \u03bb\u03ac\u03ca\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2 (stone\nthreshold). So in the Palace of Alcinous (\u2018Odys.\u2019 vii. 75) the walls\nand threshold were copper, the pillars and lintels were silver, and the\ndoors and dogs of gold.\n\nThe same practice was continued in the Bronze Period, as Dr. Schliemann\nproved when exploring the Thalamos attached to the Treasury of Minyas\nat Orchomenus. Nebuchadnezzar, in the \u2018Standard Inscription,\u2019 declares\nthat he plated with copper the folding-doors and the pillars of the\nBabylon rampart, and it is suspected that gold and silver sheeted the\nfourth and seventh stages of the Temple of Belus, _vulg\u00f2_ the Tower of\nBabel.\n\nLucretius[170] is explicit upon the priority of copper\u2014[171]\n\n Posterius ferri vis est \u00e6risque reperta,\n Sed prior \u00e6ris erat quam ferri cognitus usus.\n \u00c6re solum terr\u00e6 tractabant, \u00e6reque belli\n Miscebant fluctus et volnera vasta ferebant.\u2014V. 1286.\n\nHe justly determines its relation to gold\u2014\n\n Nam fuit in pretio magis \u00e6s, aurumque jacebat,\n Propter inutilitatem, hebeti mucrone retusum.\u2014V. 1272.\n\nAnd he ends with the normal sneer at his own age\u2014\n\n Nunc jacet \u00e6s, aurum in summum successit honorem.\u2014V. 1274.\n\nVirgil, a learned arch\u00e6ologist, is equally explicit concerning the\nheroes of the \u00c6neid and the old Italian tribes\u2014\n\n \u00c6rat\u00e6 micant pelt\u00e6, micat \u00e6reus ensis.\u2014\u00c6n. vii. 743.\n\nAnd similarly Ennius\u2014\n\n \u00c6rat\u00e6 sonant gale\u00e6: sed ne pote quisquam\n Undique nitendo corpus discerpere ferro.[172]\n\nEven during her most luxurious days Rome, like Hetruria, retained\nin memoriam the use of copper (or bronze?) for the sclepista or\nsacrificial knife. When founding a city they ploughed the pom\u0153rium\nwith a share of \u00e6s. The Pontifex Maximus and priests of Jupiter used\nhair-shears of the same material, even as the Sabine priests cut their\nlocks with knives of \u00e6s. The Ancile or sacred shield was also of \u00e6s.\n\nPope, and other writers of his time, translated copper and bronze by\n\u2018brass\u2019 (copper and zinc); and in older English \u2018native brass\u2019 was\nopposed to \u2018yellow copper\u2019 (_cuivre jaune_). The same occurs in the\nA. V. Tubal Cain (the seventh in descent from Adam) is \u2018an instructor\nof every artificer in _brass_ and iron\u2019[173] (Gen. iv. 22). Moses is\ncommanded to \u2018cast five sockets of _brass_ for pillars\u2019[174] (Exod.\nxxvi. 37). Bezaleel and Aholiab, \u2018artists of the tabernacle,\u2019 work in\n_brass_ (Exod. xxxi. 4). We read of a \u2018land whose stones are iron,\nand out of whose hills thou mayest dig _brass_\u2019 (Deut. viii. 9). Job\ntells us, \u2018Surely there is a vein for the silver, and a place for gold\nwhere they fine it. Iron is taken out of the earth, and _brass_ is\nmolten out of the stone.\u2019[175] Hiram of Tyre was \u2018cunning to work all\nworks in _brass_\u2019 (casting and hammer-wrought), for Solomon\u2019s Temple,\nwhich dates from about two centuries after the time of the Trojan war\n(B.C. 1200). In Ezra (viii. 27) the text mentions \u2018two vessels of fine\ncopper, precious as gold;\u2019 and the margin reads \u2018yellow or shining\n_brass_.\u2019 Nor is the old word quite forgotten: we still speak of a\n\u2018_brass_ gun.\u2019\n\n\u2018In the _Brazen_ Age,\u2019 unphilosophically says Schlegel (\u2018Phil. of\nHist.\u2019 sect. ii.), \u2018crime and disorder reached their height: violence\nwas the characteristic of the rude and gigantic Titans. Their arms were\nof _copper_, and their implements and utensils _brass_ or bronze.\u2019 I\nshould generally translate, with Dr. Schliemann and Mr. Gladstone, the\nHomeric \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2, \u2018copper,\u2019 not bronze, chiefly because the former is\nmalleable and is bright, two qualities certainly not possessed by the\nalloy. There are alloys which are malleable,[176] and others (Dowris\ncopper) which shine; but this is not the case with common bronze, and\nno poet would note its brilliancy as a characteristic.\n\nPure copper, however, would generally be used only in lands where tin\nfor bronze, and zinc for brass, were unprocurable: isolated specimens\nmay point only to a temporary dearth. Thus, the Copper Age must have\nhad distinct areas. M. de Pulsky and M. Cartenhac (\u2018Mat\u00e9riaux,\u2019 &c.)\nheld to a distinct Copper Age between the Neolithic and the Bronze.\nDr. John Evans considers the fabrication due to want of tin or to\npreference of copper for especial purposes. But the types of copper\ntools, &c., are not transitional.\n\nThe native ore was used in many districts of North America. Celts of\nvarious shapes from Mhow, Central India, were analysed by Dr. Percy,\nwho found no tin in them. Tel Sifr in Southern Babylonia and the island\nof Thermia in the Greek Archipelago supplied similar articles. They are\nalso discovered exceptionally in Denmark, Sweden, Austria, and Hungary,\nFrance, Italy, and Switzerland. I have noticed the use of the unmixed\nmetal in the Crannogs of Styria. It seems to have prevailed in Istria:\nat Reppen-Tabor near Trieste, the supposed field of battle with the\nRomans that decided the fate of the Peninsula (B.C. 178), was found a\nfine lance-head of pure copper eight and a half inches long: it is now\nin the Museo Civico. The same was the case with Dalmatia; at Spalato\nand elsewhere I saw axe-heads of unmixed metal. And we have lately\nobtained evidence that old Lusitania, like Ireland,[177] was in similar\nconditions.\n\nThus the Age of Copper would be simply provisional in certain\nlocalities, separating the periods of horn and bone, teeth and wood,\nfrom that of alloys; even as the latter led, in the due line of\ndevelopment, to the general adoption of iron and steel for Swords and\nother weapons. But we have no need for dividing the epochs with the\nperverse subtilties of certain naturalists, who use and abuse every\npretext for creating new species. If there be any sequence, it would\nbe copper, bronze, and brass. In most places, however, the ages were\nsynchronous, and some races would retain the use of the pure metal,\neven when tin and zinc lay at their doors.\n\nThe Venus (\u2640) of alchemy was called in the Semitic tongues _nhs_ or\n_nhsh_, in Arab _nah\u00e1s_, and in Hebrew _nechosheth_ (\u05e0\u05d7\u05e9\u05ea). The term\nis popularly derived from a triliteral root signifying a snake, the\ncrooked reptile, the serpent that is in the sea (Job xvi. 13; Is.\nxxvii. 1; Amos ix. 3, &c.); either because the metal is poisonous, like\nthe Ophid\u00e6, or from its brightness of burnish. Similarly, _dhahab_\n(\u05d6\u05d4\u05d1), gold, was named from its splendour; and silver, also meaning\nmoney (_argentum_, argent), was _kasaf_ (\u05db\u05e1\u05e3), the pale metal, the\n\u2018white gold\u2019 of Egypt. Both _nechosheth_ and _nah\u00e1s_ apply equally to\ncopper, bronze, and brass; hence we must probably read \u2018copper Serpent\u2019\nfor \u2018_brazen_ Serpent,\u2019 and \u2018City of Copper\u2019 for \u2018City of _Brass_.\u2019\n\n[Heading: _COPPER IN CYPRUS._]\n\nThere is the same ambiguity in the Greek and the Roman terms. The word\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (_chalcus_) is popularly derived from \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u2018to loose,\u2019\nbecause easily melted: I should prefer Khal or Khar, \u2018Ph\u0153nicia,\u2019 whose\nsons introduced it into Greece. The Hellenes dug it in Eub\u0153a, where\nChalcis-town[178] gave rise to the \u2018stone\u2019 \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1fd6\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 (_chalcitis_,\nPliny, xxxiv. 2). They also knew the ore as \u1f21 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2; and when the\nRomans, who annexed Cyprus in B.C. 57, worked the mines, their produce,\nsays Josephus, was called \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03cd\u03c0\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2. _Chalcos_ is essentially\nambiguous unless qualified by some epithet, as \u1f14\u03c1\u03c5\u03b8\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (red), \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2\n(black), \u03b1\u1f34\u03b8\u03b9\u03bf\u03c8 (Ethiopian colour = ruddy brown), \u03c0\u03cc\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 (iron-grey),\nand so forth. In fact, like _\u00e6s_, it is a generic term for the\nso-called \u2018base metals\u2019 (iron,[179] copper, tin, lead, and zinc), as\nopposed to the \u2018noble metals\u2019\u2014gold and silver, to which we should add\nplatinum.\n\nWorse still, \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03cd\u03c2 (_khalkefs_), a copper-smith, was applied to the\nblacksmith,[180] and even to the _chrysocho\u00f6s_, or gold-caster, at\nthe court of Nestor (\u2018Od.\u2019 iii. 420, 432); and to \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u1fd6\u03b1 or \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03ae\u03ca\u03b1,\nsmithies in general. The Roman _\u00e6s_, opposed to the _cyprium_ or _\u00e6s\ncyprium_[181] of Pliny (xxxiv. 2, 9), and _smaragdus cyprius_ or\nmalachite, is equally misleading unless we render it \u2018base metal.\u2019 We\nknow not how to translate Varro[182] when he speaks of the cymbals at\nthe feast of Rhea: \u2018Cymbalorum sonitus, ferramentorum jactandorum vi\nmanuum, et ejus rei crepitus in colendo agro qui fit, significant quod\nferramenta ea ideo erant \u00e6re\u2019 (copper, bronze, brass?), \u2018quod _antiqui_\nillum colebant \u00e6re antequam ferrum esset inventum.\u2019 Here he wisely\nlimits the dictum to Greece and Rome.\n\nAccording to S. P. Festus (_sub voce_), \u2018\u00e6rosam appellaverunt antiqui\ninsulam Cuprum,[183] quod in e\u00e2 plurimum \u00e6ris nascitur.\u2019 We now derive\nthe Sacred Island from \u2018Guib\u2019 (pine-tree), \u2018er\u2019 (great), and \u2018is\u2019\n(island); \u2018Guiberis,\u2019 alluding to its staple growth. General Palma (di\nCesnola[184]) prefers the Semitic \u2018kopher\u2019 (_Lawsonia inermis_), the\nhenna-shrub, even as Rhodes took its name from the rose or malvacea;\nand he finds in Stephanus Byzantinus[185] that the plant was then\nabundant. The diggings are alluded to by all the great geographers of\nantiquity, Aristotle (\u2018de Anim.\u2019 v. 17[186]), Dioscorides (v. 89),\nStrabo (xvi. 6), and Pliny (xii. 60, xxxiv. 20). In Ezekiel (xxvii. 13)\nthe trade in copper vessels is attributed to Javan (Ionia), Tubal, and\nMeshech; the latter are the Moschi of Herodotus (vii. 78), a Caucasian\npeople who may have originated the \u2018Moscows\u2019 or Russians. Agapenor\nand his Arcadians were credited with having introduced copper-mining\ninto Neo-Paphos; yet there is no doubt that the Ph\u0153nicians had worked\nmetal there before the Greek colonisation. Menelaus (\u2018Od.\u2019 iv. 83\u20134)\nvisits Cyprus for copper; and Athene-Mentor fetches it, as well as\n\u2018shining iron\u2019 (steel?), from Tem\u00e9se (\u03a4\u03b5\u03bc\u03ad\u03c3\u03b7, \u2018Od.\u2019 i. 154).[187] These\ndiggings, together with those of Hamath (Amathus, Pal\u00e6o-Limassol),\nSoli, Curium, and Crommyon, are mentioned by Palma, who also alludes\nto an \u2018unlimited wealth of copper.\u2019 Yet, despite this and the general\nassertion that copper was the most important production of Cyprus, we\nhave found only the poorest mines at Soli in the Mesaoria-plain, the\ncounterslope of the Pedia. The island, it is true, has been wasted\nand spoiled by three centuries of the \u2018unspeakable Turk.\u2019 But the\nresearches of late travellers and collectors\u2014and these have been\nexhaustive since the British occupation\u2014have hitherto failed to find\nextensive traces of mining. The rarity, together with the poverty of\nthe matrix, would suggest the following explanation.\n\nCyprus was probably not so much a centre of production as a dep\u00f4t of\ntrade which collected the contributions of adjacent places\u2014e.g. the\nisle of Siphanos (Sifanto), where copper has been found with iron and\nlead. Such was the general history of islands and archipelagos outlying\nbarbarous and dangerous coasts on the direct lines of commerce, various\nsections of the world\u2019s great mercantile zone and highway of transit\nand traffic. The Cassiterides, also, served as storehouses for the\nstream-tin and the chalcopyrite (copper pyrites) of Cornwall and of\nDevonshire, whilst they enjoyed the fame of producing it. During the\nMiddle Ages, Hormuz or Ormuz (Armuza), in the Persian Gulf, served, and\nZanzibar still serves, as a centre of import, export, and exchange, as\na magazine and as a shipping station for its mainland.\n\nOne of the ores which occurs in the greatest number of places[188] and\nin the largest quantities; having a specific gravity ranging from\n8\u00b7830 to 8\u00b7958; harder and more elastic than silver; the most tenacious\nof metals after iron and platinum; malleable when cold as well as when\nhot, so as not to require the furnace; melting at a temperature between\nthe fusion points of silver and gold (1196\u00b0 F.); and readily cast in\nsand-beds and moulds, Copper must have been used in the earliest ages,\nand has continued to our day, when the art of smelting it\u2014at Swansea,\nfor instance, in South Wales\u2014is perhaps more advanced than that of any\nother ore. When the stone-and-bone weaponed peoples began their rude\nmetallurgy, they would retain, with similar habits of thought, the same\nprinciples of design. The old Celtis, Celt, or chisel of serpentine or\nsilex, would be copied in the newly-introduced and gradually-adopted\nweapon-tool of metal; and the transition would be so gradual that we\ntrace without difficulty the process of development. The first metal\nblade was probably a dagger of copper, preserving the older shape of\nwood, horn, and stone: possibly it resembled the copper knife found at\nMemphis in 1851 by Hekekyan Bey; and this afterwards would grow to a\nSword. Wood, stone, copper, and bronze, iron and steel, must long have\nbeen used simultaneously, slowly making way for one another, as the\nmusket took the place of the matchlock, the rifle of the musket.\n\nAccording to Pliny (vii. 57), \u2018Aristotle supposes that Scythes,\nthe Lydian, was the first to fuse and temper copper; while\nTheophrastus,[189] in Aristotle\u2019s day, ascribes the art to Delas,\nthe Phrygian. Some give the origin to the Chalybes, others to the\nCyclopes.\u2019 Achilles, the pupil of Chiron (ibid. v. 20), is represented\nin pictures as scraping the _\u00e6rugo_[190] or verdigris off a spear\ninto the wound of Telephus, the effect of which diacetate would soon\nbe followed by the discovery of blue-stone (sulphate of copper, blue\ncopperas) or blue vitriol, still a favourite in the East. Pausanias\n(\u2018\u00c6liaca\u2019) further informs us that Spanish copper, or copper from\nTartessus, was the first used. The classics agree that Cadmus (not\n\u2018the foreigner,\u2019 but the \u2018old man,\u2019 _El-Kadim_, or the \u2018Eastern man,\u2019\n_El-Kadmi_) introduced metallurgy into Greece.\n\n[Heading: _EGYPTIAN COPPER MINES._]\n\nWe have ample evidence of extensive working and use of copper, called\n\u2018Khomet,\u2019 by the peoples of the Nile Valley. The ore occurs in the\nWady Hamm\u00e1m\u00e1t, the Egyptian Desert, and the so-called \u2018Sinaitic\u2019\nPeninsula. As the Pyramids are the oldest of buildings, so the works\nin Wady Magharah (Valley of Caves) are perhaps the most ancient mines\nin the world.[191] They were first opened (circ. B.C. 3700\u20133600) by\nthe eighth king of the Third Dynasty, the Sephouris of Manetho, the\nSenoferu (\u2018he that makes good\u2019) of the inscriptions, who lies buried\nin the pyramid of Mi-tum (Mayd\u00fam).[192] A rock-tablet of this Pharaoh,\nthe \u2018great god, the subduer, conqueror of countries,\u2019 shows him holding\na foreigner by the hair and smiting the captive with a mace. Above his\nhead are carved a graver (pick?) and a mallet. Soris, first Pharaoh of\nthe Fourth Dynasty, \u2018Lord of Upper and Lower Egypt, ever living,\u2019 also\nstrikes down an enemy and shows the same symbols. They again appear\nin the tablet of Souphis, the Shufu or Khufu of the Tables of Abydos\nand Sakkara,[193] and the Cheops of the Great Pyramid, whilst they\nare wanting in that of his brother Nu-Shufu (Souphis II.) or Khafra\n(Cephren) of the Pyramid.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 73.\u2014SEPHURIS AT WADY MAGHARAH (OLDEST ROCK\nTABLETS). THIRD DYNASTY.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 74.\u2014SORIS AND THE CANAANITES AT WADY MAGHARAH\n(OLDEST ROCK TABLETS). FOURTH DYNASTY.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 75.\u2014TABLET OF SUPHIS AND NU-SUPHIS AT WADY\nMAGHARAH. (FOURTH DYNASTY.)]\n\nThe diggings were not abandoned till the days of Amenemhat, of the\nTwelfth Dynasty, when the labourers were removed to Sar\u00e1bit-el-Kh\u00e1dim,\nthe \u2018Men-hirs\u2019 (not heights) of the Servant in the Wady Nasb or Valley\nof Sacrificial Stone. Here gangs of miners, guarded by a strong force,\nextracted (as the slag-heaps show) Mafka or Mefka[194] (copper?\nmalachite?[195] turquoise?), \u2018black metal\u2019 (copper), \u2018green stones\u2019\n(malachite?), manganese, and iron. Supt and Athor or Hathor (Venus),\nthe Isis of pure light, who presided over the Mafka-land, and who was\nthe \u2018goddess of copper,\u2019 are mentioned in a tablet. Other hieroglyphs\ncontain the names and titles of the rulers, and fragments of vases\nbear the name of Mene-Pthah,[196] one of the supposed Pharaohs of the\nExodus. The \u2018hands\u2019 left their marks by graffiti or scribblings, and\nthere are extensive remains of slave-quarters, of deep cuts, and of\nrock-sunk moulds for running the metal into ingots, Sar\u00e1bit-el-Kh\u00e1dim\ncontinued working until Ramses IV. (Twentieth Dynasty), the last\nroyal name there found: his date in round numbers would be B.C. 1150.\nAgatharchides (B.C. 100) reports that chisels of chalcos (\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2\n\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b1\u1fd6) were found buried in the ancient gold mines of Egypt, and hence\nhe deduces that the use of iron was unknown.\n\n[Heading: _COPPER IN AFRICA AND ASIA._]\n\nFrom Kemi or \u03a7\u03b7\u03bc\u03af\u03b1, \u2018black-earth land,\u2019 _alias_ Egypt, the art of\nmetallurgy doubtless extended southwards into the heart of Africa.\nHence travellers wonder when they see admirable and artistic\nblacksmiths amongst races whose sole idea of a house is a round hut\nof wattle and dab. The only coppers in South Africa with which I am\nfamiliar are those of Katanga in the Cazembe\u2019s country,[197] where the\nPortuguese have long traded. Captain Cameron[198] was shown a calabash\nfull of nuggets found when clearing a water-hole. In Uguhha he procured\na \u2018Handa\u2019 from Urua, a Saint Andrew\u2019s cross with central ribs to the\narms, measuring diagonally fifteen to sixteen inches by two inches wide\nand half an inch thick: the weight was two and a half to three pounds.\nThe people prefer this \u2018red copper\u2019 to the \u2018white copper,\u2019 as they call\ngold. In the Pantheon of Yoruban Abeokuta, \u2018Ogun,\u2019 the local Vulcan and\nWayland Smith, god of metal-workers and armourers, is symbolised by a\ndwarf spear of copper or iron, and human sacrifices are, or were, made\nto it. Barth (vol. iii.) notes the copper (ja-n-Karfi) in El-Hofrah\n(\u2018the Diggings\u2019) of Waday, south of Dar-For; and in the Kano, the\nRunga, and the Bute countries. Copper wire is worn by the women of the\nhill-lands of Gurma, but it is supposed to be brought from Ashanti (?).\nAfrica, however, is as yet unexplored as regards its mineral wealth,\nand we are only beginning to work our old-world California\u2014the Gold\nCoast. Farther south the highly-important copper-mines of Pemba, now\nBemba, and other parts of the inner Congo and Benguella regions,\nwere discovered by the Capit\u00e3o-M\u00f3r, Balthazar Rebello de Arag\u00e3o, in\n1621\u201323.[199] Still more to the south, Namaqua-land supplies chalcitic\nores, a native carbonate, reduced with cow-chips.\n\nIn Asia mines were worked by the ancient Assyrians for copper as\nwell as lead and iron, and the former was applied to their weapons,\ntools, and ornaments.[200] The Kurds and Chald\u00e6ans still extract from\nthe Tiyari heights about Lizan and the valley of Berwari various\nminerals\u2014copper, lead, and iron; silver, and perhaps gold. Upon the\nSteppes of Tartary, and in the wildest parts of Siberia, the remains of\nold copper-furnaces, small and of rude construction, are met with. The\nDigaru Mishm\u00eds of Assam have copper-headed arrows.\n\nThe Chinese declare that in olden times men used the metal for arms,\nwhich in the days of the Thsin (B.C. 300) began to be made of iron.\nSir John Davis (i. 230) confirms the fact that the Chinese Sword and\nbacksword, both wretched weapons, were originally of copper, long ago\nchanged to iron. Dr. Pfizmaier tells us that about B.C. 475 the King\nof U sent a steel blade to his minister, U-tse-tsui, wherewith to\nbehead himself. According to Pliny, the Seres exported iron to Europe\ntogether with their tissues and their skins. The Chinese distinguish\nbetween Thse-thung (purple copper) and Thing-sung (green copper) or\nbronze. They prefer the \u2018Tze-lae,\u2019 or natural ore, gathered in the\ntorrent-beds of Kwei-chow and Yun-nan, and the latter exclusively\nproduces the famous Pe-tung,[201] or white copper, which takes a fine\npolish like silver. They made copper the base of their coinage as\nwell as their weapons. Amongst their many charms and talismans are\nthe \u2018money-swords,\u2019 a number of ancient copper coins pierced with\na square central hole, and connected by a metal bar shaped like a\ncross-hilted Sword. These are suspended over the testerns of beds and\nsleeping-couches, that the guardianship of the kings in whose reigns\nthe money was issued may keep away ghosts and spirits.\n\nThe Japanese copper[202] is of the finest quality, and is used as a\nstandard of comparison. The superiority of the metal, which contains\na percentage of gold, enabled the self-taught native workmen to\nproduce those castings which are the admiration and the despair of\nthe European artist. The copper delivered at Nagasaki and Kwashi is\nfrom Beshki, Akita, and Nambu; other places produce the more ordinary\nkinds. The rich red surface is due to a thin and tenaciously adhering\nfilm of dioxide: this has been imitated in England. The famous Satzuma\ncopper, held to be the best in the world, was prepared under Government\nofficials, none being sold privately. The ore was roasted in kilns\nfor ten to twenty days, smelted in large furnaces with charcoal, and\ncast in water to make the well-known Japanese ingots. These were bars\nmeasuring about half an inch on the side, by seven to nine inches in\nlength, and weighing some ten taels, nearly equal to one pound. They\nwere packed in boxes each weighing a picul (= 125 to 133\u2153 lbs. avoir.),\nabout the load of a man. The price of course greatly varied. The trade\nwas at first wholly in the hands of the Hollanders, who made a good\nthing of their monopoly. There was also an old traffic in Japanese\ncopper on the eastern coast of India, especially Coromandel. The\nopening of the empire has caused revolutionary changes.\n\n[Heading: _THE COPPER AGE._]\n\nCopper was abundantly produced in Europe, and the pure metal was used\nthroughout the continent with the exception of Scandinavia, where\nspecimens are exceedingly rare. The iron age of Denmark begins with\nthe Christian era, and was preceded only by bronze and stone. We know\nnothing of the discovery of copper in Ireland. It is supposed in legend\nto have been introduced by the Fir-bolgs (bag-men, Belg\u00e6?), or by the\nTuatha (gens) de Danaan (the Danes?). These oft-quoted races, known\nto us only by name, have been affiliated with a host of continentals,\neven with the Greeks.[203] It would be mere guess-work to consider the\nIrish style of treating the ores\u2014by spalling or breaking the stone,\nby wasting, fluxing, or smelting. We have, however, many specimens\nwhich explain the casting. The metal was called by the natives Uma or\nUmha, a Keltic word; also Dearg Umha, red copper, opposed to Ban[204]\nUmha (white copper) or tin; and this term afterwards became \u2018stan,\u2019\nevidently from stannum (Gall. Estain). There are still traditions of\ncopper mines having existed at an early period; and, among the wonders\nrelated by Nonnius (Arch\u00e6ol. Soc. Ireland), we find Loch Lein, now\nKillarney, surrounded by four circles of copper, tin, lead, and iron.\nOf late years \u2018miners\u2019 hammers,\u2019 the native name for stone pounders,\nhave been dug up in the neighbourhood of that lake, in Northern\nAntrim, at an ancient mine in Ballycastle, and in sundry parts of\nSouthern Ireland.[205] The metal occurs in small quantities at Bonmahon\n(Waterford); copper and cobalt at Mucross, and grey copper ore in Cork,\nKerry, Tipperary, and Galway. In 1855 some 1157 tons were shipped to\nSwansea.\n\nThe Greenlanders and Eskimos cut and hammer their pure native copper,\nwithout smelting, into nails, arrow-piles, and other tools and weapons.\nMackenzie (second voyage) tells us that pure copper was common among\nthe tribes on the borders of the Arctic Sea, whose arrow-heads and\nspear-heads were cold-wrought with the hammer. Columbus (fourth\nvoyage), before touching the mainland of Honduras, saw at Guanaga\nIsland a canoe from Yucatan[206] laden with goods, amongst which he\nspecifics \u2018copper hatchets, and other elaborate articles, cast and\nsoldered; forges, and crucibles.\u2019[207] At Hayti the great Admiral\n(first expedition) had mentioned masses of native copper weighing six\narrobas (quarters).[208] When the Spaniards first entered the province\nof Tupan they mistook the bright copper axes for gold of low touch,\nand bought with beads some six hundred in two days:[209] Bernal Dias\ndescribes these articles as being very highly polished, with the handle\ncuriously carved, as if to serve equally for an ornament and for the\nfield of battle.\n\n[Heading: _COPPER IN AMERICA._]\n\nIn North America there are two great copper regions which supplied the\nwhole continent[210]\u2014Lake Superior and the lower Rio Grande. The former\nshows the first transitional steps from stone to metal. The ore occurs\nin the igneous and trappean rocks that wall in the vast fresh-water\nsea, and is found in solid blocks: one, fifty feet long, six feet deep,\nand six feet in average thickness, was estimated to weigh eighty tons.\nAt Copper Harbour, Kawunam Point, a single vein yielded forty thousand\npounds. The largest mass in the Minnesota Mine (Feb. 1857) occupied\nMr. Petherick and forty men for twelve months: it was forty-five feet\nlong, thirty-two feet broad (max.), and eight feet thick; containing\nover forty per cent. ore, and weighing four hundred and twenty to five\nhundred tons. Malleable and ductile, representing an average of 3\u00b710\nper cent. native silver, and with a specific gravity of 8\u00b778 to 8\u00b796,\nit required no crucible but Nature\u2019s; it wanted only beating into\nshape, and it needed nothing of the skilled labour necessary for the\nores of Cornwall and Devon, which contributed so largely to the wealth\nof Tyre. The workings are supposed to belong to the race conveniently\ncalled \u2018Mound-builders,\u2019 and to date from our second century, when\nthe Damnonians of Cornwall were in a similar state of civilisation.\n\u2018Cliff Mine\u2019 supplied fine specimens of weapons and tools, arrow-piles\nand spear-heads, knives and three-sided blades like the old bayonet.\nThe socket was formed by hammering flat the lower end, and by turning\nit over partially (without overlapping) at each side, so as to make a\nflange. Professor James D. Butler (\u2018Prehistoric Wisconsin\u2019) facsimiles\ntwenty-four copper implements. The \u2018Indians\u2019 called the metal\nMiskopewalik (red iron), opposed to black iron. As is also proved by\nthe Brockville relics, the people had the art of hardening copper.\n\nThe mines of the lower Rio Grande supplied Mexico with materials for\narms and tools. According to Captain R. H. Bonnycastle,[211] the\nmetal was found in New Mexico and in the volcanic rocks of Mechoacan\n(Valladolid, New Spain). Mexico, like Peru, used the crucible and added\nbronze to copper. The metals were under the god Quetzalcoatl, an Aztec\nTubal Cain-ben-Lamech.\n\nAnother great centre of the Copper Age was the land \u2018where men got gold\nas they do iron out of Biscay.\u2019 The Peruvian army, a host of three\nhundred thousand levied from a total population of twenty millions,\nwas armed with bows and arrows, clubs, pikes, javelins, war-axes (of\nstone and copper), and the paddle-sword;[212] while the people of\nAnahuac (Mexico) had bows and spears, clubs and axes, knives and Swords\none-handed and two-handed, the Mahquahuitl set with obsidian teeth.\nIn the former country the pre-Ynkarial Aymaras, who dug for gold and\nsilver, copper and tin, and who employed alloys, almost ignored for\ntheir \u2018Ayri\u2019 (cutting implements) the use of iron and steel, which they\ncalled Quella (Khellay). The Andes range is popularly derived from\nthe Quichua word Anta[213] (copper): the native ore occurred in the\nparts above the cultivation-line, and it abounded in the cupriferous\nsandstones of Bolivian Corocoro. The Huaunanchuco country (Rivero and\nTschudi, p. 203),[214] conquered by the ninth Ynka, produced a fine\ncollection of stone and copper axes, chisels, pins, and tweezers. Blas\nValera, one of the earliest writers, still often quoted, tells us that\n\u2018Anta\u2019 served in place of iron, and that the people worked it more than\nother ores, preferring it to gold (_Khori_) and silver.[215] Of it were\nmade their knives, carpenters\u2019 tools, women\u2019s dress-pins (_Tupies_),\npolished mirrors, and \u2018all their rakes and hammers.\u2019 Garcilasso de\nla Vega adds: \u2018pikes, clubs, halberts, and pole-axes,[216] made of\nsilver, copper, and some of gold, the \u201ctears of the sun,\u201d having sharp\npoints, and some hardened by the fire\u2019; also carpenters\u2019 axes; adzes\nand hatchets; bill-hooks of copper, and blow-pipes of the same metal\nabout a yard long applied to earthen or clay pots which they carried\nfrom place to place. A nugget or loose pebble acted as bell-clapper,\nand copper statuettes were coated or plated with precious metals. The\n\u2018Royal Commentaries of the Yncas\u2019 tells us that copper served in\nplace of iron for making weapons of war: the people valued it highly\nbecause more useful than gold and silver; the demand was greater than\nfor any other metal, and it paid tribute (vol. i. pp. 25, 43, 48).\nWe find notices of copper hammers, bellows-nozzles, adzes, axes, and\nbill-hooks (i. p. 102). Cieza de Leon (chap. lxiii.) tells us that the\nPeruvians placed a piece of gold, silver, or copper in the corpse\u2019s\nmouth. He mentions vases of copper and of stone (chap. civ.), and small\nfurnaces of clay where they laid the charcoal and blew the fire with\nthin canes instead of bellows (ibid.). The Introduction (p. lii) notes\nthe Peruvian use of copper-trowels for smoothing and polishing walls,\nand a \u2018terrible weapon of copper in the shape of a star.\u2019 According to\nRivero and Tschudi (chap. ix.) the Peruvians could not work copper as\nwell as gold or silver; yet they made idols, vases, solid staves a yard\nlong with serpents inlaid, and sceptre-heads decorated with condor-like\nbirds. The household _vaisselle_ of the Ynkas consisted of gold and\nsilver, copper and stone. Rivero, analysing Peruvian weapons and tools\n(hatchets and chisels), found from five to ten per cent. silica: he\ncould not determine whether it was an artificial or an accidental\nimpurity. Tschudi (1841) discovered copper arms in a tomb three leagues\nfrom Huaco, and established the fact that the Peruvians used the\npaddle-sword and the scymitar.[217] A copper axe, found in a Huaca (old\ngrave) at the now well-known Arica, was associated with a thong-sling\nand with other primitive instruments.\n\nThe people of New Granada, according to the tale of Bollaert,[218]\n\u2018gilt\u2019 their copper by \u2018rubbing the juice of a plant on it and then\nputting it into the fire, when it took the gold colour\u2019\u2014a process which\nreminds us of Pliny\u2019s ox-gall varnish. Ecuador forged copper nippers\nfor tweezers. The Chitchas, or Muiscas (i.e. men), of Bogota, who knew\nonly gold and ignored copper, tin, lead, and iron, made their weapons\nand tools of hard wood and stone. Thomas Ewbank,[219] of New York,\ncatalogues as breast-plates two lamin\u00e6 of copper and one of bronze,\nthe latter being notably the lighter. Out of sundry \u2018bronzes\u2019 from\nPeru he found four of pure copper. Chile had abundant mines of copper,\nand her metal is held to be the toughest: a bar three-eighths of an\ninch thick will bend backwards and forwards forty-eight times before\nbreaking. Her chief centres are Copiapo (i.e. \u2018turquoise\u2019), Huasco,\nCoquimbo, Aconc\u00e1gua and Cal\u00e9o. The Couche range at Guatacondo, in sight\nof the desert of Atacama, which gave a name to Atacamite (submuriate\nof copper), is said to supply from the same vein gold, silver, copper,\nand coquimbite or white copperas called Pampua (packfong?).[220] Gillis\n(Plate viii. 12, 3) described, amongst the antiquities found near the\ngreat Ynkarial High-road, a cast copper axe, weighing about three and\na quarter pounds: he doubts, however, that the ancient Chilians worked\nin that metal. The wild Araucanians called gold \u2018copper\u2019 (Bollaert, p.\n184). According to Molina, the Puelche tribe extracted from the mines\nof Payen a copper containing half its weight (?) in gold; and the same\nnatural alloy was found in the Curico mines.\n\n[Heading: _COPPER._]\n\nReturning to the Old World, we see copper tools denoted in Egyptian\nhieroglyphs by a reddish-brown tint;[221] iron and steel, as in\nAssyria, being coloured, not grey, but water-blue.[222] With these\nyellow tools the old workmen are seen cutting stone blocks and\nfashioning colossal statues. Dr. John Forbes, of Edinburgh,[223] had\na large chisel of pure copper, showing marks of use, found with a\nwooden mallet in an Egyptian tomb. A flat piece of copper, apparently a\nknife-blade, was turned up when boring thirteen feet below the surface\nwhere stands the statue of Ramses II. (B.C. 1400).[224] The Abb\u00e9\nBarth\u00e9lemy proved, to the satisfaction of P. J. Rossignol, that the\narms of the Greeks were first of copper; that iron was introduced about\nthe date of the Trojan war (circ. B.C. 1200),[225] and that after this\ntime \u2018Athor-Venus\u2019 was no more in use. Ulysses (\u2018Iliad,\u2019 i. 4, 279)\noffers Achilles all the gold and copper he can collect, and Achilles\nwill carry off all the gold, the red copper (\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03c5\u03b8\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd), women,\nand iron or steel (\u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd), when Peleides returns that noble answer:\n\n Hostile to me is the man as the hatefullest gateway of Hades,\n Whoso in thought one thing dare hide and utter another.[226]\n\nNuma ordered the priests to cut their hair with copper, not iron,\nscissors.[227] Copper vases and kettles as tomb-furniture were found\nby Dr. Schliemann at Mycen\u00e6: the museum of the Warwakeion at Athens\ncontains seven of these funeral urns. They have also been met with at\nEtruscan Corneto and Palestrina, and in Austrian Hallstatt,[228] a\ncemetery which dates from the days when iron was coming into use, and\napparently belongs to a much later period than Mycen\u00e6. The Hind\u00fas had\na copper coinage, and that of the sub-Himalayan Gangetic provinces\nappears older than Greek art. There is a copper coin bearing on the\nreverse the rude figure of a horse, and on the obverse a man with\nlegend in old Buddhist (Pali) letters Khatrapasa Pag\u00e1mashasa.[229] The\nJews, who, like the Etruscans, had a copper coinage, used the metal\nfor offence and defence. As amongst the Philistines, Ph\u0153nicians, and\nCarthaginians, whose relics have been found in the Cann\u00e6 Plain, the\nmetal was at first pure. The \u2018bow of steel\u2019 (Job xx. 24, Ps. xviii.\n34) should be rendered \u2018bow of copper,\u2019 either copper-plated or (more\nprobably) so tempered as to be elastic. Goliah of Gath (B.C. 1063), who\nmeasured nine feet six inches, carried a target, greaves, a spear with\nan iron head, and a scale-coat[230] of copper: the spear-head weighed\nsix hundred and the armour five thousand shekels (each 320 grains\nTroy), or 33\u00b733 and 277\u00b777 lbs.[231] David was armed (1 Sam. xvii. 38)\nwith a helmet of copper. Ishi-benob (B.C. 1018), who was \u2018of the sons\nof the giant,\u2019 carried a spear weighing three hundred shekels (about\nsixteen and a half pounds) of copper. Finally, Buffon believes that the\narms of the ancient Asiatics were cuprine.\n\n[Heading: COPPER IN EUROPE.]\n\nMr. John Latham declares:[232] \u2018Copper is a metal of which, in its\nunalloyed state, no relics have been found throughout England. Stone\nand bone first, then bronze or copper and tin combined, but no copper\nalone. I cannot get over this hiatus, cannot imagine a metallurgic\nindustry beginning with the use of alloys.\u2019 But this is a negative\nargument. The simple mineral would soon disappear to make bronze, and\nwe have some pure specimens. Sir David Brewster[233] describes a large\nbattle-axe of pure copper found on the blue clay, twenty feet deep\nbelow the Ratho Bog. Philips[234] gives the analysis of eight so-called\n\u2018bronzes,\u2019 including three Swords, one from the Thames and two from\nIreland: the spear-head was of impure but unalloyed copper, 99\u00b771 to\n0\u00b728 sulphur. Dr. Daniel Wilson[235] analysed in 1850 seven British\n\u2018bronzes,\u2019 and found one Scottish axe-head, rudely sand-cast, of almost\npure copper, the natural alloy of gold and silver not reaching to one\nper cent. Moreover, the Romans certainly smelted copper in England,\nwhere lumps of pure metal, more or less rounded, have been found, but\nalways in association with bronze articles. Pennant describes a relic\ndiscovered at Caerhun (or Caerhen), the old Conovium, near Conway and\nLlandudno, which still works copper: it was shaped like a cake of\nbeeswax, measuring eleven inches by three and three-quarter inches in\nthickness; it weighed forty-two pounds, and the upper surface bore\nin deep impression, \u2018Socio Rom\u00e6\u2019 (to the partner at Rome). Obliquely\nacross the legend ran in smaller letters, \u2018Natsoc.\u2019 It had evidently\nbeen smelted upon the spot. In later days our country imported her\ncopper from Sweden and Hungary: this appears in the specification of\npatent to George Danby, Jan. 21, 1636. Calamine was shipped as ballast.\nOur great works began during the last century and culminated in Swansea.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 76.\u2014THE WINGED CELTS, OR PALSTAVE.\n\n 1. Semilunar blade; the rounded side edges are ornamented\n in the casting with a raised hexagon pattern; they project\n somewhat above the level of the flat surface of the implement.\n The curved stops, which are rudimentary, have their concavities\n facing the handle. 2. In the Palstave celt the loop is usually\n placed beneath the stock, and in the socketed ones it is always\n close to the top. The cut, drawn one-third of the actual size,\n represents the usual position of the loop. The lunette cutting\n edge, with marked recurved points, presents the appearance of\n having been ground.[236] These implements were cast in moulds\n of bronze, examples of which have been brought to light at\n various times. The third illustration represents the upper part\n of one of these celt moulds and the method of casting: they\n were for a long time a source of confusion to the discoverers,\n although Colonel Vallancy assigns them to their true use.]\n\nWilde (p. 490) expresses the general opinion when he asserts that \u2018the\nuse of copper invariably preceded that of bronze.\u2019 He well explains\nby two reasons why so few antique implements of pure copper have been\nfound in Ireland: either a very short period elapsed between the\ndiscovery of treating the pure ores and the introduction of bronze;\nor the articles, once common, were recast and converted into the more\nvaluable mixed metal. The latter cause is made probable by the early\nintercourse with Cornwall, one of the great tin emporia. \u2018Tin-stone\u2019\n(native peroxide of tin or stannic acid) is produced in small\nquantities by Ireland, and Dr. Charles Smith[237] declares that he\ncollected it.\n\nWilde also notices, in the Royal Irish Academy, weapons, tools, and\nornaments of red metal or pure copper. These are thirty celts of the\ngreatest simplicity and the earliest pattern, rudely formed tools, a\nfew fibul\u00e6, a trumpet, two battle-axes, and several Sword-blades of the\nshort, broad, and curved shape usually called scythes.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 77.\u2014COPPER CELTS IN THE DUBLIN COLLECTION.]\n\nThe pure copper celts, formed upon two or three types, are the oldest\nin the Dublin collection, and were probably the immediate successors\nof the stone implement. As a rule they have one side smoother than\nthe other, as if they had been run into simple stone moulds; they are\nalso thicker and of rougher surface than the bronze article. For the\nmost part they are rude and unornamented wedges of cast metal: a few\nare lunette-shaped and semilunar blades. The cleansed specimens show a\ngreat variety of colour. When first found, the brown crust, peculiar\nto the oxidised metal, readily distinguishes them from the bronze\npatina, the beautiful varnish of \u00e6ruginous or verdigris hue, artificial\nmalachite resembling in colour the true native carbonate of copper.\n\n[Heading: _COPPER SWORDS._]\n\nThe broad scythe-shaped Swords, numbering forty-one, are supposed to\nbe \u2018specially and peculiarly Irish.\u2019 The straight blades are shown by\ntheir large burrs, holes, and rivets either to end in massive handles\nof metal, or to be attached to wooden staves, long or short. Of this\nkind some are curved. As many are of \u2018red bronze\u2019 (pure copper),\ndarkened by oxidation, it is probable that they are of great antiquity,\nlike the celts of that period. Although in some cases the points have\nbeen broken off, yet the edges are neither hacked, indented, nor worn;\nhence the conclusion that they were true stabbing Swords. Yet Mr.\nJohn Evans declares that he knows no such thing as a copper Sword.\nIn this matter he partially follows L\u00e9vesque de la Ravali\u00e8re, who\ndeclared copper arms unknown to the Greeks[238] and Romans, Gauls and\nFranks: this savant was refuted and charged with unfairly treating his\nauthorities by the Comte de Caylus in a description of seven copper\nSwords dug up (1751) at Gensal in the Bourbonnais. The Abb\u00e9 Barth\u00e9lemy\nattributed seven copper blades to the Franks in the reign of Childeric.\n\nWe have ample evidence that \u2018copper\u2019 is ambiguously used by modern\ntravellers. The modern discoverer of Troy[239] gives us, in his last\nand revised volume, a full account of exploring fifty-three feet\ndeep of d\u00e9bris and laying bare the stratified ruins of seven cities,\nincluding that of the \u2018ground floor\u2019 and the Macedonian ruins. The two\nlowest bear witness to a copper age anterior to bronze, whilst they\nyielded the only gilded object, a copper knife, and the most advanced\nart in specimens of hand-made pottery.[240] The second from below was\nwalled, and the third, the most important, was the Burnt City, the\ncity of the golden treasures, identified with Ilios. The explorer\nclaims to have reduced the Homeric Ilium to its true proportions.\nThe grand characteristic in his finds is the paucity of iron, which\nappeared only in the shape of oxidised \u2018sling-bullets\u2019: tin is also\nabsent. Both these metals, it is true, oxidise most readily; yet, had\nthe objects been numerous, they would have left signs, in rust and\nstains. From \u2018Troy\u2019 we learn (p. 22) that \u2018all the copper articles met\nwith are of pure copper, without the admixture of any other metal\u2019:\nthe author also finds that \u2018implements of pure copper were employed\ncontemporaneously with enormous quantities of stone weapons and\nimplements.\u2019 He will not admit (\u2018Troy,\u2019 p. 82) that he has reached the\nbronze period when he discovers in the \u2018Trojan stratum,\u2019 at a depth of\nthirty-three to forty-six and fifty-two feet, nails, knives, lances,\nand \u2018elegantly-worked battle-axes of pure copper.\u2019[241] And we can\naccept the copper, for much of it was analysed by Professor Landerer,\nof Athens, \u2018a chemist well known through his discoveries and writings.\u2019\nHe examined the fragments found in the \u2018Treasury of Priam,\u2019 and made\nall of them to consist of pure copper, without any admixture of tin or\nzinc (\u2018Troy,\u2019 p. 340). When treating of the Bronze Age, I shall show\nthat alloys were not wanting.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 78.\u2014SCYTHE-SHAPED BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 79.\u2014STRAIGHT BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 80.\u2014STRAIGHT BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 81.\u2014SCYTHE-SHAPED BLADE.]\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER V.\n\n THE SECOND CHALCITIC AGE OF ALLOYS[242]\u2014BRONZE, BRASS, ETC.: THE\n AXE AND THE SWORD.\n\n\nThe use of copper, I have said, would be essentially transitional; and\nthe discovery of smelting one kind of metal would lead immediately to\nthat of others and to their commixture. Moreover, when casting and\nmoulding began to be a general practice, unalloyed copper difficult to\nsmelt, and when melted thick, sluggish, and pasty, would not readily\nrun without some mixture into all the sinuosities of the mould. In\nthis chapter I propose to notice the second chalcitic age\u2014that of the\nearliest combinations of metals, their workers, and their application\nto weapons.\n\nJ. P. Rossignol, following the opinion of the symbolists and\nmysticists, as the Baron de Saint Croix,[243] Creuzer, Freret, and\nLobechs,[244] assigns a Divine origin\u2014after the fashion of the day\u2014to\nmetallurgy, making it resemble in this point Creation, articulate\nlanguage,[245] and the discovery of corn and wine. So he understands\nthe \u03b8\u03b5\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03b1 (subjects of a theological nature) alluded to by\nStrabo (x. 3, \u00a7 7). It is the old hypothesis of supernatural agency\nin purely natural matters, a kind of luxus-wonder, as the Germans\ncall useless miracles, which had waxed stale, even in the days of\nHorace\u2014\u2018parcus Deorum cultor et infrequens.\u2019 He considers the Curetes\nand Corybantes, the Cabiri (Kabeiroi) of Lemnos and Imbros, and the\nId\u00e6i Dactyli of Crete, the Telchines of Rhodes, and the Sinties, Sinti,\nor Saii of Thrace (Strabo, xii. 3, \u00a7 20) as metallurgic \u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2, or\ngenii prisoned in human form, and typifying the successive steps of\nthe art. In these days we hardly admit the _intersit_ of a deity when\nhuman nature suffices to loose the knot; nor do we believe that our\nkind began by worshipping types. Man has always worshipped one thing,\nhimself, and himself only, either in the flesh or in the ghost\u2014that\nis, in the non-flesh or the objective nothing\u2014till he arrived at the\ntranscendental Man, the superlative, the ideal of Himself.\n\n[Heading: _THE GOD-SMITHS._]\n\nHow little of fact is known about the mysterious tribes above mentioned\nbecomes evident by a glance at the classics. All six are supposed to be\nAsiatics, worshippers of Rhea (the earth), the great mother of the gods\nand queen of the metal workers. Yet Strabo explains Curetes from Greek\nterms \u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9 (boys), \u03ba\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9 (girls), \u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03ac (tonsure), and \u03ba\u03bf\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c6\u03b5\u1fd6\u03bd\n(to bring up the Boy, i.e. Jupiter). Similarly their brethren, the nine\nCorybantes, were termed from their dancing gait and negro-like butting\nwith the head, \u03ba\u03bf\u03c1\u03cd\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2. They inhabited Samothrace (Samothracia\nalta): this venerable and holy island, in hoar antiquity a general\nrendezvous of freemasonry, or rather of free-smithery, forms a triangle\nwith metallic Thasos and with volcanic Lemnos.\n\nThe three or four Cabiri[246] bear a Semitic name, Kabir = the great or\nthe old. They seem at first to have represented Ptah-Sokar-Osiris,[247]\nand Herodotus (iii. 37) mentions their temple at Memphis. They became\nin Ph\u0153nicia the earliest boatmen or primordial shipbuilders, identified\nby some with the Sesennu or Egyptian Octonary; by others with the seven\nplanets or the stars of Typho, our Great Bear;[248] and by others,\nagain, with the seven Khnemu (gnomes) or pygmy-sons who waited upon\ntheir father Ptah-Vulcan. They inhabited Lemnos, where Heph\u00e6stus, when\nexpelled, like Adam, from the lowest heaven, took refuge among the\nPelasgi (Diod. Sic. lib. v.): hence the latter preserved their worship.\nDamascius (\u2018Life of Isidorus\u2019) says: \u2018The Asclepius of Berytus is\nneither Greek nor Egyptian, but of Ph\u0153nician origin; for (seven) sons\nwere born to Sadyk, called Dioscuri and Cabiri, and the eighth of them\nwas Esman (i.e. Octavius, No. 8), who is interpreted Asclepius.\u2019[249]\n\nThe Id\u00e6an Dactyli (fingers or toes) who occupied \u2018fountful Ide\u2019[250]\nconsisted of five brothers, representing the _dextra_ or lucky hand\n(science, art), and five sisters for the _sinistra_ or unlucky\n(witchcraft, ill omens). The names of these \u2018hands\u2019 (iron-workers) were\nKelmis (fire or heat = the smelter), Damnameneus (the hammer, or who\ngoverns by strength, Thor), Hercules (force, animal or mental), and\nAkmon (the anvil or passive principle). Hence Pyracmon the Cyclop, one\nof the seven architect brothers who, according to Strabo (viii. 6),\ncame from Lycia and built the \u2018Cyclopean Wall\u2019 in the Argolid. These\nCyclopes[251] (monocular giants) worked metal, and under their magic\nhands,\n\n Fluit \u00e6s rivis aurique metallum;\n Vulnificusque chalybs vasta fornice liquescit.\n\nBy later writers, the Cyclopes, who\n\n ... Stridentia tingunt\n \u00c6ra lacu (_\u00c6n._ viii. 445, _Georg._ iv. 172),\n\nwere held to be Sicilians.\n\nThe Telchines (fascinators, from \u03b8\u03ad\u03bb\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, to charm) are mentioned\nas metallurgists by Stesichorus the Sicilian (nat. B.C. 632): they\nwere the sons of Thalassa, i.e. they came from beyond the sea; they\ncolonised Telchinis, and they made arms and statues of the gods\nlike the D\u00e6dalides or artist families of later Athens. The Sinties\n(plunderers) from \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03af\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9 (to pill), who, according to Hellenicus\nof Lesbos (nat. B.C. 496), were pirates besides being coppersmiths\n(\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03c5\u03ad\u03c2), and who were eventually murdered by their wives, represented\nthe ancient Lemnians. So Homer (\u2018Od.\u2019 viii. 290) speaks of the\n\u2018barbarous Sintian men\u2019 who received Vulcan when kicked out of\nParadise. A modern school of Tsiganologues would identify them with\nprehistoric Gypsies, who have still a tribe called Sindi; but this\ntheory would bring the arts from India westwards, whereas the current\nflowed the clean contrary way. Finally, Herodotus (i. 28), initiated in\nthe mysteries, makes the Chalybes[252] or iron-workers, neighbours (and\ncongeners?) of the Phrygians.\n\nIt is not difficult to see the general gist of such legends. All\nthese tribes probably came (like Pelops, Tantalus, and Niobe) from\nthe same place, Phrygia, the fertile plateau of Asia Minor, and its\nKatakekaumene or volcanic tract. It was, as far as we know, the first\nwestern centre which developed the \u2018Aryan\u2019 or non-Semitic element of\nthe old Egyptian tongue. It also formed the _point de d\u00e9part_ of the\nEuropean[253] (miscalled \u2018Indo-European\u2019) branch of the family that\nowned the Arya-land (Airyanem-vaejo), whose ethnic centre was the\nbarbarous region about Ray, Heri, or Herat.[254] Hence, says Herodotus\n(iii. 2), the Egyptians owned the Phrygians to surpass them in\nantiquity. The emigrants would pass to the islands Samothrace, Lemnos,\nThera,[255] the Cyclades and Crete; to Greece, Thessaly and Epirus,\nAttica, Argos, and the farthest south, where \u2018Pelops the Phrygian,\u2019\nson of King Tantalus, colonised the Morea and founded the Pelopid\nrace. Then they would find a home in Italy, Hetruria, and Iapygia\n(or Messapia), Peucetia and Daunia, and finally they would settle in\nIberia, Spain, and Portugal, where the Briges or Brygi (Phrygians) have\nleft their names in the Braganza of the present day.\n\nThese Proto-Phrygians and Phrygo-Europeans, of whom several tribes\nreturned to Asia, were the prehistoric metal-workers. The smith (from\n_smitan_, to strike) was sacred in the dawn of history; and the\nSword-maker was not inferior to him. Those who have witnessed the awe\nand reverence with which savages and barbarians regard a European\nmechanic at his forge will see exemplified the emotional feeling which\nled to the human becoming the superhuman.[256]\n\n[Heading: _ALLOYS._]\n\nThe first step in \u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 (hardening of metals) was, according\nto Hesychius, \u039c\u03af\u03be\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03bf\u1fe6 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03b9\u03c4\u03ad\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5 (the mingling of copper\nand tin). The alloy was known generically as chalcos (base metal),\nspecifically as \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (black chalcos). The Latins persisted\nin terming it simply _\u00e6s_; e.g. _\u00e6s inauratum_ (gilt bronze). Our\nword bronze derives from _brunus_ (fuscous, sombre, brown); _brunum\n\u00e6s_. Hence the Low Latin (A.D. 805) _brunea_, _brunia_, or _bronia_,\na lorica or thorax; and the Low Greek \u03c0\u03cc\u03c1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03be\u03b9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 (pronounce\nbroutzines), \u2018portals of bronze.\u2019 The word is also derived from the\nBasque or Iberian _bronsea_.\n\nTin, one of the least durable of metals, at the same time readily\nfused and one of the easiest to treat metallurgically, was called by\nthe Greeks \u03ba\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03af\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, and by the Latins _cassiteron_,[257] whence\nprobably the Arab. \u0642\u0635\u062f\u064a\u0631, and the Sanskrit \u0915\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0940\u0930. The Hebrew name is\n\u05d1\u05d3\u05d9\u05dc (Bad\u00edl = a substitute, a separation, an alloy). Hut (white metal)\nin Egyptian includes silver and tin: in Coptic it is Thram, Thran, or\nBasensh. Kala\u00ed (Linschoten\u2019s \u2018Calaem\u2019) is the popular term for tin in\nIndia: the word is Arabic rather than Turkish. Tenekeh (tin-plate) in\nArabic is an evident congener of the Assyrian [Cuneiform] \u2018Anaker,\u2019\nand it remarkably resembles the Scandinavian Din, German Zinn, and our\nTin. As we find \u2018Teyne\u2019 in Chaucer and old writers, \u2018tin\u2019 may come\nfrom its easy \u2018thinning\u2019 or beating out. The later Latins changed the\n_plumbum album_ or white lead of Pliny (iv. 30) to _stannum_: whence\nour word derived through the neo-Latin. The origin of Kassiteron,\nKasd\u00edr, Kastira, is disputed, and philologists remark that Cassi is\na British (Keltic) prefix, as in Cassi-belanus. Tin was found in the\nCaucasus, in India, in Southern Persia (Drang\u00e6 Country); in Tuscany, in\nIberia (Spain and Portugal),[258] in Sweden, Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary,\nand notably in England. There are still deposits near the modern\nTemeswar (Pannonia), and the granite hills of Gallicia and Zamora are\nnot exhausted. It is now produced in Russia, Greenland, the Brazil, and\nthe United States. Wilkinson would fetch the alloy of ancient Egypt\nfrom Spain, India, Malacca, or even from Banca,[259] between Sumatra\nand Borneo; the Banca tin-mines, long worked by the Chinese were first\nvisited by the Portuguese in 1506. But compounds of tin and copper were\ncommon in Egypt at the time of the Sixth Dynasty (B.C. 3000). Tin is\nmentioned as early as B.C. 1452 in the Book of Numbers (xxxii. 22),\nwith gold and silver, \u2018brass\u2019 (copper, especially pyrites), iron, and\nlead[260] (\u2018oferet\u2019). In B.C. 760 the prophetic books, called from\nIsaiah (i. 25) and from Ezekiel (xxii. 18, 20), make tin an alloy of\nsilver.\n\nThe Egyptians would derive their metals in the first place from Upper\nEgypt; and their first Kheft or mines of gold (_khetem_) and copper\nlay in the Thebaid. Secondly, they would resort to the land of Midian\non the eastern flank, and running south of the long narrow gulf,\nEl-Akabah: this grand range of Ghats or Coast Mountains was in those\ndays a noted mining centre, and it has still a great industrial future.\nThirdly, by means of the Ph\u0153nicians, who apparently taught the Greeks\nmetallurgy which they learned in Egypt, they would import their tin\nfrom Southern France, Spain, and England.[261]\n\n[Heading: _TIN._]\n\nIt is a disputed question whether the Ph\u0153nicians discovered the\ntin-stones and the stream-tin of the Cassiterides,[262] or whether the\nore was worked by the \u2018Welsh of the Horn\u2019\u2014the barbarians of Cornwall\nand Devonshire, who in those days were probably confined to small\ncoast-clearings.[263] Herodotus, indeed, knows nothing (iii. 115) of\n\u2018any islands called the Cassiterides (tin islands) whence the tin\ncomes.\u2019 These Silures or Scilly Islands were evidently mere dep\u00f4ts,\nnot sites of production. The Ph\u0153nicians kept their secret well, and\nlost their ships rather than betray it; so says Strabo (iii. 5, \u00a7 11),\nwhose Cassiterides appear to be the Azores.[264] The age when the trade\nwas first opened is disputed; some place it B.C. 1500, others[265]\nreduce it to B.C. 400. Diodorus Siculus (v. 21\u20132) tells us that tin\nwas found and run into pigs near the Belerium Promontory (Land\u2019s\nEnd); thence it was carted to Ictis (Vectis, not the Isle of Wight,\nbut Saint Michael\u2019s Mount and Love Island);[266] and lastly horsed\nacross Gaul to the Rhone. There is in the Truro Museum[267] a pig of\ntin, flat above and reniform below (the shape of the mould), two feet\neleven inches by eleven inches broad, with a particular mark; it has\nbeen suggested that this is Ph\u0153nician. \u2018Cassiter Street\u2019 in Bodmin\nis supposed to retain the classical name. The second Thursday before\nChristmas Day is called in Cornwall (Kern-Walli, Cornu Galli\u00e6) \u2018Picrous\nDay,\u2019 from the man who discovered the \u2018streaming\u2019 (or washing) of\n\u2018stean\u2019 or tin. Strabo gives a bad account of the people of the twelve\nCassiterides and their Cornishmen, the latter \u2018resembling the Furies\nwe see in tragic representations.\u2019 These pleasant persons would find\nstream-tin, almost fit for use, lying upon the surface by the side of\ncopper pyrites\u2014the latter harder than tin, but still comparatively soft\nand ductile. Both ores were easily fused, while iron was comparatively\ndifficult and tedious to smelt; and the two (copper and tin) combined\nwere not only more fusible, but they also continued longer in the fluid\nstate, facilitating casting and moulding. Hence Wors\u00e4ae believes that\nEngland was an ancient centre of bronze, whence the alloy was diffused\nthroughout Europe. It is usually stated that the bronze-using period\nin England began between B.C. 1400 and 1200, and lasted eight to ten\ncenturies, the invasion of C\u00e6sar taking place during the early \u2018Iron\nAge.\u2019\n\nThe great bronze manufacture which we have first to consider is Egypt.\nThe exact average proportion of the alloy is hard to ascertain,[268]\nthe tin varying from ten to twenty per cent., and the copper from\neighty to ninety per cent. A dagger analysed by Vauquelin gave copper\neighty-five, tin fourteen, and iron one per cent. Wilkinson\u2019s bronze\nchisel, nine and a quarter inches long, and weighing one pound twelve\nounces, found in a quarry at Thebes, contained in one hundred parts\n94\u00b70 copper, 5\u00b79 tin, 0\u00b71 iron; consequently its edge is at once turned\nby hard stone. He repeatedly mentions bronze chisels (ii. ch. vii.\n&c.), and he seems to suspect that they were sheathed and pointed with\nsteel. Of course, he was puzzled to explain how the \u2018bronze or brass\nblades were given a certain degree of elasticity.\u2019[269]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 82.\u2014FINE SPECIMEN OF EGYPTIAN DAGGER IN POSSESSION\nOF MR. HAYNS, BROUGHT BY MR. HARRIS FROM THEBES.\n\n The material is bronze, and still is slightly elastic. There\n is a mid-rib, but not strongly marked. The tang, which is\n continued to the pommel, measures 4 inches long by a minimum\n of 5/12. The handle, of two slices of hippopotamus hide, has\n 26 ridges for firmer grasp, and there are rivets of bronze at\n the 6th and the 23rd ridges. There is no pommel, but here the\n handle is rounded off between two slices of hide, and the tang\n goes right through.]\n\nThe result of Egyptian metallurgy is admirable, both in material\nand finish. At what period bronze was introduced we ignore; a cast\ncylinder, however, bearing the name of Pepi, dates from B.C. 3000 in\nthe Sixth Dynasty of Middle Egypt, which includes Nitaker (Nitocris).\nKnives appear in the sculptures dating from before that time. A bronze\ndagger in the Berlin Museum, found by Sig. Passalacqua in a tomb at\nThebes, retains a spring which might be of steel. My friend, Mr. W. P.\nHayns, of the Alexandrian Harbour Works, showed me a specimen brought\nfrom Thebes by the late Mr. Harris, made of bronze still slightly\nelastic. The total length measures one foot, of which the blade is\nhalf; the latter, slightly leaf-shaped, has a minimum breadth of one\ninch and three-twelfths, and one inch at the shoulder. The tang, which\nis prolonged to the handle-end (four inches), has a minimum width of\nfive-twelfths. The grip of two plates, hippopotamus hide (?), probably\nboiled, and not unlike wood, has twenty-six ridges for firmer hold, and\nthere are bronze rivets at the sixth and the twenty-third ridges: it is\nwithout pommel, the end being simply rounded off.\n\nIt is held that mummies of the Eleventh Dynasty were buried with\nbronze sabres; and there is a bronze dagger of Thut-mes[270] III.\n(Eighteenth Dynasty), circa B.C. 1600. As late as Mene-ptah II. of the\nNineteenth Dynasty (B.C. 1300\u20131266), we read in the list of his loot,\nafter the Prosopis battle, of bronze-armour, Swords, and daggers.\nAmong the Etruscans, before the foundation of Rome, bronze statues\nwere known; and Romulus is said to have placed a statue of himself,\ncrowned by Victory, in a bronze quadriga taken at Comertium. According\nto Pausanias (iii. 12, \u00a7 8), Theodorus of Samos invented casting in\nbronze (B.C. 800\u2013700): this author discredits the Arcadian legend that\nNeptune dedicated a bronze statue to Poseidon (the Sidonian?) Hippios\n(Wilkinson, ii. chap. vii.). But the Samians cast a bronze vase in B.C.\n630.\n\nThe importance of the Uchatius re-discovery, that is, of hardening\nbronze as well as copper by hydraulic pressure, not by phosphorus,[271]\nbecomes evident by Wilkinson\u2019s reflections. \u2018We know of no means of\ntempering copper, under any form, or united with any alloys for such\na purpose\u2019 (as hollowing out hieroglyphics). He suggests that the old\nEgyptian letters, sometimes exceeding two inches in depth, and the\nalt-reliefs nine inches high, on granite coffins, may have been worked\nwith wheel-drill and emery powder.[272] The Egyptians had also the\nsecret of gilding bronze, as many of their remains prove; moreover,\nthey produced by acids a rich patina of dark and light greens.\n\n[Heading: _METALLURGY IN ASSYRIA._]\n\nThe Assyrians rivalled in metallurgy their ancient instructors the\nEgyptians: and the art passed eastwards to Persia, which inherited\nAssyrian and Babylonian civilisation. Diodorus Siculus, following\nCtesias the oft-quoted contemporary of Xenophon, describes immense\nworks of bronze decorating the gardens of Semiramis. In Assyria, again,\nthe proportion of the alloy greatly varied. Layard[273] quotes the\nfollowing assays of Assyrian bronze:\n\n No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4\n Copper 89\u00b751 89\u00b785 88\u00b737 84\u00b779\n Tin 0\u00b763 9\u00b778 11\u00b733 14\u00b710\n \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014 \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n 90\u00b714 99\u00b763 99\u00b770 98\u00b789\n\nNo. 1 shows the proportions found in a bronze dish from \u2018Nimroud\u2019; No.\n4 in a bell; and the fore-leg of a bull[274] yielded 11\u00b733 tin to 99\u00b770\ncopper. The Mesopotamians were able to cast their bronze extremely\nthin, which is no small difficulty; they fashioned it into weapons,\ntemple utensils, and domestic articles, and they skilfully \u2018elaborated\nit by chasing and by curious ornamental tracery.\u2019 They used it in their\nmost sumptuous decorations, as the thrones prove; and the beautiful\nworkmanship of their vases shows abnormal skill in the toreumatic\ntreatment of bronze. Gilt specimens of bronze from Nineveh are in the\nBritish Museum.\n\nDr. Schliemann questions the popular assertion that the age of Hesiod\nand of Homer ignored alloys and fusion, knowing only plating, the\nplates being hammer-wrought (\u2018Od.\u2019 iii. 425). This explorer found\nthe strata of copper and lead scori\u00e6 at the so-called Troy from\ntwenty-eight to twenty-nine and a half feet deep. He notes also small\ncrucibles and a mould of mica-schist (twenty-six feet deep), which was\nprobably intended for bronze casting. He finds no iron; but copper\nand its alloy, bronze, are abundant. M. Damour of Lyon[275] analysed\nthe drillings of two \u2018copper\u2019 battle-axes from \u2018Ilium,\u2019 in fact, from\n\u2018Priam\u2019s Treasury\u2019; they contained 0\u00b70864 and 0\u00b70384 parts tin to\n0\u00b79067 and 0\u00b79580 copper. Nearly the same proportion of alloy was found\nin a common two-edged axe dug at a depth of three and a quarter feet,\nand therefore in the remains attributed to a Greek colony. Dr. Percy\nanalysed, with the following results, the handle of a bronze vase and a\nSword:\n\n Copper (mean) 86\u00b736\n Tin (mean) 13\u00b706\n \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n 99\u00b742\n\nThe specific gravity (at 60\u00b0 F.) was 8\u00b7858. The extreme proportions of\nthe alloy in other articles were 10\u00b728 tin to 89\u00b769 copper (a usual\nratio in ancient bronzes[276]), and 0\u00b709 tin to 98\u00b747 copper, the\nlatter being almost pure.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 83.\u2014BRONZE KNIFE, FROM THE PILE-VILLAGES OF\nNEUCH\u00c2TEL.\n\n (Half-size.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 84.\u2014PERUVIAN KNIFE, METAL BLADE, SECURED IN A SLIT\nIN THE HAFT BY STRONG COTTON TWINE.]\n\nMongez, of the Institut, describing a bronze Sword found in France,\ngives the proportions as 87\u00b747 per cent. of copper to 12\u00b753 of tin.\nAnalyses of Greek bronzes in the British Museum yielded 87\u00b78 per cent.\ncopper to 12\u00b713 tin. A bronze knife has been found in the Palafittes\n(Pile-villages) of Neuch\u00e2tel, Switzerland.[277] Wors\u00e4ae (\u2018Prim\u00e6val\nAntiquities\u2019) makes the Bronze Period in Denmark and Northern Europe\nbegin about B.C. 500 to 600, and last some 1,100 years. It is not\nfound among the Normans. But it was developed in Ireland and Scotland,\nin China and Japan, in Mexico and in Peru: Cieza de Leon notes the\nadmirable bronze work of the Ynkarial empire.\n\nA Peruvian chisel, analysed by M. Vauquelin, contained 0\u00b794 copper to\n0\u00b706 tin. In other tools the proportion of the latter metal varied\nfrom two to four, six and even seven per cent. As a rule the people\nused only half the proper proportion of tin, which they called\nChayantanka\u2014a name suggesting the Old-World \u2018Tanuk.\u2019 Humboldt mentions\na cutting tool found near Cuzco with ninety-four per cent. of copper\nand six of tin. Rivero (i. 201) notices in Peru brass (?) hammers and\nbellows-nozzles, axes, adzes, bill-hooks, and other tools, of bronze\nas well as copper. The Mexicans cast their tin ingots in T-shape. The\nPeruvians hardened copper also with silver for quarrying-tools and\ncrow-bars. Velasco (ii. 70) tells us that when the Ynka Huasca was\nbeing led to prison by order of his brother, a woman secretly gave him\na bar of metal, \u2018silver with bronze, brass, or an alloy of silver,\ncopper, and tin\u2019 (Bollaert, p. 90); by means of this he cut through the\njail wall during the night. Hutchison (ii. 330) mentions a buckler from\nIpijapa in Ecuador, and Ewbank (p. 454) notices an old Peruvian bronze\nknife.[278]\n\n[Heading: _PROPORTIONS OF ALLOYS._]\n\nThe admirable bronzes of China and Japan are well known in the English\nmarket, and Raphael Pumpelly,[279] who studied direct from the native\nworkmen, has printed interesting notes on the ornamental alloys, or\nMokume, applied to Swords and other articles. Damask-work is produced\nby soldering alternately thirty to forty sheets of rose-copper, silver,\n_shakdo_ (copper one to gold ten per cent.), and _gui shi bu ichi_\n(silver and copper). The mass is then cut into deep patterns with\nthe reamer. An alloy of silver (thirty to fifty per cent. of copper)\nproduces the favourite tint, a rich grey colour, and this becomes a\nbluish black like niello by being boiled after polishing in a solution\nof sulphate of copper, alum, and verdigris. Dr. Percy (p. 340)\ndescribes the liquation of argentiferous copper in Japan.[280]\n\nWe owe to Dr. George Pearson[281] sundry experiments in alloys, which\nfirst determined that the norm of the Old World and the best proportion\nfor weapons and tools are one tin to nine copper.\n\nFusing the metals, he found:\n\n1 tin : 20 copper (5 per cent.) produces a dark-coloured bronze with\nthe red fracture of the pure metal.\n\n1 tin : 15 (6\u00bd per cent.) gives a stronger alloy and obliterates the\ncolour.\n\n1 tin : 12, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 gradually increases hardness and\nbrittleness.\n\n1 tin : 2 makes a mixture almost as brittle as glass.\n\nThe following table[282] shows the alloys now in common use, and the\npurposes to which they are applied:\n\n Tin Copper Per cent. Copper\n 11 108 = 90\u00b776 Cannon, statues, machine brasses.\n 11 99 = 90 \u2018Gun-metal\u2019 proper (cannon).\n 11 84 = 84\u00b744 \u2018Gun-metal,\u2019 machinery bearings.\n 11 72 = 86\u00b775 Harder composition.\n 11 60 = 84\u00b750 Not malleable.\n 11 44 = 80 Cymbals, Chinese gongs.\n 11 48 = 81\u00b735 Very hard, culinary vessels.\n 11 36} = {76\u00b769} \u2018Bell-metal.\u2019\n 12 36} {75\u00b700}\n 11 24 = 68\u00b757 Yellowish, very hard, sonorous.\n 11 4 = 26\u00b766 Very white,[283] specula.[284]\n\nThe most popular alloy of copper, next to bronze, is brass, which is\nharder and wears better than the pure metal. Originally, as now, it was\na mixture of copper and zinc, popularly called spelter (old _speautre_,\n_speauter_, _spiauter_, _spialter_).[285] The proportions greatly\nvaried, one part of the latter to two of the former being the older\nratio, and the density increasing with the amount of copper from 8\u00b739\nto 8\u00b756.\n\nBeckmann tells us, in his valuable \u2018History of Inventions,\u2019[286] \u2018in\nthe course of time an ore which must have been calamine (carbonate of\nzinc) or blende[287] (sulphuret of zinc), was added to copper, and\ngave it a yellow colour. The addition made it harder, more fusible and\nsonorous, easily subject to the lathe, more economical to work, and a\nworse conductor of heat than the pure metal.\u2019 We have few specimens\nof old art-works in \u2018brass\u2019 proper, although zinc was discovered by\nanalysis in an ancient Sword, chiefly copper.[288] Gibel assures\nus that zinc occurs only in Roman alloys, the bronze of the Greeks\ncontaining nothing beyond copper, tin, and lead. The Romans also could\nvarnish or lacquer brass, but it is not known whence they derived\nthe art. Percy notes (p. 521) that brass was produced \u2018early in the\nChristian era, if not before its commencement.\u2019 He quotes in proof\na large coin of the Cassia Gens (B.C. 20) which contained copper\n82\u00b726 and zinc 17\u00b731; a Vespasian (Rome, A.D. 71), an imperial Trajan\n(Caria, circ. A.D. 110), a Geta (Carian Mylasa, A.D. 189\u2013212), a Greek\nCaracalla (A.D. 199), and many others. In modern times zinciferous ore\nwas imported by the Portuguese from the East a century before it was\ncommon throughout Europe.[289] In the early seventeenth century the\nDutch captured one of their craft laden with spelter, and the secret\nbecame known. Bishop Richard Watson says (1783) the cargo was _calaem_,\nwhich he connects with \u2018calamine\u2019: the latter, like the German\n_Galmei_, derives from _cadmia_.\n\nAmongst the moderns _\u00e6s_ gave rise to _airain_. The French _leton_,\n_laton_, _latton_, or _laiton_ (_cuivre jaune_); the Italian\n_lattone_, _lottone_, and lastly _ottone_, and the Spanish _lata_ and\n_laton_, German _Latun_, and English _latten_ (thin sheet brass),\nthe _latoun_ of Chaucer (\u2018Pardoner\u2019s Prologue,\u2019 64), are either\nfrom _luteum_, yellow (metal), or from the plant _luteum_ (_Reseda\nluteola_), used to stain chrysocolla.[290] Our _brass_ is probably\nthe Scandinavian _bras_, cement; and the German _Mosch_, _Meish_, and\n_Messing_, from _mischen_ = _miscere_.[291]\n\n[Heading: _ORICHALCUM._]\n\nIt may be advisable to notice the \u1f40\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd[292] of the Homerids\nand Hesiod, which Strabo also calls \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03ac\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (false silver), and\n_aurichalcum_, and which the perverse ingenuity of commentaries has\nmade so mysterious.[293] In the poetic phase, which loves the vague,\nthis \u2018mountain-copper\u2019 was a mythic natural metal, ranking between\ngold and silver, and chimerical as was the _chalcolibanon_[294] of the\nApocalypse (i. 15, ii. 18). The name does not occur in Pindar or the\nDramatists. Plato (the \u2018Critias,\u2019 \u00a7 ix., treating of Atlantis,[295]\nAmerica) makes _oreichalc_, \u2018now known only by name,\u2019 the most\nprecious metal after gold. Pliny (xxxiv. 2) tells us truly enough that\n_aurichalcum_ no longer exists.\n\nThe next application of the word was to ruby copper (?), a suboxide\nwhose beautiful crystals are formed in the natural state. Pollux and\nHesychius the grammarian (D.D. 380) define it as copper (\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2)\nresembling gold; and Cicero puts the question whether, if a person\nshould offer a piece of gold for sale, thinking he was disposing of\nonly a piece of orichalcum, an honest man ought to inform him that\nit was really gold, or might fairly buy for a penny what is _worth\na thousand times as much_.[296] Buffon compares it with tombac, or\nChinese copper containing gold.[297] Beckmann (_s. v._ \u2018Tin\u2019) notes\n_aurichalcum_ or Corinthian brass in Plautus, \u2018Auro contra carum.\u2019\nFestus speaks of \u2018orichalcum (copper), stannum (zinc or pewter?),\ncassiterum (tin), and aurichalcum (brass).\u2019 The same signification\noccurs in Ambrose, Bishop of Milan (fourth century); in Primasius,\nBishop of African Adrumetum (sixth century), and in Isidore, Bishop of\nSeville (seventh century). Albertus Magnus (thirteenth century), the\nDominican monk, in treating \u2018De Natura et Commixtione \u00c6ris,\u2019 describes\nhow _cuprum_ became _aurichalcum_.\n\nStrabo is mysterious. In one place he tells us that the Cyprian copper\nalone produces the Cadmian stone, copperas-water, and oxide of copper.\nIn another (lib. xiii.) he says, \u2018There is a stone near Andeira which,\nbeing burnt, becomes iron. It is then put into a furnace, together\nwith some kind of earth,[298] when it (the stone? the earth? or both?)\ndrops or distils a \u03c8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03ac\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (mock silver, zinc?), which, with the\naddition of copper, produces what is called _the mixture_, and which\nsome term _oreichalcum_.\u2019 Pseudargyros, also found in the neighbourhood\nof Tmolus, would here seem to mean zinc or _Cadmia fossilis_ (natural\ncalamine or carbonate of zinc). Pliny (xxxiv. 22) confuses with cadmia,\nfurnace calamine, and a particular ore of copper opposed to calchitis.\nWhen Dioscorides (v. cap. 84) seems to allude to artificial or\nfurnace-calamine, an impure oxide of zinc, he may mean the more modern\n_tutiya_ (Avicenna), _toutia_, _thouthia_,[299] _cadmie des fourneaux_,\nor tutty. Reduced to powder, and mixed with an equal quantity of wetted\ncharcoal by way of fondant or flux, it is melted with copper to form\nbrass. The Avocat de Launey (1780) and Bishop Watson both agree that\nStrabo\u2019s orichalcum is brass.\n\nLastly, aurichalcum was made synonymous with _electrum_, natural\nor artificial. The word \u1f2c\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2[300] is popularly derived from\nHelios, as rivalling the sun in sheen. According to Lepsius it is\nthe \u2018usem\u2019-metal of Thut-mes III.; Brugsch (i. 345) understands by\n\u2018usem\u2019 brass, and thinks Asmara or Asmala equivalent to the Hebrew\n_hasmal_ or _hashmal_ = _electrum_. In Bunsen (v. 757) Kasabet and\nKakhi are brass (_aurichalcum_), and Khesbet is a metal connected with\nKassiteros = tin. The alloy was known to Hesiod (\u2018Scut.\u2019 142) and to\nthe \u2018Odyssey\u2019[301] (iv. 73), not to the \u2018Iliad.\u2019 Sophocles (\u2018Antig.\u2019\n1037) applied \u2018Sardian electrum\u2019 to gold, not to silver. Herodotus\n(iii. 115), in the historic age (B.C. 480\u201330), gives the name of the\nmythical metal to the \u2018tears of the Heliades,\u2019 which the Latins called\n_succinum_ (_succum_), the Low-Latins _ambrum_, the Arabs _anbar_,\nand we Amber. Pliny (xxxiii. 23), repeated by Pausanias (v. 12, \u00a7 6),\nnotes two kinds, natural (\u2018in all gold ore there is some silver\u2019[302])\nand artificial; in the latter the proportion of silver must not exceed\none-fifth. The staters of Lydian Cr\u0153sus, held by the Greeks to be the\nmost ancient of coins, were, according to B\u00f6ckh, of electrum, three\nparts gold and one part silver. Lucian applies the term to glass\n(\u1f55\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2); and, lastly, it was taken for brass and confounded with\naurichalcum.[303]\n\nI would suggest that this aurichalcum might also be the \u2018Dowris\nbronze\u2019 of Ireland, so called because first observed at Dowris, near\nParsonstown, King\u2019s County. Wilde (p. 360) supposes with others that\nthe gold-coloured alloy depended upon the admixture of a certain\nproportion of lead, and compares it with the Cyprus copper termed by\nthe Romans _Coronarium_ (used for theatrical crowns), which was coated\nwith ox-gall.[304] Of this _or molu_ there are many articles in the\nDublin Museum, preserving their fine golden-yellow lustre: they had\nprobably been lacquered or varnished like modern brasses; and the\npatina might be some gum-resin. When much tarnished, they were cleaned\nby holding over the fire, and then by dipping in a weak solution of\nacid, as is done with modern castings. Two specimens, a Sword and a\ndagger-blade, were analysed (pp. 470, 483), and proved to contain\ncopper 87\u00b767 to 90\u00b772, tin 8\u00b752 to 8\u00b725, lead 3\u00b787 to 0\u00b787, with a\ntrace of sulphur in the Sword.[305] The specific gravities were 8\u00b7819\nto 8\u00b7675. In a spear-head (p. 512), besides copper, tin, and lead, iron\n0\u00b731 and cobalt 0\u00b709 were found.\n\nThere were other alloys of which we read but know little; such were the\n_\u00e6s \u00e6gineticum_, _demonnesium_, and _nigrum_; the _\u00e6s deliacum_, whose\nsecret was lost in Plutarch\u2019s day, and the \u03a4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03ae\u03c3\u03c3\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2[306]\nfrom Southern Spain, probably shipped at Gibraltar Bay. _Ollaria_ or\npot-copper (brass) contained three pounds of _plumbum argentarium_\n(equal parts of tin and lead) to one hundred pounds of copper. _\u00c6s\ncaldarium_ could only be fused. Finally, _gr\u00e6canicum_ (Greek-colour)\nwas mould or second-hand copper (_formalis seu collectaneus_) with ten\nper cent. of _plumbum nigrum_ (lead) and five per cent. of silver lead\n(argentiferous galena?).\n\n[Heading: _THE CELT AND THE SWORD._]\n\nMetal, when first introduced, must have been rare and dear; the large\nmodern Sword, axe, or mall would hardly have been imitated in copper,\nbronze, or iron. The earliest attempts at developing the celt[307]\nwould have produced nothing more artful than a cutting and piercing\nwedge of the precious substance (fig. 85). As smelting and moulding\nimproved, the pointed end would develop into the knife, the dagger,\nand the Sword; and the broad end would expand to the axe. This\ncomposite weapon, uniting the club with the celt or hand-hatchet, and\nappearing in Europe with the beginning of the Neolithic period, plays a\nremarkable part in history, ancient, medi\u00e6val, and even modern; whilst\nits connection with the Sword is made evident by the \u2018glaive.\u2019[308] The\nexpansion of the edge and of the flanges developed two principal forms.\nFor cutting wood the long-narrow was found most serviceable: where\nbrute force was less required, the weapon became a broad blade with a\nlong crescent-shaped edge.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 85.\u2014OLDEST FORM (?).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 86.\u2014METAL CELTS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 87.\u2014KNIFE FOUND AT R\u00c9ALON (HAUTES ALPES).\n\n Half-size. It greatly resembles the bronze knife from the\n Palafittes of Neuch\u00e2tel, figured by Desor. The Swiss knife,\n however, has a tooth at the edge, near the hollow.]\n\n[Heading: _THE AXE AND THE SWORD._]\n\nThe Akhu or war-axe was, as we might expect, known to ancient Egypt in\nearly days, and became an _objet de luxe_. A gold hatchet and several\nof bronze were found buried as amulets in the coffin of Queen Askhept,\nthe ancestress of the Eighteenth Dynasty. Again, a bronze weapon\noccurred with a mummied queen of the Seventeenth Dynasty (B.C. 1750).\nUseful in war, the implement, probably when in the stone period, rose\nto be a symbol of the Deity: hence, doubtless, the _h\u00e2ches votives_ of\nthe later Bronze Age without edge to serve for work or weapons, and\nintended only for religious use. The two-headed weapon was that outward\nand visible sign of Labrandian Jove, so called from the \u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1, which\nin the Lydian tongue was synonymous with \u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2. The emblem appears\non the medals of three Carian kings, the most notable being Mausolus\n(or Mausollus), dating from B.C. 353. According to Plutarch (_De Pythi\u00e6\nOraculis_) the Tenedians \u2018took the axe from their crabs, ... because\nit appears that the crabs alone have the figure of the axe in their\nshells.\u2019 Hence the double-headed weapon on the coins of Tenedos is a\nvotive or sacrificial, rather than a warlike, symbol. The Tenedian\nApollo also held the axe, which some regarded as the symbol of Tennes.\nAristotle and others maintained that a certain King of Tenedos decreed\nthat adulterers should be slain with the axe, and his carrying out\nthe law upon his own son gave rise to the proverb, \u03a4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2,\ndenoting a rough-and-ready way of doing business.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 88.\u2014THE GLAIVE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 89.\u2014EGYPTIAN AXES OF BRONZE.]\n\nAlthough the \u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2 is mentioned by Homer (\u2018Il.\u2019 and \u2018Od.\u2019) as a\nweapon as well as a tool, the Greeks, like the Assyrians, did not\nmuch affect it. The Romans, who worshipped Quirinus in spear-shape,\nbound the securis in a bundle of rods (_fasces_), bore it as a badge\nof office, and placed it on consular coins. The weapon was lowered\nin the salute, and thus, perhaps, arose our practice of dropping the\nSword-point, which is unknown to the East. The axe with expanded\nblade upon Trajan\u2019s column is in the hands of a workman. Possibly the\nclassics of Europe despised the weapon because it was proper to the\n_securiger\u00e6 caterv\u00e6_ of the effeminate East. As early as the days of\nHerodotus (I. chap. i. 215) the \u03c3\u03ac\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, the Armenian _sacr_, and the\nLatin _securis_, made either of gold or chalcos, was the favourite\nweapon of the Amazon[309] and the Massaget\u00e6[310] horseman. In Ireland\nthe axe plays a part in the tales of Gobawn Saer: this goblin-builder\ncompleted the dangerous task of finishing off a royal roof of cutting\nwooden pegs, throwing them one by one into their places, and driving\nthem in by flinging the magic weapon at each peg in due succession.\n\nFrom Egypt the axe passed into the heart of Africa. Here it still\nserves, before and after use, as a medium of exchange; and this\ncirculation from tribe to tribe explains the various forms that have\noverspread the Dark Continent. The Nile Valley again sent it eastward\nthrough Hittite-land and Assyria to Persia and India, where the\ncrescent-shaped battle-axe has long been a favourite. The varieties of\nform and colour are noticed by Duarte Barbosa[311] when describing the\n\u2018Moors\u2019 of Hormuz Island. It was adopted by the Turkish horseman, who\ncarried it at his saddle-bow. Klemm (\u2018Werkzeuge und Waffen\u2019) notices\nthat it was a favourite Scandinavian weapon slung by a strap to the\nback; and most of the deaths recounted in \u2018Burnt Njal\u2019 are the result\nof it. The Norman long-hefted axe is common on the Bayeux tapestries.\nA Scandinavian war-axe of the early seventeenth century was found on\nthe battle-field of Norwegian Kringelen; the handle is recurved so\nas to fit the back socket. In Germany it was generally used during\nthe fifteenth century; in England during the sixteenth; and in the\nseventeenth it became obsolete throughout Europe, except among the\nSlavs and the Magyars. The German processional axe shows its latest\nsurvival; blade and handle are of one piece of wood, ornamented with\nthe guild-devices, and so modified that the original weapon can hardly\nbe recognised. Similarly the Bergbarthe (mine-picks) of the German\nBergm\u00e4nner (miners) were used, according to Klemm, for the defence\nof cities, notably of Freiberg in 1643; and, made of brass as well\nas iron, they are still carried in State processions. The axe, like\nthe spear, demarked boundaries. The charter given by Cnut (Canute)\nto Christ Church, Canterbury, grants the harbour and dues thereof on\neither side as far as a man standing on deck at flood-tide could cast a\ntaper-axe, and the custom of throwing the tool to mark boundaries has\nbeen retained in some parts of the country to our day. It was with a\nbattle-axe that the Bruce of Bannockburn clove the skull of an English\nchampion to the chin. Monstrelet tells us that during the wars of\nJeanne d\u2019Arc (Patay fought in A.D. 1429) the English carried hatchets\nin their girdles.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 90.\u2014IRISH BATTLE-AXE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 91.\u2014AXE USED BY BRUCE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 92.\u2014GERMAN PROCESSIONAL AXE.]\n\nThe Axe[312] was adopted by the Franks, as well as by the Scandinavians\nand the Germans, especially the Saxons. Hence the two-edged axe\nwhen affixed to long staves, forming a spear, became the Icelandic\nHall-bard[313] (hall-axe?), the Teutonic Alle-barde (\u2018all-cleaver\u2019),\nand the \u2018Pole-axe,\u2019 called from Poland (= Polje, the plain-country).\nThis modification was universal in Northern Europe during the first\nages of Christianity. The earliest shape (middle fourteenth to early\nsixteenth centuries) was a broad and massive axe, mounted on a thick\nand solid spear; in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the\nblade became more slender and hollow-edged, and the head longer and\nmore taper. The Swiss introduced the Halbert to France in the middle\nfifteenth century: in the seventeenth century it was conventionalised,\nthe axe resumed its original aspect, and the spear grew to leaf-shape.\nIn this form it was retained by the subalterns and sergeants of the\nBritish army till abolished with the pig-tails of \u2018Shaven England.\u2019 It\nis not wholly forgotten on ceremonious occasions in certain European\nCourts, and during all its changes it has ever retained its cousinly\nlikeness to the broadsword.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 93.\u2014HALBARDS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 94.\u2014HALBARDS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 95.\u2014_a_, _b_. BECHWANA\u2019S CLUB AXE; _c._ THE SAME,\nEXPANDED; _d._ THE SAME, BARBED; _e._ SILEPE OF THE BASUTOS; _f._\nHORSEMAN\u2019S AXE OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.]\n\n[Heading: _AXE AND SCYMITAR._]\n\nI have shown how the stone celt might become a metal knife, and thence\ndevelop into the straight Sword. By noting the modifications it is as\neasy to see that the axe might have produced the scymitar. The earliest\nform would be a broad lance-head inserted into a common club (_a_), as\nis still practised in many parts of Africa. The next improvement (_c_)\nwould convert the tool into an arm by increasing the cutting surface;\nand another step (_d_) would make it lighter by reducing the blade to\na triangle of mere barbs, \u22a3. Then (_e_) we have the Khond or\nCircar battle-axe, and the Silepe of the South African Basutos who,\nvirtually discovered by Dr. Livingstone, have become so troublesome of\nlate years.[314] This T-shaped blade, perpetuated in the \u2018Ba\u00efonette\nGras,\u2019 was used in Switzerland and in Venice till the sixteenth\ncentury, according to Meyrick and Demmin. Afterwards the straight back\nnext to the staff would be formed into two small and graceful crescents\n(_f_); and the weapon became far better fitted for the requirements\nof cavalry. This shape is world-wide, and was used in England _temp._\nElizabeth. A congener of the glaive was the _Francisque \u00e0 lance\nouverte_, the broad-bladed \u2018taper-axe,\u2019 used for throwing as well as\nfor striking. According to the Abb\u00e9 Cochet, this weapon took its name\nfrom the Franks. The Francisque is termed a \u2018defensive weapon\u2019 in the\nillustrated treatise \u2018Armes et Armures.\u2019[315] The Saxons preferred to\nit the Sahs, Seax or Scramasax-knife, similarly used. The Francisque is\nrare in the Saxon graves compared with the spear and knife, but it is\nmore common than the Sword.[316]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 96.\u2014HIND\u00da HATCHET FROM RAJPUTANA.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 97.\u2014GERMAN HATCHET OF BRONZE PERIOD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 98.\u20141. BURGUNDIAN AXE; 2. FRANCISQUE OR TAPER AXE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 99.\u2014IRON SCRAMASAX (16 inches long).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 100.\u2014SCRAMASAX (18 inches long).]\n\n[Heading: _THE BILL AND VOULGE._]\n\nThe Bill[317] (A.-S. _byll_, Irish _biail_, _securis_) was introduced\ninto England _temp._ Henry VI. about the fifteenth century, when it\nwas allied in form to the Halbard. Skinner considers it a _securis\nrostrata_ (beaked axe). It was long a favourite in Scandinavia, and the\nillustration represents the weapon of Gunnar, the Icelandic champion,\nwhich sang before battle, as also did the Sword of Sigurd.\n\nThe glaive of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries was followed by\nthe Guisarme, Gisarme, or Bisarme. This long blade, with a slender\nspear-point projecting from the back, is still used by the Chinese; and\nthe Despots of Dahome borrowed it, like other quaint arms and customs,\nfrom Europe. The _Voulge_, an intermediate form of the halbert and the\nglaive, and probably a descendant of the former, was a battle-axe much\nused by the Swiss in the fourteenth century. The war-scythe of the same\nperiod figured by Demmin, and the scythe-Sword\u2014a formidable-looking,\nbut unhandy weapon\u2014were adopted by the Hungarian rebels as lately\nas in 1848. Allied with these medi\u00e6val forms is a vast variety of\nshapes known as the Spetum (Spiedo or Spit), the Ron\u00e7eur or Ranseur,\nand the military fork. They were probably known to the Ancients, and\nreintroduced into Europe by the peasantry who, compelled hastily to\narm themselves, would use the handy flails, sickles, and scythes. A\nwell-arranged and complete collection is still wanted to show the links\nconnecting them with a common prototype.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 101.\u2014GUNNAR\u2019S BILL.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 102.\u2014VOULGES.]\n\nThe interest of these weapons is chiefly connected with the various\nforms of curved broadsword. The leaf-shaped metal-blade for thrusting,\nwhich appears to be one of the earliest forms, and which is preserved\nby the Somal and other barbarians, is, I have said, evidently a\nspear-head fixed in a wooden handle.\n\nBriefly to describe the Sword of the Early Bronze Age, during which,\nby the by, cremation became almost universal in Europe. The weapon\nis to a certain extent North European, and seems to have travelled\nup the valleys of great rivers: Denmark has yielded two hundred and\nfifty to six Italian bronze blades.[318] They are as a rule of fair\nlength, averaging about seventy-five centimetres: the profile is either\nleaf-shaped, sub-leaf-shaped, or straight, ending in a bevelled point.\nThe hilt is of two kinds: either tanged or untanged: the tang is broad,\nlong, and pierced, with one or more holes for riveting; in this case\nthe handle was of wood, bone, or horn. Many hefts, however, as will\nafterwards appear, are cast in a single piece with or without guard;\nand the latter often disappears in a hollow triangular base, a crescent\nor horse-shoe containing the shoulders with the concavity of the arch\ntowards the point; this also served in many weapons to receive the\nrivets. The pommel is of various patterns, frequently a cone, oval,\nglobe, or dome with steps or with melon-like ridges.[319] In others,\nespecially amongst the old Kelts and Germans, it ended with a crutch or\ncrescent whose cusps were, in the richer kinds, adorned with spirals.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VI.\n\n THE PROTO-SIDERIC OR EARLY IRON AGE OF WEAPONS.\n\n \u2018Of all metallurgical processes, the extraction of malleable\n iron may be regarded as amongst the most simple.\u2019\u2014Percy, _Iron,\n &c._ p. 573.\n\n\nWe now come to the King of Metals that \u2018breaketh in pieces and subdueth\nall things\u2019; the only ore friendly as well as fatal to the human form;\nthe most useful and the most deadly in the hand of man[320]\u2014Iron.[321]\n\nAccording to the Parian Chronicle (Arundelian Marbles), followed by\nThrasyllus (Clemens Alex. in \u2018Strom.\u2019), and by a host of writers,\niron-working was discovered in B.C. 1432 or 248 years before the\nTrojan war. The latter, a crucial date, is, as will appear, wholly\nundetermined; the various authorities have made it range through nearly\nseven hundred years. But the life of Hellas is one great \u2018appropriation\nclause\u2019: the Greeks were doughty claimants, childish in their _na\u00efvet\u00e9_\nof conceit; they were burglars of others\u2019 wits (convey, the wise it\ncall), and they made themselves do all things. Their legends, for\ninstance, accredit \u2018Glaucus the Chian\u2019 with having invented the art\nand mystery of steel-inlaying. De Goguet (A.D. 1761) tells us that\nthe Ph\u0153nicians ranked amongst their oldest heroes two brothers who\ndiscovered iron-working; the Cretans referred it to the oldest period\nof their history,[322] and the Id\u00e6an Daktyls learnt it from the \u2018mother\nof the gods.\u2019 Prometheus (in \u00c6schylus) boasts of having taught mankind\nto fabricate all metals: he also wears an iron ring supposed to be a\nchain not an ornament; and it possibly symbolises the union of fire\nand ore. The art of iron-working is referred, now to the Cyclopes,\nof Sicily, then to the Chalybes,[323] who extended from Colchis to\nSpain: Clemens (Alex.) refers the discovery of making malleable iron to\nthe Noropes of Danubian Pannonia, who dwelt between Noricum (Styria)\nand M\u00e6sia; and finally, to quote no more, Mr. J. Fergusson, a careful\nwriter, tells us that \u2018the Aryans (?) were those who introduced the use\nof iron, and with it dominated over and expelled (?) the older races.\u2019\n\nModern discovery has proved that the invention, and indeed the general\nadoption, of \u2018Mars\u2019 (\u2642) dates from the very dawn of history; and that\nit is a mere theory to assume everywhere preceding millennia of bone\nand stone, copper and bronze. It is clear, for instance, in Central\nAfrica, where copper and tin were unprocurable, that man must first\nhave used iron.[324] A good authority, Mr. St. John V. Day[325] (C.E.),\nwho was in charge of iron works in Southern India, claims for iron\u2014cast\nas well as wrought, and even for its carburet, steel\u2014the credit of\nbeing \u2018unquestionably the earliest of substances with which man was\nacquainted.\u2019 This writer, however, denies, contrary to all tradition,\na \u2018progressive rise in the quality of materials used by man\u2019: that is,\nfrom the soft and yielding to the hard and refractory. He holds that\nMan, once master of metallurgy, \u2018would be better able to deal with the\nmuch more easily manipulated bones, stones, or wood.\u2019 He supposes all\nthe metals, noble and ignoble, as well as gems and precious stones, to\nhave become familiar amongst Eastern races, \u2018whether they be Semitic,\nAryan, Hamitic, Sporadic, or Allophyllian, by virtue of a civilisation\ndue to a natural innate insight.\u2019 Hence he declares Egypt an enigma\nto those who accept the dictum of \u2018man\u2019s gradual evolution from the\ncondition of a savage, an ignoramus,\u2019 and he opines that this grim\nbeing is simply a retrograde.[326]\n\nThese ideas trench upon old metallurgic superstitions and seem to run\ninto extremes. We _know_ nothing concerning the home of Proto-man,\nwhich is perhaps deep under the waters. Anthropologists, who locate him\nin Mesopotamia, \u2018Aryaland\u2019 (Central Asia), or Ethiopia, look only to\nthe origin of the present species, and the historic cycle. Our studies,\nas far as they go, suggest that Man began in the Polar regions, and\nthat in hoar antiquity each racial centre had its own material\u2014wood and\nhorn, bone and stone, copper, bronze, and iron.[327]\n\n[Heading: _METAL IN EGYPT._]\n\nFor our first lesson in iron we must go back as usual to Kahi-Ptah (the\nPtah-region), that Nile Valley which is the motherland of all science,\nof all art. Here Bunsen[328] provides us with the following table:\n\n +--------------+------------------+-----------------------+\n | HIEROGLYPHS | PHONETIC VALUE | TRANSLATION |\n +--------------+------------------+-----------------------+\n | | | |\n | [Hieroglyph] | Ba. | Earth, Metal, Soul, |\n | | | Circle, Seed, Corn. |\n | | | |\n | [Hieroglyph] | Ba. | Iron. |\n | | | |\n | [Hieroglyph] | Ba\u2019a. | Iron, Earth. |\n | | | |\n | [Hieroglyph] | Ba\u2019aenpe (Benipe | Iron. |\n | | or Penipe). | |\n | | | |\n | [Hieroglyph] | Bet. | Iron. |\n | | | |\n +--------------+------------------+-----------------------+\n\nMr. Day (who has drawn it up) observes that \u2018BA\u2019 [Hieroglyph] is a\nconstant in the phonetic values assigned to the uncertain hieroglyphs\nfor iron, and feels disposed to believe it synonymous with \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2,\nbase metal in general. He would translate the Saidic \u2018\u0392\u0395\u039d\u0399\u03a0\u0395\u2019 and the\nCoptic \u2018\u03a0\u0395\u039d\u0399\u03a0\u0395\u2019 by \u2018stone (\u0392\u0395) of (\u039d\u0399) sky or heaven (\u03a0\u0395)\u2019; in fact,\n\u2018sky-stone,\u2019 alluding to meteoric iron, probably the first utilised.\nDr. Birch holds \u2018BA\u2019 to be a general term for metal made particular, as\nin Greece, by prefixed adjectives (white, black, yellow) denoting the\nquality of the ore. And hence the determinative of \u2018BA\u2019 (metal, stone,\nor hard wood) is the cube or parallelogrammic block which denotes\nbuilding and building materials.\n\nNative iron may be distributed into two great divisions,\nextra-terrestrial and terrestrial. The former is known as meteoric\nor nickeliferous. Mr. Day (pp. 22\u201323) gives analyses of this form,\nand takes, from Chladni[329] and others, a list of masses that fell\nin Siberia, Thuringia, and Dauphin\u00e9; in West African Liberia, and in\nAmerican Sta. F\u00e9 de Bogot\u00e1, and Canaan, Connecticut. Though many trials\nhave been made in working extra-terrestrial metal, all have hitherto\nfailed; the phosphorus, nickel and its _alter ego_, cobalt, render the\nforgings, in our present state of technology, too brittle for use.\nTerrestrial or telluric iron is again divided into two classes\u2014the\nnearly pure ore and the native steel. According to the schedule of\nRosset:\n\n Iron is a metal not cast and malleable.\n Steel \u201e cast and malleable.\n Pig-iron \u201e cast and not malleable.\n\nThat iron was common amongst the ancient Egyptians we may assume as\nproved. Mr. A. Henry Rhind, when opening the tomb of Sebau (nat. B.C.\n68), noted on the massive doors \u2018iron hasps and nails,\u2019 \u2018as lustrous and\nas pliant as on the day they left the forge.\u2019 Belzoni, who died in\n1823, found an iron sickle under the feet of one of the Karnak Sphinxes\ndating from B.C. 600. In June 1837, Mr. J. R. Hill, employed by Colonel\nHoward Vyse, when blasting and excavating the J\u00edzeh[330] Pyramid, came\nupon a piece of iron, apparently a cramp, near the channel-mouth of\none of the air-passages: it had thus been preserved from rust, and\nits authenticity cannot be doubted. Some suggested that it was used\nfor scraping and finishing; others for finally levelling the faces of\ndressed stone, but it tapers off from the middle to an edge on either\nside and it narrows at one end.[331] This relic can hardly be of later\ndate than B.C. 4000\u20133600, when Khufu (Cheops) built his burial-place\nand inscribed in it his hieroglyphic shield[332] or cartouche\n[Hieroglyph]. Stowed away in the British Museum, it excited scant\nattention till Dr. Lepsius at the Congress of Orientalists (London,\n1874), suggested that it was of steel. A trial was made (Sept. 18); it\nyielded readily to a few turns of the drill, and the surfaces of the\nhole showed the whiteness and the brightness of newly-cut malleable\niron. Since that discovery, sacrificial iron knives have been found in\nthe Nile Valley, despite the ready oxidation of the metal in a climate\nof the hot-damp category. In the Bul\u00e1k Museum (Salle de l\u2019Est), with\nthe wooden Swords, was a straight and double-edged iron blade that had\ntwo ribs running along its length. Another room showed a straight,\ndouble-edged, and round-pointed dagger of gilt iron. Of the latter\nweapon there are three fine specimens (Salle du Centre).\n\n[Heading: _IRON IN EGYPT._]\n\nThe literature of Egypt abounds in allusions to the use of iron.[333]\nThe Rev. Basil H. Cooper[334] believes that Mibampes the \u2018Iron King,\u2019\nsixth successor of prim\u00e6val Mena (circ. B.C. 4560),[335] bore on his\ncartouche the word \u2018Benipe\u2019; and that no less than three records[336]\nentitle him \u2018Lover of Iron\u2019 (i.e. the Sword); \u2018thus attesting, not only\nthe extreme antiquity of the use of iron, but unfortunately (?) of\nthat most dreadful evil of all which are the scourges of humanity\u2014war\n(?).\u2019 And so we see the nineteenth century repeating the Herodotian\nhalf-truth, \u2018Iron has been discovered to the hurt of Man\u2019; and looking\nonly at one side of the question, the evils of War, without which,\nI repeat, strong races could not supplant the weaker to the general\nbenefit of mankind. The Epos of Pentaur, the jovial temple scribe[337]\n(circ. B.C. 1350), mentions \u2018iron\u2019 thrice; and Pharaoh Mene-Ptah\nII., whose \u2018Sword gave no quarter,\u2019 had vessels of iron. In later\nhieroglyphic literature the notices become too numerous to justify\nquotation.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 103.\u2014EGYPTIAN SACRIFICIAL KNIVES (IRON).]\n\nThe old Egyptians, according to Plutarch,[338] held iron to be the\n\u1f40\u03c3\u03c4\u03ad\u03bf\u03bd \u03a4\u03c5\u03c6\u1ff6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, or bone of Set; whereas the \u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, or magnet,\nwas that of his foe-god Horus, degraded to Charon in Greece and Rome.\nThis siderite was known to the Hellenes in its religious aspect as\n\u1f29\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 or \u1f29\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, either from Heraclea-town or from Hercules\n(Pliny, xxxvi. 25). Siderite or loadstone, termed \u2018Magnet\u2019 from its\nsupposed discoverer, was also entitled \u2018live iron,\u2019 and its wounds were\nsupposed to be more deadly than those of the common ore.\n\nThe Nile-dwellers had not far to go for iron, which abounds in the\nwell-known Wady Hamm\u00e1m\u00e1t, one of the earliest centres of Egyptian\nmining; and, as Mr. Piazzi Smyth showed, it accumulates everywhere in\nthe fissures of the flaky limestone:[339] it is produced in Ethiopia\n(the Sudan and Abyssinia); and in Midian, where the old Kemites opened\nthe copper mines, it appears in the shape of black sand and large\nmasses of titaniferous[340] and other ores. The monuments (Karnak\nTable, &c.) specify, amongst objects of tribute, iron from the lands\nof the Thuhi[341] (\u2018the fair people\u2019), the Rutennu (Syrians and\nAssyrians), and the Asi (or rebels generally?); from these countries it\nwas exported in the ore and in bricks and pigs. The tribute-tables of\nThut-mes III. (B.C. 1600) mention:\u2014\n\n One beautiful iron armour of the hostile king.\n One beautiful iron armour of the King of Megiddo.\n ? lbs. weight, two suits of iron armour from Naharayn.\n Iron suits of armour (taken by the warriors), and\n Five iron storm-caps (?).\n\n[Heading: _HEBREW IRON-AGE._]\n\nMr. Francis Galton[342] first discovered in the ancient copper-diggings\nof the so-called \u2018Sinaitic\u2019 peninsula, a blackish mass, not unlike\niron-slag, which he conjectured to date before Moses\u2019 days. A score\nof years afterwards (early 1873), Mr. Hartland[343] examined the\njunction of the Wadys Kemeh, Mukattab, and Magh\u00e1rah, and found the\niron-ore imperfectly extracted: assays and analyses of the slags that\nlay in heaps about the ruined works produced fifty-three per cent.\nof metal. He determined that the mines at Ser\u00e1bit El-Kh\u00e1dim had been\nconstructed on the principle of the Catalan (or rather the Corsican)\nforge;[344] and he discovered near them a temple and barracks for the\nsoldier-guards.[345]\n\nIt is hard to believe with Mr. Proctor that Abraham, a wandering\nChald\u00e6an Shaykh, taught the Egyptians astronomy, astrology, and\narithmetic; or with Mr. Piazzi Smyth, that Melchisedek, the petty\nchief of a village in Palestine, built _the_ Pyramid. Yet it is\nonly reasonable to suppose that the Israelites set out upon their\nexodus or exodi, for there were probably many, provided with some\nof the technological wisdom of the Egyptians. Joseph, according to\nBrugsch (\u2018Hist.\u2019 I. chap. xii.), rose to the honour of Zaphnatpaneakh\n(Governor of the Sethroitic home), and Ro-hir or Procurator, under the\nShepherd-kings or \u2018Hyksos,\u2019 a word which he renders Hek-Shasu,[346]\nlord of the Shasu (Arabs); he makes the Pharaoh of the Oppression,\nRamses II. (B.C. 1333\u20131300), and Mene-Ptah II. the Pharaoh of the\nExodus (B.C. 1300\u20131266). The Pentateuch, whatever be its date, well\nknew the use of Barzil (\u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc), the Chald\u00e6an Parzil or Parzillu.\nAccording to Sir John Lubbock (\u2018Prehistoric Man\u2019), \u2018iron\u2019 is four\ntimes mentioned, and \u2018brass\u2019 (copper, bronze?) thirty-eight times in\n\u2018the Law.\u2019[347] From other sources we gather that the metal was either\n\u05e2\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea (_ash\u00fath_, that is, \u2018the worked,\u2019 from the rad. _ashah_), or\n\u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05e7 (_muzak_, \u2018the melted,\u2019 fused, cast; from the root _zak_). The\nLord threatens that He will make \u2018the skies as iron and the earth as\ncopper\u2019 (Levit. xxvi. 19). In Deuteronomy (iv. 20), Egypt is compared\nwith an iron furnace; and mention is made of iron shoes (xxxiii. 25).\nJob includes among riches, cattle, silver, gold, brass (copper?), and\niron; he tells us (xxviii. 2) that \u2018iron is taken out of the earth and\ncopper is molten out of the stone,\u2019 and he speaks of lithic writing\n(xix. 24), \u2018graven with an iron style and lead in the rock for ever.\u2019\nBut commentators are not agreed about the age of this author, and in\nthe hands of the Rabbis he seems gradually to be growing younger\u2014more\nmodern\u2014with every generation.\n\nThe Hebrews found the Iron-age wherever they went. \u2018Barzil\u2019 was among\nthe metals taken from the Midianites by Moses (Numb. xxxi. 22). The\n\u2018bedstead,\u2019 or rather divan, of Og, the King of Bashan, measuring nine\ncubits of man (each = sixteen inches) in length by four broad, was of\niron (Deut. iii. 11). Joshua shows that the Canaanites owned \u2018chariots\nof iron\u2019 (xvii. 16). These tribes, displaced by the Jews, seem to have\nbeen accomplished workers in metal.[348] Traces of iron-smelting occur\non the Libanus,[349] where I found copper-stone,[350] and where, during\nthe present century, coal and asphalte have been mined. Many parts\nof the country, as Argob in ancient Bashan, produce an abundance of\nironstone.[351] The old Ph\u0153nician Sanconiathon, a name which may denote\na history or its historian, tells us through the Greek translator Philo\nof Byblus, that the people were famous for their Technites, artisans\nand blacksmiths. The warlike Hittites, as will appear, were also\niron-workers.\n\nFrom Egypt the use of iron would spread through Asia Minor[352]\neastward to Naharayn,[353] the two-river-land, Mesopotamia. But the\ndate is disputed. The excavations of the late Mr. George Smith yielded\nno iron articles older than B.C. 1000\u2013800. Mr. Day remarks that \u2018whilst\nMesopotamia has not, up to the present time, produced any solid\nevidence in the form of material iron relics belonging to the oldest\nmonarchies; nevertheless, the monuments of those earliest times are\nnumerous, and they yield abundance of testimony to the acquaintance of\nthe contemporary people with iron.\u2019 In later ages he alludes to the\nrings and bangles of iron in the British Museum, which were possibly\nchain-links; and particularly to the \u2018ombos of a shield,\u2019 as the most\nexquisite piece of their hammered iron-work he has met with: he doubts\nif it can in some respects be surpassed by the productions of to-day.\nThe cuneiforms speak of iron fetters, and the people of the great\nInteramnian plain knew the art of casting bronze over iron,[354] only\nlately introduced into our metallurgy.\n\n[Heading: _IRON IN ASSYRIA._]\n\nAccording to Mr. G. Smith there is no pure Assyrian word for\n\u2018iron.\u2019[355] Its cuneiform symbol is [Cuneiform], but the phonetic\nvalue or pronunciation has not yet been determined. \u2018It must have been\nin use 2000 B.C.,\u2019 and it is found in inscriptions of all ages. The\nword is supposed to belong to the ancient Turanian or Proto-Babylonian\nrace (Akkadian[356] or Sumirian) that held the river-plains, and\nit has been grafted into the more recent Assyrian language. In the\ninscriptions, each god has his sign, and the symbol above given,\naccompanies, as his attribute, one of the deities of war and hunting:\nthus it is a parallel to that found in the cartouche of the Egyptian\n\u2018Iron King.\u2019\n\nCanon Rawlinson,[357] on the other hand, assigns to the symbol the\nphonetic value of _Hurud_, which thus became the Chald\u00e6an equivalent\nfor \u2018iron.