{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_63276/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_63276","id":"gutenberg_63276","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/63276","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Religious","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Iran -- Religion","Religions"],"text":"THE DABIST\u00c1N,\n\nOR\n\nSCHOOL OF MANNERS.\n\n\n\n\nMADAME VEUVE DONDEY-DUPR\u00c9,\nPrinter to the Asiatic Societies of London, Paris, and Calcutta.\n46, rue St-Louis, Paris.\n\n\n\n\nTHE\n\nDABIST\u00c1N,\n\nOR\n\nSCHOOL OF MANNERS,\n\nTRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL PERSIAN,\n\nWITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS,\n\nBY\n\nDAVID SHEA,\n\nOF THE ORIENTAL DEPARTMENT IN THE HONORABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY\u2019S\nCOLLEGE;\n\nAND\n\nANTHONY TROYER,\n\nMEMBER OF THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETIES OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,\nOF CALCUTTA AND PARIS, AND OF THE ETHNOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS;\n\nEDITED, WITH A PRELIMINARY DISCOURSE, BY THE LATTER.\n\n\nVOLUME II.\n\n\nPARIS:\n\nPRINTED FOR THE ORIENTAL TRANSLATION FUND OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.\n\nSOLD BY\n\nBENJAMIN DUPRAT, BOOKSELLER TO THE BIBLIOTH\u00c8QUE ROYALE.\n\n7, RUE DU CLOITRE SAINT-BENOIT.\n\nAND ALLEN AND CO., LEADENHALL-STREET, LONDON.\n\n1843.\n\n\n\n\nTHE DABIST\u00c1N,\n\nOR\n\nSCHOOL OF MANNERS.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n\nTHE SECOND CHAPTER OF THE DABISTAN describes in twelve sections the\nreligious systems of the Hindus:\n\n_Section_ 1. Concerning the tenets of the _B\u00fadah-M\u00edm\u00e1nsa_, the\nfollowers of which are also called _Sam\u00e1rtikan_ (_Sm\u00e1rt\u00eds_), or\n\u201clegalists,\u201d and are orthodox Hindus.\n\n_Sect._ 2. Records some of their opinions relative to the creation:\ntheir _Purans_ (_Tarikhs_), or \u201chistories,\u201d treat of the same subject.\n\n_Sect._ 3. The religious ceremonies and acts of the _Sm\u00e1rt\u00eds_, and\ntheir orthodoxy.\n\n_Sect._ 4. Treats of the followers of the _Vedanta_, who form the\nphilosophers and S\u00faf\u00eds of this sect.\n\n_Sect._ 5. Concerning those who profess the _Sankhya_ doctrines.\n\n_Sect._ 6. Treats of the _Jog\u00eds_ and their doctrines.\n\n_Sect._ 7. Describes the tenets of the _Sakt\u00ed\u00e1n_.\n\n_Sect._ 8. The opinions and ceremonies of the worshippers of _Vishn\u00fa_.\n\n_Sect._ 9. Treats of the _Ch\u00e1rv\u00e1ki\u00e1n_.\n\n_Sect._ 10. Describes the system of the _T\u00e1rkik\u00e1n_, who are profound\ninvestigators and deep thinkers in theology.\n\n_Sect._ 11. On the tenets held by the followers of _B\u00fadah_ (_Buddha_).\n\n_Sect._ 12. On various religious systems professed by the people of\nIndia.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE FIRST\u2015\u2015CONCERNING THE ORTHODOX HINDOO SYSTEM. As\ninconstant fortune had torn away the author from the shores of Persia,\nand made him the associate of the believers in transmigration and\nthose who addressed their prayers to idols and images and worshipped\ndemons, therefore the tenets held by this most subtle class of\nreasoners come to be considered next after those of the Parsees. It is\nhowever necessary to premise, that among the Hindus there are many\nsystems of religion, and innumerable creeds and ceremonies: but there\nis one principal class of this people (as will be shown in the tenth\nchapter), and its rank and dignity will be brought into evidence.\n\nLike Zardusht and the sages of antiquity, they have recourse to\nmetaphorical and enigmatical figures of speech, as will appear evident\nin the course of this narration. Long before the present work, the\nauthor had from books ascertained their various systems, according to\na plan which he now voluntarily abandons; as in the year of the\nHejirah 1063 (A. D. 1653), whilst sojourning at Srikakul, the capital\nof Kalinga,[1] certain eminent persons who were the author\u2019s intimate\nfriends, had travelled in that direction for the purpose of visiting\ntheir holy stations; one day a conference took place, on which the\nauthor reviewed anew what he had before heard, and with the pen of\naccuracy drew the line of erasure over all that was doubtful; so that\nthere was found a wide difference between the first and second work on\nthese points.\n\n\nSUMMARY OF THE DOCTRINES CONTAINED IN THE BUDAH MIMANSA.[2] The whole\nworld is not governed by the orders of a real Lord, and there is in\ntruth no reality in his actual existence. Whatever of good or evil,\nreward or punishment, attaches to created beings, is entirely the\nresult of their acts, deeds, and words; mortals are altogether captive\nin the trammels of their own works, and confined in the chains of\ntheir own deeds: without previous acts they are liable to no\nconsequences. The sovereign, _Brahma_, the creator of all things; the\nangelic _V\u00edshnu_, their preserver; and _Mahesh_, or _Siva_, the\ndestroyer of existences, attained to this exalted eminence through\nmeans of righteous acts and holy deeds; nay, Brahma, through the\nefficacy of worship, the power of obedience, the might of his\nreligious austerities, and by his good actions, created the world;\nagreeably to the express declaration of the _V\u00e9da_,[3] which according\nto the belief of the Hindus is a celestial revelation, every dignity\nof the celestial orders is inseparably connected with meritorious\nworks and holy deeds; and as the intellectual soul is of the same\nnature as the angelic essence, the possessor may, by the exercise of\nangelic qualities, become one of those exalted dignities, and during a\nlengthened but definite period, be invested with power and glory. For\ninstance, the human spirit, which in knowledge and good works has\nattained to a degree accounted worthy of the rank of Brahma, is, on\nthe termination of the period of sovereignty assigned to the present\nBrahma, appointed to that predestined dignity: the same principle also\napplying to the other angelic degrees.\n\nThis tenet therefore leads to the same inference as the opinions\nentertained by the distinguished Parsee sages, namely: that the\nspirits of men, on attaining complete perfection, become united to the\nheavenly bodies, and after many revolutions, the celestial souls are\nblended with the divine intelligences. According to the Mobed:\n\n   \u201cThe cup-bearer poured into the goblet the wine of the celestial\n      soul,\n    And filled the nine empyreal domes with the beverage of human\n      spirit.\u201d\n\nThe world has neither beginning nor ending; moreover all spirits are\nenchained in the bonds of their own acts and deeds; so that the spirit\nof high rank which adopts the practices of the inferior, cannot attain\nto the sublime rank peculiarly assigned to exalted conduct; and the\ninferior spirit, sedulously given up to the works of those eminent in\ndignity, is enabled to obtain that glorious pre-eminence; so that\ntheir meritorious works confer on them knowledge; and the purity of\ntheir intellects, in proportion to their elevation, conducts them to\nhigh degrees and praiseworthy deeds. The dominion obtained by an\nanimal body over the human soul arises from works; as in their\nmembers, physical structure, and senses, all men are fashioned after\none model; but through the cause of becoming or unbecoming deeds, one\nis a sovereign ruler, and another a destitute dependent. Thus, through\nthe influence of praiseworthy acts, one is honored and opulent; and\nowing to a subservience to foul deeds, another lives degraded and\nindigent; the high and dignified agent of opulence and honor falls not\ninto the depths of poverty, nor does the wretched slave to acts of\ncovetousness and avarice ever attain the dignity of honor and riches.\nThe world is the root and productive soil of works, and time is their\ndeveloper; because, when their time comes, it brings the fruit, just\nas every season produces the flowers, sweet-scented plants, and fruits\nsuitable to the period; in like manner, the result of every act,\nwhether deserving of praise or censure, is made to adhere to its\nagent, in whatever revolution that may be proper for it. Works are\ndivided into two kinds: those which are to be performed; the other,\nthose which are to be avoided: under the first, come those acts, the\nperformance of which is enjoined in the Vedas, or the celestial\nrevelation, such as the established worship and the requisite acts of\nobedience which prevail among the Hindoos; under the second head come\nthose acts, the committing of which is forbidden by the text of the\ncelestial code; such as shedding blood, theft, immoral practices, and\nother similar acts there enumerated. The supreme Lord stands not in\nneed of our adoration and obedience, nor is he in any want of us for\nthe performance of the above-mentioned duties at our hands; but the\nresults of our acts and deeds, in reference to rewards and\npunishments, accrue and adhere to us. For instance, if the invalid\nshould adopt habitual moderation, he obtains that health which is the\nobject of his wishes, and his existence is thereby rendered happy; but\nshould he, from a bias to reprehensible pleasures, the concomitants of\ndisease, withdraw from the restraints of abstinence, his life becomes\nembittered; the physician, in either case, being totally independent\nof the patient\u2019s welfare and sufferings. Moreover, the world is the\nabode of disease, and human beings are the patients: if they acquit\nthemselves in the most perfect manner of their prescribed duties, and\nstrenuously avoiding what ought not to be done, they attain the state\nof health, the most elevated degree of which is liberation from this\ndegraded body, and union with the ambrosial sweets of paradise; which\nstate is called _Mukti_ by this sect; and the mode of attaining the\nhighest degree of Mukti is not being immersed in the pleasures of this\nworld, plucking away the heart from the gratifications of sense, being\ncontent with mere necessaries, abstaining from food, breaking the fast\nwith viands not relished by the vile appetite, and such like: just as\nin sickness, for the sake of dissolving the morbid matter, it becomes\nnecessary to fast one day, and to swallow bitter draughts.\n\nSuch is the substance of the tenets professed by the sect entitled\nBudah-Mimans\u00e1, which coincide exactly with those of the Yezd\u00e1n\u00ed\u00e1ns,\nexcept that the latter admit the being of the self-existent God, the\nsole and true object of adoration; regarding the acts and deeds\nperformed in this world as the means of elevation and degradation in\nthe next; holding the angelic dignities to be imperishable; and\nesteeming human perfection to consist in attaining to the society and\nservice of the sublime assembly in the court of heaven; whilst the\nfollowers of the Budah Mimansa do not admit the existence of the\neternal and infinite Lord; but according to them, the term \u201cAlmighty\u201d\nsignifies the human soul, acts, and deeds. They also assert, that the\nblessings of paradise are transitory, and that the angelic dignities\nare liable to perish. However, the orthodox opinion, which is most\nprevalent at this time, is this: they admit the being of the\ntruly-existing God, by whom the world subsists; but account his holy\nessence altogether exalted, and exempt from whatever effects created\nbeings. They also believe that human beings are confined by the yokes\nof their own works, and enchained by their deeds, in the manner before\nstated.\n\n\n     [1] The name of a country: this name is applied in the\n     Puranas to several places, but it usually signifies a\n     district on the Coromandel coast, extending from below\n     Cuttack to the vicinity of Madras.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [2] \u0628\u0648\u062f\u0647 \u0645\u064a\u0645\u0646\u0633 is the reading of the edition of Calcutta;\n     the same spelling of _Budh_, or _Budah_, is found when the\n     name of the legislator, properly _Buddha_, is introduced, as\n     in p. 175 of the same edition, and elsewhere. But _Budah_\n     may also signify \u201cpast, gone,\u201d and therefore \u201cprior;\u201d on\n     that account D. Shea rendered the above name by _Purva_ (or\n     \u201cprior\u201d) _Mimansa_. According to Colebrooke and Mr. Wilson,\n     \u092e\u0940\u092e\u093e\u0902\u0938\u093e _M\u00edm\u00e1ns\u00e1_, signifies one of the philosophical\n     systems of the Hind\u00fas, or rather a two-fold system, the\n     first part of which is the _Purva M\u00edm\u00e1ns\u00e1_, or _M\u00edm\u00e1ns\u00e1_,\n     simply; the second part, the _Uttara M\u00edmansa_. \u201cThe prior\n     M\u00edm\u00e1ns\u00e1, founded by Jaimini, teaches the art of reasoning,\n     with the express view of aiding in the interpretation of the\n     Vedas. The _Uttara_, or \u201clatter,\u201d commonly called the\n     _Vedanta_, and commonly attributed to Vyasa, deduces from\n     the Vedas a refined psychology, which goes to the denial of\n     a material world.\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Colebrooke\u2019s Essays._)\n\n     But the above account of the Dabist\u00e1n is not strictly and\n     fully in accordance with this definition of the first\n     M\u00edm\u00e1ns\u00e1, because it exhibits more of the Puranic than of the\n     Ved\u00e1ic doctrine, not without some particular notions. It\n     appeared therefore best to adhere to the reading of the\n     original text.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [3] V\u00e9d\u00e1, the generic term for the sacred writings, or\n     scriptures, of the Hind\u00fas. See a subsequent note about the\n     four V\u00e9das.\n\n\nSECTION THE SECOND TREATS OF CERTAIN OPINIONS ENTERTAINED BY THIS SECT\nCONCERNING THE CREATION: A SUBJECT WHICH IS ALSO DISCUSSED IN THEIR\nPURANAS OR HISTORIES.\u2015\u2015In the second part of the Bhagavat, one of\ntheir most esteemed Pur\u00e1n\u00e1s, it is recorded that the Almighty Creator,\nin the beginning, first placed the mantle of existence on the bosom of\n_Prakriti_,[4] or \u201cnature,\u201d and produced the fourteen _Bhuvanas_,[5]\nor \u201cworlds.\u201d The first sphere is that of the earth, which has been\nestimated by some of the ancients at five Kotes (50 millions) of\nYojans,[6] each Kote being equal to one hundred Lakhs (10 millions)\nand each Jojun to one Parasang and one-third; above the terrestrial is\nthe aqueous sphere; above which is that of fire; beyond which is the\na\u00ebrial, over the celestial; beyond which is the _Ahankar_,[7] or that\nof \u201cconsciousness;\u201d and higher than this is the _Mahat-tat_\n(_Mahat-tatwam_)[8] or \u201cessence,\u201d which is equal to ten of those below\nit; and Prakrit having enveloped it, intelligence penetrating through\nall the things before said, rises above: on earth it becomes\nknowledge; by means of water, there is taste; by means of fire, form;\nby means of air, the touch of cold and dry; by means of the heavens,\nthere is the perception of sound; and the organs of perception, are\nthe exterior senses; and the internal sense is the seat of\nconsciousness. In the same part of the Bhagavat it is stated that, by\nnature, the heavens are the vehicle of sounds; and consequently, the\nnature of the air gives the perception of sound and touch; in all\nother bodies the air is spirit, and from it arises the energy of the\nsenses. To the nature of fire belongs the perception of sound, touch\nand form; to the nature of water, that of sound, touch, form, and\nsavor; and to the nature of earth, that of sound, touch, form, savor,\nand odor.\n\nOf the fourteen created spheres, seven rise above the waist of the\nAlmighty, and the remaining seven correspond with the lower part of\nhis body; according to which enumeration the _Bh\u00fa-lok_,[9] or the\nearth and terrestrial beings form \u201chis waist;\u201d the _Bh\u00favanlok_,[10] or\nthe space between the earth and sun, \u201chis navel;\u201d the _Surlok_,[11]\n\u201chis heart;\u201d the _Mehrlok_,[12] \u201chis breast;\u201d the _Jonlok_,[13] \u201chis\nneck;\u201d the _Tapalok_,[14] \u201chis forehead;\u201d the _Satyolok_,[15] \u201chis\nhead;\u201d the _Atellok_,[16] \u201chis navel and podex;\u201d the _Batellok_,[17]\n\u201chis thigh;\u201d the _Sotollok_,[18] \u201chis knee;\u201d the _Tal\u00e1tellok_,[19]\n\u201cthe calf of the leg;\u201d the _Mah\u00e1tollok_,[20] \u201cthe heel;\u201d the\n_Rasatollok_,[21] \u201cthe upper part of the foot;\u201d the _P\u00e1t\u00e1llok_,[22]\n\u201cthe sole of the foot.\u201d\n\nThere is another division limited to three spheres: the _Bh\u00falok_, \u201cthe\nsole of the Almighty\u2019s foot;\u201d the _Bhuvarlok_, \u201chis navel;\u201d the\n_S\u00farl\u00f3k_, \u201chis head;\u201d the whole fourteen gradations in detail are thus\nreduced to three, signifying a mighty personage, the same as the\nDeity.\n\nIn the same section of that volume it is also stated, that from the\nAlmighty sprang _Svabh\u00e1vah_,[23] \u201cthe self-existing;\u201d that is, Nature\nand Time; from Nature and Time proceeded forth _Prakrit_, which\nsignifies _S\u00edm\u00e1\u00ed_, \u201cuniverse;\u201d[24] from Prakrit came forth\n_Mahat-tat_;[25] and from this latter, which is the same as _M\u00e1dah_,\n\u201cmental exaltation,\u201d issued the three _Ahank\u00e1rs_, or modes of\nconsciousness, \u201cpersonality, egotism,\u201d _Satek_, _Rajas_, _Tamas_.[26]\n_Satek_, \u201cgoodness,\u201d means \u201cthe intellectual energy;\u201d _Rajas_, or\npassion, \u201cthe attraction of vile propensities,\u201d or \u201csensual pursuits;\u201d\nand _Tamas_ (darkness), \u201cthe repelling of what repugns,\u201d in Arabic,\n_Ghazab_, or \u201cwrath.\u201d From _Rajas_ issued forth the senses; from\n_Satek_, the lords of nature and the servants of the existing beings;\nand from _Tamas_ came forth _Shaid_, \u201cenchantment;\u201d _Shuresh_,\n\u201cconfusion;\u201d _Rup_, \u201cform;\u201d _Darsan_, \u201csight;\u201d and _Gandah_,\n\u201csmell;\u201d[27] that is, hearing, touch, sight, taste, and smell; from\nwhich five were produced the heavens, air, fire, water, and earth.\nAlso from the three above-mentioned properties (_gun\u00e1s_) the three\nmighty angels, _Vishna_, _Brahma_, and _Mah\u00edsh_, came into the area of\nthe creation.[28] Moreover, for the purpose of creation, eight other\nBrahmas were also impressed by the first Brahma with the characters of\nexistence, and these became the various gradations of the spiritual,\ncorporeal, the high, the low, the mineral, vegetable, and animal\nkingdoms.\n\nIn some of their treatises, God is the same as time, works, and\nnature; whilst, according to others, these are regarded as the\ninstruments of his majesty.\n\nIn other treatises, the Almighty is held to be light, surpassingly\ngreat and splendid, of exceeding brilliancy and radiance, corporeal,\ninvested with members.\n\nOther descriptions represent him as pure light, abstract being, simple\nexistence, unconfined by place, exempt from transmigration, free of\nmatter, without parts, uncompounded, divested of the attributes of\naccidents, and the creator of the world, and all therein contained.\nAccording to other dissertations, God is the producer of beginning and\nend, exhibiting himself in the mirror of pure space, containing the\nhigher and lower, the heavenly and terrestrial bodies.\n\nIt is stated in the first part of the Bhagavat, that the\ntruly-existing is an abstract being, one without equal or opposite,\nwho in the various languages amongst the human race has denominations\nsuited to the belief of his worshippers, and that the mode of\nattaining union with him depends on eradicating wrath, extirpating\nbodily gratifications, and banishing the influence of the senses. This\nholy essence is called _Nar\u00e1yan_,[29] whose heads, hands, and feet\nexceed all number.\n\nAt the period when this world and all it contains were buried under\nthe waters, _Tot_, or \u201cintellect\u201d lay reclined in the sleep of unity,\non the head of _Adsesh_,[30] the supporter of the earth. From the\nnavel of this exalted being appeared the lotus flower, called by the\nHindoos _Kawal_;[31] out of which arose _Brahma_, from the members of\nwhose mighty existence all created beings hastened into the area of\nvisibility.\n\nIt is recorded in other treatises of this sect, that they give the\nname of _Nar\u00e1yan_, or \u201cthe majesty without color,\u201d[32] that is,\n\u201cwithout the qualities of accidents,\u201d to the absolute essence and\nabstract being of God, who is in pure space. They say, moreover, that\nhis essence, which is devoid of all forms, made a personage called\n_Brahma_, who was constituted the medium of creation, so that he\nbrought all other existences from behind the curtain of nonentity into\nthe luminous area of being. In like manner that sublime essence\nmanifested itself in the soul of Vishnu, so that he became an\n_Avat\u00e1r_, and to him is confided the preservation of whatever Brahma\ncreated. That glorious essence next called up Mahadeo, for the purpose\nof destroying Brahma\u2019s creation, whenever infinite wisdom requires the\ntransformation of the visible into the invisible world; from which\nthree agents arises the arrangement of all things in the universe.[33]\nThey say that _Brahma_ is an aged man with four heads; _Nar\u00e1yan_, or\n_Vishnu_, holds in his hand the _Chakra_, or _Disk_, \u201ca sort of\nweapon;\u201d he always assumes the _Avat\u00e1rs_, or \u201cincarnations;\u201d of which\nten are greatly celebrated. _Avat\u00e1r_[34] means appearance or\nmanifestation; _Karan_[35] signifies cause; Brahma, Vishnu, and\nMahadeo are called _Trikaran_, or the three causes.\n\nIn the Satya-Jog there was a Rakshas[36], named _S\u00e1mak Asur_, who\nperformed such great religious austerities, that he became enabled to\nwork miracles; he having taken the Anant-Ved[37] which was in Brahma\u2019s\npossession, and from which are derived the four Vedas given to\nmankind, fled into the water; on this, Vishnu, on the fifth day of the\nfifth month, _Ch\u00e9t_,[38] \u201cMarch-April,\u201d[39] in the _Kishn Bichah_,\nhaving assumed the _Matsy\u00e1v\u00e1tar_, or \u201cthe form of a fish,\u201d plunged\ninto the water, slew the Rakshas, and recovered the Veda: this was the\nfirst Avatar.\n\nThe second was the _Kurm\u00e1v\u00e1tar_, or \u201cthat of the tortoise.\u201d _Anant\nVed_ signifies \u201cthe numberless Vedas;\u201d _Matsya_, \u201ca fish;\u201d _Avat\u00e1r_,\n\u201cdescent,\u201d or \u201cmanifestation;\u201d _Ch\u00e9t_, \u201cthe fifth solar month;\u201d _Kishn\nBicheh_, \u201cthat portion of the month which is without moonlight and\nwhen the nights are dark.\u201d\n\nOn the twelfth of _Ch\u00e9t_, in the _Kishn Bicheh_, he assumed the\n_Kurm\u00e1v\u00e1t\u00e1r_, or \u201cthat of the tortoise.\u201d They say that the Angels and\nDeeves (Asurs), taking the serpent _V\u00e1sukir_,[40] formed with him a\ncord, and fastening this to a lofty mountain called _Mand\u00e1ra_,[41]\nmade with it a churn-staff, which they moved about in the mighty\nocean, whilst Nar\u00e1yan remained under the mountain to prevent it from\nfalling; and by this agitation they procured the water of life. In the\nkingdom of _Kalinga_, they have formed the image of a tortoise, and\namong the wonderful sights of that region is the following miraculous\nevent: if they cast the bones of a Brahman or a cow into the adjacent\nreservoir, in the course of a year one half of it becomes stone, and\nthe other half remains unchanged. It is worthy of remark, that some\nPersian astronomers represent the constellation Cancer by a tortoise,\nnay call it by that name, instead of _Kharchang_, or \u201ccrab.\u201d Ferd\u00fasi,\nthe sage, thus expresses himself:\n\n   \u201cThe lunar lord beheld the ascendancy of the tortoise.\u201d\n\nAnd as they account Cancer the ascendant sign of the world, it is\ntherefore likely that the ancient Hind\u00fa philosophers represented this\nconstellation[42] under the figure of the _Kurma_, or \u201ctortoise;\u201d also\nby the _Matsya_, or \u201cfish,\u201d is meant the constellation _H\u00fat_, or\n\u201cPisces.\u201d\n\nThe third was the _Bar\u00e1h_, or \u201cboar Av\u00e1tar,\u201d when a Rakshas, named\n_Karany\u00e1ksha_, having taken away the earth and carried it under the\nwater, Vishnu, on the sixteenth of Chet in the _Shakl Pacheh_,[43] or\n\u201cbright half of the moon,\u201d assumed the form of a boar, slew the demon\nwith his tusks and brought out the earth.\n\nThe fourth was the _Narsinha_, or \u201cman-lion Av\u00e1tar.\u201d There was a\nRakshas named _Kiranya Kash\u00edp\u00fa_, whose son, _Prahl\u00e1da_, worshipped\nVishnu, and as his father persecuted him on that account, Vishnu,\ntherefore, on the fourteenth of _Baisakh_,[44] in the _Shakl Pacha_,\nor \u201cbright half of the moon,\u201d having assumed the form of the Narsingh,\nwhose head and claws were those of a lion joined to a human body, slew\nthe demon Kiranya Kaship\u00fa.\n\nThe fifth was the _V\u00e1-mana_, or \u201cdwarf Avatar.\u201d When the Rakshas, Bali\ndaitya, through his religious exercises and austerities had become\nlord of the three worlds, that is, of all above the earth and below it\nand the heavens, so that the angels were hard pressed and deprived of\ntheir power; Vishnu, therefore, on the twelfth of _Bhadun_[45] in the\n_Shakl Pachah_, descended in the _V\u00e1manah Av\u00e1t\u00e1r_, and coming into the\npresence of Bali, requested as much of the earth as he could traverse\nin three steps: to this Bali consented, although _Sukra_, or \u201cthe\nplanet Venus,\u201d the director and guardian of the demons, exhorted him\nnot to grant the request, saying: \u201cThis is Vishnu, who will deceive\nthee.\u201d Bali replied: \u201cIf he come to me as a suitor, what can answer my\npurpose better?\u201d Vishnu, on this, included the whole earth in one\nstep, the heavens in the second, and in the third, rising up to his\nnavel, said to Bali, \u201cWhither can I pass?\u201d Bali, on this, presented\nhis head; on which Vishnu, who saw this, having placed his foot, sent\n_Bali_[46] below the earth, where he has ever since continued to reign\nwith sovereign power, during many hundred thousands of years. It is to\nbe noted, that _V\u00e1-mana_ means a dwarf, as he was a diminutive\nBrahman.\n\nThe sixth Av\u00e1tar was _Paras u Rama_.[47] The _Chatri_, or \u201cmilitary\ncaste,\u201d having become evil doers, in consequence of this, Vishnu, on\nthe seventh of _Bhadun_, in the _Shakl pachah_, or \u201cbright half of the\nmoon,\u201d assumed the Av\u00e1tar of _Paras\u00faram_, who was of the seed of the\nBrahmans. In this incarnation he exterminated the Chettri class so\nutterly, that he even ripped open their females and slew the f\u0153tus.\nAccording to the Hindus, _Parasuram_ is always living; they call him\n_Chirangivah_, or \u201clong-lived.\u201d\n\nThe seventh is the _Ram Av\u00e1tar_:[48] when the tyranny of the Rakshas\n_R\u00e1vana_, sovereign of the demons, had exceeded all bounds, Vishnu, on\nthe ninth of Chet in the Shaklpachah, becoming incarnate in Rama, who\nwas of the Chettri caste, overthrew at that time R\u00e1v\u00e1na, chief of the\ndemons of _Lanka_, (Ceylon). Now Lanka is a fort built of golden\ningots, situated in the midst of the salt ocean. He also recovered\nSita,[49] the wife of Rama, who had had been taken away by the\nRokshas, which is a name given by the Hindoos to a frightful demon.\n\nThe eighth was the _Krishn Av\u00e1tar_. When Vishnu, in the _Dwapar-Jog_,\non the eighth of Bh\u00e1d\u00fan, in the Kishn pachah, having assumed the\nAv\u00e1tar of _Krishna_, slew _Kans\u00e1_. Krishna was also of the Chettri or\n\u201cmilitary caste.\u201d\n\nThe ninth was the _Budh avatar_. When ten years only of the\n_Dwapar-Jog_ remained,[50] Vishnu, in order to destroy the demons and\nevil genii, the causers of night, assumed the Av\u00e1tar of _Buddha_, on\nthe third of _Baisakh_, in the Shakl pacheh.\n\nThe tenth Av\u00e1tar is to occur at the expiration of the _Kali-jug_, for\nthe purpose of destroying the Mlechas, or \u201cenemies of the Hindoos.\u201d\nThe _Kalki Av\u00e1tar_ is to take place on the third of Bh\u00e1d\u00fan, in the\nShakl Pachah, in the city of _Sumbul_, in the house of a Brahman named\n_Jasa_. _Kalki_ is also to be of the Brahman caste. He will destroy\nthe corruptions of the world, and all the Mlechas, that is,\nMuhammedans, Christians, Jews, and such like, are to be entirely\nextirpated: after which the Satyog, or \u201cgolden age,\u201d is to return.\n\nThey moreover maintain, that the contingently-existing inhabitants and\nbeings of earth are unable to penetrate into the presence of the\nnecessarily-existing sovereign, and that the essence of the Creator is\ntoo exalted for any created beings to attain to an acquaintance with\nit, notwithstanding the high knowledge and piety with which they may\nbe adorned: it therefore seemed necessary to the Almighty God to\ndescend from the majesty of abstractedness and absolute existence, and\nexhibit himself in the various species of angels, animals, man, and\nsuch like, so as to enable them to attain to some knowledge of\nhimself. They therefore assert, that for the purpose of satisfying the\nwishes of his faithful servants, and tranquillizing their minds, he\nhas vouchsafed to manifest himself in this abode, which manifestation\nthey call an Av\u00e1tar and hold this to be no degradation to his essence.\nThis tenet has been thus interpreted by Shidosh, the son of Anosh:\nAccording to the S\u00faf\u00eds, the first wisdom is the knowledge of God, and\nof the universal soul, his life; and in this place they have\nexpatiated upon the attributes of the Almighty; thus by Brahma they\nmean his creative power; and by the old age of Brahma is implied his\nperfection: philosophers also call the first intelligence, the\nintellectual Adam, and the universal soul, the intellectual Eve. The\nsage Sunai has said:\n\n   \u201cThe father and the mother of this gratifying world,\n    Know, is the soul of the word,[51] and the sublime wisdom.\u201d\n\nBy Vishnu is meant his attribute of divine love, and also the\nuniversal soul; and they give the name of Av\u00e1tar to the spirit derived\nfrom the soul of the first heaven; in which sense they have said:\n\u201cAv\u00e1tars are rays issuing from Vishnu\u2019s essence.\u201d\n\nBut these sectaries do not mean that the identical spirit of R\u00e1m, on\nthe dissolution of its connection with his body, becomes attached to\nthe body of Krishna; for they themselves assert that Parsur\u00e1m (the\nsixth Av\u00e1tar) is immortal, and his body everlasting.\n\nWhen R\u00e1machandra became incarnate, he encountered the other; and\nParsur\u00e1m, having posted himself on the road with hostile intentions,\nR\u00e1machandra said: \u201cThou art a Brahman and I a Chettri: it is incumbent\non me to show thee respect:\u201d then applying the horn of his bow to\nParsur\u00e1m\u2019s foot, he deprived him of all power. When Parsur\u00e1m who is\nnow along with his wife in the heavens, enrolled among the stars: he\nwas the instructor of Rama, and brought him to the knowledge of\nhimself; and his counsels to R\u00e1ma have been collected by the Rishi\nValmiki in the History of R\u00e1ma, called the _Ram\u00e1yana_, and the name of\n_Jog-Vashishta_, given to them, which they call _Indrazahar\u00e1j\u00f3g\nVashishta_.[54] Some parts of these tales were selected by a Brahman\nof Kashmir, and afterwards translated into Persian by _Mulla\nMuhammed_, a S\u00faf\u00ed. To resume: R\u00e1ma, on hearing this expression from\nParsur\u00e1m, said: \u201cMy arrow, however, errs not:\u201d he then discharged some\narrows which have become the janitors of paradise, and do not permit\nParsur\u00e1m to enter therein. This parable proves that they are by no\nmeans taken for Av\u00e1tars of Nary\u00e1an; as, although Pursur\u00e1m and R\u00e1m were\ntwo Av\u00e1t\u00e1rs of Vishnu, yet they knew not each other. Again, it is an\nestablished maxim among philosophers, that one soul cannot be united\nin one place with two distinct bodies. Besides, it is certain that\nthey give the name \u201cAvat\u00e1rs of Nar\u00e1yan\u201d to the souls which emanate\nfrom the universal soul; and that they call Nar\u00e1yan the soul of the\nempyreal, or the fourth heaven. As to their assertions that Nar\u00e1yan is\nGod, found himself destitute of strength, he asked his name, and on\nlearning that it was Ramachandra, he was greatly astonished, and said:\n\u201cHas R\u00e1machandra\u2019s Av\u00e1tar taken place?\u201d and R\u00e1machandra having replied\n\u201cCertainly,\u201d Parsur\u00e1m said: \u201cMy blow is not mortal, I have taken away\nthy understanding.\u201d On this account it happened that R\u00e1machandra\npossessed not intelligence in his essence, and was unacquainted with\nhis true state, wherefore they style him the _Mudgha_, or stupid\nAv\u00e1tar.[52]\n\nVasishta, one of the Rishies,[53] or \u201choly sages,\u201d and their\nacknowledging his Av\u00e1tars as God, and their saying that the Almighty\nhas deigned to appear under certain forms, all this means that a\nNar\u00e1yan is the same with the universal soul, which the S\u00fafees entitle\n\u201cthe life of God.\u201d As life is an attribute of the Almighty, and the\nperfection of attributes constitutes his holy essence, consequently\nthe souls which emanate from the universal soul, or that of the\nempyreal heaven, which is the life of God, know themselves, and\nacquire the ornaments of pure faith and good works; and also, on being\nliberated from body, they become identified with the universal soul,\nwhich is Vishnu, or the life of God, agreeably to this saying: \u201c_He\nwho knows his own soul, knows God_:\u201d that is, he becomes God.\n\nAs to their acknowledging the fish, tortoise, and boar to be\nincarnations of the divinity, by this they mean, that all beings are\nrays emanating from the essence of the Almighty, and that no\ndegradation results to him therefrom, according to this narration of\nthe _Mir S\u00e1\u00edd Sharif_, of Jarjan (Georgia).\n\nAs a S\u00faf\u00ed and rhetorician were one day disputing, the latter said: \u201cI\nfeel pain at the idea of a God who manifests himself in a dog or hog:\u201d\nto which the S\u00fafee replied: \u201cI appeal from the God who displays not\nhimself in the dog.\u201d On this, all present exclaimed: \u201cOne of these two\nmust be an infidel.\u201d A man of enlightened piety drew near, and showing\nthem the exact import of these expressions, said: \u201cAccording to the\nbelief of the rhetorician, the dignity of God is impaired by his\nmanifesting himself in the dog; he is therefore distressed at the idea\nof a God thus deficient. But, according to the S\u00fafee, the\nnon-appearance of God in that animal would be a diminution of his\ndignity, he therefore appeals against a God deficient in this point:\nconsequently, neither of them is an infidel.\u201d So that, in fact, the\nS\u00faf\u00eds and these sectaries entertain the same opinions.\n\nThe author of this work once said to Sh\u00edd\u00f3sh: \u201cWe may affirm that by\nthe fish is meant the lord, or conservative angel, of water;\u201d as,\naccording to their mythology, a demon having taken the Vedas under\nthat element, was pursued and slain by Vishnu, and the Vedas brought\nback: thus their mention of a fish originated from its inseparable\nconnection with water. By the tortoise is meant the lord, or\nconservative angel, of earth; as their mythology relates, that the\nAv\u00e1tar of the tortoise occurred for the purpose of the earth being\nsupported on its back, as is actually the case; they have also\nespecially mentioned the tortoise, as it is both a land and aquatic\ncreature, and that after water comes earth. By the boar are meant the\npassions and the propagation of living creatures; and as to the\ntradition of a demon having stolen away the earth and taken it under\nthe water, and of his being pursued by Vishnu under the form of a\nboar, and slain by his tusks, its import is as follows: the demon\nmeans dissolute manners, which destroyed the earth with the deluge of\nsensuality; but on the aid of the spirit coming, the demon of\ndissoluteness was overthrown by the tusks of continence: the boar is\nparticularly mentioned, because its attribute is sensuality; and it\nwas reckoned an Av\u00e1t\u00e1r, because continence is virtue. The _Narsinh_,\nor \u201cman-lion,\u201d is the lord, or conservative angel of heroism; and as\nthis constitutes a most praiseworthy quality, they said, that the\nNarsinh was a form with a lion\u2019s head and a human body, for when they\nspoke of impetuous bravery in a man, they made use of the term \u201clion.\u201d\nBy _V\u00e1mana_, or \u201cdwarfish stature,\u201d they meant, the lord of reason,\nstrength of reflection, and an intellectual being; the dwarfish\nstature implying that, notwithstanding a diminutive person, important\nresults may be obtained through him; as in almost a direct allusion to\nthis, people say: \u201cAn intelligent man of small stature is far superior\nto the tall blockhead.\u201d By Rajah _Bali_, they typify generosity and\nliberality.\n\nShid\u00f3sh was delighted at this interpretation, and said: \u201cThey have\nalso recorded that Krishna had sixteen thousand wives; and when one of\nhis friends who thought it impossible for Krishna to visit all of\nthem, said to try him: \u2018Bestow on me one of thy wives,\u2019 Krishna\nanswered: \u2018In whatever female\u2019s apartment thou findest me not, she is\nthine.\u2019 His friend went into the different apartments, but in every\none of them he beheld the god engaged in conversation with its\nmistress.\u201d This story implies, that the love of Krishna was so rooted\nin their hearts, that they cared for none besides, having his image\npresent to their eyes, and dwelling every moment on his beloved idea.\n\nThe tradition of Vishnu\u2019s always bearing the Chakra in his hand (a\nkind of military weapon), alludes to the knowledge and decisive\ndemonstration which are unattainable without the aid of soul.\n\nIn Mahadeo, they allude to our elementary nature by the serpent twined\nround his neck; they mean anger, and the other reprehensible qualities\nwhich result from corporeity; by his being mounted on a bull, the\nanimal propensities; by the tradition of his place of repose being the\nsite for burning the dead, is signified, the total dispersion of the\nparticles of bodies and the perishable nature of things. Mahadeo\u2019s\ndrinking poison is also to the same purport. In this sense they also\nsay that Mahadeo is the destroyer of all worldly things; that is,\nelemental nature imperatively requires the dissolution of combination\n(connection), and that ultimately death comes in the natural course.\n\nThey also hold that every angel has a wife (female energy), of a\nsimilar generic constitution, and originally derived from Brahma; and\nas we have before stated, the philosophers call the first intelligence\nthe True Sire, and the universal soul, Eve; and thus he is the head\nand the wife the shoulder; the universal soul is the body of the\nempyreal heaven; and in like manner the other celestial souls and\nbodies have wives of the elementary nature; as they give the\nappellation of wife, or energy, to whatever is the manifest source of\naction.\n\nMoreover the established doctrine held by these sectaries is, that\neach class should worship a particular angel, and the wife or female\nenergy of that angel; the worshipper regarding the object of his\nadoration as God, and all others, as created beings; for example, many\nbelieve Nar\u00e1yan to be the supreme God; several others, look up to\nMahad\u00e9o, and many to the other male and female divinities; and thus,\npursuant to the four V\u00e9das, which according to their common belief are\na celestial revelation, they do not hold any angel who is the object\nof their praise as distinct from God: by which they mean that God, who\nis without equal, having manifested himself under innumerable modes of\nappearance, contemplates the glorious perfection of his essence in the\nmirrors of his attributes; so that, from the most minute atom to the\nsolar orb, his holy and divine essence is the source of all that\nexists.\n\n  \u201cTo whatever quarter I directed my sight, thou appearedst there;\n   How widely art thou multiplied, even when thy features are unseen!\u201d\n\nThe Fakir Arz\u00fa says: the above interpretation is confirmed by this\ntradition of the Hindus, that _Agasti_,[55] a star, was formerly a\nholy man, who once collected all the waters in the palm of his hand,\nand swallowed the whole; which means that Agasti is the same as\nSohail, a star adjacent to the south pole, on the rising of which, all\nthe water that has fallen from heaven is dried up, agreeably to the\nArabic saying:\n\n  \u201c_When Suhail ascends, the torrents subside._\u201d\n\nMany enigmatical and figurative expressions of a similar description\noccur in their writings; for example, _Mah\u00e9sh_ or _Mahadeo_, is an\nangel with matted locks and three eyes, which are the sun, moon, and\nfire; he has also five heads; his necklace is formed of a serpent, and\nhis mantle of an elephant\u2019s hide. There are nine Brahmas, eleven\nRudras or Mahadeos, twelve suns, and ten regions, viz.: east, west,\nsouth, north, zenith, _Nadir_, _Akni_, \u201cbetween east and south;\u201d\n_N\u00edreti_, \u201cbetween south and west;\u201d _Dayab_, \u201cbetween west and north;\u201d\nand _Isan_, \u201cbetween north and east.\u201d The angels are in number\nthirty-three Kotes, or three hundred and thirty millions, each Kote\nconsisting of one hundred Laks, or ten millions. These angels have\nspiritual wives, who produce a spiritual offspring. They likewise hold\nhuman spirits to be an effulgence proceeding from the divine essence;\nif to knowledge they add good works, with a clear perception of\nthemselves and of God, they return to their original source; but\nshould they not know themselves and God, and yet perform praiseworthy\nacts, they dwell in Paradise, where they remain during a period of\ntime proportioned to their meritorious works; on the expiration of\nwhich period they are again sent down to this lower world, and again\nto receive a recompense proportioned to their deeds.\n\nThe actions even of the inhabitants of Paradise undergo an\ninvestigation, and are attended with reward or punishments duly\ngraduated. They also hold that all those persons who are not\nsufficiently worthy of entering into paradise, but who have observed\nreligious ordinances in order to obtain dominion and worldly\nenjoyments, shall acquire their object in a future generation. They\nalso say, in respect to any great personage, in whose presence the\npeople stand girt with the cincture of obedience, that the rewards and\nresults are, that this person continues in a suppliant attitude\ndevoted to the service of God and those individuals who prostrate\nthemselves before him, are in fact humbling themselves in adoration of\nthe Almighty; in short, they hold all splendor and greatness as the\nrewards of alms and good works; thus they relate that whilst the\nincarnation of R\u00e1mchandra abode in the desert, he sent his brother\nLachman to bring some roots of herbs in order to break his fast; but,\nnotwithstanding a diligent search, he being unable to find any,\nreturned and represented this to R\u00e1mchand, who replied: \u201cThe earth\nabounds in food and drink; but in a former generation, on this very\nday, I omitted the performance of an act which would have been well\npleasing in the sight of God, namely, that of contributing to the\nsustenance of indigent Brahmans.\u201d\n\nThey moreover believe that evil-doers, after death, become united to\nthe bodies of lions, tigers, wolves, dogs, swine, bears, reptiles,\nplants, and minerals, in this world, and receive under these forms\ntheir well merited punishment; but that those who have been guilty of\naggravated crimes are hurried off to the infernal regions, where they\nremain suffering torture during a period of time proportioned to their\nevil deeds; and when they have undergone the destined punishment, they\nagain return to this world. They also believe that there is in\nparadise a sovereign, named Indra, and that whoever offers up a\nhundred _Aswam\u00e9das_,[56] becomes Indra. When his appointed time in\nparadise, in the full enjoyment of sovereign power has passed, he is\non the expiration of that period to descend to the lower world, and\nthere obtains a recompense proportioned to his acts. Moreover, Indra\u2019s\nspouse is named Sach\u00ed Devi, and falls to the share of the person who\nattains the rank of Indra. Note: by Aswam\u00e9da is meant the sacrifice of\na horse of a certain color, and according to certain established\nrites. However, by Aswam\u00e9d, their learned doctors understand\n\u201cabnegation of the mind:\u201d for imagination is a fierce charger, the\nsacrifice of which is an imperative duty on the religious ascetic; or\nit may allude to the destruction of the animal passions.\n\nThey also believe that angelic beings are subject to concupiscence,\nand wrath, and the cravings of hunger and thirst; their food\nconsisting of perfumes and incense, sacrifices, meat and drink\nofferings, with the alms and oblations made by mankind; and their\nbeverage, the water of life.\n\nThey also assert that the stars were holy personages, who, on leaving\nthis world of gloom, through the efficacy of religious mortifications\nbecame luminous bodies, ascending from the lower depths of this abode\nof the elements to the zenith of the crystalline sphere; nay, their\nbirth-place, name, family, with the names of their fathers and\ngrandfathers, are carefully enumerated in the sacred volumes of this\nsect. Thus they say that Sanicher (the slow-traveller) or Saturn, is\nthe son of the glorious Luminary; and Mirrikh or Mars, the son of the\nEarth; the world-enlightening sun, the issue of _Kashyapa_, the son of\nMar\u00edch\u00ed, the son of Brahma; Z\u00f3hrah (or the regent of Venus) the son of\n_Bhrigu_; and _Ut\u00e1red_ (Mercury) the son of _Kamer_ (the regent of the\nmoon). Some however maintain the moon to be the son of Attri the Holy,\nbut, according to others he is sprung from the sea of milk.\n\n[57]*These opinions contain a marked allusion to the tenets held by\nthe distinguished Parsi sages, namely, that the intellectual soul has\na relation to that sphere with which its good actions are connected:\nthey consequently apply the denomination of Sun to the spirit of one\nunited to the sun, and his father is entitled \u201cthe father of the\nSun.\u201d*\n\nThe writer of this work once observed to Sh\u00edd\u00f3sh, the son of Anosh:\n\u201cPerhaps they mean by the sires of the stars, their presiding\nintelligences, as in the technical language of philosophers, the name\nof sires is also given to the intelligences, on which account Jesus\ncalled the Almighty \u2018Father.\u2019\u201d\n\nAccording to them the elements are five in number, the fifth being the\nAkas (or ether), which word in its common acceptation means \u201cthe\nheavens;\u201d but according to the learned it implies empty space, or\nspace void of matter. One of their distinguished doctors, _Sumitra_,\nson of the Ray of Kalinga, holds that _Akas_, which the Greek\nPlatonists call _space_, is simple and uncompounded. Damudar Das Kaul,\na learned Brahman of Kashmir, also holds Akas to signify _space_; and\nspace is understood by the Platonists among the Yonian to be an extent\nvoid of any substance (a vacuum), which may be divided into parts,\n_the totality_ of which _parts_ may be equivalent to that extent of\nthe general vacuum which is congruous and equal to it, in such a\nmanner as to comprise every particle of that extent which is the space\nin every _particular_ division of the general space. There is an\nextent interposed between two things, and this extent is void and free\nof matter. According to their account, no better interpretation of\n_Akas_ than that which is conveyed by the word space, can be\noffered.[58]\n\nThey moreover assert that the heavens have no existence, and that the\nconstellations and stars are fixed in the air. According to them there\nare seven _samudras_, that is oceans, on this earth: the salt sea,\nthat of sugar-cane juice, the sea of spirituous liquors, that of\nclarified butter, the sea of curds, the lacteal, and lastly, that of\nsweet waters. They also say that there rises above the earth a\nmountain called _Su-Meru_[59] entirely formed of the purest gold, on\nwhich the angelic beings reside, and around which the stars revolve.\nThere are nine spheres, namely: those of the seven planets, with those\nof _R\u00e1s_ and _Zanab_ (the head and tail of the dragon), which are also\nborne along in their celestial vehicles. _R\u00e1s_ and _Zanab_ are two\ndemons who drank the water of life, whom Vishnu, at the suggestion of\nthe sun and moon, smote with a weapon called the _Ch\u00e1kra_, or disk,\nand rent open their throats; in revenge for which, the moon is\ndevoured by _R\u00e1s_, and the sun by _Zanab_; but as their throats are\nrent open, whatever is taken in at the mouth issues at the aperture in\nthe throat: by this allegory they allude to the lunar and solar\neclipses.[60]\n\nBrahma dwells in a city called _R\u00e1st Lok_;[61] Vishnu in a region\ncalled _Vaikanth_; and Mahadeo on a mountain of silver named\n_K\u00e1ilasa_. They also maintain that the fixed stars have no actual\nexistence, but that the objects which shine by night are couches of\ngold set with diamonds and rubies, on which the inhabitants of\nparadise repose. [62]*On this Shidosh remarks: \u201cIt is agreed that\nparadise means the heavens, and also that the fixed stars are in the\neighth heaven; so that, consequently, the heavens constitute the\ncouches of the souls.\u201d*[63]\n\nThey esteem the majesty of the great light as the supreme of angelic\nbeings, and on a careful investigation of their books, acknowledge no\nexistence as superior to him in dignity; as the constitution of\nelemental compounds, and the existence of all beings is dependent on\nand connected with his auspicious essence. They moreover regard\nBrahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh, the radiance and reflexion of his light;\nsaying, it is his majesty alone which, by its acts and operations, is\ncalled by these three names. They represent him as a sovereign, in the\nhuman form, seated in a chariot which signifies the fourth heaven, to\nwhich are attached seven horses, with angels and spiritual beings,\naccompanied by royal trains and gorgeous pomp, continually passing\nbefore his majesty. They also esteem him as the source of existence\nand as universal existence. *They also believe the earth to be the\nskin of a Raksh or evil genius, who was put to death, and his skin\nstretched out: the mountains are his bones; the waters his blood; the\ntrees and vegetables his hair. By Raksh they mean a demon, which here\nimplies the material elements on this earth, which according to them\nis supported on four legs; alluding in this to the nature and number\nof the elements, each of which rests on its own centre.\n\nAccording to them Saturn limps, which typifies his long period of\nrevolution; and _Bh\u00fam_, or _Mar\u00edkh_, \u201cMars,\u201d is a demon, on which\naccount they ascribe to him a malignant influence.* _Zoharah_, or \u201cthe\nregent of Venus,\u201d is the director of the demons, and to this planetary\nspirit they ascribe the sciences and religions of the barbarians, and\nthe creeds of foreign nations.\n\nThe Muhammedan doctors say, that Islamism is connected with this\nplanet, from which source proceeds the veneration paid by them to\nFriday, or the day of Venus. _M\u00fashteri_, \u201cJupiter,\u201d is accounted the\ndirector of the angels, and the teacher of the system of Brahma, which\nis conveyed in a celestial language, not used at present by any beings\nof elemental formation: thus, although the Koran is a divine\nrevelation, the language of it is in general use among the Arabs; but\nthe four V\u00e9ds which the Hindus account a celestial volume, is written\nin Sanskrit, a language spoken in no city whatever, and found in no\nbook, save those of a particular sect: it is called by them \u201cthe\nspeech of angelic beings.\u201d The V\u00e9da was given to them by Brahma, for\nthe due arrangement of human concerns. By angels or divine beings,\nthey mean eloquent speakers, and learned authors, who, being\nilluminated by the effulgence of primitive wisdom, interpreted\nwhatever was revealed to them. It is to be remarked, that every one\nwho pleases may derive from the V\u00e9das arguments in favour of his\nparticular creed, to such a degree, that they can support by clear\nproofs the philosophical, mystical, unitarian, and atheistical\nsystems, faith, and religion; Hinduism, Judaism, Christianity,\nfire-worship, the tenets of the Sonites, or those of the Sh\u00ed\u00e2s, etc.;\nin short, these volumes consist of such ingenious parables and sublime\nmeanings, that all who seek may have their wishes fulfilled.\n\nThey say that the Almighty is a great body, and that all other beings\nare in his belly; which resembles the opinions maintained by the\nvenerable Shaikh Shahb\u00e1b ud deen Makt\u00fal, whose tomb may God sanctify!\nnamely, that the universe is one body, which contains all others in\nexistence, and is called the universal body. It has one spirit, which\ncomprehends all others, and is called the universal soul; and one\nsingle object of intelligence, from which they derive all\nintelligences, calling it the universal intelligence. It is stated in\nthe Mujmal al Hikmat, or Compendium of Philosophy, that the Almighty\nis the spirit of spirit; and according to _Azar H\u00fashangian_, \u201cthe\nintellect of intellect.\u201d _Shaikh B\u00f3 Ali_[64] (whose place of repose\nmay God illuminate!) thus speaks:\n\n  \u201cThe Almighty is the soul of the universe, and the universe the\n     reunion of all bodies;\n   The different angelic hosts are the senses of this frame;\n   The bodies, the elements, and the three kingdoms are its members;\n   All these are comprehended in the divine unity; all other things\n     are illusion.\u201d\n\nThis sect gives the appellation of _Rakshas_, which means evil genii\nor demons, to all those who do not profess their faith, and who\nperform not good works.\n\nTime, in Hindawi _Kal_, is a measure of the movement of the great\nsphere, according to the philosophers of Greece and Persia. The author\nhas also heard from the Brahmans, and in conformity to the opinions\nascribed to the most distinguished persons of their caste, it is\nstated in the work entitled _Muadan Ushshaffai Iskandari_ (a selection\ntaken from several Hindi medical treatises), that time, according to\nthe Hindu philosophers, is a necessarily-subsisting immaterial\nsubstance, durable, incorporeal, that will ever last, and admits not\nof annihilation. Time has been divided into three kinds, namely, past,\npresent, and future; but, as in their opinion time admits neither of\nalteration nor extinction, these divisions are not in reality its\nattributes, although correctly used when applied to acts performed in\ntime. According to the succession of acts, they figuratively describe\ntime as past, present, and future; as in reference to the solar\nrevolutions and phases, they call it by the names of days, nights,\nmonths, years, and seasons: in short, they have so many intricate\ndistinctions of this same nature, that the mere attempt to enumerate\nthem would fill several volumes. They all agree that this world is to\ncontinue for four ages: the first, the _Rast yug_, \u201cthe\nrighteous,\u201d[65] which lasted one million seven hundred and\ntwenty-eight thousand common years; during which, all human beings,\nhigh and low, exalted and humble, princes and servants, adhered to the\npractice of righteousness and truth, passing their glorious existence\nin a manner conformable to the divine will, and devoted to the worship\nof the Almighty; the duration of human life in this age extended to\none hundred thousand common years. The second, the _Treta Yug_,[66]\nwhich lasted one million two hundred and ninety-six thousand common\nyears: during this period, three-fourths of the human race conformed\nto the divine will, and the natural duration of life extended to ten\nthousand years. The third was the _Dwapar Yug_,[67] which lasted eight\nhundred and sixty-four thousand ordinary years, during which one half\nthe human race performed good works and their life was limited to a\nthousand years. The fourth is the _Kali Yug_,[68] or \u201ciron age,\u201d which\nis to last four hundred and thirty-two thousand years, during which\nthree-fourths of the human race will be immersed in sin, infatuation,\nand evil works, and the term of human life reduced to a hundred and\ntwenty ordinary years. These four ages (4,320,000 years) they call a\n_Chakra_, and seventy-one Chakras a _Manwantar_; on the expiration of\nseventy-one Chakras, there elapses one day of the life of India, the\nruler of the upper world; and on the expiration of fourteen\nManwantars, reckoned according to the preceding calculation, one day\nof Brahma\u2019s life is terminated.\n\nThey say, that the Almighty, having united himself with Brahma\u2019s body,\ncreated the world through his medium: Brahma thus became the Creator,\nand brought mankind into existence, making them of four classes,\nnamely: the _Brahman_, _Chattriya_, _Vaisya_, and _S\u00f9dra_. To the\nfirst were assigned the custody of laws and the establishment of\nreligious ordinances; the second class was formed for the purposes of\ngovernment and external authority, being appointed the medium for\nintroducing order into human affairs; the third was composed of\nhusbandmen, cultivators, artisans, and tradesmen; and the fourth for\nevery description of service and attendance. All races not comprised\nin one of these four divisions are not accounted of human origin but\nof demoniacal descent: however the demons or Rakshas, through the\npractice of religious austerities, attained to such dignity that\nBrahma, Vishnu, and Mahesh (Siva) became their attendants. Thus\nR\u00e1van,[69] through the efficacy of religious mortification, became\nlord of the world and its inhabitants; Brahma was reader of the Vedas\nat his court; the sun filled the office of cook; the clouds were his\ncup-bearers, and the wind his chamberlain.\n\n[70]Finally, according to the sectaries, the life of Brahma lasts a\nhundred extraordinary years of three hundred and sixty days, with\nnights corresponding to the days,[71] so that up to the present time,\nthat is, the period of composing this work, in the year of the Hejira\n1055 (A. D. 1645), there have elapsed four thousand seven hundred and\nforty-six years of the Kali-Yug. So many Brahmas have appeared, that\nthe sums of their years exceed the limits of human comprehension; they\nhave merely a tradition that one thousand Brahmas have successively\nappeared and been annihilated; so that the present is the thousand and\nfirst, of whose life fifty years and half a day are expired, which\ncommences the half-day of the fifty-first year. As soon as the age of\nBrahma terminates, according to the preceding calculation, or amounts\nto the destined number, he then forms twelve blazing suns, whose heat\nand splendor consume alike both earth and water, so that there remains\nnot a vestige of this world or its productions, and mankind plunge\nbeneath the waters, which catastrophe is called _Pralaya_, in Hindawi:\nafter this event, another Brahma appears and creates the world anew,\nwhich process of dissolution and reproduction continues to all\neternity. The _Hakim Umr Khakani_ says:\n\n  \u201cThose who adorn the heavens, which are a particle of time,\n   Come, and depart again, re-appear on the same stage\u2015\u2015\n   For, in the skirts of heaven and the robe of earth, there is\n   A creation which is successively born as long as God exists.\u201d\n\nBy the prolonged periods of duration ascribed to these celestial\npersonages, they allude to the antiquity of the world, which is so\nimmensely great that it cannot be comprised in numbers. The man of\nspiritual attributes, Sh\u00eddosh, the son of Anosh, says: \u201cOn the\ntermination of the great cycle, human creatures reappear, and the\nwater enveloping the terrestrial globe becomes of the same radical\nconstitution as the waters on high; again, through the intense heat of\nthe luminary, the water disappears, and twelve suns are formed: from\nthe ascent of vapors and the blending of exhalations, the celestial\ndisks are enveloped, when the tailed comets, which the Persians call\n\u2018minor suns,\u2019 and the Arabs _Shamseyat_, or \u2018smaller solar\nbodies,\u2019[72] * consume alike the humid and the dry: such is the\nnecessary termination of that cycle: the world and its inhabitants\nwill be created anew.\u201d * Mulla Ismail Suffi, of Isfahan, says:\n\n      \u201cThe world which is one, the creator, and the creation,\n       Both these worlds are like the scum of his cup;\n       This revolution of time resembles a painted lantern,\n  Which, notwithstanding its motion, remains in the same position.\u201d\n\nThe assertion \u201cthat only the four classes above enumerated are of\nhuman race,\u201d implies that this denomination is attached to the\nprofessors of humanity, virtue, and discrimination; superior to which\nis showing mercy to the animal creation; also the knowledge of one\u2019s\nself and of the Creator; nay, the person destitute of these\ncharacteristics has no share of the nature of man. Thus the sage\nFerdusi says:\n\n  \u201cWhoever deviates from the path of humanity\n   Is to be accounted a demon, and not of human race.\u201d\n\nAccording to these sectaries, the worship offered to the forms of\nMahadeo and Nar\u00e1yan, and to the statues of the other spiritual beings,\nis highly to be commended. Strangers to their faith suppose them to\nlook upon the idol as God, which is by no means the case, their belief\nbeing as follows: \u201cThe idol is merely a Kiblah, and they adore under\nthat particular form, the Being who has neither accident nor form.\u201d\n\nMoreover, as mankind is an assemblage composed of superiors and\ninferiors, they have made images of the directors of the people, and\nconstituted them their Kiblah: besides, as all things exhibit the\npower of the Almighty, they form images according to their similitude.\nThey also say, that as the Av\u00e1tars are radiant emanations of the\ndivine essence, they therefore make images on their likeness, and pay\nthem worship: so that, whatever is excellent in its kind, in the\nmineral, vegetable, or animal world, is regarded with veneration, as\nwell as the uncompounded elementary substances, and the starry\nspheres. Rai Manuhar Kuchw\u00e1hhah has said:\n\n  \u201cO Moslem! if the K\u00e2bah be the object of thy worship,\n   Why dost thou reproach the adorers of idols?\u201d\n\n\n     [4] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f _Prakriti_, or \u092e\u0942\u0932 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u093f _Mula Prakriti_, \u201cthe\n     root or Plastic origin of all;\u201d termed \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0927\u093e\u0928 _Pradh\u00e1na_,\n     \u201cthe chief one; the universal material cause;\u201d identified by\n     the cosmogony of the Pur\u00e1n\u00e1s with _Maya_, or \u201cillusion;\u201d and\n     by mythologists with _Br\u00e1hm\u00ed_, \u201cthe power or energy of\n     Brahm\u00e1\u201d (_Colebrooke\u2019s Essays_).\n\n     _Prakriti_, in philosophy, \u201cthe passive or material cause of\n     the world,\u201d as opposed to the active or spiritual; and in\n     mythology, a goddess united to the primeval male, and the\n     genitress of the world (_Wilson_).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [5] The quotations of our author are too general for being\n     referred to particular parts or passages of the Hind\u00fa books.\n     The above doctrine is contained in a great number of their\n     treatises. In the _Vedanta sara_, or \u201cEssence of the Vedanta\n     doctrine\u201d (p. 16, Calcutta edit.), we find mentioned the\n     fourteen \u092d\u0941\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0928\u093f _Bhuvan\u00e1ni_, or \u201cworlds.\u201d\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [6] \u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928 _Yojana_, or _Jojun_, \u201ca measure of distance\u201d equal\n     to four Crosas, which at 8,000 cubits or 4,000 yards to the\n     Crosa, or Cas, will be exactly nine miles: other computations\n     make the Yojana but about five miles, or even no more than\n     four miles and a half (_Wilson\u2019s Dict._).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [7] More properly of egotism, which is the literal sense of\n     the term: its peculiar function is \u0905\u092d\u093f\u092e\u093e\u0928 _Abhimana_, or\n     \u201cselfish conviction; a belief that in perception or\n     meditation _I_ am concerned; that the objects of sense\n     concern _me_; in short, that _I_ am\u201d (_Colebrook\u2019s\n     Essays_).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [8] Derived from _Mahat_, \u201cgreat,\u201d \u092e\u0939\u0924\u094d also the\n     intellectual principle and \u0924\u0924\u094d\u0935 _Tatva_, \u201cessential\n     nature\u2015\u2015the real nature of the human soul, considered as one\n     and the same with the divine spirit animating the universe;\u201d\n     the philosophical etymology of this word best explains its\n     meaning, _Tat_, \u201cthat; that divine Being;\u201d and \u0924\u094d\u0935\u0902 _Twam_,\n     \u201cthou:\u201d\u2015\u2015\u201cthat very God art thou.\u201d _Tatva_ also means\n     \u201creality, truth, substance,\u201d opposed to what is illusory or\n     fallacious (_Wilson_).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [9] \u092d\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b\u0915 _Bh\u00farl\u00f3ka_.\n\n     [10] \u092d\u0941\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b\u0915 _Bhuvarl\u00f3ka_.\n\n     [11] \u0938\u0941\u0930\u0932\u094b\u0915 _Sural\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe heaven of Indra, and residence\n     of the celestials.\u201d\n\n     [12] \u092e\u0939\u0930\u094d\u0932\u094b\u0915 _Maharl\u00f3ka_, \u201ca region;\u201d said to be one Crore,\n     or a million of Yojanas above the polar star, and to be the\n     abode of those saints who survive the destruction of the\n     world.\n\n     [13] \u091c\u0928 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Jana-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe region where the sons of\n     Brahm\u00e1 and other pious men reside.\u201d\n\n     [14] \u0924\u092a \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Tapa-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe abode of Ascetics.\u201d\n\n     [15] \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Satya-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe abode of Brahma and of\n     truth.\u201d\n\n     [16] Here begin the seven divisions of the infernal\n     regions:\u2015\u2015\u0905\u0924\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Atala-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe region immediately\n     below the earth.\u201d\n\n     [17] \u0935\u093f\u0924\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Vitala-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe second region in descent\n     below the earth.\u201d\n\n     [18] \u0938\u0941\u0924\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Sutala-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe third region in descent,\u201d\n     etc.\n\n     [19] \u0924\u0932\u093e\u0924\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Tal\u00e1tala-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe fourth region,\u201d etc.\n\n     [20] \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0924\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Mah\u00e1tala-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe fifth region in descent\n     below the earth,\u201d inhabited.\n\n     [21] \u0930\u0938\u093e\u0924\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _Ras\u00e1tala-l\u00f3ka_, \u201cthe sixth region,\u201d etc; the\n     residence of the N\u00e1g\u00e1s, Asuras, D\u00e1ityas, and other races of\n     monstrous and demoniacal beings, under the various\n     governments of S\u00e9cha, Bali, and other chiefs.\n\n     [22] \u092a\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0932 \u0932\u094b\u0915 _P\u00e1t\u00e1la-loka_, \u201cthe seventh infernal region,\u201d\n     the abode of the _N\u00e1gas_, or \u201cserpents.\u201d\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [23] \u0938\u094d\u0935 \u092d\u093e\u0935 _Svabh\u00e1va_: derived from _Sva_, \u201cown,\u201d and\n     _Bh\u00e1va_, \u201cproperty.\u201d\n\n     [24] \u092e\u093f\u092e _Sima_, \u201call,\u201d \u201centire.\u201d\n\n     [25] (See note, p. 11). Another internal spirit, called\n     _Mahat_, or \u201cthe great soul,\u201d attends the birth of all\n     creatures imbodied, and thence in all mortal forms is\n     conveyed a perception either pleasing or painful. Those two,\n     the vital spirit (_Jivatman_) and reasonable soul, are\n     closely united with the five elements, but also connected\n     with the supreme spirit, or divine essence, which pervades\n     all beings, high and low (_Menu_, b. 12., sl. 13 and\n     14).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [26] \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0935\u0903, \u0930\u091c\u0903, \u0924\u092e\u0938\u094d _satvas_, _rajas_, _tamas_, \u201ctruth\u201d\n     or \u201cexistence;\u201d \u201cpassion\u201d or \u201cfoulness;\u201d and \u201cdarkness\u201d or\n     \u201cignorance,\u201d are called the three great \u0917\u0941\u0923\u093e\u0903 _gun\u00e1s_, or\n     properties of all created beings.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [27] Of these five words, the two first are Persian, the\n     other three Sanskrit: the text is probably corrupt.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [28] According to the _Vayu-purana_ (chapt. v.) Vichnu\n     proceeded from Satva, Brahma from Rajas, and Mahad\u00e9va, or\n     Siva, from Tamas.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [29] The latter part of this sentence is according to the\n     reading of the manuscripts.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     In the edit. of Calcutta it is placed in the next line, and\n     connected with the contents of the world, as if these had\n     been with numberless heads, hands, and feet.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [30] \u0936\u0947\u0937 _S\u00e9sha_, \u201cthe king of the serpent-race;\u201d \u201ca large\n     thousand-headed snake;\u201d \u201cthe couch and canopy of Vishnu;\u201d\n     and \u201cthe upholder of the world, which rests on one of his\n     heads.\u201d\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [31] \u0915\u0941\u0935\u0932 _kuvala_, from _ku_, \u201cearth,\u201d and _vala_, \u201cto\n     cover.\u201d\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [32] This etymology is founded upon a wrong spelling of the\n     name _Na-rang_, or _No-rang_, \u201cno color,\u201d instead of\n     Nar\u00e1yana.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [33] The definitions contained in the remainder of this\n     sentence are in the original incorporated with the text. In\n     the present, as in every similar instance, that arrangement\n     has not been disturbed.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [34] \u0905\u0935\u0924\u093e\u0930 _avat\u00e1ra_, from _ava_, \u201cdown, off,\u201d and _tri_,\n     \u201cto cross;\u201d signifying \u201cdescent,\u201d \u201ctranslation.\u201d\n\n     [35] \u0915\u0930\u0923 _karana_.\n\n     [36] An evil spirit, a demon, a vampire, a fiend, but who\n     appears to be of various descriptions; and is either a\n     powerful Titan or enemy of the gods, in a superhuman or\n     incarnate form, as Ravana and others; or an attendant on\n     Kuvera and guardian of his treasures; or a mischievous and\n     cruel goblin or ogre, haunting cemeteries, animating dead\n     bodies, and devouring human beings. The Asurs are also\n     demons, and of the first order; the children of Diti, by\n     Kasyapa, engaged in perpetual hostility with the gods.\n     According to Hindoo mythology, Kasyapa is the name of a\n     _Muni_, or \u201cdeified sage;\u201d who is the father of the\n     immortals\u2015\u2015gods and devils (_Wilson_).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [37] \u0905\u0928\u0928\u094d\u0924 \u0935\u0947\u0926 _ananta veda_, \u201cthe eternal Veda.\u201d\n\n     [38] \u091a\u0948\u0924\u094d\u0930 _Ch\u00e1itra_.\n\n     [39] \u0915\u0943\u0937\u094d\u0923 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 _Krishna paksha_, \u201cthe dark half of a month;\n     the fifteen days during which the moon is in the wane.\u201d\n\n     [40] \u0935\u093e\u0938\u0941\u0915\u093f _Vasuki_, \u201cthe sovereign of the snakes;\u201d from\n     _Vasu_, \u201ca jewel,\u201d and _Ka_, \u201cthe head\u201d (_Wilson_).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [41] The mountain with which the ocean was churned by the\n     Surs and Asurs after the deluge, for the purpose of\n     recovering the sacred things lost in it during that\n     period.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [42] The most ancient division of the Zodiac consisted of\n     twelve signs, namely: \u092e\u0947\u0937 _Mesha_, the Ram; \u0935\u0943\u0937 _Vrisha_,\n     the Bull; \u092e\u093f\u0925\u0941\u0928 _Mithuna_, the Pair; \u0915\u0930\u094d\u0915\u091f _Karkat\u00b4a_, the\n     Crab; \u0938\u093f\u0902\u0939 _Sinha_, the Lion; \u0915\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e _Kanya_, the Virgin;\n     \u0924\u0941\u0932\u093e _Tula_, the Balance; \u0935\u0943\u0936\u094d\u091c\u093f\u0915 _Vri\u015bchica_, the Scorpion;\n     \u0927\u0928\u0941 _Dhanu_, the Bow; \u092e\u0915\u0930 _Makara_, the sea-monster; \u0915\u0941\u092e\u094d\u092d\n     _Kumbha_, the Ewer; \u092e\u0940\u0928 _Mina_, the Fish.\n\n     Sripeti, the author of the _Retnam\u00e1l\u00e1_, has described them\n     in Sanscrit verse, of which the verbal translation is\n     annexed:\n\n          \u201cThe Ram, Bull, Crab, Lion, and Scorpion have the\n          figures of those five animals respectively; the Pair\n          are a damsel playing on the vina, and a youth wielding\n          a mace; the Virgin stands on a boat, in water, holding\n          in one hand a lamp, in the other an ear of rice corn;\n          the Balance is held by a weigher, with a weight in one\n          hand; the bow by an archer, whose hinder parts are like\n          those of a horse; the Sea-monster has the face of an\n          antelope; the Ewer is a water-pot borne on the shoulder\n          of a man who empties it; the Fishes are two, with their\n          heads turned to each other\u2019s tails, and all these are\n          supposed to be in such places as suit their separate\n          natures\u201d (_Sir W. Jones_, vol. I. p. 336).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [43] \u0938\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0932 \u092a\u0915\u094d\u0937 _s\u00faklapakcha_, \u201cthe light half of a month;\n     the fifteen days of the moon\u2019s increase; or from new to full\n     moon.\u201d\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [44] \u0935\u0948\u0936\u093e\u0916 _V\u00e1is\u00e1kha_, \u201cthe month in which the moon is full\n     near the southern scale\u201d (April-May); the first month in the\n     Hindu calendar.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [45] \u092d\u093e\u0926\u094d\u0930 _bhadra_, \u201cthe month when the moon is full near\n     the wing of Pegasus\u201d (August-September).