\u2019 In concert with his distinguished brother, he came to the\nconclusion: \u2018There are two signs for metals in Assyria, with respect\nto which there is a doubt which is iron and which is brass (or bronze\nrather). These are [Cuneiform] and [Cuneiform]. Sir Henry Rawlinson, on\nthe whole, inclines to regard the first as bronze and the second as\niron, although the former is nowhere rendered phonetically. The latter\nis rendered in a syllabary as equivalent to _Hurud_ in Akkadian and\n_Eru_ in Assyrian. Mr. George Smith reverses the meanings of the two\nsigns. The point is a very doubtful one.\u2019\n\nAfter the decay of the Proto-Babylonian or Chald\u00e6an empire (B.C.\n2300\u20131500), when the seat of Interamnian rule moved to the\nTigris-Euphrates basin, and the three Assyrian periods flourished (B.C.\n1500\u2013555),[358] iron was largely used. It was produced, according\nto Layard (_loc. cit._) in the Tiyari mountains, and it is still\nfound in quantities on the slopes, three or four days\u2019 journey from\nMosul. The north-western palace of Nimr\u00fad (Kalah) showed, amongst\nthe rubbish-heaps, much rusty iron and a perfect helmet like that\nrepresented in the bas-reliefs. There were Swords and daggers, shields\nand shield-handles, rods, and the points of spears and arrows, which\nfell to pieces on exposure. Amongst the few specimens preserved were\nthe head of a trident-like weapon, some Sword-handles, a large blunt\nspear-pile, the point of a pick, several objects resembling the heads\nof sledge-hammers, and a double-handed saw of iron or steel (?), about\nthree feet eight inches long by four inches and five-eighths broad,\nfor cross-cutting timber. The British Museum owns a fine collection\nof Assyrian sheet or plate iron-work; pieces of unfinished forgings;\na rude triangular lump through which a round hole has been driven\n(by a heated punch?); several cylindrical bars, straight and curved;\nwall-cramps, nails, and door-hinges; a ladle; rings of sizes (one being\nthree inches in diameter); a signet-ring containing a silver bezel or\nseal; and, lastly, a portion of what seems to have been a double-sided\ncomb. In much later days the Assyrians of Xerxes\u2019 army carried,\naccording to Herodotus, shields, spears, daggers, and wooden clubs\nspiked with iron.\n\nThe Greeks learned their metallurgy, as they did all their arts, from\nEgypt; and, following in the footsteps of the Ph\u0153nicians, diffused\nthem throughout the Western World. In Theseus\u2019 time, according to\nWilkinson\u2014that is, B.C. 1235\u2014\u2018iron is conjectured not to have been\nknown, as he was found buried with a brass (copper, bronze?) Sword and\nspear.\u2019 They did not use iron weapons, and probably had no iron during\ntheir first foreign campaign\u2014the Trojan war. The Parian (Arundelian)\nChronicle (dating its notices from Cecrops, B.C. 1582) and the Rhodian\nmyths refer to a conflagration in the Cretan mountains which taught\nmetallurgy to the Id\u00e6an Daktyls (\u0394\u03ac\u03ba\u03c4\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9 \u1f38\u03b4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03bf\u03b9):[359] this would,\nhowever, be a comparatively late date when we regard Egypt.[360]\n\nWith respect to the metal in the Hissarlik remains, Dr. Schliemann\nremarks (i. 31): \u2018The only objects of iron which I found were a key\nof curious shape and a few arrows and nails close to the surface.\u2019 It\nis no proof that it was used because Homer some centuries afterwards\nspoke of the \u03ba\u03cd\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (_cyanus_), steel tempered blue, a word which even\nin antiquity was translated by \u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c8 (_chalybs_, steel). The explorer\nremarks: \u2018Articles of steel may have existed: I believe positively that\nthey did exist; but they have vanished without leaving a trace of their\nexistence; for, as we know, iron and steel become decomposed much more\nreadily than copper.\u2019 Yet, so contradictory is the whole book, and so\nuncertain are its conclusions, we find,[361] \u2018No. 4. Drillings of one\nof the Trojan sling-bullets, externally covered with verdigris, and\ninternally the colour of iron\u2019; while the assay shows that it consisted\nchiefly of copper and sulphur. Among the contemporary (?) finds of\nMycen\u00e6, which not a few authorities have pronounced to be Byzantine,\nand another observer Keltic,[362] Dr. Schliemann met with iron in\nthe shape of knives and keys; but he holds these articles to be of\ncomparatively late date, not older than the fifth century B.C.[363] At\nthat time iron must have been general throughout Greece. In the fourth\ncentury, Aristotle (\u2018Meteorologica\u2019) treats at length upon iron and its\nmodifications. One passage runs: \u2018Wrought iron may be so cast as to be\nmade liquid and to reharden; and thus it is they are wont to make steel\n(\u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1); for the scoria of iron subsides and is purged off by the\nbottom, and when it is often def\u00e6cated and cleansed, this is steel.\nBut this they do not often, because of the great waste, and because it\nloses much weight in refining; but iron is so much the more excellent\nthe more recrement it has.\u2019 Daimachus, Aristotle\u2019s contemporary, says\nof steels (\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd), \u2018There is the Chalybdic,[364] the Synopic,\nthe Lydian, and the Laced\u00e6monian. The Chalybdic is best for carpenters\u2019\ntools; the Laced\u00e6monian for files, drills, gravers, and stone-chisels;\nthe Lydian also is suited for files, and for knives, razors, and\nrasps.\u2019 Avicenna (Abu Ali Sin\u00e1), in his fifth book, \u2018De Anima,\u2019\naccording to Roger Bacon, has three species of the metal: (1) Iron,\ngood for hammers and anvils, but not for cutting tools; (2) Steel,[365]\nwhich is purer and has more heat in it; it is therefore less\nmalleable, but better able to take an edge; and (3) Andena, ductile and\nmalleable under a low degree of heat, and intermediate between iron and\nsteel. Apparently the latter is the Hindiah or Hindiy\u00e1neh, the Ferrum\nIndicum and the Ondanique of Marco Polo (i. 17).\n\n[Heading: _ROMAN IRON._]\n\nThe Romans, a more cosmopolitan people than the Greeks, paid great\nattention to the mineral wealth of their conquests, and were careful to\nchoose the best _acies_[366] for their weapons. Diodorus Siculus[367]\ndescribes the process by which the Celtiberians prepared their iron for\nSwords. Pliny, who was Procurator of Spain under Vespasian, may have\nstudied iron-mining and ore-working in the country which still produces\nthe Toledo blade. He characterises the metal generally as being\nuniversally used and occurring in every part of the world\u2014especially\nin Ilva, now Elba, where there are mines of oligiste, specular iron\nor iron glance. His process of steel-making is that of the Greeks.\n\u2018Fornacum maxima differentia est; in eis equidem nucleus ferri\u2019\n(the \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 or worked iron of Aristotle) \u2018excoquitur ad\nindurandum; aliter alioque modo ad densandas incudes, malleorumve\nrostra\u2019 (xxxiv. 41). Hence it appears that the Romans had one way\nto make steel, and another to harden and temper tools, picks, and\nanvils. \u2018Possibly,\u2019 says Dr. Martin Lister, \u2018the latter were boiled in\n\u201csow-metal,\u201d as the term _densare_ seems to suggest.\u2019\n\nRoman mining-operations were often conducted on a large scale. The\nForest of Dean and the Wealds of Kent and Sussex, not to mention\nother parts of England, show heaps of old slag containing classical\npottery and coins of Nero, Vespasian, and Diocletian. They obtained\nthe regulus[368] by the direct process, and used charcoal in rude\nCatalan furnaces; the work was imperfect, and the scori\u00e6 contain a\nlarge percentage of metal. Ancient adits and shafts in Shropshire[369]\nand elsewhere have preserved the rude implements with which they made\nthe natives labour in _corv\u00e9e_. The hill-sides of Carthagena on the\nseaboard of Murcia (South-Eastern Spain) had been explored for lead and\nsilver by the earliest Carthaginian colonists; and the industry was at\nits height when Nova Carthago, under Roman rule, became (B.C. 200) a\nflourishing municipium, the centre of a large population. At this time\nas many as forty thousand hands were regularly employed. In our seventh\ncentury the Arab invasion ruined the mines, not only of this district,\nbut of every province occupied by the \u2018Moors.\u2019 About the mid-fifteenth\ncentury a revival was attempted; but this was checked at the beginning\nof the sixteenth, when the mines of Spanish America were opened:\nthe Emperor Charles V. also would not see the soil of his European\ndominions disturbed by digging. The miners emigrated in mass, and New\nCarthage was forgotten till within the last half-century. According to\nM. Alfred Massart,[370] the ancient masses of plumbiferous scori\u00e6 were\nlarge enough to pay for re-working. A superficial area of eight square\nleagues yielded some eight hundred thousand tons of iron-ore, of which\ntwo-thirds were ferro-manganese, and twenty thousand to twenty-five\nthousand tons of lead containing thirty thousand kilogrammes of silver.\nAs regards the use of iron for many purposes by the ancient Britons\nbefore the Roman conquest, we may fairly, without attaching importance\nto the legend of \u2018Milesius,\u2019 believe that the industry may also have\nmigrated northwards from a Spanish centre. Hence, Mr. Hutton, the local\nhistorian of Birmingham, believes that Sword-blades were made there\nbefore the landing of Julius C\u00e6sar.\n\n[Heading: _IRON IN INDIA._]\n\nFrom Assyria the use of iron would extend through Persia to India, to\nIndo-China, and to China and Japan. Professor Max M\u00fcller, as Mr. Day\njustly observes, differs with himself when he states in one place[371]\nthat \u2018iron was not known previously to the breaking up of the Aryan\nfamily\u2019; and in another passage,[372] where we are told, \u2018Before the\nseparation of the Aryan race ... there can be no doubt that iron was\nknown and its value appreciated.\u2019 Here, evidently, the Sanskritist had\nchanged his first opinion, because he had noticed that \u2018Ayas\u2019 may also\nmean copper or bronze. The Rig Veda mentions mail-coats, hatchets, and\nweapons of iron; but so far from assigning to this work the age of B.C.\n1300, we may fairly hold that its present shape was assumed in the\nearly centuries following Christianity. We have trustworthy notices of\nthe metal in India only at the beginning of authentic history, when\nthe acumen of the Greeks was applied to the gross absurdities of Hindu\nfable.[373] The Malli and Oxydrac\u00e6 presented to Alexander a hundred\ntalents\u2019 weight of Indian steel (_ferrum candidum_) in wrought bars,\njust as Homer\u2019s Achilles (\u2018Il.\u2019 xxiii. 826), nearly a thousand years\nbefore, offered at the funeral games of Patroclus, \u2018a rudely-molten\nmass of iron\u2019 (\u03c3\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u1f50\u03c4\u03bf\u03c7\u03cc\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, self-melted?), which had been used\nfor hurling at the foe by E\u00ebtion, and which would supply the farm with\nmetal for five years. The \u2018bright iron\u2019 of Ezekiel, named amongst the\nwares of Tyre (xxvii. 19) with cassia and calamus, was probably the\nsame material. The Periplus mentions sideros indikos and st\u00f3moma\n(steel) as imports to the Abyssinian harbours. Daimachus and Pliny\nspecify, amongst the dearest kinds of steel, the ferrum Indicum and the\nferrum Sericum; and Salmasius refers to a Greek chemical treatise \u2018On\nthe Tempering (\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c6\u1fc6\u03c2) of Indian Steel.\u2019\n\nThe great iron-working age of India seems to have been in the fourth\nand fifth centuries of our era, when the blacksmiths must have been\nskilful and commanded an unlimited supply of the best metal. The L\u00e1t or\niron-pillar of Delhi, to mention no other, is a solid shaft, showing\nthat the people were unable to make a core. This simple piece of\nwrought metal, calculated to weigh seventeen tons and to contain eighty\ncubic feet of metal, measures in diameter 16\u00b74 inches tapering to\n12\u00b705. The height above ground is twenty-two feet, and excavations of\ntwenty-six feet did not reach the base: the known length therefore is\nupwards of forty-eight feet.[374] The sundry inscriptions punched upon\nit are of very various dates: Prinsep[375] assigns our third or fourth\ncentury to the Nagari character in which Rajah Dhava thus \u2018renowned\nit\u2019:\u2014\n\n\u2018By him who, learning the warlike preparations and entrenchments of\nhis enemies with their good soldiers and allies, a monument of fame\nengraved by his Sword on their limbs, who as master of the seven\nadvantages,[376] crossing over (the Indus?), so subdued the Vahlikas of\nSindhu [N.B.: they can hardly be the \u2018people of Balkh\u2019] that even at\nthis day his disciplined force and defences on the south (of the river)\nare sacredly respected by them,\u2019 &c. &c.\n\nMetallurgists dispute as to the way in which this huge iron rod was\nwrought. One writer,[377] however, seems to have hit upon the solution\nof the problem: \u2018The column may have been forged standing, by welding\non, one over another, thin iron plates or dires, the fire being built\nround the column as it grew; and the ground raised in a mound to keep\nthe top of the column on a level with the workplace.\u2019 Pyramid-building\nhas been explained in the same way\u2014a causeway.\n\nBut the L\u00e1t is not the only marvel of Hindu metallurgy. Mr. James\nFergusson found in the Temple of Kanaruc, or Black Pagoda of the Madras\nPresidency, beams of wrought iron about twenty-one feet in length and\neight inches section, to strengthen the roof, which the Hindus, in\ntheir distrust of the arch, formed after their usual bracket-fashion.\nIn the fane of Mahavellipore he discovered sockets for similar\nsupports. He assigns to the Black Pagoda a date between A.D. 1236 and\n1241; and to Mahavellipore any time between our tenth and fourteenth\ncenturies.[378] Colonel Pearse, R.A. presented to the trustees of the\nBritish Museum a unique collection of archaic tools, iron and steel,\ngouges, spatul\u00e6, ladles, and similar articles, dug out of tumuli at\nWari Gaon, near Kampti. But there are no grounds whatever for dating\nthem \u2018about B.C. 1500, or the time of Moses.\u2019\n\n[Heading: _WOOTZ._]\n\nThe _ferrum Indicum_[379] of the Classics may still be represented by\nthe famous Wootz or Wutz,[380] the \u2018natural Indian steel,\u2019 still so\nmuch prized for Sword-blades in Persia and Afghanistan. The specimens\nfirst sent in 1795 to the Royal Society of London were analysed by Mr.\nJosiah M. Heath with the results given below.[381]\n\nColonel Yule remarks that the Wootz was, in part at least, the famous\nIndian steel, the \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 of the \u2018Periplus,\u2019 the\nHunduw\u00e1n\u00ed of the medi\u00e6val Persian traders; the Andanicum or Ondanique\nof Marco Polo and the Alkinde of the old Spanish. In the sixteenth\ncentury the exportation was chiefly from Baticala in Canara. The King\nof Portugal complains (in A.D. 1591) of the large quantities shipped\nfrom Chaul to be sold in the Red Sea to the Turks and on the African\ncoast about Melinde.[382] And I would note that this industry by no\nmeans argues civilisation in India or elsewhere:[383] as Dr. Percy\nremarks, \u2018The primitive method of extracting good malleable iron\ndirect from the ore, which is still practised in India and in Africa,\nrequires a degree of skill very inferior to that which is implied in\nthe manufacture of bronze.\u2019\n\nThe system of Wootz-making, especially at Salem and in parts of Mysore,\nhas been described by many writers. About a pound weight of malleable\niron, made from magnetic ore, is placed, minutely broken and moistened,\nin a crucible of refractory clay, together with finely chopped pieces\nof wood (_Cassia auriculata_). It is packed without flux. The open pots\nare then covered with the green leaves of the _Asclepias gigantea_\nor the _Convolvulus lanifolius_, and the tops are coated over with\nwet clay, which is sun-dried to hardness. \u2018Charcoal will not do as a\nsubstitute for the green twigs.\u2019 Some two dozen of these cupels[384] or\ncrucibles are disposed archways at the bottom of a furnace, whose blast\nis managed with bellows of bullock\u2019s hide. The fuel is composed mostly\nof charcoal and of sun-dried _brattis_ or cow-chips. After two or three\nhours\u2019 smelting the cooled crucibles are broken up, when the regulus\nappears in the shape and size of half an egg. According to Tavernier,\nthe best buttons from about Golconda were as large as a halfpenny roll,\nand sufficed to make two Sword-blades (?). These \u2018cops\u2019 are converted\ninto bars by exposure for several hours to a charcoal fire not hot\nenough to melt them: they are then turned over before the blast, and\nthus the too highly carburised steel is oxidised.[385]\n\nAccording to Professor Oldham,[386] \u2018Wootz\u2019 is also worked in the\nDamudah Valley, at Birbh\u00fam, Dyucha, Narayanp\u00far, Damrah, and Goanp\u00far.\nIn 1852 some thirty furnaces at Dyucha reduced the ore to _kachh\u00e1_ or\npig-iron, small blooms from Catalan forges; as many more converted it\nto _pakk\u00e1_ (crude steel), prepared in furnaces of different kind. The\nwork was done by different castes; the Hind\u00eds (Moslems) laboured at the\nrude metal, and the Hind\u00fas preferred the refining work. I have read\nthat anciently a large quantity of Wootz found its way westward _vi\u00e2_\nPesh\u00e1war.\n\nWhen last visiting (April 19, 1876) the Mahabaleshwar Hills near\nBombay, I had the pleasure to meet Mr. Joyner, C.E., and with\nhis assistance made personal inquiries into the process. The\nwhole of the Sayh\u00e1dri range (Western Ghats), and especially the\n\u2018great-Might-of-Shiva\u2019 mountains, had for many ages supplied Persia\nwith the best steel. Our Government, since 1866, forbade the industry,\nas it threatened the highlands with disforesting. The ore was worked\nby the Hill-tribes, of whom the principal are the Dh\u00e1nwars, Dravidians\nnow speaking Hindustani.[387] Only the brickwork of their many raised\nfurnaces remained. For fuel they preferred the Jumbul-wood, and\nthe Anjan or iron-wood. They packed the iron and fourteen pounds of\ncharcoal in layers; and, after two hours of bellows-working, the metal\nflowed into the forms. The \u2018Kurs\u2019 (bloom), five inches in diameter\nby two and a half deep, was then beaten into T\u00e1w\u00e1s or plates. The\nmatrix resembled the Brazilian, a poor yellow-brown limonite striping\nthe mud-coloured clay; and actual testing disproved the common idea\nthat the \u2018watering\u2019 of the surface is found in the metal. The Jauhar\n(\u2018jewel\u2019 or ribboning) of the so-called \u2018Damascus\u2019 blade was produced\nartificially, mostly by drawing out the steel into thin ribbons which\nwere piled and welded by the hammer. My friend afterwards sent me from\nIndia an inkstand of Mahabaleshwar iron.[388]\n\nI could not learn from Hindus that they bury iron in the earth till the\n\u2018core\u2019 is reached. But they are well acquainted with tempering by cold\nimmersion, as noticed by Salmasius (\u2018Exercit. Plin.\u2019 763): they still\nbelieve with Pliny, Justin, and a host of others, in \u2018a Sword, the\nicebrook\u2019s temper,\u2019 and all hold that the hardening of metal depends\nmuch upon the quality of the water. They quench delicate articles in\noil, a method also alluded to by Pliny, but they ignore his statement\n(xxviii. 41) that rust produced by goat\u2019s blood gives a better edge\nto iron than the file. I am not aware that they have ever used for\nquenching purposes quicksilver, the best conductor of heat.\n\nIn Burmah, as in India, the chief peculiarity of iron-smelting is\nthe use of green-wood fuel.[389] Throughout the mighty \u2018Hollander\u2019\nArchipelago of the Farther East, this metal, known in former days\nonly by importation, is now everywhere common. Java received the\nEgyptian arts from India, which colonised her about the beginning of\nthe Christian era: the now untravelled Hind\u00fa was then a voyager and an\nexplorer. Dr. Percy describes the iron-smelting of Borneo,[390] which\nproduces the Parangilang, a peculiar Sword-like weapon equally fit for\nfelling trees and men.[391] At Tahiti (Otaheiti), on the other hand,\nCaptain Cook was unable to make the natives appreciate the use of metal\ntill his armourer wrought an iron adze in shape like the native.\n\n[Heading: _IRON IN CHINA._]\n\nThe oldest, and indeed the only, Chinese word for iron is \u9435\u2014_tie_,\nformerly pronounced _tit_. It is first mentioned among the\ntribute-articles of Yu in the Yu-Kung section of the Shoo-King,[392]\nand the latter has been estimated to date from B.C. 2200\u20132000. If this\nbe fact, hieroglyphic tablet-writing flourished amongst the \u2018Bak\u2019 some\nfive hundred years before the age popularly attributed to the Hebrew\nScriptures, and when the Greeks had not begun to form a nation.[393]\nEither then the Sinologues, like the Sanskritists, have been deluded\nby the artful native into admitting the preposterous claims to\nantiquity of culture always advanced by semi-barbarous peoples; or,\nwhat is hardly likely, China formed a centre of Turanian civilisation\nwholly independent of Egypt and Chald\u00e6a. Indeed, there appears to\nhave been some contact of ideas in the matter of writing. The Kemite\ndenoted \u2018man\u2019 and \u2018eye\u2019 by copying nature; and probably the Chinese did\nthe same. But the Turanian symbols have lost, by the law of pictorial\nevanescence, the original forms: \u2018man\u2019 has become \u4eba = jin (No. 9),[394]\na pair of legs; and \u2018eye\u2019 \u76ee = m\u016dh (No. 109), looks as if copied from\na cat. The picture-origin of the Assyrian syllabary has also been\nsatisfactorily established by the Rev. W. Haughton, but the later forms\nare as degraded as in the hieratic and demotic Egyptian.[395]\n\nThe passage above alluded to enumerates the articles of tribute as\n\u2018musical gems-stones,\u2019 iron, silver, steel, stones for arrow-heads, and\nsounding stones, with the skins of bears, great bears, foxes, jackals,\nand articles woven with their hair.\u2019 Dr. Legge adds in a note: \u2018By \u9435 =\n_Tie_, we are to understand \u201csoft iron,\u201d and by \u93e4 = _Low_ or _Lowe_,\n\u201chard iron\u201d or \u201csteel.\u201d At the time of the Han dynasty, \u201ciron-masters\u201d\n(\u9435\u5ba7) were appointed in the several districts of the old Leangchou, to\nsuperintend the iron-works. Tsa\u2019e refers to two individuals mentioned\nin the \u201cHistorical Records\u201d; one of the surname Ch\u2019o, (\u5353\u6c0f), and the\nother of the surname Ch\u2019ing (\u7a0b), both of this part of the empire, who\nbecame so wealthy by their smelting that they were deemed equal to\nprinces.\u2019 According to the Rev. Dr. Edkins, \u2018with the exception of this\npassage there is probably no distinct allusion to iron in writings\nolder than B.C. 1000;\u2019 and his statement seems to establish the date of\nChinese technology and civilisation.\n\nAbout B.C. 400 the celebrated author and philosopher Leih-Tze\nmentions steel, and describes the process of tempering it. In the\n\u2018K\u2019ang-hi-tse-tien\u2019 (\u5eb7\u7199\u5b57\u5178), better known as \u2018Kanghi\u2019s Dictionary,\u2019\npublished about A.D. 1710, the author represents the Serican\ncontemporary of Aristotle as saying that \u2018a red blade will cut Hu\n(jade or nephrite) as it would cut mud.\u2019 Mr. Day makes this to mean a\n\u2018reddish-coloured blade,\u2019 red being one of the many tints which a clean\nsurface of steel acquires in the process of tempering. It certainly\ncannot refer to red-hot steel, which would make no impression upon\npietra dura. The description of steel-making in B.C. 400 is so far\ncomplete that it names and describes the several kinds. The first\ntreatment produces \u2018Twan-Kang\u2019 or ball-steel, so called from the\nrounded bloom,[396] or \u2018Kwan-Kang\u2019 (sprinkled steel), because treated\nwith cold affusion. There is also \u2018Wei-Tie\u2019 or false steel. The writer\nsays: \u2018When I was sent on official business to Tse-Chow and visited the\nfoundries there, I understood this for the first time. Iron has steel\nwithin it, as meal contains vermicelli. Let it be subjected to fire a\nhundred times or more; it becomes lighter each time. If the firing be\ncontinued until the weight does not diminish, it is pure steel.\u2019[397]\n\nAbout the beginning of the Christian era a tax was levied upon iron by\nthe State exchequer, showing that the manufacture had become important.\nAccording to the Pi-tan or Pencil-Talk, written probably under the\nMing dynasty[398] (A.D. 1366\u20131644), steel is thus made: \u2018Wrought iron\nis bent or twisted up; unwrought iron (i.e. iron-ore or cast-iron) is\nthrown into it; it is covered up with mud and subjected to the action\nof fire, and afterwards to the hammer.\u2019 This is the old and well-known\nprocess of steeling practised by the Greeks. Wrought iron was either\nimmersed into molten cast-iron as into a bath, or it was heated with\niron-ore and layers of charcoal-fuel covered with alternate strata of\nclay to exclude atmospheric influence, a treatment somewhat similar to\nwhat is still called \u2018cementation.\u2019[399] The ore was thus deoxidised by\ncontact with excess of carbon; and a molten carburet was the result.\nIt is not a little curious, as Mr. Day observes, to find Aristotle\nand Lieh-Tze describing the same process about the same time. But\nI hesitate to conclude with that able writer that the fact has any\nbearing upon \u2018the old doctrine of the original unity of the human\nrace; each section of mankind carrying off with them that common stock\nof knowledge which the entire family possessed before separation.\u2019\nMr. Day, I have said, systematically opposes the \u2018High Antiquity\nTheory\u2019 (p. 208); and, though he holds to Revelation and to Biblical\nchronology, he has a curious tendency towards the mystical etymology of\nthe Jacob Bryant school, and the obsolete Phallic theories revived by\nthe learned and able work of the late Dr. Inman.[400]\n\nThe Pent Saow, also attributed to the days of the Mings, speaks of\nthree kinds of steel used for knives and Swords, a division which again\nreminds us of Daimachus. The first is made by adding unwrought to\nwrought iron, while the mass is subjected to the action of fire. The\nsecond is simply the result of repeated firings as practised in Africa.\nThe third is native steel produced in the south-west at Hai-shan: \u2018In\nappearance it resembles the stone called \u201cTsze-shih-ying\u201d (purple stone\nefflorescence).\u2019 It is understood that the process of manufacture is\nkept secret. The \u2018Hankow-steel,\u2019 which comes to Tien-tsin from the\nupper Yang-tse, is most prized; and commands much higher prices than\nthe best imported English and Swedish; the Chinese, like the \u2018Caffirs,\u2019\nlook upon these as \u2018rotten iron.\u2019\n\nChina also had her \u2018literary blacksmith,\u2019 like Wieland Smith, the\nnorthern D\u00e6dalus. We read that Hoang-ta-tie of T\u2019ancheu, who lived\nunder the Sung, followed the craft of an ironsmith. Whenever he was\nat his work he used to call without intermission on the name of Amita\nBuddha. One day he handed to his neighbours the following verses of his\nown composing to be spread about:\u2014\n\n Ding-dong! the hammer-strokes fall long and fast,\n Until the iron turns to steel at last!\n Now shall the long long Day of Rest begin,\n The Land of Bliss Eternal calls me in.\n\nThereupon he died. But his verses spread all over Honan, and many\nlearned to call upon Buddha.\n\nThe oldest Chinese iron-works were at Shansi and Chilili in the Ho\ndistricts, where there are inexhaustible deposits of ore and coal, and\nwhere the metal is worked to the present day. In 1875 Commissioner\nLi-hung-Chang, raised from the Government-General of Chilili to be\nMinister of the young King, sent Mr. James Henderson to England with\norders to bring out the most modern appliances and apparatus for\nmetal-working. It was proposed to build the new works at Tsze-Chow,\na town two hundred miles south-west of Tien-tsin, the head-quarters\nof the Governor-General. Mr. Henderson had visited (1874) the\nestablishment near Yang-Ching, Shansi, which had before been described\nby Baron von Richtofen and Dr. Williamson.[401] The iron ore bought\nat Ping-ding-Chow was found at the Royal School of Mines, London, to\ncontain fifty per cent. of iron, loose h\u00e6matite with little or no\nsulphur.\n\nM. S\u00e9voz, an engineer of mines long resident in Japan, studied\niron-working in the province of Ykouno.[402] He found the people\nusing an imperfect Catalan method, but able to treat at once sixteen\nthousand kilogrammes of ore, and to produce blooms weighing one\nthousand three hundred kilogrammes. These huge rods were broken up\nunder a hammer constructed in the style of a pile-driving ram, to which\nmotion was given by a walking-wheel 11\u00b75 m\u00e8tres in diameter, mounted by\nmen. The description does not promise much; but Japan, though holding\nto her ancient methods in districts unknown to Europeans, produces iron\ncheaper than the English. Of her marvellous Swords I shall treat in\nPart II.\n\nThe people of Madagascar worked iron,[403] but their name of the\nmetal is Malayan; hence Mr. Crawford traced the art back to Malacca.\nYet the Malay did not extend it far eastwards: according to Mr. E.\nB. Tylor,[404] \u2018In New Zealand, where there is good iron-ore, there\nwas no knowledge of iron previously to the arrival of Europeans.\u2019\nPassing over to the American continent, we find an immense industry\nof copper, but so little iron that, till late years, the indigenes\nwere supposed not to have worked it. Ynka mines, however, have been\ndiscovered near Lake Titicaca; while excavations in the tumuli of\nthe mysterious \u2018Mound-builders,\u2019 who may have attempted to reproduce\nthe Egyptian Pyramid, yielded axes described to be of \u2018h\u00e6matite\niron-ore,\u2019 one of the easiest metals to smelt, and for that reason\nprobably one of the first worked. Mr. Day, who figures one of these\ntool-weapons with the hammer-marks (p. 218), supposes it to have been\n\u2018metallic iron,\u2019 pronouncing h\u00e6matite \u2018extremely brittle and absolutely\nunforgeable.\u2019[405] He quotes Mr. Charles C. Abbott,[406] who procured\nother specimens of aboriginal manufacture from the mounds. One hatchet\nwas four and a half inches long by two broad, and nearly uniform in\nthickness, three-sixteenths of an inch; it had a well-defined edge,\nwhich from its slightly wavy outline and varied breadth, appeared to be\nhammered, not ground. According to Major Hotchkiss, who owned two other\nsimilar specimens, a series of four was found under an uprooted tree on\nan Indian trail in West Virginia.\n\nFragments of unworked h\u00e6matite, small and irregular, were used instead\nof flint for arrow-heads.[407] Mr. Abbott also notices \u2018a curious form\nof \u201crelic,\u201d known as a \u201cplummet,\u201d occasionally occurring and made of\niron ore: one specimen[408] \u201cis made of iron ore ground down until it\nis almost as smooth as glass.\u201d As such \u201cplummets\u201d are found in the\nWestern Mounds, as well as on the surface of the ground throughout\nthe Atlantic coast States, and are always polished, it seems fair\nto presume that a cutting instrument of such hard material would\nundoubtedly be polished and ground, if at the time of its manufacture\ngrinding was known or practised among the aborigines in fashioning\ntheir various weapons and instruments.\u2019\n\n[Heading: _IRON IN AFRICA._]\n\nBut if the savages and barbarians of Oceania and the New World rarely\nworked iron, the contrary was the case with the equally uncivilised\nAfrican races, negroid and negro, who, however, had the advantage of\ndwelling within importing and imitating distance of Egypt. I have\nelsewhere noticed the excellent assegai-blades of the Bantu (Kafirs);\nnor is this art confined to the southern regions.[409] Dr. Percy\njustly makes wrought iron the original form, which we see retained\nin the obscurer parts of Asia and Africa. The people always worked\nby the \u2018direct process,\u2019 the oldest style; which, however, is not\nwholly extinct in Europe. The art, quasi-stationary among wild men,\ntreats small quantities at a time: the \u2018voracious iron-works\u2019 of which\nEvelyn first speaks, are beyond its wants. Moreover it can utilise\nonly rich ores, unlike the \u2018indirect process\u2019 of producing cast-iron\nby the blast-furnace.[410] When the ore is nearly pure, a small\naddition of carbon would convert it into steel;[411] and the latter\nis so easily made, that the wild Hill-peoples of Africa and India\nproduce, and have produced from time immemorial, an excellent article\nin the most primitive way. The proportion of charcoal is considerably\nincreased, and the blast is applied more slowly than when wrought iron\nis required. The only apparatus wanted for the manufacture is a small\nclay furnace, four feet high by one to two broad, like that used by the\nSouth Africans; charcoal for fuel, and a skin with a pipe or twyers\nof refractory clay for the blast.[412] For the anvil a stone-slab\nsuffices, and for the hammer a cube of stone with sides grooved for\nfibre-cords.\n\nThe \u2018Dark Continent\u2019 is emphatically an iron-land, and all explorers\nhave noticed its abundance of ore. Mungo Park[413] mentions the surface\nironstone of dull red tint with greyish spots used by his \u2018Mandingos\u2019:\nBarth confirms his assertion by describing magnetic metal about Kuka\nof the Mandengas, and at Jinninau in the Kel-owi or Tawareh country:\nDurham and Clapperton, when near Murzuk, found kidney-shaped lumps\nupon the surface; and about Bilma, capital of the Tibb\u00fas, nodules\nof iron-ore puddinged in the red sandstones\u2014could this have been\nlaterite or volcanic mud? It was the only metal seen in the hills\nof Mandara; but the Bornuese prefer to import their supply from the\nneighbouring Sudan. Mr. Warren Edwards, who had temporary charge of a\nNiger expedition, observed the natives supporting their cooking-pots\nover the fire with fragments of surface ironstone; and it often struck\nhim (as it does most men) that by some such means the smelting-process\nsuggested itself. The metal is abundant in the Gaboon country, where\nthe Mpangwe or Fans,[414] the western outliers of the great race,\nmostly cannibal, holding the heart of Africa, are able workers. They\nhave a kind of \u2018fleam-money,\u2019 small iron bars shaped somewhat like\na large lancet. I came upon the metal everywhere in Unyamwezi,\nthe \u2018Mountains of the Moon,\u2019 and to this universal presence of\nironstone\u2014not to damp and heat\u2014the Portuguese attribute the marvellous\ndisplays of electricity throughout Central Africa. A whole night will\npass during which the thunder is never silent; and the lightning\nenables one to read small print, like an electric light. Captain\nGrant, in his \u2018Walk across Africa,\u2019 tells us that the people pick up\nwalnut-sized nuggets of iron covered with dusty rust, and in a short\ntime produce a spear-head that glistens like steel. My fellow-traveller\nto the Gold Coast, Captain Cameron, when crossing Africa, in most\nplaces found iron and iron-smelting.[415] In Kordofan, Mr. Petherick\nsaw a rich surface oxide containing from fifty-five to sixty per cent.\nof pure metal. Livingstone remarked iron in the eastern regions of\nAngola,[416] and traced it up the Zambeze-line from east to west. Mr.\nC. T. Anderson describes it as occurring in large quantities, either\nof ironstone or pure in a crystallised state. Finally, good old Kolben\nmentions large iron-flakes on the surface near The Cape.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 104.\u2014IRON SMELTING FURNACE AMONGST THE MAR\u00c1VE\nPEOPLE.]\n\nBut, as Colonel A. Lane Fox remarks:[417] \u2018Simple heating is not\nsufficient for working iron: a continuous air-blast is required to\nkeep the temperature at a certain height.\u2019 It is interesting to see\nthe means adopted by barbarians for procuring this necessary; and,\nhaving carefully studied it in various parts of Africa, I devote to it\nthe remainder of this chapter. As Pliny repeats from Aristotle, \u2018Libya\nalways produces something new.\u2019\n\nAccording to Strabo, Anacharsis[418] the Scythian, who flourished in\nthe days of Solon (B.C. 592), invented not only the anchor[419] and\nthe potter\u2019s wheel, but also the bellows. In Egypt, however, we find\nthat these discoveries were already a thousand years old at least. The\nearliest appearance of the latter is the forge and bellows (in Egyptian\n\u2018H\u2019ati\u2019), depicted on the walls of a tomb in the days of Thut-mes III.,\nabout B.C. 1500. The workman stands on two bags of skin, such as are\nstill used to hold water, alternately weighing upon one and upon the\nother; he inflates them in turns by pulling up a cord which opens a\nvalve, and then he closes the hole with his heel. The bellows have\ntwyers, and the illustrations[420] show a crucible and a heap of ore:\nwhile the material of the H\u2019ati is indicated by its determinative, a\nhide with a tail. This rude contrivance was adopted by the Greeks and\nRomans: hence the \u2018taurini folles\u2019 of Plautus: and Virgil\u2019s\u2014\n\n ... Alii ventosis follibus auras\n Accipiunt redduntque.\u2014_\u00c6n._ viii. 449.\n\nThe wind-bag[421] would be made of ox-hide, of goat-skin, or\nof the spoils of smaller animals, according to the volume of draught\nrequired. And thus, also, would originate the bagpipe, an instrument\ncommon to almost all original peoples.\n\nBut in the Dark Continent we find still in use an older form than that\nknown to Thut-mes, and the earliest of the four several varieties.\nThe late Mr. Petherick describes this rude contrivance in Kordofan:\n\u2018The blast is supplied by skin bags worked by hand; these bags are\nmade of skins, which are flayed by two incisions from the tail down\nto the hocks; the skin, being drawn over the body, is cut off at the\nneck, which makes the mouth of the bag. After tanning, the hind legs\nare cut off, and each side of the skin sewn on to a straight piece of\nstick; loops are placed on the outside for the fingers of the operator\nto pass through. It can be opened and closed at pleasure; the neck is\nsecured to a tube of baked clay, and four men or boys seated round the\ncupola, each with a bellows of this primitive description, produce a\nblast by opening the bags when drawing them towards them, and closing\nthem quickly, push them forward; by which means the compressed bags\ndischarge the air through the tubes into the furnace, quick alternate\nmovements of the arms of the operator producing a blast, which throws\nout a flame about a foot high from the top of the furnace; and the\nslag with the metal is allowed to collect in a hole beneath it.\u2019\nCasalis similarly describes the Basuto bellows, and Mungo Park that of\nMandenga-land; Browne saw it in D\u00e1r-For,[422] and Clapperton in Kuka\nand in the Highlands of Mandara, where the anvil was a coarse bloom of\niron, and the hammers two lumps weighing about two pounds each. This\nis the bellows of Kathiaw\u00e1d[423] and of Kolapor in the Deccan, where\nCaptain Graham notices that the _m\u00fas_ or tubes for the blast are clay\nmixed with burnt and powdered flint. Mr. E. B. Tylor found it used by a\ntravelling tinker at P\u00e6stum.\n\nThe second and improved variety of African bellows was described by\nmyself during a visit to Yoruban Abeokuta. It deserves attention\nbecause it is a notable step in progress, leading to a further\ndevelopment; the troughs are a rudimentary cylinder, and the handles\nform an incipient piston.[424] \u2018The two bags of goat-skin are made fast\nin a frame cut out of a single piece of wood; the upper part of each\n_follis_ has, by way of handle, a stick two feet long, so that it can\nbe worked by one man either standing or sitting. The handles are raised\nalternately by the blower, so that when one receives the air, the other\nejects it; the form is like that used on the Gold Coast; and there is\na perpendicular screen of dried clay through which the nozzle of the\nbellows passes, supplying a regular blast.\u2019\n\nEvidently in this stage of the bellows, the lower halves of the\nleather bags are useless: the result would be the same if only the\nupper part of the wooden troughs were covered with skin, air-tight\nbut loose enough to make play. This third step has been taken by the\nDjour (J\u00far) tribes of the Upper Nile, in north latitude 20\u00b0, and it is\nthus described by Mr. Petherick: \u2018The blast-pipes are made as usual of\nburnt clay, and are attached to earthen vessels about eighteen inches\nin diameter and six inches in height, covered with a loose, dressed\ngoat-skin, tied tightly round them and perforated with a few holes, in\nthe centre of which is a loop to contain the fingers of the operator.\nA lad, sitting between two of these vessels, by a rapid alternate\nvertical motion drives a continuous current of air into the furnace.\u2019\n\n[Heading: _THE BELLOWS IN AFRICA._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 105.\u2014PORTABLE AFRICAN BELLOWS.]\n\nThis brings us to the fourth and last stage of African\nblast-improvement (fig. 105). Here the rudely-hewn wooden tube becomes\na double-barrelled forcing-pump. The two air-vessels with their loose\nskin-coverings are attached to each base of the two central pipes that\njoin into one. Such is the shape used in Madagascar, the cylinders\nbeing of bamboo, five feet long by two inches in diameter, and the\npiston a stick ending in a bunch of feathers.\n\nThe bellows described by Dampier in Mindanao and elsewhere in the Malay\nArchipelago, is evidently borrowed from the Madagascar type; and into\nBorneo, Siam, and New Guinea a hollowed trunk takes the place of the\nbamboos. The sculptures in the Sukuh-temple of Java, attributed to\nthe fifteenth century, represent smiths making Kr\u00edses (Creases), the\nbellows being worked by another man, who holds a piston upright in each\nhand. Colonel A. Lane Fox is of opinion that the sculptures \u2018possibly\npoint to a Hindu origin for this particular contrivance.\u2019 I agree with\nhim, but I would also trace the Asiatic article back to its old home in\nAfrica\u2014Egypt.\n\nThe nature of fuel was determined by the supply of the country. That\nof Egypt probably consisted of cattle-chips, a material still used by\nthe Fellahs. A later allusion to this article is found in the legend\nof \u2018Wieland Smith\u2019: he mixes iron-filings with the meal eaten by his\ngeese, carefully collects the droppings, and out of them forges a blade\nwhich cuts a wool-flock or cleaves a man to the belt without turning\nedge.\n\nI conclude this chapter with the following table,[425] printed by Mr.\nDay at the end of his \u2018High Antiquity of Iron and Steel.\u2019 It gives\nat one view the languages, the characters, the phonetic values, the\nEnglish equivalents, and the oldest known dates of the metals to which\nhe refers. I differ from him in sundry points, and these I have taken\nthe liberty to point out in italics.\n\n GENERAL TABLE OF TERMS.\n\n+--------------------------+-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| LANGUAGE | | | | |\n+------------+-------------+ CHARACTERS | PHONETIC VALUE | ENGLISH | OLDEST KNOWN |\n| NAME | FAMILY | | | EQUIVALENT | DATE OF |\n+------------+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| | |[Hieroglyphs]| Ba. | Earth, | |\n| | | | | Metal. | |\n| | | | | | 2200 |\n| | Hamitic, |[Hieroglyphs]| Ba. | Iron. | to |\n| Egyptian | with | | | | 2300 |\n|Hieroglyphs.| Semitic |[Hieroglyphs]| Ba\u2019a. | Iron, | B.C. |\n| | Infusion. | | | Earth. | |\n| | | | | | |\n| | |[Hieroglyphs]| Ba\u2019aenpe. | Iron. | |\n| | | | | | (_B.C. 4500?_) |\n| | |[Hieroglyphs]| Bet. | Iron. | |\n+------------+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| Akkadian. | | [Cuneiform] | Hurud. | Iron. |{Oldest Monuments,|\n+------------+ +-------------+----------------+---------------+{ at least |\n| | | | | |{ 2000 B.C. |\n| Assyrian. | | [Cuneiform] | Eru. | Iron. |{ (_B.C. 4000?_) |\n+------------+ Semitic. +-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| | | \u05e0\u05d7\u05d5\u05e9\u05d4 | n\u2019gh\u014dsh\u0101h | Steel. | From |\n| | | \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc | barzel | Iron. | 1500 |\n| Hebrew. | | \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc \u05e2\u05e9\u05d5\u05ea | barzel y\u0101sh\u016bth | Bright Iron. | B.C. |\n| | | \u05d1\u05e8\u05d6\u05dc \u05de\u05d5\u05e6\u05e7 | barzel m\u016btz\u0101q | Cast Iron. | downwards. |\n+------------+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| | Sporadic | \u93e4 | Low, Lowe. | Steel. | |\n|Chinese. | or | \u9435 |Tie (pronounced | Iron. | |\n| [426] |llophyllian | | Tit). | | 2000 |\n| |(_Turanian_).| \u91d1 | Kin. | Metal. | B.C. |\n| | | \u9435\u5ba7 | -- | Iron-masters. | |\n+------------+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| | | | | | Oldest Sanskrit. |\n| Sanskrit. | | \u0906\u0930 | \u00c1ra. | Iron. | Probably |\n| | | \u0905\u092f\u0938\u094d | Ayas. | Iron. | B.C. 1500. |\n| | | | | | (_B.C. 400?_) |\n+------------+ Aryan. +-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n| | | \u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c8 | Khalyps. | Steel. | Homeric |\n| | | \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 | Sideros. | Iron. | Age. |\n| Greek. | | | |{Blue Metal, | |\n| | | \u03ba\u03cd\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 | Cyanos. |{prob. tempered| -- |\n| | | | |{Steel. | |\n| | | \u1f00\u03b4\u03ac\u03bc\u03b1\u03c2 | Adamas. | Steel. | Hesiod. |\n+------------+-------------+-------------+----------------+---------------+------------------+\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VII.\n\n THE SWORD: WHAT IS IT?\n\n\nHaving now reached the early Iron Age, which ends prehistoric annals,\nit is advisable to answer the question\u2014\u2018What is a Sword?\u2019\n\nThe word\u2014a word which, strange to say, has no equivalent in French\u2014is\nthe Scandinavian Sv\u00e4rd (Icel. Sver\u00f0); the Danish Sv\u00e6rd; the Anglo-Saxon\nSweord and Suerd; the Old German Svert, now Schwert, and the Old\nEnglish and Scotch Swerd. The westward drift of the Egyptian Sf,\nSefi, Sayf, Sfet, and Emsetf, gave Europe its generic term for the\nweapon.[427] The poetical is \u2018brand\u2019 or \u2018bronde,\u2019 from its brightness\nor burning; another name is \u2018laufi,\u2019 \u2018laf,\u2019 or \u2018glaive,\u2019 derived\nthrough French from the Latin _gladius_. Of especial modern forms\nthere are the Espadon, the Flamberg, Flammberg, or Flamberge,[428] the\nStoccado, and the Braquemart; the Rapier and the Claymore, the Skeyne\nand Tuck, the small-Sword and the fencing-foil, beside other varieties\nwhich will occur in the course of the following pages. \u2018Sword\u2019 includes\n\u2018Sabre,\u2019 which may also derive from the Egyptian through the Assyrian\nSibirru and Akkadian Sibir, also written Sapara; our \u2018Sabre\u2019 is the\nArabic Sayf with the Scandinavian terminative _r_ (Sayf-r). M\u00e9nage\nwould derive Sabre from the Armoric Sabrenn: Littr\u00e9 has the Spanish\nSable, the Italian Sciabola, Sciabla, and in Venice Sabala, from the\nGerman Sable or S\u00e4bel, which again identifies with other languages, as\nthe Serb Sablja and the Hungarian Sz\u00e1blya. The chief modern varieties\nof the curved blade are the Broadsword, the Backsword, the Hanger, and\nthe Cutlass, the Scymitar and D\u00fcsack, the Yataghan and the Flissa.\nThese several modifications will be considered in the order of their\ninvention. Lastly the Egyptian \u2018Sfet\u2019 originated through Keltic\nthe word Spata or Spatha[429] (Spatarius = a Swordsman) conserved\nto the present day in the neo-Latin names of the straight foining\nweapon\u2014espada, esp\u00e9, esp\u00e9e, \u00e9p\u00e9e.\n\nPhysically considered, the Sword is a metal blade intended for cutting,\nthrusting, or cut-and-thrust (_fil et pointe_). It is usually, but not\nalways, composed of two parts. The first and principal is the blade\nproper (_la lame_, _la lama_, _die Klinge_). Its cutting surface is\ncalled the edge (_le fil_, _il filo_, _die Sch\u00e4rfe_),[430] and its\nthrusting end is the point (_la pointe_, _la punta_, _die Spitze_ or\n_der Ort_, the latter mostly opposed to the _Mund_ or sheath-mouth).\n\nThe second part, which adapts the weapon for readier use, is the hilt,\nhilts or heft (_la manche_, _la manica_, _die Hilse_ or _das Heft_),\nwhose several sections form a complicated and a prodigiously varied\nwhole. The grip is the outer case of the tang, _alias_ the tongue (_la\nsoie_, _la spina_, or _il codolo_; _der Stoss_, _die Angel_, _die\nGriffzunge_ or _der Dorn_), the thin spike which projects from the\nshoulders or thickening of the blade (_le talon_ or _l\u2019\u00e9paulement_,\n_il talone_, _der Ansatz_ or _die Schulter_) at the end opposed to the\npoint. Sometimes there are two short teeth or projections from the\nangles of the shoulders, and these are called \u2018the ears\u2019 in English, in\nGerman, and in the neo-Latin tongues.\n\nThe tang, which is of many shapes\u2014long and short, straight-lined or\ncurvilinear, plain or pierced for attachment\u2014ends in the pommel or\n\u2018little apple\u2019 (_le pommeau_, _il pomolo_, _der Knauf_ or _Knopf_),\ninto which it should be made fast by rivets or screws. The object of\nthis globe, lozenge, or oval of metal is to counterpoise the weight of\nthe blade, to prop the ferient of the hand, and to allow of artistic\nornamentation. The grip of wood, bone, horn, ivory, metal, valuable\nstones, and other materials, covered with skin, cloth, and various\nsubstances, whipped round with cord or wire, is protected at the\nend abutting upon the \u2018chape\u2019[431] or guard proper (_la garde_, _la\nguardia_, _die Parirstangen_, _die Leiste_ or _die Stichbl\u00e4tter_)\nby the hilt-piece, which also greatly varies. It may, however, be\nreduced to two chief types\u2014the guard against the thrust, and the guard\nagainst the cut. The former was originally a plate of metal, flat or\ncurved, circular or oval, affixed to the bottom of the hilt, dividing\nthe shoulders from the tang: in fact, it was a shield in miniature\n(_la coquille_, _la coccia_, _das Stichblatt_). We still use the term\n\u2018basket-hilt,\u2019 and apply \u2018shell\u2019 (_la coque_, _la coccia_, _der Korb_\nor _die Schale_) to the semicircular hilt-guards\u2014mostly of worked,\nchased, embossed, or pierced steel\u2014which appear to perfection in the\nSpanish and Italian rapiers of the sixteenth century. This hilt-plate\nhas dwindled in the French fencing-foil to a lunette, a double oval\nof bars shaped like a pair of spectacles. In the Italian foil, which\npreserves the plate, the section of the blade between that and the\ngrip is called the _Ricasso_ (_a_); the parallel bar is the _Vette\ntraversale_ (_b_, _b_); and the two are connected by the _archetti d\u2019\nunione_ (joining bows, _c_, _c_).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 106.\u2014THE ITALIAN FOIL.]\n\nThe guard against the cut is technically called the cross-guard (_les\nquillons_,[432] _le vette_, _die Stichbl\u00e4tter_). This section is\ncomposed of one or more bars projecting from the hilt between tang\nand blade, and receiving the edge of the adversary\u2019s weapon should it\nhappen to glance or to glide downwards. The quillons may be either\nstraight (fig. 109)\u2014that is, disposed at right angles\u2014or curved (fig.\n107). When the two horns bend down from the handle-base towards the\npoint they are called _\u00e0 antennes_. Others are turned up towards\nthe hilt, counter-curved or inversed\u2014that is, faced in opposite\ndirections\u2014or fantastically deformed (fig. 110).\n\nOpposed to the guard proper is the bow or counterguard (_la\ncontregarde_, _l\u2019elsa_, _la contraguardia_, _der B\u00fcgel_). It is of two\nchief kinds. In the first the quillons are recurved towards the pommel:\nthe second is a bar or system of bars connecting the pommel with the\nquillons (fig. 108). The former defends the fingers, the latter serves\nto protect, especially from the cut, the back of the hand and the outer\nwrist. This modification, unknown to the ancients of Europe, became a\nfavourite in the sixteenth century, and it is still found in most of\nour actual hilts. Another product of the early modern age is the _pas\nd\u2019\u00e2ne_.[433] At the end of the fourteenth century it was composed of\ntwo circular or oval-shaped bars, disposed on both sides of, and partly\nover, the fort of the blade. In the sixteenth century it was generally\nadopted, and became a complicated and highly-decorated adjunct to the\nhandle. The _pas d\u2019\u00e2ne_ is now almost obsolete: a relic remains in our\narmy-claymore.[434]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 107.\u2014_a._ POMMEL; _b._ QUILLONS; _c._ PAS D\u2019\u00c2NE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 108.\u2014DOUBLE GUARD (GUARD AND COUNTERGUARD).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 109.\u2014STRAIGHT QUILLONS AND LOOPS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 110.\u2014FANTASTIC FORM.]\n\nWe may divide the shapes of blade into two typical forms with their\nminor varieties:\n\nI. The curved blade (sabre, shable, broadsword, backsword, cutlass,\nhanger, scymitar,[435] D\u00fcsack, Yataghan, Flissa, &c.) is\n\n _a._ Edged on both sides (Abyssinian).\n _b._ \u201e concave side (old Greek, Kukkri).\n _c._ \u201e convex (common sabre).\n\nII. The straight blade (Espadon, Flammberg, Stoccado, Braquemart,\nrapier, claymore, skeyne, tuck, small-sword, &c.): the varieties are:\n\n _a._ The cut-and-thrust, one- or two-handed.\n _b._ The broad and unpointed (headman\u2019s instrument).\n _c._ The narrow, used only for the point.\n\nIt is hardly advisable to make a third type of the half-curved blade,\nadapted equally for _tac et taille_ (cutting and thrusting), which we\nfind in ancient Assyria, in India, and in Japan. It evidently connects\nboth shapes.\n\nThe following diagram shows the three forms:[436]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 111.]\n\nI have given precedence to the curved blade because cutting is more\nfamiliar to man than thrusting. Human nature strikes \u2018rounders\u2019 until\nsevere training teaches it to hit out straight from the shoulder.\nAgain, the sabre-form would naturally be assumed by the sharpened\nclub during the wooden age of imperfect edges; and the penetrating\npower would be weak and almost _nil_ when the point was merely a\nfire-hardened stick.\n\n[Heading: _CUT AND THRUST._]\n\nYet there is no question of superiority between the thrust and the cut.\nAs the diagram[437] shows, A, who delivers point, has an advantage in\ntime and distance over B, who uses edge. Indeed, the man who first\n\u2018gave point\u2019 made a discovery which more than doubled the capability\nof his weapon. Vegetius tells us that the Roman victories were owing\nto the use of the point rather than the cut: \u2018When cutting, the right\narm and flank are exposed, whereas during the thrust the body is\nguarded, and the adversary is wounded before he perceives it.\u2019 Even\nnow it is remarked in hospitals that punctured wounds in the thorax or\nabdomen generally kill, while the severest incisions often heal. Hence\nNapoleon Buonaparte, at Aspronne, ordered the cavalry of the Guard to\ngive point. General Lamorici\u00e8re, a scientific soldier, recommended for\ncavalry a cylindrical blade, necessarily without edge, and to be used\nonly for the thrust: practical considerations, however, prevented its\nadoption. Moreover, the history of the \u2018white arm\u2019 tells us that the\npoint led to the guard or parry proper, and this \u2018defence with the\nweapon of offence\u2019 completed the idea of the Sword as now understood in\nEurope.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 112.]\n\nAgain, the peoples who fought from chariots and horseback\u2014Egyptians,\nAssyrians, Indians, Tartars, Mongols, Turks, and their brethren the\n\u2018white Turks\u2019 (Magyars or Hungarians), Sarmatians, and Slavs\u2014preferred\nfor the best of reasons the curved type. The straight Sword, used only\nfor thrusting, is hard to handle when the horse moves swiftly; and the\nbroad straight blade loses its value by the length of the plane along\nwhich it has to travel. On the other hand, the bent blade collects,\nlike the battle-axe, all the momentum at the \u2018half-weak,\u2019 or centre\nof percussion, where the curve is greatest. Lastly, the \u2018drawing-cut\u2019\nwould be easier to the mounted man, and would most injure his enemy.\n\nOn the other hand, the peoples of southern latitudes\u2014for instance,\nthose dwelling around the Mediterranean, the focus of early\ncivilisation, where the Sword has ever played its most brilliant\nand commanding part\u2014are active and agile races of light build and\ncomparatively small muscular power. Consequently they have generally\npreferred, and still prefer, the pointed weapon, whose deadly thrust\ncan be delivered without requiring strength and weight. For the inverse\nreason the sons of the north would choose the Espadon proper, the\nlong, straight, ponderous, two-edged blade which suited their superior\nstature and power of momentum.\n\nSuch is the geographical and ethnological view of Sword-distribution,\nbut it gives a rule so general that a multitude of exceptions must\nbe expected. As far as we know, the civilised Sword originated in\nEgypt, but it had many different centres of development. A gradual\nand continuous progress can be traced in its history till it was\nsuperseded by an even older form of attack\u2014the \u2018ballistic.\u2019 Yet some of\nthe earliest blades show the best forms, and the line of advancement\nat times becomes distorted or even broken. Again, many Southrons, and\nraces that fought on foot, have used the curved weapon, although the\nconverse, the adoption of the straight, pointed Sword by horsemen, is\ncomparatively rare.\n\nI now proceed to consider various points connected with the curved and\nstraight forms of blade. The experience of the Sword-cutter has noticed\nthat the shape of any pattern or model, whether of tool or of weapon,\nsuggests its own and only purpose. This is what we should expect. A\nswordsman chooses his Sword as a sawyer his saw. Show the mechanic a\nnew chisel, and its form at once explains to him its use: he learns by\nthe general shape, the edge-angle, the temper, the weight, and similar\nconsiderations, that it is _not_ made to drive nails, nor to bore\nholes, and that it is intended to cut wood or soft substances. Thus,\ntoo, the form of the Sword is determined by the duty expected of it.\n\nThe Sword has three main uses, cutting, thrusting, and guarding. If\nthese qualifications could be combined, there would be no difficulty in\ndetermining the single best shape. But unfortunately\u2014perhaps I should\nsay fortunately\u2014each requisite interferes to a great extent with the\nother. Hence the various modifications adopted by different peoples,\nand hence the successive steps of progress.\n\n[Heading: _THE CENTRE OF PERCUSSION._]\n\nThe simplest and most effective form of trenchant instrument intended\nfor cutting only is the American broad-axe used by squatters in the\nbackwoods. This revival of the proto-historic celt and headman\u2019s\ninstrument is a plain, heavy wedge of steel, fixed on a light, tough\nwooden helve or heft, thus concentrating all the force in the head that\nstrikes the blow. Here there is no uncertainty about the use; and, were\nit not necessary in swordsmanship to \u2018recover guard\u2019 and to save self\nas well as disable the assailant, it would be the best, as it is one of\nthe oldest, weapons derived from the club. But the cutting Sword, which\nin the short curved form is its congener, has a long blade that allows\na choice of cut\u2014a good choice and a bad choice. If the blow be made,\nfor instance, at a tree-branch with the Sword-point (the \u2018whole-weak\u2019),\nits sole effect will be to jar wrist and arm unpleasantly. The same\nresult will follow a blow with the \u2018whole-strong.\u2019 In either case the\nvibration of the blade shows a waste of strength. By the experiment\nof cutting along the entire length, inch after inch, and by comparing\nthe effect, the swordsman comes at last to a point, about the end of\nthe \u2018half-weak,\u2019 speaking roughly, where there is no jar, and where,\nconsequently, the whole force of the blow becomes effective. But\nour \u2018centre of percussion\u2019 must not be confounded with the \u2018centre\nof gravity.\u2019 This balance-position is situated in the middle of the\n\u2018whole-strong,\u2019 the proper part for guarding, and for guarding only.\n\nThe late Mr. Henry Wilkinson, of London, a practical man of science,\nfirst proposed a formula for determining the centre of percussion\nwithout the tedious process of experimenting with each and every blade.\nHis system was based upon the properties of the pendulum. A light rod,\nexactly 39\u00b72 inches long, capped with a heavy leaden ball, and swung\nto and fro upon a fixed centre, vibrates seconds or sixty times per\nminute in the latitude of London, and the three centres of percussion,\nof oscillation, and of gravity are concentrated within the ball. If it\nwere a mathematical pendulum\u2014a rod without weight\u2014these three points\nwould lie precisely in the core of the ball, or 39\u00b72 inches from\nthe place of suspension. The blade, to be graduated, is suspended,\ntight-fastened at the point on which it would turn when making a cut,\nand is converted by swinging into a pendulum. As the length is shorter,\nso the oscillations are quicker: the blade makes eighty movements to\nsixty of the pendulum. A simple formula determines the length of such\nan eighty-vibrations pendulum to be twenty-two inches. This distance,\nmeasured from the point at which the blade was suspended, is marked on\nthe back as the centre of percussion, where there is no jar, and where\nthe most effective cut can be delivered.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 113.\u2014THE INFANTRY \u2018REGULATION\u2019 SWORD. C.G. Centre\nof Gravity; C.P. Centre of Percussion.]\n\nAgain, an examination of the axe shows that the cutting edge lies\nconsiderably in advance of the wrist and hand, with the effect of\ncarrying the edge well forward on the \u2018line of direction,\u2019 which, in\nthe Sword, passes directly from pommel to point. If the edge were at\nthe back the tendency of the weapon would be to fall away from the\nline of cut, and this could be overcome only by a certain amount of\nwasted force. In nearly all curved Swords, except the Japanese, some\ncontrivance is made to give the feeling which we express by \u2018the edge\nleading well forward\u2019; and this point has been carefully studied by\nnations whose attack is the cut. Usually the line of hilt is thrown\nforward so as to form an angle with the axis of the blade, and the\nformer is made obtuser or acuter in proportion as the latter is more or\nless curved. By balancing the weapon upon the pommel the effect becomes\nevident; the edge falls forward like that of the axe.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 114.\u2014SCYMITAR.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 115.\u2014CLAYMORE.]\n\nThe superiority of the curved blade for cutting purposes is easily\nproved. In every cut the edge meets its object at some angle, and the\npenetrating portion becomes a wedge. But this wedge is not disposed\nat right angles with the Sword: the angle is more or less oblique\naccording to the curvature, and consequently it cuts with an acuter\nedge. The accompanying figures of a \u2018scymitar\u2019 and a claymore, both\ntrenchant blades, prove that, were the edge to describe a right line (A\nB) directed at any object (C), it would act as a wedge (D), measuring\nexactly the breadth of the blade. But the curve throws the edge more\nforward, and thus the \u2018half-weak\u2019 acts like a wedge (E), which is\nlonger and consequently more acute, the extreme thickness (that of the\nback or base) being a fixed measure. Similarly, by cutting still nearer\nthe \u2018weak\u2019 or point, the increased curvature gives a more prolonged and\nacuter cuneiform (F). Comparing the three sections of the same blade (D\nE F), which differ only in the angle at which the edge is supposed to\nmeet the obstacle, we see the enormous gain of cutting power.\n\nThe difference between the direct and the oblique cut is still better\nshown by the annexed diagram: \u2018Let A B C D (fig. 116) represent the\nportion of a Sword-blade, of which A B is the edge and C D the back,\nmeasuring about one-eighth of an inch in thickness. Now, if the object\nto be cut through is presented to the blade at right angles to the\nedge, as shown by arrow No. 1, then the section of the blade with which\nthe cut is to be effected will be as represented in the triangular\nsection F E G (fig. 117). But if the object be presented to the blade\nobliquely, as shown by arrow No. 2, then the section along the line of\nthe cut will be as represented by the angle C E K. It will readily be\nseen that in the latter case the acuteness of the angle at E is greatly\nincreased, whilst the substance is the same as in the other case. To\neffect this it is the custom in many parts of the East to strike with\na drawing cut, but the same purpose is secured by bending the blade\nbackwards: the curve itself presents the edge obliquely to the object\nwithout entailing the necessity of imparting a drawing motion to the\nstroke.\u2019[438]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 116.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 117.]\n\n_Par parenth\u00e8se_, it is this drawing motion which, added to the curve\nof the weapon and its oblique presentation, increases the trenchant\npower. The \u2018Talw\u00e1r,\u2019 or half-curved sabre of Hindustan, cuts as though\nit were four times as broad and only one-fourth the thickness of the\nstraight blade. But the \u2018drawing-cut\u2019 has the additional advantage of\ndeepening the wound and of cutting into the bone. Hence men of inferior\nstrength and stature used their blades in a manner that not a little\nastonished and disgusted our soldiers in the Sind and Sikh campaigns.\n\n[Heading: _SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES._]\n\nIf we consider the sections of cutting weapons, we find them all\nmodifications of that most ancient mechanical contrivance, the wedge,\nas shown by the following figures:\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 118.\u2014SECTIONS OF SWORD-BLADES.]\n\nThe first form (fig. 118) is the wedge that would be produced\nby taking for base the dorsal thickness of an ordinary blade, and by\ncontinuing it in an even line to the apex of the triangle\u2014the point.\nThe two sides meet at an angle of nine degrees; consequently the edge\nlacks the thickness, weight, and strength necessary for every cutting\ntool. For soft substances it should range from ten to twenty degrees,\nas in the common dinner knife. An angle of twenty-five to thirty-five\ndegrees, being the best for wood-working, is found in the carpenter\u2019s\nplane and chisel. For cutting bone the obtuseness rises to forty\ndegrees, and even to ninety; the latter being the fittest for shearing\nmetals, and the former for Sword-blades, which must expect to meet with\nhard substances. But even an angle of forty degrees will be ineffectual\nupon a thick head, unless the cut be absolutely true. No. 2 illustrates\nthe angle of resistance (forty degrees) and the entering angle (ninety\ndegrees). No. 3 shows that the true wedge of forty degrees is too thick\nand heavy for use, requiring some contrivance for lightening the blade,\nwhile preserving the necessary angle of resistance. The remaining\nsections display the principal modes of effecting this object. In\nNos. 4 and 6 the angle is carried in a curved and bulging line, thus\ngiving the section a bi-convex form. When the back or base is flat\nthis is the Persian and Khor\u00e1s\u00e1ni, vulgarly called the \u2018Damascus\nblade.\u2019 When baseless and two-edged it is the old \u2018Toledo\u2019 rapier\u2014two\nshallow-crowned arches meeting (3_a_, fig. 124). In both cases the\nweapon is strong, but somewhat overweighted. In the next shapes (Nos.\n5 and 7), the two sides are cut away to a flat surface and represent\nthe \u2018Talw\u00e1r\u2019 of India. When this flat surface is hollowed, as by the\nblack lines of No. 5 (compare No. 8), we have the bi-concave section,\nas opposed to the bi-convex. This hollowing of the wedge into two broad\ngrooves from the angle of resistance is one of the forms assumed by the\nEnglish \u2018regulation\u2019 Sword: it was considered the lightest for a given\nbreadth and thickness, but it is by no means the strongest, and there\nare sundry technical objections to it.\n\nThe remaining blades in the illustration are grooved in as many\ndifferent ways. The function of the _cannelure_ is to obviate\nover-flexibility; it also takes from the weight and adds to the\nstrength. By channelling either side of a thin or \u2018whippy\u2019 blade\nit becomes stiffer, because any force applied to bend such a blade\nsideways meets with the greatest amount of resistance that form can\nsupply. Mechanically speaking, it is to crush an arch inwards upon its\ncrown, and the deeper the arch the greater the resistance. Hence the\nnarrow groove is preferable to a broader channel of the same depth. No.\n9, hollowed on each side near the base, is a good old form, superior\nto the \u2018regulation\u2019 (No. 8): its weak point, the space between the\ngrooves where the metal is thinnest, lies in the best place\u2014near the\nback, where strength and thickness are least required. No. 10, though\nsomewhat lighter, doubles its weak points. No. 11 is better in this\nrespect: it has three grooves which are far shallower, and consequently\nthe metal between them is thicker. The same remark applies to Nos. 12\nand 13, which are sections of claymores, single- and treble-grooved.\n\nNo. 14 shows an ingenious method of obviating the weakness caused by\ndeep _cannelures_: it is the section of a blade made at Klingenthal\n(not \u2018Klegenthal\u2019), the Sword manufactory established by Napoleon\nBuonaparte in Elsass-Lothringen. Two very marked grooves are cut in the\nmetal, but not directly opposite each other, and thus the channels can\ntouch and even overlap the axial line. This disposition gives great\nstiffness, but, as testing shows, the edge is deficient in cutting\npower, probably from loss of force by vibration.\n\nNos. 15 and 16 are experimental blades. The former has the groove\nplaced in the base, preserving the wedge-sides intact; but there is\ngreat difficulty about grinding this shape, and, the resistance of the\narch-crown being wanting, there is a small increase of stiffening\u2014the\nSword, in fact, \u2018springs\u2019 almost as readily as the straight form.\nNo. 16 has some good points, but, on the whole, the combination is a\nfailure. Lastly, No. 17, the old \u2018ramrod-back\u2019 regulation blade, is\nperhaps the worst of all: the sudden change from the thick round base\nto the thin sharp edge makes an equal tempering very difficult, and the\nweapon cleverly undoes its own work, the base acting as check or stop\nto the cut.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 119.\u2014FOIL WITH FRENCH GUARD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 120.\u2014REGULATION SWORD FOR INFANTRY.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 121.\u2014SCYMITAR-SHAPE.]\n\nRemains now to consider the Sword as a weapon for point, a use to\nwhich, as its various shapes show, it was applied in the earliest ages\ninstinctively, as it were, before Science taught the superiority of the\nthrust to the cut. We learn from such hand-thrusting instruments\u2014the\nawl, gimlet, needle, and dinner-fork\u2014that the straight weapon may\nbe considered a very acute wedge with a method of progression\nmostly oblique. It is easy to prove that the proper shape for a\nthrusting-blade is pre-eminently the straight. Fig. 119 shows the foil\nmaking a hole exactly its own size. The \u2018regulation\u2019 Sword (fig. 120),\na shallow curve, opens, when moving in a direct line, about double its\nown width; a figure which the scymitar (fig. 121) increases to five or\nsix times, with a proportionate loss of depth at the same expenditure\nof force. This augmented resistance to penetration is one, but only\none, of the many difficulties in using a curved blade for a straight\nthrust.\n\nThis difficulty probably suggested the \u2018curved thrust\u2019 method of\npointing which the foil, as opposed to the rapier, has made popular.\nThe point is propelled, not in a straight line, but in the arc of a\ncircle more or less curved to correspond with the blade. The arm makes\nthis cycloidal movement readily enough, but under a disadvantage; as in\nthe cut the space traversed is longer than what is absolutely necessary\nto reach the object. Moreover, the movement cannot well be applied to\nthe lunge, so as to throw the weight of the body into the attack. Like\nthe \u2018thrusting-cut,\u2019 it is more fitted for horseback than for foot.\nAlthough doubtless the best way of pointing with a curvilinear blade,\nin no case is it better than the straight thrust.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 122.\u2014YATAGHAN.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 123.\u2014ORNAMENTAL YATAGHAN AND SHEATH.]\n\nThe \u2018curved thrust\u2019 so imposed upon Colonel Marey, of the French army,\nthat he proposed in an elaborate work on Swords (Strasburg, 1841) to\nadopt the Yataghan, whose beautifully curved line of blade coincides\naccurately with the motion of the wrist in cutting, and which he\nheld to be equally valuable for the point. As a regulation Sword for\ninfantry, it was spoilt by a cheap iron scabbard. As a bayonet it lost\nall its distinctive excellence: the forward weight, so valuable in\ncutting with the hand, made it heavy and unmanageable at the end of a\nmusket, and none but the strongest arms could use it, especially when\nthe thrust had to be \u2018lanced out.\u2019 Yet it lasted for a quarter of a\ncentury, and only in 1875 it was superseded by the triangular weapon\nattached to the _fusil Gras_.[439]\n\n[Heading: _SECTIONS OF THRUSTING-SWORDS._]\n\nFig. 124 shows sections of the principal forms of thrusting blades.\nNo. 1, whose section, a lozenge, is nearly square, consists of two\nobtuse-angled wedges joined at the bases, making a strong, stiff,\nand lasting, but very heavy, Sword. This form dates from the earliest\ntimes: we find it in the bronze rapiers of France and England, and it\nwas preserved in many of the Toledan, Bilbao, Zaragosan, Solingen, and\nItalian rapiers; it is known to English armourers as the \u2018Saxon,\u2019 and\nto workmen as the \u2018latchen\u2019-blade. Nos. 2 and 3 show two simple methods\nof lightening it, the former carrying down the axis a fore-and-aft\ngroove instead of the raised mid-rib on either face, which was used in\nthe days of the Trojan war. No. 4 is the so-called \u2018Biscayan\u2019 shape,\nthe _trialamellum_ of more ancient days, with three deep grooves and\nas many blunt edges, by which the parries were made. Theoretically\nit is good: practically and technically speaking, it is inferior to\neither of the preceding. There is so much difficulty in making the\nblade straight and of even temper that many professional men have\nnever seen one which was not either crooked or soft. Yet this is the\n\u2018small-Sword\u2019 proper, the duelling weapon of the last century, which\nstood its ground as far as the first quarter of the present century.\nIt had a curious modification\u2014the Colichemarde blade, so called from\nits inventor, Count K\u00f6nigsmark. This was a trialamellum very wide and\nheavy in the \u2018whole-strong\u2019 quarter near the hilt, and at about eight\ninches suddenly passing to a light and slender rapier-section. It\nwas invented about 1680, and became a favourite duelling-blade, the\nfeather-weight at the point making it the best of fencing weapons. It\nremained in fashion during the reign of Louis XIV. and then suddenly\ndisappeared.[440]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 124.\u2014SECTIONS OF THRUSTING-SWORDS.]\n\nThe small-Sword was introduced into England during the eighteenth\ncentury, and only after 1789 it ceased to be the almost universal\nFrench weapon in affairs of honour. I believe that the change to the\n_\u00e9p\u00e9e de combat_ and the foil arose from the popular prejudice that\nthe triangular blade is too dangerous for fair duelling, and that a\nbody-wound with it bleeds inwardly and is almost always fatal. This\n\u2018small-Sword,\u2019[441] however, left its descendant in our old bayonet,\nthe grooves being shallower and the ribs raised higher. No. 6, supposed\nto be an experimental Sword from the Klingenthal manufactory, dated\n1810\u201314, is a curious attempt to add cutting power to a quadrangular\nthrusting blade; but, as the angles are very acute, the blow will have\nhardly any effect. No. 7 is an improvement upon the latter, because it\nhas more trenchant capacity. The defect of both these Swords is that\nthey have a tendency to turn over in the hand, and to \u2018spring\u2019 at the\nflat side when the point meets with the least resistance.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 125.\u2014PIERCED BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 126.\u2014PIERCED BLADE AND SHEATH.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 127.\u2014FLAMBERGE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 128.\u2014GERMAN MAIN-GAUCHE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 129.\u2014PATERNOSTER.]\n\nThere are other ways of lightening the blade besides grooving. A\nfavourite fashion in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the golden\nage of the Sword, was to break the continuity by open work, which\nallowed free play to the ornamenter\u2019s hand. It was also supposed\nto render the wound more dangerous by admitting the air. As will\nafterwards be shown, certain Eastern and medi\u00e6val sabres were hollowed\nto contain sections or pennations, which sprang out in small lateral\nblades when a spring was touched. A German _main-gauche_ in the Mus\u00e9e\nd\u2019Artillerie, Paris (No. J. 485), shows three blades expanding by a\nspring when a button is pressed in the handle, and forming a guard of\ngreat length and breadth, in which the opponent\u2019s Sword might be caught\nand snapped. Another rare form was the \u2018Paternoster blade,\u2019 fitted with\nround depressions, which enabled the pious to count the number of his\n\u2018vain repetitions,\u2019 even in the dark (fig. 129).\n\nIt has been shown that the material determines the obtuseness or\nacuteness of the angle formed by the two planes which meet at the apex\nto form the edge. There are many varieties of the _fil_. The edge\nproper =V=, formed by the angles of resistance (forty degrees) and\nof entrance (ninety degrees), has already been noticed. Besides this\nthere are the chisel-edge, mostly applied to tools such as the plane;\nand lastly bevel-edge, or double-slope, [Symbol], which may be called\nthe chopper-edge: the obtuser angle is used for blades intended to cut\nlead-bars and similar resisting substances.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 130.\u2014MALAY KR\u00cdS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 131.\u2014WAVE-EDGED DAGGER.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 132.\u2014SAW-TOOTH BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 133.\u2014MAIN-GAUCHE.]\n\n[Heading: _OF THE EDGE._]\n\nIn the Sword the edge is usually straight. The principal exceptions are\nthe following. The wavy, cutting surface appears in the \u2018flamberge,\u2019\nto which flame gave a name[442]: it is nowhere better developed than\nin the beautiful Malay kr\u00eds (crease). The object seems to be that of\nincreasing the cutting surface. The wave-edged form is well shown\nin an iron dagger (end of fourteenth or early fifteenth century) of\nthe Nieuwerkerke Collection: similar weapons, taken from the Thames,\nare found in the British Museum, and they abound in Continental\ncollections. Often the waves are broken into saw-teeth: this apparently\nsilly contrivance is found on a large scale in Indian sabres; its\nlatter appearance farther west is on the precious saw-bayonet, a\ntheoretical _multum in parvo_ equally useless for flesh and fuel. Of\nsomewhat similar kind is the toothed edge, which is found in Arab,\nIndian, and other Eastern weapons. The deepest indentations are in\nthe so-called Sword-breakers (_brise-\u00e9p\u00e9es_), mostly of the fifteenth\ncentury. It is not easy to explain, except by individual freak, the\nmeaning of the toothed or broken edge which appears in a dagger of\nthe fourteenth century (fig. 137). Lastly, there is the hooked-edge,\nspur-edge, or prong-edge, whose projections are generally found in the\nflammberg (flamberge) proper, or two-handed Sword of wavy contour.\nThe hooks are either single or double, and the evident intention\nwas to receive the adversary\u2019s blade. As a rule the hollow of the\nhalf-crescent is towards the point: some project horizontally, but very\nfew are reversed or hollow towards the hilt, as that shape would lead\nthe adversary\u2019s blade to the forearm.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 134.\u2014SWORD-BREAKERS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 135.\u2014ONE-EDGED WAVE BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 136.\u2014COUNTERGUARD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 137.\u2014TOOTHED-EDGE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 138.\u2014HOOKED-EDGE.]\n\n[Heading: _OF THE POINT._]\n\nThe point again differs as much as the edge. The natural point would be\nthe prolongation and gradual convergence of various lines of the solid\nbody, conical, pyramidal, or polygonal, concurring in a common apex. In\nthe Japanese blade the edge-line is bent upwards to meet the back-line.\nWhen more strength is wanted the end is bevelled, forming, like the\nedge, a compound angle between forty and ninety degrees: it is thus\nfitted to meet hard bodies, and the obtuser the angle the stronger the\npoint.\n\nWhen edge only is regarded, as in the Schl\u00e4ger and the glaive, the\nSword of justice or the Scharfrichter\u2019s (headman\u2019s) weapon, the point\nof the very broad thin blade is rounded off. This, as will be seen,\nis the case with the early Kelto-Scandinavian Swords, miscalled\nAnglo-Saxon.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 139.\u2014EXECUTIONER\u2019S SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 140.\u2014JAPANESE TYPE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 141.\u2014CHINESE SABRE-KNIFE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 142.\u2014OLD PERSIAN SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 143.\u2014SCYMITAR.]\n\nThere is more variety in the extremities of cutting-blades. The\nfalchion of Ashanti, Dahome, and Benin, the murderous despotisms of\nwestern intertropical Africa, terminates in a whorl. This is also the\nshape of the Chinese sabre-knife, with which criminals were despatched.\nThe old Persian Sword, often called by mistake the Turkish Sword, ends\nin a point beyond a broadening of the blade. The effect is to add\nforce to the cut; the weapon becomes top-heavy, but that is of little\nconsequence when only a single slash, and no guarding, is required\nof it. This peculiarity was curiously developed in the true Turkish\nscymitar, which we see in every picture of the sixteenth century,\nand which has now become so rare in our museums. The end gradually\ndeveloped to a monstrous size; the length was cut down for the sake of\nhandiness and the guard was almost abolished, because parrying was the\nwork of the shield. This exceptional form extended far eastwards and\nwestwards. Some of the Nepaul Swords have a double wave at the end.\nIt was adopted by the Chinese, who, as usual in their arms, reduced\nit to its simplest expression: the pommel is cap-shaped, the handle\ncorded, and the guard a small oval of metal insufficient to protect\nthe hand (fig. 145). Another good specimen of the \u2018Turanian blade\u2019 is\nthe formidable D\u00e1o[443] of the N\u00e1g\u00e1 tribe, south-east of Assam. It is\na thick, heavy backsword, eighteen inches long, with a bevel where the\npoint should be, worn at the waist in a half-scabbard of wood, and\nused for digging as well as killing. The Turkish form also extended to\nEurope and America, where it became one of the multitudinous varieties\nof the \u2018mariner\u2019s cutlass,\u2019 from \u2018curtle-axe\u2019\u2014_curtus_ and axe. The\n\u2018Turanian blade\u2019 is well shown in Eastern scutcheons.[444] Its shape\nresembles that of a hunter\u2019s horn with a Sword-knot hanging in two\nribbons, a survival from remote antiquity. The tincts are purpure,\ngules and sable, upon a fasce tenn\u00e9 (\u2018on a fess\u2019 or bar) or, vert and\nargent. The descriptions are very precise and technical; for instance,\nAbu el-Mah\u00e1sin thus notices the Rank (armorial badges) of Anuk, son of\nAbdullah el-Ashraty: \u2018The coat was composed of a circle argent cut by a\nbar vert, upon which was charged a Sword gules.... This Rank was very\npleasing, and the women of the town had it tattooed upon their wrists.\u2019\nThe Rank was given when a subject was raised to the dignity of Amir.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 144.\u2014OLD TURKISH.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 145.\u2014CHINESE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 146.\u2014OLD TURKISH SCYMITAR.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 147.\u2014THE D\u00c1O.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 148.\u2014SAILOR\u2019S CUTLASS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 149.\u2014HINDU KIT\u00c1R.]\n\n[Heading: _CHELIDONIAN BLADES._]\n\nBefore ending the subject of the point I must briefly notice the forked\nor swallow-tailed blade, a curious subject deserving an exhaustive\nmonograph. The Greeks evidently derived their \u03c7\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03b4\u1f7c\u03bd or \u03c7\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03be\u03af\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2,[445] and the Latins their _bidens_, from the two-ended chisels\nso common in Egypt. As will be seen, there was a true forked Sword in\nAssyria, and the form is commonly found in Indian daggers.\n\nThe Chelidonian sabre has two distinct shapes. In one the plates are\nwelded together, and separate at the third or the fourth section near\nthe end. Mr. Latham (Wilkinson\u2019s) has a good specimen; the length of\nthe fork, however, is greater than the united part. In the Prince of\nWales Collection (Kensington) there is a two-bladed Sword, the fork\nonly eight inches long, with the additional peculiarity of being\nsaw-edged. In the other form, the Chelidonian proper, the fork is\nvertical, one prong being above the other. What use it could have\nsupplied in cutting is hard to divine, but the Sword is essentially\npersonal and eccentric. I know only one historical blade of this form,\nZ\u00fa\u2019l-Fik\u00e1r (Lord of Cleaving), the weapon given by the Archangel\nGabriel to Mohammed, and by the latter to his son-in-law Ali bin Ali\nT\u00e1lib, who cleft with it the skull of Marhab, the giant Jew warrior of\nKhaybar Fort. It appears upon the arms of the Zeydi princes, lords of\nSana\u2019\u00e1 in El-Yemen, Southern Arabia[446]: nearer home it may be seen\nupon the Turkish standard, some twenty feet long, taken by Don John of\nAustria from the Turk at Lepanto.[447] The weapon probably owes this\nhonour to having been mentioned amongst the Ah\u00e1d\u00eds, or traditional\nsayings of the Apostle of El-Islam, \u2018la Sayfa illa Z\u00fa\u2019l-Fik\u00e1r wa l\u00e1\nFat\u00e1 illa Ali\u2019 (there is no Sword to be compared, for doing damage to\nthe foe, with Z\u00fa\u2019l-Fik\u00e1r, and no valiant youth but Ali).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 150.\u2014GOLD COAST.]\n\nAmongst the Chelidonian blades proper I do not include the double\nblade. A fair specimen of the latter is the Orissa Sword[448]: two\nslightly oval forms spring from the same hilt, but separate throughout\ntheir length. Another shape is found upon the Gold Coast: the blades\nare disposed like the astronomical sign of Aries, and its only use is\nto slice off noses and ears.[449] The offending member is placed at the\ncommissure, and an upward shear effects the mutilation. I reserve for a\nfuture page the \u2018split Swords,\u2019 two blades in one scabbard, which were\nused in medi\u00e6val Europe, and which have been preserved in China.\n\nTo conclude this long and technical chapter. The Sword should be\ntightly mounted and well shouldered-up before and behind, leaving no\ninterval between hilt and blade. The grip must be firm, and the tang\nsecured either by rivets or, better still, by a screw at the pommel: if\nthis be neglected, the weapon will not deliver a true edge. In trials\nboth back and edge should be repeatedly struck with force upon a wooden\npost. Should the handle show no sign of loosening, and the blade ring\nwith the right sound, it is a sign that the mounting is satisfactory:\nthe reverse is the case if the blow jars or stings the hand: this\nsuggests that the cut will not prove efficient.\n\n \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022\n\nNOTE.\u2014The type and model of the straight blade is the form of Rapier\nwhich we call the Toledo. It is probably derived from the Spatha or\nlong Sword of the Roman cavalryman; but it assumed its present perfect\nshape during the reign of Charles Quint (A.D. 1493\u20131519). The exemplar\nof the curved blade is the so-called \u2018Damascus\u2019 sabre, dating probably\nfrom the early days of El-Islam (seventh century), when Eastern armies\nwere chiefly composed of light Bedawi horsemen. Of these in Part II.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER VIII.\n\n THE SWORD IN ANCIENT EGYPT AND IN MODERN AFRICA.\n\n\nThe present state of our history shows us nothing anterior to Egypt in\nthe civilisation of Language, of Literature, of Science, Art and Arms.\nWe must now modify and modernise the antiquated and obsolete saying\u2014\u2018ex\nOriente lux\u2019\u2014the fancy that illumination came from India, when the\nreverse is true. The light of knowledge dawned and dayed not in the\nEast, but in the South, in the Dark Continent, which is also the High\nContinent.[450] Nor can we any longer admit that\n\n Westward the course of empire takes its way.\n\nAs Professor Lepsius teaches us, \u2018In the oldest times within the memory\nof man, we know of only _one_ advanced culture; of only _one_ mode of\nwriting, and of only one literary development, viz. those of Egypt.\u2019\nKarl Vogt, a man who has the courage to say what he thinks, bluntly\nstates: \u2018Our civilisation came not from Asia, but from Africa.\u2019 For our\norigin we must return to\n\n The world\u2019s great mistress in the Egyptian vale.\n\nThe modern Egyptologist is reforming the false and one-sided theories\nbased upon the meagre studies of anthropological literature in Greek,\nLatin, and Hebrew. Yet in the Nile Valley we are only upon the\nthreshold of exploration\u2014topographical, linguistic, and scientific. Of\nits proto-Egyptians and its prim\u00e6val workmanship as yet we know little;\nand it is truly preposterous to suppose that man began his artistic\nlife by building pyramids, cutting obelisks, and engraving hieroglyphs.\nThe \u2018Cushite School,\u2019 based upon the Asiatic Ethiopians of Eusebius\nthe Bishop,[451] and unfortunately represented by Bunsen, Maspero,\nWilkinson, Mariette, Brugsch, and a host of minor names, has determined\nthat the old Nilotes \u2018undoubtedly came from Asia.\u2019 The theory utterly\nlacks proof; and the same may be said of the popular assertion, based\nupon Biblical grounds\u2014\u2018The early colonists of Egypt came thither\nfrom Mesopotamia.\u2019 We seem to be reading fable when told (by William\nOsburn[452]), \u2018The skill of these primitive artists of Egypt was a\nportion of that civilisation which its first settlers brought with them\nwhen they located themselves in the Valley of the Nile.\u2019\n\nMy conviction is that the ancient Egyptians were Africans, and pure\nAfricans; that the Nile-dwellers are still negroids whitened by a\nlarge infusion of Syrian, Arabian, and other Asiatic blood; and that\nEthiopia is its old racial home. \u00c6schylus had already robed their black\nlimbs in white raiment when Herodotus (ii. 104) made them dark-skinned\ncompared with the Arabs[453] and North Africans. Every traveller finds\nhis description hold good to the present day. Blumenbach declared\nthe old Egyptians to be of Berber origin, the race of Psametik, or\nthe Son of the Sun. Hartmann opined that they were not Asiatics but\nAfricans, and Dr. Morton modified his first opinion, finding the\ncranium to be negroid. I hope to prove their correctness by making a\nlarge collection of mummy skulls.[454] It is certain that the modern\nEgyptian\u2019s hair\u2014that great characteristic of race, according to Pruner\nBey\u2014is not silky, as Professor Huxley says, but wiry like that of\nhis forefathers.[455] Moreover, his type, as distinctly shown by the\nSphinx, is melanochroic-negroid. Lastly, there are other signs, which\nneed not here be noticed, distinguishing the African\u2014horse as well as\nhuman\u2014from the Arabian.\n\n[Heading: _ANTIQUITY OF EGYPT._]\n\nThere is a history of ancient Egypt, into which we have not yet\npenetrated. Herodotus (ii. 142) glances at it when he makes the\nPtah-priest at Memphis pretend to an antiquity of 11,340 years,[456]\nduring which reigned 341 generations of kings and pontiffs.[457] Plato\ndoes the same when he speaks of hymns 10,000 years old, and Mela[458]\nwhen he numbers 330 kings before Amasis, who ruled more than 30,000\nyears. Mena (Menes), the first man-monarch who founded Memphis (B.C.\n4560?) some centuries before the Hebrew Creation, was preceded for\n13,000 years by the \u2018Dynasty of the Gods\u2019 (god-kings), suggesting a\ngovernmental hierarchy of the fetisheer caste: and this lasted for\nages, till the Soldier upset the Priest and raised himself to the rank\nof Pharaoh[459] and king. Traces of the proto-Egyptian dynasties in\nwhich the men of the Pen controlled the men of the Sword long survived;\nand in later times the ecclesiastical order again ruled the military.\nWe know nothing of the hierarchical supremacy but its baldest outline.\nWhen our modest chronologists allow 6000 years to its incept, they\nrun into the contrary extreme of those who assign to it myriads of\ncenturies. Rodier[460] is more reasonable; he opines that the cycle of\n1,460 years dates in Egypt from B.C. 14,611.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 151.\u20141. BRONZE DAGGER; 2. SWORD (14 inches long).]\n\nAgain, it will probably be found that ancient Egypt was _not_ \u2018the\nnarrowest strip of land in the world running between a double desert.\u2019\nThe extent of \u2018Kemi\u2019[461] has been arbitrarily confined to the Riverine\nValley as far as the First Cataract, or seven hundred by seven miles\nwidening out in the Delta-netherland to a base of eighty-one miles. We\nmay fairly suspect that modern Masr is only a slice from the eastern\nhalf of the antique Mizraim. The Greeks made the frontier of Asia\nextend beyond the Suez isthmus and the Nile to the lands of Libya.[462]\nThis Greater Egypt is still suggested by the system of Bahr bil\u00e1 m\u00e1,\nlarge _Fiumare_ now bone-dry, and by the alignment of the oases in\nthe wilderness west of the River Valley with their giant ruins of\na proto-historic Past. These may date from the days when the basin\nof the Bahr el-Ghazal\u2014a lake like the Tanganyika and the Victoria\nNyanza\u2014discharged its annual flood to the North in channels parallel\nwith the \u2018River \u00c6gyptus.\u2019[463] The lacustrine bed would silt up by the\nnatural process of warping, and the surplus water, no longer able to\ndischarge northwards, would force itself eastwards to the Nile. The\neasier drainage would presently convert the lake into a river-basin and\nsystem, and the lands no longer irrigated would become a waste dotted\nlike a leopard skin with oases or watered valleys.\n\nAn abundance of popular literature has familiarised the public\nwith the outer aspect of ancient Egypt, but the world is still far\nfrom recognising the message she sent to mankind. We must go back\nto \u2018the Wonderland on the banks of the mighty Nile\u2019 for the origin\nof all things which most interest us. It is the very cradle-land\nof language. Her tongue contains all the elements of the so-called\n\u2018Aryan,\u2019[464] Semitic, and Allophyllian or Turanian families, and dates\nlong before the days of the present distribution. Bunsen\u2019s \u2018Egypt\u2019\nfirst noticed this fact at some length, without, however, dwelling\nupon its importance. \u2018All Semitic pronouns and suffixes,\u2019 says M.\nC. Bertin, \u2018can be traced back to Egyptian, especially the Egyptian\nof the earliest dynasties\u2019; he might have added much about other\nmechanical forms. Brugsch tells us (i. 3) that the primitive roots and\nthe essential elements of the Egyptian grammar point to an intimate\nconnection of the Indo-Germanic (!) and Semitic languages.[465] The\nAllophyllian or Agglutinative Turanian,[466] a _tertium quid_ which is\nneither \u2018Aryan\u2019 nor \u2018Semitic,\u2019 is also traceable in old Coptic.\n\n[Heading: _ORIGINS IN EGYPT._]\n\nWhat, then, do these facts suggest? Simply that the elements existing\nin Egyptian travelled from the banks of the Nile and evolved,\ndiscreted, and differentiated themselves in many centres. The\nword-compounding or Iranian scheme found homes in Eastern Europe\n(Greece, Italy, and the Slavonic or quasi-Asiatic half); in Asia\nMinor\u2014especially Phrygia\u2014in Mesopotamia, in Persia, and finally in\nIndia, where the settlement was comparatively modern. This explains\nhow a philologist would derive Sanskrit from Lithuania. This saves\nus from the \u2018Aryan heresy\u2019;[467] this abolishes \u2018Indo-European,\u2019 and\nworse still \u2018Indo-Germanic\u2019\u2014that model specimen of national modesty.\nBoth are terms which contain a theory and an unproved theory. Again,\nthe word-developing or Arabian scheme, absurdly termed Semitic (from\nShem!), increased, multiplied, and perfected itself in Northern Africa\nand Arabia, while the Turanian, becoming independent and specialised in\nAkkadian, overspread Tartary and China.\n\nAnd this one prim\u00e6val language of Egypt framed for itself an alphabet\nwhence are derived all others. This is proved by the fact that each\nand all begin, as Plutarch tells us old Coptic did, with the letter\nA. Of its age in Nile-land we may judge from the cartouche containing\nKhufu\u2019s name, left by some workman on an inner block of the Great\nPyramid.[468] How many generations of articulate-speaking men must have\ncome and gone before so artificial and artistic a system as the Royal\nSignature upon the Shield occurred to the human mind!\n\nBut Egypt did still more. She was the fountain-head of knowledge\nwhich overflowed the world. Eastward the great current set through\nBabylonia and Chald\u00e6a, Persia and India, Indo-China, China, and Japan,\nto Australia and Polynesia. Westward it flooded Africa and Europe. It\nmay have reached America by two ways. The Oriental line would extend\nfrom China and Japan to the Eastern Pacific coast: the Occidental was\npracticable _vi\u00e2_ Atlantis, or possibly in the days when Behring\u2019s\nStraits did not exist. It found a new Mediterranean in the great\nCaribbean Gulf, and new Indies in Mexico and Peru. Indeed, the march of\nintellect from Egypt is conterminous with the limits of the habitable\nglobe.\n\nThe invention of an alphabet would necessarily lead to\nliterature\u2014poetry, history, and criticism. The earliest known\nmanuscript is the Prisse (d\u2019Avennes) Papyrus, a roll dating from the\ndays of Pharaoh Tat-ka-ra, last of the Fifth Dynasty (circ. B.C. 3000).\nIt is a collection of proverbs, maxims, precepts, and commandments, of\nwhich the fifth is, \u2018Honour thy father and thy mother, that thy life\nmay be long\u2019: the style is admirable for its humorous vein, and for its\ngraphic description of old age\u2014\u2018Senex bis puer.\u2019 The earliest epic is\nthe heroic poem of Pentaur, laureate to Ramses II. (B.C. 1333\u20131300);\nit is the prototype of the cyclic songs which, in Cyprus especially,\npreceded the _chef-d\u2019\u0153uvre_ of the Homerid chief; and it opens with an\n\u2018Arma Virumque cano.\u2019 The \u2018Deadbook\u2019 is the birth of the Drama, and it\nmay date ages before the dialogues of Job. The \u2018Canticles of Solomon\u2019\nare in the evocations of Isis and Nephthys.[469] The _critique_ of a\nyoung author\u2019s production by a purist in style might add a sting to\nreviewing in the present day.[470] To the Egyptians we must attribute\nthe invention of maps and plans. They first studied heraldry: every\nnome had its distinctive emblem, generally bird or beast; and each\ntemple and guild its blazon.[471]\n\nLiterature would be imperfect without art and science, and accordingly\nwe find their head-quarters and old home in Egypt. These studies\nhumanised the people; their code suggests the mildness of modern penal\nlaw; and their reverence for letters, for old age, and for the dignity\nof man, makes them an eternal example to the world. The monuments show\ntheir fondness for music and painting. Their knowledge of statuary\nis proved by a host of works, especially the wooden Shaykh el-Balad\n(village chief) in the Bulak Museum\u2014a marvel of skill, probably dating\nfrom the Fourth Dynasty, B.C. 3700. In architecture they invented the\narch, round and pointed; eight several orders of columns, including\nthe proto-Doric; Atlantes, Caryatides, and human-shaped consoles. The\n\u2018temple of J\u00edzeh\u2019 near the sphinx is evidently older than the adjoining\npyramids; it is a model of solidity in which the hardest stone is\nworked like wood.\n\n[Heading: _EGYPT THE CRADLE-LAND._]\n\nIn science they especially cultivated geometry, astronomy, astrology,\nand \u2018alchemy,\u2019 whose name betrays its origin. Their arithmetic taught\ndecimals and duodecimals. Their mathematics arose from measuring fields\nand calculating the cubes of altars. They knew the precession of the\nequinoxes: Rodier (p. 31) considers that they learnt it from observing\nthe equinoctial point and the rising of Sothis, the Tuth-star, \u2018the\naxle of the skies,\u2019 in the same zodiacal sign, and that the studies at\nSyene date from B.C. 17,932. They knew the motion of the apsides, and\nthe solar and stellar periods; they invented latitude and longitude;\nthey denoted by a cross the intersection of the solstices and the\nequinoxes, and they published annual calendars. In optics they invented\nthe lens. They were not ignorant of the motive power of steam, and\npossibly the electric fish had taught them the rudiments of electricity.\n\nThey were great in the mechanical arts. In medicine they dissected\nand vivisected: in agriculture they invented the plough, the harrow,\nthe toothed sickle, the flail, and the tribulum; in carpentry the\ndove-tail; in ceramics the potter\u2019s wheel, and in hydraulics the\nwater-wheel. In gardening they transplanted full-grown trees. They\nmade glass, porcelain, and counterfeit pearls and precious stones;\nand they used emery powder and the lapidary\u2019s wheel. They spun silk,\nand knew the use of mordants for stuffs and dyes for hair. They made\n\u2018babies\u2019 (dolls) and children\u2019s toys of clay, and they moulded masks of\npapier-m\u00e2ch\u00e9. In some points they were strangely modern. For hunting\nthey wore dresses of \u2018suppressed colour,\u2019 not pink nor \u2018rifleman\u2019s\ngreen\u2019: we are just beginning to find out our mistakes. They affected\nfalconry, and played at the draughts which led to chess; and at\n_morra_, the Roman _micare digitis_. They sat on chairs whose shapes\nare like ours, not on divans nor on triclinia. In their house furniture\nthey studiously avoided over-regularity; and Japan is now teaching\nEngland and Germany not to weary man\u2019s eye by monotony.\n\nAnd as they were advanced in literature and politics, the religion\nof earth, so they assiduously cultivated religion, the politics of\nheaven. The Biblical student has found among the tombs of Nile-land\nthe absolute truth of what Celsus said\u2014namely, that the Hebrews\nborrowed their tenets and practices from Egypt. Their date of the\ncreation _ex nihilo_ (B.C. 4004\u20134620) was evidently Manetho\u2019s period\nof the succession of Mena, and it is used even in our day. Their\ngenesitic cosmogony, as Philo Jud\u00e6us shows, and as Origen expressly\ndeclares, was an adaptation of Nilotic allegories and mysteries which\nthe vulgar understood factually and literally. Their \u2018Adam\u2019 suggests\n\u2018Atum,\u2019 whence \u2018Adima,\u2019 the First Man amongst the Hindus. Their App or\nApap (Apophis), whose determinative is a snake transfixed with four\nknife-blades,[472] is the great old serpent, the ophid-giant, Sin,\nSathanas. The \u2018Flood\u2019[473] is the annual Nilotic inundation modified\nby the Izdubar legends of the Interamnian Plain. Noah, Nuh, N\u00f6e, is\nsuspiciously like Nu or Nuhu,[474] the Sailor of the Waters, the Lord\nof the Full Nile. Ham suggests Kam, the black race. The ark is the\nBahr or Ua (Baris, Argo navis) of Nu, the sacred vessel portrayed in\nthe ruins of Egyptian Elephanta, the boat of Osiris, or Uasur, the\nman-formed Sun-god; and the floating cradle of Moses is a mere replica\nof Osiris\u2019 ark. In that complicated idolatry of deceased ancestors,\nbased upon a system of monotheism,[475] or rather the worship of\nglorified man, which formed the religion of Egypt, the Sun typified\nhuman life. He rose as the infant Horus; he was the Lord Ka of the\nmid-day; as Tum he became old and set; and as Hormakhu (Harmachis) he\nshone to the under world below the horizon, Night and Death being the\nforerunners of Light and Life.[476]\n\nThe preternatural apparatus of both faiths (original and borrowed) is\nthe same. The four genii of Death\u2014Amset (under Isis), Hapi (Nephthys),\nTuamutef (Neith), and Khebsenauf (Sebk)\u2014became the four archangels. Of\nUrim and Thummim, the latter is the plural of Thmei (Themis), the blind\nor headless goddess of Truth and Justice.[477] Even such phrases as \u2018I\nam that I am\u2019[478] are loans from the hierogrammat; Ankh (I am Life)\nwas rendered Yahveh (Jehovah). This \u2018ineffable name\u2019[479] is borrowed\nby some, Colenso included, from Semitic heathenism; but Brugsch shows\nthat Egypt supplied the Mosaic conception of the Creator. There\nappears, indeed, direct derivation in the unity of the Deity and in the\nduality of Typhon, Set, Satan, the Evil Spirit. Later ages copied the\nlocal Triads of Kemi, in which the third proceeded from the other two.\nBoth ecclesiastical establishments contained Prophets (_Sem_),[480]\nHigh Priests,[481] Priests, \u2018Holy Fathers,\u2019 and Scribes. The Decalogue\nis a _r\u00e9sum\u00e9_ of the forty-two commandments in the Deadbook (chapter\n125). The portable shrines of the great Egyptian gods originated the\nTabernacle, which grew to be the Temple; it corresponds with the \u03a3\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7\n\u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1f70 or movable tent of the Carthaginians. The African practice of\ncircumcision was probably intended originally as a prophylactic against\nsyphilis, of which traces have been found in prehistoric bones. The\npeculiar Jewish hatred for pork is reasonless unless we explain it by a\nsuperstitious horror of the Typhonian beast. Rationalists tell us that\nthe meat was religiously forbidden because unwholesome in the tropics,\na _causa non causa_: it is the favourite food in the Brazil, in China,\nand in Christian India; even the Mar\u00e1th\u00e1s will eat wild hog; nor are\nthe habits of the animal more filthy than the duck\u2019s. The truth is that\nthese dietary prohibitions served to make a _differentia_, to disunite\nman, to pit race against race and to feed the priest.\n\nBut while the Hebrews drew largely upon the wisdom (and the unwisdom)\nof Egypt, they ruthlessly cast out the eminently Nilotic ideas of a\nSoul, of a Judgment of the Dead, and of a future state of rewards\nand punishments\u2014three tenets which, in modern days, form the very\nfoundation of all faiths. \u2018If a man die, shall he live (again)?\u2019\nasks Job (xiv. 14), in a chapter showing that life once lost is lost\nfor ever.[482] And apparently from the days of Moses this was the\npeculiarity of \u2018Semitic\u2019 thought; it lived in the Present and had\nno Future, or rather it spurned the world to come. \u2018Moses,\u2019 says\nProfessor Owen, \u2018could not admit the after-life, or teach of reward and\nretribution in a future state, without risk of tainting his monotheism\nwith some trace of the manifold symbolism environing the \u201cdivine\nson of Amen\u201d (Osiris), who after suffering loss of the mortal life,\nwhich he had assumed for bettering his kind, became, on resigning his\ndivinity, their judge.\u2019 The Hebrews adopted Soul and Judgment, Heaven\nand Hell, many centuries after Moses from their Assyrian kinsmen,[483]\nwho also supplied them with their present names for the twelve months\nand sundry astronomical notions. And their modern descendants by\nuniversally accepting a Resurrection have done that against which Moses\nso carefully guarded.\n\nI need hardly say that the mythologies of Greece, Etruria, and Rome\nonly corrupted Egyptian mysteries and metaphysics. Three instances will\nsuffice: Charon is a degraded Horus; Minos is Mena, and Rhadamanthus\ncontains the word Amenti, the right side (of Osiris), the west.\nNor can we be surprised if Egypt is now giving rise to scientific\nsuperstitions. Every reader of \u2018Pyramid Literature\u2019 will note the\nmysterious influence which Kemi is exercising upon the modern mind.[484]\n\n[Heading: _EGYPTIAN METALLURGY._]\n\nIn the preceding chapters I have noted the development of metallurgy by\nthe ancient Egyptians. They probably began with gold,[485] the easiest\nof all ores to find and to work; it was abundant in Upper Egypt, and\nabout B.C. 1600 they found a California in \u2018Kush\u2019 (\u00c6thiopia). They\ncalled it Tum, Khetem, and Nb, which is variously pronounced Nebu,\nNeb, and Nub, whence Nubia. It has two hieroglyphic determinatives\n[Hieroglyphs], the necklace and the washing-bowl covered with the\nstraining-cloth. The Kemites called silver \u2018white gold,\u2019[486] showing\nthe movement of invention; and they could draw silver wire three\nthousand years ago. Wilkinson (II. chap. viii.) remarks, \u2018The position\nof the silver-mines is unknown\u2019; but he wrote before the discovery\nof Midian, where surface-stones have been picked up containing\nthree ounces per ton. As their pictures prove, they worked iron,\nalthough little has outlasted the corrosion of Time. They applied the\nblow-pipe to the works of the whitesmith. They were well acquainted\nwith soldering by lead or alloys,[487] as is shown by the Shesh or\nSistrum of Mr. Burton. I may here remark parenthetically that this\n_crepitaculum_ used in temple-service gave rise to the Marac\u00e1 or\nTammaraka, the sacred rattle, a gourd full of pebbles worshipped by\nthe Brazilian Tupis, who thus acknowledged the mysterious influence\nof rhythmic sounds.[488] They were skilful in the damascening[489] or\ninlaying of weapons, an invention claimed by those model \u2018claimants,\u2019\nthe Greeks. Their simple process was to cut out the ground, to hammer\nin gold and silver, and, finally, to file and polish the surface.[490]\n\n[Heading: _EGYPTIAN WEAPONS._]\n\nThe metallurgic proficiency of Old Egypt would lead to the development\nof arms and armour, and enable the soldier to win easier victories\nover the \u2018vile, impure, and miserable Gentiles\u2019\u2014i.e. all men except\nthemselves. The god Anhar, or Shu, is \u2018Lord of the Scymitar.\u2019 Horus,\nas a hawk-headed mummied deity, is seated holding two Swords. Amen-Ra,\nLord of Hab, is a \u2018great god Ramenma, \u201cLord of the Sword.\u201d\u2019 The\n\u2018wearer of the Pshent or double crown\u2019 (the Pharaoh), the image of\nMonthu, god of war, was _ex-officio_ \u2018His Holiness\u2019 (high-priest) and\nCommander-in-Chief, who personally led his warriors to \u2018wash their\nhearts\u2019 (cool their valours) as the Zulus wash their spears. Like\nHorus, he is \u2018valiant with the Sword.\u2019[491] When going to war he was\npresented with the \u2018Falchion of Victory,\u2019 and thus addressed: \u2018Take\nthis weapon, and smite with it the heads of the unclean.\u2019 In paintings\nand sculptures he is a large and heroic figure: he draws the bow, he\nspears or cuts down the foe, and he drives his war-car over the bodies\nof the slain. His soldiers are divided into Calasiri (Krashr[492] or\nbowmen) and Hermotybians, the latter unsatisfactorily derived[493] from\n\u1f21\u03bc\u03b9\u03c4\u03cd\u03b2\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, a strong linen (waist-?) cloth. The two divisions represent\nthe second of the five castes, ranking below the priestly and above\nthe agricultural: they held one of the three portions into which the\nland was divided. Recruits were taught in the military schools that\noriginated the Pentathlon and the Pancratium, the Pal\u00e6stra and the\nGymnasium. They were carefully trained to gymnastics, as the monumental\npictures in the Beni Hasan tombs show; they used Mogdars or Indian\nclubs, and they excelled in wrestling, though not in boxing. The royal\nstatues are those of athletes, with their broad shoulders, thin flanks\nand well-developed muscles. The soldier practised single-stick, the\nright hand being apparently protected by a basket-guard, and the left\nforearm shielded by a splint or splints of wood, strapped on, and\nserving for a shield (fig. 152).\n\nThe standing army consisted of foot and horse,[494] the latter being\nmostly in chariots; and they were divided into corps, regiments,\nbattalions, and companies. The men were officered by Chiliarchs\n(colonels), Hekatontarchs (captains), and Dekarchs (sergeants), as the\nGreeks called them. The \u2018heavies\u2019 were armed with a long strong spear\nand an immense shield provided with a sight-hole. Some carried the\n\u2018Lis\u00e1n\u2019-club, the battle-axe, and the mace; and almost all had for\nside arms pole-axes,[495] Swords, falchions, and daggers. The \u2018light\nbobs\u2019 were chiefly archers and slingers, also weaponed with \u2018Lis\u00e1ns,\u2019\naxes, war-flails, and Swords. The chariot-corps or cavalry, besides\nbows and arrows, had clubs and short Swords for close quarters. The\nbattle-axes show clear derivation from the stone celt, which supplied\nthe hieroglyphs with the word Natr or Netr (Neter, &c.), meaning god,\ngods, or goddess ([Hieroglyphs]).[496] In the Demotic alphabet the axe\nwas K (_Kelebia_).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 152.\u2014SINGLE-STICK IN EGYPT.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 153.\u2014EGYPTIAN SOLDIER AND SHIELD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 154.\u2014EGYPTIAN SOLDIERS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 155.\u2014EGYPTIAN SOLDIER.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 156.\u20141. EGYPTIANS FIGHTING, FROM PAINTINGS OF\nTHEBES; 2. EGYPTIAN SOLDIERS, FROM THEBAN BAS-RELIEFS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 157.\u2014BRONZE HATCHETS IN WOODEN HANDLES, BOUND WITH\nTHONGS. (Heads, 3 and 4\u00bd inches, Hefts, 15\u00bd and 16\u00bd inches.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 158.\u2014POLE-AXES.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 159.\u2014KHETEN OR WAR-AXES.]\n\nThe action began, at the sound of the trumpet, with an advance of\nlight-infantry, bowmen, slingers, and javelineers. Then came the charge\nby the ponderous phalanx of ten thousand men, one hundred in front by\none hundred deep, and flanked by chariots and cavalry. Thus the close\ncombat was not the disorderly system of duels that prevailed in the\nbarbarous Middle Ages of Europe. In storming fortified places they used\nthe pavoise and testudo, the ram, the scaling-ladder, the bulwark or\nmovable tower, and the portable bridge. They were also skilful military\nminers.\n\n[Heading: _THE EGYPTIAN SWORD._]\n\nThe Egyptian phalanx was armed with the large shield, lance, and Sword;\nthe latter was generally called Seft, [Hieroglyphs], or [Hieroglyphs],\nor [Hieroglyphs]; also inverted to Setf, [Hieroglyphs]: it becomes\nSifet in \u00c6thiopia, and in Berber Siwuit. The weapon in the hieroglyphs\nis of four different shapes. The first is the boomerang-Sword\n[Hieroglyphs], _m_ or _ma_, meaning \u2018to destroy\u2019: this M is the root\nof the Hebrew and Arabic _Maut_ and the Prakrit-Sanskrit, _Mar_.\nThe second is the Knife-Sword [Hieroglyphs], _At_ or _Kat_, the\ndeterminative of cutting. These two are joined [Hieroglyphs] in the\nroot _ma_ (cut, mow). The third is the Khopsh, Khepsh, or Khepshi,\n[Hieroglyphs], the sickle-Sword, still used in Abyssinia and throughout\nAfrica: with a flattened curve it became the Hindu Kubja, the Greek\n\u2018Kopis,\u2019 and the Gurkha \u2018Kukkri.\u2019 The second two are combined in the\nroot Smam, [Hieroglyphs], \u2018to smite.\u2019 Other names of the Sword are Ta\nor Nai, [Hieroglyphs], and Nai, Na\u2019ui, or Nakhtui, [Hieroglyphs].\n\nThe falchion (_ensis falcatus_), called Shopsh, Khepsh, or Khopsh,[497]\nis represented as early as the Sixth Dynasty (after B.C. 3000). Hence,\nsays Meyrick, the \u039a\u03bf\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 of Argos\u2014Argolis being a very mixed province,\nwhere the base was Pelasgian and the superstructure was Egyptian;\nthe latter introduced by Danaus, and followed by the Ph\u0153nicians, who\nfounded the town Ph\u0153nicia. Quintus Curtius (lib. iii.) says: \u2018Copides\nvocant gladios leviter curvatos, falcibus similes, quibus appetebant\nbelluarum manus.\u2019 Apuleius (\u2018Met.\u2019 lib. xi.) also speaks of \u2018copides et\nvenabula.\u2019[498]\n\nEvidently the Egyptian Sf, Sefi, Seft, or \u2018Sword\u2019 generically,[499]\ngave rise to the Mesopotamian Sibir, Sibirru, and Sapara; to the Greek\n\u03be\u03af\u03c6-\u03bf\u03c2; to the Aram\u00e6an Saiph, Sipho, and to the Arabic \u0635\u064a\u0641 (Sayf-un),\nthe second syllables being merely terminative; while the Latin _spatha_\nand the German Schwerte, and our Swerde and Sword, are the latest\nechoes of Sef and Seft. The Germans say rightly, \u2018Nichts wandert so\nleicht als Waffen und Waffennamen.\u2019\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 160.\u2014DIFFERENT FORMS OF THE EGYPTIAN KHOPSH\n(KOPIS), WITH EDGES INSIDE AND OUTSIDE.]\n\nAnother Egyptian name for the sickle-shaped blade is Khrobi,[500] which\nsuggests the Hebrew Hereb (a weapon, a Sword). We are also sure that\nthe words are primitive Egyptian: the proof is that the symbol of \u2018M\u00e1\u2019\n(\u2018destroy\u2019 &c.), the Khopsh or _ensis falcatus_, is the numeral nine;\nand the straight flesh-blade (_Kt_) is the pronoun thou, thee: the two\ntogether alluded to the oldest religious practice.[501]\n\nThe falchion, shaped in the pattern of Urs\u00e6 major (?), was thick-backed\nand weighted with bronze; the blade, in later days at least,[502]\nwas of iron or steel, as shown by the blue colour. Champollion[503]\nnotices blue Swords with golden hilts in the tomb of Ramses III., and\na \u2018weapon Kops\u2019 with the gold, of which the hilt consists, running up\nthe concave back of the blade. \u2018The gold was therefore either sunk into\nthe iron, or gilded on the back. In other cases the Kops of kings was\nentirely of gold, or, like other Swords, entirely of brass (copper?).\nIn another similar weapon, brass (copper?) and iron were blended in the\nblade.\u2019 An iron \u2018Kops\u2019 was found in a tomb at Gurnah.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 161.\u20141. EGYPTIAN SLING; 2. UNKNOWN WEAPON; 3.\nSHEATHED DAGGER; 4. HATCHET; 5. SCORPION, OR WHIP-GOAD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 162.\u2014EGYPTIAN DAGGERS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 163.\u2014EGYPTIAN DAGGER OF BRONZE IN BRITISH MUSEUM.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 164.\u2014OFFICER OF LIFE-GUARD TO RAMSES II.,\nAPPARENTLY ASIATIC.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 165.\u2014BRONZE SWORD, FOUND AT AL-KANTARAH, EGYPT.]\n\nThe Khopsh, a sickle in type, and originally a throwing weapon as\nwell as a cutting arm, was always carried by the Pharaoh, who used it\nindifferently with the pike (_Taru_), the mace, axe (_Aka_, _Akhu_),\nbattle-axe, or pole-axe (_Kheten_). Officers and privates, \u2018lights\u2019\nas well as \u2018heavies,\u2019 also wielded it in pictures. Those commanding\ninfantry-corps are armed with the simple stick like the Roman centurion\nand our drill-sergeant of bygone days.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 166.\u20141. AXE; 2. SPEAR-HEAD; 3. KHOPSH; 4.\nLANCE-HEAD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 167.\u2014BELT AND DAGGER.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 168.\u2014EGYPTIAN DAGGERS.]\n\nThe fourth or long-straight Sword, which does not appear in the\nhieroglyphs, had a two-edged cut-and-thrust leaf-shaped blade from two\nand a half to three feet long,[504] with a foining point like that\nof the Somal.[505] These large weapons seem to have been used by\nforeign mercenaries. The leaf- also becomes a trowel-form, betraying\nits origin and derivation, the spear-head. The grip was hollowed away\nin the centre, gradually thickening at either end, and was sometimes\ninlaid with metal, stones, and precious woods. The pommel of that worn\nin the Pharaoh\u2019s girdle is surmounted by one or more hawk-heads, this\nbird being the symbol of Ra[506] (the Sun). The handle is also adorned\nwith small pins and studs of gold, shown through suitable openings in\nthe front part of the sheath. With this weapon the warrior stabs the\nenemy in the throat, as Mithras strikes the bull behind the shoulder.\nA modified form was the Sword-dagger, of which two are sometimes\nrepresented with the Pharaoh: it was generally carried in the belt.\nThis shape of weapon found its way to the Caucasus;[507] and the\nGeorgian Khanjar, hanging to the girdle in the place of the Sword, is\nalso a survival.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 169.\u2014ASSYRIAN DAGGERS, SHEATHS, AND BELTS. (BRITISH\nMUSEUM.)]\n\nThe Egyptian weapon is of various lengths. The bronze blade of Amunoph\nII., found by Wilkinson at Thebes, measures only five and a quarter\ninches: others rise to seven and even ten. Mr. Salt\u2019s specimen in the\nBritish Museum covers eleven and a half inches, including the handle;\nand others reach one foot, and even sixteen inches. Many of these\nblades taper from an inch and a half to two-thirds of an inch near\nthe point. Dr. John Evans[508] has a Sword, found at \u2018Great Kantara\u2019\nduring the construction of the Suez Canal; the blade is leaf-shaped,\nand measures seventeen inches, and the whole length twenty-two inches\nand three-eighths (fig. 165). \u2018Instead of a hilt-plate, it is drawn\ndown to a small tang about three-sixteenths of an inch square. This\nagain expands into an octagonal bar about three-eighths of an inch in\ndiameter, which has been drawn down to a point, and then turned back\nto form a hook, perhaps the earliest mode of hanging to the belt.\u2019 At\nthe base of the blade are two rivet-holes, and the hilt must have been\nformed of two pieces which clasped the tang. Dr. Evans also mentions a\nbronze Sword-blade, presumably from Lower Egypt, in the Berlin Museum:\nit has an engraved line down each side of the blade; it is more uniform\nin width than the Kantara specimen, and the hilt is broken off.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 170.\u2014DAGGER FROM THE CAUCASUS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 171.\u2014EGYPTIAN CHOPPER-SWORDS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 172.\u2014EGYPTIAN KHOPSH.]\n\nNot a few Egyptian Swords are much thicker at the middle than at the\nedges, and many are slightly grooved. The bronze is so well tempered,\neither by hammering, by hydraulic pressure, or by phosphorisation (?),\nthat it has retained spring and pliability after several thousand\nyears, and is still elastic like the steel of our modern days. I have\nalready noticed[509] the Passalacqua and the Harris daggers\u2014both from\nThebes. The dagger-handle was generally covered in part with metal like\nthat of the Sword; and the sewing of the leather-sheath again recalls\nthe hide-scabbard of the Somal.[510] The Egyptians, as the hieroglyphs\nprove, had also single-edged cutting-knives shorter than Swords, and\napparently of steel; they resemble our flesh-knives,[511] and may\ncorrespond with the Greek \u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9 (Ang.-Sax. _Meche_), while the\ndaggers proper represent the \u1f10\u03b3\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1 and the parazonia.\n\n[Heading: _EGYPTIAN SWORDS._]\n\nThe long Sword must have been rare or rather barbaric, for it is seldom\nfound in the pictures and bas-reliefs. Yet Rosellini figures one which\nresembles an Espadon or heavy two-handed weapon of our Middle Ages. An\ninscription of Ramses takes as booty from the Maxyes (Cyrenians) of\nLibya one hundred and fifteen Swords of five cubits (seven and a half\nfeet), and one hundred and twenty-four of three cubits long.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 173.\u2014BRONZE DAGGERS AND SHEATH (1 FOOT LONG). (From\nTheban Tomb, Berlin Museum.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 174.\u2014SHAPES OF EGYPTIAN BLADES. (Meyrick.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 175.\u2014SWORD-DAGGERS.]\n\nMeyrick,[512] in his general introduction to the weapons of all\nnations (vol. i. Pl. 1), gives two forms of Egyptian blades, or rather\nchoppers. One (_a_, fig. 174) is a straight bill-shaped cutting-blade\nwith the tip upturned, and the handle is provided with cords and\ntassels. This is in fact the old Turkish Scymitar and its offshoots, of\nwhich I have already spoken; and thus Egypt led to the chopper-types,\nwhich will presently be noticed. The other (_b_) is a curved Scymitar,\nwith a bevelled end and a double cord at the hilt.[513] The former\nseems to be an imitation of the obsidian flake: the latter is a\ndevelopment of the Khopsh or sickle-Sword.\n\n[Heading: THE SWORD IN AFRICA.]\n\nAnd here I must temporarily abandon the chronological for the\ngeographical order, and briefly treat of the Sword in modern Africa.\n\nIn the Dark Continent, as in the New World, the weapon has scant\nimportance. Reviewing the arms of the former \u2018Quarter,\u2019 we must\nconclude that its favourites are the war-axe (employed in rough work),\nand the spear[514] (used in fine work); while the Sword proper is\nconfined, as a rule, to Moslem Africa.\n\nWe have seen that in olden time the Mashaua (Maxyes) of Libya,\nbordering upon Egypt, used large Swords. The Adyrmachid\u00e6, or \u2018first\nLibyans\u2019 of Herodotus (iv. 168), called by Silius Italicus (iii. 219)\n\u2018gens accola Nili,\u2019 were also armed with curved blades.\n\nDenham and Clapperton inform us that the Knights of Malta exported\ngreat numbers of the straight double-edged blades which they affected,\nto Benghazi, in North Africa, where they were exchanged for bullocks.\nFrom the Tripolitan they were borne across the Sahar\u00e1 to Bornu, to\nHausaland, and to Kano, where they were remounted for the use of the\nnegroid Moslem population. Modern travellers note that the trade still\ncontinues at Kano, where some fifty thousand blades were annually\nimported across the Mediterranean\u2014the reason is that these negroids\ncannot make their own. Hence they are passed on to the Pule (Fulah)\nand Fulbe tribes, the Hausas, the Bornuese, and others dwelling in the\nnorth-western interior. The great Mandenga family, miscalled Mandingos,\nare also purchasers of European blades, which they mount and sheathe\nfor themselves. Far to the south-east Mr. Henry M. Stanley (_loc. cit._\ni. 454) notes that the \u2018King of Kishakka possesses an Arab scimitar,\nwhich is a venerated heirloom of the royal family, and the sword of the\nfounder of that kingdom\u2019 (?).\n\nBarth (\u2018Travels\u2019) has left us accurate though scanty details concerning\nthe weapons of the North-Western and West-Central Africa. \u2018Spears and\nSwords\u2019 (say the people) \u2018are the only manly and becoming weapons.\u2019\nThe blade, mostly made at Solingen,[515] characterises the free and\nnoble Amosh\u00e1gh or Imosh\u00e1gh; and all travellers remark that it preserves\nthe old knightly form of crusading days; the low-caste Taw\u00e1rik carry\nonly the lance and the regular African Telak or arm-knife. The Forawy\ntrust almost wholly to their Swords: the Kel-Owy (Khayl, or people, of\nthe Owi Valley) and the Kel-Geres carry spear, Sword, and dagger. The\nImg\u00e1d, a degraded tribe of the negroid Berbers, are not allowed to use\neither Sword or spear: similarly the bow is confined to the servile\ncaste among the Somal. The son of the Kazi, near Agades, was armed with\nan iron spear, Sword, and dagger (vol. i. 395): a Musghu chief had a\nboomerang-Sword (Front. vol. iii.). Few of the Baghirmi can afford\n\u2018Kaskara\u2019 (Swords), and they rarely wear the Kiny\u00e1 or arm-knife: the\nfavourite weapon of these races, as well as the Kamuri or Bornavis,\nis the Njiga or Gol\u00eeyo, which has been noticed under the name of\nDanisko.[516] It is a short and double-pointed Egyptian hand-bill,\nthrown, as well as used for cutting. At Sokoto the traveller found good\niron (iv. 180): at Kano, in Hausaland, he observed a blacksmith making,\nwith the rudest tools, a leaf-shaped dagger, a long-ribbed, highly\ndecorated, and very sharp blade. The Taw\u00e1rik call the smith \u2018Enhad\u2019; in\nTimbukhtu he becomes the Mu\u2019allim or artist.\n\nThe Sword-play of North Africa is that of Arabia and India,\napparently borrowed from the original Sword-dance.[517] In Tangier\nit is picturesquely described by a lively Italian writer, Edmondo de\nAmicis.[518] \u2018There were three swordsmen, and they used the stick\nin pairs. It is impossible to do justice to the extravagance and\nbuffoonery (_goffagini_) of that _school_: I call it so because we\nsaw the same style in the other cities of Marocco. There were all the\nmovements of the rope-dance, high leaps without object, contusions,\nleg-actions, and blows, announced a whole minute before by an immense\nsweep of the arm. Everything was done with a holy phlegm which would\nhave allowed one of our experts to have distributed, amongst all four,\na volley of blows without the least risk of receiving one.\u2019\n\nThe old Egyptian Sword-types spread deep into the Dark Continent, and\npreserve their forms to the present day. The Somal\u2019s weapon shows the\nstraight or spear-blade. The Shotel or Abyssinian Sword (fig. 176) is\na direct descendant from the Khopsh-falchion. Nothing less handy than\nthis gigantic sickle; the edge is inside, the grip is too small, and\nthe difficulty of drawing the blade from the scabbard is considerable.\nThe handle, four inches long, is a rude lump of black wood, and the\ntang is carried to the pommel and there clinched. The coarse and ugly\nblade has a mid-rib running the whole length, forming a double slope\nto the edges; it is one inch broad at the base, and tapers to a point\nwhich can hardly be used. The length along the arc is three feet\nthirty-seven inches; the curve, measuring from arc to chord, is two\ninches; and the projection beyond the directing line is four inches.\nThe rough scabbard of untanned hide is shod with a hollow brass knob,\na ferule ruder even than the blade; and a large iron buckle affixed\nto the top of the scabbard under the haft, connects with a belt or\nwaist-strap. Such a weapon never belonged to a race of Swordsmen.[519]\n\nThe Africo-Arab tribes of the Upper Nile (e.g. the Bishar\u00edn) also\npreserve Egyptian forms derived from the Lis\u00e1n-stick. The Galla Sword\nis shorter and simpler than the Egyptian. But the Flissa of Northern\nAfrica, the Yataghan whose type, by the support of the Duc d\u2019Aumale,\nsupplied France for years with a bad bayonet, if borrowed from the\nLis\u00e1n, has assumed a peculiar curve. Colonel A. Lane-Fox looks upon\nthis Flissa of the Kabyles (= Kab\u00e1il, the tribes) as resembling the\n\u2018Kopis-blade straightened, like those represented in the hands of the\nGreek warrior on the vase in the Museum at Naples.\u2019[520] Nothing can be\nbetter adapted for close fight than the handy stabbing weapon: stuck\non the end of a musket, and making the barrel top-heavy, nothing can\nbe worse. But, as the \u2018military tailor\u2019 in the British army seeks the\nphilosopher\u2019s stone in the shape of a suit of uniform that shall be\nat once warm and cool, heavy and light, airy and impermeable to wet,\nhandsome and lasting, cheap and good, so the Frenchman would transform\nthe bayonet into a _multum in parvo_, a Sword, a saw, _a coupe-choux_,\nin fact everything that a bayonet is not and ought not to be. The\nabsurd Yataghan-bayonet has only lately been banished from the French\narmy, and retains its place in most Continental forces.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 176.\u2014ABYSSINIAN SWORD, A LARGE SICKLE.\n\n (Breadth at hilt, 1 inch; tapers to point.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 177.\u2014SMALLER ABYSSINIAN BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 178.\u2014ABYSSINIAN SWORD IN SHEATH.\n\n (Scabbard open to allow passage of blade.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 179.\u2014FLISSA OF KABYLES.]\n\nThe Sword amongst the Dankali tribes, who occupy the south-western\nshores of the Red Sea, north of the Somal, is evidently of European\norigin. The straight, thin blade, with two or more longitudinal\ngrooves, is about four feet long, and broadens towards the point:\nthe handle consists of a pommel, of a grip whipped with wire, and of\nstraight quillons, forming a regular cross-guard. The modern weapons\nare made in Germany\u2014I believe, at Solingen, which seems to supply all\nAfrica north of the Equator.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 180.\u2014DANKALI SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 181.\u2014CONGO SWORD.]\n\nOur age has at length realised the fact that the heart of Africa is\ninhabited by a homogeneous race speaking tongues of the same family.\nIt is a large and strong-bodied people, often cannibal, and showing no\nlikeness with the negro of the tobacconist-shops. Scattered amongst\nthese man-eaters, and possibly the aborigines of the country, are\ncomparatively dwarfish tribes, evidently the crane-fighting Pygmies of\nHomer and Herodotus, now known from their various clans, Ak\u00e1, Tikitiki,\nDoko, Wambilikimo (two-cubiters), and so forth. Both the dwarfs and the\n(comparative) giants, of whom the Mp\u00e1ngwe, or Fans, first became known\nin Europe, are metal workers, and both work well. They despise arms\nand tools that chip and snap, and therefore prefer to ours, with ample\nreason, their charcoal-smelted native produce, and they temper it by\nmany successive heatings and hammerings without water-quenching.[521]\nAccording to Major Serpa Pinto (ii. 128) the Barotse temper their iron\nwith ox-grease[522] and salt. He notes, however (ii. 356), that the\nGanguellas \u2018manufacture steel out of wrought iron, tempered by cold\nwater, into which the metal is thrown while hot.\u2019\n\nThe Gaboon river also produces the Babanga[523] (?), a leaf-shaped\nSword with a square end, made at Batta, and used by the Mp\u00e1ngwe; a\nGlaive also leaf-shaped with a long handle, having a point at the butt\nend, and Swords with triangular blades more or less broadened at the\napex.\n\nUpon the glorious Congo river[524] I was shown a Sword belonging to the\nMijolos or Mijeres, a tribe inhabiting the upper valley. All declared\nit to be of native make, and used during the Sword-dance performed in\npresence of the Prince. But it is an evident copy of some weapon of the\nfifteenth century; and the knightly model, like that of the Mp\u00e1ngwe\n(Fan) crossbow, had drifted into the African interior. The handle and\nits pommel were of ivory (in poorer weapons wood is used): the guard\nwas a thin bar of iron springing from the junction of blade and grip;\nforming an open oval-shaped _pas d\u2019\u00e2ne_ below, and prolonged upwards\nand downwards in two quillons or branches, parallel with the hilt and\nprotecting the hand. The blade, which had a tang for hefting, was\nstraight, flexible, and double-edged.\n\n[Heading: _AFRICAN SWORDS._]\n\nIn the Despotism of Unyoro, on the northern shores of the (Victoria)\nNyanza Lake, Sir Samuel Baker found a knife of the Egyptian leaf-shape,\nthe _Lingua di Bove_ of the Italians. The blade has a high mid-rib, and\nthe handle is whipped round with copper wire. It is evidently used,\nlike the Somal weapon, for stabbing as well as cutting.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 182.\u2014UNYORO DAGGER-SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 183.\u2014ZANZIBAR SWORDS.]\n\nThe Arabs of Zanzibar preserve the old two-handed weapon of Europe,\nwith a thin, flattish, double-edged blade ending in a bevelled point,\nand much resembling the executioner\u2019s Sword prolonged. They bear the\nSolingen mark. Zanzibar, however, has two Swords. The shorter weapon\n(_a_, fig. 183) is three-grooved and single-edged, the blade measuring\none foot ten inches; the handle and sheath are of copper, embossed or\nengraved, and adorned with fine stones. The second (_b_, fig. 183),\nwhich is the usual shape carried by Arab gentlemen, is three feet to\nthree and a half feet long; the long tang tapers towards the hilt,\nand is cased in wood and leather; the pommel is cylindrical, and the\ngrip wants guard and quillons. Demmin (p. 396) finds it \u2018difficult to\nunderstand how this singular weapon could be wielded.\u2019 It serves mostly\nfor show, and when wanted is used like a quarterstaff with both hands.\nBut the Zanzibari\u2019s Sword is always clumsy, as dangerous to the wielder\nas the old blade of the Gauls and Ancient Britons. Their cousins, the\nBedawin living about Maskat, have conserved with a religious respect,\nmany ancient weapons won or bought in older days, and possibly dating\nfrom crusading times. These valuable articles travelled far: the\nPortuguese found amongst the Moors of Malacca \u2018Swords bearing in Latin\nthe inscription \u201cGod help me.\u201d\u2019\n\nThe Sword is also known to the blood-stained Despotisms that border the\nWest Coast of Africa\u2014Ashanti, Dahome, and Benin. Many of the shapes are\nborrowed: such are the Maroccan Yataghan, the Turkish or rather Persian\nScymitar, and the Malay Kr\u00eds (crease). Provided with silver hilts and\nscabbard mountings, they are generally wrapped in cloths, showing\nonly the upper part of the sheath and grip. Some of the forms have\ndeveloped till they look almost original, especially the short broad\nblades pierced with holes like fish-slicers, and ending in circinal\ncurves. They suggest the well-known Indian choppers, and probably in\nboth countries they derive from Egypt. In Ashanti-land and Dahome\nthey are mostly of iron, some are of brass, and others of gold;[525]\nand they are fantastically punched into chevrons and pierced with\nopen-work. These \u2018fish-slicers\u2019 are used in sacrifice and in beheading,\nan operation which they perform very badly. Mr. Henry M. Stanley[526]\nrefers to \u2018long-handled cleaver-like weapons\u2019 amongst the savages of\nMakongo; and to iron bill-hooks and \u2018massive cleaver-looking knives\nwith polished blades\u2019 in Karagw\u00e9.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 184.\u2014GOLD COAST SWORDS.\n\n (Captain Cameron.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 185.\u2014ASHANTI SWORD-KNIFE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 186.\u2014SWORDS OF KING GELELE OF DAHOME.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 187.\u2014BEHEADING SWORD.\n\n Cutch; also used in Africa.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 188.\u2014WASA (WASSAW) SWORD.\n\n Gold plates on wood, sewn with wire, and then beaten until the\n stitches can scarcely be seen.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 189.\u2014KING BLAY\u2019S SWORD.\n\n Gold leaf stamped and beaten. Sworn by before going to war, \u2018If\n I come back, cut my head off.\u2019]\n\nGezo,[527] the warrior king of Dahome or Ffon-land, who loved variety\nin, as well as number of, weapons, manufactured Swords with two blades\nlike scissors. He also had _in terrorem_ a company of \u2018Amazons,\u2019 called\nRazor-women, from the \u2018Nyek-ple-nen-toh\u2019 blade. This was simply a\nEuropean razor on a large scale, with a steel of thirty inches rising\nfrom a plain handle of black wood, and kept open by a spring. It was\nused to decapitate prisoner-kings, and the very look of it made the\nlieges tremble.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 190.\u2014CAPTAIN CAMERON\u2019S MANYUEMA SWORDLET, SHEATH,\nAND BELT. 1. Copper; 2. Wood; 3. Steel; 4. Wood; 5. Skin.]\n\nMy friend Captain Cameron[528] gives interesting details concerning the\nSword in parts of Africa which he first visited, and he has kindly sent\nme a specimen of the Manyuema (Maniwema) Swordlet drawn to scale. He\ndescribes the Wahumla tribe as using double-edged blades of iron shaped\nlike those of the Roman legionary. The chiefs adorn their steel blades\nwith neat open-work in various patterns, and some carry a fringe of\nbells all along the lower side of the sheath. The belt of twisted hide\nloops into a rolled fur (often otter-skin), and ends in two bells: it\nis slung over the left shoulder. The Rehombo chiefs use similar blades\nwith broad and crescent-shaped edges; the commoners are armed with\nheavy spears, and short knives, also used when feeding.\n\nThe people of the central Copper-lands[529] have only long knives\nshaped like spear-heads. Stanley (ii. 81) calls them \u2018short Swords\nscabbarded with wood, to which are hung small brass and iron\nbells.\u2019 The Swords used by the chiefs under \u2018King Kasongo\u2019 are left\nundescribed:[530] these weapons appear to be like those seen by me on\nthe Congo. These negroes have a kind of sham attack in honour, a custom\nwell known amongst the Bedawin. \u2018When sufficiently bedaubed\u2019 (with\npipeclay or cinnabar) \u2018the chief returned the bag to his boy, and,\ndrawing his Sword, rushed at Kasongo, seemingly intent upon cutting\nhim down; but just before reaching him, he suddenly fell on his knees,\ndriving the Sword into the ground and rubbing his forehead in the dust.\u2019\n\nThe Poucue (Pokw\u00e9) of the Lunda chiefs is not allowed to the people.\nThis weapon (fig. 191) has also found its way from Egypt into lands far\nsouth of the Equator, and may be traced in the dagger-formed knives of\nthe Ovampos. It is a large two-edged knife, three spans long by four\ninches broad: the sheath is of leather, and the weapon hangs under the\nleft arm.[531] The Pokw\u00e9 not a little resembles the short leaf-shaped\niron blades from the Gaboon River, West Africa; and these again suggest\nthe Swords and the spear-heads of the \u2018Bronze Age.\u2019 Stanley (ii. 228)\nshows the \u2018Baswa knife\u2019 on the Upper Congo exactly resembling the\nPokw\u00e9; these weapons \u2018vary in size from a butcher\u2019s cleaver to a lady\u2019s\ndirk\u2019 (?). He also found \u2018splendid long knives, like Persian Kummars\u2019\n(Khanjars?) and \u2018bill-hook Swords.\u2019\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 191.\u2014POKW\u00c9 OF THE CAZEMBE\u2019S CHIEFS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 192.\u2014GABOON SWORDS, BOTH EVIDENTLY EGYPTIAN.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 193.\u2014CLEAVER OF THE HABSHI PEOPLE.]\n\nThe Habshi people inhabiting Janjh\u00edra (El Jez\u00edrah = the island),\noff the West Coast of India, south of Bombay, retain a curious\nrelic of their African origin. These negroids, who call themselves\nAbyssinians, are originally W\u00e1saw\u00e1h\u00edli from Zanzibar. Their cleaver\nis a straightened Khopsh wholly of iron, handle, plain cross-guard\nand pommel (fig. 193). The blade is fifteen inches broad, the back\nis an inch and a half thick, and the weapon is as heavy as a man can\nwield. These ex-pirates, under the Habshi Naww\u00e1b, are still feared,\non account of their great strength[532] and violent temper, by all\ntheir effeminate Indian neighbours. It is well to note that in case of\nanother \u2018Indian Mutiny,\u2019 we can easily raise on the eastern coast of\nAfrica a negroid force sufficient to put it down.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 194.\u2014FRANKISH BLADE, WITH MID-GROOVE OUT OF CENTRE.]\n\nColonel A. Lane-Fox[533] remarks that one of the most peculiar forms\nof Sword used in Africa is the corrugated, having an ogee-section.\nOn each face a portion of the blade is sunk on one side only, and\non the other face the depression is on the reverse side. Thus the\ntransverse section somewhat resembles the angles of the letter Z. We\ncan understand the use of this device when adapted to the pile of the\narrow or the javelin. It would give the weapon a rotatory motion on\nthe principle of the screw-propeller, the action being only reversed\ninstead of the screw propelling itself by acting upon the surrounding\nmedium: in this case the air impinges upon the screw flanges and\nrotates the arrow, thereby increasing the accuracy of its flight.\nBut the peculiarity has been preserved where it is wholly useless;\nand, curious to say, this ogee-form is persistent in all the Swords\nobtained from the Caucasus, while the iron blades of Saxon and Frankish\nspears discovered in the graves of England and France have the same\ndistinctive. Both may have derived it from Egypt: the Caucasians\nthrough Colchis, and Western Europe by means of the Ph\u0153nicians. The\nillustration is taken from the \u2018Pagan Saxondom\u2019 of Mr. J. Y. Akerman,\nwho was the first to draw attention to the strange resemblance between\nthe Saxon and Hottentot spears.[534]\n\nThus we see that whilst Egypt originated the three shapes of\nSword-blades\u2014straight, curved, and half-curved\u2014the rest of Africa\ninvented positively nothing in hoplology. Negroids and negroes either\nborrowed their weapons from Egypt or imported them from beyond the sea.\nIntertropical Africa never imagined an alphabet, a plough, or a Sword.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER IX.\n\n THE SWORD IN KHITA-LAND, PALESTINE AND CANAAN; PH\u0152NICIA AND\n CARTHAGE; JEWRY, CYPRUS, TROY, AND ETRURIA.\n\n\nCenturies before the Hebrews had left the Delta, a great empire\nbounded Nile-land on the Asiatic side, reflecting Egypt as the New\nWorld reflects the Old; in fact what Kemi was to the West, that\nKhita-land was to the East. The people were known to the Nile-dwellers\nas the Khita, Kheta, or Sheta of [Hieroglyphs]. The Hebrews from the\ndays of Abraham to the age of Nehemiah and the Captivity, called\nthem \u05d7\u05ea\u05d9\u05dd, Khit\u00edm (our Hittites), or the \u2018children of Heth.\u2019[535] A\nhunting-inscription of Tiglath-Pileser (Tigulti-pal-Tsira) the First,\nB.C. 1120\u20131100, mentions the [Cuneiform], Kha-at-te (Khatte);[536]\nhe makes them dwell on \u2018the upper Ocean of the Setting Sun.\u2019 The\nGreeks translated from Hebrew \u0393\u1fc6 \u03a7\u03b5\u03c4\u03c4\u03b9\u03b5\u1f76\u03bc, and termed the race \u03a7\u03b5\u03c4\u03c4\u03b9\u1f76\u03bc\nand \u03a7\u03b5\u03c4\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd\u03af. They are the \u1f11\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9 \u039a\u03ae\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bf\u03b9 (Keteian or Cetian[537]\nauxiliaries) of Homer (\u2018Odys.\u2019 xi. 520), whose leader Eurypylus, was\nslain with \u2018the copper\u2019 (Sword), and of whom many perished around him\n\u2018on account of gifts to a woman.\u2019\n\nThe cradle of this race, which took the lead of Western Asia\nduring the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries B.C., was the\nrolling prairie between the Orontes and the Euphrates. Joshua\nrepresents the Lord saying: \u2018From the wilderness and this Lebanon\neven unto the great river, the river Euphrates, all the land of\nthe Hittites, and unto the great sea toward the going down of the\nsun, shall be your coast\u2019 (i. 4). In their palmy days they covered\nthe interval between Egypt and Assyria, extending northwards to\nPhrygia and Cilicia; eastwards to Mesopotamia and westwards to the\nMediterranean. They had walled and fortified cities as \u2018Tunep or Tunipa\n(Daphne) in the land Naharayn\u2019[538]\u2014the latter here meaning Upper\nPalestine\u2014Arathu (Aradus); Hamatu (Hamath, the high city); Khalbu\nor Khilibu (Aleppo);[539] Kazantana (Gozanitis); Nishiba (Nisipis)\nand Patena, which gave rise to \u2018Padan-Aram\u2019 and to \u2018Batan\u00e6a.\u2019 Their\nnorthern capital was Carchemish (the Gr. Hierapolis and the modern\nYar\u00e1blus),[540] on the Euphrates, lately explored: some explain the\nword as \u2018Kar\u2019 (town of) \u2018Chemish\u2019 the Moab-god); others by \u2018Khem\u2019 or\n\u2018Chemmis,\u2019 the Egyptian Pan. It was captured by Sargon (B.C. 717), and\nbecame the head-quarters of an Assyrian Satrapy. Their sacred city\nwas Kadesh (\u039a\u03ac\u03b4\u03b7\u03c2, the holy), a synonym of El-Kuds, the Arabic name\nfor Jerusalem; and even of the City of David it was said (Ezek. xvi.\n3), \u2018her father was an Amorite and her mother a Hittite.\u2019 A Hittite\ntribe extended to the southernmost frontiers of Palestine (Gen. xxiii.\n_passim_); Hebron, one of their settlements, was founded, we are told,\nseven years before Zoan (\u2018a station for loading animals\u2019), _alias_\nSan or Tanis, the capital of the Egyptian \u2018Shepherd-Kings.\u2019 But the\nallusion must be to Sesostris-Ramses (II.), who also made San his\ncapital under the name of \u2018Pi- (city of) Ramessu,\u2019 not to the original\nbuilding by King Pepi of the Sixth Dynasty, who preceded Abraham by a\nthousand years.\n\n[Heading: _THE HITTITES._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 195.\u2014CYPRIAN DAGGER.]\n\nThe Hittites were governed by twelve \u2018kings,\u2019 probably satraps, under\nthe Khita-sir or supreme chief. The \u2018kings of the Hittites\u2019 are\nmentioned as joining the Egyptians (2 Kings iii. 6).[541] Although the\nHebrews were ordered utterly to destroy the race, their books prove\nthat the Khita were often in intimate relation with the intruders,\nas in the case of Uriah the Hittite, one of the thirty of David\u2019s\nbody-guard. They worshipped Baal Sutech (Sutekh) the War-god, the\n\u2018man of war,\u2019 a counterpart of Amun, with his wife (Sakti or active\nenergy), Astartha-Anata, and they also venerated Targatha, Derketo\nor Atargatis\u2014two Syro-Greek words for one and the same person. The\nEgyptians at times rank the Khita as a \u2018great people,\u2019 and their\nhabitat as a \u2018great country\u2019; holding them, in fact, almost as their\npeers: they also speak with reverence of their gods. Like their\nneighbours of Kemi, the \u2018Hittites\u2019 were a literary nation: the\nmonuments of Nile-land mention a certain Kirab-sar (or sir), \u2018writer of\nthe books of the Chief of the Khita,\u2019 and the determinative is papyrus\nor parchment. Hebron was also originally called Kirjath- (Kariyat)\nSepher\u2019\u2014settlement of books.\n\nThe Khita were formidable opponents to Kemi between the seventeenth\nand the fourteenth centuries B.C. They fought doughtily against\nThut-mes III. (_circa_ B.C. 1600) during his Syrian campaign, when\nthis \u2018Alexander the Great of Egyptian history\u2019 overthrew the chief\nof Kadesh, built a fortress on the Lebanon-range and mastered\n\u2018Naharayn.\u2019[542] Three centuries later, Kadesh was taken by Osirei\nor Seti I. (B.C. 1366). A few years afterwards took place the great\ncampaign of his son,[543] Ramses II., or the Great, \u2018who made Egypt\nanew,\u2019 and who is famous as the Sesostris of Herodotus.[544] He was\nnearly defeated at the historic battle of \u2018Kadesh, the wicked\u2019;[545]\nbut at last he succeeded in \u2018throwing the foe one upon another, head\nover heels into the waters of the Orontes.\u2019 Wilkinson (i. 400) shows a\ncity with a double moat, crossed by two bridges: at the outer defence,\nformed by the river running into a lake, a phalanx of the Khita is\ndrawn up as a reserve corps. \u2018Wonderfully rich,\u2019 says Brugsch, \u2018is\nthe great picture which represents the fight of the chariots: while\nthe gigantic form of Ramses,[546] in the very midst of the hostile\nwar-cars, performs deeds of derring-do, astonishing friend and foe, his\ngallant son, Prahiunamif, commander-in-chief of the charioteers, heads\nthe attack upon those of the enemy. The Khita warriors are thrown into\nthe river, and among them is the King of Khilibi (Aleppo), whom the\nwarriors try to revive by holding his legs in the air with his head\nhanging down.\u2019[547] This was the victory that gave birth to the first\nof Epic poems, the \u2018Song of Pentaur the Scribe.\u2019\n\n[Heading: _THE HITTITE SWORD._]\n\nThe war ended by the Egyptian marrying the Hittite\u2019s daughter, and\nmaking with his father-in-law a highly-civilised extradition treaty\nengraved upon a silver plate.[548] Another invasion, however, took\nplace (circa B.C. 1200) under Ramses III. This \u2018Rhampsinitus\u2019 of the\nGreeks, a compound title, Ramessu-pa-Neter (Ramses the god), has left\ninscriptions concerning his \u2018Campaign of Vengeance\u2019 which cover one\nside of the temple of Medinah Habu:[549] amongst the conquered foes\nappears the \u2018miserable King of Khita as a living prisoner.\u2019\n\nIn later times the Khita became well known to Assyrian story.[550]\nShalmaneser II. (B.C. 884\u2013852) mentions the \u2018Hittites and the city\nof Petra\u2019 (Pethor); he takes \u2018eighty-nine cities of the land of the\nHamathites,\u2019 and Rimonidri of Damascus. Tiglath-pileser II. (B.C.\n745\u2013727) speaks of the \u2018city of Hamatti\u2019 (Hamath) and the \u2018Arumu\u2019\n(Aram\u00e6ans).\n\nAccording to Wilkinson (I. chap. v.) the Khita are represented on the\nmonuments, the Memnonium, Medinah Habu, and elsewhere, as a shaven race\nwith light red skins. Their dress is the long Assyrian robe falling to\nthe ankles: the hair is crisply curled and at times covered with the\ntall cap of Phrygian type. A characteristic article, which appears in\ntheir hieroglyphs, is the pointed and upturned boot,[551] somewhat like\nthe soleret of the sixteenth century. For armour they had square or\noblong shields and quilted coats with bracelets defending their arms.\nTheir weapons were bows, spears, and the short straight Sword, the\nmodern flesh-chopper, then in use among their rival neighbours of the\nNile Valley.\n\nThese gallant Canaanites[552] were proficients in the art of war. The\narmy was distributed into foot and mounted men. The former consisted\nof a native nucleus called Tuhir (T\u00e1hir?),[553] the \u2018chosen ones,\u2019\nand a host of mercenaries under Hir-pits or captains. Amongst these\nwere the Shardana, Sardones, commonly translated Sardinians; Brugsch\ncontends that they were Colchians, and derives from them \u2018Sardonian\nlinen.\u2019 They were armed with horned helmets and round shields, spears\nand long Swords. The Kelau or slingers appear to have been a _corps\nd\u2019\u00e9lite_ that waited upon the Prince.[554] The tactics included a\nregular phalanx, a herse or column of spearsmen like the Egyptian;\nand, although the cavalry rode horses their \u2018strength was in chariots.\u2019\n\n\u2018Hithism\u2019[555] became a study of late years, after the publication of\n\u2018Hittite hieroglyphs,\u2019 first discovered at Hamah, then at Aleppo, gave\nit an impulse. Two rock-inscriptions with bas-reliefs were discovered\nby the Rev. E. Davis (of Alexandria) at Ibriz (\u00c1b-r\u00edz), three hours\nsouth of Eregli, the old Cybistra on the great Lycaonian plain.[556]\nThe finds at Carchemish added to the scanty store, and there are said\nto be Hittite seals in the British Museum. In Dr. Schliemann\u2019s \u2018Troy\u2019\n(p. 352), I find a Hittite hieroglyph on the stamped terra-cotta; the\nmiddle figure to the right is apparently the fist or fist-shaped glove,\nthe Egyptian symbol of the hand. I shall presently notice the Lycian\ncoin and a gold incision from Cyprus. Three legible characters\u2014the\nbull\u2019s head, the cap, and the bent arm\u2014are traced to the so-called\nprehistoric statue of Niobe, Mount Sipylus. Evidently Hittite, too, is\nthe bronze tablet in M. Pereti\u00e9\u2019s Museum, Bayrut.[557]\n\nModern discoveries enable us to characterise Hittite art as a blending\nof Egyptian with Assyrian, or rather Babylonian, both considerably\nmodified. The former appears in the two sphinxes of Eyub, and in\nthe winged solar disk, which was also borrowed by Mesopotamia from\nthe Nile Valley. The bas-reliefs and gems of Assyria are reflected\nin the Hittite representations of the human figure; but the stature\nis shorter, the limbs are thicker and more rounded, and the muscles\nare not so prominent. At Boghaz-Keui some of the deities stand upon\nanimals, a posture believed to be early Babylonian.[558] Here, too, the\ngoddesses wear mural crowns, the decoration of the Ephesian Artemis,\nand Prof. Sayce thence infers its Hittite origin. At Eyub is found the\ndouble-headed eagle which is supposed to be the prototype of the old\nSiljukian and modern European monsters.[559]\n\n[Heading: _HITTITE HIEROGLYPHICS._]\n\nThe Hittite syllabary has systematic affinities with the Egyptian, as\nshown by the boot, the glove (or hand), the bent arm, the battle-axe,\nand the short straight chopper-knife. But before reading these\nideographs it was necessary to determine the language, and here\ndifficulties arose. Prof. Sayce denies that the Khita were Semites\nor spoke a Semitic tongue;[560] and in this he is followed by Mr.\nW. St. Chad Boscawen. But the former contended with scant success,\nthat the Cypriote writing was \u2018none other than the hieroglyphics\nof Hamath.\u2019[561] Mr. Hyde Clarke believes that Khita, Etruscan, and\nCypriote are kindred tongues; and detects their symbols upon the\nautonomous coins of Spain. Others have supported the Scythic (Turanian)\norigin of the Hittites: in our day this was inevitable. The Rev. Dunbar\nI. Heath bravely pronounces the language Semitic and made a gallant\nattempt at interpreting the syllabary.[562] But nothing final can be\ndone under present conditions: we have not even collected all the\ncharacters.[563]\n\nWhile the Khita were inlanders, the parallel shore-land of the\nMediterranean\u2014Syria and Palestine\u2014was occupied by a host of Semitic\nand congener tribes. The former is a noble word and by no means the\n\u2018invention of a Greek geographer\u2019; Sur\u00edyyah denotes the rocky region\nfrom Sur or Tsur (\u05d6\u05d5\u05e8 = rock), a tower (_turris_), Tyre, the Zurai of\nTiglath-pileser II., and the Tapau of the hieroglyphs. Thus \u2018Syria\u2019\nand \u2018Tyria\u2019 would be synonyms. Herodotus (vii. 63) fathered a sad\nconfusion when he wrote, \u2018The people whom the Greeks call Syrians are\ncalled Assyrians by the barbarians.\u2019 Assyria is from another root, \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8\n(Ashur), supposed to signify \u2018happiness,\u2019 and applied, as will be seen,\nto one of the gods. Syria is the hieroglyphic Khar, Kharu, or Kh\u00e1lu,\nthe \u2018hinder-land,\u2019 that is, behind or north of Osiris (Egypt), and\nthe Akarru or Akharu of the cuneiforms, both from the \u2018Semitic\u2019 root\nAkhr. \u2018Palestine\u2019 (Syria) is simply the \u2018land of the Philistines,\u2019 the\nZahi of the hieroglyphs and medi\u00e6val Filist\u00edn; this powerful family,\nprobably connected with the Hyksos, extended eastward from the confines\nof Egypt, and built Pelusium\u2014\u2018Philistine-town,\u2019 not town of \u03c0\u03b7\u03bb\u1f78\u03c2 or\nmud.\n\nBeyond the Philistines began the Ph\u0153nicians\u2014merchants and traders,\ntravellers, explorers, and colonisers\u2014the \u2018Englishmen of antiquity.\u2019\nWhen Herodotus brings the Ph\u0153nicians from the \u2018Erythrean Sea\u2019 he is\ngenerally understood to mean the Persian Gulf, where the islands of\nTyrus (or Tylos) and Aradus are supposed to be the mother-sites of\nthe homonymous Mediterranean settlements. The popular derivation of\n\u2018Ph\u0153nicia\u2019 is from \u03c6\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b9\u03be, which again may have been, _more Gr\u00e6co_,\na mere translation of the Egyptian Kefeth, Kefthu, Keft, and Kefa, a\npalm-tree. But the question would be solved if it can be proved that\nthe Ph\u0153nicians are the \u2018Fenekh\u2019[564] of the monuments and the Moslem\nEl-Fenish. Mariette Pasha derived the term Punoi, P\u0153ni, from Pun or\nPunt, by which he understood Somali-land; he is easily reconciled with\nHerodotus by assuming Punt to mean, as most understand it, the opposite\nArabian coast.[565] Thus the \u2018Port of Punt\u2019 is the mythical Red Sea\n(primordial matter?), where red Typhon and the red dragon App or Ap\u00e1p\n(Apophis) fought against the white god Horus\u2014the prototype of Baldur\nthe Beautiful.[566]\n\nThe Ph\u0153nicians left their mark upon the world. For many generations the\nMediterranean was a \u2018Ph\u0153nician lake,\u2019 and they could boast of a general\n\u03b8\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03b1. This enabled their merchants and navigators to diffuse\ncivilisation from Egypt and Assyria to the farthest West. They were\nthe carriers of the world. Their \u2018round ships\u2019 or merchantmen (\u03b3\u03b1\u03c5\u03bb\u03bf\u03af)\nand their long war-ships pushed far into the Northern and Southern\nAtlantic. The topographical lists of Thut-mes III. show a thickly\ninhabited country (Brugsch, i. 350\u201351), and, as Mariette Pasha says, a\nmap of Canaan, composed of some hundred and fifteen hieroglyphic names,\n\u2018is a synoptical table of the \u201cPromised Land,\u201d made two hundred and\nseventy years before the exodus of Moses.\u2019 Among the settlements are\nDebekhu, now Baalbak, the Baal-city;[567] Tum-sakhu, the gate or shrine\nof Tum, the setting sun, now Damascus; Biarut (_hod._ Bayrut); Keriman\nor Mount Carmel and Iopoo, Joppa, or Jaffa. We find the Jordan in the\nEgyptian Iarutana, and Shabatuan is the Sabbaticus River of Pliny and\nJosephus.[568]\n\nThe chief cities of Ph\u0153nicia, Tyre and Sidon, were of unexampled\nsplendour, dep\u00f4ts of the wealth of the East, as early as B.C. 1500. The\narch-Homerid, who curiously enough never mentions Tyre, attributes all\nthe finest works of art either to the Sidonians or to the gods. The\neastern coast of the \u2018Inner Sea\u2019 was a centre of civilisation, a school\nof high culture which added beauty to necessary and useful technical\nproducts; and its arts and handicrafts became patterns to the world,\neven to Egypt, the mother. We have only a few inscriptions to remind us\nof its literature; but nothing can be more touching or more poetical\nthan the epitaph of Eshmunazar, King of the Sidonians:[569]\u2014\u2018Deprived\nof my fruit of life, my wise and valiant sons; widowed, the child of\nsolitude, I lie in this tomb, in this grave, in the place which I\nbuilt,\u2019 &c. Ph\u0153nicia, too, gave not only her letters but her gods to\nGreece and Rome. Mulciber, for instance, was evidently Malik Kabir,\nthe \u2018Great King,\u2019 father of the Cabiri, the patron-saints of Palm-land\nand the Pelasgi; this deity corresponded with the Egyptian Ptah,\nthe Demiurgus-god denoted by the Scarab\u00e6us, a symbol as common in\nPh\u0153nicia as in Nile-land. Melkarth,[570] again, whom Nonnius makes the\nBabylonian Sun, was the city-god; farther west he became Herakles, the\nEtruscan Erkle: the latter was an important commercial personage in\nPh\u0153nicia, for his dog (according to the Greeks) discovered the murex.\nMelkarth is the Ourshol of Selden (\u2018De Diis Syriis\u2019), who derives the\nword from \u2018Ur,\u2019 light.[571]\n\nAnother Syrian people, often occurring upon the Egyptian monuments, is\nthe Shairetana, whom Layard supposes to be the Sharutinians near modern\nAntioch. They inhabited a country upon a river and a lake or sea.\nTheir armour was a close-fitting cuirass of imbricated metal plates,\nworn over a short dress and girt at the waist; the helmet had side\nhorns, and its upper dome was surmounted by a shaft-and-ball crest.\nTheir weapons were javelins, long spears, and pointed Swords. The\nTokkari, their neighbours, also carried for offence spears and large\npointed knives or straight Swords. The Rebo had bows and long straight\nSwords with very sharp points. The same is the case with Ru-tennu or\nRot-n-n, who often pass in review upon the monuments. They appear to\nhave contained two divisions: the Ru-tennu-hir (upper Ru-tennu) were\napparently the peoples of C\u0153lesyria, while the Ruthens or Luthens are\nmentioned in conjunction with Neniee (Nineveh), Shinar (Singar), Babel,\nand other places in Eastern Naharayn (Mesopotamia).\n\n[Heading: _THE HARPE OF PERSEUS._]\n\nWe have no knowledge of the Ph\u0153nician Sword except that supplied to us\nby the legend of the enigmatical Egypto-Argive hero, Perseus. According\nto Herodotus (ii. 91), his quadrangular fane was at Panopolis-Chemmis\nin the Theban nome: here his sandal, two cubits long, was shown to\ndevotees; and the land prospered whenever he appeared, as is the\ncase when it sees El-Khizr, the Green Prophet of El-Islam. The\nGreeks, whom we need not credit, made him the son of Jupiter by the\n\u2018Acrisian maid\u2019 (Dana\u00eb); and the Persians,[572] according to the\nGreeks, declared his son Perses to be the _heros eponymus_ of their\ncountry, and the ancestor of their Hakhmanish or Ach\u00e6menian kings.\nHis chief exploits were two. At Spanish Tartessus or in Libya (Herod.\nii. 91) he slew, with the aid of a \u2018magic mirror\u2019 given to him by\nNeith-Athene, the gorgon Medusa, that old Typhonian head, from whose\nneck sprang Pegasus and Chrysaor.[573] At Ph\u0153nician Joppa (Jaffa)[574]\nhe slaughtered the sea-monster (\u03ba\u1fc6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2) and saved \u2018Andromeda,\u2019 who is\nsuspiciously like \u2018Anat.\u2019\n\nIn both these feats Perseus used a celestial weapon, the Harp\u00e9 of\nCronos, which Zeus had wielded in his duel with Typhon. The giant or\nbad-god had torn it from the grip of the good-god, whom he presently\nimprisoned in a cave; and it was not recovered till the captive was\nliberated by Thut-Hermes. The Greeks call this Sword \u1f0d\u03c1\u03c0\u03b7 (Harp\u00e9),[575]\nand the name is evidently the Ph\u0153nician Hereba and the Hebrew Chereb;\nwhilst its description, \u03b4\u03c1\u03ad\u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f40\u03be\u1f7a (_falx acuta_, sharp sickle),\nidentifies it with the Khopsh-blade of Egypt. Perseus performed his two\nexploits as Hercules slew the Lern\u00e6an hydra; and Mercury cut off the\nhead of Argus (_falcato ense_), using the _harpen Cyllenida_.[576]\n\nThis legend has greatly \u2018exercised\u2019 commentators. The hero is connected\nwith Io, Belus, and \u00c6gyptus; while he is evidently related to the\nCypriot Perseuth and the Ph\u0153nician Reseph[577] (flame or thunderbolt).\nThe original fight is the eternal warfare of good, light, warmth,\njoy, with their contraries. It begins with Osiris-Typhon; it proceeds\nto Assyria, where Bel the Sun-god attacks the Tiamat or marine\nmonster with the Sapara-Sword or Khopsh. In Persia it becomes Hormuzd\n(Ahura-mazda) and Ahriman (Angra-manus): in Jewry it is an affair\nbetween Bel and the Dragon; in Greece between Apollo and Python. The\nduello is continued by St. Patrick,[578] who banished for ever snakes\nfrom Ireland; and it makes its final appearance as \u2018Saint George\nand the Dragon.\u2019 This expiring effort of Egyptian mythology is held\napocryphal by the Roman Catholic Church, and no wonder. Dragons do\nnot, and never did, exist, except in memory as prehistoric monsters;\nmoreover, the traveller in Syria is shown three several tombs of\n\u2018M\u00e1r Jiry\u00fas\u2019 the Cappadocian, a saint who has spread himself from\nDiospolis-Lydda throughout the world. Under Justinian, the Theseum of\nAthens was dedicated to \u2018Saint George of Cappadocia,\u2019 and in Cyprus he\nhad as many temples as Venus. The Saxon teacher thus invoked him:\n\n Invicto mundum qui sanguine temnis,\n Infinita refers, Georgi Sancte, troph\u00e6a.\n\nHe entered the English calendar when Henry II. married Eleanor,\ndaughter of William of Aquitaine, the Crusader who chose the \u2018flos\nSanctorum\u2019 for his patron saint. He is still godfather of the Garter,\nestablished by Edward III. in 1350; and the most feudal of existing\norders wears \u2018the George\u2019 on a gold medallion, and celebrates its\nfestival at Windsor on April 23.\n\nOne step in the Saint\u2019s progress has been traced by M. Ch.\nClermont-Ganneau,[579] an Orientalist whose arch\u00e6ological acumen is\nunsurpassed even by his industry. A bas-relief group in the Louvre\nshows the hawk-headed Horus, mounted and in Roman uniform, piercing\nwith his peculiar spear (an _hamatum_, or barb-head), the neck of the\ncrocodile Typhon, Set, Dagon,[580] Python\u2014the Devil. This strongly\nsuggests that Horus and Perseus, Saint Patrick and Saint George, are\none and the same person.\n\n[Heading: _PH\u0152NICIAN SWORDS._]\n\nThe Hereba-blade has not yet been found in Ph\u0153nicia, but Wilkinson\nargues (II. ch. vii.) that the beautiful Swords and daggers, buried\nwith the Ancient Britons and clearly not of Greek or Roman type, are\nPh\u0153nician work. Carthaginian blades, however, dug up at Cann\u00e6 are now\nin the British Museum.[581] That the nations were congeners we see by\nthe P\u0153nulus of Plautus, and by such names as Dido (another form of\nDavid) and Elissa (El-Is\u00e1, the royal woman); by Sich\u00e6us, who derives\nfrom the same root as Zacch\u00e6us; by Hannibal and Hasdrubal (containing\nthe root Ba\u2019al), and by the \u2018Suffetes\u2019\u2014magistrates who are the Hebrew\nShophetim or Judges.[582] The mercenary armies of Carthage, whose\nconquests are first alluded to by Herodotus (vii. 165), used Swords of\nbronze, copper, and tin: Meyrick (i. 7) also mentions brass; and the\nhighly imaginative General Vallancey compares it with Dowris metal or\n\u2018Irish brass.\u2019 Dr. Schliemann (\u2018Mycen\u00e6,\u2019 p. 76) picked up, at \u2018Moty\u00eb\nin Sicily,\u2019 Carthaginian piles (arrow-heads) of bronze, pyramidal and\nwithout barbs (\u03b3\u03bb\u03c9\u03c7\u1fd6\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 or _hami_); he found the same style at Mycen\u00e6\n(p. 123).\n\nThe Swords of the Lycians probably resembled the Egyptian Khopsh; and\nthe same was the case with the Cilician falchion. The latter peoples\nwere also armed with the \u03c3\u03ac\u03c1\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1 (Sarissa); the lance or spear, sixteen\nto twenty feet long, afterwards used by the people of Epirus and the\nMacedonian phalanx. It is opposed to the Larissa, the lance of the\nEuropean Middle Ages, and to the Narissa affected by the Norrenses.\n\n[Heading: _THE JEWISH SWORD._]\n\nThe most remarkable point concerning the Sword amongst the ancient\nHebrews is our practical ignorance of its shape and size. Although\nshekels and similar remains have been discovered in fair quantities,\nthat \u2018iron race in iron clad,\u2019 the Jews of old, has not left us a\nsingle specimen of arms or armour. This is the more curious, as we are\nexpressly told that the blade was buried with its wielder.[583] And\nalthough we are assured (Gen. iv. 22) that Tubal-Cain, son of Lamech\nand Zillah, was the first metal-smith, there is no direct mention of\niron arms amongst the Jews till after the Exodus. Gesenius proposes\nto make Tubal-Cain a hybrid word, \u2018scoriarum faber,\u2019 from the Persian\n\u2018Tupal\u2019 (iron-slag or scori\u00e6), and \u2018Kani\u2019 (_faber_, a blacksmith). He\nhas been identified with Ptah, Bil-Kan (Assyria), Vulcan, and Mulciber;\nand only ignorance of Hinduism prevented medi\u00e6val commentators\ndiscovering him under the _alias_ of Vishvamitra, the artificer of\nthe Hind\u00fa gods. Maestro Vizani (A.D. 1588), a famous master of fence,\nattributes the invention of the Sword to Tubal-Cain; we should now\nplace this worthy in the later bronze and early iron age. Unjust\nclaims to discovery are made by all ancient peoples; and here it would\nbe hardly fair to adduce Bochart\u2019s \u2018Jud\u00e6i semper mendaces; in hoc\nargumento potissimum mentiuntur liberalissime.\u2019\n\nIt is, however, amply evident that the Ph\u0153nicians and the despised\nCanaanites were highly-cultivated peoples, whereas the Jews were not.\nThe latter are never alluded to in Egyptian hieroglyphs.[584] Even\nafter they had established their principality upon the bleak and\nbarren uplands of Jud\u00e6a, they were dependent for their art upon their\nneighbours. Although gold was so abundant in the days of David that he\ncould collect about one thousand million pounds (one hundred thousand\ntalents of gold and one million of silver) for building the Temple,\nyet Solomon, the Wise King, was obliged to seek stone-cutters and even\ncarpenters among the \u03a3\u03af\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03c5\u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9. Jud\u00e6a had neither science\nnor art; architecture, sculpture, paintings nor mosaics; comfort nor\ncookery. The Great Temple that succeeded the Tabernacle of Moses was\nmainly the work of Hiram of Tyre, the Siromus of Herodotus (v. 104),\nthe Hiromus of Dius, Menander and Josephus (\u2018Apion,\u2019 i. 17, &c.), and\nprobably a dynastic name, as \u2018Haram\u2019 the Sacred.\n\nAnother learned master of arms[585] declares that the first weapon\nmentioned in Hebrew Holy Writ is the _flammeus gladius_ wielded by the\nCherubim (Gen. iii. 24), the \u2018Chereb\u2019 which the Septuagint renders\n\u1fec\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03b1.[586] On the Assyrian monuments the Kerubi (\u2018cherub,\u2019 which\nderives, like the Arabic \u2018Karr\u00fab,\u2019 from \u2018Karb\u2019 = propinquity) denotes\nthe colossal figures symbolising the Powers of Good, and guarding the\npalace-gates. As they prevented the admission of Evil, they found\ntheir way to the entrance of the Garden of Eden, whence they warned\noff sinners and intruders. The \u2018flaming Sword,\u2019 which \u2018turned every\nway to keep the way of the tree of life,\u2019 was, according to some, the\ntwo-pronged blade, the Greek \u2018chelidonian,\u2019 which served as a talisman.\nTiglath Pileser I. made one of these forked Swords of copper, inscribed\nit with his victories, and placed it as a trophy in one of his castles.\nBut the Genesitic Sword is probably the weapon-symbol of Merodach, the\nBabylonian god and planet Jupiter. This revolving disc represented,\nlike the Aryan \u2018Vajra,\u2019 the lightning or \u2018thunderbolt\u2019 with which our\nclassics armed Zeus-Jovi;[587] and a highly poetical description of it\nis given in an old Akkadian hymn. Here it is called among other names\n_littu_ (or _litu_), which is, letter for letter, the same as the first\nof the Hebrew words translated \u2018flaming Sword\u2019 (_lahat ha-Chereb_):\nit may also signify the \u2018Burning of Desolation.\u2019 M. F. Lenormant[588]\nsuggests that the true meaning is \u2018magical prodigy.\u2019 But it is safer\nto stand by the disc-like Sword, which corresponds with the wheels of\nEzekiel\u2019s vision (chap. x. 9, 10). In the Chald\u00e6an battle of Bel and\nthe Dragon we again find the great flaming Sword, turning all round the\ncircle when wielded by the deity against the \u2018Drake.\u2019 So the Egyptians\nhad long before depicted the solar god with a glory of solar rays, a\nmost appropriate symbol; and his enemy, Apophis [Hieroglyphs], the\nserpent of Genesis, whom he destroys, is a monstrous reptile bristling\nwith a dorsal line of four Sword-blades, like flesh-knives, typifying\ndestruction.\n\nThe Hebrews borrowed their metallurgy, like all their early science,\nfrom Egypt. M. de Goguet remarked that they were not destitute of\ntechnological skill if they could calcine the golden calf and reduce\nthe metal (probably by using natron) to a powder which could be drunk\nin water\u2014_aurum potabile_.\n\nThe Hebrews called the Sword \u2018Chereb\u2019 (\u05d7\u05e8\u05d1, pl. Chereboth), a word that\noccurs some two hundred and fifty times in the \u2018Old Testament.\u2019 Its\nroot, like the Arabic \u2018khrb,\u2019 means to waste, to be wasted; and the\nnoun denotes any wasting matter.[589] Mostly it means a Sword (Gen.\nxvii. 40; xxxiv. 25, &c. &c.); in other places it is a knife (Josh. v.\n2, 3). So we find in Ezekiel (v. 1), \u2018Take thee a sharp knife [Chereb];\ntake thee a barber\u2019s razor\u2019: elsewhere it becomes a chisel (Exod.\nxx. 25); an axe or pick (Jer. xxxiv. 4; Ez. v. 1, and xxvi. 9), and,\nfinally, violent heat (Job xxx. 30). The Arabic \u2018Harbah\u2019 signifies a\ndart.\n\nWe gather from the Hebrew writings that the Sword was originally of\ncopper: hence the allusion to its brightness and its glittering: this\nwould be followed by bronze, and lastly by iron, ground upon the\nwhetstone (Deut. xxxii. 41). It was not of flint; the \u2018sharp knives\u2019\nalluded to in Joshua (v. 2), were mere silex-flakes like the Egyptian.\nThe Sword was used by foot-soldiers and horsemen, the latter adding to\nthe \u2018light Sword\u2019 a \u2018glittering spear\u2019 (Nahum iii. 3). The \u2018Chereb\u2019\nwas not a large or heavy weapon, and we may safely assume that its\nforms were those of the Egyptian hieroglyphs. The weight of Goliath\u2019s\nSword is unfortunately not given (1 Sam. xvii. 45), like that of his\nspear and his armour; nor are we told anything about the blade which\nDavid refused because he had not proved it (_ibid._ 39). But the ease\nwith which the son of Jesse drew out of the sheath thereof and used\nthe Philistine\u2019s \u2018Chereb,\u2019 suggests a normal size and weight (_ibid._\n51 and xxi. 9). It was much admired, for the victor said, \u2018There is\nnone like that\u2019 (1 Sam. xxi. 9). From the same chapter and verse we\nlearn that the blade was \u2018wrapped up in a cloth,\u2019 still an Eastern\npractice, \u2018behind the ephod\u2019 or priest\u2019s robe.[590] And the fact of a\nman falling upon his Sword (1 Sam. xxxi. 4, 5) shows that the blade\nwas stiff, short, and straight, like the Egyptian leaf-blade. Ehud the\nBenjamite, when about to murder Eglon, King of Moab (Jud. iii. 16),\n\u2018made a two-edged Sword-dagger of a cubit length\u2019 (or eighteen inches),\napparently without a sheath. The frequent mention of the double-edged\nSword (or straight cut-and-thrust?) suggests that there were also\nsingle-edged blades, back-Swords or, perhaps, falchions. It is hard to\nunderstand why Meyrick tells us that the Jews wore the Sword \u2018suspended\nin front, in the Asiatic style.\u2019 Ehud (_ibid._ 16, 21) girt his weapon\nunder his raiment upon his right thigh, and drew it with his left hand.\nAgain, we read, \u2018Gird thy sword upon thy thigh\u2019 (Ps. xlv. 3); and as\nJoab proceeded to assassinate Amasa (2 Sam. xx. 8), the \u2018garment that\nhe had put on was girded unto him, and upon it a girdle with a sword\nfastened upon his loins in the sheath thereof; and as he went forth it\nfell out.\u2019 The allusions to the oppressing Sword (Jer. xlvi. 16; l.\n25) recall the Assyrian emblem of the Sword and the Dove, which are\nboth figured in one image. Perhaps we must so understand the Egyptian\nRitual of the Dead: \u2018I came forth as his child from his Sword.\u2019\nApparently the Chereb was worn, as by the civilised Greeks and Romans,\nonly on emergencies and not, like the chivalry of Europe, habitually\nin peaceful towns. The Cultellarii or Sicarii, whom Josephus and\nTacitus[591] mention, were mere assassins, like the French Coustilliers\nand the English Coustrils or Custrils.\n\nThat the Hebrews were not first-rate Sword-cutlers, we may infer from\nthe history of Judas the Maccabee.[592] A vision of Jeremiah the\nProphet, preceding the victory over Nicanor, had promised him \u2018a Sword\nof God, a holy Sword,\u2019 not the short Mach\u00e6ra but the large Rhomph\u00e6a (2\nMac. xv. 15). After his war with the Samaritans and the Gentiles of\nPalestine, \u2018Judas took the Sword of Apollonius (the Syrian general) and\nfought with it all his life\u2019 (2 Mac. iii. 12).\n\nAnd yet how general was the use of the Sword in Jewry we gather from\nthe fact that it assisted in taking the Census: so David, by one\naccount (2 Sam. xxiv. 9) mustered one million three hundred thousand\n\u2018valiant men that drew the Sword.\u2019[593] The expression \u2018girding on\nthe Sword\u2019 (1 Sam. xxv. 13) denoted adults able to serve as soldiers,\nand also noted the beginning of a campaign (Deut. i. 41). It has been\nstated that Saul, son of Kish, used the Sword with his left hand, by\nvirtue of being of the tribe of Benjamin. Of the latter, however, we\nlearn (Judg. xx. 16) that many were ambidexters, fighting and slinging\nwith the left as well as with the right. Finally, to be \u2018slain by the\nSword\u2019 was evidently as great a misfortune as the \u2018straw-death\u2019 among\nthose muscular Christians, the Scandinavians. The curse of David upon\nJoab was that there might never be wanting in his house \u2018one that hath\nan issue, or is a leper, or that leaneth on a staff, or that falleth on\nthe Sword\u2019 (a suicide). All this makes the fact the more singular that\nno Jewish Sword-blade has ever been found.\n\nOf the weapons used by the tribes neighbouring the ancient Hebrews we\nknow little. In the famous muster of Xerxes\u2019 army,[594] the Assyrians,\naccording to Herodotus (vii. 65), used hand-daggers (\u1f10\u03b3\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03b1)\nresembling the Egyptian. The Arabs (vii. 69, 86), like the Indians,\nwere mere savages armed with bows and arrows; and we may note that\nthe former mounted only camels, the horse not having been naturalised\namongst all the tribes in the days of the \u2018Great King\u2019 (B.C. 485\u2013465).\nThe Philistine[595] weapons are known to us only by the famous duello\nbetween David and Goliath of Gath (1 Sam. xvii.). The account is\nfull of difficulties for the \u2018reconciler\u2019 of contradictory texts;\nfor instance, David is Saul\u2019s armour-bearer, and yet unknown at\nCourt.[596] Nor is it easy to discover where Gath is. It is popularly\nidentified with Kharbat (ruins of) Gat: this heap of ruins lies west of\ncastled Bayt Jibr\u00edn, the \u2018House of Giants\u2019 (tyrants), the Arabic name\ncorresponding with the Hebrew Bethogabra. The field of fight has been\nfound in the Wady El-Samt (Elah of St. Jerome), west of Jerusalem. The\npeople of this part of Palestine, probably descended from the Hyksos\nor Canaanites, are a fine tall race, bred to fray and foray by the\nneighbourhood of predatory Bedawin:[597] armed to the teeth, they are\nadepts in the use of the huge \u2018neb\u00fat\u2019 or quarterstaff.\n\nThe plain of Philistia, which once supported five princely cities,\nappears very barren viewed from the sea; but the interior shows\nwell-watered valleys, and the succession of ruins proves that the\ncountry belonged to an energetic and industrious race. Gaza (\u2018Azzah),\nat the southern extremity, was a place of considerable importance, on\naccount of its fine port and its trade with the adjacent Bedawin. It\nmust not be confused with modern Ghazzah.[598]\n\nGoliath, the \u2018champion of the uncircumcised\u2019 (Philistines), and\npossibly a type of the race, wore armour[599] of \u2018brass\u2019 (copper);\nunfortunately the materials of his Sword and sheath are not specified.\n\n[Heading: _THE CYPRUS SWORD._]\n\nLeaving Syria, we proceed to Cyprus, which may be considered an\noutlying part of Palestine. Its size, its position between the east\nand the west, and its wealth in gold, silver, copper, and iron, made\nit an important station for the early Pelasgo-Hellenic or Gr\u00e6co-Italic\nrace which passed westwards, using the Hellespont and the Bosphorus for\nferry-places, and the \u00c6gean Islands for stepping-stones. Thus Cyprus\nbecame the \u2018cradle of Greek culture, the cauldron in which Asiatic,\nEgyptian, and Greek ingredients were brewed together.\u2019 General Palma\n(di Cesnola)[600] has proved, by his invaluable finds, which have\n\u2018added a new and very important chapter to the history of art and\narch\u00e6ology,\u2019 that early Cypriote art was essentially Egyptian, modified\nby Ph\u0153nician and Assyrian influences, and eventually becoming Greek.\nHence, too, with the dawn of Hellenic civilisation, migrated westwards\nsome of the fairest classical myths. Cyprus was the very birthplace\nof Venus,[601] an anthropomorphism which rendered infinite service to\npoetry, painting, and sculpture. Idalium (Dali) was the capital of\nCinyras, Kinn\u00e1ri the harper,[602] the Cr\u0153sus of his day; it was the\nsite of Myrrha\u2019s sin and the death-place of her son Adonis. The latter,\nwho corresponds with the Tammuz of Palestine and the Assyrian Du-zi\n(Son of Life), is made by Ammianus Marcellinus (xxii. 14) an \u2018emblem\nof the fruits of the earth cut down in their prime.\u2019 Here was the\n_atelier_ of Pygmalion, Fa\u2019am Aliyun (_Malleus Deorum_), the hammer of\nthe gods;[603] and here upon his breathing statue of ivory he begat\nPaphos, the king. Finally, here flourished the poets who preceded the\nHomerid chief; and here was born Zeno, the Stoic, the \u2018Ph\u0153nician.\u2019\n\nThe history of Cyprus begins soon after the beginning. An inscription\nof Thut-mes III. speaks of the \u2018false breed of the Kittim\u2019; and the\nisland is everywhere on the monuments called Asibi. In the cuneiforms\nthe word is \u2018Kittie\u2019: we also find \u2018Atn\u00e1n\u2019: hence, possibly, the\nHellenic \u2018Akamantis.\u2019 It is the \u2018Chittim\u2019 of the Hebrews (Joseph. \u2018A.\nJ.\u2019 i. 7), and perhaps their \u2018Caphtor\u2019; the latter word, however,\nappears to be the Egyptian \u2018Kefa\u2019 or \u2018Keft\u2019 (a palm or Ph\u0153nicia),\nconverted into the son of Javan and grandson of Japhet. \u2018Kittim\u2019 and\nits congeners survive in the Greek Citium, now Larnaca, from \u2018larnax,\u2019\na mummy-case, a coffin. I have already noticed (chap. iv.) the disputed\norigin of \u2018Kypros\u2019 and \u2018Cyprus.\u2019\n\nThe Autochthones of Cyprus are supposed upon very slight grounds to\nhave been \u2018Aryans\u2019 from Asia Minor, Phrygians,[604] Lycians,[605]\nLydians, or Cilicians. There must have been an early \u2018Semitic\u2019\ninnervation, as we see by such names as Amathus; this is the Greek form\nof Hamath, the \u2018high town,\u2019 typically explained by the Hebrew \u2018Amath,\u2019\ngrandson of Canaan. The Ph\u0153nicians settled chiefly in the south of the\nisland and made it an outpost of Tyre and Sidon. Herodotus tells us\nthat there were also, according to their own account, Ethiopians (vii.\n90), by which he means Cushito-Asiatic tribes from the head of the\nPersian Gulf.\n\nThe staple of Cyprus, from the heroic ages to the Roman days, was the\ncopper-trade and the manufacture of arms and armour. To the legendary\nTyrio-Cyprian king Cinyras was attributed the invention of the hammer,\nanvil, tongs, and other metallurgic tools. This favourite of Venus\nwas only the _hero eponymus_ of the Ph\u0153nician Cinyrad\u00e6, who ruled the\nisle till subdued by Ptolemy Lagi (B.C. 312). They were opposed to a\nSemitico-Cilician family of priests and prophets, the Tamyrid\u00e6. Homer\n(\u2018Il.\u2019 xi. 19) describes the breast-plate of worked and damascened\nsteel (? \u03ba\u03cd\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2) adorned with gold and tin, which King Cinyras sent\nto Agamemnon. Alexander the Great highly prized, for its lightness\nand temper, the blade given to him by the King of Citium; and we know\nthat he used it in battle, slaying \u2018with his Cyprian Sword\u2019 Rh\u00e6sales\nthe Persian. Demetrius Poliorcetes wore a suit of armour from Cyprus,\nwhich had been tested by darts shot from an engine distant only twenty\npaces. In Herodotus (vii. 90) the Cyprian contingent of Xerxes\u2019 army\nwas weaponed after the manner of the Greeks.\n\nCyprus would derive her art from the Ph\u0153nicians, whose bronze dishes\nwere found in the Palace-cellars at Nineveh. Gem-engraving, and working\nin _pietra dura_, were highly cultivated, as is proved by General\nPalma\u2019s works, and by the Lawrence-Cesnola collection, \u2018Album of Cyprus\nAntiquities.\u2019[606] Glass- and crystal-cutting were well known at a time\nwhen Herodotus (ii. 69) could describe the former only as \u2018fusible\nstone\u2019\u2014perhaps, however, alluding to paste gems. But Theophrastus, a\ncentury and a half after the historian, mentions glass as reported\nto be made by melting a certain stone. I have already alluded to the\npeculiar decency and decorum of the glyptic remains in the Isle of\nVenus, where the festivals were described as being ultra-Canopic in\ncharacter.[607]\n\n[Heading: _CYPRUS WEAPONS._]\n\nThe \u2018finds\u2019 of Cyprian weapons have little importance; perhaps due care\nwas not devoted to the subject. Dali (Idalium) produced a fine dagger\nwith an open ring for ornament between handle and blade, together\nwith a hatchet and spear-head in copper. Here also was found the\nbronze tablet of the Duc de Luynes, the discoverer of the Cypriote\nsyllabary,[608] which has caused, and still causes, so much discussion.\nAlambra yielded a number of copper tools, needles, bowls, mirrors,\nhatchets, spear-heads, and daggers (Cesnola, Pl. V.). Among them is a\nsickle-shaped implement (_a_), of the shape called a \u2018razor\u2019 by writers\non Etruscanism; it may be anything between a razor, a sickle, and a\npruning-hook.[609] A tomb at Amathus supplied copper axes and iron\narrow-heads (p. 280), and another an iron dagger (p. 276). There is\na charming dagger from the Curium treasure (Pl. XXI. p. 312); and we\nare told (p. 335) of \u2018an iron dagger with part of its ivory handle.\u2019\nThe straight blade, the flesh-chopper, and the leaf-shaped Egyptian\nSwords are found on a patera[610] (p. 329), and the broken statue of\na warrior from Golgoi carries a falchion or flesh-chopper slung under\nthe quiver to the left side (p. 155). The tombs containing horsemen\nin terra-cotta invariably yielded one or two spear-heads seven to ten\ninches long, whilst the figures of foot-soldiers were accompanied by a\nbattle-axe, knife, or dagger. The decapitation of the Gorgon by Perseus\nadorns a sarcophagus also found at Golgoi (Pl. X.); and the head of\nMedusa (Pl. XXII.) apparently suggested that of the Hind\u00fa Kali, with\nthe tongue lolling out as if gorged with gore. The medi\u00e6val finds\nof arms seem to have been more important than the ancient. There is\na tempting notice, but only a notice, of the Venetian weapons taken\nfrom the two casements of Famagosta, of old Amta-Khadasta,[611] the\nAmmochostos of Ptolemy (v. 14, \u00a7 3): especially interesting are the\nrapiers, whose handles bore the Jerusalem Cross and the owners\u2019 crests\ninlaid with gold.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 196.\u2014(Plate V.) NOVACULA.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 197.\u2014(Prague Museum.) NOVACULA?]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 198.\u2014(Klagenfurth Museum.) NOVACULA, SICKLE? RAZOR?]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 199.\u2014SILVER DAGGER.]\n\n[Heading: _TROJAN WEAPONS._]\n\nOn the mainland north of Cyprus lies a most remarkable land which,\nforming a point of junction, a connecting-link between the East and\nthe West, was one of the tracks of primitive emigration from Asia\nto Europe, and _vice vers\u00e2_. This _t\u00eate de pont_, commanding the\nisland-bridge and the various stepping-stones of rock, is the famous\nTroas, occupied of old by a branch of the great Phrygian race. Hence\nthe interest attaching to the excavations of Dr. Henry Schliemann. His\nworks are too well known to require any detailed notice of the five\n(seven?) cities \u2018whose successive layers of ruins, still marked by the\nfires that passed over them, are piled to the height of fifty (two\nand a half) feet above the old summit of the His\u00e1rlik hill.\u2019[612] The\nexplorer\u2019s labours, according to his editor, have passed through the\n\u2018several stages of uncritical acceptance, hypercritical rejection, and\ndiscriminating belief\u2019: I can only remark that the question of Troy\nappears farther from being settled (if possible) than it ever was; we\nnow know only where it was not. The excavator began by placing his city\nof Priam in the second stratum from below, at a depth of twenty-three\nto thirty-three feet under the surface; and afterwards raised it to the\nthird layer. It is regretable that the learned author did not submit\nhis lively volume \u2018Troy\u2019 to a professed arch\u00e6ologist. We should not\nhave heard so much about the Svasti, a Hittite ornament, nor should we\nhave been told that the Trojans used \u2018salt-cellars or pepper-boxes\u2019 (p.\n79); that the Ramayana Epic was \u2018composed at the latest eight hundred\nyears before Christ\u2019 (p. 103), and that the \u2018ivory, peacocks, and\napes are _Sanskrit_ words with scarcely any alteration.\u2019[613] When,\ntherefore, I speak of \u2018Troy proper,\u2019 and \u2018Trojan stratum,\u2019 I mean only\nDr. Schliemann\u2019s Troy.\n\nThe townlet had preserved, at the time of its destruction, the\ntechnological use of stone, which, indeed, was found in the four lower\nstrata, and even in the Acropolis of Athens. It occurs, however, in\nconjunction with gold and silver, copper, bronze, and traces of iron,\nbut no tin.[614] The people were, like most barbarians, very expert\nmetallurgists; and if Dr. Schliemann\u2019s diorite be true diorite,[615]\nthey must have worked with highly-tempered tools. Copper, either pure\nor slightly alloyed, was the most common metal: we read of a key, a\nlarge double-edged axe, a vase-foot, nails, clothes-pins (\u1f14\u03bc\u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u03b1), a\ncurious instrument like a horse\u2019s bit (p. 261); a bar, a big ring, a\nchauldron (\u03bb\u03ad\u03b2\u03b7\u03c2), a ridge (\u03c6\u03ac\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2) for the helmet-crest (\u03bb\u03cc\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2), two\nwhole helmets, three crooked knives, and a lance with a mid-rib (p.\n279). Upon the so-called \u2018great Tower of Ilios\u2019[616] was found a large\nmould of mica-schist for casting twelve different articles, axes and\ndaggers. Thus we learn something about the long copper knives which\nthe Homeric heroes carry besides their Swords and use in sacrifice:\nalso we may now reasonably conclude that the Iliad-poets could not,\nas has often been asserted, have ignored the fusion and the casting\nof metals.[617] Near this important mould appeared a fine lance (p.\n279), and long thin bars, either with heads or with the ends bent\nround, determined to be hair- or breast-pins. Iron showed only in a\nsling-bullet, although Dr. Schliemann often mentions \u2018loadstone.\u2019[618]\n\nThe \u2018upper Trojan stratum\u2019 yielded other moulds for bar-casting and a\nfour-footed crucible, in which some copper was still visible. The gates\nsupposed to be the Sc\u00e6an or left-handed[619] had two copper bolts (p.\n302). The so-called \u2018Palace of Priam\u2019[620] produced a dozen long thin\npins for hair or dress; and one of a bundle of five, fused together by\nfire, had two separate heads, the upper lentil-shaped, and the lower\nperfectly round (p. 312). Thick nails, fitted for driving into wood,\nwere rare; the labour of two years produced only two. Finally, there\nwere fragments of a Sword, a lance, and other instruments.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 200.\u2014COPPER SWORD WITH SHARP END, FROM THE\n\u2018TREASURY OF PRIAM.\u2019]\n\nThe first article found in the so-called \u2018Treasury of Priam\u2019 was a\ncopper shield (\u1f00\u03c3\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2 \u1f40\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03cc\u03b5\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1), an oval salver measuring in diameter\nless than twenty inches. The flat field is surrounded by a rim (\u1f04\u03bd\u03c4\u03c5\u03be)\nan inch and a half high; the umbo (\u1f40\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2)[621] measured two and\none-third by four and one-third across, and this boss was bounded\nby a furrow (\u03b1\u1f56\u03bb\u03b1\u03be) two-fifths of an inch across (p. 324). Thus\nAntyx and Aulax, suited for mounting a guard of hide, recall Ajax\u2019s\nseven-fold shield, made by Tychius[622] (\u2018Il.\u2019 vii. 219\u2013223); and\nSarpedon\u2019s targe, with its round plate of hammered \u2018Chalcos,\u2019 and its\nhide-covering attached to the inner edge of the rim by gold wires or\nrivets (\u2018Il.\u2019 xii. 294\u201397). Near the left hand of a Lebes-chauldron,\ntwo fragments of a lance and a battle-axe were firmly attached by\nfusion. There were thirteen copper lances, from nearly seven inches\nto upwards of a foot long, with one and a half to two and one-third\ninches of maximum breadth; the shafts had pin-holes for attachment\nto the handle; the Greeks and Romans inserted the wood into the neck\nof the metal-head of the lance. There was a common one-edged knife\nsix inches long; and of seven two-edged daggers, the largest measured\nten and two-thirds by two inches. The grips averaged two to two and\nthree-quarter inches, and the tang-ends, where the pommels should be,\nwere bent round at a right angle. Doubtless the tang had been encased\nin a wooden haft; had it been of bone some trace would have remained,\nand the point, which projected about half an inch, was simply turned\nto keep the handle in place. This antiquated contrivance is not yet\nwholly obsolete, especially when the metal is left naked. The only\nsign of a Sword (p. 332) was a fragmentary blade five inches and\ntwo-thirds long by nearly two inches broad, and with a sharp edge\nat the chisel-like end. Many golden buttons, not unlike our modern\nshirt-studs, were found in the \u2018Treasury\u2019; they had probably served\nto ornament the belts or straps (\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2) of knives, shields, and\nSwords.[623]\n\n[Heading: _ALL THE TROYS._]\n\nWe gather from Dr. Schliemann\u2019s labours that his \u2018Troy,\u2019 at the time\nof its destruction, was a townlet still in the local Stone-age; at\nthe height of the Copper-Bronze Period; and, perhaps, in the earliest\ndawn of the Iron-epoch. Apparently it had an alphabet, of which the\nGrecian enemy could not boast;[624] and, comparing its remains with\nthose of Mycen\u00e6, its culture fully equalled, if not excelled, that\nof contemporary Hellas. It is curious to observe that the deeper\nthe diggings, from twenty-four feet downwards, the greater were the\nindications of technological skill. According to Herodotus (ii. 118),\nthe Egyptians bore witness to the power of Troy,[625] yet there is an\nutter absence of Nilotic influence in the remains, and Brugsch denies\nthat there is any allusion to it on the monuments of Egypt. A similar\ndisconnection with Ph\u0153nicia and Assyria appears. The resemblance of the\nterra cottas to those found in Cyprus and in some of the \u00c6gean islands\nsuggests that there was an early relationship between the Phrygian\nTrojans and the Phrygian Greeks, both being \u2018Indo-Europeans\u2019;[626] and\nthat the eternal Trojan war was, like the later contest between Russia\nand Poland, Federals and Confederates, nothing but a family feud, a\nvenomous quarrel of rival cousins.\n\nTo conclude the ever-interesting subject of Troy. Homer, or the Homerid\nso called, describes the city according to current legends, as an\nuntravelled Englishman of to-day would describe the Calais of Queen\nMary. There is no reason to believe that he saw it, much less that he\npainted like the photographing of Balzac. Hence it is a daring more\nthan sublime, to find the Sc\u00e6an Gate and the Palace of Priam. Even the\nnumber of superimposed settlements differs. Dr. Schliemann (\u2018Ilios,\u2019\n&c.) proposes seven, while Dr. Wilhelm D\u00f6rpfeld[627] reduces the number\nto six. These, according to Professor Jebb, are as follows: (1) The\nGreek Ilium of the latest or Roman age, extending to about six feet\nbelow the surface. (2) The Greek Ilium of Macedonian age taken by\nFimbria in B.C. 85; it extends over the plateau adjoining His\u00e1rlik.\n(3) A Greek Ilium of earlier age, taken by Charidemus (B.C. 359); it\nappears confined to the little mound. (4) Another unimportant village;\npossibly No. 3 in its earliest form, when the \u00c6olic settlers occupied\nHis\u00e1rlik: the evidence of the pottery[628] suggests these to have been\nthe oldest Hellenic remains. (5) Prehistoric city; and (6) a distinct\nstratum of ruins also prehistoric. To these Dr. Schliemann adds (7) the\nearliest prehistoric buildings founded on the floor-rock fifty-two feet\nbelow the surface and fifty-nine above the present level of the plain.\n\nFinally, Mr. W. W. Goodwin[629] comes to the \u2018ultimate conclusion\u2019\nabout His\u00e1rlik, that it shows only two important settlements. The first\nis the large prehistoric city extending over the hill and plateau. The\nsecond is the historic Ilium in its three phases of primitive \u00c6olic\noccupation of the Acropolis, the Macedonian city, and the Roman Ilium.\n\nThe immediate neighbours of Troy were the Lydians, whom history makes\nthe forefathers of the ancient Etruscans.[630] Herodotus (i. 94) tells\nthe tale of Tyrrhenus and his emigration, which, however, differs from\nthe account of Xanthus Lydius preserved by Nicolaus of Damascus. In\nthe \u2018Iliad\u2019 (ii. 864), the Lydians appear only as M\u00e6onians. They were\na people of Iranian speech, to judge from such words as \u03ba\u03b1\u03bd (_canis_,\n_kyon_, _svan_, &c., a dog), and \u2018Sardis\u2019 from \u2018Sarat\u2019 or \u2018Sard,\u2019 in\nold Persian Thrade and in modern Persian S\u00e1l = a year. Apparently their\nlanguage had affinities with the Etruscan and Latin; for instance,\nMyrsilus, son of Myrsus, the Gr\u00e6co-Lydian name of Candaules (Herod. i.\n7), has been compared with Larthial-i-sa; and Servilius from Servius,\nthe _l_ denoting son (_filius_), shows the same peculiarity. The\nLydians were a civilised people who first coined gold (Herod. i. 94)\nand stamped silver (_ibid._);[631] their name will ever be connected\nwith music. With them twelve was a sacred number; it formed the perfect\nAmphictyony of the Ionians, and it survived in the Confederacy of\nEtruscan cities (Livy, v. 33). Finally, the tomb of Alyattes[632] is\napparently a prototype of the Etruscan sepulchres; and the peculiarity\nof these \u2018homes of the dead\u2019 suggests direct derivation from Egypt\nrather than coincidental resemblance.\n\nUntil late years it has been accepted as an historic fact that the\nold colonisers of Tyrrhenia dwelt for years as conquerors in Lower\nEgypt. The Tuisa, Tursha, Toersha, and Turisa of the monuments wear\na close-fitting _calotte_ with a tall point, whence a long thin\ntassel falls to the back of the neck, like one of the Cyprus caps and\nthe older style of Moslem Fez.[633] But Brugsch[634] converts the\nmonumental Tursha into Taurians: he wholly discredits the existence of\na Pelasgo-Italic confederacy in the days of Mene-Ptah I. and of Ramses\nIII.; and he positively asserts that the Egyptians of the Fourteenth\nDynasty knew nothing of Ilium and the Dardanians, Mysians and Lycians,\nLydians and Etruscans, Sardinians, Greek Ach\u00e6ans,[635] Siculians,\nTeucinians, and Oscans.\n\n[Heading: _THE ETRUSCAN SWORD._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 201.\u2014THE MARZABOTTO BLADE.]\n\nHowever that may be, the Etruscans, the _acerrimi Tusci_ of Virgil,\nwere a people of high culture, to whose inventive and progressive\ngenius Rome owed her early steps in arts and arms.[636] A flood of\nlight has been thrown upon this page of proto-historic lore by the\nextensive excavations of late years in the Emilian country about\nBologna, the Felsina or Velsina of Tyrrhenia. My late friend, the\nlearned and lamented Prof. G. G. Bianconi, forwarded to me the\naccompanying sketch (fig. 202) of an exceptional iron blade found in\nthe ruins of Marzabotto.[637] It is described as follows (p. 3) in a\nwork, printed but not published, by the learned arch\u00e6ologist Count\nGozzadini of Bologna, \u2018Di ulteriori scoperte nell\u2019 antica necropoli di\nMarzabotto nel Bolognese\u2019[638]:\u2014\n\n\u2018Within a cell only thirty centim\u00e8tres deep, and disposed two m\u00e8tres\ndistant from one another, lay three skeletons whose heads fronted\neastwards. On each was an iron Sword-blade, sixty-two centim\u00e8tres long\nby four and a half broad near the tang (_spina_), and fining off to an\nolive-leaf point; all have the mid-rib or longitudinal spine. Partly\nattached by oxidation to one blade is a remnant of the iron scabbard,\nslightly convex posteriorly and showing in the upper part a rectangular\nprojection, perhaps to carry the hook attached to the balteus. The\nsheath-front has a mid-rib like the blade, and the wavy mouth is\nadapted to the Sword-shoulders. On this face only are two buttons\n(_borchie_) in high relief, connected by a band (_listello_). The tang,\ntwelve centim\u00e8tres long, shows the length of the hilt, which, being\nmade of more perishable material, has altogether disappeared.\u2019\n\nThe long narrow rapier-blade with the mid-rib is first seen in the\nEgyptian bronzes;[639] the step was easy to the harder metal. That the\niron form was common in Etruria as its bronze congener at Mycen\u00e6, is\nproved by the discovery of three in a single tomb; moreover, as has\nbeen said, a fourth has been preserved for years in the Marzabotto\ncollection. All are similar in form, which is highly civilised. The\nnumber of the blades also suggests that they are of native make, not\nleft by the Boians and the Ligaunians, who, according to the late Prof.\nConestabile, may have buried in the Marzabotto cemetery. The date of\nthe latter is somewhat uncertain; but it cannot be much more recent\nthan the burial-ground of Villanova, where Count Gozzadini found an\n_\u00e6s rude_, and which he dates from the days of Numa, B.C. 700. He is\nfollowed by Dr. Schliemann (\u2018Troy,\u2019 p. 40), and opposed by that learned\nand practical anthropologist M. Gabrielle de Mortillet (\u2018Le Signe de la\nCroix,\u2019 &c. pp. 88\u201389), who would assign a far earlier epoch.\n\nCount Gozzadini[640] gives a valuable description of a fifth Etruscan\nSword lately discovered at the \u2018Palazzino\u2019 farm, parish of Ceretolo and\ncommune of Casalecchio, some ten kilom\u00e8tres south-west of \u2018Etruscan\nBologna.\u2019 In an isolated tomb, carefully excavated by the proprietor\n(Marchese Tommaso Boschi), was found a skeleton, the feet fronting\nsouthwards. On its left, extending higher than the head, was an iron\nlance-point,[641] and on the corresponding shoulder a thick armilla of\nbronze; other objects, including an Etruscan \u0152nochoe, two knives wholly\niron, and a chisel of the same metal, lay scattered about the grave\nwhich was not stone-revetted. Close to the right side was an iron Sword\nin a sheath of the same metal and wanting the heft: the general belief\nwas that the weapon had been buried with the wielder.\n\nCount Gozzadini (pp. 19, 20) describes the Sword as follows: \u2018Slightly\nbi-convex and two-edged, it measures 0\u00b7625 m\u00e8tre from the tang\n(_codolo_) to the end of the scabbard; the tang, not including the\npart forming the grip, was 0\u00b711 m\u00e8tre. The breadth is 0\u00b747 m\u00e8tre at\nthe shoulders, narrowing to a point, as is proved by the scabbard\ndiminishing to 0\u00b727 m\u00e8tre at the end. The handle showed no sign of\ncross-bars or guard, which would also have been of iron; and it is\nevident that the haft was of some destructible substance which has\nwholly disappeared. The probability is that the grip was shaped like\nthose of the preceding Bronze Age\u2014that is, bulging out behind the\nblade for easier hold. The sheath was somewhat more bi-convex than\nthe Sword; an iron-plate about one millim\u00e8tre thick, had been turned\nover horizontally to unite the edges, which, near one of the sides,\nformed a narrow and gradual line of superposition. This scabbard ended\nin an ovoid crampet or ferule; and a fragment of plate iron with a\nshort broad hook, like that generally used for attachment to the belt,\nprobably belonged to it.\u2019\n\nHere, then, we have again a perfect rapier. The only question is\nwhether it was Etruscan, or, as supposed by M. G. de Mortillet,\nGaulish.[642] Count Gozzadini argues ably to prove the former\ncase.[643] He acknowledges that the invading Boii held the city and\ncountry for two centuries (B.C. 358\u2013566), until the Romans expelled\nthem for ever. But he shows that these peoples did not use such fine\nSwords. When treating of the Kelts (chapter xiii.), I shall show that\nthe long unmanageable slashing Claidab or Spatha of these peoples had\nnothing in common with the strong, bi-convex, and thoroughly-civilised\nrapier of Ceretolo.\n\nOther blades like that of Ceretolo\u2014long, narrow, and pointed\u2014have\nbeen found in tombs notably Etruscan. Such, for instance, was that of\nC\u00e6re, now in the Gregorian Museum, Rome. In December 1879 two other\nblades were produced by a necropolis in Valdichiana, between Chiusi\nand Arezzo, where a long Etruscan inscription was engraved upon the\nfoot of a tazza. Two similar blades are also portrayed in relief\nand colour upon the stuccoed wall of a C\u00e6re tomb. Des Vergers[644]\ndescribes them as follows: \u2018La frise sup\u00e9rieure est orn\u00e9e d\u2019\u00c9p\u00e9es\nlongues \u00e0 deux tranchants, \u00e0 la lame large et droite avec garde \u00e0 la\npoign\u00e9e, se rapprochant de celle que les Romains d\u00e9signaient par le nom\nde _spatha_. Les unes sont nues, les autres dans le fourreau.\u2019 Four\nsuch Swords were also produced at Pietrabbondante in the district of\nfar-famed Isernia, and are preserved in the National Museum of Naples.\nSignor Campanari discovered in an Etruscan tomb a Sword-hilt in bronze\nattached to a blade of iron.[645] Finally, the Benacci property near\nthe Certosa of Bologna also yielded an iron blade and iron chisels like\nthose of Ceretolo.\n\nThe late learned Prof. Conestabile truly asserts, \u2018Des \u00c9p\u00e9es de m\u00eame\nforme et de m\u00eame dimension ont \u00e9t\u00e9 trouv\u00e9es dans d\u2019autres localit\u00e9s\n\u00e9trusques, situ\u00e9es dehors la sph\u00e8re des invasions Gauloises, notamment\nen Toscane.\u2019 It is certain that such blades have been discovered on\nboth sides of the Alps. As the Romans adopted the Iberic or Spanish\nblade; so the Gauls may have substituted for their own imperfect arms\nthe weapons taken from the Italians; in fact, we know from history\nthat they did so. Moreover, the Etruscans extended their commerce, not\nonly over Transalpine regions, but to that vast region extending from\nSwitzerland to Denmark, and from Wallachia to England and Ireland.[646]\nThis has been proved by the investigations of many scholars: in\nGermany by Lindenschmidt, Von Sacken, Virchow, Kenner, Weihold, Von\nConhausen, and Genthe; by the Swiss Morlot, De Rougemont, Desor, and\nDe Bonstetten; by the Dane Wors\u00e4ae; by Gray, Dennis, Hamilton, and\nWyllie in England; by the Belgian Schuermans; and by the Italians\nGozzadini, Conestabile, Garrucci, and Gamurrini. Desor, when receiving\nthe drawing of an iron Sword with bronze handle discovered at Sion, and\ndeclared by Thioly to resemble exactly those of Hallstadt, declared:\n\u2018De pareilles \u00c9p\u00e9es sont \u00e9videmment fabriqu\u00e9es \u00e0 l\u2019\u00e9tranger et non dans\nle pays: elles nous conduisent donc vers ce grand commerce \u00c9trusque\nqui se faisait pendant la premi\u00e8re \u00e9poque de fer, \u00e9poque sur laquelle\non s\u2019est tromp\u00e9 si souvent.\u2019 Livy,[647] in fact, proves the extent of\narms-manufactory in Etruria, when he relates that in B.C. 205, at which\ntime the Boiian occupation of Felsina ended, Arezzo alone could furnish\nScipio\u2019s fleet in forty-five days with three thousand helmets, as many\nScuta and lances of three different kinds.\n\nBut the rapier was not the only form of Etruscan Sword. In Hamilton\u2019s\n\u2018Etruscan Antiquities,\u2019[648] a human figure carries a cutting Sword\nlike a \u2018hanger,\u2019 wearing the belt at the bottom of the thorax. The\nC\u00e9ramique of Etruria supplies copious illustrations of Swords and other\nweapons; but the art is somewhat mixed, and our safest information must\nbe derived from actual finds.\n\nWe are justified by these finds in concluding that the Etruscans\nof Italy had from their earliest times a rapier which, for a\ncut-and-thrust weapon, is well-nigh perfect. The blade is long, but\nnot too long; broad enough to be efficient without overweight, and\nstrengthened to the utmost by the mid-rib which forms a shallow arch.\nIn chapter xi. I shall compare the Etrurian Sword with that of Mycen\u00e6;\nthe latter is a marvel of its kind, but it is made of a far inferior\nmetal\u2014bronze.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER X.\n\n THE SWORD IN BABYLONIA, ASSYRIA AND PERSIA, AND ANCIENT INDIA.\n\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 202.\u2014ASSYRIAN SWORD.]\n\nAlthough Professor Lepsius maintained and proved that the earliest\nBabylonian civilisation was imported from Egypt, Biblical leanings, and\nthe fatal practice of reading myths and mysteries as literal history,\nhave led many moderns to hold the Plain of Shinar (Babylon) and the\nancient head of the Persian Gulf to be the cradle of culture and the\norigin of \u2018Semitism.\u2019 We still read, \u2018Babylonia stands prominent as\nhighly civilised and densely populated at a period when Egypt was\nstill in her youthful prime.\u2019[649] Only in Genesis (x. 10), a document\ntreating of later ethnology, we find mention of Erech,[650] Urukh\nbeing the oldest traditional king of Babylon. On the other hand, the\nEgyptians declared Belus and his subjects to have been an Egyptian\ncolony which taught the rude Babylonians astrology and other arts.\nThe monumental Babylonian or pre-Chald\u00e6an Empire begins only in B.C.\n2300, many a century\u2014say a score\u2014after Menes. The late Mr. George Smith\nwarns us that some scholars would make the annals \u2018stretch nearly\ntwo thousand years beyond that time\u2019; but he expressly declares no\napproximate date can be fixed for any king before Kara-Indas (circ.\nB.C. 1475?\u20131450?). Also, \u2018The great temples of Babylonia were founded\nby the kings who preceded the conquest by Hammu-rabi, King of the\nKassi\u2019 Arabs (sixteenth century B.C.).[651]\n\nThe Burbur or Accad inscriptions found in Babylonia do not date before\nB.C. 2000. Ninus, the builder of Nineveh (Fish-town) and the founder\nof the Assyrian dynasties, is usually placed between B.C. 2317 and\n2116. An extract, by Alexander Polyhistor from the Armenian[652]\nChronicle, gives, by adding the dynasties, an origin-date of 2,317\nyears. Berosus the priest, declares from official documents, that\nBabylon (God\u2019s Gate) had regal annals 1,000 years before Solomon (B.C.\n993\u2013953), in whose reign dynastic Jewish history begins. Diodorus\nSiculus, quoting Ctesias (B.C. 395) makes the monarchy commence one\nthousand years before the Siege of Troy, which we may place about B.C.\n1200. \u00c6milius Sura, quoted by Paterculus, proposes the date B.C. 2145,\nand Eusebius the Armenian 1340 years before the first Olympiad (B.C.\n776), or B.C. 2116. The great kingdom of the Khita (Hittites)[653]\nwas succeeded on the rich lowlands of the Tigris-Euphrates system by\nBabylon, which the Nilotes called \u2018Har,\u2019 and by the Assyrians, whom the\nEgyptians called Mat or the People, and hieroglyphs notice the \u2018Great\nKing of the Mat.\u2019 But [Cuneiform] Assur[654] was little known till the\ndecline of the Pharaohs in the Twenty-first Dynasty (B.C. 1100\u2013966)\nof the priest Hirhor and his successors: one of the latter\u2014Ramessu or\nRamses XVI.\u2014married, when dethroned, a daughter of Pallasharnes, the\n\u2018great king of the Assyrians,\u2019 whose capital was Nineveh,[655] and thus\nled to the Assyrian invasions of Egypt.[656] We may, then, safely hold\nwith Lepsius that early Babylonian civilisation was posterior to, if\nnot imported from, Egypt.[657]\n\nIn Babylonia a third element, the so-called \u2018Turanian\u2019 (Chinese),\nfirst emerged from Egyptian and began to take its part in the drama\nof progress. The almost unknown quantity has assumed magnificent\nproportions in the eyes of certain students, and great things are still\nexpected from Akkadian revelation. Yet the race typified by the Chinese\ncould have had no effect upon the learning of Egypt. \u2018At the time\nwhen the genealogical tables of Genesis were written (chap. x.) those\nregions were still so unknown and barbarous that the writer excluded\nthem from the civilised world.\u2019[658]\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN ASSYRIA._]\n\nOur factual knowledge of Mesopotamian civilisation is mostly due to\nthe labours of the present century. Professor Grotefend of Bonn, in\n1801\u20131803, discovered the clue to the Persian cuneiform,[659] cuneatic\nor arrow-headed character. This great step in advance opened the\nlabyrinth to a host of minor explorers\u2014Heeren (1815), Burnouf (1836),\nLassen (1836\u201344), Hincks, who attacked the Assyrian cuneiform, and,\nto mention no more, Rawlinson, whose \u2018Reading made Easy\u2019 popularised\nthe study in England. Actual exploration of the Mesopotamian ruins was\nbegun by the learned Consul Botta (Dec. 1842) who, after failing at\nKoyunjik opposite Mosul, worked successfully at Khorsabad, some ten\nmiles to the north-east: four years afterwards (Dec. 1846) the first\ncollection of Assyrian antiquities reached the Louvre. He was followed\n(Nov. 8, 1845) by Mr. (now Sir) H. A. Layard, who unfortunately was not\nan Orientalist: his various discoveries of a stamped-clay literature,\nand his popular publications, introduced to the public Koyunjik and\nKal\u2019at Ninawi (Nineveh), Hillah (Babylon), Wark\u00e1, Sippara (Abu Nabbah)\nsixteen miles south-west of Baghdad, and a variety of Biblical sites.\n\nThis \u2018recovery\u2019 of antiquities buried twenty centuries ago, and a whole\nliterature of bas-reliefs, enables us to compare the Nile Valley, the\ncradle and mother-country of science and art, with its rival-successor\non the Tigris-Euphrates. The original workmanship of Assyria, like that\nof Egypt, is still unknown; and, though she borrowed from Nile-land,\nher art is rather a decadence than a rise. The difference, indeed, is\nbetween the porphyries, the granites, and the syenites of Egypt, and\nthe mud-bricks, the coarse black marbles, the rough basalts, and the\nundurable alabasters (a calcareous carbonate) of Interamnian Assyria.\nBut the industrious valley-men made the best of their poor material.\nThe ruins show the true Egyptian arch; the so-called Ionic capital, the\noriginal volutes being goats\u2019 horns;[660] the Caryatides and Atlantes,\nor human figures acting columns; the cornice, corbel, and bracket;\nwith a host of architectural embellishments to fill up plain fields.\nApparently all migrated from Nile-land. Such were the winged circle,\nthe lotus,[661] the fir-cone, and the rosette: the latter, also found\nby Dr. Schliemann at \u2018Troy\u2019 (p. 160), became the _rosa mystica_ of\nByzantine art, and was used by Christians to denote their origin.\nAgain, we have the key-pattern, which is Trojan and Chinese as well\nas Greek; the honeysuckle, a symbol of the Homa or Assyrian \u2018Tree of\nLife\u2019;[662] the guilloche-scroll or wave-pattern; and the meander,\nalso miscalled the Tuscan border: the latter is common in Egypt and\nCyprus, and possibly derives from the Hittite Svasti, erroneously\ncalled Svastika.[663] Assyria equally excelled in literature,[664] in\npainting, in sculpture, in the minor arts, and in metallurgy. She made\ntransparent glass: a crystal lens[665] found at Nineveh accounts for\nthe diminutive size of some inscriptions. Her sons worked enamel, and\nthus adorned the humble brick: like their Egyptian teachers, they were\nskilful in ivory-carving, in cutting cylinders of jasper and _pietra\ndura_, and in gem-engraving on carnelian, onyx, sardonyx, amethyst,\nagate, chalcedony, and lapis lazuli.\n\nAs regards Assyrian metallurgy, few articles of iron have been found\nin the river-valley\u2019s damp and nitrous soil, but the metal is denoted,\nas in Egypt, by a blue tint, and the god Ninib is termed the \u2018lord\nof the iron coat.\u2019 Gold and silver were profusely used as ornaments.\nLead was dug in the Montes Gord\u00e6i (Kurd Mountains) near Mosul, the\noriginal Ararat of \u2018Noah\u2019s ark.\u2019 Copper vessels, bright as gold when\npolished, were found in the palaces of Nimr\u00fad: the ore was brought\nfrom the northern highlands heading the Tigris Valley, where the\nArghana ma\u2019adan (Diyar-i-Bekr mine) long supplied the Ottoman Empire.\nThe place that exported their tin is disputed.[666] They worked well\nin bronze: of this alloy many castings have been found: utensils,\nas pots and cauldrons, cups, forks and spoons, dishes, and plates,\nplain and ornamented; tools, as picks, nails, and saws; thin plates;\nthe so-called razors;[667] lamps; weapons; an \u00e6gis-like object also\nfound in Egypt; lance-heads, shields, and door-sockets each weighing\nsix pounds and three and three-quarter ounces.[668] The bronze gates\nof Balawat, with plates eight feet long showing the triumphs of\nShalmaneser II. (B.C. 884\u2013850), attest high art. Layard supplied the\nBritish Museum with many iron articles from the north-western palace\nat Nimr\u00fad, and some had iron cores round which bronze had been cast\nfor economy. Amongst them were iron chain-armour, two rusty helmets\nornamented with bronze; picks, hammers, knives, and saws.[669] The\napproximate date may be assumed at B.C. 880.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 203.\u2014ASSYRIAN LANCE WITH COUNTER-WEIGHT.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 204.\u2014ASSYRIAN SPEAR-HEAD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 205.\u2014ASSYRIAN \u2018RAZOR.\u2019\n\nA sickle-shaped tool from a bas-relief. A similar weapon in iron, found\nat P\u00e6stum in Lucania, is preserved in the Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Artillerie at Paris.]\n\nIn mimic war (hunting) the Assyrians were proficients. Many hundreds\nof bas-reliefs, which are more natural because less conventional\nthan those of Egypt, illustrate the chase of the lion, stag, and\njungle-swine; the wild horse, ass, and bull. They were equally skilled\nin the art of war, which is shown in all its phases, the march, the\npassage of streams, the siege, the battle, the sea-fight, or rather\nthe river-fight, the pursuit, and the punishment of prisoners by\ntorturing, impaling, flaying alive, crucifixion, and \u2018tree-planting\u2019\nor vivi-interment. The abominable cruelties of these Asiatics, still\npractised by the Persian, the Kurd, and the \u2018unspeakable\u2019 Turk,\ncontrast strongly with the mildness of the African Egyptians. Their\nwalls, single or double, were provided with the fosse and the rampart,\nand with machicolations, crenelles, and battlements; the last two\noriginally shields like the Egyptian cartouche. The _places fortes_\nwere attacked by the wheeled tower,[670] the iron-pointed battering\nram, the scaling ladder, and the pavoise, or large shield common\nthroughout Europe in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.[671] In\nthe field pennons are attached to the lances, and the standard-bearers\ncarry eagles. The action begins with missiles, slings, darts, and\narrows; the mace and spear then play their part, and the Sword is\nnever absent. The warriors\u2014who appear on foot or horseback, with\ngorgeous caparisons, in chariots or swimming with floats of inflated\nskins\u2014wear helmets of many shapes, crested, crescented, capped with\nthe _fleur-de-lys_ and perfectly plain; some are close-fitting with\near-flaps, the common skull-cap (_namms_) of Ancient Egypt, and the\nIndian Kan-top. The head-gear usually ended in a metal point\u2014the\n_pickelhaube_. The sculptors show imbricated armour or hauberks\n(mail-coats) of the Norman type, with stockings of iron- (?) rings,\ngaiters, and boots laced up in front. The shields, either circular or\nrounded at the top and straight at the bottom, cover the whole body.\n\n[Heading: _THE ASSYRIAN SWORD._]\n\nThe Assyrian Sword, like the Egyptian, is of four principal shapes.\nOne, a long poniard of Nilotic form, is carried by all classes from\nking to slinger. The other (_Malmulla_, ? fig. 206, 3), by some\ntranslated \u2018falchion,\u2019 appears slightly curved, not like the Turkish\nscymitar, but with the half-bend of the Japanese and the Indian\nTalw\u00e1r. The curved blades in the bas-reliefs mostly characterise\nconquered peoples. The third is the Sa-pa-ra or Khopsh, of which an\nillustration will be given (p. 208); and the fourth is a club-shaped\nblade thickening at the end, which is almost pointless.[672] In the\ncuneiforms a \u2018double Sword\u2019 is often mentioned: it may be of the kind\ncalled by the Greeks \u2018Chelidonian\u2019 (chap. ix. and xi.).[673] Fancy\nweapons appear in the bas-reliefs\u2014for instance, the Sword from the\nNineveh palace of the Sardanapalus-reign, B.C. 1000 (fig. 210).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 206.\u20141. BABYLONIAN BRONZE DAGGER; 2, 3. ASSYRIAN\nSWORDS (Layard); 4. ASSYRIAN BRONZE SWORD (bas-relief in Palace of\nKhorsabad, reign of Sargon, B.C. 721\u2013706).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 207.\u2014DAGGER-SWORD IN SHEATH.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 208.\u2014DAGGER-SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 209.\u2014CLUB-SWORD.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 210.\u2014FANCY SWORD.]\n\nMostly the weapons have richly decorated hilts and scabbards. In a\nroyal sculpture the pommel is formed by a mound or hemisphere\u2014a\nconstant ornament\u2014and below it is a ball between two flat discs: the\nupper jaws of two lions, placed opposite each other, embrace the blade\nand the grip where it presses against the metal sheath-mouth. Another\nhas a lion\u2019s head on the handle. The two-lion scabbard is common, and\nsometimes the beasts are locked in a death embrace. In another specimen\nthe royal blade is much broader than usual, and two lions couchant form\nthe ferrule, embracing the sheath with their paws and retrogardant or\nbending their heads backwards (fig. 212). The ferrule of another is\nenriched with a guilloche. In the inscriptions of Assur-bani-pal[674]\n(Sardanapalus) we read of a \u2018steel Sword and its sheath of gold,\u2019 and\nof \u2018steel Swords of their girdles.