\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [46] V\u00e1mana was so small, that in his journey, when he got\n     to the side of a hole made by a cow\u2019s foot, and which was\n     filled with water, he thought it was a river, and entreated\n     another Brahman to help him over it. On coming into Bali\u2019s\n     presence, he petitioned only for as much land as he could\n     measure by three steps; and the king ordered his priest,\n     notwithstanding his remonstrances, to read the usual\n     formulas in making such a present. V\u00e1mana then placed one\n     foot on India\u2019s heaven, and the other on the earth; when lo!\n     a third leg suddenly projected from his belly, and he asked\n     for a place upon which he might rest his third foot. Bali\n     then, by his wife\u2019s advice, gave his head for V\u00e1mana to set\n     his foot upon; V\u00e1mana next asked for a Dakshina, \u201ca small\n     present which accompanies a gift;\u201d but Bali was unable to\n     comply, as he had now lost every thing: in this dilemma he\n     offered his life, which Vishnu declined taking, as he had\n     promised Prahl\u00e1da not to destroy any of his race. He\n     therefore gave him his choice of ascending to heaven, taking\n     with him five ignorant men; or descending to Pat\u00e1la, the\n     world of the hydras, with five wise men. Bali chose the\n     latter, as Vishnu promised to protect him against suffering\n     punishment there for his crimes on earth.\n                   (_Ward on the Hindoos_, vol. I. p. 7.)\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [47] \u092a\u0930\u0936\u0941 \u0930\u093e\u092e or \u201cR\u00e1ma with an axe.\u201d He was the son of the\n     Muni Jamadagni, born at the commencement of the second or\n     Tr\u00e9ta-yug.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [48] This is the Rama-chandra, the son of Da\u015barat\u00b4ha,\n     king of Ayodhya, or the modern Oude, and born at the\n     close of the second age.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [49] Sit\u00e1, the daughter of the king of Mithila (the modern\n     Tirhut) was taken away by R\u00e1v\u00e1na himself, who had come from\n     Lanka to the Indian peninsula, in order to revenge so many\n     Rakshasas, his relations, who had been destroyed by the\n     bravery of R\u00e1ma. This hero, having allied himself with\n     Hanuman and Sugriva, two chiefs of savage tribes,\n     represented as monkeys, conquered with their assistance the\n     island of Lanka, overthrew and slew in battle R\u00e1van\u00e1, and\n     recovered his wife. The narration of these events forms one\n     of the most interesting parts of the R\u00e1m\u00e1yana, an ancient\n     and sacred poem relating the history of R\u00e1ma-chandra.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [50] The beginning of the Kali-yug, succeeding the\n     Dvapar-yug, being fixed 3102 years B. C., Buddha would have\n     appeared 3112 years B. C.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [51] The author, if even no Zoroastrian, seems to allude\n     here to _Honover_, \u201cpure desire,\u201d a general name for \u201cthe\n     word of Ormuzd;\u201d it existed before all the good and evil\n     beings created by Ormuzd and by Ahriman; it was by\n     pronouncing it that the first triumphed over the latter, and\n     continued to extend and to protect the creation\n     (_Zend-Avesta_, I. 2 P. pp. 85. 138. 140. 412. II. 347. 348.\n     and elsewhere).\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [52] The Sri Bhagavat mentions the birth of this celebrated\n     sage in the Satya Yog, in the heaven of Brahma, from whose\n     mind he was born; the Kalika puranah gives an account of\n     another birth in the Padma Kalpa, when his father\u2019s name was\n     Mitra Var\u00fana, and his mother\u2019s K\u00fambha. The Ram\u00e1yana mentions\n     him as priest to the kings of the solar race for many ages.\n     This philosopher taught in substance the doctrines of the\n     Vedanta school. He is said to have had ten thousand\n     disciples.\n                (_Ward, on the Hindoos_, vol. IV. p. 19.)\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [53] R\u012dshi, a kind of saint; that holy and superhuman\n     personage which a king or man of the military class may\n     become by the practice of religious austerities. Seven\n     classes of Rishis are enumerated: the _D\u00e9varshi_,\n     _Brahmarshi_, _Maharshi_, _Paramarshi_, _R\u00e1jarshi_,\n     _K\u00e1ndarshi_, and _Srutarshi_: the order is variously given,\n     but the R\u00e1jarshi is inferior to the four preceding ones, and\n     the two last appear to be the inspired saints of the Hindoo\n     mythology.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     The simple name is especially applied to seven sages of the\n     Br\u00e1hmarshi order, contemporary with each of the seven Menus;\n     those of the present Manvantara are: _Marichi_, _Atri_,\n     _Angiras_, _Pulastya_, _Pulaha_, _Kratu_, and _Vasishta_.\n     The names of each series differ: those specified also form,\n     in astronomy, the asterism of the Greater Bear\n     (_Wilson_).\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [54] This name, repeated in the Dabist\u00e1n (see hereafter the\n     chapter upon the Nanak Panthians), never occurred to me\n     elsewhere.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [55] The name of a saint celebrated in Hindu mythology, more\n     usually entitled _Agastya_, the son of both _Mitra_ (the\n     sun) and _Varuna_ (the lord of waters) by _Urvasi_ (a nymph\n     of heaven); he is represented of short stature, and is said\n     by some to have been born in a water-jar: he is famed for\n     having swallowed the ocean, when it had given him offence;\n     at his command also the Vindhya range of mountains\n     prostrated itself, and so remains; hence his present\n     appellation: he is also considered as the regent of the star\n     Canopus\u2015\u2015(_Wilson\u2019s Dictionary_, _sub voce_).\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [56] \u0905\u0936\u094d\u0935\u092e\u0947\u0927 _a\u015bvam\u00e9dha_, from _a\u015bva_, \u201ca horse,\u201d and\n     _m\u00e9dha_, \u201ca sacrifice.\u201d Colebrooke, in his Essay on the\n     V\u00e9das (_As. Res._, VIII., ed. Calc.) states, that the horse\n     is \u201cavowedly an emblem of _Vir\u00e1j_, or the primeval and\n     universal manifested being. In the last section of the\n     _Taittir\u00edya Yajurv\u00e9da_, the various parts of the horse\u2019s\n     body are described as divisions of time and portions of the\n     universe: morning is his head; the sun, his eye; air, his\n     breath; the moon, his ear; etc. A similar passage in the\n     fourteenth book of the _S\u00e1tapat\u00b4ha br\u00e1hma\u0144a_, describes\n     the same allegorical horse for the meditation of such as\n     cannot perform an A\u015bvam\u00e9dha; and the assemblage of living\n     animals, constituting an imaginary victim at a real\n     A\u015bvam\u00e9dha, equally represent the universal Being, according\n     to the doctrines of the Indian scripture. It is not however\n     certain, whether this ceremony did not also give occasion to\n     the institution of another, apparently not authorized by the\n     V\u00e9das, in which a horse was actually sacrificed.\u201d That this\n     was really the case, we may infer from the frequent mention\n     of such sacrifices, made in the historical poems of the\n     Hindus and from the analogous instances of them found among\n     the Western nations. The Massageti and the Pers\u00edans\n     sacrificed horses to the sun; the Magians also to the rivers\n     (see _Herod._, l. I. VII.; _Xenoph._, l. VIII. See also upon\n     the sacrifice of a horse, _Expos\u00e9 de quelques-uns des\n     principaux articles de la Th\u00e9ogonie des Brahmes_, par M.\n     l\u2019abb\u00e9 Dubois, ci-devant Missionnaire dans le Meissour.\n     Paris, 1825).\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [57] The passage between the asterisks is not in the\n     manuscripts.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [58] This passage, relative to space, is as obscure as the\n     subject itself is metaphysical. The notions here expressed\n     are in accordance with the Vedanta doctrine, by which\n     _akas_, or \u201cpure ether,\u201d is the universal space, including\n     all, and the vacuum between the separate objects therein.\n     There is a vacuum unconnected with every thing, and in it\n     these particular vacuums are absorbed. This appears\n     conformable enough with modern philosophy, but the Hindus\n     applied it to the divine spirit itself: thus, they say that\n     there is a perfect spirit, in which individual souls and the\n     aggregation of all souls take refuge, and so Brahma and the\n     individuated spirits are one: both pure life. We may here\n     recollect that sir Isaac Newton, in attempting to define\n     space, compared it to \u201cSomething like the organ of\n     divinity.\u201d According to the Vedanta-sara, there is no\n     difference between the all-ruling spirit and that of the\n     sage; as there is none between the forest and the trees and\n     the inclosed atmosphere; or between the lake and the parts\n     of the water, and the image of the sky which falls in it. We\n     are informed by Damascius, an author of the sixth century of\n     our era, who quotes Eudemos, a disciple of Aristotle\n     (_Wolfi\u00ed Anect. Gr\u00e6ca_, t. III. p. 259), that the united\n     intellectual all is called \u201cspace\u201d by the Magians and by the\n     whole race of the Arians, which name may be applied to the\n     nations inhabiting the countries situated to the East and\n     West of the Indus.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [59] The earth according to the Hindus is circular and flat,\n     like the flower of the water-lily, in which the petals\n     project beyond each other: its circumference being four\n     thousand millions of miles. In the centre is mount Sumeru,\n     ascending six hundred thousand miles from the surface of the\n     earth, and descending one hundred and twenty-eight thousand\n     below it. It is one hundred and twenty-eight thousand miles\n     in circumference at its base, and two hundred and fifty-six\n     thousand wide at the top. On this mountain are the heavens\n     of Vishnu, Siva, Indra, Agni, Yama, Noirita, Var\u00fana, V\u00e1y\u00fa,\n     K\u00fav\u00e9ra, Isha, and other gods. The clouds ascend to about\n     one-third of the height of the mountain: at its base are the\n     mountains Mandara, Gundha-m\u00e1dana, Vip\u00fala, and S\u00fap\u00e1rshwa, on\n     each of which grows a tree eight thousand eight hundred\n     miles high (_Ward\u2019s Hindoos_, vol. III. p. 3).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [60] According to the M\u00e1h\u00e1bharat, when the _S\u00faras_ and\n     _As\u00faras_ (the gods and _D\u00e1ityas_, or \u201cdemons\u201d) had, by the\n     whirling of the ocean, obtained the _Amrita_, or \u201cthe nectar\n     of immortality,\u201d a fierce dispute arose among them about the\n     possession of it; but Vishnu succeeded in obtaining it for\n     the S\u00faras. R\u00e1hu, a demon under the disguise of a S\u00fara, was\n     about to drink it, when, informed of it by the sun and the\n     moon, the god just mentioned, by a blow with his chakra,\n     struck off the demon\u2019s head, which, flying up to heaven,\n     since keeps an inextinguishable hatred against the two\n     luminaries who had betrayed him, and now and then swallows\n     the sun or the moon.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [61] The name of Brahma\u2019s heaven is properly \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u0932\u094b\u0915 _satya\n     loka_, \u201cthe world of truth.\u201d\n\n     [62] The words between the asterisks are not in the\n     manuscripts.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [63] Not in the manuscripts.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [64] A particular account of the Muhammedan doctors is to be\n     given hereafter.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [65] In Sanskrit \u0915\u0943\u0924 \u092f\u0941\u0917\u0902 _Krita-Yugam_ and \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092f\u0941\u0917\u0902\n     _Satya-Yugam_, \u201cthe righteous age.\u201d\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [66] \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0924\u093e\u092f\u0941\u0917 from \u0924\u094d\u0930\u0948 _trai_, \u201cto preserve.\u201d\n\n     [67] \u0926\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092a\u0930 \u092f\u0941\u0917 _Dwapar_, from _dwa_, \u201ctwo,\u201d and _par_,\n     \u201cafter, subsequent.\u201d\n\n     [68] The beginning of the Kali Yug is placed about 3001\n     years anterior to the Christian era.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [69] For a more detailed account of the occupations of the\n     several deities, male and female, see _Moore\u2019s Hindu\n     Pantheon_, p. 333; and also plates, 52 and 54.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [70] A month of mortals is a day and a night of the\n     _Pitris_, or patriarchs inhabiting the moon; and the\n     division of a month being into equal halves, the half\n     beginning from the full moon is their day for actions; and\n     that beginning from the new moon is their night for slumber.\n\n     A year of mortals is a day and a night of the gods, or\n     regents of the universe, seated round the north pole; and\n     again their division is this: their day is the northern, and\n     their night the southern, course of the sun.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [71] Learn now the duration of a day and a night of Brahma,\n     and of the several ages which shall be mentioned in order\n     succinctly: Sages have given the name of Krita to an age\n     containing four thousand years of the gods; the twilight\n     preceding it consists of as many hundreds, and the twilight\n     following it of the same number.\n\n     In the other three ages, with their twilights preceding and\n     following, are thousands and hundreds diminished by one.\n\n     The divine years, in the four ages just enumerated, being\n     added together, their sum, or twelve thousand, is called the\n     age of the gods.\n\n     And by reckoning a thousand such divine ages, a day of\n     Brahma may be known: his night also has an equal duration.\n\n     The before-mentioned age of the gods, or twelve thousand of\n     their years, being multiplied by seventy-one, constitutes a\n     Manvantara, or the reign of a Menu.\n\n     There are numberless Manvantaras: creations also, and\n     destructions of worlds innumerable: the Being supremely\n     exalted performs all this with as much ease as if in sport;\n     again and again for the sake of conferring happiness\n     (_Haughton\u2019s Menu_, p. 11. 12. 13).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [72] The manuscript omits all the words after \u201csmaller solar\n     bodies,\u201d observe the asterisks.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE THIRD, CONCERNING THE RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCES AND CEREMONIES\nOF THE SAMARTAGANS (SMARTAS), OR ORTHODOX OF THE HINDUS.\u2015\u2015According to\nthis class, there are two kinds of birth: the first, on quitting the\nmaternal womb; the second, on the day of assuming the _Munji_[73] or\n_Zanar_, and repeating the established forms of prayer; as, until a\nperson has scrupulously performed both these rites, he is not regarded\nas orthodox, nor an observer of their institutes. Under this are\ncontained the _Shod\u00e1s\u00e1n-Karm\u00e1ni_,[74] \u201csixteen heads,\u201d commencing with\nthe woman being purified from periodical illness; her attachment to\nher husband; the forms of prayer necessary to be used on the occasion,\nand observed until the moment of death; and the acts of charity\nenjoined to be performed after the person\u2019s decease.\n\nOf their laudable customs are the following: 1. the _Garbh-\u00e1dh\u00e1na-karma_,[75]\nor delivering the likeness of a son, that is, giving up a daughter to\nher husband; 2. the _Pungsavana_,[76] or reciting at the proper season\nthe prayers enjoined to be said, that a virtuous offspring may be\nborn; 3. the _S\u00edmantonnayana_,[77] that is, in the sixth month of a\nwoman\u2019s pregnancy, the recitation of the proper forms of prayer and\ngiving a feast to Brahmans; 4. the _J\u00e1takarma_,[78] or the rites to be\npractised by the father on the birth of a son, in regard to ablution;\n_H\u00f3m_, or burnt offerings; _Jap_, or devout meditation and acts of\ncharity; 5. the _N\u00e1ma-karana_,[79] when, on the eleventh day after the\nchild\u2019s birth, they give it a name and repeat the necessary forms of\nprayer; 6. on the fourth month they bring out the child, which they\ncall the _Nish-kramana_;[80] 7. giving the child suitable food and at\na propitious moment, which they call _Anna-pr\u00e1sanna_;[81] 8. at the\nage of three years they shave the child\u2019s head and bore its ears,\nwhich rite they call _Ch\u00fad\u00b4\u00e1-karana_,[82] or the ceremony of forming\nthe crest at the first tonsure of a Hindu. They are strictly enjoined\nto observe the above eight ceremonies; and if the child be of the\nfemale sex, they practise the same rites, but without the stated forms\nof prayer; excepting at the time of her marriage, when they are bound\nto recite the forms appropriated to that ceremony. 9. In his fifth\nyear, they bind around the child\u2019s waist a string which they call\n_S\u00fatram_;[83] this rite they call _Mungi_;[84] the string is to be\nmade of the bark of the _Darbha_;[85] 10. three days after investing\nthe boy with the Sutra, they should put the Zanar, or \u201csacrificial\nthread,\u201d[86] about his neck, which they call the _Yajn\u00f3pav\u00edta_;[87]\n11. on assuming the Brahmanical thread they are, by way of charity, to\nbestow a cow on the Brahmans, which act they call _G\u00f3d\u00e1n_;[88] 12. is\nthe ablution of the body with milk, curds, clarified butter, honey,\nand sugar, which they call the _Ashnan-panjah_ and _Paraish-chat_;[89]\n13. when the boy reaches his fifteenth year, they make him master of a\nhousehold; this they call _Viv\u00e1hah_,[90] or \u201cmatrimony;\u201d 14. the son,\nafter the decease of his father, performs the requisite charities and\ndonations, which they call _Pind-prad\u00e1n_;[91] 15. on the 7th of the\nmonth _M\u00e1gha_,[92] when the majesty of the great luminary is in\nAquarius, they are to present the Brahmans with pulse, barley, wheat,\nblack rice, sesam\u00e9, gold, and suchlike; this is called _D\u00e1n-phal_;[93]\n16. on the _Shiva-r\u00e1tri_,[94] or \u201cnight of Siva,\u201d the 21st of the\n_Bh\u00e1gan_ (Ph\u00e1gan, or Ph\u00e1lgun) they present to the Brahmans a serpent\nof silver, with red rice, which they call _Phani_.[95]\n\nThe above are the sixteen ceremonies. It is moreover necessary that a\nBrahman\u2019s son should be invested with the Munji at the age of eight,\nthe Chatriyas at eleven, and the Vaisyas at twelve, after which\nceremony the boy is to be sent to school.\n\nA Brahman must, whilst performing the offices of nature, fasten the\nMunji securely on the right ear, turning his face to the north, but at\nnight to the south. After performing these offices, he is to take his\ninstrument, and going three paces farther he is to apply to his hands\nwater, which is to be in a vessel, and with which earth has been\nblended, and this is to be continued until there remains no\ndisagreeable odour. He is after this to perform his ablution in a\nclean place,[96] and seat himself in such a manner that his hands\nshould be under his knees, with his face to the north or east; next,\nwhilst repeating the prescribed forms of prayer, he is to put a little\nwater three times successively into the palm of the right hand,[97]\nwhich he is to swallow without reciting any prayers; he is then to\ncleanse the mouth with the back of the left hand, and having taken\ninto the palm of his hand other water, and dipped the other fingers\ninto it, he is to apply them to his nose, eyes, and ears; the water\nmust be pure, without foam or bubble. On this occasion the Brahman is\nto swallow so much water that the moisture may extend to his breast;\nthe Chattri such a quantity as to extend to his throat; the Vaisya\nsufficient to moisten the inside of his mouth; the cultivator, women,\nand children who have not assumed the Munji, are to apply a little\nwater to the lips, then immerse the head, and having repeated the\nproper forms of prayer, to sprinkle the head several times. The\nBrahman is next to compress the nostrils, so that the passage of\ninhalation and exhalation should be closed up, and recite the prayers\nprescribed on the occasion; then he is to stand for some time, turning\nhis face towards the great luminary, and repeat the necessary formul\u00e6.\nEvery morning, on rising up and performing duly the offices of nature,\nhe is to go through the necessary rites which they call _Sandhya_,[98]\nthe observance of which, three times every day, is equally imperative\non both Brahman and Chattriya: 1. every morning, or from the dawn of\nday until the rise of the world-illuminating solar orb; 2. at midday,\nfrom the sun\u2019s meridian altitude to his declination; 3. at evening, or\nfrom one hour before the setting of the world-enlightening sun until\nthe rising of the stars. These rites are to be accompanied by\n_Ghasal_, or \u201cablution,\u201d except on the Sandhya of the latter part of\nthe day, when, if it be impossible, the established prayers only are\nto be recited. On performing this ablution, the head is to be several\ntimes sprinkled with water in such a manner that it may fall in drops\non it; after which, having gone through the indispensable forms of\nprayer, he is to make the _Homa_, that is, he is to light the holy\nfire on a pure spot, and place on it thin and fine pieces of wood, and\nhaving chosen the still more delicate splinters of it, and moistened\nthem with water, he drops pure rice upon them. The fire being thus\nlighted, he addresses prayers to his spiritual guide or his\ninstructor, father, and elders, and laying his head on the ground,\nsolicits their benedictions; pronouncing during this adoration his own\nname, so that it may be heard by them, after this manner: \u201cI, who am\nsuch a one, in profound adoration address my prayers to you, and\nprostrate myself in your presence:\u201d the same prostration must also be\nperformed to his mother. He then repairs to his master, before whom he\nstands in an humble attitude and receives instruction: but after this\nform, that the instructor should say of himself, \u201cI am now at\nleisure:\u201d he is not to command him, which would be accounted great\nrudeness. When the pupil waits on his master, he is to appear before\nhim dressed in costly clothing; but if both master and pupil should be\nin indigent circumstances, the latter is to solicit alms, and thus\nprocure subsistence for his master and himself: he is moreover to\nremain silent at table.\n\nThe boy, when invested with the Brahminical thread, is called a\n_Brahmachari_, until he enters into the marriage state; after which,\nif through the necessity of his own family he derives his daily\nsupport from another quarter, he is not to eat at one place only, but\ngo round to several doors, and receiving something at each, convey the\nwhole to its proper destination; but the person, whose father and\nmother charge themselves with his annual support, and who can discover\nno other Brahman beside himself in that district, is allowed to\nsatisfy his appetite at one place. Until the time of his marriage, the\nBrahmachari eats not honey, never applies collyrium to the eyes, nor\noil nor perfumes to the body; and never eats the viands left at table,\nexcept his master\u2019s; he never utters a rejoinder with harshness or\nseverity; avoids female intercourse; and never looks at the great\nluminary when rising or setting; he is a stranger to falsehood, and\nnever uses an expression of ill omen; nor holds any one in\ndetestation, or regards him as an object of reproach; above all, he\nshows exceeding veneration to his preceptor.\n\nThe ancients commanded that boys should be engaged in the study of the\nVeds, or \u201creligious sciences,\u201d from five years of age to twelve. They\nhave also said: \u201cA Brahman should study the four V\u00e9das;\u201d but as the\nacquisition of the whole is impossible, their learned men are\nconsequently satisfied with the knowledge of small portions of each.\nThe first is the _Rigv\u00e9da_, which treats concerning the knowledge of\nthe Divine essence and attributes; the mode of creation; the path of\nrighteousness; of life and death. The second, or _Yaj\u00fash-v\u00e9da_, treats\nof the rules prescribed for religious ceremonies, faith, burnt\nofferings, and prayers. The third is the _S\u00e1mav\u00e9da_, which treats of\nthe science of music, the proper mode of reading the V\u00e9das, and the\nportions selected from them; from this source are also derived vocal\nand instrumental harmony. The fourth is the _Atharva-v\u00e9da_, which\nincludes the rules of archery, the prayers proper to be recited when\nencountering the foe and discharging arrows against them. If a person\nacquainted with this system and form of prayer discharge a single\narrow, it becomes a hundred thousand arrows, some of which contain\nfire, others wind, storm, dust, and rain; others vomit forth golden\nstones and huge bricks; whilst some assume the forms of tremendous\nwild beasts and ferocious animals, which strike terror into the\nboldest hearts. Many are the extraordinary modes and wonderful devices\nunfolded in this V\u00e9da for the total destruction of one\u2019s enemies. Such\nis the Atharva V\u00e9da, and such the artifices, magic practices,\nincantations, spells, and devices contained in it.[99]\n\nThe _Brahmach\u00e1r\u00ed_ is of two kinds: one as already described, whom the\nBrahmans call Brahmachari, until the period of his becoming a\nhouseholder and taking a wife; the second is he who in the course of\nthis life never enters into the married state, pays no attention to\nworldly cares, and continues the devoted servant of his instructor, on\nwhose death he pays the same attention to his survivors. If the\ndisciple should happen to die in his master\u2019s house or that of his\nsuccessor, it is accounted far more meritorious than in any other\nplace; and if his decease should not occur, he is carefully to worship\nthe fire which is made for the purpose of the Hom, or \u201cburnt-offering,\u201d\nand diminishing every day the quantity of his food.\n\nHaving thus given some statements concerning the Brahmach\u00e1r\u00ed, it now\nbecomes proper to mention the various modes of contracting marriage\namong the Hindus: thus it is related in the first part of the\n_Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rat_, that a woman who has lost her husband may lawfully take\nanother; for when Parasu-Rama had exterminated the Chattris, their\nwives held intercourse with the Brahmans and bare them children. It is\nalso permitted to a wife deprived of her husband, to attach herself to\nanother; thus _Yojanagandh\u00e1_[100] was first the wife of _Para\u015bara_, by\nwhom she had a son, the celebrated sage _Vy\u00e1sa_,[101] and she\nafterwards became the wife of a king named _Santana_.[102] In the same\nwork it is also recorded, that a woman may, by her husband\u2019s consent,\nmaintain intercourse with another; thus, on the arrival of Raja Bali,\na Brahman named _Tamma_, sent him his wife and obtained a son. In like\nmanner, Raja _P\u00e1ndu_, who abstained from all intercourse with woman,\npermitted his wife _Kunt\u00ed_[103] to keep company with others, and she,\nby force of his prayers, mixing with angels, had sons. In like manner\nit is permitted that the son be separated from the father, but remain\nwith the mother, and that, on the decease of a brother, another\nbrother by a different father but the same mother, may marry the widow\nof the deceased: thus _Vy\u00e1sa_, the son of _Yojangandha_ by\n_P\u00e1rasaru_,[104] visited the wives of _Vichitra-Virya_, who was born\nof the same mother, Yojangandha, by king Santanu, and there was born\nto him _Dhritar\u00e1shtra_, Raja _P\u00e1ndu_, and _Vid\u00fara_. It is also allowed\nthat several individuals of the same race and religion may among them\nespouse one wife: thus _Draupad\u00ed_, daughter of _Dr\u00fapada_, R\u00e1ja of\n_P\u00e1nch\u00e1la_,[105] was married to the five Pandava princes; and\n_Ahaly\u00e1_,[106] the daughter of _Gautama_, to seven persons; and the\ndaughter of another holy person, was married to ten husbands. The\nYezdanians ascribe the seclusion of women, and their not choosing\nhusbands for themselves, to litigation, corruption, and the family\nperplexities. It is recorded also in the Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rat, that in ancient\ntimes there was no such practice as the appropriation of husband and\nwife; every woman being allowed to cohabit with whomsoever she thought\nproper, until once the wife of a holy personage being in the society\nof another, Sw\u00e9tak\u00e9ta, the holy man\u2019s son, feeling indignant at such\nconduct, pronounced this imprecation: \u201cLet the woman who approaches a\nstranger be regarded as a spirit of hell!\u201d and at present the brute\ncreation, which possess in common with us, immaterial souls, act\naccording to the ancient law: many, also, of the northern nations\nfollow the same practice. In the same work it is also stated, that the\nsage Vy\u00e1sa was born of the daughter of a fisherman, whom the sage\nPara\u015bara espoused, from which it follows that the issue of such a low\nconnection is not to be held as a low or degraded character. Thus far\nhas been extracted from the Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rat.\n\nAccording to the Smarttas, there are two kinds of wives: the first is\nthe legitimate wife, who is degraded by holding intercourse with any\nman save her husband: the second are those on whom no restraints are\nimposed; of whom there are numbers at the disposition of their chief\nmen. The princes of ancient times, to all appearance, established this\ndescription of females for the purpose of receiving travellers and\npilgrims, an act which they regarded as productive of great blessings.\n\nMoreover, on account of the increase of the male population, they held\nnot as a criminal act the holding an intercourse with these females;\nbut regarded guilt to consist in being intimate with a woman who has a\nhusband: they moreover esteemed it a base act to defraud the licensed\nclass of their hire. Tradition records that, in former times, the\n_Lulees_, or \u201cdancing women,\u201d who inhabited the temple of the Tortoise\nin the city of Kalinga, at first gave their daughters to a Brahman, in\norder to conciliate the favor of the Almighty and insure future\nhappiness; but that afterwards they gave them from selfish purposes,\nand exposed them from mercenary motives; even at present, although\nthey have entirely given up every pious purpose, yet they do not\nassociate with any save those of their own religion. However, Shir\nMuhammed Khan, who was appointed military governor of that province\nunder the first sovereign, Abd\u00e1ll\u00e1h Kuteb Shah, forced them to repair\nto the houses of the Moslem: notwithstanding which, the Lulees of the\ntemple of Jagganath, to this very day hold no intercourse with the\nMuhammedans. In Gaya and Soram, when they take a wife, she must be of\nnoble and honorable descent, and of graceful carriage; and must not\npreviously have been affianced to any other person; she is not to be\nrelated, in the remotest degree, to the stock or family of her\nhusband, she ought to have brothers, and her lineage and family for\nten generations are to be publicly known among her contemporaries. Her\nrelations also make strict inquiries into the merits and demerits of\nthe bridegroom, particularly as to the state of his health and\nstamina. Some writers assert, that a Brahman may occasionally demand\nin marriage the daughter of a Chattri, merchant, or cultivator, but on\nthis condition, that they do not join their husband in partaking of\nfood or drink.\n\nAmong the Hindus there are five modes of contracting marriage;[107]\nthe first, or _Viv\u00e1ha_, after this form: the damsel\u2019s father looks out\nfor a son-in-law, to whom he presents money and goods in proportion to\nhis means, and gives him his daughter, which is the most legitimate\nmode.[108] The second is the _Asurv\u00edvahah_, when without the consent\nof the father or mother, by employing force and violence, or the\ninfluence of money, the damsel is forcibly taken by the bridegroom\nfrom her parents\u2019 house to his own, and there married to him. The\nthird is the _Gandharviv\u00e1hah_, when the bridegroom takes the damsel\naway with her consent, but without the approbation of her parents, and\nespouses her at his own house. The fourth is the _R\u00e1kshasa-viv\u00e1ha_,\nwhen the parties on both sides are at the head of armies, and the\ndamsel, being taken away by force, becomes the victor\u2019s bride.\n\nThe fifth is the _P\u00eds\u00e1cha-viv\u00e1ha_, when the lover, without obtaining\nthe sanction of the girl\u2019s parents, takes her home by means of\ntalismans, incantations, and such like magical practices, and then\nmarries her. P\u00eds\u00e1ch, in Sanscrit, is the name of a demon, which takes\nwhatever person it fixes on, and as the above kind of marriage takes\nplace after the same manner, it has been called by this name.\n\nOn espousing a damsel, the intelligent Brahman, having taken the\nbride\u2019s hand into his own, must go through the established forms\nprescribed by his faith, and move seven steps in advance.[109] When he\nespouses the daughter of a Chattr\u00ed, at the time of solemnizing the\nmarriage, an arrow is to be held at one extremity by the bridegroom,\nand at the other by the bride; on contracting an alliance with a\nmerchant\u2019s daughter, the bride and bridegroom are to hold a scourge or\nsome similar object in the same manner; on his marriage with the\nvirgin daughter of a cultivator, the parties mark their union by a\ntoken of secret intimacy. When they deliver the bride to her husband,\nif her father be not alive, or her paternal grandfather, or if her\nbrothers be not forthcoming on the occasion, then the most respectable\nperson of the tribe or family is to perform the necessary ceremonies;\nand if the relations be not intelligent, then the damsel\u2019s mother.\n\nIt is to be remarked, that when a girl attains the proper age for\nentering into the married state, if her parents, notwithstanding their\nability, do not provide a husband for her, they commit a great sin. If\na distinguished suitor should not present himself, they are however to\nprovide a husband of a good family; this they are to perform only once\nin their lives, as on the husband\u2019s death it is unlawful for the widow\nto become the wife of another person: after her husband\u2019s decease, she\nis obliged to pass the rest of her life in his house. If, previous to\nadvancing the seven steps prescribed at the time of contracting the\nmarriage, there should present himself a more distinguished suitor\nthan the former, it is allowed to take the damsel from the former and\ngive her to the latter, as before advancing the seven paces, the\nmatrimonial contract is not binding. Should a wife prove to be\nimmoral, all intercourse with her must terminate; but putting her to\ndeath or turning her out of doors, are also forbidden: she is to be\nconfined to a small and dark chamber, clad in a coarse dress, and to\nreceive food but once a day.\n\nThe period of a woman\u2019s illness, according to the Brahmans, extends to\nsixteen days: on the four days following the first day of the\nsymptoms, all intercourse with her is forbidden. Women are strictly\nenjoined to show the greatest respect to their husbands, parents,\nbrothers, and relations, and to use every possible exertion for the\npreservation of their husbands\u2019 property. When he goes on a journey,\nshe is not to deck her person, nor appear cheerful and smiling; she is\nnot to go to entertainments, to the houses of her acquaintances or\nrelations, nor invite them to hers.\n\nAs long as a girl is unmarried, it is necessary to guard her with the\nclosest attention; but, when married, this would be highly improper,\nwith this restriction however, that it is by no means fitting that a\nfemale, from her tenderest years to the period of her maturity, should\nbe allowed unlimited liberty: on the contrary, she is to be ever\nsubmissive and obedient to her father, husband, and relations: but if\nthese should not be in existence, the actual rulers are to take care\nof her state.\n\nWhen the husband is on a journey, the wife is not to remain alone in\nthe house, but is to repair to the dwelling of her parents, brethren,\nor relations; and if, on her husband\u2019s death, she become not a\n_Sattee_, that is, burn herself with the deceased, she is then to\nreside with his relations, devoting herself to rigid abstinence and\nthe worship of the Almighty. They say that when a woman becomes a\n_Sattee_, the Almighty pardons all the sins committed by the wife and\nhusband, and that they remain a long time in paradise:[110] nay, if\nthe husband were in the infernal regions, the wife by this means draws\nhim from thence and takes him to paradise; just as the serpent-catcher\ncharms the serpent out of his hole. Moreover the Sattee, in a future\nbirth, returns not to the female sex; but should she reassume the\nhuman nature, she appears as a man; but she who becomes not a Sattee,\nand passes her life in widowhood, is never emancipated from the female\nstate. It is therefore the duty of every woman, excepting one that is\npregnant, to enter into the blazing fire along with her deceased\nhusband; a Brahman\u2019s wife in particular is to devote herself in the\nsame fire with her husband; but others are allowed to perform the rite\nin a separate place. It is however criminal to force the woman into\nthe fire, and equally so to prevent her who voluntarily devotes\nherself.[111]\n\nThe enlightened doctors say, that by a woman\u2019s becoming a Sattee is\nmeant that, on her husband\u2019s decease, she should consume in the fire\nalong with him all her desires, and thus die before the period\nassigned by nature; as in metaphysical language woman signifies\n\u201cpassion,\u201d or in other words, she is to cast all her passions into the\nfire; but not throw herself into it along with the deceased, which is\nfar from being praiseworthy. A respectable woman must not from vanity\nexpose herself to the gaze of a stranger, but she is to wear a dress\nwhich will completely cover her to the sole of the foot.\n\nIt is to be noted, that the son of a Brahman by a Chattri female is\nnot of the father\u2019s caste, but a superior Chattri. It is moreover laid\ndown as a rule that a Brahman, on becoming a Brahmach\u00e1r\u00ed, should\nregularly worship the fire, which fire he is to discontinue at the\ntime of the marriage contract; but on that occasion he is bound to\nlight another fire and to recite the prescribed prayers, so that it\nmay be as a witness of the compact entered into between husband and\nwife: also, after the celebration of the marriage, they are to repeat\nthe prayers prescribed at the time of lighting the fire which they are\never after to worship daily.\n\nThe Brahman is moreover to offer up _H\u00f3ma_, or burnt offerings, at the\nrising and setting of the great luminary, and to partake of food\ntwice; once during the day on the expiration of two watches (midday);\nthe second time at night, on the expiration of one watch: he is also\nto assist with food and clothing, to the utmost of his power, the\nindigent, and friends who come to his house.\n\nThe Chattri is to learn the V\u00e9das and Shasters, or the divine\nrevelations and sciences, but he is not to teach them to another; he\nis likewise to perform H\u00f3ma, or \u201cburnt-offerings.\u201d His occupation\nconsists in governing and protecting the human race, for which reason\nall monarchs were anciently of the Chattri class, the more effectually\nto establish the righteous decrees of Brahma, and the institutions of\nthe Brahmans.\n\nTo the Bakk\u00e1l, or \u201cmerchant caste,\u201d appertains the profession of\nbuying, selling, and commercial transactions, the protection of\nanimals, and agriculture, which is attended with profit.\n\nThe cultivator, who is called _Dalmah_, or _Kumb\u00ed_, is enjoined to\nengage in service, to practise tillage, or any employment within his\ncapacity by which he can gain a maintenance; there are in fact no\nlimits prescribed as to the nature of his occupations.\n\nAll four classes are strictly enjoined not to injure any living being\nwhatever, especially not to deprive any one arbitrarily of life; to\nspeak the truth, to act uprightly, and as long as they live not to\ndefraud a fellow-creature of his wealth.\n\nEvery Brahman is obliged once a year to celebrate the established rite\nof _Yajna_, or \u201csacrifice:\u201d if he be in indigent circumstances, he is\nto go round to his brethren, and expend whatever he collects in the\nYajna, which is thus performed: there are three _Kundams_,[112] or\n\u201cfire-pits\u201d to be formed, in front of which is fixed a wooden post;\nthen a rope made of Durva grass (in Sanskrit, _K\u00fas\u00e1_) is thrown around\nthe neck of a black he-goat, and fastened to that post; _H\u00f3m_ is then\noffered up during five days; on the first day, the sacrificer and his\nwife both perform their ablutions, nine Brahmans at the same time\ngoing through the rite of washing their heads and persons; of these\nnine, one is looked upon as Brahma himself, all present obeying his\ncommands, and the remaining eight Brahmans waiting obsequiously on\nhim. In addition to these, sixteen more Brahmans are required, who are\nto recite by themselves the _Mantra_, or \u201cforms of prayer,\u201d at the\nmoment of the _H\u00f3m_, or \u201cburnt-offering.\u201d In order to light the fire,\nthey bring small pieces of a wood which in Sanscrit they call\n_Arana_,[113] in Hindi, _Ak_ (asclepias gigantea); and also for the\nsame purpose another kind, in Sanskrit, _Khand\u00edra_,[114] in Telinga,\n_Chandaru_; for the Homa, a wood in Sanskrit called _P\u00e1m\u00e1rak_, in\nTelinga, _Utarini_, in Dakhani _Akh\u00e1rah_, of which they make\ntooth-picks; also a wood, in Sanskrit _Ud\u00e1mvarah_[115] (ficus\nracemosa), in Telinga, _Miri_, in Dakhani, _Kular_, in Parsi _Anjir\ndasti_, or \u201cwild fig;\u201d and another wood, in Sanskrit _sam\u00ed_,[116] and\nin Telinga, _Khammi_; also a grass, named in Sanskrit _D\u00farv\u00e1_,[117] in\nTelinga, _Kargi_, in Dakhani, _Hary\u00e1l\u00ed_; also another sort, called\n_Darbas_: altogether nine are required. The eight Brahmans first\nmentioned having repeated the proper incantation, lay hold of the goat\nin such a manner that they make it lie down on a bed formed of the\nleaves and branches of the tree _Khartarhari_, or _Karshartari_, in\nSanskrit, _Kali\u015bakha_,[118] in Telinga, _Bals\u00fak\u00fama_, and in Dakhani\n_Karankab\u00e1nta_. In the next place, the sixteen Brahmans, having\nrecited the formula, or appropriate Mantra, stop up all the animal\u2019s\norifices, so that he can neither exhale nor inhale, and keep him in\nthat position until he dies. Then one of the sixteen Brahmans, cutting\noff the head at one blow, flays the carcase and cuts it up into small\npieces, throwing away all the bones to some distance, and then mixes\nup clarified butter with the flesh. The eight Brahmans next lay it\npiece by piece on the fire, whilst the other sixteen are employed in\nthrowing on the above mentioned kinds of wood, and pouring clarified\nbutter on them. The eight Brahmans eat of the meat thus roasted; the\nperson who offers the sacrifice also partakes of it; after which he\ngives among all the officiating Brahmans one hundred and one cows with\ntheir calves, along with a _dakshinah_, or \u201cpresents of money.\u201d H\u00f3ma\nmust also be performed on the second day, and gifts presented to the\nBrahmans; on the three following days, they recite the appropriate\nMantras, and light up the fire in the manner before described, but lay\nno meat upon it; in short, during the whole five days, they entertain\nall Brahmans who present themselves, offering up perfumes and giving\npresents to each of them. On the expiration of the five days, they\ncompletely fill and stop up two of the fire-receptacles, leaving the\nthird, which they do not close up until they have removed the fire it\ncontains to their dwelling: as the fire on this occasion had been made\noutside the city, they erect there a house which they burn down on the\ncompletion of the ceremony. When they have taken the fire to their\ndwelling, they deposit it in a peculiar receptacle excavated for the\npurpose; they offer up the _H\u00f3ma_ daily, never suffering this fire to\ngo out: they also make a covering for it, which they remove at the\ntime of offering up the H\u00f3ma.\n\nThe manner of offering the _H\u00f3ma_ is as follows: the sacrificer having\nperformed his ablution and made the _tilek_, or \u201cinaugural mark,\u201d on\nthe forehead with ashes from the fire receptacle, then celebrates the\nH\u00f3ma; the rites must be performed by a Brahman, as it is of no avail\nwhen performed by any other. If the officiating Brahman be a\n_Vaishnavah_, \u201cworshipper of Vishnu,\u201d he performs the _Yajna_, or\n\u201csacrifice,\u201d in the same manner, excepting that, instead of a goat, he\nemploys the figure of a goat formed of flour, over which he goes\nthrough the established ceremonies. When one goat is sacrificed, it is\ncalled _Agnisht\u00f3ma_, or \u201csacrifice to Agni;\u201d[119] where two are\noffered, _Y\u00fany\u00edkam_;[120] the sacrifice of three is called\n_Wajp\u00e9ya_;[121] the sacrifice of four is called _Jyotisht\u00f3ma_;[122]\nand the sacrifice of five is named _Panj\u00e1ham_.[123] When they\nsacrifice a cow after this manner, it is called the _Gom\u00e9dha_; the\nsacrifice of a horse, _Aswam\u00e9dha_; that of a man, _Narm\u00e9dha_.\n\nThe _Yajna_, or \u201csacrifice\u201d is to be offered in the months of _M\u00e1gha_,\n\u201cJanuary,\u201d _V\u00e1ish\u00e1ka_, \u201cApril,\u201d or _M\u00e1rga-sirsha_,[124] \u201cAugust.\u201d\nEvery person performs the Yajna once; but he sacrifices a goat every\nyear; or, if in indigent circumstances, the figure of a goat formed of\nflour; and if he be a follower of Vishnu, the goat is to be a figure\nformed of the same materials, as among that sect cruelty towards the\nanimal creation is reckoned as impiety. In their Smriti, or \u201csacred\nwriting,\u201d it is thus laid down: \u201cLet that person put animals to death\nwho has the power of reanimating them, as the victim thus sacrificed\nmust be restored to life.\u201d Moreover, their pious doctors have said\nthat, by the sacrifice of a sheep, is meant the removal of ignorance;\nby that of a cow, the abandoning low pursuits; by that of the horse,\nthe curbing of the mind; as according to the Hindus, Manah, or \u201cthe\nheart,\u201d from which proceed all phantasies and internal sense, is a\nfiery and unbroken steed; finally, shedding man\u2019s blood in sacrifice,\nimplies the eradication of all reprehensible human qualities. It is\nalso to be highly commended in a Brahman not to devote himself to\nlucrative pursuits, but to repair to the abode of his co-religionists,\nand being satisfied and grateful for the portion of grain he receives\nfrom them, to give up the rest of his time to devotion; nor is he to\ncollect so much food as to have any remaining for the next day.\nVessels of gold are esteemed more pure than those of any other metal.\nWhenever a Brahman sees an idol-temple, a cow, or a holy personage, he\nis to walk reverentially round each. He is not to perform the offices\nof nature in running water, nor in a cow-shed, nor in ashes; before a\nBrahman, or a cow, or in sight of the great luminary; when he retires\nto any place for this purpose, he is not in that state of nudity to\nlook towards the stars; neither is he to go out naked in rain, nor\nsleep with his head to the west; he is not to cast saliva, blood, nor\nsemen into water, nor extend his feet towards the fire for the purpose\nof warming them; he is not to leap on fire, nor drink water with both\nhands. It is also wrong to awake, unless in case of necessity, one who\nis in a profound sleep; nor is it allowed to sit on the same couch\nwith a sick person. It is not right to enter upon any undertaking to\nwhich a suspicion of evil consequences is attached. Great care must\nalso be taken to remove to a distance from the smoke of a dead body on\nthe funeral pile. No one is to return to his home, whether in a city\nor village, except by the public gate. A Brahman must not receive a\ngift from a mean and sordid monarch, or from an avaricious person of\ndegrading pursuits, as in the future investigation, punishment\ncertainly awaits such conduct: in short, he never accepts any thing\nfrom the impure or base. He is not to look at his wife when sneezing,\nyawning, or gaping; when she is seated in privacy at her ease; or when\napplying collyrium to her eyes, or anointing her hair.[125] He ought\nnot to sleep naked in his bed-room, nor in an empty house without a\ncompanion; he ought not to throw water about in play, with the palm of\nhis hand or with his foot, nor to blow out fire with his breath,\nwithout using any instrument.\n\nIt is to be known, that the astronomers among the Brahmans, in their\ncomputation, divide the month into two parts; from the beginning to\nthe fifteenth day they reckon one part, and call the sixteenth day\n_P\u00farva_, that is, one entire part; and the rest, to the end of the\nmonth, is the other part; in like manner, they have in each month\ntwice twelve and six days; which they distinguish by the denomination\n_dv\u00e1d\u00e1s\u00ed_, \u201cthe twelfth,\u201d and _chacht\u00ed_, \u201cthe sixth, day\u201d of the lunar\nfortnight.\n\nNobody ought to put his feet upon the shade of a D\u00edv, that is, of the\nimage of a celestial being, of a king, a preceptor, a saint, and a\nmarried wife of another. It is not right to look with contempt upon a\nBrahman. One may beat a delinquent on account of a fault, or a pupil\nby way of chastisement, but his blows must not hurt the upper parts of\nthe body. No man ought to dispute or wrangle with one higher in rank\nthan himself, nor with a widow, nor with a man without connexion, an\nold woman, a beggar, nor with children. Let him feign ignorance with\nrespect to a mandate upon a woman, and towards a person who should be\naware of the bad conduct of his wife. He is never to take his meal\nupon the same table-cloth with a man without religion, a butcher, and\none who sells his wife. The master of the house ought never, with a\nloud voice, to invite another to his board, because this looks like\nostentation.\n\nNine stars are to be worshipped for the increase of wealth, the\naccomplishment of our wishes, and the union with the divinity; namely,\nSaturn, Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury, the solstice, and the\ndescending node. Let the pious distribute to the Brahmans and to the\nwise men what is prescribed of corn, raiment, and jewels that may suit\nthem. The king is to possess dignity, wisdom, and affability towards\nyoung and old; he is to be just towards the complainants; at court,\ncondescending to all, mild and liberal, knowing the truth,\nunderstanding the wishes of men, respectful to the pious and the\nsaints, and showing deference to the lords of the faith, and the\nsecluded from the world; he is to be humble and command his ambition;\nand in whatever may occur, pleasure and pain, fortune and misfortune,\nlet his conduct never be mutable and inconsistent.\n\nWhoever runs away in battle, renders himself highly guilty, and all\nthe merit which he might have acquired before, falls to the share of\nanother who stood firm in the field of battle.[126] A king who, with\nthe laudable qualities before described, exerts himself in the\nmaintenance of his laws, the distribution of justice, and the welfare\nof the cultivators, shares the recompense of all the good actions\nwhich the inhabitants of the country have performed.[127] The exercise\nof justice is imposed as a necessity upon a king; in order that, if a\nson, brother, uncle, brother-in-law, preceptor, or any other friend,\ncommit a crime, he may immediately, according to the established code\nof laws, order their chastisement, terrify, reprimand, or subject them\nto retaliation.\n\nIn the Hindu Institutes which are called _Smriti_, it is said to be\nestablished that, after the worship of the Supreme God, they ought to\nvenerate the subordinate divinities, and perform the prescribed rites.\nTo eat flesh, and to put to death some animals, is therein not\nprohibited, excepting the cow; he who kills, or even hurts, this\nanimal, shall never enjoy the sight of heaven; and they say that he\nonly who can restore to life, may put to death, an animal; this is\nnecessary: who destroys a living being must vivify it again; if he be\nnot able to do this, he ought to forbear from that act, because he\nshall not escape punishment for it. According to their learned\ninterpreters, the killing of certain animals which is permitted in\ntheir sacred books, signifies the eradicating and destroying of such\nblameable qualities as are proper to these animals.\n\nIn ancient times, it was the custom among the Brahmans and the wise\namong them, when they had become householders and begotten a son, to\nwithdraw from society, and when they had established their sons, to\nseparate from them, and having retired into a desert, to devote\nthemselves to the worship of God; and when the sons had children in\ntheir house, their father and mother did not visit each other in the\ndesert, but lived separate from each other, at the distance of several\nfarsangs.\n\nThe religious austerity of this people is very great; thus they\npractise perpetual standing upon their legs, hanging themselves up,\nabstaining from conversation, keeping silence, cutting themselves\nasunder, leaping down from a rock, and such like. Women used to burn\nthemselves alive with their dead husbands: this is according to the\n_Smriti_,[128] which is ascribed to Brahma, and believed to be eternal\ntruth.\n\nOf this people, the author of this book saw in Lahor, the capital of\nthe sultan, a Brahman, called Sri Manu Rama, who would not accept any\nnourishment from the Musulmans, nor keep society with strangers. It\nwas said, that an Umra of the Mahommedans had offered him three lacs\nof rupees, which he refused to take. Pursuant to his religion, he\nabstained from animal food. Kesayi T\u00edv\u00e1r\u00ed is one of the Brahmans of\nBen\u00e1res, and well conversant with the science of his class. Having\nleft his house, he settled on the bank of the river Ravi, which passes\nnear the garden Kamran, at Lah\u00f3r: given up to devotion, he seeks no\nprotection against rain and sun; he lives upon a little milk; and\nwhatever he has collcted during several months, he spends in the\nentertainment of the pious Brahmans whom he invites.\n\n\n     [73] _Munji_, a sort of grass, from the fibres of which a\n     string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn by the\n     Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum munja Rox._)\u2015\u2015(_Wilson\u2019s\n     Sanskrit Dictionary._)\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [74] Ward enumerates only ten _Sanskara_, or \u201cceremonies:\u201d\n     _Garbh\u00e1dh\u00e1na_, _P\u00fangsavana_, _Simonton-nayana_,\n     _J\u00e1ta-karma_, _Nishkramana_, _N\u00e1ma-karana_, _Anna-pr\u00e1shana_,\n     _Ch\u00fara-karana_, _Upanayana_, and _Viv\u00e1ha_ (vol. III. p. 71).\n\n     [75] The above interpretation is not correct; the name of\n     the ceremony \u0917\u0930\u094d\u092d\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0928 is derived from _Garbha_, \u201cthe f\u0153tus,\u201d\n     and _adhan_, \u201ctaking;\u201d according to Wilson\u2019s Dictionary, a\n     ceremony performed prior to conception; but, according to\n     Ward, a ceremony to be performed four months after\n     conception, including a burnt sacrifice, the worship of the\n     Sh\u00e1lgr\u00e1ma, and all the forms of the N\u00e1nd\u00ed-M\u00fakh\u00ed-Shr\u00e1dda. The\n     Shalgrama (from _Shal_, \u201cto move, to shake,\u201d and _Grama_, \u201ca\n     village\u201d) the _\u00e6tites_, or \u201ceagle-stone,\u201d black, hollow, and\n     nearly round, said to be brought from mount Gandaki, in\n     Nepaul\u2015\u2015an emblem of Vishnu (see Ward, vol. I. p.\n     283-4-5).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [76] \u092a\u0941\u0902\u0938\u0935\u0928. A religious and domestic festival, held on the\n     mother\u2019s perceiving the first signs of a living conception:\n     from _pung_, \u201ca male,\u201d and _shu_, \u201cto bear.\u201d\n\n     _N\u00e1ndi-Mukha-Sr\u00e1ddha_, funeral obsequies performed on joyous\n     occasions, as initiation, marriage, etc., in which nine\n     balls of meat are offered to the deceased father, paternal\n     grandfather, and great grandfather; to the maternal\n     grandfather, great grandfather, and great great grandfather;\n     to the mother, paternal grandmother, and paternal great\n     grandmother: from _Nandi_, \u201cgood fortune,\u201d and _Mukha_,\n     \u201cprincipal.\u201d\n\n     [77] \u0938\u0940\u092e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u094b\u0928\u094d\u0928\u092f\u0928 a purificatory and sacrificial ceremony\n     observed by women, on the fourth, sixth, or eighth month of\n     their pregnancy: from _Simanta_, \u201ca portion of the hair,\u201d\n     and _Unnayana_, \u201carranging;\u201d this forming an essential part\n     of the ceremony\u2015\u2015(_Wilson_).\n\n     [78] \u091c\u093e\u0924 \u0915\u0930\u094d\u092e from _Jata_, \u201cborn,\u201d and _karma_, \u201can act\n     practised at the moment of birth,\u201d in which the Shr\u00e1daha,\n     \u201cthe burnt sacrifice,\u201d and other ceremonies, which occupy\n     about two hours, are performed, and then the umbilical cord\n     is cut\u2015\u2015(_Ward_, vol. III. p. 73).\n\n     [79] \u0928\u093e\u092e\u0915\u0930\u0923 from _N\u00e1man_, \u201ca name,\u201d and _Kri_, \u201cto\n     make\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Ward\u2019s Glossary_).\n\n     The first part of a Brahman\u2019s compound name should indicate\n     holiness; of a Chatriya\u2019s, power; of a Vaisya\u2019s, wealth; and\n     of a Sudra\u2019s, contempt. Let the second part of the priest\u2019s\n     name imply prosperity; of the soldier\u2019s, preservation; of\n     the merchant\u2019s, nourishment; of the servant\u2019s, humble\n     attendance. The names should be agreeable, soft, clear,\n     captivating the fancy, auspicious, ending in long vowels,\n     resembling words of benediction\u2015\u2015(_Haughton\u2019s Menu_, p. 25).\n\n     [80] \u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0915\u094d\u0930\u092e\u0923 from _Nir_, \u201cforth,\u201d and _Kram_, \u201cto step:\u201d\n     carrying the child out of the house to see the sun, and\n     offering up petitions for the long life and prosperity of\n     the child.\n\n     [81] \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0928 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0936\u0928 from _Anna_, \u201cfood,\u201d and _pr\u00e1\u015banna_,\n     \u201cfeeding\u201d (_Ward\u2019s Vocabulary_).\u2015\u2015\u201cIn the sixth month, he\n     should be fed with rice; or that may be done which, by the\n     custom of the family, may be thought most propitious\u201d\n     (_MS._, p. 25).\u2015\u2015For the goddess Anna Perenna of the Romans,\n     the Anna-purna of the Hindus, from _Anna_, \u201crace,\u201d and\n     _purna_, \u201cto fill\u201d (see _As. Res._, vol. VIII. p. 69. 85).\n\n     [82] \u091a\u0942\u0921\u093e\u0915\u0930\u0923 from _Ch\u00fad\u00b4a_, \u201ca single lock of hair left on\n     the crown of the head at the ceremony of the first tonsure,\u201d\n     and _Karana_, \u201cthe act of making.\u201d\n\n     [83] \u0938\u0942\u0924\u094d\u0930 _S\u00fatra_, \u201ca thread in general; a string, or\n     collection of threads,\u201d as that worn by the three first\n     classes\u2015\u2015(_Wilson_).\n\n     [84] \u092e\u0941\u091e\u094d\u091c _Munja_, \u201ca sort of grass\u201d from the fibres of\n     which a string is prepared, of which the triple thread worn\n     by the Brahman should be formed (_Saccharum\n     Munja_)\u2015\u2015(_Wilson_).\n\n     [85] \u0926\u0930\u094d\u092d _Darbha_, _C\u00fasa_, or \u201csacrificial grass\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Wilson_).\n\n     The girdle of a priest must be made of Munja in a triple\n     cord, smooth and soft; that of a warrior must be a\n     bow-string of Murva; that of a merchant, a triple thread of\n     Sana. If the Munja be not procurable, their zones must be\n     formed respectively of the grasses Cusa Asmantaca, valvaja,\n     in triple strings, with one, three, or five knots, according\n     to the family custom\u2015\u2015(_MS._ p. 26).\n\n     [86] The sacrificial thread of a Brahman must be made of\n     cotton, so as to be put on over his head, in three strings;\n     that of a Chatriya, of Sana thread only; that of a Vaisya,\n     of woollen thread\u2015\u2015(_MS._ p. 27).\n\n     [87] The \u092f\u091c\u094d\u091e\u094b\u092a\u0935\u0940\u0924 or \u201csacrificial cord,\u201d originally worn by\n     the three principal casts of Hindus; at present, from the\n     loss of the pure Chatr\u00edya and Vaisya casts in Bengal,\n     confined to the Brahmanical order: from _Yajna_, \u201ca\n     sacrifice,\u201d and _Upav\u00edta_, \u201ca thread.\u201d\n\n     [88] \u0917\u094b \u0926\u093e\u0928 _Go-d\u00e1na_, from _Go_, \u201ca cow,\u201d and _D\u00e1na_, \u201ca\n     gift.\u201d\n\n     [89] Probably \u0905\u0936\u0928 \u092a\u091e\u094d\u091a or \u092a\u091e\u094d\u091a \u0924\u0928\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930 _asana pancha_, or\n     _pancha tantra_, \u201cfive things.\u201d\n\n     [90] \u0935\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0939.\n\n     [91] \u092a\u093f\u0923\u094d\u0921 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u0928 _Pinda-prad\u00e1na_, from _pinda_, \u201ca funeral\n     cake;\u201d an oblation to deceased ancestors, offered at the\n     several _Sraddhas_, by the nearest surviving relation, and\n     _pr\u00e1d\u00e1n_, \u201cthe act of giving.\u201d\n\n     [92] \u092e\u093e\u0918 _Magha_, the name of a Hindu month commencing when\n     the sun enters Capricornus. (January-February).\n\n     [93] \u0926\u093e\u0928 \u092b\u0932 _D\u00e1na-phal_, from _D\u00e1na_, \u201ca gift,\u201d and _phal_,\n     \u201cfruit.\u201d\n\n     [94] \u0936\u093f\u0935 \u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f _Shiva-ratri_, from _Shiva_, \u201cSiva, the\n     deity,\u201d in his character of destroyer and reproducer; the\n     third person of the Hindu triad, and _ratri_, \u201cnight,\u201d being\n     the night of the fourteenth day of the moon\u2019s wane, in the\n     month _Magha_, or _Magha-phalguna_, a rigorous fast with\n     extraordinary ceremonies in honour of the _Sivalinga_, or\n     _Phallus_.\n                                 (_As. Res._, vol. III. p. 274.)\n\n     [95] \u092b\u0923\u0940 _Phani_, from _Phana_, \u201cthe expanded hood or neck\n     of the _Cobra di Capello_\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Wilson_).\n\n     [96] For a more detailed account, see _Ward on the Hindoos_,\n     vol. II. p. 29, etc.\u2015\u2015The abstract given in the Dabist\u00e1n is\n     inaccurate, agreeing neither with _Manu_ nor _Ward_: in\n     _Manu_, it is as follows (l. II. sl. 58): Let a Brahman at\n     all times perform the ablution with the pure part of his\n     hand, denominated from the Veda, or with the part sacred to\n     the Lord of creatures, or with that dedicated to the gods:\n     but never with the part named from the _Pitris_. (sl. 59)\n     The pure part under the root of the thumb is called\n     _Brahma_; that at the root of the little finger, _C\u00e1ya_;\n     that at the tips of the fingers, _Daiva_; and the part\n     between the thumb and index, _Pitrya_. (sl. 60) Let him sip\n     water thrice; then twice wipe his mouth; and lastly, touch\n     with water the six cavities (or his eyes, ears, and\n     nostrils), his breast, and his head. (61) He who knows the\n     law and seeks purity, will ever perform his ablution with\n     the pure part of his hand, and with water neither hot nor\n     frothy, standing in a lonely place, and turning to the east\n     or north. (62) A Brahman is purified by water that reaches\n     his bosom; a Chatr\u00edya, by water descending to his throat; a\n     Vaisya, by water barely taken into his mouth; a Sutra, by\n     water touched with the extremity of his lips.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [97] This rite is called _Achamana_, performed by taking up\n     water in the palm of the right hand three times, and\n     drinking it as it runs towards the wrist; then, with the\n     right hand, the Brahman is to touch his lips, nose, ears,\n     navel, breast, forehead, and shoulders, repeating an\n     incantation; wash his hands again, and perform _achamana_;\n     repeat an incantatian; then sitting to the N. or E., before\n     sunrise, cleanse his teeth with the end of a green stick,\n     about six or seven inches long. If he clean his teeth after\n     sunrise, in the next birth he will be born an insect feeding\n     on ordure. He must now wash from his face the mark on his\n     forehead made the day before. Lastly, he puts a dry and\n     new-washed cloth round his loins and sitting down, let him\n     cleanse his poita by rinsing it in the water; then taking up\n     some earth in his hand and diluting it with water, put the\n     middle finger of his right hand in this earth, and make a\n     line botwixt his eyes up to the top of his forehead; then\n     draw his three first fingers across his forehead; make a\n     round dot with his little finger in the centre at the top of\n     his head; another on the upper part of his nose; and another\n     on his throat; etc., etc. (_Ward_, vol. II. p. 31).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [98] _Sandhya._ The Brahman must offer up many prayers; pour\n     out water to different gods; repeat certain forms of prayer\n     in honor of the sun, which he must worship; and repeat the\n     G\u00e1yatr\u00ed; then take up water with his Kosha (small copper\n     cup), and pour it out to his deceased ancestors; after which\n     he must return home and read some part of the Veda\u2015\u2015(_Ward_,\n     vol. II. p. 31-32).\n\n     The _G\u00e1yatr\u00ed_ here means a sacred verse from the Vedas, to\n     be recited only mentally: this is usually personified and\n     considered as a goddess, the metaphorical mother of the\n     three first classes, in their capacity of twice-born;\n     investiture with the sacred and distinguishing string, viz.:\n     being regarded as a new birth. There is but one Gayatri of\n     the Vedas; but, according to the system of the Tantricas, a\n     number of mystical verses are called G\u00e1yatr\u00eds, each deity\n     having one in particular. From _Gaya_, \u201cwho sings;\u201d and\n     _Trai_, \u201cto preserve.\u201d\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [99] We read in Colebrooke\u2019s Treatise on the V\u00e9das (_As.\n     Res._, vol. VIII. p. 370) what follows: \u201cIt is well known,\n     that the original V\u00e9da is believed by Hindus to have been\n     revealed by Brahma, and to have been preserved by tradition,\n     until it was arranged in its present order by a sage, who\n     thence obtained the surname of _Vy\u00e1sa_, or _V\u00e9da Vya\u015ba_,\n     that is, \u2018compiler of the V\u00e9das.\u2019 He distributed the Indian\n     scripture into four parts, which are severally entitled\n     _Rich_, _Yajush_, _S\u00e1man_, and _At\u00b4harva\u0144a_; and each\n     of which bears the common denomination of V\u00e9da.\u201d\n\n     After having discussed the question whether the fourth V\u00e9da\n     be more modern than the other three, the celebrated\n     Indianist concludes (p. 372): \u201cThat the three\n     first-mentioned V\u00e9das are the three principal portions of\n     the V\u00e9da; that the _At\u00b4harva\u0144a_ is commonly admitted as a\n     fourth; and that divers mythological poems, entitled\n     _Itih\u00e1sa_ and _Pur\u00e1n\u00e1s_, are reckoned a supplement to the\n     scripture, and, as such, constitute a fifth V\u00e9da.\u201d He says\n     further (_ibid._, p. 378): \u201cEach V\u00e9da consists of two parts,\n     denominated the _Mantras_ and the _Br\u00e1hma\u0144as_, or \u2018prayers\u2019\n     and \u2018precepts.\u2019 The complete collection of the hymns,\n     prayers, and invocations belonging to one V\u00e9da is entitled\n     its _Sanhita_. Every other portion of Indian scripture is\n     included under the general head of divinity (_Br\u00e1hma\u0144a_).\n     This comprises precepts which inculcate religious duties;\n     maxims, which explain those precepts; and arguments, which\n     relate to theology.\u2015\u2015The theology of the Indian scripture,\n     comprehending the argumentative portion entitled _V\u00e9danta_,\n     is contained in tracts denominated _Upanishads_.\u201d\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     The Hindus have, besides, _Upav\u00e9das_. _Upa_ is a preposition\n     importing resemblance in an inferior degree; and _V\u00e9da_,\n     from _Vida_, \u201cknowledge.\u201d The four Upavedas comprise the\n     _Ayu_, on the science of medicine, drawn from the Rig Veda;\n     the _Gandharva_, on music, from the Sama-V\u00e9da; the _Dhanu_,\n     on military tactics, from the Yajush; and the _Silpa_, on\n     mechanics, from the Atharva\u0144a.\n\n     Hindu learning has six divisions, called _Angas_, that is,\n     \u201cparts,\u201d or \u201cmembers.\u201d The six Angas are: _Sikshya_, on\n     pronunciation; _Kalpa_, on ceremonies; _Vy\u00e1karana_, on\n     grammar; _Chanda_, on prosody and verse; _Jyotisha_, on\n     astronomy; and _Nirukta_, an explanation of difficult words,\n     etc., in the V\u00e9da. These divisions, as dependant upon the\n     V\u00e9das, are also called _V\u00e9dangas_. The Hindus count besides\n     four secondary portions of science, called _Upang\u00e1s_: these\n     are: the _Puranas_, or poetical histories; the _N\u00e1ya_, on\n     ethics; the _M\u00edm\u00e1nsa_, on divine wisdom and on ceremonies;\n     and the _D\u2019harma s astra_, or the civil and canon laws (_Ward_,\n     vol. IV. p. 55).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [100] Yojanagundh\u00e1 (_Wilson\u2019s Dict._) is a name of\n     Satyavati, the mother of the sage and poet Vy\u00e1sa.\n\n     [101] The great epic poem, _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rat_, is ascribed to\n     Vy\u00e1sa, on the wars between the Kurus and the Gandus, when\n     more than seven millions of men perished. Of the birth of\n     Vyasa, who divided the V\u00e9da into eighteen parts, wrote\n     eighteen _Puranas_, the eighteen _Upapuranas_, the\n     _Kalkipurana_, the _Mahabhagavata_, the _Ek\u00e1mrapurana_, the\n     _Vedanta darshana_, and founded the _Vedanta_ sect, an\n     account is given, by himself, in the Mahabharat.\u2015\u2015(_Ward_,\n     vol. III. p. 12).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [102] Santanu, the fourth prince in succession from\n     Sambarana, the son of Riksha, whose reign began at the\n     commencement of the Kali Yug.\n                            (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 21-22).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     According to Sir W. Jones (_Works_, IV. p. 32) and to\n     _Wilson\u2019s Dict._ (_sub voce_), S\u00e1ntanu was the twenty-first\n     sovereign of the lunar race in the third age; he was the son\n     of _Prat\u00edpa_, and grandson of _Riksha_ (see also\n     _Vichnupurana_. _Wilson\u2019s transl._, p. 457.)\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [103] Kunt\u00ed was mother of the five Pandava princes, by as\n     many gods; the names of the princes were _Yud\u00b4hisht\u00b4hira_,\n     _Bh\u00edma_, _Arj\u00fana_, _Naku\u013aa_, and _Sahad\u00e9va_. Pandu was\n     interdicted by a curse from connubial intercourse, and\n     obtained the above five sons through his two wives Kunt\u00ed and\n     Madr\u00ed (_Ward_, vol. III. p. 22).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [104] _Par\u00e1saru_: this philosopher is described as a very\n     old man, in the dress of a mendicant. He is charged with an\n     infamous intrigue with the daughter of a fisherman; to\n     conceal his amour with whom, he caused a heavy fog to fall\n     on the place of his retreat. Veda Vyasa, the collector of\n     the Vedas, was the fruit of this interview (_Ward_, vol. IV.\n     p. 40).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [105] One of the thirty-eight divisions of Central India\n     (_Ward_, vol. III, p. ix.)\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [106] _Ahaly\u00e1_ (_Vichnupurana, Wilson\u2019s transl._, p. 454)\n     was the daughter of _Bahwa\u015bwa_, and the wife of Gautama.\u2015\u2015A.\n     T.\n\n     [107] In the _Institutes of Manu_ (l. III. sl. 21.) eight\n     forms of marriage are enumerated, viz.: the marriage form of\n     _Brahma_, of the _D\u00e9vas_ (gods), of the _Rishis_ (saints),\n     of the _Praja patis_ (creators), of the _As\u00faras_ (demons),\n     of the _Gandharvas_ (celestial musicians), of the\n     _R\u00e1kshasas_ (giants), and of the _Pis\u00e1chas_ (vampires). The\n     six first in direct order are by some held valid in the case\n     of a priest; the four last in that of a warrior; and the\n     same four, except the _Rakshasa_ marriage, in the cases of a\n     merchant and a man of the servile class. Some consider the\n     four first only as approved in the case of a priest; one,\n     that of _Rakshasas_, as peculiar to the soldier; and that of\n     _Asuras_ to a mercantile and a servile man; but in this code\n     three of the five last are held legal, and two illegal: the\n     ceremonies of _Pis\u00e1chas_ and _Asuras_ must never be\n     performed.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [108] According to Mr. Wilson, it is when the bridegroom\n     gives to the bride, her father, and paternal relations, as\n     much as he can afford. According to Ward, it is when money\n     is received in exchange for a bride. Where a present is made\n     to the father of the girl, the caste of the boy is not very\n     respectable. In the most respectable marriages, the father\n     not only gives his daughter without reward, but bears the\n     expenses of the wedding, and presents ornaments, goods,\n     cattle, and money to the bridegroom (_Ward_, vol. III. p.\n     163-168). Ward mentions eight kinds of marriage: 1.\n     _Br\u00e1hma_, when the girl is given to a Brahman without\n     reward; 2. _Da\u00edva_, when she is presented as a gift at the\n     close of a sacrifice; 3. _Arsha_, when two cows are received\n     by the girl\u2019s father; 4. _Pr\u00e1j\u00e1patya_, when the girl is\n     given at the request of a Brahman; 5. _Asura_, as above; 6.\n     _Gandharva_; 7. _R\u00e1kshasha_; 8. _Pi\u015bh\u00e1cha_ (_Ward,\n     ibidem_).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [109] See for the marriage customs of the Hindus: _On the\n     religious ceremonies of the Hindus and of the Brahmans\n     especially_, Essay III. by H. T. Colebrooke, Esq.; _As.\n     Res._, vol. VII. p. 288. Calcutta edit.; and also: _M\u0153urs,\n     institutions et c\u00e9r\u00e9monies des peuples de l\u2019Inde_, par M.\n     l\u2019abb\u00e9 J. A. Dubois, vol. I. chap. VI. pp. 284-326. Paris.\n     1825.\n\n     [110] This passage is nearly a literal translation from the\n     Hetopades, p. 79:\n\n          \u201cThree crores and a half are the hairs on a man;\n           So long a time shall she live in paradise who follows\n             her lord.\n           As a snake-catcher forcibly draws up a snake from his\n             hole,\n     In the same manner she, having taken her husband, is exalted\n       to heaven.\n     The affectionate wife, who on the funeral pile has embraced\n       her inanimate\n     Husband, abandons indeed her own body:\n     But taking up her husband, who has committed many sins\u2015\u2015even\n       a hundred times\n     A hundred thousand\u2015\u2015she shall obtain the mansions of the gods.\u201d\n                                                         \u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [111] It is known that the sacrifice of widows was abolished\n     in the year 1834, in all the Indian provinces under the\n     government and influence of the English authorities, by lord\n     William Bentinck, governor-general of India.\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [112] \u0915\u0941\u0923\u094d\u0921\u0902 a hole in the ground for receiving and\n     preserving consecrated fire.\u2015\u2015(_Wilson._)\n\n     A part of the sacrifice, called _Yajna_, but it is often\n     performed separately. The things offered are clarified\n     butter, sesamum, flowers, rice, boiled in milk and sweetened\n     in honey, Durva grass, vilwa leaves, and the tender\n     branches, half a span long, of the _ashwatta_ (ficus\n     religiosa), the _dumvara_ (ficus racemosa), the _palasha_\n     (butea frondosea), the _akunda_ (asclepias gigantea), the\n     _sharni_ (mimosa albida), and the _kladira_ (mimosa catechu)\n     (see _Ward_, vol. II. p. 58).\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [113] \u0905\u0930\u0923\u093f _arani_, the plant of which especial use is made\n     for kindling fire, is the _Premna spinosa_ (_Wilson\u2019s\n     Dict._).\n\n     [114] Perhaps \u0916\u0926\u093f\u0930 _khadira_, (mimosa catechu).\n\n     [115] \u0909\u0921\u092e\u094d\u0935\u0930 _udamvara_, \u201cglomerous fig-tree\u201d (ficus\n     glomerosa, Rox.).\n\n     [116] \u0936\u092e\u0940 _sam\u00ed_ (acacia suma, Rox.).\n\n     [117] \u0926\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e bent grass, commonly dub (Panicum dactylon)\n     (_Wilson\u2019s Dict._).\n\n     [118] Probably a tree with black blossoms, perhaps \u0915\u093e\u0932\n     \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0928\u094d\u0927 _k\u00e1la-shandha_, a sort of ebony; or the _tam\u00e1la_,\n     bearing dark blossoms.\n\n     [119] \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0937\u094d\u091f\u094b\u092e According to Wilson\u2019s Dict., a sacrifice,\n     or rather a series of offerings, to fire, for five days, to\n     be celebrated in the spring, from _Agni_, \u201cthe deity\n     presiding over fire,\u201d and _Stoma_, \u201can offering.\u201d\n\n     [120] Perhaps \u092f\u0941\u0917\u094d\u092e\u0915\u0902 _yugmakam_, \u201ccouple.\u201d\u2015\u2015A. T.\n\n     [121] \u0935\u093e\u091c\u092a\u0947\u092f from _waj_, \u201cthe acetous fermentation of meal\n     and water,\u201d and _p\u00e8ya_, to be drunk (by the gods).\n\n     [122] \u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u094b\u092e from _jyotish_, \u201clight,\u201d and _st\u00f3ma_, \u201can\n     offering;\u201d a particular sacrifice, at which sixteen priests\n     are required.\n\n     [123] \u092a\u091e\u094d\u091c\u0939\u094b\u092e From _panja_, \u201cfive,\u201d and _h\u00f3ma_, \u201ca burnt\n     offering.\u201d\n\n     [124] The months are so called from certain Nakshatras, or\n     the twenty-seven stellar mansions, two and one quarter of\n     which make up each sign of the zodiac. The sun passes\n     through those signs in twelve months, and the moon through\n     each sign in two days and a quarter. _M\u00e1gha_ is so called\n     from the tenth Nakshatra M\u00e1gha, represented by a house;\n     _Vai\u015baka_, from Vi\u015bakha, the sixteenth, represented by a\n     festoon; and _M\u00e1rga\u015birsha_, from the fifth Mriga-siras, or\n     the antelope\u2019s head.\u2015\u2015D. S.\n\n     [125] Here terminates the translation of the late D. Shee,\n     p. 201, l. 9, of the Calcutta edition.\n\n     [126] According to the _Institutes of Manu_ (chap. VII. sl.\n     94-95): \u201cThe soldier who, fearing and turning his back,\n     happens to be slain by his foes in an engagement, shall take\n     upon himself all the sin of his commander, whatever it be:\n     and the commander shall take to himself the fruit of all the\n     good conduct which the soldier who turns his back and is\n     killed, had previously stored up for a future life.\u201d\n                                    (_Transl. of Sir W. Jones._)\n\n     [127] _Manu_ (_ibid._, ch. VIII. sl. 304-305) determines the\n     recompense or punishment of good or bad kings as follows: \u201cA\n     sixth part of the reward for virtuous deeds, performed by\n     the whole people, belongs to the king who protects them;\n     but, if he protect them not, a sixth part of their iniquity\n     lights on him.\u201d The legislator redoubles the amount of\n     punishment to a bad king in a subsequent _sloka_ (308):\n     \u201cThat king who gives no protection, yet takes a sixth part\n     of the grain as his revenue, wise men have considered as a\n     prince who draws to him the foulness of his people.\u201d\n\n     [128] It is to be regretted that the author has not\n     indicated the precise place of the Smriti, which enjoins the\n     sacrifice of the widows.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE FOURTH, OF THE FOLLOWERS OF THE VEDANTA (THE\nVEDANTIANS).\u2015\u2015This sect belongs to the most learned and wise of this\npeople. We shall give the substance of their creed. They say: The\nexplanation regarding the only really existing Being (God) resembles a\nscience from which a faint likeness of his grandeur may be perceived;\nthis being and his qualities are pure of all imperfections and\ncontradictions; he oversees all beings; he discovers all that is\nhidden; his existence comprehends all things; decay and deficiency\nhave no access to the boundless area of his existence; he is the lord\nof life, the greatest of spirits endowed with pure qualities, and this\nholy Being, this sublime object, they call _Brahma uttama_,[129] \u201cthe\nmost excellent Brahma,\u201d that is, the supreme soul and the most exalted\nspirit; and the evidence of this meaning, that is, of his existence,\nis the created world; because a creation without a creator will not\ncome forth from the veil of non-entity into the field of evidence, and\nthe maker of this work is he, the Lord. This explanation is to be\nsupported in the field of certainty by the wise arguments of sagacious\npeople, and by the testimonies of the text of the V\u00e9da, that is, of\nthe heavenly book. The truly existing Being (God) has exhibited this\nworld and the heavens in the field of existence, but he has nothing\nlike an odor of being, nor has he taken a color of reality; and this\nmanifestation they call _M\u00e1y\u00e1_[130], that is, \u201cthe magic of God;\u201d\nbecause the universe is \u201chis playful deceit,\u201d and he is the bestower\nof the imitative existence, himself the unity of reality. With his\npure substance, like an imitative actor, he passes every moment into\nanother form, and having again left this, appears in another dress. It\nis he alone who, coming forth in the forms of Brahma, Vishnu, and\nMahadeva, exhibits the true unity in a trinity of persons, and who,\nmanifesting his being and unity in three persons, separate from each\nother, formed this universe. The connexion of the spirits with the\nholy Being (God), is like the connexion of the billows with the ocean,\nor that of sparks with fire; on that account, they call the soul and\nthe spirits _j\u00edv\u00e1tm\u00e1_.[131] The soul is uncompounded and distinct from\nthe body and from the material senses; but by the power of selfishness\nit fell into a captivity from which the soul strives to be\nliberated.[132] The soul has three conditions or states: the first is\nthe state of being awake, which they call _j\u00e1garavast\u00b4ha_,[133] and\nin this state the soul enjoys quietly the pleasures of nature and\nbodily delights, such as eating and drinking, and the like; and it\nsuffers from the privation of these just-mentioned enjoyments; that\nis, it suffers from hunger and thirst, and similar pains; the second\nstate is that of sleep, called _svapna avast\u00b4ha_,[134] and in this\nstate the soul is happy in the possession of what it wishes and\ndesires, such as collecting in dreams gold and silver, and similar\nthings; it is distressed by the want of them; the third state is known\nby the name of _Su svapna avast\u00b4ha_,[135] that is, \u201cthe state of\ngood sleep,\u201d and in this state there is neither gladness nor sadness\nfrom possession or privation of what is desired, but freedom from\npleasure and pain. It is to be known that they hold sleep to bestow a\nprophetic sight of events, and the vision is called _r\u00fay\u00e1_ in Arabic:\nin this third state however, which they call sleep by excellence, no\nevents are seen, but it is being plunged in a profound sleep, and this\npeople do not take it simply for sleep, but they distinguish it as a\nsort of lethargy, which they call _su svapna_. They believe the souls\nto be imprisoned in these three states, and wandering about in a\ncircle. The soul in these conditions, although united with a body,\nyet, by a number of meritorious deeds, and a virtuous conduct, attains\nto the station of knowing itself and God: it then breaks the net of\nillusion,[136] and it is the characteristic of saints whom they call\n_Jn\u00e1n\u00ed_;[137] that, whatever they see in the state of being awake,\nthey reckon to be a vain illusion, as if presenting itself to men in a\ndream. The saint thinks even a man awake to be deceived by a dream;\nlike one who, from inadvertency, takes a rope for a snake; but it is a\nrope, not a snake: he knows the world to be a delusion, which, from\nwant of knowledge, is thought to be the universe, although, in truth,\nit has no reality. This state is called by them _Tarb\u00e1 avast\u00b4h\u00e1_.[138]\n\nWhen the saint becomes free from the ties and impediments of the\nworld, and from the chains of its accidents, then he enters into the\nregion of freedom, which they call _mukt_.[139] This mukt, according\nto them, is divided into five parts: the first is, when the sanctified\nman, having attained the dignity of freedom, in the city of the\nsubordinate divinities (angels), becomes one of them; as in this city\nare the residences of the deities, such as the city of Brahma, of\nVishnu, of Mahad\u00e9va, and this part is called \u201cthe mukt of the pious.\u201d\nThe second part is, when the devotee, a neighbour and companion of the\ngods, is surrounded by an abundance of favor, and the society of the\ncelestial beings; and this division of the mukt they call _Sv\u00e1mi\npr\u00e9m\u00e1_.[140] The third part is, when the pious assumes the form of the\ninferior divinities without union with their persons, that is,\nwhichever of the gods he chooses, it is his shape which he\nappropriates to himself, and this part they name _S\u00e1ra pr\u00e9ma_.[141]\nThe fourth part of the mukt is, when the pious becomes united with one\nof the gods, like water with water, that is, when he coalesces with\nwhichever of the gods he chooses, and this is entitled _svayukti_.[142]\nThe fifth part is, when the soul of the pious, called _j\u00edv\u00e1tma_,\nbecomes one with the great spirit whom they call _param\u00e1tm\u00e1_,[143] and\nrecognise as the only real being, in such a manner that there remains\nno room for a second to rise between, and this they distinguish by the\nname of _Jn\u00e1nam uttamam_.[144]\n\nThis is the substance of the creed of the V\u00e9dantian: whoever possesses\nthis science is called _In\u00e1n\u00ed_ by the Hindus, and all the principal\nmen among them are conversant with the doctrine of this sect. The\nsublime discourses and wise histories delivered by Vasishta for the\ninstruction of Rama chandra, are entitled _Vas\u00edshta yog_; and the\nspeeches which fell from the tongue of Krishna, when he was bestowing\nadvice upon Arjuna, who was one of the Pandus, go under the name of\n_kath\u00e1_. Sankara Acharya, who ranks highest among the later learned\nmen of India, has written much about this doctrine. The dogmas of this\nclass are as follow: the world and its inhabitants are appearances\nwithout reality, and God is but one necessary and self-existing being,\nwhom they call _Parama atma_; they say, this appearance and diversity\nof form, this order and aspect of heavens, are like the vapor\nresembling the sea upon the surface of sandy plains, and like the\nvision of a dream; good and bad, pleasure and pain, adoration and\nworship of God, are but objects of imagination, and these various\nimages are illusions;\u2015\u2015the deepest pits of hell, the vaults of heaven,\nthe return to earth after death, transmigration, and the retribution\nof actions, all that is but imagination, and variety of imagination.\n\nQUERY Should one say, a principle of life acts in us; there is no\ndoubt of it; consequently the one is learned, the other ignorant; the\none is happy, the other distressed. How can that be mere imagination,\nand appearance?\n\nTHE ANSWER they give to it is\u2015\u2015If not in a dream, thou wouldst not see\nthyself a king issuing mandates, a servant, submissive, imprisoned,\nfree, a slave, a master, sick, healthy, distressed, merry, melancholy,\nand so on. How often in a dream didst thou not feel pleasure and\nhappiness, or wast overwhelmed by fear, and terror, and anguish? there\nis no doubt but all this is mere illusion and empty appearance,\nalthough the dreamer holds it all to be real truth.\n\nRayi-Rup, who is reckoned among the learned Rajahs, asked the author\nof this book: \u201cAfter having dreamt to have received any wound\nwhatsoever upon my body, if, as soon as I rise from sleep, I do not\nfind the least mark of it, I know that it was an illusion; but if in a\ndream I converse with a woman, at my waking, I may perhaps not be able\nto deny the visible effect of it: why should this happen in the second\ncase?\u201d\n\nTo this question the following answer was given: \u201cWhat thou thinkest\nthe state of being awake, this, in the opinion of the enlightened, is\nalso dreaming; and as it often happens that, thinking in a dream to be\nawake, I perceive whatever appears as if I were really awake, whilst I\nsee it in a dream: in like manner, the usual state of being awake is\nheld by the wise to be nothing else but a dream. Hast thou not heard\nwhat K\u00e1my\u00e1b Samr\u00e1d\u00ed has said in the Samr\u00e1d n\u00e1meh? A man had seven\nnoble sons, each of whom felt the ambition to command in the six parts\nof the world. With such a desire, they addressed their devotion to\nGod. One day they laid their head upon the pillow of repose, and each\nhad a bright dream. It appeared to each, that he had left his body,\nand was born again in a king\u2019s house; after the death of the father,\neach placed the crown upon his head, and bore dominion from east to\nwest; in the seven regions there was no king equal to him, and the\nreign of each lasted one hundred thousand years; at the time of his\npassing to the other world, he delivered the empire to his son, and,\nleaving the body, took his flight to heaven. When they awoke, the\ndinner which they had been preparing was not yet ready. Afterwards,\neach of them related what happened to him; each of them pretended to\nhave possessed the seven regions during one hundred thousand years,\nand each named such and such a town as the capital of his empire.\nAlthough awake, they resolved then to go each to his kingdom, and to\nsee that capital, whether true or not. They went first to the town\nwhich was the residence of the eldest brother; there they found his\nson king, and the father knew his palace; in this manner they visited\nthe kingdoms of the other brothers, and saw their sons. Afterwards,\nthe seven returned to their native-place, and said to each other:\n\u2018Each of us was in his dream king of the seven regions, and had no\nother above himself; being awakened, we heard the same from the men of\nthose towns which we have visited for ascertaining that we had\npossessed such rank and power in the world.\u2019 Thus it is certain that\nwe are even now in a dream, and that the world is nothing else but an\nillusive vision.\u201d\n\nThis sect interpret the whole religion of the Hindus according to\ntheir own belief, and they state that, pursuant to the V\u00e9das, to\nconfound during the worship all the subordinate divinities with the\none whose existence is necessary, means nothing else but that, in\ntruth, they all emanate from this one; further that it is but he who\nmanifests himself in the form of any deity, and that no _Serosh_ has\nan existence of his own, but that in Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahad\u00e9va, who\nappeared above, are evidenced the three attributes of God, namely, in\nBrahma, the creator; in Vishnu, the preserver; and in Mahad\u00e9o, the\ndestroyer. Moreover they say, that these three attributes are the mind\nor intellect, which they call _manas_, and it is the action of the\ninterior sense which they distinguish particularly by the name of\n_manas_.[145] Besides they entertain this belief about the interior\nsense, that, if the mind wishes, it forms the image of a town; it\nbecomes then _Brahma_, who has as much as created it; as long as the\nmind wishes, it preserves its work, on which account it becomes\n_Vishnu_, who is its guardian; further, if it wishes, it throws it\noff, in which sense the mind becomes _Mahadeo_. Their belief is also,\nthat religious austerity consists in the conviction of the pious, that\nthe world is an appearance without reality, and that, what exists, is\nin truth God; and that, except him, every thing is but an illusion\nwhich comes from him, but in truth has no reality. In their opinion,\nwhoever is desirous of this faith, and does not possess the required\nknowledge, may by self-application, or by the lessons of a master, or\nby the instruction of a book, become a proficient in it. The\nconviction that the world does not exist, may also be acquired by\npious exercise; and the perfect therein know, that by means of\nreligious austerity one may acquire what he wishes to learn, and as\nlong as he tends towards it, he has not yet known himself, as he is\nhimself a choice part of the divine being. The pious man, who by dint\nof austerity renders himself perfect, they call a _Yog\u00ed_,[146] that\nis, one who by self-mortification attains his aim. The pious, who by\nmental application, by the instruction of a master, by the study of\nbooks, or by any effort not appertaining to religious exercises,\nraises himself to any perfection, him they name _R\u00e1ja-yog\u00ed_, that is,\none who attains sovereignty.\n\nAmong the Hindus are recommended as pious exercises, _Mantra_,[147]\n_Homa_,[148] and _Dandavat_.[149] _Mantra_ signifies prayer; _Homa_ is\nthrowing clarified butter and like things into the fire, and reciting\nprayers, in order to render propitious a certain divinity; _Dandavat_\nis, when one prostrates himself like a stick before the object of\nadoration, and touches the ground with the forehead. A person asked\nBhartari,[150] who was one of those adepts whom they call _Jn\u00e1nis_:\n\u201cDost thou recite mantras?\u201d He replied: \u201cI do.\u201d That person asked\nagain: \u201cWhat mantra?\u201d He answered: \u201cMy breath, going out and in, is my\nmantra.\u201d That man continued to ask: \u201cDost thou perform H\u00f3m?\u201d The\nanswer was: \u201cI do.\u201d To the question, \u201cAnd how?\u201d the reply followed:\n\u201cBy what I eat.\u201d That person further inquired: \u201cDost thou practise the\nDa\u0144davat?\u201d After affirmation, being asked \u201cAt what time?\u201d he said,\n\u201cWhen I sleep, stretched out to rest.\u201d And this speech reminds me of\nthis sentence:\n\n     \u201c_The sleep of the wise is preferable to the adoration of\n         the ignorant._\u201d\n\nThe Hindus call _D\u00e9va \u00e1rch\u00e1k\u00e1_[151] the worshipper of an idol, that\nis, one who is devoted to a divinity: which this people interpret to\nbe performing whatever rite a man himself chooses; because the deity\nis the intellectual soul; to render it obsequious, is to perform the\nact which it commands, that is, whenever it wills, to see with the\neyes, to hear with the ears, to smell with the nose, and so on, in\norder to please one\u2019s self. According to their account of the revealed\nunity of God, all is _HE_. To say so is liable to censure; but it is\npermitted to assert: \u201call is _I_.\u201d Should one not attain to this\nheight of philosophy, he may choose the former thesis. The author of\nthe _Gulch\u00e9n raz_, \u201cthe rose-garden of mystery,\u201d says:\n\n       \u201cEgotism belongs to God alone,\n  For he is the mystery; think him also the hidden source of illusion.\u201d\n\nThis people are masters of themselves in their speeches and actions;\nthey know their origin and their end; and, occupied with themselves,\nthey are imprisoned in the gaol of the world. Sankara Atcharya, who is\ndistinguished among the Brahmans and the Sanyasis, professed this\ndoctrine, and to whatever side he turned his face, contentment\nfollowed him. One day the adversaries and deniers of this creed\nresolved to drive an elephant against him; if he do not fly but remain\nfirm, he is a saint; if otherwise, a bad man. When they had impelled\nthe animal against him, Sankara fled; then they said to him: \u201cWhy\ndidst thou fly before an illusion?\u201d He replied: \u201cThere is no elephant,\nnor I; and there was no flight: you saw it in a dream.\u201d All the great\nmen among the Hindus are of this creed, and they agree that, in truth,\nthere is no faith but this, without regard to Av\u00e1tars and Rakshasas:\nall the enlightened Pandits have ranged themselves upon this side.\n\nA _Jnan\u00edndra_ is called one of the Brahmans of Kachmir;[152] this\nclass is, in the language of Kachmir, entitled _Guruvagurinah_, and\nsaid to be the fathers of the Jnan\u00edan. One whose name was Ch\u00edvar\u00edna,\nknew well how to keep in his breath; one day he informed the\ninhabitants of N\u00e1u chaher, which is upon the road of Kashm\u00edr, that on\nthe morrow he intended to leave his human frame. The next day, the\npeople assembled; Sh\u00edvarina conversed with them until he arrived at\nthe place where wood had been piled up, on the top of which he sat\ndown with his legs crossed under him (which in the Persian language is\ncalled _bah\u00edn neshisten_, and the description of which I gave in the\nchapter about the imprisonment of breath practised by the Yezdan\u00ed\u00e1n);\nhe left then the human body, and when the people saw that the bird of\nlife had taken his flight from the cage of the body, they set the wood\non fire.\n\nAnother Jnani practised the subduing of the breath in his youth, and,\nmastering his soul by means of religious austerity, he attained to\nthat point that, although possessed of little natural capacity, he\nundertook to read all the books of the Hindus, and understood all\ntheir sciences better than the other Pandits, as they all agreed. He\nnow holds the first rank among the learned of his town, and acquired\nsuch an independent manner of thinking, that he feels neither pain\nfrom the loss, nor pleasure from the increase, of wealth, and holds\nalike friend, enemy, stranger, and relation; he is not depressed by\nthe insult, nor elated by the praise of whomsoever; wherever he hears\nthe name of a Durv\u00edsh, he calls on him, and, if he conceives a good\nopinion of him, he then frequents him and cultivates his friendship,\nand never lets him be afflicted and sorrowful; he converses about\nGod\u2019s unity, and cares about nothing else nor busies himself about any\nother concern, and he visits no other persons but Durvishes. Sodarshan\nis the name of his sister\u2019s son, who is also connected with him as his\npupil; he left wife, son, and the house of this friend, and lives on\nthe little which his disciples bring to him. When the Jnan\u00ed wishes to\ngo out, the disciple puts his coat on him: because, inattentive to\nevery thing exterior and to what may be grateful about him, he is\nnever occupied with any thing else but with books.\n\nIt is known that the Hindus, that is, the legalists attached to the\nSmriti (holy scripture), light up a fire, and with it sacrifice a\nsheep, not without reciting spells and prayers; which they call\nperforming _H\u00f3m_. The Jn\u00e1nindra says: \u201cOur fire is piety, and in it I\nburn the wood of duality; instead of a sheep, I sacrifice egotism:\nthis is my _H\u00f3m_.\u201d Thus he interprets the whole religion of the\nHindus, and a great number of men became his disciples. He has a\nnephew, called _Gangu_, ten years old, and younger than S\u00e1darshan. One\nday, Gangu was crying from anger; the author of this book said to him:\n\u201cYesterday thou saidst: \u2018The world and what it contains are but\nillusion;\u2019 now, why dost thou cry?\u201d He replied: \u201cIf the world is\nnothing, then my crying has no reality; I am not in contradiction with\nmyself.\u201d So saying, he continued to cry.\n\n     \u201c_The soc\u00edety of good men renders good._\u201d\n\nJaganath, eight years old, is the son of a Jn\u00e1n\u00edndra; he brought a\npuppy into a house where an idol was worshipped, put him there in the\nidol\u2019s place, and drew the mark of cast on his head. The boy was\nasked: \u201cWhat art thou doing?\u201d He answered: \u201cThe stone has no life; why\nshould you not rather worship the puppy than this idol? Besides, each\nperson worships what he finds agreeable. Because this worship is a\nplay, I play with this dog.\u201d And none of the people of the house\nraised a hand on account of the boy\u2019s liberty, but uttered blessings\nupon him.\n\nIn the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the author of these pages\nvisited in Kachmir a Jn\u00e1n\u00edndra, and was delighted with his society. He\ncalled him his _atma_, that is, his \u201cintellectual soul.\u201d The Jn\u00e1n\u00edndra\nwas asked: \u201cWho is thy disciple?\u201d He answered: \u201cIt is he who, having\narrived to the self-existent God, knows and sees himself to be nothing\nelse but God.\u201d\n\nAt the time when the writer of this book was walking with a Hindu\npious man on the border of the lake of Kashmir, a Sany\u00e1si who had\npretensions to independence, joined us. There, a meal was brought to\nus, and the Sany\u00e1si eat with that pious man. After this, he began to\nboast: \u201cHitherto I have not eat any flesh: it is but now that I have\ntasted some.\u201d The Jn\u00e1n\u00ed offered a cup of wine to him, who drank it for\nthe sake of discarding care. He then reassumed the theme of\nself-praise. The pious philosopher had some bread of the bazar, which\naccording to the Hindu faith is still more prohibited than wine,\nbrought upon the table-cloth. The Sany\u00e1si broke a bit of the bread,\neat it, and again praised himself without measure: \u201cNow,\u201d said he, \u201cam\nI free of all bonds.\u201d The wise smiled, and said: \u201cNothing remains but\nto eat cow-flesh.\u201d The Sany\u00e1si, as soon as he heard this, left the\ncompany.\n\nOf the distinguished disciples of the Jn\u00e1n\u00edndr\u00e1s, whom the author of\nthis work saw, are: _Shankar bhat_, _Kan\u00e9sh bhat_, _Sudarshan Kal_,\n_Adab bhat_, _M\u00e1hat\u00e1pindra_, and _Avat_, known under the name of\n_Kop\u00e1l K\u00fal_. A goldsmith asked Shankar bhat, one of the disciples just\nmentioned: \u201cWhy do the Jn\u00e1n\u00edndras, with all their pretensions to\nindependence, still worship idols?\u201d Shankar said: \u201cWhy dost thou work\nin gold?\u201d The goldsmith replied: \u201cThis is my profession for gaining my\nlivelihood.\u201d The answer to this was: \u201cAnd worship too is a trade and a\nmeans to procure food.\u201d\n\nMulla Sh\u00edd\u00e1yi, a Hindu, who has a name amongst the poets, and\npossessed a very impressive eloquence, went one day with the author of\nthis book to the house of a Jn\u00e1n\u00edndra, and conversed with him; he saw\nhis disciples, and having observed the manners of the people of the\nhouse, he was struck with astonishment, and said: \u201cMy whole life\npassed in devotedness to pious persons; but my eyes never beheld such\nindependence, and my ears never heard any thing comparable to the\nspeeches of those emancipated men.\u201d\n\nHara R\u00e1ma p\u00far\u00ed was a Sany\u00e1si, and one of the Jn\u00e1n\u00eds possessing the\nperfection of independence. When he came to Kashm\u00edr, being vexed by\nthe length of his hair, which was like ropes, he cut it off, on the\nbank of a river near a house called Bhat jat\u00e1yi. Sri Kant Bhat, a\nPandit and Hindu judge, saw it and said: \u201cWhenever thou cuttest off\nthy hair, thou shouldst do it in a _tirth_, that is, in \u2018a house of\nworship.\u2019\u201d Hara answered: \u201cThere is a place in the most holy of\nmansions, where the heart gets delighted, and on the spot where the\ndead are burnt, all obscure points are terminated.\u201d In the year 1051\nof the Hejira (1641 A. D.) he went to Kichtovar,[153] and settled in a\nplain called _chawgan_, where they played at ball, practised\nequitation, and burnt the dead. Maha Singh, the son of Bah\u00e1der Singh,\nR\u00e1ja of Kishtov\u00e1r, became his disciple, and by devotion he rendered\nhimself free of the bonds of exterior things; now he likes the society\nof the pious; he is young and conversant with poetry. In the year 1052\nof the Hejira (1642 A. D.) a war broke out in Kishtovar, between the\nR\u00e1ja and the rebels of this country. When they made resound the drum\nof battle, a general carnage began on both sides of the combatants;\nHara R\u00e1map\u00far\u00ed, having got upon the top of an elevated ground, was\noccupied with the sight of it, and at the uproar of the warriors and\nthe sound of pipes, and clarions, and kettle-drums, he began to dance,\nand in the midst of his transport his foot stumbled; he fell headlong\nfrom the mountain, and in rolling down received from a great stone a\nhead-wound, of which he died. Mirza Raf\u00edah says:\n\n  \u201cWhen the darkness of my heart became enlightened by the knowledge\n     of wisdom,\n      Whatever speeches were proffered as her arguments,\n      They bore upon some errors of my desires;\n   Thus the whole road was rendered winding from my stumblings.\u201d\n\nSathrah and Jad\u00fa were two fak\u00edrs. Sathrah drew in Nagarikot[154] the\nmark of the cast on his forehead, and threw the zunar on his neck; he\nate however roasted cow-flesh, with bread of the bazar, and indulged\nhimself in pleasure-walks. Some Hindus arrested him by force, and\nbrought him before the judge. The judge said to him: \u201cIf thou art a\nHindu, it becomes thee not to eat cow-flesh and bread of the bazar;\nand, if thou art a Muselman, wherefore the mark of the cast and the\nzunar?\u201d The answer was: \u201cThe mark of the cast is of safran and\nsandal-wood; the zunar is a woven thread; the cow-flesh comes from\ngrass and barley; bread from corn, and the oven from earth and water:\nif thou considerest things according to truth, thou wilt find that all\nis composed of four elements, which are neither Muselmans nor Hindus;\nas to the rest, let thy commands be conformable to law.\u201d The judge set\nhim at liberty. Jad\u00fa was one of his disciples, and went to Balkh, the\ndome of Islam. He appeared in the mosque with the mark of the Hindu\ncast, and with the z\u00fanar, and, arrested, was brought before the judge,\nwho saluted him as a Muselman. Jad\u00fa replied: \u201cIf thou givest me a wife\nand settlest me in a house, I will be a Muselman.\u201d The judge gave him\na beautiful widow for a wife, and Jad\u00fa, having become a Muselman, went\ninto her house. After the lapse of a few days, he said to the woman:\n\u201cGive me the daughter whom thou hast had with thy late husband, in\norder that I may sell her, and spend the price that I receive for her\nfor my subsistence. When we shall have another child, I will dispose\nof it in the same manner, by selling; for this is my profession, and\nexcept this I know no trade.\u201d The woman dismissed him. Jad\u00fa, being at\nliberty, went to Kabul;[155] he put a feather on his head, as\nmessengers used to do, fastened a bell round his waist, and, with a\nloose belt on his shoulder and a striped coat, he appeared in the\nbazar. The messengers arrested him, and said: \u201cWhy hast thou taken our\ndress?\u201d Jad\u00fa answered: \u201cThe crown and feather are upon the head of the\nnightingale and of other birds, and the bell hangs upon the neck of\nthe sheep and of the cow; reckon me too one of them.\u201d The messengers\nbegan to handle him roughly; Jad\u00fa asked: \u201cWhat is your desire?\u201d They\nsaid: \u201cThou art now to exercise with us the nimble pace of a courier.\u201d\nJad\u00fa did not refuse: he ran with them, and gained so much over them\nthat at the morning dawn not one of the couriers remained near him.\nDuring seven days and nights he neither ate nor drank any thing,\npractising running. Jad\u00fa acquired the habit of religious austerity; in\nthe year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.), having convoked his friends\nin Jel\u00e1labad,[156] between Peshaver[157] and Kabul, he took leave from\nthem and resigned his life.\n\nPert\u00e1bmal Chadah (Chadah is a tribe of Kshatriyas) is a Jn\u00e1n\u00ed, that is\na pious man; his native country is S\u00ed\u00e1l kut; he attained to perfection\nin the exercise of virtue; he is not confined to any faith or\nreligion; but knows that every religion is a road leading towards God;\nhe sees in every face a friend revealed. One day he joined, on account\nof an affair, Dav\u00e1rah, a man who was one of the chiefs appointed by\nthe government of Hargov\u00ednd, a successor of Nanak;[158] he became his\ndisciple, and declared himself as his adherent. Dav\u00e1rah washed his\nfeet, and the water thereof was drank by all the present followers of\nthe faith, which they did to every body whom they had gained over to\ntheir religion. At last, a dispute arose between Pert\u00e1bmal and\nDav\u00e1rah; the latter said to the other: \u201cBut yesterday I washed thy\nfeet (that is, made thee my disciple), and to-day thou makest war upon\nme?\u201d Pert\u00e1bmal answered: \u201cOh weak-minded man! the Jats always wash my\nfeet as thou hast done: my own hand never touches my feet.\u201d [The Jats\nare a low class of the Hindus.]\n\nIt is an established custom among the followers of N\u00e1nak to present,\nwhen they pursue a desire, a few direms to the chief of their master,\nor to their master, and solicit his favor. Pert\u00e1bmal offered some\nd\u00edrems to K\u00e1bel\u00ed, who was a religious chief appointed by Harigovind,\nand then in Kabul; he said with his hands joined: \u201cI wish to convoke\nfor prayer, according to their custom, all the followers of N\u00e1nak; let\nthat be granted.\u201d Kabeli, before giving his agreement, asked: \u201cThou\nwishest perhaps to see Haragovind?\u201d Pert\u00e1bmal said: \u201cI wish something\nmore precious.\u201d Kabeli asked: \u201cWhat is this?\u201d The answer was: \u201cI wish\nthe arrival of all the buffoons, dancers, and musicians from P\u00e9shawar\nto Kabul, that we may see their actions, arts, and tricks.\u201d\n\nIn the house of Pert\u00e1bmal was an idol which the Hindus worship. A\nmouse having made a hole in his furniture, he put the whole idol,\ninstead of a lump of earth, into the mouse-hole, in order to shut the\npassage. The Hindus said: \u201cWhat art thou about?\u201d He answered: \u201cThe\ndeity who cannot obstruct the road of a mouse, and settle any thing\nwith a mouse, how will he protect me, and preserve me from the tyranny\nof the Muselmans?\u201d In like manner Pert\u00e1bmal had in his house a\nSivalingam, which is a post of stone which the Hindus venerate: having\ncarried this lingam out of his house, like a post, he tied a dog to\nit.\n\nA Muselman said to him: \u201cTwo persons only of all unbelievers, namely,\nNushirvan and Hatam, will go to heaven.\u201d Pert\u00e1bmal replied: \u201cAccording\nto your faith, two persons only of the unbelievers will go to heaven;\nbut our belief is that not one of the Muselmans will go to heaven.\u201d\n\nAzadah (this was his adopted title) is a Brahman. One day he ate at\ntable with some Muselmans and drank wine. They said to him: \u201cThou art\na Hindu, and thou takest thy meal in common with Muselmans? Your\npeople never eat but with persons of their religion.\u201d Az\u00e1dah replied:\n\u201cI did not suppose that you were Muselmans; hereafter I will at eating\nand drinking keep myself separate from you.\u201d Another day he found\nhimself again drinking wine in company with them, and did not turn his\nhead from the meal; during the repast they said to Az\u00e1dah: \u201cYesterday\nwe made ourselves known to thee as Muselmans.\u201d He answered: \u201cI knew\nthat you were joking with me. God forbid that you should be\nMuselmans.\u201d\n\nBinav\u00e1li is the son of H\u00edr\u00e1man, a K\u00e1yastha.[159] The K\u00e1yasthas are a\ntribe of the fourth cast which Brahma has created; among the\nillustrious poets his name was Wal\u00ed;[160] from his childhood he liked\nvery much the society of durvishes; and in his tender age he was with\nthe religious chief, named Ularv\u00e1h, a great durvish, whose continual\nexclamation was: \u201cGod, thou art present, thou art one, God, I attest\nthis.\u201d In the year of the Hejirah 1045 (A. D. 1634) he associated with\nthe durvishes of India, and enjoyed the fruit of it; he came to\nKashmir in the service of Mulla Shah Budakhsh\u00ed, and acquired the\ndesired knowledge. The Suf\u00ed is by no necessity bound to a creed; no\nfaith nor religion fetters his choice; he befriends the idol and the\ntemple of the idol, and is no stranger to the mosque; by the power of\necstacy, not by any external knowledge, he utters loud sublime\nspeeches. In the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) the doors of\nfriendship opened between him and the author of this work; from the\nrefulgencies of his mind are the following lines:\n\n  \u201cWe are not ourselves that what we are; we are that what thou art;\n        Thou art without a mark; we are thy mark.\n        These marks are the marks of thy being;\n   They are the manifestations and the splendor of thy qualities,\n   Thou art pure of our care, and of our imagination;\n        O thou, who art manifest in this our garment;\n        Manifestations of thee are all things.\n   Thou art independent of the relation of \u2018thou and we,\u2019 and thyself\n     art \u2018thou and we.\u2019\n\n        Thy being comes forth in thy qualities,\n        Thy nature is the spring of thy being, O Lord!\n        We are all nothing; whatever is, is thou!\n        O thou! who art free of notion, imagination, and duality,\n        We are all billows in the ocean of thy being;\n        We are a small compass of the manifestations of thy nature.\u201d\n\nAzadah and Binav\u00e1l\u00ed appear in the dress of Hindus, and profess the\nbelief of the Jn\u00e1n\u00eds, to which they are reckoned to belong.\n\nMehir chand is a native of the Panjab, and belongs to the class of the\ngoldsmiths of Guzerat; he comes from the school of the disciples of\nAkamnath, whose opinions he adopted. Akamnath is a Y\u00f3g\u00ed, \u201ca saint,\u201d\nand possessed of inspiration; according to the belief of his\nfollowers, two thousand years of his life have elapsed.\n\n     \u201cLike the azure heavens, a sage never dies;\n   The intellectual principle is free from storms, and from all that\n     is perishable.\u201d\n\nOne day Akamnath came before the great emperor Jehang\u00edr, who is in\nheaven; the celebrated monarch asked him: \u201cWhat is thy name?\u201d The sage\nanswered _Sarvat anga_, that is, \u201cAll the beings are my members.\u201d In\nthe assembly, before the sovereign, a book was read; the king, having\ntaken the book from the reader, gave it into the hand of Akamnath,\nsaying: \u201cThis is thy saying, read it;\u201d Akamnath returned the book to\nthe reader, bidding him to read on; but when this man began, the king\naddressed Akamnath: \u201cTo thee have I said, read.\u201d His answer was: \u201cI\nhave at the beginning declared, that all things in the world are my\nmembers; I am therefore reading by the tongue of that man.\u201d V\u00e1s\u00fal\nKhazn\u00fayi says:\n\n  \u201cSo free is my spirit that the creation is my body,\n   And that fire, and air, and earth, are my dwelling.\n   This celestial sphere, with all its globes,\n   Revolves only because it is my wish.\u201d\n\nSoon after a sparrow passed, flying from the water. Akamnath declared\nbefore the king: \u201cIf with this body, which is near thy majesty, I\nshould attempt to go upon the water, I could but sink, but under the\nform of a bird I passed.\u201d The great Moul\u00e1n\u00e1 Jam\u00ed says:\n\n  \u201cThe world, with all spirits and bodies,\n   Is a certain person whose name is \u2018_World_.\u2019\u201d\n\nThey say, that Akamnath went to the K\u00e2bah (of Mecca) and saw the\nhouse; he asked somebody: \u201cWhere is the master of the house?\u201d That\nperson remained astonished. They opened the door of the house of God;\nAkamnath repeated the question without receiving an answer from them;\nhe then called out: \u201cThere is no master of the house in this edifice:\nthis place is unsafe.\u201d Finally, he inquired from the people, why the\nimages which had been in this house, have been thrown out; one\nanswered: \u201cBecause an idol is the work of the hand of a man; and\nbecause the forms of men, who are created, ought not to be\nworshipped.\u201d Akamnath observed: \u201cThis house, too, is the work of men,\nand any form therein is that of a man, and the work of men who are\ncreated; should it be worshipped?\u201d Having heard this speech, they\nimprisoned him; but the next morning they found no prisoner: Akamnath\nwas gone. At last, those who returned from the pilgrimage saw him in\nHindostan.\n\n  \u201cPerhaps shall we find him there in an idol-temple,\n   That friend whom we missed in a monastery.\u201d\n\n\n     [129] \u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e\u0928\u0902 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u0902 The supreme Brahme, in the most\n     extensive acceptation, is with the Hindus a neuter noun\n     (Brahme or Brahma); and the same term (Nom. Brahm\u00e1), is one\n     of the three gods who constitute one person.\n\n     [130] \u092e\u093e\u092f\u093e.\n\n     [131] \u091c\u0940\u0935\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e The vital principle or spirit.\n\n     [132] The text says: \u201con that account to be liberated from\n     it,\u201d they use the word \u0646\u0641\u0633 _nafs_ probably \u0646\u0627 \u0641\u0633\u0627\u062f _na\n     fesad_, \u201cno corruption:\u201d this of course applies to the\n     Persian, but not to the Sanskrit term.\n\n     [133] \u091c\u093e\u0917\u0930\u093e\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e.\n\n     [134] \u0938\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e state of dreaming applied especially to\n     life, or ignorance of worldly illusion.\n\n     [135] \u0938\u0941\u0938\u094d\u0935\u092a\u094d\u0928\u093e\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e The fantastical conceptions of the\n     Hindus about the states or conditions of the embodied soul\n     are of course not always expressed in the same manner. \u201cThey\n     are chiefly three: waking, dreaming, and profound sleep; to\n     which may be added for a fourth, that of death; and for a\n     fifth, that of trance, swoon, or stupor, which is\n     intermediate between profound sleep and death (as it were\n     half-dead), as dreaming is between waking and profound\n     sleep. In that middle state of dreaming, there is a fanciful\n     course of events, an illusory creation, which however\n     testifies the existence of a conscious soul. In profound\n     sleep, the soul has retired to the supreme one by the route\n     of the arteries of the pericardium\u201d (_Colebrooke on the\n     Philosophy of the Hindus, Transact. of the R. A. S. of Great\n     Brit. and Irel._, vol. II. part I. p. 25).\n\n     [136] The author uses here and elsewhere the Arabic word\n     \u063a\u0641\u0644\u062a _ghafalat_, which, besides the significations\n     enumerated in the dictionary, of \u201cneglect, indolence,\n     imprudence, forgetfulness, inadvertency,\u201d etc., seems to\n     have also that of ignorance, illusion; all these are\n     comprehended in the Sanskrit word _maya_, to render which\n     was, I can scarce doubt, the intention of the author.\n\n     [137] \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u0940 _jnani_.\n\n     [138] \u0924\u092c\u094b\u0935\u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e \u201cthe moving state,\u201d from _tarba_, \u201cto move.\u201d\n     This denomination does not commonly occur in the writings of\n     the Vedantists about this subject.\n\n     [139] \u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u201cfinal beatitude.\u201d\n\n     [140] \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092e\u093f\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u092e\u093e.\n\n     [141] \u0938\u093e\u0930\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u092e\u093e.\n\n     [142] \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092f\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f.\n\n     [143] \u092a\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e.\n\n     [144] \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928\u092e \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u0902\n\n     [145] \u0928\u092e\u0903.\n\n     [146] \u092f\u094b\u0917\u0940 a devotee, an ascetic in general.\n\n     [147] \u092e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0903\n\n     [148] \u0939\u094b\u092e\u0903\n\n     [149] \u0926\u0923\u094d\u0921\u0935\u0924\u094d\n\n     [150] Perhaps _Bhartrihari_.\n\n     [151] \u0926\u0947\u0935\u093e\u0930\u094d\u091a\u0915.\n\n     [152] _Kachmir_, a province of North Hindostan, situated\n     principally between the 34h and 35th degree of north\n     latitude.\u2015\u2015(_Hamilton\u2019s E. India Gazeteer._)\n\n     [153] _Kishtovar_, a town in the province of Lahore, named\n     also _Triloknath_, situated close to the southern range of\n     the Kashmere hills, and 94 miles E. S. E. from the city of\n     Kashmere. Lat. 34\u00b0 7\u00b4 N., long. 75\u00b0 20\u00b4 E.\u2015\u2015(_Hamilton\u2019s E.\n     India Gazetteer_).\n\n     [154] _Nagarikot_, or Cote Caungra (Cata-Khankhara), a\n     strong fortress in the province of Lahore, 122 miles E. N.\n     E. from the city of Lahore. Lat. 32\u00b0 20\u00b4 N., long. 73\u00b0 42\u00b4\n     E.\n\n     [155] _Kabul_, the capital of the province of Kabul, in\n     Afghanistan. Lat. 34\u00b0 31\u00b4 N., long. 68\u00b0 34\u00b4 E.\u2015\u2015(_Hamilton\u2019s\n     E. India Gazetteer_).\n\n     [156] _Jelalabad_, a town in the province of Kabul, 73 miles\n     E. S. E. from the city of Kabul. Lat. 34\u00b0 6\u00b4 N., long. 69\u00b0\n     46\u00b4 E.\u2015\u2015(_Hamilton\u2019s E. India Gazetteer_).\n\n     [157] _Peshaver_, \u201cthe advanced post,\u201d an Afghan town in the\n     province of Kabul. Lat. 33\u00b0 22\u00b4 N., long. 76\u00b0 37\u00b4\n     E.\u2015\u2015(_Ibid._)\n\n     [158] See, about Nanak, the subsequent pages.\n\n     [159] \u0915\u093e\u092f\u0938\u094d\u0925, this is commonly the writer caste, proceeding\n     from a Kshattriya father and a S\u00fadra mother.\u2015\u2015(_Wilson_).\n\n     [160] Shah W\u00e1li Ullah, or Shems W\u00e1li Ullah is the author of\n     Hindustan poems, the original text of which was published in\n     1834, and a French translation of a part of them in 1836, by\n     M. Garcin de Tassy. According to this learned Indianist (see\n     preface to the text, pp. x. xi) W\u00e1li was born in Surat; he\n     wrote about the middle of the 18th century, and was known in\n     India, Iran, and Turan. Is he the same with the above\n     mentioned W\u00e1li? So much only can be said, till better\n     informed, that the ono was a contemporary of the other.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE FIFTH: CONCERNING THOSE WHO PROFESS THE S\u00c1NK\u2019HY\u00c1[161]\nDOCTRINES.\u2015\u2015They say that there are two things in the existence, or\nthat the existence is divided into two parts: the one is truth, which\nthey interpret by _purusha_;[162] the other is illusion, named by them\n_Prakrit_.[163] _Prakrit_ is the cause of the world, and purusha,\nbeing from want of knowledge and confusion of the intellect mixed with\nPrakrit, is in the world encircled, and penetrated by this\nincongruity. Five imperfections are held to adhere to the purusha,\nwhich they call _pancha kalush\u00e1ni_,[164] \u201cthe five failings, or sins.\u201d\nThese are: 1. _avidya_;[165] 2. _ishmat\u00e1_;[166] 3. _r\u00e1ga_;[167] 4.\n_dv\u00e9sha_;[168] 5. _aviv\u00e8chan\u00e1_.[169] _Avidya_ signifies with them that\nthey believe the body and the senses to be the soul; _avidya_ knows of\nno beginning nor origin; _ishmata_ means personality, individuality,\nand selfishness; _r\u00e1ga_ is the propensity to what is agreeable;\n_dv\u00e9sha_, \u201chatred,\u201d consists in adhering to one\u2019s own opinion, and\ncondemning that of others as vicious; _aviv\u00e8chan\u00e1_ relates to acting\nor not acting with passion. The five failings just enumerated keep\n_Purusha_, \u201cthe embodied soul,\u201d in distress: but when the mind becomes\npure, these five pains are banished. After the purification of the\nheart, all the qualities which are bad and wicked acquire purity, and\nthe qualities, called by them _vrittaya_,[170] are of four different\nkinds: the first, _mitrata_;[171] the second, _karuna_;[172] the\nthird, _mada_;[173] the fourth _up\u00e8ksh\u00e1_.[174] _Mitrata_ is friendship\nfor the well doers, and benevolence for the men of probity; _karuna_\nmeans to be anxious for the good of the friendly-minded, and to\nrelieve the oppressed; _mada_ consists in enjoying the quiet happiness\nof all the creatures of God; _up\u00e8ksha_ signifies, not to use harsh\nwords against those who do ill. These are called _chatur vrittay\u00e1_, or\n\u201cfour qualities,\u201d which keep the heart under subjection, and prevent\nit from seeing any thing else; and it is from the existence of these\nfour manners that the five pains before mentioned are annihilated, as\nwell as every thing that attracts them, and the fortunate man who is\nliberated from these five sicknesses, attains the _satya loka_. And\nthus is interpreted the appearance of the forms of Prakrit and Purusha\nin the heart; the professor of this condition knows how to separate\nthem from each other, and becomes wise: by this knowledge Prakrit\ndisappears, after which, having found Purusha, or the true knowledge\nof himself, which is understood of the soul, man becomes satisfied and\nhappy. According to the opinion of this sect, the five elements are\ndeduced from Prakrit.\n\nThis is the substance of the belief of the _S\u00e1nkhy\u00e1n_.[175] In Little\nGuzerat, a district of the Panjab, the author of this work saw\nAtm\u00e1chand, and M\u00e1h\u00e1d\u00e9o, who said to belong to the S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1n. According\nto their opinion, Prakrit is nature, and God is the manifestation of\nnature, and all the terrestrial and heavenly bodies exist by him, and\nthey said: \u201cWhat affords verdure to the heads of thorns, is it not\nnature?\u201d\n\n\n     [161] A system of philosophy, in which precision of\n     reckoning is observed in the enumeration of its principles,\n     is denominated _S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1_; a term which has been understood\n     to signify _numeral_, agreeably to the usual acceptation of\n     _S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1_, \u201cnumber:\u201d and hence its analogy to the\n     Pythagorean philosophy has been presumed. But the name may\n     be taken to imply that its doctrine is founded in the\n     exercise of judgment; for the word from which it is derived\n     signifies \u201creasoning,\u201d or \u201cdeliberation;\u201d and that\n     interpretation of its import is countenanced by a passage of\n     the _Bh\u00e1rata_, where it is said of this sect of\n     philosophers: \u201cThey exercise judgment (_S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1_), and\n     discuss nature and other twenty-four principles, and\n     therefore are called _S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1_\u201d (_Colebrooke on the\n     Philosophy of the Hindus_)\u2015\u2015(_Transact. of the R. A. Soc. of\n     Great Br. and Irel._, vol. I. P. I. p. 20).\n\n     [162] _Parusha_, pursuant to the Institutes of Manu (l. I.\n     sl. 11), is taken for the \u201cdivine male,\u201d or Brahma himself;\n     it signifies in general the embodied soul.\n\n     [163] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f _Prakritti_ is a word of the highest import\n     with the Hindu philosophers. In its precise sense, it means\n     \u201cthat which is primary,\u201d \u201cthat which precedes what is made;\u201d\n     from _pra_, \u201cbefore,\u201d and _kri_, \u201cto make.\u201d The Prakritti of\n     the S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1s is a primary, subtile, universal\n     substance, undergoing modification through its own energy,\n     and for a special motive, by which it is manifest as an\n     individual and formal substance, varied according to the\n     predominance of qualities which are equipoised and inert in\n     the parent, and unequal and active in the progeny (see\n     _S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1 K\u00e1rika_, translated by Colebrooke,\n     commented by Profess. Wilson, pp. 80-83). The author of The\n     Dabist\u00e1n in the above passage attributes to _Prakritti_ the\n     meaning belonging to _m\u00e1y\u00e1_, \u201cillusion.\u201d The _S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1s_ do\n     not commonly confound the signification of these two words,\n     for they maintain the reality of existing things: but the\n     _Vedantis_ and the _Pauranikas_ (or followers of the\n     Puranas) regard creation as a delusion, or as a sport of the\n     creator, that is, as the _m\u00e1y\u00e1_. Prakritti is translated by\n     Colebrooke \u201cnature,\u201d sometimes \u201cmatter.\u201d Professor Lassen\n     renders this word by \u201cprocreatrix.\u201d\n\n     [164] \u092a\u094d\u091e\u094d\u091a\u0915\u0932\u0941\u0937\u093e\u0928\u093f.\n\n     [165] The Persian text has \u0627\u0648\u062f\u064a\u0627, _aud\u00edj\u00e0_.\n\n     [166] \u0627\u0633\u0645\u062a\u0627 _ismat\u00e1_, perhaps \u0907\u0937\u094d\u092e\u0924\u093e \u201cdesire,\u201d from \u0907\u0937 \u201cto\n     desire.\u201d\n\n     [167] \u0930\u093e\u0917 mental affection in general.\n\n     [168] The original has \u062f\u0648\u064a\u0634 _davish_.\n\n     [169] The edit. of Calc. reads \u0627\u0628\u06c1\u0648\u06cc\u0634\u06c1 _abhv\u00e8sha_. I am\n     induced to substitute for it _aviv\u00e8chana_ \u0905\u0935\u093f\u0935\u0947 \u091a\u0928\u093e and must\n     remark that the original text appears here, in its\n     denominations and definitions, rather more incorrect than in\n     other places. According to the well known doctrine of the\n     S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1, the obstructions of the intellect here meant to be\n     indicated are \u201cerror, conceit, passion, hatred, and fear;\u201d\n     which are severally denominated obscurity, illusion, extreme\n     illusion, gloom, and utter darkness (_Transact. R. A. S._,\n     vol. I. p. 33).\n\n     [170] \u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092f\u0903\n\n     [171] \u092e\u093f\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0924 \u201cfriendship.\u201d\n\n     [172] \u0915\u0930\u0941\u0923 \u201ctenderness, pity.\u201d\n\n     [173] \u092e\u0926 \u201cjoy, pleasure.\u201d\n\n     [174] \u0909\u092a\u0947\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e \u201cendurance, patience.\u201d\n\n     [175] This account of the S\u00e1nkhy\u00e1 philosophy will appear\n     very incomplete as to the whole, and incorrect in the few\n     particulars given. I shall enumerate the principal\n     categories of this philosophy, which are, with little\n     variation, adopted by all the schools of Hindu philosophy,\n     and perpetually alluded to.\n\n         _Mula-prakritti_                             1\n              \u201cNATURE,\u201d the root of all, no production.\n\n          PRINCIPLES                       PRODUCTIONS:\n  _Which are productions and_     _Productions of Ahank\u00e1ra are_:\n         _productive:_\n  Produced by nature is:         T  {The 5 organs of perception:\n    _Buddhi_, or _Mahat_,        h  {   The ear,\n      \u201cintellect.\u201d               e  {   \u2015\u2015 skin,\n  Produced by Buddhi:               {   \u2015\u2015 eye,\n    _Ahank\u00e1ra_, \u201cegotism.\u201d       1  {   \u2015\u2015 tongue,\n                                 1  {   \u2015\u2015 nose.\n                                    {The 5 organs of action:\n                                 o  {   The voice,\n                                 r  {   \u2015\u2015 hand,\n                                 g  {   \u2015\u2015 foot,\n                                 a  {   \u2015\u2015 organs of excretion,\n                                 n  {   \u2015\u2015  \u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015  \u2015\u2015 generation.\n                                 s: {The mind.\n\n  The five subtile elements, producing    The 5 gross elements:\n            Sound  \u2015\u2015 \u2015\u2015                        Ether,\n            Touch  \u2015\u2015 \u2015\u2015                        Air,\n            Form   \u2015\u2015 \u2015\u2015                        Light, or Fire,\n            Flavor \u2015\u2015 \u2015\u2015                        Water,\n            Odor   \u2015\u2015 \u2015\u2015                        Earth.\n   \u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015                  \u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015   \u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\n   7 PRINCIPLES                 + 16 PRODUCTIONS = 23 CATEGORIES.\n  _Purusha_, \u201cthe soul,\u201d neither\n     a production nor productive                    1\n                    TOTAL                          25 _Tatwas_,\n     That is, physical and metaphysical categories of the\n     S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1 philosophy.\n\n     (See the work quoted, the _S\u00e1nk\u2019hy\u00e1 K\u00e1rika_, translated by\n     Colebrooke, and commented by Professor Wilson, pp. 16-17,\n     and elsewhere.)\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE SIXTH: ON THE JOG\u00cdS AND THEIR DOCTRINES.\u2015\u2015This sect\nbelieve that _Isv\u00e1ra_, or the necessary being exists, one, the\nprinciple of intellect, without an equal, without decrease nor\nincrease. In the language of the Hindus _Is a_[176] signifies \u201clord,\u201d\nand without I\u015ba all is but _j\u00edva_,[177] that is \u201ccasualties;\u201d in their\nlanguage _jiva_ means \u201clife;\u201d they hold Is a to be the maker of the\nwhole world, and the creator of all the elements; his holy being is\nfree from care, sickness, and want, and placed out of the circle of\nwork and agency; that is, that this holy being neither wants nor urges\nany religious rites, such as ablution and the like; his knowledge\nsoars above and comprehends all being; he is the Lord, and none\nbesides him invested with supreme power; death and pain never approach\nhis existence, which has no limits. _J\u00edva_, \u201clife,\u201d they call what is\nin the fetters of cares, in the bonds of infirmities, under the\npressure of pain, and in the prison of works and doings, and subjected\nto the control of others, without command over itself. This life is in\ntruth not material nor corporeal; it is by ignorance only that it is\nthought to be one with the body; and the body is supposed by them to\nbe revolving in the circle of material forms: by the necessity of\ntimes and seasons, life abandons the works of the body, and passes\ninto another frame: and in this manner it migrates. Without the\n_abh\u00e1say\u00f3ga_,[178] the soul cannot be freed of the bonds of the\nmaterial world, and from the prison of what is corporeal, and\n_y\u00f3ga_,[179] in the language of the learned Hindus, signifies \u201cunion,\u201d\nor \u201cacquisition;\u201d and _abhy\u00e1sa_,[180] \u201cthe dominion of the eternal\nsphere,\u201d that is, possessing the enjoyment of a desired object; and\nthe purport of the _y\u00f3ga_ is, that the heart be constantly kept in the\nremembrance of God, and that no foreign object be permitted to enter\ninto that Jerusalem, that is, the house of God. The professor of this\nunion with the desired object reckons eight parts, which are: 1.\n_yama_;[181] 2. _niy\u00e1ma_;[182] 3. _\u00e1sana_;[183] 4. _pr\u00e1n\u00e1y\u00e1ma_;[184]\n5. _praty\u00e1h\u00e1ra_;[185] 6. _dh\u00e1ran\u00e1_;[186] 7. _dhy\u00e1na_;[187] 8.\n_samadh\u00e1ran\u00e1_.[188] Yama is composed of five parts: the first is\n_Ahins\u00e1_,[189] that is, doing injury to nothing, and to kill no other\nbut the great wild beasts; 2. _Satyam_,[190] or \u201ctruth;\u201d 3.\n_Ast\u00e9yam_,[191] that is, not stealing nor robbing; 4. _Brahma\ntch\u00e1r\u00ed_,[192] or to keep away from women, and all intercourse with\nthem, and to sleep upon the bare ground; 5. _Apragraha_,[193] which\nis, not to ask any thing from any body, and never to take but what is\nbrought unasked. _Niy\u00e1ma_, the second of the eight parts, is divided\nalso into five kinds: the first, _t\u00e1pasa_,[194] that is, \u201cdevout\nausterity;\u201d 2. _japa_,[195] or \u201cdevotion by means of beads, stripes of\ncloth, ejaculations, mental or loud repetition of the names and\nattributes of God;\u201d 3. _Sama_,[196] which is, \u201ctranquillity and\nsatisfaction;\u201d 4. _Suchi_,[197] or \u201cpurity, sanctity, perfection;\u201d 5.\n_I\u015ba-p\u00fatcha_,[198] \u201cworshipping and praising God.\u201d _Asana_, the third\nof the eight parts of the yoga, means \u201csitting in some particular\nposture,\u201d various kinds of which are used among them. _Pr\u00e1n\u00e1yama_, the\nfourth part, consists in \u201cdrawing in and letting out the breath,\naccording to an established mode and fixed rule.\u201d _Praty\u00e1 h\u00e1ra_, the\nfifth part, signifies \u201cwithdrawing the heart from all the desires and\nattractions of the five senses; and keeping away from all sorts of\nlust, the sight of beauty, the odor of the rose and of sandal, and\nfrom all material and exterior enjoyments.\u201d _Dh\u00e1rana_,[199] the sixth\npart, implies that, \u201cin the heart of the cone-bearing tree, which is\nthe centre of the bosom, and which the people of India have compared\nto the flower of a pond (_lotus_), the heart holds a fixed habitation;\nthat is, they guard it in that place.\u201d\n\n_Dhy\u00e1na_, the seventh part, is the remembrance of God the Almighty.\n_Samadh\u00e1rana_, the eighth part, signifies that the heart, attached to\nthe work of God, forgets the work of the world, in such a manner that\nin his presence, turned towards him, it remains absorbed in him, and\nfeels itself lightened of all exterior sense and satisfied. The wise,\nwho carries these eight parts to a high degree of perfection, hears\nand sees from afar; his pure knowledge elevates him; and he becomes\nstrong in the science of Yog, which is the science of the union with\nthe desired object; the all-bounteous God regards him with pity, and\ndiscards all pains, all sicknesses, all wants, and all deficiencies\nfrom his existence. According to this sect, it is by attaining to\nthese eight conditions, that _Mukt_, which signifies \u201cemancipation,\u201d\nis acquired.\n\nThis is the substance of the doctrine of the Yog\u00eds; now, I will relate\nsomething of the opinions and actions of these sectaries, who have\nbeen noticed in this time as professing the doctrine of the _Yog_. The\nYog\u00eds are a class well known in India, and _y\u00f3ga_, in the Sanskrit\nlanguage, means \u201cunion;\u201d they believe that they unite with God, whom\nthey call _Al\u00edka_,[200] and according to their creed he is the\ndivinity by excellence; moreover his being is to be venerated under\nthe name of _Gorakhn\u00e1th_;[201] in like manner, _Mach\u2019hen\u00e1ern\u00e1th_[202]\nand _Ch\u00f3reng\u00edn\u00e1th_[203] are great personages or saints.\n\nThey believe Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva to be subordinate\ndivinities, but they are, as followers and disciples, addicted to\nGorakhnath; thus, some devote themselves to the one or the other of\nthe deities.\n\nThis sect is divided into twelve classes, which are as follow:[204]\n_Satyanath_, _Ay\u00edpanthi_, _Ka\u015byapa_, _Vairag_, _N\u00e1t\u00edr\u00ed_, _Ardhanar\u00ed_,\n_N\u00e1yari_, _Amara nath_, _Kam-h\u00edbd\u00e1s_, _J\u00f3li handi_, _Tarnaknath_,\n_J\u00e1gar prar\u00e1g_: these are called panthi n\u00e9k, \u201cgood sects,\u201d and\n_panthi_ signifies \u201ca tribe, a sect.\u201d[205] According to their opinion,\nthe chiefs of all religions, sects, and creeds proceed as disciples\nfrom the prophet and saint Gorakhnath, and what they found, they have\nfound it from him. Their belief is that Muhammed (to whom be peace)\nwas also a pupil and disciple of Gorakhnath, but, from fear of the\nMuselmans, they dare not declare it; they say, that B\u00e1b\u00e1 Rin H\u00e1ji,\nthat is, Gorakhnath, was the foster-father of the prophet, who, having\nreceived the august mission, took the mode of Yog from the sublime\nroad of true faith; and a great many of them agree with the Muselmans\nin fasting and in prayers, and perform several acts according to the\nreligion of that people. The sect of Yog\u00eds know no prohibited food;\nthey eat pork as the Hindus and the Na\u017a\u00e1rains, and cow-flesh, like the\nMuselmans, and so on; they also kill and eat men, according to the\ncustom of the Akm\u00edan, as will be related hereafter; and they drink\nwine like the Gu\u00e9bers. There are some of this sect, who, having mixed\ntheir excretions and filtered them through a piece of cloth, drink\nthem and say, that such an act renders a man capable of great affairs,\nand they pretend to know strange things. They call the performer of\nthis act _At\u00edl\u00eda_ and also _Akh\u00f3r\u00ed_. Although they have all originated\nfrom Gorakhnath, and adhere to him in the generality of their faith,\nyet some follow the road of those who attached themselves to the\ntwelve divisions of the Yoga.\n\nAmong them, the restraining of the breath is held in great esteem,\nsuch as it was practised among the Parsian by Azar Hushang, and by the\nkings of that people. It is stated in the Bast\u00e1n namah, that Afras\u00edab,\nthe son of Pashang, was strong in restraining his breath, and it was\non account of this qualification that, when he had escaped from the\nsling of A\u00e2bid, he kept himself concealed in the water. This history\nis known.[206] Among the Hindus and the Parsian Yezdani\u00e1n, nothing is\nesteemed higher than this. I have said something of this custom in the\narticle upon the Parsian Sipas\u00edan: in this place I shall state more of\nit.\n\nThis science of the breath is an imaginary one. The Yogis, the\nSany\u00e1sies, the Hindus, and the Tapas\u00eds, say that, when one has the\nintention of mastering his breath, he most strictly abstains from\nintercourse with women, from eating salt and any thing bitter and\nsour, as well as from toil; then, tending towards this purpose, he\nwill know that from the place of sitting to the summit of the head\nthere are seven divisions of the body, which the Azari\u00e1n call _haft\nkh\u00e1n am\u00e8khi_, \u201cthe seven places of union,\u201d and the Yog\u00eds, _sapta\nchakra_,[207] \u201cseven circles.\u201d The first is the region about the\npubis, similar to a flower with four leaves; the Hindus call it\n_mul\u00e1dh\u00e1ra_.[208] In the middle of this originates a member, which the\nHindus call _manthar_,[209] and the Arabians \u0630\u0643\u0631 _zicker_, and this is\nthe second region. The third is the navel, from the centre of which\nproceeds a fire-colored vein, entitled by the Hindus _n\u00e1bhi\nchakra_.[210] The fourth region is that of the heart, called by the\nHindus _manipuram_,[211] and that is like a flower with twelve leaves.\nThe fifth is the windpipe, in the language of the Hindus\n_kant\u00b4a_.[212] The sixth comprehends the interval between the two\neyebrows, in Sanskrit _bhruva_.[213] The seventh region is that of the\nhead, which is called by the Hindus _brahmanda_.[214] It is to be\nknown that in these regions there are many veins, among which three,\nas the principal, are to be distinguished: the one is on the right\nside, \u201cthe solar vein;\u201d the other in the middle, \u201cthe earthen;\u201d the\nthird on the left side, \u201cthe lunar;\u201d these veins are named in the\nlanguage of the Hindus _\u00e1ditya_, _pankila_, and _somana_;[215] in the\nPersian language, _mahna_, _m\u00edn\u00e1_, and _m\u00e1n\u00e1_.[216] One of the three\nveins is the greatest, that, namely, which running from the middle of\nthe back to the right of the back bone, divides beyond it into two\nbranches, the one of which attains to the right, the other to the left\nof the nostrils; the breath and the wind comes from them, and the air\nwhich proceeds from these veins extends, during a man\u2019s being awake,\nto twelve, during sleep to thirty-two, and during coition to\nsixty-four fingers: this air and breath they hold to be the foundation\nof life, and a great importance is attached to this subject by the\nlearned Sip\u00e1sian and Hindus. They believe the wind to be of ten kinds;\nbut what according to them is essential to know, is the superior and\ninferior winds, which by the Hindus are called _Pr\u00e1na_ and\n_Ap\u00e1na_;[217] by the Persians, _Alayi_ and _P\u00e1s\u00e1yi_. These two winds\nattract each other mutually, and in pronouncing \u201c_han_,\u201d the breath\ngoes out, in pronouncing \u201c_sa_,\u201d it goes within; and this takes place\nduring prayers, without the aid and the motion of the tongue; when\nthey fix upon a name, it becomes _hansa_, and they say also _hamsa_:\nthe Hindus call it _ajapa_,[218] that is, it is pronounced without the\naid of the tongue; and in Persian it has the name of _dam\u00e1n\u00edb\u00e1d_, or\n\u201csound of the wind.\u201d Thus there is, above the channel of the region of\nthe pubis, a most subtile vein; from the summit of the shank a flower,\nbright and similar to gold in redness, expands itself from eight\nroots, and after having from this origin raised its head, and taken\nthe high direction to the top of the head, it is there closed: this\nthe Hindus call _Kundel\u00ed_,[219] \u201ca snake;\u201d and the Persians _Ruhen\nmar_, and _R\u00e1ushib\u00e1r_: and the path of the vein of the head is a\nmiddle one. When the Kundeli awakes to draw breath from a high\nfeeling, it rises to the summit of the head; in like manner as a\nthread passes through the eye of a needle, it goes through the said\nopening to the top of the head. If thou knowest this mode well, thou\nunderstandest the modes of sitting; of these we mentioned one in the\nsection upon the Sipasi\u00e1n; in this place we shall give a further\naccount of this subject. The most approved mode of sitting is that\nwhich in the Hindu language is called _Maha \u00e1sana_,[220] and _S\u00e1da\n\u00e1sana_,[221] that is \u201csitting as the High, the mature of age, and the\naccomplished,\u201d which in Persian is termed _s\u00e1nish\u00edn_. The mode of this\nis as follows: the heel of the left foot is placed at the orifice of\nthe anus, and the heel of the other foot raised up straight to the\npubis, and to the bust; the eyes, without twinkling, are directed to\nthe middle of the eyebrows, then the part about the pubis is put in\nmotion; the inferior wind is drawn with the superior towards the upper\nparts, and raised by degrees until it reaches the head. We have\nexplained the mode of drawing up the breath in the section upon the\nSipas\u00edan. At the time of drawing it up, the beginning is made on the\nside of the left, for emission through the right, of the nostrils;\nwhen drawn up on the right it is also passing through the right, and\nthe inferior wind emitted: this performance is called _Pr\u00e1n\u00e1yama_,[222]\nby the Hindus, and _Aferasdam_, that is, \u201craising of the breath,\u201d by\nthe Persians. The devotee, on drawing up the breath at the left side,\nforms the image of the moon; that is, he places the disk of the moon\nto the left, and to the right that of the sun. Some of the Sip\u00e1sian\nplace the image of one of the seven planets at every stage of their\ndevotion. This mode is held in great esteem among the Hindus at all\nprayers and religious exercises; they say, the adept in it has the\npower of flying; he never falls sick, is exempt from death, and from\nhunger and thirst; it is stated in the Ramzsit\u00e1n of the Persian, that\nby means of this power K\u00e1i Khusro is still alive. The Sip\u00e1s\u00edan and the\nhistorians relate, that whoever carries this process to perfection,\nrises above death; as long as he remains in the body, he can put it\noff and be again reunited to it; he never suffers from sickness, and\nis fit for all business. They say that Ka\u00ed Khusr\u00f3, when he had\nacquired perfection in this devotion, felt his heart estranged from\nexistence in this world; he chose retirement from men, and having\nseparated from this body, he associated with the incorporeal beings,\nand found eternal life. The Hindus hold that, whenever a man has\nperfected himself in this act, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahad\u00e9va have no\ncommand over him, but he rules over them. According to a great number\nof the Hindus, it is this perfection which is personified in the three\ndeities, namely, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahad\u00e9va; and it is the belief of\nmany, that whoever becomes master of this process of devotion,\ncoalesces with God himself. Much has been said and written upon this\nsubject by the Hindus and by the Persians. The Sip\u00e1s\u00edans have a book\nentitled _S\u00e1nyal_, which contains a great deal on this subject, and\nthere exists no better book about it. Other writings are those of\nZard\u00fasht, as well as the _Sarud i-mastan_, and the like, in great\nnumbers, which I have seen. Among the Hindus similar works abound,\nsuch as that composed by _Atm\u00e1 R\u00e1ma_, a Yog\u00ed, who is known under the\nname of _Bahet Barv\u00e1ng_, and the book of Gorakh Singh, which has been\ncomposed by Gorakhnath, and that of _Ambaret Kant_. The author of the\nDabist\u00e1n says: \u201cI saw Ambaret Kant, who has also translated his work\ninto Persian, under the title _Huz ul Hayat_. Therein are the sayings\nof Gorakhnath, supposed to proceed from the prophet Khizar, and\nMachinder Y\u00f3nas; but these speeches, pursuant to Ambarat Kant, are not\noriginal; they are in fact those of Gorakhnath; as, according to the\nYog\u00eds, Brahma came and went some hundred thousand times, but\nGorakhnath remained.\u201d Relatively to the Yoga, this book gives no\nfurther explanation.