\u2019 Another legend runs\u2014\u2018He lifted his\ngreat Sword called \u201cLord of the Storm,\u201d\u2019 proving that the Sword, like\nthe horse, the chariot, the boat, and other favourites, had names and\ntitles.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 211.\u2014ASSYRIAN SWORDS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 212.\u2014ASSYRIAN SWORDS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 213.\u2014ASSYRIAN DAGGER.]\n\nThe dagger is often decorated with the head of the hippopotamus (a\nNilotic, or rather African, beast) surmounting an imbricated handle\n(fig. 213).[675] This poniard is worn in the girdle, and in some cases\nit appears under and behind the surcoat. The longer weapon is carried\nby a narrow bauldric slung over the right shoulder and meeting another\ncord-shaped band at the breast, in fact suggesting our antiquated\ncross-belts. The Sword is always worn on the left side.[676] A royal\nSword-belt bears several ranges of bosses and globules, which may be\npearls: that of the eunuch-attendant has three wide rows, the central\nbroken here and there by round plates. A Magian wears a broad scarf\nwith long hanging fringes cast obliquely over the left shoulder: it is\nedged with a triple series of small rosettes placed in squares, and it\npasses over the Sword, to which, perhaps, it acts bauldric. A soldier\u2019s\nbauldric is coloured red, like the wood of the bows and arrows. Another\neunuch wears the Sword-belt buckled over the waist-sash, and holds in\nhis right hand a scourge: this was the emblem of official rank, as the\nEgyptian carried a hide-Kurb\u00e1j.[677] Another soldier has, besides the\nKamar-band (waist-sash), a red belt, and what seems to be its tassels\nhanging from the shoulders before and behind.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 214.\u2014ASSYRIO-BABYLONIAN ARCHER in war coat,\nleggings, and fillet. Bas-relief, B.C. 700. (Museum of the Louvre.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 215.\u2014ASSYRIAN FOOT SOLDIER with the coat, helmet\nand tall crest, greaves or leggings, target and lance. Bas-reliefs of\nNineveh of Sardanapalus V. B.C. 700.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 216.\u2014ASSYRIAN SOLDIER HUNTING GAME. Bas-relief of\nKhorsabad, of the reign of Sargon. (British Museum.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 217.\u2014FOOT SOLDIER OF THE ARMY OF SENNACHERIB (B.C.\n712\u2013707). From a bas-relief in the British Museum. The shape of the\nconical helmet is modern Persian; the coat and leggings appear to be of\nmail; the shield is round, large, and very convex.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 218.\u2014ASSYRIAN WARRIOR, WITH SWORD AND STAFF.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 219.\u2014ASSYRIAN WARRIORS AT A LION HUNT.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 220.\u2014ASSYRIAN EUNUCH. In mail-coat, with mace, bow,\nand dagger-Sword.]\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN ASSYRIA._]\n\nThe Sword and the Sword-dagger seem to have been universally used\nin Assyria\u2014none but captives and working men are without them. The\nvulture-headed \u2018Nisroch the god\u2019 (of Nebuchadnezzar) carries two long\nponiards in his breast garment, whereas Ashur in statues shoots his\nbow. Assur-bani-pal \u2018destroys the people of Arabia with his Sword.\u2019\nThe king in his car, with his Cidaris (tiara) and fly-flap, has two\ndaggers and a Sword in his girdle, from which hang cords and tassels.\nAnother rests his right hand upon a staff, and his left upon the\npommel of his weapon. A third plunges a short straight blade, like the\nmatador\u2019s _espada_, between the second and third vertebr\u00e6 of a wild\nbull, where the spinal cord is most assailable: this would be done\nto-day in the spectacula of Spain. Swords are worn by the magi and the\neunuchs;[678] and one of the latter draws his weapon to cut off a head.\nThe body-guard bears by his side a Sword longer than usual, and holds\narrows and other weapons for his lord\u2019s use. Even the executioner does\nhis work with the Sword.\n\nHappily for students, an ancient Assyrian bronze Sword was bought by\nColonel Hanbury from the Bedawin at Nardin.[679] He could not ascertain\nwhence it originally came, but it was probably placed in the hands of a\nstatue, perhaps of Maruduk (Mars, father of Nebo or Mercury[680]): it\ncertainly resembles those with which the god is represented upon the\nCylinders[681] when fighting with the Dragon. The dimensions are:\n\n Length of blade 16 inches\n Length of hilt 5\u215c \u201e\n Total length 21\u215c \u201e\n Width at hilt 1\u215b \u201e\n Width at hilt base 1\u215e \u201e\n\nThe weapon has a richly jewelled hilt inlaid with ivory. It is of the\nkind known in the Assyrian inscriptions as [Cuneiform] (Sa-pa-ra).[682]\nIt bears the following (cuneiform) inscription in three places: (1)\nalong the whole length of the flat blade, inside edge; (2) along the\nback; and (3) on the outside edge, where it is divided into two lines:\u2014\n\n E-kal Vul-nirari sar kissati abli Bu-di-il Sar Assuri\n Abli Bel-nirari Sar Assuri va\u2014\n\n (The Palace of Vul-nirari, King of Nations, son of Budil,[683]\n Sar (king) of Assyria, son of Bel-nirari, Sar of Assyria, and\u2014)\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 221.\u2014BRONZE SWORD BEARING THE NAME OF VUL-NIRARI\nI., FOUND NEAR DIARBEKR.]\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN PERSIA._]\n\nAnd now, proceeding east, we may note that the Persepolis sculptures\ndistinctly show, as we might expect, Assyrian and Babylonian\nderivation. The Persians are, despite their prodigious pretensions,\na comparatively modern people,[684] and they were rude enough when\narmed only with sling, lasso, and knife. The date of Hakh\u00e1manish\n(Ach\u00e6menes), the _hero eponymus_ of the ruling family, can hardly be\nmade to precede B.C. 700. This was about the time (B.C. 721\u2013706) when\nSargon II. first mentions the Greeks as the Yaha of Yatnan (Yunan =\nIonia), who sent him tribute from Cyprus and beyond. The Medes, before\nthe reign of Cyaxares had conducted the Persians from the Caspian\nregions into Media Magna, were mere barbarians, like the Iliy\u00e1t or\nIranian nomades of the present day, who number from a quarter to a\nhalf of the population. But in starting into life Persia succeeded to\na rich inheritance\u2014Babylon. To this conquest (B.C. 538) she was led\nby her hero king, Cyrus the Great, or rather Kurush[685] the elder,\nson of Cambyses (Xenophon), not father of Cambyses (Herodotus), and a\ncontemporary of Darius the Mede.[686] Their courage and conduct, their\nloyalty and simplicity, their wise laws, their generosity and their\nlove of truth,[687] now unhappily extinct, raised them in Herodotus\u2019\nday to the proud position of \u2018Lords of Asia.\u2019\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 222.\u2014PERSIAN ARCHER. From a bas-relief of\nPersepolis, the ancient capital of Persia (B.C. 560). The long coat,\nprobably of leather, descends to the ankle. The headdress has nothing\nof the helmet, but nevertheless indicates workmanship in metal.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 223.\u2014PERSIAN WARRIOR. From a bas-relief of\nPersepolis; a cast is in the British Museum. The shield, high enough\nto rest on, is almost hemispherical; the helmet, with ear and neck\ncoverings in one single piece, differs from the Assyrian.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 224.\u2014THE PERSIAN CIDARIS, OR TIARA.]\n\nBetween the bas-reliefs of Khorsabad and those of Persepolis there\nis the same difference as between the early Egyptian sculptures and\nthe degenerate days of what Macrobius calls the \u2018tyranny\u2019 of the\nPtolemies.[688] The drawing is less pure, the forms are heavier, the\nanatomical details are wanting or badly indicated\u2014they are, in fact,\nclumsy imitations of far higher models.\n\nHerodotus (VII. ch. lx.-lxxxiii.), when reviewing the army of Xerxes\n(Khshhershe = Ahasuerus[689]) in B.C. 480, numbers forty-five\nnations, of which only the six (including Colchians and Caspians)\nwore Swords. The long straight dagger was carried by the Pactyans,\nby the Paphlagonians, by the Thracians, and by the Sagartians, who\nspoke Persian, and who were in dress half Persians and half Pactyans\n(Afghans?).[690] The Sagartian Nomades (chap. lxxxv.) were armed with\na short blade and with lassos of plaited thongs ending in a running\nnoose: this denotes that they were cattle-breeders.[691] Chapter liv.\nagain mentions \u2018the Persian Sword of the kind which they call \u1f00\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7\u03c2\n(Akinakes):\u2019 like the Roman _pugio_ and the modern _couteau-de-chasse_,\nit was straight, not curved, as expressly stated by Josephus.[692] The\nPersian troops wore only these \u2018daggers suspended from their girdles\nalong their right thighs.\u2019 Hence Cambyses died of a wound on his right\nside, and Valerius Flaccus describes a Parthian as\u2014\n\n Insignis manicis, insignis acinace dextro. (_Arg._ vi. 701.)\n\nJulius Pollux explains it as a \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u03be\u03b9\u03c6\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, \u03c4\u1ff7 \u03bc\u03b7\u03c1\u1ff7 \u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03b7\u03c1\u03c4\u03b7\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd\n(a Persian swordlet fastened to the thigh), and Josephus compares it\nwith the Sica or Sicca.[693] The favourite weapon was the bow, although\nDarius speaks of the Sword as the instrument of punishment.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 225.\u2014PERSIAN ACINACES. (Here worn on right side.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 226.\u2014PERSIAN ACINACES.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 227.\u2014SWORD FROM MITHRAS GROUP.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 228.\u2014SWORD IN RELIEF, PERSEPOLIS SCULPTURES.]\n\nThe Indians, afterwards so celebrated for their Swords, were in B.C.\n480 barbarians dressed in cottons and armed with only cane bows and\narrows. Of the twelve peoples who supplied the one thousand two\nhundred and seven triremes, the Egyptians had long cutlasses, the\nCilicians \u2018Swords closely resembling the cutlass of the Egyptians,\u2019 the\nLycians[694] daggers and curved falchions, and the Carians daggers and\n\u2018enses falcati,\u2019 which apparently were not used by the Greeks (chap.\nxciii.).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 229.\u2014PERSIAN ACINACES. From a bas-relief at\nPersepolis.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 230.\u2014DAGGER-FORMS FROM PERSEPOLIS.]\n\nRepresentations of the Persian Acinaces abound in the sculptures\nof Chehel Munar (the Palace of the Forty Columns) at Persepolis.\nApparently there are two kinds. Porter\u2019s[695] illustration (Plate 37)\nshows a handle like the modern weapon sheathed and slung to the right\nside: Ammianus Marcellinus (xiv. 4) and all classics insist upon this\nunswordsmanlike peculiarity.[696] The other (Plate 41), worn by a robed\nPersian, and generally carried in the front-knots of the belt, has a\ncrutch-handle and wavy blade, like the Malay Kr\u00eds (crease). In other\nplaces (Plates 53 and 54) a human figure stabs the roaring monster in\nthe belly with a common \u2018Khanjar\u2019-dagger. The traveller considers the\nstout little weapon with broad blade and ferruled sheath apparently\ntied to the right thigh as the Persian Sword of that age, which the\nclassics describe as very short. The lineal descendant of this weapon,\nnow obsolete in Persia, is the Afghan Charay, a congener of the\nEgyptian flesh-knife Sword.\n\nAccording to Quintus Curtius: \u2018The Sword-belt of Darius was of gold,\nand from it was suspended his scymitar, the scabbard of which was\ncomposed of one entire pearl.\u2019 The practice of inlaying blades and\nhilts, still popular in Persia, may explain Herodotus (ix. 80), that\namongst the spoils taken at Plat\u00e6a by the Greeks \u2018there were acinaces\nwith golden ornaments.\u2019 That of Mardonius was long kept as a trophy\nin the temple of Athene-Parthenos in the Athenian Acropolis. On the\nother hand, as was elsewhere done, blades of gold were given _honoris\ncaus\u00e2_. Hence in the \u2018Iliad\u2019 (xviii. 597) we see Heph\u00e6stus making\nyouths with golden cutlasses upon Achilles\u2019 shield. According to\nXenophon the royal gift of Persia was a golden scymitar, a Nis\u00e6an horse\nwith golden bridle, and other battle-gear. Herodotus (viii. 120) makes\nXerxes present the Abderites with a golden scymitar and a tiara, Diana\nis girt with a golden falchion (Herod. viii. 77). The golden blade is\nnot unknown to more modern days. In the \u2018Chronicles of Dalboquerque\u2019\n(Hakluyt, vol. ii. p. 204) two pages stand behind the King of Cananor,\none with a Sword of gold and the other with a scymitar of gold. The\nweapons are distinguished from the \u2018Swords adorned with gold and\nsilver\u2019 (vol. i. 117). The King of Siam also sent to Dom Manoel of\nPortugal \u2018a crown and Sword of gold\u2019 (vol. iii. 154). Cuzco supplied a\nunique gold celt.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 231.\u2014ACINACES OF PERSEPOLIS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 232.\u2014ACINACES OF MITHRAS GROUP.]\n\nThe influence of the great Babylonio-Assyrian centre extended Egyptian\nart and science to farthest Asia. From Iran we pass, with the\ncourse of civilisation, eastward to India. Here the Hind\u00fa proper did\nnot succeed in establishing himself amongst the original Turanian\npossessors of Hindustan, or the upper country, before the Eighteenth\nEgyptian Dynasty.[697] The South was and is still essentially\nTuranian\u2014witness Malabar and its \u2018nepotism.\u2019\n\n[Heading: THE SWORD IN INDIA.]\n\nUnfortunately, India preserves no trustworthy Hind\u00fa records of the\npast. Although Herodotus called it the \u2018most wealthy and populous\ncountry in the world,\u2019 yet the absence of temples and other ruins\nsuggests barbarism when Egypt and Assyria, Greece and Rome,\nwere flourishing. While Buddhism is made to date from the sixth\ncentury B.C., and we have subsequent notices of Buddha\u2019s chief\nworshippers,[698] there was evidently very little civilisation in the\ndays of Alexander (B.C. 327). Nearchus made the Indians \u2018write letters\non cloth smoothed by being well beaten\u2019; and Strabo (xv. 1) doubts\nwhether India knew the use of writing. They derived their art and\nliterature from Gr\u00e6co-Bactria, and they only degraded the former\u2014Art\nin her highest form never travels far from the Mediterranean. The\nbeautiful human animals and _mauvais sujets_ who were the citizens\nof Olympus became in grotesque India blue-skinned, many-headed and\nmulti-armed monsters\u2014the abortions of imagination.\n\nIndia\u2019s two great epics (\u2018Mahabh\u00e1rat\u2019 and \u2018Ram\u00e1yana\u2019) and fifteen\nPuranas are mere depositories of legendary and imaginative myths,\ncontaining few of the golden grains of truth hid in tons of rubbish.\nAll the anthropology we learn from them is that India had a primitive\n(Turanian?) race, called in contempt Rakshasas or demons. It was\nmastered by Brahminical attacks, typified in later days by Rama and\nother heroes, probably during the exodes of Hyksos and Hebrews from\nEgypt; and long subsequently arose Buddhism, to be followed by the rule\nof the Moslems and Europeans.[699]\n\nThe Dhanurvidya,[700] or Bow-Science, contains the fullest description\nwe possess of the ancient Indian arms and war-implements, but the date\nof composition is exceedingly doubtful. The Hind\u00fa delights in vast\nnumbers. Assuming the population of the earth at one thousand and\nseventy-five billions, his Aksauhini, or complete army, according to\nthe Nitiprak\u00e1shika, an abstract Dhanurvidya by the sage Vaishamp\u00e1yana,\namounts to two thousand one hundred and eighty-seven millions of foot,\ntwenty-one thousand eight hundred and seventy millions of horse, two\nhundred and eighteen thousand seven hundred elephants, and twenty-one\nthousand eight hundred and seventy chariots. The scale of salaries in\ngold[701] is equally liberal and absurd.\n\nThe Hind\u00fa mind\u2014so far justifying the term \u2018Indo-Germanic\u2019\u2014connects\neverything with metaphysics,[702] or a something that goes beyond\nphysical phenomena. Hence it ascribes all arms and armour to\nsupernatural causes. J\u00e1y\u00e1, a daughter of prim\u00e6val Daksha (one of the\nRishis or sacred sages), became, according to a promise of Brahma,\nthe creator, the mother of all weapons, including missiles. These\nare divided into four great classes. The Yantramukta (thrown by\nmachines); the Panimukta (hand-thrown); the Muktasandh\u00e1rita (thrown and\ndrawn back) and the Mantramukta (thrown by spells, and numbering six\nspecies), form the Mukta or thrown class of twelve species. This is\nopposed to the Amukta (unthrown) of twenty species, to the Mukt\u00e1mukta\n(either thrown or not) of ninety-eight varieties,[703] and to the\nB\u00e1huyuddha (weapons which the body provides for personal struggles).\nAll are personified\u2014for instance, Dhanu, the bow, has a small face,\na broad neck, a slender waist, and a strong back. He is four cubits\nhigh and is bent in three places; he has a long tongue, and his mouth\nhas terrible tusks; his colour is of blood, and he ever makes a\ngurgling noise; he is covered with garlands of entrails, and he licks\ncontinually with his tongue the two corners of his mouth.[704]\n\nThe Sword (Khadga,[705] As, or Asi) belongs to the second class.\nAccording to the sage Vaishamp\u00e1yana it was a superior weapon,\nintroduced especially and separately by Brahma, who produced\n\u2018Asidevat\u00e1.\u2019 This \u2018Sword-god\u2019 appeared on the summit of the Him\u00e1layas\nshaking earth\u2019s foundations and illuminating the sky. Brahma entrusted\nthe arm, then fifty thumbs long and four thumbs broad, to Shiva\n(Rudra), still its supreme deity, in order to free the world from the\nAsuras or mighty d\u00e6mons. Shiva, after his success, passed it on to\nVishnu, the latter to Marici, and he to Indra. The Air-god conferred\nit upon the guardians of the World-quarters, and these to Manu, the\nson of the Sun, for use against evil-doers. Since that time it has\nremained in his family. The Khadga has a total of nine names: carried\non the left side and handled in thirty-two different ways, the weapon\nbecame a universal favourite. Amongst the four arts to be studied\nbesides the K\u00e1ma-Shastra (_Ars Amoris_), women are enjoined by the\nSage Vatsya (Part I. p. 26)[706] to practise with Sword, single-stick,\nquarterstaff, and bow and arrow.\u2019\n\nThe Ili (hand-sword, p. 17) is two cubits long and five fingers\nbroad; the front part is curved; there is no hand-guard, and four\nmovements are peculiar to it. The Prasa, or spear, in some works\nbecomes a broadsword. The uterine brother of the Sword is the Pattisha\nor two-bladed battle-axe. The Asidhenu (dagger), the \u2018sister of the\nSword and worn by kings,\u2019 is a three-edged blade, one cubit long, two\nthumbs broad, without hand-guard, carried in the belt, and used in\nhand-to-hand conflict. The Maushtika (fist-Sword, stiletto[707]) is\nonly a span long, and thus very handy for all kinds of movements.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 233.\u2014HIND\u00da WARRIORS\n\n From memorial stones of Bijanagar, of which the Kensington\n Museum possesses photographs. The date of these monuments\n corresponds with our Middle Ages.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 234.\u2014_a._ JAVANESE BLADE, SHOWING INDIAN\nDERIVATION. _b._ HIND\u00da SABRE. From a bas-relief at Bijanagar.]\n\nThe sage Vaishamp\u00e1yana, a pandit or pedant lecturing on the Art of\nWar, warns us that the \u2018Efficiency of the weapon is subject to great\nchanges. In different ages and places the quality of an arm is not the\nsame, for the material and mode of construction greatly vary. Moreover,\nmuch depends upon the strength and ability of the person using such\nweapons, in preserving, increasing, or diminishing their efficiency.\u2019\nIt may also be remarked that many of his weapons appear to be the\nresults of a brain quickened by opium or hash\u00edsh.\n\nThe sage Shukra, or Preceptor of the D\u00e6mons, also discourses learnedly,\nin his \u2018Shukraniti,\u2019 on armies and weapons, including firearms.\nThe only practical part of chap. v. (Oppert, pp. 82\u2013144) is his\ndescription of the lucky and unlucky marks on horses. The Arabs have a\nsimilar system, and a horse with inauspicious signs sells, however well\nbred, for a small sum. And there is wisdom in verse 242 (p. 124):\u2014\n\n A non-fighting King and a ne\u2019er-faring Priest (Brahman)\n Earth swallows as Snake the hole-dwelling beast.\n\nAs regards the Sword, Shukra says (Lib. iv. sect. vii. p. 109, verse\n154):\u2014\n\n Ishadvaktrashcaikadh\u00e1ro vist\u00e1re chaturangulah\n Kshurapr\u00e1nto n\u00e1bhisamo drahamushtissucandraruk\n Khadgah pras\u00e1shchaturhastadandabudhnah ksur\u00e1nanah.\n\nThe Sword is a little curved and one-bladed; it is four-fingers broad,\nand sharp-pointed as a razor; it extends up to the navel, has a strong\nhilt, and is brilliant as the beautiful moon. The Khadga (two-handed\nSword) is four cubits (or six feet) long,[708] broad at the hilt, and\nat the end-point sharp like a razor.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 235.\u2014BATTLE-SCENE FROM A CAVE IN CUTTACK, FIRST\nCENTURY A.D.]\n\nFrom neither of these works do we learn anything about an interesting\nsubject\u2014the elephant-Sword. It is mentioned by the Italian traveller\nLudovico di Varthema (A.D. 1503\u20131508), who makes it two fathoms long\nand attached to the trunk. Athanasius Nikitin calls it a scythe. Knox\nin his \u2018Ceylon\u2019 also speaks of a sharp iron with a socket of three\nedges \u2018placed on the teeth\u2019 (tusks?). It was probably derived from\nthe West. Antigonus, the great elephantarch; Seleucus, and Pyrrhus\narmed their beasts with \u2018sharp points of steel in the tusks\u2019\u2014veritable\nSwords. In Da Gama\u2019s day each animal wore ten blades, five to the\ntusk.[709]\n\nIt must be borne in mind that upper India about the beginning of our\n\u00e6ra was mostly Buddhist, and consequently she bred men of peace.\nYet the caves and the cave-temples supply in bas-relief specimens\nof Sword-bearers, and even of free fights. The weapon is mostly the\nshort stout blade, corresponding with the Persian Acinaces, but worn\nin modern fashion on the left side. Mr. James Fergusson has kindly\nsupplied me with two illustrations. The first (fig. 235) is the\nbattle-scene showing two Swords. A huge chopper or falchion, with a\ntooth on the back, is wielded in the left hand, the right supporting\nthe shield.[710] The other, straight with one median ridge, is broad\nat the end instead of being pointed. The second (fig. 236), which Mr.\nFergusson calls the \u2018first Highlander,\u2019 is of the same date, and it\nshows very distinctly the handle\u2014which might be modern\u2014the sheath, and\nthe mode of wearing. It is more distinct in the photograph than in the\nwoodcut made by the author\u2019s artist.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 236.\u2014THE FIRST HIGHLANDER.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 237.\u2014ARJUNA\u2019S SWORD.]\n\nThe temple-caves of Elephanta or Gharapuri (cave-town) in the Bay of\nBombay, described by Forbes and Heber, Dr. Wilson and Mr. Burgess,\nshow a very different and superior article. This comparatively\nmodern basilica\u2014burrowed out of the rock and dedicated to Shiva or\nMahadeva, the third person of the Hindu Triad, and the representative\nof destructive-reproduction in his Trimurti or triple form\u2014contains\na multitude of alt-reliefs from ten to fourteen feet high, and so\nprominent that they are almost \u2018undercut,\u2019 joined to the parent-rock\nonly by the back. At the north-east angle stands the figure of the hero\nArjuna, the presumed ancestor of the Pandya Princes. This Brave, an\nespecial favourite in Southern India,[711] holds, in the right hand,\nperpendicularly and point upwards, a short, straight blade, with a\nbevelled point like the Roman; there is a small hand-guard; the fist\nfills the grip, and the large pommel confines the hand, as is still the\nfashion throughout India.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 238.\u2014JAVANESE SCULPTURES WITH BENT SWORDS.]\n\nThe military tactics of the earlier Hind\u00fas are familiarly shown by our\ngame of chess.[712] But their pandits and students, writing in the\ncloset, borrowed or devised a whole body of \u2018strategemata,\u2019 making it\neasy to find amongst them the Phalanx, the Legion, the Wedge, or the\nCrescent attack.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 239.\u2014PESH\u00c1WAR SCULPTURES.]\n\nProfessor Oppert informs us[713] that the Arka (_Calatropis gigantea_),\nthe huge swallow-wort with milky and blistering juice, which grows wild\nall over the peninsula, if \u2018used with discretion when iron is being\nforged, contributes greatly to the excellence of the Indian steel.\u2019\nThe simple is well known to the native alchemist, to the doctor, and\nto the vet., but I was not aware of its being generally applied to\niron-working.\n\nI reserve for Part II. details concerning the modern Indian Sword\nand the blades imitated from it. Lieutenant-Colonel Pollok (Madras\nStaff Corps)[714] describes, unfortunately without illustration, the\nBurmese Dalwel (\u2018Dalwey,\u2019 vol. ii. p. 18) or fighting-Sword, a \u2018nasty\ntwo-handed weapon with a blade about two feet long, and as sharp as a\nrazor\u2019 (i. 51). He also notices the Dha, or Dhaw, a knife six inches\nlong, equally fitted for domestic use and stabbing.\n\n NOTE.\u2014My lamented friend Dr. Burnell, whose loss to\n Anglo-Oriental philology is so deeply felt, took a notable\n part in reducing Hind\u00fa claims to remote antiquity. Whereas Sir\n William Jones, a _litt\u00e9rateur_ thoroughly well imposed upon,\n dated the Laws of Menu from A.D. 1280, Burnell boldly assigned\n them to the fourth century A.D., and partly to a much later\n period. The Theatre of Kalid\u00e1sa (Sakuntala, Urwasi, &c.) he\n has attributed to the sixth century instead of the first; in\n fact he leaves nothing to B.C. but parts of the Vedas and the\n earliest Buddhist texts.\n\n We can accept the reform unhesitatingly. The oldest Hind\u00fa\n inscription (Girn\u00e1r) dates from about B.C. 250; the oldest\n Cave-temple from still later. The alphabet is a lineal\n descendant from the Egypto-Ph\u0153nician. The earliest Hind\u00fa\n buildings were wooden: India had no architecture which could\n vie with those of Greece or monarchical Rome, much less\n with the mighty works of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Hind\u00fa\u2019s\n \u2018iron-built\u2019 cities were probably clay-walled settlements.\n His mythology was Egyptian tempered with Greek: for instance,\n the four Yugas or periods, in the fourth of which (Kali, the\n black Yuga) we now are. And considering how early Christianity\n found its way into the Peninsula, and the highly subjective\n and receptive nature of the people, I cannot but believe\n that they borrowed largely from the sacred writings of the\n stranger. It is easier to hold that Christ originated, or at\n least influenced, Krishna, than with Volney to hold Krishna\n the original of Christ. In 1852 Mr. Pocock wrote about \u2018India\n in Greece\u2019; in 1883 we want a change of venue to \u2018Greece in\n India.\u2019 \u2018Yavana\u2019 (Greek) entered India with Alexander, and this\n gives a _terminus a quo_ though not _ad quem_.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XI.\n\n THE SWORD IN ANCIENT GREECE: HOMER; HESIOD AND HERODOTUS: MYCEN\u00c6.\n\n\n\u2018Homer and Hesiod,\u2019 says Herodotus,[715] \u2018lived, as I hold, not more\nthan four hundred years before my time.\u2019 This would date them between\nB.C. 880\u2013830. The contemporaneity of the bards, their cousinship, and\neven their existence, has been copiously doubted: some place Hesiod\nbefore, others two hundred or three hundred years after\u2014\n\n Blind Milesigenes thence Homer called;\n\nand we have come to look upon Homer as one of the Homerid\u00e6, the _heros\neponymus_ of the bards who produced the \u2018Iliad\u2019 and the \u2018Odyssey.\u2019\n\nAssuming, with Dr. Schliemann, the date of the Trojan war at about B.C.\n1200,[716] Homer, according to the \u2018Father of History,\u2019 would flourish\nabout four centuries and a half after the wars he sang.\n\n\u2018I wish I could have proved Homer to have been an eye-witness of\nthe Trojan war. Alas, I cannot do it! At his time swords were of\nuniversal use, and iron was known, whereas they were totally unknown at\nTroy.[717] Besides, the civilisation he describes is later by centuries\nthan that which I have brought to light in the excavations. Homer\ngives us the legend of Ilium\u2019s tragic fate as it was handed down to\nhim by preceding bards, clothing the traditional facts of the war and\ndestruction of Troy in the garb of his own day.\u2019[718]\n\nMetallurgically speaking, the sacred Bards and Heroes of Hellas,\nwhose works formed the Holy Writ of Greece,[719] lived at the height\nof the Copper and in the beginning of the Iron Ages. Metal, not yet\ncast (\u03c7\u03c9\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03c4\u03cc\u03bd), would be worked in primitive fashion with the hammer\n(\u03c3\u03c6\u1fe6\u03c1\u03b1 = \u03c3\u03c6\u03c5\u03c1\u03ae\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd),[720] and there were two manners of hammer-work,\nthe Holosphyraton, in solid mass, and the Sphyraton or plate-work.\nCasting and soldering were invented (for the Greeks), according to\nPausanias[721] and Pliny,[722] shortly after Homer\u2019s day by the Samians\nRh\u0153cus and Theodorus. The latter, who lived between B.C. 800 and 700,\nmay have introduced core-casting, so well known to Egypt and Assyria.\nThe joints would be united by the normal mechanical means,[723] and the\nornamental house-plates would be attached to the walls and floors with\nnails and studs. The idea of the firmament being a copper dome vault\nis known to Pindar as well as to the \u2018Iliad\u2019 and the \u2018Odyssey.\u2019[724]\nTartarus, below Hades,[725] had a similar threshold, and Atlas in\nEuripides had copper shoulders.[726]\n\nOrnamentation (\u03b4\u03b1\u03b9\u03b4\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd) was applied with gravers, burins, and\nsimilar instruments; to domestic implements (cups and goblets, craters\nor bowls, cauldrons and tripods); to sacred vases for the temple; and\nto trumpets,[727] arms, and armour. Besides the brazier (\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2) we\nfind the gold caster (\u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03bf\u03c7\u03bf\u03cc\u03c2) who gilds the bull\u2019s horns.[728]\n\nThe Homeric bards[729] and Hesiod are well acquainted with iron\n(\u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2),[730] and with steel in its various forms\u2014Cyanus, Ad\u00e1mas,\nand Chalyps. The former mentions seven metals, the Haft-J\u00fash (\u2018seven\nboilings\u2019), which he, like the Persians, had learned from Egypt.\nQuenching in water, or tempering, was well known to the \u2018Odyssey,\u2019 as\nwe learn from the sputtering of Polyphemus\u2019 eye[731]:\u2014\n\n And as when armourers temper in the ford\n The keen-edg\u2019d poleaxe, or the shining sword,\n The red-hot metal hisses in the lake, &c.[732]\n\nAnd he would, doubtless, know that steel is softened by simple\nexposure to gradual heating. _S\u00edderos_ is common wrought iron; so we\nfind \u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd for the Iron Age[733] and \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03cc\u03c2,[734] which\nshould be translated, not \u2018hoary,\u2019 but \u2018iron-grey.\u2019 The \u2018black\u2019\n(dark-blue) \u2018Cyanus\u2019 \u03ba\u03cd\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 mentioned by the \u2018Iliad,\u2019[735] would be\na fusible or artificial steel made to imitate the true blue-stone or\nlazulite (Theophrastus, 55).[736] The adamas (\u1f00\u03b4\u03ac\u03bc\u03b1\u03c2) of Hesiod,[737]\nwho specifies the iron of the Cretan Id\u00e6i Dactyli, would be a white\nand tempered metal; while \u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03c5\u03c8 (steel in general) either named or was\nnamed by the well-known Chalybes. That the harder substance was not\nrare, we see by the injunction,[738] \u2018Do not, at a festive banquet of\nthe gods, pare from the five-pointed branch (hand) with bright steel,\nthe dry from the fresh\u2019: i.e. don\u2019t cut your nails at dinner. So at\nthe Battle of the Ships,[739] Homer studs a great sea-fighting Xyston\n(pole), twenty-two cubits long, with spikes of iron; and elsewhere\nspeaks of a \u2018cyanus-footed table.\u2019[740]\n\nYet copper was _the_ metal for arms and armour. While the shield of\nHercules was made of alabaster (not \u2018gypsum\u2019), ivory, elektron (the\nmixed metal) and (pure) gold, the hero is armed with a \u2018short spear\ntipped with gleaming copper\u2019;[741] and he fastens around his shoulders\na \u2018Sword, the averter of destruction,\u2019 which the context suggests to\nbe of the same material. The \u2018fair-haired Dana\u00eb\u2019s son, equestrian\nPerseus,\u2019[742] bears a Sword of copper with iron sheath hanging by a\nfelt-thong (\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bf\u03c1).[743] The seven-hide shield of Ajax[744]\nwas \u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2, of copper\u2014not \u2018brass-bound\u2019 as Lord Derby has it. The\nlambs\u2019 throats are cut with the \u2018cruel copper\u2019 (\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2),[745] and\nDiomede pursues Venus with the same weapon.[746] Hephaistos makes for\nAchilles a shield of gold and silver, copper and tin;[747] and canny\nDiomede\u2019s armour[748] is of copper, which he changes for gold, \u2018the\nvalue of a hundred beeves for the value of nine.\u2019\n\nIn the \u2018Iliad\u2019 close-handed combat succeeds to missile-using. As\nStrabo remarks,[749] Homer makes his warriors begin their duellos by\nweapon-throwing and then take to their Swords. But the latter is _the_\nweapon, rivalled only by the hand-spear. Hence the Egyptian-taught\nArgives are insulted as arrow-throwers;[750] and Diomede reviles his\nfoe as \u2018an archer and woman\u2019s man.\u2019[751] The taunts are still known to\nsavage tribes of modern day.\n\nThe Homeric Sword has five names. The first is _Chalcos_ (copper,\nand perhaps base metal), used like the Latin _ferrum_. The second\nis _Xiphos_, a word still generic in Romaic poetry and prose; the\ndiminutive being _Xiphidion_. The third is _Ph\u00e1sganon_, pronounced\nPh\u00e1sg_h_anon,[752] and the fourth is _Aor_. Thrace,[753] a famous\nmanufactory of art-works even in early ages, produced the best\nand largest of these blades; we find a Thracian Xiphos, possibly\nof steel, \u2018beautiful and long,\u2019 in the hands of the Trojan prince\nHelenos;[754] and Achilles at the funeral games offers as a prize\na Thracian Ph\u00e1sganon, fair and silver-studded.[755] This hero[756]\nwas drawing his mighty Xiphos[757] from the sheath (\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03b5\u03cc\u03c2, _culeus_,\n_vagina_, scabbard) to assault Agamemnon, when at Athene\u2019s instance,\n\u2018still holding his heavy hand upon the silver hilt, he thrust back the\ngreat Sword into the scabbard.\u2019 The Xiphos with silver studs or bosses\noccurs in sundry places,[758] and one, with a gold hilt and a silver\nscabbard fitted with golden rings, belongs to Agamemnon. Dr. Schliemann\nexplains the epithet \u03a0\u03ac\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd[759] by the line of gold bosses lying\nnear one of the Swords; they were broader than the blade and covered\nthe whole available space along the sheath. Thus the Homerid\u2019s Helos\n(\u1f25\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2), usually rendered \u2018stud\u2019 or \u2018nail,\u2019 was applied to the bosses,\nor buttons, that break the mid-rib or that stud the blade near the\nhandle.[760] Paris slings on a copper silver-studded Xiphos.[761]\nMenelaus, with the same weapon, strikes off his enemy\u2019s Phalos\u2014the\nhelmet-ridge bearing the L\u00f3phos-tube which confines the Hippouris or\nhorse-tail crest. Patroclus, when arming himself,[762] hangs from\nhis shoulders the silver-studded Xiphos of copper (\u03be\u03af\u03c6\u03bf\u03bd \u1f00\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03b7\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd,\n\u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd); and Achilles has a large-hilted Xiphos.[763] Peneleos and\nLycon,[764] having missed each other with the spear, ran on with the\nXiphos, which is here again called Ph\u00e1sganon; but Lycon\u2019s weapon broke\nat the hilt (\u03ba\u03b1\u03c5\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2 = _caulis_), and the Xiphos of Peneleos \u2018entered,\nand only the skin retained it; the head hung down and the limbs were\nrelaxed.\u2019 On the shield of Achilles[765] Hephaistos[766] figures youths\nwearing the golden Xiphos slung from silver belts.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 240.\u2014TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORD AND ALABASTER KNOB\n(MYCEN\u00c6).]\n\nOpposed to the Xiphos, a straight \u2018rapier blade,\u2019 as we shall presently\nsee, was the \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd or dirk, probably a throwing-weapon like the\nScax and Scramasax. The two are often confounded in the dictionaries.\nPh\u00e1sganon is supposed to be _quasi_ \u03a3\u03c6\u03ac\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, a euphonic transposition,\nlike the verb \u03c6\u03b1\u03c3\u03b3\u03ac\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (to slay with the Sword). The root is evidently\n\u03a3\u03c6\u03b1\u03b3, which appears in \u03c3\u03c6\u03ac\u03b3\u03b7 (slaughter) and in \u03c3\u03c6\u03ac\u03b3\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (to slay):\nthere is also a form \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd for \u03c3\u03c6\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd. This is a two-edged\nleaf-shaped blade (\u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f04\u03bc\u03c6\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2):[767] Thrasymedes gives one to\nDiomede, and with it Rhesus is slaughtered in his sleep. The word\nfrequently occurs: black-hilted Ph\u00e1sgana, with massive handles, are\nmentioned,[768] and the common Ph\u00e1sganon is found in \u2018Odys.\u2019 xi. 48;\nin Pindar (N, 1. 80), and in the Tragedians. In another passage,[769]\nhowever, it becomes a large (\u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b1) Ph\u00e1sganon.\n\nThe fourth term is \u1f04\u03bf\u03c1,[770] usually set down, like the English\n\u2018brand,\u2019 as poetical; it is not used in Romaic and the Neo-Greek\ndictionaries ignore it. The Aor seems to mean a broad, stout, strong\nblade. With the sharp Aor (\u1f04\u03bf\u03c1 \u1f40\u03be\u1f7a) drawn from his thigh, Ulysses digs\nthe furrow one cubit wide,[771] and Hector cuts in two the ashen spear\nof Ajax.[772] Automedon draws a long Aor.[773] This, too, is the weapon\nof earth-shaking Neptune, the \u2018dreadful tapering Sword\u2019 (\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03cd\u03b7\u03ba\u03b5\u03c2\n\u1f04\u03bf\u03c1),[774] \u2018thunder-bolt-like, wherewith it is not possible to engage\nin fatal fight, for the fear of it restrains mankind.\u2019[775] Ph\u0153bus\nApollo has a golden Aor (\u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03c9\u03c1).[776] Here we see the vague meaning\nof the poetic word, like our \u2018hanger,\u2019 for it now means the god\u2019s\ngolden bow and quiver carried on the shoulder.\n\nHomer\u2019s fifth is the \u039c\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1, hung by a single belt close to the\nSword-sheath, and used for sacrifices and similar uses. It afterwards\nbecame a favourite with the Laced\u00e6monians; it was then a curved\nblade, as opposed to the Xiphos or uncurved. Again, in Plutarch and\nother writers, the Mach\u00e6ra seems to mean\u2014like Spatha\u2014a long straight\nblade. Homer does not mention the \u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u1f76\u03c2, but Euripides uses it[777] in\nconjunction with Mach\u00e6ra.\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN HOMER._]\n\nWe must not expect to see the Sword so frequently drawn in the\n\u2018Odyssey,\u2019 which, _pace_ Mr. Sayce, appears later than the \u2018Iliad.\u2019\nWe note in it more character and less movement; more unity and\nless digression, and, finally, less fighting and more amenity and\ncivilisation. But \u2018Othyssefs,\u2019 the \u2018man with whom many were wroth,\u2019\nhas been a soldier, and he does not forget his old trade. Besides,\ncommerce was still armed barter, and voyaging was enlivened by piracy.\nCopper, or base metal, continues to be the basis of metallurgy, and\nthe hero owns it in quantities, besides gold, silver, and electrum.\nEuryalus tells Alcinous that he will appease the guest (Ulysses) with\nan all-copper brand (\u1f04\u03bf\u03c1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03b3\u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd), whose hilt (\u03ba\u03ce\u03c0\u03b7) is silver, and\nwhose scabbard is of newly sawn ivory.[778] The suitors would slay\nTelemachus with the sharp copper.[779] In the final struggle, the\ncatastrophe of the poem, Eurymachus, drawing his sharp Sword of copper,\ncalls upon his friends to do the same, and to shield themselves with\nthe tables against the fast-flying shafts. In the \u2018Frogs and Mice,\u2019 the\nspear is a good long needle; the \u2018all-copper work of Mars.\u2019[780]\n\nWrought iron is prominent in the \u2018Odyssey\u2019 as in the \u2018Iliad.\u2019\nAthene-Mentes[781] sails over the dark sea to Temesa (Temessus) for\ncopper, and also brings back shining iron (\u03b1\u1f34\u03b8\u03c9\u03bd\u03b1 \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd). Menelaus\ndoes the same.[782] The \u2018cruel iron\u2019 balances the \u2018cruel copper.\u2019[783]\nThe \u2018long-pointed iron,\u2019 so fatal to the Trojans, is apparently the\nspear, which began the duels. Prudent Penelope places the bow and\nthe grey iron (\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd) ready for the suitors;[784] and\nthe Palace contains store of wrought iron (\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03cd\u03ba\u03bc\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2).[785]\nThe axe (\u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2), sharpened on both sides,[786] is of copper; but\nthe hatchets, through whose rings or handle-holes (\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u1f74) the\ncopper-tipped arrows must be shot, are of iron.[787] \u2018Iron,\u2019 we are\ntold, \u2018of itself draws on a man\u2019[788] (Tacit. \u2018Hist.\u2019 i. 80), a\nsentiment repeated elsewhere in the same words.[789] And the Sword\nis alluded to in more than one place without the material being\nspecified.[790]\n\nIn the \u2018Hymn to Hermes,\u2019[791] Mercury the god \u2018vivisects\u2019 the mountain\ntortoise with a scalpel of grey iron (\u03b3\u03bb\u03c5\u03c6\u03ac\u03bd\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u1fd6\u03bf \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5). The\nGlyphanus was a carving-tool, a chisel, or a knife for reed-pens.\n\nThe dispute whether the so-called Homeric poems were written or were\norally preserved still awaits sentence. We twice find the word \u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd,\nbut its primary meaning is \u2018to mark,\u2019 \u2018to cut,\u2019 and, lastly, \u2018to\nwrite.\u2019 Thus Ajax,[792] when inscribing (\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b3\u03c1\u03ac\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2) the lot, might\nsimply have scraped upon it \u2018Ajax his mark.\u2019 Yet there is nothing\nagainst writing, and there is much in its favour. For instance\u2014\n\n \u0393\u03c1\u03ac\u03c8\u03b1\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c0\u03af\u03bd\u03b1\u03ba\u03b9 \u03c0\u03c4\u03c5\u03ba\u03c4\u1ff7 \u03b8\u03c5\u03bc\u03bf\u03c6\u03b8\u03cc\u03c1\u03b1 \u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03ac (\u03c3\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1).[793]\n\n\u2018Having on tablet writ\u2019 can mean nothing else. Pliny[794] accepts this\nwriting given to Bellerophon on codicilli or tablets.[795] Horace, who\nwas not only a great poet, but a masterful genius, mentions writing\nin Homer\u2019s day, and makes the early inscriptions laws cut into wood\n(_leges incidere ligno_). Herodotus[796] tells us that he himself saw\nCadmeian (that is, old Ph\u0153nician) characters; and the tradition is\nthat Danaus introduced letters from Egypt, which, I repeat, produced\nthe one alphabet the world knows. Dr. Schliemann (\u2018Troy,\u2019 Appendix by\nthe Editor) found at seven and a half m\u00e8tres (twenty-five feet) below\nthe surface of the so-called Homeric Troy, many short inscriptions\nin \u2018ancient Cypriote characters,\u2019 and as many Greek epigraphs were\ndiscovered at Mycen\u00e6. Evidently the \u2018Iliad\u2019 and the \u2018Odyssey\u2019 might\nhave been cut in rude Ph\u0153nician characters upon wooden tablets or\nscratched on plates of lead. Professor Paley would date the literary\nHomer from B.C. 400; but that is a different phase of the subject.\n\nHerodotus is the outcome of Homer, or, if you please, of the Homerids\nand of \u00c6schylus. The work of this prose rhapsodist, besides being a\nhistory, a logography, a record of travel, and a study of ethnology and\nantiquity, is at once an Epic and a Drama. It is epic in the heroic and\nromantic tone; in the unity of action, a mighty invasion-campaign;\nand in the frequent digressions which aid, if they retard, the one\nprimary object. It is a tragedy in the scenic displays (the review\nof Xerxes, for instance), in the action of Destiny, the circle of\nNecessity, the Nemesiac hypothesis, and the jealousy of the gods (_Deus\nultor_); while the catastrophe is represented in \u2018Calliope\u2019 by the\ndestruction of the Persian host, the home-return of the victors, and\nthe lurid scenes at the close. It ends with an epigram, a kind of _Vos\nplaudite_: \u2018The Persians ... chose rather to dwell in a churlish land\nand exercise lordship, than to plough the plains and be slaves of other\nmen\u2019\u2014a sentiment which would \u2018bring down the house\u2019 in the Highlands.\nAll is written with a distinct purpose, and the sensible chronology is\nderived from Egypt. There is something poetical, too, in the enormous\nnumbers. The magnificent-impossible host of five millions two hundred\nand eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty men,[797] and the\none thousand three hundred and twenty-seven triremes to be defeated\nand destroyed by a handful of nine thousand Greeks and three hundred\nand seventy-eight ships, is highly imaginative. The philosophic and\nsceptical modern mind will hardly be satisfied till the details are\nconfirmed by the contemporary evidence of inscriptions, for instance,\nthe Behistun, which is a running commentary upon \u2018Thalia.\u2019 Hellas ever\nwas, and is, and will be, by virtue of her mighty intellect and her\npreponderating imagination, \u2018Gr\u00e6cia mendax.\u2019 Eastern history tells us\nnothing about the marvellous Persian invasion. We may fairly believe\nthat there was a great movement headed by some powerful Satrap,[798]\nwho determined to crush the wasp\u2019s nest to the West; but we can go no\nfarther. It is simply incredible that the Great King, who at the time\nwas Lord Paramount of the civilised world, should lead to so little\npurpose millions of warriors\u2014men, the flower of Asia, whose portraiture\nis the most favourable of any we possess, and whom the Father owns to\nhave been not a whit inferior in prowess to the Greeks.[799] And for\nthis view I duly apologise to \u2018Herodotus and his shade.\u2019\n\nThe poet-historian gives an interesting description of the Sword\namongst the Scythians whom the Greeks and Persians call Sac\u00e6 (Shakas)\nor Nomades.[800] To judge from Hind\u00fa legend\u2014for instance, that of\nShak-ari, \u2018foe to the Shakas,\u2019 a title of the historical Vikram\u00e1ditya\n(A.D. 79)\u2014the Sac\u00e6 were \u2018Turanians\u2019\u2014Mongols or Tartars. When he makes\nthem worship Ares-Mars, he probably derives the idea from their adoring\nthe emblem of war, an iron dirk (\u1f00\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c3\u03b9\u03b4\u03ae\u03c1\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2].[801] \u2018A blade\nof antique iron,\u2019 he tells us, \u2018is placed on the summit of every\nsuch mound (a flat-topped pile of brushwood three furlongs square),\nand serves as the image of Mars; yearly sacrifices are made to it.\u2019\nThe victims were cattle, horses, and one per cent. of war-prisoners.\n\u2018Libations of wine are first poured upon their heads, after which\nthey are slaughtered over a vase, and the vessel is then carried up to\nthe top of the pile and the blood poured upon the Akin\u00e1kes.[802] In\nthe Scythian graves of Russian Cimmeria (the Crimea) and of Tartary,\nthe Swords are mostly bronze. Dr. M\u2018Pherson, however, found one of\niron (1839) in the great tomb of Kertch, the old Milesian Panticap\u00e6um,\nso called from its river, Anticapes;[803] it was a short dagger-like\nthrusting blade, resembling the old Persian, with mid-rib and curved\nhandle. In the days of Attila, a Sword, supposed to be one of the\nancient Scythian weapons alluded to by the Greek, was accidentally\nfound, and was made an object of worship.[804] Jangh\u00edz (Genghis) Khan\nwhen raised to the throne repeated this sacrificial observance, which,\nhowever, can scarcely be called a \u2018Mongolic custom.\u2019[805] It seems\ncommon to the Sauromat\u00e6 (northern Medes and Slavs), the Alans, the\nHuns, and the tribes that wandered over the Steppes.\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN HERODOTUS._]\n\nThe Scythians also swore by the emblem of Mars. \u2018Their oaths,\u2019 says\nHerodotus,[806] \u2018are accompanied by the following ceremonies. Into a\nlarge earthen bowl (\u03ba\u03cd\u03bb\u03b9\u03be) pouring wine, they mingle with it blood of\nthe parties to the oath, who wound themselves superficially with a\nknife or an awl; then they dip into the bowl an Akin\u00e1kes, and arrows,\nand a battle-axe (_sagaris_), and a javelin (_akontion_), all the while\nrepeating manifold prayers. Lastly, the two contracting parties drink\neach a draught from the bowl, as do also the most worthy of their\nfollowers.\u2019[807] In the \u2018Anabasis,\u2019[808] the Greeks swear by dipping a\nSword, and the barbarians a lance, into the victim\u2019s blood.\n\nSo far these ancient authors: we must now see how they are confirmed\nby modern authorities. Dr. Schliemann\u2019s investigations at Mycen\u00e6[809]\nare the more interesting, as the finds are supposed by him to be\nsynchronous with those of Burnt Troy; and they enable us to compare\nthe former in her prosperity with the latter in her exhaustion. The\nenergetic explorer doughtily supports the use of copper for arms and\nutensils; and, with whole truth, makes it the staple metal of the\nheroic ages. As he found no tin at Mycen\u00e6 or in the great layer of\ncopper scori\u00e6 at His\u00e1rlik (Troy), while \u2018Kassiteros\u2019 is repeatedly\nmentioned by Homer, he contends that the bronze of the Greek city was\nimported, and therefore rare and expensive. Unfortunately he did not\nanalyse the thin copper wire which carried the necklace-beads.\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORDS OF MYCEN\u00c6._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 241.\u2014GOLD SHOULDER-BELT, WITH FRAGMENT OF TWO-EDGED\nBRONZE RAPIER. (Sepulchre I.)]\n\nIt is a new sensation to descend with Dr. Schliemann into the\nold Mycenian tombs where sixteen or seventeen corpses had been\nsimultaneously interred (?). Sepulchre No. I, attributed to Agamemnon\nand his two heralds,[810] produced a variety of interesting articles,\nespecially the golden shoulder-belt (\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03ce\u03bd) that decorated the\nmummy.[811] My photograph shows it attached to a fragmentary two-edged\nSword. Between the middle and the southern body lay a heap of broken\nbronze blades, which may have represented sixty whole Swords: some\nbore traces of gilding, and several had gold pins at the handle. Two\nblades lay to the right of the body, and their ornamentation strikingly\nresembled the description in the \u2018Iliad.\u2019[812] The handle of the larger\nSword (No. 460) is of bronze, thickly plated with intaglio\u2019d gold; and\na broad plate of the same metal, similarly worked, passes round the\nshoulders of the Sword. The wooden scabbard must have been adorned with\ngolden studs and a long broad plate (fig. 244), shaped somewhat like a\nman, with a ring issuing from the neck. The other Sword in a similar\nstyle of art seems to have been even richer. Dr. Schliemann[813]\nconsiders No. 463 (fig. 245) a remarkable battle-axe, of which\nfourteen were found in the \u2018Trojan treasure.\u2019[814] It is evidently a\nSword-blade, and the same may be said of Nos. 464, 465 (fig. 244).\n\nAt the distance of hardly more than one foot to the right of the\nmummy-body were found eleven bronze Swords; two were tolerably\npreserved, and both were of unusual size\u2014two feet ten inches and three\nfeet two inches. The golden plate of the wooden Sword-handle is given\nin p. 305. These weapons, also, had gold plates attached to the pommels\nby twelve pins of the same metal with large globular heads. The body at\nthe south end of Sepulchre I. was provided with fifteen bronze Swords,\nof which ten had been placed at its feet. As a rule, the wooden sheaths\nhad mouldered away, but the gold studs or bosses, which adorned them\nlike the binding of a book, lay along the remains of the warriors\nwho had wielded them. The whetstone (Sepulchre I.) was of very fine\nsandstone.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 242.\u2014(Sepulchre I. Mycen\u00e6.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 243.\u2014A LONG GOLD PLATE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 244.\u2014NOT BATTLE-AXES.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 245.\u2014SWORD BLADES. (Sepulchre I. Mycen\u00e6.)]\n\nThe fourth Sepulchre was almost as interesting in its supply of\nSwords. Excavating from east to west, the explorer came upon a heap of\nmore than twenty bronze blades, most of them with remnants of wooden\nscabbards and handles. The flat, round pieces of wood, and the small\nshield-like or button-like disks of gold with intaglio-work, seemed to\nhave been glued in unbroken series along both sides of the sheath; and,\nthe largest being at the broad end with a gradual diminishing in size,\nthey determined the width. The wooden hilts bore similar plates of\nintaglio\u2019d gold; the remaining space had been studded with gold pins,\nand gold nails were fixed in the large pommels of wood or alabaster.\nThe quantity of fine gold-dust left no doubt that the handles and\nscabbards had been gilt. The smith evidently did not possess the\nknowledge of gilding silver: he first plated the metal with copper and\nthen the copper with gold. The golden cylinder (No. 366), adorned at\nboth ends with a broad border of wave-lines, and the field filled with\ninterwoven spirals, all intaglio-work, probably belonged to a heft of\nwood. Along the middle runs a row of pin-holes; there are four flat\npin-heads, and in the centre is the head of a larger stud by which it\nis attached.\n\nSepulchre IV. also yielded forty-six bronze Swords, more or less\nfragmentary. Of these ten were short and single-edged: their solid\nmetal measured when entire from two to two feet three inches in\nlength. The handles are too thick for mounting in wood, and the tangs\nend in rings for suspension to the \u2018Telamon\u2019 or to the girdle (\u03b6\u03ce\u03bd\u03b7,\n\u03b6\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1). The chopper-shaped blade (fig. 246), evidently of Egyptian\nderivation, is broken at the point, which may incline either way,\nprobably inwards. The other (fig. 246) is the normal leaf-shape. Dr.\nSchliemann believes[815] that they explain the Homeric \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd, which\nhe makes \u2018perfectly synonymous with Xiphos and Aor.\u2019 Here I venture to\ndiffer with him, holding the Ph\u00e1sganon probably to have been the short\nEgyptian Sword, used like the boomerang-blade for throwing as well as\ncutting.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 246.\u2014(Sepulchre IV. Mycen\u00e6, p. 279.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 247.\u2014BRONZE LANCEHEAD (?), p. 279.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 248.\u2014TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORD AND DAGGER. (Sepulchre\nIV. Mycen\u00e6.)]\n\nThe double-edged weapon with the long narrow tube (\u03b1\u1f50\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2) was judged\nto be a dagger-knife, the hollow being intended to save weight; to me\nit appears a lance-head, and the attached ring seems to prove its use\n(fig. 247). The fragmentary two-edged blade of bronze (_a_ fig. 249)\nshows a mid-rib broken by serrations intended either for ornament or\nfor jagging the wound: the same toothings appear in another weapon\n(_b_ fig. 249), which is supposed to be a dagger. No. 446 is a short\ntwo-edged blade showing at the shoulders, on either side, four large\nflat head-pins of gold. A gold plate extends all along the middle part\nof the blade on both sides, and fragments of the wooden sheath are\nvisible in the middle as well as at the end.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 249.\u2014TWO-EDGED BRONZE SWORDS AND ALABASTER KNOB.\n(Sepulchre IV. Mycen\u00e6.)]\n\nWe now come to the most startling part of the collection. It proves\nindubitably, if Dr. Schliemann\u2019s conclusions be correct, and if the\nblades[816] do not belong, as they may do, to a later date, that the\nhighest form of Sword, which became the fashion during our sixteenth\ncentury, was known in B.C. 1200. It is a curious comment upon the fact,\nhow soon perfection was reached in the \u2018White Arm,\u2019 compared with the\nslow progress of firearms, which had to await the invention of the\nself-igniting cartridge. Plate No. 445 (p. 281) gives a two-edged blade\nwith a mid-rib, in fact the rapier, which can be used only for the\npoint. It measures two feet seven inches (_a_ fig. 250), and at the\ntop are attached remnants of its wooden scabbard. The lower end of its\nneighbour (_b_ fig. 250) is adorned with three flat golden pin-heads\non either face. No. 448, measuring two feet ten inches long, is very\nwell preserved; by its side lies its alabaster pommel (fig. 249). No.\n449 has retained part of its heft, which is gold-plated and attached by\ngold pins. Vertical lines of intaglio work run along the blade and give\nit a truly beautiful aspect.\n\nDr. Schliemann (p. 283) notices the length, in some cases exceeding\nthree feet, compared with the narrowness of these grand blades. He\nadds, \u2018So far as I know, Swords of this shape have never been found\nbefore.\u2019 I would refer him to the Villanova (Etruscan) blade described\nin chapter viii.\n\nThe fourth Sepulchre also yielded three shoulder-belts of gold. No. 354\nmeasures four feet one and a half inch long by one and seven-eighths\ninch in width (fig. 241). On either side of the band is a narrow\nedging made by turning down the gold plate: the field is occupied by\na row of rosettes, six oval petals surrounding a central disk and the\nwhole encircled by dots or points. At one end are two apertures in the\nshape of hour-glasses; these served to attach the clasp to the other\nextremity, as is shown by the small hole and two cuts (p. 308). The\nsecond \u2018Telamon,\u2019 a plain band four feet six inches long by two to two\nand one-third inches broad, was, the discoverer suggests, possibly\nmade for the funeral: it is too thin and fragile for general wear. To\nsome blades were still attached particles of well-woven linen, which\nthe discoverer considers to have been sheaths (p. 283). The natives of\nIndia and of other hot-damp regions retain, I have said, the custom of\nbandaging their blades with greased rags. We are also shown (p. 304) a\ngold tassel probably suspended to a belt of embroidered work.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 250.\u2014RAPIER-BLADES OF MYCEN\u00c6.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 251.\u2014WARRIOR WITH SWORD.]\n\nThe first of the tomb-stones found in the Acropolis above the\nsepulchres (p. 52) shows (very imperfectly) a hunter standing in a\none-horse chariot: he grips in his right a long broadsword. The second\ntomb-stone (p. 81) has a naked warrior, who holds the horse\u2019s head\nwith his right, and raises in his left a double-edged blade (fig.\n251): Dr. Schliemann finds the figure \u2018full of anguish\u2019 (p. 84); the\nhead is in profile, and the body almost fronts the spectator. The\nhuntsman-charioteer holds in his left a sheathed Sword of the long\ndagger type, ending in a large globular pommel. Many such articles\nwere found in the tombs, and the author (p. 225) draws attention to\nthe size of the \u2018knob\u2019 upon the signet ring. Mostly they were of\nwood or alabaster (p. 281) with golden nails, and frequently plated\nwith precious metal. I would suggest that the perforated ball of\npolished rock-crystal (No. 307) found in Sepulchre III., and the\nlarge-mouthed article (No. 308) coloured red and white inside, were\nalso Sword-pommels.\n\nThe Treasury supplied \u2018five unornamental blades of copper or bronze,\u2019\nwith rings of the same metal. The large Cyclopean house, which the\nenergetic discoverer would identify with the Palace of the Atreid\u00e6,\nyielded a straight, two-edged, thrusting-blade of bronze: the shoulders\nwere pierced with four holes, and there are as many in the tang for\nattaching the handle (fig. 252). The heft was of various substances,\nwood, bone, and ivory, amber, rock-crystal, and alabaster, and it\nwas often plated with metals, especially the most precious. Of the\nlatter, six specimens are given (pp. 270\u201371), all highly decorated\nwith intaglio work of circles and spirals, rope-bands, and shell-like\nquaquaversal flutings.\n\nThe general opinion that Homer ignored soldering[817] gives unusual\ninterest to a large bronze dagger found in No. III. Sepulchre, six\nm\u00e8tres and a half below the surface (p. 164). Two blades are well\nsoldered together in the middle (fig. 253). The same art appears (p.\n280) in the attachment of two long narrow plates of thick bronze.\nCrickets (_cicad\u00e6_) and other ornaments were also found of gold worked\nin _repouss\u00e9_ and composed of two halves soldered together.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 252.\u2014BRONZE SWORD FOUND IN THE PALACE (p. 144).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 253.\u2014BRONZE DAGGER. TWO BLADES SOLDERED.]\n\nThe goldsmiths of Mycen\u00e6 were true artists. They had work in plenty;\nDr. Schliemann estimates the metallic value of his finds at five\nthousand pounds. An admirable bit of work (p. 251) is the goat\nstanding, like that of Assyria and Istria, with gathered legs upon the\ntop of a pin.[818] Another (No. 365) is the lion-cub, apparently cut\nand tooled. As in modern India, the circles, spirals, and wave-lines\nare excellently executed, and so is the gold-plating upon buttons of\nwood (pp. 258\u201359). The old Greek city, too, had a peculiar treatment\nof the whorl, which, combining two and even three\u2014either _dextrorsum_\nor _sinistrorsum_\u2014about a common centre, and making the lines of at\nleast two continuous, deserves to be called the \u2018Mycen\u00e6 spiral.\u2019 This\nornament passes from the gold trinkets and the tomb-stones of the\nAcropolis to the \u2018Treasuries\u2019 of much later date.\n\nAn intaglio of gold is especially interesting, because it represents\na Monomach\u00eda or duel. He to the proper right, a tall beardless or\nshaven warrior, without helmet, and clad only in \u2018tights\u2019 and \u2018shorts,\u2019\nbears the whole weight of his body upon his left leg, extending the\nright, as in a lunge, and is about to plunge his straight and pointed\ndagger-blade into the throat of his bearded foe (p. 174). A signet-ring\ndisplays a gigantic warrior who has felled one opponent, put to flight\na second, and is stabbing a third with a short broad straight blade.\nThe vanquished man attempts to defend himself with a long Xiphos (p.\n225). Perhaps the subject may be Theseus clearing out the thieves. A\ngold button shows a square formed by four sacrificial chopper-knives of\nEgyptian shape (p. 263, No. 397).\n\nThe characteristics of the Sepulchres are the orientation of the\nremains, the heads lying to the East, and their imperfect cremation.\nThe latter is familiar in Hind\u00fa-land, although the people hold the\nfire-funeral to be a fire-birth, when the vital principle called \u2018soul\u2019\nor \u2018spirit\u2019 has been purged of its earthly dross. The regular layers\nof pebbles, which by ventilating the floor would give draught to the\nflames, have also been noticed in ancient Etruria.[819] The only\n_viaticum_ or provisions for the dead were unopened oysters: the rest\nwas probably burnt. The utensils are jugs and vases of terra cotta\n(plain and painted), copper tripods and cauldrons, urns and kettles,\nand cups and goblets, the latter one- and two-handed. The ornaments, of\ngold and electrum, are foil-work and plates upon wood, beads of glass\nand agate, studs and buttons, crosses and breast-covers, lentoid gems\nand masks, crowns and diadems. The weapons, all of bronze,[820] are\naxes and arrows, lances, knives, daggers, and Sword-blades; while gold\nand alloys are abundant. We may fairly say that iron is absent from the\nAcropolis of Mycen\u00e6 as well as from the Burnt City of the Troad. And\nthere is a remarkable similarity in the pattern and construction of\nsundry articles, especially the gold tubes with attached spirals.\n\nDr. Schliemann\u2019s discoveries have been subjected to much adverse\ncriticism.[821] As far as they go, they prove that the warriors of\nMycen\u00e6 used three varieties of Swords\u2014the Xiphos, the Ph\u00e1sganon, and\nthe Kopis.\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN GREECE._]\n\nThe \u03be\u03af\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2 of Mycen\u00e6 is the long, straight, rapier-shaped,\ncut-and-thrust (_c\u00e6sim et punctim_) blade; its only guard is a\ncross-bar, which, like the scabbard, is beautifully ornamented. The\nword Xiphos is still applied in Romaic to a straight Sword opposed to\nSpati (\u03a3\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9),[822] the sabre, the broadsword.\n\nThe \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd or dirk which Meyrick (Pl. IV. fig. 16), and sometimes\nperhaps the Ancients, confound with the Xiphos, is a straight blade,\nmostly leaf-shaped and showing its descent from the spear. It is\nrarely longer than twenty inches. In Romaic poetry the word is still\napplied to knives and Sword-daggers like the Yataghan. My idea that the\nPh\u00e1sganon was used for throwing does not derive from the classics, but\nfrom the similarity of the blade to the Seax and the Scramasax.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 254.\u2014PH\u00c1SGANON.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 255.\u2014GREEK PH\u00c1SGANA.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 256.\u2014SHORT SWORD (PH\u00c1SGANON) OF BRONZE, FOUND IN A\nCRANNOG AT PESCHIARA, AND PROBABLY GREEK.]\n\nThe \u039a\u03bf\u03c0\u03af\u03c2, which Meyrick makes an Argive weapon, and which English\ntranslators render simply by \u2018Sword,\u2019 has been derived by me from the\nEgyptian Khopsh, whose \u2018inside cutting curve\u2019 it imitates, merely\nflattening the bend. Writers on hoplology have mostly ignored its\norigin. They follow Xenophon, who speaks of it as being used by the\nPersians and Barbarians; and Polybius, who assigns its use to the\nPersians before the Greeks\u2014apparently an anachronism. They remark that\non vases it is the weapon of the Giants, not of the Gods, and that the\nAmazons wield it against Hercules. Hence Se\u00f1or Soromenho[823] would\nassign its origin to the Arabs, and Colonel A. Lane-Fox to the Roman\nlegionaries. The latter authority, indeed, contends that its form is\n\u2018obviously derived from the straight, leaf-shaped, bronze sword, of\nwhich it is simply a curved variety.\u2019 Here, I think, he reverses the\nprocess. Specimens of the Kopis are rare; one was found in a tomb, said\nto be Roman, between Madrid and Toledo, and another of the same find is\nin the British Museum.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 257.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 258.\u2014KOPIS WITH POMMEL.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 259.\u2014KOPIS WITH HOOK.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 260.\u2014KUKKRI BLADE OF GURKHAS.]\n\nThe peculiarity of the Kopis is, I have said, its cutting with the\ninner, not the outer curve, and thus suggesting the use of the point\nand the \u2018drawing cut\u2019 instead of the sheer cut. This peculiarity was\ninherited from Egypt, and long appeared in Greek blades. It is well\nshown in the fragment of a bronze Kopis-like broadsword from the\ncollection of Don Giovanni Bolmarcich, the Arciprete of Cherso: the\nrelic was found in the Island of Ossero with an immense variety of\nbronzes, Greek,[824] Roman, and prehistoric or proto-historic. General\nPitt-Rivers has a bronze Sword-blade from Corinth\u2014a very fine specimen.\nThe handle has an =H= section, the pommel measuring two and a quarter\ninches across, and the grip three and a half inches in length. There\nis no tang; the blade springs from the shoulders, which are prominent;\nthe length is twenty-seven inches, and the section that of the Toledo\nrapier. It is, however, slightly leaf-shaped. In the Armeria Real of\nTurin (section Beaumont to north-west), two Greek blades are shown in a\nglass case. One is especially interesting. The total length, all being\nin one piece, is three feet and a half; the blade has a mid-rib; there\nis a straight simple cross-bar at the shoulders, and the hilt ends in a\ncrutch, like the Hind\u00fa antelope-horns and the scroll-hilt of the Danish\nSwords.\n\nThe inside edge has been preserved from days immemorial by the\nAbyssinian Sword;[825] an exaggerated sickle or diminutive scythe.\nIt reappears in various parts of Africa, as shown by Barth\u2019s Travels\n(chap. ii. 37 &c.). His \u2018Dan\u00edsko,\u2019 which he translates \u2018hand-bill,\u2019\nis used by the people of a highly interesting province\u2014\u2018Adam\u00e1wa.\u2019 The\ngeneral weapon in the neighbourhood is the \u2018goliyo\u2019 or bill-hook of\nthe Marghi, and the Njiga of the Baghirmi. It is a heavy and clumsy\n\u2018Khopsh\u2019 of the boomerang type.[826]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 961.\u2014THE DAN\u00cdSKO.]\n\nThe inside edge characterises, to a certain extent, the Albanian\nyataghan, and the Flissa of the Kab\u00e1il (Kabyles); and it is thoroughly\nwell developed in the formidable Kor\u00e1 or Kukkri of the Gurkha or\nNepaulese mountaineers, whose edge swells out to a half-moon.\n\nThe Mycen\u00e6 finds do not enlighten us upon the subject of the \u1f0c\u03bf\u03c1\nand other forms of the Greek Sword. We know nothing of the Thracian\n\u1fec\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03b1, the Rumpia of Gellius (x. 25), which the A. V.[827] translates\n\u2018Sword.\u2019 Most writers hold it to be a Thracian lance, like the European\n\u2018partisan;\u2019 and Smith\u2019s \u2018Dictionary of Antiquities\u2019 describes it as a\nlong spear resembling the Sarissa, with a Sword-like blade. This comes\nfrom Livy (xxxi. 39), who tells us that in woodlands the Macedonian\nphalanx was ineffectual on account of its _pr\u00e6long\u00e6 hast\u00e6_, and that\nthe Rhomph\u00e6a of the Thracians was a hindrance for the same reason. But\nin modern Romaic usage it denotes the flammberg (_flamberge_), or that\nform of the wavy blade which the Church places in the hands of the\nangelic host. It is always carried by \u2018Monseigneur Saint Michel, the\nArchangel, the first knight who in the quarrel of God battled with the\nDragon, the old enemy of mankind, and drove him out of heaven.\u2019[828]\nMycen\u00e6 supplied no specimen of the \u03c7\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03b4\u1f7c\u03bd (_gladius Chelidonius_), the\nbroad blade with a bifurcated swallow-tailed point. It is mentioned\nby Isidore (xviii.) and by Origen (chap. vi.); and I have alluded to\nit in Chapter VII. We are unable to specify the shape of the Athenian\n\u039a\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 (_Knesteis_) or the Laced\u00e6monian \u03be\u03c5\u03af\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 (_Xyin\u00e6_), which\nXenophon calls \u03be\u03c5\u03ae\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9 (_Xuel\u00e6_). They may have been, to judge from\ntheir use, thick cut-and-thrust daggers, in fact _Coupe-Choux._ Nor do\nwe know what kind of blade was carried by the Xystophori (\u03be\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9)\nin addition to the _Xyston_: the latter was either the footman\u2019s spear\n(\u03b4\u03cc\u03c1\u03c5) or the horseman\u2019s lance; in the \u2018Iliad,\u2019 as has been seen, it is\na long pole studded with iron nails.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 262.\u2014GREEK XIPHOS (J\u00e4hns).]\n\nAccording to history, the Greek infantry Sword was a straight two-edged\nblade, rather broad, and of equal width from hilt to point, which was\nof bevelled shape. For cavalry they preferred the sabre or cutting\nweapon.[829] Iphicrates (B.C. 400), when improving arms and armour,\nmust have found spear and Sword too short, for he \u2018doubled the length\nof the spear and made the Swords also longer\u2019 (Diod. Sic. xv. 144;\nCorn. Nepos, xi.). Plutarch (in \u2018Lycurg.\u2019) tells us that a man in the\npresence of Agesilaus jeered at the Spartan blade, which measured only\nfourteen to fifteen inches long, saying that \u2018a juggler would think\nnothing of swallowing it\u2019;[830] whereto the great commander replied,\n\u2018Yet our short Swords can pierce our foes.\u2019 And when a bad workman\ncomplained of his tool, the Spartan suggested with dry heroism, \u2018You\nhave only to advance a pace.\u2019\n\nDodwell[831] relates that an iron blade found in a tomb at Athens was\ntwo feet five inches long, including its handle of the same metal. Most\nof our museum specimens, both of bronze and iron, are of fair average\ndimensions. That of Mayence measures nineteen and a half inches (_a_\nfig. 265), and that of the Museum of Artillery thirty-two. The Pella\nblade in the K. Antiquarium, Berlin, is only twenty-one centim\u00e8tres,\nincluding four for the heft.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 263.\u2014GALLO-GREEK (60 cents. long).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 264.\u2014GALLO-GREEK.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 265.\u2014MAYENCE BLADE.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 266.\u2014GALLO-GREEK BLADE AND SHEATH.]\n\nThe Swords called Gallo-Greek,[832] with bronze blades and sheaths\n(figs. 263, etc.), are of moderate length\u2014twenty-five inches.\nPausanias[833] alludes to perhaps a shorter weapon (\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd\n\u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd). And we are told that when Manlius invaded Galatia he found\nthe Swords were _pr\u00e6longi gladii_.[834]\n\nThe Greek fashion of carrying the Sword apparently varied with the\ntimes, and, perhaps, with the length of the weapon: it is easy to draw\na dagger from the right, but awkward to unsheathe a full-sized blade.\nSome writers make the Greeks carry the weapon on the right, and others\non the left: Homer seems purposely to leave his description vague,\ne.g.:\u2014\n\n \u1f2a \u1f45\u03b3\u03b5 \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd \u1f40\u03be\u1f7a \u1f10\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (or \u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03c3\u03c3\u03ac\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2) \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03bc\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6.\n\n Drawing the grided dirk fro\u2019 the sheath which hung by his\n thigh-side.[835]\n\nThe words _par\u00e0 merou_ are similarly used elsewhere,[836] but which\nthigh is not specified. Hector\u2019s sharp Sword hangs below his loins\nboth huge and strong, and brandishing it he rushes to his death by\nAchilles\u2019 spear.[837] The Trojan, too, strikes Ajax,[838] who carried\nhis weapon after Assyrian fashion, \u2018where the two belts cross upon his\nbreast, both that of the shield and that of the silver-studded Sword.\u2019\nThe \u2018Parazonium\u2019 dagger, with its metal scabbard, was usually attached\nto the Sword-belt[839] on the other side. Shaped like an ox-tongue\n(\u2018Anelace,\u2019 or _Langue-de-b\u0153uf_), and measuring twelve to sixteen\ninches long, it was common to Greece and Rome; I have shown its origin\nin Egypt.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 267.\u2014BRONZE PARAZONIUM (16\u2158 inches long).]\n\nThe part played by the Hellenes upon the great stage of the world\u2019s\nhistory was their development of civil life\u2014of citizenship. As a\nnation, they wanted the life-long practice of arms and training for\nwarfare, brought to absolute perfection by the Romans. Their annual\ngames, as shown by the Pindaric Odes, were mostly trials of speed and\nagility. They had the Bibasis or gymnastic dance, and, to mention no\nother, the Pyrrhic or Sword-dance, like all ancient and many modern\npeoples; but these mimicries soon became in the cities mere women\u2019s\nwork. They wore side-arms at home only during the Panathenaic f\u00eates,\nwhere orchestral actions and attitudes were displayed; and they had not\nthose military colonies like the Romans, where every man was a soldier\nand every soldier was a veteran. Their _gymnasia_ and _pal\u00e6str\u00e6_\nwere schools for calisthenics, which the sturdier Italians held in\ncontempt. They were, like the gymnastic-grounds of the Spartan girls,\nmere hot-beds for growing beauty and good breeders; for attaining\nthe perfection of form duly to be transmitted. This process, indeed,\nbegan with the bride, who furnished her nuptial chamber with the\nfinest possible models in painting and statuary. Hence every well-bred\ncitizen at Athens, every \u2018gentleman,\u2019 was expected to be handsome.\nThe Beautiful, the Good, and the Holy grew to be almost synonymous.\nPhysical man was raised to his highest expression, till he became the\nmythological, ideal god-man. This anthropomorphism found its final\nstage in Phidias; the Parthenon was its expression, and Olympus its\nculmination.[840] Since the ancient man-breeding and man-shaping system\nwas abandoned, and the race became intimately mixed with foreign blood,\nchiefly Slav and Hebrew, the reverse has become noticeable: a Greek of\nthe classical type is now rarely seen.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 268.\u2014\u2018HOPLITES\u2019 (HEAVY ARMED).[841]]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 269.\u2014GREEK COMBATANTS WITH SWORD AND LANCE.]\n\nThen came the intellectual age of Greece. Already in B.C. 450\nProtagoras the Sophist, of the Cyrenaic school, had made \u2018man the\nmeasure of all things.\u2019 The individual becomes a duality; as Aristotle\nexpresses it, the animal life is one of sensation, the divine life of\nintelligence. And this change of view gradually extinguished the holy\nfire of art.\n\nThe Hellenes, even in their best times, did not pay that attention to\nthe use of arms which was a daily practice with the more practical\nRomans. They had no gladiatorial shows, the finest _salles d\u2019armes_\nin the world. The \u1f41\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b1\u1f76 (\u1f41\u03c0\u03bb\u03bf\u03b4\u03b9\u03b4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u1f76) or army _ma\u00eetres\nd\u2019armes_, and professors of the noble arts of offence and defence,\nwere not required by law in Laced\u00e6mon. They practised the Sword, as\nwe learn from Demosthenes; he compared the Athenians \u2018with rustics\nin a fencing school, who after a blow always guard the hit part and\nnot before.\u2019[842] Yet they preferred the pentathlum, the pancration,\nand military dancing; the fencing-room was a secondary consideration.\nIndeed, Plato objected to the useless art of Sword-exercise, because\nneither masters nor disciples ever became great soldiers\u2014a stupendous\nPlatonic fallacy![843]\n\nNor did Hellas greatly prize herself upon mere arms. The soldier at\nAthens and amongst all the Ionian and kindred races occupied, it is\ntrue, an honourable position; in the four castes[844] he followed\nthe priestly, and he preceded the peasants and the mechanics. But\nthe Hellene was essentially a citizen\u2014a politician. He chose his\nmagistrates and pontiffs, and he could aspire to become one himself.\nHe spent his life in the Agora, canvassing laws and constitutions,\ntreaties and alliances. His minor delight was gossip, euphuistically\nexpressed by \u2018hearing new things.\u2019 Hellas soon learned that her _forte_\nlay in literature, poetry, oratory, and philosophy, in engineering,\nand in the fine arts. She excelled the world in the exquisite rules of\nproportion; in the breadth of idea, and in the clearness and perfection\nof the literary form: these arts she bequeathed as a heritage to\nmankind, who have nowhere and never surpassed her. While the grand old\nKemites built for eternity, and subjected even size[845] to solidity,\nHellas elaborated the principle of Beauty and carried it to its very\nacme. Her spoilt children were avid of novelty: they constructed every\npossible system of cosmogony, of astronomy, of geology (except the\nright one); and they \u2018paraded their knowledge,\u2019 as Bacon says, \u2018with\nfifes and drums.\u2019 Hence their teachers of the Nile Valley told them\n\u2018they were ever children\u2019; and hence they excelled their teachers.\n\nThis is not the place to discuss Greek tactics, nor is there anything\nnew to say about them: authors are contented with borrowing from the\ntreatises of \u00c6lian and Arrian, who lived in the days of Hadrian. I will\nonly remind the reader that even during the \u2018Iliad\u2019-ages the Greek\narmy had its scheme of battle. Nestor advises his warriors to keep\ntheir ranks in action after the wont of their forbears; and in two\nplaces[846] we have allusions to a rude phalanx or oblong rectangle of\ncivilised Egypt and Khita-land. Xenophon[847] tells us that the army of\nAgesilaus appeared all bronze (\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd) and red (\u03c6\u03bf\u03af\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1); the latter\nsurvives in our most inappropriate British scarlet. For the heavy-armed\nHoplite-swordsmen and the light Peltasts, who had apparently no Swords,\nthe student will consult any \u2018Dictionary of Antiquities.\u2019\n\nAnother unpleasant feature in Greek warfare was its indifference to\nhuman life, so much regarded by the Romans. The former preserved their\nold barbarous practice of putting to death their war-prisoners; whilst\neven during the first Punic War the latter had a system of exchange\ncombined with a money-payment for any number in excess on either side.\n\nGreece rarely appears in arms except in defensive warfare (as against\nthe Persians), in civil wars between citizens and citizens, and in\nsemi-civil wars, as between the Athenians and the Spartans, the\nDorians, Ionians, and \u00c6olians. A glance at any of their campaigns\u2014the\n\u2018Anabasis,\u2019 for instance\u2014gives us their measure as soldiers; and what\nelse can we expect from a race whose typical men were Themistocles\nand Alcibiades? They were too clever by half; too vain, too restless,\ntoo impulsive (ever \u2018shedding tears\u2019), too self-assertive to become\ndisciplined men-machines. They were always ready for a revolt, for a\nchange of officers; and it must have been a serious thing to command\nthem. In this point, perhaps, they are rivalled by the Frenchman, one\nof the best soldiers in Europe, and also one of the most difficult\nto manage. Great captains\u2014Turenne and Napoleon Buonaparte, for\ninstance\u2014shot their recalcitrants by the dozen till the survivors\nlearned to \u2018tremble and obey.\u2019[848] Like the French, too, and the\nIrish, the Greeks had more dash than firmness. They gained victories by\nthe vigour and gallantry of their attack, but they did not distinguish\nthemselves in a losing game. Here England excels, and hence Marshal\nBugeaud said, \u2018She has the best infantry in the world; happily they are\nnot many.\u2019 We must make them so.\n\nHellas owed her successes in foreign wars mainly to the barbarous\ncondition of her neighbours. The Romans and all the peoples of Asia\nMinor, save her own colonies,[849] were far behind her when, after the\nfashion of the equestrian races of Northern Asia, she had exchanged\nthe chariot for the charger;[850] and when she borrowed from Egypt the\narts of warfare by land and sea, the paraphernalia of the siege, the\nbest of arms and armour, and even the redoubtable phalanx. But she\nlost pre-eminence, physical and moral, when the rival races rose to\nbe her equals, and even her superiors, in weapons, organisation, and\ndiscipline. She began with beating, and she ended with being thoroughly\nbeaten by, the Romans.\n\nGreek literature does not abound, like Roman and Hebrew, in perpetual\nallusions to the Sword: it refers more frequently to the spear and\nbow. Yet Athen\u00e6us ennobles the end of his curious _olla podrida_ (the\n\u2018Deipnosophists\u2019) with some charming lines alluding to the Queen of\nWeapons. The first passage begins with:\u2014\n\n I\u2019ll wreathe my sword in myrtle bough,\n The sword that laid the tyrant low,\n When Patriots burning to be free\n To Athens gave equality.[851]\n\nThe second is the song of Hybrias the Cretan:\u2014\n\n My wealth is here, the sword, the spear, the breast-defending\n shield,\n With this I plough, with this I sow, with this I reap the field;\n With this I rape the luscious grape and drink the blood-red wine,\n And slaves at hand in order stand, and all are counted mine![852]\n\nAnd here arises a curious question. Do races, as is generally assumed,\ndecline and fall like nations and empires? Does the body politic obey\nthe law of the body corporal? Do peoples grow old and feeble and barren\nafter their most brilliant periods of gestation? Or rather do they not\ncease to be great, and to bear great men, because their neighbours have\ngrown to be greater, and because genius is repressed by unfavourable\nmedia? I cannot see that Time has greatly changed the peasant of the\nRomagna, the mountaineer of the Peloponnesus, the Persian become a\nParsi in Bombay, or the modern soldier of the Nile Valley, who, under\nIbrahim Pasha, defeated the Turks in every pitched battle. But the\nconditions of Italy, Greece, Persia, and Egypt, are now fundamentally\naltered: they are no longer superior to their surroundings; they are\nenvironed by races stronger than themselves. Hence, perhaps, what is\npopularly called their degeneracy.\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XII.\n\n THE SWORD IN ANCIENT ROME; THE LEGION AND THE GLADIATOR.\n\n\nThe _r\u00f4le_ played by pagan Rome on the stage of history was\ntwofold\u2014that of conqueror and that of regulator. In obeying man\u2019s\nacquisitive instinct she was compelled to perfect her executive\ninstrument, the fighter. To her we owe the words \u2018arms\u2019 and \u2018army,\u2019\n\u2018armour\u2019 and \u2018armoury.\u2019[853] As _pugna_ derives from _pugnus_, the\nfist, so _arma_ and its congeners derive from _armus_, the arm:\n\u2018antiqui humeros cum brachiis armos vocabant,\u2019 says Festus. Well\nknowing that the \u2018God of Battles\u2019 favours superiority of weapons as\nmuch as, and in select cases more than, \u2018big battalions,\u2019 she ever\nchose the implements and instruments she found the best; and, following\nher own proverb, she never disdained to take a lesson in arms even from\nthe conquered.\n\nBut Rome soon learnt that to make good soldiers she must begin by\nmaking good citizens. She insisted upon the civilising maxim \u2018Cedant\narma tog\u00e6,\u2019 without, however, the invidious precedence which Sallust\ncalls \u2018those most offensive words of Cicero\u2019\n\n \u2014\u2014Concedat laurea lingu\u00e6.\n\nShe subordinated the Captain to the Magistrate, and she proclaimed to\nboth the absolute Reign of Law. The idea presented itself to the Greek\nmind in the shape of Fate, Anagk\u00e9, Nemesis: Rome brought it down from\nthe vague to the realistic, from the abstract to the concrete, from\nheaven to earth. Thus, while Greece taught mankind the novel lessons\nof ordered liberty, free thought, intellectual culture, and patriotic\ncitizenship, Rome, by her reverence for Law, in whose sight all men\nwere equal, preached the brotherhood of mankind. Hence Christendom\never has been, and is still, governed by a heathen code, by that Roman\njurisprudence which flowed from the Twelve Tables, like the laws of\nJewry from the Ten Commandments. Indeed the \u2018Fecial College\u2019 which\npronounced upon the obligations of international war and peace, is an\ninstitution which might profitably be revived in the modern world.[854]\n\nRome was single-minded in her objective, conquest; and unlike the\nGreeks, from whom she borrowed, she was not diverted by art or\nliterature. All her poets for a thousand years fit into one volume.\nAll her art, indeed, can hardly be said to exist; history is silent\nconcerning any save a few exceptional Roman architects. Varro laughs\nat the puppets and effigies of the gods. The triumph of Metellus\n(B.C. 146) introduced Art, but the Helleno-Roman artist contented\nhimself with copies and with portrait-statues of the great. In the\ndays of their highest luxury and refinement, the toga\u2019d people\nwere connoisseurs and purchasers who diffused instead of adding to\nknowledge. Others, as Virgil said, might give movement to marble and\nbreath to bronze: the Art of the Roman was to rule the nations, to\nspare the subjected, and to debase the proud. \u2018Fortia agere Romanum\nest.\u2019\n\nFor the constitution of the Roman army we must consult the estimable\nPolybius,[855] its early historian, Livy, and the latest of the great\nauthorities, Vegetius, in the days of Valentinian II. (A.D. 375\u201392);\nnot forgetting Varro,[856] who treats of weapon changings.\n\nWhilst the militia consisted of three bodies, the citizens, the allies,\nwho were sworn, and the auxiliaries or mercenaries; the characteristic\nof Roman organisation was the Legion\u2014that is, _legere_ (they chose).\nEmerging by slow degrees from the Phalanx or close column,[857] it\nlearnt to prefer for battle the _acies instructa_, haye or line, and\nthe _acies sinuata_, with wings; and it reserved for especial purposes\nthe _agmen pilatum_ or close array, and the _agmen quadratum_ or hollow\nsquare.\n\nThe reason of the change is manifest. The Phalanx or oblong herse was\nirresistible during the compact advance. The wise Egyptian inventors\nmade it perfect for the Nile Valley. But it lost virtue in woodlands\nand highlands; it was liable to be broken when changing front, and\nthe long unwieldy spears which it required caused confusion on broken\nground.\n\nThe Legion consisted, strictly speaking, of heavy-armed infantry\u2014of\nMilites, from _Mil-es_, because reckoned by their thousands. They were\npreceded by the Velites, Ferentarii, or Rorarii, \u2018light infantry,\u2019\n_\u00e9claireurs_, who cleared the way for action; in the first century they\nwere reinforced by the Accensi Velati.[858] Whilst the Auxiliaries\nfought with bows and arrows, and some, like the Etruscans, with the\n\u2018funda\u2019 or sling, the Veles carried two to seven light throw-spears\n(_hast\u00e6 velitari\u00e6_) about three feet long in the shaft, with a\nnine-inch lozenge-shaped head of iron.[859] For close quarters he\nwore on his right side a Parazonium-dagger, and on the right a broad\ncut-and-thrust blade of moderate size. His defences were an apron of\nleather strips, studded with metal; and a Parma,[860] the small round\nshield, like the Cetra, some three feet in diameter.[861]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 270.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 271.\u20141, 2. HELMETS OF HASTARII (FROM TRAJAN\u2019S\nCOLUMN); 3, 4. HELMETS OF HASTARII; 5. BRONZE HELMET (FROM CANN\u00c6).]\n\nThe Legion proper was a line or rather a triple line of Hastarii[862]\nor legionary spearmen. Livy[863] briefly describes the Acies, when\nit emerged from the Phalanx, as \u2018drawn up into distinct companies,\ndivided into centuries. Each company contained sixty soldiers,[864]\ntwo centurions, and one ensign or standard-bearer.[865] First in line\nstood the Hastati in fifteen companies with twenty Velites.[866]\nBehind them were the Principes with heavy shields and complete armour,\nalso numbering fifteen companies. These thirty companies were called\nAntepilani, because there were fifteen others placed behind them\nwith the standards; each of the latter consisted of three divisions,\nand the first division of each they called a Pilus. The first ensign\nwas at the head of the third line proper, the Triarii. Behind them\nstood the Rorarii, whose ability was less by reason of their youth\nand inexperience; and, lastly, in the rear, came the Accensi, a body\nin which little confidence was reposed. The Hastati began the fight,\nand if unable to gain the day, passed to the rear through the ranks\nof the Principes. The latter now marched forwards to action, the\nHastati following. Meanwhile the Triarii continued kneeling behind\nthe Ensigns; the left legs extended to the front, the shields resting\non the shoulders; the spear-points erect with butts firmly fixed in\nthe ground, so that the line bristled as if inclosed by a rampart. If\nthe Principes failed, \u201cres ad Triarios rediit.\u201d The Triarii, after\nreceiving the Principes and Hastati into their intervals, closed files\nand fell upon the enemy in a compact body.[867] This was the most\nformidable attack, when the enemy, having pursued the vanquished,\nsuddenly beheld a new line starting up.\u2019\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 272.\u2014HASTATUS (FROM TRAJAN\u2019S COLUMN).]\n\nThus far Livy. I am tempted by the subject of the Roman legionaries,\nthose \u2018massive hammers of the whole earth,\u2019 to add, despite its\ntriteness, a few details.\n\nThe Hastatus or spearman, a young light-armed soldier, preceded the\ncolours; hence he was called Antesignanus. He wore for defence a plain\nor crested helmet which varied with his legion.[868] He had a bronze\nbreast-plate thirty-two inches long, or a cuirass of thin metal plates\ndefending the chest and forming shoulder-pieces. A kilt[869] of the\nsame material protected his lower body; greaves or leggings (_ocre\u00e6_)\nhis legs, and the Scutum or shield his flank. This article (\u03c3\u03ba\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2,\nleather, dog-skin?), a curved rectangular oblong, larger than the\nParma, measured about four feet by two and a half feet; the framework\nwas of wood, and the covering had a strong boss and metal platings. As\nhis name denotes, the Hastatus was armed with the full-sized spear, and\nwith a long or short \u2018gladius\u2019 or \u2018ensis.\u2019 The latter was carried on\nthe right, as a rule; as will be seen, it greatly varied in size and\nshape. The soldier, when excited in battle, threw away his spear and\ndrew his Sword; the Etruscans did the same.[870] The shield-umbo was\nalso used in close combat to bear down the opponent.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 273.\u2014CENTURION\u2019S CUIRASS, WITH PHALER\u00c6 OR\nDECORATIONS.]\n\nThe second line, which like the third followed the standards, was\ncomposed of the Principes or Proci, soldiers of mature age. The name\nseems to denote that originally they formed the front line, as the\nGreek Promachoi and our Grenadiers.[871] Lastly came the Triarii (third\nline men), a reserve, so called from their position\u2014veterans of tried\nvalour who were expected to retrieve the fortunes of the day. At first\nthey were the only Pilani[872] (javelineers), as opposed to the two\nfirst lines (Antepilani). Their redoubtable weapon, which conquered\nso much of the old world, and which descended by inheritance to the\nFranks, was about six feet and three-quarters long, composed of an\niron (two feet) with oval or pyramidal head, set by a broad tang in a\nwooden socketed shaft treble its length. The latter was round at the\nheel and squared about the shoulders, as we learn from Livy,[873] when\ndescribing the Phalarica or fire-missile. Both Principes and Triarii\nalso carried Swords, the former at the right hip, the latter above\nit: as has before been noticed this is a most complicated subject.\nThe bandsmen wore, like the Signa-bearers, a peculiar helmet; they\nconsisted of tubicines (using the _tuba_, a long Etruscan trumpet), of\ncornicines (the _cornu_ being a writhed horn), and of buccinatores,\nblowing a short simple instrument. The Roman officers were armed like\nthe men.\n\nUnder the term _utraque militia_ was included the legionary cavalry\nwhose number varied little in proportion to the infantry. In\nPolybius\u2019 day the ratio was two hundred to four thousand. This arm\nwas clad in a complete suit of bronze less heavy than the Greeks\nand the Gallo-Greeks;[874] the buckler of ox-hide was round, oval,\nor polygonal. The horseman\u2019s weapons were a Spear (_contus_), often\naccompanied by a javelin, a waist-dagger, and a Sword worn on the\nright; the latter, unlike ours, preserved the form of the infantry\nweapon. The Greek cavalry in the Roman service at the siege of\nJerusalem, as we learn from Josephus, carried long Swords suspended to\nthe right flank.\n\nLastly, the Legion was followed by its massive _tormenta_ (artillery):\ncatapults (for darts) and _balist\u00e6_ (for stones), escorted by the\n_vexillarii_ or oldest soldiers, under their own _vexillum_, and\nworked by the Sappers or _fabri_ (_lignarii_, &c.). The camp-followers\n(_calones_, _lix\u00e6_) and the baggage (_impedimenta_) brought up the rear.\n\nThe Roman infantry was carefully drilled. Vegetius tells us that\nrecruits were exercised with osier-bucklers and stakes double the\nweight of the normal Swords. There were also regular _champs de Mars_,\n\u2018sham-fights\u2019 with wooden Swords and with javelins whose points were\nsheathed in balls.\n\nIn the effeminate days of the Empire, shortly after Constantine,\nmilitary discipline was relaxed, and the decay of the Legion became\ncomplete. Instead of shouldering their packs the men carried them in\ncarts. The Hasta was given up, and the helmet and the cuirass were\ndispensed with as too heavy. Vegetius[875] had reason to ascribe the\ndefeat of the Legion by the Goths to the want of its old defensive\narmour.\n\nIt was not only when campaigning that the Romans studied the use of\narms. In the Campus Martius and the other seven \u2018parks\u2019 of the Capital,\ncrowds of young men practised riding, swording, and athletics. Another\nmighty _Salle d\u2019Armes_ was the Amphitheatre. To a purely military\nnation, gladiatorism had great merits. \u2018C\u2019estoit, \u00e0 la verit\u00e9,\u2019 says\nMontaigne,[876] \u2018un merveilleux exemple, et de tresgrand fruict pour\nl\u2019institution du peuple, de veoir touts les jours en sa presence\ncent, deux cents, voire mille couples d\u2019hommes, armez les uns contre\nles aultres, se hacher en pieces, avecques une si extreme fermet\u00e9\nde courage, qu\u2019on ne leur voit lascher une parole de foiblesse ou\ncommiseration, jamais tourner le dos, ny faire seulement un mouvement\nlasche pour gauchir au coup de leur adversaire, ains tendre le col \u00e0\nson espee, et se presenter au coup.\u2019\n\nIt appears to me that the nineteenth century wastes much fine sentiment\nupon the \u2018detestable savagery of the Lanista,\u2019[877] and upon the\nwretches\n\n Butchered to make a Roman holiday.\n\nThe _ludus gladiatorius_[878] began as a humane institution amongst the\nEtruscans, who, instead of slaughtering, upon the funeral pyre, slaves\nand war-captives, like Achilles and Pyrrhus, allowed them to fight for\ntheir lives. The _munus_ at Rome, moreover, was originally confined\nto public funerals, and it was an abuse which allowed it at private\ninterments, at entertainments, and at holiday festivals in general.\n\nAccording to Livy[879] \u2018when Scipio exhibited gladiators at Carthage\u2019\n(B.C. 546) \u2018they were not slaves or men who sold their blood, the\nusual stuff of the Lanista\u2019s school.\u2019[880] The service was voluntary\nand gratuitous. Combatants were often sent by petty princes to show\nthe courage of their people; others came forward in compliment to the\nGeneral, and some decided their disputes by the Sword. Amongst persons\nof distinction were Corbis and Orsua, cousins-german, who determined\nto fight out their claims to the city called Ibes, and they \u2018exhibited\nto the army a most interesting spectacle,\u2019 the elder swordsman easily\nmastering the artless attacks of the younger.\n\n[Heading: _THE ROMAN GLADIATOR._]\n\nEven when the gladiators at Rome were condemned criminals and captives\nwhose lives were forfeited by the old laws of war, some humanity\nremained. Although the malefactors doomed _ad gladium_ were to be\nslain within the year, those sent only _ad ludum_ might obtain their\ndischarge within three years. And under the Empire to join the shows\nbecame \u2018fashionable:\u2019 Severus was compelled to forbid freeborn\ncitizens, knights, senators, and even women from entering the arena.\n\nThe life of the gladiator was one to make the \u2018honest poor\u2019 curse\ntheir lot. He was trained in the best climates, and fed with the most\nsucculent food (_sagina gladiatoria_): hence Cicero[881] calls rude\nhealth and good condition \u2018gladiatoria totius corporis firmitas.\u2019 He\nbecame one of a _familia_ or brotherhood after taking the oath, which\nMontaigne gives from Petronius (117):\u2014\u2018Nous jurons de nous laisser\nenchainer, brusler, battre et tuer de glaive, et de souffrir tout ce\nque les gladiateurs l\u00e9gitimes souffrent de leur ma\u00eetres, engageant\ntr\u00e8s-religieusement le corps et l\u2019\u00e2me \u00e0 son service.\u2019 In other words,\nhe had plenty of society and he was disciplined. Under the Lanista he\npractised daily at the schools, and the _ludus matutinus_ near the\nC\u0153liolus or little C\u0153lian Hill was frequented by all classes.[882]\nHere he \u2018fought the air\u2019 (\u1f00\u03ad\u03c1\u03b1 \u03b4\u03ad\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd), a \u03a3\u03ba\u03b9\u03b1\u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03af\u03b1 like our fighting\nthe sack; he contended with the _rudis_ (rod or wooden Sword); he cut\nat the Palus, the \u2018post-practice\u2019 of German universities and modern\nregiments, and he strengthened back and shoulders with the Halteres\n(dumb-bells, _dombelles_), and with other artifices. Thus a wound,\nfatal to a man out of training, would only disable one in such splendid\ncondition.[883] Pliny,[884] indeed, makes light of his danger. Speaking\nof C. Curio\u2019s two pivot-theatres, which during representations could be\nwheeled inwards or outwards, this model grumbler declares: \u2018The safety\nof the gladiators was almost less compromised than that of the Roman\npeople, which allowed itself to be thus whirled round from side to\nside.\u2019\n\nIf worsted in combat and sentenced to receive the Sword (_ferrum\nrecipere_), the gladiator, prepared for his fate, met it with manly\nfirmness. When the down-turned thumbs granted mercy, the vanquished\ngot his _missio_ or discharge for the day. Augustus humanely abolished\nthe barbarity of shows _sine missione_, where no quarter was given.\nThe victor was presented with palms, whence _plurimarum palmarum\ngladiator_; and with cash, which doubtless commended him to the other\nsex. We read of old gladiators, showing that the career was not\nnecessarily fatal. These veterans, and sometimes novices who had\nfought only in a few _munera_, were, at the request of the people,\ndischarged the service by the Editor or Exhibitor of the games. They\nwere then presented with a Rudis (_rude donati_), and, as Rudiarii\nlived happily ever afterwards.\n\nWe have also notices of distinguished gladiators. Diogenes\nLaertius[885] does not disdain to mention as the fourth Epicurus,\n\u2018lastly, a gladiator.\u2019 Spartacus, Crixus, and \u0152nomaus broke out of\nLentulus\u2019 fencing-school, escaped from Capua, and made a camp at\nVesuvius; they used the Swords made out of iron plundered in the\nslave-houses to such effect that Athen\u00e6us declares, \u2018If Spartacus had\nnot died in battle, he would have caused no ordinary trouble to our\ncountrymen, as Eunus did in Sicily.\u2019[886]\n\nGladiatorial shows were first exhibited (B.C. 246) in the Forum\nBoarium by Marcus and D. Brutus at their father\u2019s funeral, during the\nSaturnalia (our Christmas) and the Minerva feasts.[887] They were\nabolished by Constantine \u2018the Great\u2019 (A.D. 306\u201333), but the edict\nseemed to give them fresh life; Frank prisoners were slaughtered by the\nhundred in the arena of Tr\u00e8ves. They were finally suppressed (A.D. 404)\nby Honorius, who made a martyr of the monk Telemachus. I need hardly\nrelate how this meddling ecclesiastic rushed into the amphitheatre to\nseparate the combatants, and was incontinently stoned by \u2018the house.\u2019\n\nBut the time had come for abolishing these glorious _spectacula_; as\nmostly happens, long custom and familiarity had merged the use into\nthe abuse, and caused Lactantius to exclaim \u2018tollenda est nobis!\u2019 The\nmisuse had begun under Divus C\u00e6sar, who collected so many gladiators\nfor the fights that his enemies became alarmed, and restricted the\nnumber. Caligula, the \u2018Bootling,\u2019 was devoted to the sport, and\nmade some gladiators captains of his German guards. He deprived\nthe \u2018Mirmillones\u2019[888] of certain weapons. One Columbus coming off\nvictorious in a fight, but slightly hurt, he caused the wound to be\ninfused with poison, which got the name of Columbinum. The nervous\nClaudius (\u2018Caldius\u2019) assisted at the _spectacula_ \u2018muffled up in a\npallium, a new fashion!\u2019 Having spared, at the intercession of his\nfour sons, a conquered prize-fighter, he sent a billet round the house\nreminding the spectators how much it behoved them to get children,\nsince these could procure favour and security for a gladiator. In later\nyears he became savage. If a combatant chanced to fall, especially one\nof the Retiarii, he ordered him to be butchered that he might enjoy\nthe look of the face in the agonies of death. Two combatants happening\nto kill each other, he ordered some little knives to be made of their\nSwords. He also delighted in seeing Bestiarii, and he made the sport\nmost brutal and sanguinary. Nero, during his \u2018golden quinquennium,\u2019\nordered that no gladiators, even condemned criminals, should be slain;\nand he persuaded four hundred senators and six hundred knights, some\nof unbroken fortunes and unblemished fame, to fight in the arena.\nHe espoused the cause of the Thraces or Parmularians, and often\njoined in the popular demonstrations in favour of the Prasine or\n\u2018green faction,\u2019 without, however, compromising his dignity or doing\ninjustice. In his later and crueller days,[889] hearing the master of\na family of gladiators say that a Thrax was a match for a Mirmillo,\nbut not so for the exhibitor of the games, he had him dragged from the\nbenches into the arena and exposed to the dogs, with this label, \u2018A\nParmularian guilty of speaking blasphemy.\u2019 And, as \u2018Mero\u2019 scandalised\nthe world by his passion for singing and harping, so Commodus degraded\nhimself by amateur gladiatorship. He was cunning of fence, but in\nthe most cowardly way. A powerful man and a practised gymnast, he\nwore impenetrable armour and fought with a heavy Sword, whereas his\nantagonists were allowed only blades of tin and lead. Even the humane\nTrajan[890] exhibited after his victories some ten thousand Dacian\n\u2018monomachists.\u2019 The militarism of the Romans, however, made them\nfamiliar with butchery. Thus Tacitus[891] says: \u2018The Germans gratified\nus with the spectacle of a battle in which above sixty thousand men\nwere slain.\u2019 This \u2018gladiatorial show\u2019 took place near the canal of\nDrusus, where the Roman guard on the Rhine commanded a view of the\nother shore.\n\nThe gladiators used both forms of Swords, the straight two-edged blade\nand the curved.[892] The Dimacheri carried, as the name denotes, two\nweapons: these may have been either two Swords of the same size, as\ncarried by the Japanese,[893] or possibly Sword and dagger, a practice\nlong preserved on the shores of the Mediterranean. The same may be\nsaid of the _duos gladios_ borne by the Gaul whom Torquatus slew.\nThe Hoplomachi, armed _cap-a-pie_, must also have been Swordsmen.\nThe Mirmillo[894] was weaponed with a curved blade, cutting inside\n(\u2018gladio incurvo et falcato\u2019): in Montfaucon, he carries a long convex\nshield and a Sica or short-Sword.[895] Opposed to the Mirmillo was\nthe Retiarius, armed with net and trident: Cortez found net-soldiers\nin Mexico, as was natural to fishermen. Winckelmann shows a fight\nbetween the two: Retiarius has netted his fish and proceeds to use the\n_fuscina_ or _tridens_, while a toga\u2019d Lanista, rod in hand, stands\nbehind him and points out where to strike.\n\nThe Samnites were distinguished by the oblong tribal _scutum_[896] and\nthe leaf-shaped Greek Sword: so says the Comte de Caylus; but on the\nmonument erected by Caracalla to Bato, the weapon is straight up and\ndown. The Thr\u00e6ces or Threces (Thracians proper)[897] had round shields,\nand instead of the huge Swords noted by Livy, the short knife called\nby Juvenal _falx supina_.[898] The Thracian\u2019s Sword closely resembles\nthat used in the Isle of Cos. Winckelmann[899] gives a combat between\ntwo Thracians, each backed up by his Lanista. We find also a naked\nGladiator, with Sword and shield, fighting another in breast-belt,\napron (_subligaculum_), and boots, with a shield and a three-thonged\n_flagellum_ or scourge.\n\nThe Gladiators were an order distinct from the Bestiarii (\u03b8\u03b7\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9)\nwho fought against wild beasts; these were exhibited in the Forum,\nthose in the Circus. Again, Bestiarii, who can boast that St. Paul once\nbelonged to them, must not be confounded with the criminals thrown\n_ad leones_, without means of defence, like Mentor, Androclus, and\nearly Christian communists.[900] The beast-fighters had their _schol\u00e6\nbestiarum_ or _bestiariorum_ where they practised weapons, and they\nreceived _auctoramentum_ or pay. The arms were various: mostly they are\nshown with a Sword in one hand, a veil in the other, and the left leg\nprotected by greaves. Under Divus C\u00e6sar criminals for the first time\nencountered wild beasts with silver weapons. The modern survival is\nthe Spanish bull-fight. Gladiatorism lasted in England after a fashion\ntill the days of Addison; amongst professional Swordsmen, the highest\nsurviving name is that of\n\n \u2014\u2014the great Figg, by the prize-fighting swains\n The monarch acknowledged of Mary\u2019bone plains.[901]\n\nTo conclude this discursus on gladiatorism. Most popular sports are\ncruel, but we must not confound, as is often done, cruelty with\nbrutality. The former may accompany greatness of intellect, the\nlatter is the characteristic of debasement. Every nation is disposed\nto \u2018fie-fie\u2019 its neighbour\u2019s favourite diversion. The English\nfox-hunter and pigeon-shooter[902] are severe upon bull-fighting and\ncock-fighting\u2014the classical and Oriental pastime preserved in Spain\nand in Spanish South America.[903] The boxer, who imitates, at a humble\ndistance, the Cestus-play of the Greeks and Romans, looks scandalised\nat _la boxe Fran\u00e7aise_, with its garnishing of _savate_; and at the\nBrazilian _capoeira_, who butts with his woolly head. And so _vice\nvers\u00e2_. Absence or presence of fair play should, methinks, condemn\nor justify all the various forms of sport which are not mere or pure\nbarbarities. And, applying this test, we shall not harsh judge the\ngladiatorial games of Rome.