\n\nBalik N\u00e1tha, they say, a penitent, was of royal extraction, and\nattained great perfection in the Yoga; he restrained his breath during\none week, and after having passed one hundred and twenty years of his\nlife, he had not lost his strength. I have heard from the Mob\u00e9d\nHush\u00edar, the author of several books, that in the year 1028 of the\nHejira (1618 A. D.), he brought me to him, and requested him to bless\nme; Balik nath pronounced then upon me: \u201cThis boy shall acquire the\nknowledge of God.\u201d\n\nSerud nath, descending from Humay\u00fan, was of a noble origin. Having in\nhis youth attained to the mastership of that sect, he could restrain\nhis breath for two days. In the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.),\nthe author of this work saw him in Lahore.\n\nSanj\u00e1 n\u00e1th, of the sect of Ay\u00ed, was a man accomplished in restraining\nthe breath; the people numbered him among the saints, and said, that\nseven hundred years of his life had elapsed without his hair having\nyet become white: he was, in the last mentioned year, seen in Lahore.\n\nS\u00faraj nath made great proficiency in mastering the breath; for several\nyears, he has chosen his retirement in Pesh\u00e1ver, and is occupied with\nhis own concern. The people think his age scarce less than that just\nbefore stated. The writer of this work visited him in the year 1055 of\nthe Hejira (1645 A. D.), and saw several of the Yogies, an account of\nwhom cannot find place in this book.\n\nIt is an established custom among the Yog\u00eds that, when malady\noverpowers them, they bury themselves alive. They are wont also, with\nopen eyes, to force their looks towards the middle of their eyebrows,\nuntil so looking they perceive the figure of a man; if this should\nappear without hands, feet, or any member, for each case they have\ndetermined that the boundaries of their existence would be within so\nmany years, months, or days. When they see the figure without a head,\nthey know that there certainly remains very little of their life; on\nthat account, having seen the prognostic, they bury themselves.\nHowever the Jn\u00e1n\u00eds of India hold this figure to be an illusion, and an\nappearance without a trace of reality.\n\nAs the Sany\u00e1sis are also pious men, I will join an account of them to\nthat of the Yog\u00eds. The Sany\u00e1sis make choice of abnegation and\nsolitude; they renounce all bodily enjoyments; some, in order that\nthey may not be invested with another body, and migrate from body to\nbody; a great number, in order to go to heaven; and a multitude, in\norder to acquire dominion, that is, to become kings, or very rich men.\nWhen a man becomes a Sany\u00e1si, he must give up all desire to return\nagain into the world. They are distinguished by names, and divided\ninto ten classes, namely: _Ban_, _\u00c1ran_, _T\u00edrthah_, _\u00c1shram_, _Kar_,\n_Parbatah_, _S\u00e1kar_, _Bh\u00e1rthy_, _Per\u00ed_, and _Sarsat\u00ed_. They are\nfrequently holy men, and abstain from eating flesh, and renounce all\nintercourse with women. This class follow the dictates of Dat\u00e1teri,\nwhom they also venerate as a deity, and say that he is an incarnation\nof Nar\u00e1yan, and in the retaining of breath attained to such a degree\nthat he is exempted from death. When he came into the presence of\nGorakhnath, who is the chief of the Yog\u00eds, and according to the\nopinion of the Sany\u00e1sis, an incarnation of Mah\u00e1d\u00e9o, Dat\u00e1ter\u00ed, for the\nsake of trial, smote Gorakhnath on the head, who took the appearance\nof iron. Dat\u00e1teri told him: \u201cThou hast not done well; there is no\nstriking iron.\u201d When Gorakhnath himself bade him to combat, Dat\u00e1teri\nglided off from the body, in the same manner as water glides off, and\nreunited safely again. In this sense \u015aabur Mashedi says:\n\n  _\u201cThe whole body became water, withhold thy hand from killing me,\n        As often as thou strikest a blow, my body reunites.\u201d_\n\nAfterwards, Gorakhnath disappeared in the water; Dat\u00e1teri, having\nfound and recognised him in the shape of a frog, brought him forth.\nWhen Dat\u00e1teri concealed himself in the water, Gorakhnath, in spite of\nall his searching, could not succeed in discovering him, because he\nwas mixed with the water, and water cannot be distinguished from\nwater. Mirz\u00e1 Baki Al\u00ed says:\n\n  \u201cWhen a drop is united with the sea, it becomes sea,\n   In substance, the bubble and billow are water: solve this riddle.\u201d\n\nAnother says:\n\n  \u201cFrom apprehension I became water: it is useless to strike water:\n   I am astonished that he assailed my fortune.\u201d\n\nThere are two classes of Sany\u00e1sis: the one, the _Dandaheri_,[223] do\nnot wear long hair, and are attached to the precepts and regulations\nof the _smriti_, or of the law: the second are the _Avadh\u00fatas_;[224]\nthey are like the other class; they wear the zunar, and drink water\nmixed with ashes; but, contrary to the Dandahar, they let their hair\ngrow so that it becomes like ropes, and this they call _juta_;[225]\nthey do not bathe every day, and rub their head and body with ashes,\nwhich they call _bhab\u00fat_;[226] at the time of death, the two classes,\nhaving tied the body in a bag full of salt, throw it into the water,\nwhere, by its weight and that attached to it, it remains a few days\nsunk in the bottom, until they bury it in the earth.\n\nThe head of the second class is Sankara acharya; Saha d\u00e8va, the r\u00e1ja\nof Kachmir, who in the year 750 of the Hejira (1349 A. D.) pulled off\nthe garment of the world, chose him for his teacher. Sankara acharya\nwas a learned Brahman, of a very independent mind; the Hindus say that\nwhen the learned did not understand the Vedanta-\u015bastra, Mah\u00e1d\u00e9va,\nhaving incarnated himself, appeared in the shape of Sankara acharya,\nfor the purpose of interpreting the Vedanta doctrine, upon which\nsubject many books have been written. _Sastra_[227] signifies, in the\nSankrit language, \u201cscience,\u201d and _V\u00e9da_, the \u201cheavenly book,\u201d as has\nbeen said; _anta_,[228] is \u201cend, the accomplishment;\u201d that is, \u201cthe\naccomplishment of the intended object;\u201d and the intent of the Veda is\nthe knowledge of God and of one\u2019s self. On that account this science,\nwhich consists in the knowledge of the union of God, as it is to be\nderived from the text of the Veda, has been entitled _Veda-anta_, \u201cthe\naccomplishment of the Veda.\u201d Sankara acharya was a _Jn\u00e1ni_, \u201ca saint,\na divine,\u201d professing the unity of God; his speeches and actions\nbecame the code of the Jn\u00e1nis.\n\nOne of these, called _Chat\u00far Vapah_, belongs to the class of the\n_Dandahars_; he descends from the Brahmans of Guzerat, whom they call\n_N\u00e1ga-Brahmans_; his father, of the order of jewellers, enjoyed great\nconsideration and opulence. Chat\u00far Vapah, having acquired great\nperfection in the worship of God, abandoned wife, father, mother, and\nchildren; and chose the condition of a Sany\u00e1si; he devoted himself to\nthe practice of restraining the breath, and at last attained great\nreputation, but never relaxed in his religious austerity; he ate no\nmore than three handsful; they say that sometimes he tasted nothing\nbut salt, and contented himself with three pinches of it; the nature\nof his manners is so well known among the Sany\u00e1sis, that it is not\nrequired to say more of it in this book. They say besides that, on\naccount of his perseverance in the beforesaid practice, and on hearing\nthe voice of God, a sound similar to that of a harp issued from his\nveins. A Durvish, native of Persia, gave the following information:\n\u201cIn the year 1045 of the Hejira (1635 A. D.), one night Chatur Vapah\ncame to me, and said: \u2018Rise, that we may take a walk together;\u2019 I went\nwith him and arrived at a deep water. Chatur Vapah, having put his\nfeet upon the surface of the water, walked upon it so as not to raise\na sprinkling; he then called me; going along the border of the pond, I\njoined him, who until my arrival awaited me upon an elevated block of\nstone which was near the pond. When I had seated myself near him, he\npointed to the block, and said: \u2018Dost thou guess whose work this is?\u2019\nHaving considered the bulk of the stone, which was not less than ten\ncubits in length, I was struck with astonishment, and said: \u2018This may\nbe the work of a deity.\u2019 Chatur Vapah replied: \u2018One of my friends\ndwelt here, and endeavored to shape this block into his habitation,\nand having brought the huge stone upon his shoulder from the high\nmountain, began to work it. The people, astonished at the bulk of the\nstone, sat down at night in a lurking-place, so that they saw the\nSany\u00e1s\u00ed with the great stone on his shoulder. On that account they\nrepresented to him: What is the reason of undergoing such labour?\nCommand, and we will bring the stone down from the mountain, and shape\nit right, provided the block be not too large. The Sany\u00e1si got angry,\nand left the village.\u2019 Chat\u00far Vapah afterwards added: \u2018Rise, and let\nus go to see him:\u2019 we went there. Sitting cross-legged, he was\noccupied with himself. Chat\u00far Vapah said to him: \u2018This Durvish is my\nfriend; call the musician.\u2019 He replied: \u2018Raise thou the light up.\u2019 At\nthese words, Chatur Vapah directed his looks to the field, and an\nimmense torch burst forth, lighted from the mysterious region, and\nthrew its scattered refulgence wide about, and the sound of many\nmusical instruments came upon the ear. At day-break we took leave of\nhim, and returned by the road which we came to our resting place.\u201d\nKh\u00e1ja Hafiz says right:\n\n  \u201cWhen the chief of the wine-cellar became my preceptor, what\n     disparity is there in it?\n        There is no place which is not the place of God.\n        In the cell of the hermit, in the circle of the Suf\u00eds,\n        There is no principal place of the worshipper but\n        The extremity of the arch of thy two eyebrows.\u201d\n\nThe Hakim Kamr\u00e1n of Sh\u00edraz says: \u201cWe were in Benares with Chat\u00far\nVapah. One of the principal Muselmans who visited him asked him: \u2018What\ndost thou say of the truth of our prophet?\u2019 He answered: \u2018You say that\nhe is a legate of God, and a leader of the way to the people to which\nthe King of truth has sent him; but it is not becoming for those who\nare companions of the Monarch of the world to take orders from him.\u2019\u201d\nThe inhabitant of heaven, Nuraddin Jehang\u00edr (may the light of God\nillume his grave!) believed and placed a suitable confidence in him.\nAbd\u00e1r rahim of the Kh\u00e1nkhan prostrated himself before him. In the year\n1033 of the Hejira (1623 A. D.), the author of this work, then in his\ninfancy, came with his friends and relations from Patna to the\ncapital, Akb\u00e1r abad, and was brought in the arms of the Mob\u00e9d Hush\u00edar,\nthe odor of whose excellent qualities is diffused about, to Chatur\nVapah. The pious man rejoiced at it, and bestowed his blessing on me,\nthe writer of this work; he taught me the mantra of _S\u00farya_, that is,\nof the sun; he then enjoined Gan\u00e9\u015ba-man, one of his disciples who were\npresent on this day, that he should remain with me until the age of\nmanhood, when I should be able to manage my affairs myself. Gan\u00e9\u015ba-man\nremained attached to me: he was a pupil of Chatur Vapah, and practised\nthe restraining of the breath assiduously. The Mob\u00e9d Hush\u00edar says, he\nonce saw him when, sitting cross-legged, he restrained his breath so\nthat his belly, filled with wind, extended beyond his knees. The\nGos\u00e1in Chatur Vapah travelled to the everlasting kingdom in the year\n1047 of the Hejira (1637 A. D.).\n\nThe author of this book saw, in the year 1053 of the Hejira (1643 A.\nD.), Kal\u00edan Bharat\u00ed in Karitp\u00far in the Kohistan of the Panjab, which\nwas the country of the r\u00e1ja Tarachandra. Kal\u00edan was a religious man,\nand kept his breath for two watches, or six hours. The Bh\u00e1rat\u00eds are a\nclass of Sany\u00e1sis. From Ferz\u00e1nah Khush\u00ed, who is a pious man of the\nYezdan\u00edan, was received the information, that Kal\u00ed\u00e1n Bh\u00e1rati used to\ndrink, first, oil of lamps, and then milk, both which he emitted again\nin such a manner that the color of each was preserved, and no mixture\nhad taken place. Kalin Bh\u00e1rati always praised Persia; the author of\nthis work told him: \u201cYou have no connection in India; you should go\nthere.\u201d He answered: \u201cI went to Iran, but when I saw the king of the\ncountry, Shah Abas Ibne Sultan,[229] who ought to be a servant of God,\nI found him to be full of years, and although highly intelligent, yet\nmerciless, a shedder of blood, covetous, a word-breaker, a friend to\njesting, and admirer of buffoonery. In his country it was promulgated\nthat wherever a boy or girl gifted with beauty could be found, they\nshould be brought before the king. The Suf\u00eds of the tribe Kazelb\u00e1sh\nbrought boys and girls to the king, that he might indulge himself in\nany shameful act of his liking. I asked myself whether, if such a\nbehaviour were conformable to their religion, I could remain in this\ntown? When I inquired about it from their learned men, they denied it.\nI further asked, whether the king approves of such deeds? They said:\n\u2018These are deeds, customary with men of our faith.\u2019 I then again said\nto myself: the king is the substitute of God; if he himself goes\nastray, is not firm in his faith, and does not disavow any part of\nthis religion, then it is not advisable to remain in this town.\u201d Kalin\nBharati also said: \u201cI cannot bear seeing a man who is not firm in his\nfaith; one who professes no religion at all is, at least, his own\nguide; the professor of any faith who does what he says, and is fixed\nin it, deserves not to be blamed.\u201d\n\nThe writer of this book found, in the year 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A.\nD.), Aisha Girda, in Kashmir. Ferzanah Khush\u00ed says, that he kept his\nbreath during three watches, or nine hours, and he found Maden Kir\nequal to him. This was a man skilled in all sorts of magic and sleight\nof hand: whenever well disposed, he scattered bread and salt about,\nbrought milk forth from bones, cut bones in two with a hair, and\npassed birds\u2019 eggs through the narrow neck of a bottle, and exhibited\nsuch like tricks.\n\nOther Sany\u00e1sis remain twelve years standing upon one leg, and this\nclass is called _Th\u00e1v\u00e9sar_.[230] Those who keep continual silence are\ncalled _M\u00e1un\u00ednas_.[231] Many other, like these, are mentioned in Hindu\nbooks, which the author of this work perused, but has no room for\ndescribing them all in these pages; some of this class are men of\nconsideration and opulence, and are escorted by files of elephants;\nthey have carriages, fine apparel, courtiers, servants, on foot and\nhorseback.\n\n\n     [176] \u0908\u0936.\n\n     [177] \u091c\u0940\u0935\n\n     [178] \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938\u092f\u094b\u0917 the practice of frequent and repeated\n     contemplation of any deity, or abstract spirit, repeated\n     recollection, etc.\n\n     [179] \u092f\u094b\u0917\u0903 among a great number of significations has that\n     of \u201creligious exercise.\u201d\n\n     [180] \u0905\u092d\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938 means, properly, \u201cconstant, eternal\n     repetition.\u201d\n\n     [181] \u092f\u092e religious restraint, or obligation.\n\n     [182] \u0928\u093f\u092f\u092e or \u0928\u093f\u092f\u093e\u092e any religious observance voluntarily\n     practised.\n\n     [183] \u0906\u0938\u0928 sitting in some particular posture, as is the\n     custom of the devotees; eighty-four kinds are enumerated.\n\n     [184] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0923\u093e\u092f\u093e\u092e\u0903 breathing in a peculiar way through the\n     nostrils, during the mental recitation of the names or\n     attributes of some deity.\n\n     [185] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0903 abstraction; insensibility; restraining\n     the organs so as to be indifferent to disagreeable or\n     agreeable excitement.\n\n     [186] \u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0902 fortitude; keeping the mind collected, the\n     breath suspended, and all natural wants restrained; steady\n     immoveable abstraction.\n\n     [187] \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u0902 meditation; reflection; mental representation\n     of the personal attributes of the divinity to whom worship\n     is addressed.\n\n     [188] \u0938\u092e\u0927\u093e\u0930\u0923 see _dh\u00e1rana_; _sama_ is an intensitive.\n\n     [189] \u0905\u0939\u093f\u0902\u0938\u093e harmlessness, one of the cardinal virtues of\n     most Hindu sects.\n\n     [190] \u0938\u0924\u094d\u092f\u0902.\n\n     [191] \u0905\u0938\u094d\u0924\u0947\u092f\u0902.\n\n     [192] \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094d\u092e\u091a\u093e\u0930\u0940 a religious student, an ascetic of a certain\n     class.\n\n     [193] \u0905\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939.\n\n     [194] \u0924\u093e\u092a\u0938.\n\n     [195] \u091c\u093e\u092a muttering prayers.\n\n     [196] \u0936\u093e\u092e.\n\n     [197] \u0936\u0941\u093e\u091a\u093f.\n\n     [198] \u0908\u0936\u092a\u0942\u091c\u093e.\n\n     [199] See the signification of _dh\u00e1rana_, as taken from\n     Wilson\u2019s Dict., and given in note 6, p. 125.\n\n     [200] \u0905\u0932\u094b\u0915 Heaven.\n\n     [201] \u0917\u094b\u0930\u0916\u0928\u093e\u0925 a name adopted by a class of Y\u00f3gis\u2015\u2015(_Wils.\n     Dict._, sub voce, _n\u00e1tha_.)\n\n     [202] Perhaps \u092e\u091a\u0930\u094d\u091a\u093f\u0915 \u0928\u093e\u0925 _macharchika n\u00e1tha_, \u201clord of\n     excellence,\u201d or \u201chappiness.\u201d\n\n     [203] Probably \u091a\u0942\u0921\u093e\u0919\u094d\u0915\u0928\u093e\u0925 _ch\u00fad\u00e1nka n\u00e1tha_, \u201clord of the\n     ornament of the crest.\u201d\n\n     [204] Professor Wilson (see his Sketch of the Religious\n     Sects of the Hindus, in the XVIth vol. of the _As. Res._, p.\n     1-136) has enumerated the religious divisions of the Hindus\n     as they have been described by the author of the _Sankara\n     Vijaya_, probably in the 8th century of our era, to which\n     enumeration he added that of the present divisions of this\n     people, comprised in three great classes: the _Vaichnavas_,\n     the _S\u00e2ivas_, and the _Saktas_. Very few names of these\n     sects are to be found in The Dabist\u00e1n, although both works\n     agree in general in the account of the opinions, rites, and\n     customs of the different sectaries; the outlines of their\n     systems appear to have remained the same during at least the\n     last thousand years, whatever alterations the details may\n     have undergone.\n\n     [205] _Panthi_ is derived from the Sanskrit \u092a\u0928\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0928\u094d\n     _panthin_, \u201cwho goes the road.\u201d This term occurs only in the\n     word \u092a\u0930\u093f\u092a\u0928\u094d\u0925\u093f\u0928\u094d _pari-panthi_, \u201can adversary.\u201d\n\n     [206] According to the Shah-nameh, Afrasiab, after many\n     battles, succombed to the fortune of Ka\u00ed-Khusro. The king of\n     Turan fled to the mountains of Berdah, where he concealed\n     himself in a cavern. It so happened that Hum, a descendant\n     of Feridun, lived as a hermit in the same desert: there he\n     heard by night a voice of complaint, which he soon\n     recognised to be that of Afrasiab. The hermit had not\n     extinguished the vindictive passion in his breast; he seized\n     and bound the fugitive king, and conducted him to be\n     delivered into the hands of K\u00e1\u00ed Khusr\u00f3. On the bank of a\n     large river, Hum, visited by a feeling of pity, loosened the\n     fetters of his prisoner, who profited by these few moments\n     of liberty to escape, and dived into the water, where he\n     remained concealed, as is said above, so that he could not\n     be discovered. K\u00e1\u00ed Khusr\u00f3, having in the mean time arrived\n     to receive himself the great captive, Hum advised the king\n     to subject Gorshivez (Afr\u00e2siab\u2019s brother) who was also a\n     prisoner in his hands, to severe tortures, in order that the\n     lamentations of the sufferer might draw Afrasiab out of the\n     water. This stratagem succeeded, and Afrasiab was killed by\n     the sword of K\u00e1\u00ed Khusr\u00f3.\n\n     [207] \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924 \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0903 In the best treatises of the Hindu\n     philosophers, we find only six chakras, or \u201ccircles,\u201d\n     enumerated; these are as follow: 1. _Mul\u00e1dh\u00e1ra_, \u201cthe parts\n     about the pubis;\u201d 2. the _Sw\u00e1dishth\u00e1nam_, or \u201cumbilical\n     region;\u201d 3. the _Manip\u00faram_, \u201cpit of the stomach,\u201d or\n     \u201cepigastrium;\u201d 4. _An\u00e1hatam_, \u201cthe root of the nose;\u201d 5.\n     _Visuddham_, \u201cthe hollow between the frontal sinuses;\u201d 6.\n     _Ajny\u00e1khyam_, \u201cthe fontenelle, or union of the coronal and\n     sagittal sutures.\u201d To these circles, or divisions, are\n     attributed various faculties and relations with divinities\n     and physical elements.\n\n     [208] \u092e\u0942\u0932\u093e\u0927\u093e\u0930.\n\n     [209] \u092e\u0928\u094d\u0925\u0930 \u201ca churning stick.\u201d\n\n     [210] \u0928\u093e\u092d\u093f\u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930.\n\n     [211] \u092e\u0923\u093f\u092a\u0941\u0930.\n\n     [212] \u0915\u0923\u094d\u091f.\n\n     [213] \u092d\u094d\u0930\u0941\u0935.\n\n     [214] \u092c\u094d\u0930\u0939\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0923\u094d\u0921 signifies \u201cBrahma\u2019s egg,\u201d to which the\n     earth is compared, and probably, as above, the head.\n\n     [215] \u0906\u0926\u093f\u0924\u094d\u092f, \u092a\u0919\u094d\u0915\u093f\u0932, \u0938\u094b\u092e\u0928.\n\n     [216] These words have, in the Persian dictionary, a\n     signification different from that which is above attributed\n     to them, and seem to be technical terms belonging to the\n     doctrine of a sect.\n\n     [217] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0923 _pr\u00e1na_ is breath, expiration, and inspiration;\n     \u0905\u092a\u093e\u0928 _ap\u00e1na_ is flatulence, _crepitus_. Besides these two\n     winds, the Hindus name three other winds, namely: _Jam\u00e1na_,\n     eructation, supposed to be essential to digestion; _Ud\u00e1na_,\n     passing from the throat into the head; it is the pulsation\n     of the arteries in the head, the neck, and temples; _Vy\u00e1na_,\n     expanding through the whole body; it is the pulsation of the\n     rest of the superficial arteries and occasional puffiness of\n     external parts, indicating air in the skin (see _Vedanta\n     Sara_, edit. Calc., p. 9; and _S\u00e1nkhy\u00e1 K\u00e1rita_, work quoted,\n     p. 105).\n\n     [218] \u0905\u091c\u092a is a particular mantra, or mystical formula,\n     employed by the Tantrikas, the essence of which is the\n     letters _H_ and _S_, whence it is termed the _Hansa-mantra_.\n\n     [219] \u0915\u0941\u0923\u094d\u0921\u0932\u0940.\n\n     [220] \u092e\u0939 \u0906\u0938\u0928.\n\n     [221] \u0938\u093e\u0926 \u0906\u0938\u0928\n\n     [222] See, on it, vol. I. p. 80.\n\n     [223] \u0926\u0923\u093f\u0921\u0940 a mendicant carrying a staff.\n\n     [224] \u0905\u0935\u0927\u0942\u0924.\n\n     [225] \u091c\u0942\u091f.\n\n     [226] \u092d\u0938\u094d\u092e _bhasma_, \u201cashes,\u201d \u092d\u0938\u094d\u092e\u0940\u092d\u0942\u0924 _bhasm\u00edbuta_,\n     \u201cbecoming ashes.\u201d\n\n     [227] \u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930 _s\u00e1stra_, from \u0936\u093e\u0938 _s\u00e1sa_, \u201cto govern,\u201d an\n     order, command, institutes of religion, science, etc.\n\n     [228] \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0924.\n\n     [229] The king of Persia above mentioned was probably Abbas,\n     the son of Shah Muhammed Mirza. He began to reign in 1585,\n     and died in 1628, in his 70th year. He was called \u201cthe\n     Great,\u201d although his character and life were stained by\n     vices but too common to Oriental princes. To him succeeded\n     his grandson Shah S\u00faf\u00ed, in 1627, and died in 1641; then the\n     son of the latter, Abbas II, not yet ten years old, was\n     proclaimed king; at the date above mentioned, viz. 1643, he\n     was about twelve years old, and could therefore not be the\n     king characterised by Kalin Bharati, who could very easily,\n     but fifteen years before the epoch above mentioned, have\n     seen Abbas \u201cthe Great,\u201d then, as he says, \u201cfull of years.\u201d\n\n     [230] Probably \u0938\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0938\u094d _sth\u00e1t\u00e1ras_.\n\n     [231] \u092e\u094c\u0928\u093f\u0928\u0938\u094d.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE SEVENTH DESCRIBES THE TENETS OF THE S\u00c1KT\u00cdAN.\u2015\u2015The belief\nof this sect is as follows: S\u00edva, that is Mah\u00e1deva, who in their\nopinion with little exception is the highest of the deities, and the\ngreatest of the spirits, has a spouse whom they call _M\u00e1y\u00e1\nsakt\u00ed_;[232] this spouse shows first one color, and then another, that\nis, something else than what really exists: for instance, water like\nwine. This spiritual and material principle has three natures and\nthree qualities, namely: _rajas_,[233] that is, \u201cdominion and desire;\u201d\n_sattva_,[234] which is \u201crectitude and wisdom, and the power to\ncontrol the senses, not to be subject to them;\u201d and _tamas_,[235] or\n\u201cviolence, passion, besides eating, gluttony, and sleeping.\u201d With the\nHindus, Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahadeva are personified as proceeding\nfrom these three conditions,[236] or as the powers of the three\nqualities mentioned. This M\u00e1y\u00e1 is the maker of the productions of this\nworld and of its inhabitants, and the creator of the spirits and of\nthe bodies; the universe and its contents are born from her: from\nrespect of the said productions and of the mentioned effects, she is\nentitled _Jagat-amb\u00e1_,[237] or \u201cmother of the universe;\u201d non-entity\nfinds no access to this creator; the garment of perishableness does\nnot sit right upon the body of this fascinating empress; the dust of\nnothingness does not move round the circle of her dominion; the real\nbeings of heaven, and the accidental creations of the nether world,\nare equally enamoured and intoxicated of desire before her; bound by\nthese ties of deceit in this revolving world, whoever rebels feels the\ndesire of _mukt_, that is, of emancipation, independence, and\nhappiness; nevertheless, from carelessness, he pays obedience and\nworship to this world-deceiving queen, and never abandons the path of\nadoration of this bewitching lady. This goddess, that is the spiritual\nprinciple, exists in all living beings in six circles, which they call\n_shat chakras_,[238] as the fibres in the stalk of a water-lily, in\nwhich there are six divisions: 1. the _Mul\u00e1dh\u00e1ra_, or \u201cthe\nsitting-place;\u201d 2. the _Manip\u00faram_, that is, \u201cthe navel;\u201d 3. the\n_Swadhishtanam_,[239] \u201cthe firm place, and which commands the upper\nregion of the navel;\u201d 4. _Hrid_,[240] or \u201cthe heart;\u201d 5. _S\u00e1da_,[241]\nthat is, \u201cthe purified mansion and the place of purification,\u201d and\nthis proceeds from the upmost part of the breast; 6. _Agni\ntchakra_,[242] or \u201cthe circle of the fire,\u201d and this is that of the\neye-brows. These are the six circles, and above them is _Indra_, that\nis the window of life, and the passage of the soul, which is the top\nand middle of the head; and in that place is the flower of the back of\none thousand leaves: this is the residence of the glorious divinity,\nthat is, of the world-deceiving queen, and in this beautiful site\nreposes her origin. With the splendour of one hundred thousand\nworld-illuminating suns, she wears, at the time of rising, manifold\nodoriferous herbs and various flowers upon her head and around her\nneck: her resplendent body is penetrated with perfumes of various\nprecious ingredients, such as musk, safran, sandal and amber, and\nbedecked with magnificent garments: in this manner, as was just\ndescribed, she is to be represented. The worship of her form and\nappearance, the adoration and submission, ought to be internal and\ntrue; and the exterior veneration, to be paid before her image;\nmoreover, all that has been divided into five sections and explained\nin the Yoga \u015bastra, is to be performed with assiduity. The interior\nworship consists in representing her image, and in keeping her\nremembrance every where; the possessor of such an imaginative faculty\nand devotedness is called _bhakta_,[243] that is, \u201ca possessor of\ngladness and of the mansion of perfect delight, and of _mukt_, or\n\u2018liberation\u2019 to be enjoyed in this mansion of a permanent happy\nexistence.\u201d The mode of this worship is contained in the _Agama_,[244]\nand the whole sect conform themselves to it. With them, the power of\nMahadeva\u2019s wife, who is Bh\u00e1v\u00e1n\u00ed, surpasses that of the husband. The\nzealous of this sect worship the _S\u00edva-linga_, although other Hindus\nalso venerate it. _Linga_[245] is called the virile organ, and they\nsay on behalf of this worship that, as men and all living beings\nderive their existence from it, adoration is duly bestowed on it. As\nthe linga of Mahadeva, so do they venerate the _bhaga_,[246] that is,\nthe female organ. A man very familiar with them gave the information\nthat, according to their belief, the high altar, or principal place in\na mosque of the Muselmans, is an emblem of the _bhaga_. Another man\namong them said that, as the just-named place emblems the bhaga, the\nminar, or turret of the mosque represents the linga: on which account\nboth are found together. In many places and among a great number of\nthe Hindus, this worship exists: a great many follow the Agama, in\nwhich wine drinking is approved, and if, instead of a common cup, a\nman\u2019s skull (which they call _kap\u00e1la_[247]) be used, the beverage is\nmuch more agreeable. They hold the killing of all animals, even of\nman, to be permitted, and call it _bala_.[248] At night they go to the\nplaces which they call _\u015bma\u015b\u00e1na_,[249] and where the dead bodies are\nburnt; there they intoxicate themselves, eat the flesh of the corpses\nburnt, and copulate before the eyes of others with women, which they\nname _\u015bakti p\u00faja_:[250] and if the devoted woman be that of another,\nthe good work is so much the more valuable, and it is certain that\nthey offer their wives to each other; the disciples bring their wives\nand daughters to their preceptor; they unite with their mothers,\nsisters, paternal and maternal aunts, which is against the custom of\nthe Hindus, who do not take daughters of their near relations. The\nauthor of this work saw one of the learned men of this sect, who read\nto him a book of modern composition upon their customs, and therein\nwas stated that it is permitted to mix with every woman except one\u2019s\ndaughter. This man began to abuse the work, saying that the text was\ncontrary to the old customs of this class, and that no such thing is\nto be found in the ancient books, and declared it at last to be a\nmistake of the copyist. They say that the woman exists for the sake of\nbeing desired; she may be a mother or a daughter. In their opinion,\nthere is no enjoyment higher that that of love; the Hindus call it\n_k\u00e1mada_;[251] and say that, when a woman and a man are in close\nconversation, whoever disturbs them is worthy of God\u2019s malediction,\nbecause they both therein share a state of happiness. The Agama favors\nboth sexes equally, and makes no distinction between women; they may\nbelong to whomsoever: men and women compose equally humankind, and\nwhatever they bring forth makes part of it. This sect hold women in\ngreat esteem, and call them _\u015baktis_ (powers); and to ill treat a\n_\u015bakti_, that is, a woman, is held a crime. The high and low value the\nLul\u00eds (public girls) very high, and call them _deva kanya_,[252]\n\u201cdaughters of the gods.\u201d\n\nAmong them, it is a meritorious act to sacrifice a man, which they\ncall _naram\u00e9dha_;[253] then the _g\u00f3m\u00e9dha_,[254] or sacrifice of a cow;\nfurther, the _asvam\u00e9da_,[255] and finally, any other animal. When they\nperform a sacrificial ceremony, which they call K\u00e1la-dek\n(_kalad\u00e9ya_)[256], they unite the blood of as many animals as possible\nin a large vase, and place therein the man whom they bring over to\ntheir creed, and they drink with him from that blood. Whenever the\nworship of a god, or of the wife of a god is performed, the ceremony\nis called _ishtam_,[257] and the master of the ceremony _ishta_. The\ncreed of this sect is, that any god or wife of a god may be worshipped\nin two ways: the one is called _bhadram_,[258] which consists in\nabstaining from shedding blood, and in being pure; the other, termed\n_vakam_,[259] which admits spilling blood, commerce with women, and\nneglect of purity; but they think this second preferable, and say that\neach deity, male or female, has a form under which he or she is to be\nrepresented; but that the worship of a female divinity affords a\ngreater recompense. When they have an intimate connection with their\nown or another\u2019s wife, they behold in her the image of the goddess,\nand think to personate the god, her husband, and at this time they\nsing a prescribed song, which to entune at the very moment of the\nclosest junction, they believe to be most recommendable. There is a\ndeity whose praise they sing with unwashed hands;[260] and another\nwhom they worship with the mark of their cast drawn with dirt on their\nforehead. Some of these goddesses are by them called \u201cqueens,\u201d and\nothers \u201cservants;\u201d and the worshipper of a woman is also termed\n\u201cservant.\u201d\n\nThe author of this work saw a man who, singing the customary song, sat\nupon a corpse which he kept unburied until it came to a state of\ndissolution, and then ate the flesh of it; this act they hold\nextremely meritorious. They say that the desires of this and of the\nother world attain their accomplishment by means of the worship of a\ngod or of a goddess. The followers of this sect send their barren\nwives, in order that they may become pregnant, to the performers of\nsuch acts, and these men use the women before the eyes of their\nhusbands: whoever does not send his wife to his master, renders in\ntheir opinion the purity of his faith very doubtful.\n\nThe Gossain Tara lochana, a Brahman, was of this sect, and devoted to\nthe worship of K\u00e1li, a female deity. Having gone to Kachmir in the\nyear 1048 of the Hejira (1638 A. D.), he practised pious austerity; at\nlast, as is usual, he chose a concubine, for which, they say, five\nthings are requisite: fish, wine, the wife of another man, flesh (if\nhuman flesh so much the better) and a mantra, that is, a song. The\nHindus used to distinguish fish from flesh. Finally, having\naccomplished the act of a Gosain, Tara lochana became the friend of\nAhsen Ulla, named Zafer Kh\u00e1n ibne Kh\u00e1j\u00e1, Abul hasen Taramzi, who was\nthe governor of Kachmir: this took place by the interest of the\nconfidential servants of the lord\u2019s house, who were well disposed to\nbe directed by a perfect G\u00f3sain. The said lord wished Taralochana to\nprocure him victory over the Tibetans; the Gosain promised it to him,\nprovided he should conform himself to his directions: Zafer Khan\nconsented to it, and a convention was concluded between them. Tara\nlochana said: \u201cAppoint a great number of L\u00fal\u00edan who are never to\nseparate from me, because in our religion the intercourse with these\nis preferable to that with other women, on which account they are\nentitled _D\u00e9va-Kany\u00e1_, \u2018the daughters of the gods;\u2019 my meal must never\nbe destitute of wine and other intoxicating liquors; to begin, let a\nsheep be killed for me, and the necessaries and materials of repast be\nprepared.\u201d Zafer Khan did all the Gosain demanded; when he made his\nexpedition to Tibet, he obtained a remarkable victory, and returned\ntriumphant. At last, a disagreement took place between the Gosain and\nZafer Khan; the former quitted the latter, who soon after, on account\nof a dispute between the Sonn\u00ed and the Shi\u00e2h of Kachmir, lost his\nconsideration, and being obliged to retire, went to Kabul; there\nMuhammed Tafer, one of his relations, gave him some fatal stabs with a\nponiard, in consequence of which he lay sick for some time. Soon after\nhe lost his office and property, and remained long in Lahore without a\nsituation. The author of this book saw in the year 1055 of the Hejira\n(1645 A. D.) in Gujerat, a district of the Panjab, Tara lochana, who\ntold him \u201cIt was on account of his difference with me that so great a\nmisfortune befel Zafer Khan.\u201d Urfi of Shiraz says:\n\n  \u201cThe bounty of the Eternal does not reject the unbeliever,\n   Provided he acquire perfection in the adoration of his idol.\u201d\n\nSh\u00e9dosh, the son of Anosh declared: that, according to the explainers\nof the law, there must be observed in any pursuit a due relation and\ncorrespondence to the intended purpose: further, in the pursuit of a\nvirtuous spirit, sanctity and purity are required; but in the pursuit\nof a base spirit, nothing of purity enters, and may be dispensed with.\nThis subject has been treated in the second section of the work\nthereupon.\n\nThe writer of this book saw in the same year, and in the place\nbeforesaid of Guzerat, a man called Mahad\u00e9o, who at night was always\nsitting upon a dead body. I also saw Sad\u00e1nand, of the same sect, who\nsaid to one of his disciples: \u201cI wish to perform a rite, called the\nworship of the hair.\u201d The disciple brought his own daughter, and\nSad\u00e1nanda gazed at her hair, kissed her face, and in that way enjoyed\nher before the eyes of her father. I saw besides a person who brought\nhis wife to him, saying: \u201cI have no son in my house.\u201d It is the belief\nof this class that, if in such a manner any one has intercourse with a\nbarren woman, she obtains whatever she desires; on that account, some\nof the women, at the moment of intimate junction, demand from the\nperfect man the gift of _mukt_, that is, union with God Almighty, and\nemancipation from this body. It was for that reason, that Sad\u00e1nanda\nused the woman before the eyes of her husband. One day, Sad\u00e1nanda sat\nin a burying place, naked, with one of his friends, and drank wine,\nwhen one of the orthodox Brahmans passed that way, and saw these men.\nThe disciples said: \u201cThis Brahman will tell the people what he saw,\nand expose us to ridicule.\u201d Sad\u00e1nanda replied: \u201cIt does not matter.\u201d\nWhen the Brahman came home, he died.\n\nWhen in the year 1059 of the Hejira (1649 A. D.) the author of this\nwork happened to be in the district of Kalinga, he saw in every\nvillage of this country the image of a god, or of a spirit called by\nsome particular name, and each of these spirits is supposed to be the\nauthor of some sickness or misfortune, for the removing of which they\noffer their prayers to him. One of these spirits is _Anamberam_; and\nwhen a person gets a pimple, he brings an animal, commonly a domestic\nbird, to the chapel, and sacrifices it. In the work _Kh\u00e1lasa al\nhayat_, \u201cthe essence of life,\u201d composed by Mulla Ahmed Tatvi, is\nstated, that upon the sepulchre of _Asefn\u00edvas_,[261] a sage of Greece,\nthey used to sacrifice a bird, and they say that, in the book which\ntreats of the ceremonies of pilgrimage to the before-named deities,\nthree kinds of sacrifices are enumerated: agreeable perfumes, sweet\ncakes, and beverages; besides Mulla Ahmed Tatvi mentions in his work\njust before quoted, that _Her\u00e1mes_ (that is Idris)[262] has\nestablished fumigations and wine of grapes for the use of sacrifices.\n\nAmong the great idols of the country or Kaling is _Gang-Durg\u00e1_.[263]\nThey say, Ramachandra d\u00e9o, one of their great R\u00e1jas, descendant of the\ncelebrated family of Ka\u015byapa, ruled in Orissa. This R\u00e1ja, having\ncalled a goldsmith, gave him the mass of gold which he demanded for\nmaking an image of Durga. The goldsmith, having carried the gold home,\nintended to form the goddess of copper and to purloin the gold,\nthinking that, as to break into pieces an idol is not permitted among\nthe Hindus, he could keep the gold without fear of discovery. With\nthis project he went to sleep. When he awoke, he saw that one half of\nthe gold remained on the spot, and that the other half was formed into\nthe image of Durg\u00e1; having carried this with the remaining gold to\nRamachandra d\u00e9o, and told the story, the R\u00e1ja gave him the residue of\ngold, and carried the idol, in his house and in his travels,\nconstantly with him. They say that, after the death of Ka\u015byapa the\nGreat, Makand\u00e9o assembled under his sceptre the nations of this\ncountry, and that Vichnunath d\u00e9o Sukra conquered the town Sri\nKakul,[264] from the R\u00e1ja Nanda. Ramchandra d\u00e9o moved his army towards\nSri Kakul, and took the fort; Vichnu-n\u00e1th, being informed of it,\nmarched against him; Ramchandra d\u00e9o, unable to resist his force, fled;\nGanga Durga was by her guardians thrown away in a village, from whence\nshe fell into the hands of a Brahman, who flung her into the barn of a\nvillager. This man, having taken her up, carried her to his house. The\ngoddess appeared to him in a dream, and said: \u201cOffer me in sacrifice\nthy eldest son, and I will make thee R\u00e1ja.\u201d After a certain time, the\nvillager told this secret to Vishnu-n\u00e1th d\u00e9o, who, having taken the\nidol from him, gave him a horse ornamented with gold, and a\nmagnificent dress, and carried the goddess to Nar\u00e1nya p\u00far, his\nresidence. As she demanded from him also the sacrifice of a man,\nVichnu-n\u00e1th d\u00e9o killed every year one of the thieves and like sorts of\nmen before her altar. After the death of Vichnu n\u00e1th d\u00e9o, his sons did\nthe same. When Vikramajet d\u00e9o, who descended from Vichna nath d\u00e9o, was\nkilled, and the country disturbed by insurrections, then Dasvent-r\u00e1u,\nwho was one of the grand-children of Vichnu-n\u00e1th d\u00e9o, having taken up\nDurga, fled from fear of the army, commanded by Jalil ul Khader Tulaj\u00ed\nKhan B\u00e9g, to M\u00e1rk\u00fal. Bh\u00fapati, the R\u00e1ja of M\u00e1rkul, being also afraid of\nthe attack of the famous general, sent him the goddess Durga, on\nMonday, the ninth day of the month Rabish ul avel, of the year 1062 of\nthe Hejira (September, 1651, A. D.). The idol was of gold, in the form\nof a female, with limbs very well proportioned, four arms, in two of\nher right hands carrying a three-pointed pike, which the Hindus call\n_Tris\u00fala_,[265] and with which the goddess was striking _Mahisha\nAsura_, a demon under the form of a buffalo; he was beneath her right\nfoot; in another hand she had a white ball, and in the fourth, the\nchakra, or discus, which is a circular weapon peculiar to the Hindus;\nunder her left foot was a lion, and beneath him a throne. When they\nweighed the image, they found it equal to four panchiri, measure of\nthe Dekhan. Even now, they sacrifice in every village of the Kohistan\nof Nanda-p\u00far, and country adjacent, a man of good family.\n\nAnother idol, called _M\u00e1vel\u00ed_,[266] is in the town of Bister.[267] The\nbelief of the people there is that, when an hostile army comes to\nattack them, the divinity, under the form of a woman selling\nvegetables, goes into the camp of the enemy, and whoever eats what she\noffers, dies; and during the night she appears like one of the public\ngirls, and whoever finds her charming, and calls her, meets with\ndeath. They relate many strange and wonderful things about her. When\nin the year of the Hejira 1069, A. D. 1658-9, the famous general\nTavalj\u00ed Khan Beg besieged and took the fort Kot Bahar, which is\nstronger than the fort of Bister, there died so many men and beasts of\nvarious maladies and the particular effects of climate, that their\nnumber exceeds all computation; and this the inhabitants of the fort\nof Bister attributed to the power of the goddess.\n\nThere is another class of followers of S\u00edva, that is, of S\u00e1kt\u00edan,\nwhose creed is quite different from that just before stated: they\nnever have intercourse with the wife of another; they drink no wine.\nThe adorers of S\u00edva are obliged to drink wine in the _S\u00edva-ratra_,[268]\nwhich is a sacred night: because it is written in their books that\nthey ought then to fill a cup with wine and to drink it; as, according\nto the rule of this sect, it is not a matter of choice to drink wine;\nmany who cannot get it, having procured a draught of syrup, mix a\nlittle of a fermented liquor with it to render it like wine, and take\nit for such, calling it _p\u00e1na_.[269]\n\nSri Kanta, a Kachmirian, is conversant with many sciences of the\nHindus; he knows the s\u00e1stras, that is, the s\u00e1stras of the Pandits,\nnamely, the _Smr\u00edti sastra_,[270] or \u201cthe written law;\u201d the\n_Kavi-s\u00e1stra_,[271] \u201cpoetics;\u201d the _Tarka-s\u00e1stra_,[272] \u201clogic and\ndialectics;\u201d the _V\u00e1idy\u00e1 vidy\u00e1_,[273] \u201cthe medical science;\u201d the\n_Jy\u00f3tisha_,[274] \u201castronomy;\u201d and the _P\u00e1tanjala_,[275] that is, the\nrestraining of the breath; he knows besides very well the Vedanta, or\nmetaphysics, etc. In the year 1049 of the Hejira (1639 A. D.) the\nauthor of this book saw him in Kachmir; he is one of the saints of the\nHindus. Sri Kant was invested by the inhabitant of heaven, N\u00far-ed-din\nMahommed Jehang\u00edr P\u00e1dshah, with the dignity of a judge of the Hindus,\nin order that they may be tranquillised, and in every concern have\nnothing to demand from the Muselmans: as it has been established in\nthe code of Akbar, that the tribes of mankind, high and low, with the\nexisting diversity of creeds and difference of customs, which are all\nunder the trust of a beneficent lord, ought to dwell in the shade of\nprotection of a just king, and persevere in the performance of their\nworship and the exigencies of their devotion, so that, by the\nauthority derived from the chiefs, the sons of the age may not stretch\nthe hand of oppression over the condition of the people.\n\nThe belief of the Hindus is as follows: all the _t\u00edrths_,[276] that\nis, \u201cplaces of pilgrimage,\u201d which are in the world are in imitation of\nthe fixed model _Harat\u00edrth_, which is in Kachmir; for, after having\nvisited the holy place of Kachmir, there is no desire to see that of\nany other country; and they call it the great place of pilgrimage,\nlikewise _pray\u00e1ga_,[277] which is celebrated at M\u00e1h\u00e1b\u00e1d; there are\nShah abad ed-din p\u00far, and Gangavara, L\u00e1ras\u00fan, and Kis\u00e2l\u00edhazra. There\nare many miraculous things in Kachmir; one of them is _Sandeb\u00e1r_, and\nthey relate: In ancient times, a holy Brahman dwelt in a cavern of the\nmountain, where he devoted himself to the worship of the Almighty God.\nOnce every year, he went to the Ganges to bathe. After having passed\nseveral years in that way, Gang\u00e1 said to the Brahman: \u201cThou measurest\nalways such a length of road, on which thou dost set aside the worship\nof God: my convention with thee is this: that, when the sun reaches\nthe constellation of the Bull, I will three times a-day come to thy\nresting-place.\u201d From this time, when the great luminary throws his\neffulgence towards the constellation of the Bull, the water of the\nriver springs up boiling from the basin of the fountain, which is near\nthe place of his devotion. _Sundeberari_, in the cavern of the\nmountain, became celebrated: it is a square basin, and has on its\neastern wall an open cavity, from which, as well as from several other\nvents and holes in the sides of the basin, the water springs up.\nHowever steadfastly one may look, the bottom cannot be discovered. And\nin the middle of the eastern side, there are seven holes, which the\npeople of Kachmir call _Saptarshi_,[278] \u201cthe seven Rishis;\u201d on the\nnorthern side is an issue, which they call _dama bhav\u00e1ni_;[279] when\nthe world-illuminating sun begins to enter the constellation of the\nBull, the water appears there in the following manner: it springs up\nfirst from the large cavity, then from the _Saptarshi_: so the Hindus\ncall seven rakshasas, and give their name to the constellation of the\nGreat Bear. Further, the water comes up from the _dama bhav\u00e1ni_, that\nis \u201cthe mansion of _Bhav\u00e1ni_, the wife of Mahad\u00e9o.\u201d When the cavity is\nfilled, then the water, passing over the borders, runs out; the\nSany\u00e1sis and other Hindus, who had come from distant places, throw\nthemselves into it, and the people who find no room, carry water from\nit. Afterwards, the ebullition declines in such a manner, that there\nremains not the least trace of the water. In this month the water\nboils up three times a-day, namely, in the morning, at mid-day, and in\nthe afternoon, at the hour of prayer. After the lapse of this month,\nno more water is seen, until the sun enters again into the sign of the\nBull.\n\n  \u201cCertainly, every thing announces God,\n   And offers the proof that there is but He.\u201d[280]\n\nThe historians of the times know Sandeberar\u00ed among the wonders\ndescribed by the ancient learned men of Kachmir. The ignorant among\nthe Muselmans of Kachmir say, that Sandeberari is the well of _Abu\nAli_, and believe it to be the work of _shaikh Arr\u00e1is_; the truth is,\nthat _Hajet ul hak_ never came to Kachmir: as it is evident from the\nconcurring testimony of history.\n\n\nHISTORY OF THE ILLUSTRIOUS SHAIKH ABU AL\u00cd HUSSAIN, THE SON OF ABDULLAH\nSINA (GOD BLESS HIS GRAVE!)[281]\u2015\u2015The father of Abu Al\u00ed was a native\nof the environs of Balkh, and his mother was Sit\u00e1ra. Abu Al\u00ed was born\nin the year 333 of the Hejira (944 A. D.)[282] When he had attained\nhis eighteenth year, he was conversant with all the liberal sciences.\nThey relate, that Am\u00edr Nuh, the son of Manzur S\u00e1m\u00e1ni,[283] in a grave\nmalady, when the doctors knew no remedy, was restored to health by the\nsalutary power of the songs of Abu Ali. When the S\u00e1m\u00e1n\u00edan were in\ndistress, he directed himself towards Kh\u00f3rasan, the king of which\ncountry, Al\u00ed, the son of M\u00e1mun Massar, received Abu Ali with perfect\nfavour. When Abu Ali was accused before the Sultan Mahmud Sabak\nteg\u00edn,[284] of being opposed to the religion and creed of the ancient\nwise men, and when the Sultan showed a disposition to apprehend him,\nthe Shaikh was alarmed and fled to Aby\u00faverd; the satellites of the\nSultan followed him with pictures and descriptions of his person,\nwhich were well drawn, and sent by the Sultan to all parts of the\nkingdom, in order that the magistrates and head men of office, by\nmeans of this picture might bring the fugitive before the Sultan. The\nShaikh, informed of it, fled towards Jorjan (Georgia). By means of the\nremedies of the Shaikh, many sick were cured. Shamsen ul m\u00e2l\u00ed K\u00e1b\u00fas,\nthe son of Vashamger,[285] had a nephew on his sister\u2019s side on a\nsick-bed, all the remedies applied by the physicians proved useless;\nby order of Kabus, they brought the Shaikh to the pillow of the sick;\nbut, in spite of all his cares and observations, the learned physician\ncould not discover the cause of his illness. The Shaikh said to\nhimself: \u201cThis young man may be in love, and from exceeding pudicity\nkeep his secret unclosed.\u201d On that account he ordered the names of all\nthe places and towns to be written, and one after another to be read\nbefore the patient, whilst the Shaikh held his finger upon the pulse\nof the young man. When they pronounced the name of the abode of the\nbeloved, the motion of the pulse of the enamoured was perceptible; the\nShaikh ordered also the names of all the private houses to be read; at\nthat of the object of his desires, the pulse of the desirous became\ndisturbed; moreover they began to read the names of the inhabitants of\nthe houses; when they arrived at that of his idol, the pulse of the\nadorer again beat higher. Mazheri of Kashmir says:\n\n  \u201cThe pulse of the loving beats higher, agitated only at the\n     name of the beloved.\u201d\n\nThus, the perfect science of Abu Al\u00ed found the true remedy: he said to\none of the head men near Shams ul m\u00e2l\u00ed: \u201cThis young man is in love\nwith such a girl, in such a house, and there is no remedy but the\ngratification of his desire.\u201d After trial, the truth of these words\nwas found.[286]\n\nWhen the Umras and the ministers of state withdrew from the obedience\nof K\u00e1bus, whom they imprisoned, the Shaikh retired into the country.\nSome time after, he betook himself to R\u00e1\u00ed.[287] Majed-d\u00f3ulah Abu T\u00e1leb\nRustam, the son of Fakher ed d\u00f3ulah Dal\u00edm\u00ed, the Hakim (governor) of\nR\u00e1i,[288] showed him great regard and honor; the Shaikh restored Majed\nud-d\u00f3ulah from the malady of melancholy to good health.\n\nWhen Shams ed-d\u00f3ulah made war upon Hel\u00e1l,[289] son of Bader, son of\nHasn\u00e1v\u00edah, who came from the capital of the right faith (Mecca), he\ndefeated the army of B\u00e2ghdad. The Shaikh went from R\u00e1i to Kazv\u00edn,[290]\nand from thence to Hamdan.[291] Shams ed-d\u00f3ulah was cured of a colic\nby the remedies of the Shaikh, whom he then raised to the dignity of a\nViz\u00edr. The chiefs of the army conspired against the life of Abu Ali;\nhe fled, and remained concealed during forty days. Meanwhile, the\nmalady of Shams ed-doulahreturned; the Shaikh, having come forth from\nhis place of concealment, delivered the Sultan from his illness, and\nwas again raised to the Vizirat. After the death of Shams ed-doulah,\nthe throne was filled by Bah\u00e1 ed-d\u00f3ulah, the son of T\u00e1j ed\nd\u00f3ulah.[292] The Umrahs requested Abu Al\u00ed to accept the Viz\u00edrat, but\nhe refused his consent. About this time, Al\u00e1ded-d\u00f3ulah, the son of\nJ\u00e2fer Kakyuah,[293] sent from I\u015bfahan an invitation to the venerable\nShaikh to join him; but the Shaikh declined to come, and concealed\nhimself in the house of Abu T\u00e1leb, a dealer in perfumes. Without the\nexample of any other work before his eyes, he composed his work,\nentitled _Shaf\u00e1_, \u201cremedy,\u201d treating the whole of physics and\nmetaphysics.[294]\n\nT\u00e1jed doulah, having assumed the name of Alaved-d\u00f3ulah, kept the\nShaikh, by this assumption, employed in a continual succession of\naffairs. When Alawed d\u00f3ulah conquered the country of T\u00e1jed ud d\u00f3ulah,\nhe brought the Shaikh to I\u015bfah\u00e1n.[295] Towards the end of his life, a\ndisease of the bowels seized the Shaikh, and gained strength, on\naccount of his active life in the service of Alawed d\u00f3ulah, and of the\nexpeditions of his enemies. The patient was carried in a covered\nchair. When Aladed-d\u00f3ulah came to Hamd\u00e1n, the Shaikh felt that nature\nhad exhausted her strength, and could not resist the force of the\nmalady; on that account, having desisted from applying any remedy, he\ntook a bath, and having distributed his property in alms to the poor,\nthe indigent, and the necessitous, he turned his mind to God and the\nelect of the divinity; at last, on a Friday, in the month of Ramz\u00e1n,\nof the year 427 of the Hejira (1035 A. D.), he passed from this\ndeceitful world to the residence of happiness.[296] A great man said:\n\n  \u201cFrom the globe of black clay to the summit of Venus,\n   I traversed all the difficulties of the world;\n   Every tie which was fastened around me, on account of deceit and\n     illusion,\n   Was loosened\u2015\u2015except that of death.\u201d\n\nThe extraordinary and astonishing actions performed by Abu Al\u00ed have\nbeen described in the book about the application of remedies in\nseveral histories[297], few of which are reproduced in these pages;\nand so much only with the intention to prove shortly to the candid\nreader, that Shaikh Abu Al\u00ed never came to Kachmir, about which\nintelligent and ingenious men in all countries agree.\n\n     \u201cThere is no house which may not be the house of God.\u201d\n\n\n     [232] \u092e\u093e\u092f\u093e \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f.\n\n     [233] \u0930\u091c\u0938\u094d \u201cfoulness,\u201d according to the interpretation of\n     Colebrooke and Wilson.\n\n     [234] \u0938\u0924\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0935\u0902 \u201cgoodness.\u201d\n\n     [235] \u0924\u092e\u0938\u094d \u201cdarkness.\u201d\n\n     [236] According to the Vayu-Purana (ch. V.), Brahma proceeds\n     from _rajas_; Vichnu from _sattvam_; and Siva or Mahadeva\n     from _tamas_. According to the S\u00e1nkhy\u00e1 K\u00e1rika (sl. xiii):\n     \u201cGoodness (sattvam) is considered to be alleviating and\n     enlightening; foulness (rajas), urgent and versatile;\n     darkness (tamas), heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they\n     co-operate for a purpose (by union of contraries).\u201d\n\n     [237] \u091c\u0917\u0926\u094d \u0905\u092e\u094d\u092c\u093e.\n\n     [238] \u0937\u091f\u094d \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930\u093e\u0903 See the six circles or regions of the human\n     body enumerated (p. 131, notes); here the denominations of\n     the three last divisions are different from the former.\n\n     [239] \u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0927\u093f\u0937\u094d\u0920\u093e\u0928\u0902.\n\n     [240] \u0939\u0943\u0926\u094d.\n\n     [241] \u0938\u093e\u0926.\n\n     [242] \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0928\u093f \u091a\u0915\u094d\u0930.\n\n     [243] \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924.\n\n     [244] \u0906\u0917\u092e a work on sacred science in general, and in\n     particular a Tantra, or any work, inculcating the mystical\n     worship of Siva and Sakti.\n\n     [245] \u093f\u0932\u0919\u094d\u0917 The Phallus, or S\u00edva, under that emblem; it\n     signifies also nature, or _Prakritti_, according to the\n     S\u00e1nk hya philosophy, which considers this as the active\n     power in creation.\n\n     [246] \u092d\u0917.\n\n     [247] \u0915\u092a\u093e\u0932.\n\n     [248] \u092c\u0932\u0902 \u201crigor, severity, blood, strength, power.\u201d\n\n     [249] \u0936\u094d\u092e\u0936\u093e\u0928\u0902 \u201ca cemetery.\u201d\n\n     [250] \u0936\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093f \u092a\u0942\u091c.\n\n     [251] \u0915\u093e\u092e\u0926, \u201cgiving what is wished; granting one\u2019s desire.\u201d\n\n     [252] \u0926\u0947\u0935 \u0915\u0928\u092f\u093e\u0903\n\n     [253] \u0928\u0930 \u092e\u0947\u0926.\n\n     [254] \u0917\u094b \u092e\u0947\u092a.\n\n     [255] \u0905\u0936\u094d\u0935 \u092e\u0947\u0926.\n\n     [256] \u0915\u093e\u0932 \u0926\u0947\u092f\u0902.\n\n     [257] \u0907\u0937\u094d\u091f\u0902, \u201can act of sacrifice, an oblation,\u201d etc.; from\n     \u0907\u0937 _isha_, \u201cto wish;\u201d substituted for \u092f\u091c\u094d\u091e  _yadjna_, \u201cto\n     sacrifice.\u201d\n\n     [258] \u092d\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0902 \u201cpure, pious, virtuous.\u201d\n\n     [259] \u0935\u0915\u0902 \u201cto be crooked, depraved, wicked.\u201d\n\n     [260] This reminds us of the _Selli_, dwelling about Dodona,\n     where Jupiter was adored, and, by whose spirit moved, they\n     prophesied (\u1f00\u03bd\u03b9\u03c0\u03c4\u03cc\u03c0\u03bf\u03b4\u03b5\u03c2) \u201c_with unwashed feet_.\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Hom._,\n     _Iliad_, XVI. v. 235.)\n\n     [261] \u0627\u0633\u0641\u0646\u064a\u0648\u0633. I am at a loss to find the true name of the\n     Greek sage. In our days a class of Hindus, pursuant to an\n     ante-brahminical worship, venerate spirits, called _Vetals_,\n     to whom in sickness they make vows, to be paid on recovery.\n     The votive offering is generally a cock, the same that the\n     Greeks used to give to \u00c6sculapius, when they thought their\n     cure owing to his sanatory powers\u2015\u2015(See the Journal of the\n     A. R. S. of Great Britain and Ireland, No. IX. p. 194.)\n\n     [262] The prophet Enoch.\n\n     [263] Perhaps \u0916 \u0926\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0917\u093e _Kha Durga_, \u201cthe heavenly Durga.\u201d\n\n     [264] The names of the country of Kalinga and of the town\n     Sri Kakul occur at p. 3 of this volume. The town now called\n     Cicacole, in the northern Circars, once the capital of an\n     extensive district, is situated in lat. 18\u00b0 21\u00b4 N., long.\n     83\u00b0 57\u00b4 E.\n\n     [265] \u093f\u0924\u094d\u0936\u0942\u0942\u0942\u0932\u0902 a trident, a three-pointed pike, or spear,\n     especially the weapon of S\u00edva.\n\n     [266] It is, perhaps, _Mah\u00e8svar\u00ed_.\n\n     [267] The name which I find nearest approaching to that\n     above is _Bidzergur_, a town in the province of Allahabad,\n     lat. 24\u00b0 37\u00b4 N., long. 83\u00b0 10\u00b4 E., with a fort on a high and\n     steep mountain in the midst of an unhealthy country.\n\n     [268] \u093f\u0935\u0930\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f\u0936 is a celebrated festival in honor of S\u00edva,\n     on the fourteenth of the moon\u2019s wane, or dark fortnight in\n     M\u00e1gha (January, February).\n\n     [269] \u092a\u093e\u0928\u0902 drinking in general.\n\n     [270] \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0943\u0924\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0902.\n\n     [271] \u0915\u0935\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0902.\n\n     [272] \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0936\u093e\u0938\u094d\u0924\u094d\u0930\u0902.\n\n     [273] \u0935\u0948\u0926\u094d\u092f\u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e.\n\n     [274] \u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u093f\u0937\u0902 mathematical, astronomical, and astrological\n     science.\n\n     [275] \u092a\u093e\u0924\u091e\u094d\u091c\u0932\u0902 The Yoga-system of philosophy, from\n     Patanjeli, the sage by whom it was first taught.\n\n     [276] \u0924\u0940\u0930\u094d\u0925.\n\n     [277] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u093e\u0917 signifies \u201csacrifice, oblation;\u201d in compositon\n     it is applied to many places of reputed sanctity, situated\n     at the confluence of two rivers, as _D\u00e9va-pray\u00e1ga_,\n     _Rudra-pr\u00e1yaga_, _Karna pr\u00e1yaga_, and _Nanda-pray\u00e1ga_, in\n     the Him\u00e1la mountains, which with Pray\u00e1ga, or Allahabad,\n     constitute the five principal places so termed\u2015\u2015(_Wilson\u2019s\n     Dict._, _sub voce_).\n\n     [278] \u0938\u092a\u094d\u0924\u0930\u094d\u0937\u093f.\n\n     [279] \u0926\u092e \u092d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u0940 _dama_ signifies, in the V\u00e9das, \u201cthe hall of\n     sacrifice.\u201d\n\n     [280] This verse is taken from the Arabic work entitled \u201cThe\n     Birds and the Flowers,\u201d composed by Azz-ed-din Almoka d\u00e9si,\n     published with a translation and notes by M. Garcin de\n     Tassy.\u2015\u2015(See p. 8 of the text, and p. 131 of the notes).\n\n     [281] The merely cursory mention made of Abu Ali in the\n     foregoing lines, is sufficient for inducing the author to\n     interpose between the Sactis and the Vaishnavas, the account\n     of a man who neither belonged to the Hindus, nor professed\n     their religion.\n\n     The name of this celebrated personage is _Abu Al\u00ed Husain Ben\n     Abdallah, Ben Sina, Al Shaikh Al r\u00e1is_; he is commonly\n     called _Ibn Sina_; the Jews name him _Arabisans Aben Sina_;\n     and the Christians _Avisenna_.\n\n     Herbelot gives an account nearly similar to that of the\n     Dabist\u00e1n, of the astonishing learning of Abu Al\u00ed and of his\n     flight before the persecutions of the Sultan Mahmud, and the\n     cure which the famous doctor performed upon the nephew of\n     the king of Georgia.\n\n     [282] According to Abulfeda and other authors, he was born\n     in the town of Bokhara, in 370 of the Hejira (980 A. D.).\n\n     [283] Mansur I, son of Abdelmalek, was the sixth king of the\n     Sam\u00e1n\u00eds: this dynasty derived their name from S\u00e1m\u00e1n, whose\n     father is unknown. S\u00e1m\u00e1n, a robber, had a son, Assad, who\n     quitted the infamous profession of his father, and educated\n     his sons in a manner which enabled them to rise to the\n     highest dignities under the Khalif Al-Mamon and his\n     successors. Ism\u00e2il, a grandson of Assad, founded the\n     princely dynasty in Mavaralnahar (Transoxana), to which\n     other provinces were annexed. Nine Samanian kings ruled from\n     the year of the Hejira 261 to 388 (A. D. 874-998).\n\n     [284] The first of the dynasty of the Ghasnavis. According\n     to the author of Nighiaristan, quoted by Herbelot, Avisenna,\n     when at the court of Mamon, king of Khorasan, was called by\n     Mahm\u00fad to his own capital; the refusal of the Shaikh to obey\n     drew upon him Mahmud\u2019s persecutions.\n\n     [285] Kabus, a prince of the Dil\u00e1mi dynasty, ruled in the\n     provinces of Giorgian, Ghitan, Mazinderan, and Tabaristan,\n     upon the western and southern shores of the Caspian sea.\n\n     [286] The sagacity of Avisenna can but remind us of that\n     with which Eristratus, a disciple of Chrysippus and grandson\n     of Aristotle, discovered the secret cause of the mortal\n     malady of Antiochus, son of the Syrian king Seleucus: the\n     young prince was in love with his stepmother, Stratonice.\n     But Kabus, for preserving the life of his nephew, was\n     subject to no personal sacrifice; Seleucus saved his son by\n     the cession of his own wife.\n\n     [287] R\u00e1\u00ed is a town in Irak Ajem\u00ed, or Persian Irak.\n\n     [288] Majed-doulah, the eighth prince of the B\u00fay\u00ed dynasty,\n     reigned in Isfahan and \u00edn Persian Irak, during his minority\n     under the tutelage of his mother, Seid\u00e1t; at his majority he\n     confided the vizirate to Avisenna, on which account an open\n     war broke out between him and his mother. Seid\u00e1t defeated\n     and took in a battle, before the town of R\u00e1i, her son, and\n     reassumed the government, but afterwards resigned it to him,\n     satisfied to guide him by her counsels, much to his\n     advantage, until her death; after which the weak prince\n     delivered himself into the hands of his conqueror Mahmud\n     Sabak tegin.\n\n     [289] Shams-ed-doulah (according to Herbelot, Samsameddulah),\n     son of Adhadededdulat, was the tenth prince of the B\u00fayi\n     dynasty.\n\n     [290] Kazvin, a town in Persian Irak.\n\n     [291] Hamdan, a town in Persian Irak, to the west of Kazvin,\n     about 450 miles N. W. of Isfahan.\n\n     [292] Herbelot states Baha-ed-Doulah to be son of\n     Adhad-doulat, and brother of Samsameddulat.\n\n     [293] Herbelot says, that Abu Al\u00ed entitled his great work\n     _Canun fil thebi_, \u201cRule of Medicine;\u201d this book has been\n     abridged and commented by Said Ben Hebatallah, by Razi Ben\n     al Khatib, and by another author, who has composed the\n     _Mugiaz fil theb_.\n\n     [294] We read in Abulfeda\u2019s history (vol. III. p. 64): \u201cIn\n     the year of the Hejira 414, A. D. 1023, Ala-ed-daula Abu\n     Jafar, commonly called son of Kakuyah, took Hamdam from one\n     of the B\u00fay\u00eds, say Sama-ed-doulah Ab\u00fal Hasan, son of\n     Shams-ed-Doulah.\u201d\n\n     [295] The biography of Avisenna involves a variety of events\n     which cannot be here sufficiently developed for removing the\n     obscurity attending the short account of our author. The\n     name of T\u00e1jet-ud-doulah is not found in Abulfeda\u2019s and\n     Herbelot\u2019s notice of the Shaikh Avisenna.\n\n     [296] Adopting as true the year of his birth, as stated in\n     the Dabist\u00e1n (see p. 169), Abu Ali, according to the above\n     date of his death, would have died in his ninety-first year.\n     According to Abulfeda (see vol. III. p. 92), he died in his\n     fifty-eighth year; Herbelot says, he died in the year of the\n     Hejira 428, A. D. 1036, in the fifty-sixth year of his life.\n\n     [297] Herbelot says that Avisenna wrote his biography\n     himself; the French author mentions a life of the celebrated\n     Muhammedan doctor, composed by doctor Giorgiani.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE EIGHTH: OF THE VICHNUIAN (VA ISHNAVAS) WORSHIPPERS OF\nVICHNU.\u2015\u2015Vichnu, who, according to the belief of the followers of the\nSmriti, is a subordinate divinity, is held by the Vichnuian to be the\npreserver of all things. The Vedant\u00edan maintain him to possess the\nqualities of virtue and of order, and to be the lord of the five\nsenses; not subject however to the said senses, nor to their influence\nin any way. According to the Vichnu\u00edan, he is the first cause and\nauthor of the universe; they believe him endowed with a body, like\nmankind; he has a wife. Brahma, a deity, is the creator of things; and\nMah\u00e1d\u00e9o, another divinity, the annihilator of beings; both are\ncreators of Vichnu, and distinct from his holy being, because the path\nof union is closed between the creature and the creator; they say,\nthat every body has a soul, but that the soul is not distinct from,\nbut a part of, the body; the body has two forms, the male and female,\nand the creator and author of their being is the holy nature of\nVichnu; the body is composed of five elements; men, conformably with\ntheir actions and works, are invested either with animal or human\nforms; the soul is always confined in the gaol of ignorance and in the\nfetters of avidity. Further, the spirits are divided according to\nthree qualities, which are: 1. _sattvam_; 2. _r\u00e1jas_; and 3. _tamas_:\nthe explanation of these three qualities has been before given. The\n_Satya_ (virtuous) tends towards _mukt_, that is, \u201cemancipation;\u201d for\nby the power of this laudable quality, he makes the _bakhti_, that is,\n\u201cthe worship of Vichnu,\u201d his pursuit; and this _bakhti_ raises him to\nthe highest state, that is, to that of \u201cemancipation;\u201d according to\nthe interpretation of this sect, _mukt_ consists in this: that, after\nhaving left the _sth\u00fala sarira_,[298] or \u201celementary body,\u201d and the\n_linga sarira_,[299] that is, \u201cthe visional body,\u201d which has fallen\ninto a vision of appearances, and after having been transformed into\nthe primitive shape, which is either male or female, one enters the\n_V\u00e1ikunt_,[300] that is, \u201cthe heaven of beatitude of the Gods,\u201d and\nthe mansion of real life. _R\u00e1jas_, that is, the possessor of this\nquality, is liable to recompense or punishment; to the consequence of\nvirtue or crime, according to an impartial appreciation of both. Now\nhe holds the price of virtue, another time that of crime; and\nconformably to his merits or demerits, he migrates invested with a\nbody, and for reward is associated with the blessed, or for punishment\nsuffers witth the damned. Whoever does not, from the circle of the\nworld, reach the shore of those who are united with salvation, he\nshall certainly never attain to the state of the desired emancipation.\n_Tamas_, that is, the possessor of this quality, is an adversary to\n_mukt_, and an enemy to liberation; his present and future condition\nis this: that, having left the _sth\u00fala sar\u00edra_, that is, \u201chis\nelemental body,\u201d and the _linga purusha_,[301] or \u201chis visional body,\u201d\nand having returned to his primitive form, either male or female, he\nwill be tormented in the world of darkness, which they call\n_andhatamasa_;[302] from this place of manifold torments he never\nreturns. This is the substance of the creed of the worshippers of\nVichnu, called Madhu Ach\u00e1ris.[303]\n\nThe belief of another sect of the Vichnavas, called _R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis_,[304]\nis in substance as follows: the quality of _Satwa_ tends towards the\nattainment of the high state of _mukt_, or \u201cemancipation;\u201d the way of\nacquiring it is, to lay aside all praises of another divinity; to\nabstain from the rites of any other sect; and to shun any other\nworship except that of the holy being of Vichnu, to whom alone all\nthoughts, all prayers, are to be directed, and whose remembrance is\nalways to be kept. In the same manner as it is not permitted to a\nhusband to desire the wife of another, in the same way they hold it\nwrong to think of any other deity but of Vichnu. The difference\nbetween the beforesaid and this sect is, that the former associates to\nthe worship of Vichnu that of other angels, of the creatures,\nservants, and companions of this God, which they maintain as\nmeritorious, and perform with magnificence; whilst the latter sect\nconsiders the other deities as deformed and hideous.\n\nThe characteristical mark of the R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis is a triangle drawn upon\ntheir forehead;[305] they never eat their meal before persons of\nanother sect. The _Madhu Ach\u00e1r\u00eds_[306] wear two short strokes of red\nclay near each other upon the forehead; they do not associate with\npersons of another creed, but they eat before Brahmans who are not of\ntheir own peruasion.\n\nA third sect is that of the _Harbay\u00e1nt\u00eds_.[307] They drink with\nBrahmans of another persuasion from the same cup, and wear a circle as\na mark on their foreheads.\n\nA fourth sect is that of the _R\u00e1dh\u00e1-Vallabhis_;[308] these are bound\nby nothing; they observe no fast on the eleventh day of the month;\nthey deliver their wives to the disposition of their preceptors and\nmasters, and hold this praiseworthy.\n\nIn Hindostan it is known that whoever abstains from eating meat and\nhurting living animals, is esteemed a Vaishnava, without regard to the\ndoctrine beforesaid. Some of them take the name of Rama, who is also a\nmanifestation of Vichnu; others choose the title of Kishen (Krichna),\nanother incarnation of Vichnu. The reputation of continence and purity\nprevails in favor of those who are called after Rama; whilst those who\ntake their title from Krishna are ill-famed for sensuality and\nlibidinousness. It happened one day that a worshipper of Rama met with\nan adorer of Krishna; the former repeated perpetually \u201cRam, Ram;\u201d the\nlatter was occupied with the praise of Krichna, to whom the worshipper\nof Rama said: \u201cWhy dost thou repeat without end the name of a man who\nwas devoted to sensuality, the name of Krichna?\u201d He answered: \u201cBecause\nthis name is better than that of a man who knew not even how to be\ncertain of the honor of one woman.\u201d This was said in allusion to\nR\u00e2ma\u2019s having banished his wife, named Sit\u00e2, at the end of the\nfire-ordeal which she underwent to prove her purity.[309] Some of the\npious of this sect eat no sort of turnips or carrots which in eating,\nby taste or color, may remind of flesh. The writer of this work heard\nfrom Hansa r\u00e1dja, a Brahman, that it is written in ancient books of\nthis class, that Brahmans used to fly in the air and to walk upon the\nwater, when, on account of having polluted their lips by eating flesh,\nthey lost this power. As the Vair\u00e1gis, too, profess to be V\u00e1ishnavas,\nI will treat of them in the following article.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nOF THE VAIR\u00c1GIS.\u2015\u2015_Vir\u00e1g_ is in the dictionary interpreted\n\u201caspiring.\u201d[310] This sect renounces the world; their liturgy is in\nverse, and comprehends the worship of Vichnu and his incarnations, as\nRama, Krichna, and the like, and these verses they call _Vichnu\npadam_. They make pilgrimages to the holy places dedicated to Vichnu,\nand wear around their necks rosaries of _tutas\u00ed_,[311] which they call\n_mal\u00e1-tulas\u00ed_. Tulas\u00ed is an Indian shrub. Whoever among the Hindus,\nMuselmans, or others, wishes, is received into their religion; none\nare rejected, but, on the contrary, all are invited. It is said that\nsome Muselmans also worship Vichnu, because in \u201c_Bismilla_,\u201d they\nconfound _Bisem_ with _Bishen_ (or Vichnu), and most of them agree\nabout the purity and infinity of Vichnu\u2019s being; in truth, they think\nhe is incorporeal; the spirits proceed like rays from the light of his\nbeing, and all bodies from the shadow of his existence; but they say\nthat when he wills he shows himself, as it happened, with four arms,\nand they agree about his having manifested himself in ten\nincarnations. They abstain from eating flesh. They are divided into\nfour classes: _R\u00e1m\u00e1nujas_, _Nim\u00e1nujas_, _Madhuach\u00e1ris_, and _Radha\nVallabhis_, as before said:[312] these four classes they call _ch\u00e1r\nsampard\u00e1_ (_samprad\u00e1ya_).[313]\n\nKabir,[314] a weaver by birth, celebrated among those Hindus who\nprofessed their belief in the unity of God, was a V\u00e1iragi. They say\nthat, at the time when he was in search of a spiritual guide, he\nvisited the best of the Muselmans and Hindus, but did not find what he\nsought. At last, somebody gave him direction to an old man of bright\ngenius, the Brahman R\u00e1m\u00e1nanda. This sage never saw the face of a\nMuselman, nor of any other religionist. Kabir, knowing that R\u00e1m\u00e1nand\nwould not converse with a weaver, dug a hole upon the accustomed road\nof the Brahman, and placed himself therein. Towards the night R\u00e1m\u00e1nand\nused to go to bathe on the border of a river, and at the time when, to\nwash his body and purify his soul with the water of sanctity, he bent\nhis steps towards a house of prayer, he arrived on the border of the\nhole made by Kabir, who, coming forth, clasped the feet of R\u00e1m\u00e1nanda.\nAs the Brahman harboured in his mind no other thought but that of God\nthe highest, under the name of R\u00e1m\u00e1, he called out: \u201cR\u00e1m!\u201d When Kabir\nheard \u201cR\u00e1m\u201d from the tongue of R\u00e1m\u00e1nand, he withdrew his hands from\nthe Brahman\u2019s feet, and ceased not to repeat the word \u201cR\u00e1m, R\u00e1m!\u201d so\nthat no other object but that was hovering before his eyes, as before\nthose of R\u00e1m\u00e1nanda; and he discoursed about the unity of God in\nsublime speeches, such as are heard only from the most learned men.\nKabir, having acquired reputation, people said to R\u00e1m\u00e1nand: \u201cThere is\na weaver in this town who wishes to be your disciple; it is to be\nregretted that you cannot be connected with a weaver, who is a man of\na low caste.\u201d R\u00e1m\u00e1nand answered: \u201cCall him to me,\u201d which was done.\nWhen Kabir\u2019s eye fell upon that of R\u00e1m\u00e1nanda, the former exclaimed:\n\u201cR\u00e1m, R\u00e1m!\u201d the latter repeated \u201cR\u00e1m, R\u00e1m!\u201d and clasped Kabir fast in\nhis arms, to the great astonishment and wonder of the people around,\nwho asked the reason of such a favor. R\u00e1m\u00e1nand replied: \u201cNow Kabir is\na Brahman, because he knows Brahma, that is, the supreme Being.\u201d\n\nIt is said, that a class of learned Brahmans, sitting on the border of\nthe river Ganga, praised its water, because it washes away all sins.\nWhilst so speaking, one of the Brahmans wanted water; Kabir, who had\nheard their speeches, jumped up from his place, and having filled a\nwooden cup which he carried with water, brought it to the Brahman.\nKabir, a weaver by birth, being of a low caste, from the hands of whom\nBrahmans can neither eat nor drink, the water was not accepted, upon\nwhich Kabir observed: \u201cYou have just now declared, that the water of\nthe Ganga purifies the body and the soul from the pollution of sins,\nand from the foulness of evil actions, and makes them all disappear;\nbut if this water does not render pure this wooden vase, it certainly\ndoes not deserve your praises.\u201d\n\nAmong the Hindus it is an establised custom to bring flowers to God at\nthe time of worship. One day Kabir saw a gardener\u2019s wife who collected\nflowers for the image of a deity; he said to her: \u201cIn the leaves of\nthe flower lives the soul of vegetation, and the idol to whom thou\nofferest flowers is without feeling, dead, without consciousness, in\nthe sleep of inertness, and has no life; the condition of the\nvegetable is superior to that of the mineral. If the idol possessed a\nsoul, he would chastise the cutter, who, when dividing the matter of\nwhich the image is formed, placed his foot upon the idol\u2019s breast: go,\nand venerate a wise, intelligent, and perfect man, who is a\nmanifestation of Vichnu.\u201d\n\nKabir showed always great regard for the Fak\u00edrs. One day, a number of\nDurvishes came to him; he received them with respect in his house; as\nhe possessed nothing to show his generosity and munificence to them,\nhe went from door to door to procure something, but having found\nnothing, he said to his wife: \u201cHast thou no friend from whom thou\nmayst borrow something?\u201d She answered: \u201cThere is a grocer in this\nstreet who threw an eye of bad desire upon me; would I from this\nsinner demand something, I should obtain it.\u201d Kabir said: \u201cGo\nimmediately to him, grant him what he desires, and bring something for\nthe durvishes.\u201d The woman went to the lewd grocer, and requested the\nloan of what she required; he replied: \u201cIf thou comest this night to\nme, thy request is granted;\u201d the woman consented, and swore the oath\nwhich he imposed upon her to come; after which the grocer gave her\nrice, oil, and whatever these men might like. When the Fak\u00edrs, well\nsatisfied, went to rest, a heavy rain began to fall, and the woman\nwished to break her engagement; but Kabir, in order to keep her true\nto her word, having taken her upon his shoulder, carried her in the\ndark and rainy night, through the deep mud, to the shop of the bad\ngrocer, and placed himself there in a corner. When the woman had\nentered into the interior part of the house, and the man found her\nfeet unsullied, he said to her: \u201cHow didst thou arrive without thy\nfeet being dirty?\u201d The woman concealed the fact. The grocer conjured\nher by the holy name of God to reveal the truth; the woman, unable to\nrefuse, said what had taken place. The grocer, on hearing this,\nshrieked and was senseless. When he had recovered his senses, he ran\nout and threw himself at Kabir\u2019s feet. Afterwards, having distributed\namong the poor whatever he had in his shop, he became a Vir\u00e1g\u00ed. Shaikh\nMahmud said:\n\n     \u201cWhen lust seizes the heart of man, God now and then renders\n        vain his intent.\u201d\n\nIt is said that when Kabir left his elemental body, the Muselmans\nassembled in order to give him a burial, because they supposed him to\nhave been of the right faith; and the Hindus too crowded in order to\nburn his body, because they thought him to have professed their\nreligion. At last a Fak\u00edr stept in the midst of them, and said: \u201cKabir\nwas a holy man, independent of both religions; but having during his\nlife satisfied you, he will also, after death, meet with your\napprobation.\u201d Having then opened the door, they did not find Kabir\u2019s\nbody, and both parties remained astonished and bewildered.\n\n       \u201cO friend, live so that, after thy death,\n  Thy friends may bite their finger (from joyous astonishment).\u201d\n\nIn Jagernath, at the place where they burn the dead, is the form and\nsimulacre of a tomb which they call Kabir\u2019s.[315]\n\n       \u201cLive so with good and bad that, after thy death,\n   The Muselman may wish to bury, and the Hindu to burn thee (according\n     to their rites).\u201d\n\nAnother of the celebrated Vir\u00e1gis was _D\u00e1y\u00fa_. One day, when Brahmans\nand B\u00e1nians (that is, traders) were assembled in a temple of Vichnu,\nthey drove D\u00e1y\u00fa out of it, as not worthy of being among their\ncongregation. D\u00e1y\u00fa, having gone out, sat down at the back of the\ntemple, which soon after turned about towards the side where D\u00e1y\u00fa was.\n\n_Perah K\u00e1ivan_, a Yezd\u00e1nian, is one of the accomplished saints, and\nshows himself in the dress of every sect. When in that of a Vair\u00e1gi,\nhe was in Guzerat for the sake of a pleasure-walk, he saw some of the\nV\u00e1ir\u00e1gis who came from a place of pilgrimage, and had a mark impressed\nupon their hand and arm: because, whoever makes a pilgrimage to the\nholy place of Krichna, gets the form of the God\u2019s weapon (the diskus)\nimprinted upon his body by means of a hot iron. Kaivan Perah said to\nthe Vair\u00e1gis: \u201cWhy this wound?\u201d they answered: \u201cThis is the mark of\nVichnu; whoever has it is by the God recognised as being his.\u201d Kaivan\nPerah observed: \u201cWhen the soul is separated from the body, they burn\nthe corpse; no mark of it remains; whilst the soul is not perishable,\nand has no mark: how will then Vichnu recognise it?\u201d\u2015\u2015When he came to\nAhmed-abad, which is the capital of Guzerat, he saw a crier who, from\nthe top of a mosque, chanted his prayer; when he had come down, K\u00e1ivan\nPerah asked him: \u201cHast thou received an answer?\u201d the crier said: \u201cFrom\nwhom?\u201d Kaivan replied: \u201cFrom him to whom thou hast been calling.\u201d\nLubhan\u00ed says:\n\n  \u201cThey call loud to God seeking him,\n   This people think him, perhaps, to be far off.\u201d\n\nWhen he came to the harbour of Surat, which is one of the principal\nports of Hindost\u00e1n, he met with a H\u00e1ji (a pilgrim from Mecca) who had\ncome by sea to the harbour; Kaiv\u00e1n Perah asked him: \u201cWhence dost thou\ncome?\u201d He answered: \u201cFrom the house of God.\u201d Kaiv\u00e1n said further:\n\u201cHast thou seen God?\u201d The reply was \u201cNo.\u201d \u201cHe was perhaps not at\nhome,\u201d rejoined Kaiv\u00e1n, and the H\u00e1ji remained astonished.\n\nThe Vair\u00e1gis are not devoted to a particular worship; they say, the\nname of Vishnu suffices for the acquisition of _mukt_, or \u201cthe union\nwith God.\u201d This sect was formed during the K\u00e1li y\u00fag, and call\nthemselves also V\u00e1ichnavas: they renounce the world, and say: \u201cOur way\nis opposite to that of the V\u00eadas and of the Koran: that is, we have\nnothing to do either with Muselmans or Hindus.\u201d A great number of\nMuselmans adopted their creed, such as Mirza Salah, and Mirza H\u00e1ider,\ntwo noble Muselmans who became Va\u00edragis. Of this sect was _Nar\u00e1in\nD\u00e1s\u00ed_, who sided with _R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis_, which is one of the _Sampradayas_,\nthat is the first of the four classes before mentioned. The author of\nthis book saw him in the year 1052 of the Hejira (1642 A. D.) in\nLahore. He was one of those who are freed from the affections of the\nworld; he honored whomever he saw, and said: \u201cEvery body belongs to\nthe divinity; that is, every body is the house of God.\u201d\n\n  \u201cWithout thee there is nothing that is in the world:\n   From thyself demand whatever thou wishest: for it is thyself.\u201d\n\nP\u00edr\u00e1nah Kohely was of the sect of Vairagis, and Kohel\u00ed is a tribe of\nKshatriyas; he withdrew from all the affections and troubles of the\nworld. Having left the Guzerat of Panjab, which is his native place\nand the seat of his ancestors, he went to Viz\u00edr\u00e1b\u00e1d, a city built by\nHak\u00edm Ilam edd\u00edn, named _Buz\u00edn khan_, and chose to settle not far from\nthe above mentioned Guzerat. He had no faith in pious austerity. He\nsaid, the saints are men who, in a former existence, have brought\naffliction upon other men, and on that account do penance in this\nworld; every pious act joined to some austerity is a requital of their\ndeeds; those who are fasting have, in a former state, let hunger and\nthirst afflict the low and feeble; those who watch at night have, in\nhis opinion, prevented the servants from sleeping; the Sany\u00e1sis,\ncalled Th\u00e1d\u00e9ser, who remain years standing upon one leg, he thinks to\nbe a class of spirits who have not permitted the servants to sit down;\nand those who suspend themselves, and others who perform their\ndevotion in an inverted or strained posture, are a class who used to\nsuspend their inferiors; and those who visit celebrated places and\nsacred mansions of pilgrimage, are a set who, for trifling reasons,\nhave without pity sent about couriers to different places, without\npaying them their hire; the _j\u00e1tis_,[316] that is, those who abstain\nfrom intercourse with women, and from sensual indulgence, are an order\nof spirits, who have not provided for their sons and daughters the\nsubsistence and furniture requisite for the marriage state, and\nprohibited to them this enjoyment, for which reason they now are\nsubjected to retaliating penance.\n\nThis sect do no harm to any living being; which is common to all\nVair\u00e1gis, as well as to neglect devotion; but, in opposition to the\ncreed of the Vair\u00e1gis, they do not admit the _Avatars_, and say that\nGod is exempt from transmigration and union; and, according to those\nwho profess the belief in the unity and solitariness of the supreme\nbeing, he is not susceptible of (what we call) intimate friendship.\nBeing asked about the history of Krichna, P\u00edr\u00e1nah said: \u201cHe was a\nR\u00e1ja, devoted to licentiousness, and oppressing mankind.\u201d The writer\nof these pages saw P\u00edranah in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A.\nD.), in Vizir\u00e1b\u00e1d, and in the same year and in the same place he saw\nAnanta, who was of the same creed as P\u00edr\u00e1nah, but particularly\naddicted to the belief of the singleness of God.\n\nAnanta did not advise abstinence to the sick. One of his friends being\nattacked by a diarrh\u0153a, Ananta gave him substantial and sweet food,\nuntil he left this elemental body. One of his disciples wanted to have\na vein opened; Ananda, having been informed of it, expressed himself\nstrongly against this operation and prevented it. Thus, the author of\nthese pages saw, in the year of the Hejira 1050 (A. D. 1640) in\nGuzerat of the Panjab, another of this sect, called _M\u00edan L\u00e1l_, who\nwas venerated by a great number of his sectaries; he abstained from\neating any sort of animal food, and showed politeness to every body;\nlike P\u00edr\u00e1nah, he never cleansed his patched garment from vermin, and\nused to say: \u201cThese insects have an assignment for their daily\nsubsistence written upon my body.\u201d V\u00e1ir\u00e1gis are also called\n_Mund\u00eds_;[317] because they shave four parts of their bodies, and one\nshaved is called _Mund\u00ed_.[317] There arose a dissension between this\nsect and the Sany\u00e1sis; in the year 1050 of the Hejira (1640 A. D.) a\nbattle was fought at Hardwar,[318] which is a holy place of the\nHindus, between the Mund\u00eds and the Sany\u00e1sis, in which the latter were\nvictorious and killed a great number of the Mund\u00eds: these men threw\naway their rosaries of Tulasi wood which they wear about their necks,\nand hung on their perforated ears the rings of the J\u00f3g\u00eds, in order to\nbe taken for these sectaries.\n\n\n     [298] \u0938\u094d\u0925\u0942\u0932\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930.\n\n     [299] \u0932\u093f\u0919\u094d\u0917\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930 called also \u0936\u0941\u091a\u094d\u092e\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930 _sukshma sar\u00eera_ or\n     \u201csubtile body.\u201d\n\n     It is essential to know the exact meaning which the Hindus\n     attach to the three words, _linga_, _linga \u015bar\u00eera_, and\n     _sthula \u015bar\u00eera_.\n\n     I must premise that, according to them, the soul is incased\n     as in a sheath, or rather in a succession of sheaths. The\n     first, or inner case, is _the intellectual one_: it is\n     composed of the pure, or simple, elements, uncombined, the\n     archetypes of elementary matter (\u0924\u0928\u094d\u092e\u093e\u0924\u094d\u0930 _tanma tra_), and\n     consists of the intellect (_buddhi_), joined with the five\n     senses. The next is the _mental sheath_, in which mind is\n     joined with the preceding. A third sheath comprises the\n     organs of action and the vital faculties, and is termed the\n     _organic_ or _vital case_.\n\n     These three sheaths (\u0915\u094b\u0937\u093e\u0903 _k\u00f3shas_) constitute the subtile\n     frame, _s ukshma \u015bar\u00eera_, or _linga-\u015bar\u00eera_, \u201cthe rudimental\n     body which attends the soul in its transmigration.\u201d\n\n     _Linga_ is \u201cthe naked rudiment;\u201d the word expresses\n     \u201cdesignating, apprising,\u201d synonimous with \u201ccharacteristic,\u201d\n     rendered also by \u201cmergent,\u201d and by \u201csubtile.\u201d The linga and\n     linga-\u015bar\u00eera are ordinarily, though perhaps not properly,\n     confounded, the linga consisting of thirteen component\n     parts, namely (see the table of categories, p. 122): of\n     intellect, egotism, and the eleven organs; whilst the\n     linga-s ar\u00eera adds to these a bodily frame, made up of the\n     five rudimental elements. In this form however they always\n     coexist; and it is not necessary to consider them as\n     distinct.\n\n     The \u201cgross body,\u201d _sth\u00fala \u015bar\u00eera_, is composed of the coarse\n     elements formed by the combination of the simple elements in\n     a particular proportion, which the Hindus determine with an\n     acuteness, their own (see _Vedanta sara_, edit. of Calc., p.\n     11), but which is not necessary here to adduce. This\n     exterior case, composed of elements so combined, is the\n     \u201cnutrimentitious sheath,\u201d and being the scene of coarse\n     fruition, is therefore termed \u201cthe gross body.\u201d This is\n     however animated from birth to death, in any step of its\n     transmigration, by the interior rudiment confined to the\n     first-mentioned inner case, which is called \u0915\u093e\u0930\u0923\u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930\n     _k\u00e1ra\u0144a-\u015bar\u00eera_, \u201cthe causal frame\u201d\u2015\u2015(See Colebrooke on the\n     Phil. of the Hindus in the Transact. of the R. A. Soc., Vol.\n     II. Part I. pp 35, 36, etc., and _Sankhya Karika_, p. 129).\n\n     [300] \u0935\u0948\u0915\u0941\u0923\u091f\u0902 is the Paradise, or world of Vichnu; its site\n     is variously described, either as in the northern ocean, or\n     on the eastern peak of Meru.\n\n     [301] Here the same as linga s\u00e1r\u00edra. Parusha means generally\n     \u201ca subtile body;\u201d it is unconfined, too subtile for\n     restraint, hence termed \u0905\u0924\u093f\u0935\u093e\u0939\u093f\u0915 _ativ\u00e1hika_, \u201csurpassing\n     the wind in swiftness,\u201d incapable of enjoyment until it be\n     invested with a grosser body, affected, nevertheless, by\n     sensations.\n\n     [302] \u0905\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0924\u092e\u0938\u0902 \u201cgreat darkness.\u201d\n\n     Without entering here into the details of metaphysical\n     refinements which the Hindus exhibit in their various\n     systems of philosophy, we may content ourselves to state\n     that, in general, they adopt two kinds of bodies or persons,\n     a subtile, and a substantial or grosser one. The first\n     transmigrates through successive bodies, which it assumes as\n     a mimic shifts his disguises to represent various\n     characters. In the Bhagavad gita, it is intimated, that soul\n     retains the senses and mind in the intervals of migration:\n     \u201cAt the time that spirit obtains a body, and when it\n     abandons one, it migrates, taking with it those senses, as\n     the wind wafts along with it the perfumes of the flowers.\u201d\n     The grosser body, propagated by generation, is perishable.\n     According to Manu (XII. 16): \u201cAfter death, another body,\n     composed of the five rudimental elements, is immediately\n     produced, for wicked men, that they may suffer the tortures\n     of the infernal regions.\u201d This concords with what is said\n     above.\n\n     [303] They are also called _Brahma Samprad\u00e1yis_. The founder\n     of this sect was Madhw\u00e1charya, a Brahman, born in the\n     Saka-year 1121 (A. D. 1199), in Tuluva, on the western coast\n     of the Indian peninsula; he died in his seventy-ninth year.\n     He was early initiated into the order of Anchorets, and\n     devoted to Vichnu; he composed thirty-seven works, built\n     eight temples, and founded as many _maths_, or \u201cmonasteries\u201d\n     of his particular sect, which is one of the four great\n     sects. The superiors, or \u201cGurus\u201d of it are Brahmans and\n     Sany\u00e1sis; their lay-votaries are members of every class of\n     society except the lowest; they profess perpetual celibacy.\n     These sectaries reside now chiefly in the peninsula, and are\n     altogether unknown in Gangetic Hindostan. To what is above\n     said of their doctrine, I shall add, that they distinguish\n     the principle of life from the supreme Being, or they deny\n     the absolute unity of the Deity, and the possibility of\n     absorption into the universal spirit, and the loss of\n     independent existence after death.\u2015\u2015(See an explicit account\n     of this sect, by Professor Wilson, _As. Res._, vol. XVI. p.\n     100-108.)\n\n     [304] R\u00e1m\u00e1nanda, the founder of this sect, lived about the\n     end of the 13th century, according to some accounts;\n     Professor Wilson is disposed to place him not farther back\n     than the end of the 14th, or beginning of the 15th century.\n     His residence was at Benares, in a _math_, or \u201cmonastery.\u201d\n     The especial object of the worship of the R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis is\n     Vichnu, in his incarnation of _R\u00e1machandra_, on which\n     account they are called _R\u00e1mawats_. The mendicant members of\n     this sect, numerous even in our days, are usually known as\n     V\u00e1\u00eeragis or Viraktas, and consider all form of adoration\n     superfluous beyond the incessant invocation of Krichna and\n     Rama. The school of R\u00e1m\u00e1nand admits disciples of every\n     caste; it abrogates, in fact, the distinction of caste\n     amongst the religious orders: this seems the proper import\n     of the term _Avad\u2019huta_, which R\u00e1m\u00e1nanda affixed to his\n     followers. It does not appear that any work exists\n     attributed to R\u00e1m\u00e1nand himself; those of his followers are\n     written in the provincial dialects. The ascetic and\n     mendicant followers of Ram\u00e1nand are by far the most numerous\n     class of sectaries in Gangetic India; some of them acquired\n     a great celebrity; among these are reckoned _Kabir_, of whom\n     hereafter, and _Jayadiva_, the author of the beautiful poem\n     _G\u00eeta govinda_, well known by the translations made of it\n     into English, by Sir W. Jones; into Latin, by Professor\n     Lassen (who places however Jayad\u00e9va in the year 1150); and\n     into German, in the metre of the original, by Mr.\n     Ruckert.\u2015\u2015(See, on the R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis, the work quoted, pp.\n     36-52).\n\n     [305] According to Professor Wilson (work quoted, pp. 32 and\n     43), the marks of the R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis are two perpendicular white\n     lines, drawn from the root of the hair to the commencement\n     of each eyebrow, and a transverse streak connecting them\n     across the root of the nose; in the centre is a\n     perpendicular streak of varied colours, besides other marks\n     on the breast and each upper arm.\n\n     [306] The marks of the Madhw\u00e1charis, according to the same\n     authority (p. 103), are the impress of the symbols of Vichnu\n     upon their shoulders and breasts, stamped with a hot iron,\n     and the frontal mark, which consists of two perpendicular\n     lines, made with _Gopi chandana_, or the sacred clay from\n     Dwaraka, the city of Krichna, and joined at the root of the\n     nose; a straight black line is drawn down the centre with\n     the charcoal from the incense offered to N\u00e1r\u00e1yana,\n     terminating in a round mark with turmeric.\n\n     [307] This name, perhaps very corrupted, is not to be found\n     among those enumerated in Professor Wilson\u2019s Treatise on the\n     Religious Sects of the Hindus.\n\n     [308] See the work quoted, p. 125-129. The members of this\n     sect consider a teacher named Hari Vans as their founder.\n     This person settled at Vrindavan, and established a math, or\n     \u201cconvent,\u201d there, which exists to our days, and in 1822\n     comprised between forty and fifty resident ascetics. He also\n     erected a temple there that still exists, and indicates by\n     an inscription over the door that it was dedicated to Sri\n     R\u00e1dh\u00e1 Vallabha by Hari Vans, Samvat 1641, or A. D. 1585.\n     R\u00e1dha, the favourite mistress of Krishna, is the object of\n     adoration to these sectaries, who worship Krishna as\n     _R\u00e1dh\u00e1-Vallabah_, \u201cthe lord or lover of R\u00e1dh\u00e1,\u201d whose\n     adoration Mr. Wilson thinks an undoubted innovation in the\n     Hindu creed. He says (_ibid._, p. 125): \u201cThe only R\u00e1dh\u00e1 that\n     is named in the Mah\u00e1bharat is a very different personage,\n     being the wife of Duryodhana\u2019s charioteer, and the nurse of\n     Karna. Even the Bhagavat makes no particular mention of her\n     amongst the Gopis of Vrindhavan, and we must look to the\n     Brahma V\u00e1ivarta Pur\u00e1na (Krishna Janana Khanda) as the chief\n     authority of a classical character, on which the pretensions\n     of R\u00e1dh\u00e1 are founded.\u201d We know the difference of opinion\n     which exists among the Indianists about the antiquity to be\n     attributed to the Puranas, and which has not yet found a\n     positive decision. It is probably from the last mentioned\n     P\u00far\u00e1n\u00e1 that Jayad\u00e9va (see note, p. 180) took the theme of\n     his admirable poem, in which the love of Krichna and R\u00e1dh\u00e1\n     is described in the most glowing colours.\n\n     [309] Rama, obliged to cede the throne to his brother\n     Bharatta, having on that account been banished by his\n     father, lived with his wife Sit\u00e1, and his younger brother\n     Lakshmana upon the mountain Chitra Kot\u00e1, in Bundelkand,\n     whence he descended towards the south into the woods of\n     Dandakam. Every where he protected the Rishis, destroying\n     their enemies, the Rakshasas. The head of these was R\u00e1van\u00e1,\n     king of Lanka (Ceylon), who, in order to take revenge of\n     Rama, carried away by a successful stratagem, R\u00e1ma\u2019s beloved\n     consort, S\u00eet\u00e1. The unfortunate husband, to release his wife,\n     concluded an alliance with Hanuman and Sugriva, chiefs of\n     the savage inhabitants, called monkies, of southern India,\n     and by their aid passed over to the island, took its\n     capital, Lanka, and killed the tyrant, R\u00e1va\u0144a, in a\n     battle. Sit\u00e1 was released, but, for proving her purity\n     preserved, she underwent the ordeal of fire: it proved\n     satisfactory; her innocence was manifest to the multitude,\n     but, it appears, not quite so to the mind of her husband,\n     who separated from her.\n\n     [310] This is not correct: \u0935\u093f\u0930\u093e\u0917 _vir\u00e1ga_ is interpreted\n     \u201cthe absence of desire or passion; the disregard of all\n     sensual enjoyments, either in this or the next world.\u201d\n\n     [311] \u0924\u0941\u0932\u0938\u0940 _Tulas\u00ed_, a small shrub held in veneration by\n     the Hindus, \u201choly bas\u00edl\u201d (_ocymum sanctum_\u2015\u2015_W._).\n\n     [312] This is not quite exact: for the author has not yet\n     mentioned the _Ramanujas_, nor the _N\u00eemanujas_, of whom he\n     says nothing hereafter.\n\n     R\u00e1m\u00e1nuja Acharya was born at Perumbar, in the south of\n     India, about the end of the 11th century; his fame as a\n     teacher was established about the first half of the 12th\n     century; he was a great supporter and propagator, nay, the\n     chief author, of the later V\u00e1ishnava faith; he founded 700\n     maths, or \u201cconvents,\u201d of which four only remain; but other\n     establishments of this sect are still numerous in the\n     Dekhan.\n\n     The worship of the followers of R\u00e1m\u00e1nuja is addressed to\n     Vichnu and to Lakchm\u00ee, his wife, and to their respective\n     incarnations, either singly or conjointly; wherefore they\n     are also named Sr\u00ed V\u00e1ichnavas, consisting of several\n     subdivisions. The chief religious tenet of the R\u00e1m\u00e1nujas is\n     the assertion that Vichnu is Brahma; that he was before all\n     worlds, and was the cause and the creator of all. They\n     maintain three predicates of the universe comprehending the\n     deity: it consists of _chit_, \u201cspirit;\u201d _achit_, \u201cmatter;\u201d\n     and _I\u015bw\u00e1ra_, \u201cGod.\u201d\n\n     These sectaries are not allowed to eat in cotton garments,\n     but, having bathed, must put on woollen or silk, and their\n     meal, whilst they are eating, must not attract the eyes of a\n     stranger, or it becomes instantly spoiled, and should be\n     buried in the ground. The marks of the R\u00e1m\u00e1nujas are the\n     same as those of the R\u00e1m\u00e1nandis, before described (see note,\n     p. 181), excepting that the central perpendicular streak on\n     the forehead is red, made with red sanders or roli, a\n     preparation of turmeric and lime. Besides other marks on\n     their bodies, not enumerated here, they wear a necklace of\n     the wood of tulasi, and carry a rosary of the seeds of the\n     same plant, or of the lotus\u2015\u2015(See, for a further account of\n     this sect, the work quoted, pp. 27-36).\n\n     [313] \u0938\u092e\u094d\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0926\u093e\u092f a sect, a schism, a particular doctrine, and\n     exclusive worship of one divinity.\n\n     [314] The most celebrated of the twelve distinguished\n     disciples of R\u00e1m\u00e1nandra (see note, p. 180) was _Kabir_. I\n     omit the miraculous circumstances of his birth. He was taken\n     up near Benares, a foundling, by the wife of a weaver, named\n     _Nim\u00e1_, and brought up by her and her husband _Nuri_. Such\n     is the uncertainty prevailing about Kabir\u2019s time, that he is\n     placed by different authors within the space of not less\n     than three centuries, that is, from 1149 to 1449. According\n     to Professor Wilson, he flourished probably about the\n     beginning of the 15th century. The philosophic and religious\n     notions of the Kabir Panthir are in substance the same as\n     those of the Pauranic sects, especially of the V\u00e1ichnava\n     division. They admit but one God, the creator of the world,\n     and, in opposition to the Vedanta notions of the absence of\n     every quality and form in him, they assert that he has a\n     body formed of the five elements of matter, and that he is\n     endowed with the three _gunas_, or qualities of being, of\n     course of ineffable power and perfection.\n\n     The works attributed to Kabir himself, or to his disciples,\n     are written in the usual form of Hindi verse; twenty of them\n     are enumerated in Professor Wilson\u2019s account of this sect\n     (pp. 58 and 59), and appear very voluminous.\n\n     This sect is very widely diffused in India, and split into a\n     variety of subdivisions. At a great meeting near Ben\u00e1res, no\n     fewer than 35,000 Kabir-Panthis of the monastic and\n     mendicant class are said to have been collected. A place\n     called \u201cthe Kabir Ch\u00e1ura,\u201d at Benares, is an establishment\n     pre-eminent in dignity, and constantly visited by wandering\n     members of this sect, as well as by those of other kindred\n     heresies: its _Mahant_, or Superior, receives and feeds\n     these visitors whilst they stay; the establishment itself is\n     supported by the occasional donations of its lay-friends and\n     followers\u2015\u2015(See the work quoted, pp. 53-75).\n\n     [315] According to Professor Wilson\u2019s account (pp. 56-57),\n     in the midst of the dispute respecting the disposal of his\n     corpse, Kabir himself appeared amongst them, and having\n     desired them to look under the cloth supposed to cover his\n     mortal remains, immediately vanished; on obeying his\n     instructions, they found nothing under the cloth but a heap\n     of flowers; one half of them the Hindus burnt in Ben\u00e1res,\n     and deposited the ashes in a spot now called _Kabir Chaura_,\n     whilst the Muselmans erected a tomb over the other portion\n     at _Magar_, near Gorakhpur, where Kabir died.\n\n     [316] In Sanskrit \u092f\u0924\u093f _yati_, called also _S\u00e9wra s_; they\n     are a body of pious mendicants, who live in celibacy, and in\n     general employ their time in the cultivation of medicine,\n     astrology, and divinity\u2015\u2015(See _On the Jainas of Guzerat and\n     Marwar_, by Lieut.-Col. W. Miles. Transact. R. A. Soc., vol.\n     III. p. 335).\n\n     [317] \u092e\u0941\u0923\u094d\u0921 shaved, bald.\n\n     [318] Hardwar, or _Hara-dwara_, \u201cthe gate of Hara,\u201d is a\n     place in the province of Delhi, situated on the west side of\n     the Ganges, where this river issues from the northern hills.\n     Lat. N. 29\u00ba 57\u00b4; long. E. 78\u00ba 2\u00b4. The event above stated\n     took place in the 12th year of the reign of the emperor Shah\n     Jehan, who mounted the throne in the year 1628, and resigned\n     it to his son Aurengzeb in 1658.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE NINTH: ON THE CREED OF THE CHA RVAK.[319]\u2015\u2015This sect call\n_rupa skandha_[320] whatever is perceived and understood by means of\nthe senses. What is ascertained by the perception of the senses is\nnamed _vidy\u00e1[321] skandha_. Personality, consciousness, egotism, have\nthe denomination of _jnan\u00e1 skandha_.[322] The knowledge of animal\nnature is termed _jnapti skandha_.[323] Whatever enters the interior\npart, that is, the mind, is entitled _sansk\u00e1ra skandha_.[324] They\nsay, out of these five skandhas just mentioned, there is no other\nliving principle, neither in man nor brutes;[325] the world and its\ninhabitants have no creator, and there is no maker: this is clear:\nbecause whatever has not entered into the field of manifestation, and\nhas not broken into daylight, cannot have the color of reality, and to\nbe high or low, proceeds from the nature of the universe; whatever is\nwritten in the Vedas is not made public, and besides may be a lie\nwhich rests upon no foundation; and a lie certainly proceeds from the\nVedas, inasmuch as they perform _h\u00f3m_, which is a ceremony in which\nthey throw rice and like matters into the fire, and recite prescribed\nprayers, saying that this goes to the gods: now, whatever we throw\ninto the fire, after cremation, becomes ashes\u2015\u2015how do these go to the\ngods? It is also written in the Vedas, that they are to make an\noffering of cooked meal to a dead man\u2015\u2015who is to enjoy it? For\ninstance, when a person is gone from village to village, from one town\nto another, and in his absence a meal destined for him is presented to\nanother person, the stomach of the former will not be filled. In the\nsame manner, when any thing is offered to a dead person, who,\naccording to the assumption of the followers of the Vedas, has been\ntranslated to another world, what honor and profit will accrue from it\nto him?\n\nThus is it also among the revelations of the Vedas, that the depraved\nand criminal will be punished, and the virtuous and holy associated to\nquietness and satiated with prosperity: the one and the other is a\nlie: because the vicious man is freed and alleviated from the hardship\nof fasting, of bathing in cold water, of subjection to pious\npractices, and other inconveniences; whilst the virtuous, according to\nthe Vedas, is bound to all these troubles; further, the wise ought to\ntake his share of all the pleasures and cultivate his happiness,\nbecause, once reunited with earth, he will no more return.\n\n     \u201cThere is no return for thee; once gone, thou art gone.\u201d\n\nHowever, nobody is to hurt living beings, as by it he is liable to\ncause some harm to himself. It is agreed by the wise that no injury is\nto be done to another; by the observance of which men may be set at\nease, their numbers increased, and cultivation be promoted. This is\nthe substance of the belief of the Charv\u00e1k.\n\nWe will explain it more clearly; their creed is as follows: As the\ncreator is not manifest, and the comprehension of mankind cannot\nattain to any certain knowledge about him, why should we submit to the\nbondage of an object doubtful, imaginary, if even wished for, yet not\nfound; and why should we, in temples and monasteries, rub our\nforeheads on the ground, and present offerings to deities whose\nreality, as all agree, will not stand trial? And why, for the promise\nof heaven and of future beatitude should we, like blockheads, abstain\nfrom the abundance of desirable things, from conveniences and\nblandishments? A wise man will not give ready money for an adjourned\ngood, and deliver up place and power upon the lying accounts of books,\nwhich eloquent men call Vedas, or heavenly books; it is upon their\nauthority that they extinguish all desires in themselves, and press\nthe necks of men, like those of animals, in halters. We ought not to\nbe deceived; we ought not to believe what is not evident. The frame of\nthe body is composed of four elements, which by the necessity of\nnature are united harmoniously together; as long as the constitution\nis firm and health flourishing, it is proper to enjoy whatever is\ndesirable by its nature, provided no harm to living creatures arises\nfrom it; when the frame falls asunder, the state to which the element\nreturns can only be the element; after the disjunction of the bodily\nstructure, there is no ascent to a higher mansion, no beatitude or\nquietness, no descent, or fire, or hell. These sectaries, when they\nhear the Vedas recited, say jokingly: \u201cThese are sick persons in a\npainful fit, or hired journeymen in an uproar.\u201d When they behold the\nzunar (sacred thread) upon the neck of a Brahman, they say: \u201cA cow\nwill not be without a rope.\u201d When they find a pious person watching by\nnight, they say: \u201cHe aspires to the dignity of an owl.\u201d When they\nencounter a hermit upon a mountain, they remark: \u201cHe strives to outdo\na bear.\u201d When a person practises the restraining of breath, they\nobserve: \u201cHe wishes to imitate a snake.\u201d Of a person in a bath, they\nsay: \u201cHe chooses the dwelling of a fish or a frog.\u201d Moreover, when the\nHindus relate that Brahma, Vichnu, and Mahad\u00e9o, their three great\ndivinities, are the creator, the preserver, and the destroyer of the\nworld, they reply: \u201cThey represent nothing else than the sexual\norgans.\u201d[326] Upon Vichnu\u2019s having four arms, they gloss: \u201cAt the time\nof sexual intercourse, each man and woman has as many.\u201d To the praise\nof Mahad\u00e9o, from whose head the river Ganges flowed, they subjoin the\ninterpretation, that \u201cthis means the virile organ in its natural\nfunctions.\u201d[327] They meet the statement of Brahma\u2019s being the creator\nof things, with the reply: \u201cThat this is an emblem of the birth of\nchildren:\u201d and they proffer many other speeches of a similar import.\n\n\n     [319] \u091a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0915\u0903 a philosopher, a sceptic in many matters of\n     Hindu faith, and considered by the orthodox as an atheist or\n     materialist.\n\n     [320] \u0930\u0942\u092a \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0903 _Skandha_ signifies \u201ca book, a section,\u201d\n     also \u201cthe five objects of sense.\u201d\n\n     [321] \u0935\u093f\u0926\u094d\u092f\u093e \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0903\n\n     [322] \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e\u0928 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0903\n\n     [323] \u091c\u094d\u091e\u092a\u094d\u0924\u093f \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0903\n\n     [324] \u0938\u0902\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930 \u0938\u094d\u0915\u0928\u094d\u0927\u0903\n\n     I shall subjoin from Colebrooke\u2019s treatise _On the\n     Philosophy of the Hindus_ (Transact. R. A. S., vol. I. part\n     I. p. 561) the more correct denominations and definitions of\n     the five skandhas:\n\n     1. _R\u00fapa-skandha_, comprehending organs of sense and their\n     objects, considered in relation to the person, or the\n     sensitive and intelligent faculty which is occupied with\n     them.\n\n     2. _Vijnny\u00e1na-skandha_ consists in intelligence (_chitta_),\n     which is the same with self (_\u00e1tman_) and (_vijny\u00e1na_)\n     knowledge. It is consciousness of sensation, or continuous\n     course and flow of cognition and sentiment. There is not any\n     other agent, nor being, which acts and enjoys; nor is there\n     an eternal soul; but merely succession of thought, attended\n     with individual consciousness abiding within the body.\n\n     3. _V\u00e9dan\u00e1-skandha_ comprises pleasure, pain, or the absence\n     of either, and other sentiments excited in the mind by\n     pleasing or displeasing objects.\n\n     4. _Sanjnya-skandha_ intends the knowledge or belief arising\n     from names or words: as ox, horse, etc.; or from indications\n     or signs, as a house denoted by a flag, and a man by his\n     staff.\n\n     5. _Sansk\u00e1ra-skandha_ includes passions; as desire, hatred,\n     fear, joy, sorrow, etc.; together with illusion, virtue,\n     vice, and every other modification of the fancy or\n     imagination. All sentiments are momentary.\n\n     [325] Charvaka and his followers recognise perception as the\n     only source of knowledge. They know of no more than four\n     elements, namely, earth, water, fire, and wind, or air; and\n     maintain that from a particular aggregation of them in\n     bodily organs there results sensibility and thought, as the\n     inebriating property is produced by the fermenting of\n     several ingredients; they deny the soul to be other than\n     body.\n\n     [326] Veretrum cum duobus testiculis.\n\n     [327] Veretrum, urinam vel semen emittens.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE TENTH: ON THE SYSTEM OF THOSE WHO PROFESS THE DOCTRINE OF\nTARK.[328]\u2015\u2015_Tark \u015bastra_ is the science of dialectics; it is divided\ninto sixteen parts, as follow: THE FIRST, _Pram\u00e1na_;[329] this is the\napplication of the science, which is subdivided into four parts: 1.\n_Par\u00edksh\u00e1_;[330] that is, evidence, which with them is the sense of\ndiscriminating what is particular and well defined; 2. _Anum\u00e1na_;[331]\nthat is, after having perceived the mark of an object, to infer its\nexistence; thus shall I call a mountain _igni-vomous_, on account of\nthe smoke which proceeds from it; 3. _Apam\u00e1na_;[332] that is\n\u201cresemblance;\u201d thus I shall say: such as is a cow, such is also an elk\n(or gayal);[333] although I may not have seen an elk, but only heard\nthat it is like a cow; 4. _Sabda_;[334] that is, \u201csound:\u201d by these\nthey mean speeches which people adopt as sacred; such \u201cas the Hindus\nhave the Vedas, and the Muselmans the Koran.\u201d These are the four parts\nwhich constitute the _Pram\u00e1na_.\n\nTHE SECOND of the sixteen divisions of the Tark sastra is\n_Pramiti_,[335] that is, the comprehension of what is conjoint and\nconcomitant. This division is subdivided into twelve parts, namely, 1.\n_Atm\u00e1_,[336] that is \u201cspirit;\u201d and means something which is distinct\nfrom what is material and sentient; something everlasting, eternal,\nvery subtile in all bodies; 2. _Sar\u00edr\u00e1_,[337] that is \u201cbody;\u201d and this\nthey define to be the seat of sensuality and of maladies; 3.\n_Indriya_,[338] \u201cthe exterior senses;\u201d and these they call the organs\nof perception; 4. _Artha_,[339] and this they declare to be \u201cthe\nearthly existences;\u201d 5. _Buddhi_,[340] which they term \u201cknowledge;\u201d 6.\n_Manas_,[341] \u201cor the interior sense, which with the Hindus is the\nheart,\u201d and that is enough; 7. _Pravritti_,[342] and this consists in\njustice or injustice; 8. _D\u00f3sha_,[343] that is \u201csinful error,\u201d and\nthis is subdivided into three parts, viz.: _R\u00e1ga_, and this is\n\u201csensual lust;\u201d _Dv\u00e8sha_, that is, \u201chate, enmity;\u201d _Muha_,[344] and\nthis is \u201cgross ignorance;\u201d 9. the ninth of the twelve subdivisions is\n_Pr\u00e9tyabh\u00e1va_,[345] which is \u201cthe reproduction either of the tree from\nthe seed, or of the animal from the sperma;\u201d 10. _Phal_,[346] or \u201cthe\ngood consequence of the good, or the bad consequence of the bad,\u201d\nwhich means \u201cretribution;\u201d 11. _Dukh_,[347] or \u201cpain;\u201d and 12.\n_Apavarga_,[348] that is, \u201cdelight,\u201d or the satisfaction of truth,\nfrom which they derive emancipation, or _mukt_, in the language of\ntheir learned men. Whoever is in full possession of it banishes far\nfrom himself twenty-one maladies which they enumerate, namely: 1.\n_Sar\u00edra_,[349] or \u201cthe body;\u201d 2. _Shadindriya_,[350] that is, \u201cthe six\nsenses,\u201d five of which are exterior, and the sixth is, according to\nthe Hindus, the interior sense, except which they know of no other;\nthey say, the _mind_ is the lord of the exterior senses; 3.\n_Shad-darsa_,[351] that is, \u201cthe six particular objects of the six\nsenses;\u201d so as seeing with the eye, hearing with the ear, smelling\nwith the nose, tasting with the tongue, touching with the hand, and\nperceiving with the mind; he who sees is one, and that which is seen\nis another; so that there is a seeing eye and a seen object, whatever\nis seen, heard, smelled, tasted, touched, and impressed upon the mind,\ncorresponds respectively to each of the six senses; and whatever is\nfound by these six senses, or the six objects, are called\n_Shad-darsas_; these six, with the six former senses, and the sar\u00edra,\nor \u201cbody,\u201d make thirteen; add to these six buddhaya, or \u201cpowers of\ncomprehension;\u201d further, _sukh\u00e1_,[352] or \u201csensual delight;\u201d and\nfinally, _dukh_, or \u201cpain,\u201d and you have the twenty-one affections\nbefore mentioned.\n\nTHE THIRD of the sixteen parts of the Tarka is the _san\u015baya_:[353]\nthis consists in pondering whether a certain object be such a thing or\nanother, as when a person sees from a distance an object and is not\ncertain what it is, whether it be a mineral or a man.\n\nTHE FOURTH PART is the _Pray\u00f3jana_,[354] that is, \u201cmotive,\u201d which they\nexplain thus: as when one by order goes to find something either good\nor bad.\n\nTHE FIFTH PART is the _Drisht\u00e1nta_;[355] that is, \u201ccomparison by way\nof illustration;\u201d so when they compare a mountain and a kitchen, that\nis: the mountain contains fire, and so does the kitchen, and both\nindicate it by the smoke which they emit.\n\nTHE SIXTH PART is the _Siddhanta_;[356] and this is knowing something\nwith certainty.\n\nTHE SEVENTH PART is _Avayava_,[357] \u201cdividing a subject into minute\nparts;\u201d for instance, when they say: \u201che mountain contains fire on\naccount of smoke,\u201d so is, in this question, the first part termed\n_pratijnya_, or \u201cproposition,\u201d _the mountain contains fire_; the\nsecond part, called _h\u00e8tu_, or \u201ccause, reason;\u201d in this thesis is: _on\naccount of the smoke which it emits_.\n\nTHE EIGHTH PART is _Tarka_,[358] that is, \u201carguing:\u201d so when they say:\n\u201cthe mountain contains no fire,\u201d it may be replied: \u201cconsequently it\nalso emits no smoke.\u201d\n\nTHE NINTH PART is _Nirn\u00e9ya_;[359] which is to find the truth\nimmediately.\n\nTHE TENTH is _V\u00e1da_,[360] or \u201cdiscussion;\u201d that is, to raise questions\nabout God and the saints.\n\nTHE ELEVENTH is _Jalpa_:[361] that is, \u201cwrangling;\u201d when one, in the\nestablishment of what is right, endeavors to conquer his adversary.\n\nTHE TWELTH PART is _Vitand\u00e1_;[362] which means that one pays no\nattention to his own position, but combats that of other persons.\n\nTHE THIRTEENTH PART is _h\u00e8tw\u00e0bh\u00e1sa_;[363] or \u201cfallacious argument;\u201d so\nwhen one says: \u201csound is eternal;\u201d because what may be seen by the eye\nis like the sky, and just as the sky is perceived by sight, so is\nsound the perception of the ear.\n\nTHE FOURTEENTH PART is _Ch\u2019hala_,[364] \u201cdeceit;\u201d this is when one\nsubstitutes one meaning for another: so as the Persian word _n\u00e1u\nkambil_[365] means \u201ca new cover,\u201d or \u201cnine covers,\u201d it may give\noccasion to equivocation.\n\nTHE FIFTEENTH PART is _J\u00e1ti_[366] \u201cfutile argument;\u201d and this may be\napplied to a lying purpose: so when one says that \u201csound is eternal,\u201d\nbecause it is created, as is the sky; both are the works of a\ndivinity; and whereas the sky is eternal, sound is everlasting.\n\nTHE SIXTEENTH PART is _Nigraha_,[367] or \u201csubjugation;\u201d that is, when\none wishes to be a conqueror at the end of a dispute with another.\n\nThese are the sixteen parts of the Tarka.[368] The followers of this\ndoctrine judge and affirm that, as this world is created, there must\nbe a Creator; the _mukt_ or \u201cemancipation,\u201d in their opinion means\nstriving to approach the origin of beings, not uniting like the warp\nand the web, the threads of which, although near, are nevertheless\nseparate from each other. This was related to me by the Im\u00e1m Arast\u00fa,\nwho was a chief of the learned and said to me that he had derived it\nfrom an old treatise upon logic, the precepts of which were without\nexplanation, and to have bestowed on it that arrangement under which\nit now exists amongst the learned: he meant, probably, that the maxims\nare the same as those extracted from the Tarka. The same doctrine was\ntaught in Greece: in confirmation of this, the Persians say, that the\nscience of logic which was diffused among them was, with other\nsciences, translated into the language of Yonia and Rumi, by order of\nking Secander, the worshipper of science, in the time of his conquest,\nand sent to R\u00fami.\n\n\n     [328] \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0903: \u201cdiscussion, reasoning, argument, reduction to\n     absurdity.\u201d\n\n     [329] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u0902.\n\n     [330] \u092a\u0930\u0940\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093e.\n\n     [331] \u0905\u0928\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0928.\n\n     [332] \u0909\u092a\u092e\u093e\u0928\u0902.\n\n     [333] Bos gav\u00e6us vel frontalis.\n\n     [334] \u0936\u092c\u094d\u0926.\n\n     [335] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093f\u0924\u093f\u0903 true knowledge, or knowledge derived from the\n     senses, inference, analogy, or information.\n\n     [336] \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u093e.\n\n     [337] \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930\u0902.\n\n     [338] \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0926\u093f\u092f\u0902.\n\n     [339] \u0905\u0930\u094d\u0925\u093e\u0903 objects of sense.\n\n     [340] \u092c\u0941\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093f\u0903 apprehension, conception, intelligence. It is\n     twofold: notion and remembrance.\n\n     [341] \u092e\u0928\u0938\u094d.\n\n     [342] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0943\u0924\u094d\u0924\u093f\u0903 activity, occupation. It is determination,\n     the result of passion, and the cause of virtue, and is vice,\n     or merit and demerit, according as the act is one enjoined\n     or forbidden. It is oral, mental, or corporeal; not\n     comprehending unconscious vital functions. It is the reason\n     of all worldly proceedings.\n\n     [343] \u0926\u094b\u0937.\n\n     [344] \u092e\u0941\u0939.\n\n     [345] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0947\u0924\u094d\u092f \u092d\u093e\u0935\u0903 is the condition of the soul after death;\n     which is transmigration: for the soul being immortal, passes\n     from a former body, which perishes, to a new one, which\n     receives it. This is reproduction (_punar ut patli_).\n\n     [346] \u092b\u0932\u0902.\n\n     [347] \u0926\u0941\u0903\u0916\u0902.\n\n     [348] \u0905\u092a \u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917\u0903 final beatitude, the delivery of the soul\n     from the body, and exemption from further transmigration.\n\n     [349] \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930\u0902.\n\n     [350] \u0937\u0926\u094d \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f\u093e\u0923\u093f\u0903\n\n     [351] \u0937\u0926\u0947\u094d \u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u093e\u0903\n\n     [352] \u0938\u0941\u0916\u0902.\n\n     [353] \u0938\u0902\u0936\u092f\u0903\n\n     [354] \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092f\u094b\u091c\u0928\u0902 is that by which a person is actuated or\n     moved to action; it is the desire of attaining pleasure or\n     of shunning pain; or the wish of exemption from both: for\n     such is the purpose or impulse of every one in a natural\n     state of mind.\n\n     [355] \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0903\n\n     [356] \u0938\u093f\u0926\u094d\u0927\u093e\u0928\u094d\u0924\u0903 demonstrated truth is of four sorts; viz.:\n     universally acknowledged; partially so; hypothetically;\n     argumentatively (or _\u00e8 concessa_).\n\n     [357] \u0905\u0935\u092f\u0935\u0903 A regular argument, or complete syllogism\n     (_ny\u00e1ya_), consists of five members, or component parts: 1.\n     the proposition, \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0924\u093f \u091c\u094d\u091e\u093e _pratijny\u00e1_; 2. the reason \u0939\u0947\u0924\u0941\n     _hetu_ (as above said); 3. the instance (_ud\u00e1hara\u0144a_); 4.\n     the application (_upanaya_); 5. the conclusion,\n     (_nigamana_). Ex.: 1st, the hill is fiery; 2nd, for it\n     smokes; 3d, what smokes is fiery; 4th, accordingly, the hill\n     is smoking; 5th, therefore it is fiery.\n\n     [358] \u0924\u0930\u094d\u0915\u0903 not to be confounded with doubt, to which there\n     are two sides; but to this but one; that is, reduction to\n     absurdity.\n\n     [359] \u0928\u093f\u0930\u094d\u0928\u0947\u092f\u0903 ascertainment or determination of truth; the\n     result of evidence and of reasoning.\n\n     [360] \u092c\u093e\u0926\u0903 discussion defined as the speech of one desirous\n     to know the truth.\n\n     In Gotama\u2019s arrangement, THE TENTH is called _Kat\u00b4ha_,\n     disputation, or conference of interlocutors, maintaining\n     adverse positions.\n\n     [361] \u091c\u0932\u094d\u092a\u0903 debate of disputants contending for victory.\n\n     [362] \u0935\u093f \u0924\u0923\u094d\u0921 cavil, or controversy, wherein the disputant\n     seeks to confute his opponent, without offering to support a\n     position of his own.\n\n     [363] \u0939\u0947\u0924\u094d\u0935\u093e\u092d\u093e\u0938 semblance of a reason; it is the _non causa\n     pro causa_ of the logicians.\n\n     [364] \u091b\u0932\u0902 perversion and misconstruction; it is of three\n     sorts: 1. verbal misconstruing of what is ambiguous; 2.\n     perverting, into a literal sense, what is said in a\n     metaphorical one; 3. generalising what is particular.\n\n     [365] \u0646\u0648\u0643\u0646\u0628\u0644. In the Persian text an example of it is given,\n     which I have not thought necessary to translate.\n\n     [366] \u091c\u093e\u0924\u093f\u0903 a futile answer, or self-confuting reply. No\n     less than twenty-four are enumerated.\n\n     [367] \u0928\u093f\u0917\u094d\u0930\u0939 It is the termination of a controversy. Of\n     this, likewise, no fewer than twenty-two distinctions are\n     specified.\n\n     [368] These are in substance the very same as the sixteen\n     categories of _G\u00f3tama_, exhibited in Colebrooke\u2019s treatise\n     _On the Philosophy of the Hindus_, _Transact. R. A. Soc._,\n     vol. I. pp. 95-118.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE ELEVENTH: ON THE TENETS HELD BY THE FOLLOWERS OF\nBUDDHA.\u2015\u2015These sectaries are also called _Jatis_.[369] They have no\nbelief in incarnations or Avat\u00e1rs of the Deity, but they admit the\ntransmigration of the soul into different bodies; they deny several\nother dogmas of the Hindus; in their opinion, nothing is more\ndetestable than the doctrine of the Brahmans, and when a misfortune\nbefals any one of them, they say: \u201cHast thou perchance done some good\nto a Brahman,\u201d or drunk some water of the _bone devourer_: so they\ncall the Ganges, because the Hindus, after the burning of the dead,\nthrow their bones into that river, and think it a meritorious act. The\nJatis take the greatest care of not hurting a living being; on which\naccount they do not like to pass through water, for fear that an\nanimal might come under their feet. They eat no animal food, never put\ntheir feet upon grass, and when they drink water, they filter it first\nthrough a handkerchief or a piece of cloth, that no living animal may\nremain in it, and then steep this piece of cloth awhile in water, in\norder that, if a living being stick thereto, it may be separated, and\ntake its place in the liquid. A great number of the Ban\u00edans or traders\nare of this sect; for the most part they sell corn, and some get a\nlivelihood as servants. The durvishes of this class are called\n_Srivaras_ and _Jat\u00eds_.[370] They pluck the hair of their head and\nbeard by means of tweezers.[371] When they travel, they carry a besom\nof the bark of a soft tree with them, and out of regard for the life\nof animals, they sweep the road with it before they put down their\nfeet, that no living insect may be destroyed. When they speak, they\nhold a handkerchief before their mouth, not to swallow a fly or other\ninsect.\n\nThey are frequently learned, and pass their life in celibacy and\nsanctity; these they call _Jatis_, who never behold the face of a\nwoman. Those of this sect who are married, called _Grihast\u2019ha_,[372]\nshow great regard for the Jatis, before whom, by a refinement of\nrespect, they scarce dare bend their body. Whenever they receive a\nJati in their house, they do whatever he orders, according to their\npower. They are divided into two classes: the _Lunug\u00ed_ and _Puj\u00e1ris_.\nThe first are those who adore God as one, and think him free from all\nimperfections and contradictions, descents and conjunctions, and who\nworship no idol. The _Puj\u00e1ris_ venerate the image of a deity, and have\ntemples for it. The durvishes of both classes, called Jatis, at the\ntime of taking meals, go into the houses of friends, and take only as\nmuch food as may not cause a privation to the people of the house:\nthus they visit several houses until they get satiated. They drink no\ncold water, but go from place to place, and wherever any body has warm\nwater for bathing, they take a little of it, and having thus collected\nsufficient water, they let it cool and then drink it.\n\nSimilar to the durvi hes of both classes is a third sect, called\n_Mah\u00e1-\u00e1tma_; they have the dress and appearance of Jatis; only they do\nnot pluck their hair with tweezers, but cut it. They accumulate money,\ncook their meal in their houses, drink cold water, and take to them a\nwife. Farz\u00e1nah Khush\u00ed says: I saw, in Guzerat of the Panjab, a\n\u015arivara, and requested him to give me a full account, which may be\ndeemed true beyond any doubt, of the people of his sect. He related as\nfollows: \u201cThe men of my faith may live retired from the world, or\ndevoted to business; they do no harm to any body; but there are many\nof them eager for science, and as many bereft of knowledge.\u201d One of\nthe Maha-\u00e1tmas was a learned man; the wife of a rich man devoted\nherself to his service; one day she complained to him of the\nunkindness of her husband; the \u015arivara gave no answer; wherefore the\nwoman said: \u201cAnother time I will not wait on thee, because thou takest\nno interest in me.\u201d The \u015arivara rejoined: \u201cIf even thy visit were\nagreeable to me, it would be of no service to thee.\u201d He then took up a\nbit of grass, and having breathed upon it, gave it to the woman,\nsaying: \u201cPut on a clean garment, and having ground the grass, rub it\nupon thy garment until thy husband becomes kind to thee.\u201d The woman\nreturned to her house, and having ground the grass upon a stone,\nintended to rub it upon her garment, when the husband entered into the\nroom, therefore the grass she had ground remained upon the stone. When\nnight fell in, they shut the door of the house. The stone at every\nmoment jumped from its place, knocked against the board of the door,\nand fell back: the woman and her husband were astonished. The man\nasked his wife the reason of it, and she, from fear, told him what had\ntaken place. The man rose and opened the door of the house; the stone\nwas set in motion, and rolled on until it reached the house of the\nMah\u00e1-\u00e1tma. Many other similar stories are told of the Sr\u00edvaras. Khushi\nsaid that he had seen the Jati just mentioned, who by the power of\nincantation put stones into motion; he praised him, but declared that\nthis man was really a Jati, but not a Mah\u00e1-\u00e1tma.\n\nThe author of this book affirms he has seen a great number of Srivaras\nand their followers. From them he knew _Meher chand_, a _L\u00fan\u00fa_, in the\nyear 1056 of the Hejira (1646 A. D.), in Dot\u00e1rah, which is under the\ndominion of Jodpur M\u00e1raw\u00e1r, he found also S\u00edva rama, a Puj\u00e1ri, in\nM\u00edrta, which place belongs to Marawar, and one named _Jagna_, a\nBanian, in R\u00e1wel Pandi: he was adorned with all the good qualities of\nJatis. When he saw a bird in the hands of a fowler, he bought it of\nhim and set it free. This sect do whatever they can for the liberation\nof living beings. Many of them are r\u00e1jas in several places and\ncountries. When one brings a goat which he has bought somewhere, and\nis disposed to kill it, they come from their shops and buy the animal\nat a high price; thus it has been seen that, having assembled from all\nhands a great number of sheep, they appointed a person to take care of\nthem. It is said, that in Guzerat lived a Banian who was a Jati; one\nday, a Muselman Durvish sat down before his shop, and having picked\nvermin from his coat, was about to kill it; the Banian interposed; the\nDurvish said: \u201cIf thou wilt give me something, I may spare it;\u201d the\nBanian offered a _pie_;[373] the other wanted more and more, until the\nbargain closed with the sum of one hundred rupees, which the Banian\npaid for the liberation of the offensive insect. Hafiz Shir\u00e1zi says:\n\n  \u201cAvoid hurting any living animal, and do whatever thou likest,\n   For in my book of laws there is no crime but this.\u201d\n\n\n     [369] More correctly Yatis. See note, p. 195. This section\n     appears to apply more properly to the _Jainas_, that is, to\n     one of the great divisions of the followers of Buddha. The\n     Jainas are subdivided into a great number of tribes and\n     religious sects, a long series of which is enumerated in the\n     work quoted by Lieut.-Col. Miles (p. 351-363).\n\n     [370] In the note, p. 195, are mentioned the _Jatis_, or\n     _Yatis_, also called _S\u00e9vras_ among the Jainas of Guzerat\n     and Marwar. According to the same authority (Transact. R. A.\n     S., vol. III. p. 344), these are distinguished from the\n     _Sravakas_, as the laity of the Jainas are called in that\n     country. According to Major de la Maine (work quoted, vol.\n     I. p. 413), the Sravacs are the only considerable part of\n     the earlier Jains or Arhats. \u201cSravakas,\u201d says Doctor\n     Buchanan Hamilton (_ibid._, p. 531), \u201cis the name given to\n     the Jains in the districts of Bahar and Patna.\u201d The three\n     authors just quoted agree in stating that the priests of the\n     Sravakas are called Yatis. The Dabistan reads \u0633\u0631\u064a\u0648\u0631\u0647,\n     _Srivarah_, which may be correct \u0936\u094d\u0930\u0940 \u0935\u0930 \u201cthe elect of\n     happiness.\u201d\n\n     [371] _Lunch\u00eeta-k\u00e9\u015ba_, \u201chair-pluckers,\u201d is one of the\n     nicknames given to the _Sw\u00e9t\u00e1mbaras_, \u201cclad in white,\u201d a\n     sect of the Jainas\u2015\u2015(_Colebrooke_, work quoted, p. 551).\n\n     [372] \u201cA householder.\u201d\n\n     [373] The natives reckon 64 pies to the rupee.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE TWELFTH: ON VARIOUS RELIGIOUS SYSTEMS PROFESSED BY THE\nPEOPLE OF INDIA.\u2015\u2015It is to be recollected that, as has been stated,\nthere are Samrad\u00ed\u00e1n, Khodan\u00ed\u00e1n, Radi\u00e1n, Sh\u00edderang\u00ed\u00e1n, P\u00e2iker\u00ed\u00e1n,\nM\u00edl\u00e1n\u00edan, Al\u00e1r\u00ed\u00e1n, Sh\u00edd\u00e1b\u00ed\u00e1n, Akhsh\u00edan, and Mazdak\u00edan, who are\ndispersed in Iran and Turan, and all appear in the dress of Muselmans,\nalthough in secret they follow each the path of their own chosen\nfaith; in the same manner various sects are also established in India,\nbut they do not appear in the dress of Muselmans. It is to be known,\nthat the fundamental rule in the creed of the Hindus is the _Smriti_,\nthat is, the \u201claw,\u201d and that all Rakshasas, that is, \u201cdevotees,\u201d\nfollow this way; the V\u00e9da, to them the heavenly book, prescribes the\nacts, and is a text, from which every sect may derive proofs of its\nparticular belief, and all may agree in some points.\n\nI have already given an account of their religion, but I must here\nremind the reader of some points. They say Nar\u00e1naya, that is, \u201cthe\ndeity,\u201d in the origin was alone; a flower, namely, the lotus, having a\nthousand leaves, rose from his navel, from which Brahma came forth,\nBrahma _chatur mukha_,[374] or \u201cfour faced;\u201d one of these faces was\ncut off by M\u00e1had\u00e9o; Brahma is also _ashta b\u00e1hu_,[375] that is \u201ceight\narmed;\u201d in his navel was also a flower of five hundred leaves, from\nwhich Vichnu proceeded; Vichnu _chatur b\u00e1hu_, or \u201cfour armed;\u201d he\ncarries in one hand a spear; in the other, the _chakra_, \u201cthe discus,\u201d\na weapon peculiar to the Hindus; in the third hand, the _gad\u00e1_, or\n\u201cclub;\u201d and, in the fourth, the lotus flower. In the navel of Vichnu\nwas a lotus of one hundred leaves, from which sprang Mahad\u00e9o, who is\n_ashtamukha_, or \u201ceight faced\u201d and \u201ceight armed;\u201d he rides upon a\nbull, his neck is surrounded by a snake, the hide of an elephant\nenvelops him, and his body is rubbed with ashes; _chandra_, \u201cthe\nmoon,\u201d _surya_, \u201cthe sun,\u201d and _agni_, or \u201cfire,\u201d are his three eyes.\nThe sect of _S\u00e1ivas_ adore Mahad\u00e9o, and his wife is worshipped by the\n_Akm\u00edan_ and _Ashn\u00edan_, as before shown.\n\nAnother sect is that of the Sany\u00e1sis, who are praised in the Smriti;\nthey distinguish themselves by long and entangled hair, which is\ncalled _jata_.[376] The Saiva-Sany\u00e1sis are also called _Avadutas_;\ntheir numbers increased during the Kaliyug; they are very pious,\nintrepid, and charitable. At one time, a war broke out between them\nand the S\u00f3f\u00eds: the former were victorious.\n\nAnother sect is that of the _Jangaman_; these also cut the hair off\ntheir heads, they rub dust upon their bodies, and praise Mahad\u00e9o, to\nwhom they attribute a real existence. They are divided into several\nclasses. They say, among the celestial spirits are nine Brahmas, who\nare the _an\u015bus_,[377] that is, \u201cthe rays\u201d of Brahma. There are one\nthousand Vichnus, rays of Vichnu, who is also called _Nar\u00e1yana_; there\nare eleven _Rudras_, rays of Rudra, which is a name of Mah\u00e1deo; they\nreckon twelve suns,[378] rays of the great luminary; sixteen\n_kalas_,[379] that is, parts or rays of the moon; and they divide the\neffulgence of that body into sixteen parts, and enumerate eight and\ntwenty of its mansions, or _nakshatras_,[380] and seven planets,\nbesides the head and tail of the dragon. Ganesa is to them a god with\nthe head of an elephant. They distinguish eight quarters of the world,\nbesides the zenith and nadir, and call them _asht d\u00edsa_,[381] in the\nfollowing order: _purva_, \u201ceast;\u201d _pa\u015bchima_, \u201cwest;\u201d _dakchina_,\n\u201csouth;\u201d and _uttara_, \u201cnorth;\u201d between south and east, _agni_;\nbetween south and west, _n\u00e1irrita_; between north and west, _v\u00e1yu_,\nbetween north and east, _\u00ed\u015b\u00e1na_. Among the deities are _Bha\u00edrava_[382]\nand _Hanuman_, and among female spirits _asht Durg\u00e1s_, or \u201ceight\nDurg\u00e1s,\u201d in the following order: _K\u00e1lak\u00e1_, _Chandra K\u00e1lanjar\u00ed_,\n_K\u00e1umar\u00ed_, _V\u00e1ichnav\u00ed_, _B\u00e1bhrav\u00ed_, _Chamund\u00e1_,[383] _Bhav\u00e1n\u00ed_, and\n_Parvati_.[384] _Maha Lakchm\u00ee Sarasvat\u00ed_ is the wife of Brahma.\n_Rakshasas_ are termed the pious men of the Satya yug; _Ka\u015byapa_ is\nthe father of the sun; _Va\u015bishta_, the preceptor of Ram-avat\u00e1r;\n_Vi\u015bvamitra_, a Kshatr\u00eda, who by dint of pious austerity became a\nBrahman; _Valmiki_ is the author of the poem Ramay\u00e1na, which contains\nthe history of R\u00e1ma; _Angirasah Ihr Vy\u00e1sa_ composed the historical\npoem Mahabharata; Bhazadv\u00e1ja Jamadagni existed in the Dwapara yug;\n_Gotama_, _Kapah_, (_Kapila_?) _Par\u00e1s\u00e1ra_, _Narada_, in the Kali yug;\n_Chonah_, _Apravanah_, _Aurdah_, _Jamed Kapeh_, these are for ever\nliving;[385] _Saptarchaya_, that is, seven Richis, or \u201csaints,\u201d are:\n_Ka\u015byapa_, _Uttara_, _Bhardv\u00e1ja_, _Vi\u015bvamitra_, _Gotama_, _Jamadagni_,\nand _Va\u015bis\u2019hta_.[386]\n\nIt is to be known that there is a class among the Hindus who give\nthemselves the term of Muselman-sofis, and really agree in several\ntenets and opinions with the Suf\u00eds. Thus, in the first place, they\ndevote themselves to celibacy. As they have heard that there are ten\nclasses of Sany\u00e1s\u00eds, and twelve of Yog\u00eds, they also pretend to be\ndivided into fourteen classes; when they meet together, the questions\nwhich they ask are: Who are the four sages, and which are the fourteen\nnoble families? and they impose upon their disciples many years of\nservice, before they reveal to them the four sages and the fourteen\nfamilies; they say: The sage of sages is the illustrious Muhammed (may\nthe peace of God be upon him!); after him, devoted to godliness, Ali\n(may the blessing of God be upon him!); from him the khalifat devolved\nupon Imam Hossain; then Khaja Hossen, of Basora, also was his disciple\nand a khalif: these four personages are the four sages. They say\nbesides, from Khaja Hossen, of Basora, sprang two branches: the first\nwas that of the khalif Hossen Basor\u00ed Hab\u00edb Ajem\u00ed, from whom nine\nfamilies proceeded, named as follows: the _J\u00edb\u00ed\u00e1n_, _T\u00e1iker\u00ed\u00e1n_,\n_Kerkh\u00ed\u00e1n_, _Sikat\u00ed\u00e1n_, _Jen\u00edd\u00ed\u00e1n_, _Gazr\u00fan\u00ed\u00e1n_, _T\u00fas\u00ed\u00e1n_,\n_Ferdus\u00ed\u00e1n_, and _Soherward\u00ed\u00e1n_. From the second khalifat of Hossen\nBasori, which was that of the Shaikh Abdul Wahid Zaid, came forth five\nfamilies with the following titles: the _Zeb\u00edr\u00edan_, _Ai\u00e1\u015b\u00edan_,\n_Adham\u00edan_, _Hab\u00edr\u00edan_, and _Chesht\u00ed\u00e1n_: and these are the fourteen\nnoble families. It is said, that there exists a congregation of pious\nsectaries, who do not adhere to the prophet Muhammed, although they\nacknowledge him to be a blessed gatherer of the harvest of virtuous\nperfection: they relate, that one day the prophet was taking a\npleasure-walk under the guidance of Jabr\u00edl, and came to a place where\na great tumult was heard. Jabril said: \u201cThis is the threshold of\npleasure: enter into the house.\u201d The prophet consented to go in, and\nthere he saw sitting forty persons as naked as they came from their\nmother, and a band busy serving; but whatever service the prophet\nrequested them to command him to do, they did not comply, until the\nmoment to grind _bang_[387] arrived. When they had ground it, they had\nno cloth through which they could strain and purify it; then the\nprophet, having taken his turban from his head, purified through it\nthe juice of the bang, the color of which remained on the turban;\nwhence the garment of the Bin\u00ed Hashem is green. When the prophet\nrendered them this service, they were glad, and said among themselves:\n\u201cLet us give to this messenger of God, who is always running to the\ndoor of the ignorant, a little of the bang, that he may obtain the\nsecrets of the Almighty power:\u201d so they gave the remains of the juice\nto the prophet. When he had drunk it, he became possessed of the\nsecrets of the angel of destiny, and whatever men heard from him, came\nthrough the means of this bounty.\n\nThere is a great number of this sect in Hindostan, and among the most\ncelebrated of them are, in the first line, the _Mad\u00e1r\u00edan_, who, like\nthe Sany\u00e1s\u00eds _Avadhuts_, wear the hair entangled; and the ashes which\nthey and the Sany\u00e1sis rub upon their bodies are called _bhasma_;[388]\nbesides, they carry iron chains on their heads and necks, and have\nblack flags and black turbans; they know neither prayers nor fasts;\nthey are always sitting at a fire; they drink a great deal of bang;\nand the most perfect among them go about without any dress, in severe\ncold, in Kabul, and Kachmir, and such places. These also consume much\nbang, and to the praise of one of their sect they say: \u201cSuch a one\ntakes two or three _seers_[389] of bang.\u201d When they sit together, they\nrelate, that in the night, when the prophet ascended through the seven\nstages of heaven, he received the command of God to wander through the\nheavens. When he arrived at the door of paradise, he found the\nentrance as narrow as the eye of a needle; the porter made him a sign\nto enter; the prophet said: \u201cWith this body, how shall I enter through\nthis passage?\u201d Jabr\u00edl replied: \u201cSay: _dam madar_,\u201d (\u201cthe breath of\nMadar,\u201d a particular ejaculation of this sect). The prophet said so,\nupon which the narrow door opened, and he entered heaven.\n\nThey say, when Badih eddin Madar[390] came to Hindostan, he became a\nYogi, whom the Hindus held in great esteem, and who had a great number\nof followers. Madar took a house; he sent a little boy, whose name was\nJamen, with the order to fetch some dry cowdung with which he wanted\nto kindle a fire. It so happened that Jamen fell in with an assembly\nof Yogis, who, supposing him a Muselman, killed, cut into pieces, and\ndevoured the boy. Some time after, not receiving any thing to light up\nhis fire, Mad\u00e1r went in search of Jamen, and found the assembly of\nYogis, to whom he said: \u201cWhat have you done with my good little boy?