\n\nI now proceed to describe the Sword amongst the Romans, a simpler\nsubject than in Greece.\n\nAs the so-termed founding of Rome took place during the early Iron\nAge of Southern Europe, it is probable that the citizens, like their\npredecessors the Etruscans, originally made their blades of copper and\nbronze, the leaf-shape being borrowed from the Greeks, as we see it\nretained by the gladiators. The material would last into the Age of\nSteel, but even in her early years Rome must have preferred the harder\nmetal. Pliny expressly tells us that Porsena, after his short-lived\nconquest, prohibited the future masters of the world from using iron\nexcept in agriculture; it was hardly safe to handle a stylus. Polybius\nnotes that in his day bronze was entirely restricted to defensive\narmour\u2014helmets, breast-plates, and greaves. All offensive weapons,\nswords and spears, were either made of, or tipped with, steel. To this\nsuperiority of material we may attribute the Roman successes in the\nsecond Punic war (B.C. 218\u2013201), and their conquest of the gallant\nGauls, when their foes could oppose nothing better than bronze. They\nhad reason to call a Sword _ferrum_.[904]\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD IN ROME._]\n\nThe Romans called the Sword Ensis, Gladius, and Spatha. The two former\nare used as synonyms by Quinctilian,[905] but the first presently\nbecame poetical. The derivations are eminently unsatisfactory. Voss\nwould find Ensis in \u1f14\u03b3\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2, _hasta_; Sanskritists in _Asi_, a Sword, the\nZend _Anh_. Gladius is popularly drawn _a clade ferenda, quasi cladius_\n(Varro and Littleton); Voss prefers \u03ba\u03bb\u03ac\u03b4\u03bf\u03bd (_ramus_), a young branch,\nthe earliest Sword: to others it appears a congener of the Keltic\n_Clad_, the destroyer. Of the derivation of \u2018Spatha\u2019 I have already\ntreated: Suetonius[906] makes it equivalent to Machaira; but this word\nand its diminutive Mach\u00e6rium are loosely used.\n\nThe Roman Sword was, like their other weapons, longer and larger,\nheavier and more formidable than that of the Greeks.[907] The earliest\nform, the \u2018hero\u2019s arm\u2019 of Virgil and Livy, was a short single-edged\ncutting weapon of bronze, also called the \u2018Gallic Sword,\u2019 because\nlong preserved by that people. It is shown in the arm of the Roman\nAuxiliary (fig. 276). Another very early, if not the earliest, shape\nwas the leaf, which varied in length from nineteen inches (the blade\nfound at Mayence) to twenty-six inches (the Bingen find). The latter is\npeculiar; the hilt is ornamented with bronze, and it has a cross-guard.\nUpon another blade (fig. 277), of which a cast is in the Artillery\nMuseum, Paris, appears the armourer\u2019s mark, _Sabini_ (_opus_).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 274.\u20141. ROMAN SWORD (19 inches long); 2. GLADIUS.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 275.\u2014BRONZE TWO-EDGED EARLY ROMAN ENSIS.[908]]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 276.\u2014SWORD OF ROMAN AUXILIARY.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 277.\u2014ROMAN SWORD (Mus\u00e9e d\u2019Art.).]\n\nThe third form, which is most generally identified with the Roman\nsoldier, greatly resembles that which was introduced into the French\narmy by, not without financial benefit to, Marshal Soult. The average\nlength may be assumed at twenty-two inches, with a grip of six inches\nand a cross-bar (not always present) four inches and a half long and\nfour lines thick. Some specimens show a distinct hilt-plate (fig.\n274, 2). A mid-rib ran along the blade, which was either straight or\nslightly narrowing, and it ended in the bevelled point (_langue de\ncarpe_).[909] This thick heavy blade, used _c\u00e6sim et punctim_, was\nmost efficient for hand-to-hand work, and the Roman soon mastered the\ntruth, unknown to most Orientals, that \u2018the cut wounds and the thrust\nkills.\u2019[910] Accordingly they soon learned to despise the old Sword,\nshort and crooked. The national weapon must have been used by \u00c6milius\nat the Battle of Telamon (B.C. 225), for Polybius notes that the Roman\nblade could not only deliver thrust but give the cut with good effect.\n\nShortly after that fight the Romans, during their earliest invasions\nof the Spanish Peninsula (B.C. 219), intended to subvert Carthaginian\nrule, adopted the Gladius Hispanus, including the _pugio_ (fig. 280);\nand the change from bronze to steel became universal after the battle\nof Cann\u00e6. The superior material aided them not a little in conquering\ntheir obstinate rivals. The Roman Proconsul M. Fulvius captured\n(B.C. 192) Toledo (\u03a4\u03ce\u03bb\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd), Toletum, \u2018a small city, but strong in\nposition;\u2019[911] and the superior temper of the steel, attributed with\ntruth, I believe, to the Tagus-water, recommended it to the conquerors.\nA later conquest of the Regnum Noricum[912] (Styria, B.C. 16) gave\nthem mines of equal excellence. From Pliny and Diodorus Siculus[913]\nwe know perfectly how the Celtiberians prepared their iron ores. Of\nthis material was made the Spatha[914] or Iberian blade, a name adopted\nunder the Empire, especially under Hadrian (A.D. 117\u2013138). Long,\ntwo-edged, and heavier than the short Xiphos-Gladius, it added fresh\nforce to the _impetus gladiorum_.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 278.\u2014SWORD AND VAGINA (SHEATH).]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 279.\u2014DITTO.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 280.\u2014THE PUGIO.]\n\nIn Cicero\u2019s time the Sword must have been of full length to explain\nthe joke against his son-in-law; and Macrobius expressly tells us\nthat Lentulus was wearing a blade which justified the \u2018chaff.\u2019 During\nthe days of Theodosius (A.D. 378\u2013394), the straight and strong weapon\nof Hadrian\u2019s time again shortened till it was not twice the size of\nthe hilt; in fact it became a \u2018Parazonium.\u2019 The General\u2019s Sword (says\nMeyrick) was called Cinctorium, because carried at the girdle that\nsurrounded the lorica, just above the hips; \u2018it greatly resembled the\nLaced\u00e6monian Sword.\u2019\n\nThe Parazonium, _pugio_[915] or dagger, accompanied the Gladius under\nthe later Empire, and was carried in the same, or in another, belt,\ngenerally on the opposite flank. It is the Greek \u1f10\u03b3\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, and we\nhave seen its origin in Egypt. The metal was successively pure copper,\nbronze and steel. The shape of this two-edged stiletto is either\nlanceolate (fig. 280 _b_),[916] showing its descent from the spear,\nor the straight lines converge to a point (_ibid._ _a_). It has a\nnotable resemblance to the daggers found in Egyptian tombs (_ibid._\n_c_), and the weapon with the Z-section, still used in the Caucasus\nand in Persia.[917] The tang is usually fitted to receive a wooden\nplate on either side: a favourite substance was the heart of the Syrian\n_terebinth_ (the \u2018oak\u2019 of Mamre).\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 281.\u2014TWO-EDGED ROMAN STILETTOS.]\n\nThe bronze hilt of the Gladius was retained long after the blade was\nmade of steel. The common grip was of wood set with metal knobs or\nrivets; the richer sorts were of bone and ivory, amber and alabaster,\nsilver and gold. The heft ended in a _capulus_; this metal pommel[918]\nwas, in its simplest state, a plain mound or a stepped pyramid. But\npresently the \u2018little apple\u2019 became the seat of decoration;[919] Pliny\nmoans over it, and Claudian speaks of _capulis radiantibus enses_.\nThis fashion lasted deep into the Middle Ages. The haft was often\ncapped with the head of some animal after Assyrian fashion, and that\nof the eagle recurved was a favourite in Rome. In the Armeria Reale\n(Turin)[920] there is a fine Roman chopper-blade with a peculiar\nhandle, and a ram\u2019s head for hilt. The handle was usually without\nguard-plate, and at most it had only a simple cross-bar or a small\noval.[921]\n\nThe original _vagina_ (sheath) was of leather or wood, ending in\na _fibula_ or half-moon-shaped ferule of metal. Some scabbards on\nthe monuments, where the Sword, like the helmet and the _pilum_, is\nconventionally treated, show the scabbard with three opposing rings\non either side; and, as the belt had only one or two, it is not easy\nto explain the use of the other five.[922] In the luxurious days of\nthe Empire, the sheath, like the heft, the pommel, and the ferule, was\nmade of gold and silver reliefs, _repouss\u00e9e_-work, and incrustations\nof precious stones disposed upon every part, made it a _chef-d\u2019\u0153uvre_\nof art. Such is the \u2018Sword,\u2019 or rather \u2018Parazonium, of Tiberius\u2019 dug\nup at Mayence in 1848, and now in the British Museum. The scabbard,\nthe mouth, the rings on either side, and the ferule are strengthened\nand beautified by reliefs in gold and silver, and the central field\nbears the portrait of the beautiful \u2018Biberius.\u2019 Another Parazonium\n(Anglo-Rom. Coll.) has an iron blade and a bronze scabbard.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 282.\u2014SWORD OF TIBERIUS.]\n\nA reform of this over-luxury ensued under Constantius II. (A.D. 350),\nand under the noble and glorious Julian[923] \u2018the Apostate.\u2019 The\nlatter took a lesson from the Eastern Persian, Parthian, and Sarmatian\n(Slav?); moreover, he adopted the iron face-guard known at Nineveh,\nand the mail-coat found upon the Trajan column. These revivals and\nimprovements extended deep into the Age of Chivalry.\n\nThe Sword was carried in the _balteus_, an Etruscan word applied\nindifferently, it would appear, to the bauldric (\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03bc\u03ce\u03bd), or to the\nwaist-\u2018belt\u2019 (\u03b6\u03ce\u03bd\u03b7 or \u03b6\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1, _cingulum_). Both were of cloth or\nleather, either plain or decorated with embroidery, with metal plates,\nsplendid and elaborate rings and fibul\u00e6, and buckles and brooches of\nthe most precious material. It is generally said that the Gladius, and\nits successor the long cut-and-thrust Spatha, were worn belted to the\nright, as amongst the Persians. The old Ensis, on the other hand, was\nslung to the left, like the Egyptians, Assyrians, Hind\u00fas, and other\n\u2018barbarians.\u2019[924] The latter fashion enabled the Swordsman to draw\nhis weapon safely by passing hand and forearm across his body under\nthe shield. He would also in this way grip the hilt with the thumb at\nthe back of the blade, where it should ever be held, especially when\ndelivering the cut. I believe, however, that the Sword was worn by the\nRomans, as amongst the Greeks, on either flank.[925]\n\nWe have no knowledge, except from books, of Roman fancy-Swords. Such,\nfor example, was the _Cluden_ or juggler\u2019s \u2018shutting\u2019-Sword, which ran\nup into the hilt. \u2018So great is your fear of steel,\u2019 says Apuleius in\nhis defence, \u2018that you are afraid to dance with the \u201cclose-Sword.\u201d\u2019\n\nRoman blades of iron are not often found, and yet they must have been\nmade by the million. Captain Grose[926] figures a leaf-shaped blade,\nlike that of the modern Somal, taken from the Severn near Gloucester.\nMeyrick tells us[927] that Woodchester produced an iron Sword-blade\nresembling a large and broad knife (the oldest form of Gladius?) and a\ndagger (_pugio_), nearly one foot long, and much resembling the modern\nFrench bayonet. He mentions another iron Gladius nineteen and a half\ninches long, with a fibula of brass. Rev. T. Douglas, in his \u2018N\u00e6nia\nBritannica\u2019[928] shows the find in a Kentish barrow. The Sword measures\nthirty-five and a quarter inches from pommel to point; the iron blade,\nthirty inches by two inches broad, is flat and two-edged. The wooden\ngrip had decayed; the scabbard was of wood covered with leather and\nthe weapon hung by a leather strap to the left side. Excavations at\nSouth Shields produced, says the Rev. J. Collingwood Bruce,[929] five\nRoman Swords, two to three feet long, with wooden scabbards and bronze\ncrampets or ferules.\n\nIf Greece produced the golden youth of European civilisation, Rome\nbore the men of antiquity. She taught by example and precept the\neternal lesson of individual and national dignity, of law and justice,\nand of absolute toleration in religious matters. She had no fear\nof growing great, and scruples about \u2018territorial aggrandisement\u2019\nwere absolutely unknown to her. The _quondam_ Masters of the World\neffected their marvels of conquest and colonisation with these arts,\nurged by a forceful will, a will so single-viewed and so persistent\nthat it levelled every obstacle. A similar gift of determination and\nperseverance made the Turks and Turcomans of a former generation, mere\nbarbarians on horseback, bear down all opposition: hence the Arab still\nsays: \u2018Mount your blood mare and the Osmanli shall catch you on his\nlame ass!\u2019 In virtue of an equal obstinacy, the Kelto-Scandinavian (I\nwill not call him an \u2018Anglo-Saxon\u2019), the modern Englishman, has trod\nworthily in the footsteps of the old Italian, and from his \u2018angle of\nthe world,\u2019 his scrap of bleak inclement island, has extended his sway\nfar beyond the orb known to his C\u00e6sars. May he only remember the word\n\u2018Forwards!\u2019 and take to heart the fact that to stand still is to fall\nback.\n\nThe Roman of the Republic was incomparably the first soldier of his\nage; and he equalled the best of the moderns in discipline, in loyalty\nto his loaders, and in enduring privations, hardship, and fatigue.\nBut a glance at any of his campaigns\u2014the famous \u2018Commentaries\u2019\nsuffice\u2014shows how completely dependent he was upon the quality of his\ncommander. Handled by second- and third-rate men, such as generals\nmostly have been, are, and will be, he was ignobly defeated, in\nhis most glorious days, by the barbarous Gauls of Brennus; by the\nhalf-servile hordes of Hannibal; by the degenerate Greeks of Pyrrhus\nwith their \u2018huge earth-shaking beasts,\u2019 and by the armed mob which\nthe Cheruscan Arminius (Ormin or Hermann) led against the incompetent\nVarus. His campaigns, invariably successful in the end, were marked\nby many reverses; and in cases of sudden and sinister emergencies he\nwas too often scared and put to flight. In fact, he could not fight a\n\u2018soldier\u2019s battle\u2019; nor has any race done this effectively in modern\ndays except the English and the Slavs.\n\nBut when following military genius, the Roman soldier performed\nprodigies of gallantry and valour. A Julius C\u00e6sar, a conqueror in fifty\npitched battles, whose practice was to order _venite_ not _ite!_ whose\nmilitary instinct could cry at the spur of the moment in the Pharsalian\nfight, _faciem feri, miles!_ and who could reduce mutineers to reason\nby one word, _Quirites!_ never failed to point the way to victory.\nWe learn from the Great Epileptic[930] himself the secret of his\nunexampled success; the care with which he cultivated the individual.\n\u2018He instructed the soldiers (when exposed to a new mode of attack), not\nlike the general of a veteran army which had been victorious in so many\nbattles, but like a Lanista training his gladiators. He taught them\nwith what foot they must advance or retire; when they were to oppose\nand make good their ground; when to counterfeit an attack; at what\nplace and in what manner to launch their javelins.\u2019[931]\n\nHis very arrogance was effective in making him a ruler of men, as when\non receiving bad tidings he struck his Sword-hilt, saying, \u2018This will\ngive me my rights!\u2019 And of his \u2018politik\u00e9\u2019 (as the Greeks call it) we\nmay judge by what Poly\u00e6nus[932] tells us of him. \u2018The Romans had been\ntaught by their commanders that a soldier should not be decorated with\ngold or silver, but place his confidence in his Sword,\u2019 says Livy.[933]\nBut Divus C\u00e6sar encouraged his men to decorate their weapons with all\nmanner of valuables for a truly soldier-like reason, that they might\nbe the less ready to part with their property in flight. And though he\nplundered freely and rifled even the fanes of the gods, according to\nSuetonius, he was careful, like a certain modern Condottiere, to see\nthat his men were well fed and regularly paid by means of the \u2018loot.\u2019\n\n[Heading: _THE ROMAN SOLDIER._]\n\nThe Roman soldier had another valuable gift, which has not wholly left\nthe Latin race. He knew the \u2018magic of patience,\u2019 and was aware that\n\u2018le monde est la maison du plus fort.\u2019 So in the Napoleonic days the\nSpaniards believed chiefly in General \u2018No Importa\u2019 (no matter), and\nmade little of defeat, hoping it might lead to victory. Nor did the\nRoman soldier degenerate till the citizen set him the example. Velleius\nPaterculus dated the decline of Roman virtue after the destruction of\nCarthage, when civil disputes were decided by the Sword; others to\nthe invasion of luxury with Lucullus. Yet Pliny could boast of his\nfellow-countrymen: \u2018They have doubtless surpassed every other nation in\nthe display of valour.\u2019\n\nBut the Roman soldier generally prevailed against races whom he\nexcelled in size, weight, and muscular strength. His superiority in\narms, like that of the Greek, was not conspicuous when he came into\ncontact with the \u2018barbarians,\u2019[934] especially with the northern\nbarbarians, after they had learned the moral training and confidence\nof discipline and the practical art of war, as well as, if not better\nthan, himself. For the man of the higher European latitudes has ever\nsurpassed the Southron in strength of constitution, in stature, in\nweight, in muscular power, and in the mysterious something called\nvitality. Hence it is a rule in anthropology that the North beats the\nSouth; in the Southern hemisphere the reverse being the case, as we see\nin the wars of the Hispano-American republics, Chili _versus_ Peru. In\nEurope I need only point out that the Northmen of Scandinavia conquered\nNormandy and that Norman-French conquered England. The only exceptions\nare easily explained. The genius of Divus C\u00e6sar made his Romans\novercome, overrun, and subjugate Gaul. Napoleon the Great found the\nroad _\u00e0 Berlin_ open and easy. But intellectual monsters like these two\nare the rare produce of Time; and human nature requires a long period\nof rest before repeating such portents.\n\nThose who read history without prepossessions and prejudices are\ncompelled to conclude that the life and career of a nation are mainly\ndetermined by its physical size and its muscular strength. We have only\nto learn how many foot-pounds a race can raise and we can forecast its\nso-called \u2018destinies.\u2019[935]\n\n\n\n\n CHAPTER XIII.\n\n THE SWORD AMONGST THE BARBARIANS (EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE).\n\n\nMost works on Arms and Armour, when treating of Rome, describe the\nweapons of her European neighbours \u2018upon whom she sharpened the sword\nof her valour as on a whetstone.\u2019[936] The extent of the subject will\nhere confine me to a general glance, beginning with the Dacians on\nthe east and ending with the British Islands. I must reserve details\nconcerning the Kelts, the Scandinavians, the Slavs, and other northern\npeoples for Part II., to which they chronologically belong.\n\nThe Dacians, especially of Dacia Trajana, Hungary, and Transylvania,\nMoldavia, and Wallachia, are known to us chiefly by the bas-reliefs on\nthe Trajan Column. It was built by that emperor, who, like Hadrian,\nfollowed in the footsteps of Divus C\u00e6sar, to commemorate the conquests\nof A.D. 103\u2013104; and it dates three years before his death in A.D. 114.\nThe Dacian Sword was somewhat sickle-shaped, with an inner edge, like\nthe oldest Greek and its model, the Egyptian Khopsh. A Dacian Sword on\nthe trophy belonging to Dr. Gregorutti, of Papiriano, is a curved sabre\nwithout a cross-bar.\n\nI have elsewhere noticed the Thracian Sword. Dr. Evans[937] mentions\nthe fragment of a remarkable bronze blade from Grecian Thera; it has a\nseries of small broad-edged axes of gold, in shape like conventional\nbattle-axes, inlaid along the middle between two slightly projecting\nribs. The same author, speaking of the beautiful bronze Sword in the\nBerlin Museum, reported to have been found at Pella in Macedonia,\nmentions the suspicion that it may belong to the Rhine Valley.[938]\n\nAncient Illyria has transmitted the Roman Gladius to comparatively\nmodern ages. Bosnian tombs of Slavs, Moslem, and Christian, show the\nshort straight thrusting Sword, with simple cross-bar and round pommel.\nIt looks as if it had been copied from some classical coin.\n\n[Heading: _THE OLD KELTIC SWORD._]\n\nThe ancient cemetery at Hallstadt in the Salzkammergut, occupied by the\nDanubian-Keltic Alanni or Norican Taurisci, is especially interesting\nfor two reasons. It shows the Bronze Sword synchronous with the Iron,\nand it proves that the change of metal involved little of alteration\nin the form and character of the weapon. This, however, was to be\nexpected, as both were adapted for the same purpose\u2014the thrust, not the\ncut. Of the twenty-eight long Swords, six were of bronze, nineteen\nof iron, and three with bronze hefts and iron blades; there were also\nforty-five short Swords, iron blades with bronze or ivory handles.\nThe blade, about one m\u00e8tre long, is leaf-shaped, two-edged, and\nbevel-pointed. The small and guardless grip of 2\u00b75 centim\u00e8tres, when\nmade of bronze, meets the blade in a hollow crescent, like the British\nSword in the Tower, and is fastened with metal rivets. The pommel is\neither a cone of metal or a crutch with a whorl ending either arm.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 283.\u2014GERMAN OR SLAV SWORD. (From a bas-relief,\nHalberstadt.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 284.\u2014SCRAMASAX FROM HALLSTADT. (J\u00e4hns.)]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 285.\u2014DANISH SCRAMASAX. (Ninth Century, Copenhagen.)]\n\nDr. Evans[939] mentions that in one instance the hilt and pommel of an\niron Sword are in bronze, in another the pommel alone; the hilt-plate\nof iron being flat and rivetted like the bronzes. In others the pommel\nis wanting. He has a broken iron Sword from this cemetery, the blade\nshowing a central rounded rib, with a small bead on either side. Also a\n\u2018beautiful bronze Sword from the same locality, on the blade of which\nare two small raised beads on either side of the central rib, and in\nthe spaces between them a three-fold wavy line punched in or engraved.\nIn this instance a tang has passed through the hilt, and was formed of\nalternate blocks of bronze and of some substance that has perished,\npossibly ivory. A magnificent iron Sword from Hallstadt, now in the\nVienna Museum, has the hilt and pommel of ivory inlaid with amber.\u2019\nOther grips were of bronze, wood, or bone. The sheaths were mostly\nof wood, which seemed to have been covered with leather. Most of the\nblades were buried without scabbards, and the bronze had been purposely\nbroken.\n\nThe forty-five short Swords represent the Ensis Noricus (\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\n\u039a\u03ad\u03bb\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u03b1), and were in use till the Roman days. The iron-blades are\neither leaf-shaped or formed like the peculiarly English anelace or\nanlas, more or less conical and sharp-pointed; and the grip of bronze\nor ivory ended in a simple crutch. Amongst them is a distinct Scramasax\nwhich may be compared with the late Danish weapon.\n\nBronze blades are comparatively rare in Italy, although the use was\nlong retained and the weapon is often mentioned by Latin writers in\nverse and prose.[940] This seems to decide the question against the\nRoman origin of the North-European Sword: of course it is possible\nthat, like the Runic alphabet, they might have been copied from coins;\nbut there are other points which militate against this view. Dr. John\nEvans[941] notes a peculiarity which he has often pointed out by word\nof mouth, but which has not as yet been noticed in print. \u2018It is, that\nthere is generally, though not universally, a proportion between the\nlength of the blade and the length of the hilt-plate; long sword blades\nhaving, as a rule, long hilt-plates, and short sword blades short\nhilt-plates. So closely is this rule of proportion preserved, that the\noutline of a large sword on the scale of one-sixth would in some cases\nabsolutely correspond with that of one which was two-thirds of its\nlength if drawn on the scale of one-fourth.\u2019 This suggests derivation,\nas if an original _modulus_ of the weapon had appeared in a certain\nracial centre and thence had radiated in all directions. Nor have we\nany difficulty in determining that this centre was the Nile Valley.\n\nThe bronze Swords of Italy present varieties not found in Britain.[942]\nThe blade-sides are more nearly parallel, and many have a slender tang\nat the hilt, sometimes with one central rivet-hole, sometimes with two\nrivet-holes forming loops at either side of the \u2018spine.\u2019 In others the\nblade slightly narrows for the tang, and each side has two semicircular\nrivet-notches. In many Italian and French Swords the blade is drawn\nout to a long tapering point, so that its edges present a sub-ogival\ncurve. On an Italian _quincussis_ or oblong bronze coin, six inches\nand five-eighths by three inches and a half, and weighing about three\npounds and a half, is the representation of a leaf-shaped Sword with a\nraised rib along the centre of the blade.[943] Upon the reverse appears\nthe figure of a scabbard with parallel sides and a nearly circular\nchape. Another coin of the same type, engraved by Carelli,[944] has an\nalmost similar scabbard on the reverse, but the Sword on the obverse\nis either sheathed or is not leaf-shaped, the sides being parallel:\nthe hilt is also curved, and there is a cross-guard. In fact upon the\none coin the weapon has the appearance of a Roman Sword of iron, and\non the other that of a leaf-shaped Sword of bronze. Those pieces,\nsays Dr. Evans, were no doubt cast in Umbria, probably in the third\ncentury B.C., but their attribution to Ariminum is at best doubtful.\nFrom the two varieties of Sword appearing on coins of the same type,\nthe inference may be drawn, either that bronze blades were then being\nsuperseded in Umbria by iron, or that the original type was some sacred\nweapon, subsequently conventionalised to represent the article in\nordinary use.\n\nThe iron Swords of the Italian tribes are rarely mentioned, and then\ncursorily. Diodorus Siculus, for instance, tells us (v. 33) that the\nLigures had blades of ordinary size. They probably adopted the Roman\nshape, which had proved itself so serviceable in the field.\n\n[Heading: _THE CELTIBERIAN AND OLD SPANISH SWORD._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 286.\u2014BLADE AND HANDLE OF BRONZE WITH PART OF EAGLE\n(Kessel).]\n\nProceeding further westward we find Diodorus Siculus (v. cap. 33)\ndwelling upon the Celtiberian weapons.[945] \u2018They had two-edged Swords\nof well-tempered steel; besides their daggers, a span long, to be used\nat close quarters. They make weapons and iron in an admirable manner,\nfor they bury their plates so long underground as is necessary to eat\naway the weaker part; and, therefore, they use only that which is firm\nand strong. Swords and other weapons are made of this prepared steel;\nand these are so powerful in cutting, that neither shield nor helm nor\nbone can withstand them.\u2019 Plutarch[946] repeats this description, which\nembodies the still prevalent idea concerning the Damascus (Persian)\nscymitar and the Toledo rapier. Swedenborg[947] introduces burial\namong the different methods of making steel; and Beckmann, following\nThunberg, declares that the process is still used in Japan.\n\nGeneral A. Pitt-Rivers\u2019 collection has two Swords from Spain. The\nfirst is a bronze, sub-leaf-shaped, with a thin protracted point. The\nlength is twenty-one inches; the breadth at the swell two inches,\nthinning near the handle to one inch and a quarter; the tang is broken,\nand there are two rivet-holes at the shoulder, which is two inches\nwide. The other, which the owner calls a \u2018Kopis,\u2019 also twenty-one\ninches long, and two inches and a half in width, has a broad back and\na wedge-section. The cutting part is inside, and the whole contour\nremarkably resembles the Kukkri or Korah of Nepaul, and, in a less\ndegree, the Albanian Yataghan and the Kabyle \u2018Flissa.\u2019 The Kopis,\nhowever, has a hook-handle as if for suspension; and there is a\nswelling in the inside of the grip.\n\n\u2018As the Celtiberians,\u2019 continues Diodorus, \u2018are furnished with two\nSwords,\u2019 (probably _espada y daga_), \u2018the horsemen, when they have\nrouted their opponents, dismount, and, joining the foot, fight as its\nauxiliaries.\u2019 The Lusitanians, most valiant of the race, inhabited\na mountain-land peculiarly rich in minerals. Justin[948] speaks of\nthe gold, copper, lead, and vermilion, which last named the \u2018Minho\u2019\nriver. Of the iron he says: \u2018It is of an extraordinary quality, but\ntheir water is more powerful than the iron itself; for the metal being\ntempered in it becomes keener; nor is any weapon held in esteem among\nthem that has not been dipt in the Bilbilis or the Chalybs.\u2019[949]\nStrabo[950] represents Iberia as abounding in metal, and arms the\nLusitanians with poniard and dagger, probably meaning dirk and knife.\n\n[Heading: _THE SWORD OF THE OLD GAULS._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 287.\u2014GALLIC SWORD OF BRONZE (J\u00e4hns).]\n\nThe Northern neighbours of the Celtiberians\u2014the warlike old Keltic[951]\nGauls\u2014were essentially swordsmen: they relied mainly upon the\nClaidab.[952] When they entered Europe they had already left behind\nthem the Age of Stone; and they made their blades of copper, bronze,\nand iron. The latter, as we learn from history, entered into use during\nthe fourth or fifth century B.C., the later Celtic Period, as it is\ncalled by Mr. Franks. The material appears to have been, according to\nall authorities, very poor and mean. The blade was mostly two-edged,\nabout one m\u00e8tre long, thin, straight, and without point (_sine\nmucrone_); it had a tang for the attachment of the grip, but no guard\nor defence for the hand.\n\nYet their gallantry enabled the Gauls to do good work with these bad\ntools. F. Camillus, the dictator,[953] seeing that his enemy cut mostly\nat head and shoulders, made his Romans wear light helmets, whereby the\nMachair\u00e6-blades were bent, blunted, or broken. Also, the Roman shield\nbeing of wood, he \u2018directed it for the same reason to be bordered with\na thin plate of brass\u2019 (copper, bronze?). He also taught his men to\nhandle long pikes, which they could thrust under the enemy\u2019s weapons.\nDionysius Halicarnassus introduces him saying, while he compares Roman\nand Gaulish arms, that these Kelts assail the foe only with long\nlances and large knives (\u03bc\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2)[954] of sabre shape (?).\nThis was shortly before his defeating and destroying Brennus and the\nSenonian[955] Gauls, who had worsted the Romans (B.C. 390) on the fatal\n_dies Alliensis_,[956] and who had captured all the capital save the\nCapitol.\n\nThe Gauls of C\u00e6sar\u2019s day[957] had large iron mines which they worked\nby tunnelling; their ship-bolts were of the same material, and they\nmade even chain-cables of iron. They had by no means, however,\nabandoned the use of bronze arms. Pausanias[958] also speaks of\n\u03c4\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd. Diodorus[959] notes that the Kelts wore\n\u2018instead of short straight Swords (\u03be\u03af\u03c6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2), long broad blades (\u03bc\u03ac\u03ba\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2\n\u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03b1\u03c2[960]), which they bore obliquely at the right side hung by iron\nand copper chains.... Their Swords are not smaller than the Saunions\n(\u03c3\u03b1\u03c5\u03bd\u03af\u03c9\u03bd[961]) of other nations, and the points of their Saunions are\nbigger than those of their Swords.\u2019 Strabo[962] also makes the Gauls\nwear their long Swords hanging to the right. Procopius,[963] on the\nother hand, notices that the Gallic auxiliaries of Rome wore the Sword\non the left.[964] According to Poseidonius,[965] the Gauls also carried\na dagger which served the purpose of a knife, and this may have caused\nsome confusion in the descriptions.\n\nQ. Claudius Quadrigarius in Aulus Gellius,[966] noticing the\n\u2018monomachy\u2019 of Manlius Torquatus with the Gaul, declares that the\nlatter was armed with two gladii. Livy describes the same duel in\nhis best style. The Roman, of middling stature and unostentatious\nbearing, takes a footman\u2019s shield and girds on a Spanish Spatha\u2014arms\nfit for ready use rather than show. The big Gaul, another Goliah,\nglittering in a vest of many colours, and in armour stained and inlaid\nwith gold, shows barbarous exultation, and thrusts out his tongue in\nchildish mockery. The friends retire and leave the two in the middle\nspace, \u2018more after the manner of a theatrical show than according\nto the law of combat.\u2019 The enormous Northerner, like a huge mass\nthreatening to crush what was beneath it, stretched forth his shield\nwith his left hand and planted an ineffectual cut of the Sword with\nloud noise upon the armour of the advancing foe. The Southron, raising\nhis Sword-point, after pushing aside the lower part of the enemy\u2019s\nshield with his own, closed in, insinuating his whole body between\nthe trunk and arms of his adversary, and by two thrusts, delivered\nalmost simultaneously at belly and groin, threw his opponent, who when\nprostrate covered a vast extent of ground. The gallant victor offered\nno indignity to the corpse beyond despoiling it of the _torques_,\nwhich, though smeared with blood, he cast around his neck.\n\nPolybius,[967] recounting the battle at Pis\u00e6, where Aneroestes,\nking of the G\u00e6sat\u00e6,[968] aided by the Boii, the Insubres, and the\nTaurisci (Noricans, Styrians), was defeated by C. Atilius (A.U.C. 529\n= B.C. 225), shows the superiority of the Roman weapons. He describes\nthe Machair\u00e6 of the Gauls \u2018as merely cutting blades ... altogether\npointless, and fit only to slash from a distance downwards: these\nweapons by their construction soon wax blunt, and are bent and bowed;\nso that a second blow cannot be delivered until they are straightened\nby the foot.\u2019 The same excellent author,[969] when describing the\nbattle of Cann\u00e6 (B.C. 216), tells us that Hannibal and his Africans\nwere armed like Romans, with the spoils of the preceding actions; while\nthe Spanish and Gaulish auxiliaries had the same kind of shield, but\ntheir Swords were wholly unequal and dissimilar. While the Spanish\nXiphos was excellent both for cutting and thrusting, the long and\npointless Gallic Mach\u00e6ra could only slash from afar. Livy[970] also\nnotices the want of point and the bending of the soft and ill-tempered\nKeltic blades.\n\nWhen Lucius Manlius attacked the Gauls, B.C. 181, the latter carried\nlong flat shields, too narrow to protect the body.[971] They were\nsoon left without other weapons but their Swords, and these they had\nno opportunity of using, as the enemy did not come to close quarters.\nPhrensied with the smart of missiles raining upon their large persons,\nthe wounds appearing the more terrible from the black blood contrasting\nwith the white skin; and furious with shame at being put _hors de\ncombat_ by hurts apparently so small, they lost many by the Swords of\nthe Velites. These \u2018light bobs\u2019 in those days were well armed; they\nhad shields three feet long, _pila_ for skirmishing, and the _Gladius\nHispanus_, which they drew after shifting the javelins to the left\nhand. With these handy blades they rushed in and wounded faces and\nbreasts, whilst the Gallic Swords could not be wielded without space.\n\nPassing from books to monuments, we see on an Urban medal of Rimini,\ndating from the domination of the Senones, a long-haired and\nmoustachio\u2019d Gaul, and on the reverse a broad Spatha, with scabbard and\nchain. This is repeated on another coin of the same series, where a\nnaked Gaul, protected by an oblong shield, assails with the same kind\nof Sword. A third shows the Gaul with two _gladii_, one shorter than\nthe other.[972] The scabbards and chains were of bronze or iron.\n\nAccording to Diodorus,[973] the Gauls advanced to battle in\nwar-chariots (_carpentum_, _covinus_, _essedum_). They also had\ncavalry;[974] but during their invasions of Italy they mostly fought\non foot. They had various kinds of missiles, javelins, and the Cateia\nor Caia (boomerang, or throwing-club), slings, and bows and arrows,\npoisoned as well as unpoisoned. They then rushed to the attack with\nunhelm\u2019d heads, and their long locks knotted on the head-top. In many\nfights they stripped themselves, probably for bravado, preserving only\nthe waistcloth and ornaments, torques, leglets, and armlets. They\ncut off the heads of the fallen foes; slung them to their shields or\nsaddlebows, and kept them at home as trophies, still the practice\nof the Dark Continent. Their girls and women fought as bravely as\nthe men; especially with the _contus_ or wooden pike, sharpened and\nfire-hardened. The waggons ranged in the rear formed a highly efficient\n\u2018lager.\u2019 The large Keltic stature, their terrible war-cries, and their\nlong Swords wielded by doughty arms and backed by stout hearts, enabled\nthem more than once to triumph over civilised armies.\n\nDivus C\u00e6sar, who is severe upon Gallic _nobilitas_, _levitas_, and\n_infirmitas animi_, employed nine years in subduing Gaul (B.C. 59\u201350).\nBefore a century elapsed, the people had given up their old barbarous\nhabits and costume, their fur-coats, like the Slav and Afghan _post\u00edn_,\nwith sleeves opening in front; their saga-cloaks or tartan-plaids[975]\nwhich were probably imitations of the prim\u00e6val tattoo;[976] their\ncopper torques and their rude chains and armlets. Gallia Comata\nshore her limed and flowing locks, and Gallia Bracchata (Provincia,\nProvence) doffed the \u2018_truis_\u2019 (trews or trowsers) which were strapped\nat the waist and tied in at the ankles.[977] Their women adopted Roman\nfashions, and forgot all that Ammianus Marcellinus had said of them:\n\u2018A whole troop of foreigners could not withstand a single Gaul, if\nhe called to aid his wife, who is usually very strong and blue-eyed,\nespecially when, swelling her neck, gnashing her teeth, and whirling\nher sallow arms of enormous bulk, she begins to strike blows, mingled\nwith kicks, as if they were so many missiles sent from the string of a\ncatapult.\u2019 Of their old and rugged virtue we may judge by the tale of\nOrtiagon\u2019s gallant wife and the caitiff centurion.[978] Thus Gaul was\nthoroughly subdued by Roman civilisation and the Latin tongue; she\ncontributed to literature her quotum of poets and rhetoricians; her\ncities established schools of philosophy, and she saw nothing to envy\nin Gallia Togata\u2014Upper Italy.[979]\n\n[Heading: _THE OLD GERMAN SWORD._]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 288.\u2014FOUND AT AUGSBURG (66 centim\u00e8tres long. In\nSigmaringen Museum).]\n\nThe Alemanni or Germans (Germani) cast of the Rhine inhabited, at the\ntime of the Roman conquests, a dismal land of swamps and _silv\u00e6_: even\nin the present day a run from Hamburg to Berlin explains the ancient\nexodus of tribes bent upon conquering the \u2018promised lands\u2019 of the\nsouth, and the modern wholesale emigration to America. These \u2018warmen\u2019\nwere formerly surpassed by the Gauls in bravery,[980] but they had\nnone of the Keltic levity or instability. The national characteristic\nwas and is the steadfast purpose. Till lately the German Empire was\na shadowy tradition; yet the Germans managed to occupy every throne\nin Europe save two. They never yet made a colony, yet cuckoo-like\nthey hold the best of those made by others; and their sound physical\nconstitution, strengthened by gymnastics, enables them to resist\ntropical and extreme climates better than any European people save the\nSlavs and the Jews. In the great cities of the world they occupy the\nfirst commercial place, the result of an education carefully adapted to\nits end and object; and their progress in late years seems to promise\n\u2018Germanism\u2019 an immense future based upon the ruins of the neo-Latin\nraces.\n\nWe have the authority of Tacitus for the fact that the Germans of his\nday did not (like the Kelts)[981] affect the short straight sword:\n\u2018rari ... gladiis utuntur.\u2019[982] The national weapon was the spear[983]\nof a peculiar kind; \u2018hastas vel ipsorum vocabulo frameas gerunt angusto\net brevi ferro.\u2019 The derivation of the word and the nature of the\nweapon are still undetermined.[984] Modern authorities hold the oldest\n_fram\u00e9e_ to have been a long spear, with a head of stone, copper,\nbronze, or iron, shaped like a Palstab or an expanding \u2018Celt;\u2019 and\nDemmin[985] shows the same broad shovel-shaped base in the Abyssinian\nlance. It was either thrown or thrust, and the weapon must not be\nconfounded with the enormous _hast\u00e6_ of Tacitus,[986] in whose day the\nRoman spear was fourteen feet long. It was a formidable weapon; those\nwho knew it spoke with awe of \u2018illam cruentam victricemque frameam\u2019;\nand the Germans long preserved the saying \u2018one spear is worth two\nSwords.\u2019 Yet, strange to say, it is rarely found in graves, where the\nthrowing-axe of stone and bronze, pierced or unpierced, one-edged or\ntwo-headed (\u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2, bipennis), is so common.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 289.\u2014BRONZE.\n\n 75 centim\u00e8tres long; Pommels of bronze and bone. From Hallstadt\n Diggings.]\n\nIn time the word _framea_ was apparently applied to wholly different\nweapons. Thus Augustinus makes it an equivalent of _spatha_ or\n_rhomphaia_; and Johannes de Janua (\u2018Glossary\u2019) explains it as \u2018glaive\naigu d\u2019une part, et d\u2019autre esp\u00e9e.\u2019\n\nIron, according to Tacitus,[987] was known to the Germans, but was not\ncommon. His statement is supported by \u2018finds\u2019 in the old tumuli and\nstone rings, known as Riesenmauer, H\u00fcnnenringe,[988] Teufelsgraben,\nBurgw\u00e4lle, and others. The myths of giants, dwarfs, and serpents\nsuggest an Eastern origin for the metal. Bronze blades, on the other\nhand, are common. A typical specimen from the Elbe valley in the Klemm\ncollection is thus described by J\u00e4hns.[989] The whole weapon is 23\u00b725\ncentim\u00e8tres long, the blade being 18\u00b75, with a maximum breadth of\n1\u00b7625. The shape is conical, tapering to the point; a high and rounded\nmid-rib is subtended on either side by a deepened line which runs to\nthe end. Between shoulders and blade the front view shows on either\nside a crescent-shaped notch. The grip is narrower at the middle, where\nthere is a long oval slit for making fast the handle; and there are\ntwo rivet holes on either side of the shoulders, whence the mid-rib\nsprings. It shows no pommel, the place being taken by a shallow crutch.\n\nIron Swords are rare: even in the second century B.C., when the Romans\nhad given up the softer metal, the Gauls and Germans preserved it. This\nis especially noticed when Germanicus marched against Arminius, B.C.\n15;[990] and as late as the days of Tacitus, Germany could not work the\nraw metal.[991] Remains of iron _Spath\u00e6_ have mostly been found in very\nbad condition; the material also is poor and badly made. The Held or\nchampion used two kinds of blades; and the m\u00e8tre-long two-edged German\nSword is not to be distinguished from that of the Kelts. The Spatha\nwas especially affected by three tribes: the Suardones (Sworders?),\nthe Saxones (Daggermen)[992] and the Cherusci; in process of time it\nreached the Goths,[993] and at last _wafan_ (weapon) applied only\nto the Sword. The blade (_blat_, _blan_, in Mid. Germ. _valz_), with\nits two edges (_ecke_, _egge_), was often leaf-shaped, as if copied\ndirectly from the bronze Sword. Others were smaller in the middle than\nat heft or point, for facility of unsheathing. The tang reached the\npommel end, and the grip or hilt[994] was lined with wood (birch or\nbeech), bone, and other material, covered with leather, fishskin, and\ncloth. There was no cross-bar, but the crescent extending over the\nshoulders, and serving to contain the rivets, was sometimes supplied\nwith a guard-plate (_die Leiste_).[995] The weapon had a solid\nscabbard, often of iron, even when the blade was bronze, and was hung\nby riems or leathern straps to the warrior\u2019s left.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 290.\u2014THE SPATHA OF SCHLESWIG.]\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 291.\u2014SHORT KELTIC SWORD. 40 centim\u00e8tres long. Iron\nblade, bronze grip. From Hallstadt. (Vienna Cabinet of Antiquities.)]\n\nThe other German blade was single-edged and curved: it was a\nsemi-Spatha, half the size of the Spatha, and it hung to the warrior\u2019s\nright side. This weapon was probably the Sahs,[996] Seax, Sax, the\nfavourite of the Saxons; also called Breitsachs and Knief (knife), and\nat later times, _scramasaxus_, Scramasax.[997] A large iron knife, with\na yataghan curve, it was used either as a dirk or a missile. Some of\nthese throw-Swords had a hook by way of pommel for better securing\nthe hilt. The Schwertstab (Sword-staff) or Prachtaxt is described and\nfigured by J\u00e4hns[998] as a kind of _dolch_[999] or dagger, attached\nto a long hollow metal haft, like that of a Persian war-axe. It is a\nrare article, and its rarity leads him to believe it was symbolic of\nthe Saxnot (Sword-god) Zio, Tui, or Tuisco. Dr. Evans[1000] considers\nthe weapon \u2018a kind of halberd or battle-axe;\u2019 others, a commander\u2019s\nstaff or _b\u00e2ton_ of honour; but the article is too widely used to be so\nexplained. A fine specimen of the Schwertstab with handle and blade of\nbronze, was found at \u00c5rup in Scania, and an analogous form is shown in\na Chinese blade.\n\nHistory, even written by their enemies, shows that the Ancient Germans\nwere an eminently military and martial people. The bridal present\nconsisted of a caparisoned horse, a shield, a spear, and a Sword. At\ntheir festivals, youths danced naked before the Sword-god, amidst\ndrawn blades and couched spears. Their lives were spent in hunting and\nwarfare. Despite their barbarism, a thorough topographical knowledge of\ntheir bogs and bushes, mountains and forests, enabled them to inflict\nmore than one crushing defeat upon the civilised Romans.\n\nThe highly-developed Teutonic brain also invented a form of attack\nwhich suited them thoroughly. It was theirs, as the Phalanx, borrowed\nfrom the Egyptians, became Greek, and its legitimate outcome, the\nLegion, was Roman; and, subsequently, the Crescent, adopted by\nthe Kafirs, was Moslem. \u2018Acies,\u2019 says Tacitus,[1001] \u2018per cuneos\ncomponitur.\u2019 The Keil or Wedge was not unknown to the Greeks and\nRomans;[1002] but they used it subordinately, whilst with the Germans\nthe \u2018Schweinskopf,\u2019 the \u2018Svinfylking\u2019 of the Scandinavians, was\nnational: they attributed its invention to Odin, the country god. The\napex was composed of a single file,[1003] and the numbers doubled in\neach line to the base; while families and tribesmen, ranged side by\nside, added moral cohesion to the tactical formation.[1004] It lasted\na thousand years; and it played a conspicuous part in the Battle of\nHastings, where the Normans attacked in wedge, and finally at Swiss\nSempach. During its long life it underwent sundry modifications,\nespecially the furnishing of the flanks with skirmishers; evidently\nthe Wedge was admirable for the general advance against line or even\ncolumn; but it was equally ill-calculated for a retreat.\n\nMost writers now consider the Cimbri a Keltic people, and possibly\ncongeners of the Cymry or Welsh. Yet in the second century B.C. we find\nthem uniting, as Pliny tells us,[1005] with the German Teutones or\nTeutoni (Thiudisk\u00f4, Teutsh, Deutsch). The \u2018Kimpers\u2019 of Italian Recoaro,\nthe supposed descendants of the invaders who escaped the Sword of\nMarius (B.C. 102), undoubtedly spoke German.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 292.\u2014DANISH SWORD.\n\n (Bronze; 85 centim\u00e8tres long. Copenhagen.)]\n\nPlutarch[1006] describes the Cimbrian Sword as a large heavy\nknife-blade (\u03bc\u03b5\u03b3\u03ac\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03c7\u03c1\u03ce\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b1\u03af\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03c2), They had also\nbattle-axes, and sharp, bright _degans_ or daggers: the latter were\nhighly prized, and their cuneiform shape caused them to be considered\nsymbols of the deity,[1007] As usual amongst barbarians, the weapons\nof the chiefs had terrible names, so as to strike even the hearer with\nfear.[1008] Their defensive weapons were iron helmets, mail coats, and\nwhite glittering shields. Eccart holds that these arms and armour must\nhave been taken from the foe: their barrows, in Holstein and elsewhere,\nhaving produced only stone-celts and spear-heads with a few copper\nSword-blades, but no iron.\n\nThe Scandinavian Goths (Get\u00e6) and Vandals were held by the ancients to\nhave been originally one and the same people.[1009] Their Bronze Age is\nsupposed to have begun about B.C. 1000, and to have ended in Sweden at\nthe opening of the Christian era. They used short Sword-blades, which\nmade them, unlike the Kelts, formidable in close combat, and the Goths\nclaimed to have introduced the spear[1010] to cavalrymen. Identical\nweapons were used by the Lemovii of Pomerania and their kinsmen the\nRugii. The latter lived on the southern shores of the Baltic about\nRugenwald, and this place, one of the focuses of the Stone Age,[1011]\npreserves, like the Isle of Rugen, the old barbaric name. The Danes\nmostly affected the long-handed _securis Danica_ (_hasche Danoise_).\nThe Fenni (Finns) of Tacitus had neither Swords nor iron: they used\nonly bows and stone-tipped arrows.[1012] The bronze Sword from Finland\n\u2018with flanged hilt-plate and eight rivet-holes,\u2019[1013] must have found\nits way there.[1014]\n\n[Heading: _THE OLD BRITISH SWORD._]\n\nWe now proceed to the Keltic population of the \u2018Home Islands of Great\nBritain,\u2019 and find there evident offshoots of the Gauls. We have\nno metal remains of the pre-Keltic \u2018aborigines\u2019 (Iberians? Basques?\nFinns?) except their pal\u00e6oliths; and the history of our finds commences\nwith the two distinct Keltic immigrations advocated by Professor Rhys,\nthe Goidels (Gauls) who named Calyddon or Caledonia (_Gael doine_ or\n_Gael dun_ = forest district) and the Brythons.\n\nThe authentic annals of England, says Mr. Elton[1015] begin with the\ndays of Alexander the Great, that is, in the fourth century B.C.; the\nnext historical station being the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons[1016] in\nthe middle of the fifth century A.D. He does not trace any continuity\nof race in Kelt or Saxon with the pal\u00e6olithic men of the Quaternary\nAge, or with the short dark-skinned neolithics who succeeded them. The\ntwo were followed by a big-boned, round-headed, fair-haired family\nwhich brought with them a knowledge of bronze and with it the Sword.\n\nColonel A. Lane-Fox has summarised the four principal theories[1017]\nconcerning the source of bronze in Great Britain. Dr. Evans[1018]\nprudently finds \u2018a certain amount of truth embodied in each of those\nopinions\u2019; but he also concludes that No. 4 must commend itself to\nall arch\u00e6ologists. I quite agree with this view, provided that the\ncommon centre be Egypt, and that Western Asia be held only a line of\ntransit. We have full proof of the immense antiquity of bronze in the\nNile region, whence the art would radiate through the world. But the\nalmost identical proportions of the alloy (nine copper to one tin) and\nthe persistent forms suggest that a wandering race of metal-workers,\nsomewhat like the Gypsies of a later age, are the originators of the\n_Stations_, the _Fonderies_, and the _Tr\u00e9sors_. The first step from\nEgypt would be to Khita-land and Ph\u0153nicia; and these \u2018Englishmen of\nAntiquity\u2019 would carry the art far and wide. Sir J. Lubbock opines that\nthe Ph\u0153nicians were acquainted with the mineral fields of Cornwall\nbetween B.C. 1500\u20131200; somewhat niggard measure, for the Bronze Age in\nSwitzerland is dated from B.C. 3000. On the other hand, Professor Rhys\nabsolutely denies that there are any traces of Ph\u0153nician art in England.\n\nDr. Evans[1019] assumes the total duration of the Bronze Period in\nBritain at between eight and ten centuries. He would divide this sum\ninto three several stages,[1020] and to the last, which produced the\nbronze Sword, he assigns a minimum duration of four hundred to five\nhundred years. This was followed by the Early Iron Age, or later Keltic\nPeriod. The metal may have been used in southern Britain, peopled long\nbefore C\u00e6sar\u2019s time by immigrant Belgii, not later than the fourth or\nfifth century B.C., the approximate date of the earliest iron Swords in\nGaul.[1021] Lastly, by the second or third century B.C. the exclusive\nuse of bronze for cutting implements had practically ceased in Belgic\nBritain; the Roman historians do not lead us to suppose that the\nweapons, even of the northern Britons, were anything but iron.\n\nIt has been suggested that the bronze Swords found in Britain were\neither Roman, or at all events of Roman date. The discussion began\nas early as 1751,[1022] on the occasion of some bronze blades, a\nspear-head, and other objects being discovered near Gannat, in the\nBourbonnais. It opened with greater vigour between the German and\nScandinavian antiquaries in 1860, and the late Thomas Wright was\nan ardent advocate of the \u2018Italian view.\u2019[1023] Dr. Evans, who has\ncarefully considered the question, concludes:[1024] \u2018The whole weight\nof the argument is in favour of a pre-Roman origin for these swords in\nwestern and northern Europe.\u2019 And he notices, apparently with scant\nrespect, the three provinces to which the bronze antiques of Europe\nhave been assigned. These are the Mediterranean with Gr\u00e6co-Italic\nand Helveto-Gallic subdivisions; the Danubian, including Hungary,\nScandinavia, Germany, and Britain; and the Uralian, comprising the\nRussian, Siberian, and Finn regions. Finally he quotes the bronze\nsocketed sickle, the tanged razor, the two forms of Sword, the shield\nwith numerous concentric rings, with sundry other articles specially\nBritish, to show that Britain was one of the great centres of the\nbronze industry.\n\nLead-bronze, well known in ancient Egypt, is found extensively in\nIreland, where some specimens of \u2018Dowris metal\u2019 have as much as 9\u00b711\nparts in 99\u00b732.[1025] The Ph\u0153nicians would certainly teach the use of\nan article which takes a fine golden lustre. Dr. Evans[1026] notes the\nremarkable prevalence of lead in the small (votive) socketed celts\nsupplied by Brittany. Professor Pelligot found some of them containing\n28\u00b750 per cent. and even 32\u00b750 per cent. of lead, with only 1\u00b75 per\ncent., or a smaller proportion, of tin. In others, with a large\npercentage of tin there was from eight to sixteen per cent. of lead.\nSome of the bronze ornaments of the opening Iron Period also contain a\nconsiderable proportion of lead; in the early Roman _As_ and its parts\nthe figures are from twenty to thirty per cent. A socketed celt from\nYorkshire gives, copper 81\u00b715, tin 12\u00b730, and lead 2\u00b763 per cent. In\nthis case, Mr. J. A. Phillips expresses an opinion that \u2018the lead is,\nno doubt, an intentional ingredient.\u2019[1027]\n\nApparently the Roman invaders unduly depreciated the ancient Britons.\nStrabo[1028] declares them to be cannibals; yet he includes amongst\ntheir produce gold, silver, iron, and corn. C\u00e6sar[1029] makes them use\nthe ring money of Egypt, but Dr. Evans[1030] has proved that England\nhad a gold coinage in the first century B.C. It is an old remark\nthat a people can hardly be savages when they employ the _currus\nfalcatus_ or scythe war-car, the \u1d79\ua783\u0131om carbad or \u2018Carbad scarrda\u2019 of\nthe Irish, the Welsh _kerbyd_, borrowed from the Gallic Kelts.[1031]\nPomponius Mela also assures us that they had cavalry, besides _big\u00e6_\nand _currus_.[1032] Their works in glass, ivory, and jet, and their\nincense cups suggest extensive intercourse, commercial and social, with\nthe Continent. During the ninety years which separated Julius C\u00e6sar\nand Claudius, the Britons had made progress in letters, and had built\nimportant towns. The amount of Latin blood introduced into England has,\nperhaps, been undervalued by our writers; but the discovery of Roman\nruins, which rapidly proceeds and succeeds, will draw the attention of\nthe statistician, and that \u2018new man, the anthropologist,\u2019 to a highly\ninteresting subject.[1033]\n\nThe bronze Swords of the ancient Britons are of two kinds: the\nleaf-blade and the Rapier, both well cast. The total length of the\nformer is about two feet, the extremes being sixteen inches to thirty,\nand in rare cases more. The blades are uniformly rounded, but with the\npart next the edge slightly drawn down so as to form a shallow fluting.\nThe breadth appears greatest at the third near the point, and this\nwould add to the facility of unsheathing. In almost all cases they\nare strengthened by a rounded mid-rib more or less bold; or they show\nridges, with and without beading, or parallel lines that run along the\nwhole blade or the greater part near the edges. Some combine mid-rib\nand ridges. The shoulders are either plain, notched, or flanged. In\nrare instances the outer part of the hilt is of bronze: Dr. Evans\nengraves[1034] a specimen of this kind. The total length of the weapon\nis twenty-one inches, of which the globular pommel and the grip, made\nfor a large hand, occupy five. The hilt has the appearance of being\ncast upon the blade: it seems to have been formed of bronze of the same\ncharacter, and there are no rivets by which the two castings could be\nattached. The shallow crescent, whose hollow faces the mid-rib (fig.\n293), is a characteristic feature, and endures for ages in the northern\nbronzes.\n\n[Illustration: FIG. 293.\u2014BRITISH SWORD, BRONZE. (Tower.)]\n\nThe handle of the leaf-blade usually consisted of plates of horn,\nbone, or wood, riveted on either side of the hilt plate. The latter\ndiffers considerably in form, and in the number and arrangement of\nthe rivets, by which the covering material was attached. Some have as\nmany as thirteen piercings; they seldom, however, exceed seven. The\napertures are either round holes or longitudinal slots of greater or\nlesser extent. There is a pronounced swelling in the grip when the tang\nis of full length. At the end it expands, evidently for the purpose of\nreceiving a pommel formed by the material of the hilt. This tang end is\na fish-tail more or less pronounced. One illustrated by Dr. Evans[1035]\nhas two spirals attached to the base of the hilt, a rare form in\nEngland, but common in Scandinavia. Another[1036] pommel-end has a\ndistinct casting, \u2018and is very remarkable on account of the two curved\nhorns extending from it, which are somewhat trumpet-mouthed, with a\nprojecting cone in the centre of each.\u2019 This manilla-end appears to me\nIrish.\n\nWe have seen the rapier in Mycen\u00e6 and Etruria.[1037] It reappears in\nnorthern Europe, England, and France, perfectly shaped; and, though\nof rare occurrence in hoards, it seems to belong to the period when\nsocketed celts were in use. There is no difficulty in tracing the\nintermediate steps between the leaf-shaped dagger and the rapier. The\nlatter measures from twenty to twenty-three and a half, and even thirty\nand a quarter inches, with a breadth of five-eighths inch, widening at\nthe base to two and three-eighths to two and nine-sixteenths inches.\nThe largest have a strong projecting mid-rib, while their weight is\ndiminished by flutings along either side. Another form of blade is more\nlike a bayonet, showing a section nearly square; while a third has a\nflat surface where the mid-rib would be, a form not yet obsolete. Few\nare tanged;[1038] mostly we find the base or shoulders of the blade\nprovided with drill-holes or with notches, to admit the nails; and in\nsome the wings are broadened for this purpose.[1039]\n\nDuring the Late Celtic Period the Britons, like the Gauls, were armed\nwith _gladii sine mucrone_, which Tacitus[1040] calls _ingentes_ and\n_enormes_, These Spath\u00e6 must have grown out of the bronze rapier. A\nmonument found in London and preserved at Oxford shows the blade to\nhave been between three and four feet long.[1041]\n\nAll history declares the Ancient Britons to have been of right warlike\nrace; and Solinus[1042] relates of them a characteristic trait. \u2018When a\nwoman is delivered of a male child, she places its first food upon the\nfather\u2019s Sword, and gently puts it to the little one\u2019s mouth, praying\nto her country gods that its death may be, in like manner, amidst arms.\u2019\n\nThe ancient Irish seem to have been rather savages than barbarians,\namongst whom the wild non-Celts long prevailed over the Goidels or\nGaels. Ptolemy calls the former _Ivernii_, and it has been lately\nsuggested[1043] that this may have been the racial name throughout the\nBritish Islands. The same savage element, which is still persistent,\nwas noticed by Tasso, when speaking of the Hibernian crusaders:\n\n Questi dall\u2019 alte selve irsuti manda\n La divisa del mondo ultima Irlanda.[1044]\n\nThe modern Irish, who in historical falsification certainly rival, if\nthey do not excel, the Hind\u00fas, claim for their ancestry an exalted\ngrade of culture. They found their pretensions upon illuminated\nmanuscripts and similar works of high art; but it is far easier to\naccount for these triumphs as the exceptional labours of students who\nwandered to the classic regions about the Mediterranean. If ancient\nIreland ever was anything but savage, where, let us ask, are the ruins\nthat show any sign of civilisation? A people of artists does not pig in\nwooden shanties, surrounded by a rude vallum of earth-work.\n\nIreland, like modern Central Africa, would receive all her civilised\nweapons from her neighbours. The Picts of Scotland would transmit a\nknowledge of iron-working and of the Sword to the Scotti or Picts of\nthe north-east of Hibernia.[1045] This is made evident by the names\nof the articles. Clai\ua77aeam or clai\ua77aim, the Welsh _kledyv_, is simply\n_gladius_; and \ua787uca is \u2018tuck\u2019 or a clerk\u2019s Sword. So lann, the lance\nhead, derives from the Gaulish spear (_lanskei_) which Diodorus Siculus\nterms \u03bb\u03b1\u03b3\u03ba\u03af\u03b1, a congener of the Greek \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03c7\u03b7 and of the low Latin\n_lancea_ or _lanscea_, meaning either spear (_hasta_) or Sword.\n\n\n CONCLUSION.\n\nWe have now assisted at the birth of the Sword in the shape of a bit\nof wood, charred and sharpened. We have seen its several stages of\nyouth and growth to bone and stone, to copper and bronze, to iron and\nsteel. When it had sufficiently developed itself Egypt gave it a name,\nSFET; and this name, at least fifty centuries old, still clings to it\nand will cling to it. In the hands of the old Nilotes the Sword spread\nculture and civilisation throughout adjoining Africa and Western Asia.\nThe Ph\u0153nicians carried it wide and side over the world then known to\nman. The Greeks won with it their liberty and developed with it their\ncitizenship. Wielded by the Romans, it enthroned the Reign of Law, and\nlaid the foundation for the Brotherhood of Mankind. Thus, though it\nsoaked earth with the blood of her sons, the Sword has ever been true\nto its mission\u2014the Progress of Society.\n\nIn Part II. we shall see the Sword attain the prime of life, when no\ngenius, no work of art was too precious to adorn it; and when, from\na weapon of offence, it developed exceptional defensive powers. Here\nbegins the Romance of the Sword.\n\n\n\n\n INDEX.\n\n\n Abderites, 212\n\n Abella, sword and shield of the people of, 264 _n_\n\n Abraham and the Egyptians, 103;\n his origin, 150 _n_\n\n Abyssinia, native copper from, 63 _n_\n\n Abyssinian lance, 270\n\n \u2014 Sword, 163 _sq._, 237\n\n _Acacia detinens_ (\u2018Wait-a-bit\u2019), 6\n\n _Acanthurus_ (\u2018surgeon\u2019 or lancet-fish), 10\n\n Accad inscription (Babylonia), 199\n\n Accensi Velati (Roman soldiers), 245\n\n Ach\u00e6ans of the Caucasus, 195 _n_\n\n Ach\u00e6menes, 208\n\n Achilles\u2019 shield, 212, 223\n\n \u2014 spear pointed with chalcos, 55 _n_\n\n \u2018Acies instructa\u2019 and \u2018sinuata\u2019 (Roman army), 245\n\n Acies (of a weapon), 107 _n_\n\n Acinaces, not a scymitar, 227 _n_\n\n Acinaces, Persian, 210;\n with golden ornaments, 212\n\n Aclys (archaic weapon), 35 _n_\n\n \u2018Adaga\u2019 of medi\u00e6val writers, 12\n\n Adam Kadmon, 2\n\n Adam primus, 2 _n_\n\n Adam, the Hebrew, 149\n\n Ad\u00e1mas (steel), 221\n\n Adargue (Moorish), 12 _n_\n\n Adder-pike or sting-fish (_Trachinus vipera_), 11\n\n Adonis (= Tammuz), 187\n\n Adscriptii (Roman soldiers), 245 _n_\n\n Adze, 20 _n_;\n of copper, 67\n\n \u2014 blades of shells and pinna, 47\n\n \u00c6s corinthiacum, 85 _n_;\n \u00e6gineticum, 87;\n demonnesium, _ib._;\n nigrum, _ib._;\n deliacum, _ib._;\n caldarium, 88;\n gr\u00e6canicum, _ib._\n\n \u00c6gyptus (meaning of the word in Homer), 145 _n_\n\n \u00c6olipyl\u00e6 (\u03b1\u1f30\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03cd\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9), 31 _n_\n\n \u00c6rugo (or verdigris) from a spear (Achilles\u2019), 60\n\n _\u00c6s_ and _\u00c6ris metalla_ (their meaning in Pliny), 58 _n_\n\n Afghan Charay, 212\n\n \u2014 language, 210 _n_\n\n Africa (its mineral wealth unexplored), 63\n\n \u2014 the Sword in, 162\n\n African antelopes, 9\n\n \u2014 bellows, 120 _sq._\n\n \u2014 Telak (arm-knife), 162\n\n Africo-Arab weapons, 163\n\n \u2018Afterthought,\u2019 1\n\n Afzal Khan (Moslem General of Aurangzeb), 8\n\n Agate splinter (for wooden Swords), 47\n\n Agave (American), 6;\n used for paper-making, 50 _n_\n\n \u2018Age of Wood\u2019, 31\n\n \u2018Ages\u2019, 22 _n_\n\n Agesilaus, army of, 241\n\n \u1f08\u03b3\u03ba\u03cd\u03bb\u03b7 (Greek throw-stick), 34\n\n \u2018Agmen pilatum\u2019 and \u2018quadratum\u2019 (Roman army), 245\n\n Agreutic (age of primitive Arch\u00e6ology), 5 _n_\n\n Agriculture in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Ahasuerus (= Xerxes), 210\n\n Airain (derivation), 84\n\n Aji (black stone), Japanese use of, for weapons, 52\n\n Aka, Akhu (Ancient Egyptian axe), 89, 158\n\n Akkad (= Upper Babylonia), 104 _n_\n\n \u1f08\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7\u03c2, 90 _n_\n\n Alabaster pommels at Mycen\u00e6, 231, 233\n\n Albanian castes, 241 _n_\n\n \u2014 yataghan, 265\n\n Alemanni (Germani), weapons of the, 270\n\n Alexander the Great, 209\n\n Alf\u00e2nge (Iberian; El-Khanjar), 29\n\n Algebra in Assyria, 202 _n_\n\n Alipes (Mercury), 1\n\n Alkinde (Ondanique), 110\n\n Alle-barde (Teutonic weapon), 92\n\n Allophyllian or Agglutinative Turanian, 146\n\n Alloy (derivation of the word), 74 _n_\n\n Alloys of copper, 53, 57\n\n \u2014 proportions of, 83;\n table of alloys in common use, 83 _sq._\n\n Aloe (Socotrine), 6\n\n Alorus, king of Babylonia, 199\n\n Aluminium, 81 _n_\n\n Alyattes, tomb of, 194\n\n Alphabet (whence it came), 51 _n_, 147\n\n \u2014 Hind\u00fa, 219 _n_\n\n \u2014 of Troy, 193\n\n Amber, 48, 87\n\n Ambidexter Swordsmen, 185\n\n Ambrum (= amber), 87\n\n American broad-axe, 128\n\n Amestris (= Esther), 210 _n_\n\n Amphictyony of the Ionians, 194\n\n Amukta (class of weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Amun Ra, 149 _n_\n\n Amygdaloid greenstone (\u2018toad-stone\u2019), 103 _n_\n\n Analysis of a copper knife-blade, 69;\n of so-called \u2018bronzes,\u2019 70;\n of Assyrian bronze, 81\n\n Anchor, the original, 119 _n_\n\n Ancient Britain, centre of bronze industry, 276\n\n \u2014 Britons, account of the, 277\n\n \u2014 Cypriote characters, 225\n\n \u2014 German method of warfare, 273\n\n \u2014 Greece, extent of, 242 _n_\n\n \u2014 Hellas, metallurgy of, 220\n\n \u2014 Indians, 213\n\n \u2014 Indian anthropology, 213\n\n \u2014 Irish, character of the, 279\n\n \u2014 Roman army (its constitution), 245\n\n \u2014 Rome (her _r\u00f4le_ in history), 244\n\n Ancile (sacred shield) of _\u00e6s_, 56\n\n Andahualas valley (meaning of the name), 67 _n_\n\n Andamanese (unable to kindle fire), 2 _n_\n\n Andanicum (Ondanique), 110\n\n Andena (ductile and malleable iron: Avicenna), 107\n\n Andes (derivation of the name), 67\n\n Andromeda legend, the, 180 _n_\n\n Andro-Sphinx (Egypt), 190 _n_\n\n Anelace, 263\n\n Angels, the weapon of the, 237\n\n Angle of cutting instruments, 131 _sq._\n\n \u2014 of resistance, 132\n\n Anglo-Saxon invasion of England, 275\n\n \u2018Anguimanus\u2019 (the elephant), 3 _n_\n\n Animals in Assyrian bas-reliefs, 203\n\n \u2014 (lower) born armed, 2\n\n Anjan (iron-wood), 112\n\n Anlas, 263\n\n \u2018Ann\u00e6us\u2019 monument, 258 _n_\n\n Annals of Babylon, 200\n\n Anta (copper: Quichua), 67\n\n Antelope (Indian) horns used for daggers, 11\n\n Antelopes\u2019 horns used in fishing, 27;\n as lance-points, 28\n\n Antepilani (Roman soldiers), 247 _sq._\n\n Antesignani (Roman soldiers), 247\n\n Anthropology, Ancient Indian, 213\n\n \u2014 of the pagans, 21 _sq._\n\n Antimonial bronze, 81 _n_\n\n Antiquity of bronze in the Nile region, 275\n\n \u2014 of iron and steel, 98\n\n Antiseptic charcoal, 250 _n_\n\n Antler of red deer as a thrusting-weapon, 28\n\n Anvils, 120\n\n Aor (= Sword, in Homer), 222;\n etymology of the word, 224 _n_\n\n Apes, 2\n\n Aphrodite or Venus, account of, 187 _n_\n\n Apis-tombs of Memphis, 190 _n_\n\n Apollo and Python, 180\n\n Apophis (serpent: Egypt), 183\n\n Arabian weapons, 185\n\n Arabic name for sabre, 123\n\n Arab scymitar belonging to King of Kishakkha, 162\n\n Arabs and Egyptians, contrast of, 144\n\n Aram wine, 173 _n_\n\n Ararat of Noah\u2019s ark, the, 202\n\n Arbotana, 14 _n_\n\n Arblast (enlarged _arcus_), 19\n\n Arch, Egyptian, 201\n\n Arch\u00e6ology, primitive, 5 _n_\n\n Archaic names of metals, table of, 122\n\n \u2014 tools from Wari Gaon, 110\n\n Archal (= _aurichalcum_), 85 _n_\n\n Archangels (whence borrowed), 149\n\n Archer (fish: _Toxotes_), 7\n\n Archers (Ancient Egyptian army), 154\n\n \u2014 Assyrian, 206\n\n \u2014 in Homer, 222\n\n Archery, Scythian, 19 _n_\n\n Architects, Ancient Roman, 245\n\n Architecture, Assyrian, 201\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2014 in Hellas, 241\n\n \u2014 origin of, 15\n\n Arcubalista (crossbow), 19\n\n Argentiferous copper (liquation of, in Japan), 83\n\n \u2014 galena, 88\n\n Argus-pheasant (Indian bird), 9\n\n Aries (sea-ram; _Delphinus orca_), 7\n\n Aries-shaped Sword, 141\n\n Ariminium, coins cast in, 265\n\n Arithmetic in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Arjuna\u2019s Sword, 217\n\n Arka (_Calatropis gigantea_), 218\n\n Arme blanche, 6\n\n Armes d\u2019hast, 6, 246 _n_\n\n Armenia, 209 _n_\n\n Armenian inscriptions, 200\n\n Armidoctores, 249 _n_\n\n Armilla of bronze, Etruscan, 196\n\n Armlets of bronze (Etruscan), 30\n\n Armorial badges (= rank), 141 _sq._\n\n Armour (derivation of the word), 244\n\n \u2014 made in Cyprus, 188\n\n \u2014 of Ancient Egyptian soldiers, 152 _sqq._\n\n Armour of elephants, 216\n\n \u2014 of Goliath, 186\n\n Arms among the Ancient Romans, 244 _sq._\n\n \u2014 and Armour of Ancient Roman soldiers, 246 _sqq._\n\n \u2014 manufactory in Etruria, 198\n\n \u2014 of Hannibal and his troops, 268\n\n \u2014 of the Keltic Gauls, 266 _sq._\n\n \u2014 of Persian troops, 210\n\n Army of the Ancient Egyptians, 152 _sqq._\n\n \u1f0d\u03c1\u03c0\u03b7 (sharp sickle), 180\n\n Arrows, 11, 154\n\n \u2014 made of reed, 28\n\n Arrow-heads in Ancient Gallic and German graves, 274 _n_\n\n \u2014 of deer-horn, 24;\n of bone, 25;\n of bamboo, 26;\n of flint-flakes, _ib._;\n of pinna and shells, 47\n\n Arrow-piles of copper, 65\n\n Arrow-throwers (epithet of the Argives), 222\n\n Art and science in Ancient Egypt, 147\n\n Art of the Hittites, 176\n\n \u2018Artemis\u2019 (Diana) of the Ephesians, 192 _n_\n\n Articulate language (origin of), 74 _n_\n\n Artificial calamine, 86\n\n \u2014 malachite, 72\n\n Aryan (language), 146 _n_\n\n Aryans, 76\n\n _Asclepias gigantea_, 111\n\n Asclepius (Berytus), 75\n\n Ashanti Sword-knife, 167\n\n Ashur (Assyrian), 200, 207\n\n Ashuth (fused or cast metal; Hebrew), 103\n\n Asia, ancient mines of copper and lead in, 63\n\n Asidhenu (dagger: Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Asidevat\u00e1 (Sword-god produced by Brahma), 214\n\n Askelon (site of), 186 _n_\n\n Asp (Cobra di capello; _Coluber Haja_), 33 _n_\n\n Ass (its method of defence), 7\n\n Assegai used as a razor by the Amazulu, 14\n\n Assyria (etymology of the word), 177\n\n Assyrian architecture, 201\n\n \u2014 bas-reliefs, 176, 201\n\n \u2014 books, 201 _n_\n\n \u2014 bronzes, 104 _n_\n\n \u2014 daggers, 159, 205\n\n \u2014 executioner, 207\n\n \u2014 fashion of wearing the Sword, 206, 239\n\n \u2014 fortifications, 203\n\n \u2014 hand-daggers, 185\n\n \u2014 inscriptions (Bayrut), 200 _n_\n\n \u2014 invasion of Egypt, 200\n\n \u2014 magic, 202 _n_\n\n \u2014 metallurgy, 81, 202;\n bronze, 81\n\n \u2014 names for the Sword, 123\n\n \u2014 robe, 175\n\n \u2014 skill in arts, 202\n\n \u2014 soldiers, 206\n\n \u2014 Sphinx, 190 _n_\n\n Assyrians of Xerxes\u2019 army (their weapons), 105\n\n Astrolabe in Assyria, 202 _n_\n\n Astronomy in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2014 of Mesopotamia, 200 _n_\n\n Asuras (mighty demons: Hind\u00fa), 213\n\n Atacamite (submuriate of copper), 68\n\n Athen\u00e6us on the Sword, 242 _sq._\n\n Athletics, Ancient Roman, 249\n\n Athor or Hathor (\u2018goddess of copper\u2019), 62, 69\n\n Atlantis, 85 _n_\n\n Att\u00e1bo, King Blay of, 142\n\n Auctoramentum (pay of the Bestiarii), 253\n\n Augustin\u2019s rendering of \u2018framea,\u2019 271\n\n Aurichalcum, 85\n\n Aurochs, 30 _n_\n\n Australian club (development), 39\n\n Authentic annals of England, beginning of the, 275\n\n Autochthones of Cyprus, 187\n\n Avicenna\u2019s description of iron, 106\n\n Axe (as a weapon), 20, 90 _sq._;\n of copper and stone, 67\n\n \u2014 (derivation of the word), 91 _n_\n\n Axe-heads of pure copper, 57\n\n Ayri (cutting instruments; Peru), 67\n\n \u2018Azagay\u2019 (in Spanish and Portuguese), 42 _n_\n\n Azure (in heraldry; derivation), 140 _n_\n\n\n Baal Suteckh (Hittite War-god), 173\n\n Baal-Zephon, site of, 175 _n_\n\n Babanga (Sword; Gaboon), 165\n\n Babel, Tower of, 55\n\n Baboons, 2\n\n Babylon, conquest of, 209\n\n Babylonia, account of, 199 _sq._;\n civilisation in, 200\n\n Babylonian chronology, 199 _n_\n\n Backsword, 123;\n Chinese, 64\n\n Bagpipe, origin of the, 120\n\n B\u00e1huyuddha (class of weapons, Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Ba\u00efonette Gras, 94, 134\n\n _Balanitis Aegyptiaca_ (= Persea; Egyptian \u2018Tree of Life\u2019), 202 _n_\n\n Balawat, bronze gates of, 202\n\n Baldur the Beautiful, 178\n\n Baleares (\u2018Slinging-Isles\u2019), 19 _n_\n\n Balestarius (= crossbow-man), 185\n\n Balist\u00e6 (Roman artillery), 19, 249\n\n _Batistes capriscus_ (\u2018file-fish\u2019), 9\n\n Ballistics, 16\n\n Balloons, 31 _n_\n\n Ball-steel (Chinese), 114\n\n Bamboo (blades made of), 12, 14 _n_;\n arrow-heads, 26\n\n \u2018Bamboo-grass,\u2019 12\n\n \u2018Bantu\u2019 (Folk), 3 _n_\n\n Ban Umha (white copper: Keltic), 65\n\n \u2018Barbarian,\u2019 history of the word, 261 _n_\n\n Barbarism of the ancient Germans, 273\n\n Bards of Greece, the age of the, 220\n\n Barylithic (glacial Drift) age, 5 _n_\n\n Barrows, Cimbrian (finds in), 274\n\n Barzil (iron: Hebrew), 103\n\n Basalt-splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Basket-hilt of a Sword, 124, 126 _n_\n\n Bas-reliefs of Assyria, 176, 201\n\n \u2014 of Khorsabad, 209\n\n \u2014 of Persepolis, 209\n\n Baswa knife (Upper Congo), 170\n\n B\u00e2ton ferr\u00e9, 20\n\n Battering-ram, Assyrian, 203\n\n Battle-axe of pure copper, 70\n\n Battle-gear of gold, 212\n\n Battle-scene in sculpture (Cuttack), 216\n\n Bauldric, 206\n\n Beaked axe, 95\n\n Bears, polar, 3\n\n Bechwana club-axe, 93\n\n Bedstead of iron (of Og, King of Bashan), 103\n\n Beheading fallen foes (Gallic custom), 269\n\n Beheading Sword, Cutch, 168\n\n Behistun Inscription, the, 209 _n_, 226\n\n Belagerungs-balister, 19\n\n Belemnites (\u2018thunder-stone\u2019), 21 _n_\n\n Bel and the Dragon, 180, 183\n\n \u2018Bell-metal,\u2019 84\n\n Bellows, invention of, 119\n\n Bellows of bullock\u2019s hide, 111\n\n Bellows-nozzles of copper, 68\n\n Bells on a Sword-sheath, 169\n\n \u0392\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, 6\n\n Benipe (meaning of the word), 99, 101\n\n Bent Swords, Javanese, 218\n\n _Beny Adam meshood_, 2\n\n Bergbarthe (mine-picks; German), 91\n\n Berytus (Asclepius), 75\n\n Bestiarii (gladiators), 251, 253\n\n Bhaw\u00e1ni (S\u00edvaj\u00ed\u2019s Sword), 8 _n_\n\n Bibasis (gymnastic dance), 239\n\n B\u00edchwa (weapon used by S\u00edvaj\u00ed), 8 _n_\n\n Bilbilis (river: Lusitania), 266 _n_\n\n Bil-Kan (Assyrian god), 182\n\n Bill (derivation of the word), 94 _n_\n\n Bill-hooks of copper, 67\n\n Birds (their methods of attack and defence), 9\n\n Bird\u2019s-head-shaped missiles, 37\n\n Birth of literature in Greece, 202 _n_\n\n Bisarme or Guisarme, 95\n\n \u2018Biscayan\u2019 shape (of Swords), 135\n\n Bitumen used to fix flint-chips in wooden weapons, 49\n\n \u2018Black chalcos,\u2019 77\n\n Black Pagoda (Madras), wrought iron in, 109\n\n Black sand, 102\n\n Blade of a Sword, 124\n\n Blasrohr (blow-tube), 14 _n_\n\n Blende (sulphuret of zinc), 84;\n derivation of the word, 84 _n_\n\n Bloma ferri, 114 _n_\n\n Bloom (of iron), 114 _n_\n\n Bloomary (= bloomery), 114 _n_\n\n Bloomeries (ancient furnaces), 114 _n_\n\n Blow-pipe, 14;\n of copper, 67\n\n Blue basalt, 100\n\n Blue-stone (sulphate of copper, blue copperas), 60\n\n Boars\u2019-hoofs used as armour, 29 _n_\n\n Boar, wild (its method of attack), 12\n\n Boians (Etruria), 196\n\n Bolas (slings), 19\n\n Bombola (birthplace of Martial), 266 _n_\n\n \u2018Bone Age,\u2019 23\n\n \u2018Bone-and-stone-using people,\u2019 23\n\n Bone as a base to carry trenchant substances, 27\n\n Bone-club of Nootka Sound Indians, 25\n\n Bone-handles for Swords and daggers, 27\n\n Bone-knives, 26;\n -daggers, 26, 27\n\n Bone-points to weapons, 23\n\n Boomerang, 19;\n derivation of the word, 33 _n_;\n Indian specimens, 35;\n its movement explained, 35 _sq._\n\n Boomerang-sword, 39;\n in Ancient Egypt, 155\n\n Boot (derivation of the word), 175\n\n Borax used for soldering, 85 _n_\n\n Boundaries demarked by the axe, 91\n\n Bouterolles of a Sword, 124 _n_\n\n Bowie-knife bayonet, 134 _n_\n\n Bow (derivation of the word), 19 _n_\n\n \u2014 of a Sword, 125\n\n \u2014 of Vishnu, the, 213\n\n \u2014 the, in Ancient Gaul and Germany, 274 _n_\n\n \u2014 and arrow among the Ancient Hind\u00fas, 215\n\n Bows and arrows used by the Ancient Romans, 245\n\n Bows, ancient Egyptian, 154\n\n Boxing, 7\n\n \u2018Boycotting\u2019 St. Paul, 185\n\n Bracch\u00e6 (breeches), 269 _n_\n\n Bracelet of copper, 73 _n_\n\n \u2018Brave Master Shoe-tye, the great traveller\u2019 3 _n_\n\n Brande or Bronde (Sword), 123\n\n Braquemart, 123\n\n Brass early in Christian era, 84;\n derivation of the word, 85\n\n \u2018Brass\u2019 guns, 56\n\n \u2018Brass\u2019 in the A. V. of the Bible, 56\n\n Breast-belt, gladiatorial, 253\n\n Breastplates of copper, 68\n\n Breeches (etymology of the word), 269 _n_\n\n Breitsachs (Ancient German weapon), 272\n\n Brennus, 267\n\n Bridal presents of Ancient Germans, 273\n\n Bridle of gold, 212\n\n Brise-\u00e9p\u00e9es, 138\n\n Britain (\u2018Ynis Prydhain\u2019 Island), 77 _n_\n\n British Sword in the Tower, 263\n\n Broad-axe (American squatters\u2019), 128\n\n Broadsword, various forms of, 96, 123\n\n Bronze, 22 _n_, 74 _sqq._\n\n \u2018Bronze Age,\u2019 22 _n_, 23 _n_\n\n \u2014 Age in Britain, 275\n\n \u2014 Age in Switzerland, 275\n\n \u2014 Age of Scandinavian Goths, 274\n\n \u2014 armlets, Etruscan, 30\n\n \u2014 armour, 80\n\n \u2014 armour-suit (Roman cavalry), 248\n\n \u2014 arms of the Gauls, 267\n\n \u2014 arrow-heads, Carthaginian, 181\n\n \u2014 casting in, 80\n\n \u2014 chisels, 79\n\n \u2014 daggers, 78 _n_, 80\n\n \u2014 defensive armour (Roman), 254\n\n \u2014 derivation of the word, 77\n\n \u2014 door-sockets, Assyrian, 202\n\n \u2014 hardening of, 53\n\n \u2014 hatchets in wooden handles, 154\n\n \u2014 in Great Britain, source of, 275\n\n \u2014 knives, 80\n\n \u2014 lancehead at Mycen\u00e6, 230\n\n \u2014 nails, 82\n\n \u2014 parazonium, 239\n\n \u2014 quadriga, 80\n\n \u2014 rapier in Ireland, 279 _n_\n\n \u2014 sabres, 80\n\n \u2014 socketed sickle (British), 276\n\n \u2014 statues (Etruscan), 80\n\n \u2014 Swords, 45, 78 _n_, 80;\n found in Britain, 276 _sq._;\n Gallic, 266;\n found at Hallstadt, 262 _sq._;\n of Italy, 264;\n at Mycen\u00e6, 229 _sq._\n\n \u2014 Sword-hilt (Etruscan), 197\n\n \u2014 supplied from Ph\u0153nicia to Europe, 78 _n_\n\n \u2014 tablet, Hittite, 176\n\n \u2014 work, Assyrian, 202\n\n Buccinatores (musicians: Roman), 248\n\n \u2018Buccularius clypeus\u2019 (= buckler), 246 _n_\n\n Buckler (etymology of the word), 246 _n_\n\n \u2014 of ox-hide, Roman, 248\n\n Bucklers of osier (for recruits: Roman), 249\n\n Buckles of a Sword, 124 _n_\n\n Buddhism, 213\n\n Budil, King of Assyria, 208\n\n Buffalo, its manner of attack, 9;\n arrows made of buffalo-horn, 28\n\n Bull-fights, Spanish, 253\n\n Bull (wild), its manner of attack, 9\n\n Bulwark (portable bridge for sieges), 154\n\n Burbur inscriptions (Babylonia), 199\n\n Burgw\u00e4lle, 271\n\n Burial as a method of making steel, 265\n\n Burmese Dalwel (Sword), 219\n\n Burying of iron, 107 _n_, 112\n\n Buttons of gold in Troas, 193\n\n Byzantine (?) finds at Mycen\u00e6, 106\n\n\n Cabiri (Kabeiroi), 74 _sq._\n\n Cadmeian (old Ph\u0153nician) characters, 225\n\n _Cadmia fossilis_ (natural calamine), 86\n\n Cadmian stone, 86\n\n Cadmus (_El-Kadim_, or _El-Kadmi_), 60\n\n C\u00e6sar\u2019s treatment of his soldiers, 260\n\n Caillouteurs (flint-knappers), 45 _n_\n\n Calamine (carbonate of zinc), 71, 84;\n derivation of the word, 84\n\n Calasiri (Egyptian bowmen), 152\n\n Caledonia (etymology of the word), 275\n\n Calisthenics, Greek, 239\n\n Callua (paddle), 42\n\n Calones (camp-followers: Roman), 249\n\n Caltrops (bamboo splints of Gaboon-land), 14\n\n Camel (the kick of the), 7\n\n Cambyses, 209, 211\n\n Camp-followers (Roman), 249\n\n Campidoctores, 249 _n_\n\n Canaanite (meaning of the word), 175 _n_\n\n Canaanites, 182\n\n Cane bows and arrows, Ancient Indian, 211\n\n Canes used as bellows, 68\n\n Canna (\u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1; whence \u2018cannon\u2019), 14 _n_\n\n Cannelure (of a Sword), 132\n\n Cannon (derivation of the word), 14 _n_\n\n \u2014 of iron first cast, 117 _n_\n\n Cannons of gold (Baroda), 162 _n_\n\n Canticles of Solomon, the, 147\n\n Capoeira (Brazilian fashion of fighting), 254\n\n Capulus (Sword-pommel: Roman), 257 _n_\n\n \u2018Carbad scarrda\u2019 (Irish war-car), 277\n\n _Carcharias vulpes_ (fox-shark), 7;\n derivation of _Carcharias_, 7 _n_\n\n Carchemish inscription, 177\n\n Carian weapons, 211;\n (?) at Mycen\u00e6, 231 _n_\n\n \u2014 words, 231 _n_\n\n Carpenter\u2019s tools of copper, 67\n\n Carpentras Inscription, the, 209 _n_\n\n Carpentry in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Carpentum (war-chariot), 269\n\n Carpicanna, 14 _n_\n\n Carthaginian mining operations, 107\n\n \u2014 names, 181\n\n \u2014 Sword-blades, 181\n\n _Caryota urens_ (_Nibong_; sago-wood), 6, 23\n\n Cartouche (_cartuccia_; meaning of the word), 40 _n_\n\n Cast-copper axe, 69\n\n Caspians, 210\n\n _Cassia auriculata_, 111\n\n Cassiterides, 78 _sq._\n\n Cassowary (its method of attack), 12\n\n Casting (of metal) among the Ancient Greeks, 221\n\n Cast-iron slab in Sussex (14th century), 117 _n_\n\n \u2014 steel, 114 _n_\n\n Catalan forge, 102 _n_, 111;\n furnace, 107\n\n Catamaran (Tasmania), 40\n\n Catapults (of Roman army), 248 _sq._\n\n Cateia (boomerang club), 35, 269\n\n \u2014 meaning of the word, 35 _n_\n\n _Catoblepas Gnu_, 9\n\n Cats (domestic, among the Nile-dwellers), 3 _n_\n\n Cavalier and Roundhead, 277 _n_\n\n Cavalry, Hittite, 176\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egypt, 154\n\n \u2014 Roman, 246 _n_, 248\n\n Caverns (as dwellings, storehouses, sepulchres), 15 _n_\n\n \u2014 French and Belgian, 1 _n_\n\n Cave-temples (Indian), the Sword in, 216\n\n Celestial Empire, the annals of the, 112 _sq._ _n_\n\n Celt, of gold, 212;\n expanding, 270;\n transition from, to paddle-spear and Sword forms, 41\n\n Celte (in Job), 20 _n_\n\n Celtiberian iron Swords, 107;\n weapons, 265\n\n Celtis (or _celtes_ = a chisel), 20 _n_\n\n Celts (the proper orthography), 20 _n_;\n celts of copper, 57;\n of stone, 154\n\n Census, Hebrew, 185\n\n Centre of percussion, 129\n\n Centurion\u2019s cuirass, 248\n\n Ceramics in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Cerbotana, 14 _n_\n\n Ceretolo, sepulchre at, 196\n\n Cestus (knuckle-duster of the classics), 7\n\n Cestus-play, 254\n\n Cetian or Keteian (in Homer), 172\n\n Cetra (Roman shield), 246\n\n Ch\u00e6todon (archer fish of Japan), 7\n\n Chakarini (war-quoit), 39 _n_\n\n Chakr\u00e1 (war-quoit), 39\n\n Chalcitic (copper and bronze) Age, 5 _n_\n\n Chalcedony dagger-blade, 46;\n splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Chalcolibanon, 85\n\n Chalcos (= Sword, in Homer), 222\n\n Chald\u00e6an gods, 207\n\n \u03a7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 (meaning of the word), 58\n\n \u03a7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2 (\u2018copper threshold\u2019), 55\n\n Chalybes (iron-workers), 76\n\n \u2018Chalybian stranger\u2019 (= the Sword), 97\n\n Chalybs (river), 97 _n_\n\n Chalyps (steel), 221\n\n Character of Ancient Gauls, 269 _sq._\n\n Charay (Afghan Sword), 212\n\n Charms (Chinese) of copper, 64\n\n Chape of a Sword, 124;\n of a dagger, 124 _n_\n\n Charay (one-edged knife: Afghan), 161 _n_\n\n Charcoal in iron-smelting, 107\n\n Chariot-corps (Ancient Egypt), 154\n\n Chariots of iron, 103\n\n Chairs in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Charonion of Antioch, 241 _n_\n\n Chasing (of metals), 81\n\n Chayantanka (tin: Peruvian), 83\n\n Chelidonian sabre (\u03c7\u03b5\u03bb\u03b9\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03be\u03af\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2), 141\n\n Chemosh (Moabite god), 192 _n_\n\n Chereb (Hebrew weapon), 180, 183, 184\n\n Chert arrow-heads, 25\n\n Chert-splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Cherubim (etymology of the word), 183\n\n Cherusci (ancient German tribe), 271\n\n Chess (showing Hind\u00fa form of attack), 218, 273 _n_\n\n Chess in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2018Chevaucher,\u2019 meaning of, and Greek equivalents, 242 _n_\n\n Chevaux-de-frise, 14\n\n Chile copper the toughest, 68\n\n Chinese (ancient) arms of metal, 63\n\n \u2014 form of Sword-staff, 273\n\n \u2014 iron-works, 115\n\n \u2014 language, 113\n\n \u2014 methods of working iron, 114\n\n \u2014 sabre-knife, 139\n\n \u2014 steel for Swords and knives, 115\n\n \u2014 Sword of copper (afterwards of iron), 64\n\n \u2014 words for iron, 112 _sq._\n\n Chisels of chalcos, 63;\n of stone and copper, 67\n\n \u2014 of iron (Etruscan), 197\n\n Chittim (= Cyprus: Hebrew), 187\n\n Chlorite splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Chonta wood (_Guilielma speciosa_), 42\n\n Chopper-blade (Roman), 257\n\n \u2014 knife, Hittite, 176\n\n Choppers, Egyptian, 161\n\n Chopper-shaped blade at Mycen\u00e6, 229\n\n Christianity in the Indian Peninsula, 219 _n_\n\n Chrysaor, 180\n\n Chrysochalcos (\u2018the king of metals\u2019), 86 _n_\n\n Chrysocolla (derivation of the word), 85 _n_\n\n Cidaris or tiara, Persian, 209\n\n Cimbri, a Keltic people, 273\n\n Cinctorium (Roman general\u2019s Sword), 257\n\n Cingulum (waist-belt: Roman), 258\n\n Cinyras (legendary Tyrio-Cyprian king), 188\n\n Circumcision an African practice, 150\n\n \u2014 stone knives used in, 46, 69\n\n City of Priam (Troas), 190\n\n Cladibas (claidab), 266 _n_\n\n Claidab (= Spatha), 196\n\n Classes of Hind\u00fa weapons, 214\n\n Claymore, 123, 130\n\n Cleaver of the Habshi people, 170\n\n \u2018Close-Sword,\u2019 Roman, 258\n\n Clothes-pins in the Troas, 191\n\n Club, 20, 32\n\n \u2014 development into the Sword, 39 _sq._\n\n Club-Swords, 32 _n_;\n Queensland, 44\n\n Clubs of copper, 67\n\n Cluden (juggler\u2019s Sword), 258\n\n Clypeus (Roman shield), 246 _n_\n\n Cobalt (in Ireland), 65\n\n Cock-fighting in the Canary Islands, 254 _n_\n\n Codicilli (tablets), 225\n\n Coffins of granite, 81\n\n Cohorts (of Roman army), 246 _n_\n\n Coin of copper and zinc, 84\n\n Colchians, 210\n\n Cold-wrought (hammered) copper weapons, 65\n\n Colichemarde blade, 135\n\n \u2018Collery\u2019 (throwing-stick), 38\n\n Colophonium (resin used for soldering), 85 _n_\n\n Colossal Greek statues, 241 _n_\n\n _Coluber Haja_ (Cobra di Capello; asp), 33 _n_\n\n Combats of various animals, 9\n\n Comb found in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Combinations (earliest) of metals, 74 _sqq._\n\n Comitialis morbus, 260 _n_\n\n Comparison of Man and the lower animals, 5\n\n Confederacy of Etruscan cities, 194\n\n Cong copper mines, 169\n\n Congo Sword, 165\n\n Contus (Roman cavalry spear), 246, 248\n\n Contus (wooden pike), Gallic, 269\n\n _Convolvulus lanifolius_, 111\n\n Coot (its method of attack), 12\n\n Copenhagen scramsahs, 272 _n_\n\n Copper, 22 _n_, 30;\n alloys, 53, 57;\n the art of hardening it, 53 _sq._;\n cutting instruments of, 54 _n_;\n copper prior to iron, 55\n\n Copper Age (of weapons), 53;\n anterior to bronze, 72\n\n \u2014 and brass (alloy), 84\n\n \u2014 and gold (alloy), 83\n\n \u2014 and tin (alloy), 81\n\n \u2014 arms and armour, Ancient Hellenic, 222\n\n \u2014 arrow-piles, 65\n\n \u2014 bracelet, 72 _n_\n\n \u2014 celts, 57, 72\n\n \u2014 coinage (Chinese), 64;\n of the Hindus, 70\n\n \u2014 hatchets, 65;\n rakes and hammers, _ib._;\n vases, 68\n\n \u2014 in Europe, 64;\n in America, 65 _sqq._\n\n \u2014 knives, Trojan, 191\n\n \u2014 mines, Chile, 68;\n Midian, 102;\n of South-Eastern Africa, 170 _n_\n\n \u2014 nails (Greenland, &c.), 65\n\n \u2014 placed in a corpse\u2019s mouth, 68\n\n \u2014 sheets for flooring (ancient), 55\n\n \u2014 statuettes (coated with precious metals), 67\n\n \u2014 Swords, 70;\n in Troas, 192\n\n \u2014 tools in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 69\n\n \u2014 trumpets, 221\n\n Copper-trade of Cyprus, 188\n\n \u2018Cops\u2019 (of metal), 111\n\n Coptic language, 146\n\n Coquimbite (Pampua or white copperas), 68\n\n Core-casting (of metal), 221\n\n Cornicines, 248\n\n Cornu (musical instrument: Roman), 248\n\n Cornwall, mineral fields of, 275\n\n Coronarium (copper coated with ox-gall), 87\n\n Corrugated iron blades, 119 _n_\n\n Corrugated Sword of Africa, 171\n\n Corsican forge, 102 _n_\n\n Corundum in Midian, 171 _n_\n\n Corybantes, 74 _sq._\n\n Cosmogony, Hebrew, 148 _sq._\n\n Cotton dresses, Ancient Indian, 211\n\n _Cottus diceraus_, 10\n\n Counterfeit pearls in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Counterguard of a Sword, 125, 138\n\n Coupe-choux Sword, 134, 164\n\n Coustilliers, 185\n\n Coustrils or Custrils, 185\n\n Couteau-de-chasse, 210\n\n Covinus (war-chariot), 269\n\n Cow (its method of defence), 7\n\n Crane, white (American bird), 9\n\n Crannog (its derivation), 27\n\n Crease (= Kr\u00eds, Malay weapon), 137, 166\n\n Creation, Hebrew idea of, 148 _sq._\n\n Cremation in the Early Bronze Age, 96\n\n \u2014 (of bodies) at Mycen\u00e6, 234\n\n Crepitaculum (sacred rattle), 151\n\n Crests (in heraldry), 40 _n_\n\n Cretans (\u1f00\u03b5\u1f76 \u03c8\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9), 97 _n_\n\n Crickets (_cicad\u00e6_) as ornaments at Mycen\u00e6, 233\n\n Crimea, Scythian graves in the, 227\n\n Cross of the Coptic Christians, 192 _n_\n\n Crossbow, 19 _n_, 165\n\n \u2014 rat-trap, 37 _n_\n\n Cross guard of a Sword, 125\n\n Crucibles (at Schliemann\u2019s Troy), 82\n\n \u2014 four-footed, in the Troas, 191\n\n Crucifixion (Assyrian punishment), 203\n\n Cruelties of the Assyrians, 203\n\n Cruithing (= Picts; origin of the name), 279 _n_\n\n Crusade, the First, 218\n\n Crutch and dagger (combined) of antelope horn, 12\n\n Crux ansata (Egyptian Cross), 192 _n_\n\n Crystal chips on spears, 51\n\n \u2014 lens (Nineveh), 202\n\n Crystal-cutting in Cyprus, 188\n\n Cuchillo (Spanish clasp-knife), 39\n\n Cuirass, Roman centurion\u2019s, 248\n\n Cultellarii, 185\n\n Culture in Troy, 193\n\n Cuneiform inscriptions (Bayrut), 200 _n_\n\n \u2014 syllabarium, 200 _n_\n\n \u2014 symbol for iron, 104\n\n Cuneus (tactical formation), 273 _n_\n\n Cupel (crucible; derivation of the word), 111 _n_\n\n Cupriferous sandstones, 67\n\n Cup-sling, 19\n\n Curetes, 74 _sq._\n\n Curium treasure, the, 189\n\n Currus falcatus (scythe war-car: Ancient Britain), 276\n\n Curtle-axe (= cutlass), 140\n\n Curved broadsword, 96\n\n \u2014 type of Sword, 127 _sq._\n\n \u2018Curved thrust,\u2019 133 _sq._\n\n Cushito-Asiatic (Ethiopian) tribes, 188\n\n Cuspis (point of a Sword: Roman), 255 _n_\n\n Customs of the Ancient Germans, 273\n\n Cut-and-thrust weapons, 123\n\n Cutlass, 123, 140, 211\n\n Cutting edge of a Sword, 129\n\n \u2014 or trenchant weapons (origin of), 12\n\n Cyanus (steel), 221;\n Dr. Schliemann\u2019s translation of, 222 _n_;\n of Pliny (lapis lazuli), _ib._\n\n Cybele (Dea Multimamma), 192 _n_\n\n Cyclopes, 75 _sq._\n\n \u2018Cyclopean Wall\u2019 (in the Argolid), 76\n\n Cylinder of gold at Mycen\u00e6, 229\n\n Cymbals at the feast of Rhea (in Varro), 58\n\n Cymbals of tin and copper, 81 _n_\n\n Cynocephali, 2\n\n Cyprian dagger, 173\n\n \u2014 Venus (worship of), 188 _n_\n\n Cypriote (Ancient) characters, 225\n\n \u2014 art, 187\n\n \u2014 contingent of Xerxes\u2019 army, 188\n\n \u2014 manufacture of arms and armour, 188\n\n \u2014 names of places, 188\n\n \u2014 syllabary, 188 _sq._\n\n Cyprus, its epithet _\u00e6rosa_, 58;\n derivation of the name, 59;\n account of, 186 _sq._\n\n Cyrus, 209\n\n\n Dacians on Trajan\u2019s column, 262\n\n Dacian Sword, 262\n\n Dagger (derivation of the word), 215 _n_\n\n Dagger-formed knives, 169 _n_\n\n Dagger-forms from Persepolis, 211\n\n Dagger-Swords, 166;\n Assyrian, 204\n\n Daggers, Assyrian, 205\n\n \u2014 of bone, 26\n\n \u2014 of bronze, 78 _n_\n\n \u2014 of copper, 79\n\n \u2014 of iron (Egyptian), 100\n\n \u2014 used by the Persians, 210\n\n \u2014 with rapier-blade (Theban), 195 _n_\n\n Dagon (etymology of the word), 181\n\n Dah (= D\u00e1o: Burmah), 140\n\n Dahome, Swords of the King of, 167\n\n Dalwel (Burmese Sword), 219\n\n Damascened steel, Cypriote, 188\n\n Damask-work (on weapons), 83, 110 _n_, 112, 151 _n_\n\n \u2018Damascus blade,\u2019 132, 142\n\n Damascus (Persian) scymitar, 265\n\n Damnameneus, 75\n\n Danish Scramasax, 263\n\n \u2014 Swords, 236\n\n \u2018Danisko\u2019 (African weapon), 163, 237\n\n Dankali Sword, 165\n\n D\u00e1o (weapon of the N\u00e1ga tribe, Assam), 140\n\n Darius the Mede, 209\n\n Dark Continent, chief weapons of the, 162\n\n Darts and stones (ancient Lybian weapons), 16\n\n David\u2019s sling, 19;\n his copper helmet, 70\n\n Deadbook, the, 147\n\n Dearg Umha (red copper; Keltic), 65\n\n Decalogue derived from the Dead-book, 150\n\n Decimal and duodecimal systems in Assyria, 202 _n_\n\n Deer-horn arrow-heads, 24\n\n Defensive armour of bronze, Roman, 254\n\n Defensive weapons (of Animals and Savages), 6\n\n \u2014 of the Cimbri, 274\n\n Degan (dagger: Cimbrian), 274\n\n Degen (kind of dagger: German), 215 _n_\n\n Degeneration of Roman soldiers, 261\n\n Deinotherium, 4\n\n Deities standing on animals, 176\n\n Denderah Zodiac, 155 _n_\n\n Densare (meaning of the term), 107\n\n Description of bronze Swords of Ancient Britons, 277 _sq._\n\n \u2014 of the Ancient Britons, 275, 277\n\n Devanagari alphabet, 189\n\n Development of Man, 5 _sq._\n\n \u2014 of the celt, 88 _n_\n\n Devil, the, 181\n\n Dha or Dhow (Indian knife), 219\n\n Dhanu (personification of the bow: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Dhanurvidya (Bow-Science: Indian), 213\n\n Dies Alliensis, 267\n\n Dimacheri (gladiators), 252\n\n _Diodon_, 44\n\n Diorite axe bored by means of a bow, 191 _n_\n\n Diorite (? basalt) implements at Mycen\u00e6, 53 _n_\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egypt, 171 _n_\n\n Dioscuri, 75\n\n \u2018Distaff-side\u2019 relationship, 188 _n_\n\n Divination in Assyria, 202\n\n \u2018Doctored\u2019 bullets, 26 _n_\n\n Dolche (daggers), 30, 273\n\n Dolls in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Dolphins in the Nile, 9\n\n Door-hinges in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Door-sockets of bronze, Assyrian, 202\n\n Double balteus (Roman), 258 _n_\n\n Double-edged Sword blades (Wahumla tribe), 169\n\n Double-headed eagle (at Eyub), 176\n\n Double-sided comb in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Dowris bronze, 87\n\n \u2014 copper, 53\n\n \u2018Dowris metal,\u2019 181, 276\n\n Dragon\u2019s blood, 87 _n_\n\n Dress-pins (women\u2019s) of copper, 67\n\n Draughts (game of) in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2018Drawing-cut,\u2019 131\n\n Duel of Manlius Torquatus and the Gaul, 267\n\n \u2014 origin of, 267 _n_\n\n Duelling weapons, 135\n\n Dumb-bells, 250\n\n \u2018Dunner-Saxen\u2019 (Lower Saxony), 272 _n_\n\n D\u00fcsack (weapon), 123\n\n\n Eagle, imperial, 246 _n_\n\n Early Iron Age in Britain, 276\n\n \u2014 \u2014 \u2014 of weapons, 97\n\n Ears of a Sword, 124\n\n Eastern heraldry, 140\n\n Edge of a Sword, 124\n\n EGYPT (Ancient), geography of, 145\n\n \u2014 architecture in, 148\n\n \u2014 art and science in, 147 _sq._\n\n \u2014 heraldry in, 147 _sq._\n\n \u2014 its military system, 152 _sqq._\n\n \u2014 its monotheism, 149\n\n \u2014 law code of, 147\n\n \u2014 music, painting, and sculpture in, 148\n\n \u2014 the cradle land of language, 146\n\n \u2014 the fountain head of knowledge, 147\n\n Egyptian arch, 201\n\n \u2014 choppers, 161\n\n \u2014 cutlasses, 211\n\n \u2014 daggers, 157\n\n \u2014 flag (five-rayed star on), 147 _n_\n\n \u2014 gilding (on bronze), 81\n\n \u2014 metallurgy, 80\n\n \u2014 names for the Sword, 123, 155 _sq._\n\n \u2014 phalanx, 155\n\n \u2014 Sphinx, 190 _n_\n\n \u2014 Swords, 157;\n in Cyprus, 189\n\n \u2014 word-roots, 146 _n_\n\n Egyptians (Ancient), their origin, 143 _sq._\n\n El-darakah (Arabic shield), 12 _n_\n\n Electricity, the marvellous displays of in Central Africa, 119\n\n Electrum (derivation of the word), 86 _n_\n\n Elephants armed with Swords, 216\n\n \u2014 Indian and African, 3 _n_\n\n Elephant-Sword, 216\n\n Elephant-trunk ornaments, 67 _n_\n\n Elephant (use of a weapon by), 3;\n its stroke or blow, 7\n\n El-Khauf maksum, 6\n\n El-Khizr (the Green Prophet), 179\n\n Emblems of the Egyptian nomes, 147\n\n Emu, 4\n\n Enamel, Assyrian, 202\n\n Enfield Sword-bayonet, 134 _n_\n\n \u2018Englishmen of Antiquity,\u2019 275\n\n English gladiatorism, 253\n\n Engraving on copper plates, 55 _n_\n\n Ensigns in Ancient Roman army, 246 _n_\n\n Ensis, 247;\n etymology of the word, 254\n\n Entering angle, 132\n\n Enthytonon, 19\n\n Epitaph of Eshmunazar, 179\n\n \u2018Epos of Peutaur,\u2019 101, 147\n\n Erin (etymology of the name), 192 _n_\n\n \u1f18\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, 144 _n_\n\n \u2018Erythr\u00e6ans,\u2019 the original, 182 _n_\n\n Escrime (fencing: derivation of the word), 272 _n_\n\n Essedum (war chariot), 269, 277 _n_\n\n Eshmunazar (King of the Sidonians), 179\n\n Eskimos, 3\n\n Espadon, 123, 161\n\n \u2018Esquimaux\u2019 (origin of the word), 3 _n_\n\n Estain (= stannum: Gall.), 65\n\n Esther (= Amestris), 210 _n_\n\n \u1f19\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1, 1 _n_\n\n Ethiopian stone-tipped arrows, 154 _n_\n\n Etruscan and Latin affinities with Lydian, 194\n\n \u2014 armilla of bronze, 196\n\n \u2018Etruscan Bologna,\u2019 196\n\n Etruscan commerce, 197\n\n \u2014 inscriptions, 197\n\n \u2014 iron lance-point, 196\n\n \u2014 \u0153nochoe, 196\n\n \u2014 razors, 202 _n_\n\n Etruscans (account of the people), 195\n\n Eucalyptus-wood sabres, 44\n\n Eunuchs, 206, 207 _n_\n\n Exchange of war-prisoners, Roman, 241\n\n Executioner, Assyrian, 207\n\n Executioner\u2019s Sword, 139\n\n Exodus of tribes from Ancient Germany, 270\n\n Expanding celt, 270\n\n Experiments in alloys, 83\n\n\n Fabri (Sappers: Roman army), 249\n\n Face-guard of iron, 258\n\n Facon or Cuchillo (Spanish clasp-knife, as a missile), 18\n\n Falchion of Ashanti, &c., 139;\n of Ancient Egypt, 155 _sq._\n\n \u2014 of Cilicia, 182\n\n \u2014 of gold, 212\n\n Falchion-shaped weapons, 32\n\n Falconry in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2018Falling on the Sword,\u2019 184 _sq._\n\n Falx (origin of the falchion), 253 _n_\n\n Famagosta (etymology of the name), 190\n\n Famous Swordsmen of old, 240 _n_\n\n Fancy Swords, Roman, 258;\n weapons, 204\n\n \u2018Fans\u2019 (= Mpangwe negros, Gaboon River), 37 _n_\n\n Feathers as military decorations, 247 _n_\n\n Fecial College, the, 244 _sq._\n\n Felid\u00e6 (their strokes or blows), 7\n\n Fencing-foil, 123\n\n Fencing-schools, Roman, 249, 251\n\n Fenni (Finns), 274\n\n Ferentarii (Roman soldiers), 245\n\n Ferro-manganese, 108\n\n Ferrum (= Sword; Roman), 254\n\n \u2014 candidum, 108\n\n \u2014 indicum, 107, 109, 110\n\n \u2014 sericum, 109\n\n Fenekh (= Ph\u0153nicians), 178\n\n Fibrolite-splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Fibul\u00e6 of copper, 72\n\n Field-marshal\u2019s b\u00e2ton, 33\n\n Figg (English prize-fighter), 253\n\n Fighting-cocks in Ancient Greece, 254 _n_\n\n Fil (of a Sword), 137\n\n Fil et pointe (cut-and-thrust weapons), 123\n\n Finds in Cimbrian barrows, 274\n\n \u2014 in old tumuli, 271\n\n \u2014 of Cyprian weapons, 188 _sqq._\n\n \u2014 of Dr. Schliemann in the Troas, 190 _sq._\n\n Fingal\u2019s war-cars (Ossian), 277 _n_\n\n Fir-bolgs (bag-men, Belg\u00e6?), 64\n\n Fir-cone, the, as an architectural ornament, 201\n\n Fire, 1, 2 _n_, 20\n\n Firearms among the Ancient Hindus (?), 214 _n_\n\n \u2018First Highlander,\u2019 the, 217\n\n Fist-sword (stiletto), 215\n\n First lesson in iron, 99\n\n Fishes (their means of attack or defence), 9 _sq._\n\n Five-rayed star (on Egyptian flag), 147 _n_\n\n Flagellum (gladiatorial scourge), 253\n\n Flail, 20\n\n Flails used as weapons, 95\n\n Flamberg, Flammberg, Flamberge, 123, 136\n\n \u2018Flaming Sword\u2019 (of the Cherubim: Eden), 183\n\n \u2018Fleam-money\u2019 (among the Fans), 118\n\n Flint-ateliers (ancient), 102\n\n Flint-flakes, 13;\n knives, 20;\n \u2018Swords,\u2019 45\n\n Flint-knappers (_caillouteurs_), 45\n\n Flint poniards, 46;\n hatchet-sabre, _ib._\n\n Flissa (weapon: North Africa), 123, 163, 237, 265\n\n \u2018Flood,\u2019 the, 149\n\n Fluxing (method of treating ores), 65\n\n Foil with French guard, 133\n\n Foining weapon, 123\n\n \u2018Fonderia di Bologna,\u2019 196 _n_\n\n \u2018Forethought,\u2019 1\n\n Forges, 102\n\n Forked blade, 141\n\n Forked Sword (Assyria), 141\n\n Fortifications, Assyrian, 203\n\n Fox-shark (Thresher; _Carcharias vulpes_), 7\n\n Framea (derivation of the word), 270 _n_\n\n Fram\u00e9e, the oldest, 270\n\n Francisque or taper axe, 94\n\n Frankish Italians, 270 _n_\n\n \u2014 spear-blade, 171\n\n Franks (meaning of the name), 271\n\n French fencing-foil, 124\n\n Fronstetten scramsahs, 272 _n_\n\n Fuel used in iron-smelting, 121\n\n Funda (sling of the Etruscans), 245\n\n Funeral urns of copper, 69\n\n Fur-coats, Gallic, 269\n\n Furnace-calamine (impure oxide of zinc), 86\n\n Furnaces (Indian) for iron-smelting, 111 _n_\n\n Fuscina (gladiatorial weapon), 253\n\n Fusil Gras, 134\n\n Fuss\u00e4ngel, 1\n\n Fustanella (kilt), 247 _n_\n\n \u2018Fustibale\u2019 (fustibulus), 19\n\n Future state, Egyptian ideas of a, 150\n\n Fylfot (crutched cross: North of Europe), 202 _n_\n\n\n Gabbro-Splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n G\u00e6sum (Roman weapon), 246 _n_, 268\n\n G\u00e6sat\u00e6 (= hastati), 268 _n_\n\n Galat\u00e6 (= Roman term _Galli_), 238 _n_\n\n \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 (etymology of the word), 266 _n_\n\n Galla Sword, 163\n\n Gallia Comata, 269;\n Bracchata, _ib._;\n Togata, 270\n\n Gallic daggers, 267\n\n \u2014 Italians, 270 _n_\n\n \u2014 javelins, 268\n\n \u2014 machair\u00e6-blades, 266\n\n \u2014 manner of battle, 269\n\n \u2018Gallic Sword,\u2019 254, 266\n\n Gallic women in battle, 269\n\n Gallo-Greek (= Galatians, Keltic Gauls), 238 _n_\n\n \u2014 Swords, 238\n\n Ga-ne-u-ga-o-dus-ha (Iroquois deer-horn war-club), 28\n\n Gardening in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Gasterosteus (\u2018stickleback\u2019), 10\n\n Gastrapheta, 19\n\n Gath (its site), 186\n\n Gaulish element in Etruria (?), 196 _sq._\n\n Gaza (site of), 186\n\n Gem-engraving, Assyrian, 202\n\n \u2014 in Cyprus, 188\n\n General \u2018No Importa\u2019 (Spanish), 261\n\n Generals, first duty of, 260 _n_\n\n Genii of Death (Egyptian), 149\n\n Geography of Ancient Egypt, 145\n\n Geometry in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2014 in Assyria, 202 _n_\n\n Georgic (age of primitive Arch\u00e6ology), 5 _n_\n\n German Empire, 270\n\n \u2014 main-gauche, 136\n\n \u2014 silver (_packfong_; of China), 64 _n_\n\n Germani (Alemanni), weapons of the, 270\n\n Germania, Ancient (its land and people), 270\n\n Germanism, 270\n\n Gessum (meaning of the word), 268 _n_\n\n Get\u00e6 (Scandinavian Goths), 274\n\n Gharapuri (cave-town; Bay of Bombay), 217\n\n Gilding bronze, 81\n\n Giraffe (its kick), 7\n\n Girding on the Sword, 185\n\n \u2018Giving point,\u2019 127\n\n Gizzin (Assyrian weapon), 204 _n_\n\n Glacial Drift Age, 5 _n_\n\n Gladius, 247;\n etymology of the word, 254\n\n \u2014 Hispanus, 256, 268\n\n Gladiatorial shows, 249, 251 _sq._\n\n Gladiatorism, 249 _sq._\n\n Glaive (origin of the weapon), 89 _n_, 123;\n leaf-shaped, 165\n\n Glaives edged with sharks\u2019 teeth, 49\n\n Glass (derivation of the word), 48 _n_;\n used on spears, 48;\n the fable of its discovery by the Sidonians, 54\n\n Glass-cutting in Cyprus, 188\n\n Glass-making in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Gleditschia, 6\n\n Globe-fish, spines of, 24\n\n Glove, Hittite, 176\n\n Gnu (its method of defence), 9\n\n Goat standing on the top of a pin (figure at Mycen\u00e6), 233\n\n Goat\u2019s horns as volutes, 201\n\n Goddesses with mural crowns, 176\n\n God kings (= \u2018Dynasty of the Gods\u2019: Egypt), 145\n\n \u2018God save the King,\u2019 of Egyptian origin, 149 _n_\n\n Goidels (Gauls), 275\n\n Gold and silver ornaments in Cyprus, 188\n\n Gold Coast Swords, 167\n\n \u2014 coined by the Lydians, 194\n\n \u2014 dust at Mycen\u00e6, 229\n\n \u2014 Egyptian words for, 151\n\n \u2014 esteemed (by the ancients) less valuable than copper, 56\n\n \u2014 its representation in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 69\n\n \u2018Golden axe\u2019 of Ashanti, 167 _n_\n\n Golden bridle, 212\n\n \u2014 calf, the, 183\n\n \u2014 cannons (Baroda), 162\n\n \u2014 celt, 212\n\n \u2014 falchion, 212\n\n \u2014 hatchet, 89\n\n \u2014 plated wooden Sword-handle (Mycen\u00e6), 228\n\n \u2014 scymitar, 212\n\n \u2014 shoulder-belts (Mycen\u00e6), 228, 231\n\n \u2014 Sword-belt, 212\n\n \u2014 tiara, 212\n\n Goldsmith\u2019s work at Mycen\u00e6, 233\n\n Goliath of Gath (his armour of copper), 70\n\n Gol\u00eeyo (weapon: Baghirmi), 163, 237\n\n Gonfanon (its etymology), 246 _n_\n\n Gorillas, 2\n\n Goths, Scandinavian, 274\n\n \u2018Gr\u00e6cia mendax,\u2019 226\n\n Gr\u00e6co-Italic race, the, 186, 270 _n_\n\n Granite coffins, 81\n\n \u0393\u03c1\u03ac\u03c6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (its original meaning), 225\n\n Graver (pick?) in rock tablets (Wady Magharah), 61\n\n Graving-points, 171 _n_\n\n \u2018Great Armenia,\u2019 209 _n_\n\n Great Pyramid, the, 147\n\n Greaves, 247;\n of copper, 70\n\n Grecian Sphinx, 190 _n_\n\n Greek accents, 220 _n_\n\n \u2014 bronzes (analysis of), 82\n\n \u2014 cavalry Swords, 248\n\n \u2014 combatants, 240\n\n \u2014 epigraphs at Mycen\u00e6, 225\n\n \u2014 fashion of carrying the Sword, 239, 248\n\n \u2014 infantry Sword, 237\n\n \u2014 metallurgy came from Egypt, 105\n\n \u2014 statues, colossal, 241 _n_\n\n \u2014 tactics, 241\n\n \u2014 warfare, 241\n\n Greeks, the, as soldiers, 242\n\n \u2018Green copper\u2019 (= bronze: Chinese), 64\n\n Greenstone- (diorite-) splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Greenwood fuel used in iron-smelting, 112\n\n Grey copper ore (in Ireland), 65\n\n Grip of a Sword, 124\n\n \u0393\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03c6\u1f78\u03c2 (= throw-stick), 34\n\n Guanaco, 7\n\n Guanches (W\u00e1nshi; origin of the word), 16 _n_\n\n Guard plates (Sword), in Gaul, 257 _n_\n\n Guards of a Sword, 124\n\n _Guilielma speciosa_ (chonta-wood), 42\n\n Guilloche-scroll (architectural ornament), 202\n\n Guillons, 51\n\n Guisarme (Gisarme or Bisarme), 95\n\n Guitar (etymology of the word), 187 _n_\n\n Gules (in heraldry; derivation), 140 _n_\n\n Gunnar\u2019s bill, 95\n\n Gunpowder age (of weapons), 20 _n_;\n use of gunpowder, 31 _n_\n\n Gymnasia, Hellenic, 239\n\n Gymnastics of the Spartans, 240\n\n Gyno-Sphinx (Egypt), 190 _n_\n\n\n H\u00e2ches votives, 89\n\n Hades (derivation of the word), 221\n\n H\u00e6matite-splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Haft-J\u00fash (\u2018seven boilings\u2019 of metal: Persian), 221\n\n Hair-dyes in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Hairpins of bronze, 30\n\n Hair-shears (Roman) of _\u00e6s_, 56\n\n Halberts of copper, 67\n\n Hall-bard (Icelandic weapon), 91\n\n Hallstadt, finds of ancient weapons at, 262\n\n Halteres (dumb-bells: Roman), 250\n\n Hamasti (Sword-blade: Assyrian), 204 _n_\n\n Hamata (Roman armour), 248 _n_\n\n Hamathite Inscriptions, the, 177\n\n Hamatum (barb-head spear), 181\n\n Hammered iron-work in Mesopotamia, 104\n\n Hammers of copper, 67\n\n Hammer-wrought plating, 81\n\n _Hamus ferreus_, 14 _n_\n\n Hand-celts, 20\n\n Hand-hatchet, 88\n\n Hand-stones, 2;\n among the Hottentots, 17;\n among modern Syrians and Arab Bedawin, _ib._\n\n Hand-thrusting instruments, 133\n\n Hanger, 123\n\n Hankow-steel, 115\n\n Harbah (a dart: Arabic), 184\n\n Harness (derivation of the word),] 97\n\n Harp\u00e9 (\u1f0d\u03c1\u03c0\u03b7: etymology of the word), 180\n\n \u2014 of Cronos (Perseus\u2019 weapon), 180\n\n Harpoon-heads of reindeer-horn, 29 _n_\n\n Hastarii (Roman soldiers), 246\n\n Hastati (Roman soldiers), 246\n\n Hastile (Roman javelin: Virgil), 246 _n_\n\n Hatchet-boomerang, 38;\n -sabre, 46\n\n Hatchet of gold, 89\n\n Hatchets of iron in the \u2018Odyssey,\u2019 225\n\n \u2018Hathi\u2019 (\u2018the handed\u2019: Hindoo epithet for the elephant), 3\n\n Hauberks, Assyrian, 203\n\n Hauranic stone doors, 264 _n_\n\n Hawk-beaded Horus, 181\n\n Haye (military term), 245\n\n Heads of fallen foes kept as trophies (Gallic custom), 269\n\n Headsman\u2019s weapon, 139\n\n Hebrew arms and armour, 183\n\n \u2014 Iron Age, 103\n\n \u2014 lepers in Ancient Egypt, 174 _n_\n\n \u2014 metallurgy, 183\n\n \u2014 tenets borrowed from Egypt, 148 _sq._\n\n Heft of a Sword, 124\n\n Hegesias or Stasinus: his \u2018Kypria,\u2019 221 _n_\n\n Held (champion: German), 271\n\n Heliolatry of the Andes, 67 _n_\n\n Hellenes, their character, manners and customs, 239 _sq._\n\n Hellenic gymnasia and pal\u00e6str\u00e6, 239\n\n \u2014 reading of the Bards, 220 _n_\n\n Helmet of iron, in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Helmets, Roman, 246\n\n Henna-shrub (of Cyprus; _Lawsonia inermis_), 49\n\n Heph\u00e6stus (derivation of the word), 62 _n_\n\n Heraldry, Eastern, 140 _n_\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egypt, 147\n\n Hercules, 75\n\n Hercules\u2019 shield and Sword, 222\n\n Hereba (Ph\u0153nician weapon: = Harp\u00e9), 180\n\n Hermotybians (Egyptian soldiers), 152\n\n Hern (its method of defence), 9\n\n Herodotus (character of his work), 225 _sq._\n\n \u2014 on the age of Homer and Hesiod, 220\n\n Heroes of Greece, the age of the, 220\n\n \u2018Hero\u2019s arm,\u2019 the (Virgil), 254\n\n Herse (military term), 245\n\n Hesiod, age of, 220\n\n Hide-scabbard, 160\n\n Hierarchy, Jewish (whence borrowed), 150\n\n Hieroglyphic signs for iron, 99\n\n Hilt of a Sword, 124\n\n Hilts of Ancient German Swords, 272\n\n Hilt-guards of a Sword, 124\n\n Hilt-plate of a Sword, 124\n\n Hindiah or Hindiy\u00e1neh (= ferrum indicum), 107\n\n Hind\u00fa alphabet, 219 _n_\n\n \u2014 copper coinage, 70\n\n \u2014 metaphysics, 214\n\n \u2014 mythology, 219 _n_\n\n \u2014 names for steel, 110 _n_\n\n \u2014 sabre, 215\n\n \u2014 trial of Sword-metal, 110 _n_\n\n \u2014 warriors, 215\n\n Hippopotamus, its method of attack, 9;\n home of the, 205 _n_\n\n Hiram of Tyre, 182\n\n His\u00e1rlik, the finds at, 106, 190 _sqq._, 227\n\n History of Ancient Egypt, 144 _sq._\n\n Hithism, 176\n\n Hittites, 172 _sqq._\n\n Hittite boots, 176\n\n \u2014 bronze tablet, 176\n\n \u2014 hieroglyphs, 176 _sq._\n\n \u2014 language, 177 _n_\n\n \u2014 phalanx, 175\n\n \u2014 representation of the human figure, 176\n\n \u2014 seals, 176\n\n \u2014 syllabary, 176\n\n Hoang-ta-tie (the Chinese \u2018literary blacksmith\u2019), 115\n\n Holosphyraton (hammer-work), 221\n\n \u2018Holy City\u2019 of Miletus, 242 _n_\n\n \u2018Holy-water sprinkler,\u2019 20\n\n Homa (Assyrian \u2018Tree of Life\u2019), 202\n\n Homer, age of, 220\n\n Homeric names for the Sword, 222\n\n Homo Darwiniensis, 5\n\n \u2014 sapiens, 5\n\n Honeysuckle as an architectural ornament, 202\n\n Hoofs of animals used as armour, 29 _n_\n\n Hooked-edge (of a Sword), 138\n\n Hoplites (heavy-armed Greek soldier), 240\n\n Hoplology, 1;\n orders of, 6\n\n Hoplomachi (gladiators), 252\n\n Hoplotherium, 4\n\n Hor-Apollo (= Harpocrates), 191 _n_\n\n Hormuzd and Ahriman, 180\n\n Horn-helmet, 29 _n_\n\n Horn war-clubs, 24;\n other instruments, 27;\n horn-arm in Homer, 27;\n various implements, 29\n\n Horse, its method of defence, 7;\n known to the Ancient Egyptians, 152 _n_\n\n Horse-hoofs used as armour, 29 _n_\n\n Horus (Egyptian god), 178\n\n Hottentots, 3 _n_;\n origin of the word, 17\n\n House-furniture in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Human-headed bull, Assyrian, 203 _n_\n\n Human sacrifices in Ancient Egypt, 156 _n_\n\n \u2018Hunga munga\u2019 (weapon: Lake Chad), 37\n\n H\u00fcnnenringe, 271\n\n Hunting among the Ancient Germans, 273\n\n \u2014 Assyrian, 203\n\n Hunting-dresses in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Hurud (iron; Chald\u00e6an), 104\n\n Hydraulic pressure (an ancient form of), 54\n\n \u2014 \u2014 for hardening bronze, 81\n\n Hydraulics in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Hyksos (Shepherd-kings), 103, 173, 186 _n_\n\n\n Iapetus, legend of, 1\n\n Iberian Alf\u00e2nge (El-Khanjar), 29\n\n \u2014 blade (Spatha), 256\n\n Iberic blade in Rome, 197\n\n Icelandic Hall-bard, 91\n\n Ida (derivation of), 106 _n_\n\n Id\u00e6i Dactyli, 74 _sq._, 106\n\n \u2018Iliad,\u2019 metal-working tools in the, 221\n\n Ili (hand-sword: Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Imbricated armour, Assyrian, 203\n\n Imitation and Progress, 5\n\n Impedimenta (baggage: Roman army), 249\n\n Indian architecture, 219 _n_\n\n \u2014 gold coinage (?), 214 _n_\n\n \u2014 legendary myths, 213\n\n \u2014 sabres, 137\n\n \u2014 steel, 109, 218 _sq._\n\n \u2014 weapons, 185\n\n \u2018Indo-European\u2019 (applied to a language), 193 _n_\n\n \u2018Ineffable Name,\u2019 the (its origin), 149\n\n Infantry \u2018regulation\u2019 sword, 129\n\n Inflated skins (as floats for soldiers: Assyrian), 203\n\n Ingots of tin (Mexican), 82\n\n Inlaid iron saucer, 106 _n_\n\n \u2018Inner Sea,\u2019 179\n\n Innuit, 3 _n_\n\n Inscription (Assyrian) on a Sword at Nardin, 207\n\n Inscriptions (rock) traced with flint flakes, 49 _n_\n\n \u2018Inside-edge\u2019 weapons, 235, 237\n\n Intaglio\u2019d gold at Mycen\u00e6, 229 _sqq._\n\n Invasion of England by Anglo-Saxons, 275\n\n Iphicrates\u2019 improvement of Greek arms and armour, 237\n\n Iranian (language), 146 _n_\n\n Irish copper swords, 57\n\n Irish race (their origin), 65 _n_\n\n \u2018Iron Age,\u2019 22 _n_, 23 _n_\n\n Iron among the Aryans, 108\n\n Iron among the Romans, 107\n\n \u2018Iron-built\u2019 cities of the Ancient Hind\u00fas, 219 _n_\n\n Iron cannon first cast, 117 _n_\n\n \u2014 chain-armour, Assyrian, 203\n\n \u2014 chisels (Etruscan), 197\n\n \u2014 dirk worshipped by the Scythians, 226\n\n \u2014 face-guard, 258\n\n Iron-flakes, surface (Cape of Good Hope), 119\n\n Iron glance (specular iron, oligiste), 107\n\n \u2014 hasps and nails, 100\n\n \u2014 in Africa, 117\n\n \u2014 in Assyria, 105\n\n \u2014 in China, 112 _sq._\n\n \u2014 in Egypt, 100\n\n \u2014 in German myths, 271\n\n \u2014 in Homer, 108\n\n \u2014 in India, 108 _sq._\n\n \u2014 in Madagascar, 116\n\n \u2014 in the Pentateuch, 103\n\n \u2014 in Tacitus, 225\n\n \u2014 introduction of in Greece, 69, 97;\n derivation of the word, 97 _n_\n\n \u2014 keys at Mycen\u00e6, 106\n\n \u2014 knives, 100, 106\n\n \u2014 known to Homer and Hesiod, 221\n\n \u2014 on the American continent, 116\n\n \u2014 rare in ancient Germany, 271\n\n \u2014 sheaths for Swords, 222\n\n \u2014 sickle, 100\n\n \u2014 sling-bullet, 191\n\n Iron-smelting on the Libanus, 103\n\n Ironstone in ancient Bashan, 103\n\n \u2014 weapons, 52\n\n Iron Swords, Etruscan, 195\n\n \u2014 \u2014 of Italian tribes, 265\n\n \u2014 treated of by Aristotle, 106\n\n Iron-wood, 40\n\n Iron-working Age of India, 109\n\n \u2014 in Japan, 115 _sq._\n\n Italian foil, 124\n\n \u2014 poison daggers, 51\n\n Italy (modern), its two races, 270 _n_\n\n Iverapema (\u2018Iwarapema\u2019), 42\n\n Ivernii (Irish non-Celts: Ptolemy), 279\n\n Ivory-carving, Assyrian, 202\n\n\n Jacan\u00e1 (_Parra_; American bird), 9\n\n Jaculum (Roman javelin), 246 _n_\n\n Jade Pattu-Pattus, 25, 47;\n derivation of \u2018jade,\u2019 47 _n_\n\n Jadite (and jade) splinters for wooden swords, 47\n\n Janghiz Khan, 227\n\n Japanese blade, 139\n\n \u2014 copper, 64\n\n \u2014 ingots, 64\n\n \u2014 iron, 116\n\n \u2014 liquation of argentiferous copper, 83\n\n \u2014 stone-chopper, 52\n\n Jauhar (\u2018jewel\u2019 or ribboning of a \u2018Damascus\u2019 blade), 112\n\n Javanese blade, 215\n\n \u2014 sculptures, 218\n\n Javelineers, Roman, 248\n\n Javelins, 20, 66, 90;\n Ancient Roman, 246 _n_\n\n \u2014 for recruits, Roman, 249\n\n Javelin of the Samnites, 266 _n_\n\n J\u00e1y\u00e1 (mother of all weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Jeanne d\u2019Arc\u2019s Sword, 184 _n_\n\n Jehovah (Yahveh), its etymology and mystic meaning, 149 _n_\n\n Jewish coinage of copper, 70\n\n \u2018Jewish face,\u2019 the, 150 _n_\n\n Jewish manner of wearing the Sword, 184\n\n J\u00edzeh Pyramid, 100\n\n Joseph\u2019s position in Egypt, 103\n\n Judgment after death, Egyptian ideas of, 150\n\n Julian the Apostate (his armour), 258\n\n Julius C\u00e6sar as a general, 260\n\n Jumbiyah (crooked dagger of the Arabs), 29\n\n Jumbul-wood, 112\n\n Jutland, celts, &c., of, 274 _n_\n\n\n Kabeiroi (Cabiri), 74 _sq._\n\n Kabyle Flissa, 265\n\n Kachh\u00e1 (pig-iron), 111\n\n Kadesh, site of, 174 _n_\n\n Kakhi (brass), 87\n\n Kakku (Assyrian weapon), 204 _n_\n\n K\u00e1ma-Shastra (_Ars amoris_: Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Kanaruc, Temple of, 109\n\n Kangaroo (its method of defence), 12\n\n \u039a\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1 (Lat. _canna_; whence \u2018cannon\u2019), 14 _n_\n\n Kan-top, Indian, 204\n\n Kasabet (brass), 87\n\n Kasios (Zeus), 1 _n_\n\n Kaskara (Swords: Baghirmi), 162\n\n \u2018Kassiteros,\u2019 in Homer, 227\n\n Katuriyeh (? = Cateia: Gujar\u00e1t), 38\n\n \u2018Kawas\u2019 (hand-stone), 18\n\n Keil (wedge: cuneus) form of attack, 273\n\n Kelan (Hittite slingers), 175\n\n Kelmis, 75\n\n \u039a\u03ad\u03bb\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9 (etymology of the word), 266 _n_\n\n Keltic aborigines of the British Isles, 275\n\n \u2014 (?) finds at Mycen\u00e6, 106\n\n \u2014 Gauls, weapons of, 266\n\n \u2014 miners\u2019 tools, 107 _n_\n\n \u039a\u03b5\u03bb\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2, 266 _n_\n\n Kelto-Scandinavian swords (miscalled Anglo-Saxon), 139\n\n Kemi (meaning of the word), 145 _n_\n\n Kemite copper mines (in Midian), 102\n\n Keteian or Cetian (in Homer), 172\n\n Ketos (_Canis Carcharias_), 180\n\n Kettles of copper, 69\n\n Key-pattern (architectural ornament), 202\n\n Keys of iron at Mycen\u00e6, 106\n\n Khadga (Hind\u00fa Sword), 214 _sqq._\n\n Khanjar, 266\n\n Khanjar-dagger, 212\n\n Khanjar (Georgian weapon), 159\n\n \u2014 of Persia and India, 29\n\n Khesbet (metal connected with tin), 87\n\n Kheten (war-axes; Egyptian), 154, 158\n\n Khita (Hittites), 200\n\n \u2014 people, description of, 175;\n their armour, weapons, &c., _ib._\n\n Khita-land, the Sword in, 172 _sq._\n\n Khoi-Khoi, 3 _n_, 17\n\n Khnemu (gnomes), 75\n\n Khopsh (kopis; Egyptian Sword), 156, 266\n\n Khoras\u00e1ni blades, 114 _n_\n\n Kilt, ancient, 247 _n_\n\n King Blay of Att\u00e1bo, Sword made by, 142 _n_, 168\n\n King-crab (_Limulus_), 24\n\n King Koffee\u2019s umbrella, 167 _n_\n\n Kinn\u00far (Hebrew lyre), 187 _n_\n\n Kiny\u00e1 (arm-knife: Baghirmi), 162\n\n Kirab-sar (Hittite writer of books), 173\n\n Kiry (Kerry: Kafir weapon), 28\n\n Kit\u00e1r (Hind\u00fa weapon), 140\n\n Kleydv (Welsh Sword), 279\n\n Klingenthal Sword-manufactory, 132\n\n \u039a\u03bd\u03ae\u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c2 (Athenian weapons), 237\n\n Knief (ancient German weapon), 272\n\n Knife-Sword (Ancient Egyptian), 155\n\n Knife, the (preceded the saw), 13;\n as a missile, 18\n\n Knights of Malta: their Swords, 162\n\n Knives edged with sharks\u2019 teeth, 49\n\n \u2014 of iron at Mycen\u00e6, 106\n\n Knobkerries, 32 _n_\n\n Knob-stick (development into the Sword), 44\n\n Knuckle-duster (cestus of the classics), 7\n\n Kobongs (Australian tribal \u2018crests\u2019), 40 _n_\n\n \u039a\u03bf\u03c0\u03af\u03c2, not mentioned in Homer, 224;\n = Egyptian \u2018Khopsh,\u2019 235;\n the weapon of the Giants, and of the Amazons, 235 _sq._;\n peculiarity of the weapon, 236\n\n Kopis of the Gauls, 266 _n_\n\n \u2014 Spanish, 265\n\n Korah (Nepaul weapon), 265\n\n Koran-reading, 220 _n_\n\n Kordofan, rude kind of bellows in, 120\n\n Kr\u00eds (= crease: Malay weapon), 137, 166, 212\n\n Kukkri blade of Ghurkas, 236\n\n Kukkri or Gurkha Sword-knife, 39, 217 _n_, 265\n\n Kulbeda (weapon of the Nyam-Nyams), 37\n\n \u039a\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd, 1 _n_\n\n \u039a\u03cd\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (meaning of the word), 58\n\n \u2018Kurs\u2019 (bloom: of metal), 112\n\n Kurush (= \u039a\u1fe6\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, Cyrus), 209 _n_\n\n \u2018Kypria\u2019 of Stasinus, the, 221 _n_\n\n\n Labarum (Roman standard), 246 _n_\n\n \u039b\u03ac\u03b2\u03c1\u03b1 (= \u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2: Lydian), 89\n\n Labrandian Jove, 89\n\n \u2018La boxe Fran\u00e7aise,\u2019 254\n\n Lacquer or varnish (on metals), 84\n\n Lance, Assyrian, 202\n\n Lances of sago-wood, 23\n\n Lancehead of bronze at Mycen\u00e6, 230\n\n \u2014 of fish-bone, 23\n\n \u2014 of pure copper, 57\n\n Language, articulate (three periods of), 74 _n_\n\n Lanista (Roman _ma\u00eetre d\u2019armes_), 249\n\n Lapis lazuli (= cyanus in Pliny), 222 _n_\n\n Laqueatores (Roman gladiators), 210 _n_\n\n Larissa (lance, Middle Ages), 182\n\n Larnaca (etymology of the name), 187\n\n Lasso, the, in Ancient Egypt, 210 _n_\n\n \u2014 of the Roman gladiators, 210 _n_\n\n \u2014 South American, 210 _n_\n\n Lassos of plaited thongs (Persian), 210\n\n L\u00e1t (iron pillar of Delhi), 109\n\n \u2018Latchen\u2019-blade, 135\n\n Lateral blades (of a Sword) moved by a spring, 136\n\n Laterite, 118\n\n Latin blood in English race, 277\n\n Latrunculi (Roman game), 218\n\n Latten (derivation of the word), 85\n\n Laufi or Laf (Sword), 123\n\n Lava-splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n _Lawsonia inermis_ (\u2018kopher,\u2019 henna-shrub), 59\n\n Laws of the Visigoths, weapons in the, 272 _n_\n\n Lead, scori\u00e6 of, 82\n\n \u2014 and silver in Spain, 107\n\n Lead-bronze in Ireland, 276\n\n Leaf-shaped dagger and the rapier, connection of, 278\n\n Leather sheath (for Swords), 160\n\n Lebes-chauldron, 192\n\n Legion of the ancient Roman army, 245 _sq._\n\n Leiste (guard-plate: German), 272\n\n Lemovii (Pomerania), 274\n\n Length of Ancient Greek Swords, 238\n\n \u2014 of Ancient Indian Sword, 216 _n_\n\n \u2014 of Egyptian Swords, 159\n\n \u2014 of Roman spear (Tacitus), 271\n\n Leowel (pick), 37\n\n Lepers, Hebrew, in Ancient Egypt, 174 _n_\n\n Leptolithic age, 5 _n_\n\n Libyan (Ancient) weapons, 162\n\n \u2018Life,\u2019 261 _n_\n\n Ligaunians (Etruria), 196\n\n Lignarii (Sappers: Roman army), 249\n\n Limulus (king-crab), 24\n\n Linen at Mycen\u00e6, 232\n\n \u2018Line of direction\u2019 in a Sword, 129\n\n Lingua di bove (Sword shape: Italian), 166, 239\n\n Lion (its stroke or blow), 7\n\n Liquation of argentiferous copper (in Japan), 83\n\n Lis\u00e1n (\u2018tongue\u2019-weapon), 32, 154\n\n \u039b\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9, 144 _n_\n\n Litholatry, 1 _n_\n\n \u2018Live iron\u2019 (= loadstone), 102\n\n Livy\u2019s Phalanx, 246 _n_;\n Legion, _ib._\n\n Lix\u00e6 (camp-followers: Roman), 249\n\n Llama, 7\n\n Loadstone in the Troas, 191\n\n Long-handed Danish Sword, 274\n\n Long-hefted axe (Norman), 90\n\n Longobards, 271\n\n Long-straight Sword, 158\n\n Long-Sword, 161\n\n Lord High Treasurer\u2019s white rod, 33 _n_\n\n \u2014 Marshal of England\u2019s gold truncheon, 33 _n_\n\n \u2014 Steward of the Household\u2019s white staff, 33 _n_\n\n \u2018Lords of Asia\u2019 (the Persians), 209\n\n \u2018Lost Tribes,\u2019 the, 151 _n_\n\n Lotus, the, as an architectural ornament, 201\n\n Lucky and unlucky marks on Eastern horses, 216\n\n Ludus gladiatorius, 249\n\n Lusitania, abundance of metal in, 265 _sq._\n\n Lusitanian weapons, 266\n\n Lycian weapons, 182, 211\n\n \u2014 tongue, the, 187 _n_\n\n Lydians, account of the, 194\n\n Lydian stone splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n\n Macan\u00e1, 42\n\n Macedonian phalanx, weapons of the, 237\n\n Mace in rock tablets (Wady Magharah), 61\n\n Machabees (etymology of the word), 185 _n_\n\n Mach\u00e6ra (= Sword, in Homer), 224\n\n Machair\u00e6-blades, Gallic, 266, 268\n\n \u039c\u03ac\u03c7\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9 (Angl. Sax. Meche), 161\n\n _Machairodus latidens_ (sabre-toothed tiger), 9\n\n Madagascar iron, 116\n\n M\u00e1du or M\u00e1ru (horn dagger), 11\n\n Mahquahuith set with obsidian teeth, 67\n\n Magic in Assyria, 202 _n_\n\n \u2014 mirror of Perseus, 180\n\n Magnet (loadstone), 102\n\n Mail-coat on the Trajan column, 258\n\n Mail-coats of iron in the Rig Veda, 108\n\n Main-gauche, German, 136\n\n Malachite (derivation of the word), 62 _n_\n\n Malay kr\u00eds (weapon), 137\n\n Malga war pick, 37, 38\n\n Mall (weapon), 88\n\n Mallet in rock tablets (Wady Magharah), 61\n\n Malleable bronze, 57;\n copper, 66;\n iron, 98\n\n Maltese cross, 192 _n_\n\n Manchette, 12 _n_\n\n Maniples (of Roman army), 246 _n_\n\n Mantis (the fights of), 13\n\n Mantramukta (class of weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Manufacture of arms and armour in Cyprus, 188\n\n Manyuema Swordlet, 169\n\n Marac\u00e1 (sacred rattle: Brazilian Tupis), 151\n\n Marave iron-smelting furnace, 118\n\n \u2018Mar Jiry\u00fas\u2019 (Cappadocian saint), 181\n\n Mars worshipped by the Scythians, 227\n\n Martel-de-fer, 28\n\n _Martinezia ciliata_, 42\n\n M\u00e1ru or M\u00e1du (horn dagger), 11\n\n Maruduk (= Mars: Assyrian God), 207\n\n Marzabotto blade, the (Etruscan), 195\n\n Masks (papier-m\u00e2ch\u00e9) in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n \u2018Master Shoe-tye,\u2019 3 _n_\n\n Materialism, 261 _n_\n\n Mathematics in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Maushtika (fist-sword; stiletto: Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Mawingo-wings (_Pennisetum Benthami_), 12\n\n Mayence blade, 238\n\n Media, 209 _n_\n\n Medi\u00e6val sabres, 136\n\n \u2014 split Swords, 142\n\n Medicine in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Medinah Habu, temple of, 175\n\n _Melaleuca_ (swamp tea-tree), 40\n\n Melkarth (Ph\u0153nician god), 179\n\n \u039c\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b7 (ash-tree = a bow), 254 _n_\n\n Memnonium, the, 175\n\n Meri (New Zealand weapon), 26, 47\n\n Merodach (Babylonian god), 183\n\n Mesopotamia, iron work in, 104\n\n Mesopotamian astronomy, 200 _n_\n\n Metal in the Hissarlik remains, 106\n\n \u2014 replaces bone and stone in weapons, 50\n\n \u2014 scabbards, 222 _n_\n\n Metal-workers, a wandering race of, 275\n\n Metal-working (discovery of), 51\n\n \u2014 in China, 115\n\n Metallic value of Dr. Schliemann\u2019s finds, 233\n\n Metallo-lithic Age, 22 _n_\n\n Metallurgic \u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2, 74\n\n Metallurgy, Assyrian, 202\n\n \u2014 developed by ancient Egyptians, 151\n\n \u2014 extension of from Egypt, 63\n\n \u2014 of the Exodists, 56 _n_;\n origin of, 74\n\n Metals, archaic names of, 122\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Cyprus, 186\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Hellas, 220\n\n \u2014 in the Troas finds, 191\n\n Metamorphosis, 2\n\n Meteoric-iron chips for wooden weapons, 51\n\n Meteoric iron, 99\n\n Meteorolites, 99 _n_\n\n Method of warfare, Ancient German, 273\n\n Mica-schist dagger (natural formation), 47\n\n Mica-schist, mould of, 82, 191\n\n Midas-myth, the, 187 _n_\n\n Midian copper mines, 102\n\n Mihhili Mezzir (= Sahs), 272 _n_\n\n Milanese (modern), 270 _n_\n\n Milesians (origin of the name), 65 _n_\n\n Miletus, \u2018Holy City\u2019 of, 242 _n_\n\n Militarism of the Ancient Romans, 252\n\n Military discipline under the Roman Empire, 249\n\n \u2014 mining (Ancient Egypt), 154\n\n \u2014 tactics of Ancient Hind\u00fas, 218\n\n Milites (etymology of the word), 245\n\n Mimosa, 6, 32\n\n Mineral fields of Cornwall, 275\n\n \u2018Miners\u2019 hammers (= stone-pounders; Ireland), 65\n\n Mi\u00f6lner (hammer of Thor), 35\n\n Mirmillones, 251\n\n Mirrors (polished) of copper, 67\n\n Missile fishes, 7\n\n \u2014 weapons, 2, 6\n\n Missiles in the _Iliad_, 222\n\n \u2018Mixing bloods,\u2019 227 _n_\n\n Modern Irish, character of, 279 _n_\n\n Mohammed\u2019s Sword, 141\n\n Mokume (ornamental alloys), 83\n\n \u2018Money swords\u2019 (Chinese talismans), 64\n\n Mongol, a special race, 227 _n_\n\n Monkeys, (use of missiles by), 2\n\n Monomachia (intaglio of gold) at Mycen\u00e6, 234\n\n _Monodon monoceros_ (Narwhal or sea-unicorn), 11\n\n Monotheism of Egypt, 149\n\n \u2018Morning star,\u2019 20\n\n Morra (the game) in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Moses\u2019 cradle, 149\n\n Moslem two-headed eagle (heraldry), 176 _n_\n\n Mosul (the original Ararat), 202\n\n \u2018Mound-builders,\u2019 66, 116\n\n \u2018Mountain copper\u2019 (\u1f40\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd), 85\n\n Movable tower (for sieges), 154\n\n Mucro (edge of a Sword: Roman), 255 _n_\n\n Mud bricks, Assyrian, 201\n\n Muffle (crucible), 111 _n_\n\n Mukt\u00e1mukta (class of weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Muktasandh\u00e1rita (class of weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Mulciber (= Malik Kabir: Ph\u0153nician), 179\n\n Multibarbed or serrated weapons, 13\n\n Mummies, Quichuan, 67 _n_\n\n Mummy bodies at Mycen\u00e6, 228\n\n \u2014 skulls, 144\n\n Music connected with Lydia, 194\n\n \u2014 origin of, 15\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Mussel-shell (the original spoon), 47 _n_;\n and as a tip to a (thrusting) wooden Sword, 48\n\n Muzak (wrought metal: Hebrew), 103\n\n Mycen\u00e6, the discoveries at, 73, 82, 106, 227 _sq._\n\n \u2018Mycen\u00e6 spiral,\u2019 233 _sq._\n\n Mycenian goldsmiths, 85 _n_\n\n Mythological degradation on of Egyptian mysteries, 151\n\n\n Naharayn (Mesopotamia), 104, 172\n\n Nails of copper, 65\n\n \u2018Naki-ka-kausti\u2019 (a _spectaculum_ at Baroda), 8 _n_\n\n Names become by-words, 65 _n_\n\n Napoleon Buonparte and the Arabs, 186 _n_\n\n Naphtuhim (Thuhi = \u2018the fair people\u2019), 102 _n_\n\n Narwhal or sea-unicorn (_Monodon monoceros_), 11\n\n _Naseus fronticornis_, 10\n\n National weapon of ancient Germans, 270\n\n \u2018Native brass\u2019 opposed to \u2018yellow copper\u2019 (English) 56\n\n Native iron, 99;\n steel, _ib._\n\n Natural alloys, 66, 69\n\n N\u00e1yin (Mpangwe crossbow), 37 _n_\n\n Nebo (Mercury), 207\n\n Necklace-beads (Mycen\u00e6), 228\n\n Necropolis at Marzabotto (Bologna), 195 _sq._\n\n \u2014 in Valdichiana, 197\n\n Neo-Latin names for the Sword, 123\n\n \u2014 races, the, 270\n\n Neolithic age, 5 _n_\n\n Nephrite meri, 47;\n nephrite a cure for kidney disease, 47 _n_\n\n Nero, character of, 252 _n_\n\n Nickeliferous iron, 99\n\n Niello (_nigellum_), 83, 152\n\n Nile-dwellers, 3 _n_\n\n Nilotes, characteristics of the, 144 _n_\n\n Nimr\u00fad, Palaces of, 202 _sq._\n\n Nineveh, 200;\n discoveries at, 201\n\n Ninus, date of, 199 _n_, 200\n\n Nippers of copper, 68\n\n Njiga (weapon: Baghirmi), 163, 237\n\n Noah (original of the name), 149\n\n Noah\u2019s ark, 149\n\n Noahitic Deluge, the, 144 _n_, 149 _n_\n\n North beats South, 261\n\n North-European Sword not of Roman origin, 264\n\n Northumberland stone, the, 267\n\n Novacula, Cyprian, 189\n\n Nuggets (copper) as bell-clappers, 67\n\n Nuggets of iron, in Africa, 119\n\n Nuguit (Greenland weapon), 25\n\n\n Obelisks (method of forming them), 54\n\n Obsidian daggers, 46;\n splinters for wooden Swords, 47;\n black obsidian spear-head, 50\n\n Ocre\u00e6 (greaves or leggings), 247\n\n Odysseus (etymology of the word), 224\n\n \u2018Odyssey,\u2019 the, wrought iron in, 224\n\n \u0152nochoe, Etruscan, 196\n\n Offensive weapons (of animals and savages), 6\n\n Old Coptic language, 146\n\n Old Persian Sword, 139\n\n Old Spanish Swords, 265\n\n Oligiste (iron glance, specular iron), 107\n\n Ollaria (pot copper), 88\n\n \u2018Omphalos of the earth,\u2019 192 _n_\n\n Onager, 4;\n origin of the name, 20 _n_\n\n Ondanique (= ferrum indicum), 107\n\n One-handed Swords (Mexican), 67\n\n Onomatop\u0153ia, 4\n\n \u2018Oran-Banua\u2019 (men of the woods: Malaccan negrito aborigines), 14 _n_\n\n \u1f48\u03c1\u03b5\u03b9\u03c7\u03ac\u03bb\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd, 85\n\n Ore smelting (discovery of), 51\n\n Orichalcum, 85\n\n Orientation of corpses, 234 _n_\n\n Oriflamme, 246 _n_\n\n Original alphabet, the, 146 _sq._\n\n Origin of the Ancient Egyptians, 143 _sq._\n\n \u2014 (suggested) of the smelting-process, 118\n\n Orissa Sword (two-bladed), 141\n\n Or molu, 87\n\n Ornamental alloys (applied to Swords), 83\n\n Ornamentation, Greek, 221\n\n Ornaments in sepulchres at Mycen\u00e6, 234\n\n \u2014 set in bone, 29\n\n Osier-bucklers (for recruits: Roman), 249\n\n Osiris and Typhon, 180\n\n Osiris\u2019 ark, 149\n\n Ostrich-feather head-gear, 158 _n_\n\n Ostrich throwing stones, 3\n\n \u039f\u1f50\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9, 144 _n_\n\n Ourshol (= Melkarth), 179\n\n\n Pacho (club: South Sea Islanders), 48\n\n Pack-fong, 68\n\n Pactyans, 210\n\n Paddle (or original oar), 32, 40;\n paddle and spear combined, _ib._;\n development into the Sword, 42\n\n Paddle-sword (Peruvian), 66, 68\n\n Pagaya (sharpened paddle), 42\n\n Painting in Ancient Egpyt, 148\n\n \u2014 (origin of) 15\n\n Pakk\u00e1 (crude steel), 111\n\n \u2018Palace of the Atreid\u00e6\u2019 at Mycen\u00e6, 233\n\n Palace of the Forty Columns, 211\n\n Palaces of Nimr\u00fad, finds in, 202 _sq._\n\n \u2018Palace of Priam\u2019 (Troas), 191 _sq._\n\n Pal\u00e6olithic flints, 45 _n_\n\n Pal\u00e6oliths of Kelts of the British Isles, 275\n\n Pal\u00e6str\u00e6, Hellenic, 239\n\n _Palameda_ (Horned Screamer), 9\n\n Palestine (etymology of the word), 177\n\n Palintonon, 19\n\n Palladium of Troy, 1 _n_\n\n Palm-wood Swords, 43\n\n Palstab, 270\n\n Palstave, 20;\n derivation, 30 _n_\n\n Paludamentum (Roman officer\u2019s cloak), 245 _n_\n\n Palus, 250\n\n \u03a0\u03ac\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd (explanation of the epithet), 223\n\n Panimukta (class of weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Papacha (Quichuan god), 67 _n_\n\n Paphlagonians, 210\n\n \u03a0\u03b1\u03c1\u1f70 \u03bc\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u1fe6 (meaning of the expression), 239\n\n Parazonia (weapons), 161\n\n \u2018Parazonium\u2019 dagger, 239, 246\n\n Parazonium of bronze, 239\n\n Parchment, Assyrian, 201 _n_\n\n Parian (Arundelian) Chronicle, 105\n\n Parma (Roman shield), 246 _sq._\n\n Parmularians, 252\n\n Parrying-shields, 38\n\n Parrying stick (Africa and Australia), 12\n\n Partisan (medi\u00e6val weapon), 183 _n_\n\n Pas d\u2019\u00e2ne, 125 _n_, 166\n\n \u2018Paternoster\u2019 blade, 136\n\n Pathros (meaning of the word), 145 _n_\n\n Pattisha (two-bladed battle-axe: Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Patrick, St., 180\n\n Pattu-Pattus, 25, 47\n\n Pavoise (in sieges: Ancient Egypt), 154\n\n Pea-shooter, 14 _n_\n\n Pedila, 1\n\n Pelasgo-Hellenic race, the, 186\n\n \u03a0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2, 89, 90\n\n \u2014 \u1f00\u03bc\u03c6\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2 (_bipennis_), 271\n\n Pelusium (etymology of the word), 177\n\n Pennations (in sabres: Eastern and medi\u00e6val), 136\n\n _Pennisetum Benthami_ (Mawingo-wingo), 12\n\n Pennons, Assyrian, 203\n\n Pentaur (scribe of Ramses II.), 101, 147\n\n Percussion, centre of, 129\n\n Persea (Egyptian \u2018Tree of Life,\u2019) 202 _n_\n\n Perseus, 179 _sq._\n\n Persia, 209\n\n Persian cidaris or tiara, 209\n\n \u2014 akinakes, 210\n\n \u2014 archer, 209\n\n \u2014 cuneiform, 201, 203\n\n \u2014 headdress, 209\n\n \u2014 helmet, 209\n\n \u2014 origin of heraldry, 140 _n_\n\n \u2014 sculpture, 209\n\n \u2014 shield, 209\n\n \u2014 Sword (old), 139\n\n \u2014 war-axe, 273\n\n \u2014 warrior, 209\n\n Persepolis sculptures, 208\n\n Persians of Herodotus, the, 226\n\n Peruvian army, 66;\n nation, 66 _n_;\n derivation of \u2018Peru,\u2019 _ib._\n\n Peshawar sculptures, 218\n\n Phalang\u00e6, 32\n\n Phalanx of the Hittites, 175\n\n \u2014 Ancient Egyptian, 154\n\n \u2014 in Livy, 246 _n_\n\n Phalarica (fire-missile: Roman), 248\n\n Phaler\u00e6 (military decorations), 248\n\n Phallic theories, 114\n\n Pharaoh (meaning of the word), 145\n\n Pharsalia, C\u00e6sar at, 260\n\n Ph\u00e1sganon (= Sword, in Homer), 222, 230;\n etymology of the word, 223\n\n Philistia, plain of, 186\n\n Philistine (modern use of the word), 185 _n_\n\n \u2014 weapons, 185\n\n Ph\u0153nicia (etymology of the word), 178\n\n Ph\u0153nician art in England, 275\n\n Ph\u0153nicians, 178\n\n Phosphor-bronze, 53, 80\n\n Phosphorus mixed with copper, 81 _n_\n\n Phrygian tongue (a congener of Greek), 76 _n_\n\n Phrygian-type cap, 175\n\n Picks made of reindeer-antlers, 29 _n_\n\n Picrous Day (a Cornish festival), 79\n\n Picts (origin of the name), 279 _n_\n\n Pierced blade and sheath (Sword), 136\n\n \u2018Piercing-stone\u2019 (Babylonian Inscriptions), 171 _n_\n\n Piedmontese (modern), 270 _n_\n\n Pigeon-shooting, 253 _n_\n\n Pilani (Roman javelineers), 248\n\n Pile (arrow-head; derivation), 25 _n_\n\n Pile-dwellings of Olm\u00fctz, 24;\n of Laibach, 29\n\n Pilum (Roman weapon), 248 _n_\n\n Pilus (division of Roman army), 247\n\n Pinna used as arrow-heads and adze-blades, 47\n\n Pirhua (the first Ynka deified to a Creator), 66 _n_\n\n Piromis (meaning of the word), 144 _n_\n\n Pir (sun-heat), 1 _n_\n\n Pisoliths, 102\n\n Pivot-theatres, 250\n\n Plating (or sheeting) on wood or stone, 55\n\n Ploughshare (Roman) of _\u00e6s_, 56\n\n Plover of Central Africa (carries weapons in its wings), 9\n\n Plumbiferous scori\u00e6 in Spain, 108\n\n Plumbum argentarium (tin and lead), 88\n\n \u2018Plummets\u2019 in the Western Mounds, 116\n\n Point of a Sword, 139\n\n Poison daggers, 51\n\n \u2014 trees, 6\n\n Poisoned arrows, 26;\n bullets, 26 _n_;\n weapons, 9, 11\n\n Pokw\u00e9 or Poucue (weapon: Lunda), 169\n\n Poland (derivation of the name), 92\n\n Pole-axes, 92;\n Egyptian, 154\n\n \u2014 of silver, copper, gold, 67\n\n Pole, discovery of the, 200 _n_\n\n \u2014 (pillar: etymology of the word), 114 _n_\n\n Poles of war-cars armed, 277 _n_\n\n Polished mirrors of copper, 67\n\n Poly\u00e6nus on Julius C\u00e6sar, 260\n\n Polybius (his character as a writer), 245 _n_\n\n Pommel of a Sword, 123, 140, 159, 165\n\n Poniards of flint, 46\n\n Popular sports, 253\n\n Porcelain in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Porcupines \u2018shooting their quills,\u2019 3 _n_\n\n Pork, Jewish hatred of, 150\n\n Portable African bellows, 121\n\n \u2014 bridge (for sieges; Ancient Egypt), 154\n\n \u2014 shrines of Ancient Egypt, 150\n\n Post\u00edn (Slav and Afghan dress), 269\n\n Pot-copper, 88\n\n Pottery, in the Mayd\u00fam Pyramid, 61;\n of the Quichuans, 67 _n_\n\n Potter\u2019s wheel, invention of the, 119\n\n Poucue (weapon; Lunda), 169\n\n Prachtaxt (ancient German weapon), 273\n\n Prahiunamif (son of Ramses II.), 174\n\n Pramantha, 1 _n_, 202\n\n Prasa (spear: Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Prasine faction, 252\n\n Pre-Adamites (Moslem), 2 _n_\n\n Precious stones on Swords, 258\n\n Predatory fishes, 4, 7\n\n Prehistoric Ilium, 194\n\n Prester John, 163 _n_\n\n Prim\u00e6val language (Egyptian), 146 _sq._\n\n Primitive man, 3 _sqq._\n\n Primordial shipbuilders (the Cabiri), 75\n\n Principes (Roman soldiers), 247\n\n Prisse Papyrus, the, 147\n\n _Pristis_ (Saw-fish), 13\n\n Processes of making steel, 117 _n_\n\n Processional axe (German), 91\n\n Proci (Roman soldiers), 248\n\n Produce of Ancient Britain, 277\n\n Promachoi (Greek soldiers), 248\n\n Prometheus, 1\n\n \u2018Promised Land,\u2019 the, 178\n\n Prong-edge (of a Sword), 138\n\n Proportions of alloys, 83\n\n Proportion in length of blade and hilt-blade, 264\n\n \u2014 of man to animals, 5 _n_\n\n Proto-chalcitic Age (of weapons), 53\n\n Proto-sideric Age, 5 _n_\n\n \u2014 or Early Iron Age of weapons, 97\n\n Provinces of the bronze antiques of Europe, 276\n\n Prydhain (god worshipped in Britain), 77 _n_\n\n Pteropedilos (Mercury), 1\n\n Ptolemies, the, 209\n\n \u03a8\u03b5\u03c5\u03b4\u03ac\u03c1\u03b3\u03c5\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, 85\n\n Pucuna, 14 _n_\n\n Pugio (Ancient Roman weapon), 210, 256;\n derivation of the word, 257 _n_\n\n Pukhtu or Pushtu (Afghan language), 210 _n_\n\n Punctured wounds, danger of, 127\n\n \u2018Pundonor,\u2019 267\n\n Punishing prisoners by torture (Assyrian), 203\n\n \u03a0\u1fe6\u03c1, 1 _n_\n\n \u2018Purple copper\u2019 (Chinese), 64\n\n Pygmalion in Cyprus, 187\n\n Pyracmon (the Cyclop), 75\n\n Pyramid of Copan (Yucatan), 67 _n_\n\n \u2014 the Great, 147\n\n Pyrites, 1 _n_\n\n Pyropus (copper and gold alloy), 86 _n_\n\n Pyrodes, 1 _n_\n\n Pyrrhic dance, 239\n\n\n Quadrangular thrusting-blade, 136\n\n Quadriga of bronze, 80\n\n Quagga (its kick), 7\n\n \u2018Quarrel\u2019 (bolt of a crossbow), 25 _n_\n\n Quarter-staff among the Ancient Hind\u00fas, 215\n\n Quartz (and quartzite) splinters for wooden Swords, 47\n\n Quaternary Age in England, 275\n\n Quella (Khellay, iron: Peru), 67 _n_\n\n Quenching (of metal) with water, 165;\n with oil, 165 _n_\n\n Quichua language, 67 _n_;\n characteristics of the people, _ib._;\n mummies, _ib._\n\n Quillons of a Sword, 125, 164\n\n Quincussis (bronze coin), 264\n\n Quiris (= Hasta: Ancient Roman weapon), 246 _n_\n\n\n Races, changes in the conditions of, 243\n\n Racial names, 194\n\n _Raia trygon_ and _R. histrix_ (sting-rays), 11\n\n Rakes of copper, 67\n\n Rakshasas (demons: Hind\u00fa), 213\n\n Ram (in sieges: Ancient Egypt), 154\n\n Ramayana Epic, 190\n\n \u2018Ramrod-back\u2019 Sword, 133\n\n Ramses II., tablets of (Bayrut), 200 _n_\n\n \u2018Rank,\u2019 man of (derivation of \u2018rank\u2019), 140\n\n Ranseur or Ron\u00e7eur, 95\n\n Rapier, 123\n\n Rapier-blades, Etrurian, 195, 278\n\n Rapier in Ancient Britain, 278\n\n Rat-trap, crossbow, 37 _n_\n\n Razors, Assyrian, 202 _sq._\n\n \u2018Razor-women\u2019 of King Gezo (Dahome), 168\n\n Recruit-drill, Roman, 249\n\n \u2018Red bronze,\u2019 72\n\n Reed arrows, 28\n\n Regnum Noricum, 256\n\n \u2018Regulation\u2019 Sword (infantry), 129, 133\n\n Regulus (of metal), 107 _n_, 111\n\n Reindeer-antlers used as picks, 29 _n_\n\n \u2014 period, 27, 29\n\n Relief in gold and silver on Swords, 258\n\n Religion in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Repouss\u00e9e work at Mycen\u00e6, 233\n\n \u2014 work on Swords, 258\n\n Respect for the dead, 5 _n_\n\n Retiarii (Roman gladiators), 210 _n_, 251\n\n Rhinoceros-horn used for weapons, 28\n\n Rhinoceros (its armature), 9\n\n Riesenmauer, 271\n\n Riding practised by Ancient Romans, 249\n\n Rig Veda, mention of iron in the, 108\n\n Ring-money, 151 _n_\n\n Ritual of the Dead, Egyptian, 184\n\n Rock-inscriptions at Ibriz, 176\n\n Rock-inscriptions traced with flint-flakes, 49 _n_\n\n \u2014 tablets at Wady Magharah, 61\n\n Roman alloys, 84\n\n \u2014 fashion of wearing the Sword, 258\n\n \u2014 fashions adopted by Gauls, 269\n\n \u2014 helmets, 246\n\n \u2014 iron, 107\n\n \u2014 jurisprudence, 244\n\n \u2014 lacquered or varnished brass, 84\n\n \u2014 method of hardening and tempering tools, &c., 107\n\n \u2014 mining operations, 107\n\n \u2014 names for the Sword, 254\n\n \u2014 shield bordered with brass, 266\n\n Romans smelted copper in England, 71\n\n Roman soldiers, 259 _sqq._\n\n \u2014 Swords in England, 259\n\n \u1fec\u03bf\u03bc\u03c6\u03b1\u03af\u03b1 (Thracian weapon), 237\n\n Ron\u00e7eur or Ranseur, 95\n\n Rorarii (Roman soldiers), 245\n\n \u2018Rosa mystica\u2019 (of Byzantine art), 202\n\n Rosette, the, as an architectural ornament, 201\n\n \u2018Royal Commentaries of the Ynkas,\u2019 67\n\n Royal Swords, Assyrian, 205 _sq._\n\n Rubbings of Pharaohnic stone, 102 _n_\n\n Ruby copper, 85\n\n Rudis (rod or wooden Sword: Roman), 250\n\n Rugii (Baltic), 274\n\n Rumpia (weapon mentioned by Gellius), 237\n\n Runes engraved on a Scramasax, 272 _n_\n\n Runic inscriptions on Cimbrian weapons, 274 _n_\n\n\n \u2018Sabbatic River\u2019 (Pliny, Josephus), 178 _n_\n\n Sabbation (fabled river), 178 _n_\n\n Sabbaths, Assyrian, 200 _n_\n\n Sabine shields, 253 _n_\n\n Sabre, ancient forms, Greek and barbarian, 12;\n its origin, 32\n\n Sabres of eucalyptus-wood, 44\n\n Sabre-toothed tiger (_Machairodus latidens_), 9\n\n Sac\u00e6 (Shakas; Nomades: Scythians), 226\n\n Sacrificial blades, 217 _n_\n\n \u2014 knives of flint, 46\n\n \u2014 knives of iron, 100\n\n \u03a3\u03ac\u03b3\u03b1\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, 90\n\n Sagartian Nomades, 210\n\n Sagina gladiatoria, 250\n\n Sago-tree (_Nibong_; _Caryota urens_), 23\n\n Sagum (Roman soldier\u2019s cloak), 245 _n_\n\n Sahs, Seax, Sax (Saxon), 272\n\n Sailor\u2019s cutlass, 140\n\n Sakkarah pyramids, 144 _n_\n\n Samians, casting and soldering among the, 221\n\n Samnite weapons, 253\n\n Samnites, javelin of the, 266 _n_\n\n Samson\u2019s weapon, 24;\n tomb, 186 _n_\n\n Samurai (Japanese two-sworded man), 252 _n_\n\n Sandal of Perseus, 179\n\n Sanskritists and philology, 191 _n_\n\n Sanskrit, terms for iron in, 108\n\n Sappers of Ancient Roman army, 249\n\n Sarbacane, 14 _n_\n\n \u2018Sardian electrum,\u2019 87\n\n Sardones (Shardona), 175\n\n \u2018Sardonian linen,\u2019 175\n\n Sarissa (spear), 182, 237\n\n Sarpedon\u2019s targe, 192\n\n Satrap (etymology of the word), 226 _n_\n\n Satt\u00e1ra (= S\u00e1t-istara, the Pleiades), 8 _n_\n\n Satzuma copper (the best in the world), 64\n\n Saucer, inlaid iron, 106 _n_\n\n Saunion (Samnite javelin), 266 _n_\n\n Sauromat\u00e6 (northern Medes and Slavs), 227\n\n Savage worship of weapons, 162 _n_\n\n Saw-bayonet, 51, 137\n\n Saw, double-handed, of iron or steel, in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Saw-fish (its armature), 13;\n teeth of, 24\n\n Saw-kerf, 29\n\n Saws, Assyrian, 203\n\n Saxnot Zio (German Sword-god), 273\n\n Saxo (weapon of the Saxon or Sac\u00e6), 90 _n_\n\n Saxon blade, 135\n\n Saxones (ancient German tribe), 271\n\n Scabbard of pearl, 212\n\n Sc\u00e6an gates (Troas), 191\n\n Scaling-ladder, Ancient Egypt, 154;\n Assyrian, 203\n\n Scalping described by Herodotus, 227 _n_\n\n Scandinavian Goths and Vandals, 274\n\n \u2014 tactical formation, 273\n\n Scarab\u00e6i of diorite (Egyptian), 53 _n_\n\n \u2018Scatterer\u2019 (Sanskrit Astara), 38\n\n Sceptre-heads of copper, 68\n\n Scheme of battle, Homeric, 241\n\n \u03a3\u03c7\u03ae\u03bd\u03b7 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u1f70 (portable tent of the Carthaginians), 150\n\n Scherma (fencing: derivation of the word), 272 _n_\n\n Schl\u00e4ger (German weapon), 135 _n_, 139\n\n Schlegel on the \u2018Brazen\u2019 Age, 56\n\n Schleswig, spatha of, 272\n\n Schliemann\u2019s excavations in the Troas, 190\n\n \u2018Schweinskopf\u2019 (Ancient German tactical formation), 273\n\n Schwertstab (Sword-staff), 273\n\n Science in Egypt, 147 _sq._\n\n Scilly Islands (origin of the name), 78 _n_\n\n Scipio\u2019s fleet, arms supplied to, 198\n\n Scissors (etymology of the word), 272\n\n \u2014 of copper, 79\n\n Sclepista (Roman sacrificial knife) of copper (or bronze?), 56\n\n Scori\u00e6 of lead (at Schliemann\u2019s Troy), 82\n\n Scorpion (or onager), 19, 20 _n_\n\n \u2014 (whip-goad: Ancient Egypt), 157\n\n Scourge, Assyrian, 206\n\n Scramasax, Scramma Scax, 94, 223, 235;\n (derivation of the word), 272 _n_\n\n \u2014 from Hallstadt, 263\n\n Scramsahs, Copenhagen, 272 _n_\n\n Sculpture in Egypt, 148\n\n \u2014 (origin of), 15\n\n Sculptures of Chehel Munar, 211\n\n Scutum (Roman shield), 247, 253\n\n Scymitar, 123, 130, 139;\n etymology of, 126 _n_\n\n \u2014 among the Peruvians, 68\n\n \u2014 of gold, 212\n\n Scymitar-shaped Sword, 133\n\n Scythe-shaped Swords, 72, 95\n\n Scythes of copper, 72\n\n \u2014 used as weapons, 95\n\n Scythe war-car (of Ancient Britons), 276\n\n Scythian weapons, 227\n\n Scythians, 226\n\n Seals, Hittite, 176\n\n Sea-unicorn (Narwhal; _Monodon monoceros_), 11\n\n Seax (weapon = Saxo), 90 _n_\n\n Second chalcitic age of alloys, 74 _sqq._\n\n Sections of Sword-blades, 131\n\n \u2014 of thrusting Swords, 135\n\n Securis, 90;\n Danica, 274\n\n Semiramis, 207\n\n Semitic (language), 146 _n_\n\n Senonian Gauls, 267\n\n Sentinum, war-cars of Gauls at the battle of, 277 _n_\n\n Sepulchres at Mycen\u00e6, 228 _sqq._\n\n Sequence of metals\u2014copper, bronze, brass, 57\n\n Serpentine (stone), 47\n\n Serrated or saw-edged instruments, 13\n\n Set (Satan, the Evil Spirit of Egyptian religion), 149\n\n Sesostris, weight of the statue of, 54;\n derivation of the name, 174 _n_;\n date of, 199 _n_\n\n Seven-rayed star (on Turkish flag), 147 _n_\n\n Shairetana (Syrian people), 179\n\n Shah and Shahanshah (derivation of the word), 210 _n_\n\n Shak-ari (\u2018foe to the Shakas\u2019), 226\n\n Sham-fights, Roman, 249\n\n Shapes of Ancient Egyptian Sword-blades, 161\n\n \u2014 of cutting instruments, 132\n\n \u2014 of Sword blades, 126\n\n Shardana (Sardones), 175\n\n Sharks\u2019 teeth used to edge Swords, 49\n\n Sharpened stake, 21\n\n \u2018Shave-grass,\u2019 12\n\n Shear-steel, 114 _n_\n\n Sheeting (or plating) on wood, 55\n\n Sheet (or plate) iron-work, Assyrian, 105\n\n Shell-lac, 87 _n_\n\n Shell of a Sword, 124\n\n Shells as arrow-heads and adze-blades, 47\n\n Shepherd-kings (Hyksos), 103, 173\n\n \u2018Shepherd\u2019s plaid\u2019 in Central Africa, 269 _n_\n\n Shield, Australian, 20\n\n Shield-handles, 105\n\n Shield of Achilles, 223\n\n \u2014 of Ajax, 222\n\n \u2014 of Hercules, 222\n\n \u2014 with concentric rings (British), 276\n\n Shield-umbo, 248\n\n Shields as heraldic badges, 40 _n_\n\n \u2014 Hittite, 175\n\n Shinar, Plain of, 199\n\n Shotel (Abyssinian Sword), 163\n\n Shoulder-belts of gold (Mycen\u00e6), 228, 231\n\n Shovel-shaped base of spear, 170\n\n Sica (short Sword: Roman), 252\n\n Sicarii, 185\n\n Sicarius (\u2018assassin\u2019), 252 _n_\n\n Sicily (derivation of the name), 252 _n_\n\n Sickle of chalcos, 55 _n_\n\n Sickle-Sword (Ancient Egypt), 155, 161\n\n Sickle-throwing (in the Roman Campagna), 19\n\n Sickles used as weapons, 95;\n of iron, 100\n\n Sicula (= English \u2018sickle\u2019), 252 _n_\n\n Sideros indikos, 108\n\n Siderite (loadstone), 101\n\n \u03a3\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03c4\u03b9\u03c2 \u03bb\u03af\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 (magnet), 101\n\n \u03a3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (wrought iron), Hellenic, 221;\n etymology of the word, 221 _n_\n\n \u2014 \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03c3\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 (worked iron of Aristotle), 107\n\n Signa, in Ancient Roman army, 246 _n_\n\n Signet-ring in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Sigurd\u2019s Sword, 95\n\n Silepe (Basuto weapon), 94\n\n Sih-t\u00e1rah (Persian lyre), 187 _n_\n\n Silex, 1 _n_;\n Silex religiosa, _ib._\n\n Silex arrow-heads, 102 _n_\n\n Silex-flake knives, Hebrew, 184\n\n Silex-flake \u2018Swords,\u2019 45\n\n Silk-spinning in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n Silver and lead in Spain, 107\n\n \u2014 coinage at \u00c6gina, 194 _n_\n\n \u2014 dagger, Cyprian, 189\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egypt, 151\n\n \u2014 in Midian, 151\n\n \u2014 its representation in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 69\n\n \u2014 lead, 88\n\n \u2014 mines (ancient) of Peru, 67 _n_\n\n _Siluri_ (Welsen), 29\n\n Siljukian monsters, 176\n\n Simiads (use of missiles by), 2\n\n Sindi (Gypsies), 76\n\n Singhauta (horn dagger), 11\n\n Single-grooved claymore, 132\n\n Single-stick among the Ancient Hind\u00fas, 215\n\n Sinties (Sinti or Saii), 74, 76\n\n Sion, iron Sword discovered at, 197\n\n S\u00edvaj\u00ed (Prince of Mar\u00e1th\u00e1-land), 8\n\n Skeyne (Irish _scjan_), 27\n\n \u2014 (Sword), 123\n\n Skull-cap (namms), Ancient Egyptian, 204\n\n Slav (or German) Sword, 263\n\n Sling-bullet of iron, 191\n\n Slingers, Hittite, 175\n\n \u2014 in Ancient Egyptian army, 154\n\n Slings (various kinds), 19, 49\n\n Small handles of bronze Swords, 264 _n_\n\n Small-Sword, 123, 135\n\n Smelting, 65, 88\n\n Smith (derivation of the word), 77\n\n Snake (sacred), 1 _n_\n\n Socketed celt (Yorkshire), 276\n\n Socotrine Aloe, 6\n\n \u2018Solar myth,\u2019 191 _n_\n\n Solder (ancient), 85 _n_\n\n Soldered blades at Mycen\u00e6, 233\n\n Soldering among the Ancient Greeks, 221\n\n Soldering in Ancient Egypt, 151\n\n Soldiers\u2019 headdresses, Assyrian, 203\n\n Soldier\u2019s position in Hellas, 241\n\n Soleret (boot; 16th century), 175\n\n Solid scabbard of metal (German), 272\n\n Solomon Islands (nondescript weapon used in), 12 _n_\n\n Solomon\u2019s Temple, 182\n\n \u2014 Temple (the \u2018brass\u2019 in), 56\n\n Soma (_Asclepias gigantea_), 202 _n_\n\n Somal, 259\n\n Source of bronze in Great Britain, 275\n\n South American lasso, 210 _n_\n\n Southern Italians (modern), 270 _n_\n\n Sow-metal, 107\n\n Spade, 20\n\n Spalling (method of treating ores), 65\n\n Spanish (Ancient) Swords, 265\n\n \u2014 bull-fights, 253\n\n \u2014 Xiphos, 268\n\n Spartan Sword-blade, 238\n\n Sparth (= battle-axe: Chaucer), 235 _n_\n\n Spata or Spatha, 123, 142, 156\n\n Spatha of Schleswig, 272\n\n \u2014 pennata, 267 _n_\n\n \u2014 Roman, 258 _n_\n\n Spath\u00e6, Ancient British, 279\n\n \u2014 of iron, German, 271\n\n Spathe (= weaver\u2019s lath), 235 _n_\n\n \u03a3\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b9 (Romaic sabre: etymology of the word), 235 _n_\n\n Spear, 20;\n origin of, 31;\n in Homer, 223\n\n \u2014 and paddle combined, 40;\n spears armed with flints, 48\n\n Spear, favourite weapon of the Dark Continent, 162\n\n Spear-head, Assyrian, 203\n\n Spear: its name in various languages, 274\n\n Spear of the ancient Germans, 270\n\n Spearmen, Roman, 247\n\n \u2014 Hittite, 176\n\n Spectacula, Roman, 251\n\n Specular iron (iron glance, oligiste), 107\n\n \u03a3\u03c0\u03ad\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c0\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2, 1\n\n Spelter (copper and zinc), 84\n\n Spetum (Spieclo or Spit), 95\n\n Sphinxes, 176\n\n Sphyraton (plate work), 221\n\n Spiculum (Roman javelin), 246 _n_\n\n Split-bone implements, 29\n\n Split Swords, 142\n\n Spodium, 86 _n_\n\n Spur-edge (of a Sword), 138\n\n Spud, 20\n\n _Squalus centrina_ or _Spinax_, Linn., 9, 23\n\n Squamata (Roman armour), 248 _n_\n\n Stabbing Swords of copper, 72\n\n Stag-horn axes, 27;\n inserted in wooden truncheons, 49\n\n \u2018Stahl-bronce\u2019 = steel (_i.e._ hardened) bronze, 53 _n_\n\n Stamped-clay literature (Assyrian), 201\n\n Stan (Irish term for tin), 65\n\n Standard-bearer (German), station of, 273\n\n Standard-bearers, Assyrian, 203\n\n Standards in Ancient Roman Army, 246 _n_\n\n \u2018Standard Inscription,\u2019 55\n\n Staple of Cyprus, 188\n\n Star (derivation of the word), 221 _n_\n\n Star-shaped weapon of copper, 68\n\n Stasinus or Hegesias: his \u2018Kypria,\u2019 221 _n_\n\n Stater (gold coin) of Cr\u0153sus, 194 _n_\n\n Staves of copper inlaid with figures, 68\n\n Steam, motive power of, known to Ancient Egyptians, 148\n\n \u2018Steel bronze,\u2019 53\n\n Steel (Chinese) for Swords and knives, 115\n\n \u2014 early known, 98\n\n \u2014 in China, 113\n\n \u2014 its representation in Egyptian hieroglyphs, 69\n\n \u2014 processes of making, 117 _n_\n\n \u2014 Swords, Roman, 256\n\n \u2014 treated of by Aristotle, 106\n\n \u2014 wheel (Chakr\u00e1; war-quoit), 39\n\n St. George and the Dragon, 180 _sq._\n\n \u2018Stickleback,\u2019 (_Gasterosteus_), 10\n\n Stick-sling, 19\n\n Stiletto, 11\n\n \u2014 Hind\u00fa, 215\n\n \u2014 Italian (derivation of the word), 215 _n_\n\n Stilettos, two-edged (Ancient Roman), 257\n\n Sting-fish or adder-pike (_Trachinus vipera_), 11\n\n Stoccado, 123\n\n St\u00f3moma (steel), 106, 109, 110\n\n \u2018Stone Age,\u2019 22 _n_, 23 _n_\n\n Stone anchors, 119 _n_\n\n Stone-axe, 20 _n_\n\n Stone-hatchets, 14 _n_\n\n Stone spear-heads, 26;\n implements, 30\n\n Stone-splinters in wooden Swords, 47\n\n Stone-tipped arrows (Ethiopian), 154 _n_\n\n Stone-throwing, 7\n\n Stone-weapons of the Romans, 21 _n_\n\n Stones as weapons, 16 _sq._\n\n Stork\u2019s-head-shaped weapon, 37\n\n Storm-caps of iron, 102\n\n St. Michael, weapon of, 237\n\n St. Paul and the Sicarii, 185\n\n Stratagems (of Animals and Savages), 6\n\n \u2018Straw-death\u2019 (Scandinavian), 185\n\n Stream-gold, 54\n\n Stream-tin, 59, 78\n\n String-sling, 19\n\n Strokes or blows of various animals, 7\n\n Stylus or Stilus, 15 _n_\n\n Suardones (ancient German tribe), 271\n\n Subligaculum (gladiatorial apron), 253\n\n Succinum (amber), 87\n\n Suffetes (Carthaginian magistrates), 181\n\n Suit of Cypriote armour, 188\n\n Suits of iron armour, 102\n\n Sumir (= lower Babylonia), 104\n\n Sumpitan (Borneo), 14 _n_\n\n Sun-dial, discovery of the, 200 _n_\n\n Sun, the, in Egyptian religion, 149\n\n Superimposed settlements of Troy, 193\n\n Superiority of the curved blade, 129\n\n Supernumerarii (Roman soldiers), 245 _n_\n\n Surface ironstone of Africa, 117, 119\n\n \u2018Surgeon\u2019 or lancet-fish (_Acanthurus_), 10\n\n Suv\u00f3roff and his soldiers, 260 _n_\n\n Svasti (Hittite symbol), 202 _n_\n\n \u2018Svinfylking\u2019 (Scandinavian tactical formation), 273\n\n Swallowing Swords (by jugglers of old), 238\n\n Swallow-tailed blades, 141\n\n Swallow-wort (_Calatrapis gigantea_), 218\n\n Swimming (two ways of), 40 _n_\n\n Swamp tea-tree (_Melaleuca_), 40\n\n SWORD\u2014\n Abyssinian Sword, 237\n acinaces (Persian), 210 _sq._;\n with golden ornaments, 212\n Afghan Charay, 212\n ancient Greek infantry Sword, 237\n among the Barbarians, 262 _sqq._\n \u2014 \u2014 Scythians, 226\n Arjuna\u2019s Sword, 217\n as a weapon for point, 133\n Asidevat\u00e1 (\u2018Sword-god\u2019: Hind\u00fa), 214\n Assyrian fashion of carrying the Sword, 239\n \u2014 Swords, 199, 204 _sq._\n as the instrument of punishment in Persia, 211\n blades of gold given _honoris caus\u00e2_, 212\n blades, shapes of, 126\n bronze swords of Italy, 264\n \u2014 \u2014 (Scythian) in the Crimea, 227\n Burmese Dalwel (fighting-Sword), 219\n Carthaginian blades, 181\n Celtiberian and Old Spanish Swords, 265\n Ceretolo, Etruscan Sword found at, 196\n Cilician, 211\n cinctorium (Roman general\u2019s Sword), 257\n club-Sword (Assyrian), 204\n cluden (juggler\u2019s sword: Roman), 258\n Cypriote Swords, 188\n dagger-Swords, 204\n Danish Swords, 236\n definition of the weapon, 123\n derivation of the word, 123 _n_\n description of Roman Sword, 254 _sq._\n double-bladed, 141\n double Sword (Assyrian), 204\n \u2018Dunner-Saxen\u2019 (thunder-Sword), 272 _n_\n edged with sharks\u2019 teeth, 49\n elephant-Sword, 216\n ensis noricus, 263\n ethnological view of Sword-distribution, 128\n Etruscan Sword, 195 _sqq._\n executioner\u2019s, 139\n \u2018falx supina\u2019 of the Thracians, 253\n fancy Sword (Assyrian), 204\n \u2018ferrum,\u2019 \u2018gladius,\u2019 \u2018ensis,\u2019 254 _sq._\n fist-Sword (stiletto: Hind\u00fa), 215\n flesh-knife Sword (Egyptian), 212\n forged by Hephaistos (in Aristophanes), 223 _n_\n forked, 141\n from Mithras group, 210\n German or Slav Sword, 263\n gladiators\u2019 Swords, 252 _sq._\n Greek fashion of carrying the Sword, 239\n Hercules\u2019 Sword, 222\n hereba-blade, 181\n Hittite, 175\n in Ancient Rome, 247 _sqq._\n in Britain, 275 _sqq._\n in Greek literature, 242\n in Homer, 222\n in India, 213 _sqq._\n in Moslem Africa, 162\n in Persia, 209 _sqq._\n in relief (Persepolis sculptures), 210\n in the Dark Continent, 162, 166\n in Troas, 193\n its parts described, 124 _sq._\n Khadga, As, or Asi (Hind\u00fa Sword), 214, 216\n Keltic Sword, 272\n length of Ancient Greek Swords, 237\n Marzabotto blade, the, 195\n Mayence Sword, 255\n maushtika (fist-Sword; stiletto: Hind\u00fa), 215\n Mohammed\u2019s, 141\n names for the Sword in Homer, 222\n of Alexander the Great, 188\n of Ancient Illyria, 262\n of bronze, 78 _n_, 82\n of copper, 57, 72;\n copper and zinc, 84\n of copper (Cimbrian), 274\n of Goliath, 184\n of Greek cavalry, 248\n of iron (of the Celtiberians), 107\n of iron discovered at Sion, 197\n of iron in Ancient Germany, 270\n of iron-wood and obsidian, 49\n of Isernia, 197\n of Jeanne d\u2019Arc, 184 _n_\n of justice, 139\n of Misanello, 195 _n_\n of Perseus (\u1f0d\u03c1\u03c0\u03b7), 180\n of Scandinavian Goths, 274\n of scymitar shape, 133\n of Sigurd, 95\n of the Alanni, 262 _sq._\n of the Alemanni (Germani), 270 _sq._\n of the Ancient Egyptian army, 155\n of the Ancient Hebrews, 182, 184\n of the Bosnians, 262\n of the Cherubim (Eden), 183\n of the Cimbrians, 274\n of the Dacians, 262\n of the Danes, 274\n of the Early Bronze Age, 96\n of the Fenni, 274\n of the Gold Coast, 167\n of the Irish, 276\n of the Keltic Gauls, 266\n of the King of Dahome, 167\n of the Lemovii (Pomerania), 274\n of the Ligures, 265\n of the Lycians, 182\n of the Ph\u0153nicians, 179, 181\n of the Rebo (Syria), 179\n of the Rugii (Baltic), 274\n of the Ruthens (Syria), 179\n of the Scotti, 279\n of the Shairetana (Syria), 179\n of the Thracians, 262\n of the Tokkari (Syria), 179\n of the Welsh, 279\n of Tiberius, 258\n of Vandals, 274\n of Victor Emmanuel, 257 _n_\n of Vul-nirari I. (Assyrian), 208\n of wood, 31;\n palm-wood, 43\n of wood and stone combined, 47\n of wood with stone edges, 49\n on Italian (ancient) coins, 264, 268\n ornamented with alloys, 83\n Persian Swordlet (\u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03c3\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u03be\u03b9\u03c6\u03af\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd), 211\n royal Swords (Assyrian), 205 _sq._\n \u2018rudis\u2019 (rod or wooden Sword), 250\n Samnite Sword, 253\n Sa-pa-ra (Assyria), 204\n Saul\u2019s Sword, 185\n scythe-shaped, 72, 95\n sections of Sword-blades, 131\n Spanish Xiphos, 268\n swallowing Swords (by jugglers of old), 238\n swallow-tailed or forked, 141\n Sword and the Dove (Assyrian emblem), 184\n Swords found at Mycen\u00e6, 228 _sqq._\n Swords found in ancient cemetery at Hallstadt, 262\n \u2018Sword of God\u2019 (Jeremiah), 185\n Thracian Swords, 222 _sq._\n with blades like Aries (astronomical sign), 141\n with iron blades (Roman), 258\n with saw blade, 51\n with wood- and horn-points, 49\n women (Hind\u00fa) instructed in the use of the Sword, 215\n wooden Swords in sham-fights (Roman), 249\n zacco-Sword of Emperor Leo, 272 _n_\n\n Sword and spear of copper or bronze (Theseus\u2019), 105\n\n Swords and Sword-handles in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Sword-bayonet, Enfield, 134 _n_\n\n Sword-belt and scabbard of Darius, 212\n\n Sword-belts, Assyrian, 206\n\n Sword-blades of copper, 72\n\n Sword-breakers, 138\n\n Sword-cutlers, Hebrew, 185\n\n Sword-dagger, two-edged, 184\n\n Sword-daggers (Ancient Egyptian), 159, 161\n\n Sword-dance, 163, 165\n\n Sword-distribution, ethnological view of, 128\n\n Sword-exercise among the Ancient Greeks, 240\n\n Sword-fish (_Xyphias_), 11;\n its horn as a spear-head, 24\n\n \u2018Sword-grass,\u2019 12\n\n Sword-knife (Kukkri), 39;\n of Ashanti, 167\n\n Sword-like weapon of Borneo, 112\n\n Sword-play of North Africa, 163\n\n Sword-makers, 77\n\n Sword-metal, Hind\u00fa trial of, 110 _n_\n\n Sword-pommels at Mycen\u00e6, 231, 233\n\n \u2018Sword-side\u2019 relationship, 188 _n_\n\n Swordsmen of old, famous, 240 _n_\n\n Syenite (hieroglyphics engraved on), 53\n\n Syllogistic puzzle of Eubulides, 97 _n_\n\n Syphilis, traces of, in prehistoric bones, 150\n\n Syria (etymology of the word), 177\n\n Syrian terebinth, 257\n\n\n Tab\u00e1shir (silicious bark of bamboo), 31\n\n Tabernacle, the Jewish (whence imitated), 150\n\n Table of alloys in common use, 83 _sq._\n\n Table of archaic names of metals, 122\n\n Tacap\u00e9 (paddle), 42\n\n Tac et taille (cut-and-thrust), 126\n\n Tactical formation of Ancient Germans, 273\n\n Tactics in Ancient Greece, 241\n\n Talaria, 1\n\n Talismans (Chinese) of copper, 64\n\n Talwar (Hindustan sabre), 131 _sq._\n\n Tamarana (paddle), 42\n\n Tamarang (Australian parrying-shield), 38\n\n Tammaraka (sacred rattle; Brazilian Tupis), 151\n\n Tangap\u00e9 (paddle), 42\n\n Tang (tongue) of a Sword, 124\n\n Tanged dagger, 278\n\n \u2014 razor (British), 276\n\n Taper-axe, 91, 94\n\n \u2018Targe\u2019 or \u2018Target\u2019 (derivation of), 12 _n_\n\n Taru (Egyptian war-pike), 158\n\n Tasso\u2019s description of the Irish, 279\n\n Tattooing (its origin), 269 _n_\n\n Tax levied on iron in China, 114\n\n \u2018Tears of the Heliades\u2019 (= amber), 87\n\n \u2018Tears of the sun,\u2019 67\n\n Tectosages (Phrygia), war-cars of the, 277 _n_\n\n Telak (African arm-knife), 162\n\n \u2018Telamon,\u2019 at Mycen\u00e6, 231 _sq._\n\n Telchines, 74, 76\n\n Telluric iron, 99\n\n Tempering (of iron) by cold immersion, 112, 165;\n by oil, &c., 165 _n_\n\n Temple-caves of Elephanta (Bay of Bombay), 217\n\n Temple of Baal at Marseille, 181 _n_\n\n \u2014 of Belus (_vulg\u00f2_ Tower of Babel), 55\n\n \u2014 of Kanaruc, 109\n\n Temples of Babylonia, 199\n\n \u03a4\u03b5\u03bd\u03ad\u03b4\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 \u03c0\u03ad\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c5\u03c2 (origin of the proverb), 90\n\n Terebinth, Syrian (\u2018oak\u2019 of Mamre), 257\n\n Terra cottas in Cyprus, 190;\n in Troy, 193\n\n Testudo (in sieges; Ancient Egypt), 154\n\n Teufelsgraben, 271\n\n Thane (derivation of the word), 215 _n_\n\n Thapsus, C\u00e6sar at the battle of, 260 _n_\n\n The \u2018First Highlander,\u2019 217\n\n Thera (Grecian), bronze Sword from, 262\n\n Thermutis (the princess who found Moses), 174 _n_\n\n Thiudisk\u00f4 (= Teutons), 274\n\n Thong-sling, 19, 68\n\n Thraces, 252\n\n Thracian dance (in arms), 163 _n_\n\n \u2018Thracian Magic,\u2019 238 _n_\n\n Thracians, 210\n\n Thracian Swords, 222 _sq._, 262\n\n \u2014 weapons, 253\n\n Three-sided blades, 66\n\n Thresher (fox-shark: _Carcharias vulpes_), 7\n\n Throw-spears of the Ancient Romans, 245\n\n Throw-stick, 32, 40 _n_\n\n Throw-Swords, German, 273\n\n Thrusting blades, 134 _sq._\n\n \u2018Thrusting cut,\u2019 134\n\n Thrusting weapons (origin of), 12\n\n Thuhi (= Naphtuhim), 102\n\n Tiara of gold, 212\n\n Tiger (its stroke or blow), 7;\n the sabre-toothed tiger, 9\n\n Tin, 54;\n origin of the word, 77;\n mines (ancient), 78\n\n Tinkal (borax: India), 85 _n_\n\n Tin-ore of Peru, 83\n\n \u2018Tin-stone\u2019 (native peroxide of tin), 71\n\n Tilaniferous ores, 102\n\n Toadstone (= todstein: German), 103 _n_\n\n Tokkari (Syria), 179\n\n Toletum (Spanish tradition of its origin), 256 _n_\n\n Toledo blade, 107, 132;\n rapier, 265\n\n Tomahawk, 14 _n_, 36\n\n Tombac (copper and gold alloy), 86, 87 _n_\n\n Tombat (Australian weapon), 36 _n_, 38\n\n Tomb of Alyattes, 194\n\n \u2014 of Samson, 186 _n_\n\n Tomb-stones at Mycen\u00e6, 232\n\n Tomeang (Malaccan weapon), 14 _n_\n\n Tools of bronze, Assyrian, 202\n\n Toothed-edge (of a Sword), 138\n\n Topographical lists of Thut-mes III., 178\n\n Tormenta (artillery: Roman), 248\n\n Tormentum, 19, 20 _n_\n\n Torques (Gallic ornament), 268\n\n Tower of Babel, 55\n\n \u2018Tower of Ilios\u2019 (Troas), 191\n\n Toxotes (Archer fish), 7\n\n Toys in Ancient Egypt, 148\n\n _Trachinus vipera_ (sting-fish or adder-pike), 11\n\n Training for warfare, Roman, 239, 249\n\n Transparent glass, Assyrian, 202\n\n Transplanting full-grown trees (Ancient Egypt), 148\n\n \u2018Treasury of Priam\u2019 (Troas), 192\n\n Treble-grooved claymore, 132\n\n \u2018Tree-planting\u2019 (= vivi-interment: Assyrian), 203\n\n Trenchant or cutting weapons (origin of), 12, 13\n\n \u03a4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03ac\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1 \u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1, 97 _n_\n\n Trialamellum, 135\n\n Triangular small-Sword, 135 _n_\n\n Triarii (Roman soldiers), 245 _n_\n\n Tribulus, 15 _n_\n\n Tribute-articles of Yu (Chinese), 112 _sq._\n\n Tribute paid in copper, 68\n\n Tridens (gladiatorial weapon), 253\n\n Trident-like weapon in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Trilingual Behistun Inscription, the, 209 _n_\n\n Trimarkisia (class of cavalry: Gaul), 269 _n_\n\n _Triodon_, 24\n\n Triumphal Arch of Orange, 268 _n_\n\n Troas, site of, 190\n\n Trojan alphabet, 193\n\n \u2014 battle-axes of copper and tin, 82 _n_\n\n \u2014 Sphinx, 190 _n_\n\n \u2014 war, date of, 220\n\n \u2014 weapons, 191\n\n Trombash (Abyssinian weapon), 36\n\n Trowel-form blade, 159\n\n Trowels of copper, 68\n\n Troy, the age of, 193\n\n Trumpets of copper, 72, 221\n\n Truncheons (wooden) with stag-horn inserted, 49\n\n Truth-telling races, 209 _n_\n\n Tuba (Etruscan trumpet), 248\n\n Tubal-Cain (etymology of the name), 182\n\n Tubicines, 248\n\n Tuck (rapier), 32, 123, 279\n\n Tuisco or Tyr (regent of Tuesday), 270 _n_\n\n Tumuli, finds in, 271\n\n \u2018Turanian\u2019 blade, 140\n\n Turanian (Chinese) element in Babylonia, 200\n\n \u2014 language, 146\n\n Turkish flag (seven-rayed star on), 147 _n_\n\n \u2014 scymitar, 139, 161, 166\n\n Turquoise, 62\n\n \u2018Tuscan\u2019 border (architectural ornament), 202\n\n Tutenag (zinc from India), 84 _n_\n\n Tutiya (oxide of zinc), 86\n\n Twastu, 1 _n_\n\n Tweezers of copper and stone, 67\n\n Twelve Tables, the, 244\n\n Two-bladed Sword, 141\n\n Two-edged axe (at Schliemann\u2019s Troy), 82\n\n \u2014 bronze Swords at Mycen\u00e6, 230 _sq._\n\n \u2014 German Sword, 271\n\n \u2014 knives (pokw\u00e9), 170\n\n \u2014 Roman stilettos, 257\n\n \u2014 Spanish Swords, 265\n\n \u2014 Sword-dagger, 184\n\n Two-handed espadon (medi\u00e6val), 161, 166\n\n \u2014 Swords, 67, 138\n\n Two-headed eagle (Moslem heraldry), 176 _n_\n\n \u2018Two-river\u2019-land (Naharayn: Mesopotamia), 172\n\n Two-wheeled war-cars, 277 _n_\n\n Typhon (in Egyptian religion), 149\n\n Tyr or Tuisco (regent of Tuesday), 270 _n_\n\n \u03a0\u03c1\u1fb6\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1 (? corruption of _onager_), 20 _n_\n\n\n \u1f5d\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1, 1 _n_\n\n Uma or Umha (copper: Keltic), 65\n\n Umbrella, King Koffee\u2019s, 168 _n_\n\n Umbria, coins cast in, 264 _sq._\n\n Unicorn (on the Royal Arms), 11 _n_\n\n Unyoro dagger-Sword, 166\n\n Urim and Thummim (whence derived), 149\n\n _Ursus spel\u00e6us_ (remains of), 24\n\n Uruckh (= \u2018pater Orchamus\u2019), 199 _n_\n\n \u2018Usem\u2019-metal, 87\n\n Uses of the Sword, 128\n\n Utensils of bronze, Assyrian, 202\n\n \u2014 in sepulchres at Mycen\u00e6, 234\n\n\n Vagina (Sword-sheath: Roman), 256\n\n \u2018Valai Tadi\u2019 (Madura throwing-stick), 38\n\n Valley of Caves (Wady Magharah), the most ancient mines in the\n world, 60\n\n Vandals, Scandinavian, 274\n\n Various forms of Swords found at Hallstadt, 262 _sq._\n\n \u2014 names for Aphrodite, 187 _n_\n\n \u2014 names for the Sword, 123\n\n Vases of copper and of stone, 68\n\n Velati (Roman soldiers), 245 _n_\n\n Velites (Roman soldiers), 245\n\n Venetian weapons at Famagosta, 190\n\n Venus (of alchemy: = \u2640), 57\n\n Verdigris from a spear (Achilles\u2019), 60\n\n Vericulum (Roman javelin), 246 _n_\n\n Verutum (Roman javelin), 246 _n_\n\n Vexillarii (Roman soldiers), 249\n\n Vexillum (Ancient Roman standard), 246 _n_\n\n Viaticum (provisions for the dead), 234\n\n Virtue of the Ancient Gauls, 269\n\n Visigoths, weapons of the, 272 _n_\n\n Vitriol (blue), 60\n\n \u2018Vivisection,\u2019 225\n\n Volcanic mud, 118\n\n Voulge, 95\n\n\n Waddy clubs (Australian), 38\n\n Wady Magharah (Valley of Caves), the most ancient mines in the\n world, 60\n\n Waggons, military, as a \u2018lager\u2019 (Gallic), 269\n\n W\u00e1gh-nakh (Hind\u00fa weapon), 8\n\n Wait-a-bit (_Acacia detinens_), 6\n\n Wall-cramps, in Nimr\u00fad\u2019s palace, 105\n\n Walrus (how killed by polar bears), 3;\n its method of attack, 9;\n its tooth as a spear-point, 24\n\n Wandering race of metal-workers, 275\n\n W\u00e1nshi stone-throwers, 16\n\n War-axes, 66, 154\n\n War-clubs, 24, 32, 154\n\n War-deities of Ancient Egypt, 152\n\n Warfare (primitive), 4 _sq._\n\n War-flails, 20 _n_, 154\n\n War-hatchets (English), 91\n\n Warlike character of Ancient Britons, 279\n\n \u2018War-lions of the king\u2019 (Ramses II.), 3 _n_\n\n Warmen (Germani), 270\n\n War-prisoners, treatment of, by Greeks and by Romans, 241, 249\n\n War-quoit, 39\n\n War-scythe, 95\n\n Wasa or Wassaw (Sword), 168\n\n Wattle and dab (huts of), 63\n\n Wave-edged dagger, 137\n\n Wave-pattern (architectural ornament), 202\n\n \u2018Wayland Smith,\u2019 the legend of, 121\n\n WEAPONS\u2014\n in the Laws of the Visigoths, 272\n in sepulchres at Mycen\u00e6, 234\n of Ancient Rome, 245 _sqq._\n of Animals and Savages, 6\n of bronze, Assyrian, 202\n of gold, as royal presents, 212\n of the Alemanni (Germani), 270\n of the Ancient Egyptian soldiers, 152 _n_\n of the Ancient Hind\u00fas, 214 _sq._\n of the Ancient Irish, 279\n of the Ancient Picts, 279\n of the Ancient Scots, 279\n of the Ancient Welsh, 279\n of the Arabians, 185\n of the Assyrians, 203\n of the Carthaginians, 181\n of the Cherusci, 271\n of the Cimbri, 273\n of the East Indians, 185\n of the Fenni (Finns), 274\n of the Gauls, 266, 269\n of the Goths, 274\n of the Lemovii (Pomerania), 274\n of the Philistines, 185\n of the Ph\u0153nicians, 179 _sq._\n of the Rugii (Baltic), 274\n of the Samnites, 253\n of the Saxones, 271\n of the Suardones, 271\n of the Syrians, 179\n of the Thracians, 253\n of the Vandals, 274\n of the warriors of Mycen\u00e6, 234 _sq._\n St. Michael\u2019s weapon, 237\n\n Weapon-making, 1\n\n Weapon-symbol of Merodach, 183\n\n Weapon-throwing in Homer, 222\n\n Wedge-form tactical formation (Ancient German), 273\n\n Welsen (_Siluri_), 29\n\n \u2018Welsh of the Horn,\u2019 78\n\n West and East, Egyptian, 191 _n_\n\n Whale (its method of attack), 7\n\n Wheel-drill and emery for alt-reliefs, 81\n\n Wheeled tower, Assyrian, 203\n\n \u2018White copper\u2019 (South African name for gold), 62\n\n \u2018White lead\u2019 (of Pliny), 78, 79 _n_\n\n Whorl, combined forms of the, 233\n\n Wigs (of the Nilotes), 158 _n_\n\n Winged bulls, Assyrian, 201 _n_\n\n \u2014 Celts (or palstave), 71\n\n \u2014 circle, the, as an architectural ornament, 201\n\n \u2014 sphinxes in Cyprus, 189 _n_\n\n Wing-wader of Australia (carries weapons in its wings), 9\n\n Women instructed in the use of the Sword, &c. (Hind\u00fa), 215\n\n Women\u2019s dress-pins of copper, 67\n\n Wood, Age of, 31\n\n Wooden blades with metal edges, 51\n\n \u2014 clubs spiked with iron, 105\n\n \u2014 handles to bronze hatchets, 154\n\n \u2014 sabres, 44;\n chopper, _ib._;\n knife, _ib._;\n rapier-blade, 45\n\n \u2014 Sword of Egypt, 39\n\n \u2014 Sword-sheaths (Mycen\u00e6), 228\n\n \u2014 weapons with meteoric-iron chips, 51\n\n Wootz or Wutz (\u2018natural Indian steel\u2019), 110, 111\n\n Word-compounding languages (Iranian), 146\n\n Word-developing languages (Arabian), 146\n\n Worked flints, 45 _n_\n\n \u2014 h\u00e6matite, 116\n\n Worship offered to weapons, 162 _n_\n\n Writing on leaden plates, 225 _n_\n\n \u2014 on linen cloths, 225 _n_\n\n Wrought iron in the \u2018Odyssey,\u2019 224\n\n\n Xerxes\u2019 army, Cypriote contingent in, 188\n\n \u2014 army of, 210\n\n _Xiphias_ (Sword-fish), 11\n\n Xiphos, Xiphidion (= Sword, in Homer), 222, 230\n\n Xiphos-Gladius, 256\n\n Xiphos, Spanish, 268\n\n \u039e\u03c5\u03ae\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9 (Laced\u00e6monian weapons), 237\n\n \u039e\u03c5\u03c3\u03c4\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03b9, 237\n\n\n Yahveh (Jehovah), its etymology and mystic meaning, 149 _n_\n\n Yantramukta (class of weapons: Hind\u00fa), 214\n\n Yataghan-bayonet, 134 _n_, 164\n\n Yataghan (weapon), 123, 134, 163, 166, 265\n\n \u2018Yellow copper\u2019 opposed to \u2018native brass\u2019 (English), 56\n\n Yellow frankincense, 85 _n_\n\n Ynka mines of iron, 116\n\n Ynkas, \u2018Royal Commentaries of\u2019 the, 67\n\n Yucatan (origin of the word), 65 _n_\n\n Yunan (= Ionia), 209\n\n\n Zanzibar Swords, 166\n\n Zarabatana, 14 _n_\n\n Zebra (its kick), 7\n\n Zeno, the Stoic, in Cyprus, 187\n\n Zeus-Jovi (= Jupiter), 183\n\n Zeus Kasios, 1 _n_\n\n Zinc, 57;\n alloy with copper, 84;\n derivation of the word, 84 _n_\n\n Zinciferous ore imported from the East, 84\n\n Zio (Saxnot: German Sword-god), 273\n\n Zodiac, Denderah, 155 _n_\n\n \u0396\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u03ae\u03c1 (meaning of the word), 239\n\n Z\u00fa\u2019l-Fik\u00e1r (Mohammed\u2019s Sword), 141\n\n\n\n\n FOOTNOTES:\n\n[1] I refer to a vivacious but one-sided article on \u2018The Sword,\u2019 in\n_Blackwood\u2019s Edinburgh Magazine_, May 1881.\n\n[2] _The Past in the Present_, &c. (Edinburgh: Douglas, 1880.)\n\n[3] Frederick the Great declared that an army moves like a serpent,\nupon its belly. According to Plutarch, the snake was held sacred\nbecause it glides without limbs, like the stars. Fire, says Pliny\n(_Nat. Hist._ vii. 57, and xiii. 42), was first struck out of the stone\nby Pyrodes, son of Cilix\u2014_silex_, or flint, the match of antiquity;\nand hence it was called \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1; and Vincent de Beauvais explains: \u2018Silex\nest lapis durus, sic dictus eo quod ex eo ignis exiliat.\u2019 It is the\nSanskrit \u0936\u093f\u0932 (_shila_), a stone, both words evidently deriving from a\ncommon root, _shi_ or _si_. The \u2018religiosa silex\u2019 of Claudian (_Rapt.\nProserp._ i. 201) was probably a block of stone like those representing\nZeus Kasios, the Paphian Venus, not to mention the host of stones\nworshipped in Egyptian and Arab litholatry, and the old Palladium of\nTroy transported to Rome. \u2018Prometheus,\u2019 who taught man to preserve\nfire in the ferule, or stalk, of the giant fennel, was borrowed by\nthe Hindus and converted into Pramantha. \u2018Pramantha,\u2019 however, is\nthe upright fire-stick, first made by Twastu, the Divine Carpenter,\nwho seems to have been a brother of \u1f19\u03c3\u03c4\u03af\u03b1, the Hearth; and hence it\nhas been held to be the male symbol. According to Plato, \u03c0\u1fe6\u03c1 (whence\npyrites = sulphuret of iron), \u1f55\u03b4\u03c9\u03c1, and \u03ba\u03cd\u03c9\u03bd are Phrygian words; and\nevidently they date from the remotest antiquity. _Pir_ (sun-heat) is\nfound even in the Quichua of Peru, and enters into the royal name\n\u2018Pirhua.\u2019 The French and Belgian caverns prove that striking fire by\nmeans of pyrites was known to primitive man.\n\n[4] There are still races which are unable to kindle fire. This is\nasserted of the modern Andamanese by an expert, Mr. H. Man, _Journ.\nAnthrop. Inst._ Feb. 1882, p. 272. The same was the case with the\nquondam aborigines of Tasmania.\n\n[5] This Adam Primus was of both sexes, the biune parent of Genesis (v.\n3)\u2014\u2018male and female created He them;\u2019 hence the pre-Adamites of Moslem\nbelief. The capital error of Biblical readers in our day is to assume\nall these myths and mysteries as mere historical details. Men had a\nbetter appreciation of the Hebrew _arcana_ in the days of Philo Jud\u00e6us.\n\n[6] I have noted his labours in the list of \u2018Authorities.\u2019\n\n[7] Chap. iii. p. 43, translated for the Hakluyt Society by Clements R.\nMarkham, C.B. (London, 1869). It is regretable that a senile Committee\nof exceeding \u2018properness\u2019 cut out so much of this highly-interesting\nvolume. The Spaniard travelled in A.D. 1532\u201350, published the first\npart of his work in 1553, and died about 1560. Readers who would study\nthe most valuable anthropological parts of the book are driven to the\nFrench translation quoted by Vicente Fidel Lopez (_Les Races Aryennes\ndu P\u00e9rou_, p. 199. Paris, Franck, 1873).\n\n[8] We need not go to the classics, Greek and Roman, for the idea of\nmetamorphosis. It is common to mankind, doubtless arising from the\nresemblance of beast to man in appearance, habits, or disposition;\nand it may date from the days when the lower was all but equal to the\nhigher animal.\n\n[9] _Seven Years in South Africa_, 1872\u201379, vol. i. p. 245, and vol.\nii. p. 199 (Sampson Low and Co., 1881). The Simiads were African\nbaboons, which fear man less than those of other continents.\n\n[10] Wilkinson, I. 1. Unruliness was punished by \u2018stick and no supper.\u2019\nThe old Nile-dwellers, like the Carthaginians and the medi\u00e6val Tartars,\nwere famous for taming and training the wildest animals, the cat o\u2019\nmountain, leopards, crocodiles, and gazelles. The \u2018war-lions of the\nking\u2019 (Ramses II.) are famed in history. They also taught domestic cats\nto retrieve waterfowl, and decoy-ducks to cater for the table.\n\n[11] Thus Lucretius (v. 1301) calls the elephant \u2018anguimanus.\u2019 As is\nwell known, there is a quasi-specific difference between the Indian and\nthe African animal. The latter is shorter, stouter, and more compactly\nbuilt than the former; the shape of the frontal bones differ, the tusks\nare larger and heavier, and the ears are notably longer. The latter\ntrait appears even in old coins. Judging from the illustrated papers, I\nshould not hesitate to pronounce the far-famed Jumbo to be an Asiatic,\nand not, as usually held, an African.\n\n[12] The word wrongly written \u2018Esquimaux,\u2019 which suggests a French\norigin, is derived from the Ojibwa _Askimeg_, or the Abenakin\n_Eskimantsic_, meaning \u2018eaters of raw flesh.\u2019 Old usage applies it\nto the races of extreme North America, and of the Asiatic shore\nimmediately opposite. _Innuit_, a more modern term, signifies only\n\u2018the people,\u2019 like _Khoi-khoi_ (\u2018men of men\u2019), the Hottentots, and\nlike \u2018Bantu\u2019 (Folk), applied, or rather misapplied, to the great South\nAfrican race. _Innuit_, moreover, is by no means universal. The Eskimos\nsupply a valuable study; amongst other prim\u00e6val peculiarities, they\nhave little reverence for the dead, and scant attachment to place.\n\n[13] \u2018Brave Master Shoe-tye, the great traveller\u2019 (_Measure for\nMeasure_, iv. 3). The tale of porcupines \u2018shooting their quills at the\ndogs, which get many a serious wound thereby,\u2019 is in M. Polo (i. 28).\nColonel Yule quotes Pliny, \u00c6lian, and the Chinese. The animal drops its\nloose quills when running, and when at bay attempts, hedgehog-like, to\nhide and shield its head. It is, as the Gypsies know, excellent eating,\nequal to the most delicate pork; only somewhat dry without the aid of\nlard.\n\n[14] Ammianus Marcellinus (xxiii. chap. 4), quoted in chap. 2.\n\n[15] _Odyss._ xviii. 130, 131. \u2018Qui multum peregrinatur, rar\u00f2\nsanctificatur,\u2019 said the theologians. Hence the modern:\u2014\n\n Whoso wanders like Ulysses\n Soon shall lose his prejudices.\n\n[16] Sir John Lubbock has calculated that among the North American\nsavages the proportion of man to the animals which feed him is 1 to\n750; and, as the hunter is at least four times as long-lived as his\nprey, the ratio might be increased, 1 to 3000. If this were so, and\nall the bones were preserved, there would be 3,000 bestial skeletons\nto one human. Without assuming with Mr. Evans (p. 584) that \u2018respect\nfor the dead may be regarded as almost instinctive in man,\u2019 and that\nhuman remains would be buried, we here find one cause of the present\ninsufficiency of the geologic record.\n\n[17] M. Eduard Pietri distributes Prehistoric Arch\u00e6ology proper into\ntwo ages, the Agreutic and the Georgic. Under the former he classifies\nthe Barylithic (glacial Drift age) and the Leptolithic. Under the\nGeorgic are included the Neolithic, the Chalcitic (copper and bronze),\nand the Proto-sideric.\n\n[18] _Essay on Man_, iii. 172\u20136.\n\n[19] The sepia (squid, cuttle-fish, _Loligo vulgaris_) defends itself\nby discharging its \u2018ink-bag\u2019 embedded in the liver, and escapes in the\nblackened water. This is as true a defence as a shield.\n\n[20] From the Greek \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c4\u03cc\u03be\u03bf\u03bd, the bow (and arrow, _Iliad_, viii. 296),\nwhich seems to be a congener of the Latin _taxus_, the yew-tree, a\nfavourite material for the weapon. Hence _taxus_, like the Scandinavian\n_\u00eer_ or _\u0177r_, the Keltic _jubar_, and the Slavonian _tisu_, all meaning\nthe yew-tree, denote the bow as well. The Skalds called the bow also\n_almr_ (elm-tree), and _askr_, or mountain-ash, the \u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b1, which the\nGreeks applied to the spear. From \u03c4\u03cc\u03be\u03bf\u03bd came \u03c4\u03bf\u03be\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd, \u2018arrow-poison,\u2019\nthe Latin _toxicum_, whose use survives in our exaggerated term\n\u2018intoxicating liquors.\u2019\n\n[21] This I know to my cost, having offended a Guanaco at Cordova,\nin the Argentine Republic; it straightway spat in my face with\nunpleasantly good aim.\n\n[22] Strutt, _Sports and Pastimes_, ii. chap. 2.\n\n[23] Not unlike the name of a certain Australian Wagga-Wagga which has\nbeen heard in the English law-courts.\n\n[24] In _Land and Water_ doubts have been thrown upon these single\ncombats of the whale and thresher. See the late Mr. Buckland\u2019s papers\n(October 2, 1880); Lord Archibald Campbell\u2019s sketch; and the same\npaper, February 26, 1881. Those on board the wrecked cruiser H.M.S.\n_Griffon_, myself included, witnessed a fight between whale and shark\nin the Bay of Biafra (1862?). The Carcharias family takes its name from\nthe sharp and jagged teeth, \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b1\u03c1\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f40\u03b4\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd.\n\n[25] _Anthrop. Collection_, p. 180. Demmin, however, is additionally\nincorrect by making the article \u2018two and a half feet in length\u2019 (_Arms\nand Armour_, p. 413, Bell\u2019s edition, London, 1877). In _Catalogue of\nIndian Art in the South Kensington Museum_, by Lieut. H. H. Cole, R.E.\n(p. 313), S\u00edvaj\u00ed is made to murder the Moslem with the \u2018b\u00edchwa,\u2019 or\nscorpion, a \u2018curved double blade.\u2019 This probably refers to the dagger\nwhich made \u2018sicker.\u2019\n\n[26] P. 402, where he calls \u2018S\u00edvaj\u00ed\u2019 _Sevaja_.\n\n[27] Elphinstone\u2019s _History_, ii. 468.\n\n[28] It is, they say, adored at the old fortress and Mar\u00e1th\u00e1 capital,\nSatt\u00e1ra (= S\u00e1t-istara, the seven stars or Pleiades). Here, too, is\nS\u00edvaj\u00ed\u2019s Sword \u2018Bhaw\u00e1ni,\u2019 a Genoa blade of great length and fine\ntemper. Mrs. Guthrie, who saw the latter, describes it (vol. i. p.\n426) as a \u2018fine Ferrara (?) blade, four feet in length, with a spike\nupon the hilt to thrust with.\u2019 She also notices the smallness of the\ngrip. The Indian Museum of South Kensington contains a bracelet of\nseven tiger\u2019s-claws mounted in gold, with a claw clasp (No. 593, 1868).\nM. Rousselet, who visited Baroda in 1864, describes in his splendid\nvolume one of the Gaekhwar or Baroda Rajah\u2019s favourite _spectacula_,\nthe \u2018naki-ka-kausti\u2019 (kushti). The nude combatants were armed with\n\u2018tiger\u2019s-claws\u2019 of horn; formerly, when these were of steel, the death\nof one of the athletes was unavoidable. The weapons, fitted into a kind\nof handle, were fastened by thongs to the closed right hand. The men,\ndrunk with Bhang or Indian hemp, rushed upon each other and tore like\ntigers at face and body; forehead-skins would hang in shreds; necks and\nribs would be laid open, and not unfrequently one or both would bleed\nto death. The ruler\u2019s excitement on these occasions often grew to such\na pitch that he could scarcely restrain himself from imitating the\nmovements of the duellists.\n\n[29] Pliny, xxxii. 6.\n\n[30] Thompson\u2019s _Passions of Animals_, p. 225.\n\n[31] _Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates_, i. 193.\n\n[32] _Prim. Warfare_, i. p. 22.\n\n[33] _Prim. Warfare_, i. p. 21.\n\n[34] _Ibid._ ii. p. 22.\n\n[35] The spiral horn is shown by Colonel Yule (_Marco Polo_, ii. 273,\nsecond edition) in an illustration as \u2018Monoceros and the Maiden.\u2019\nThe animal, however, appears from the short tail to be a tapir, not\na rhinoceros. That learned and exact writer remarks that the unicorn\nsupporter of the Royal Arms retains the narwhal horn. The main use of\nthe latter in commerce is to serve as a core for the huge wax-candles\nlighted during the ceremonies of the Roman Catholic Church.\n\n[36] So it is called in the Catalogue of the India Museum at South\nKensington; the derivation is evidently from the Hindostani _singh_, a\nhorn.\n\n[37] Boutell (_Arms and Armour_, fig. 61, p. 269) engraves a parrying\nweapon with a blade at right angles to the handle. He calls it a\n\u2018Moorish Adargue\u2019 (fifteenth century). The latter word (with the\n_r_) is simply the Arabic word _el-darakah_, a shield, the origin\nof our \u2018targe\u2019 and \u2018target.\u2019 The adaga (not _adarga_, cantos i. 87,\nviii. 29) with which Camoens in _The Lusiads_ (ii. 95, &c.) arms the\nEast Africans is a weapon of the M\u00e1du kind. I have translated it\n\u2018dag-targe,\u2019 because in that part of the world it combines poniard and\nbuckler. The savage and treacherous natives of the Solomon Islands (San\nChristoval, &c.) still use a nondescript weapon, half Sword and half\nshield, some six feet long.\n\n[38] Captain Speke\u2019s _Dictionary of the Source of the Nile_, p. 652\n(Edinburgh: Blackwoods, 1863).\n\n[39] In the form called _Manchette_, or cutting at hand, wrist, and\nforearm with the inner edge. It is copiously described in iv. 45\u201354 of\nmy _New System of Sword Exercise_, &c. (London: Clowes, 1876).\n\n[40] _Primitive Warfare_, p. 24.\n\n[41] Sir Charles Lyell, _Geological Evidences of Antiquity of Man_,\np. 13 (London: Murray, 1863). Dr. W. Lauder Lindsay (_Proc. Soc. Ant.\nScot._ vol. v. p. 327) says of the Maori _tokis_ or stone-hatchets,\nthey were used chiefly for cutting down timber and for scooping\ncanoes out of the trunks of forest trees; for driving posts for huts;\nfor grubbing up roots, and killing animals for food; for preparing\nfirewood; for scraping the flesh from the bones when eating, and\nfor various other purposes in the domestic arts. But they were also\nemployed in times of war as weapons of offence and defence, as a\nsupplementary kind of tomahawk.\n\n[42] The French _sarbacane_, the Italian and Spanish _cerbotana_, the\nPortuguese _gravatana_, and the German _Blasrohr_ (blow-tube) is,\naccording to Demmin (p. 468), _arbotana_, or rather _carpicanna_,\nderived from \u2018Carpi,\u2019 the place of manufacture, and the Assyrian\n(_Kane_), Greek and Latin \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1 (_canna_), whence \u2018cannon.\u2019 This tube,\nspread over three distinct racial areas in Southern Asia, Africa,\nand America, is used either for propelling clay balls or arrowlets,\npoisoned and unpoisoned. It is the sumpitan of Borneo, where Pigafetta\n(1520) mentions reeds of this kind in Cayayan and Palavan Islands.\nThe hollow bamboo is still used by the Laos of Siam, and is preserved\namong the Malagasy as a boyish way of killing birds. P\u00e8re Bourieu notes\nit among the Malaccan negrito aborigines, whom the Moslem Malays call\n\u2018Oran-Banua\u2019 (men of the woods); the weapon they term _tomeang_. It is\nknown in Ceylon, in Silhet, and on both sides of the Bay of Bengal.\nCondamine describes it among the Yameos (South American Indians);\nWaterlow and Klemm, in New Guinea, and Markham among the Uapes and\nother tribes on the Amazonas head-waters. In the New World it is of two\nvarieties: the long heavy zarabatana, and the thinner, slighter pucuna.\nFinally, it has degraded to the \u2018pea-shooter\u2019 of modern Europe. The\nprincipal feature of the weapon is the poisoned dart; it is therefore\nunknown amongst tribes who, like the Andamanese, have not studied\ntoxics (_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ p. 270, February 1882).\n\n[43] See the _hamus ferreus_ pointed at both ends in Demmin (p. 124);\nand the German _Fuss\u00e4ngel_ (p. 465). The larger caltrop was called\n_tribulus_, _stylus_ or _stilus_ (Veget. _De Re Mil._ iii. 24). The\nknights of medi\u00e6val Europe planted their spurs rowels upwards to serve\nthe same purpose.\n\n[44] \u2018Make your hand perfect by a third attempt,\u2019 said Timocrates in\nAthen\u00e6us, i. cap. 4.\n\n[45] \u2018Hitherto,\u2019 remarks Colonel A. Lane Fox, \u2018Providence operates\ndirectly on the work to be performed by means of the living animated\ntool; henceforth it operates indirectly on the progress and development\nof creation, first through the agency of the instinctively tool-using\nsavage, and, by degrees, of the intelligent and reasoning man.\u2019\n\n[46] J. F. Rowbotham: \u2018Certain reasons for believing that the Art of\nMusic, in prehistoric times, passed through three distinct stages of\ndevelopment, each characterised by the invention of a new form of\ninstrument; and that these stages succeeded one another in the same\norder in various parts of the world\u2019 (_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ May\n1881). The author states that the Veddahs (properly V\u00e6diminissu, or\n\u2018sportsmen\u2019) of Ceylon, the Mincopis (Andamans), and the people of\nTierra del Fuego \u2018have no musical instruments at all.\u2019\n\n[47] _Opuscula fidicularum_, &c. (London: Mitchell and Hughes).\n\n[48] _Specus erant pro domibus._ Caverns appear to be divisible into\nthree classes: dwelling-places\u2014including refuges, where, as Prometheus\nsays (i. 452), \u2018Men lived like little ants beneath the ground in the\ngloomy recesses of grots\u2019\u2014storehouses, and sepulchres. All were in\nLyell\u2019s third phase. The first was when the rock began to form the\nchannel by dissolution; the second, when a regular river flowed; and\nthe third, when earth and air, instead of water, filled the bed.\n\n[49] Aristotle Darwin holds (sorrow! that we should say \u2018held\u2019): \u2018Our\nmale semi-human progenitors possessed great canine teeth,\u2019 as is still\nshown by a few exceptional individuals. Hence we derived the trick of\nuncovering the eye-tooth when sneering or snarling at \u2018Brother Man.\u2019\n\n[50] Quoted from Mr. Edward T. Stevens in _Flint Chips_; Col. A. Lane\nFox (_Catal._ p. 158).\n\n[51] _History of the Discovery and Conquest of the Canary Islands_,\nwhich dates from 1792. The unfortunate \u2018master-mariner\u2019 (see my\n_Wanderings in West Africa_, i. 116) borrows from the Spanish of\nAbreu-Galindo. Mr. F. W. Newman (_Libyan Vocabulary_: Tr\u00fcbner, 1882)\nhas illustrated the four Libyan languages\u2014the Algerian Kab\u00e1il (ancient\nNumidian), the Moroccan Shilh\u00e1 (Mauritanian), the Ghadamsi (of which we\nknow little), and the Tu\u00e1rik (guides), or Tarkiya (G\u00e6tulian). \u2018Guanche\u2019\nis a corruption of _guan_ (Berber _wan_), \u2018one person,\u2019 and _Chinet_,\nor Tenerife Island; _guan-chinet_, meaning \u2018a man of Tenerife.\u2019 I have\nreturned to this subject in my last book on the Gold Coast (i. chap. 5).\n\n[52] The word, also written \u2018H\u00fcttent\u00fct,\u2019 and originally Dutch, is\nsupposed to be an uncomplimentary imitation of the cluck-like or\nsmack-like \u2018sonant,\u2019 which characterises their complicated and\ndifficult language, and which has infected the neighbouring sections\nof the great South African family of speech. The Hottentots had\nalready reached the pastoral stage when first visited by Europeans;\nwhereas the Bushmans then, as now, were huntsmen. Some derive the\nHottentot-Bushman \u2018click\u2019 from the Egyptian article T (\u00e1). But\nKlaproth found it in Circassia, Whitmee amongst the Melanesian\nNegritos, and Haldeman amongst certain North American tribes. Professor\nMahaffy notices that \u2018old women among us express pity by a regular\npalatal click.\u2019 On the continent of Europe it expresses a kind of\n\u2018Don\u2019t-you-wish-you-may-get-it?\u2019 Dr. Hahn, who has lately published a\nscientific work upon the Khoi-Khoi, favourably reviewed by Professor\nMax M\u00fcller in the _Nineteenth Century_, has treated the subject\nexhaustively.\n\n[53] I can bear personal witness to the prowess of the ruffians of\nNazareth, who call themselves, most falsely, Greeks. In 1871, when\nencamped near the village, three of my servants were so severely\nwounded with hand-stones that one was nearly killed.\n\n[54] Prof. Maspero, of Bulak, told me that he had some doubts about\nthe correctness of Wilkinson\u2019s illustration showing \u2018ancient Egyptians\nthrowing knives.\u2019\n\n[55] The _facon_ (faulchion) is about two feet long. Both weapons are\nthrown in two ways. The more common is to lay the blade flat on the\npalm, which is narrowed by contracting the thumb and the _musculus\nguinearum_ at the root of the little finger. The other is by holding\nthe handle and causing the dart to reverse, so as to strike point\nforemost. The best guard is a revolver.\n\n[56] _Critical Enquiry into Antient Armour_, &c., by Sir Samuel Rush\nMeyrick, Kt., preface, p. viii. (4to, 1842).\n\n[57] It is not, as usually supposed, a \u2018bastard French word,\u2019 from\n_fustis_, a staff, and \u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, to throw.\n\n[58] Our \u2018bow\u2019 is the Gothic _bogo_ (a bender?), Scand. _bogi_,\nDan. _buc_, and Old Germ. _poko_. (J\u00e4hns, p. 18.) The ancients\nmade fine distinctions in slings: thus the three-thonged weapon of\n\u00c6geum, Patr\u00e6, and Dym\u00e6 was held far superior to that of the Baleares\n(\u2018Slinging-Isles\u2019), which had only one strap (Livy, xxxviii. 30).\n\n[59] Pliny, vii. 57. The legend points to the excellent archery of the\nScythians (Turanians) and the Persians.\n\n[60] Even in modern days Dr. Woodward suggests that the first model of\nflint arrow-heads was brought from Babel, and was preserved after the\ndispersion of mankind. This is admirably archaic.\n\n[61] The crossbow is apparently indigenous amongst various tribes of\nIndo-China, but reintroduced into European warfare during the twelfth\ncentury (Yule\u2019s _Marco Polo_, ii. 143).\n\n[62] The military engines of the ancients were chiefly on the torsion\nprinciple; those of the medi\u00e6vals were of two types, the sling and the\ncrossbow. The \u2018tormentum\u2019 was so called because all its parts were\ntwisted; the \u2018scorpion\u2019 (or catapult), because the bow was vertically\nplaced, like the insect\u2019s raised tail; and the \u2018onager,\u2019 because the\n\u2018wild asses, when hunted, throw the stones behind them by their kicks,\nso as to pierce the chests of those who pursue them, or to fracture\nthem.\u2019 So at least says A. Marcellinus (_Hist._ xxiii. 4). I cannot but\nsuspect that Anna Comnena\u2019s \u03c4\u03b6\u03ac\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1 is a corruption of _onager_ (Yule\u2019s\n_Marco Polo_, ii. 144).\n\n[63] The National Museum of Prague, Old Graben Street, now Kolowrat,\ncontains a fine collection of war-flails, especially the huge \u2018morning\nstar\u2019 of John Zsizka, generally called Ziska.\n\n[64] Mostly, not always, as I learnt to my cost.\n\n[65] In a subsequent work (_Bronzes_, &c., pp. 27\u201330) Dr. Evans\ndiscusses the suggestions of Beger and of Mr. Knight Watson (_Proc.\nSoc. Ant._ 2nd S. vii. 396) that _celte_ in Job is a misreading for\n_certe_. He justly reprobates the fashion of writing \u2018Kelt,\u2019 and\nthe newly-coined French plural _celt\u00e6_. The truth is that not a few\nantiquaries have confounded the instrument with the Keltic or Celtic\ntribes. The word, meaning a stone axe, adze, or chisel, has been\nerroneously derived from the Celts, properly Kelts, and by older\nphilologists _a c\u00e6lando_, which would convert it into a congener of\n_c\u00e6lum_. It is the Latin _celtis_ or _celtes_, a chisel, possibly a\nrelative of the Welsh _cellt_, a flint. The word is found, according\nto Mr. Evans, only in the Vulgate translation of Job, in Saint Jerome,\nand in a forged inscription. He first met with its antiquarian use in\nBeger\u2019s _Thesaurus Brandenburgicus_ (1696), where a metal _securis_\n(axe) is called _celtes_.\n\n[66] In 1650 Sir William Dugdale (_Hist. of Warwickshire_) spoke of\nstone celts as the weapons of the Ancient Britons, and in 1766 he was\nfollowed by Bishop Lyttelton. In 1797 Mr. Frere drew the attention\nof the Society of Antiquaries to the Drift (pal\u00e6olithic) instruments\noccurring at Hoxne, Suffolk, together with remains of the elephant\nand other extinct animals. He was one of several; but, as usually\nhappens, the wit of one man collected and systematised the scattered\nexperience of many. The man was M. Boucher de Perthes, whose finds in\nthe drift-gravels of St. Acheul, near Amiens (1858), appeared in the\n_Antiquit\u00e9s Celtiques et Ant\u00e9-diluviennes_, and made an epoch, changing\nthe accepted chronology of mankind.\n\n[67] The stone-weapon was also called _betulus_, _belemnites_, and\n_ceraunius_ (thunder-stone), _ceraunium_ and _ceraunia_. So Claudian\n(_Laus Seren\u00e6_, v. 77)\u2014\n\n Pyren\u00e6isque sub antris\n Ignea flumine\u00e6 legere ceraunia nymph\u00e6.\n\n\u2018Fuerunt auctores\u2019 (says Aldovrandus) \u2018qui hunc lapidem ceraunium,\nnempe fulminarem, indigitaverunt.\u2019 According to Skulius Thorlacius,\nthe stone-axe typified the splitting; the hammer, the shattering; and\nthe arrow, the piercing, action of the bolt (Om Thor og hans Hammer).\nPeople carried these belemnites about their persons, because lightning\nwas supposed never to strike twice in the same place.\n\n[68] According to Suetonius, the Roman C\u00e6sar presided over the senate\nwith a Sword by his side and a mail-coat under his tunic.\n\n[69] _De Rer. Nat._ v. 1282. He speaks of Italy, where copper and\nbronze historically preceded iron.\n\n[70] _Sat._ i. 3.\n\n[71] Leading to the fourth, or Historic, and the fifth, or Gunpowder,\nage of weapons. In these \u2018ages\u2019 we have a fine instance of hasty\nand indiscriminate generalisation. They originated in Scandinavia,\nwhere Stone was used almost exclusively from the beginning of man\u2019s\noccupation till B.C. 2000\u20131000. At that time the Bronze began, and\nended with the Iron about the Christian era. Thomsen, who classified\nthe Copenhagen Museum in 1836; Nilsson, the Swede, who founded\ncomparative anthropology (1838\u201343); Forchhammer and Wors\u00e4ae, the Dane,\nwho illustrated the Bronze Age (1845), fairly established the local\nsequence. It was accepted by F. Keller, of the Zurich Lake (1853), by\nCount Gozzadini, of Bologna (1854), by Lyell (1863), and by Professor\nMax M\u00fcller (1863, 1868, and 1873), who seems to have followed the\nSwiss studies of M. Morlot (_Bulletin de la Soc. Vaudoise_, tome vi.\netc.) Unhappily, the useful order was applied to the whole world, when\nits deficiency became prominent and palpable. I note that Mr. Joseph\nAnderson (_Scotland in Early Christian Times_, p. 19) retains the\n\u2018three stages of progress\u2019\u2014stone, bronze, and iron. Brugsch (_History_,\ni. 25) petulantly rejects them, declaring that Egypt \u2018throws scorn\nupon these assumed periods,\u2019 the reverse being the case. Mr. John\nEvans (_The Ancient Stone Implements, &c., of Great Britain_, p. 2)\nadopts the succession-idea, warning us that the classification does not\nimply any exact chronology. He finds Biblical grounds \u2018in favour of\nsuch a view of gradual development of material civilisation.\u2019 Adam\u2019s\npersonal equipment in the way of tools or weapons would have been but\ninsufficient, if no artificer was instructed in brass and iron until\nthe days of Tubal Cain, the sixth in descent when a generation covered\na hundred years. Mr. Evans divides the Stone Age into four periods.\nFirst, the Pal\u00e6olithic, River-gravel, or Drift, when only chipping\nwas used; second, the Reindeer, or Cavern-epoch of Central France,\nand an intermediate age, when surface-chipping is found; third, the\nNeolithic, or surface stone-period of Western Europe, in which grinding\nwas practised; and, lastly, the Metallo-lithic age, which attained the\nhighest degree of manual skill.\n\n[72] In Denmark the division is marked even by the vegetation. The\nStone Age lies buried under the fir-trees; the oak-stratum conceals the\nBronzes, and the Iron Age is covered by birch and elders (J\u00e4hns, p. 2).\n\n[73] Yule\u2019s _Marco Polo_, ii. 208.\n\n[74] Servius, ad _\u00c6neid._ ii. 44, \u2018Sic notus Ulysses.\u2019\n\n[75] Col. A. Lane Fox (_Prim. War._, p. 24) notices the bone implements\nof the French caves and their resemblance, amounting almost to\nidentity, with those found in Sweden, among the Eskimos, and the\nsavages of Tierra del Fuego.\n\n[76] _Mittheilungen der Wien. Anthrop. Gesellschaft._ Vienna, 1874.\n\n[77] _Pfahlbau_ (_pfahl_ = _palus_) was originally applied to the\npile-villages of the Swiss waters (_The Lake-Dwellings of Switzerland_,\nby Dr. Ferdinand Keller).\n\n[78] Wilkinson opines that the Egyptian Khons or Khonsu, the new moon\nof the year which appeared at the autumnal equinox when the \u2018world was\nmade,\u2019 becomes the Biblical Sem, and that \u2018Sampson\u2019 is Sem-Kon, or\nSun-fire. Jablonski (_Pantheon Egyptiorum_) supported the theory that\nSon, Sem, Con, Khons, or Djom was the god or genius of the summer sun.\n\n[79] _Travels into Indo-China_, &c. ii. 147, by Henri Mouhot, 1858\u201359.\n\n[80] \u2018Pile,\u2019 applied to the arrow-head (as \u2018quarrel\u2019 to the bolt of\nthe crossbow), is a congener of the German _pfeil_, an arrow. The\nScandinavian is _pila_, the Anglo-Saxon _pil_, apparently a congener of\nthe Latin _pilum_.\n\n[81] _Ulster Journal of Arch\u00e6ology_ for 1857.\n\n[82] The Dacota tribe is said still to \u2018doctor\u2019 the bullet by filling\nwith venom four drilled holes, which are covered by pressing down the\nprojecting lips or rims of the metal. Unfortunately, travellers tell us\nthat the venom is the cuticle of the cactus, which is quite harmless.\nThe Papuans tip their arrows with a human bone, which is poisoned\nby being thrust into a putrid corpse. Hence, they say, Commodore\nGoodenough met his death.\n\n[83] P. 258, _Descriptive Catalogue of the Antiquities in the Royal\nIrish Academy_, by the late (Sir) William R. Wilde. The Greeks, from\nthe days of Homer, followed by the Romans, considered the use of\npoisoned arrows a characteristic of the barbarian.\n\n[84] The learned author adds, \u2018thus confirming the opinion (deduced\nfrom the size of the hafts of our bronze Swords) that the hands of the\nrace who used them were very small.\u2019 I can hardly agree with him, and\nwill give reasons in a future page.\n\n[85] Wilde writes: \u2018_Sceana_, which is the plural of _scjan_, a knife,\u2019\nthe Scotch _sgian-dhu_, or _skene_ (Rev. Paul O\u2019Brien\u2019s _Practical\nGrammar and Vocabulary of the Irish Language_, Dublin: Fitzpatrick,\n1809).\u2019\n\n[86] It is better to write Crannog, lest the word be pronounced\n\u2018crannoje.\u2019 It derives from the Irish _crann_ (a tree, e.g. _crann ola_\n= an olive-tree), and properly means a platform or plank-floor.\n\n[87] Pliny, the grumbler, complains (xxxiii. 54): \u2018Our very soldiers,\nholding even ivory in contempt, have their _capuli_ (sword-hilts)\ninlaid or chased (_c\u00e6lentur_) with silver; their _vagin\u00e6_ (scabbards)\nare heard to jingle with their silver _catell\u00e6_ (chains), and their\nbelts with the plates of silver (_baltea laminis crepitant_) that\ninlay them.\u2019 It will be seen that Divus C\u00e6sar had juster and more\nsoldier-like views. Scipio the younger, when shown a fine shield by a\nyouth, said: \u2018It is really beautiful; but a soldier should rely more on\nhis right arm than on his left arm.\u2019\n\n[88] Of Lund, Sweden. _The Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia_, &c.,\ntranslated by Sir John Lubbock. Nilsson is quoted and illustrated by\nCol. A. Lane Fox (_Prim. War._ p. 135), and by Wilde (p. 254) from the\n_Scandinaviska Nordens Ur-Invanare_, 1843.\n\n[89] Chapter III.\n\n[90] A commentator volunteers the information that the bow was tipped\nwith ram\u2019s-horn. Nor is there any need to translate \u2018goat\u2019 by _ibex_.\n\n[91] Pemberton, _Travels_.\n\n[92] Hakluyt\u2019s edit., p. 43. The index to this publication is very\ndefective: one must look through the whole volume for a line of\nquotation. I shall again notice it in the next chapter.\n\n[93] Wilkinson (Sir J. Gardner), _A Popular Account of the Ancient\nEgyptians_, i. chap. 5, mentions only tips of hard wood, flint, and\nmetals.\n\n[94] The _Roteiro_ or _Ruttier_ of the _Voyage of Vasco da Gama_ (p. 5,\nLisboa, Imprensa Nacional) speaks of tribes about the Cape of Good Hope\narmed with horn-weapons \u2018worked by fire\u2019 (_huuns cornos tostados_). I\nshould suggest that \u2018_cornos_\u2019 is an error for _p\u00e1os_ (wooden staves).\n\n[95] The khanjar proper is shaped like a yataghan, of which more\npresently.\n\n[96] I avoid treating of armour in a book devoted to the Sword; but\nthe Horn Age compels me to show, in a few words, how that material,\ncombined with hoofs, gave rise to scale armour. Pausanias, confirmed\nby Tacitus, informs us that the Sarmatians (Slavs) prepared the\nhorse-hoofs of their large herds and sewed them with nerves and\nsinews to overlap like the surface of a fir-cone. He adds that this\nlorica was not inferior in strength or in elegance to the metal-work\nof the Greeks. The Emperor Domitian wore a corslet of boars\u2019-hoofs\nstitched together; and a fragment of such horn-armour was found at\nPompeii. Ammianus Marcellinus describes the Sarmatians and the Quadi as\nprotected by loricas of horn-flakes planed, polished, and fastened like\nfeathers upon a linen sheet. A defence composed of the hoofs of some\nanimal, made to hold together without the aid of an inner jerkin, and\nused in some parts of Asia, is represented in Meyrick (plate iii.). A\nstone figure of old type similarly defended, and bearing an inscription\nin a dialect cognate with Greek, appears in vol. iii. _Journ. Arch\u00e6ol.\nAssoc._ Herodotus (vii. 76) tells us of a people, whose name has\ndisappeared, that, in addition to their brazen helmets, they wore the\nears and horns of an ox in brass. This horn-helmet shows the savage\npractice of defending the head with the skins of beasts and their\nappendages.\n\n[97] The _Pfahlbauten im Laibacher Moraste_ were first noticed in the\n_Neue Freie Presse_, August 27, 1875; secondly, by the _Neue Deutsche\nAlpenzeitung_, of Vienna, Sept. 4, 1875; thirdly, by Herr Custos\nDeschmann (to whom the discovery is attributed) in his paper _Die\nPfahlbauten auf dem Laibacher Moore_ (Verhand. der Wiener K. K. Geolog.\nReichsanstalt, Nov. 16, 1875); and, fourthly, by Carl Freiherr von\nCzoernig, whose study (_Ueber die Vorhistorischen Funde im Laibacher\nTorfmoor_) was read at the Alpine Society of Trieste on December 8,\n1875. Between that time and 1880 the subject has been illustrated by\nmany writers. The course of discovery also has been \u2018forwards;\u2019 and the\nwhole moor was about to be drained in 1881.\n\n[98] Perhaps this may explain the \u2018pierced implements of unknown use\u2019\nfound with harpoon-heads of reindeer-horn in a cavern near Bruniguel,\nFrance. Two picks made of reindeer-antlers were produced by the \u2018Grimes\nGraves,\u2019 Westing Parish, Norfolk.\n\n[99] The animal remains were of bears, wolves, lynxes, beavers, badgers\n(probably the cave-species), hogs, goats, sheep (differing in the\njaw-bone from _ovis_), dogs (common, and not eaten), and cattle with\nsmall teeth like those of the aurochs. The bird-bones resembled those\nof the common duck. Man was rare, suggesting that the pile-villagers\nburied on the adjacent slopes; the only human \u2018find\u2019 was an inferior\nmaxilla with teeth much worn.\n\n[100] The word _paalstab_, _palstab_, or _palstave_ is usually\ntranslated \u2018labouring-staff,\u2019 from _at pula_ or _pala_, to labour,\n_labourer_. Dr. John Evans (_Bronzes_, &c., p. 72) prefers\n\u2018spade-staff,\u2019 the verb being _at p\u00e6la_, to dig, and the noun _pall_,\na spade, spud, shovel; the Latin _pala_, the French _pelle_, and our\n(baker\u2019s) _peel_, or wooden shovel. He confines the term \u2018pal-stave\u2019\nto two forms; the first is the winged celt with the lateral extensions\nhammered to make a socket; the second is the spud-shaped form, with a\nthinner blade above than below the side-flanges.\n\n[101] M. Kugelmann, of Hamburg\u2014a wholesale merchant, who kindly showed\nme his warehouse\u2014prefers the horns of the North American and Japanese\nstag, especially when buttons are to be made of the crown.\n\n[102] _Reports on the Discovery of Peru_, by Clements R. Markham, C.B.,\np. 53 (London: Hakluyt Soc. 1872).\n\n[103] Oldfield\u2019s \u2018Aborigines of Australia\u2019 (_Trans. Eth. Soc._). The\nauthor was employed (1861) in collecting specimens of timber for the\nInternational Exhibition.\n\n[104] Commissioner for Victoria at the Geographical Congress of Venice,\nSeptember 1881.\n\n[105] It is instructive to note the novel application of old inventions\nto general use when the necessities of the age demand them. The\ndetonating and explosive force of gunpowder was known, in the form\nof squibs and fireworks, centuries before firearms were required.\nThe power of steam, as a whirling toy and a copper vessel prove, was\nfamiliar to the old Egyptians, and perhaps to the Greeks and Romans\nunder the name of _\u00e6olipyl\u00e6_ \u03b1\u1f30\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03c5 \u03c0\u03cd\u03bb\u03b1\u03b9. But only at the end of the\nlast century its motive force attracted general attention; it became a\nnecessary of civilised life, and at once superseded the sailer and the\nstage coach. And by aid of the Past we may project the Future. Man will\nbungle over the balloon, but he will never fly straight till railways\nand steamers become too slow for him: when \u2018levitation,\u2019 in fact, shall\nbecome a necessity. Now the mode of transit would be an unmitigated\nevil to humanity.\n\n[106] In the Monuments Civils of the Salle de l\u2019Est, Vitrine A. H., at\nthe south side. I can give only the old arrangement, which was changed\nin 1879\u201380. During my last visit (November 1882) the new order had not\nbeen completed. These club-swords are accompanied by throw-sticks,\nhatchets, and knob-kerries. The old Lis\u00e1ns from Thebes are illustrated\nby Wilkinson (_loc. cit._ i. 5). The name, however, is _not_ \u2018lissan,\u2019\nand they are _not_ made of acacia, a soft wood that readily perishes.\nWhy will writers confound acacia and mimosa?\n\n[107] The arrangement of the Swords when I last visited the collection\n(August 1878) was temporary till classified. The wooden blades referred\nto were in the Petrie Section (Case 21) to the east.\n\n[108] So the sovereign of England appointed his Lord High Treasurer by\nhanding over to him a white rod, and the Lord Steward of the Household\nby presenting a white staff with the words: \u2018Seneschall, tenez le b\u00e2ton\nde nostre hostiell.\u2019 Holding the staff was equivalent to the royal\ncommission, and when not in the presence it was carried by a footman\nbareheaded. On the death of his liege lord the great functionary broke\nthe staff over the corpse, and his duties were at an end. The Lord\nMarshall of England was expressly permitted to bear a gold truncheon\nwith the royal arms at one end, and on the other his own enamelled in\nblack. The king solemnly gave the \u2018Marshall\u2019s rod\u2019 into the hands of\nMaude, daughter of the Earl of Pembroke, who made it over to her son,\nEarl Roger.\n\n[109] It derives from _booroomooroong_; and the latter denotes, among\nthe Maoris, a part of the ceremonies practised when the boys are being\nmade men. The symbol, we are told (Collins, _New South Wales_, p. 346),\nis knocking out a tooth with the aid of a throwing-stick. Mr. Howard\nSpenseley (_loc. cit._) makes the average boomerang 60 centim\u00e8tres long\nby 0\u00b76 broad and 0\u00b715 thick: he gives it a flight of 100 m\u00e8tres.\n\n[110] Strangers in Egypt often suppose the true asp to be the\n_Cerastes_, or horned snake. As the hieroglyphics and the monuments\nprove, it is invariably the cobra de capello (_Coluber Haja_), an\ninhabitant of Africa as well as of Asia. The colour of this deadly\nthanatophid\u2014which annually kills thousands in India\u2014varies with its\nhabitat from light yellow to dull green and dark brown. The worst I\never saw are upon the Guinea Coast.\n\n[111] Anthrop. Soc. July 11, 1882. General Pitt-Rivers, I believe,\nwould localise the boomerang to the neighbourhood of the Indian Ocean,\nand deny it to Europe and America.\n\n[112] _Loc. cit._ vol. i. chap. iv. pp. 235, 236, 237, in the abridged\nedition.\n\n[113] Lib. iv. 4, \u00a7 3.\n\n[114] _Pragmateia_, vi. 22, \u00a7 1; a fragmentary but admirable account of\nthe Roman army.\n\n[115] _Trans. Irish Assoc._ vol. xix. The Romans also called it _aclys_\n(_\u00c6n._ vii. 730), which the dictionaries render as a \u2018kind of dart.\u2019\nIt was an archaic and barbarian weapon; and Virgil (_\u00c6n._ vii. 730)\nattributes it to the Osci:\u2014\n\n Teretes sunt aclydes illis\n Tela: sed h\u00e6c lento mos est aptare flagello.\n\nThis would mean that after the weapon is thrown it might be drawn back\nagain with a leather thong. Possibly the _cateia_ of Isidore (_cateia_,\nto cut or mangle, and _catan_, to fight; the Irish ca\ua787\u0307 and the Welsh\n_kad_, a fight or a corps of fighters, Latin _caterva_), survives in\nthe tip-_cat_. In the Keltic dialect of Wales _catai_ is a weapon.\n\n[116] See his learned note (p. 410) on the weapon and on Isidore\n(_Orig._ xviii. 7): \u2018H\u00e6c est cateia quam Horatius cajam dicit.\u2019 The\ndisputed word probably derives from the Keltic _katten_, to cast, to\nthrow.\n\n[117] _Nile Tributaries_, by Sir Samuel W. Baker, p. 51. The word has a\ncurious likeness to the \u2018tombat,\u2019 a similar weapon in Australia (Col. A\nLane-Fox, _Anthrop. Coll._ p. 31).\n\n[118] The \u2018Fans\u2019 of M. du Chaillu, a corruption unfortunately adopted\nby popular works. In _Gorilla-Land_ (i. 207) I have noticed the\nN\u00e1yin, or Mpangwe crossbow (with poisoned _ebe_, or dwarf bolt),\nwhich probably travelled up-Nile like the throw-stick. The _d\u00e9tente_\nand method of releasing the string from its notch are those of the\ntoy forms of the European weapon. The Museum at Scarborough contains\na crossbow from the Bight of Benin. The people of Bornu (North-West\nAfrica) also use a crossbow rat-trap.\n\n[119] It is called _chakarani_ in the _Coasts of East Africa and\nMalabar Coast_, by Duarte Barbosa or Magellan (?). The Jibba negroes of\nCentral Africa wear a similar weapon as a bracelet, sheathed in a strip\nof hide.\n\n[120] Col. A. Lane-Fox, _Anthrop. Coll._, p. 33. For a comparative\nanatomy of the boomerang the reader will consult that volume, pp.\n28\u201361. I have here noticed only the most remarkable points.\n\n[121] The Sword stood in Case 2 of the Salle du Centre, numbered 695;\nand was described in p. 225 of the late Mariette Pasha\u2019s catalogue.\nI cannot quite free myself from a suspicion that it was also a\nboomerang of unusual size. Some of the South African tribes still use\nthrow-sticks a yard to a yard and a half long. \u2018They are double as\nthick at one end as they are at the other,\u2019 says Herr Holub (ii. 340),\n\u2018the lighter extremity being in the usual way about as thick as one\u2019s\nfinger.\u2019\n\n[122] This meaningless word (_cartuccia_, a scrap of paper) was\napplied by Champollion to the elliptical oval containing a group of\nhieroglyphics. It is simply an Egyptian shield (Wilkinson, _loc. cit._\ni. chap. 5), and the horizontal line below shows the ground upon which\nit rested. The old Nile-dwellers, like the classics of Europe and\nthe modern Chinese, use the shield for their characteristics, their\nheraldic badges, &c. The same was the case with our formal heraldry,\nwhich originated about the time of the Crusades, personal symbolism\nbeing its base. As Mr. Hardwick shows, the horse, raven, and dragon\nwere old familiar badges; many of our sheep-marks are identical with\n\u2018ordinaries,\u2019 and the tribes of Australia used signs to serve as\n_kobongs_, or crests. Thus, too, in fortification the shield became\nthe crenelle and the battlement, and it served to \u2018iron-clad\u2019 the\nwar-galleys of the piratical Norsemen.\n\n[123] So there are two ways of swimming. The civilised man imitates\nthe action of the frog, the savage the dog, throwing out the arms and\ndrawing the hands towards his chest.\n\n[124] _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ vol. iii. pp. 7\u201329, April, 1873.\n\n[125] An illustration is given in Mr. J. G. Wood\u2019s _Natural History of\nMan_. He also quotes Mr. F. Baines, who describes the paddles of the\nNorth Australians with barbed and pointed looms.\n\n[126] Capt. James Mackenzie, in a paper read before the Ethno. Soc. by\nMr. G. M. Atkinson (_Journal_, vol. ii. No. 2, of July 18, 1870. The\npaddle is figured pl. xiv. 2).\n\n[127] Translated for the Hakluyt Society (1874) by Mr. Albert Tootal,\nof Rio de Janeiro, who wisely preserved the plain and simple style of\nthe unlettered and superstition-haunted gunner.\n\n[128] In Bacon\u2019s day (_Aphorisms_, book ii.) gummy woods were supposed\nto be rather a Northern growth, \u2018more pitchy and resinous than in warm\nclimates, as the fir, pine, and the like.\u2019 They are as abundant near\nthe Equator, where the viscidity preserves them from the alternate\naction of burning suns and torrential rains; moreover, they are harder\nand heavier than the pines and firs of the Temperates.\n\n[129] _Historia Geral do Brazil_, by F. Adolpho de Varnhagen, vol. i.\np. 112 (Laemmert, Rio de Janeiro, 1854).\n\n[130] M. Paul Bataillard (p. 409, _Sur le Mot Pagaie_, Soc. Anthrop.\nde Paris, 1874) is in error, both when he calls the people of Paraguay\n\u2018Pagayas,\u2019 or \u2018carriers of lances,\u2019 and when he identifies Pagaya\n(not a spear, but a paddle-sword) with the \u2018sagaia or assagai.\u2019 The\nlatter word is of disputed origin, and it is meaningless in the\ntongues of South Africa. Space forbids me to touch its history, except\nsuperficially. \u2018Azagay,\u2019 a lance, or rather javelin, appears in\nSpanish history as far back as the days of Ojeda (1509); and in 1497\nthe Portuguese of Vasco da Gama\u2019s expedition use the term \u2018azagayas\u2019\n(p. 12, Roteiro or Ruttier, before alluded to). I believe both to\nbe derived from the Arabic _el-khaz\u00fak_, a spit\u2014in fact, the Italian\n_spiedo_, lance.\n\n[131] Markham (p. 203, Cie\u00e7a de Leon) makes \u2018Macan\u00e1\u2019 a Quichua word; it\nalso belongs to the great Tupi-Guarani family.\n\n[132] _Antiquarian Researches_, quoted by Markham, _loc. cit._ p. 181.\n\n[133] The Godeffroy Collection has produced a huge Catalogue of 687\npages (_Die ethnographisch-anthropologische Abtheilung des Museum\nGodeffroy in Hamburg_, vol. i. 8vo (L. Friederichsen u. Co. 1881).\nIt was shown to me by Dr. Graeffe, the naturalist often mentioned\nin \u2018_South Sea Bubbles_, by the Earl and the Doctor.\u2019 As a rule the\nSamoans had clubs and spears, but few Swords.\n\n[134] This part of Melanesia has been familiar to the home reader by\nthe life, labours, and death of Bishop Patterson.\n\n[135] Case 21, Petrie, No. 142.\n\n[136] The village of Abu Raw\u00e1sh, north of the Pyramids of J\u00edzah, still\nworks this material in large quantities; and its _caillouteurs_, or\nflint-knappers, have produced excellent imitations of the so-called\nprehistoric weapons. I have described the flint finds of Egypt in the\n_Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ (Feb. 1879), and shall have something more to\nsay about them. A Mr. R. P. Greg, who writes in the same Journal (May\n1881) on the \u2018Flint Implements of the Nile Valley,\u2019 is not aware of\nthe fact that I found worked flints near the larger petrified forest\n(Cairo). Since that time General Pitt-Rivers made his grand discovery\nof \u2018Chert Implements in stratified Gravel in the Nile Valley\u2019 (_Journ.\nAnthrop. Inst._ May 1882). In March 1881, when visiting the Wady,\nnear Elwat El-D\u00edb\u00e1n (Hill of Flies) amongst the cliffs of Thebes, he\ncame upon pal\u00e6olithic flints, flakes worked with bulbs and facets\nembedded in the hardened grit, six and a half to ten feet below the\nsurface. In the same strata tombs had been cut, flat-topped chambers\nwith quadrangular pillars. The fragments of pottery enabled Dr.\nBirch to pronounce these excavations \u2018not later than the eighteenth\ndynasty, and perhaps earlier.\u2019 The New Empire in question was founded\nby Amosis (_Mah-mes_, or Moon-child) _circ._ B.C. 1700; it included\nthe three great Tothmes, and lasted about three hundred years, ending\nwith the heretic Amun-hotep IV., slave of Amun, _circ._ B.C. 1400,\nand Horemhib, the Horus of Manetho. The worked flints may evidently\ndate thousands of years before that period. This is a discovery of the\nhighest importance, and we may expect, with Mr. Campbell, that the\n\u2018works of men\u2019s hands will be found abundantly underlying the oldest\nhistory in the world, in the hard gravel which underlies the mud of the\nNile-hollow from Cairo to Assouan.\u2019 At any rate, this find disposes\nof the scientific paradox that Art has no infancy in Nile-land. The\nstrange fancy has been made popular by the Egyptologist, who threatens\nto become as troublesome as the Sanskritist.\n\n[137] It is figured (p. 8) by Dr. John Evans (_Ancient Stone\nImplements_, &c.), who offers another \u2018poniard\u2019 (perhaps a scraper) on\np. 292. On p. 308 he notes the large thin flat heads called \u2018Pechs\u2019\u2019\n(Picts\u2019?) knives.