\u201d\nThey answered: \u201cWe have not seen him.\u201d Mad\u00e1r called him loud by his\nname, and the members of Jamen, from within the bodies of the\nassembled Yogis, answered \u201c_Dam madar_.\u201d Mad\u00e1r then said to the Yogis:\n\u201cShall I bring forth Jamen from you all, or from one only of you?\u201d\nThey replied: \u201cFrom one body only.\u201d By the power of Mad\u00e1r, the limbs\nof the boy having united, in a manner that no body perceived any thing\nof it, in the belly of the principal Yogi, Jamen fell out from the\nnose of the same, so that neither the nostril of the Yogi\u2019s nose was\nenlarged, nor the boy\u2019s limbs diminished:[391] whereupon the Yogis\nchose to run away. Mad\u00e1r settled at this place, which till now is\nknown by the name of _Makanp\u00far_.[392] The Madar\u00edan come, as many as\npossible, from all parts of the world, once a year, on a fixed day, to\nMakanpur, and say that the blind and lame find their cure in that\nplace.\n\nThey relate also, that _Chist\u00e1p\u00e1_, the wife of Baharam Gul, in order\nto put to the test the Muhammedan and Indian durvishes and saints,\ncame once among them who were assembled, and said: \u201cWhoever will\nloosen the bracelet of beads (called _S\u00e1mran_) upon my arm, without\nbetraying the least symptom of lust, he is a perfect saint.\u201d All the\npretenders to perfect sanctity, Muselmans and Hindus, presented\nthemselves, but at the sight of Chistapa, they all were maddened with\nlove, such was the beauty of her face: at last the turn came to Jamen,\nwho approached her, and loosened the bracelet in a manner which, at\nthe same time, evinced his manly strength, and his complete command\nover himself.[393] On that account, Jamen was proclaimed victorious\nover all the Muselmans and Hindus. And they have a great number of\nother similar stories.\n\nAnother sect, the _Jelal\u00edan_, are disciples of _Said Jelal_, of\nBokh\u00e1ra;[394] his sepulchre is in the village _Auch_, in the district\nof _Sind_; these sectaries profess to be Sh\u00ed\u00e1hs, whilst the Med\u00e1r\u00edan\nare _Sun\u00eds_, on which account they revile each other. The former know\nof neither prayers nor fasts, nor any other practices of piety with\nwhich the Suf\u00eds are occupied; they take a great deal of bang, and used\nto eat snakes and scorpions. When the adepts among them see a snake,\nthey put it whole into their mouth and swallow it, saying: \u201cThis is a\nfish of the holy Al\u00ed;\u201d in eating a scorpion they remark: \u201cThis is a\nprawn of Al\u00ed:\u201d and the worms which are found in the water, they call\nthe little crabs of Al\u00ed. Like the Med\u00e1rian, the Jelal\u00edan go naked, and\neven in the severely cold season, wear no garment; they sit before the\nfire like the Med\u00e1rian, but do not wear matted hair; frequently they\nshave four parts of their body, and lead a wandering life in the\nworld. Some of them bring every thing that they gain to their master,\nand when they go for instruction to a preceptor, they deliver to him\nwhatever they possess in ready money and other property; after which\nhe presents them with a turban, and his list of saints; they wear that\non their heads, and hang this on their necks. They believe that, when\nJzr\u00e1\u00edl comes to take their soul, the turban, descending, covers their\neyes so that they may not behold the face of the angel of death, which\nis exceedingly terrific. Their master looks every day for a new\nconnexion with a woman; whenever he knows of a fine girl among his\ndisciples, he orders trumpets to be blown, goes on horseback, and\nbetaking himself to their house, uses his own discretion with the\ngirl, whom he now and then takes to his own house, but never marries.\nThe author of this book asked one of the Jel\u00e1lis: \u201cH\u00e1med Mahommed,\nyour master, does he take the daughter of one of his disciples without\nmarrying her?\u201d He answered: \u201cThe Safavian kings too take wives,\ndaughters, and sons of their disciples, who are highly pleased with\nit, why should not H\u00e1med Mahommed, who is truly the Khalif\n(substitute) of Al\u00ed, do the same?\u201d This act is a sign of sovereignty,\nand a prerogative of the family of the prophet. In this country are\nmany of his disciples, and he is a very great friend to hunting.\n\nThere is another sect who call themselves without tie and food; it is\na laudable conduct with them to take nothing from any body beyond the\nrequired food and drink; and for their indispensable clothing, from\nthe shreds which they find in the streets to stick together a coat,\nwhich they call _kherka_; and when they ask something from any body,\nthey first revile him and call him bad names, wherefore they often\nreceive bad treatment from the people. They say, God is a spirit, and\nMuhammed his body; his four friends are his two arms and two feet;\n_dam m\u00e1dar_, that is, M\u00e1dar, is the breath and the spirit of God. They\ndrink many sorts of spirituous and intoxicating liquors. They believe\nthe unity of the divine being, and some of them are also pious men.\nTheir master was _Gada Nar\u00e1yana_. The three just mentioned sects never\nshed the blood of animated beings.\n\nAnother sect, called _Kakan_, is in Kachmir; celibacy is their law,\nand their belief the unity of the divine being. They use much bang; a\nnumber of them is devoted to piety; their name of \u201cKakan\u201d is derived\nfrom that of their master, who was Ibrahim Kakak. He lived, they say,\nin the time of the P\u00e1dshah Jehang\u00edr, who inhabits heaven, and drew to\nhim whomever he chose; his very sight was such an attraction, that he\non whom it fixed was irresistibly thrown at his feet; thus he attached\nto himself a great number of disciples, Hindus and Muselmans, none of\nwhom he induced to change his religion; that is to say, to the Hindu\nhe did not expound the Koran, nor propose circumcision; and to the\nMuselman he did not make an obligation of the Zunar, and of the mark\nof caste upon the forehead; neither the praise of Muselmans nor the\nblame of Hindus came ever upon his tongue; he never pronounced either\nthe name of the prophet or that of an Avatar, which are the great\nobjects of veneration to the Muselmans and to the Hindus; but he\nuttered _Ruma_, or _Alla_, or _Khoda_. He did not sleep at night, nor\ndid his disciples, who sat back to back until morning before him. At a\nplace of Kachmir, he said to his followers: \u201cA great number of men\nlaid down; let us do the same.\u201d The followers answered: \u201cLet it be as\nyou say:\u201d he then first laid himself down to sleep, and the friends\ndid the same. One day he heard the voice of a crier from the top of a\nminaret, and said: \u201cThis is the voice of God;\u201d at this moment one of\nhis companions broke wind; he subjoined: \u201cThis too is God; this too\nthe divine tongue.\u201d A student present said to him: \u201cDo not blaspheme.\u201d\nHe replied: \u201cThe one and the other is an undulation of the air, and\nthe air is subject to God.\u201d The student reassumed: \u201cBut the bad smell,\nwith the noise, what is it?\u201d The answer was: \u201cThis proceeds from the\nassociation of \u2018_thou and I_.\u2019\u201d The student said farther: \u201cDrink no\nbang, because the bang-drinkers shall not pass over the bridge of\njudgment (_sarat\u00b4h_).\u201d Kakak replied: \u201cGreat is the number of\nbang-drinkers; let us, on this side of the bridge, build a town and\ncall it _Bang pur_, and not think of passing the bridge.\u201d Goya K\u00e1sem\ncomposed a ludicrous account of these drunken sectaries. When the king\n_K\u00e1sem Anwar_ (distributor of splendors) was near the habitation of\nexcellence, he recited the following verses:\n\n  \u201cHe (God) distributes the light; I distribute bang,\n   He is the distributor of splendors; I, the distributor of secrets.\u201d\n\nA great number of men in India think as these sectaries. The Sany\u00e1sis\nassembled once in one of the sacred places of pilgrimage revered by\nthe Hindus; by accident, an army of naked Jel\u00e1lis and Mad\u00e1ris came\nthere at the same time, and having brought a cow, wanted to kill it;\nthe Sany\u00e1sis bought the cow from them; they came a second time, with\nanother cow, which the Sany\u00e1sis again, not without entreaties,\npurchased. These men, barefoot and bareheaded, having become insolent\nby their numbers, brought a third cow and killed it; the Sany\u00e1sis,\nindignant at this, attacked them, and a battle ensued, in which the\nSany\u00e1sis at last obtained the victory, and killed seven hundred of the\nnaked Jel\u00e1lis and Mad\u00e1ris; they educated the boys of these fanatics,\nwhom they made prisoners on this occasion, in their own religion. The\nSany\u00e1sis were frequently seen engaged in war.\n\nAnother class of the Hindus are the _Y\u00f3gis_, who pretend to a high\nantiquity; an account of them has already been given.\n\nOther sects, such as the _Sankhyan_, and the _Patanj\u00e1l\u00eds_,[395] are\ndevoted to piety, and practise the _y\u00f3ga_, and other pious\nausterities; also the _Charvak\u00ed\u00e1n_, who believe the four classes of\ntheir sect to be very ancient: we have already treated of them, as\nwell as of the _J\u00e1tis_ and _Vair\u00e1gis_; the _Nanak Panth\u00ed\u00e1n_ will be\nintroduced hereafter.\n\nThe _Narayan\u00ed\u00e1n_ are a sect of the Hindus, which holds its creed from\n_Gos\u00e1in Haridas_. He was of the tribe of _J\u00e1ts_, from the village\n_Kan\u00edra_, in the district of _Sav\u00e1lik_; he was a servant of _Nabid\u00e1s\nSany\u00e1l\u00e1_; which last name is that of a tribe of the numerous R\u00e1japuts.\nHaridas, when hunting, shot an arrow at a deer which was with young,\nand brought down a fawn, which had also been pierced by the arrow. At\nthe sight of this event, Haridas broke his bow and arrows, tore his\ngarment into pieces, weeping and bewailing, and during twelve years\nhad no intercourse with the society of men. Afterwards, he assembled\nmany disciples about him. He died in the year 1055 of the Hejira (1645\nA. D.). This sect know nothing of idols, nor of temples, nor of the\nK\u00e2bah, nor of any sort of worship; they do nothing towards obtaining\nthe knowledge of, or union with, God; they confine themselves to the\nveneration of _Nar\u00e1yan_, or \u201cthe supreme Being,\u201d from which they\nderive the name of _Nar\u00e1yan\u00edan_. They do not occupy themselves with\nthe affairs of the world; abnegation and solitude is their law. Some\nhave an earthen cup to drink water in; some dispense even with this;\nthey hurt no living being; they never pull up any grass or green\nherbs; they burn nothing; cook no meal; and when hungry, they go into\nthe houses of the Hindus, and accept some food, but no flesh of any\nsort of animal. When one of them is about to die, he is asked: \u201cShall\nwe burn thy body, or throw it into the water, or bury it in the\nearth?\u201d Whichever he desires is done.\n\nAnother sect is that of the _D\u00e1du Panthians_. D\u00e1du was one of the\ncotton carders in the village Nar\u00e1ina, in the district of Marwar. In\nthe time of the Padshah Akb\u00e1r (who inhabits heaven!) D\u00e1du devoted\nhimself to the state of a Durvesh, and assembled many disciples about\nhim. He prohibited his followers to worship idols, to eat the flesh of\nany animal, or to hurt any living being; but he did not order them to\nabandon woman and wife, or to withdraw from all business of the world;\nbut he left it free to any one to give up, or to cultivate, the\nconnection and intercourse with men. When one of them dies, they place\nhis corpse upon the back of a quadruped, and send it into the desert,\nsaying: \u201cIt is now better that rapacious and other animals may be\nsatiated with it.\u201d\n\nThe _P\u00ed\u00e1ra panth\u00ed\u00e1n_ hold their creed from _B\u00e1b\u00e1 P\u00ed\u00e1ra_; at the time\nof begging, they stand before the shops and houses, without looking at\nany body or saying any thing; they demand nothing with the tongue;\nthey accept what is given, and go away when nothing is offered. The\nMobed says:\n\n  \u201cThe demand without the tongue is made by the eyes;\n   How can that which is heard be equivalent to what is seen?\u201d\n\nThey take no notice of the Muselmans, although they so call\nthemselves.\n\nThe sect of the Vishnavas follow the doctrine of Gos\u00e1in J\u00e1ni. We hold\nthe information from Jogendas, that they called their master _Jehan_,\nand his followers, composed of Hindus and Muselmans, adopted the creed\nof Vishnavi. This is as follows: they hurt no living being; they avoid\nfellowship with men of another creed among the Hindus and Muselmans;\nthey pray five times a-day, with their face towards the east; they\nhave the names of God, of the divinities, of the prophet upon their\nlips, such as _Allah_, _M\u00edk\u00e1\u00edl_, _Jzr\u00e1\u00edl_, _Jibrail_, _Muhammed_,\n_Jl_, and others; they bury their dead; they confer benefits upon\nothers to the extent of their power; a number of their Durvishes\npretend to be afflicted with maladies and beg alms, and whatever they\nso collect they distribute to the blind and lame, and to people of\nthat description.\n\nFurther to be noticed is the sect of the _Surya-mak-han_,[396] that\nis, of \u201cthe worshippers of the sun.\u201d These derive their origin from an\nancient nation of Hindus, and are divided into two classes. The one of\nthem says: The great luminary is one of the divinities of the first\nrank; he has _\u00e1tm\u00e1_ and _buddhi_, that is, \u201csoul and intellect;\u201d the\nlight of the stars and the splendor of the universe proceeds from him;\nhe is the _asht bhuvana loka_,[397] that is, \u201cthe origin of the eight\nworlds,\u201d and of all earthly beings; the _sarva prabh\u00e1 deva_,[398] \u201cthe\nGod of all radiance,\u201d the chief and ruler of all divinities, the deity\nof heavens, the king of the stars; the _Mahajy\u00f3ti_,[399] or \u201cthe great\nlight,\u201d worthy of praise; and of _namaskara_,[400] that is \u201crespectful\nsalutation,\u201d and of adoration; and of _h\u00f3m_, or \u201csacrificial\nperfumes.\u201d When the sun rises with his pure body, they stand opposite\nto him, and after adoration recite a Sanskrit prayer, the paraphrase\nof which is as follows:[401] \u201cWhatever beautiful light and high\nsplendor thou possessest overflows the eyes from the excessive bounty\nof thy manifestation; thou art that light which is not surpassed by\nany other in the display of splendors; thine is the first prayer, for\nthou art the substitute of God, and we place our hope in thy bounty;\nto thee we address the prayers of our wants, that we may experience\nand loudly proclaim thy mercy. When this light is thy face, whatever\nwe can say of the splendor, the beauty, and perfection of the supreme\nintellectual soul and of the pure wisdom, is but that one light which\nwe recognise above in thy bountiful being, which thou temperest and\ndisplayest; this light derives its glory from thee, and supplication\nis due to this light. Give us thy assistance in the abnegation of\nworldly pleasures; render us equal to thyself in the purity of light,\nand by thy knowledge grant us union with thee; the wish of all\nvirtuous hearts is, that they may, far removed from all sensual\ndelights, be made happy in the communion with those who are like thee:\nwe abandon all worldly delights, that we may become similar to thee in\nsplendor, and arrive to thee, and remain with thee.\u201d\n\nThe other class of the _Suryamakhan_ say: Whatever exists in the\n_Swargaloka_[402] and in the _Bh\u00faloka_,[403] that is, in the upper and\nlower world, draws its origin from the sovereign great luminary; by\nhis glorious appearance we fill our _loj\u00e1ni_,[404] or \u201ceyes,\u201d with\n_kalyanum_,[405] or \u201causpicious light;\u201d and we hear the\n_San\u00e1k\u00e1ras_,[406] that is, \u201cthe incorporeal beings;\u201d by him we acquire\n_buddhi_, that is \u201cintellect,\u201d the professor of which attaches his\nheart to nothing exterior: on that account they call the sun _natha_,\n\u201ca sovereign, or divine being,\u201d and pay worship to him. Both classes\nabstain from hurting living beings, and are on that account called\n_jiva day\u00e1_,[407] \u201ccompassionate of life;\u201d they do good to others as\nmuch as they can, wherefore they are termed _punyavantas_,[408]\n\u201cvirtuous;\u201d they keep far away from falsehood and iniquity, for which\nthey are entitled _dharmamay\u00e1s_,[409] \u201crighteous.\u201d The _gr\u00edhastha_, or\n\u201chouseholder,\u201d contents himself with one _str\u00ed_,[410] or \u201cwife.\u201d They\ndivide the sun into several parts, which they call _dyuv\u00e1\nmurtayas_,[411] \u201cfigures of the sun;\u201d but the first class reckons\namong the _Pandits_, or \u201clearned,\u201d an order of men who have a system\nabout _\u00e1k\u00e1sa_,[412] \u201cether,\u201d _girayas_,[413] \u201cmountains,\u201d _t\u00e1r\u00e1\nphal_,[414] \u201cstarry firmament;\u201d about the rising of heavenly bodies\nand the prognostics which are connected with them; they possess\nperfectly the canons of the _V\u00e9da anga_, \u201csacred science,\u201d in which\nthe medical is comprised; and they set a great value upon _buddh\u00ed_,\n\u201cintellect;\u201d and _\u00e1haranam_,[415] that is, \u201cthe application of the\nthinking faculty;\u201d and they say, that this is the mediator between\nwhat is _sankhyanam_,[416] \u201crational,\u201d or probable, and\n_sadhanam_,[417] \u201csubstantiated,\u201d which last is the form of things\nperceived; and the right appreciation of probabilities is attained by\ndint of _buddhi_ and _aharanam_, that is, by high intelligence; this\nis fixing the thought of contemplation; or arriving at the science of\nwhat is perceived and what is probable or rational; this comprehends\nproperly two sciences which are possessed by the _jit\u00e8ndriya\nloka_,[418] that is, \u201cby those sages who have subdued the senses.\u201d\n\nThere is a class of durvishes who practise _tapasya_,[419] or \u201cdevout\nausterity,\u201d and who, by great and difficult penances, banish every\nillusion from them, so that in their sleep they may not have\nunbecoming dreams, which they say are produced by the influence of the\nimagination; and they guard their eyes from the wounds and impressions\nwhich also proceed from the imagination. They climb up to the tops of\nwalls, without fear of falling down, and go to such places as are not\neasily accessible, which they say is a triumph over illusion; they\npretend to have the power to cause rain to fall or to cease; to\nattract whomever they like, and to render him obedient to their will;\nto give information of whatever is concealed, and to reveal the\nsecrets of the heart; to possess the knowledge of the good and the bad\nhidden in the minds; as well as that of the relations and history of\nthe world; and upon the mirror of their hearts are reflected the\nlights of secrets, the _djoti mandalam_,[420] \u201cthe splendor of the\nuniverse.\u201d When a misfortune happens, all the pious men assemble and\nhold council about the removal of it; they investigate the strange and\nastonishing events; they keep day and night their eyes shut, and,\npondering, exercise their sagacity: these are called _Dhyani_.[421]\nThose who are not occupied with exterior things are called\n_tyag\u00ee_,[422] and others who shun all intercourse with women and have\nno wife, take the title of _Yatis_; and there is a class who, with the\nsame abnegation as the former, never mix with the people of the world,\nand never ask more from them than a small quantity of food: these are\ncalled _Va\u00edrag\u00ees_,[423] or _Udas\u00ees_.[424] Others live in deserts and\nupon mountains, satisfied with fruits; the savage animals do them no\nharm; they are named _Vanyas\u00ees_.[425] When, among them, a child is\nborn or a marriage takes place in the house of a family-man, they do\nnot offer him their congratulation; and when a misfortune occurs, such\nas the death of a friend, they do not grieve or take mourning. A\ndesire for generation, and a relish for meat and drink, inasmuch as\nmay be requisite, is permitted, but beyond this prohibited; and\nwhoever desires more is excluded from their society. This order of men\namong them is called _Grihasta_; another division of them is formed by\nthe _Avach\u2019h\u00e1ta_,[426] \u201cemaciated by abstinence,\u201d who are the adepts\nof this sect; if I were to relate every thing of them, several volumes\nwould not be sufficient to contain my account.\n\nIn the Nababship of Kalinga exists a sect called _S\u00fbrwar_ (S\u00fbryar),\nand another entitled _Gundwar_. They pay no tribute to any body; they\nworship the sun; from simplicity, they prefer brass and copper to\ngold, on account of bad smell. When one of them dies, they seize a\nstranger and kill him. They say that, as the R\u00e1i (prince) of Gund sits\nupon the ground, the lower people sit upon chairs, he being the lord\nof the earth and the others are not so.\n\nThe _Chandra bakta_,[427] or \u201cworshippers of the moon,\u201d call this\nplanet one of the principal divinities, worthy of adoration and of\nworship; the regulation of the nether world is committed to his care;\nby the increase and decrease of the light of this heavenly body, the\nhours of night and day may be known; after the sun it is the greatest,\nand borrows its light from this great luminary, the access to which\nmay also be obtained by the moon\u2019s mediation.[428] These sectaries\nform an image of the moon, and worship it as an object of their\ndevotion: they never hurt a sentient being.\n\nAnother sect venerates other stars. There is one who pays homage to\n_Agni_, or fire, and says that fire is the pure essence of God, who is\nthe sun himself: these are called _Agni Pram\u00e1na_;[429] \u201cthe professors\nof fire.\u201d They believe also the other stars proceed from its radiance,\nand that the earthly fire is an emanation of its rays; they venerate\nevery sort of fire, through the mediation of which they think access\nto the sun may be obtained.\n\nAnother sect, the _Pavana bhakta_,[430] or \u201cworshippers of the wind,\u201d\nbelieve that the substance of God is air, and this also the\nintellectual soul.\n\nThe _Jala bhakta_,[431] or \u201cworshippers of water,\u201d hold water to be\nthe representative of the being of God, on which account they pay\nveneration to the rivers and flowing streams.\n\nThe _Prithivi bhakta_[432] are \u201cworshippers of the earth,\u201d which they\nbelieve to be the substance of God worthy of their adoration.\n\nAnother sect, called _Trip\u00fajas_,[433] worship the three kingdoms of\nnature, in which every place and whatever presents itself to their\nview, becomes an object of their veneration.\n\nThe _Manushya bhakta_,[434] or \u201cworshippers of mankind,\u201d recognise the\nbeing of God in man; they know no being more perfect than mankind, and\nthink that it contains nothing of a bad nature.\n\nA particular sect is to be found in Kash\u00edal, a place in the\nmountainous province of Kachmir. They worship idols; the son takes the\nproperty acquired by his father to himself; but leaves whatever he\ngains to his sons, so that it may be the firewood belonging to his\nfather that may burn his body. When one of them dies, a barber from\nwithout the house goes before the dead, and then brings the message\nthat such a one wants something for a meal, upon which they go to work\nto prepare it; and this society is kept up for some days; then, they\nburn the dead; after cremation, they erect over his ashes an image of\nstone, one half of which is male, and the other female; and when no\nson of his remains, they marry his wife with a column of the house,\nand whoever comes upon a visit of condolence, has intercourse with the\nwoman until a son be produced, and to him the inheritance is bestowed.\nThis sect have no regard for the life of animals.\n\nAnother sect exists in the mountains of Kachmir, with the name of\n_Durds_. Among them it is customary for brothers to have but one wife;\noccasionally they sell house, land, wife, and children; whoever buys\nthe house owns all these; they also pawn their wife. Some of them,\neven when they become Muselmans, still adhere to this custom. They\nalso do not spare animals.\n\nFurther to be noticed in Hindostan is the tribe of _Dhaids_, one of\nthe lowest classes of men; they eat every thing but men; they worship\nthe sun. The author of this book met one day in Sikakul, in the\ndistrict of Kalinga, one of these men, whose name was N\u00e1ga, and asked\nhim: \u201cWho are the best men among all the tribes?\u201d The man answered:\n\u201cThe _Dhaids_,\u201d and subjoined: \u201cWhen they leave the body, they unite\nwith God; when a Brahman dies, he becomes a cow; when a Muselman\nexpires, he is transformed into a plant.\u201d I enquired further: \u201cIf the\nDhaids be so highly favoured by God, why should they eat every thing\nwhich they find, the flesh of cows, horses, mice, and the like?\u201d The\nman replied: \u201cIt is because God loves this tribe that he gave them\nthis command: \u2018Eat whatever you like.\u2019\u201d\n\nThe _Choharas_ are now to be mentioned, known in Hindostan as cleaners\nof privies and sweepers of the ground; and in the exercise of this\nprofession they visit the houses. They say, their master was Shah\nJhuna; he, in one hand a besom of gold, and in the other a basket of\nsilver, cleans now in the fourth heaven the house of God, and sweeps\nthe apartments of the Highest. This tribe too eat every thing as the\nDhaids.\n\nThe N\u00e2nac-Panthians,[435] who are known as composing the nation of the\nSikhs, have neither idols nor temples of idols. _N\u00e2nac_ belonged to\nthe tribe of B\u00e9d\u00edans, who are Kshatriyas. His reputation rose in the\ntime of Zehir-ed-din Baber Padshah[436] (who inhabits heaven).\nBefore the victory of this king over the Afghans, N\u00e2nac was a\ngrain-factor[437] of Daulet khan Lodi,[438] who ranked among the\ndistinguished Umras of Ibrahim Khan, the sovereign of Hindostan.\n\nA durvish came to N\u00e2nac, and subdued his mind in such a manner that\nhe, N\u00e2nac, having entered the granary, gave away the property of\nDaulet-Khan, and his own, whatever he found there and in his house,\nand abandoned his wife and children. Daulet Khan was struck with\nastonishment at hearing this, but, recognising in N\u00e2nac the mark of a\ndurvish, he withheld his hand from hurting him.[439] In a short time\nNanac made a great progress in piety; at first he took little\nnourishment; afterwards he allowed himself but to taste a little\ncow-milk; next a little oil; then nothing but water, and at last he\ntook nothing but air: such men the Hindus call _pavana haris_.[440]\n\nNanac had a great number of disciples. He professed the unity of God,\nwhich is called the law of Muhammed, and believed the metempsychosis,\nor transmigration of the soul from one body to another. Having\nprohibited his disciples to drink wine and to eat pork, he himself\nabstained from eating flesh, and ordered not to hurt any living being.\nAfter him, this precept was neglected by his followers; but _Arjun\nmal_, one of the substitutes of his faith, as soon as he found that it\nwas wrong, renewed the prohibition to eat flesh, and said: \u201cThis has\nnot been approved by N\u00e2nac.\u201d Afterwards, Hargovind, son of Arjunmal,\neat flesh, and went to hunt, and his followers imitated his example.\n\nNanac praised the religion of the Muselmans, as well as the Avatars\nand the divinities of the Hindus; but he knew that these objects of\nveneration were created and not creators, and he denied their real\ndescent _from heaven_, and their union _with mankind_. It is said that\nhe wore the rosary of the Muselmans in his hand, and the Zunar, or the\nreligious thread of the Hindus, around his neck.[441] Some of his\ndistinguished disciples report of him more than can here find room.\n\nOne of these reports is, that Nanac, being dissatisfied with the\nAfghans, called the Moghuls into the country, so that in the year 932\nof the Hejira (A. D. 1525) Zehir ed-din Baber padshah (who is in\nheaven) gained the victory over Ibrahim, the king of the Afghans.[442]\nThey say also that Nanac, during one of his journeys,[443] finding\nhimself one night in a fort, was absorbed in a vision of God. Children\nplayed around him, and some put their hands upon his body, without any\nmotion being perceived in him; they sewed his eye-lids, his nostrils,\nand his flesh together, and tied his hands fast. When Nanac recovered\nhis senses, he found himself in this state, and went to a neighbouring\nhouse, at the threshold of which he called out: \u201cHo! is there any body\nin the house who may free my eye-lids sewed together and my hands?\u201d A\nhandsome woman, having conducted him into the house, untied his hands\nand tore the threads by which his eye-lids were sewed together with\nher teeth asunder, on which account the color of the mark of the\nwoman\u2019s caste remained upon Nanac\u2019s forehead. After his having left\nthe house, the neighbours saw the mark, and supposed his having had an\nintimate connexion with the woman; wherefore she was abused by the\npeople and repudiated by her husband.\n\nThis woman came one day to Nanac, and said: \u201cI have, upon the way of\nGod, rendered thee a service, and now they revile me for it.\u201d Nanac\nanswered: \u201cTo-morrow will the gate of the fort be shut, but shall not\nbe opened unless thou appliest thy hand to it.\u201d The next day, in spite\nof all efforts to open the gate, they could not succeed, and remained\nin great consternation. Men and beasts, far from water, could not go\nout to fetch it. The inhabitants addressed themselves to all men who\nhad a reputation for sanctity, but their prayers were in vain. At last\nthey had recourse to Nanac, and said: \u201cO durvish, what is there to be\ndone?\u201d He answered: \u201cThe gate shall not be opened except by the hand\nof a woman who never lost her virtue with a stranger.\u201d The inhabitants\nbrought all the women who had a reputation for chastity to the gate of\nthe fort, but it remained shut: on that account they sat down\nhopeless. At the time of evening prayer came at last the friend of\nBaba Nanac to the gate. The people laughed at her; her husband and her\nrelations were ashamed and abused her. The woman, without listening to\nthe speeches of the people, struck the gate with her hand and it\nopened. All men were astonished and ashamed: they fell at the feet of\nthe woman.\n\nThe _b\u00e1ni_,[444] that is to say the poems, of N\u00e2nac, are, as it were,\nperfumed with devotion and wisdom, still more can this be said of his\nspeeches about the grandeur and sanctity of God. All is in the\nlanguage of the _Jats_ of the Panjab, and _Jat_ in the dialect of the\nPenjab, means a villager or a rustic.\n\nN\u00e2nac\u2019s disciples are not conversant with the Sanscrit language. The\nprecepts and regulations which N\u00e2nac established among them will be\nexplained hereafter.\n\nN\u00e2nac said in his poems that there are several heavens and earths; and\nthat prophets, and saints, and those that are supposed to have\ndescended from above (avat\u00e1rs), and persons distinguished by piety,\nobtain perfection by zeal in the service of God; that whoever devotes\nhimself to the veneration of God, whatever road he may choose, will\ncome to God, and that the means to this is, to avoid hurting any\nliving being.\n\n       \u201cBe true and thou shalt be free;\n   Truth belongs to thee, and thy success to the Creator.\u201d[445]\n\nN\u00e1nac left children in the Penj-ab,[446] they are called _Kartaris_;\nbut according to the opinion of some, he had no offspring. They say\nthat, after N\u00e1nac\u2019s decease, his place was by his order occupied by\nthe Guru _Angad_, of the Sr\u00edn tribe of Kshatriyas; next succeeded the\nGuru _Amaradas_, of the tribe of the Bhol\u00e1y\u00ed-Kshatriyas; after him\ncame the Guru _R\u00e1ma-das_, who was of the S\u00f3dah\u00ed-Kshatriyas, and also\ncalled the Sr\u00ed-guru. R\u00e1ma-das, dying, left his dignity to his son\n_Arjunmal_. During the life of this Guru, the Sikhs, that is to say,\nhis followers grew great in number and in faith. They said, B\u00e1b\u00e1 N\u00e2nac\nis a god, and the world his creation; but N\u00e1nac in his poems reckons\nhimself a servant of God, and he calls God _Nar\u00e1njen_ (Nar\u00e1yana),\n_Parabrahma_, and _Permaisher_ (Param\u00e9svara), who is without a body,\nand has nothing corporeal, nor deigns to be united with a bodily\nframe. The Sikhs say that N\u00e1nac, in the same manner, had been without\na real body, but visible by the power of his individuality,[447] and\nthey believe that, when N\u00e2nac expired,[448] his spirit became\nincarnate in the person of _Angad_,[449] who attended him as his\nconfidential servant. Angad, at his death, transmitted his soul into\nthe body of _Amara das_;[450] and thus Guru, in the same manner,\nconveyed his spirit into the body of _R\u00e1ma-das_;[451] whose soul\ntransmigrated into the person of _Arjunmal_;[452] in short, they\nbelieve that, with a mere change of name, N\u00e2nac the First became N\u00e2nac\nthe Second, and so on, to the Fifth, in the person of Arjunmal. They\nsay, that whoever does not recognise in Arjunmal the true B\u00e1b\u00e1 N\u00e2nac,\nis an unbeliever; they have a number of tales about the founder of\ntheir sect, and assert that B\u00e1b\u00e1 N\u00e2nac, in a former world, was the\nradja Janak.[453]\n\nWhen Sakha-daiv (Saha d\u00e9va),[454] the son of Bai\u00e1s (Vyasa), a\nrakhaisher (rakshasa), came to Janak, in order to learn from him the\npath of God, he found the r\u00e1ja, who had thrown one of his feet into\nthe fire; men on foot and on horseback formed a file; Nawabs and\nVizirs were busy about the affairs of the state; elephants and horses\npresented themselves to the view. Saha d\u00e9v thought in his mind that\nsuch occupations and worldly concerns were unbecoming so pious a man.\nThe r\u00e1ja, who was skilled in penetrating the hearts of others, found\nit out, and employing the power of magic, he caused fire to fall upon\nthe houses, so that at last all the horses and fine palaces were\nburnt. The r\u00e1ja seemed neither to hear, nor to see, nor to care any\nthing about what happened, until the fire reached the house where he\nand Saha d\u00e9v were. Janak did not throw one look upon it. The fire fell\nupon the wooden cup, which they call there _kermandel_,[455] and which\nSaha d\u00e9v used for drinking water. He now, senseless, jumped from his\nplace, and took hold of his kermandel. The r\u00e1ja smiled, and said to\nhim: \u201cAll my people, and all this, my property, were burnt; my heart\nwas not bound to them; wherefore I let them be consumed, and feel no\npain about them; but thou, on account of thy kermandel, jumpedst\nsenseless from thy place. It is now clear whose heart is bound to the\nthings of this world.\u201d Saha d\u00e8v was ashamed of his having been\ndisturbed. This tale was heard from the followers of N\u00e2nac.\n\nThe history of Janak and of Saha d\u00e9v is contained in the _Jog\nbashest_,[456] which is one of the principal books of the Hindus, in\nthe following manner: Bisv\u00e1miter (Vi\u015bvamitra)[457] in presence of the\nRakshasas addressed this speech to R\u00e1ma chander: \u201cO Rama chander,\nvenerate thy father and mother; thou who issuedst from them so\nbeautiful, thou hast accomplished thy task; by the goodness of thy\nnature and by the purity of thy character, thou hast polished the\nmirror of thy heart, and given it such a brightness, that the\nperfection o God is manifest in it; the success which a zealous\ndisciple obtains, after many difficulties and pious exercises under\nthe direction and instruction of a Rakshasa, during a long period of\ntime, that success became thy share without trouble; thine became the\nscience to be acquired; and thine is, even in this life, the\nemancipation in the form of Saha d\u00e8v, the son of Vy\u00e1sa. He, thy\nfather, on account of the excellence of his pure form and of his\ndivine nature, having come forth wise from the womb of his mother,\nwithout any assistance manifested his perfection, and on account of\nthe clearness of his intellect, whatever on the way of his journey,\nwas accessible to wisdom and excellence, was open to his looks, and no\nveil nor curtain remained before him; nevertheless, even with such\nadvantages, he was inquisitive with Rakshasas and wise men in matters\nof theology, so that these personages, or pious penitents, gave him\ndirections and lessons, and offered him their advice with alacrity.\nThus am I ready to give thee some instruction, and communicate some\nprecepts of wisdom to thee.\u201d Therefore R\u00e1machander inquired of\nVisv\u00e1miter: \u201cAs Saha d\u00e8v brought the full measure of wisdom from the\nbody of his mother, and as his nature was endowed with such\nperfection, my prayer is, that you may favor me with an explicit\naccount of him, and explain to me by what means he procured to himself\nthe advice of the wise, and in what manner the Rakshasas imparted\ninstruction to him.\u201d Visv\u00e1miter replied: \u201cO Rama chander, thy\ncondition is as fortunate as that of Saha d\u00e8v; such was his dignity\nand excellence, that men, by listening to his tale, feel themselves\nemancipated, and are no more subject to be born again. O Ramachander,\nhe too was impressed with the idea that in no condition this world is\npermanent, but that all that is seen changes every moment, and passes\nfrom one state to another. One guest arrives and comes into the world,\nanother dies and goes out of the world; the one is agitated with\ndistress, the other is quiet; the one exulting, the other overcome\nwith grief; in short, whoever and whatever exists in this world is\nliable to change; there is not the least hope of firmness and\nsteadiness, and nothing is worthy to bind our hearts. But that which\nis firm and steady, deserves that we attach our hearts to it, and that\nwe perpetually are mindful of, and fix our thoughts and meditate upon\nit. Nothing however is firm and steady but the pure being of _Brahma_,\nthat is to say, the supreme and true entity of God. Moreover, whoever\ndirects his mind solely towards the divinity, will attain the\nknowledge of it, and render himself perfectly free from the desires of\nthe heart, and from the pleasures of the body, which tend to swell and\nto fetter the soul. And like the bird _P\u00e1p\u00eeh\u00e1_,[458] which is fond of\nthe water which falls from the cloud _N\u00e1is\u00e1n_,[459] and does not taste\nof any other liquid from river or well, but thirsting only for drops\nfrom the cloud N\u00e1isan, is taken up with the search for them; thus Saha\nd\u00e9v, having made himself independent and free from all desires and\nallurements, was always immersed in the contemplation of Brahma, and\nhaving dissolved his own being in the reality of God, he knew Brahma,\nand attained the state of absolute repose and quietness. When he thus\nbecame a master of excellence, and as perfect as other rakshasas, then\nhe felt the desire of his heart accomplished, and with a mind more\nsplendid than the moon of a fortnight, he passed through the troubles\nof life, according to the words of the prophet: \u2018With a heavenly mind\nupon the carpet of eternity.\u2019\u201d\n\nOne day, during a pleasure excursion in this world, he happened to\nreach the mountain Sumair,[460] that is _Alburz_, which in Arabia, is\ncalled _K\u00e1f_.[461] Upon the top of this mountain, he saw his father\nVy\u00e1sa, who in a cavern was occupied with the contemplation of Brahma.\nHaving saluted his father according to the custom of the Hindus, he\nasked him: \u201cMy worthy father, you who possess the knowledge of the\nsupreme being, inform me in what manner this knowledge of the unity of\nGod is diffused in the multitude, in what way the creatures of this\nworld obtain their forms, to what period their existence is extended,\nwhat is the cause of their duration, and how their existence happens\nto be renewed several times, in order that I may possess proper\nnotions of the state of this world, and that I may unravel this\nmystery to myself.\u201d\n\nVy\u00e1sa, according to the desire of his son, explained the original\nstate of the creation in clear words; but as the mind of the sage was\ninvolved in his own thoughts, and occupied with the contemplation of\nBrahma, he gave only a short account of the creation and of the\ndevelopment of this world to Saha d\u00e9v, who did not derive an entire\nsatisfaction from it. Vy\u00e1sa knew his thoughts, and said: \u201cO son, my\nmind being immersed in the study and in the contemplation of God, I\ncannot, for want of time, impart to thee at present distinctly the\naccount which thou desirest; but I will put thee in the way by which\nthou mayst arrive at the satisfaction of thy heart, and I will send\nthee to a man who will gratify thee. Know then, that in the country of\nTirhut[462] is a town called M\u00edthila, and there resides Janaka, the\nR\u00e1ja, who is an excellent man, and possesses incomparable knowledge.\nGo to him, and engage him to satisfy thy heart. He will give thee an\nexplicit account of the creation of the world from beginning to end.\u201d\nSaha d\u00e9v, according to the direction of his father, having left him,\nwent into Tirhut, to the town of Mithila. He saw a city populous, and\ndelightfully built; the soldiers content with the R\u00e1ja, and the rayots\n(country people) happy and satisfied. Nobody complained at that time\nof his lot: in the evening every one laid down in his corner, and at\nday-break attended the court of R\u00e1ja Janaka. The guards at the door\nobserved Saha d\u00e9v, _tapas\u00ed_, that is, a pious adorer of God, the son\nof Vy\u00e1sa, who stood at the gate and asked entrance. The r\u00e1ja Janaka,\nbefore he received the report of it, knew from inward knowledge and\nfrom the light of his mind, the purpose of Saha-d\u00e9v\u2019s mind; but in\norder to try his character, and to put his sincerity and his\nindividuality to the test, he took no notice of the appearance of the\nstranger. Saha-d\u00e9v, who had come near him, remained there one day and\none night. On the next day, Janaka set about his business; the great\nand the vulgar appeared before him. This day too, and the following\neight days and eight nights the r\u00e1ja did not address any question to\nSaha d\u00e9v, who remained in his place without saying a word to any body.\nThe eighth day, the r\u00e1ja Janak, when he saw that Saha-d\u00e9v stood the\ntest by shewing the mark of excellence and betraying no unsteadiness,\nhe ordered that the stranger should be introduced into the interior of\nthe palace and into the private apartments. Beforehand, he enjoined\nthe maids of the bed-chamber and all the people of the palace that, on\nSaha-d\u00e9v\u2019s arrival, they should place before him all sorts of\nexquisite viands and agreeable perfumes, and whatever might allure the\nmind, and that they should endeavour to fascinate and to madden him.\nWhen Saha d\u00e9v, by order of the r\u00e1ja Janaka, had entered the private\napartments, handsome women brought before him from all sides delicious\nmeats, and garments, and every thing that was attracting, and showed\nhim great respect; after humble prostrations, they placed him in an\nelegant apartment. During other seven days and nights the r\u00e1ja did not\nappear before him. The people of the inner apartments, according to\nthe r\u00e1ja\u2019s orders, did what they could in a thousand different ways to\nplease him: they approached him, clasped their hands with his, rubbed\nhis hands and feet; they served and tempted him by four principal\nmeans, namely: first, by the splendour of handsome maids; secondly, by\noffering him whatever may charm the senses; thirdly, by tokens of\nrespect, and fourthly, by rubbing his hands and feet. Their intent\nwas, if there remained any human feeling in him, to rouse it up. Saha\nd\u00e9v, like a mountain that is not moved by any wind, stood firm; he\ntook notice of nothing, and threw not even a look upon the beautiful\nmoon-faced damsels about him. The r\u00e1ja Janaka, when informed that not\nthe least trace of human feeling, lust, or desire had remained in the\nyoung man, and that he had freed himself from the fetters of error and\nsensuality, ran without hesitation from the place where he was, and\ntouched the feet of Saha d\u00e9v, saying: \u201cBe thou happy, O rakshasa! who\nart united with the supreme spirit, and in whom has remained no trace\nof the qualities of water, earth, and of human nature, thou, who hast\nacquired whatever may be desirable to thy regeneration: for thou\npossessest the knowledge of God. Now, tell me, with what intention\ndidst thou come to me, and what dost thou expect from our meeting?\u201d\nSaha d\u00e9v replied to the r\u00e1ja: \u201cMy intention in coming here was to\nobtain from thee a true account of the creation; in what manner this\nworld came forth from the unity of the divine being, and how from him,\nthe One, proceeded the duality and multiplicity of forms. Explain this\nto me, and impress it distinctly upon my mind. Although I received\nfrom my father some true notion of the creation of this world, and\nalthough, from the interior light and from the purity of heart which I\nhave acquired by my devotion, the truth of the great question presents\nitself to my mind, yet I desire instruction from thee, and hope to\nreceive it from thy tongue.\u201d The r\u00e1ja Janak revealed to Saha d\u00e9v,\naccording to his wish, the history of the creation of the world. After\nthat Saha d\u00e9v said again to the r\u00e1ja: \u201cO king! it is certain that\nbetween steady, wise, and learned men there is no contradiction; so\ndoes the account of the origin of the world, which I have heard from\nmy father Vy\u00e1sa, and which I have well impressed upon my mind, agree\nwith that which thy tongue has communicated to me. The substance of it\nis, that the creation of the world and the existence of its\ninhabitants took place by the will and by the disposition of Brahma,\nand according to the purpose of the supreme being, and that, when it\nis the desire of Brahma, the world is created, and when the supreme\nbeing finds it right to withdraw h\u00edmself from the circle of beings,\nthe world returns to nothing, and its inhabitants are again enveloped\nwith the veil of nothingness and voidness, and nothing remains but\nGod. In like manner is the existence of all bodies connected with the\nwill of the divine spirit, so that every being in dependence upon this\nwill, and in conformity with the principles of its own nature, each\ntime comes into, and goes out of, the world, or is born and dies. It\nis when the worldly desires, connections, and concerns are\nannihilated, that a man no more returns to nor leaves this world;\nbirth and death upon this earth no more concern him, because the ties\nformed by his desires are broken.\u201d Saha d\u00e9v continued: \u201cO r\u00e1ja, what\nthou hast said, is impressed upon my mind; but tell me, if there\nremains any thing, however minute it may be, of the account of this\nworld; this too I wish to hear.\u201d The r\u00e1ja Janaka said: \u201cThe account of\nthe world is such as thou hast heard. That holy being, without a name,\nwithout a mark, without an equal, is pure and free from lust and\ndesire, and his providence brings forth this world. He, the one\nperfect being, in what a multitude of beings does he not manifest\nhimself! And if he removes from this creation the support of his will\nand of his providence, nothing remains but himself, the only being. O\nSaha d\u00e9v, thou who hast purified thy heart from the attachments of\nthis body, and liberated it from all desires and seductive\npropensities, thou hast convinced thyself of the trut that, whatever\nappears before our eyes, is nothing, and has neither reality nor\nsubstance; what was to be performed, thou hast accomplished it; what\nwas to be known, thou hast acquired it, and thou hast proved thyself\ntrue; on that account thou art, even in thy life-time, possessed of\n_mukt_ (emancipation); that is to say: as a person, when the soul has\nleft his body, is freed from the want of aliment, so hast thou,\nalthough still in the state of life and health, been liberated from\nall bodily wants.[463] Happy be thy life! blessed be thy age, O Saha\nd\u00e9v!\u201d\n\nVi\u015bvamitra continued: \u201cO Ramachander, thou hast acquired the same\nknowledge as Saha d\u00e9v; in the same manner as he abandoned all desires,\nsubdued all the appetites of his five senses, and possessed perfect\nfreedom, in the same manner thou must not permit any sort of desire to\nenter in thy heart.[464] There is no other means of _mukt_ but this:\nto this thou must tend.\u201d[465]\n\nAfter that he addressed the rakshasas and all those who were present,\nin the following speech: \u201cO rakshasas! and you who seek the road of\nGod, know that, as Ramachander, by the purity of his nature and by the\ngoodness of his disposition, raised himself to the highest dignity,\nnot less ought to be the excellence of all the wise who are destined\nto the acquisition of _mukt_; thirsting for the knowledge of the\nhighest, they ought to listen to the speeches of all those who devote\nthemselves to God; nay, the truth and the faith, which Ramachander\npossessed, ought to be common, and productive of the same consolation\nand tranquillity to all those who, not in vain, aspire to wisdom and\nsanctity. I have imparted to Ramachander what I knew to be the best;\nnow is the time of _Bashest_ (Vas ishta), who attained such a\nperfection of a rakshasa, that nothing that is, was, and will be, is\nconcealed to him, and he has no equal in the world.\u201d So far goes the\ntext of _Jog bahest_.[466]\n\nThe Guru N\u00e1nac, according to the belief of his followers, was in\nformer times the r\u00e1ja called Janak, and united the dignity of a king\nwith that of a saint. He called mankind to God. The author of this\nwork heard from distinguished Sikhs that, when B\u00e1ba N\u00e1nac appeared in\nthe Sat-jog, a great number of Sikhs assembled around him. He sent a\ncow into the kitchen. When prepared, it was brought into the assembly;\nsome ate of it, others were afraid to do so. The Guru prayed to God\nthat the cow might rise again, and all those who had been afraid,\nbeholding this miracle, approached him praying: \u201cNow we shall eat\nwhatever you order.\u201d N\u00e1nac answered: \u201cNot now be it so: mine and your\nengagement prevails in the Tr\u00e8ta-Jog.\u201d Afterwards, at the revolution\nof the Tr\u00e8ta-jog, the Guru appeared. The disciples assembled; then a\nslaughtered horse was brought into the assembly in the manner before\nsaid. Some ate of it; others abstained from it. The Guru prayed, and\nthe horse was brought to life. Those who had been afraid prayed as\nbefore. He replied again: \u201cYour word and mine are engaged for the\nDw\u00e1par-jog.\u201d In this age they brought a slaughtered elephant into the\nassembly of his followers. The same happened as I said before, and he\nappointed them for the Kali-jog. In this age, they say, a man was\nbrought into the assembly; whoever ate, became free; who abstained\nfrom it, remained subject to durance, and some of the Sikhs call N\u00e1nac\nthe slave of God.\n\nIt is also related that, when N\u00e2nac died, in the Sat-jog, two roads\nopened before his soul: the one led to heaven, the other to hell.\nN\u00e2nac chose the latter, and having descended below, he brought all the\ninhabitants out of hell. The Lord God said to him: \u201cThese sinners\ncannot enter heaven; you must return into the world and liberate\nthem.\u201d On that account N\u00e2nac came to this world, and his followers are\nthe former inhabitants of hell; the Guru comes and goes, until that\nmultitude shall have found their salvation.\n\nExcept the zealots among the Sikhs, no man else believes B\u00e1b\u00e1 N\u00e2nac a\ngod. As to the rest, N\u00e2nac\u2019s followers condemn idolatry, and believe\nthat all their Gurus are N\u00e2nacs, as was said before. They do not\nrecite the mantras of the Hindus, they do not venerate their temples,\nnor do they esteem their Avat\u00e1rs. The Sanscrit language, which\naccording to the Hindus is the language of the gods, is not held in\nsuch great estimation by the Sikhs. Whatever it be, the number of\nthese sectaries increased every where, so that, in the time of the\nGuru Arjunmal it became very considerable, and at last there was no\nplace in any country where Sikhs were not to be found. They make no\ndifference between Brahmans and Kshatriyas, for N\u00e2nac was a Kshatriya,\nand none of their Gurus was a Brahman, as stated above. Thus they\nsubjected the Kshatriyas to the tribe of Jats,[467] who are an\ninferior caste of Baisas (Vi\u015bas). The deputies of the Gurus are\nbesides frequently Jats. They honour equally Brahmans and Kshatriyas.\nThe Guru is chosen at the discretion of his followers. It should be\nknown that, in the time of the Afghan sultans, the Umras were called\nsuccessors or deputies of Ali; finally, for the sake of brevity, the\nname of deputy (masnad) alone was used by the Hindus. The Sikhs call\n_masnad_, and also _R\u00e1madas_, the Guru whom they esteem as a king of\nthe true faith.\n\nBefore the fifth period no tribute was exacted from the Sikhs, but\npresents were given by them according to their own discretion, to\ntheir Gurus. Arjunmal sent in his time a person to the Sikhs of each\ntown in order to collect a tribute; in that manner, the Sikhs\naccustomed themselves to the government of a masnad, or deputy. Their\nprincipal deputies, of whom there was a great number, elected on their\npart deputies, so that such substitutes were to be found in every\nplace. The Sikhs created their Gurus, and established that an\n_audasi_,[468] or one that has abandoned the world, is not to be\nesteemed higher than any other man. On that account, some of their\nGurus are inclined to agriculture, others to commerce, and to various\ntrades and occupations. Each of them brings every year something,\naccording to his means, to his Guru; the deputy receives a present\nwithout exacting it; others collect what is destined every year to the\ndeputy, and deliver it to the chief man of the Guru, who disposes of\nit for his own maintenance and for other contingencies; no body incurs\nblame on account of presents (or contributions): being raised from all\nquarters, they are forwarded to the Guru.\n\nIn the month of February, when the sun is in the sign of the Bull, the\nsubordinate Gurus come to their chief with those of their followers\nwho choose to accompany them. At the time of taking leave, each\nreceives a turban as a present from the deputy.\n\nHaving recorded truly something of the Sikhs in general, I will now\ngive an account of the chiefs of this tribe whom I have known myself.\nIn the sixth period lived Sri Guru Har-govind, the son of the Guru\nArjun mal. The Padshah Nur-ed-din Jehangir,[469] now an inhabitant of\nheaven, called to his court Arjun-mal, on account of his having\noffered prayers for the king\u2019s son Khusro, who had rebelled against\nhis father. Khusro having been taken, the king ordered the\nimprisonment of Arjun-mal, and wanted to extort a large sum of money\nfrom him. The Guru was helpless; they kept him a prisoner in the sandy\ncountry of Lahore, until he died of the heat of the sun and of ill\ntreatment. This happened in the year 1015 of the Hejira (A. D.\n1606).[470] In like manner the king banished from Hindostan the Shaikh\nNezam Th\u00e1nas\u00edr, because he had been connected with, and had prayed\nfor, his son Khusro.\n\nAfter Arjunmal followed his brother Baratha,[471] whom his followers\ncalled \u201cthe benevolent Guru.\u201d Now, in the year 1055 of the Hejira (A.\nD. 1645), the Guru _Harjayi_ occupies his place. They both professed\nthe adoration of one God. The disciples of the Guru Har-govind, son of\nArjunmal, called these Gurus Main\u00e1 [472](\u0646\u0645\u064a\u0646\u0627) which among them is an\noprobrious name. After the decease of Arjunmal, his son, Har-govind,\nalso made pretensions to the khalifat (deputyship), and obtained the\nplace of his father.[473] Hargovind was always attached to the stirrup\nof the victorious Jehangir. He became involved in many difficulties;\none of them was, that he appropriated to himself the pay due to the\nsoldiers in advance; he carried also the sword against his father; he\nkept besides many servants, and was addicted to hunting. Jehangir, on\naccount of the money due to the army, and of the mulet imposed upon\nArjunmal (as was said before), sent Har-govind to the fort of\nGwalior,[474] where he remained imprisoned twelve years. He was not\npermitted to eat a good meal. During that time the deputies and other\nSikhs used to come and bow before the walls of the fort. At last,\nmoved by pity, the king granted him liberty. After Jehangir\u2019s death,\nHar-govind entered the service of his majesty Am\u00edr-ul M\u00fanen\u00een\nAbu-ul-muzafer shah\u00e1b ed-din Muhammed saheb Keran sani shah Jehan, the\nvictorious king. When the Guru returned to Batnesh, which is a\ndistrict of the Penjab, he attached himself to Yar Khan, the eunuch,\nwho held the office of a Foujdar[475] in the Nawab\u00ed of the Penjab, and\nwhom he assisted in the administration. Har-govind returned to\nR\u00e1madasp\u00far, where the Gurus R\u00e1madas and Arjun-mal had built great\nedifices and dug tanks. There he sustained an attack of the army which\nShah jehan, the shadow of God, sent against him, and the Guru\u2019s\nproperty was then plundered. From thence he fled to Kartarp\u00far; there\ntoo war reached him, and on this occasion M\u00edr Badherah, and P\u00e1indah\nKhan, the son of Fattah Khan Gan\u00e1ida, found their death. Before and\nafter this, he encountered great dangers of war, but with the aid of\nGod he escaped unhurt, although he lost his property. It is related by\none, Sadah by name, that in this war a man aimed a blow at the Guru,\nwho parried it, and struck him with his blade, saying: \u201cNot in that\nmanner, but so the sword is used;\u201d and with one blow he made an end of\nhis foe. One of the companions of the Guru asked the author of this\nwork: \u201cWhat was the purport of the words by which the Guru accompanied\nhis blow?\u201d I said: \u201cIt was to give instruction, as it belongs to a\nGuru to teach also how to strike a blow with a sword; for a Guru is\ncalled a teacher: he did not strike out of anger, which would have\nbeen blameable.\u201d At last he retired from the war of Kartarp\u00far to\nBhagw\u00e1rah, and because there, in the vicinity of Lahore, he met with\ndifficulties, he betook himself from thence in haste to Gerait p\u00far,\nwhich lies in the mountainous district of the Penjab, and was then\ndependent upon the r\u00e1ja T\u00e1rachand, who had never paid homage to the\np\u00e1dsh\u00e1h Shah Jehan. The inhabitants of this country adore idols. Upon\nthe summit of a fortified mountain, they raised an image of the D\u00e9va,\nnamed _N\u00e2ina_ (Nar\u00e1yana). R\u00e1jas and other eminent persons made\npilgrimages to this place. At the time when the Guru came there, one\nof the Sikhs, called Bhairo, who accompanied him, entered the temple\nand struck off the nose of the idol. The r\u00e1jas, having been informed\nof it, came to the Guru to complain of the act, and named the man who\ndid it. The Guru called Bhairo before him. The Sikh denied the deed.\nThe servants of the r\u00e1jas declared: \u201cWe know the man.\u201d He replied: \u201cO\nr\u00e1jas, ask you the god: if he tells you my name, kill me.\u201d The r\u00e1jas\nsaid: \u201cYou blockhead! how shall the god speak?\u201d Bhairo laughed and\nanswered: \u201cNow it is clear who is the blockhead: if the god cannot\ndefend his head, nor point out the man who struck him, what benefit do\nyou expect from him, and why do you venerate his strength?\u201d The r\u00e1jas\nremained silent and confounded. From this time, the disciples of the\nGuru increased considerably, and in this mountainous country, as far\nas the frontiers of Thibet and Khota, the name of Muselman was not\nheard.\n\nThe author of this work heard what follows from the tongue of Guru\nHar-govind: \u201cA mighty r\u00e1ja exists in the north or this mountainous\ncountry. One day he sent me an ambassador who asked information,\nsaying: \u2018I have heard that there is a town named Delhi; what is the\nname of its r\u00e1ja, and whose son is he?\u2019 I was astonished to hear that\nhe did not know even the name of Am\u00edr ul M\u00famen\u00edn saheb Karan s\u00e1ni\n(Jehang\u00edr).\u201d The Guru had eight hundred horses in his stable, three\nhundred troopers on horseback, and sixty men with fire-arms were\nalways in his service. Among these some carried on commerce, and other\ntrades and occupations. Whoever was a fugitive from his home took\nrefuge with him.\n\nThe Guru believed but one God. A person desired from him some account\nof the creation and the constitution of this world. The Guru said:\n\u201cThe universe is an appearance without reality, and an unsubstantial\nmanifestation of God, the highest being; and all bodies, as well as\ngods, are an idle illusion. I will tell thee, said he, a story of old\ntimes: There was a king who went to hunt the _h\u00e1tah jori_, which in\nthe Turkish language is called _kamer ghah_, and in Persian _barah\nshikar_, \u2018a fawn of the chace.\u2019 A deer came into the circle of the\nhunting party. The king said: \u2018On whose side the deer will come forth,\nlet him not return before me until he has taken it with his hand.\u2019 By\nfate, the animal came out on the side of the king. Khusro run after it\nuntil he was far from the army, and reached a place where, on account\nof thick wood, he could not find a path. The king was glad to think\nthe deer would now return towards him; but when he came near it, there\nwas a small opening through which the game escaped. The king sharply\npushed on his horse, which, contracting itself, passed through the\nthicket; but the p\u00e1dsh\u00e1h was taken by two branches, and his arms and\nfeet fastened so as if it had been purposely brought about. He\nremained two days in such a state, until two persons, a man and a\nwoman, who were gathering wood, arrived near him. The woman said to\nher husband: \u2018Look! the king has hanged a thief.\u2019 The man replied:\n\u2018This is not a place for hanging; we must examine it nearer.\u2019 When\nthey had approached, they saw and recognised the king, and said to\neach other: \u2018If we release him, it will be of use to us.\u2019 The woman\nobserved: \u2018He is the king; once made free, what advantage will he\ngrant us for it? If he promises to marry our daughter, we will release\nhim.\u2019 They said so to the king, who promied what they desired. After\nthat, they liberated him, brought him to their house, and gave him\ntheir daughter. He remained there some time, and then joined his army.\nWhen he wanted to enter his palace, the door-keeper struck him with\nhis stick; the king was seized with a trembling and awoke. He saw the\nhigh throne and the servants before him waiting for his orders. By\nthis dream he was aroused from the emptiness of his illusion; he knew\nthat the world is but an appearance without reality; and that,\nwhatever we experience, being awake, is likewise nothing more than a\ndream. He found that the diversity of forms and of distinct bodies is\nbut an image of existence, and that in truth there is but one real\nbeing, one praiseworthy, and raised above all others by superlative\nexcellence.\u201d\n\nOne of the Brahmans was called D\u00e9va, and counted himself among the\nwise. He visited the Guru, and seated himself one day upon the bed of\nB\u00e1ba J\u00e9v, who was the son of a Guru. The people said: \u201cDo not sit\nthere.\u201d He asked: \u201cWhy not?\u201d They answered: \u201cThis is the place of the\nGuru.\u201d He said: \u201cIs perhaps the figure of a Guru not that of a man, or\nhave I not a rational soul manifest in me? or can I not enjoy what\nanother eats or drinks?\u201d This speech came to the ears of the Guru\nHargovind. He called that man before him, and said: \u201cO D\u00e9va! it is not\nthe whole world but one being?\u201d He replied: \u201cIt is.\u201d The Guru pointed\nto an ass, and asked: \u201cDo you know what this is?\u201d D\u00e9va replied: \u201cYou\nare one with God, therefore you are also this.\u201d The Guru laughed, and\nwas not at all angry. D\u00e9va wished to marry his own sister; the people\nsaid: \u201cThis is forbidden.\u201d He answered: \u201cIf it were forbidden, the\njunction of the sexual parts would be impossible. Thus, because it is\nnot God\u2019s will that we should rise up in the air, he withheld from us\nthe faculty of flying.\u201d\n\nThe Sikhs venerated the Guru Har-govind as a god, and believed that he\nhas passed through six incarnations. Perah Kaivan, a Yazdanian, was\nmoved by the reputatation of the Guru, and came to visit him.\n\nThe Guru recognised him, and showed him great respect. Upon that\naccount Perah Kaivan left him. A week had scarcely passed after he was\ngone, when Har-govind died, on a Sunday, the third day of the\nMoherram, in the year 1055 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1645). When they had\nplaced his corpse upon the pyre, and when the fire rose up in high\nflames, a r\u00e0jap\u00fat called R\u00e1jarama, who had been his servant,\nprecipitated himself into the fire, and walked several paces in the\nmidst of the flames, until he reached the feet of the corpse, and\nhaving laid his face upon the soles of the Guru\u2019s feet, he did not\nmove until he expired. After him, the son of a Jat, who was in the\nservice of Har-govind\u2019s son-in-law, leaped into the fire. Many other\nSikhs wished to follow his example, but the Guru Har rayi forbade it.\nD\u00e1ulet Khan Kaksal says:\n\n      \u201cOf a hundred sayings of my master, I remember one:\n  The world never becomes a desert, nor the wine-house a prayer-house.\n       What can my soul give more than my heart can bear?\n  Whatever the soul gives, and whatever the heart bears, the one and\n    the other is god-given.\u201d\n\nThe Guru Har-govind, in a letter to the author of this work, gave\nhimself the title of N\u00e2nac, which was his right distinction. I saw him\nin the year 1053 of the Hejirah (A. D. 1643) in Kirtp\u00far. The Guru\nHar-r\u00e1yi was the grandson of the said Guru;[476] his father was Garuta\n(or Guru daitya), who is known under the name of B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v. The Guru\nHar-govind wished first to transmit his place to his son Garuta, or\nB\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v; but the Guru N\u00e1ghura, one of the Sikhs, brought his daughter\nto B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v. The B\u00e1b\u00e1 wished to send her to his private apartments.\nHis wife, the mother of Har-r\u00e1yi, complained of it to Har-govind, her\nfather-in-law, who, having heard her, said to B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v: \u201cHaving given\nto N\u00e1ghura the name of my son, I own him as such, and his daughter\ncannot go to you, my son.\u201d N\u00e1ghura refused to take back his daughter;\nnor would B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v give her up. The Guru Har-govind then said: \u201cMay\nneither happiness nor success ever attend this husband and his wife!\u201d\nUpon that, the same day, B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v threw away his nuptial dress, and\nsent the daughter of the Guru N\u00e1ghura untouched back to her house. In\nconsequence of this event, Har-govind showed a more particular esteem\nfor his grandson Har-r\u00e1yi,[477] the son of B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v; he gave him the\nname of his father, B\u00e1b\u00e1 J\u00e9v, and appointed him his successor.\nInvested with this dignity, Har-rayi remained one year in Kirtp\u00far.\nWhen in the year of the Hejirah 1055 (A. D. 1645) Naj\u00e1bet Khan, the\nson of Sharogh Mirza, by order of the p\u00e1dsh\u00e1h Shah-jehan, invaded with\nan army the land of the r\u00e1ja Tarachand, and made the r\u00e1ja a prisoner,\nthe Guru Har-r\u00e1yi betook himself to Thapal, which town is situated in\nthe district of the r\u00e1ja Keramperk\u00e1s, not far from Sirhind.\n\nThe Sikhs call Har-r\u00e1yi the seventh Guru. He was a great friend of the\nauthor of this work. I will therefore give an account of some among\nthe principal chiefs whom I knew, as well as of some customs of this\npeople. The Sikhs distinguish also the deputies of their Gurus by the\nname of R\u00e1mdais, that is to say, \u201cservants of God, or of an idol.\u201d\n_Jahandas_ was one of the pretenders to the dignity of a Guru; he was\na man high and proud in his speeches, not agreeable to any,\nindifferent to good and bad that might happen to him. One day he got a\nwound on his foot. Har-govind told him: \u201cDo not envelop _too much_,\nand raise your foot.\u201d According to this injunction, he suspended and\nuncovered his foot during three months. When the Guru was informed of\nit, he said to him: \u201cCover your foot; what I told you was intended for\nthe healing of your wound: do not rest on your foot for some days.\u201d\nOne day the Guru said to him: \u201cTell the Sikhs to bring wood into the\nkitchen, that they may gain some remuneration.\u201d Jahandas did not\nappear the next day, as if he had not during one day and a half awoke\nfrom sleep. The people, suspecting some derangement of his brain,\nthought he had absented himself. When they, with the Guru, looked\nafter him, they found him with a bundle of wood on his shoulder. The\nGuru said: \u201cI have not ordered you to bear that.\u201d He replied: \u201cYou\ngave your orders to the Sikhs; a Sikh am I, and know not to be any\nthing higher than they are.\u201d Another day the Guru went into a garden,\nand said to Jahandas: \u201cRemain at the door.\u201d By accident, the Guru\nreturned home by another door; Jahandas remained three days on his\nfeet, until Hargovind, who was informed of it, called him away.\n\nHar-govind had a disciple called _Badhata_, who sent a person to bring\ncorn from a field where it was lying cut. This man gave every thing\naway, and then said to Badhata who had sent him: \u201cYou distributed\nevery thing, as a father, to the poor; I did the same in imitation of\nyour example, and dispense you from the remuneration which I should\nhave gained by bringing the corn to you.\u201d Badhata was at first a\nthief, and his disciples exercised later the profession of thieving;\nthey showed themselves very obedient to the orders of their master,\nand believed that stealing for him deserved praise and recompense.\nHar-govind, according to the Sikhs, declared that on the day of the\nlast judgment, his disciples will not have to account for their\nactions.\n\n_Sadah_, a disciple of the Guru, went by his orders to bring horses\nfrom Balkh to Irak. He had a son who had fallen sick. They said to\nhim: \u201cYou are now in the town of Balkh, and but one day\u2019s journey from\nhome: go to see your son.\u201d He answered: \u201cIf he should die, there is\nwood enough in the house to burn him: I went about the Guru\u2019s\nbusiness, and will not return.\u201d The son died, but he did not return.\nAt last he bought three capital horses of Irak; but Khal\u00edl B\u00e9g, a\ntyrant, took hold of them, which fell hard upon him. In the same year,\nhe lost his only son and heir, and saw himself deprived of strength\nand honor. Sadah was a man neither gladdened by good nor afflicted by\nbad fortune. The author of this work was once his companion on a\njourney from Kabul to the Penjab. The belt of my coat broke; Sadah\ngave me immediately his zunnar to serve me as a belt. I said to him:\n\u201cWhy do you this?\u201d He answered: \u201cTo tie the zunnar purports an\nengagement to serve another; as often as I render some service to\nfriends, may I resign my zunnar for it.\u201d\n\n       \u201cThis thread serves to tie every thing:\n   In a cloister it is a rosary; in a temple of idols a zunnar.\u201d\n\nA Sikh asked the Guru Har-govind: \u201cIn the absence of my Guru, what\nother shall I find?\u201d He replied: \u201cWhichever of the Sikhs comes to your\nhouse under the name of a Guru, him you may take for yours.\u201d It is the\ncustom among the Sikhs that, whatever demand they have, they can state\nit in the assembly of the Sikhs to the Guru, to whom they offer\nwhatever present they have, or a coin, and in so doing they join their\nhands together, and proffer prayers to him, that he may be favorable\nto them. The Guru states then his demand in the _Sangat_\n(_Sang\u00e1t\u00ed_),[478] that is to say, in the assembly of the Sikhs. This\ncustom exists also among the _Sip\u00e1sian_, or _Izedanian_. The belief of\nthis people is, that an assembly is certainly capable of achieving\nevery thing, inasmuch as the minds act with their united strength.\n\nAmong the Sikhs there is nothing of the religious rites of the Hind\u00fas;\nthey know of no check in eating or drinking. When _Pert\u00e1bmal_, a\n_Jn\u00e1n\u00ed_, \u201cwise,\u201d Hindu, saw that his son wished to adopt the faith of\nthe Muselmans, he asked him: \u201cWhy dost thou wish to become a Muselman?\nIf thou likest to eat every thing, become a Guru of the Sikhs, and eat\nwhatever thou desirest.\u201d\n\nThe Sikhs believe that all the disciples of a Guru go to heaven.\nWhoever takes the name of Guru is received in the house of a Sikh. It\nis related, that a thief introduced himself once under the title of\nGuru, in the house of a Sikh, and was treated as such. In the morning\nthe Sikh went out to prepare something better for his guest. The thief\nsaw many jewels worn by the wife of the Sikh, and having killed her\nimmediately, and taken the precious things, he fled. Upon his way he\nmet with the master of the house, who by force brought him back. The\nSikh, when they returned to the house, found his wife dead. The thief,\nseeing every thing discovered, confessed the truth. The Sikh replied:\n\u201cYou have done well.\u201d He then shut the door of the house, and said to\nhis neighbours: \u201cMy wife is sick: she ate nothing of the meal which\nshe had prepared.\u201d Urging the thief to be gone, he did not take the\njewels from him, but made him a present of them. He finally burnt his\nwife.\n\nThey also relate what follows: a kalender was in the house of a Sikh.\nOne day the kalender said to the wife of the Sikh: \u201cFor the sake of a\nGuru, satisfy my desire.\u201d The woman replied: \u201cI am the property of\nanother; have patience.\u201d The kalender, out of fear, did not return to\nthe house of the Sikh, who asked: \u201cWhy does the durvish not visit me\nany more?\u201d The woman told him what had happened. The Sikh said: \u201cWhy\ndid you refuse to yield to his desire?\u201d The woman went out, and having\nbrought the kalender back, permitted every thing to him. When, in the\nmonth of February, the Sikhs assembled at the house of the Guru (who\nlived before the time of Har-govind), he threw an angry look at the\nkalender, and said: \u201cHim have I struck.\u201d The kalender was stigmatised.\n\nThe following anecdote is moreover reported. A Guru saw a speaking\nparrot, and praised him much. A Sikh heard this, and went immediately\nto the proprietor of the parrot, who was a soldier, and asked him for\nthe bird. The soldier said: \u201cIf you give me your daughter, you may\nhave the parrot.\u201d The Sikh consented. The soldier laughed, and added:\n\u201cGive me your wife too, and take the bird.\u201d The Sikh did not refuse;\nhe conducted the soldier to his house, and delivered his wife and\ndaughter to him. When the soldier came home, and told his wife what\nhad happened, she was so angry with him that he left the parrot in the\nhands of the Sikh, to whom he returned his wife and daughter. The\nSikh, joyful, lost no time to gratify the Guru. Such customs prevailed\namong the Sikhs before the time of Har-govind.[479]\n\n\n     [374] \u091a\u0924\u0941\u0930\u094d\u092e\u0941\u0916\u0903\n\n     [375] \u0905\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092c\u093e\u0939\u0941\u0903\n\n     [376] \u091c\u091f\u093e the hair matted, as worn by the god S\u00edva, and by\n     ascetics; the long hair occasionally matted together, and\n     brought over the head so as to project like a horn from the\n     forehead; at other times allowed to fall carelessly over the\n     back and shoulders.\n\n     [377] \u0905\u0902\u0936\u0941\u0903\n\n     [378] The Hindus have twelve _\u00e1dityas_, that is, \u201cforms of\n     the sun:\u201d these appear to represent him as distinct in each\n     month of the year.\n\n     [379] \u0915\u0932\u093e a digit, or 16th part of the moon\u2019s diameter.\n\n     [380] \u0928\u0915\u094d\u0937\u0924\u094d\u0930 The Paur\u00e1nic and popular enumeration of those\n     mansions, or constellations is twenty-seven; Abhijit, the\n     twenty-seventh, being considered as formed of portions of\n     the two contiguous asterisms, and not distinct from\n     them.\u2015\u2015(_Wilson\u2019s Dict._)\n\n     [381] \u0905\u0937\u094d\u091f \u0926\u093f\u0936\u093e\u0903 These eight cardinal points have each their\n     regent, viz.:\n          \u092a\u0942\u0930\u094d\u0935  its regent is Indra, \u0907\u0928\u094d\u0926\u094d\u0930\u0903\n          \u092a\u0936\u094d\u091a\u093f\u092e      \u2015\u2015      Varuna, \u0935\u0930\u0941\u0923\u0903\n          \u0926\u0915\u094d\u0937\u093f\u0923      \u2015\u2015      Yama, \u092f\u092e\u0903\n          \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u0930       \u2015\u2015       Kuv\u00e9ra, \u0915\u0941\u0935\u0947\u0930\u0903\n     Between S. and E. the regent is \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0928\u093f or \u0935\u0921\u094d\u0928\u093f\u0903\n        \u2015\u2015   S. and W.     \u2015\u2015        \u0928\u0948\u0930\u0944\u0924\u0903\n        \u2015\u2015   N. and W.     \u2015\u2015        \u0935\u093e\u092f\u0941\u0903\n        \u2015\u2015   N. and E.     \u2015\u2015        \u0908\u0936\u093e\u0928\u0903\n\n     [382] \u092d\u0948\u0930\u0935 \u201cthe formidable,\u201d a name of S\u00edva, but more\n     especially an inferior manifestation or form of the deity,\n     eight of which are called by the common name _Bh\u00e1i ravas_,\n     and have each a particular name, all alluding to terrific\n     properties of mind or body.\n\n     [383] The edit. of Calcutta adds to Chamunda _Set mantra_.\n\n     [384] These are personified energies of the Gods, called\n     M\u00e1tris, viz.: \u0915\u094d\u092f\u0932\u0915, \u0915\u093e\u0932\u091e\u094d\u091c\u0930\u0940, \u0915\u094c\u092e\u093e\u0930\u0940, \u0935\u0948\u0937\u094d\u0923\u0935\u0940, \u092c\u093e\u092d\u094d\u0930\u0935\u0940,\n     \u091a\u092e\u0941\u0923\u094d\u0921\u093e, \u092d\u0935\u093e\u0928\u0940, \u092a\u093e\u0930\u094d\u0935\u0924\u0940.\n\n     [385] I cannot hope to have restored every name of the\n     Persian text to its correct original form.\n\n     [386] If the seven Richis, who are supposed to abide in the\n     constellation of the Great Bear, are meant, their names\n     differ very much from those commonly given, which are as\n     follows: Marichi, Atri, Angiras, Pulustya, Kratu, and\n     V\u00e1s ishta.\n\n     [387] _Bang_ is an inebriating, maddening draught, made of\n     hemp-leaves, henbane, opium, or masloe.\u2015\u2015(_Richardson\u2019s\n     Dict._)\n\n     [388] Black is the color of the Sunnites. This supports\n     Professor Wilson\u2019s _Statement_, agreeing with the Dabistan\n     (see _As. Trans._, N. S. p. 75), that the Mad\u00e1ri\u00e1n are\n     Sunnites. But, considering the descent of their founder, and\n     the concurring account of several Asiatic authors, we may be\n     disposed to denominate them Shi\u00e2hs, or Jsm\u00e1miahs, although\n     the latter have adopted green as the distinguishing color of\n     their sect, which is also that of the followers of the\n     prophet.\n\n     [389] One _seer_ = 2 lbs. 6 oz.; French weight, 933.005\n     grammes; 40 seers make a _maund_; one maund, in English Troy\n     weight is 100 lbs.; French grammes, 27,320.182\u2015\u2015(_Useful\n     Tables_, edited by James Princep, Esq., Part I. p. 63).\n\n     [390] Badih-eddin, \u201cthe marvel of religion,\u201d was the son of\n     Sa\u00edd Al\u00ed, and his origin is traced up to the Im\u00e1m Hossa\u00edn,\n     son of Al\u00ed. He was born in the year of the Hej\u00edra 442, A. D.\n     1050-1. Under the reign of Ibrahim Sherkey, he came to\n     India, where he died in 1433 A. D., according to the dates\n     of his birth and death 383 years old, but 395 and even 400\n     years old, according to the legend of this saint, who owed\n     his longevity to the power of keeping his breath. Under the\n     simple name of Mad\u00e1r, he is held in great veneration in\n     India, where an annual feast is celebrated in his honor, and\n     his tomb visited by numerous pilgrims, even in our days. He\n     is said to have had 1442 sons, say spiritual children or\n     disciples\u2015\u2015(See for Madar, _M\u00e9moire sur les particularit\u00e9s\n     de la Religion musulmane dans l\u2019Inde, par M. Garcin de\n     Tassy_, pp. 54-62).\n\n     [391] This tale reminds us of a similar story related in the\n     Mah\u00e1bharat (Adhi-parva, Sambhava-parva, Adyaya 75, 76, edit.\n     Calc., vol. I. p. 115). _Kacha_, the son of Vrihaspati, who\n     was killed three times by the Asuras (the first time\n     swallowed by jackals; afterwards, cut to pieces and thrown\n     into the sea; and, finally, pulverised and swallowed by\n     \u00c7ukra, the preceptor of the d\u00e1ityas) and each time brought\n     to life in a miraculous way.\n\n     [392] This a village near Firezabad, in the province of\n     Agra.\n\n     [393] Armillam membro suo aperuit erecto.\n\n     [394] These sectaries worship the more terrible attributes\n     of the Deity. Said Jel\u00e1l, or Jel\u00e1l-eddin Bokh\u00e1r\u00ed was born in\n     the year of the Hejira 707 (A. D. 1307); he died in 775 (A.\n     D. 1374), and is buried in the town of Auch, in the province\n     of Multan.\u2015\u2015(See the work of M. Garcin de Tassy, quoted pp.\n     69-70).\n\n     [395] The founder of this sect was Patanjali, born in\n     Havriti-varcha, he taught in Bhagabhandara. His school is\n     theistical, called _sa Jswara Sankhya_, or \u201cphilosophy with\n     the Lord.\u201d God is the supreme ruler, a spirit or a soul,\n     distinct from other spirits or souls, untouched by those\n     evils to which these are subject; indifferent to all good or\n     bad actions and their consequences, as well as to all\n     transitory conceptions; he is omniscient; teacher of the\n     earliest things which had a beginning that is, of all\n     mythological divinities; himself infinite, and illimited by\n     time. Patanjali insists upon austere religious practices,\n     exterior and interior, to which he ascribes wonderful\n     effects.\n\n     [396] \u0938\u0942\u0930\u094d\u092f \u092e\u0916\u093e\u0903\n\n     [397] \u0905\u0937\u094d\u091f \u092d\u0941\u0935\u0928 \u0932\u094b\u0915\u0903\n\n     [398] \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092d\u093e\u0926\u0947\u0935.\n\n     [399] \u092e\u0939\u093e\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u093f\u0903\n\n     [400] \u0928\u092e\u0938\u094d\u0915\u093e\u0930\u0903\n\n     [401] The Dabist\u00e1n (p. 269, edit. of Calc.) affords a\n     curious specimen of a Sanskrit prayer transcribed in Persian\n     characters; this prayer is here restored to its original\n     form in Devanagari. The literal translation of it,\n     subjoined, shows that it is composed of a series of epithets\n     encomiastical of the sun; these epithets have been most\n     freely amplified in the paraphrase which the author of the\n     Dabist\u00e1n has given of the original prayer:\n\n          \u092e\u0939\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u093f\u0903 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u094b\u0926\u092f\u0903 \u0928\u0943\u0938\u094d\u0935\u093e\u0926\u0903 \u0932\u094b\u0915\u0928\u0903 \u0906\u0939\u093e\u0930\u0903 \u0938\u0941\u0926\u0930\u094d\u0936\u0928\u0903 \u0926\u0943\u0937\u094d\u091f\u093f\u0903 \u092e\u093f\u0925\u0928\u0903\n          \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0935\u0924\u093e\u0930\u0903 \u0909\u0924\u094d\u0924\u092e\u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0938\u0903 \u092a\u0925\u094d\u0935\u0940 \u0938\u094d\u092e\u0930\u0923\u0903 \u092e\u0939\u093e\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e\u092e\u0941\u0915\u094d\u0924\u0938\u0919\u094d\u0917\u0903 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e\u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e\n          \u0936\u0930\u0940\u0930\u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u093f\u0903 \u0938\u094d\u0935 \u0906\u0924\u094d\u092e \u0935\u0941\u0927\u0928\u093e\u0925\u0903 \u0938\u0930\u094d\u0935 \u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u093f\u0903 \u0906\u0924\u092a\u0903 \u092a\u094d\u0930\u0915\u093e\u0936\u0903 \u0914\u092a\u092e\u093f\u0915\u0903\n          \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0926\u093e\u0924\u093e \u0926\u0947\u0935\u0938\u0939\u093e\u092f\u0903\n\n     \u201c_Thou art_ the great light\u2015\u2015most gloriously rising\u2015\u2015the\n     delight of men\u2015\u2015resplendent\u2015\u2015_granter of_ food\u2015\u2015agreeable to\n     sight\u2015\u2015the eye _of heaven_\u2015\u2015the promoter of union\u2015\u2015the great\n     incarnation\u2015\u2015the most excellent manifestation\u2015\u2015mindful of\n     the earth\u2015\u2015the chief bestower of the devotion to\n     emancipation\u2015\u2015the dispenser of life\u2015\u2015the light of\n     bodies\u2015\u2015the lord of intellect and of interior life\u2015\u2015all\n     illuming\u2015\u2015the radiance of the day\u2015\u2015the effulgency\u2015\u2015the\n     supreme light\u2015\u2015only like thyself\u2015\u2015the donor of heaven\u2015\u2015the\n     companion of the gods.\u201d\n\n     [402] \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0930\u094d\u0917 \u0932\u094b\u0915\u0903 heaven.\n\n     [403] \u092d\u0942\u0932\u094b\u0915\u0903\n\n     [404] \u0932\u094b\u091c\u093e\u0928\u093f.\n\n     [405] \u0915\u0932\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0923\u0902.\n\n     [406] The Dict. gives only \u0938\u0928\u0915\u093e\u0903 and \u0938\u0928\u0924\u094d\u0915\u0941\u092e\u093e\u0930\u093e\u0903 the four\n     sons of Brahma, inhabiting the Janaloka.\n\n     [407] \u091c\u0940\u0935 \u0926\u092f.\n\n     [408] \u092a\u0941\u0923\u094d\u092f\u0935\u0928\u094d\u0924\u094d.\n\n     [409] \u0927\u0930\u094d\u092e\u092e\u092f\u093e\u0938\u094d.\n\n     [410] \u0938\u094d\u0935\u0940.\n\n     [411] \u0926\u094d\u092f\u0941\u0935 \u092e\u0941\u0930\u094d\u0924\u092f\u0938\u094d.\n\n     [412] \u0906\u0915\u093e\u0936.\n\n     [413] \u0917\u093f\u0930\u092f\u0936\u094d.\n\n     [414] \u0924\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092b\u0932\u0902 also \u0924\u093e\u0930\u093e \u092a\u0925\u0903 _ta ra patha_.\n\n     [415] \u0906\u0939\u0930\u0923\u0902 means literally \u201ctaking, seizing;\u201d in logical\n     language, \u201ccompassing, comprehending,\u201d that is applying an\n     organ to the object to which it is adopted. This is the\n     special function of the organs or instruments of action. We\n     have (see note, p. 122) enumerated \u201cintelligence, egotism,\n     and mind;\u201d these are the three internal organs; and \u201cfive\n     organs of perception, with five organs of action,\u201d the ten\n     external organs. Those of action, _compass_, and _maintain_;\n     those of perception, _manifest_: therefore \u201ccompassing,\n     maintaining, and manifesting,\u201d are the functions of the\n     thirteen-fold instrument\u2015\u2015(See the work quoted, _Sank\u2019hya\n     Karika_, 32. p. 110).\n\n     [416] \u0938\u0919\u094d\u0916\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u0902.\n\n     [417] \u0938\u093e\u0927\u0928.\n\n     [418] \u091c\u093f\u0924\u0947\u0928\u094d\u0926\u094d\u0930\u093f\u092f \u0932\u094b\u0915.\n\n     [419] \u0924\u092a\u0938\u094d\u092f\u093e.\n\n     [420] \u091c\u094d\u092f\u094b\u0924\u093f \u092e\u0923\u094d\u0921\u0932\u0902.\n\n     [421] \u0927\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0928\u0940.\n\n     [422] \u0924\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0917\u0940.\n\n     [423] \u0935\u0948\u0930\u093e\u0917\u0940\u0903\n\n     [424] \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0938\u0940\u0903\n\n     [425] \u0935\u0928\u094d\u092f\u093e\u0938\u0940\u0903\n\n     [426] \u0905\u0935\u091b\u093e\u0924\u0903\n\n     [427] \u091a\u0928\u094d\u0926\u094d\u0930 \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0903\n\n     [428] This passage seems to allude to the Hindu creed about\n     the souls\u2019 journey from the earth to the uppermost heaven.\n     According to this, a hundred and one arteries issue from the\n     heart, one of which passes to the crown of the head. By that\n     passage, the soul of the wise issues and meets a solar ray,\n     by which it proceeds to the realm of fire, and by several\n     other stages to the _moon_; thence to the region of\n     lightning, and higher up, through Varuna\u2019s watery region, to\n     the realm of Indra, so as to reach at last the abode of\n     Brahma.\u2015\u2015(Transact. R. A. Soc., vol. II. pp. 31. 32.)\n\n     [429] \u0905\u0917\u094d\u0928\u093f \u092a\u094d\u0930\u092e\u093e\u0923\u093e\u0903\n\n     [430] \u092a\u0935\u0928 \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0903\n\n     [431] \u091c\u0932 \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0903\n\n     [432] \u092a\u0943\u0925\u094d\u0935\u0940 \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0903\n\n     [433] \u0924\u094d\u0930\u093f \u092a\u0942\u091c\u093e\u0903\n\n     [434] \u092e\u0928\u0941\u0937\u094d\u092f \u092d\u0915\u094d\u0924\u093e\u0903\n\n     [435] N\u00e2nac was born A. D. 1469, in a small village called\n     _Talwandi_, now _Raya-pur_, on the banks of the _B\u00e9yah_, the\n     ancient _Hyphasis_, in the district of _Bhatti_, in the\n     province of _Lahore_. He was the only son of _Kalu_, of the\n     Kshatriya caste, and the _Vedi_ tribe of the Hindus\u2015\u2015See\n     vol. XI. of the _As. Res._, pp. 197-292, edit. Calc. _a\n     Sketch of the Sikhs_, by Brigadier-General Malcolm. The\n     learned author, whilst with the British army in the Penjab,\n     in 1805, collected materials that would throw light upon the\n     history, manners, and religion of the Sikhs. He succeeded in\n     obtaining a copy of the _Adi granth_, the sacred book of the\n     Sikhs, and of some historical tracts, the most essential\n     parts of which were explained to him in Calcutta, by an\n     intelligent Sikh priest of the _Nirmala_ order. Dr. Leyden\n     enriched this stock of materials by supplying the general\n     with a translation of several tracts written by Sikh authors\n     in the Penjabi and Duggar dialects, upon the history and\n     religion of their nation. We may therefore believe we\n     possess quite satisfactory information about the Sikhs in\n     General Malcolm\u2019s _Sketch_. I shall mark the references to\n     this work in my notes by G. M. The Dabist\u00e1n, never quoted in\n     the said _Sketch_, furnishes some additional, and\n     corroborates the principal, information derived from other\n     sources.\n\n     [436] Zehir-ed-din Muhammed Baber, the son of Umer Shaigh\n     Mirza, descended on the father\u2019s side from the great T\u00e2imur\n     Beg, and on the mother\u2019s, from Gengis Khan. He was born A.\n     D. 1483, and succeeded, in the 12th year of his age to his\n     father, as king of Ferghana, a small country between\n     Samarkand and Kashgar. Driven by his enemies from his\n     paternal kingdom, he became the founder of one of the\n     greatest empires in the world.\u2015\u2015(See _Memoirs of\n     Zehir-ed-din Muhammed Baber, emperor of Hindustan_, written\n     by himself in the Jaghatai Turki, and translated partly by\n     the late John Leyden, Esq., M.D., partly by William Erskine,\n     Esq. London, 1826.)\n\n     [437] N\u00e2naki, the sister of N\u00e2nac, was married to a Hindu of\n     the name of _Jaya-Ram_, who was employed as a grain-factor\n     of D\u00e2ulet Khan Lodi, a relation of the reigning emperor of\n     Delhi. N\u00e2nac attended at the granary of Daulet Khan, which\n     was in charge of Jaya-ram, at Sultan-p\u00far\u2015\u2015(G. M. p. 200.)\n\n     [438] D\u00e2ulet Khan Lodi, an Afghan by birth, was formerly\n     private secretary to Mah-Toghluck, the eighth king of Delhi\n     of the Tartarian dynasty, called Toghluck, which reigned\n     from 1321 to 1412 A. D. At that time D\u00e2ulet Khan was placed\n     at the head of the empire, but, at the end of one year and\n     three months, he was obliged to yield his power to Khizer\n     Khan, who founded the dynasty of Sadat, in Delhi. This\n     dynasty, after thirty-eight years, made room for that of the\n     Afghan princes of Lodi. D\u00e2ulat Khan established himself in\n     the Penjab. In the general disorders of the empire, this\n     Afghan chief, being attacked by other Afghans, connected\n     himself with Baber, the Tartarian invader of Hindostan, in\n     1534, against Ibrahim Lodi, the Afghan king of Delhi, and\n     after the victory of Baber, continued to rule the Penjab.\n\n     [439] Jaya-Rama was put in prison by D\u00e2ulet Khan, on the\n     charge of having dissipated his property, but was justified\n     by N\u00e2nak\u2019s confessions\u2015\u2015(G. M. p. 204).\n\n     [440] \u092a\u0935\u0928\u093e\u0939\u093e\u0930\u093f \u201cwind-eater.\u201d\n\n     [441] He was one day lying on the ground with his feet in\n     the direction of the temple of Mecca: \u201cHow darest thou,\n     infidel,\u201d called out a Muhammedan priest, \u201cturn thy feet\n     towards the house of God?\u201d \u201cHow can I turn them,\u201d answered\n     N\u00e2nac, \u201cin a direction where the house of God is not?\u201d\u2015\u2015(G.\n     M. p. 274.)\n\n     [442] The first expedition which Baber undertook towards\n     India was, according to Ferichta, in 1505; from Cabul, which\n     he had conquered the year before, he pushed to, and along,\n     the Indus. He attempted, later, three times to invade India,\n     namely, in the years 1519, 1521, and 1522; but, being\n     engaged in war, on one side with the Usbeck Tartars, and on\n     the other with the Afghans, he did not completely succeed,\n     till his fourth attempt in 1525, and in 1526 having\n     overthrown Ibrahim Lody, in a great battle near Panniput, he\n     destroyed the Afghan dynasty, three kings of which had\n     reigned 74 years in Delhi. It was probably about this time\n     that N\u00e2nac happened to be introduced to Baber, before whom\n     he maintained his doctrine with great firmness and\n     eloquence. The Tartarian conqueror, pleased with the Sikh\n     reformer, ordered an ample maintenance to be bestowed on\n     him, who refused it, saying, that he trusted in him who\n     provided for all men\u2015\u2015(G. M. p. 206).\n\n     [443] N\u00e2nac (G. M. p. 204) travelled throughout India, and\n     went also to Mecca and Medina, teaching his doctrine every\n     where with a due regard to that of others. He showed great\n     moderation, and even courtesy, in his intercourse with the\n     public teachers of other religions. When he visited in\n     Multan the Muhammedan P\u00eerans, or \u201cold wise men,\u201d he said: \u201cI\n     come, like the sacred Ganga to visit the ocean.\u201d\n\n     [444] \u092c\u093e\u0923\u093f _b\u00e1ni_, speech.\n\n     [445] \u201cA hundred thousand Muhammeds,\u201d said N\u00e1nac (G. M. p.\n     275) \u201ca million of Brahmas, Vichnus, and a hundred thousand\n     Ramas, stand at the gate of the most High. These all perish.\n     God alone is immortal. Yet men who unite in the praise of\n     God are not ashamed of living in contention with each other,\n     which proves that the evil spirit has subdued all. He alone\n     is a true Hindu whose heart is just, and he only a good\n     Muhammedan whose life is pure.\u201d\n\n     [446] N\u00e1nac (G. M.) had two sons. There is in our days still\n     a tribe among the Sikhs, called the N\u00e1nac-p\u00e1utras, or\n     \u201cdescendants of N\u00e1nac,\u201d a mild inoffensive race; if not, as\n     is generally the case, mendicants, they are travelling\n     merchants.\n\n     [447] \u062e\u0648\u062f\u064a\u0645\u0627\u0646\u0649 _khudiman\u00ed_ is the _ahank\u00e1ra_ of the Indians,\n     rendered in English by \u201cconsciousness, egotism,\n     individuality.\u201d\n\n     [448] N\u00e1nac died in Kirti p\u00far Dehra, on the banks of the\n     R\u00e1vi, the ancient Hydraotes of the Greek geographers. Kirti\n     p\u00far continues to be a place of religious pilgrimage and\n     worship.\n\n     [449] N\u00e1nac (G. M. p. 208-9) bequeathed his succession to a\n     Kshatriya of the Tr\u00e9hun tribe, called Lehana, who had been\n     attached to him, and whom he had initiated in the sacred\n     mysteries of his sect, and honored with the name of _Angad_,\n     perhaps _anga_, which word in Sanskrit signifies \u201cbody.\u201d\n     This Angad wrote some chapters of the Adi-grant\u00b4ha. He\n     died in 1552, at Khandur, a village about 40 miles east of\n     Lahore.\n\n     [450] Amaradas (G. M.), a Kshatriya of the tribe of Bhal\u00e9,\n     died A. D. 1574, at the village of Gondaval, in the province\n     of Lahore.\n\n     [451] R\u00e1madas (G. M.) was the son-in-law of Amaradas; to\n     R\u00e1madas some Sikh authors ascribe the foundation of the town\n     R\u00e1mpur, or R\u00e1md\u00e1spur, but falsely, as it was a very ancient\n     town, known formerly under the name of Chak. He however\n     contributed much to its increase, and dug a tank or\n     reservoir of water, which is celebrated to our days under\n     the name of _Amrita Sara_, \u201cthe lake of the water of\n     immortality.\u201d R\u00e1mad\u00e1s died, in 1581, at Amrita Sara, leaving\n     two sons, Arjunmal and Bharatamal, the former of whom\n     succeeded him.\n\n     [452] Arjunmal (G. M. p. 212) is celebrated for having\n     compiled the Adi-granth from the writings of his\n     predecessors, not without his own additions and\n     commentaries. Thirteen authors after him contributed to the\n     work as it now is. The Adi-granth is, like the rest of the\n     books of the Sikhs, written in the Gurumukh characters,\n     which are a modified species of the Nagari character.\n     Arjunmal was put to death in 1606, by the intolerance of the\n     Muhammedans.\n\n     [453] Janaka was a sovereign of Mithila, and father of Sit\u00e1,\n     the wife of R\u00e1machandra. The name of Janaka became a general\n     name of all M\u00e2ithila kings.\n\n     [454] In the Indian genealogies, several Sahadevas are\n     mentioned. As we are evidently upon fabulous ground, we may\n     be excused from attempting to establish that the Sahadeva of\n     the text is the son of Pandu, or another.\n\n     [455] Probably \u0915\u0930 \u092e\u0923\u094d\u0921\u0932\u0902 _kara mandalam_, from _kara_,\n     \u201chand,\u201d and _mandalam_, \u201can orb, a round cup.\u201d\n\n     [456] I have not yet ascertained the correct Sanskrit title\n     of this book of the Hindus; but _Bashest_ is Vasishta, a\n     celebrated Muni, who rivalled and vanquished Visvamitra.\n\n     [457] Visvamitra, a Muni, the son of G\u00e1dhi, originally of\n     the military order, but who became by long and painful\n     austerities a Brahmarshi, in which character he appears in\n     the R\u00e1m\u00e1yan\u00e1, as the early preceptor and counsellor of R\u00e1ma.\n\n     [458] The P\u00e1p\u00eeha is believed to be the _falio nisus_, also a\n     kind of cuckoo (_luculus radiatus_); possibly the _ch\u00e1taca_\n     of the Hindus, supposed to drink no water but\n     rain-water\u2015\u2015(See _Megda duta_, \u201cthe Cloud-Messenger,\u201d\n     translated from Sanskrit into English, by H. H. Wilson,\n     Esq., p. 14). The Pap\u00eeha is celebrated in Indian romance for\n     his fidelity to his mate. Kal\u00e1, having been separated from\n     Kamrup (see the Adventures of Kamrup, translated from the\n     Hindustanee into French, by M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 96) says:\n     \u201cLe Pap\u00eeha erre-t-il dans la for\u00eat sans celle \u00e0 qui l\u2019unit\n     l\u2019amour?\u201d\n\n     [459] _N\u00e1is\u00e1n_ means a Syrian month, which corresponds to\n     April; the drops of N\u00e1is\u00e1n, or of spring-rain, are believed\n     to produce pearls, if they fall into shells, and venom if\n     they drop upon serpents.\n\n     [460] \u0938\u0941\u092e\u0947\u0930\u0941 _Sum\u00e9ru_, the sacred mountain _M\u00e9ru_, on the\n     summit of which Brahma resides.\n\n     [461] A fabulous mountain, anciently imagined by the\n     Asiatics to surround the world, and to bound the horizon on\n     all sides.\n\n     [462] Tyrhoot, a district in the province of Bahar, situated\n     principally between the 27th and 28th degrees of north\n     latitude.\n\n     [463] The author of the Dabist\u00e1n adds here the following\n     words: \u201cAnd such a person is called in _Persian_ \u2018a freeman,\n     in the state of higher freedom;\u2019\u201d he forgets that the\n     conversation takes place between two _Indian_ sages.\n\n     [464] The author amplifies this idea, so often repeated,\n     here again in four lines, which I did not think necessary to\n     translate.\n\n     [465] A similar repetition, running through three lines in\n     nearly the same words, is omitted in this translation.\n\n     [466] The philosophy of the Hindus has been more fully\n     explained in the foregoing chapters, to which several\n     passages of the present section relate.\n\n     [467] The Jats inhabited in very ancient times the borders\n     of the Indus in the lower parts of Multan. There they were\n     known to the Greek and Latin writers, under the name of\n     Calh\u00e6i, Malli, Oxidrac\u00e6 as being without a king,\n     \u201c_arattas_,\u201d and divided into seven communities, who, united\n     by a common danger, resisted Alexander. In the same country\n     they opposed, 1300 years after the Macedonian invader, the\n     irruption of Sultan Muhammed, the Ghaznavid, by whom they\n     were beaten near Multan on the Indus. Inhabitants of\n     mountains as well as of plains, they acted a part in the\n     many wars which took place on the western frontiers of\n     India, either as predatory hordes, or as allies, or as\n     mercenaries of the belligerant parties. During the ensuing\n     disorders of the Indian empire, they extended themselves\n     towards the east of India, and became masters of the\n     mountainous district which is limited, on the east by the\n     rivers Thambul and Jumna; on the west, by the kingdom of\n     J\u00e2ipur, which to the south extends as far as twenty coss\n     from Agra; and to the north borders on the province of\n     Delhi. It is not necessary to pursue here the history of the\n     Jats in all its various vicissitudes; I shall only add that,\n     in the year 1707, Thuraman, one of their leaders, laid the\n     foundation of the fortress of Bhurtp\u00far, 20 miles N. W. from\n     Agra, and that this became celebrated, to our days, as the\n     capital seat of the Jats. They are Hindus of the fourth\n     great caste of Sudras.\n\n     [468] \u0909\u0926\u093e\u0938\u094b _ud\u00e1s\u00ed_, one who has no passion, nor affection\n     for any thing; in popular acceptation, a religious mendicant\n     in general, or one of a particular order.\n\n     [469] The reign of Jehangir lasted from A. D. 1605 to 1628.\n\n     [470] This date agrees with that given by Ferishta of the\n     rebellion and the imprisonment of Khusro.\n\n     [471] According to the Sketch of the Sikhs by General\n     Malcolm, Arjunmal was immediately succeeded by his son\n     Har-govind, whilst the Dabist\u00e1n mentions his brother as his\n     successor. There appears an hiatus, or some confusion in our\n     text; so much however is indicated clearly enough, that\n     there was a contest about the succession between the brother\n     and the son of Arjunmal.\n\n     [472] The dictionary gives no satisfactory interpretation of\n     the word, as relating to the text.\n\n     [473] Har-govind (G. M. p. 213) was a warlike Guru, or\n     priest militant, and wore two swords in his girdle. Being\n     asked why he did so: \u201cThe one,\u201d said he, \u201cis to revenge the\n     death of my father; the other to destroy the miracles of\n     Muhammed.\u201d His character appears in the Dabist\u00e1n less\n     advantageously with respect to the religious customs of his\n     sect, from the austerity of which he is said to have greatly\n     relaxed, and he permitted the promiscuous use of flesh of\n     all animals except that of the cow: his military character\n     however is maintained in all accounts of him.\n\n     [474] Gwalior is situated in the province of Agra, eighty\n     miles travelling distance south from the city of Agra.\n\n     [475] Foujdar, an officer of the police in Hindostan, and\n     chief magistrate, who takes cognizance of all criminal\n     matters.\n\n     [476] Hargovind had five sons, the eldest of whom was Guru\n     daitya, the father of Har r\u00e1yi.\n\n     [477] Rayi is a title a little inferior to that of R\u00e1ja,\n     generally applied to the Hindu chief of a village or small\n     district.\n\n     [478] \u0938\u0919\u094d\u0917\u0924\u093f\u0903\n\n     [479] The author of the Dabist\u00e1n does not carry the account\n     of the Sikhs further than to the time of Harrayi, a\n     peaceable Guru, who died in 1664. After a contest between\n     his sons, or, as some Sikh authors relate, between his son,\n     _Har Krichna_, and his grandson, _Ram Ray_, the former was\n     chosen. He died in 1664, and was succeeded by his uncle,\n     _T\u00e9gh Bahader_, in spite of the opposition of his nephew,\n     Ram Ray. T\u00e9gh Bahader was imprisoned and put to death by the\n     Muhammedans, in 1675. After his death, the sect appeared\n     crushed, but under his son, _Gura Govind_, the Sikhs rose\n     again, no more as a sect, but as a nation endeavouring to\n     establish their independence. Guru Govind is considered by\n     them as the founder of their national greatness; he is the\n     tenth, that is, their last acknowledged religious ruler; he\n     is the author of the _Dasama P\u00e1dsh\u00e1h-ka grantha_, or \u201cthe\n     book of the tenth king;\u201d he changed the name of his\n     followers from Sikhs to _Singhs_, \u201clions,\u201d who distinguished\n     themselves by a blue checkered dress; he first instituted\n     the _Guru-mata_, or \u201cgreat council,\u201d among them, and\n     established the _Akalis_, or \u201cthe immortals,\u201d who preserved\n     their name and consideration until our days; in short, he\n     sanctioned, and confirmed by institutions, the doctrine\n     taught by his predecessors, who endeavoured to separate the\n     Sikhs from the mass of the Hindus. Indeed \u201cthe admission of\n     proselytes, the abolition of the distinction of casts, the\n     eating all kinds of flesh except that of cows, the form of\n     religious worship, and the general devotion of all Sikhs to\n     arms, are ordinances altogether irreconcileable with Hindu\n     mythology\u201d\u2015\u2015(G. M. p. 268).\n\n     Guru Govind is supposed to have died in 1708, at Naded in\n     the Deccan. After him, _Bandu_, a V\u00e1irag\u00ed, or ascetic,\n     united the Sikhs under his banners: during some time\n     successful and formidable, he fell at last before the power\n     of the Muhammedans. Without pursuing the later history of\n     the Sikhs, I shall content myself with stating that they\n     succeeded in forming in our times, under their late R\u00e1ja,\n     Ranjet Singh, the kingdom of Lahore, of four millions of\n     inhabitants, dispersed over a surface of 70,000 square\n     miles, exclusively of the province of Kachmir, annexed to\n     their dominions.\n\n     See also upon the Sikhs _The Sigar-ul-Mutakherin_, by Mir\n     Gholain Hussein-Khan, translated from the Persian into\n     English by General John Briggs, London, 1832, vol. I. p.\n     109, etc.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nOF THE RELIGION OF THE KER\u00c1 TABITIAN.\n\n\nAccording to one of their treatises, they call God _Kajak_,[480] and\nbelieve him to be one, infinite, all mighty; they maintain his\nmanifestation under three forms, as the Hindus; they say, if any one\nfinds God, he converses with him without the aid of a palate and of a\ntongue: this is the condition of a prophet. They declare moreover that\nthe spirit is eternal, and that spirits are sent down; the soul, if it\nknows itself and God, ascends to the upper world; if not, it remains\nin the nether world. The author of this book heard from one of their\ndistinguished personages that, when the rational soul separates from\nthis body, it goes to the upper world; and from the heavens it rises\nfurther; and above this there is a sea, in which is a mountain; and on\nits top God, the supreme Lord, resides. If that soul has been\nvirtuous, the divinity manifests itself to it under a pleasing form;\nso that from its aspect the soul derives superlative delight, which no\ntongue can express, and remains eternally without change, happy and\nblissful in its contemplation. But if the soul has been iniquitous,\nGod appears to it under a strange and terrific figure, than which none\ncan be more repulsive and hideous, so that from terror it throws\nitself from the heavens down, and becomes confined in dust. Among\nthese sectaries was a man called _Pawn Pishna_, exceedingly pious. Of\nthis saint\u2019s miracles they relate that, having jumped upon a stone,\nthe trace of his foot remained impressed upon it, and now they perform\npilgrimages to it. They say further that, when this perfect man\nreaches the term of his life, he convokes the people about him, and\nout of the crowd he chooses one, to whom in their presence he delivers\nhis books and his effects, and says: \u201cI will come to thy house;\u201d after\nthat, his soul leaves the body, which is buried according to their\ncustoms. The wife of this guardian then brings forth a son, whose\ntongue develops itself so as to speak in one year, or sooner; he\nconvokes witnesses, and in their presence he takes the things which\nare counted to him by the guardian, to whom he then remits them again,\nand utters not a word until the _usual_ age of speech. When he attains\nthe period of adultness, he takes the state of a durvish. They say\nthat such an elect man comes into the world for the conversion of\nwicked men. These sectaries have temples of idols, which they call\n_Chetharten_,[481] and in which they perform their worship. According\nto their custom, when a man has two sons, he destines one of them to\nbecome a durvish; and the king himself, having two sons, makes one of\nthem a durvish. They believe that there are two mansions; the first of\nthis, the second of the other, world; the son who becomes a durvish\ntakes possession of the latter, the son who associates with people of\nbusiness acquires the portion of the nether world; when the body of\nthe father and mother become weak and tottering from age, it is the\nworldly son who tenders them his services; but when the soul of the\nparents separates from the body, it devolves upon the son who is a\ndurvish to serve them. When a great number of such young durvishes\nassembles, then the son of the king, or of any other chief becomes\ntheir head, and they go to _B\u00e1rm\u00ee\u00e1nek_, which is a magnificent temple\nof theirs. When they return from this pilgrimage, they become _L\u00e1mas_,\nthat is, _H\u00e1j\u00eds_, \u201cpilgrims.\u201d The L\u00e1mas abstain from eating flesh and\nfrom women, and keep remote from all worldly affairs; they wear their\nhair entangled, and eat from the skull of a man; they carry joints of\nhuman hands filed together upon a string, instead of a rosary;[482]\nand instead of horns for trumpets, they keep bones of human\nforearms;[483] they say: \u201cWe are dead; and dead men have nothing to do\nwith the things of the living.\u201d\n\n  \u201cWe are gone, and we took a separate corner of a sepulchre,\n   That our bones might not be a burden to any body\u2019s shoulder.\u201d\n\nThis class of men have not their equals in enchantments, juggling,\nspells, and magic. Their king, if his mother be not of royal blood, is\nby them called _Argh\u00fan_, and not considered their true king; whoever\nof this sect belongs to the worldly people, does not abstain from\nkilling animals, eating flesh and meats forbidden by religion, and\nassociates with every body in eating. When the author of this book\nconversed with a learned man of this sect by means of an interpreter,\nwhenever a question about some subtilty occurred, the translator could\nnot always by his interpretation satisfy him.\n\n     \u201cWithout possessing the tongue, it is strange to make a\n        friend by means of the tongue.\u201d\n\n\n     [480] (T)_kon_(M)_tchog_, \u201cthe chief of the rarity, the\n     rarest being, God.\u201d\u2015\u2015(Dict. Tibetan and English, by\n     Alexander Csoma de K\u00f6r\u00f6s, p. 66, col. 2, l. 13.)\n\n     [481] [(M)_tchod_-(R)_ten_, \u201ca chapel, a temple.\u201d\u2015\u2015(Dict. of\n     Csoma de K\u00f6r\u00f6s.)\n\n     [482] We find in a treatise entitled \u201cThe Sage and the\n     Fool,\u201d making part of the Kahgyur, one of the principal\n     religious works of the Tibetans, that a brahman, not\n     satisfied with his disciple, and desirous of causing his\n     ruin, gives him the following advice: \u201cKeep thyself pure\n     during seven days; cut off the heads of a thousand men; take\n     a single finger of each, to make thyself a rosary; and thou\n     shalt undoubtedly, after thy death, be born again in the\n     substance of Brahma.\u201d\u2015\u2015(See Mr. Schmidt\u2019s Tibetan Grammar.)\n\n     [483] We read in \u201cTurner\u2019s Embassy to Tibet,\u201d that, at a\n     religious ceremony, a priest played a sort of flute made of\n     the bone of a man\u2019s leg.\u2015\u2015(French Transl., p. 61.)\n\n            *     *     *     *     *\n\n     The last four notes have been obligingly furnished to me by\n     M. Foucaud, professor of the Tibetan language in Paris.\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n\nFrom the book _the Dabist\u00e1n_, a short account of the religion of the\nYahuds, contained in two sections.\n\n_Section the first_, the information received from the tongue of\nMohammed S\u00e2\u00edd Sarmed.\n\n_Section the second_, upon the translation of the page of Adam, which\nis the beginning of the book of Moses (the Pentateuch).\n\n\nSECTION THE FIRST.\u2015\u2015The author of this book never happened to have\nintercourse with learned and distinguished men among the Yahuds; and\nhe set no value upon what he found in the books of foreigners about\ntheir religion: because envy is a corrosion and a fire, which attacks\nthe enemy. But in the year of the Hejira 1057 (A. D. 1647), when I\ncame to Hyder abad, I contracted friendship with _Mohammed S\u00e2id\nSarmed_, who was originally from a family of learned Yahuds, of a\nclass whom they call Rab\u00e1ni\u00e1n (Rabbins); after an investigation into\nthe faith of the Rabbins and the perusal of the Mosaic books, he\nbecame a Muselman; he read the scientific works of the wise men of\nIran, such as Mulla Sader, and M\u00edr Abu-\u2019l K\u00e1sem, of Kazer sak, and\nmany others: at last, for the sake of commerce, he undertook by sea\nthe voyage to Hindustan. When he arrived in the town _Tata_,[484] he\nfell in love with a Hindu boy, called Abhi Chand, and, abandoning all\nother things, like a Sany\u00e1si, naked as he came from his mother, he sat\ndown before the door of his beloved. The father of the object of his\nlove, after having found by investigation the purity of the attachment\nmanifested for his son, admitted Sarmed into his house, and the young\nman too met him with an equal affection, so that he could no more\nseparate from him, and he read the book of Moses, the psalms of David,\nand other books with Sarmed. The following verses are the composition\nof this young Hindu:\n\n  \u201cI submit to Moses\u2019 law; I am of thy religion, and the guardian of\n     thy way:\n        I am a Rabbi of the Yahuds, a Kafir, a Muselman.\u201d\n\nThe learned rabbis say, according to their belief, among the sons of\nIsrael it was not required that women should wear a dress, and Sarmed\nsaid that Ish\u00e2i\u00e1, the prophet, himself used to go naked in his last\ndays. Sarmeda was a good master of poetry. Here follow some of his\nverses:\n\n                         RABAAI, QUATRAIN:\n\n  \u201cSarmed, whom they intoxicated from the cup of love,\n   Whom they called, exalted, and depressed,\n   Asked for wine, worship of God, and wisdom:\n  (But) they intoxicated him, and made him a worshipper of idols.\u201d\n\nIn the praise of the prophet, we find what follows:\n\n                             QUATRAIN:\n\n  \u201cO thou, by whose cheek is wounded the mind of the red rose,\n   Internally is the whole blood of the heart, externally the red rose;\n   Thou camest so late after Joseph, who was in the garden expecting\n     thee,\n   That the rose (of his cheek) became first yellow (from vexation)\n     and at last (from pleasure) a red rose.\u201d\n\n                         ANOTHER QUATRAIN:\n\n  \u201cThis existence has, without the azure sphere, no reality,\n   This existence is confined; for, except the absolute being, nothing\n     has reality.\n        Is God ever in vain? No! God is not in vain.\n   This existence is real only with respect to its origin, but whatever\n     is derived has no reality.\u201d\n\n                         ANOTHER QUATRAIN:\n\n  \u201cWhen God weighed in the balance of destiny with the sun,\n   The being endowed with every excellence, _Muhammed_,\n   This was so heavy that it moved not from its place;\n   The other was so light that it flew up to heaven.\u201d\n\n                            A DISTICH.\n\n       \u201cSarmed, who is a nightingale, has no desire of gold;\n   (But) his friend is the rose, and the rose has need of a handful\n     of gold.\u201d\n\n                         ANOTHER DISTICH.\n\n  \u201cIn the K\u00e2bah and in the idol temple is his stone _the symbol of male\n     energy_, and his is _the symbol of female productiveness_;[485]\n   In one place it is the black stone _of the temple of Mecca_; in\n     another place an idol of the Hindus.\u201d\n\nIn the eulogy of Shaikh Mohammed Khan, who was the chief minister of\nthe illustrious Dara, Sultan Abed Ullah Kat\u00b4eb, we find the\nfollowing quatrain:\n\n  \u201cO thou, who art the circumference of greatness to the centre of\n     the throne!\u2015\u2015\n   Thou, to whose service a hundred persons are devoted, as is the\n     firmament _to the universe_\u2015\u2015\n   Make thou to me, who am a stranger, my evening equal to midday,\n   If at the side of Kateb[486] thou art as happy as at midday.\u201d\n\nThe Shaikh desired the society of Sarmed. The author of this book was\none day among the persons present; he said to one called Jer\u00e1n, who\nmade the eulogy of the Shaikh: \u201cIn a short time the Shaikh will, with\nwhatever he may have acquired, turn towards the voyage of the other\nworld, and M\u00eer Mohammed S\u00e2id M\u00eer will take complete possession of the\ndignity of government;\u201d and the same year the Shaikh undertook to set\nout _for Mecca_ from Hyderabad. In the year of the Hejira 1059 (A. D.\n1649), in the harbor of Fahardanish, he passed from this bodily ark to\nthe circle of freedom. Hafiz says:\n\n  \u201cThe paradise of eternity is in this cell the share of the durvishes;\n   The K\u00e2bah of the universe is the dominion of the durvishes;\n   O my heart, be there with reverence: for the sultan and the country\n   All are in the service of the majesty of the durvishes.\u201d\n\nSarmed gave the information that, according to the Yahuds, God, the\nAlmighty, is corporeal; and that his body is after the image of\nmankind, and similar to it; that, during the course of time, he is\ndispersed in the same manner as splendor is dissipated. Sarmed\nmoreover said, that it is mentioned in the Mosaic book and in the holy\nwritings, that the spirit of the divine body is beauty itself, and\nmanifests itself under a human form; that punishment and recompense of\nthe other world are already experienced in this state; that life lasts\none hundred and twenty years; after that, man\u2019s whole life may be\nconsidered as one day, which, when he dies, is followed by night; that\nhis body assumes partly the form of a mineral, partly that of a\nvegetable, and partly that of an animal, and the like; when one\nhundred and twenty years have elapsed, night comes to an end, and the\nmorning appears again; if an atom of his bodily dust be in the east\nand another atom in the west, they unite in one place, and life is\nrenewed to last again one hundred years, as we have said, when night\nreturns. Punishment and recompense are solely for this world. They\nmaintain that whatever is, bears eternally the form of mankind,\ncomposed of water and earth.\n\nThe Yahuds agree in denying the appearance of _Aisia_ (Jesus) _as a\nprophet_; they say that he was a deceiver; and they reject what the\n_Aisuyan_, \u201cChristians,\u201d adduce from the Old Testament about the\nappearance of A\u00edsya; they maintain that the prophet Ish\u00e2\u00eda spoke of\nhimself the words[487] which have been applied to A\u00edsya. They assert\nthat Ibr\u00e2h\u00edm was no prophet, but a holy man, and they esteem a holy\nman higher than a prophet. They say that, in the Mosaic book, no\nmention is made of Phar\u00e2\u00fan\u2019s pretensions to be a god; but they relate\nthat this king was a tyrant who oppressed the children of Israel,\nwherefore Musi\u00e2 (Moses) rose, and protested against his tyranny. As\nPhar\u00e2\u00fan did not attend to his words, he met with his fate. They also\nsay that it is not to be found in the sacred book that Harun (Aaron)\nwas joined to Musi\u00e2 in the divine mission, although he acted as his\nsubstitute. They agree in saying that D\u00e1\u00fad\u00e2 (David) sent Ur\u00eea to be\nkilled, because the king coveted the possession of that man\u2019s wife,\nwhom he took afterwards, and hence Sol\u00edman was begotten. They further\ninsist that A\u00edsia was no prophet, as the Nazar\u00e9ans believe. D\u00e1ud\u00e2\nsaid: \u201cMy hands and feet will fall, and my bones have been counted;\u201d\nall this was fulfilled at the time when A\u00edsia suffered death; but they\nassert that D\u00e1\u00fada spoke those words of himself, and in such manner all\nthings which the Naz\u00e1r\u00e9ans set forth about A\u00edsia, the Yahuds interpret\nclearly in another sense. It is besides written in their sacred book\nthat, when the children of Isr\u00e1\u00eel shall perform iniquitous acts,\nMuhammad will appear. About this, Sarmed said that, although the name\nof the prophet is in the sacred book, yet another meaning may more\nevidently be attached to it; but if even the prophet\u2019s very name be\ninsisted upon, it has no other import but that it exhorts the children\nof Isr\u00e2\u00edl to convert themselves to his religion, and, in such an\nendeavour, carried beyond all bounds, he said many other things.\n\nThe Yahuds receive no stranger into their community; circumcision is\nthe law of their prophet, not that of others. They say also that a\nprophet is always living and present, to be the propagator of the law\nwhich is contained in the sacred book. _Abh\u00ee Chand_, having translated\na part of the Mosaic book, the author of this work revised it with\nSarmad; they corrected it completely, affixed their mark to it, so\nthat it became a correct copy, from which is the following:\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE SECOND: ON THE BOOK OF ADAM.\n\nThe Dabistan gives here a Persian translation of the Genesis, from the\nbeginning to chapter VI, verse 8; at the end of which the author says\nthat this is the only portion of the sacred book of the Jews which he\nhad an opportunity of examining. According to Eichhorn (see Einleitung\nin das alte Testament, 4th edit., vol. II. p. 329) the five books of\nMoses were translated into Persian by the rabbi Jacob, son of Joseph,\nafter the ninth century; the translation contained in the Dabistan is\nsaid to have been executed by Abhi Chand; we cannot say whether it was\nmade from the Hebrew original, or from the Arabic, or any other\nlanguage. We are informed by the baron Hammer-Purgstall (see\nGemaldesaal moslimisher Herrsher, p. 57) that Werka ben Nafil, a\ncousin of Khadija, Muhammed\u2019s wife, and a Christian priest, translated\nthe Old and New Testament from the Hebrew into Arabic; this\ntranslation appears however to have been but little known. Eichhorn\nsays (loco citato, p. 231), that the first certain traces of a\ntranslation of the Hebrew sacred books into Arabic are to be found in\nthe tenth century. Pocock mentions (pp. 34, 361) S\u00e2adias, a learned\nJew, who lived from 892 to 941 A. D., as translator of all the books\nof the Old Testament into Arabic; and another Jew (not named) who made\na version of the book of Kings into the same language.\n\nThe Persian translation of the fragment under our consideration was\nrevised by the author of the Dabistan, and by Sarmed, who was a Jew\nand a Rabbin, converted to Muhammedism, most probably in the first\nhalf of the seventeenth century. As it was undoubtedly executed from\nanother original copy than that which had served to the translators in\nEurope, it appeared interesting enough to examine whether the Persian\nversion of the Dabistan differs in any material point from the\ntranslations known in Europe. For that purpose I have consulted the\nfollowing copies of the Bible:\n\n  I. The polyglot Bible, printed at Paris, 1645, in which I\n     chiefly compared the Arabic translation.\n\n  II. The Persian translation, published by the Bible Society\n     in 1825.\n\n  III. The German Bible, translated by Martin Luther.\n\n  IV. The English Bible, appointed to be read in Churches, 1837.\n\n  V. The English translation from the original Hebrew, by John\n     Bellamy, 1818.\n\n  VI. The French translation from the original Hebrew, by S.\n     Cahen, 1831.\n\n  VII. The French translation, by Messrs. Glaire and M. Frank,\n     1835.\n\nHere follow some variations which I have remarked in the Persian\ntranslation compared with the text of the versions just enumerated.\n(References are made to the respective copies, by repeating the Roman\nnumbers prefixed to each.)\n\n\nGENESIS, CHAP. I.\n\n  V. 2. II. III. IV. V. VI. read: \u201cthe spirit of God;\u201d I. the\n    Arabic translation has \u201cthe winds of God;\u201d VI. \u201cun vent\n    violent (divin) agitait la surface des eaux;\u201d the Dabistan,\n\n     \u0648\u0628\u0627\u062f \u062e\u062f\u0627 \u0645\u0649 \u0648\u0632\u064a\u062f \u0628\u06c1 \u0631\u0648\u064a \u0622\u0628\n\n    \u201cAnd the _wind of God_ blew upon the face of the water.\u201d\n\n  VV. 6. 7. 8. I. the Arabic translation has \u062c\u0644\u062f, _jeld_, \u201ca\n    skin, a volume;\u201d II. \u067e\u0631\u062f\u0647, _perdah_, \u201cveil, curtain, fence;\u201d\n    both Arabic and Persian, only figuratively \u201cheaven;\u201d III.\n    German, \u201cveste;\u201d IV. English, and VI. French, \u201cfirmament;\u201d V.\n    English, \u201cexpanse;\u201d VII. French, \u201c\u00e9tendue\u201d (atmosphere); the\n    Dabistan \u0631\u0641\u064a\u0639\u0647, \u201can elevation.\u201d\n\n  V. 26. V. Mr. Bellamy objects to the translation of this verse\n    by the words: \u201cLet us make man in our image\u201d (in which all\n    the other versions agree), and he substitutes for it: \u201cWe\n    will make man;\u201d in the Dabistan we find, in support of Mr.\n    Bellamy, \u0628\u0643\u0646\u0645 \u0622\u062f\u0645, \u201cI will make man.\u201d\n\n\nCHAP. II.\n\n  V. 6. All the translations have: \u201ca vapor _watered_ the face of\n    the earth;\u201d the Dabistan says: \u201ccovered, decked.\u201d\n\n  V. 7. All the copies agree in: \u201che breathed _into his nostrils_\n    the breath of life;\u201d the Dabistan translates: \u201cinto his body.\u201d\n\n  V. 8. Every where we read: \u201cGod planted a garden _eastward in\n    Eden_;\u201d in the Dabistan: \u201cfrom old times in Eden;\u201d Mr. Cahen\n    remarks that Onkelos (a Hebrew commentator before our era)\n    interprets in the same manner: \u201cin former times.\u201d\n\n  V. 11. We read generally: \u201cPison: _that is it which compasseth\n    the whole land of Havilah, where there is gold_;\u201d Messrs.\n    Glaire and Frank add: \u201cl\u2019or _de ce nom_;\u201d in the Dabistan:\n\n     \u0632\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u062d\u0648\u0645\u0644\u0627\u0631\u0627 \u06a9\u06c1 \u0622\u0646\u062c\u0627\u0633\u062a \u0628\u0644\u0648\u0631 \u0648 \u0633\u0630\u0643 \u064a\u0634\u0628\n\n    \u201cThe land Havemla, where there is the beryl (also crystal)\n    and the stone jasper (especially a whitish kind found on\n    mount Imaus).\u201d\n\n  V. 12. is not in the Dabistan.\n\n  V. 13. In the Dabistan are omitted, after the name of Gihon,\n    the words: \u201cthe same is it that compasseth the whole land of\n    Ethiopia.\u201d\n\n  V. 14. The Dabistan reads, after the name of the river H\u00eed\u00eekel,\n    \u0631\u0648\u0646\u062f\u0647 \u067e\u064a\u0634 \u0637\u0627\u064a\u0641\u0647 \u064a\u0634\u0631\u0627\u0648, \u201crunning towards the _people of\n    Ashur_;\u201d other versions have \u201ctowards the east of Assyria.\u201d\n\n  V. 23. VII. Messrs. Glaire and Frank translate: \u201cqu\u2019elle soit\n    nomm\u00e9e _Isch\u00e2_ (femme), parce qu\u2019elle a \u00e9t\u00e9 tir\u00e9e de _Ish_\u201d\n    (homme). This analogous derivation for man and woman does not\n    exist in other languages; we find however, in the old Latin,\n    _vir_ and _vira_, which words are used in the Latin\n    translation of the Samaritan text; in the Arabic version we\n    find \u0627\u0645\u0631\u0639\u0647 for \u201cvirago,\u201d and \u0627\u0645\u0631\u064a\u0647 for \u201cvirilitas;\u201d the\n    translator, in the Dabistan, endeavored to reproduce the same\n    derivation, by _\u00e2ns\u00e1n_ and _\u00e2nsn_:\n\n     \u0627\u0632 \u0627\u0628\u0631\u0627\u064a \u0647\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0643\u064e\u0641\u062a\u0647 \u0645\u064a\u0634\u0648\u062f \u0627\u0646\u0633\u0627\u0646 \u0643\u0647 \u0643\u0631\u0641\u062a\u0647 \u0634\u062f\u0647 \u0627\u0633\u062a \u0627\u0631 \u0627\u0633\u0646\n\n  V. 24. The version in the Dabistan deviates from the other\n    translations by the word\n          \u0645\u064a\u062e\u0633\u067e\u0646\u062f \u0628\u0632\u0646\u0634\n    \u201che will _sleep_ with his wife,\u201d instead of \u201ccleave unto, or\n    adhere to, his wife.\u201d\n\n\nCHAP. III.\n\n     Offers no variation to be pointed out.\n\n\nCHAP. IV.\n\n  V. 13. The translation in the Dabistan deviates from IV. VI.\n    VII. which have: \u201cmy _punishment_ is greater than I can\n    _bear_;\u201d it agrees with I. II. III. and V. which say: \u201cgreat\n    is my _iniquity_ to be _forgiven_;\u201d\n\n        \u0628\u0632\u0631\u0643 \u0627\u0633\u062a \u0643\u0646\u0627\u0647 \u0645\u0646 \u0627\u0632 \u0628\u0631\u062f\u0627\u0634\u062a\u0646\n\n  \u201cGreat is my _crime_ to be _overlooked_\u201d (disregarded).\n\n  V. 16. There is coincidence between I. II. III. IV. VI. and\n    VII. which have: \u201che dwelt in the land _of Nod_, on the east\n    of Eden.\u201d V. Mr. Bellamy translates: \u201che dwelt in the land\n    _wandering_ eastward of Eden;\u201d in the Dabistan:\n\n       \u0646\u0634\u064a\u0633\u062a \u062f\u0631 \u0632\u0645\u064a\u0646 \u0627\u0648\u0627\u0631\u0643\u064a \u064a\u064a\u0634 \u0639\u062f\u0646\n\n    \u201cHe dwelt in the land of vagrancy, before Eden.\u201d\n\n\nCHAP. V.\n\n  V. 25. All translations have: \u201cMethuselah lived _a hundred\n    eighty and seven_ years, and begat Lamech;\u201d in the Dabistan\n    we read only \u201ceighty-seven years.\u201d\n\n  V. 27. All versions agree in the words: \u201cAll the days of\n    Mathuselah were _nine hundred sixty and nine_ years;\u201d in the\n    Dabistan we find: \u201cthe whole life of Manusalah was eight\n    hundred and fifty-nine years\u201d (according to its own text it\n    ought to be 869).\n\n  V. 30. According to all versions: \u201cLamech lived after he begat\n    Noah _five hundred ninety and five_ years;\u201d according to the\n    Dabistan, only \u201cfive hundred years.\u201d\n\n  V. 31. Pursuant to all translations: \u201cthe days of Lamech were\n    _seven hundred seventy and seven_ years;\u201d pursuant to the\n    Dabistan: \u201csix hundred eighty and two years.\u201d\n\n\nCHAP. VI.\n\n  V. 3. In the Dabistan we read: \u201cMy spirit shall not always\n    _take patience_ with man;\u201d other versions have: \u201cshall not\n    always remain,\u201d or \u201cstrive with man.\u201d\n\n  V. 5. is omitted in the Dabistan.\n\nThe notice given in the Dabistan of the opinions of the Jews will be\nfound very incomplete and inaccurate, inasmuch as it is exhibited\nwithout a due distinction of the different Jewish sects, to which they\nmay be attributed. For a far better account of the Jews, see that of\nMakrisi, given in the \u201cChrestomathie arabe\u201d of Silvestre de Sacy (vol.\nI. pp. 284-369), with the various explanatory notes of that celebrated\norientalist.\n\n\n     [484] Tata is a town belonging to the Am\u00edrs of Sind, the\n     capital of a district of the same name, and situated near\n     the banks of the Indus about 130 miles, by the course of the\n     river, from the sea; lat. 22\u00b0 44\u00b4 N. long. 68\u00b0 17\u00b4\n     E.\u2015\u2015(Hamilton\u2019s _East India Gazetteer_.)\n\n     [485] See pp. 152-153.\n\n     [486] _Kat\u00e9b_, the name of the sultan, signifies the north\n     pole; hence the author plays with the words _kateb_,\n     \u201cnorth,\u201d _na\u015bif nahar_, \u201cmidday,\u201d and _sh\u00e1m_, \u201cevening.\u201d\n\n     [487] The author leaves us in a total uncertainty about the\n     words to which he alludes; if to those of Isaiah, chap.\n     LIII, vv. 2-12, the prophet would have predicted his own\n     sufferings. According to the learned Jew, Isaac Orobio (see\n     _Israel veng\u00e9, ou Exposition naturelle des Proph\u00e9ties que\n     les Chr\u00e9tiens appliquent \u00e0 J\u00e9sus, leur pr\u00e9tendu Messie_),\n     the words of Isaiah, chap. LIII, are not to be referred to a\n     single individual, but to the whole people of Israel.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n\nOf the religion of the Tars\u00e1[488], containing three sections.\n\n  _Section I_\u2015\u2015an account of the Lord Ais\u00ed\u00e1 (Jesus).\n  _Section II_\u2015\u2015of the creed of the Nas\u00e1r\u00e1.\n  _Section III_\u2015\u2015of the works of the Tars\u00e1.\n\nOf the Tars\u00e1 I saw several learned individuals, such as the Padr\u00ee\nFransa\u00ee, who is highly esteemed by the Portuguese in Goa, and by those\nwho are in Surat, a maritime place in India. In the year of the Hejira\n1057 (A. D. 1647) the author of this book found him in the port of\nSurat.\n\n\nSECTION THE FIRST: AN ACCOUNT OF THE LORD AISIA (JESUS).\u2015\u2015They say\nthat the birth of the Lord Mes\u00eeah took place in the year 3199 of the\ncreation of the world,[489] 2957 after the deluge of Noah,[490] 2015\nyears after the birth of Ibr\u00e1h\u00edm,[491] and 1510 from the coming of\nMos\u00eeah (Moses);[492] and when the children of Isra\u00e9l were in the 65th\nweek, which the prophet D\u00e1n\u00edel had announced, 752 years after the\nbuilding of Rome,[493] in the 42nd year of the reign of C\u00e6sar\n_Tiberius_. When A\u00eds\u00eda appeared, the high priest said: \u201cWe charge\nthee, upon thy oath by the living God, say, art thou the son of God?\u201d\nThe blessed and holy Lord A\u00eds\u00ee\u00e2 replied to him: \u201cI am what thou hast\nsaid. Verily, we say unto you, you shall see the son of man seated at\nthe right hand of God, and he shall descend in the clouds of heaven.\u201d\nThey said: \u201cThou utterest a blasphemy, because, according to the creed\nof the Yahuds, God never descends in the clouds of heaven.\u201d Ish\u00e2\u00ee\u00e1 the\nprophet has announced the birth of A\u00ees\u00ee\u00e1 in words the translation of\nwhich is as follows: \u201cA branch from the root of Isha\u00ee shall spring up,\nand from this branch shall come forth a flower in which the spirit of\nGod shall dwell: verily, a virgin shall be pregnant and bring forth a\nson.\u201d Ish\u00e1\u00ee is the name of the father of D\u00e1vid. When they had\napprehended Ais\u00eea, they spit upon his blessed face and smote him.\nIsh\u00e2a had predicted it: \u201cI shall give up my body to the smiters, and\nmy cheek to the diggers _of wounds_; I shall not turn my face from\nthose who will use bad words, and throw spittle upon me.\u201d When Afl\u00e1tes\n(Pilatus), a judge of the Yahuds, scourged the Lord A\u00eesi\u00e2 in such a\nmanner that his body from head to foot became but one wound, so was it\nas Ish\u00e2\u00eda had predicted: \u201cHe was wounded for our transgressions; I\nstruck him for his people.\u201d When Pilatus saw that the Yahuds insisted\nupon the death and the crucifixion of Jesus, he said: \u201cI take no part\nin the blood of this man; I wash my hands clean of this blood.\u201d The\nYahuds answered: \u201cHis blood be on us and on our children.\u201d On that\naccount, the Yahuds are oppressed and curbed down, in retribution of\ntheir iniquities. When they had placed the cross upon the shoulder of\nA\u00edsi\u00e1, and led him to die, a woman wiped with the border of her\ngarment the face, full of blood, of the Lord A\u00ees\u00eea; verily, she\nobtained three images of it, and carried them home: the one of these\nimages exists still in Isp\u00e1niah, in the royal town which is situated\nwithin the country of the king of Portugal; and is shown there twice\nevery year:[494] the other is in the town of Milan, in the country of\nItaly, and the third in the city of Rome.\n\n\n     [488] _Tarsa_ is derived from _tarsiden_, \u201cfearing, timid, a\n     Christian, an infidel, a pagan, a worshipper of fire.\u201d\n\n     [489] Upon the epoch of the creation of the world we have,\n     according to Riccioli, 70, according to Dortous de Mairan,\n     75 or 90, and according to the marquis de Fortia d\u2019Urban,\n     108 different systems, to which many more may be added.\n     These epochs vary from 6984 to 3619 years; that of the\n     Dabistan, 3199, is the lowest known to me.\n\n     [490] The deluge is placed:\n           By the Septuaginta       2250 years before Christ.\n             \u2015\u2015   Archbishop Usher  2348  \u2015\u2015     \u2015\u2015     \u2015\u2015\n             \u2015\u2015   Others            3882  \u2015\u2015     \u2015\u2015     \u2015\u2015\n\n     [491] The above epoch differs 94 years from that given by\n     Archbishop Usher, viz.: 1921 years before Christ.\n\n     [492] The above epoch differs 19 years from that given by\n     Archbishop Usher, viz.: 1510 years before Christ.\n\n     [493] The date of the birth of Christ, as given by our\n     chronologers, varies from 747 to 754 years after the\n     building of Rome, or is uncertain within seven or six years\n     (see Chronologie de J\u00e9sus-Christ par M. le marquis de\n     Fortia, p. 102-103, Paris, 1830).\n\n     [494] The viscount of Santarem, to whose most extensive\n     learning in history and geography, I fortunately had an\n     opportunity in Paris of applying for information upon the\n     above mentioned fact, gave me the following notice: \u201cIn no\n     town of Portugal do I find any indication of the existence\n     of these relics. I think that there is, in the statement of\n     the Dabist\u00e1n, an error and a confusion with the fact related\n     by Brand\u00e2o, in 1643, viz.: the famous Portuguese prince don\n     Pietro, son of John I., having, on his return from Jerusalem\n     to Spain, in 1428, married in the town of Alcoba in\n     Catalonia, the countess Isabella, daughter of D. Jayme,\n     count of Urgel, gave to the bishop of Valenza an image of\n     our Saviour, taken by St. Veronica. These relics were still\n     preserved in the cathedral of Valenza in Spain, called by\n     distinction \u2018the royal town,\u2019 in the year 1643.\u201d It was a\n     few years after this (see p. 305), that the author of the\n     Dabist\u00e1n might have received from father Francia, the\n     Portuguese missionary, the account above stated.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE SECOND: OF THE CREED OF THE AI SU YAH (CHRISTIANS). They\nsay that, in the name of God the Father, God the Son, and of the Holy\nGhost, every one ought to bear in his heart and to keep perpetually on\nhis tongue the Lord Jesus, the Son of God, and never to deny him, if\neven it were at the peril of his head.[495] The holy cross is the sign\nof the Christians. They reckon fourteen parts of their creed: seven of\nwhich relate to God the Almighty, and seven to the human nature of the\nLord Jesus. The first seven are as follow: 1. to confess that God is\nomnipotent and supreme; 2. to believe that he is the Father; 3. to\nbelieve that he is the Son; 4. that he is a pure spirit; 5. that he is\nthe Creator; 6. that he bestows heaven; 7. that he grants\nsalvation.[496] The seven other articles, which relate to the human\nnature of Jesus are the following: 1. to believe that he is the Son of\nGod, by the power of the Holy Ghost, born in the body of Maria; 2.\nthat he was born of Maria, the virgin, and without detriment to her\nvirginity; 3. that for our sake he was crucified, died, and was\nburied; 4. that he shall descend from heaven, and raise up the former\ngenerations, who there anxiously expected his blessed arrival; 5. that\nhe resuscitated on the third day; 6. that he ascended to heaven, and\nsits at the right hand of the Father, the omnipotent and supreme God;\n7. that he shall come at the end of the world to judge the living and\nthe dead, and to reveal their good and bad actions. They call God a\nfather, because he is bountiful to his servants as a father to his\nchildren. They maintain that, although God has three different\npersons, yet, in truth, he is but one being; in such a manner that the\npersons are the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, without the unity\nof the blessed entity being affected by it, and this peculiarity\nbelongs to the divinity; in no creature is such an attribute to be\nfound. Jesus is in truth the Son of God; it is only metaphorically\nthat other holy personages are called the sons of God; it is in an\nabstract sense,[497] inasmuch as, being God, that Jesus came forth in\nheaven from the Father, not from the mother; in a similar manner, in\nan abstract sense, inasmuch as, being a man upon earth, he has a\nmother, but no Father. Jesus did not die, but, having a perfect love\nfor the sons of Adam, he sacrificed himself for the people, that they\nmay be liberated again from all sins. They say further, that below the\nearth there are four places: the undermost of all is hell, which is\nthe place of severe punishment for the Satans and the iniquitous.\nAnother place, above this, is that which they call _purgatory_, that\nis, a place of purification for good men, as some of the disobedient\nwho have rebelled, when they shall have there been purified, go to\nheaven. A third place, higher than the last, is called the _limbus_,\nin which are children under age; except that of being deprived of the\nsight of the Lord Almighty, they are there exempt from all other\nsuffering. The fourth place is the most elevated of all; they call it\n\u201cthe House of Ibrah\u00eem,\u201d that is, the dwelling of the souls of the\nprophets and holy men: these were formerly not quite happy, because\nthey expected anxiously the arrival of the Saviour, the Lord Jesus;\nwhen Jesus left the body which was buried, he descended to this fourth\nplace, and when he rose from the grave, he brought the pure souls with\nhim, leaving the souls in the three other places where they were.\nWhen, after having been put to death, he was restored to life, his\nsoul was reunited to his body, and he remained forty days with his\ndisciples; he then, before their eyes and those of others, ascended to\nheaven, and, in the highest place, seated himself at the side of God\nAlmighty. They declare: \u201cWhen we say that Jesus is seated at the right\nside of God, his Father, we mean not to say that God has a body and is\nany thing corporeal. No! the Divine Being has neither right nor left\nside. By such a description we intend to be intelligible _to the\nvulgar_; for Jesus, in the abstract sense of being the son of God,\npossesses the same greatness and power which his Father has, and in\nthe abstract sense of his being a man, he dwells in the most glorious\nand most excellent place, which is in heaven.\u201d They declare further:\n\u201cWhen we say that Jesus shall come on the last day of the world to\njudge the dead and the living, and to give their due to all men, we\nmean not to imply that all men will then be alive, but by the living\nwe denote the good men, and by the dead, the wicked.\u201d Except\nChristians, nobody else will be found pure and holy. On the day of\nresurrection, all men shall live and their souls shall be reunited to\ntheir bodies, and none will ever more die.\n\n\n     [495] Here the author shows how the Latin word \u201c_filius_\u201d is\n     to be written in Arabic or Persian characters.\n\n     [496] Here the author shows how the Latin word \u201c_Deus_\u201d is\n     to be written in Arabic or Persian characters.\n\n     [497] I render here, by \u201cabstract sense,\u201d the Persian word\n     \u062d\u064a\u062b\u064a\u062a _h\u00e2ys\u00eeyat_, which in the Dictionary is interpreted\n     \u201cubiquity, universality, capacity, merit, conditional\n     proposition, examination, etc.\u201d\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nSECTION THE THIRD: OF THE WORKS OF THE CHRISTIANS.\u2015\u2015Ten commandments\nare established in the Gospel; three of them relate to God, and seven\nothers to the servants of God: 1. thou shalt love the Lord thy God\nabove all things; 2. thou shalt not swear by the name of God for the\nsake of an argument, that is, thou shalt accustom thyself to the\ntruth; when this quality shall be manifest in thee, thou wilt never\nhave occasion for an oath. The wise master of secrets, the king Naser\nKhusr\u00f3 says:\n\n     \u201cAt any time speak nothing else but truth, that thou mayst\n        not have need of an oath.\u201d\n\n3. keep the holy days, that is the Sunday and the other sanctified\ndays; 4. honor thy father and thy mother; 5. thou shalt not kill: this\nmeans, evidently, thou shalt not kill a living being at all; but they\nhave interpreted it that only the animal which is a _private_ property\nought not to be killed, such a one as is serviceable, and in life, or\nafter death, may be of use. The true sense is, that we ought not only\nnot to kill our brother (and such is any son of Adam), but even not\nhurt him by any deed or word; 6. thou shalt not commit fornication,\nthat is, with a woman not thy own, be she married or without a\nhusband; 7. thou shalt not steal; 8. thou shalt not calumniate nor\nlie: in this command enters that, if any thing bad concerning somebody\nbe a secret, although we know it as a certainty, we ought nevertheless\nto keep it concealed, and not to divulge it, except the bad thing were\nagainst religion and faith, or tended against the king; 9. thou shalt\nnot covet another\u2019s wife; 10. thou shalt not covet another\u2019s good.\n\nThe other five commandments, which are less imperative, are: 1. to\nhear mass on Sunday, and on other holy days; and this is a rite of\ndevotion which a padri performs; and every body ought in solitude to\nturn his whole mind towards the remembrance of the sufferings of\nJesus; 2. every one ought to go to confession at least once a year.\nThe confession implies three conditions: the first is truth; the\nsecond, contrition; the third, completeness; that is, to recount\nhumbly one\u2019s own sins without diminution or addition, to speak out,\nand to beg absolution; 3. it is necessary that every one should take,\nyearly, the communion at the Easter feast, that is, when Jesus\nattained to manhood and made his testament, establishing the rule of\nthe holy sacrament, which is a worship; 4. let every man keep the fast\nat Christmas, and other fasts, except a person be excused; 5. it is\nobligatory to pay the tithes, that is, the tenth part of whatever\ngrows from the earth, or comes forth from an animal, is to be given to\nGod.\n\nAt the time of prayer, they say, God is to be invoked as our Father;\nhe loveth us just as a father loveth a son, and his own Son says and\norders that we should call him a father. We ought then to abstain from\nsins, that he may enable us to be his children. And when we say to\nGod: \u201cthou art in heaven,\u201d it is because we think he has chosen\nheaven, and for that reason we raise our hearts from the earth\nupwards, if even God has no dwelling so as to be beheld in heaven.\nBesides, in their prayer, they do not demand bread from God, because\nhe is displeased at our wanting to-day the necessaries of life for a\nfuture day, but because he wills us to be contented, and to feel no\nanxious care about to-morrow. They say, that we ought to pardon the\nmischief that we receive from others, in order that God Almighty may\nalso pardon our transgressions. They offer likewise prayers in praise\nof the glorious Mary, saying that the Lord God diffuses abundantly his\ngrace in any place in which the image of the blessed Lady Mary be\npresent. In the same manner they consider the image of the Lord Jesus,\nand that of the holy cross.\n\nThere are seven sacraments, which consist in submissive prayers and\ninvocations for remission of sins from God the Almighty: 1. _Baptism_;\nthat is, an external ablution in the name of God, of his Son, and of\nthe Holy Ghost; for this act any sort of water that may be procured is\nacceptable; by this act the soul is purified from the contamination of\nall sins; this rite may be performed by the first padri who may be\npresent, and if none are at hand, by any individual among the\nChristians; 2. _Confirmation_; that is, a friction with holy oil,\ngiven in the name of God; and the giver, that is, a padri of\nknown merit, bestows it on all Christians of an adult age;\n_Sanct-Eucharisty_: this, they say, is the holiest of all the\nsacraments, as it presents the Lord Jesus under the form of bread,\nthat he may become the power of the soul. Three conditions are\nrequired in this act: the first is a true faith; the second,\nabstinence from sins; the third, to fast, and eat nothing until taking\nthe sacrament; the time of taking it is Christmas; 4. _Penitence_;\nwhich consists of two conditions that the Lord Jesus has imposed\ntherein: the first is confession; that is the avowal made by the\nsinner of his sins, and the absolution of the padri, as of one who is\nthe substitute of Jesus, and whose forgiveness is the absolution of\nJesus. Then, it is necessary that the sinner should give a detailed\naccount of his concealed and open crimes, and to this he must add two\nthings; the one is an aversion to, and a repentance of, every action\nwhich he may have done without the approbation of God; the other is a\nsincere resolution of never undertaking any blamable acts; to execute\nfaithfully the penance imposed upon him by the padri, as Jesus ordered\na return for every crime. Further, whatever sins, venial or capital,\nmay have struck the ear of the padri, he ought never, even at the\nperil of his head, to reveal or publish them; 5. _Sacrament of extreme\nunction_; this is a friction by which they anoint a Christian with\nholy oil, and they bestow this sacrament with some words which the\nLord Jesus has spoken. The above five sacraments are obligatory to\nevery adult Christian; 6. _Ordination_; this sacrament is taken by\ndevoting one\u2019s self by free choice to the worship of God, which\nvocation the Christians recommend; 7. _Matrimony_; this is an\nagreement which a man and a woman take together at the time of their\nbinding themselves in wedlock, that during the whole of their life\nthey will keep faith to each other. This is peculiar to the adults.