\u2019\n\n[138] Nephrite is so called because once held a sovereign cure for\nkidney disease. Jade is found in various parts of Europe (Page); in the\nHartz (or Resin) Mountains; in Corsica (Bristowe), and about Schweinsal\nand Potsdam (Rudler). Saussurite, the \u2018Jade of the Alps,\u2019 appears about\nthe Lake of Geneva and on Monte Rosa. Mr. Dawkins limits Jade proper\nin the Old World to Turkestan and China. _Jade_, the Chinese _you_, is\npopularly derived from the Persian _j\u00e1d\u00fa_ = (the) magic (stone).\n\n[139] I need hardly notice that the mussel-shell was the original\nspoon, still a favourite with savages.\n\n[140] Humboldt (_Pers. Narr._ vol. i. p. 100) makes the Guanches call\nobsidian \u2018tabona\u2019; most authors apply the word to the Guanche knife of\nobsidian.\n\n[141] Neuhoff, _Travels_, &c. xiv. 874.\n\n[142] Our word \u2018glass\u2019 derives from _glese_ (_gless_, _glessaria_),\napplied by the old Germans to amber (Tacit. _De Mor. Germ._ cap. 45).\nPliny (xxxvii. chap. 11) also notices _gl\u00e6sum_ (amber) and Gl\u00e6saria\nIsland, by the natives called Austeravia.\n\n[143] Stephens, _Yucatan_, i. 100.\n\n[144] The curious and artistic rock inscriptions and engravings of the\nSouth African Bushmen were traced in outline by triangular flint-flakes\nmounted on sticks to act as chisels. The subjects were either simple\nfigures; cows, gnus, and antelopes, a man\u2019s bust and a woman carrying\na load; or compositions, as ostrich and rider, a jackal chasing a\ngazelle, or a rhinoceros hunting an ostrich.\n\n[145] See Chap. I.\n\n[146] _Voyage Pittoresque autour du Monde_, par M. Louis Choris,\nPeintre, 1822.\n\n[147] _Trans. Ethno. Soc._ vols. i. and ii. p. 290.\n\n[148] Quoted by Col. Lane Fox, _Prim. War._ i. 25.\n\n[149] _Prehistoric Man_, by Daniel Wilson (vol. i. pp. 216\u201317).\n\n[150] _Incidents of Travel in Central America_, &c., p. 51; by J. Lloyd\nStephens. The work is highly interesting, because it shows Egypt in\nCentral America. Compare the Copan Pyramid with that of Sakkarah; the\nCynocephalus head (i. 135) with those of Thebes; the beard, a tuft on\nthe chin; the statue and its headdress (ii. 349); the geese-breeding\nat the palace (ii. 316); the central cross (ii. 346) which denotes\nthe position of the solstices and the equinoxes and the winged globe\nat Ocosingo (ii. 259). In Yucatan the _Agave Americana_ took the\nplace of the papyrus for paper-making. Indo-China also appears in the\nelephant-trunk ornaments (i. 156).\n\n[151] _Prim. War._ ii. p. 25.\n\n[152] The two latter are in Demmin, p. 84.\n\n[153] A specimen is in the British Museum, Department of Meteorolites.\n(_Prim. War._ p. 25.)\n\n[154] The distinguished physicist, Prof. Huxley, extends on purely\nanthropological grounds, the name \u2018Australioids\u2019 to the Dravidians of\nIndia, the Egyptians, ancient and modern, and the dark-coloured races\nof Southern Europe. I have ventured to oppose this theory in Chap.\nVIII. Mr. Thomas, curious to say, would make letters (alphabet, &c.)\narise amongst the Dravidian quasi-savages.\n\n[155] _Trans. Anthrop. Inst._ May 1881. Mr. Milne brought home some\nfine specimens of worked stones, one of which (No. 17, pl. xviii.) is a\nchopper in the shape of the Egyptian flint-knives.\n\n[156] Mr. Heath (who directed the Indian Iron and Steel Company) opined\nthat the tools with which the Egyptians engraved hieroglyphics on\nsyenite and porphyry were made of Indian steel. The theory is, as we\nshall see, quite uncalled for.\n\n[157] For instance, the magnificent life-sized statue of Khafra\n(Cephren or Khabryes) in the Bulak Museum, dated B.C. 3700\u20133300\n(Brugsch, _History_, vol. i. p. 78). Scarab\u00e6i of diorite can be safely\nbought in Egypt, the substance being too hard for cheap imitation\nwork. Dr. Henry Schliemann constantly mentions diorite in his _Troy\nand its Remains_ (1875); for instance, \u2018wedges\u2019 (i.e. axes) large and\nsmall, (pp. 21, 28, 154): he speaks of an immense quantity of diorite\nimplements (p. 75); of a Priapus of diorite twelve inches high (p.\n169); of \u2018curious little sling bullets\u2019 (p. 236), and of hammers (p.\n285). At Mycen\u00e6 he found \u2018two well-polished axes of diorite.\u2019 But as\nhe also calls it \u2018hard black stone,\u2019 I suspect it to be basalt, as his\n\u2018green stone\u2019 (_Troy_, p. 21) may be jade or jadeite.\n\n[158] Casting the cannon called after the late General Uchatius is\nstill kept a secret; and I have been unable to see the process at the\nI. R. Arsenal, Vienna.\n\n[159] _Stahl-bronce_ = steel (i.e. hardened) bronze. The\nmisunderstanding caused some ludicrous errors to the English press.\n\n[160] I reported to the _Athen\u00e6um_ (August 16, 1879) this \u2018recovery\u2019\nof the lost Egyptian (and Peruvian) secret for tempering copper and\nbronze, which had long been denied by metallurgists. Copper hardened\nby alloy is described in the _Arch\u00e6ologia_, by Governor Pownall. Mr.\nAssay-Master Alchorn found in it particles of iron, which may, however,\nhave been in the ore, and some admixture of zinc, but neither silver\nnor gold.\n\n[161] Of this I shall have more to say in Chap. V.\n\n[162] This was the weight of the statue of \u2018Sesostris,\u2019 Ramses II.,\nand his father Pharaoh Seti I.; see Chap. IX. The overseer standing\nupon its knee appears about two-thirds the length of the lower leg\n(Wilkinson, Frontisp. vol. ii.). Pliny treats of colossal statues,\nxxxiv. 18.\n\n[163] _Les M\u00e9taux dans l\u2019Antiquit\u00e9_, par J. P. Rossignol. Paris:\nDurand, 1863.\n\n[164] So Professor F. Max M\u00fcller, _Lectures on the Science of\nLanguage_, asserted, with a carelessness rare in so learned a writer\n(vol. ii. p. 255. London: Longmans, 1873), that \u2018the ancients knew\na process of hardening that pliant metal (copper), most likely by\nrepeated smelting (heating?) and immersion in water.\u2019 This latter is\nthe common process for _softening_ the metal.\n\n[165] Cieza de Leon (Introd. p. xxviii.): \u2018Humboldt mentions a cutting\ninstrument found near Cuzco (\u2018_the_ City\u2019) which was composed of 0\u00b794\nparts of copper and 0\u00b706 of tin. The latter metal is scarcely ever\nfound in South America, but I believe there are traces of it in parts\nof Bolivia. In some of the instruments silica was substituted for tin.\u2019\nThe South American tin is mostly impure; still it was and can be used.\n\n[166] Apparently there are two forms of \u2018N\u00fab\u2019 (gold), the necklace and\nthe washing-bowl. See Chapter VIII.\n\n[167] Pliny, xxxvi. 65.\n\n[168] Here Elton, like others of his age, mistranslates Chalcos by\n\u2018brass\u2019:\n\n Their mansions, implements, and armour shine\n In brass,\u2014dark iron slept within the mine.\n\n[169] Engraving on copper-plates is popularly attributed to Maso\nFiniguerra, of Florence, in 1460; but the Romans engraved maps and\nplans, and the ancient Hindus grants, deeds, &c. on copper-plates.\n\n[170] I regret the necessity of troubling the learned reader with these\nstock quotations, but they are essential to the symmetry and uniformity\nof the subject.\n\n[171] Sophocles and Ovid make Medea, and Virgil makes Elissa, use a\nsickle of chalcos. Homer, as will be seen, uses the same material\nfor his arms, axes, and adzes. Pausanias follows him, quoting his\ndescription of Pisander\u2019s axe and Meriones\u2019 arrow; he also cites\nAchilles\u2019 spear in the temple of Athene at Phaselis, with its point\nand ferrule of chalcos, and the similar sword of Memnon in the temple\nof \u00c6sculapius at Nicomedia. Plutarch tells us that the sword and\nspear-head of Theseus, disinterred by Cymon in Scyros, were of copper.\nEmpedocles, who (B.C. 444)\u2014\n\n ardentem frigidus \u00c6tnam\n Insiluit\u2014\n\nwas betrayed by his sandal shoon with chalcos soles.\n\n[172] See Macrob. _Sat._ vi. 3.\n\n[173] Or \u2018a furbisher (whetter, sharpener = _acuens_) of every cutting\ntool of copper and iron.\u2019 See Chap. IX.\n\n[174] I can hardly understand why Dr. Evans (p. 5) insists upon these\nsockets being bronze, as they could \u2018hardly have been done from a metal\nso difficult to cast as unalloyed copper.\u2019 He greatly undervalues\nthe metallurgy of the Exodist Hebrews, who would have borrowed their\nscience from Egypt.\n\n[175] Lead is also mentioned, but not tin.\n\n[176] A certain Herr Dromir patented in Germany a process for making\nmalleable bronze. He added one per cent. of mercury to the tin, and\nthen mixed it with the molten copper.\n\n[177] For Irish copper swords see the _Arch\u00e9ologie_, vol. iii. p. 555.\nThey will be exhaustively described in Part II.\n\n[178] So Chalcis in Mela (ii. 7), now Egripos (Negroponte).\n\n[179] The confusion with iron appears in the Sanskrit (Pali?) _ayas_;\nLatin _\u00e6s_ for _ahes_ (as we find in _aheneus_); the Persian _\u00e1han_\n(\u0622\u0647\u0646); the Gothic _ais_, or _aiz_; the High German _er_ (which is the\nAssyrian _eru_ and the Akkadian _hurud_), and the English _iron_. J.\nGrimm (_Die Naturv\u00f6lker_) connects \u1f0c\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2 with _\u00e6s_. That _\u00e6s_ and _\u00e6ris\nmetalla_ in Pliny mean copper, we learn from his tale of Telephus (xxv.\n19), which, by the by, is told by Camoens (Sonnet lxix.) in a very\ndifferent way.\n\n[180] \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1f78 \u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd \u1f14\u03bb\u03b3\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1f7a\u03c2 \u03c4\u1f78\u03bd\n\u03c3\u03af\u03b4\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd \u1f10\u03c1\u03b3\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03ad\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2. Jul. Pollux, _Onomasticon_, viii. c. 10.\n\n[181] The full term was _\u00e6s cyprium_, which Pliny apparently applies\nto the finer kind; then it became _cyprium_, the adjective, which\nexpressed only locality; and lastly _cuprum_. The third is first used\nby Spartianus in the biography of Caracalla (No. 5), _Cancelli ex \u00e6re\nvel cupro_ (doors of _\u00e6s_ or copper). \u00c6lius Spartianus dates from the\ndays of Diocletian and Constantine (Smith, _sub voc._). When Pliny\nwrites _in Cypro prima fuit \u00e6ris inventio_, he leaves it doubtful if\n_\u00e6s_ be copper or bronze; but we should prefer the former. So he makes\nthe best \u2018Missy\u2019 (native yellow copperas) proceed from the Cyprus\nmanufactories (xxxiii., iv. 25, and xxxiv., xii. 31). The word _mis\u00ed_\nor _miss\u00ed_ is still used in India for a vitriolic powder to stain the\nteeth. Cypros, the wife of Agrippa, was possibly named from Kafar =\nthe henna plant: the Cyprus of Pliny (xii. 51) is also the _Lawsonia\ninermis_.\n\n[182] _Frag._ tom. i. p. 226. Edit. Bipont.\n\n[183] The island will be further noticed in Chap. VIII.\n\n[184] _Cyprus_, &c., by General Louis Palma (di Cesnola). London:\nMurray, 1877. The author excavated from 1866 to 1876, and opened some\n15,000 tombs, mostly Ph\u0153nician.\n\n[185] Quoted in the _Kypros_ of W. H. Engel (vol. i. p. 14). The two\nvolumes are a mine of information; much of it now antiquated, but\nuseful to later students who have less leisure to accumulate learning.\n\n[186] \u2018In Cyprus, where the manufacturers of the stone called chalcitis\n(copper-smelters) burn it for many days in fire, a winged creature,\nsomething larger than a great fly, is seen walking and leaping in the\nfire.\u2019 A brother of the salamander!\n\n[187] Some commentators (Strabo, vi. 1) confound this place with\nAusonian Tem\u0115sa, or Tempsa, in the land of the Brutii, with Tem\u00e9se of\nCyprus.\n\n[188] Herodotus (iii. 23) tells us that, copper being of all metals\nthe most scarce and valuable in \u00c6thiopia, prisoners were there bound\nwith golden fetters. As will be seen, copper has lately been found in\nAbyssinia.\n\n[189] An awful list of his works is given in Diogenes Laertius.\n\n[190] This \u00e6rugo was artificially made by the Ancients with acetic\nacid, converting copper to a green salt (Beckmann, _sub v._ \u2018Verdigris\nor Spanish Green\u2019). The green rust of the carbonate of copper is still\nerroneously termed verdigris (acetate of copper).\n\n[191] Ample information is given by Brugsch (_Egypt under the\nPharaohs_, vol. i. p. 64) of Senoferu; of the valiant Khufu or Suphis\n(Cheops); of the Pharaoh Sahura, or Sephris; of Menkauhor (Mencheres)\nand Tat-ka-ra (Fifth Dynasty); of the bas-reliefs at Wady Magharah\ndating from King Pepi (Sixth Dynasty); of Thut-mes III. or the Great,\nand his sister Hashop (Eighteenth Dynasty before B.C. 1600), one of\nwhose expeditions produced among other things ninety-seven Swords\n(Brugsch, i. 327), and who mentions \u2018gilt copper\u2019; of Amon-hotep III.,\nalso \u2018the Great\u2019 (Eighteenth Dynasty, about B.C. 1500); and of other\nPharaohs who worked these diggings.\n\n[192] Pottery has lately been found embedded in the bricks of the\nMayd\u00fam Pyramid.\n\n[193] The Souphis I. of Manetho is the second king of the Fourth\nDynasty following Soris. Souphis II. is the Khafra of the Tables and\nthe Cephren of the Greeks.\n\n[194] The hieroglyphic is of several forms;\n\n [Hieroglyphs]\n\nmay serve as a specimen.\n\n[195] \u2018Malachite\u2019 is the Greek _molochotis_, from the molokhe, or\nmarsh-mallow; whence the Arabic _mulukh\u00edyeh_. In Poland, malachite and\nturquoise preside over the month of December.\n\n[196] Meaning the Beloved of Ptah, the Opener, the Artificer God. The\nword is found in the Arabic _fath_. It is a better derivation for\n_Heph\u00e6stus_ than \u2018Vaishravana\u2019; but Sanskrit is so copious that any\ngiven word can be derived from it.\n\n[197] _O Muata Cazembe_, by Monteiro and Gamitto, describes the copper\nworks in South-East Africa long known to the natives. I am told by Mr.\nHooker, C.E., that he has lately seen (_pace_ Herodotus) \u2018magnificent\nspecimens of native copper sent from Abyssinia.\u2019\n\n[198] R.N., C.B., &c., _Across Africa_, vol. i. pp. 134, 319; and vol.\nii. pp. 149, 329.\n\n[199] _Viagens dos Portuguezes, Colec\u00e7\u00e3o de Documentos_, &c.\n\n[200] Layard\u2019s _Nineveh_, i. 224, ii. 415; 6th edit. 1854.\n\n[201] Hence our _packfong_, or German silver, of China, an alloy of\ncopper (50 per cent.), nickel, and zinc (25 per cent. each).\n\n[202] The _Chinese Repository_ gives a hundred illustrations of the\nimplements in use by the Chinese and the Japanese.\n\n[203] _Fir_ or _fear_ (_vir_, a man), and _bolg_ (_Bolgi_, _Belg\u00e6_),\na belly, bag, budget, or quiver. They occupied Southern Britain, and\nformed the third immigrant colony preceding the \u2018Milesians,\u2019 sons of\nMilidh or Miledh (Senchus Mor), evidently _Miles_, the soldier. He had\ntwo sons, Emer and Airem, from whom the Irish race is descended. Emer,\nsays Prof. Rhys, may represent the Ivernii or pre-Celtic population\nmentioned by Ptolemy; and Airem, which means \u2018a farmer,\u2019 the Iranian\nrace which introduced agriculture amongst a horde of hunters. The\nfourth colony was the Tuatha (people, e.g. Tuatha-Eireann = people of\nErin), named from Danair, a stranger, foreigner, and properly a Dane.\nWe have lately been shown how much true history may be obtained from\nthese names, which had become bye-words, almost ridiculous to use.\n\n[204] _B\u00e1n_ (our corrupted \u2018bawn,\u2019 as in \u2018Molly Bawn\u2019), white, is the\nLatin _canus_. It is also a noun substantive, meaning \u2018copper.\u2019\n\n[205] Wilde, _Catalogue_, pp. 58, 356.\n\n[206] Meaning _Tectetan_ = \u2018I don\u2019t know.\u2019 So the _M\u2019adri_ on an old\nEnglish chart of the Euphrates.\n\n[207] _Select Letters of Columbus_, &c. p. 201. Translated by R. H.\nMajor, Hakluyt Society, 1870.\n\n[208] Humboldt, _Travels_, iii. 194.\n\n[209] _Commentaries of the Yncas._ Translated by Clements R. Markham,\nC.B. Hakluyt Society, 1871.\n\n[210] Daniel Wilson\u2019s _Prehistoric Man_, vol. i. chap. viii.; _The\nMetallurgic Arts, Copper_ (pp. 231\u201379). Prof. Brush, of Yale College,\ncalculated that 6,000 tons were yielded in 1858.\n\n[211] R.E., _Spanish America_, &c. (Philadelphia: Abraham Small, 1819),\np. 49.\n\n[212] It was divided, like the Greek and Roman, into centuries\n(_pachacas_), chiliarchies (_hurangos_), and inspectorships\n(_tokrikrok_), generally under royalties. The organisation was due\nto the Ynka Inti-Kapak (the Great), B.C. 1500\u20131600. There was a\nlarge fleet (\u2018magna colcharum classis\u2019) of ships not smaller than\nthe contemporary European, \u2018navigiis velificantur nihili vestris\nminoribus,\u2019 says P. Martyr (_Decad._ ii. lib. 3). Neither traveller nor\nhistorian has explained how this mighty organisation crumbled to pieces\nat the touch of a few European adventurers.\n\nI have read with interest the able work of M. Vicente F. Lopez, _Les\nRaces Aryennes du P\u00e9rou_ (Paris: Franck, 1871): he derives the word\nfrom Pirhua, the first Ynka deified to a Creator. He adopts (p. 17)\nagainst Garcilasso de la Vega, who gave the Ynkarial Empire 400 years,\nthe opinions of the learned Dr. Fernando Mont\u00e9sinos el Visitador, of\nthe later sixteenth century, who is set aside by Markham, _Narratives\nof the Yncas_ (Hakluyt, 1873). Mont\u00e9sinos derives the Peruvians from\nArmenia five centuries after \u2018the Flood,\u2019 and assigns 4,000 years\nwith 101 emperors to the dynasty; it begins with Manko Kapak, son of\nPirhua Manko; and Sinchi Roka (No. xcv. of Mont\u00e9sinos) is Garcilasso\u2019s\nofficial founder (p. 25).\n\nBut I cannot follow M. Lopez in his theories of \u2018Aryanism\u2019 (Zend and\nSanskrit) or \u2018Turanianism\u2019 (Chinese and Tartar). The Quichua wants\nthe peculiar Hindu cerebrals (which linger in English), and lacks the\n\u2018l,\u2019 so common in \u2018Indo-European\u2019 speech; \u2018Lima,\u2019 for instance, should\nbe \u2018Rima.\u2019 It has no dual, and no distinction between masculine and\nfeminine. But with the licence which M. Lopez allows himself, any\nlanguage might be derived from any other. For instance, _chinka_ from\n_sinha_, \u2018the lion\u2019 (p. 138); _hakchikis_ = _hashish_, \u2018intoxicating\nherb\u2019; _kekenti_, \u2018humming-bird,\u2019 from _kvan_, \u2018to hum\u2019; _huahua_,\n\u2018son,\u2019 from _su_, \u2018to engender,\u2019 _sunus_, &c., (when in Egypt we have\n_su_); and _mama_, \u2018mother,\u2019 from _mata_, \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1, _mater_, when we have\n_mut_ and _mute_ in Nile-land. For _mara_, \u2018to kill,\u2019 \u2018death,\u2019 the old\nCoptic preserves _mer_, _meran_, \u2018to die\u2019; and for _mayu_, \u2018water,\u2019\n_mu_.\n\nI thus prefer the monosyllabic Egyptian for Quichua roots, noting the\ntwo forms of pronoun, isolated (_nyoka_ = I = _anuk_) and affixed\n(_huahua-\u00ed_, \u2018my son;\u2019 _huahua-ki_, \u2018thy son;\u2019 _huahua-u_, \u2018his son\u2019).\nThe heliolatry of the Andes was that of the Nile Valley; _Kon_ is the\nEgyptian _Tum_, \u2018the setting sun.\u2019 The god Papacha wears on his head\nthe scarab\u00e6us of Ptah, or Creative Might. The pyramids and megalithic\nbuildings are also Nilotic. The pottery shows three several styles,\nEgyptian, Etruscan, and Pelasgic. The population was divided into\nthe four Egyptian castes (p. 396), priests (_mankos_ and _amautas_),\nsoldiers (_aucas_, _aukas_), peasants (_uyssus_), and shepherds or\nnomads (_chakis_). According to Cieza de Leon (p. 197) they thought\nmore of the building and adorning of their tombs than of their houses;\ntheir mummies were protected by little idols, and the corpse carried\nthe ferryman\u2019s fee. The pyramid of Copan (Yucatan), 122 feet high, with\nits 6-feet steps, is that of Sakkarah. The Yucatan beard in statues\nis Pharaohic. The elephant-trunk ornaments (Stephens, ii. 156) are\nIndo-Chinese. The geese-breeding (ii. 179) is Egyptian. See also the\nToltec legend of the House of Israel (ii. 172).\n\n[213] The \u2018lovely valley, Andahualas,\u2019 is from Anta and Huaylla,\npasture\u2014i.e. \u2018copper-coloured meadow.\u2019 Anta in Cieza de Leon appears to\nbe copper, whereas other writers make it bronze.\n\n[214] _Peruvian Antiquities_, by Don M. E. de Rivero and J. J. von\nTschudi.\n\n[215] They abandoned the native silver mines when the ore became too\nhard, and they smelted it in small portable stoves. They knew also\nthe chemical combinations, sulphate, antimonial, and others; and they\nworked quicksilver. They had mines of Quella (Khellay, or iron), but\nthey found difficulty in extracting it. Besides smelting, they could\nuse the tacana (hammer), cast in moulds, inlay, and solder.\n\n[216] Ewbank, of whom more presently, sketches a well-cast axe (p.\n455). He translates _anta_ by bronze (p. 455).\n\n[217] Doubtless copied from Old-World articles. On the west side of\nPalenque the Sword is distinctly Egyptian (Stephens, _Yucatan_). I\nhave attempted to show how easily castaway mariners could be swept by\ncurrents from Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. See \u2018Ostreiras of the\nBrazil\u2019 in _Anthropologia_, No. 1, October 1873.\n\n[218] _Antiquarian, Ethnological, and other Researches._ By William\nBollaert. London: Tr\u00fcbner, 1860. We must probably change \u2018brass\u2019 into\n\u2018bronze\u2019 when he says (p. 90) that \u2018the Peruvians used tools of brass.\u2019\n\n[219] Appendix to _Life in Brazil_ (Sampson Low, 1856).\n\n[220] This white copperas was detected by Scacchi on the fumaroles\nafter the Vesuvian eruption of 1855.\n\n[221] Gold was shown by yellow, and silver by white. Dr. Evans\n(_Bronze_, &c. p. 7) suggests that the round blue bar used by butchers\n(Wilkinson, iii. 247) was not of steel; but his reasons are peculiarly\nunsatisfactory. The file is a common implement amongst savages,\ndoubtless derived from the practice of cross-hatching wooden grips\nand handles. Mr. A. H. Rhind (_Thebes_, &c.) attributes little weight\nto the diversity of colours employed by ancient Egyptians to depict\nmetallic objects, and he finds red and green confused.\n\n[222] Thus we have a blue war-helmet of ring-mail (Lepsius,\n_Denkm\u00e4ler_, iii. 115 &c.), a blue war-hatchet with wooden handle,\nand spears pointed with brown-red and blue (copper and iron) in the\ntomb of Ramses III. The war-car of an \u00c6thiopian king, in the days of\nTutankamun, has blue wheels and a body of yellow (gold). Lepsius,\nhowever, adds: \u2018It is very remarkable that in all the representations\nof the old empire, blue-painted instruments can scarcely be traced.\u2019\nThis simply proves that iron and steel were rare.\n\n[223] _Prehistoric Man_, chap. viii.\n\n[224] It was analysed by Mr. E. Tookey, with the following results:\n\n Copper 97\u00b712\n Arsenic 2\u00b729\n Iron 0\u00b743\n Tin, with traces of gold 0\u00b724\n \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n 100\u00b708\n\nThe presence of the tin may have been accidental. The proportion of\narsenic (2\u00bc per cent.) might have been expected to harden the metal,\nyet it was so soft as to be almost useless.\n\n[225] See chap. ix.\n\n[226] It is equivalent to the Roman\u2019s \u2018Aliud clausum in pectore, aliud\nin lingua promptum habere.\u2019\n\n[227] So amongst the Jews the sharp knives for circumcision (_Josh._ v.\n2\u20133) were of the silex which they learned from the Egyptians; and the\ncustom continued long after the invention of metal blades.\n\n[228] It was opened by Herr Ramsauer, and carefully described in _Das\nGrabfeld von Hallstatt_, by Baron E. von Sacken. I shall have more to\nsay of it in chap. xiii.\n\n[229] Prinseps\u2019 _Essays_ (London, 1858), vol. i. p. 222, pl. xliv. fig.\n12, and _Journ. R. As. Soc. Bengal_, vol. vii. pl. xxxii. fig. 12.\nLong descriptions of copper smelting in India are found in _Science\nGleanings_, pp. 380 _et seq._, No. 36, Dec. 1831, Calcutta, and in\nPercy (_Metall._ p. 387); the latter by Mr. H. F. Blanford, of the\nGeol. Survey, who made especial studies in Himalayan Sikkim and the\nNepaulese Tirhai. The workmen, who are of low caste, win the stone\nin small blast-furnaces about three feet high, burning charcoal and\ncow-chips. They work not only the easily reducible carbonates, but\nsulphuretted ores, copper pyrites, with a mixture of mundic (iron\npyrites).\n\n[230] Scales are apparently implied by _kaskassin_ (_1 Sam._ xvii.),\nwhich in Leviticus and Ezekiel applies to fish-scales.\n\n[231] The shekel is usually estimated at 220 grs. (Troy), which\nwould reduce the weights to 22\u00b791 and 190\u00b797 lbs. respectively; but\nMaimonides makes it = 320 grains of barley = as many grains Troy.\nSee Parkhurst (_Lex._, _s.v._ \u2018Amat\u2019). Either figure would form a\nfair burden for a horse; and the spear would have been a most unhandy\narticle, unless used by a man ten feet tall. I shall notice the\nGathite\u2019s Sword in chap. ix.\n\n[232] _Ethnology of the British Islands._ We also read: \u2018Copper Swords\nhave been found in Ireland; iron among the Britons and Gauls; bronze\nwas used by the Romans, and probably by the Egyptians; and steel of\nvarying degrees of hardness is now the only weapon employed.\u2019 (J.\nLatham: see chap. vii.)\n\n[233] _Trans. Edinb. Philos. Soc._ Feb. 1822.\n\n[234] J. A. Phillips, F.C.S. _Memoirs of the Chemical Soc._ vol. iv.\n\n[235] _Arch\u00e6ology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_, p. 246.\n\n[236] See Sir W. Wilde\u2019s _Cat. Metallic Materials\u2014Celts_, Museum of\nRoyal Irish Academy.\n\n[237] _History of Kerry_, p. 125.\n\n[238] Yet \u00c6schylus (_Agamem._) uses both _chalcos_ and _sideros_\ngenerically for a weapon.\n\n[239] _Ilios_, &c. (London, Murray, 1880).\n\n[240] Some small objects are reported as wheel-made; but this requires\nconfirmation, according to a writer in the _Athen\u00e6um_ (Dec. 18, 1880).\n\n[241] The copper bracelet (_Troy_, p. 150, No. 88) with its terminal\nknobs is the modern trade \u2018manilla\u2019 of the West African coast. This\nsurvival will again be noticed in chap. ix.\n\n[242] The word in its older form was written \u2018allay.\u2019 Johnson derives\nit from _\u00e0 la loi_, _allier_, _allocare_: it appears to me the Spanish\n_el ley_, the legal quality of coinable metal. We have now naturalised\nin English _ley_, meaning a standard of metals. (Sub voc. _Dict. of\nObsolete and Provincial English_, by Thomas Wright; London, Bell and\nDaldy, 1869.)\n\n[243] _Recherches sur les Myst\u00e8res_; and _M\u00e9moire pour servir \u00e0 la\nreligion secr\u00e8te_, &c. &c.\n\n[244] The \u2018Aglaophemus,\u2019 so called from the initiator of Pythagoras. I\nsee symptoms of a revival in assertions concerning a \u2018highly cultivated\nbeginning, with the arts well known and practised to an extent which,\nin subsequent ages, has never been approached; and from which there\nhas not anywhere been discovered a gradual advancement; but, on the\ncontrary, an immediate and decidedly progressive declension.\u2019 This,\nhowever, is a mere question of dates. Man\u2019s civilisation began long\nbefore the Mosaic Creation; and science has agreed to believe that\nsavage life generally is not a decadence from higher types, not a\ndegeneracy, but a gradual development.\n\n[245] We now divide language into three periods: 1st, intonative,\nlike the cries of children and lower animals; 2nd, imitative, or on\nonomatopoetic; and 3rd, conventional, the civilised form.\n\n[246] _Axieros_ (the earth-goddess), _Axiokersa_ (Proserpine of the\nGreeks), _Axiokersos_ (Hades), and _Casmilos_ (Hermes or Mercury).\nEnnemoser may be right in making the Kabeiroi pygmies (i.e. gnomes),\nbut not in rendering Dactyloi by \u2018finger-size.\u2019\n\n[247] The lame and deformed \u2018artificer of the universe,\u2019 who became\nHeph\u00e6stos (Vulcan) in Greece, and Vishvakarma in India. Sokar has left\nhis name in the modern \u2018Sakk\u00e1rah.\u2019\n\n[248] The Assyrian cuneiforms allude to \u2018the (Great) Bear making its\ncrownship,\u2019 that is, circling round the North Pole.\n\n[249] The temples of the Cabiri have lately been explored by Prof.\nConze for the Austrian Government at Samothrace, and we may expect to\nlearn something less vague concerning these mysterious ancients.\n\n[250] The Rev. Basil H. Cooper believes that the Phrygian was the\noriginal Ida, which gradually passed to Crete; and here the Id\u00e6i were\npriests of Cybele. He is disposed to connect with it the Greek \u03a3\u03af\u03b4(\u03b7\u03c1\u03bf);\nthe German _Eisen_ (and our iron), and the _Ida feldt_ and\n_Asi_ of the Norse myths (Day, p. 133).]\n\n[251] The name is derived by Bochart from Heb. _Lub_ or _Lelub_,\n\u05d7\u05d9\u05e7\u05dc\u05d5\u05d1, chiefs of the Libu or Ribu, as the old Egyptians called the\nLibyans. Hence the Prom. Lilyb\u00e6um (_Li-L\u00fab_) and the Sinus ad Libyam or\nLilybatanus.\n\n[252] We have satisfactory details concerning the Chalybes, who border\non Armenia, in the _Anabasis_ (iv. 5, &c.). They dwell two days\nfrom Cotyora, the colony planted by Sinope; they are subject to the\nMossyn\u0153ci, and they subsist by iron-working (v. 5). Though few, they\nare a most warlike people, full of fight. Their armour consists of\nhelmets, greaves, and cuirasses of twisted linen cords, reaching to the\ngroin. They carry spears about fifteen cubits long, \u2018having one spike\u2019\n(i.e. without ferule); and at their girdles a short faulchion, as large\nas a Spartan crooked dagger, with which they cut the throats of all\nwhom they can master; and then, lopping off their heads, bear them away\n(iv. 7). Strabo makes the Chalybes the same as their neighbours the\nChald\u00e6i.\n\n[253] The well-known inscription on the tomb of Midas, and another\ngiven by Texier (_Asie Mineure_, ii. 57) show the Phrygian tongue to\nhave been a congener of Greek. Even the _B\u00e9kos_ of Herodotus (ii. 2)\nis allied to our \u2018bake,\u2019 and _B\u00e9du_ to our \u2018water.\u2019 We are greatly in\nwant of further information about Phrygia, and it is to be hoped that\nColonel Wilson and Mr. W. M. Ramsay will complete the labours of Texier\nand Hamilton.\n\n[254] The Aryans of Herodotus, about the Arius river (_Heri-r\u00fad_), are\nan undistinguished tribe, a mere satrapy. Strabo\u2019s Aria (xi. 9) is a\ntract about 250 by 40 miles. In Pliny (vi. 23) Ariana includes only the\nlands of the Gedrosi (Mekran), the Arachoti (Kandah\u00e1r), the Arii proper\n(Herat), and the Parapomisad\u00e6 (Kabul). It has been truly said that even\nif Aryan and Turanian man (first) centred in and emerged from these\nareas (the table-lands of Asia), the so-called history is entirely\nbased on the philological discoveries of the Sanskritist school.\n\n[255] Therasia and Therassia, now Santorin. Here have been found ruins\nof prehistoric cities buried by the great central volcano. According to\nmost geologists the latter was exhausted in B.C. 1800\u20131700.\n\n[256] I have personally noticed this, and described it in _Midian\nRevisited_, vol. i. p. 143.\n\n[257] Beckmann (_s.v._ \u2018Tin\u2019) tells us that the metal \u2018never occurs in\na native state.\u2019 He forgets stream-tin. He also denies that the oldest\n\u2018cassiteron\u2019 and \u2018stannum\u2019 were tin; and considers them to mean the\nGerman _Werk_, a regulus of silver and lead. His _vasa stannea_ are\nvessels covered with tin in the inside. In the fourth century \u2018plumbum\ncandidum\u2019 or \u2018album\u2019 was superseded by \u2018stannum.\u2019 Speaking of electrum,\nBeckmann asserts that \u2018the ancients were not acquainted with the art of\nseparating gold and silver.\u2019 \u2018Britain,\u2019 Ynis Prydhain Island, where the\ngod Prydhain was worshipped, or rather \u2018Isle of the Brythons,\u2019 has been\nfancifully derived by the energetic Semitiser from Barrat-et-Tanuk =\nLand of Tin.\n\n[258] Ezekiel tells us that the Tyrians received tin, as well as other\nmetals, from Tarshish, or Western Tartessus, in the Bay of Gibraltar.\n\n[259] M. Emile Burnouf, \u2018L\u2019Age de Bronze,\u2019 _Revue des Deux Mondes_,\nJuly 15, 1877, also brings tin from Banca. The island is about 150\nmiles long by 36 broad; it has no mountain backbone, but the peak\nof Goonong Maras rises some 3,000 feet above the sea-level. Chinese\ncoolies still work the mines of Mintok, and in 1852 the yearly yield\nwas some 50,000 piculs (each = 133\u2153 lbs.) at the cost of nine rupees\nper picul.\n\n[260] Beckmann (_loc. cit._), like Michaelis, is surprised at the\nMidianites possessing tin in the days of Moses. These were the views\nof the last century. I have suggested (_Athen\u00e6um_, Nov. 24, 1880) that\nthe old Nile-dwellers extended through Midian to El-Hej\u00e1z and El-Yemen,\nwhere they worked the mines which became known to the Hebrews.\n\n[261] In 1866 De Rougemont made Ph\u0153nicia supply bronze to Europe, the\ncopper being brought from Cyprus. Besides the Mediterranean, we find a\nUralian and a Danubian branch of the industry. Before 1877 France had\nsupplied 650 bronze Swords and daggers, Sweden 480, and Switzerland 86.\n\n[262] _Alias_ the \u0152strymnides. Borlase was of opinion that the group\nformed one block, with several headlands, of which \u2018Scilly\u2019 was the\nhighest, outermost, and most conspicuous. He conjectures the original\nname to be _Syll\u00e9_, _Sulla_, or _Sulleh_, a flat rock dedicated to the\nsun; hence the Lat. _Silir\u00e6_, _Silures_, and _Sigdeles_; the Engl.\n_Sylley_, _Scilley_, and lately _Scilly_; the Fr. _Sorlingues_; and the\nSpan. _Sorlingas_. The Keltic name of the chief feature was Inis Caer.\n\n[263] _Arch\u00e6ology and Prehistoric Annals of Scotland_, Part II. \u2018The\nArchaic or Bronze Period.\u2019 Daniel Wilson.\n\n[264] Pliny represents the Cassiterides as fronting Celtiberia. He\nconsiders it a \u2018fabulous story\u2019 that the Greeks fetched \u2018white lead\u2019\nfrom the islands of the Adriatic.\n\n[265] _Prehistoric Times_, by Sir John Lubbock, 4th edit. (London:\nWilliams and Norgate, 1878.)\n\n[266] The identification is not settled; some propose the Isle of\nThanet.\n\n[267] Beckmann, _sub voce_ \u2018Tin.\u2019\n\n[268] According to Messrs. Wibel, Fellemberg, and Damour, who\ninvestigated even 10/1000 parts, the average proportions were \u2152 tin\nto 9 copper; and \u00bc tin for hard metal, as chisels, &c. M. E. Chauntre,\n_Age de Bronze_. 3 vols. (Paris: Baudry.)\n\n[269] The late General Uchatius, who \u2018trusted in princes,\u2019 and whose\ntragical death was greatly lamented by his friends, always declared\nthat he had rediscovered (not discovered) the hardening of copper and\nbronze; and that he hoped to arrive at other secrets. His career was\ncut short before he learned to make the metal and the alloy resilient.\n\n[270] _Thut_, _Tuth_, _Toth_, _Thoth_, &c., the moon-god who became\nHermes Trismegistus.\n\n[271] Phosphor-bronze, for whose manufacture companies are now\nestablished in London and elsewhere, has the ordinary composition with\nthe addition of red or amorphous phosphorus dropped upon the melted\nmetal in the crucible. Berthier (_Trait\u00e9 des Essais_, ii. 410) states\nthat a very small quantity of phosphorus renders copper extremely\nhard and suitable for cutting instruments. Percy (_Metallurgy_) found\nthat copper will take up 11 per cent. of phosphorus; the metal, which\nassumes a grey tint, is quite homogeneous, and so hard that it can\nscarcely be touched by the file. The addition of phosphorus promotes\nthe reduction of the oxides, and enables an exceedingly sound and\ndurable casting to be made; but if it exceed \u00bd per cent. the metal\nbecomes very brittle. Dr. Percy has described phosphor-silver,\nphosphor-lead, and phosphor-iron. The phosphorus is, according to some\nauthorities, apt to volatilise with time. At present a new form of\nbronze, the antimonial, in proportions of 1\u20132 per cent., is coming into\nfashion: it is said to be malleable and ductile, and to resist torsion\nin a high degree. Another new bronze is the aluminium, whose price\nhas been reduced from 1,000_l._ to 100_l._ per ton by Mr. Webster, of\nHollywood, near Birmingham.\n\n[272] So called from Cape Emeri in Naxos.\n\n[273] Appendix to Layard\u2019s _Nineveh and Babylon_ (London: Murray).\nThe proportions are nearly those of our day. We may assume our common\nbronze at 11:100 for large, and 10:100 for small objects. Cymbals\nand sounding instruments, however, contain tin 22:copper 78.\n\n[274] Analysed by Mr. Robinson of Pimlico (Day, p. 110).\n\n[275] Schliemann\u2019s _Troy_, p. 361 (London: Murray, 1875).\n\n[276] Sir W. Gell found the bronze nails in the \u2018Treasury of Atreus\u2019\ncomposed of 12 tin to 88 copper. The Trojan battle-axes, according to\nDr. Schliemann, yielded only 4, 8, and 9 per cent. of the former metal.\n\n[277] According to Helbig, the Palafittes and Terramare villagers had\nspears but not Swords.\n\n[278] For the tin-ore of Peru see _Ethnolog. Journal_, vol. lxx. pp.\n258\u2013261. Rivero, p. 230, and Garcilasso, vol. i. p. 202.\n\n[279] _Amer. Journ. of Science, &c._ v. 42; July 1866.\n\n[280] From descriptions and drawings by Mr. J. H. Godfrey, Mining\nEngineer-in-Chief to the Imperial Government of Japan.\n\n[281] M.D., F.R.S., \u2018Observations on some Metallic Arms and Utensils,\nwith Experiments to determine their Composition.\u2019 Royal Soc. London,\nJune 9, 1796. _Philosophical Transactions._\n\n[282] Taken from Dr. Evans (_Bronze Impl. &c._ chap. xxi.). He compiled\nit from Martineau & Smith\u2019s _Hardware Trade Journal_ (April 30, 1879).\n\n[283] Wilkinson remarked that the Egyptian proportions of half tin and\nhalf copper were whitish.\n\n[284] Lord Rosse, in casting specula, preferred using copper and tin in\ntheir atomic proportions, or 68\u00b721 per cent. copper to 31\u00b779 per cent.\ntin.\n\n[285] _Speltrum_ was introduced by Boyle. During the last century much\nzinc was imported from India (possibly supplied by China), and was\ncalled tutenag.\n\n[286] Bohn\u2019s _Trans._ ii. 32\u201345. The learned German begins by stating\nthat zinc was not known to the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, and then\nproceeds to prove that it was. The word \u2018zinc\u2019 (from _zenken_\nor _zacken_, nails, spikes?) first occurs in the works of the\nIatro-chemist, Paracelsus, who died in A.D. 1541.\n\n[287] _Blende_ is a generic word, from _blenden_, to dazzle.\n\n[288] Mongez, _M\u00e9m. de l\u2019Institut_.\n\n[289] At Goslar, however, according to Lohnriss, brass was made in A.D.\n1617.\n\n[290] Pliny, xxxiii. 27. The solder (\u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03cc\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1, glue, or\n\u03ba\u03cc\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2) is attributed by Herod. (i. 25) to Glaucus of Chios, a\ncontemporary of Alyattes. The word _k\u00f3llesis_ is variously rendered\n\u2018soldering,\u2019 \u2018brazing,\u2019 \u2018welding,\u2019 and \u2018inlaying.\u2019 K\u00f3llesis was used\nto agglutinate metals, and treated with a peculiar alkali (Pliny,\nxxxiii. 24). The \u2018gold glue\u2019 (_chrysocolla_) is usually understood to\nbe a hydrosilicate of copper; not to be confounded with the \u03c7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1\nor borax. The Mycenian goldsmiths soldered with the help of borax\n(borate of soda): Professor Landerer, of Athens, found this salt on\nan old medal from \u00c6gina. It was called in the Middle Ages, Borax\nVenetus, because imported by the Venetians from Persia; and it is the\nTinkal of modern India. According to Pliny, lead cannot be soldered\nwithout tin, or tin without lead, and oil invariably must be used.\nLater usage substituted for the latter colophonium and other resins:\nwe now solder by means of electricity. The same writer makes Nero\nuse chrysocolla-powder (a siliceous carbonate of copper, a kind of\nblue-stone which would turn green by exposure to damp) for strewing the\ncircus, to give the course the colour of his favourite faction, the\n_Prasine_ (green).\n\n[291] The Germans, who delight in German derivatives for European\nwords, would find _leiton_, &c., not in _luteum_, but in _l\u00f6then_\n= to unite. There is little doubt, however, that the first English\nmanufactory of calamine brass at Esher, in Surrey, was set up in the\nseventeenth century by Demetrius, a German. In Grimm\u2019s _Dictionary_,\nas noticed by Demmin (chap. i), bronze is erroneously called _messing_\n(brass).\n\n[292] Derived from \u1f44\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, \u03bf\u1f56\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2 (mountain), or from \u1f48\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03bf\u03c2, the\ndiscoverer. Metallic names in Greek are mostly masculine; in Latin and\nmodern usage, neutral. _Oreichalcum_ or _aurichalcum_, a hybrid word,\nbecame _aurochalcum_ in the ninth century: the last corruption (middle\nof the sixteenth century) was _archal_.\n\n[293] _De l\u2019Orichalque._ J. P. Rossignol (_loc. cit._).\n\n[294] Some translate this word \u2018yellow frankincense\u2019 (\u03bb\u03af\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2)\ncolour; others derive it from \u039b\u03af\u03b2\u03b1\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, the Lebanon, and make it male,\n_argurolibanus_, while _leucolibanus_ (white) was female. Finally, the\nword was explained by the old interpreters to be = \u1f40\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2 = brass\nof Mount (Lebanon).\n\n[295] The tradition of Atlantis, a middle-land in the Atlantic, has\nstrong claims to our acceptance. The identity of the site with the\n\u2018Dolphin\u2019s Ridge,\u2019 a volcanic formation, and the shallows noted by\nH.M.S. \u2018Challenger,\u2019 have been ably pleaded in _Atlantis_ (Ignatius\nDonnelly; London: Sampson Low, 1882). Perhaps we may trace the vestiges\nin Saint Paul\u2019s Rocks, the remarkable group of rocky islets situate in\nthe equatorial mid-Atlantic. Mr. Darwin supposed the group to be an\nisolated example of non-volcanic oceanic insularity; but Prof. Renard\nfinds the \u2018balance of proof decidedly in favour of the volcanic origin\nof the rock.\u2019 It will be remembered that Atlantis was dismembered by\nearthquakes, eruptions, and subsidence.\n\n[296] Quoted by Percy from Watson\u2019s _Chemical Essays_ (iv. p. 85, 1786).\n\n[297] The artificial mixture of copper (four fifths) and gold\n(one-fifth) was called _pyropus_ (Pliny, xxxiv. 2), from its fiery red\ntint; it was also made of gold and bronze, and termed _chrysochalcos_,\n\u2018the king of metals.\u2019 _\u00c6s corinthiacum_ (Pliny, xxxiv. 3), or\nCorinthian brass, used for mirrors, composed of copper, silver (steel?\nzinc?), and gold, was more valuable than gold. According to Pausanias\n(ii. 3, \u00a7 3), this malleable and ductile metal was tempered in the\nFountain of Pyrene. The vulgar legend, refuted by Pliny, who tells\nthe tale (xxxiv. 6), dates it from the days of Mummius (B.C. 146). A\nmedal of Corinthian brass was analysed by the Duc de Luynes. Pliny\n(xxxiv. 3) mentions three kinds, _candidum_, _luteum_, and _hepatizon_\n(liver-colour), of equal quantities of metal; this probably resembled\nour own alloys. Beckmann (_sub voc._ \u2018Zinc\u2019 and \u2018Tin\u2019) gives a list\nof these and other compositions, Mannheim gold, Dutch gold, Prince\u2019s\nmetal, Bristol brass, &c.\n\n[298] Possibly the Armenian bole (Bol-i-Armani), used in the East as\na flux from time immemorial. The \u2018dropping\u2019 or \u2018distilling\u2019 (_per\ndescensum_) must allude to a distillatory or condensing apparatus, and\nthe \u2018false silver\u2019 cannot be mercury, lead, or tin.\n\n[299] Hence _tutaneg_ and _tutanego_, which sometimes meant an alloy\nof tin and bismuth. M. Polo (i. 21) describes \u2018tutia\u2019 as very good for\nthe eyes; and his notice of it, and of spodium, reads, according to\nColonel Yule, almost like a condensed translation of Galen\u2019s pompholyx,\nproduced from cadmia or carbonate of zinc; and spodos, the residue\nof the former, which falls on the hearth (_De Simp. Med._ p. ix.).\nMatthioli makes pompholyx commonly known in the laboratories by the\nArabic name \u2018tutia.\u2019 The \u2018tutia\u2019 imported into Bombay from the Gulf is\nmade from an argillaceous ore of zinc, moulded into tubular cakes, and\nbaked to a moderate hardness.\n\n[300] Masc. and fem.; the neut. \u1f24\u03bb\u03b5\u03ba\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd is the purest form. Dr.\nSchliemann, noticing that it also means \u2018amber\u2019 (_Mycen\u00e6_, p. 204),\nderives it from \u2018_elek_, signifying resin in Arabic (?), and probably\nalso in Ph\u0153nician (?).\u2019 He found earrings of electrum in the so-called\n\u2018Trojan Stratum,\u2019 30\u00bd feet below the surface (_Troy_, p. 164). The\n_guanin_ or _gianin_ of the Chiriquis was an aururet (electrum) of\n19\u00b73 per cent. of pure gold, with specific gravity 11\u00b755. The _tombac_\nor _tombag_ of New Granada, used for statuettes, was also a gold of\nlow standard: 63 gold, 24 silver, 9 copper. Usually \u2018tombac\u2019 applies\nto an alloy like Mannheim gold; the manufacture was introduced into\nBirmingham, still its chief seat, by the Turner family, A.D. 1740.\n\n[301] \u2018Elektron,\u2019 however, is generally translated \u2018amber\u2019; and it\nmay be the _harpax_, or drawer, for it occurs in the same verse with\nivory. Amber beads and weapon-handles were amongst Dr. Schliemann\u2019s\nfinds. Rossignol (p. 347) supposes that electrum, the pale-yellow or\namber-coloured alloy of gold and silver, gave a name to the gum amber.\n\n[302] This text, stating a truth concerning native gold, suggests\namongst many that the ancients knew the _d\u00e9part_, or separation, of\nmetals. It has been vehemently doubted whether they could mineralise\nthe white metal; that is, convert it to sulphide and allow the gold to\nsubside.\n\n[303] Rossignol quotes Zonaras, Suidas, and John Pediasimus to prove\nthis position.\n\n[304] We now lacquer with shell-lac dissolved in proof-spirit and\ncoloured with \u2018dragon\u2019s blood.\u2019\n\n[305] The lead was found in even larger proportions. See chap. xiii.\n\n[306] In my commentary on Camoens (_Camoens: his Life and his\nLusiads_), and again in _To the Gold Coast for Gold_ (i. 17), I have\nattempted to identify Western Tarshish or Tartessus with Carteia in\nthe Bay of Gibraltar. Newton makes Melcarth \u2018King of Carteia\u2019; but the\nword may mean either \u2018city-king\u2019 (_Malik-el-Karyat_), or \u2018earth-king\u2019\n(_Malik-el-Arz_).\n\n[307] The well-known anthropologist, M. G. de Mortillet, holds that\nthe oldest type of bronze celt in France, Switzerland, and Belgium, is\nthat with straight flanges at the sides. This was followed by the celt\nwith transverse stop-ridge, by the true winged tool, by the socketed\nadaptation, and, lastly, by the simple flat tool wanting rib or flange,\nwing or socket, and formed of pure copper as well as of bronze.\nArch\u00e6ologists usually determine the last form to be the earliest; but\nM. de Mortillet judges otherwise from the conditions under which the\nfinds occur.\n\n[308] This weapon (_gladius_) is a Sword-blade, double-edged or\nsingle-edged, straight or curved, and 4\u20139 inches long, much used in the\nfourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It originated from the old practice\nof binding the sickle, scythe, axe, hatchet, or Sword to the end of a\npole and thus forming a pike.\n\n[309] The Amazons of the Mausoleum (Newton, _Halicarnassus_, p. 235)\nare armed with axe, bow, and Sword; the Greeks with javelins and Swords.\n\n[310] The Massaget\u00e6 (greater Jats or Goths) are opposed to the Thyssa\n(or lesser) Get\u00e6, and both used the _sagaris_. But while some authors\ntranslate the word _securis_, others call it a \u2018kind of Sword,\u2019 and\nothers confuse it with the \u1f00\u03ba\u03b9\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03b7\u03c2, the _acinaces_ which the Greek\nmentions separately (iv. 62, viii. 67). Strabo (xi. 8) connects the\nMassaget\u00e6 (Goths) with the _Sac\u00e6_ (Saxons), and Major J\u00e4hn derives\n_Sac\u00e6_ (the _Shaka_ of the Hindus) from _Saighead_ = _Sagitta_. The\nterm \u2018_Saxones_\u2019 was later than the age of Tacitus, and we first\nfind it in the days of Antoninus Pius. \u2018Brevis gladius apud illos\n(_Saxones_) _Saxo_ vocatur\u2019 suggests that the _Seax_ was connected with\nthe race of old (_Trans. Anthrop. Instit._ May 1880).\n\n[311] _Loc. cit._ p. 43.\n\n[312] Egypt. _akhu_, Lat. _ascia_, Germ. _Axt_. The oldest form is\n\u2018_aks_\u2019 (_securis_), the bipennis, \u2018_dversahs_,\u2019 and the dolabrum\n\u2018_barte_.\u2019 In Lower Saxon _axt_ is \u2018_exe_,\u2019 a congener of our \u2018axe.\u2019\n\n[313] The word is variously written and explained.\n\n[314] A _silepe_ from the armoury of King Mosesh was shown at the\nNational Exhibition amongst objects from Natal (Col. A. Lane Fox,\n_Cat._ p. 145).\n\n[315] Par Lacombe (Paris, Hachette, 1868).\n\n[316] I have again noticed the _sahs_, _seax_, _sax_, and _scramasax_\nin chap. xiii.\n\n[317] Our \u2018bill\u2019 is the German _Beil_, the _securis_, or axe. Both\nwords appear to me congeners of the Greek \u03b2\u03ad\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2, Sword or dart, showing\na missile-age, from \u03b2\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, to throw; not, as J\u00e4hn thinks, from the\nSanskrit _bhil_. Robert Barret (1598) preferred the pike, although\nowning that the bill had done good service. Even of late years Messrs.\nJohn Mitchel and Meagher (\u2018of the Sword\u2019) advised the wretched Irish\npeasants to make pikes out of reaping-hooks.\n\n[318] _Prehistoric Times_, p. 20. The Dublin Museum contains 1,283\narticles of the Bronze Age.\n\n[319] I assume as a type, the bronze Sword (Tafel iv.) in _Die\nAlterth\u00fcmer von Hallst\u00e4tten, Salzburg, &c._ by Friedrich Simony (Wien,\n1851).\n\n[320] Pliny, xxxiv. 39.\n\n[321] The word comes from the root which gave the Persian _\u00e1han_; the\nIrish _iaran_ or _yarann_; the Welsh _hiarn_; the Armorican _uarn_; the\nGothic _eisarn_; the Danish _iern_; the Swedish _iarn_; the Cimbric\n_jara_; the German _Eisen_, and the Latin _ferrum_, with the neo-Latin\n_ferro_, _hierro_ (Span.), &c. From _iaran_ also we derive _Harnisch_,\nharness.\n\n[322] The unfortunate Cretans gained the name of \u2018ever liars\u2019 (\u1f00\u03b5\u1f76\n\u03c8\u03b5\u1fe6\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9) for telling what was probably the truth. They showed in their\nisland the grave of Jupiter, who must have been originally some hero or\nchief deified after his death\u2014evidently one of the origins of worship.\nThe evil report began with Callimachus (_Hymn. in Jov._ 8); and was\ncontinued in the proverbial \u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03ba\u03ac\u03c0\u03c0\u03b1 \u03ba\u03ac\u03ba\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 (Krete, Kappadocia, and\nKilikia). Hence the syllogistic puzzle of Eubulides: \u2018Epimenides said\nthat the Cretans are liars: Epimenides is a Cretan: _ergo_, Epimenides\nis a liar: _ergo_, the Cretans are not liars: _ergo_, Epimenides is not\na liar.\u2019\n\n[323] Chap. iv. The Chalybs of Justin (xliv. 3) is a river between\nthe Ana (Guadiana) and the Tagus; called by Ptolemy and Martianus,\n\u039a\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 or \u039a\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c0\u03bf\u03c2. \u00c6schylus alludes to the original Chalybes when\nhe personifies the Sword as the \u2018Chalybian stranger,\u2019 and in the same\ntragedy (_Seven against Thebes_) he entitles it \u2018the hammer-wrought\nScythian steel.\u2019\n\n[324] \u2018To the abundance of iron we may attribute the fact that the\nAfricans appear to have passed direct from the stone implements, that\nare now found in the soil, to those of iron, without passing through\nthe intermediate bronze period which, in Egypt and other countries,\nintervened between the ages of stone and iron.\u2019\u2014_Anthropol. Coll._ pp.\n128\u2013134.\n\n[325] \u2018The High Antiquity of Iron and Steel,\u2019 a valuable paper read\nbefore the Philos. Soc. Glasgow, printed in _Iron_ (1875\u201376), and\nkindly sent to me by the editor, Mr. Nursey; also _The Prehistoric Use\nof Iron and Steel_ (Tr\u00fcbner, London, 1877), from which Mr. Day has\nallowed me to make extracts.\n\n[326] The question is to be determined by facts, not theories. Hitherto\nwe are justified in believing, from the skeletons dug up at great\ndepths, or found in caves associated with the mammals which they\ndestroyed, that Man in prehistoric times was of a low physical, and\ntherefore mental type. We shall believe the opposite view when we are\nshown ancient crania equal, if not superior, to those of the present\nday\u2014relics that will revive the faded glories of \u2018Father Adam\u2019 and\n\u2018Mother Eve.\u2019 But, meanwhile, we cannot be expected to believe in _ipse\ndixits_, inspired or uninspired.\n\n[327] For instance, in North-Western Europe, the early iron age began\nabout A.D. 250, according to Konrad Englehardt (_Denmark in the early\nIron Age_, p. 4, London, 1866), quoted by Mr. Day.\n\n[328] _Egypt\u2019s Place in Universal History_, vol. v.; London, Longmans,\n1867, with additions by Samuel Birch, LL.D.\n\n[329] When Laplace made meteorolites ejections from lunar volcanoes,\nChladni suggested that they were masses of metallic matter, moving in\nirregular orbits through interplanetary, and possibly interstellar,\nspace.\n\n[330] This word is tortured by non-Orientalists into various ill-forms.\nThe Arabs write it \u062c\u064a\u0632\u0629 (_J\u00edzeh_), and the Egyptians pronounce it\n_G\u00edzeh_, not _Ghizeh_.\n\n[331] A full-sized drawing appeared in vol. vii. of _Proceedings of the\nPhil. Soc. Glasgow_; and was repeated by Mr. Day in his book, Pl. II.\nhe also gives Belzoni\u2019s sickle, Pl. I.\n\n[332] When visiting the \u2018Tombs of the Soldans,\u2019 Cairo, I found a slab\nof blue basalt bearing the cartouche of Khufu, used as a threshold for\none of the buildings. The characters had been partly erased; but the\nmaterial was too hard for the barbarians who had misused it.\n\n[333] I have elsewhere noticed (chap. iv.) the colours of metals in the\npainted tombs of Thebes, and the blue (cyanus-colour) of the butcher\u2019s\nsteel. The history of this homely article is instructive. For hundreds\nof years it retained, in England and elsewhere, its original shape, an\nelongated cone. At last some \u2018cute citizen had the idea of breaking the\nsurface into four edges, and of hardening it with nickel. The simple\nimprovement now fits it for sharpening everything from a needle to a\nrazor: it thus frees us from the \u2018needy knife-grinder,\u2019 who right well\ndeserved to be needy, as he disadorned everything he touched.\n\n[334] _Antiquity of the Use of Metals, especially Iron, among the\nEgyptians_, p. 18 (London, 1868). Also _Ueber die Priorit\u00e4t des Eisens\noder der Bronze in Ostasien_, by Dr. M. M\u00fcller (_Trans. Vienna Anthrop.\nSoc._ vol. ix.).\n\n[335] I assume this date because it marks when the spring equinox\n(vernal colure) occurred in the Taurus-sign. The earliest of the six\nepochs proposed by Egyptologists is B.C. 5702 (B\u00f6ckh), and the latest\nis B.C. 3623 (Bunsen); the mean being B.C. 4573, and the difference a\nmatter of 2079 years (Brugsch, i. 30).\n\n[336] The Table of Sakkarah (Memphis), found about the end of 1864\nby the late Mariette Pasha, dates from Ramses the Great (thirteenth\ncentury B.C.), and makes Mibampes the first of his fifty-six ancestors.\nNo. 2 is the new tablet of Abydos, discovered, also in 1864, by Herr\nD\u00fcmmichen; it enabled scholars to supply the illegible name in No.\n3, the priceless Turin Papyrus, the hieratic Canon of the Ptolemies.\nMirbampes, Mirbapen, or Mi-ba of the monuments is, called in Manetho\n\u2018Miebides, son of Usarph\u00e6dus\u2019 (_Cory\u2019s Fragments_, p. 112).\n\n[337] Of Ramses II., who, with his father Seti, represents the Greek\nSesostris, the Sesesu-Ra of the monuments. (Brugsch, _Hist._ ii. 53\u201362:\nsee my chap. viii.) Prof. G. Ebers has made this Egyptian proto-Homerid\nthe hero of his romance, _Uarda_ (i.e. Wardah, \u2018the Rose\u2019).\n\n[338] _De Iside et Osiride._ He quotes Manetho the Priest, who wrote\nduring the reign of the first Ptolemy, and who told unpleasant truths\nconcerning Moses, the Hebrews, and the Exodus.\n\n[339] The limestones of Carniola produce heaps of pisoliths, which\nrequire only smelting; and hence, probably, the early Iron Age of\nNoricum and its neighbourhood.\n\n[340] They suggest the magnetic and titaniferous iron sands of Wicklow,\nof New Zealand, of Australia, and of a variety of sites mentioned in\n_To the Gold Coast for Gold_, ii. 111.\n\n[341] The Naphtuhim of Scripture.\n\n[342] _Percy\u2019s Metallurgy_, p. 874, first edit.\n\n[343] _Proc. Soc. Antiq._ second series, vol. v., June 1873. Mr.\nHartland added rubbings of various Pharaohnic stones, hoping to \u2018show\nhow little the mind of civilised man has developed during 3,000 years.\u2019\nA pleasant lesson to humanity! But after all thirty centuries are a\nmere section of the civilisation which began in Egypt.\n\n[344] The Corsican is simply a blacksmith\u2019s forge. The Catalan has a\nheavy hammer and blowing-machine; if the _trompe_ be used, a fall of\nwater is required for draught. The St\u00fcckofen is a Catalan extended\nupwards in the form of a quadrangular or circular shaft, 10\u201316 feet\nhigh.\n\n[345] It is to be noted that flint implements were found all about\nthese works: Mr. Hartland brought home from them silex arrow-heads.\nThe late lamented Professor Palmer observed them in other parts of\nthe Pharan peninsula, and I made a small collection in Midian. In the\n_Journ. of the Anthrop. Soc._ 1879, I showed, following Mr. Ouvry,\nSir John Lubbock, and others, that Cairo is surrounded by ancient\nflint-ateliers. M. Lartet explored them in Southern Palestine; I picked\nthem up near Bethlehem (_Unexplored Syria_, ii. 289). The Abb\u00e9 Richard\nand others traced them at Elbireh (in the Tiberiad); between Tabor and\nthe Lake; and, lastly, at Galgal, where Joshua circumcised. Lastly, my\nlate friend Charles F. Tyrwhitt-Drake, when travelling with me, came\nupon an atelier east of Damascus. I have noticed General Pitt-Rivers\u2019\ngreat Egyptian discovery in chap. ii.\n\n[346] _Hek_ or _hak_ (chief) has a suspicious resemblance to _Shaykh_\nand _sos_ to _s\u00fas_, the mare, characteristically ridden by the Bedawin.\nIn old Egyptian _sos_ is a buffalo.\n\n[347] Movers (_Ph\u00f6nicier_, ii. 3), quoted by Dr. Evans (_Bronze, &c._\n5), finds bronze (copper?) 44 and iron 13 times in the Pentateuch, and\nhe theorises upon the later introduction of the latter. But when was\nthe Pentateuch written in its present form?\n\n[348] Rougemont, _L\u2019Age du Bronze_, pp. 188 _et seq._\n\n[349] Volney, _Travels_, ii. 438.\n\n[350] Much of it, however, was the amygdaloid greenstone, called in\nEnglish \u2018toad-stone,\u2019 a corruption of the Germ. _Todstein_.\n\n[351] _Speaker\u2019s Commentary_, i. 831.\n\n[352] This term seems first to have been used by Orosius (i. 2) in our\nfourth century.\n\n[353] In chap. ix. I shall attempt to show that Naharayn (the dual of\nNahr, a river) is also applied to Palestine in such phrases as \u2018Tunipe\n(Daphne-town) of Naharayn.\u2019\n\n[354] Dr. Percy found that certain Assyrian bronzes had been cast round\na support of the more tenacious metal, thus combining strength with\nlightness.\n\n[355] M. F. Lenormant (\u2018Les Noms d\u2019Airain et du Cuivre dans les\ndeux Langues ... de la Chald\u00e9e et de l\u2019Assyrie, _Trans. Soc. Bibl.\nArch\u00e6ology_, vi. part 2) renders _parzillu_, iron; _abar_, lead;\n_shiparru_ (Arab. \u0635\u0641\u0631, brass), bronze; _anaku_, tin; _eru_ or _erudu_,\ncopper or bronze (Arab. \u0627\u064a\u0627\u0631, copper or brass); _kashpu_, silver;\nand _kurashu_, gold. The learned author discovers in the cuneiforms\nrepeated mention of the \u2018ships of M\u00e1kan\u2019 and the Kur Makannata\n(mountain of Makn\u00e1), which he translates \u2018Pays de M\u00e1kan\u2019: finding\nit a great centre of copper, he is inclined to confound it with the\nso-called Sinaitic Peninsula. I have only to refer readers to \u2018Makn\u00e1\u2019\nin my three volumes on the Land of Midian.\n\n[356] Akkad is upper, Sumir lower Babylonia.\n\n[357] _The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World_, vol. i.\np. 62. London, 1871.\n\n[358] The first period extended from B.C. 1500 to 909. The second from\nB.C. 909 to 745: the most marking names being Assurnazirpal = \u2018Ashur\n(arbiter of the gods) protects his son,\u2019 who built the north-west\npalace of Nimr\u00fad, B.C. 884; and his son Shalmanezer II. of the Black\nObelisk (Brit. Museum), B.C. 850. The third period (B.C. 745\u2013555)\nnumbered Tiglath-Pileser II., B.C. 745\u2013727 (a single generation before\nthe first Olympic, B.C. 776, when the mythic age of Greece emerges\ninto the historical); Sennacherib (705\u2013681); Esarhaddon (680\u2013668),\nAssur-bani-pal (668\u2013640); Nebuchadnezzar in 604\u2013561, a contemporary of\nSolon (B.C. 594); Nergalsharuzur (B.C. 557); and the last Nabonidus\n(B.C. 555). Herodotus (B.C. 450) wrote about a century after the end\nof the third period, Ctesias in B.C. 395, and Berosus in B.C. 280. We\nhave, it is clear, absolutely no historic proof that \u2018the patriarchal\nsystem of communities first locally developed itself at the mouth of\nthe Euphrates Valley,\u2019 or began in any part of the great Mesopotamian\nplain.\n\n[359] Rev. B. H. Cooper (_loc. cit._) would derive \u2018Ida\u2019 from the\nSemitic \u05d9\u05e8 (_yad_, hand), and make the Daktyls, or fingers, its peaks.\n\n[360] I shall reserve for chap. xi. notices of iron by the classic and\nsacred poets of Greece.\n\n[361] _Troy and its Remains_, p. 362; the analysis by M. Damour of\nLyons.\n\n[362] The theory of Stephani, Schulze, and others concerning the\nByzantine date and Herulian origin of the Mycen\u00e6an graves, has been\ntreated in England with some respect by Mr. A. S. Murray and Mr. Perry.\n\n[363] According to Pausanias, Alyattes, the Lydian king (ob. B.C. 570),\ndedicated to his god, amongst other offerings, an inlaid iron saucer.\n\n[364] Neither from this nor from any other passage can we ascertain\nwhether the Chalybes tribe gave its name to _chalybs_ (steel), or\nwhether the material worked named the workmen.\n\n[365] Colonel Yule (_M. Polo_, ii. 96) remarks that in the Middle Ages\nsteel was regarded as a distinct natural species made of another ore,\nand relates how a native to whom an English officer had explained the\nprocess of tempering replied, \u2018What, would you have me believe that if\nI put an ass into the furnace it will come out a horse?\u2019\n\n[366] _Acies_ is properly the edge, that is, the steeled or cutting\npart of an instrument, which may be case-hardened. Hence the later\nwords _aciare_, to steel, and _aciarium_, sharpening steel; hence, too,\nthe neo-Latin _acier_, _acciaio_, &c.\n\n[367] See chap. xiii. Dr. Evans (_Bronze_, 275) says, \u2018How far their\nprocess of burying iron until part of it had rusted away would, in the\ncase of charcoal iron, leave the remaining portion more of the nature\nof steel, I am unable to say.\u2019 It will appear that this burying is\noften spoken of; I have never seen it practised.\n\n[368] Regulus (the \u2018little king\u2019) is the residue of pure metal purged\nof its dross; the old alchemists so entitled it because they ever\nexpected to find the great king\u2014Gold.\n\n[369] At the Anthropological Congress of Austrian Salzburg (Aug. 1881)\nthe tools attributed to the \u2018Keltic\u2019 miners were almost the same as\nthose which I had seen near the Wrekin.\n\n[370] Ing\u00e9nieur des Mines: \u2018Gisements m\u00e9tallif\u00e8res du District de\nCarthag\u00e8ne (Espagne),\u2019 Li\u00e8ge, 1875; a contribution to the _Proc.\nGeolog. Soc. Belgium_; and the result of extensive geological and\nmineralogical observation. The coloured map shows the strata-sequence\n(actual and in ideal order) to be tertiary limestone, iron-ore\n(carbonated, manganiferous, or plumbiferous); schistes; blende;\nschistes; silicated iron and schistes.\n\n[371] _Lectures on the Science of Language_, pp. 254\u201355, vol. ii.,\nedit. 1873.\n\n[372] _Chips from a German Workshop_ (set up in England), p. 47, vol.\nii., edit. 1868.\n\n[373] Mr. Day (_General Table of Terms_, given at end of this chapter)\nquotes as \u2018oldest Sanskrit\u2019 two names of iron, \u0906\u0930 (_\u00e1r_ or _\u00e1ra_),\nmeaning the planet Mars (_Ares_) or Saturn; iron (oxide of iron,\nironstone?), brass (copper?); and \u0905\u092f\u0938\u094d, _\u00e1yas_ (whence _ayaskant_,\na loadstone, and _ayask\u00e1r_, a smith), a word already noticed in\nconnection with _\u00e6s_. But Mr. Day adds to his \u2018oldest Sanskrit\u2019\n\u2018probably B.C. 1500\u2019; and here again we recognise the master-touch of\nthe subtle race\u2014\n\n \u2018for profound\n And solid lying much renowned.\u2019\n\n[374] Report of Gen. A. Cunningham (Arch\u00e6olog. Survey, 1861\u201362). It\nspeaks highly for Anglo-Indian _vis inerti\u00e6_ and incuriousness when we\nare told that the \u2018whole length of the pillar is unknown,\u2019 and when\nevery observer\u2019s account of it differs in essentials.\n\n[375] The _savant_ who first translated the inscription _Indian\nAntiquities_, vol. i. p. 319. The dates vary between the tenth century\nB.C. and A.D. 1052 (!).\n\n[376] The Persian _haft-j\u00fash_ (seven boilings), referred to by Ibn\nBatutah in Colonel Yule\u2019s letter, p. 145 (Day, p. 153).\n\n[377] Quoted by Mr. Day (p. 24) from the _United States Railroad and\nMining Register_.\n\n[378] Mr. Day (quoting Fergusson\u2019s _Illustrations of Ancient\nArchitecture in Hindostan_, London, 1848) cautions his readers that\n\u2018Mr. Fergusson\u2019s dates are not to be relied on, however important his\nwritings unquestionably are in other respects\u2019 (p. 168). Here again\nwe see the misleading influence of the Sanskritists, who have allowed\nthemselves to be cozened by the \u2018mild Hindu.\u2019 Mr. Day inclines (p. 151)\nto the tenth century B.C. (!), when the peoples of India were, we have\nreason to believe, the merest savages.\n\n[379] The modern Hindus call steel _Paldah_, from the Persian _Pul\u00e1d_,\nthe Arab. _Ful\u00e1d_. They apply to Spanish steel the terms _Isp\u00e1t_,\n_Sukhela_ and _Tolad_. Their favourite trial of Sword-metal is with a\nbar of soft gold, which should leave a streak.\n\n[380] Colonel Yule does not consider the word genuine, and with reason,\nas the Indo-Ph\u0153nician (\u2018Saf\u00e1\u2019) alphabet has no _w_ and no _z_. The\nword first appears in \u2018Experiments and Observations to investigate the\nNature of a Kind of Steel manufactured at Bombay, and there called\n_Wootz_,\u2019 ... by G. Pearson, M.D. (paper read before the Royal Soc.,\nJune 11, 1795). He notes that \u2018Dr. Scott of Bombay, in a letter to\nthe President, acquainted him that he had sent over \u201cspecimens of a\nsubstance known by the name of wootz, which is considered to be a\nkind of steel, and is in high esteem among the Indians\u201d\u2019 (p. 322). In\nWilkinson\u2019s _Engines of War_ (1841) we read (pp. 203\u2013206), \u2018The cakes\nof steel are called _wootz_.\u2019\n\nDr. E. Balfour states that _uchh\u00e1_ and _n\u00edchh\u00e1_ (in Hindustani \u2018high\u2019\nand \u2018low\u2019) are used in the Canarese provinces to denote superior and\ninferior descriptions of articles, and that _Wootz_ may be a corruption\nof the former. Colonel Yule and his coadjutor in the _Glossary of\nIndian Terms_, the late lamented Dr. Burnell, hold that it originated\nin some clerical error or misreading, perhaps from _wook_ representing\nthe Canarese _ukku_ = steel.\n\n[381]\n\n C. {combined 1\u00b7333\n {uncombined 0\u00b7312\n Si. 0\u00b7045\n S. 0\u00b7181\n As. 0\u00b7037\n Fe. (by difference) 98\u00b7092\n \u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\n 100\u00b7000\n\nPhillips, _Metallurgy_, p. 317. Faraday found in Wootz 0\u00b70128\u20130\u00b70695\nper cent. of aluminium, and attributed the \u2018damask\u2019 of the blades to\nits presence. Karsten, after three experiments, and Mr. T. H. Henry,\nfailed to detect it, and suggested that it may have been derived from\nintermingled slag containing silicate of alumina (Percy, _Iron, &c._\npp. 183\u201384).\n\n[382] _Archiv. Port. Oriental._ fascic. iii. p. 318.\n\n[383] M. Keller (_Pres. Soc. Ant. Switz._) notes that crudely formed\nlumps and quadrangular blocks of malleable iron, double pyramids\nweighing 10\u201316 lbs., have been found in prehistoric sites. They were\nprobably produced in primitive Catalans. Pieces of iron slag worked by\nthe Kelts were discovered in 1862 on the Cheviot Hills.\n\n[384] The cupel (of old copel) is the French _coupelle_, little coupe.\nThe muffle is a metal cupel.\n\n[385] This is the process of working Wootz given by Mr. Heath; others\npack the metal with finely-chopped stalks of asclepias as well as\ncassia. Mr. Mallet has described the Indian manufacture of large iron\nmasses in _The Engineer_, vol. xxxiii. pp. 19, 20. Beckmann (_loc.\ncit. sub v._ \u2018Steel\u2019) notices the bloomeries or furnaces. The _Penny\nCyclop\u00e6dia_ and Ure\u2019s _Dict. of Chemistry_ (the latter the best),\nLondon, Longmans, 1839, may also be consulted. Dr. Percy gives a\nlong account (pp. 254\u201366) of iron-smelting in India from Mr. Howard\nBlackwell. He notes three kinds of furnaces:\u2014\n\n 1. Rude, like chimney-pots; used by the hill-tribes of Western\n India, the Deccan, and the Carnatic.\n 2. Simple Catalan forge } Central India and the\n 3. Early form of St\u00fcckofen } N.W. Provinces.\n\nThe anvil is a square iron without beak. Three kinds of Indian bellows\nare noticed (pp. 255\u201356). The people, who love _stare super antiquas\nvias_, ignore the hot blast: this contrivance causes a more active\ncombustion, an \u2018ultimate fact\u2019 as yet unexplained.\n\n[386] Report of 1852.\n\n[387] The dialect is much more ancient than we usually suppose:\nit existed long before Akbar the Great and his \u2018Urd\u00fa zab\u00e1n\u2019 (camp\nlanguage), for we find that the poet Chand wrote in it during the\ntwelfth century.\n\n[388] As will appear in Part II. there are many processes for making\nthe Damascus; the exact markings, however, are best produced by that\nnoticed above.\n\n[389] Pp. 270\u20133, from the descriptions of Mr. W. T. Blanford, of the\nGeol. Survey of India.\n\n[390] Pp. 273\u20135; borrowed from _Travels in Borneo_, by Dr. C. A. L. M.\nSchauer during 1843\u201347, p. 109.\n\n[391] The Swords of the Borneo Dyaks and the islanders of Timor and\nRotti are photographed by the Curator of the Christy Collection.\n\n[392] Mr. Day quotes, book i., the Tribute of Yu, Legge\u2019s _Chinese\nClassics_, vol. iii. part i. p. 121 (Tr\u00fcbner, London, 1865).\n\n[393] The \u2018Celestial Empire,\u2019 according to her annals, began B.C.\n100,000\u201380,000; the date being probably astronomical, or rather\nastrological, founded, like the four Hindu \u00e6ras, upon retrograde\ncalculations. The first cycle of 60 years is attributed to the Emperor\nHwang-t\u00ed, and its initiation to the 61st year of his reign, in B.C.\n2637 (the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt?). The first historical dates are\ngiven in B.C. 651, a century after the foundation of Rome: these\nfigures afford a curious contrast between pretensions and proof. But as\nEnglishmen after long residence \u2018grow black\u2019 in Africa, and have become\nsemi-Hinduised in India, so in China they have allowed themselves\nto be imposed upon by the \u2018magna fabulositas,\u2019 the marvellous\nself-sufficiency of astute semi-barbarians. \u2018China is a sea that salts\nall the rivers which flow into it.\u2019 Yet I am curious to ascertain\nby actual travel if China ever possessed a centre of civilisation\nindependent of what she received from the West; in other words,\nnon-Egyptian.\n\n[394] Of the 214 keys or radicals. The first three arithmetical figures\nare lines disposed horizontally, while the Egyptians wrote them\nvertically. In his Terminal Table (affixed to this chapter) Mr. Day\nassigns Chinese to the \u2018Sporadic or Allophyllian family.\u2019 I believe it\nto be the oldest and, as far as we know, the original form of Turanian\nspeech, a kind of _tertium quid_ deduced from the so-called \u2018Aryan\u2019 and\n\u2018Semitic\u2019 elements of Egyptian.\n\n[395] _Trans. Bib. Arch\u00e6ol._ 1879. Sayce\u2019s _Grammar_ gives 522 Assyrian\ncharacters.\n\n[396] The lump of iron worked into a mass more or less rectangular\nis called a bloom, from the Saxon _bloma_, metal in mass (Bosworth):\n_Bloma ferri_ occurs in the Domesday Book. Hence ancient furnaces were\ncalled _bloomeries_; the Elizabethan spelling is a _bloomary_. The\nblooms were beaten out to bars.\n\n[397] In Persia I was told that this was one of the \u2018secrets\u2019 of making\nthe finest Khoras\u00e1ni blades.\n\n[398] It followed the Mongols and preceded the Manchow Tartars, who\nstill reign.\n\n[399] This process of converting iron to steel is first described in\n\u2018_Alchemi\u00e6 Gebri_ (El-Gabr), _Arabis philosophi solertissimi, Libri,\n&c._, Joan. Petreius Nurembergen\u0304. denuo Bern\u00e6 excudi faciebat. anno\n1545.\u2019 The Arab, known to Albertus Magnus, flourished in the eighth\nto the ninth century. According to Beckmann, he noticed the ore\n_cineritii_ (cupellation) _et cementi_ (cementation) _tolerans_. The\nmixture is usually of sal ammoniac, borax, alum, and fine salt: the\nmany varieties are described by Percy, Ure, and a host of others.\nCompare also Ure\u2019s account of cast-steel and of shear-steel, the latter\nso called because cloth-shears were forged of it.\n\n[400] At least it would so appear from the following passage (p. 176):\n\u2018When we examine the etymology of \u2018pole,\u2019 or \u2018pillar,\u2019 thus\u2014Saxon,\n_pol_ or _pal_; German, _Pfahl_; Danish, _paal_ or _pol_; Swedish,\n_pale_; Welsh _pawl_\u2014we arrive at the Latin _palus_, which, besides\nsignifying a pole or stake, is also the \u03c6\u03b1\u03bb\u03bb\u03cc\u03c2 of the Greeks,\n_Mahadeva_ (?) or _Linga_ (?) of the Hindoos, _Bel_ or _Baal_ (?)\nof the Chaldeans, _Yakhveh_ (?) of the Canaanites, _Ti-mohr_ of the\nancient Irish, and _Teih-mo_ of the Chinese,\u2019 &c.\n\n[401] _Notes from Mr. Henderson\u2019s Diary during a Ramble through Shansi,\nin March 1874_, published by Mr. Day (Appendix D, p. 251). Colonel\nYule (_Marco Polo_, ii. 429), alluding to these enormous deposits of\ncoal and metal, says: \u2018Baron Richtofen, in the paper which we quote\nfrom, indicates the revolution in the deposit of the world\u2019s wealth\nand power, to which such facts, combined with other characteristics of\nChina, point as probable; a revolution so vast that its contemplation\nseems like that of a planetary catastrophe.\u2019\n\n[402] _Les Mondes_, tome xxvi., Dec. 1871.\n\n[403] _Polynesian Researches_ (Rev. William Ellis).\n\n[404] _Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, p. 167.\n\n[405] Unless greatly mistaken, I have seen iron tools made of h\u00e6matite\nnear the old Gongo Socco gold-mines of Minas Geraes, in the Brazil.\nWorked h\u00e6matite is also mentioned in Cyprus by General Palma (di\nCesnola). See chap. ix.\n\n[406] From _Nature_ (Sept. 30, 1875); quoted by Mr. Day (pp. 217\u201319).\n\n[407] _Flint Chips_, by Edmund T. Stevens, p. 553 (London: Bell &\nDaldy, 1870).\n\n[408] The \u2018plummet\u2019 is figured (No. cxxxii.) in the _American\nNaturalist_ (vol. vi. p. 643).\n\n[409] The people of Camarones River, Bight of Biafra, work up old cask\nand bale hoops into very creditable edge-tools and weapons, hoes,\nknives, and Swords (Rev. G. Grenfell, _Proc. Roy. Geolog. Soc._ Oct.\n1882).\n\n[410] The origin of the modern process is still debated. Agricola\n(_nat._ 1494, _ob._ 1555) notices both malleable and cast iron.\nDr. Percy (p. 578) quotes from Mr. M. A. Lower (_Contributions to\nLiterature, &c._ 1854) that Burwash Church, Sussex, contains a\ncast-iron slab of the fourteenth century with ornamental cross and\ninscription in relief. The same authority declares that iron cannon\nwere first cast at Buxted (Buckstead in Sussex) by Philip Hoge or Hogge\nin 1543 (35 Henry VIII.); and that his successor, Thomas Johnson, made\nordnance pieces for the Duke of Cumberland weighing 6,000 lbs.\n\n[411] Dr. Percy (pp. 764 _et seq._) notices the three processes of\nmaking steel (iron containing carbon in certain proportions): 1. The\naddition of carbon to malleable iron; 2. The partial decarburisation of\ncast iron; and 3. The addition of malleable iron to cast iron.\n\n[412] I borrow from O Muata Cazembe (Kazembe, the King) a rude sketch\n(p. 38) of one of the better kinds of iron-smelting furnaces used by\nthe extensive Mar\u00e1ve race dwelling north of the Zambeze (River of\nFish), which Europeans persist in miswriting _Zambesi_. The bellows, it\nwill be remarked, are almost of European shape; but this peculiarity\nmay be attributed to the artist.\n\n[413] _Travels_, pp. 275\u201377 (London, 1749).\n\n[414] Colonel A. Lane Fox (_Prim. Warfare_, i. 38) believes that the\n\u2018Fans and Kafirs (Caffres) are totally different races.\u2019 But both\nspeak dialects of the same tongue, the great South African language.\nModern African travellers have traced community of customs from north\nto south, and from east to west, suggesting extensive intercourse, in\nformer days, throughout the length and breadth of the Dark Continent.\n\n[415] _Across Africa_, chap. xix., July 1874 (Daldy, Isbister & Co.,\nLondon, 1877).\n\n[416] _Missionary Travels_, p. 402 (London, 1857).\n\n[417] _Anthrop. Coll._ pp. 128\u2013134. \u2018Specimens illustrating the\ngeographical distribution of corrugated iron blades, or blades with an\nogee section, double skin bellows, and iron work.\u2019 As regards the ogee\nsection, the author should have compared it with the arrow-heads whose\nplane sides are \u2018bellied on a twist\u2019 to cause rotation or rifling.\n\n[418] Diogenes Laertius tells us of Anacharsis only that he \u2018wrote also\nabout war.\u2019\n\n[419] As all savage races show, the original anchor was a stone first\nbound round like a celt, and then pierced for a rope: hence the\n\u2018fugitive stone\u2019 used by the Argonauts as an anchor (Pliny, xxxvii.\n24). In the spring of 1880 eight stone anchors of modern shape were\nfound in Pir\u00e6us harbour, and were sent to the Nautical School at Athens.\n\n[420] Wilkinson, i. 174. Mr. Day, pp. 86, 87.\n\n[421] Hence, too, we see our \u2018bellows\u2019 = \u2018bellies.\u2019\n\n[422] This word is curiously corrupted in Europe. It is formed upon the\nmodel of D\u00e1r-Wad\u00e1i, &c.; and means the abode, region, home (_D\u00e1r_) of\nthe For tribe. My lamented friend General Purdy (Pasha) formerly of the\nUnited Slates Army, admirably surveyed it, and died at Cairo in 1881.\n\n[423] _Vulgo_ Kattyw\u00e1r; described in 1842 by Captain (the late Sir G.\nLe Grand) Jacob in his _Report on Guzerat_ (Gujar\u00e1t).\n\n[424] The sticks correspond with the strings on the bellows of the\nEgyptian monuments.\n\n[425] _Iron_, Jan. 8, 1876.\n\n[426] I observe that M. Terrien de la Couperie has lately derived the\noldest civilisation of China from Chald\u00e6o-Babylonia of the Akkadian\nAges, B.C. 2400\u20132300.\n\n[427] Major J\u00e4hns (p. 416) would derive _Schwert_ (= _das Sausende_,\n_Schwirrende_, i.e. whizzing) from the Sansk. _svar_, noise; and\nconsiders it originally a missile pure and simple. He quotes Isidore,\nwho explains _rhomph\u00e6a_ by _wafan_; _Schwert_ and _framea_ = _asta vel\ngladius_; _ensis_ = _hevas_, _hevassa_; _mucro_ = _swert_, _gladius_\n= _wafan_; _culter_ = _wafansahs_, _sahse_. In the hebraising days\n_Sword_ was derived from Sharat, to scratch, and _Sabre_ from Shabar,\nto shiver.\n\n[428] Of the Flamberge and the \u2018flamboyant,\u2019 or wavy blade, more\nhereafter.\n\n[429] Muratori (_Antiq._ ii. 487) notes, \u2018_Spatam sive spontonem_, and\n_sponto_, _spunto_, i.e. _pugio_\u2019 (Adelung). Of _spatha_ more to come.\n\n[430] Or \u2018_die Schneide_,\u2019 the older forms being _ekke_, _egge_; while\n\u2018_valz_\u2019 was the middle section of the two-handed Sword.\n\n[431] \u2018Chape,\u2019 derived from _capa_, and a congener of \u2018cap\u2019 and \u2018cape,\u2019\nis differently used by authors. Some apply it to the mouthpiece or ring\nat the top of the sheath; others to the metal crampet, bouterolle,\nor ferule at the scabbard-tip, and others to the guard-plate. In\nDurfey (_The Marriage-Hater Matched_) we find \u2018the hilt, the knot, the\nscabbard, the _chape_, the belt, and the buckles\u2019 (of a Sword). Skinner\nexplains it as _vagin\u00e6 mucro ferreus_. Mr. Fairholt defines _chape_\nto be the guard-plate or cross-bar at the junction of grip and hilt.\nShakespeare, who knew the Sword, speaks of the \u2018_chape_ of his dagger\u2019\n(_All\u2019s Well &c._ iv. 3) and \u2018an old rusty Sword with a broken hilt\nand _chapelesse_\u2019 (_Taming of the Shrew_, iii. 2). Commentators mostly\nexplain this by \u2018without a catch to hold it.\u2019 Dr. Evans (_Bronze, &c._\nchap. viii.) has exhaustively described the bronze chapes (bouterolles)\nin the British Islands.\n\n[432] A congener of our \u2018quill,\u2019 from the Lat. _caulis_, a stalk.\nLittr\u00e9 is not satisfactory: \u2018Quillon (_ki-llon_, ll mouill\u00e9es), s.m.\nPartie de la monture du sabre ou de l\u2019\u00e9p\u00e9e, situ\u00e9e du c\u00f4t\u00e9 oppos\u00e9 aux\nbranches, et dont l\u2019extr\u00e9mit\u00e9 est arrondie. D\u00e9riv\u00e9 de quille\u2019 (cone)\n\u2018par assimilation de forme\u2019 (in fact, incrementative of) \u2018quille.\nEtym. G\u00e9nev. _quille_; de l\u2019anc. haut-allem. _Kegil_; allem. _Kegel_,\nobjet allong\u00e9 en forme conique, _quille_.\u2019 Burn translates _quillon_\n\u2018cross-bar of the hilt of an infantry or light-cavalry Sword.\u2019\n\n[433] This must not be written, as by some English authors, _pas\nd\u2019ane_. \u2018_Pas d\u2019\u00e2ne_, instrument avec lequel on maintient ouverte\nla bouche du cheval pour l\u2019examiner.\u2019 Littr\u00e9 has: \u2018_Pas d\u2019\u00e2ne_, nom\ndonn\u00e9, dans les \u00e9p\u00e9es du xvi^{\u00e8me} si\u00e8cle, \u00e0 des pi\u00e8ces de la garde\nqui sont en forme d\u2019anneau, et qui vont des quillons \u00e0 la lame. \u201cLe\nSeigneur le prit et mit un pied sur la lame ... alors Collinet s\u2019\u00e9cria:\nVenez voir, messieurs, le grand miracle que l\u2019on fait \u00e0 mon \u00e9p\u00e9e; je\nl\u2019ai apport\u00e9e ici avec une simple poign\u00e9e et sans garde d\u00e9fensive, et\nvoil\u00e0 maintenant que l\u2019on y met le plus beau pas d\u2019\u00e2ne du monde.\u201d\u2019\n_Francion_, vi. p. 237: \u2018Pas d\u2019\u00e2ne, nom vulgaire du tussilage, \u00e0 cause\nde la feuille.\u2019\n\n[434] The Scottish basket-hilt, however, requires improvement, as it\ndoes not allow free play to hand or wrist.\n\n[435] The word is originally the Persian _Shamsh\u00edr_ (\u0634\u0645\u0634\u064a\u0631); but as\nthe Greeks have no _sh_ sound, it made its way into Europe curiously\ndisguised. Jean Chartier (temp. Charles VII.) says, \u2018_Sauveterres ou\ncimeterres qui sont mani\u00e8re d\u2019esp\u00e9e \u00e0 la Turque_.\u2019 _Sauveterre_ became\nin Italian _salvaterra_; and in England _scymitar_ was further degraded\nto _semitarge_. I have no objection to _scimitar_, but _scymitar_ is\nthe older form.\n\n[436] See note at the end of this chapter.\n\n[437] As usual, the diagram is an exaggeration. It directs the\nthrusting weapon too low, at the antagonist\u2019s breast, not his eye; nor\nis it necessary to raise the hand so high in order to deliver the cut.\n\n[438] Quoted from Mr. John Latham by Colonel A. Lane Fox, _Anthrop.\nColl._ p. 171. Concerning the drawing cut and its reverse, the\nthrusting cut, I shall have more to say when treating of the \u2018Damascus\u2019\nblade in Part II.\n\n[439] The section of the modern weapon shows that the _ba\u00efonnette Gras_\nis fit only for the thrust; and, as it stops its own cut, it is useless\nfor the menial and servile offices in which the Yataghan-bayonet,\nlike the old _coupe-choux_ Sword, did yeoman\u2019s service. I can see no\nimprovement upon the old-fashioned triangular bayonet, which amongst us\nhas been superseded by the short Enfield Sword-bayonet. To the latter\nI should prefer even the bowie-knife bayonet, of which the Washington\nArsenal was once full, and which has been used even lately in the\nUnited States. None but practical soldiers realise the fact that the\nbayonet is meant to be a bayonet, not a Sword, nor a dagger, nor a\nchopper, nor a saw.\n\n[440] Mr. Wareing Faulder (Exhibition of Industrial Art, Manchester,\nJune and July, 1881, _Catalogue_, p. 24) suggests that the Colichemarde\n\u2018fell into disuse probably in consequence of its costliness, combined\nwith its inelegant appearance when sheathed.\u2019\n\n[441] Captain George Chapman, in his _Foil Practice, &c._, a book which\nwill appear in the \u2018Bibliography\u2019 (Part III.), rightly distinguishes\nbetween the triangular small-Sword, used only for thrusting, and the\nbi-convex cut-and-thrust \u2018rapier,\u2019 a term applied by the Germans\nto the _Schl\u00e4ger_, which has no point. In England most people use\n\u2018small-Sword\u2019 only in opposition to \u2018broadsword\u2019; but, as the Art of\nFencing may be considered a general foundation for swordsmanship, all\nmen-at-arms should understand and preserve the difference. The writer,\nhowever, observes (Notes, pp. 4, 5), that, among the various actions\nwhich may conveniently be executed with the triangular \u2018Biscayan,\u2019\nthere are many which cannot be so easily managed with a flat blade,\nor with the usual weapon of modern combat, however light and handy.\nHence \u2018fencers among military men should be cautioned against\n_indiscriminately_ attempting with the Sword performances usually\ntaught in lessons with the foil.\u2019\n\n[442] It was also a proper name applied to the Paladin Renaud\u2019s Sword.\nThe flamberge of the seventeenth century became a rapier-blade, and no\nlonger \u2018flamboyant,\u2019 and the difference is in the hilt, and especially\nthe guards. The latter were shallower and simpler than the rapier form,\nand were more easily changed from hand to hand, as was the practice of\nearly fencers.\n\n[443] There is another D\u00e1o in the Eastern regions, a large, square,\ndouble-edged blade, with a handle attached to the centre. The Dah of\nBurma is originally the same weapon as the N\u00e1g\u00e1 D\u00e1o.\n\n[444] In the _Bulletin de l\u2019Institut Egyptien_ (deuxi\u00e8me s\u00e9rie, No.\n1, ann\u00e9e 1880) there is an admirable paper on Eastern heraldry, \u2018Le\nblason chez les Princes musulmans,\u2019 by E. T. Rogers Bey. He proves that\na heraldic scutcheon is known to the Arabs as _rank_, plur. _run\u00fak_,\nand that the word is the Persian _rang_, colour, from which he would\nderive our (man of) \u2018rank,\u2019 a word hitherto unsatisfactorily explained.\nAs regards the tints, \u2018azure\u2019 is evidently the Persian _l\u00e1jawardi_; and\n\u2018gules\u2019 is better derived from _gul_, a rose, than from Fr. _gueules_\n(jaw), which is L. Lat. _gula_, reddened skin. These three words\nsuggest that for the origin of heraldry in its present form we must go\nback to Persia. Of the Sword in European heraldry I shall have more to\nsay in Part II.\n\n[445] Strange to say, these Sword-names are carefully omitted from\nLiddell and Scott, 1869.\n\n[446] The information was kindly forwarded to me by Captain F. M.\nHunter, Assistant Political Resident, Aden. Along the blade runs the\ninscription, which will be quoted in Part II., and the characters\nappear modern. My informant thinks that this Chelidonian does not\nrepresent the original Z\u00fa\u2019l-Fik\u00e1r, which was two-edged.\n\n[447] This trophy hangs against the staircase wall of the fine armoury\nbelonging to the Museo del Arsenale (Naval Arsenal), Venice. Here,\nhowever, it has become a complicated affair with Koranic inscription\n(ch. xl. vol. i.); open-jawed dragons\u2019 heads at the hilt, and below the\nhandle a rosette with various complications of \u2018Y\u00e1\u2019 (Allah!).\n\n[448] It is figured in the illustrations following the _Antiquities of\nOrissa_, by Rajendra Lala Mitra.\n\n[449] Capt. Cameron and I exhibited a specimen, made for us by good\nKing Blay of Att\u00e1bo, at a special meeting of the Anthropological\nInstitute of London.\n\n[450] The Austrian geographer, Dr. Josef Chavanne, estimates the mean\naltitude of Africa at 2,170 feet (round numbers), or more than double\nthat of Europe (971 feet, M. G. Leipoldt).\n\n[451] He makes his Ethiopians emigrate from India to Egypt\u2014but\nwhere? when? how? The \u2018Asiatic \u00c6thiopians\u2019 of Herodotus lie between\nthe Germanii (Persian _Kerman_) and the Indus (iii. 93, &c.). The\nbas-reliefs of Susiana show negroid types, and Texier found the Lamlam\ntribe in the marshes round the head of the Persian Gulf to resemble\nthe Bisharin of Upper Egypt. Was _the_ Buddha one of these Cushite\nEthiopians?\n\n[452] _Monumental History, &c._\n\n[453] The late Mr. Lane, who was greatly attached to Cairo and its\npopulation, insisted upon the Arab origin and kinship of the Egyptian.\nTo those who know both races they appear as different as Englishmen and\nGreeks. Place an Arab, especially a Bedawi, by the side of a Fellah,\nand the contrast will strike the least experienced eye.\n\n[454] The first instalment was sent in May 1881 to the Royal College of\nSurgeons for the benefit of Professor Flower and Dr. C. Carter Blake.\nI am aware of the difficulty in determining mummy-dates, but the fact\nof mummification shows a certain antiquity whose later limit is sharply\ndefined. The mummy of King Mer en R\u00e1 (Sixth Dynasty), found near the\nSakkarah pyramids, had been stripped of its bandages; but the marks\nimpressed upon the skin showed that the system was that of later years.\nHe can hardly be dated later than B.C. 3000; and, reckoning from that\nperiod to A.D. 700, when mummifying ceased, we have a population of\nembalmed bodies of some 730,000,000 in round numbers.\n\n[455] The hair is of intermediate type between negro and Malay. The\nNilotes are \u03bf\u1f50\u03bb\u03cc\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9 and \u1f10\u03c1\u03b9\u03cc\u03ba\u03bf\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, with woolly locks, slightly flat\nlike ribbons, evenly distributed (not in peppercorns) over the scalp.\nIt is also a mistake to make the Nubians \u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c3\u03cc\u03c4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c7\u03bf\u03b9: none of the Nile\nValley races are lank-haired like Hind\u00fas, Chinese, and Australians.\n\n[456] The full number of Herodotus is 52,000 years. Mr. Day (p. 59)\nis scandalised by these dates, which argue for the \u2018high antiquity\ntheory\u2019; and appears astonished to find \u2018anything placed centuries\nprevious to the Noahitic Deluge.\u2019 Of this more presently.\n\n[457] Each generation contained a \u2018Piromis, son of a Piromis.\u2019\nThe word, made equivalent to _Kalos k\u2019 agathos_ (= _galantuomo_),\n_Pe-Rome_, the man, opposed to _Pe-Neter_, the god.\n\n[458] Mela has been blamed for repeating Herodotus without\nunderstanding him. When he states that the sun twice set at the point\nwhere it now rises (\u2018solem bis jam occidisse unde oritur\u2019), he probably\nmeans that the greater light left to the west the zodiacal sign which\npresided at its rising.\n\n[459] The word at first applied probably to the commander-in-chief.\nWilkinson\u2019s day derived it from _Phra_ (_pa-Ra_), the sun; now it is\nexplained _Per-\u00e1o_, the Great House, in the sense of \u2018Sublime Porte.\u2019\n\n[460] _Antiquit\u00e9 des Races Humaines._ Paris, 1862.\n\n[461] The \u2018black land,\u2019 opposed to _Tesher_, the \u2018red land\u2019 (Edom,\nIdum\u00e6a, Erythr\u00e6a), the wilds of North-Western Arabia. It is also\ncalled on the monuments _A\u2019in_ (_\u00c6an_ in Pliny) and _Ta-mera_ (_Mera_,\n_Tomera_), the \u2018inundation region.\u2019 Another old name, _Aeria_, is\nfrom \u05d9\u05d0\u05e8, _Yior_, the Nile. _Kemi_ must not be confounded with\n_Khem_, _Chemmis_, universal nature, the generative and reproductive\nprinciple\u2014_Pan_. When Q. Curtius writes that Chemmis \u2018_umbraculo_\nmaxime similis est habitus,\u2019 I would change the first word to\n\u2018umbilico.\u2019 The stepped cone in the Elephanta Caves exactly explains\nthe latter.\n\n[462] Hecat\u00e6us and Anaximander divided the globe into Europe (_Ereb_,\n_Gharb_, the West) and Asia (_Asiyeh_, the East). Their successors\nadded Libya (Africa), a term derived from the Libu or Ribu tribes; and\nthe Father of History a most insufficient fourth\u2014the Nilotic Delta. The\nlatter, however, is ethnologically correct: Egypt is neither Africa nor\nAsia, but a land _per se_.\n\n[463] In Homer, \u00c6gyptus always applies to the Nile (_Od._ xiv. 268).\nManetho makes it the name of a king, Sethos = Seti I. M. Maspero\nproposes as a derivation of the word, Ha Kahi Ptah (the land of the\ngod Ptah). Hence the Biblical Pathros = Ptah-land (_Ezek._ xxix.\n14). Pathyris, the western side of Thebes, and the western Provinces\ngenerally, may have named the \u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9\u03ba\u03bf\u03b9 (Herod. iii. 37), the obscene\ndwarfs who made Cambyses laugh.\n\n[464] Herodotus (vii. 66) specifies the Arians, a racial name then\nsynonymous with the Medes. This is not the place to enter upon the\nsubject of Aria\u2019s enormous development.\n\n[465] As a specimen of the roots\u2014which are most remarkable when they\nconsist of single consonants, whose reduplication made the earliest\nwords\u2014take \u2018papa\u2019 and \u2018mamma.\u2019 The former is from the Egyptian _pa-pa_\n(root _p_), to produce, the original idea of the begetter; and the\nlatter is _ma-ma_ (root _m_), to carry, be pregnant, bear. _Mut_\nbecomes _m\u00e1t\u00e1_, \u03bc\u03ae\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1, _mater_, mother: _Mer_ (_a-mor_), love; _meran_\n(_morior_), die, and _more_ (_mare_), the sea. In \u2018Semitic\u2019 we have\n_m\u00e1_, Heb. and Arab. _m\u00e1_, water; and a long array of other words (as\n_ia_, yes, yea; and _na_, nay) too extensive for notice.\n\n[466] Characterised chiefly by post- instead of pre-positions, by\nadditions to the verb which make it causal, reflective, and so forth,\nand by the peculiar form of sentences. Examples: the Finn-Ugrian-Magyar\nand the Turk-Mongol-Tartar, both probably deriving from the ancient\n_Sakas_ = Scythians.\n\n[467] To Aryan I much prefer the older term \u2018Iranian\u2019; Iran (Persia),\nwhich once extended from the Indus to the Mediterranean, being one\nof the great centres where the \u2018Aryo\u2019-Egyptian element of language\ndeveloped itself, and where a typical race is still found. Nor is there\nmuch objection to \u2018Turanian,\u2019 Turan being the non-Iranian regions to\nthe east, Tartary and China. But \u2018Semitic,\u2019 which contains a myth and\na theory, should be changed into \u2018Arabian.\u2019 Egypto-Arabic attained its\npurest and highest development in the Peninsula; Hebrew is a northern\nand somewhat barbarous dialect; Syriac is a north-western offspring;\nGalla, a western; and so forth.\n\n[468] For whose erection every \u2018authority\u2019 gives his or her own date.\nMr. Proctor\u2019s calculation, based upon the precession of the equinoxes,\nis B.C. 3350. It appears to me that we also obtain the date from the\nposition of the polar star (\u03b1 Draconis), which looked down the axis of\nthe great entrance-passage before this long tube was blocked up. We may\nthus assume between B.C. 3440 and B.C. 3350.\n\n[469] _Records of the Past_, ii. 120; and _Trans. Bibl. Soc._ i. ii.\n383\u201385.\n\n[470] Brugsch, vol. ii. chap. xiv.\n\n[471] One nome (_Tanis_) carried a crescent and one star, others had\ntwo and three of the latter. The emblem passed over to the Byzantine\nEmpire, and now we see upon the Egyptian flag the crescent and Seb, the\nfive-rayed star. It is thus distinguished from the Turkish, which has\nseven rays.\n\n[472] See chap. viii.\n\n[473] The popular conception of the Noachian Deluge is a study. There\nhave been millions of local and partial floods; but wherever and\nwhenever a traveller finds the legend of an inundation he incontinently\napplies it to \u2018the Flood.\u2019 Dr. Livingstone could not refrain from\nso doing at the petty Lake Dilolo. And it is to be noted that the\nEgyptians, accustomed to annual freshets, utterly ignored one general\ncataclysm as held by the Greeks.\n\n[474] \u2018Nuhu\u2019 is found in the Nahrai tomb, Beni Hasan (Osburn, i. 239);\nother names are Noum, Nouf, and Nef.\n\n[475] Amun Ra (Heph\u00e6stus, Vulcan), the veiled Osiris, the \u2018Hidden One\nof Thebes,\u2019 is thus addressed in a papyrus:\u2014\n\n He is One only, alone sans equal,\n Dwelling above in the Holy of Holies.\n\nAnother describes him as \u2018Maker of all things; whose beginning was the\nbeginning of the world; whose forms are various and manifold; the first\nto exist; the one only Being, and the Parent of all who live.\u2019\n\n[476] Mr. Froude _metaphysicises_ when he tells us that the religion\nof Egypt is the adoration of physical forces. Mankind do not worship\nabstractions; they begin (and mostly end) by adoring man.\n\n[477] Blind because she saw with insight, not physical vision. Her eyes\nare hidden by blinkers or \u2018goggles.\u2019 Her usual name is Ma, and her\nideograph is the ell-measure.\n\n[478] Even \u2018God save the King\u2019 must be referred back to them.\n\n[479] It is an aorist from \u2018Havah;\u2019 so \u03c6\u03cd\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 from \u03c6\u03cd\u03c9, and _natura_\nfrom _nascor_. Mystically, _Ya_ is the past, _Ha_ the present, and\n_Vah_ the future.\n\n[480] My fellow-traveller, the Rev. W. Robertson Smith, has neglected\nthe derivation of the \u2018Prophet\u2019 grade by Jewry from Egypt; his\ninteresting volume (_The Old Testament, &c._) wants more Egyptianism.\nThe Prophets of Nile-land had their merits; they foretold that Pharaoh\nNecho\u2019s Suez Canal would be more useful to strangers than to natives.\n\n[481] The High Priest\u2019s robe in Jewry had 366 bells, symbolising the\ndays of the Sothic-sidereal year. In the times of the early Pharaohs,\nthe \u2018Queen of the New Year\u2019 appeared in coincidence with the beginning\nof the solar year. The Sothic \u00e6ra had been fixed from observations\nbefore Thut-mes III. (Eighteenth Dynasty, circ. B.C. 1580).\n\n[482] Yet the end of chap. xix. is distinctly teleological. Were there\ntwo Jobs?\n\n[483] Abraham, the legendary forefather of the Hebrews, was a Chald\u00e6an\nfrom Ur of the Chaldees. On the east bank of the Euphrates lies Uru-ki,\nErech, or Wark\u00e1, fronted by Ur, Uru, or Mughayr: the Bedawin still\ncall the latter \u2018Urhha\u2019 in memory of \u2018Ur.\u2019 Thus Abraham was a hill-man\nfrom the harsh and rugged regions fringing Southern Armenia. Hence the\n\u2018Jewish face,\u2019 with its strongly marked features and its wealth of hair\nand beard, appears everywhere in the sculptures of ancient Babylonia\nand Persia. Hence, too, the superficial observation that the Afghans\nand hill-tribes west of the Indus are Jews because they have the\ntypical Jewish look. The reason is that all are derived from the same\nethnic centre, a great watershed of race.\n\n[484] In this section of the nineteenth century three popular crazes\nare producing a literature of vigorous growth. The first is the\nShakespearian; not Shakespeare, but Bacon, or some other Palmerstonian\npet, wrote Shakespeare. The second, apparently a by-blow of the Book of\nMormon, is the descent of John Bull from the \u2018Lost Tribes,\u2019 who were\nnever lost. The third is the Pyramid craze; and the rough common sense\nof the public has embodied it in \u2018the Inspired British Inch\u2019: these\nPyramidists mostly forget that _the_ Pyramid is one of three greater\nand some seventy lesser items which form the cemetery of Memphis.\n\n[485] Yet it is remarkable, observes Brugsch (i. 212), that from\nthe earliest ages the curse of the Typhonic gods clings to gold.\nSo Plutarch (_Isis and Osiris_) tells us that the worshippers were\ndirected not to wear the noble metal; and this still is a general rule\nin El-Islam.\n\n[486] Silver, the \u2018next folly of mankind,\u2019 says Pliny (_Nat. Hist._\nxxxiii. 31), showing his own, and rivalling Horace\u2019s \u2018aurum irrepertum\net sic melius situm.\u2019 Strange to say, neither old Egypt nor Assyria\nhad a coinage, which Herodotus (i. 94) and a host of other writers\nattribute to the Lydians, the forefathers of the Etruscans. Its\nrepresentative in the Nile Valley was the ring-money, which extended\nto ancient Britain, and which is still preserved in many parts of\nAfrica. The golden \u2018manillas\u2019 discovered at Dali (Idalium) in Cyprus,\nwhere the breaks of the circle are adorned with the heads of animals,\nlions and asps, show what the now meaningless thickening of these parts\noriginally meant.\n\n[487] \u2018Lead is also united by the aid of white lead (tin); white lead\nwith white lead by the agency of oil\u2019 (Pliny, xxxiii. 30).\n\n[488] _The Captivity of Hans Stade_, p. 145.\n\n[489] Properly speaking, to \u2018damascene\u2019 is confined to \u2018grit\u2019 or\ninlaid iron or steel, the word evidently deriving from Damascus, once\nso famous for Swords. Johnson (_Dict._, Longmans, 1805) explains the\nword \u2018damask,\u2019 \u2018linen or silk woven in a manner invented at Damascus,\nby which part, by a various direction of the threads, exhibits flowers\nor other forms.\u2019 Percy (_Metal._ p. 185) inclines towards \u2018Damascus\u2019;\nbut he suggests that the \u2018word \u201cdamask\u201d applied to steel may have\nbeen derived, not from the place of manufacture but from a fancied\nresemblance between the markings in question and the damask patterns on\ntextile fabrics.\u2019\n\n[490] This process resembles our niello (nigellum) inlaying. The oldest\ncomposition contained most silver and no lead. Percy (_Metallurgy_, p.\n23) gives us its history: the first treatise by Theophilus, _alias_\nRugerus, a monk of the early eleventh century, was translated by Robert\nHendrick (London, 1847).\n\n[491] Plutarch relates (_De Isid._ 2) of Ochus (Thirty-first Dynasty),\nwho, amongst other acts of tyranny, caused the sacred bull Apis to be\nmade roast beef, that he was represented in the Catalogue of Kings by a\nSword.\n\n[492] _\u1e32rsha_, _Krasher_, or _Krershra_. The determinative is a\nsquatting archer with bow and arrows. Marvellous to say, Brugsch (i.\n51) mentions \u2018clubs, axes, bows and arrows,\u2019 utterly neglecting the\nSword.\n\n[493] Egyptian national names give derivation to, but do not derive\nfrom, Greek. According to Pollux (vii. 71), however, _Hemitybion_ is\nEgyptian, evidently corrupted.\n\n[494] The horse, apparently unknown to the First Dynasty of Memphis,\nwas familiar to the Second. Mr. Gladstone (_Primer of Homer_, p. 97:\nMacmillan, 1878) supposes that the animal came from Libya or Upper\nEgypt; but the African horse probably originates from Asia. The first\nillustrations of horses and chariots are found at Eileithyias, _temp._\nAah-mes, Amos, Amosis, B.C. 1500.\n\n[495] The pole-axe was three feet long, the handle being two; the blade\nvaried from ten to fourteen inches, and below it was a heavy metal\nball, some four inches in diameter, requiring a powerful arm. The club\nin the British Museum, armed with wooden teeth, is not represented on\nthe monuments, and probably belonged to some barbarous tribe.\n\n[496] I have already discussed the Stone Age in Egypt and in Africa\n(chap. iii.). We must not, however, determine it to be pre-metallic\nwithout further study. Herodotus first notices it when he tells us that\nthe Ethiopians in the army of Xerxes used stone-tipped arrows.\n\n[497] I cannot but suspect the word of being a congener of our \u2018chop.\u2019\nMr. Gerald Massey, author of _A Book of the Beginnings_, favoured me\nwith his opinion upon the \u2018scymitar Khopsh.\u2019 He identifies it with the\nhinder thigh ([Hieroglyphs], _Shepsh_, or [Hieroglyphs], _Khepsh_),\nof the \u2018old Genitrix\u2019 of the Typhonian type, _Kfa_ or _Kefa_ (force,\npower, might); the Goddess of the Great Bear and the place of birth.\nHence the [Hieroglyphs] (_Ru_) or \u2018mouth\u2019 of the Sword came to be\nsynonymous with the \u2018edge\u2019 of the Sword (Genesis xxxiv. 36). In the\nDenderah zodiac, the central figure, the \u2018old Genitrix,\u2019 holds the\nKhopsh-chopper or falchion with the right hand. The \u2018thigh of Khepsh\u2019\nis also the Egyptian rudder-oar. The Great Bear Khepsh is one of\nthe earliest measures of the Seasons: the Chinese still say that at\nnightfall the \u2018handle of the northern bushel\u2019 (tail of Ursa Major)\npoints east in spring, south in summer, west in autumn, and north in\nwinter.\n\nMr. Gerald Massey\u2019s two fine volumes have secured him, and will secure\nhim, much bitter and hostile criticism from the many-headed who are\nlynx-eyed as to details while they overlook the general scheme. His\nobject has been to show that religion and literature, science and art,\noriginated in Egypt; and here he is undoubtedly right. Relying upon\nthe self-evident fact that the language of the hieroglyphs contains\n\u2018Semitic\u2019 as well as \u2018Aryan\u2019 roots and derivative forms, he traces\nthese throughout the languages of the world. Whether we judge his work\nconclusive or not, we cannot but admire and applaud the vast reading\nand research which he has brought to bear upon the most interesting\nsubject.\n\nAnd in another way Mr. Massey has done good. He has uttered a lively\nand emphatic protest against the Sanskritists and their over-weening\npretensions. In vol. ii. (p. 56) he shows how shallow is the conclusion\nthat Ophir was in India because the produce brought back by Solomon\u2019s\nfleets had, according to Professor Max M\u00fcller, Sanskrit or Dravidian\nnames. \u2018_Koph_\u2019 the ape is _Kapi_ in Sansk.; but it is pure Egyptian,\n_Kapi_, whence the Gr. \u03ba\u1fc6\u03c0-\u03bf\u03c2 or \u03ba\u1fc6\u03b2-\u03bf\u03c2. \u2018_Tukkiyim_\u2019 (peacocks)\nresembles the Toki of Tamil and the Togei of Malabar; but the root is\nevidently the Egyptian _Tekh_ or _Tekai_, a symbolical bird. \u2018_Shen\nhabim_\u2019 (teeth of elephant = tusks) may derive from the Sansk. _Ibau_,\nan elephant, but the latter is originally _Ab_ in Egyptian. These\nerroneous views, coming from an authoritative source, are at once\naccepted, copied into popular books, and find their way round the\nworld, to the confusion of true knowledge. They make it our hapless\nfate to learn, unlearn, and relearn. See \u2018ape\u2019 in Smith\u2019s _Dict. of\nthe Bible_, and, to quote one in dozens, the _Trans. Anthrop. Soc._ p.\n435, May 1882,\u2014\u2018the name for ape in \u201cKings\u201d and in Greek authors, both\nadopted from Sanskrit.\u2019\n\nMr. Massey unfortunately has not studied Arabic, hence many views which\nwill hardly find acceptance. In interpreting the hieroglyphics he has\nwisely preferred the ideographic symbolism and the determinatives\nwhich, countless ages ago, preceded the phonetic and alphabetic forms.\n\n[498] For further notice of the Kopis, see chap. xi.\n\n[499] Also _v._ to decapitate: the Coptic form is _Sebi_ or _Sefi_.\n\n[500] Bunsen, v. 758.\n\n[501] Bunsen\u2019s _Egypt_, v. 429. According to Castor, the two Swords\npointed at the throat of a kneeling man was the priest\u2019s stamp denoting\npure beasts, fit for sacrifice. He has noted that this survival points\ndistinctly to human sacrifice in older days.\n\n[502] Yet the tombs at Beni Hasan date 900 years before the popular era\nof the Trojan war.\n\n[503] _Monum._ 262 fol., plates 11, 15.\n\n[504] Rosellini shows a long tapering blade with a mid-rib, apparently\nsunken, and a raised surface on each side. The length is divided into\nfive parts, smooth and hatched (?).\n\n[505] The Somal have retained three other notable peculiarities\nof ancient Egypt; the wig (worn by the old Nilotes); the _Uts_\n([Hieroglyphs]) or wooden head-stool acting pillow, which further north\nwas a half-cylinder of alabaster finely carved; and the ostrich-feather\nhead-gear The latter was a symbol of Truth among the old Egyptians,\nbecause, says Hor Apollo, the wing-feathers are of equal length. The\nRomans adopted it as a military decoration. \u2018Your courage has not yet\ngiven your helmet wherewithal to shade your face from the burning\nsun,\u2019 say the Kurds, who add to the crest a new feather for every foe\nslain in fight. The Somal, after victory or murder, stick the white\nvariety in the mop-head. We still use the phrase \u2018a feather in his\ncap.\u2019 The \u2018Prince of Wales\u2019 feather\u2019 is an Egyptian ideograph of Truth.\nMr. Gerald Massey seems to think that Wilkinson\u2019s \u2018_Thmei_\u2019 (II. chap.\nviii.) is \u2018only a backward rendering of the Greek \u201c_Themis_\u201d\u2018; that the\nfeathers are \u2018_Shu_\u2019 ([Hieroglyphs]), and that the goddess is \u2018_Ma_\u2019\n([Hieroglyphs]), or \u2018_Mati_.\u2019 But surely the root of _Themis_ would be\nin \u2018_Ta-Ma_,\u2019 _the_ Goddess (of Truth)?\n\n[506] Compare _Raa_, Heb. and Ar., \u2018he saw\u2019; Gr. \u1f41\u03c1\u03ac\u03c9, and Lat.\n_Ra-dius_.\n\n[507] Colonel A. Lane Fox remarks that the groove which is constant\nin these Caucasian blades is a little out of the central line, and\ndoes not correspond on each side, an alternation showing that it is\nderived from the ogee form. I have suggested that the idea arose from\nthe arrow-head \u2018bellied on a twist,\u2019 and have figured the weapon in the\nnext page (fig. 170).\n\n[508] _Bronze, &c._ p. 298.\n\n[509] Chap. v.\n\n[510] Returning from the exploration of Harar (1853), I sent a small\ncollection of Somali weapons to the United Service Institution.\n\n[511] The form is accurately preserved in the formidable Afghan\n\u2018Charay\u2019 or one-edged knife.\n\n[512] _A Critical Inquiry_, &c.\n\n[513] I have shown that the heraldic Sword in the East preserves this\ndouble sword-knot (chap. vii.).\n\n[514] The Baghirmi, according to Denham, adore a long lance of peculiar\nconstruction: this spear-worship is also practised by the Marghi and\nthe Musghu. It extended from ancient Rome to certain of the Pacific\nIsles; while the Fijians worship the war-club. At Baroda in Gujar\u00e1t\nsuperstitious honours are paid to the Gaekhwar\u2019s golden cannons with\nsilver wheels.\n\n[515] English and Styrian razors are also largely imported.\n\n[516] Chap. viii.\n\n[517] Athen\u00e6us (i. 27) speaks of the Thracian dance in arms, \u2018men\njumping up very high with light springs, and using Swords.\u2019 At last one\nof them strikes another, so that it seemed to everyone that the man was\nwounded.\n\n[518] _Marocco_, page 66 (Milano, Treves, 1876).\n\n[519] Hence the ardent desire of the Abyssinians, when first visited\nby Europeans, to obtain civilised Swords. Father F. Alvarez (_Hakluyt\nSoc._ 1881), who lived in Abyssinia between 1520 and 1527, shows\nthe Barnagais (_Bahr-Negush_, or sea-ruler) begging the Portuguese\nambassador for his rich Sword and ornaments, \u2018as the great lords\nhave few Swords\u2019 (chap. xxx.). Prester John (the Negush or Emperor)\ndisplays \u2018five bundles of short Swords with silver hilts,\u2019 taken from\nthe Moslems (chap. cxiii.). The King of Portugal sends as a present to\nPrester John \u2018first a gold Sword with a rich hilt,\u2019 and a good fencer,\nEstevam Pallarte.\n\n[520] _Anthrop. Coll._ p. 184.\n\n[521] _Gorilla-land_, p. 227.\n\n[522] Quenching in oil or grease instead of water is a common practice.\nThe workman still \u2018adds to the water a thin cake of grease, or pours\nover it hot oil, through which the steel must pass before it enters the\nwater, for by these means it is prevented from acquiring cracks and\nflaws.\u2019 (Beckmann, _loc. cit._ ii. 330.)\n\n[523] Specimens of all these weapons are in the Lane-Fox Collection,\nNos. 1088 to 1100.\n\n[524] _The Cataracts of the Congo_, p. 234.\n\n[525] I have noticed that arrant humbug, the celebrated \u2018golden axe\u2019\nwhich, in 1880\u201381, caused the last \u2018Ashantee scare\u2019 (_To the Gold\nCoast for Gold_, ii.). The thing sent to England was certainly not\nthe great fetish which is held to be the national Palladium. Another\nmemento of the last Ashantee war, \u2018King Koffee\u2019s umbrella, an article\nof prodigious proportions, and of gaudy material,\u2019 only returned to\nwhere it was made. The type of the latter may be seen in most Italian\nmarket-places, shading the old women\u2019s fruits and vegetables; and\nManchester, I believe, had the honour of building it.\n\n[526] _Through the Dark Continent_, i. 21.\n\n[527] Described in my _Mission to Dahome_, _passim_.\n\n[528] _Across Africa_, vol. i. pp. 121, 139; vol. ii. 104.\n\n[529] The famous copper mines of the Congo region, whose yield, says\nBarbot, was mistaken for gold, are noticed in _The Cataracts of the\nCongo_, pp. 45, 46.\n\n[530] Captain Cameron has brought home specimens.\n\n[531] From _O Muata Cazembe_, which also contains a long and valuable\ndescription of the copper mines in South-Eastern Africa, worked by the\npeople since olden time.\n\n[532] According to Marco Polo (lib. iii. cap. 34), the men of Zanghibar\n(Zanzibar) are \u2018both tall and stout, but not tall in proportion to\ntheir stoutness, for if they were, being so stout and brawny, they\nwould be absolutely like giants; and they are so strong that they will\ncarry for four men and eat for five.\u2019\n\n[533] _Anthrop. Coll._ p. 135.\n\n[534] The _Journ. Anthrop. Inst._ (August 1883) has printed an\nexcellent paper \u2018On the Mechanical Methods of the Ancient Egyptians.\u2019\nMr. W. M. Flinders Petrie believes that they cut diorite with lathes\nand jewel graving-points (diamond? or corundum abundant in Midian?);\nand that the diamond was the \u2018piercing-stone\u2019 of early Babylonian\nInscriptions.\n\n[535] Gen. xxiii. 18. In 2 Sam. xxiv. 6, \u2018Aretz tahtim-hodshi\u2019 should\nbe read, \u2018Aretz ha-Hittim Kadesh,\u2019 \u2018the land of the Hittites of (city)\nKadesh.\u2019\n\n[536] _Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch\u00e6ology_, vol. v. part 2, p. 354. They were\nthen the paramount nation in Syria, from the Euphrates to the Libanus;\nand the Assyrians knew the region as Mat-Khatte.\n\n[537] Wild work has been made with this word. Some render it \u2018large\u2019\n(i.e. whale-like); the scholiast calls the Cetians a people of Mysia;\nothers confound them with the Kittaians (Chittim = Cypriots) of\nMenander in Josephus (_A. J._ ix. 14; Cory\u2019s _Frag._, p. 30; London,\nReeves & Turner, 1876); others with the people of Kiti (the circle),\nthe Heb. Galil or Galilee.\n\n[538] \u2018Two-river\u2019 (land) is mostly applied to the great Interamnian\nplain, Mesopotamia. Here it must mean Syria proper; and Aram Naharayn\n(Highlands of the Two Streams) admirably describes Palestine, which is\ncomposed of a double anticlinal river-valley formed by the Iarunata\n(Jordan) and the Arunata (Orontes). The whole length and breadth of the\ncountry is distributed between the two, with the exception of the small\nLitani watershed.\n\n[539] The \u2018Aram wine from Halybon\u2019 was produced at Helb\u00fan (Halb\u00e1\u00fan,\nthe inhabitants call it), a gorge-village near Damascus. Being\nMoslems, they no longer ferment their grape-juice; but the fruit is\nstill famous. The Helb\u00fan people speak the broadest dialect, and are a\nperpetual laughing-stock to the Damascus citizens. The Aleppites derive\ntheir \u2018Halab\u2019 (Aleppo) because Abraham there milked (_halaba_) a cow;\nbut the place is older than the Genesitic flood, _the_ Flood.\n\n[540] This word is corruptly written Jerablus, Jorablus, Jirabis, &c.\n\n[541] In Rawlinson\u2019s _Herodotus_ (i. 463) we find that the Southern\nHittites numbered twelve kings.\n\n[542] The decisive action is shown on an Egyptian tomb (Brugsch, i.\n291).\n\n[543] Ramses left as memorials of his invasion three hieroglyphic\ntablets cut upon the rocks on the south side of the embouchure of\nthe Nahr el-Kalb (Dog or Wolf River, the Lycus), a few miles north\nof the Venerable Bayrut (Berytus, &c.). They mark the ancient road\nwhich ascended the rough torrent-gorge to its origin in C\u00e6lesyria\n(El-Buk\u00e1\u2019a). Even since these pages have been written the coffins and\nmummies of Ramses II. and his daughter have been found at Dayr el-Bahri\nin Upper Egypt, and conveyed from Thebes to Bulak by Dr. Emil Brugsch.\nThe same collector has been equally lucky with the remains of Seti I.,\nalthough Belzoni, who discovered the tomb, sent the sarcophagus to the\nSloane Museum.\n\n[544] Sesostris derives from _Ses_, _Setesu_, _Sestesu_, or _Sestura_,\ni.e. \u2018Sethosis, also called Ramses\u2019 (Seti-son?). The Greek Sesostris\ncombines, I have said, the lives of Seti and his son Ramses. According\nto Brugsch, he is the \u2018Pharaoh of the Oppression,\u2019 and the son of\nthe unnamed Princess (Merris? Thermutis?) who \u2018found Moses in the\nbull-rushes.\u2019\n\nThe Princess Thermutis, says Josephus, named Moshe (Moses) from _mo_\n(_m\u00e1_ = water) and _uses_, those who are saved out of it (_ses_ = to\nreach land). Possibly it is _Mu-su_ = water-son. Josephus was sorely\noffended by the \u2018calumnies\u2019 of Manetho; this Egyptian priest, who wrote\nunder Ptolemy Philadelphus about the time of the LXX, declared that the\nHebrews were a familia of leprous slaves who, when expelled from Egypt,\nwere led by a renegade priest called Osarsiph (Osiris-Sapi, god of\nunderworld); and that the number was swollen by Palestinian strangers\ndriven out by Amenophis. He gives the number of lepers and unclean at\n250,000 (= 50,000 \u00d7 5), and the Hyksos, another impure race, number\nalso 250,000. The learned classics accepted this view, duly abusing\nthe \u2018gens sceleratissima\u2019 (Seneca), and the \u2018odium generis humani\u2019\n(Tacitus).\n\n[545] The site of Kadesh and the Buhayrat Hums (Tarn of Emessa) or\nB. Kutaynah, a \u2018broad\u2019 or widening of the Orontes, was first visited\nby Dr. Thomson of Bayrut in 1846. I rode about the \u2018lake of the land\nof the Amorites\u2019 in 1870; but found no ruins, or rather ruins of no\nimportance everywhere. It was not then known to me that in A.D. 1200\nthe geographer Yakut (_Geogr. Dict._ edit. W\u00fcstenfeld) had noticed the\nwater in his day as the \u2018Bahriyat Kuds\u2019 (Tarn of Kadesh). Since that\ntime the Palestine Exploration Fund (July 1881) identified the seat\nof Atesh or Kadesh with the Tell Nabi Mendeh, a Santon\u2019s tomb on the\nhighest part of the hill where the ruins lie. The site is on the left\nbank of the Orontes, four English miles south of the \u2018broad.\u2019 The city\ndisappears from history after the thirteenth century B.C., but local\nlegend has preserved its memory.\n\n[546] Prof. Ebers, who is familiar with the many portraits of\nRamses-Sesostris, declares that he was a handsome man with fine\naquiline features, like Napoleon Buonaparte.\n\n[547] This original and instinctive way to revive the drowned endures\nto the present day, despite the wrath of the Faculty.\n\n[548] Brugsch (ii. 68) gives the terms of the treaty as translated by\nMr. Goodwin (_Records of the Past_, iv. 25); and adds instances to\nprove that it was acted upon. Thus he explains the hitherto mysterious\ncountermarch, the turning back of the Hebrew exodus, at the time when\nthe emigrants were advancing straight upon their objective. His strong\npoint is the identification of \u2018Baal-Zephon,\u2019 about which all the\ncommentators have made such hopeless guesses. He explains it by \u2018Baal\nof the North\u2019 (Typhon, Sutekh or Khepsh), the \u2018Mount Kasion\u2019 of Jupiter\nKasios, a name derived from the Egyptian Hazian or Hazina.\n\n[549] So called from an old Coptic town, long ruined.\n\n[550] Rawlinson\u2019s _Herodotus_, vol. i., Essay VII., and reference to\nBlack Obelisk in British Museum. _Synchronous History of Assyria and\nJud\u00e6a_, pp. 1\u201382, vol. iii. pt. i.; _Soc. Bibl. Arch\u00e6ology_, 1874.\n\n[551] A Keltic word, _bot_ = foot.\n\n[552] In popular Hebrew use, \u2018Canaanite\u2019 meant a trader.\n\n[553] Possibly the \u2018pure\u2019 (Hebr. _Tohar_), in which case the word is\n\u2018Semitic.\u2019\n\n[554] Brugsch, ii. chap. xiv. As a rule, slingers were the least\nesteemed of fighting men.\n\n[555] The Rev. William Wright, missionary at Damascus, first suggested\nthat the Hamath inscriptions were Hittite. The study was begun in\n1872 by the late Dr. A. D. Mordtmann at Constantinople, where is the\noriginal of the silver Hittite dish represented in the British Museum.\n\n[556] _Trans. Soc. Biblical Arch\u00e6ol._ vol. iv. pt. 2, 1876.\n\n[557] Described by M. Clermont-Ganneau in the _Revue Arch\u00e9ologique_,\nDec. 1879; and figured in the _Palestine Exploration Fund_, July 1881.\n\n[558] In Egypt the king rests his feet upon war-captives; and making a\nfoot-stool of the enemy is a Biblical phrase (Psalm cx. 1) which had a\nliteral signification.\n\n[559] For the two-headed eagle in Moslem heraldry (A.D. 1190 and 1217),\nsee p. 108 of Rogers Bey\u2019s valuable paper before quoted (chap. vii.).\n\n[560] His chief argument for their Northern origin seems to be founded\nupon their boots; he forgets, however, that the Arabs of Mahommed\u2019s\nday wore \u2018Khuff;\u2019 and that legal ablutions were modified to suit them.\nIt is the _cothurnus calceatus_ of Pliny (vii. 19) which, as we see\non statues and vases, covered the foot and ankle to the calf. The\nAssyriologist Prof. P. Schrader, followed by Prof. G. Ebers, considers\nthe Khita to be Aram\u00e6ans.\n\n[561] And Carchemish. \u2018On the Hamathite Inscriptions,\u2019 Trans. _Soc.\nBibl. Arch\u00e6ol._ vol. i. pt. 1, 1876, and vii. 298\u2013443, on Tarrik-timmun.\n\n[562] Mr. Heath kindly explained to me the key of his system published\nin the _Journ. Anthrop. Instit._ May 1880. The figures at Ibr\u00edz having\nsuggested \u2018Semitism,\u2019 he separated root-letters from formatives and\nfound three Aram\u00e6an suffixes, _t-na_, _t-kun_, and _t-hun_. These gave\nan immense probability that he had hit upon the _t_, _n_, _k_, and _h_.\nMeanwhile Mr. Boscawen (Pal. Expl. Fund, July 1881) contends that our\n\u2018knowledge of Hittite is confined to four syllabic characters and the\nideographs.\u2019 The Rev. Mr. Sayce was good enough to explain to me how he\nhad determined eleven values. A comparison of inscriptions, with the\nsilver boss of Tarkodemos as a _point de d\u00e9part_, suggested to him that\nthe stirrup-shape ([Hittite]) marks the nom. sing. of proper names, and\nthis in the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments ends in _s_. He assumes\nthat adjectives agree with their substantives, which they follow by\ntaking the same suffixes. He was at first disposed to make the broken\n_k_ ([Hittite] or [Hittite]), which curiously resembles an old Egyptian\nsign, signify \u2018and\u2019 (cop. conjunct.); but the incised inscription\nfound by Mr. Ramsey at B\u00f3r (old Tyana) proved it the determinative of\nan individual. The goat\u2019s head seems from the bilingual boss to have\nthe phonetic value \u2018tarku,\u2019 and is interchanged with [Hittite] (_ku_),\n[Hittite] (_s_), [Hittite], and [Hittite]. The two spear-heads with the\nstirrup ([Hittite]) appear to represent a patronymic\u2014_Kus_. The second\nsign (= _ku_), which seems to be the first pers. sing. of the Aor.,\ncan be followed in the same group of characters by [Hittite]; whence\nMr. Sayce inferred the latter to be an adjectival participial affix =\n_u_. Similarly [Hittite] = _e_, the acc. plur.; thus [Hittite] = _ue_.\nThe bilingual boss also shows [Hittite] or [Hittite] = _mi_, the third\npers. sing. present tense, and we find indifferently [Hittite] and\n[Hittite]. The gen. plur. is [Hittite], but the pronunciation is not\ndetermined. The same is the case with the sock or low boot ([Hittite]),\nsuggested to be the third pers. plur. of the Aorist. Lastly, the\nideograph of plurality attached to nouns and verbs is [Hittite].\n\n[563] Dr. Guyther, visiting the Merash citadel, has found several new\ncharacters in a long inscription on a lion, and fragments of stone with\nother hieroglyphs have been forwarded from Carchemish to the British\nMuseum.\n\n[564] Under Shishonk (Shishak), the contemporary of Solomon, the\nconquered tribes of Edom and Judah are termed the \u2018Fenekh and the Aamu\n(Syro-Aram\u00e6ans) of a far land.\u2019 Brugsch (ii. 210) \u2018has a presentiment\u2019\nthat these Fenekh are intimately related to the Jews; and he notes the\nsimilarity of Aamu with \u2018Am,\u2019 the well-known Hebrew term.\n\n[565] Some have suspected Punt to be the far later P\u00e1ndya, or Madura\nkingdom, in Southern India. Mariette\u2019s Punt extended from Bab el-Mandeb\nto Cape Guardafui (\u2018I was a Guard\u2019).\n\n[566] Prof. Rugge of Christiania, however, connects Baldur with\nAchilles. We can hardly accept his scheme until the details shall have\nbeen better worked out.\n\n[567] \u2018Bak,\u2019 from Beki in Coptic = city, town.\n\n[568] \u2018In Jud\u00e6\u00e2 rivus Sabbatis omnibus siccatur\u2019 (Pliny, xxxi. 18). The\nidea doubtless arose from the intermittent springs (Siloam, &c.) about\nJerusalem. Josephus (_B. J._ viii. 5, \u00a7 1) makes his Sabbatic R. break\nthe Jewish Sabbath (Saturday) by flowing only on that day and resting\nduring the other six. Hence the fabled Sabbation, whose flood of huge\nrocks and sand-waves, sixty to two hundred cubits high, issued from\nthe \u2018Garden of Eden.\u2019 It still hems in the ten \u2018Lost Tribes,\u2019 and is\nbelieved by the Druzes.\n\n[569] I quote from _Ph\u0153nician Inscriptions_, by the Rev. Dunbar I.\nHeath, not from the far more poetical version of the Duc de Luynes.\n\n[570] My friend Prof. Socin holds that St. Meklar of Tyre conserves the\ncultus of Melkarth.\n\n[571] Perhaps from the Egyptian _Ur_, old, ancient, original.\n\n[572] The modern Persians, and, indeed, Persian history and legend,\nknow nothing of this wild legend.\n\n[573] A terra-cotta relief in the British Museum shows Chrysaor\n(\u03a7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03ac\u03c9\u03c1) springing from Medusa\u2019s neck.\n\n[574] Joppa, according to tradition (Pliny, v. 14), was built by\nKepheus, king of the \u00c6thiopians, and was his capital before \u2018the\nDeluge.\u2019 The same author tells us that Andromeda\u2019s chains were there\nshown, and that the monster\u2019s skeleton (some fish cast ashore upon the\nharbour reef?) was brought to Rome by the Curule \u00c6dile M. \u00c6mil. Scaurus\nthe younger, who held office in Syria (ix. 4). The bones were upwards\nof forty feet long, the backbone one foot and a half thick, and the\nribs higher than those of the Indian elephant (a cachelot?). Ajasson\ndeclared that the remains should have been sent to those who show in\ntheir collections the weapon with which Cain slew Abel. Pausanias\n(second century) saw the Lydda streamlet red with blood, where Perseus\nhad bathed after killing the \u2018Ketos.\u2019 At Joppa St. Jerome was shown the\ntraditional rock in which holes had been worn by Andromeda\u2019s fetters.\nThe spot is now clean forgotten\u2014at least, all my inquiries failed to\nfind it. The testimony is of the highest character; unfortunately it\ntestifies to impossibilities\u2014all monsters are \u2018contradictory beings.\u2019\nThe Ketos, whale or shark (_Canis Carcharias_), is evidently the same\nthat swallowed Hercules and Jonah.\n\n[575] Mgr. Bianchini very improperly translates _Harp\u00e9_ by \u2018glaive,\u2019\nand other writers absurdly use \u2018scymitar.\u2019 They could hardly better\ndescribe what it was _not_.\n\n[576] The bronze Perseus of Benvenuto Cellini in the Loggie dell\u2019\nOrgagna of Florence holds a falx-Sword or falchion.\n\n[577] Hence possibly the town Ars\u00faf; and (the Isle of) Seripho, where\nPerseus was worshipped.\n\n[578] There seem to be three of the name: Palladius, the first\nmissionary to Ireland; Sen Patrick, who studied under St. Germanus and\ndied A.D. 458\u201361; and Patrick M\u2018Calphurn, also a pupil of St. Germanus,\nwho missionarised about A.D. 440\u201342.\n\n[579] _Horus et Saint-Georges_, &c. See also a kind of sentimental\nstudy \u00e6sthetically baptised \u2018Saint Mark\u2019s Rest: the Place of Dragons,\u2019\nby J. R. Anderson.\n\n[580] From \u05d3\u05d2 (_dag_), a fish, a Ketos, the Ph\u0153nician \u05d3\u05d2\u05d5\u05df (_Dajun_,\n_Dagon_); Dagan is the male, Dalas the female. Simply a fish-god.\nSardanapalus was \u2018he who knows Anu (the god) and Dagon.\u2019\n\n[581] Others found at Cann\u00e6 resemble the copper Swords of Ireland,\naccording to the _Encyclop\u00e6dia Metropolitana_.\n\n[582] The \u2018tariff of masses,\u2019 from the temple of Baal at Marseille,\nspeaks of Chaltzibah the Sufet. Other inscriptions inform us that\nthe Carthaginians had a triad, Baal Hammon (Ammon); the Lady Tanith\nPen Baal (Tanis or Neith, the \u03c0\u03c1\u03cc\u03c3\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd, or face, of Baal), and\nIolaus.\u2014_Ph\u0153nician Inscriptions_, by the Rev. D. I. Heath.\n\n[583] Ezekiel (xxxii. 27). \u2018And they shall not lie with the mighty that\nare fallen of the uncircumcised, which are gone down to hell [Sheol =\nShuala, the ghost-land of Babylon] with their weapons of war: _and they\nhave laid their Swords under their heads_, but their iniquities shall\nbe upon their bones, though they were the terror of the mighty in the\nland of the living.\u2019\n\n[584] The Hebrews were probably included under the \u2018miserable\nforeigners,\u2019 who, at that time, numbered about one-third of the\nEgyptian people. It was the fashion to find \u2018Hebrew\u2019 in the \u2019Aper,\n\u2019Apura, \u2019Aperiu, and \u2019Apiurui of the monuments; but Brugsch has shown\nthat these were the original \u2018Erythr\u00e6ans,\u2019 equestrian Arabs of the\nbarrens extending from Heliopolis onward to modern Suez.\n\n[585] _Trattato di Scherma_, &c. di Alberto Marchionni (Firenze:\nBencini, 1547).\n\n[586] This word will be noticed in chapter xi. I cannot wholly agree\nwith Colonel Lane-Fox (_Anthrop. Coll._ p. 99) when he speaks of a\n\u2018leaf-shaped Sword-blade attached to the end of the spear, like the\nThracian _romphea_ and the European _partisan_ of medi\u00e6val times.\u2019\n\n[587] May not this older form of Jupiter have derived from the\n\u2018Semitic\u2019 root \u05d9\u05d4, Jah (_Yah_), carried westward by the Ph\u0153nicians?\nBut this is \u2018stirring the fire with a Sword,\u2019 against which Pythagoras\nwarns us.\n\n[588] \u2018Les Figures de l\u2019Histoire d\u2019apr\u00e8s la Bible,\u2019 &c. (the\n_Athen\u00e6um_, Feb. 31, 1880). \u2018Lahat\u2019 (the Germ. _lohe_, our \u2018low\u2019\nor \u2018lowe\u2019) is in the singular a \u2018flame\u2019; in the plural \u2018spells,\nenchantments by drugs,\u2019 &c.\n\n[589] Mr. Gerald Massey would identify the Jewish Chereb, like the\nPh\u0153nician Hereba and the Greek Harp\u00e9, with the Egyptian Kherp,\n[Hieroglyphs], the sign of majesty typified by an oar or rather\npaddle\u2014[Hieroglyphs]. Thus the Kherp first cut the water like a\npropeller, then the grain as a sickle, and at last it became a\nSword\u2014the reaper of men. This is ingenious, but nothing more: the white\narm in Egypt shows no sign of derivation from the oar.\n\n[590] So Jeanne d\u2019Arc\u2019s Sword was taken from a church, as will appear\nin Part II.\n\n[591] Tacitus (_Hist._ v. 13) calls them a \u2018band of murderers.\u2019 The\nominous word \u2018Sicarius\u2019 first occurs in Jewish history during Josephus\u2019\ntime (_Bell. Jud._ iv. 7; vii. 11). St. Paul was charged by Lysias\nwith heading four thousand Sicarii, who at great feasts murdered their\nvictims with concealed daggers. Also forty Sicarii bound themselves by\nthe Cherem-oath (the original \u2018Boycotting\u2019) to slay Paul. The Sica or\nSicca will be noticed in another chapter.\n\n[592] The Machab\u00e6an epoch is interesting, because during it the idea of\na \u2018resurrection\u2019 was established. The word should be written \u2018Makabi\u2019\nif derived from Mi Kamo Ka Baalim Yahveh (Ex. xv. 11).\n\n[593] The number is given in Chronicles (1, xxi. 5) at one million\nfive hundred and seventy thousand without including Levi and Benjamin.\nMany attempts have been made to reconcile the little difference of two\nhundred and seventy thousand souls.\n\n[594] I shall notice Assyrian Arms in chap. x.\n\n[595] By a curious feat of etymology, this word, or rather the\nGerman \u2018Philister\u2019 (confounded with _Balestarius_ or _Balest\u00e6us_, a\ncrossbow-man, the militia of small artisans?) has come to signify in\nmodern parlance one indifferent to \u2018intellectual interest\u2019 and the\n\u2018higher culture.\u2019 As applied to the enemy it is simply Prig writ large.\n\n[596] _The Old Testament in the Jewish Church_, p. 126, by the Rev. W.\nRobertson Smith (Blacks, Edinburgh, 1881).\n\n[597] Napoleon Buonaparte was right in attributing the instability of\nthe great empires (Egypt, Babylon, Assyria) bordered by the Bedawin,\nto the destructive action of the Arab race: \u2018That most mischievous\nnation whom it is never desirable to have either for friends or\nenemies\u2019 (Ammian. Marcell. xiv. 4). I have enlarged upon this subject\nin _Unexplored Syria_ (i. 210). The first noted outswarming was of\nthe Hyksos or Shepherd-Kings (B.C. 1480 to 1530?). Another, under the\ninfluence of Mohammed the Apostle of Allah, changed the condition of\nthe Old World; and in the present day, Turkish dominion in the regions\nfrontiered by Arabia is being seriously threatened. Hence Ibn Khald\u00fan\nof Tunis, who in A.D. 1332 began to write philosophical history,\nassigns to empire in the East three generations (= 120 years) and\nthree several steps. The first, youth, is of growth (campaigning and\nannexing); the religion being fanaticism and the form of government a\nlimited monarchy of a semi-republican type. The second, manhood, is a\nperiod of \u2018rest and be thankful,\u2019 of not \u2018stirring up things quiet\u2019;\nof enjoyment, of easy scepticism, of luxury, of despotism, The third,\nage, is decline and fall, the triumph of financiers and capitalists;\nof aversion from war and from \u2018territorial aggrandisement\u2019; it is\ndistinguished by employing mercenaries, by religious disbelief, by\ntyrannic rule. (_Ibn Chaldun und seine Culturgeschichte_, Baron A. von\nKremer. Wien.)\n\n[598] This has apparently been done by the Rev. Mr. Porter, the author\nof that unpraiseworthy _Murray\u2019s Handbook_. His Strabo had told him\nthat Gaza lay seven stadia or furlongs from the sea; and St. Jerome\nthat a new town had been built. Yet we are led three miles from the\nshore to modern Ghazzah, and are gravely told of Moslem absurdities\nconcerning the Mak\u00e1m or tomb of Samson. The old port of which the\nAncients speak has evidently been buried by the sands which are\nattacking Bayr\u00fat, and the only survivor of the past may be the site\nof Shaykh Ijlin on the coast, south of the M\u00ednat or present roads.\nIn noticing Askelon, Mr. Porter tells us all about the old story of\nAscalonia, Scallion, Shalot: nothing about the Egyptian Ac-qa-li-na.\nFor a third edition the learned author should take the trouble to\nconsult Brugsch Pasha\u2019s Egypto-Syrian studies.\n\n[599] See chap. iv.\n\n[600] _Cyprus_, before quoted.\n\n[601] Aphrodite or Venus (Urania and Pandemos, Porn\u00e9 and Het\u00e6ra), at\nonce the feminine principle in nature, the original mother and the\nidea of womanly beauty, was a universal personage. In Egypt she was\nAthor the Goddess of Pleasure, and Ashtar in Nilotic Mendes. Amongst\nthe Arabs she became Beltis, Baaltis the feminine of Bel or Ba\u2019al, and\nAlitta (Al-ilat the goddess); among the Sidonians Ashtoreth (1 Kings\nxi. 33); in Ph\u0153nicia, Ishtar and Astarte, which Gesenius takes to be a\nSemitisation of the Persian Sit\u00e1reh, a star (_i.e._ Venus); in Byblos,\nDion\u00e6a and Dione; in other parts of Syria, Derceto, Atergatis (Ta-ur-t,\nThoueris), and Nani, the latter still surviving in the Bibi Nani\n(Lady Venus) of Afghanistan. In Cyprus she was Anat, Tanat, or Tanith\n(Ta-neith = Athene?); in Persia and Armenia M\u00edtra (Herod. i. 131),\nTanata, and Anaitis = Anahid, the planet Venus; and in Carthage, Tarnt\nPen Baal.\n\n[602] In Heb. Kinn\u00far, a lyre of six to nine strings resembling the\nNubian article. Hence, probably, \u03ba\u03b9\u03b8\u03ac\u03c1\u03b1, Cithara, Chitarra, Guitar,\nZither; but there is a modification by the Persian Sih-t\u00e1rah or \u2018the\nthree-stringed.\u2019\n\n[603] Thus in Jeremiah (xxiii. 29), \u2018Is not my word like as a fire?\nsaith the Lord; and like a hammer that breaketh the rock in pieces?\u2019\n\n[604] I see with pleasure that Mr. W. P. Palmer proposes to continue\nhis exploration of Phrygia; his lecture before the Hellenic Society\n(Dec. 14, 1882) promises much. The western half of the great western\nplateau of Asia Minor, this land of monotonous grandeur, is directly\nconnected with the \u00c6gean Sea by a single line of cleavage which extends\nfrom Miletus to Cel\u00e6n\u00e6. Egyptian art and influence found its way to\nGreece _vi\u00e2_ Phrygia as well as through Ph\u0153nicia, especially in the\nearly days of the Argonauts and the _Iliads_, when Greece began to be\nconnected with nearer Asia. Hence the wide diffusion of the Midas-myth\n(B.C. 670): the long-eared king\u2019s tomb was discovered in 1800. I\nhave elsewhere noticed how far Phrygia extended to the West, leaving\nindelible marks in Spain and Portugal.\n\n[605] The Lycian tongue, as far as we know, resembles Zend; and\nthe coin with a triquetra (Rawlinson\u2019s _Herod._ i. 212) has three\ncharacters apparently Hittite. The Lycian confederacy of twenty-three\ntowns (six cities being chief) was strong enough to resist\nCr\u0153sus (Herodotus). Their relationship was by the \u2018distaff-side\u2019\n(_Mutterrecht_), as opposed to the \u2018Sword-side\u2019; and we find traces\nof the same antique and logical practice among the Greeks: \u1f00\u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u1f78\u03c2 is\nevidently derived from \u03b4\u03b5\u03bb\u03c6\u03cd\u03c2.\n\n[606] Major di Cesnola _On Ph\u0153nician Art in Cyprus_: the proofs are\n\u2018gold and silver ornaments of remarkable beauty and grace,\u2019 which are\nsaid to resemble the produce of Hissarlik.\n\n[607] The Cyprian Venus was worshipped in the form of an Umbilicus or\nMeta, according to Servius (ad _\u00c6n._ i. 724). Others compare it with a\npyramid.\n\n[608] _Numismatique et Inscriptions Cypriotes_, Paris, 1832. The Dali\ninscription is compared with the Lycian at the end of vol. i. pt. 1,\n_Soc. of Bibl. Arch\u00e6ol._ 1872. Discussing the eighty characters, the\nDuc de Luynes found twenty-seven Egyptian, twelve Lycian, and seven\nPh\u0153nician. This would suggest that the syllabary is a branch of the\npicture-writing which grew to be an alphabet proper in the Nile Valley,\nand which, modified by the Ph\u0153nicians, passed into Greece. Others\nhold it to be an imperfect modification of the Assyrian cuneiforms,\nintroduced about B.C. 700 and lasting till Alexander\u2019s day. I have\nalready noticed that the cuneiforms were originally pictures of natural\nobjects; and that the same is evidently the case with the Chinese\nsyllabary. Some of the Cypriot signs show a faint resemblance to the\nDevanagari alphabet, which we know to be a modern offshoot from South\nArabian or Himyaritic. A gold incision from the Curium treasury (Plate\nxxxiv. No. 7) consists of two crescents adossed, which may be either\nHittite or a simple ornament. Mr. Sayce, indeed, derives the syllabary\nfrom Khita-land. Of the crescent and the star I have already spoken; no\ndate can be assigned to it in decorative art.\n\n[609] I have figured a similar but broader blade as the Novacula in\n_Etruscan Bologna_, p. 66. The Prague Museum has about a dozen of these\nsickles found near Tepl: one (_b_) with a rivet-hole and a kind of\nbeading. In the collection of Carinthian Klagenfurth I found a sickle\n(_c_, No. 1711) fifteen and a half cent. long by four broad, with an\nEtruscan inscription [Etruscan]. See Chap. X.\n\n[610] The winged Sphinxes upon this patera with hawks\u2019 heads are\npeculiarly Egyptian. _The_ Sphinx, which may be older than the\nPyramids, is a man-headed lion\u2014the \u2018union of force and intellect.\u2019\nLater types change the human head to that of an asp, a ram, and a hawk;\nand supply the latter with wings. The same is the case with the Sphinx\nof Troy and Assyria: it is mostly alate. The Grecian Sphinx changed\nthe bearded human head to that of a woman; the Gyno-Sphinx in Egypt\nbeing later than the Andro-Sphinx. We find the female in the doorway of\nthe Xanthus frieze and over the sarcophagus at Amathus (_Cyprus_, pp.\n264\u2013267). Those who would understand the peculiar beauty, not only of\nline but of expression, which the Egyptians threw into the face of the\nSphinx have only to study the statue standing to the proper left of the\nmain entrance to Shepheard\u2019s Hotel, Cairo. It came, I believe, from the\ngreat Dromos of the Serapeum, the Apis-tombs of the marvellous Memphis\ncemetery.\n\n[611] Meaning Holy Lady or Great Goddess, the Syria Dea. Preceded by\nthe digamma, the word became Famagosta, and was corrupted to Fama\nAugusti and to Ammochosti, a sand-heap.\n\n[612] See his diagram, p. 10, _Troy and its Remains_.\n\n[613] See chapter viii. These assertions are fair specimens of the\nharm done to philology, in uncritical England, by the one-sided and\n_ad captandum_ views of the \u2018Sanskritists.\u2019 Mr. Gerald Massey hardly\nexaggerates when he says (i. 135), \u2018It looks as if the discovery of\nSanskrit were doomed to be a fatal find for the philologists of our\ngeneration.\u2019 The peculiar mixture of philology, in its specialist\nform, with the science of religion and the tenebr\u00e6 of metaphysics has,\nit appears to me, done much harm to all three; but it delighted the\nhalf-educated public. It met with scant appreciation in acute France\nand in critical Germany, where the editing, or rather mutilation, of\ntexts, has been severely chastised. But the Sanskritist, much to the\ndiscredit of Oriental studies and of philology in England, has given us\nan indigestion of Sanskritism; during the last great Oriental Congress\nin London he almost monopolised time and attention, to the prejudice of\nOrientalism in general. Apparently a protest is on the point of being\nraised; but, unhappily, Teutonism is still a scourge in Great Britain,\nand the typical Solar myth, \u2018like Hermann\u2019s a German.\u2019\n\n[614] Except, of course, in the bronze.\n\n[615] Charles Rau (?), an American, by means of a bow, and without\nusing metal, bored a hole through an axe of diorite: it occupied him\nten hours a day for four months (J\u00e4hns, p. 6).\n\n[616] In medi\u00e6val Romance \u2018Ilios,\u2019 \u2018Ilion,\u2019 and \u2018Ilium\u2019 were applied to\nthe Palace of Priam.\n\n[617] _Juventus Mundi_, by the Right Hon. W. E. Gladstone, p. 529.\n\n[618] May it not be the black h\u00e6matite used in Cyprus? Compare the\ngoose\u2019s head, the sacred basket, and the frog, Egyptian symbol of\nembryonic man and of Hor-Apollo (Harpocrates), in General Palma\n(Appendix, p. 364). But is this able writer sure about his \u2018h\u00e6matite\u2019?\n\n[619] I.e. to one looking north and therefore west. The old Egyptians\nfaced to the south (H\u00edn or Khount), which they called \u2018upwards\u2019 or\n\u2018forwards,\u2019 in opposition to the North, which was the lower (Khir)\nor hinder part (Pehu). Thus their right was west (Unim) and their\nleft east (Semah): the right leg of Osiris was the western side of\nthe Delta. So Pliny (ii. 6) makes his observer front southwards. The\nAssyrian and Semites faced east (Kadam or front, opposed to Akhir or\nShalam, the sun\u2019s _resting_-place): hence their right (Yemen) was the\nsouth, and their left (Sham) was north. They introduced this fashion\ninto Ancient India, where, consequently, Dakshina (_dextra_, the right\nhand) became the south, and survives in our \u2018Deccan.\u2019 The practice even\nextended to Ireland where Ei\ua783in or E\ua783in (Erin, Ierne) has been derived\nfrom the Keltic ia\ua783, behind, the west; and in, an island, the isle\nlying west of France and Britain.\n\n[620] Travellers who have inspected the excavations deride these\npompous terms: the ruins look well in book-illustrations, but the\nreality is mean in the extreme.\n\n[621] Dr. Schliemann shows the human umbilicus adorned with a cross.\nThe significance of such phrases as \u2018omphalos of the earth\u2019 applied\nto Delphi and Paphos, is generally misunderstood. Any traveller in\nIndia who has seen a Lingait temple would at once explain it, as well\nas the illustration in Wilkinson (vol. i. ch. iv. p. 270) showing the\nLingam-Yoni, whose worshippers are \u2018cherubim\u2019 (i.e. winged Thmei).\nSimilarly the symbol of Chemosh of Moab and of sundry classical gods\nwas a cone. The Dea Multimamma, Cybele, miscalled \u2018Artemis\u2019 (Diana) of\nthe Ephesians, was a statue, not a cone, but it stood upon an inverted\npyramid. The uninitiated as little understand the Crux Ansata or\nEgyptian Cross, the emblem of life and fecundity, which was adopted by\nthe Coptic Christians. The sacred Tau (Tau of Ezekiel ix. 6) gave rise\nto the Maltese Cross in Ph\u0153nicia, and in Assyria became the emblem of\nShamas the sun.\n\n[622] I need hardly remind \u2018Grecians\u2019 that Tychius is supposed to have\nbeen a personal friend of the arch-Homerid.\n\n[623] Upon this point Dr. Schliemann\u2019s _Mycen\u00e6_ is more explicit.\n\n[624] It is, I need hardly say, still a disputed point whether the\nHomeric Greeks could or could not write. See chapter xi.\n\n[625] M. F. Lenormant, the _Academy_, March 21 and 28, 1874.\n\n[626] I must again protest against the use, while compelled by want of\nanother to use the term \u2018Indo-European,\u2019 which, applied to language,\ncontains an unproved theory. India did not supply Europe either with\nspeech or with population. The popular belief appears erroneous as\nis its appreciation of Darwinism, which did _not_ derive man from\nmonkey. The original Egyptian roots developed themselves into a host\nof dialects which flourished and perished before Pali and Sanskrit,\na professor\u2019s tongue, like medi\u00e6val Latin, never understanded of the\npeople, assumed their present shapes.\n\n[627] _North American Review._\n\n[628] Professor Jebb quotes M. Dumont, _C\u00e9ramique de la Gr\u00e8ce Propre_.\n\n[629] The _Academy_, Dec. 9, 1882.\n\n[630] I have treated the question popularly in _Etruscan Bologna_\n(London: Smith, Elder, & Co., 1876). The study owed its existence\nto the Rev. Isaac Taylor, who, using the Family Pen once too often,\nsupported the Turanian origin of the Etruscans in a marvellously\nuncritical and unscholar-like book, _Etruscan Researches_ (London:\nMacmillan & Co., 1874).\n\n[631] The stater of Cr\u0153sus was the first gold coin known to the Greeks.\nMost of the classical authors declare that silver was first coined at\n\u00c6gina by order of Pheidon (circa B.C. 869).\n\n[632] Hamilton (_Asia Minor_, vol. i. pp. 145\u20136) has carefully\ndescribed this most interesting monument.\n\n[633] See the \u2018colossal male head\u2019 in General Palma di Cesnola,\n_Cyprus_, p. 123.\n\n[634] Preface to _History of Egypt_, p. xvi; and vol. ii. 124, where\na list of racial names is given. Brugsch, it should be noted, is here\nentirely opposed to his predecessors, De Roug\u00e9, Chabas, &c.\n\n[635] As opposed to the Aqaiuasha or Ach\u00e6ans of the Caucasus (ii. 124).\n\n[636] \u2018I have seen it affirmed that in those times (early Roman) the\nyouth was instructed in the Etruscan learning, as they are now in the\nGreek\u2019 (Livy ix. 35).\n\n[637] Described in _Etruscan Bologna_, p. 144. The blade is in Count\nAria\u2019s collection. The Sword of Misanello, _une longue ep\u00e9e de fer_,\nalso in that museum, is noticed in p. 359, _Transactions of the\nCongress of Bologna_ in 1871.\n\n[638] One vol. folio large quarto, with 17 Tables. It was preceded by\n\u2018Di una necropoli a Marzabotto nel Bolognese,\u2019 1865, large quarto, with\n20 Tables. Count Gozzadini is one of the earliest students who followed\nin the steps of M. Boucher de Perthes.\n\n[639] A fine specimen of a dagger from Thebes with the rapier-blade,\nand a broad flat hilt of ivory, is in the Berlin Museum.\n\n[640] _Di un antico Sepolcro a Ceretolo nel Bolognese_ (Modena:\nVincenzi, 1879), p. 9.\n\n[641] This weapon resembled the bronze forms found at Broilo in Tuscany\nand in the great collection discovered in 1875 and called the \u2018Fonderia\ndi Bologna.\u2019 An account of the latter is found in _Note Archeologiche_,\n&c. (Bologna: Fava e Garagnani, 1881).\n\n[642] The learned French anthropologist compared these weapons with\nthose found in the Marne graves. (_Les Gaulois de Marzabotto, Revue\nArch\u00e9ol._ 1870\u201371, &c.)\n\n[643] Count Gozzadini replied in M. G. de Mortillet\u2019s _Mat\u00e9riaux pour\nl\u2019Histoire primitive de l\u2019Homme_; and the paper was entitled by the\nEditor (not by the author), \u2018L\u2019\u00c9l\u00e9ment \u00c9trusque de Marzabotto est sans\nm\u00e9lange avec l\u2019\u00e9l\u00e9ment gaulois\u2019 (Jan. 1873).\n\n[644] _L\u2019\u00c9trurie et les Etrusques_, vol. i. p. 93. Atlas, p. 2, Pl. II.\n\n[645] Genthe, _Program_, &c. p. 15.\n\n[646] The bronze is in the British Museum; the iron in the possession\nof Mr. H. S. Cuming (Meyrick).\n\n[647] XXVIII. cap. 45.\n\n[648] Vol. iv, Pl. XXX.; it is copied by Meyrick.\n\n[649] The writer of this sentence is, curious to say, the learned\nDr. Birch (p. 5, vol. i., _Soc. Bib. Arch\u00e6ology_, 1872). Even Justin\n(lib. i.) knew better; he makes Sesostris (ii. 3) 1,500 years older\nthan Ninus, \u2018the most ancient king of Assyria,\u2019 whom he places in B.C.\n2196\u20132144 (Wetzel).\n\n[650] In the LXX Orech; the Cuneiform Uru-ki (City of the Land); in\nTalmud, Urikut, City of the Dead for Babylon (_hod._ Warka); and in\nGreek Orch\u00f3e, whence perhaps \u2018Orcus.\u2019 Urukh became among the Classics\nof Europe \u2018pater Orchamus.\u2019\n\n[651] _Assyrian Discoveries_ (London: Sampson Low & Co., 1876), p. 447.\nHe gives, as a scheme of Abydenus and Berosus, the Chald\u00e6an:\u2014\n\n Years.\n Alorus and 9 kings before the Babylonian Flood 432,000\n 86 kings after B. Flood to Median conquest\n (1st dynasty) 34,080 (33,091)\n 8 Median kings (2nd dynasty) 224 (160?)\n 11 other (3rd dynasty ) unknown\n 49 Chald\u00e6an (4th dynasty) 458\n 9 Arabian (5th dynasty) 245\n Semiramis\n 45 kings (7th dynasty) 526\n\nNabonidus, the antiquary king (B.C. 555), according to a Cylinder found\nat Sipar (Sepharvaim, Sun-city) and studied by Mr. Pinches, assigns a\ndate to the deified Sargina of about B.C. 3,800 years. He unburied,\n18 cubits below the surface, the Cylinder of Naramsin, son of Sargina\n(B.C. 3750?), \u2018which no king had seen for 3,200 years.\u2019 Sir Henry C.\nRawlinson (the _Athen\u00e6um_, Dec. 9, 1882) is disposed to accept the date\n\u2018within certain limits.\u2019\n\n[652] The word is Har-Minni, or Mountains of the Minni. The oldest\nArmenian inscriptions date from the eighth century B.C.\n\n[653] It was in attacking these Khita that Ramses II. (Sesostris) left\nhis three \u2018columns\u2019 or tablets on the rocks near the Nahr el-Kalb of\nBayrut (chap. ix.). Six Assyrian inscriptions were also known there,\nbearing the names of Assur-ris-il\u00eem, Tiglath-pileser, Assurnazirpal,\nShalmanesar, Sennacherib, and Esarhaddon. No epigraphs were found on\nthe north side of the river, where an ancient aqueduct, overgrown\nwith luxuriant verdure, turns a mill. About three years ago, however,\nthe proprietor, when making a new channel, broke away part of the\nrock, and a fragment bearing cuneiforms attracted the attention of\nDr. Hartmann, Chancellor of the German Consulate. No other steps were\ntaken till October 10, 1881, when M. Julius Loytved, Danish Vice-Consul\nfor Bayrut, bared the face of the cliff and discovered five cuneiform\ninscriptions, one containing 45 lines. They seem to have been hastily\ncut, as they follow the shape of the rock whose surface has not been\ndressed. According to Professor Sayce, they are Babylonian, not\nAssyrian.\n\n[654] Or Asshur, \u2018the Arbiter of the Gods,\u2019 represented by the winged\ndisc of Egypt.\n\n[655] Nineveh, destroyed by the Medes (Manda or Madu) and Persians in\nB.C. 583, had thus a life of 1,617 years, assuming its origin at the\nmiddle term, B.C. 2200.\n\n[656] Brugsch, vol. i. chap. xvi., shows that Seshonk (Shishak) and\nother Pharaohs of the Twenty-first Dynasty were Assyrians who ruled\n\u2018Mat Muz-ur,\u2019 the people of Egypt.\n\n[657] The great scholar derives from Egypt the Cuneiform Syllabarium,\nwhich was originally pictorial:\u2014drawing everywhere preceded writing.\nThe astronomy of Mesopotamia is Egyptian (the unit of measure being\nthe ell of 0\u00b7525 m\u00e8tre); and the architecture, that prime creation of\nthe human mind, shows by temples, temple-towers, tombs, and especially\npyramids (e.g. that at Birs Namrud), an imperfect imitation of the Nile\nValley. Herodotus attributes to Babylon the discovery of the Pole, the\nSun-dial, and the twelve hours of day, all well known to ancient Egypt.\nThe \u2018Sabbaths\u2019 are Assyrian.\n\n[658] The _Athen\u00e6um_, July 24, 1880.\n\n[659] That the Assyrians had books appears plainly from the\ninscriptions: \u2018In the night-time bind round the sick man\u2019s head a\nsentence taken from a good book\u2019 (a soporific!). Parchment was most\nprobably the first material (_Trans. of Soc. Bib. Arch\u00e6ology_, vols.\nii. 55, and iii. 432); and the language proves that the papyrus-scroll\n(Duppu-ga-zu) was known.\n\n[660] We find in Assyria the wild goat standing upon a capital, now the\narms of Istria. The same appears at Palmyra (Prof. Socin\u2019s Collection).\nThe winged bulls probably suggested, like the Egyptian Cherubs, our\nangels\u2019 wings. These motors should now be forbidden in statuary by\nAct of Parliament; or the artist should be compelled to supply the\npinions with the muscles necessary for working them. I need hardly say\nthat the required development would convert the human dorsum to the\nappearance of the two-humped camel. The late Gustave Dor\u00e9\u2019s admirable\nillustrations of Dante (_Purgat._ xix. 51) sin greatly in this way.\n\n[661] A goddess in alabaster has in each hand a lotus flower, which she\nholds against her breasts. This is characteristic of old Egypt, which\nderived the plant from the Equatorial African Lake-region. The same\nfigure again wears a large Egyptian wig, the hair falling in ringlets\nupon the shoulders.\n\n[662] The Soma, a weed in India (_Asclepias gigantea_), is a derivation\nfrom Homa. The Persea, or Egyptian Tree of Life, was probably the\n_Balanitis \u00c6gyptiaca_.\n\n[663] The careless confusion of Svastika, the worshipper-sect, with\nSvasti, the symbol, was made by me in my Commentary on Camoens (chap.\niv. \u2018Geographical\u2019). Burnouf (Emile), in _La Science des Religions_,\nmade the Svasti the feminine principle; and the Pramantha, or\nperpendicular fire-stick, the male. If used on sacrificial altars to\nproduce the holy fire (_Agni_), the practice was peculiar, and not\nderived from every-day-life: as Pliny knew (xvi. 77), the savage uses\ntwo, never three, fire-sticks. The Svasti is apparently the simplest\nform of the guilloche. According to Wilkinson (II. chap. ix.), the most\ncomplicated form of the guilloche covered an Egyptian ceiling upwards\nof a thousand years older than the objects found at Nineveh. The Svasti\nspread far and wide, everywhere assuming some fresh mythological and\nmysterious significance. In the north of Europe it became the Fylfot or\ncrutched cross.\n\n[664] Assyria, like Egypt, cultivated geometry and algebra, which\nhave been supposed to originate from revenue surveys and altar\nmeasurements. She used the Astrolabe and popularised square roots and\nfractions, with a denominator of 60, the sole representative of the\ndecimal and duodecimal systems. With her fall (B.C. 555) coincides\nthe birth of literature in Greece, where writing became general about\nB.C. 500. The Assyrians were great in magic and in divination, such as\nbirth-portents, dog-omens, &c. &c.\n\n[665] Again Egyptian. Wilkinson, II. chap. vii.\n\n[666] The nearest site would be the Caucasus, which in early ages\nyielded a small supply. Layard (p. 191) supposes the tin to have been\nobtained from Ph\u0153nicia; and, \u2018consequently, that used in the (Assyrian)\nbronzes of the British Museum may actually have been exported, nearly\nthree thousand years ago, from the British Isles.\u2019\n\n[667] A \u2018copper instrument from Koyunjik\u2019 (Layard, p. 596) is shaped\nexactly like the so-called Etruscan razors. See chap. ix.\n\n[668] Layard, _Nineveh and Babylon_, p. 163.\n\n[669] See chap. vi. He figures one of the latter (_Discoveries in the\nRuins of Nineveh and Babylon_, p. 195): it measured 3 feet 8 inches\nlong by 4\u215d inches in breadth.\n\n[670] \u2018Assyrians placing a human-headed bull on a car,\u2019 with levers and\nropes (Layard, p. 112), reminds us of the statue of Ramses II., and\nshows that the people could move enormous weights. Both societies had\n\u2018unbounded command of naked human strength.\u2019\n\n[671] Demmin, pp. 293\u201394.\n\n[672] We have still to explain \u2018Kakku\u2019 (weapon?) and \u2018Gizzin\u2019\n(scymitar?).\n\n[673] In the Tablets we read of the \u2018Star of the double Sword\u2019 (Kakab\ngir-tab) [Cuneiform]. \u2018Hammasti,\u2019 also, is the \u2018blade of the double\nSword.\u2019\n\n[674] \u2018Ashur create a Son,\u2019 B.C. 673. _Assyrian Discoveries_, by G.\nSmith (London: Sampson Low, 1876).\n\n[675] For instance, that in the bas-reliefs of Burs Nimr\u00fad, B.C. 1000,\nnow in the Louvre. The hippopotamus is now never found out of Africa.\n\n[676] With cavalry as well as infantry (Layard, p. 55). Upon this, a\nvery complicated subject, I shall have much to say.\n\n[677] Whence the French _cravache_.\n\n[678] This abomination popularly derives from Semiramis\n(Sa-am-mu-ra-mat) of Assyria, and extended far and wide. Even in the\nearlier part of the present century eunuchs were manufactured for\nChristian and Catholic Rome. The practice is still kept up in Egypt,\nTurkey, and Persia, although strictly forbidden by the Apostle of Allah.\n\n[679] Col. Hanbury exhibited it at the British Museum. Notes by Mr. W.\nSt. Chad Boscawen, read April 6: _Trans. Soc. Bib. Arch\u00e6ology_, vol.\niv. Part II. 1876.\n\n[680] Nebo, in the inscriptions, holds a golden reed or rod, as the\nHomeric Hermes is \u03a7\u03c1\u03c5\u03c3\u03cc\u03c1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03b9\u03c2; he also leads the ghosts to Hades. The\nChald\u00e6an gods were, like the Egyptian, deceased ancestors, and they\nwere followed by natural objects, _Anu_ (sky), _Bel_ (earth), _Hea_\n(sea), personified into a vast and various mythology. Sun, moon, and\n\u00e6ther, were the first Triad of Babylon. Thus the Chthonic gods of\nGreece, Uranus (the Egyptian _Urnas_), Gaia and Thalassa (Assyrian),\npreceded the Olympic anthropomorphism. Of course they were represented\nwith human shapes. Presently the priest introduced as godheads\ncosmo-poetic causes and effects, which presently peopled the Pantheon\nwith glorified men. For, I repeat, man worships only one thing\u2014himself.\n\n[681] George Smith, _Chald\u00e6an Genesis_, pp. 62, 95.\n\n[682] _Sibri_ or _Sibirru_. I have noted the probable derivation of\nthis word from the Egyptian Sf, Sayf, or Seft; and its resemblance to\nour \u2018sabre.\u2019\n\n[683] Budil (says Mr. Boscawen) succeeded his father in B.C. 1350. He\ndefended the north-eastern peoples, the Nari and the Guti, Gutium or\nGoim; he also built largely, and his son, Vul-nirari (Vul is my hope),\nfrom whose palace the Sword came, was one of the greatest of the early\nAssyrian kings. The British Museum has a long inscription recording his\nrestoration of the causeway leading to the Temple of Ashur.\n\n[684] Layard advocates the theory that the Persians and Hind\u00fas\nseparated from a common centre about B.C. 1500. But of what Hind\u00fas does\nhe speak? Certainly not of the \u2018Turanian\u2019 tribes, which peopled the\npeninsula before the Brahmin immigration.\n\n[685] The Greeks having no _sh_ sound, turned Kurush into Kyros.\n\n[686] Media was North-Western Persia, from Armenia to Azerb\u00e1ij\u00e1n,\nsouth of the Caspian. \u2018Great Armenia\u2019 afterwards included Georgia and\nAbkhasia. From their racial name Manda or Mada came the Greek Mantiene\nand Matiene. (See _Bib. Arch\u00e6ology_, Nov. 9, 1882.)\n\n[687] Herod. i. 136, 138, &c. All writers assure us that the ancient\nEgyptians and Persians, the Chinese and Hind\u00fas (Marco Polo), were\ntruth-telling races who abhorred a lie. \u2018How sweet a thing is truth!\u2019\nexclaimed a Nile-dweller. In the Carpentras Inscription the Lady Ta-Bai\n\u2018spoke no falsehoods against any one.\u2019 In the trilingual Behistun\nInscription (B.C. 516) Darius the king says, \u2018Thou who mayest be king\nhereafter, the man who may be a liar, and who may be an evil-doer,\ndestroy them with the destruction of the Sword\u2019 (col. iv. par. 14).\nThey are now emphatically the reverse. The wild tribes, such as the\nBedawin, the Iliy\u00e1t, and the outcasts of India, still preserve the\nold characteristic. \u2018The word of a Korager\u2019 is proverbial on the West\nCoast of the Hindu Peninsula. I cannot but attribute the deterioration\nto extensive commerce, contact with strangers, and change of faith.\nThe subject, however, is too vast and important even to glance at in\nthese pages; but I may note that the Hind\u00fa has deteriorated even in my\nday. In 1845 the trade-books of a Sahuk\u00e1r (merchant) were received as\nevidence in our law courts. In 1883 the idea would be scouted.\n\n[688] The conquests of Alexander the Great had given the civilised\nworld a unity of language. The Ptolemies, having asserted Greek mastery\nin Egypt, established that perfect toleration which is proved by the\nSeptuagint, Manetho and Berosus.\n\n[689] Famous in the Book of Esther (Amestris), which contains scant\ntraces of the faith of Israel. This terrible virago (B.C. 474) caused\nthe massacre of 800 men at Shushan, and 7,500 in the provinces. From\nthe Pehlevi name of Xerxes (Khshhershe), possibly we may derive the\nmodern titles, \u2018Shah\u2019 and \u2018Shahanshah.\u2019\n\n[690] Hence, perhaps, Pukhtu or Pushtu, the Afghan language, an old and\nrugged dialect of Persian type.\n\n[691] The South American lasso has been pitted, of course on horseback,\nagainst the Sword. Many a murder has been committed with it in the\nArgentine Republic, the victim being \u2018thugged\u2019 unawares and dragged\nto death. Needless to say, the lasso was well known in Egypt (Wilk.\ni. 4), where it was used to catch the gazelle and even the wild ox.\nThe Pasha or Indian lasso was ten cubits long, with a noose one hand\nin circumference. It was composed of very small scales, ornamented\nwith leaden balls; and was not regarded as a \u2018noble weapon.\u2019 The Roman\ngladiators, called \u2018Laqueatores,\u2019 derived their name from the lasso:\nthey must not be confounded with the \u2018Retiarii.\u2019\n\n[692] _A. J_. xx. 7, sec. 10.\n\n[693] To be noticed in a future chapter (xii.).\n\n[694] Chap. ix.\n\n[695] _Travels in Georgia, Persia, &c._ (1817\u201320), by Sir Robert Ker\nPorter. Other illustrators are Le Bruyn, Chardin, Niebuhr, and Leake\n(_Athens_, ii. pp. 22\u201326).\n\n[696] It may, however, have been treated as a dagger, while the Sword\nwas worn on the left.\n\n[697] Wilkinson (_Egyptians_, II. chap. v.) remarks, \u2018If there is any\nconnection between the religions of Egypt and India, this must be\nascribed to the period before the two races left Central Asia\u2019; and\nLayard, it has been said, would place that period about 1500 B.C. I\nagain protest against the idea that the Egyptian ever came from, or had\never anything to do with, \u2018Central Asia,\u2019 beyond civilising it.\n\n[698] Chandragupta (Sandracottus?) B.C. 316; his son Bindusara, B.C.\n291; and his grandson (Dharm) Asoka or Priyadasi, B.C. 250\u2013241, whose\nchildren divided the empire. The Topes are probably Phallic buildings.\n\n[699] I would explain the fact that India is confounded with East\nAfrica by the classics and by medi\u00e6val geographers as a survival of the\nconnection of the continents in the Miocene and, perhaps, in even later\nages.\n\n[700] Utilised by Horace Hayman Wilson in his article \u2018On the Art of\nWar as known to the Hind\u00fas.\u2019 Dhanu (Sanskr. the bow) came to signify\nany missile or weapon; and hence, Dhan\u00farvidya comprised the knowledge\nof all other arms. The bow was also named; for instance, that of Vishnu\nwas called Sh\u00e1rnga (Oppert, p. 77).\n\n[701] The Commander-in-Chief drew four thousand Varvas (gold coins) per\nmensem. Prof. Oppert, with true German _na\u00efvet\u00e9_, says (p. 8), \u2018If this\nscale of salaries is correct, and if the salaries were really paid, one\nwould be inclined to think that an extensive gold currency existed in\nancient India.\u2019 That the country worked its gold mines is proved by the\nWynaad and other diggings, lately reopened, but we may fairly doubt the\ncoinage;\u2014at least, till a coin be found.\n\n[702] I now borrow from Professor Gustav Oppert, _On the Weapons &c. of\nthe Ancient Hindus_ (London: Tr\u00fcbner, 1880). Unfortunately the work is\nunillustrated. Its capital fault is not adducing proofs, or offering\nhighly unsatisfactory proofs, of the antiquity to be attributed to its\nauthorities, the Shukraniti (p. 43); the Naishedha (p. 69), and the\nvarious pagodas showing firearms (p. 76). The M\u00e1navad-harmash\u00e1stra,\nor Institutes of Menu (Halhed, p. 53), speaks of \u2018darts blazing with\nfire,\u2019 a well-known missile, but not to be confounded with firearms\nproper. And the Institutes in their actual form are comparatively\nmodern.\n\n[703] Prof. Oppert gives the names of all these subdivisions; and, at\nthe same time, a lesson in Hind\u00fa absurdity (p. 11).\n\n[704] Here we have the true Indian imaginativeness. The idea of a\nWestern anthropomorphising a bow after this fashion!\n\n[705] Prof. Oppert says that Book III. of the Nit\u00edpra-kashika is\nentirely devoted to the Khadga. In the Shukraniti, as will be seen, the\nword denotes a two-handed Sword six feet long. The Professor translates\nit \u2018broadsword.\u2019\n\n[706] He lived between the tenth and thirteenth centuries and wrote\na notable Ovidian work. A translation is now being printed (not\npublished) by the Hindoo K\u00e1ma-Shastra Society of London and Benares.\n\n[707] The Italian word is evidently a diminutive of the Latin _stilus_,\nor rather _stylus_ (\u03c3\u03c4\u1fe6\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2). Dagger (Germ. Dolch) is from the Keltic\n_dag_, point. Degen, a larger weapon, originally means a warrior; hence\nthe Anglo-Sax. Thaegn and our Thane.\n\n[708] Strabo (xv. 1, \u00a7 66) makes the Indian Sword three cubits (= four\nfeet and a half) in length; and the Greeks of the Alexandrine day\nnotice two-handed Swords and bow-drawing with the feet.\n\n[709] Roteiro, p. 115.\n\n[710] This is evidently inverted. The huge falchion, an exaggeration of\nthe Kukkri, may be seen in the British Museum, one blade inscribed with\nPali characters. Most of these huge weapons were used in sacrificing;\nand the low-caste Mhars still behead with falchions the buffalos\noffered to Kali.\n\n[711] He constantly appears in the Mahabh\u00e1rata, especially in Book I.\n\n[712] Some writers are determined to find chess amongst the Romans, and\nquote the Panegyric of Piso, and the game of Latrunculi. But if so,\nwhere are their chessmen? The earliest allusion in any known author is\nin Anna Comnena\u2019s Alexias, when the First Crusade had done some good by\nmixing the Eastern and the Western worlds.\n\n[713] _Loc. cit._ p. 61.\n\n[714] _Sport in British Burmah_ (London: Chapman and Hall, 1879).\n\n[715] Lib. ii. cap. 53.\n\n[716] The earliest date of the famous siege is B.C. 1370 (Justin,\nlike the Arundelian marbles, gives B.C. 1184), and the latest is B.C.\n724\u2013636. In _Troy and its Remains_, we find (p. 123) that the age\nproposed for the founding of the city is B.C. 1400; that the war took\nplace after the reigns of six kings (p. 27), say two centuries, or in\nB.C. 1200; and that Homer lived 200 years after the destruction of the\ncity (p. 91), or in B.C. 1000. Thus Herodotus and Dr. Schliemann do not\nagree; but what possible agreement can there be upon such a subject?\n\n[717] Would it not be more prudent to say \u2018not hitherto found\u2019?\n\n[718] Dr. Schliemann, _Ilias_.\n\n[719] The Arab, or rather the Moslem, practice of Koran-reading may\nexplain that of ancient Greece. There are two distinct ways: the\nvulgar, as though it were a profane book; and the learned with peculiar\nintonation (_Kir\u00e1\u2019at_), of which there are some seventy systems. The\nHind\u00fas recite with a similar artful modification. So the Hellenes\nwould either pronounce their scriptures, Homer and Hesiod, according\nto popular accent, or intone by quantity. That men ever wrote accents\nwithout pronouncing them is one of those wild theories which can\ncommend itself only to a savant. Besides, we know that as late as the\neleventh century there were Greek authors who wrote indifferently\naccording to accent or quantity.\n\n[720] The tools known to the _Iliad_ were those of Central Africa,\nanvil, hammer, and tongs (_Il._ xviii. 477, and _Od._ iii. 434\u20135).\n\n[721] viii. 14; ix. 41.\n\n[722] xxxv. 12, 43.\n\n[723] E.g. \u03b4\u03ad\u03c3\u03bc\u03bf\u03b9, bands or ties; \u1f25\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, studs; \u03c0\u03b5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9, pins, fibul\u00e6;\nand \u03ba\u03ad\u03bd\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1, points (_Il._ xviii. 379; xi. 634; Pausanias xi. 16).\n\n[724] iii. 2.\n\n[725] _Il._ viii. 20. The Assyrian Hadi or Bet Edi, \u2018House of\nEternity,\u2019 probably Grecised, by an afterthought, to \u1f00\u03ca\u03b4\u03ae\u03c2\u2014invisible.\nSee the earliest \u2018Miracle-play,\u2019 the descent of Ishtar into Hadi; _Soc.\nBib. Arch\u00e6ol._ vol. ii. part i. p. 188.\n\n[726] Eur. _Ion._ 1.\n\n[727] From the copper trumpet comes \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03b5\u03cc\u03c6\u03c9\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2, ringing-voiced (_Il._\nv. 785). The _Iliad_ applies the epithet to Stentor (_Il._ v. 785), and\nHesiod (_Theog._ 311) to Cerberus.\n\n[728] _Od._ iii. 425.\n\n[729] For instance, Stasinus or Hegesias, author of the _Kypria_ or\nCyprian _Iliad_ (Herod. _Lib._ ii. 117), assigned to the end of the\neighth century B.C., when Kypros may have had her \u2018Homeric School.\u2019 It\nwas in nine books, of which the argument has been preserved by Proclus\nin Photius; and it forms a kind of introduction to the _Iliad_. See\nPalma\u2019s _Cyprus_, p. 13. \u2018Homer\u2019 is said to mention iron thirty times.\n\n[730] Dr. Evans (_Bronze_, p. 15) quotes Dr. Beck\u2019s suggestion that the\n-eros of Sideros is a \u2018form of the Aryan _ais_ (conf. _\u00e6s_, _\u00e6ris_). In\nanother place (_Stone_, p. 5), he alludes to the possible connection of\nSideros with \u1f00\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 (a meteor), the Latin Sidera, and the English Star.\n\n[731] _Od._ ix. 391.\n\n[732] This is a fair instance of \u2018elegant translation.\u2019 What Homer says\nis:\n\n E\u2019en as a blacksmith-wight some weighty hatchet or war-axe\n Dippeth in water cold with a mighty hissing and sputt\u2019ring,\n Quenching to temper, for such is the strength and steeling of iron.\n\nThe reply will be that Homer does not say it in this way; and to this\nreply I have no rejoinder.\n\n[733] Hes. _Opera_, 174, sq.\n\n[734] _Ibid._ ix. 366.\n\n[735] xi. 34, 35, &c.\n\n[736] Dr. Schliemann is assuredly singular when translating the Homeric\nCyanus by \u2018bronze\u2019 (Preface to _Mycen\u00e6_, p. x.). Millin (_Min\u00e9ralogie\nHom\u00e9rique_) holds it to be tin. The \u2018Cyanus\u2019 of Pliny (xxxvii. 38) is\nlapis lazuli.\n\n[737] _Opera_, 149; _Theog._ 161, and _Scut._ 231.\n\n[738] _Erga_, 742\u201343.\n\n[739] _Il._ xv. 677.\n\n[740] xi. 629.\n\n[741] _Scut._ Ll. 125\u2013132.\n\n[742] _Scut._ 216\u2013224.\n\n[743] _Ibid._ So early was that detestable invention, the metal\nscabbard, introduced. Thus we must understand the \u03c6\u03ac\u03c3\u03b3\u03b1\u03bd\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u1f70,\n\u03bc\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03bd\u03b4\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1 (_Il._ xv. 713). Compare Eurip. _Ph\u0153n._ 1091. There is much\nmore to be said concerning \u2018Phasganon.\u2019\n\n[744] _Il._ vii. 220.\n\n[745] _Il._ iii. 292.\n\n[746] _Il._ v. 330.\n\n[747] _Il._ xviii. 474 sq.\n\n[748] _Il._ vi. 236.\n\n[749] x. 1.\n\n[750] _Il._ iv. 242, xiv. 479.\n\n[751] _Il._ xi. 385.\n\n[752] The Romaic _gh_ is, as far as I know, the only modern European\nrepresentative of the \u2018Semitic\u2019 _ghayn_, which French writers must\ntransliterate by R: e.g. Razzia for Ghazweh.\n\n[753] Even in the army of Perseus we are told by Livy (xliv. 40), the\nThracians marched first brandishing, from time to time, Swords of\nenormous weight.\n\n[754] xiii. 576.\n\n[755] xxiii. 307.\n\n[756] i. 210, 220.\n\n[757] _Il._ i. 190, it is called a Ph\u00e1sganon.\n\n[758] ii. 45.\n\n[759] _Il._ xi. 30.\n\n[760] Studs, flat-headed, like rivets, are still let into the iron\nblade by modern Africans.\n\n[761] iii. 334.\n\n[762] _Il._ xvi. 130.\n\n[763] xx. 475.\n\n[764] _Il._ xvi. 335.\n\n[765] xviii. end.\n\n[766] So Aristophanes (_Clouds_, 1065) alludes to the Sword forged\nby Hephaistos and presented to Peleus by the gods, as a prize for\nresisting the temptations of Atalanta.\n\n[767] _Il._ x. 256.\n\n[768] xv. 712\u201312.\n\n[769] _Iliad._ xxiii. 824.\n\n[770] Sanskritists hold it to have been originally \u1f04\u03c3\u03bf\u03c1, and to derive\nfrom \u0905\u0938\u093f (asi), a Sword; whence \u0906\u0938\u093f\u0915 (\u00e1sik), a swordsman (Fick,\n_W\u00f6rterbuch der indogermanischen Grundsprache_). It is probably\nconnected with \u1f00\u03b5\u03af\u03c1\u03c9, because \u2018carried\u2019 on the shoulder by the bauldric.\n\n[771] _Od._ xi. 24.\n\n[772] _Il._ xvi. 115.\n\n[773] xvi. 473.\n\n[774] _Il._ xiv. 385.\n\n[775] In his illustrations of the _Iliad_, Flaxman rarely arms his\nwarriors with the Sword, even at the Fight for the Body of Patroclus.\nIt is to be hoped that artists in future will kindly take warning.\n\n[776] _Il._ xv. 256; also _Hymn to Apollo_, 396.\n\n[777] _El._ 837.\n\n[778] _Odys._ viii. 401\u20135.\n\n[779] _Odys._ iv. 695.\n\n[780] Line 125.\n\n[781] _Odys._ i. 180.\n\n[782] iv. 83\u20134.\n\n[783] xi. 520. In Buckley\u2019s translation (Bell, 1878), \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03ba\u03cc\u03c2 is mostly\ntranslated \u2018steel\u2019 (pp. 62, 72, 198). Translators are almost as\nmisleading as dictionaries.\n\n[784] xxi. 3.\n\n[785] xxi. 10.\n\n[786] v. 230.\n\n[787] xxi. 127.\n\n[788] xvi. 295.\n\n[789] xix. 13.\n\n[790] x. 535, xxi. 34 and 119, xxii. 329 &c.\n\n[791] Line 40.\n\n[792] _Il._ vii. 187.\n\n[793] _Il._ vi. 169.\n\n[794] xiii. 28.\n\n[795] He also mentions writing on leaden plates and on linen cloths as\nin ancient India; such, probably, were the books of Numa.\n\n[796] v. 29.\n\n[797] vii. 186.\n\n[798] From _Kshatram_ (crown, reign) and _-p\u00e1_ (defender). These\nviceroys of Asia Minor, who sometimes held more than one province,\nreceived and despatched embassies, levied armies of mercenaries, and\neven engaged in foreign wars without orders of the Great King (Herod,\niv. 165\u20137; Thucyd. i. 115 &c.).\n\n[799] ix. 62.\n\n[800] vii. 64.\n\n[801] Grote, _History of Greece_, iii. 323.\n\n[802] This word is erroneously translated \u2018Scymitar,\u2019 a weapon which,\nin its present shape, dates from about the rise of El-Islam.\n\n[803] Rawlinson\u2019s _Herodotus_, 60. The learned commentator quotes\nM\u00fcller, _Hist. Gr\u00e6c._ (iv. 429), Amm. Marcellinus (xxxi. 2), Jornandes\n(_De Reb. Geticis_, cap. xxxv.), Niebuhr\u2019s _Scythia_ (p. 46, E.\nTr.), &c. In vol. iii. 60, he gives a ground-plan of the tomb, whose\nchief place also yielded a gold shield, a whip, a bow, a bow-case,\nfive statuettes, and an iron Sword. The space by the side contained\na woman\u2019s bones, with a diadem and ornaments in gold and electrum.\nOther barrows in Russia and Tartary showed bodies resting upon sheets\nof pure gold weighing forty pounds, with bronze weapons and ornaments\nset with rubies and emeralds. Herodotus\u2019 description of the scalping\n(\u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03c5\u03b8\u03af\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, iv. 64) would apply to the North American \u2018Indians\u2019 of\nour day; and the sending a messenger to Zalmoxis, god of the Get\u00e6 (iv.\n94), is the practice of modern Dahome and Benin.\n\n[804] Rawlinson, iii. 54.\n\n[805] \u2018Mongol\u2019 denotes an especial race; the word is much abused by\nnon-Orientalists.\n\n[806] iv. 70.\n\n[807] This process of \u2018mixing bloods,\u2019 as a token of brotherhood, is\nfamiliar to all travellers in pagan Africa.\n\n[808] ii. 2.\n\n[809] _Mycen\u00e6, &c._ (London: Murray, 1878). It is regretable that this\nhandsome and expensive volume should be printed upon blotting paper.\n\n[810] _Il._ i. 320.\n\n[811] These illustrations are from photographs bought at Athens.\n\n[812] ix. 29\u201331.\n\n[813] P. 307.\n\n[814] _Troy_, 330\u201331.\n\n[815] P. 279.\n\n[816] J\u00e4hns (pp. 91, 92) cannot but suspect that many of the weapons\nwhich show a marked Oriental cast are not Atreidan but Carian. This\ntribe about the thirteenth century B.C. spread itself, under the\nmythical king Minos, over the \u00c6gean Archipelago, and colonised even\nthe seaboard of Greece. Such words as Hymettos, Lykabettos, &c. are\nsupposed to be Carian. The symbol of their gods was the double-axe, so\ncommon in Mycen\u00e6; and, as Thucydides said, their practice was to bury\nweapons with the dead, which was not customary in Greece.\n\n[817] Yet soldering iron was known to Egypt in the Eighteenth Dynasty.\n\n[818] The position may be seen in life all over India, where the\njugglers teach goats to stand and be hoisted in that position.\n\n[819] The Etruscans, however, like the Jews, disposed the feet of the\ncorpse eastward, as told in _Etruscan Bologna_ (p. 22). Although the\nauthor should not say so, the public has not done wisely to neglect\nthis book; its most valuable part, the osteological details of the\nEtruscan, deserved a better fate and, perhaps, secured a failure.\nYet it had the prime advantage of angry abuse by a certain critical\njournal, whose predilection for the commonplace (_qu\u00e2_ commonplace) is\nexpressed by vituperation of all that is not commonplace. In my case\nI may say of it with Diderot: \u2018Perhaps they do me more credit than I\ndeserve; I should feel humiliated if those who speak ill of so many\nclever and worthy people took it into their heads to speak well of me.\u2019\n\n[820] See \u2018Analysis of Mycen\u00e6an Metals\u2019 (pp. 367\u2013376, _Mycen\u00e6_.) But\nthe book is almost as self-contradictory as _Troy_.\n\n[821] For instance, by Mr. W. J. Stillman, a traveller and a scholar.\nIn the New York _Nation_ (August 18) he writes on \u2018The True Age of the\nMyken\u00e6 Finds\u2019; and, after a fresh examination, he declares the objects\npost-classical, \u2018probably representing the burial-place of a colony\nof Celts between the fifth and the second century B.C.\u2019 What chiefly\nmilitates against this theory is the cremation of the human remains.\n\n[822] Dictionaries derive this word from \u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03c9 (to draw). I find it in\nthe Egyptian \u2018Sft.\u2019 It is evidently a congener of \u03a3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03b7 (dim. \u03c3\u03c0\u03ac\u03b8\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd),\nalso Romaic, and verb \u03c3\u03c0\u03b1\u03b8\u03ac\u03c9 = I wield (the weapon). Sp\u00e1the means\nprimarily a broad blade of wood or metal; secondarily a weaver\u2019s spatel\nor spaddle, a spatula (Latin _tela_); an oar-blade, a scraper (for\nhorse-currying), and a broadsword. Scotchmen still apply \u2018spathe\u2019 to\nthe weaver\u2019s lath (_The Past in the Present_, p. 11), which preceded\nthe \u2018pecten.\u2019 It is also used for Carnifex in Tertullian (_De Cult.\nFem._ cap. xiii.), and in botany for a shoot of fructification. In\nAnglo-Saxon it became _Spad_; Icelandic _Spadi_, our spade. The Latins\n(Tacit. _Ann._ xii. 35; Veget. _De Re Mil._ ii. 15) converted it to\n_spatha_; and hence the neo-Latin _esp\u00e9e_ and _\u00e9p\u00e9e_, _espada_ and\n_spada_, from which we derive our (suit of) \u2018spades.\u2019 See the play of\nwords upon \u2018Metal de Espadas\u2019 in Camoens\u2019 \u2018Rejected Stanzas\u2019 (canto\niv. vol. ii. p. 437 of my translation). It has been subjected to\nother corruptions; and in Chaucer (_Knightes T._ 1662) \u2018Sparth\u2019 is a\nbattle-axe:\u2014\n\n \u2018He hath a sparth of twenti pound of wighte.\u2019\n\nEven the learned Major J\u00e4hns derives \u2018Spatha\u2019 from \u2018Spatel.\u2019\n\n[823] Quoted by Colonel A. Lane-Fox, _Anthrop. Coll._ p. 174.\n\n[824] I have described it in _Scoperte Antropologiche in Ossero_\n(Trieste, 1877). The point is evidently broken off.\n\n[825] See chap. viii.\n\n[826] See chap. iii. The Dan\u00edsko is the hatchet-yataghan of Demmin, p.\n397.\n\n[827] Gen. iii. 24; Zech. xiii. 7; Apocalyp. i.\n\n[828] Here we find St. Michael a heavenly archetype of St. George. In\nthe vault of the Superga, Turin, Monseigneur carries a rapier instead\nof a flamberge.\n\n[829] Xenophon, _De Re Eq._ xii. 11.\n\n[830] A world-wide juggling trick, which seems to have originated in\nEgypt. In Apuleius (_Golden Ass_, lib. i.) a _circulator_ or itinerant\njuggler swallows a very sharp two-edged cavalry broadsword and buries\nin his entrails a horseman\u2019s spear. This \u2018Thracian Magic\u2019 is still\npractised by the well-known Raf\u2019ai Dervishes.\n\n[831] He figures the blade in his Tour (i. p. 443).\n\n[832] Galatians, Keltic Gauls, who established themselves in Western\nAsia Minor after the destruction of their leader Brennus at Delphi\n(B.C. 279). Florus (ii. 10) calls the Gallo-Gr\u00e6cians \u2018adulterated\nrelics of Gauls\u2019: Strabo also alludes to the Phrygians and the three\nGalatian peoples (iv. 1). As Ammian. Marcell. tells us (xv. cap.\nix.), \u2018Galat\u00e6 is the Greek translation of the Roman term Galli.\u2019 They\nconsisted of three tribes, each with its capital: the Tolistobogii (=\nTolosa + Boii) at Pessinus; the Tectosages (of Aquitaine) at Ancyra,\nnow Angora, famous for wool and cats; and the Trocmi, with Tavium for\nprincipal city, lay to the east bordering on Pontus. This people, like\nthe Gauls, their kinsmen, was \u2018admodum dedita religionibus\u2019 (C\u00e6s. _B.\nG._ vi. 16).\n\n[833] x. 32.\n\n[834] Livy, xxxviii. c. 17.\n\n[835] _Il._ i. 190.\n\n[836] _Il._ xvi. 437.\n\n[837] _Il._ xxii. 310\u201360.\n\n[838] _Il._ xiv. 405.\n\n[839] In the _Iliad_ (iv. 185) we find the \u03b6\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 and the \u03b6\u1ff6\u03bc\u03b1\ndifferent. Menelaus wears the former outside, the Sword below it, and\na \u03bc\u03af\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1 or metal plate on the breast. The \u03b6\u03c9\u03c3\u03c4\u1f74\u03c1 was probably a broad\ngirdle strengthened with metal, and considered part of the \u1f45\u03c0\u03bb\u03b1: thus\n\u03b6\u03ce\u03bd\u03bd\u03c5\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, to \u2018gird one\u2019s loins,\u2019 is to prepare for battle.\n\n[840] Doubtless Pythagoras and Socrates were monotheists after the\nfashion of the Egyptian priests; but the Olympus of the many-headed was\npeopled by a charming bevy of _coquins_ and _coquines_.\n\n[841] From the treatise of M. Rodios, \u0395\u03a0\u0399 \u03a0\u039f\u039b\u0395\u039c\u0399\u039a\u0397\u03a3 \u03a4\u0395\u03a7\u039d\u0397\u03a3 (Athens,\n1868); the soldier wears an Etruscan helmet, and the pelta shield\nresembles an ivy leaf.\n\n[842] _Philip._ i.\n\n[843] To name merely the _sommit\u00e9s_: Alexander the Great, Eumenes, and\nPtolemy; Hannibal; Sulla, Fabius, Marius, Sertorius, Cato, Brutus,\nJulius C\u00e6sar, Mark Antony, Pompey, Metellus, Marcellus, Trajan, and\nHadrian. All these commanders were famous swordsmen, concerning whose\npersonal feats with the weapon we have ample notices.\n\n[844] The Albanians still preserve the four castes which do not\nintermarry. These are: Soldiers (or Landowners), Tradesmen, Shepherds,\nand Artisans.\n\n[845] Some of the Greek statues were larger than any Egyptian. Olympian\nJove stood 60 feet, Apollo 45 (Pausanias), and the Image of the Sun\n(commonly called the Colossus of Rhodes) 105 feet, exceeding everything\nin the Nile Valley. I need not refer to Mount Athos and the Charonion\nof Antioch. The oldest known Greek statue is a portrait produced at\nMiletus in B.C. 550, and inscribed: \u2018I am Chares, son of Kleisis,\nrider of Teichiousa, an offering to Apollo.\u2019 The style of this and\nother archaic works (vases, &c.), which are rare, connects it with\nAssyrianism, about the age of Assurnazirpal (B.C. 880).\n\n[846] _Iliad_, ii. 362 and iv. 297 sq.\n\n[847] _De Ages._\n\n[848] But who is to do this under a Republic? And here we foresee\ntroubles for our neighbours in the next Prusso-Gallic War.\n\n[849] For instance, the \u2018Holy City\u2019 of Miletus, with its 300 dependent\ntowns. When we speak of ancient Greece we must remember that it\nextended from Asia Minor to Sicily, Italy, and even Southern France;\nand from Egypt to Albania. Modern Greece is a mere mutilated trunk.\n\n[850] Demmin (p. 106, &c.) tells us that \u2018the Greeks had not even a\nterm to denote the action of riding on horseback\u2019; and that \u2018even in\nFrench a proper verb does not exist, as the expression _chevaucher_\nmeans rather to stroll (_fl\u00e2ner_) on horseback.\u2019 As his English\ntranslator remarks, the assertion is hardly admissible in the face\nof such words as \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03b5\u03cd\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd (_equitare_), _cavalcare_, to ride the\nhorse; \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03b5\u03af\u03b1 (riding), \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03b5\u1f7a\u03c2 and \u1f31\u03c0\u03c0\u03cc\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 (a rider, a knight), and\n\u1f10\u03c0\u03b9\u03b2\u03b5\u03b2\u03b7\u03ba\u03ce\u03c2, mounted (_scil._ on horseback). His interpretation of\n_chevaucher_ is equally erroneous. _Chevaucher_, a fine old word, now\nonly too rare, exactly expresses our \u2018to ride\u2019: _Il chevaucha aux\nparties d\u2019occident_, is quoted from a French MS. (early fourteenth\ncentury) by Colonel Yule in his preface to Marco Polo; and the word\noccurs twice in the same sentence with the same sense.\n\n[851] Lord Denman\u2019s translation.\n\n[852] D. K. Sandford.\n\n[853] \u2018Armour\u2019 is from the Lat. _armatura_, through O. French _armeure_\nand _armure_; _armoire_ is _armarium_, originally a place for keeping\nArms, and _armamentarium_ is our arsenal. It is not a little curious\nthat \u2018finds\u2019 of Roman weapons are so rare, bearing no proportion to the\nwide extension of the rule. We must also beware of the monuments which\nare apt to idealise and archaicise: this is notable in the shape of the\nhelmet, the pilium, and the Sword. J\u00e4hns specifies as the best place\nfor study the Romano-German Central Museum at \u2018Mainz,\u2019 under Professor\nDr. Lindenschmit (p. 192).\n\n[854] In our day the only \u2018Fecialists\u2019 are the Moslem States.\n\n[855] _Polybii Historiarum qu\u00e6 supersunt._ The voluminous and luminous\nwriter, a contemporary of Scipio Africanus, and a captain who witnessed\nthe destruction of Carthage, was born A.U.C. 552 (B.C. 204), nearly\nthree centuries after the Latin conquest of Etruria. He was called\n\u2018Auctor bonus in primis,\u2019 and Scipio said of him, \u2018Nemo fuit in\nrequirendis temporibus diligentior\u2019 (Cicero, _De Off._ iii. 12, and _De\nRep._ ii. 14).\n\n[856] _De Lingu\u00e2 Lat._ iv. 6.\n\n[857] Livy, viii. 8.\n\n[858] Also called Adscriptii, Supernumerarii, and Velati, because\nwearing only the _sagum_ or soldier\u2019s cloak, opposed to the officer\u2019s\n_paludamentum_. Properly speaking, they were rear-troops, ranged in\nbattle order behind the Triarii. During certain epochs the Rorarii\nstood next to the Triarii, and the Accensi, less trustworthy than\neither, formed the extreme rear.\n\n[859] The weapon is well shown in a monumental tablet on the Court wall\nof the Aquileja Museum.\n\n[860] The Clypeus, or Clipeus, of favourite Greek use, was also round,\nbut larger than the Parma. Our \u2018buckler\u2019 (_buccularius clypeus_) takes\nits name from having on it an open mouth (_bucca_, _buccula_), in\nChinese fashion, instead of the _umbo_.\n\n[861] In Livy\u2019s Phalanx (A.U.C. 415) the Velites were light-armed men,\ncarrying only a spear and short iron pila (viii. 7).\n\n[862] A congener of the Keltic _Ast_ = branch; whence the Fr. _arme\nd\u2019hast_. It was the Greek \u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03cc\u03c2, _contus_, or lance, an unbarbed\nspear, a royal sceptre: under the Republic it collected the hundreds\n(_hastam centumviralem agere_); it noted auctions (_jus hast\u00e6_), it\nwas the weapon of the light infantry-man (_hasta velitaris_), and it\nserved to part the bride\u2019s hair (Ovid, _Fast._ ii. 560). _Hastarius_\nand _hastatus_, _hasta_ and _quiris_ are synonyms; the _g\u00e6sum_ was a\nheavier weapon and barbed, and the _jaculum_, with its diminutives,\n_spiculum_, _vericulum_, or _verutum_, was a lighter javelin. Virgil\nuses _hastile_ poetically.\n\n[863] _Loc. cit._\n\n[864] The number of men greatly varied; the extremes of the Legion are\n6,800 including cavalry under Scipio, and 1,500 under Constantine.\nIn Livy\u2019s Legion there were 5,000 infantry and 300 horse (viii.\n8). Perhaps we may assume an average of 4,000 foot\u2014a full Austrian\nregiment. Each line of the three numbered 10 cohorts, and each cohort\nthree maniples. The latter were named from manipulus, a handful (of\ngrass, &c., _Georg._ i. 400), because this rustic article at the end of\na pole was the standard of Romulus.\n\n[865] The Signa, ensigns, or standards, were different in the legions.\nThe Vexillum, or colours of cavalry, was a square of cloth, also called\nPannus (\u03c0\u1fc6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2). The word is a congener of the Gothic _Fana_ and _Fan_;\nthe Ang. Sax. _Pan_; the Germ. _Fahne_; the French _banni\u00e8re_ and our\n_banner_. Hence, too, _Gonfanon_ = _Gundfano_. When the Eagle became\nimperial, and the Vexillum a Labarum with a cross, this standard was\nsplendidly decorated, and led to the French oriflamme. The latter was\nmade of the fine red (silk?) stuff called _cendalum_, cendal, or sendel.\n\n[866] These \u2018light bobs\u2019 were re-organised and regularly established in\nA.U.C. 541, after the battle of Cann\u00e6.\n\n[867] In fact, it formed phalanx, a word originally meaning a block or\na cylinder.\n\n[868] The officer\u2019s was adorned by way of honourable decoration with\nthree (ostrich?) feathers black and scarlet.\n\n[869] The original kilt was the waistcloth, man\u2019s primitive dress in\nthe Tropics and the lower Temperates. It became an article of defence\nunder the Greeks and Romans; and thence it spread over most of Europe.\nThe Maltese long preserved it, and the _Fustanella_ is still worn in\nGreece and Albania. In Ireland it was ancient, as it is modern in\nScotland.\n\n[870] Livy, ix. 35.\n\n[871] Livy, viii. 8.\n\n[872] _Pilum_, like our \u2018pile,\u2019 a congener of the Teutonic _Pfeil_,\nis not a Roman invention, and was probably borrowed from the Samnites\n(Sallust. _Cat._ 51, 38). The _pilum murale_, used for piercing walls\n(C\u00e6sar, _B. G._ v. 40), was a round or quadrangular shaft of three\ncubits, with an iron of the same length (Polybius, vi. 23, 9). The\n_pilum_ was perpetually changing size and proportions; moreover, there\nwere two kinds, the heavy and the light. The figures in the text are\nthose of the Mayence _pilum_ (J\u00e4hns, p. 201).\n\n[873] Livy, xxi. 8.\n\n[874] Under Trajan and Septimius Severus the cavalry adopted the iron\nor bronze _Hamata_, hooked metal chains, forming a kind of mail-coat,\nand the _Squamata_, scales sewn on to linen or leather, Demmin (p. 121)\nerroneously makes the latter \u2018chain-armour,\u2019 and yet his illustration\nshows the scales.\n\n[875] _De Re Mil._ i. 16.\n\n[876] _Essais de Montaigne_, l. ii., chap. 24 (Paris: Garnier Fr\u00e8res,\n1874).\n\n[877] Or _ma\u00eetre d\u2019armes_, a word borrowed by Rome from Etruria. The\nlegionary teachers were termed _armidoctores_ and _campidoctores_.\n\n[878] Athen\u00e6us (iv. 41) relates from Hermippus and Ephorus that the\nMantineans were the inventors of Gladiatorism proper (\u03bc\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03bf\u1fe6\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2),\nsuggested by one of their citizens, Demus or Demonax, and that the\nCyreneans followed suit.\n\n[879] Livy, xxviii. 21.\n\n[880] In early Roman days the Gladiator was infamous; even Petronius\nArbiter (_Satyr._ cap. i) uses \u2018you obscene gladiator\u2019 as an insult.\n\n[881] _Philip._ ii. 25.\n\n[882] Marius and Pompey the Great both \u2018kept up\u2019 their swordsmanship\nin these schools and in the Champ de Mars, the latter till the age of\nfifty-eight.\n\n[883] Hence his simple medication when _hors de combat_, \u2018refreshing\nhimself with a drink of lye of ashes.\u2019 Can they mean the antiseptic\ncharcoal, whose use has been revived of late years?\n\n[884] _Nat. Hist._ xxxvi. 24.\n\n[885] _Sub v._ Epicurus.\n\n[886] _Deipn._ vi. 105. Eunus was the slave-leader in the Servile War,\nwhich began B.C. 130.\n\n[887] The first Roman artist who painted gladiators was Terentius\nLucanus (Pliny, _N. H._ xxxv. 34).\n\n[888] The Mirmillo, _alias_ Gallus, is supposed to be derived from a\nKeltic word, meaning a fish.\n\n[889] If Nero was the monster represented by the commentaries and the\ncontemporary Christians, we must wonder how this anti-Christ was loved\nin life by Acte, the \u2018sweet and pure-minded Christian\u2019; and why the\ncitizens of Rome sorrowed for his death. And there is much suggestion\nin the fact that the greatest persecutors of the earliest Christians\nwere the best of the C\u00e6sars, for instance, Vespasian, Titus, Diocletian\nand Julian.\n\n[890] See the character given to him by Eutropius, viii. 4.\n\n[891] _De Morib. Germ._ xxxiii.\n\n[892] Mariette, _Recueil_, No. 92.\n\n[893] The learned Mr. Tylor is notably in error when he informs Mr.\nHerbert Spencer (_Ceremonial Institutions_, pp. 174\u201375) that the\nJapanese two-sworded man (Samurai) wore sword and dagger. The blades\nused to be of equal length. Of the Japanese sword I shall treat in Part\nII.\n\n[894] Copied by Smith (_Dict. of Ant._ p. 456) from Winckelmann\n(_Monumenta Inedita_, Pl. 197): the latter, by the by, was murdered at\nTrieste.\n\n[895] The word seems to be a congener of _Sahs_, _Sax_, or _Seax_,\nthe weapon supposed to have named the Saxons. It was either straight\nor curved, the main object being to fit it closely to the body or\nunder the armpits. Hence it was a favourite with the Sicarius (Ital.\n_sicario_), the Assassin. Gregory of Tours has (ix. 19) \u2018Caput sicharii\nsicc\u00e2 dividit.\u2019 A fanciful derivation of Sicily is from _sica_, because\nCronos threw one away at Drepanum. From the diminutive form _Sicula_\nand _Silicicula_ comes the English \u2018sickle.\u2019\n\n[896] This hide-shield, which supplanted the _clypeus_ or _clipeus_,\nthe large round article of osier-work, was also Sabine.\n\n[897] Petronius Arbiter, chap. i. 7.\n\n[898] _Falx_ is properly a large pruning knife, plain or toothed,\nwith a coulter or bill projecting from the back of the curved head.\nBesides this, there are many forms; one is a simple curve; another is a\nleaf-shaped blade with an inner hook, while a third bears, besides the\nspike, a crescent on the back. \u2018Falx\u2019 is the origin of our \u2018falchion,\u2019\nan Italian augmentative form, or perhaps the Spanish _facon_. C\u00e6sar\n(_Comm._ iii. 14) speaks of _falces pr\u00e6acut\u00e6_.\n\n[899] _Loc. cit._, copied by Smith.\n\n[900] Mentor is mentioned by Pliny (viii. 21). The tale of Androclus is\nwell known; he was pardoned, and presented with his friend the lion,\nwhom he used to lead about Rome, doubtless collecting many coppers.\n\n[901] He is called by Captain Godfrey \u2018the Atlas of the sword,\u2019 and\nHogarth immortalised this valiant \u2018rough\u2019 in the _Rake\u2019s Progress_ and\n_Southwark Fair_.\n\n[902] It is regretable to see this unmanly and ignoble \u2018sport\u2019\nspreading abroad: there was pigeon-shooting at Venice during the\nGeographical Carnival, _alias_ Congress, of September 1881. All honour\nto the English Princes who are discountenancing the butchery at home.\nFox-hunting is another thing; the chief good done by it seems to be the\ncirculation of about a million of money per annum.\n\n[903] I have described cock-fighting in the Canary Islands (_To\nthe Gold Coast for Gold_, i., chap. 9). The celebrated story of\nThemistocles and the game-cocks made the pastime classical. Alexander\nthe Great is said to have crucified a tax-gatherer at Alexandria who\nkilled and ate a famous fighting-cock. Verdict, S. H. R.\n\n[904] So \u039c\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03b7 and the O. Germ. _Ask_ (an ash-tree) signify a bow:\nthere are many instances of such nomenclature.\n\n[905] Quinctilian, _Inst. Orat._ xii. 11. Marchionni (p. 123) makes the\nGladius short and broad for infantry, and the Ensis long and broad for\ncavalry, in fact, synonymous with Spatha. This view is not unusual.\n\n[906] In _Claud._ cap. 15.\n\n[907] Florus, ii. 17.\n\n[908] This blade greatly resembles one found in Ostirbotten, Finland,\nexcept that the latter preserves the tang. _Trans. Congress of Bologna\nof 1871_, p. 428.\n\n[909] The point was called _cuspis_, which never applies to the\n_mucro_, _acies_, or edge. \u2018Differt a mucrone qu\u00e6 est acies gladii,\u2019\nsays Facciolati.\n\n[910] See chap. vii. In Hugues de Ban\u00e7oi\u2019s _Battle of Benevento_ we\nread: \u2018Le Roy Charles\u2019 (brother of St. Louis, and then fighting to take\nSicily from Manfred) ... \u2018crioit de sa bouche Royale \u00e0 ses Chevaliers\nde serrer les ennemis, leur disant, _Frappez de la pointe, Frappez de\nla pointe, soldats de J\u00e9sus Christ_. Et il ne faut pas s\u2019en \u00e9tonner,\ncar ce Prince habile avait lu dans le Livre de l\u2019Art Militaire que les\nnobles Romains n\u2019avoient pas imagin\u00e9 de meilleure mani\u00e8re de combattre\nque de percer les ennemis avec la pointe de l\u2019\u00e9p\u00e9e.\u2019\n\n[911] Livy, xxxv. 12. According to Spanish tradition, Toletum (probably\na Carthaginian-Punic word) was founded B.C. 540 by Hebrews, who called\nit Toledoth, in Arab. Tawallud, the \u2018mother of cities.\u2019\n\n[912] Properly the South-Danube country from the Wienerwald to the Inn.\nThe great seat of the iron works was at Lauriacum (Lorch, near Enns).\nAfter B.C. 16 the province was ruled by a Procurator.\n\n[913] See chap. vi.\n\n[914] In Tonini\u2019s _Rimini avanti l\u2019 era volgare_ (p. 31) we read\nthat the Spatha-blade \u2018Come ognuno sa, presso i Greci quanto presso\ni Latini, _est genus gladii latioris_; onde Isidoro nelle _Origini_\n(xviii. cap. 6) ha che alcuni _spatham latine autumant, eo quod\nspatiosa sit, id est lata et ampla_.\u2019 But this is a dictionary\nderivation. In chap. viii. I have traced it back to the Egyptian\n_Sfet_, and in chap. xiii. I shall show that it is the straight\nbroadsword as used by the Kelts.\n\n[915] Parazonium = \u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03ac + \u03b6\u03ce\u03bd\u03b7. _Pugio_, our \u2018poniard,\u2019 is from\n_pugnus_ (\u03c0\u03cd\u03be), the fist; others take it from _pungere_ to prick.\n\n[916] Smith (_Dict. of Ant._ p. 809) borrows figs. _a_ and _b_ from\nBeger (_Thes. Brand_, v., iii. p. 398, 419).\n\n[917] See end of chap. viii.\n\n[918] Smith (_loc. cit._ p. 195) renders _capulus_ by \u2018hilt.\u2019 Pommel,\nhowever, best explains Ovid\u2019s legend of Theseus (_Met._ vii. 423), who,\nappearing for the first time before his father \u00c6geus, was known by\nthe carving on his ivory _capulus_, and thus escaped Medea\u2019s aconite.\nMoreover, a \u2018golden hilt set with beryls\u2019 would have been very awkward\nto handle.\n\n[919] Virg. _\u00c6n._ xii. 942.\n\n[920] Section Beaumont. The grip has four hollows to fit the fingers.\nThis indentation-system has been revived of late years, as shown by\nthe swords of Victor Emmanuel and General Lamarmora in the Municipal\nMuseum, Turin.\n\n[921] Guard plates, accompanying cross-bars, have been found in Gaul.\n\n[922] These rings appear on the scabbard of Tiberius.\n\n[923] Here I rely upon Ammian. Marcell. (xxiv. 4; xxv. 3, 4, and\n_passim_). So great a reformer could not escape detraction in its most\nvenomous form. His last words (attributed) _Vicisti, Nazarene_, must, I\nthink, have been pronounced in Syriac-Arabic, _Nasart\u2019 y\u00e1 Nasr\u00e1ni_.\n\n[924] J\u00e4hns, p. 198. He gives an illustration (Pl. xvii. 14) of the\n\u2018Ann\u00e6us\u2019 monument at Bingen; there is a double balteus worn round the\nwaist for the Spatha, or long Sword, to the right, and the Pugio to the\nleft, both being carried perpendicularly. The Roman Parazonium is also\nrare in collections.\n\n[925] In this matter we must be careful how we trust to engravings,\nespecially from vases, &c. The careless artist often reverses the\nfigure.\n\n[926] _Military Antiq._, vol. ii.; Pl. xli.\n\n[927] Quoting Lyson\u2019s _Woodchester Antiquities_ (Pl. xxxv.).\n\n[928] Pl. i. fig. 10. Quoted in _The British Army_, &c., by Sir Sibbald\nDavid Scott, a well-studied work containing a considerable amount of\ninformation.\n\n[929] _Soc. of Antiq._, June 29, 1876.\n\n[930] During the critical action at Thapsus, C\u00e6sar, according to\nPlutarch, was _hors de combat_ with a fit of epilepsy, the _comitialis\nmorbus_ (Afric. War, chap. 14). I have noticed in my Commentaries on\nCamoens (i. 40) the strange fact that some of the greatest men of\nantiquity were subject to this \u2018falling sickness.\u2019 The Egyptians held\nit to be a manifestation of the power of Typhon; hence the \u2018divine\ndisease\u2019 of Apuleius (Defence), and the strange fancies of d\u00e6moniac\npossession which prevailed in the earliest ages, and which have not\nyet died out. The learned Canon Farrar (_Life, &c. of Saint Paul_,\nAppendix, vol. i.) holds that this perhaps was the \u2018thorn in the\nflesh\u2019 (2 Cor. xii. 7) alluded to by the great Apostle. He quotes from\nHausrath the \u2018trances\u2019 of Sokrates, the fits of Mohammed, and the\nfaintings and ecstasies of Saints Bernard, Francis, and Catherine of\nSienna; and to these he adds George Fox, Jacob B\u00f6hme, and Swedenborg.\n\n[931] This is an illustration of genius taking pains and a lesson to\nthe leader of troops; but how many of the moderns have practised it, or\nhave been capable of practising it? Suv\u00f3roff (Suwarroff), it is true,\ntaught his men bayonet-exercise, with his coat off and his sleeves\ntucked up: Mediocrity shudders at the idea. The Russian had, by the\nway, curious ideas concerning the use of the weapon. \u2018Brothers! never\ngaze into the enemy\u2019s eyes; fix your sight on his breast, and prod your\nbayonet there.\u2019 The first rule for the General is to be ever looking\nafter his men, to live, as it were, in the saddle, and to lead the\nattack when requisite. What were the habits of poor Lord Raglan and\nof his successor General (Jimmy) Simpson? No wonder that we had the\nmortification of the Redan affair.\n\n[932] _Strategemata_, viii. 28. The \u2018Macedonian\u2019 flourished about the\nmiddle of the second century (Christian era).\n\n[933] ix. 40.\n\n[934] This word has a universal history of its own, and contains a\nlecture on anthropology.\n\nIts form is onomatopoetic, the earliest form of expression, as the\nEgyptian _miao_, for a cat; and it admirably conveys the idea of\nmuttering or stuttering. Again, it is a reduplication of sounds;\nanother absolutely primitive construction, and the effect is emphasis.\n\n\u2018Berber-ta\u2019 (Berber-land) was applied by the ancient Egyptians\n(Catalogue of Thut-mes III.), whence our modern term Barbary.\n\nThe word in Hebr. \u2018wild beast feeding in waste\u2019 migrated to India,\nand was there corrupted to \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0930 (Varvara), a barbarous land, one who\nspeaks unintelligibly.\n\n\u2018Berber\u2019 passed over to Greece from Egypt, and became \u03b2\u03ac\u03c1\u03b2\u03b1\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, meaning\na foreigner whose language was not Hellenic, and who, therefore,\nwas little better than a beast. (N.B. Shakespeare would have been a\nbarbarian in Persia and Hafiz in England.)\n\n\u2018Barbaros\u2019 broadened its meaning in Rome, where it was applied to all\npeoples who could not speak or who mispronounced Greek and Latin. See\nStrabo, xiv. 2, on \u2018Barbaros\u2019 and to \u2018barbarise\u2019; thus unhappy Ovid\ncould wail:\n\n\u2018Barbarus hic ego sum quia non intelligor illis.\u2019\n\nLastly, the \u2018proto-Aryan\u2019 term \u2018Barbarian\u2019 has now grown to full size,\nand is applied generally to the rude, the fierce, the uncivilised, and\nthose who contumaciously ignore the \u2018higher culture.\u2019\n\n[935] This is materialism pure and simple; but all the teaching of\nmodern science points to the material. The mysterious \u2018life\u2019 is no\nlonger \u2018vital power\u2019; it simply represents the sum total of the\nenergies and protoplasm. \u2018Life is a property of protoplasm or bioplasm,\nand is the latest product of thought and research.\u2019 And I may add that\nConsciousness, like Will, is a property of life in certain of its\nforms; a state and condition of cerebral and other atoms; the mere\nconsequence of hitherto unappreciated antecedents.\n\n[936] Florus, ii. 3.\n\n[937] _Bronze_, &c. p. 297. From _Aarb\u00f6g. f. Nord. Oldk._ 1879, pl. i.\n\n[938] _Bronze_, &c., p. 298. From Bastian and A. Voss, _Die\nBronze-Schwerter des K. Mus. zu Berlin_, 1878, p. 56.\n\n[939] _Bronze_, &c., p. 299, from Von Sacken and Lindeschmit\u2019s\n_Alterth\u00fcmer_. The first finds by Herr Namsauer in 1846\u201364 were 6,000\narticles from 993 graves.\n\n[940] I have already noticed the copper Ensis and coppered shield\nattributed by Virgil (_\u00c6n._ viii. 74) to the people of Abella, an\nItalian district under Turnus.\n\n[941] _Bronze_, &c., p. 277. The author also notices the small handles\nof bronze Swords, \u2018a fact which seems to prove that the men who used\nthese swords were but of moderate stature\u2019 (_Prehistoric Times_, p.\n22). He denies their being very small, and he justly believes that the\nexpanding part of the hilt was intended to be within the grasp of the\nhand. I have already explained that the hand was purposely confined in\norder to give more momentum to the cut.\n\n[942] _Bronze_, &c., p. 297; taken from Gastaldi, Pellegrini and\nGozzadini. The author remarks (p. 287) that some of the bronze daggers\nfrom Italy seem also to have had their hilts cast upon the blades\nin which the rivets were already fixed. This is not unfrequent with\nthe Sword, and the object seems mere imitation; like the Hauranic\nstone-doors, panelled as if to pass for wood.\n\n[943] _Bronze_, &c., p. 283, we find that the British Museum contains a\nspecimen. _Catalog. Italy_, p. 28.\n\n[944] _Bronze_, &c., ibid., quoting from _Numm. Vet. Ital. Descript._,\npl. xii.\n\n[945] See chap. vi.\n\n[946] _De Garrul._\n\n[947] _De Ferro_, i. 195.\n\n[948] Lib. xliv. 3. Martial also alludes (i. 49; iii. 12, &c.) to the\nmetallic wealth of his native province.\n\n[949] Pliny (xxxi. 4, 41) also notices the Salo or River Bilbilis\n(Xalon); and the Celtiberian town of the same name, now Bombola, the\nbirthplace of the poet Martial, is near Calatayud (Kala\u2019at el-Yah\u00fad =\nJew\u2019s Fort), or Job\u2019s Castle. Of the Chalybes I have already spoken.\n\n[950] _Roman Arch\u00e6ology_, by Angelo Maio.\n\n[951] The words \u039a\u03ad\u03bb\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u0393\u03b1\u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, \u0393\u03ac\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf (meaning Armati, pugnaces,\nK\u00e4mpfer, fighters), evidently derive not from Coille, a word, but from\nthe old word Gal (battle), Gala (arms). The name suited their natures;\nthey were never at peace, and their bravery was proverbial: the Greeks\ncalled it \u039a\u03b5\u03bb\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f78\u03bd \u03b8\u03c1\u03ac\u03c3\u03bf\u03c2 = Keltic daring.\n\n[952] Cladibas or Cladias = _gladius_. I have noticed the shape when\nspeaking of the Hallstadt finds.\n\n[953] Poly\u00e6nus, _Strategemata_; Dion. Halicar. xiv. chap. 13.\n\n[954] Plutarch (_De Cam._ cap. xxvii.) also arms the Gauls, when\nattacking the Capitol, with the Kopis. \u2018The first to oppose them was\nManlius.... Meeting two enemies together, he parried the cut of one\nwho raised a Kopis (\u03ba\u03bf\u03c0\u03af\u03b4\u03b1) by hacking off his right hand with a\nGladius\u2019 (\u03be\u03af\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2). I presume that \u2018Kopis\u2019 is here used for the _pugio_,\ndirk, or shorter sword. Borghesi _\u0152uvres Compl\u00e8tes_, vol. ii. pp.\n337\u2013387, says: \u2018In use and form, in grip and in breadth of blade,\nthe Kopis much resembles our _Sciabla_, (Sabre).\u2019 But its comparison\nwith the falx and pruning hook and a medal of Pub. Carisius suggest a\nsubstantial difference: while the broadsword is edged on the convex\nside, the Kopis had a sharpened concave. Count Gozzadini, like General\nA. Pitt-Rivers, compares the Kopis with the Khanjar or Yataghan, and\nquotes Xenophon (_Cyrop._ ii. 1, 9; vi. 2, 10) to prove that it was\npeculiar to Orientals. I have traced the word to the Egyptian Khopsh or\nKhepsh, and repeat my belief that it is the old Nilotic sickle-blade\nwith a flattened curve. But, as might be expected in the case of so old\na word, the weapon to which it was applied may have greatly varied in\nsize and shape.\n\n[955] Brennus is evidently a congener of the Welsh _brenhin_ (the\nking). The Senones have left their name in Illyrian Segna, once a nest\nof pirates and corsairs, south of Fiume the Beautiful. I shall notice\nthem in a future page.\n\n[956] Livy, xxii. 46.\n\n[957] _Bell. Gall._ iii. 13; vii. 22.\n\n[958] Lib. x. cap. 32.\n\n[959] Lib. v. cap. 30.\n\n[960] See chapters viii. and xii. Here the word is evidently applied\ngenerically to a straight two-edged broadsword, about 1 m\u00e8tre long. In\nthe Middle Ages the weapon gave rise to many curious varieties, as the\n_Spatha pennata_ and the _Spatha in fuste_.\n\n[961] According to Vegetius (ii. 15) the Saunion was the light javelin\nof the Samnites, with a shaft 3\u00bd feet long, and an iron head measuring\n5 inches. Thus it would resemble the Roman _pilum_. But Diodorus\nevidently means another and a heavier weapon which could hardly be\nthrown. Meyrick and J\u00e4hns (p. 390) do not solve the difficulty.\n\n[962] Lib. iv. 4, \u00a7 3.\n\n[963] _De Bell. Pers._\n\n[964] The Northumberland Stone in Montfaucon (vol. iv. part 1, p. 37)\nshows a Gaul wearing sword and dagger on either side.\n\n[965] In Athen\u00e6us, lib. xiv., the celebrated philosopher called the\nApam\u00e6an or the Rhodian, a contemporary of Pompey and Cicero, left,\namongst other works, one called \u03a4\u03ad\u03c7\u03bd\u03b7 \u03c4\u03b1\u03ba\u03c4\u03b9\u03ba\u1f74 (_de Acie instruenda_).\n\n[966] Lib. vii. cap. 10. It is evident that the Duello did not, as many\nauthors suppose, arise with the Kelts. All we can say is that they\nmay have originated in Europe the sentiment called _pundonor_ and the\npractice of defending it with the armed hand. The idea was unknown to\nthe classics; and, with the exception, perhaps, of the Arabs, it is\nstill ignored by the civilised Orientals of our day, especially by the\nMoslems.\n\n[967] Lib. ii. caps. 28, 30, and 33.\n\n[968] Simply meaning Spearmen. Gaisate = _hastatus_ from Gaisa\n(_g\u00e6sum_), the Irish _gai_, any spear. Isidore (_Gloss._) translates\n\u2018Gessum\u2019 by \u2018hasta vel jaculum Gallic\u00e8, \u03b2\u03bf\u03bb\u03af\u03c2.\u2019 The word survives in\nthe French _guisarme_, _gisarme_, &c. The G\u00e6sum probably had a kind of\nhandle and a defence for the hand.\n\n[969] Lib. xxii. cap. 46.\n\n[970] Lib. xxxviii. 21.\n\n[971] The naked bodies and narrow shields are well shown in the\nbattle-scene on the Triumphal Arch of Orange (J\u00e4hns, Plate 29).\n\n[972] Borghesi (Tonini\u2019s _Rimini_, &c., p. 28 and Tables A 3 and B 6)\nmakes one of these gladii a \u2018Kopis.\u2019\n\n[973] Lib. v. cap. 30.\n\n[974] The cavalry was organised in the Trimarkisia (three marka, or\nhorses) composed of the \u2018honestior\u2019 (afterwards the knight), and the\nclients (squires). The host that attacked Hellas, under Brennus, had\n20,400 horsemen to 752,000 foot.\n\n[975] The pattern is almost universal. Moorcroft found it in the\nHimalayas, and I bought \u2018shepherd\u2019s plaid\u2019 in Unyamwezi, Central Africa.\n\n[976] The first use of tattooing was to harden the skin, a defence\nagainst weather. The second (and this we still find throughout Africa)\nwas to distinguish nations, tribes, and families.\n\n[977] \u2018Galli bracchas deposuerunt et latum clavum sumpserunt.\u2019 Diodorus\nSic. (v. 30) has \u03b2\u03c1\u03ac\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2; in Romaic \u03b2\u03c1\u03ac\u03c7\u03b9; in Italian _braghe_, Germ.\n_Br\u00fcche_. Our word \u2018breech-es\u2019 or \u2018Breek-s\u2019 is a double plural; \u2018breek\u2019\nbeing the plur. of the A. S. _broc_, a brogue. Aldus and other old\nwriters mistranslate the _bracch\u00e6_ by plaid, or upper garment. J\u00e4hns\nmore justly renders _sagum_ by plaid (p. 431).\n\n[978] Livy, xxxviii. 24.\n\n[979] Italy has declared herself _Una_. But without considering a\nmultitude of origins, one for almost every province, she is peopled in\nour modern day by two races, contrasting greatly with each other. The\nPo is the frontier, dividing the Gr\u00e6co-Latin Italians to the south from\nthe Gallic and Frankish Italians (Milanese, Piedmontese, &c.) to the\nnorth. The latter, originally Barbari, are the backbone of the modern\nkingdom: the Southerners are the weak point.\n\n[980] _Bell. Gall._ vi. 24.\n\n[981] J\u00e4hns (in his Plates 27\u201330) unites \u2018Kelten und Germanien,\nGermanien und Kelten.\u2019\n\n[982] _De Mor. Germ._, cap. 6.\n\n[983] So we find the god Tyr or Tuisco (regent of Tuesday), the\nMonthu or Mars of the North, figured in the Runes as a barbed spear \u16cf\n(resembling the planetary emblem of Mars). He afterwards became the\nSword-god. From the Tyr-rune is derived \u16e0 Er (= h\u00earu, the sword), or\nAer, which resembles the Greek \u1f04\u03bf\u03c1, and which Jacob Grimm connects with\n\u1f0c\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2, _\u00e6s_ and _Eisen_ (J\u00e4hns, p. 14).\n\n[984] The older derivation is from _ferrea_. J\u00e4hns (p. 407) gives a\nhost of others\u2014_Bram_ (thorn, bramble); _Pfriem_ (punch, awl); _Brame_\n(a border, edging); _ramen_ (to aim, strike), &c., &c.\n\n[985] _Arms_, &c., p. 419.\n\n[986] _Annals_, ii. cap. 14.\n\n[987] _De Mor. G._ cap. 6.\n\n[988] The _steendysser_ of Denmark, dolmens of France, and cromlechs of\nEngland.\n\n[989] P. 416, Pl. xxviii. 4. In p. 417 he gives a list of many\nbronze-finds.\n\n[990] Tacit. _Annals_, ii. 14.\n\n[991] Cap. 42 and 6.\n\n[992] So the Longobards may be Long-halberts, and the Franks\nFrancisca-men.\n\n[993] Vegetius (ii. 15) makes them use \u2018gladii majores quas Spathas\nvocant,\u2019 and Isidore (68, 6) says that the _gladii_ were \u2018utraque parte\nacuti.\u2019\n\n[994] In Scandinavian, the noblest of the Germanic tongues, _hjalt_; in\nO. Germ, _helza_; Ang. S. _helt_, _hielt_, and in Mid. Germ. _helze_,\n_gehilze_ (J\u00e4hns, p. 419).\n\n[995] J\u00e4hns (p. 419) has three kinds of hilts. The oldest is the\ncrescent, noticed above (fig. 293); it is adorned with spirals and\nvarious figures. The second, which seems to be more general in the\nSahs, or short weapon, has in the place of pommel a crutch or crescent,\nwith the horns more or less curved, and either disunited or joined\nby a cross-bar. Here again spirals were disposed upon the planes: we\nshall see them highly developed in the Scandinavian weapons of a later\ndate. The third hilt was a kind of tang, continuing the blade, and\nfitted with rounded edges for making fast wood, horn, or bone: it had\ngenerally a bulge in mid-handle. The pommel proper is little developed\nin these Swords.\n\n[996] \u2018Sahs\u2019 seems to have an alliance with the Latin \u2018saxum\u2019 (J\u00e4hns,\np. 8, quoting Grimm). \u2018Hamar\u2019 (hammer) had the same meaning. From\n\u2018sax\u2019 we may probably derive the Zacco-sword of the Emperor Leo\n(_Chronicle_): \u2018Item fratrem nostrum Ligonem cum zaccone vulneravit.\u2019\nThe Laws of the Visigoths mention both weapons, long and short:\n\u2018plerosque ver\u00f2 scutis, spatis, scramis\u2019 (battle-axes?) \u2018....\ninstructos habuerit.\u2019 \u2018Nimith euere saxes\u2019 (take to your knife-swords),\nsaid Hengist, and the oaths \u2018Meiner Six!\u2019 (by my dirk), and\n\u2018Dunner-Saxen\u2019 (thunder sword) in Lower Saxony, are not forgotten.\n\n[997] I have spoken of the Scramasax in chap. v. Demmin (p. 152) and\nothers deduce \u2018scrama\u2019 (broadsword) from \u2018scamata,\u2019 the line traced on\nthe ground between two Greek combatants(!). Hence, too, he would derive\n\u2018scherma\u2019 and \u2018escrime\u2019\u2014fencing. Others prefer \u2018scaran\u2019 (to shear),\nwhich gave rise to the German \u2018schere\u2019 (scissors), and our \u2018shears\u2019 and\n\u2018shear-steel.\u2019 The word, however, is evidently a congener of the Germ.\n\u2018schirmen,\u2019 to protect, defend.\n\nJ\u00e4hns (p. 418) observes that the Sahs varied greatly in size.\nSome authorities make it a Mihhili Mezzir (muchel knife), a large\n_cultellus_. But the Frisian Asega-buch shows it to be a murderous\nweapon, forbidden to be worn in peace. The finds yield at times a dirk,\nand at times a broadsword; such, for instance, are the Copenhagen\nScramsahs, 90 centim\u00e8tres long, and that of Fronstetten, which, though\nimperfect, weighed 4\u00b75 lbs. The British Museum contains a fine specimen\nof the Scramasax with engraved Runes.\n\n[998] P. 421. Pl. xxviii. 15.\n\n[999] The word is the Ang. Sax. _dolc_, a wound, which thus gave a name\nto the weapon that wounded.\n\n[1000] _Bronze_, pp. 261\u201363. Figs. 329 and 330.\n\n[1001] _Germ._ 6.\n\n[1002] J\u00e4hns (p. 439) quotes Asclepiodotus (vii. 3) and \u00c6lian (xviii.\n4), who describe the _cuneus_ as Scythian and Thracian, _i.e._\nbarbarous. Unfortunately J\u00e4hns also cites the \u2018Boar\u2019s head\u2019 of the Laws\nof Menu (Houghton\u2019s _Manava-Dharma Shastra_, vii. 187), _in the eighth\ncentury_ B.C.; Menu being centuries after Tacitus. I have noticed\nthat the disposal of our chessmen shows the Hind\u00fa form of attack, the\ninfantry in front, the horse and elephants (castles) on either wing,\nand the Rajah or Commander-in-chief in the centre and not in front.\n\n[1003] In its purest form the Standard-bearer stood alone at the apex,\nas Ingo in King Odo\u2019s battle at Mons Panchei (Montpenssier), A.D. 892.\n\n[1004] \u2018Quodque pr\u00e6cipuum fortitudinis incitamentum est, non casus,\nnec fortuita conglobatio turmam aut cuneum facit, sed famili\u00e6 et\npropinquitates\u2019 (Tacit. _Germ._ 7).\n\n[1005] _Nat. Hist._, iv. 14.\n\n[1006] _In Mario_, 23.\n\n[1007] In later times they were carefully cleaned for another object,\nto show their Runic inscriptions.\n\n[1008] Malet\u2019s _Introduction to the History of Denmark_.\n\n[1009] Pliny, iv. 14. Procop. _Bell. Vand._ i. 1.\n\n[1010] In O. Germ. Sper = hasta, lancea; Speril\u00een = lanceola, sagitta;\nAng. Sax. Sper, Engl. spear; Germ. Speer. The word seems to be a\ncongener of Sparre, spar. Less commonly used is Spiess = hasta, cuspis;\nScand. Spjot; O. Germ. Speoz, Spioz; Ang. Sax. spietu; Fr. espi\u00e9,\nespiel, espiet, espieu; Ital. spiedo; Engl. spit. It seems to ally with\nthe Lat. spina, and the Germ. Spitze (J\u00e4hns, p. 413).\n\n[1011] The peculiar celts, chisels, spear-points, &c., extended over\nall the peninsula of Jutland, and as far south as Mark Brandenburg\n(J\u00e4hns, p. 6).\n\n[1012] Neither C\u00e6sar nor Tacitus mentions the use of the bow amongst\nthe ancient Gauls and Germans, although the graves yield arrow-heads of\nstone, bone, and iron.\n\n[1013] Dr. Evans, _Bronze_ &c., p. 299.\n\n[1014] I reserve Scandinavian weapons for Part II.\n\n[1015] _Origins of English History_ (London: Quaritch, 1852).\n\n[1016] The Sword amongst the Anglo-Saxons and the Franks will be\ndescribed at full length in Part II.\n\n[1017] These are:\n\n No. 1. That Bronze-casting spread from a common centre by conquest\n or migration.\n\n No. 2. That each region discovered the art independently, and made\n its own implements.\n\n No. 3. That the art was discovered and implements were made in one\n spot, whence commerce disseminated them.\n\n No. 4. That the art was diffused from a common centre, but that the\n implements were constructed in the countries where they were found.\n\n[1018] _Bronze_, &c., p. 475.\n\n[1019] _Bronze_, p. 473. I would notice that upon the subject of\n\u2018Celts\u2019 the learned author joins issue with the peculiar views of M. de\nMortillet, before noticed. _Bronze_, &c., p. 456.\n\n[1020] The three divisions are:\n\n No. 1. Characterised by flat or slight flanged celts and\n knife-daggers, found in barrows with stone implements.\n\n No. 2. Age of heavy dagger-blades, flanged celts and tanged\n spear-heads, such as those from Arreton Down. In these two the\n Sword is unknown.\n\n No. 3. Palstaves, socketed celts (introduced from abroad); true\n socketed spear-heads, Swords, and the variety of tools and weapons\n found in the hoards of the old bronze-founders.\n\nAnd a great peculiarity in Britain is the absence of nearly all traces\nof the Later Bronze Period in graves and barrows.\n\n[1021] Dr. Evans, _Bronze_, &c., p. 300, quoting M. Alexandre Bertrand.\nFor the condition of the Ancient Britons during the Bronze Period, see\n_ibid._ p. 487.\n\n[1022] In the Acad\u00e9mie des Inscriptions et Belles Lettres of Paris.\n(Dr. Evans, _Bronze_, &c., p. 20).\n\n[1023] \u2018On the True Assignation of the Bronze Weapons,\u2019 _Trans. Ethn.\nSoc._ N. Ser. iv. p. 7).\n\n[1024] _Bronze_, &c., p. 274. See also Introductory Chapter, p. 20.\n\n[1025] See chap. v.\n\n[1026] _Bronze_, &c., p. 417.\n\n[1027] _Bronze_, &c., p. 421. The list of analyses shows lead chiefly\nin the Irish finds.\n\n[1028] _Geog._ vii. 2.\n\n[1029] _Bell. Gall._ v. 12.\n\n[1030] Evans\u2019s _Coins of the Ancient Britons_. I have not yet read the\nwork.\n\n[1031] C\u00e6sar (iv. 33): \u2018Genus hoc est eis essedis pugn\u00e6;\u2019 and he speaks\nagain (v. 15) of _essedarii_. The scythe-car was known to Assyria,\nJewry (the _Faldat_ of Nahum ii. 3), and Persia, where Xenophon and\nPlutarch attribute to it the highest importance; even the pole ended\nin a lance. It became a favourite with all Keltic peoples. At Sentinum\n(B.C. 296) the Gauls almost defeated the Romans by suddenly throwing\non a force of one thousand \u2018esseda currusque.\u2019 The Tectosages, when\nengaged with Antiochus Soter in Phrygia (B.C.), ranged in front of\ntheir attack 240 scythe-cars, some with two and others with four\nhorses. Antiochus the Great armed his chariots not only with two\nscythe blades, but also with lances ten cubits long (?), laterally\nprojecting (Livy, xxxvii. 41). The historian also notices the Arab\ndromedary-riders, \u2018archers who carried their swords four cubits (= 6\nfeet) long, that they might be able to reach the enemy from so great\na height.\u2019 When the G\u00e6sat\u00e6 crossed the Alps (B.C. 228) they were\naccompanied by a vast number of war-cars (Polybius, ii. 4, 5 says\n20,000 \u1f01\u03c1\u03bc\u03b1\u03bc\u03ac\u03be\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03c9\u03c1\u03af\u03b4\u03b1\u03c2) which did good service at the battle of\nTelamon. Ossian\u2019s _Fingal_ offers a long description of the war-car and\nits uses. Many remains of these two-wheeled vehicles have been found in\nKeltic Europe (J\u00e4hns, pp. 394\u201396).\n\n[1032] _Geog._ iii. 6.\n\n[1033] I cannot but attribute to Italian blood the high and aquiline\nfeatures which distinguish the Briton from the Northern German; the\nlatter has been intimately mixed with the Slav race, as a glance at the\nBerlinese suffices to show. Portraits of the Cavalier period explain\nmy meaning. In the Hanoverian times the \u2018Roundhead\u2019 again came to the\nfore, and hence the popular \u2018John Bull\u2019 portrayed in the pages of Mr.\n_Punch_. He is a good working type, but he has not the face to command\nor to impose.\n\n[1034] _Bronze_, &c., pp. 286\u201387. It was found in the river Cherwell\nand it is now in the Museum at Oxford. The first notice was in the\n_Journ. Anthrop. Inst._, vol. iii. 204.\n\n[1035] _Ibid._ p. 287. The author suggests that it may be foreign.\n\n[1036] _Ibid._ p. 288.\n\n[1037] I have already referred to the bronze dagger from Thebes, now in\nthe British Museum, with its narrow rapier-like blade and broad flat\nhilt of ivory.\n\n[1038] Dr. Thurnam considered the tanged dagger more modern than\nthat which was attached by rivets in the base of the blade, and his\nclassification is followed by Dr. Evans, _Bronze_, &c., p. 222.\n\n[1039] The most perfect form of the bronze rapier is found in Ireland;\nof this and of the moulds I shall treat in Part II.\n\n[1040] In _Agric._ cap. 36.\n\n[1041] Montfaucon, _Suppl._ iv., p. 16; Smith, _s. v._ \u2018Gladius.\u2019\n\n[1042] \u2018Pliny\u2019s Ape.\u2019\n\n[1043] Prof. Rhys, of Oxford.\n\n[1044]\n\n \u2018These men from horrid woods, a hairy band,\n Sends far from earth divided Irish-land.\u2019\n\n[1045] The word \u2018Pict,\u2019 says Prof. Rhys, is first applied by a writer\nof the third century to the people beyond the Northern Wall and on\nthe Solway. It evidently arose from their tattooing. He opines that\n\u2018Scotti\u2019 is of Brythonic origin having the same signification. This\nis better than the old Scjot (Scjot), the dart which named the Scyth\u00e6\nand the Scoti. The Picts, both of Alban and Ireland, called themselves\nCruithing\u2014\u2018which an Irish Shanachie has rightly explained to mean a\npeople who painted the forms (Crotha, Ir. k\ua783o\ua787) of beasts, birds, and\nfishes on their faces, and not on their faces only, but on the whole of\nthe body.\u2019 Again we find ourselves in\n\n \u2014\u2018infinita, arcana Africa orrenda.\u2019\n\n\n LONDON: PRINTED BY\n SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE\n AND PARLIAMENT STREET\n\n\n\nTranscriber\u2019s Notes:\n - Text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).\n - Text enclosed by equals is in bold (=bold=).\n - Blank pages have been removed.\n - Silently corrected typographical errors.\n - Hyphenation variations are unchanged.\n - Sidenotes refer to right page headings, and are relocated to\n approximately relevant positions in text.\n - Where possible Unicode fractions have been used.\n - Fig. 82 measurement corrected, blade width was > length.","title":"The Book of the Sword","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":164921}