\nThis act is allowable to women frequently at the age of twelve years;\nto men at that of fourteen. The man is not permitted to take more than\none wife, and the woman is bound to a single husband. The padri who\ngives this sacrament, after having ascertained that there is no\nobjection to the marriage, and the compact being made before\nwitnesses, unites both to each other in wedlock according to the\nconditions of matrimony.\n\nThe Christians say that faith is something by which we know a religion\nto be certainly true, and that, whenever God, the Almighty, has sent\nhis message, however hard and difficult, and out of the natural mode\nand rule it may appear, we know that God cannot tell a lie. The truth\nis found in the book of God, by means of the evidence given by him who\nis the substitute of the Lord Jesus, and whom they call _Pope_. It is\ncertain that he throws nobody into an error, because the Lord Jesus\nhas in the holy Gospel, made an arrangement with him to that effect.\nIt should be known that the life of man depends upon these laudable\nqualifications. To search and to acquire knowledge is a laudable\nintention, in every business and profession; on that account it is by\nmethod and virtue that affairs find a proper arrangement; knowledge is\nthe master of things; it is like salt in meat, it is the eye of the\nbody; and as the sun in heaven. _Justice_ consists in using moderation\nin the manifold transactions of men, and in keeping men in peace and\nin mutual satisfaction: if therefore every body were contented with\nhis share, and entertained no desire for more, there would be no war\nand contention. _Fortitude_ is something by means of which one obtains\nsuperiority over the difficulties which obstruct the life of men, and\nthe business of fortitude is to triumph over terror and fear, which\nIblis (Satan) throws into the heart, in order to retain us from acts\nwhich are to be done. _Continence_ is a faculty which bestows measure\nand order in sensual pleasures; the business of continence is to\nprevent men from being carried away by the delights of the world; we\nought to tend in this life towards godliness; blessed are those who\nfeel hunger and thirst after God. It is required that, in our devotion\nto God there enters no other desire but that of the beatitude to see\nthe Divine Being; on that account blessed are those whose hearts are\npure, because the sight of God shall be their reward in heaven, and\neven in this world they shall in a certain way see God: because those\nwhose eyes are pure, behold things of _superlative_ beauty; it is\nrequired that we carry strife to a peaceful end, and accomplish our\nvirtuous endeavors. Those who are in a state of opposition to this,\ntake with efforts and struggles the road of misery. On that account\nblessed are the peace-makers, for they shall be called the children of\nGod.\n\nThere are fourteen gifts of God, the all merciful; seven of them are\nbodily, and seven spiritual. The seven bodily gifts are: 1. to satiate\nthe hungry; 2. to quench the thirst of the thirsty; 3. to clothe the\nnaked; 4. to harbor the stranger; 5. to inquire after the sick, and to\nconsole the captive; 6. to procure liberty to prisoners; 7. to bury\nthe dead. The spiritual acts are as follow: 1. to instruct the\nignorant; 2. to advise the poor _in spirit_; 3. to comfort the heart\nof the mourners; 4. to admonish the sinners; 5. to forgive injuries\ninflicted; 6. to show forbearance to the deformities of nature; 7. to\noffer pious prayers for the living and the dead. The Christians say\nthat every necessitous individual is worthy of charities, to whatever\nreligion or sect he may belong, but the person of the same faith, or a\nrelative, is more deserving of favor. It is a sin, when by choice we\nperpetrate an action which is in opposition to the pleasure of God,\nand when we abandon an act which we are commanded to perform. A\ncapital sin is it for a man, by his own choice, to commit an\nabominable act and deed, such as the unrighteous spilling of blood,\nand whoredom. Of venial sins seven are enumerated: such as stealing\nsome slight thing without a perfect concurrence of the will in it. The\nsummary of the capital sins is as follows: pride, avarice, lust,\nanger, gluttony, envy, and sloth.\n\nPride consists in esteeming one\u2019s self higher than others, whence\nproceed petulance, which displays itself in vaunting one\u2019s self and\ndespising others, and in dispute, and disobedience. The remedies to be\napplied to it are trust, submission, and obedience to another; these\nare suitable means by which the hateful mind may be subdued.\n\nAvarice is a desire without measure of the brittle things of the\nworld, and the bad consequences which result from it are theft,\ndeception in buying and selling, lies, and perjury: the remedies for\nit may be good works and liberality.\n\nLust is an unbounded desire of sensual pleasures; but the way and\nscandalous display of it is the defilement of women: the remedy to be\nsought for counteracting it is chastity.\n\nAnger is a desire without measure of vengeance upon somebody, and the\ndisplay of it is hatred of God\u2019s creatures, insulting speeches against\nmen, contentions, and a total want of mildness: the remedies for it\nare patience, forbearance, and the reflection that, for our crimes and\nshameful acts, we are deserving of the adversity which comes upon us,\nand to keep before our sight the Lord Jesus and his apostles, who\nshowed nothing but mercy and kindness to those very men who caused\ntheir distress and affliction.\n\nGluttony is a desire without measure of eating and drinking; the\noffspring of this is sensuality, rejection of fasts, slowness in\nworship, and all sorts of diseases ruining the body: the remedies for\nthis are abstinence, moderation in eating and drinking, in order that\na becoming attention to divine favor be excited, the constitution\nrestored to health, and a return from all extravagance accomplished.\n\nEnvy is a pain and sadness derived from the good condition of the\naffairs of other people; whence proceeds the jealous intention to find\nfault and occasion for detraction. It displays itself by rejoicing at\nthe distress of one\u2019s neighbors, when related by other tongues, by\nreviling certain people, and by leading an unprofitable life: the\nremedy for it is affection for mankind on account of their being God\u2019s\ncreatures, and to consider that happiness and welfare are bestowed\nupon them by the mercy of God, and that it is an exceeding offence\nagainst good morals to be afflicted on account of the works and\neffects which result from _divine_ disposition.\n\nSloth is negligence in the worship of God and in good behaviour. It\ndisplays itself by a frequent deficiency in laudable and obligatory\nactions, and in always letting slip out of our hands the expedients of\nspiritual and material life: the remedy for it is activity and\nalacrity.\n\nHell is a place a worse than which cannot exist, and in this abode one\nis imprisoned to all eternity, on account of commission of sins for\npunishment, more severe than which none can be imagined. Heaven is a\nplace full of all sorts of delight; the happiness of this place\nmanifests itself for all ages by jubilation and pleasure.\n\nJesus told his disciples: \u201cAfter me, a great number of men will set\nforth pretensions to divine mission, but all will be deceivers: remain\nyou persevering and steady in your adherence to me, until my coming.\u201d\n\nThe Gospel has been translated from the tongue of Jesus into different\nlanguages; namely, into Arabic, Greek, Latin, which last is the\nlanguage of the learned among the Firang; into Syriac, and this all\nmen of letters know.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\n  Of the religion of the Muhammedans, or of the people of Isl\u00e1m (right\n    faith), consisting of two sections: the first treats of the religion\n    of the _Sonnites_, the second of the religion of the _Shi\u00e2s_.\n\n\nSECTION THE FIRST: OF THE RELIGION OF THE SONNITES.\u2015\u2015The author of\nthis book was informed by respectable persons of the Sonnites (the\nmercy of God be upon them!) and saw in their books, namely, in the\ndoctrine presented by the imam _Mohammed Sheh eristan\u00ee_,[498] where it\nis said, that in sign of revelation the verses of the high prophet\n(upon whom be blessing!) show the right faith; that his religion will\ndivide into seventy and three sects,[499] and that of this number one\nshall obtain salvation, and the rest shall share darkness and\nperdition. It was asked: \u201cUpon what people shall the sun of salvation\nshine?\u201d He answered: \u201cIt shall shine upon the people of the\n_Sonat_[500] and _Jam\u00e1\u00e2t_.\u201d[501] It was further asked: \u201cWho are the\npeople of Sonat[502] and Jam\u00e1\u00e2t?\u201d He said: \u201cThose who walk the road\nupon which I am to-day a traveller, and by which my successor shall\nproceed.\u201d The same book treats also of the _Sif\u00e1t\u00eeah_,[503] a great\nnumber of which sect has from all times acknowledged the greatness of\nthe divine nature, whose attributes are omniscience, power, life,\nhearing, sight, providence, command, majesty, bounty, profuse\nliberality, greatness, and magnificence; they make no difference\nbetween the _essential attributes_ and the _attributes of operation_;\nbecause in logic, according to their definition of the words, both\nthese attributes are but one; they maintain that some of the\nattributes are proclaimed by the evidence of the blessed revelation;\nand these they call _attributes declarative_: for instance, the hand,\nthe countenance; these they do not interpret in a particular sense,\nbut they say, these attributes are found mentioned in the sacred book,\non which account these attributes are called _declarative_. Whereas\nthe sect called the _M\u00e2tazalah_[504] deny the attributes, and the\nancients maintain them by arguments; the latter are called _Sif\u00e1tiah_,\nand the M\u00e2tezalah are entitled _M\u00e2talah_; but these last employ\nexaggeration in their arguments to such a degree that they approach\nthe boundary of a mere image. Some use more restriction with respect\nto the attribution, which is indicated by the actions _of God_.\nInformation derived from the sacred book devolved equally to both\nsects; but some interpret these words in a manner that they may appear\nprobable, whilst others are firm in their interpretation, saying: \u201cWe\nknow by the application of the intellect that nothing can be like the\nLord\u2019s divine power, and that at all times nothing of what is created\ncan be like him, and firmly convinced of it, we think these words are\nto be considered as a mere simile, such as: \u2018_God seated upon his\nthrone_,\u2019 or such as \u2018_I created you with my hand, and I preserve\nyou_.\u2019 Except these words, which are to be considered as a mere\nsimile, we know no other meaning, and to know _thoroughly_ the meaning\nand interpretation of it, we feel ourselves perplexed; but, in spite\nof this perplexity, we deny the likeness of the created beings and the\nCreator, on account of the extent of the divine power.\u201d\n\nThe sect called _Jam\u00e1\u00e2t\u00ee_, which belongs to the moderns, amplified\nwhat the ancients had maintained, and said, that necessarily an\nevident sense is to be ascribed to these words, and by means of a\ncommentary an agreement was obtained upon the proper bearing which the\ntext of the sacred book has, so that we may without difficulty\ninterpret it, or establish the evident meaning of it. They always fell\ninto a pure simile, and in such an acceptation, they are in opposition\nto the ancients. Whatever, as a pure simile, is taken from the sacred\nbook of the Jews, this is also not received by all the Jewish tribes,\nalthough the readers of the Koran, having found some such words in the\nOld Testament, employ the simile as an argument, and in this belief\nare the _Sh\u00ee\u00e2h_. Some fell upon the side of excess, and some upon that\nof deficiency; but others of the sect, which by exaggeration[505]\nexceeded all bounds, declared as vain any comparison with the Lord\nAlmighty, whilst the sect which happened to take the side of\ndeficiency and error compared something which is created to the Lord\nGod. When the _M\u00e2tazalah_ and the _Matakalm\u00e1n_,[506] \u201cscholastics,\u201d\nappeared, then some openly turned their face from exaggeration and\ndeficiency in which they were, and became _M\u00e2tazalah_. And some of the\nancients, inasmuch as they attached themselves to the imagery of\ncertain words which are to be considered as a mere simile, fell into\nan error; but the sect of the ancients in general did not oppose the\ninterpretation of those words, and made themselves no objects of\ncontention and blame on account of the simile. It was the example of\nthe theologians and of the Im\u00e1ms of the right faith, the Im\u00e1m _Ans_\nEbn _M\u00e1lik_,[507] (the peace of God be upon him!) who said that the\nwords: \u201c_God was seated upon his throne_,\u201d are evident; the attribute\nis unknown, and the faith to be placed in it is necessary. The\nquestion thereupon being a novelty, and carried to such a state, the\nIm\u00e1ms _Ahmed Hanbal_[508] and _D\u00e1\u00fad J\u015bfah\u00e1ni_,[509] (the mercy of God\nbe upon them!) and the Jam\u00e1\u00e2t\u00ee, who followed them, came to a final\nconclusion, until the time of _Abd-Alah Kalab\u00ee_, and _Ab\u00ee al Abas\nKal\u00e1nas\u00ee_, and _H\u00e1res Jben Asad Mah\u00e1sebi_.[510] Although these were of\nthe ancients, it happened that, by devoting themselves to scholastic\ntheology, they became inflamed with it, but were not able to expound\nthe creed of the ancients; in such a manner as to impart, by means of\narguments, clearness to the fundamentals of theology, and their fervor\nand activity became doubled and increased, until by the intervention\nof the Shaikh _Abu \u2019l Hasen Ashar\u00ee_[511], and by his instruction in\nthe precepts of rectitude and perfection an opposition appeared, and a\ndispute arose, and enmity displayed itself. Ash\u00e2ri inclined to their\nside, and by opening roads to the fundamentals of theology, he lent\nstrength to their endeavors, and this creed became the religion of the\n_Sonnites_ and the _Jam\u00e1\u00e2t_. The title of _Sif\u00e1t\u00edah_, which they bore\nas a title of honor, was changed, and they called themselves _Ash\u00e2r\u00ee_.\nAs the _Ash\u00e2r\u00ee\u00e1h_ and _Keramiah_[512] are among the establishers of\nthe divine attributes, they are acknowledged as two sects of the\ntotality of the Sif\u00e1t\u00eeah. The principal point among the precepts of\nthe Ash\u00e2r\u00ees is, that every being that may _really_ exist must be\nperfect, that it may answer its own purpose; perfection is a necessity\nof existence, and the Lord Almighty is the _real_ being: the necessity\nof the Lord God is always right, and the law by him is a salvation\nacquired, so that the faithful believers shall in the other world, by\na beneficent necessity, become exalted:\n\n     \u201cGod said: \u2018Some countenances shall on that day look towards\n        their Lord.\u2019\u201d[513]\n\nThey say besides, that if he gave access to heaven to all creatures,\nor sent them to hell, it would not be unjust; because tyranny can be\nexercised every where except in his empire. They maintain also, that\nthe office of an Imam becomes firm by union and election, not only by\nmanifestation and establishment: because, if there was manifestation,\nit did not remain occult, and the excitements occasioned by the report\nof it were abundant. Upon the plank of the children of S\u00e1\u00e2dah[514]\nthey united to elect _Abubeker_; after having established Abubeker,\nthey chose _Omar_; and after consultation _Osman_, and afterwards\ntheir choice fell upon _Al\u00ee_ (the blessing of God, the Highest, be\nupon them all!). The order of their succession in the office of Imam\nwas according to the order of their excellence.\n\nAn example of what was said about the ancients is to be found among\nthe possessors of the sacred sayings, the Imam Ahmed Hanbal[515] and\nD\u00e1\u00fad Ebn Ali Muhammed Jsfah\u00e1n\u00ee[516] and the Jam\u00e1\u00e2t\u00ee of the ancients\n(the blessing of God be upon them!) who proceeded as leaders upon the\nhigh road of the ancients, such as M\u00e1lik Ans and Mak\u00e1bil Ben Sol\u00eeman,\nand persevered upon the high road of peace, saying: \u201cWe made oath by\nthe book and the Sonna, and we were no opposers to the interpretation;\u201d\ntherefore they placed confidence in the book of God, and the Sonnites\nsaid: \u201cWe know that the Lord Almighty is not like any thing that is\ncreated, and none of the created beings is like the Lord Almighty;\u201d\nand they were very careful of the simile, and said: \u201cWhoever makes a\nmotion with his hand in reciting these words:\n\n     \u2018I created with my hands,\u2019\n\n\u201cor extends his finger, repeating these words of the sacred sayings:\n\n     \u2018The heart of the believer is between two fingers of God the\n        Merciful.\u2019\n\n\u201cit shall be necessary to cut off his hand.\u201d They said besides: \u201dWe\npersevere in the interpretation of it, because there is a remedy for\nthe heart, which remedy proceeded from the heavenly revelation;\nnamely,\n\n       \u201cThey whose hearts are inclined to error will follow that\n     which is parabolical therein (the Koran), out of love of\n     schism and a desire of the interpretation thereof; yet none\n     knoweth the interpretation thereof, except God. But they who\n     are well grounded in knowledge say: \u2018We believe therein the\n     whole is from our Lord.\u2019[517]\n\n\u201cAnd we are safe from doubt, and the interpretation of the command is\nfixed in our thought; by common consent the word about the attributes\nof God Almighty, interpreted according to opinion, is not to be\ndepended upon; it may sometimes happen that we interpret it contrarily\nto the will of the Lord God; we always fall into doubt and some\ndeviation from truth; but we say what the men firm in knowledge say:\nthat the whole is from the Lord, the Almighty God; we manifested this\nbelief externally, and internally we acknowledged it as true; we\nconsign it to the Lord, the Almighty God, and we are not perplexed by\nthe abstruseness of this knowledge, because to possess it, is not\nimposed upon us by the law of the faith.\u201d Some have carried\nscrupulousness to that degree, that they do not interpret in Persian\nthe words \u201chand, countenance, and strength;\u201d but, like the _Hashaviyat\nAsh\u00e2riah_, they enjoined that whatever is contained in the Koran about\nstrength, both hands, countenance, arrival, meeting, supremacy, and\nthe words in the sacred sayings, such as:\n\n     \u201cGod created Adam after his own image.\u201d\n\nand other expressions therein of a similar sort, are to be read in the\nvery terms of the original, so that the words which there openly bear\nupon solid bodies, are understood by them in such a manner as to\nanswer the belief of the religious sects and the attribution.\n\nThe author of this book heard, in the year of the Hejira 1048 (A. D.\n1638) in the royal capital of Lahore, from _Mulla Adel_, of Kashghar,\nthat he (the Mulla) has read in the revered book of his faith, and\nalso the _lord Mawl\u00e1na Abd al rahmen J\u00e1m\u00ee_[518] has stated, in his\nnoble verses, that by the right faith it is necessary to believe in\nour heart, and to confess with our tongue, that the author of\nexistence is independant, absolute, and without wants; and that his\nbeing is free of matter and without a form, and that he is better than\nwhatever can be imagined; he existed primitively whilst the beings\nwere in the mansions of nothingness; after which, as an object\neverlasting, he remained firm, and no other being but he is always,\nand one; but his greatness, his attributes, and his names are without\nmeasure and number, although in a thousand parts he is but one; in\nthese however he is not confined; the qualities of his majesty are not\nperceived by the eye; and no being but he has life inherent in his\nqualities; but he lives neither by his spirit, nor breath, nor body,\nalthough he be living by himself. He is another universe, endowed with\nsuch a knowledge that the world has no superiority over him, and his\nomniscience comprehends the totalities and the parts, the inhabitants\nand the places, and the town of existence, in such a manner that not a\ngrain of sand is without his knowledge; he is the author of every\nthing by his will, and the actions of all things may be voluntary,\nsuch as the doings of mankind; or natural, such as the inclination of\na stone, and are all produced by his will.\n\n  \u201cNot a thorn pricks without his will;\n   Not a thread is broken without his direction.\u201d\n\nHe is strong, and possesses a perfect power; without the help of\ninstruments he performs every thing; from nothingness he brings forth\nbeings; he hears without an ear; he sees without an eye:\n\n  \u201cHe hears the petition from afar and near:\n   He sees, be there light or darkness.\u201d\n\nHe speaks, but his speech comes not from his throat, nor from the\ntongue and the palate; but what he announces or withholds is nothing\nmore than his speech; and his silence is eloquence.\n\n  \u201cWhen God, the Almighty, without words and letters\n   Spoke to nothingness sublime mysteries,\n   Nothingness was moved by delight at these speeches,\n   Dancing through the area of existence.\u201d\n\nThe emergencies of the world, good or bad, are all from his\ndisposition; and the actions pleasing or repulsive, are all his\ncreation.\n\n  \u201cThe good and evil, if they be the necessities of predestination,\n   The one is contrary, the other conformable, to his pleasure.\n   He does what he likes, and knows of no hinderance nor favor;\n            Who is possessed of power like his?\n            Justice and virtue tend towards him,\n            Injustice is foreign to his actions.\u201d\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nAN ACCOUNT OF THE ANGELS.\n\nThe angels are neither females nor males, and are pure of all\ndepravity and sins. Some of the first rank among them are entranced in\nthe contemplation of the divine perfection which they witness, so that\nthey are not aware of God Almighty having created the world and\nmankind. The second order of angels are the ministers of bodies and\ngigantic forms; the revolution of the heavens is their office; and\nwith every drop of rain an angel comes down, and no leaf appears\nwithout an angel fostering it. But among the angels four are\ndistinguished, namely: _Jabr\u00eel_, _Isr\u00e1f\u00eel_, _M\u00e2\u00eek\u00e1\u00edl_, and _Azr\u00e1\u00eel_.\nThe message of revelation is the business of Jabr\u00eel; to sound the\ntrumpet belongs to Isr\u00e1f\u00eel; the surety of professions is M\u00e2ik\u00e1il\u2019s;\nand Azr\u00e1il seizes the souls. Four angels are the appointed guardians\nof mankind, and write down the good and the bad; two of them are\noccupied with this business during the day, and two during the night.\nThe writers of the good keep the right side, those of the bad the\nleft. The angels can in some form appear to men;\n\n       \u201cEspecially to the eyes of the guides of the ways,\n  From among the possessors of constancy,[519] the prophets and\n    apostles.\u201d\n\nThe prophets are the select of God from among all the children of Adam\nand of the exalted angels, and the spirit of Satan can never hurt\nthem, if, by an extraordinary emergency, one of them commits a fault,\nit is reckoned to be for giving good advice.\n\n  \u201cAdam, at the moment when he tasted wheat,[520]\n   Received the seed for the propagation of mankind;\n   From the grain which he ate sprang up a tree;\n   Life in me and in thee is its fruit.\u201d\n\nAlthough there be among the prophets, as compared with each other, a\nhigher and a lower rank in their exaltation, yet Muhammed the Arabian\n(may the blessing of God, the high and omnipotent, be upon him!) is\nthe noble and excelling prophet, who unites all virtues and\nperfections.\n\n  \u201cBefore the intelligent, there is no messenger\n   But Muhammed for all mankind.\u201d\n\nHe is the seal of God\u2019s prophets, and after him no other shall come,\nand when at the end of time the Messiah shall descend, he shall adopt\nthe law of Muhammed; he shall convoke the nations to his religion; the\nlaw of the prophet shall cancel all other laws.\n\n  \u201cIf the decision of the law of the sovereign (Muhammed) happens to be\n        Corresponding with another law,\n        There is no obedience whatever due to the latter,\n   Except from the circumstance of its being right according to the\n     law of the prophet.\u201d\n\nThe ascent of the prophet[521] with his body happened during his being\nawake, as far as the mosque _Aksa_; there he mounted on the back of\n_Bor\u00e1k_,[522] and passed above the heavens. He saw all the prophets,\nand the stories of the heavens and the hells; in the heavenly mansion\nof Jabr\u00eel (God be praised!) the angel remained behind him; then, by\nmeans of the arch he proceeded further.\n\n      \u201cThere was no confident but God;\n  He saw what was to be seen, he heard what was to be heard;\n  From thence he turned his face towards his dwelling;\n  His place of repose had not yet become cold.\u201d\n\nIf this supernatural event was associated with the claim of prophecy,\nso was it a miracle, and if not, so was it divine favour; in the\nexistence of the Lord prophet (the blessing and peace of God be with\nhim) was a great number of miracles attesting his mission to the\nnations, and such ones as are not to be found with other prophets.\nThere are many books attributed to God Almighty, and in their whole\nnumber one hundred and four are approved; but they are not confined to\nthis number, and some of those which are known, are not praised.\n\n            \u201cEvery book which God has sent,\n  Is received by the believing as revealing God\u2019s perfection.\n  Such is the _Tawrit_ (the Old Testament) this book of the Merciful,\n  Which by tradition and writing came to Ibrahim.\n       Another is the Gospel, which came down\n       By the Messiah, and the psalms by D\u00e1\u00fad.\n       A summary of all these four is the Koran,\n       Which Muhammed has composed,\n       The sense and the text of which is a wonder.\n       When the eloquent men of Arabia united\n       Breathe enchantment into the sounds of words,\n       They become weak, defective, and vile\n       Altogether, in comparison with the shortest S\u00farah.\u201d[523]\n\nAs the book of God contains divine words, it is ancient, and the\nletters and sounds are new; the novelty of an old meaning is like a\ndress.\n\n       \u201cIf the dress be perpetually with the heart,\n  How can the person who possesses the dress be disturbed?\u201d\n\nThe Muhammedan religion is among the most excellent and most noble\nreligions, and the father of this religion, the prophet of Arabia, is\nthe best and the most eminent among the saints of the religions; there\nis a number of prophets, particularly the friends and the posterity of\nthe prophet, but none is higher than he, the prophet.\n\n       \u201cAmong them all there was, in truth,\n  None more apt for the khalifat than Sid\u00edk (Abu beker);\n  And to succeed him, there was among the noble\n  None more worthy of the office than F\u00e1r\u00fak (Omar);\n  After F\u00e1r\u00fak, from none more than Zo-ul Narain (Osman)\n  Did the state of religion find ornament;\n  After them all, by knowledge and faith,\n  Was Asad Allah (Ali) the seal of the khalifs.[524]\n  Do not bestow veneration upon other names but theirs;\n  To none offer greater honors than to them.\u201d\n\nWhen thou findest one of the people of the Kibla (the true faith) in a\nsin and fault, accuse him not of infidelity, and number him not among\nthe people of damnation; in like manner, consider not a fit and good\nman, although he be removed from sins, as belonging to the inhabitants\nof heaven.\n\n       \u201cWhoever is an unbeliever with a zunar,\n   Do not consider him for certain as belonging to the inhabitants\n     of hell.\u201d\n\nHaving found the happy tidings that ten personages[525] have entered\ninto heaven, do not however include him in their number.\n\n  \u201cBecause they are all formed of the pure offspring,\n   They received also the happy tidings of going to heaven.\u201d\n\nWhen any body is placed in the tomb, then two angels of a frightful\nappearance ask him: \u201cWho was thy God, thy prophet, what thy creed?\u201d If\nhe give a right answer, then they keep his grave open, and make a\nwindow from heaven to it, that he may behold his future dwelling. But\nif his answer does not prove satisfactory, they beat his face soft\nwith a club, and close the grave so tight upon him, that a noise\nissues from the compression of his sides; they also open a window from\nhell to him, so that he may there see his fate and his habitation.\nWhen the period of the world shall be terminated, the name of God\nshall not be pronounced by any tongue; then, by God\u2019s orders, shall\nIsraf\u00edl sound the trumpet, and extinguish all like lamps; afterwards,\nduring ages, there shall be no motion upon the face of the earth,\nuntil Israf\u00edl shall again, at God\u2019s order, by a blast of the trumpet\nblow the souls into the dispersed parts of their bodies, so that all\nshall revive. Afterwards, at the last judgment, the angels shall place\nthe journal of actions recorded at the right hand of the virtuous, and\nat the left of the iniquitous. If the balance is weighed down by the\ngood actions of a person, he goes to heaven; but if the scale, heavy\nwith sins weighs down the other, hell awaits the sinner. This being\nbrought to a close, an invisible bridge is thrown over hell; this\nbridge is sharper than the edge of a sword and thinner than a hair,\nand the believers and unbelievers are to be driven over it.\n\n  \u201cWhen any unbeliever puts his foot upon it,\n   The abyss of hell shall be his habitation.\u201d\n\nThe believer also shall, according to his knowledge and his actions,\nsooner or later pass over it; a weak faith shall not easily cross it.\n\n  \u201cBut he shall find salvation at the end of the business,\n   Although he may see many difficulties.\u201d\n\nThere are fifty stations in the space on which the obedient and the\nrebels shall stop: upon each station another question is asked:\n\n      \u201cHe who gives a right answer\n       Crosses each station with rapidity.\n  But if not, in each, from a distressing condition,\n  He suffers pain and grief during one thousand years.\u201d\n\nThe unbeliever shall suffer the torment of hell eternally; and the\niniquitous believer shall remain in it, according to the estimation of\nhis crimes.\n\n       \u201cEither the entreaty of the intercessors\n  Shall liberate him from the retribution and punishment,\n  Or if, by intercession, the door of liberation does not open,\n  The most merciful of the merciful shall bestow salvation.\u201d\n\nWhen they come out of hell, they wash themselves clean of smoke in the\n_Kawser_.[526] There are eight gradations, or steps, in heaven; and\nevery man, according to his knowledge and conduct, shares a place in\nthem, and enjoys eternal beatitude. The highest of blessings is the\nsight of God, the Almighty, whom the good behold as the moon of\nfourteen nights. This is upon the authority of the lord Mul\u00e1na Abd-ul\nrahmen Jami.[527] It is written in an esteemed book, that there are in\nhell eight steps, in which men are placed according to the estimation\nof their sins.\n\nHere is a short account of what I have learned from the speeches of\nintelligent men of the right faith. It is contained in their books\nthat the first being created was the spirit of Muhammed.\n\n  \u201cThe first creature of God was my soul.\u201d\n\nTo this allusion is made in the words quoted from the Koran. Then all\nthe spirits of mankind were brought forth; these, before being united\nwith bodies, remained four thousand years in the vicinity of the grace\nof the most high God:\n\n  \u201cGod created the souls four thousand years before the bodies.\u201d\n\nThe heavens are understood to be the heavenly bodies of the sphere\nwhich is over our heads, and this has seven circles; the earth is the\ncover of the tortoise which is beneath our feet. There are seven\nearths:\n\n  \u201cWho created seven heavens and earths like them.\u201d\n\nIn each earth there are creatures, and amcng these creatures\npropagating inhabitants. The width of each earth is five hundred\njourneys of travel. The compartments of heaven are round; but in the\nmiddle of the circle is the tent of majesty; and in each sphere is an\norder of angels occupied with the worship and adoration of the\ndivinity; one troop standing somewhat erect; another multitude\ninclined (with their hands on their knees); a number prostrated, with\nthe forehead touching the ground; others sitting; some carry the\nthrone of God; and every angel has a place and a post determined,\nwhich he cannot leave.\n\n  \u201cTheir place is a place known.\u201d\n\nFrom sphere to sphere there is a distance to be traversed in five\nhundred years of travelling; in each heaven is one of the seven\nplanets, all the other stars are in the first heaven, which is the\nnext to the world of mankind.\n\n  \u201cWe have adorned the inferior heaven with the ornament of stars,\n     And we have preserved it from all obstinate demons.\u201d\n\nThe borders of heaven are upon the mount Kaf, and the throne of\nGod[528] is higher than the seven spheres.\n\n     \u201cHe created the heavens and the earths.\u201d\n\nAbove the throne of God is the ninth sphere (\u00e2rsh).\n\n     \u201cHe created the heavens and the earths in ten days, and then\n     took rest upon his throne.\u201d\n\nThe throne of God, the seven stories of heaven, and the seven\n_\u00e2sh\u00ee\u00e1nah_ (nests, houses) of the earth are firm, and having taken\ntheir rest, do not move in any way, and are absolutely without motion.\n\nAll that has been enumerated did not exist in the beginning; the\nAlmighty God created them without elementary matter by the action of\nhis wisdom and absolute power. When the day of resurrection arrives,\nhe shall fold together the heavens, and change the earth for another\nearth, and plunge the heavenly sphere and the earth into nothing. The\nearth of the resurrection will be like an earth of pure silver, and in\nthis earth nobody shall have committed a crime. As the happy Abd ullah\nsays:\n\n     \u201cOn the day when the earth shall be changed for another\n     earth, that is, shall be changed for an earth of white\n     silver, where no blood shall be shed, and no crimes shall be\n     committed.\u201d\n\nOn the day of resurrection, heaven and hell shall be made ready; the\ndispersed members shall again form their body and be reunited; and the\nsoul shall again take possession of them. Some shall be carried to\nheaven, others to hell. The first of mankind who was created was Adam;\nhe was the father of men; his body was of earth; Adam was the father\nof all bodies, and Muhammed the father of all spirits.\n\n     \u201cI was a prophet and a man, between water and earth;\u201d\n\nand all existence was brought forth according to, and in dependance\nupon, the existence of the prophet Muhammed.\n\nThe angels have wings to fly, with which they cross in one minute a\ndistance of one thousand years\u2019 journey. Satan was brought forth from\nfire, and was accursed on account of disobedience.[529]\n\nThis is the greatest part of the creed professed by the people of\nIslam. They are divided into many sects. According to the account of\nsome belonging to the persuasion of the Sonna and the Jam\u00e1\u00e2t, the\nMulla Muhammed M\u00e2s\u00fam, of Kashghar,[530] was a learned and virtuous\nman, and one of those who followed the doctrine of Hanef\u00ed, to whom he\nattached himself so much as to choose him for his master. His origin\nwas from Badkahsh\u00e1n, and his name Shaikh Hossan; he always studied the\nKoran, the traditions, and other books of religion and law, and\nregulated his conduct after them; in such way he passed the day; he\nkept frequent fasts, never read poems nor listened to stories, and if\nany body uttered before him speeches of worldly people, he became\nangry. He was very cautious with the Shi\u00e2hs, and admitted them not to\nhis house. The author of this book asked him, in Lahore: \u201cWhat is the\ncause of the aversion which you always show to the Shi\u00e2hs.\u201d He\nreplied: \u201cI was originally a Shi\u00e2h, and therefore conformed myself to\nthat creed. One night I saw in a dream the lord Im\u00e2m Hossen, the son\nof the lord Al\u00ed, the son of Ab\u00ed Taleb, and asked him about the real\ntruth of religion; he enjoined me: \u2018Be a Sonni, and keep away from the\ninconstant, for they are heretics and idolators of my person, and then\nutter unbecoming words against the heads of religion, Abubekr, Omar,\nand Osman, and by such an illusion they lost the right way: the way of\ntruth is the doctrine of the Sonnites and the Jam\u00e1\u00e2t.\u2019\u201d\n\nHere follows what I have learned from the Shaikh Hossen, as well as\nfrom Mulla A\u00e1dil. A Shi\u00e2h is no Muselman, and when he brings forth his\nfaith, it is not right, according to the saying of the prophet:\n\n  \u201cReviling the two shaikhs is an infidelity without\n     repentance (remission).\u201d\n\nI heard from Mulla Y\u00e2kub Tarf\u00e1n\u00ee, that these words for restraining the\ntongue exceed all bounds, and are an exaggeration in the veneration of\nthe two Shaikhs (the grace of God be upon them); that yet repentance\n(remission) is admitted; he said besides that it is agreed, reviling\nis no infidelity.\n\nShaikh Man\u015bur M\u00e1ter\u00eed\u00ee[531] became a follower of the lord Im\u00e1m Ab\u00fa\nHan\u00edfa of Kufa, and _Hujjet ul islam_, \u201cthe proof of Islam,\u201d the Im\u00e1m\nMuhammed Ghaz\u00e1li,[532] who was a traveller on the same road with the\nlord Jm\u00e1m Sh\u00e1f\u00e2yat[533] (the peace of God be upon them!) said in their\nliterary compositions, and in books we read, that the root and the\nfoundation of the seventy and two branches of religion are six\ndoctrines, namely: the _Tashb\u00edah_, _T\u00e2t\u00eel_, _Jaber_, _Kadr_, _Rafs_,\nand _Naseb_.[534]\n\nIn the _\u00e2medat ul m\u00e2tekad_, \u201cthe pillar of believers,\u201d composed by\n_Shah\u00e1b ul hak_, \u201cflame of truth,\u201d Shaikh of Islamism and of the\nMuselmans, _Abu abd ulla Faselella_, son of the Im\u00e1m, the blessed,\nwhom God has taken in his mercy, and whose sins are forgiven, _Taj\neddin_, \u201cthe crown of the faith,\u201d _Abu S\u00e2id al Hassan_, son of\n_Hassan_, son of _Y\u00fasef al S\u00far\u00ed_, is to be found, that the\n_Tashb\u00eeh\u00eean_, \u201cassimilators,\u201d have attached to the most high God\nimproper and unsuitable attributes, inasmuch as they have connected\nhis creation partly with an elementary principle, and partly with\naccidents. The _T\u00e2t\u00eel\u00eean_, \u201cthe indifferent,\u201d[535] have denied God and\nhis attributes. In the before-mentioned book we find, the creed of\nthis sect is, that the world has no Creator, and that it always was\nsuch as it is, and that, except what is surely perceived, there is no\nother existence.\n\nWe have also heard from Shaikh Hossen, that the _T\u00e2t\u00b4\u00edl_ maintain\nwhat some philosophers asserted, that God is the cause of things, and\nthat the matter of the world was always in him. We learned also from\nAz\u00eez\u00ee, that, according to this sect, God, the Almighty, when he\ncreated the world, attached its destiny to every thing that appeared,\nand that now, without God\u2019s taking any active part in it, every thing\nexists or perishes.[536]\n\nThe sect of the _Jaberiah_, \u201cthe compelled,\u201d having given up, and\ndenying, freedom of action in men, attach all their deeds to God.[537]\n\nThe _Kadariah_, \u201cthe powerful,\u201d affect God in themselves, and reckon\nthemselves the creators of all their actions.[538]\n\nThe _Rafs_, \u201cheretics,\u201d profess their devotion to Al\u00ed (the peace of\nGod be with him!), and in the exaggeration of their affection, they\nmake an unbecoming use of their tongue in reviling the illustrious\nAbu-bekr, Omar, and Osman (the peace of God be upon them!); they\nrebelled, and went so far that, whoever did not, after the prophet of\nArabia, without hesitation acknowledge the supremacy of Al\u00ed (the grace\nof God be with him!) and profess his being the chief of the faith and\nsubstitute of the prophet, was not reckoned by them among the\nMuselmans.\n\nThe _Nawas\u00e9b_, \u201cenemies,\u201d are devoted to Abu-bekr and Omar, and having\nprevailed in this devotion, they rejected Al\u00ed (the mercy of God be\nupon him!) and proceeded so far that, whoever did not, after the great\nprophet, plainly and decidedly acknowledge Abubekr and Omar (the grace\nof God be with them!) as khalifs of the prophet, and as Im\u00e1ms, was by\nthem excluded from the circle of the right faith.\n\nEach of these six sects was subdivided into twelve, whence seventy and\ntwo sects arose.[539] All are in the fire _of hell_, by the precepts\nof the sayings of the prophet:\n\n  \u201cMy nation is divided into seventy and three sects, who are\n     all in the fire _of hell_, except one.\u201d\n\nAnd those only who are without these seventy and two sects belong to\nthe people of salvation, because they are of the true religion and\nupon the right road; but the true religion is that which is not to be\nfound among the sects mentioned, and in which those six religions are\nnot likely not to be, because these six religions did not exist in the\ntime of the prophet and in the last will of the apostle. After him\ninnovations took place, so that it is not unknown, in what time, and\nin what place or town, and by whom they became manifest, and from what\ncause they originated. By concordance of the people of Islam, the\nright road and the true religion is that which Muhammed (blessing be\nupon him!) and after him the noble companions professed, and this\nfaith is that of the Sonnites and the Jam\u00e1\u00e2t. This is in substance the\ncreed of Sha\u00edkh _Mans\u00far_, and of _Hajet ul isl\u00e1m Abu Abd\u2019ulla_:[540]\nWe are informed by the learned of the Hanef\u00ee persuasion, and by Mulla\n_Yak\u00fab Turkhan\u00ee_, who was an assistant and companion of Mulla _Adil_,\nthat the religion of the Sonnites and the Jam\u00e2\u00e1t is divided into four\nbranches, which are the four sides of the city of the law of Muhammed,\nnamely, the _Hanef\u00eeah_, _M\u00e1lk\u00eeah_, _Sh\u00e1f\u00e2ya_, _Hambal\u00eeah_,[541] and\nthe wanderer in these four religions is liberated.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nAN ACCOUNT OF THE UMAVIYAH AND YEZIDIAH CONNECTED WITH THE\nALI-ILAHIAN.\n\nIn the east of Kohistan is a tract of country known by the name of\n_Shek\u00fanah_, and the lord of it is Malek Yak\u00fab, who boasts of having\nissued from the family of the lord of the believers, M\u00e2aviah Ebn Abi\nSaf\u00eean. The inhabitants of that country are brave, warlike, pious, and\nabstemious. They have many commentaries, and knowledge of law and\nreligion, and religious books. They acknowledge the divine mission of\nMuhammed (the blessing of God be upon him!) as well as the office of\nIm\u00e1m and the khalifat of Abu-bekr and Omar, and of the lord of\nbelievers M\u00e2aviah, and they revile Al\u00ee for having pretended to a\ndivine rank. His belief was that they ought to possess all kinds of\ngrain;[542] his followers worshipped him as divine; this he insinuated\nto them by this prayer, which he pronounced himself in the sermons,\nrelated as his saying:\n\n     \u201cI am God; I am the merciful; I am the bountiful; I am the\n     high; I am the creator; I am the provider of the necessaries\n     of life; I am the most compassionate; I am the most\n     propitious; I am he who bestows a form to the drop of the\n     sperm in the wombs.\u201d[543]\n\nand the like; these words are of Phar\u00e2\u00fan and Nimrod,[544] and like\nthese are many of their sayings. They are besides fond of bloodshed,\nand cruel. They say improper things about the prophet, as of one who\ndid not always behave with decency. So it happened once, that eating\ndates in company with other persons, the prophet threw the stones of\nthe dates towards Al\u00ed, and then said: \u201cO Al\u00ed! thou hast eaten a great\nmany dates, because all the stones are before thee;\u201d Ali answered,\n\u201cThou hast swallowed them with the stones;\u201d and they say this passage\nis in the sacred book:\n\n     \u201cThere are men whose speeches about the present life will\n     astonish thee, and who will take God for witness of what is\n     in their heart, whilst they are the most quarrelsome of\n     adversaries.\u201d\n\nAnd they are approving Ebn Malj\u00e1m,[545] and say Malj\u00e1m is among them:\n\n     \u201cThere are some men who rescue their soul, desiring in this\n     manner to perform the will of God.\u201d\n\nThey assert that the two Has\u00e1\u00een are not of the family of the prophet,\naccording to this verse of the Koran:\n\n     \u201cMuhammed is not any thing else but one of us; he is yet the\n     prophet of God, and the seal of the Apostles.\u201d\n\nThey say that Yaz\u00eed killed Hasan, the son of Al\u00ed, in his house, and\ndid not bring him forth from the corner where he was concealed.[546]\nHe was come for subduing the country of B\u00eerak; on that account he was\nput to death. On the tenth day of the Moheram, they go on horseback\nupon a wide field which is before their town; there they make, of\nearth, an image of Hosain who was killed; against him they dash their\nhorses, and think fortunate those who can say, that they have been\nriding against the bodies of the martyrs of Kerbala;[547] this they\ncall a day of victory, and on this day they make a greater show of\nfestivity and rejoicing, because the Im\u00e1m of the time, that is, Yaz\u00eed,\nwas upon the field of victory. And on Fridays and festivals they\nrevile from their pulpits the lord Al\u00ed and his offspring. Among them\nis one sect in particular which act in this manner, and, with their\nswords drawn, curse Al\u00ed and his sons, and in this way they pass one\nday: they are called _S\u00ee\u00e1f_, \u201cfencers.\u201d\n\nThe same say that the prophet and his offspring, and particularly\ntheir prophet, had the power of recalling to life and putting to\ndeath, of creating and annihilating any being; and that they did\nwhatever they wished. But this mode of acting was no more allowable to\ntheir successors, such as that of the prophets to destroy the living,\nwhich power they possessed on account of their having also that of\nrecalling to life; but it is not one of our attributes to render\nlifeless the living, because we have not the power of restoring them\nto life; also because the creatures have not been made on our account;\nbesides, the prophet took whatever mate he liked, because the world\nwas his share, whilst it is not permitted to us to take the woman of\nanother man. It is however right, making it our profession, to wage\nwar against the opposers of faith, and to fight the enemies of\nreligion for the protection of the law. This people kill no living\nbeings in the country of Shek\u00fanah. Their usual food is animal juice,\nsuch as honey, butter, and the like; they use no intoxicating liquors,\nnor that prepared from the palm-tree, nor opium.\n\nAmong the _Maksud chep_, who are a more intelligent people, the author\nof this book found himself in the house of one of them. There a man\ncalled _Hush\u00edar Refik Nikarindah_, asked him: \u201cIf it were not\npermitted to drink intoxicating liquors, how was it that the former\nprophets, and some of the khalifs, the sons of Ommiah,[548] drank\nwine?\u201d He answered: \u201cThe wine could not overcome their understanding;\nwith us, it is not so.\u201d Hushiar said again to the author of this work:\n\u201cIf the khalifs, after the prophet, possessed the power to create and\nto annihilate lives, why did they not render the heretics dumb?\u201d The\nanswer was: \u201cA king sent a phial of deadly poison to the Amir of the\nbelievers, Omar (the grace of God be with him!) that he may give it to\nan enemy; the khalif said: \u2018I have no greater enemy than my own\nspirit,\u2019 and he drank the whole phial, from which however his sacred\nbody received no harm; now, the gentle-minded personage, who could\ndrink poison, how would he not hear the abuse of mistaken men? So\nrepresent to thyself the other khalifs.\u201d The _Cheps_ are a tribe of\nthe people of Shekunah.\n\n\n     [498] Sheherist\u00e2ni is the surname of _Al Fath Mohammed Ben\n     Abdalkerim_, one of the most celebrated doctors of the\n     Ash\u00e2rian sect, an account of which is to follow. He died in\n     the year of the Hejira 548 (A. D. 1153). He composed several\n     works upon metaphysics and the scholastic theology of the\n     Muselmans, and among others that which is entitled _Nehajat\n     alekdam fi \u00ealm al Kelam_, and on account of which he is\n     entitled _M\u00e2takellam al-Ashari_, \u201cthe scholastic of the\n     Ash\u00e2rian.\u201d We have also from him a book called _Al Melal u\n     alnahal_, \u201cthe means of curing wearisomeness and\n     melancholy.\u201d\u2015\u2015(Herbelot.)\n\n     [499] According to Sheheristani, quoted by Pococke (p. 211,\n     1st edit.), the Magians were divided into seventy sects; the\n     Jews into seventy-one; the Christians into seventy-two; and\n     the Moslem into seventy-three. Among the sects there was\n     always one to be saved.\n\n     The baron de Hammer says (Journ. As., juin 1825, p. 321,\n     Tableau g\u00e9n\u00e9alogique des soixante-treize sectes de Islam):\n     \u201cThe best information which we have yet upon the sects and\n     the heresies of Islam are those given by Pococke,\n     Marraccius, and Sale, according to Sheherist\u00e2n\u00ee, and the\n     Commentary of Mewakif. Pococke (Specimen histori\u00e6 Arabum,\n     Oxoni\u00e6, 1650, pp. 194 and 210), Marraccius (Prodromus), and\n     Sale (Engl. transl. of the Koran) trace the principal\n     classes of the genealogical table of the heresies; but their\n     catalogue is not quite exact, and still less complete. This\n     subject, interesting for the history of religions, and above\n     all for that of the Islamitic heresies, is treated\n     fundamentally in the Commentary of the great scholar Jorjani\n     upon the _Mewakif_, that is to say, the metaphysics of Adhad\n     eddin al Ij\u00ed, a valuable work in more than one respect,\n     which work was printed in Constantinople\u201d (in folio, of 635\n     pages, in the year of the Hejirah 1039, A. D. 1824). The\n     baron de Hammer treated this subject summarily in the number\n     of the journal quoted, pp. 321-335, and in the subsequent\n     number for July, 1825, pp. 32-46.\n\n     [500] The points of faith in dispute among the schoolmen are\n     reducible to four general heads, called the four bases or\n     great fundamental articles. The first relates to the\n     attributes of God, and his unity consistent therewith; the\n     second regards predestination and the justice thereof; the\n     third concerns the promises and threats; the fourth treats\n     history and reason, and also the mission of prophets, and\n     the office of Im\u00e2m, or chief pontiff. About all these heads\n     the Muhammedans are divided into different sects, which may\n     be classed under two principal sorts: the _orthodox_ and the\n     _heretical_; the former, by a general name, are called\n     _Sonnites_, or \u201cTraditionists:\u201d the latter _Shi\u00e2ts_ (see\n     note, vol. I. p. 101).\n\n     [501] Jama\u00e2t signifies properly the _assembly_, or as we may\n     say, the _church_ of Muselmans. This name is assumed by the\n     Ash\u00e2rian, who, as Sheherist\u00e2ni contends (see Pococke, p.\n     211), were the sect whom the prophet indicated as selected\n     for salvation.\n\n     [502] The Sonnites, just mentioned, are divided into four\n     sects, the founders of which I shall mention, in the order\n     as they occur, in the text of the Dabist\u00e1n.\n\n     [503] The Sif\u00e1tiah are one of the orthodox sects; they\n     maintain the existence of the eternal attributes of God, and\n     are on this account named _Sif\u00e1tiah_, or \u201cAttributists.\u201d\n\n     [504] The _M\u00e2tazalah_, or \u201cSeparatists,\u201d were the followers\n     of _Wasel Ebn Ata_. He was the disciple of Hassan al Ba\u015bri,\n     of whom hereafter. When he separated from his master, the\n     latter exclaimed: _Kad \u00eattazal amma Wassel_, \u201cWassel\n     separates from us:\u201d hence is derived the name of his\n     followers, _M\u00e2tazalah_\u2015\u2015(See Herbelot). They entirely\n     rejected all eternal attributes of God, saying that eternity\n     is the proper or formal attribute of his essence; that God\n     knows by his _essence_, and not by his _knowledge_, and the\n     same they affirmed of his other attributes, and hence this\n     sect were also named _M\u00e2talah_, or _M\u00e2talites_, from their\n     _divesting_ God of his attributes, in which they place the\n     unity of God. They denied also all vision of God in paradise\n     by the corporeal eye, and rejected all comparison or\n     similitude applied to God. They established further, that\n     the word of God is created; that God is necessarily holden\n     to the observation of justice in his decrees, to the\n     rewarding of good and the punishment of the wicked. Moreover\n     they refuted the dogma of absolute predestination,\n     maintaining that God was not the author of evil, but of good\n     only, and that man was a free agent: on which account they\n     are also called _Kadarian_, from _kadr_, \u201cdestiny.\u201d They are\n     subdivided into twenty sects, taxing each other with\n     infidelity\u2015\u2015(See _Sale\u2019s Koran_, vol. I. Prelim. Discourse,\n     pp. 211-212). The latter are to be particularly mentioned in\n     these pages hereafter.\n\n     [505] There is a sect among the _Shi\u00eetes_, or \u201cthe\n     Dissidents,\u201d called the _Gholats_, or \u201cthe Exaggerators.\u201d\n\n     [506] \u0645\u062a\u0643\u0644\u0645 _Matkallem_, according to Richardson\u2019s\n     Dictionary, Johnson\u2019s edition, signifies \u201ca speaker, orator,\n     declaimer, advocate;\u201d but, according to Pococke (_vide_ pp.\n     195, 198 1st edit.), _Al Motacalm\u00edn_ are those who\n     investigate and dispute. _Al Kalem_ signifies \u201cscholastic\n     theology,\u201d synonymous with _Al mantik_, \u201clogic.\u201d According\n     to Eben al-Kossai, quoted by Pocock, _Al Kalem_ is a science\n     by which disquisitions are made about the essence and\n     attributes of God, and the condition of possible things,\n     about creation and restitution, pursuant to the canons of\n     Islamism. Others define it the science of legal principles\n     which belong to the articles of faith, and are acquired by\n     positive demonstrations. Further, conformably with the\n     author of _Al Mawakef_, \u201cstations, or rather theses of\n     metaphysics,\u201d who himself composed a system of this science,\n     it is a doctrine by which one is rendered capable of\n     confirming by demonstrations the articles of religion, and\n     of solving doubts.\n\n     [507] _M\u00e2lik Ebn Ans_ (see Sale\u2019s Koran, vol. I. p. 206),\n     was born at Medina, according to different accounts, in the\n     years of the Hejira 90, 93, 94 or 95 (A. D. 708, 711, 712,\n     or 713), and died there in the years of the Hejira 177, 178,\n     or 179 (A. D. 793, 794, or 795). This doctor and head of his\n     sect, is said to have paid great regard to the traditions of\n     Muhammed. He was distinguished by the humble confession of\n     his ignorance. Being asked his opinion as to forty-eight\n     questions, his answer to thirty-two of them was, that he did\n     not know.\n\n     [508] _Ahmed Ebn Hanbal_ (see Sale\u2019s Koran, vol. I. p. 208)\n     was born in the year of the Hejira 164 (A. D. 780) at Meru,\n     in Khorasan, according to some, or according to others in\n     Baghdad, where he died in the year of the Hejira 241 (A. D.\n     855). He could repeat no less than a million of Muhammed\u2019s\n     traditions. Refusing to acknowledge the Koran to be created,\n     he was, by order of the Khalif Al M\u00f3tasem, severely scourged\n     and imprisoned.\n\n     _Ahmed Hanbal_ was the contemporary and friend of _Muhammed\n     Ebn Edris al Sh\u00e2fei_, the founder of the sect of the\n     _Shaf\u00e2ites_. The latter was born in the year of the Hejira\n     150 (A. D. 767-8) either at Gaza or at Ascalone, in\n     Palestine, and died in the year of the Hejira 204 (A. D.\n     819-20), in Egypt. He is said to have been the first who\n     discoursed of jurisprudence, and reduced that science into a\n     method (_ibid._, p. 207).\n\n     To the names of the three founders of sects just mentioned,\n     I am to add the name of _Abu Han\u00eefa al Noman Ebn Thabet_,\n     who was born at Cufa, in the year of the Hejira 80 (A. D.\n     699), and died in the year 150 (A. D. 767). He is the\n     founder of the sect called the _Hanefites_. This sect is\n     reckoned, in the order of time, the first of the four\n     orthodox sects of the Sonnites, distinguished by the title\n     of \u201c_the followers of reason_,\u201d whilst the other three are\n     called \u201c_the followers of traditions_.\u201d Of these three last,\n     the sect founded by M\u00e2lik Ebn Hans is the second; that\n     instituted by Muhammed Ebn Edris al Sh\u00e2fei, the third; and\n     that of the followers of Ahmed Ebn Hanbal, the fourth of the\n     orthodox sects, acknowledged by the Sonnites.\n\n     [509] _D\u00e1\u00fad Isfah\u00e2ni_ was born in Cufa, in the year of the\n     Hejira 202 (A. D. 817); he died A. H. 270 (A. D.\n     883)\u2015\u2015(_Abulfeda_, vol. II. p. 261); he was the chief of one\n     of the _six_ orthodox sects of the Muhammedans (see\n     hereafter the enumeration of these sects).\n\n     [510] Mah\u00e1sebi died in the year of the Hejira 243 (A. D.\n     875).\u2015\u2015_Abulfeda_, II, p. 201.\n\n     [511] _Abul \u2019l Hasan al Ashari_ was first a M\u00f3tazalite, and\n     the disciple of _Abu Ali al Jobbai_, from whom he disagreed\n     in opinion as to God\u2019s being bound (as the M\u00f3tazalites\n     assert) to do always that which is best, or most expedient;\n     on which account he left his master, and founded a new sect,\n     called the _Ash\u00e1rian_, who are a subdivision of the\n     Sifatian. Their opinions were, that they allowed the\n     attributes of God to be distinct from his essence, yet so as\n     to forbid any comparison being made between God and his\n     creatures. They further assert, after their master, that all\n     the actions of men are subject to the power of God, being\n     created by him, and that the power of man has no influence\n     at all on that which he is empowered to do, but that, both\n     the power and what is subject thereto, fall under the power\n     of God. Manifold are the subtle distinctions in this\n     abstruse subject; those who appear the least obscure, use\n     this form: There is neither compulsion nor free liberty, but\n     the way lies between the two; the power and will in man\n     being both created by God, though the merit or guilt be\n     imputed to man. Yet, after all, it is judged the safest way\n     to follow the steps of the primitive Moslems, and, avoiding\n     subtle disputations and too curious inquiries, to leave the\n     knowledge of this matter wholly unto God.\u2015\u2015(See Sale\u2019s\n     _Koran_, vol. I. pp. 219-225.) Abul Hasan died in Baghdad in\n     the year of the Hejira 324 or 329 (A. D. 935 or\n     940).\u2015\u2015(Herbelot.)\n\n     [512] The _Keramian_ are followers of _Muhammed Ebn Ker\u00e2m_;\n     (who died in the year of the Hejirah 255 (A. D. 868))\n     (_Abulfeda_, vol. II. p. 229), they are also called\n     _Mojassemian_, or \u201cCorporealists,\u201d who not only admitted a\n     resemblance between God and created beings, but declared God\n     to be corporeal. The more sober among them, indeed, when\n     they applied the word \u201cbody\u201d to God, would be understood to\n     mean that he is _a self-subsisting being_, which with them\n     is the definition of a body: but yet some of them affirmed\n     him to be finite and circumscribed, and others allowed that\n     he might be felt by the hand or seen by the eye.\n\n     [513] The Koran, ch. LXXV. v. 23.\n\n     [514] S\u00e1\u00e2dah is the name of a tract of Arabia.\n\n     [515] See page 328, note 2.\n\n     [516] See page 329, note 1.\n\n     [517] The Koran, chap. III. v. 5.\n\n     [518] Abd al rahmen Ben Ahmed received his surname _Ja mi_\n     from a place called J\u00e1m, very near Herat, in Khorasan, where\n     he was born; he lived under the reign of sultan Hossain Bai\n     kara, who issued from the family of Tamerlan, and whose\n     capital Herat was. J\u00e2m\u00ee is one of the most celebrated\n     Persian poets, author of a Divan, which contains the whole\n     mystical theology of the Muselmans; of the Baharistan, or\n     \u201cthe spring,\u201d a composition mixed with prose and verse; and\n     of the romance Y\u00fasef and Zul\u00e1ikha, a most favourite poem of\n     the Orientals. J\u00e2m\u00ee died in the year of the Hejira 888 or\n     891 (A. D. 1483 or 1486).\n\n     [519] This title is more particularly applied to Noah,\n     Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and Muhammed.\n\n     [520] According to some rabbins and to some Muselmans, wheat\n     was the forbidden fruit which Adam eat.\u2015\u2015(See upon this\n     subject, _Les Oiseaux et les Fleurs, all\u00e9gories d\u2019Azz-eddin\n     el Mocadessi_, publi\u00e9es en arabe avec une traduction\n     fran\u00e7aise par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 167, notes.)\n\n     [521] Muhammed, in the fifty-second year of his age and the\n     twelfth of his preaching (A. D. 621), whilst lying asleep\n     between the mountains Al Safa and Merva, in the vicinity of\n     Mecca, had a vision in which he proceeded from earth through\n     the seven heavens to the throne of God. Muhammed himself\n     alludes to it twice in the Koran, the seventeenth chapter of\n     which is entitled \u201cthe night journey;\u201d but he mentions\n     nothing else but a vision: it was the fanaticism of his\n     followers which wrought the most strange circumstances into\n     an absurd fable, according to which their prophet was\n     visited by the angel Gabriel, and in his company carried\n     first from Mecca to Jerusalem, and then, upon a ladder of\n     light, to the presence of God.\n\n     [522] For the just mentioned miraculous journey, Gabriel had\n     brought with him the sacred animal on which the prophets\n     used to ride when executing a divine command; it was called\n     _Al borak_, \u201cflashing as lightning,\u201d in shape resembling an\n     ass of a larger size, with a face like that of a man, the\n     eyes brighter than the star Aldebaran, the ears of an\n     elephant, the neck of a camel, the body of a horse, with the\n     tail of a mule and hoofs of a bull; the breast of the animal\n     shone like rubies, his legs like pearls, and a silken\n     caparison of Paradise bedecked his back.\u2015\u2015(See hereafter on\n     the _Borak_, in chapter XI, the section \u201con the miracles of\n     the prophet.\u201d)\n\n     [523] Surah means a chapter of the Koran.\n\n     [524] See note, vol. I. pp. 99-100.\n\n     [525] These ten personages are the four khalifs: I. Abubekr;\n     II. Omar; III. Osman; and IV. Ali; then V. Talha; VI. Zohair\n     ben Awam; VII. Saad ben Abu Wakkas; VIII. Abdur rahmen ben\n     Auf; IX. Abu Obaida ben Jarrah; and X. Saad ben Zaid. These\n     are called the ten evangelists, to whom the Muhammedans add\n     Hamzah and Jafar, and account them the twelve apostles of\n     Muhammed.\u2015\u2015(See _Eucologe musulman_, par M. Garcin de Tassy,\n     Paris, 1840, p. 200.)\n\n     [526] \u0643\u0648\u062b\u0631 _Kawser_ is a river of paradise, mentioned in the\n     Koran (chap. CVIII). According to a tradition of Muhammed,\n     the water of this river is whiter than milk or silver,\n     sweeter than honey, smoother than cream, and more\n     odoriferous than musk; its banks are of chrysolithes. This\n     river supplies in two pipes the pond of the prophet, who\n     describes it to be an exact square of a month\u2019s journey in\n     compass. The cups to drink this water are of silver, and are\n     set around as numerous as there are stars in the\n     firmament.\u2015\u2015(See Sale\u2019s _Koran_, vol. I. Prelim. Disc., p.\n     126; vol. II. p. 514.)\n\n     [527] See pp. 334-335, note 1.\n\n     [528] Kersi: this is the crystaline or the empyrean heaven,\n     as being supposed the throne of God.\n\n     [529] Satan, or Iblis was cursed for refusing to worship\n     Adam at God\u2019s command. This will be further developed in a\n     note, vol. III. chapter VII.\n\n     [530] A city in Turkistan.\n\n     [531] _M\u00e2ter\u00edd\u00ed_ was the surname of _Abu Mans\u00far Muhammed al\n     Hanef\u00ed_. He was a doctor of the Hanefian sect, to whom the\n     praise and title of _Im\u00e1m al hada_, \u201cthe Im\u00e1m, the\n     director,\u201d was given. He died, and was buried in the year of\n     the Hejirah 333 (A. D. 944-5) in the town of Samarkand, a\n     native of which he was; _M\u00e2ter\u00edd\u00ed_ is a quarter of this town\n     whence he had his surname. This doctor was a _Motkalin_,\n     that is, a great metaphysician and scholastic theologian; he\n     composed, among many other works, a book entitled: _Bian\n     vahem al M\u00e2tazalah_, against the M\u00e2tazale.\u2015\u2015(_Herbelot sub\n     voce Matridi_).\n\n     [532] _Muhammed Ghaz\u00e1li_, his full name is _Ab\u00fa Hamed\n     Muhammed Ebn Muhammed_, surnamed _Hajjet ul islam Zain eddin\n     al Tus\u00ed_, born at Tus, n Khorasan, in the year of the Hejira\n     450 (A. D. 1058-9), the son of a merchant of cotton thread,\n     _ghazal_, whence his surname _ghaz\u00e1li_; he died in 504 or\n     505 (A. D. 1110-11). In the latter half of his life, which\n     extended very little beyond the half of a century, he\n     composed more than one hundred works, several of which are\n     thick volumes in folio, such as the most celebrated amongst\n     them entitled _Jhy\u00e1 al \u00e2lum edd\u00edn_, \u201cthe revival of the\n     sciences, concerning faith;\u201d upon which the judgment was\n     passed, that, were the Islam destroyed with all its works\n     except this, from this alone it could be restored in all its\n     perfection. This great dogmatic, ethic, and philosophic work\n     was nevertheless, during the author\u2019s life, condemned as\n     heretical and consigned to the flames, by the Academy of\n     Cordova, in Spain, the western Baghdad, or seat of\n     Muhammedan learning. This composition of Ghaz\u00e1li has been\n     abridged by _Abul Fa\u015bel Ahmed ben Mussa al Arbeli_, under\n     the title _Ruh al Ihy\u00e1_, \u201cthe spirit of the book entitled\n     Ihy\u00e1.\u201d See _Pocock Spec. Hist. Arab._, p. 371; _Herbelot sub\n     voce Ghaz\u00e1l\u00ed_; _Hammer\u2019s Gem\u00e4ldesaal grosser moslimischer\n     Herrsher, III^{ter} Band, S._ 182, 1837. By the last\n     mentioned author was published a Biography of Ghaz\u00e1li, as\n     introduction to the text and translation of a treatise of\n     Ghazali, under the title: \u201c_O Kind! die ber\u00fchmteste ethishe\n     Abhandlung of Ghaz\u00e1li_,\u201d Vienne, 1838.\n\n     [533] See page 329.\n\n     [534] The sects may be distinguished by the names of their\n     founders, and called _Hanefites_, _Asharian_, _Keram\u00edan_,\n     _Shafeites_, etc.; or by the nature of their doctrine, and\n     named _Sefatian_, \u201cattributists;\u201d _Matazalah_,\n     \u201cseparatists;\u201d _Mashabian_, or _Tasbiah_, \u201cassimilators,\u201d\n     etc.; or by their relation to some established doctrine or\n     community, and then entitled _Rafs_, \u201cheretics;\u201d _Navaseb_,\n     \u201cenemies;\u201d finally, these sorts of distinctions may be\n     mixed. No doubt, these various classifications burden the\n     memory with a great number of names which may create\n     confusion. I am sparing in introducing others than those\n     which are in the text of the Dabistan. According to those\n     distinctions, their number may be diversely stated. We have\n     already seen the principal sects reckoned to be _four_; here\n     above are reckoned _six_; the author of _Sharh-ol Mowakef_\n     (Pocock, p. 209) enumerates _eight_ principal sects.\n\n     [535] From \u062a\u0639\u0637\u064a\u0644 _t\u00e2t\u00edl_, \u201cneglecting, causing to be\n     unemployed, rendering useless, vacation.\u201d Rigorously they\n     are perhaps not to be declared atheists, as above: for their\n     creed consists rather in denying the attributes of God, and\n     in presenting him as inaccessible to human intelligence and\n     strange to the government of the world, than in denying\n     positively his existence.\u2015\u2015(See _Chrestomathie Arabe_, tome\n     II. p. 96, by _Silvestre de Sacy_.)\n\n     [536] The scholastics among the Muhammedans employ in their\n     discussions principally two words: \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0636\u0627, _al ka[:z]a_,\n     and \u0627\u0644\u0642\u062f\u0631, _al kadr_, necessarily annexed to each other, but\n     still distinct by a nice sense particular to each: _al\n     ka[:z]\u00e1_ signifies God\u2019s universal and eternal judgment or\n     decree, by which the particular things are created and\n     disposed so as they are to remain to all the ages of\n     eternity; _al kadr_ means God\u2019s will in bringing forth, at a\n     determined time and by a determined cause, things in their\n     proper measure and fixed proportion with regard to their\n     essence as well as to their condition.\u2015\u2015(_Pocock_, first\n     edit., pp. 207-209.)\n\n     [537] There are three principal opinions about the decrees\n     of God, and the power of man with regard to his actions,\n     among the Muhammedans.\n\n     The first is that of the _Motazalahs_, according to which\n     man is the agent in good and evil, in faith, and infidelity,\n     in obedience and rebellion; all his actions are his; for it\n     could not be said to man, \u201cAct,\u201d if he had not the faculty\n     of acting. Evil and iniquity can by no means be attributed\n     to God; an infidel is composed of a man and of infidelity:\n     God created the first, but not the latter.\n\n     The second opinion is that of the _rigid Jabariahs_,\n     followers of _Jahmi Ebn Sefwan_, whose sect flourished about\n     the middle of the eighth century. According to them there is\n     no action but in God; man acts, without power his own,\n     without will or choice, exactly as a tree produces fruits,\n     as water runs, as a stone moves. Reward and punishment are\n     likewise proceeding from necessity, as well as the\n     imposition of orders comes from necessity.\n\n     The third opinion is that of the _moderate Jabariahs_, and\n     also that of the Asharian, who maintain that God creates the\n     actions of man, good as well as bad, but that man _acquires_\n     them: that is to say, God creates the power by, under, and\n     with, which man acts, but man wills the action, and prepares\n     himself to it, which is called \u0643\u0633\u0628 _kasb_, \u201cacquisition;\u201d an\n     action therefore, with respect to creation, belongs to God,\n     but with respect to production, by which it is manifested,\n     that is, by \u201cacquisition,\u201d it depends upon man, and falls\n     under his power. Abul Hasan of Isfahan says, that what makes\n     an impression upon a fact, are the power of God and the\n     power of man _jointly_. When man applies his mind to\n     obedience, God creates in him the action of obedience, and\n     when he applies his mind to transgression, God creates in\n     him the action of transgression; and in that respect it is\n     man who brings into existence or produces his action,\n     although in reality he be not the producer.\u2015\u2015(See on this\n     abstruse subject, Pocock, pp. 243-251, with quotations from\n     several authors.)\n\n     [538] The _Kadariahs_ or _Kadarian_ belong to the Motazalah\n     (Abul Faraj, p. 20). The Kadarian have been compared to the\n     Magians, inasmuch as they acknowledge two principles, light\n     and darkness, or good and evil; the first of which they\n     ascribe to God, the other to man and to the devil;\n     nevertheless, every thing belongs to God, as created by his\n     will; that is, with respect to creation; but the actions\n     belong to the actors.\u2015\u2015(_Pocock_, pp. 234, 235, etc.)\n\n     [539] We have already seen, p. 323, that Muhammed has\n     predicted the division of his followers into seventy-three\n     sects (and not seventy-two, as above). Why seventy-three? It\n     was (see _Pocock_) to make Muhammedism have one sect more\n     than Christianism, which had seventy-two, counting one more\n     than Judaism, which, to have seventy-one, had added one to\n     the seventy sects of Magism.\n\n     [540] See p. 349, notes 1 and 2.\n\n     [541] See the names of the founders of the four principal\n     sects, notes, pp. 324-5, 328-9.\n\n     [542] The meaning of this passage appears to me to be that\n     Al\u00ed wished the Muselmans to apply to agriculture, which the\n     Arabs generally despise or neglect.\n\n     [543] According to the most probable account of historians,\n     it never was Al\u00ed who pretended to be a God, but _Abdallah_,\n     son of _Wahab_, son of _Saba_, a Jew converted to Islamism,\n     who was the first instigator of the seditious movements to\n     which Omar fell a victim, promulgated the doctrine, that a\n     particle of divinity resided in Al\u00ed, the true Im\u00e1m, that he\n     is not dead, but only for a time withdrawn from the eyes of\n     men; that he would reappear one day upon the earth, and fill\n     it with justice, in the same manner as it is now filled with\n     iniquities. This doctrine served as a foundation to the\n     different sects which admitted the transmission of the\n     Imamate to the descendants of Al\u00ed, by right of succession,\n     and spread in the east and west of Asia, in Africa, and in\n     Spain.\n\n     [544] Nimrod and Phar\u00e1un maintain, in the Koran and in the\n     traditions of the Muhammedans, the same character as in the\n     Bible of the Hebrews, for tyranny against men and\n     presumption towards God; the first was the enemy of Abraham,\n     the other of Moses: both were punished by God.\n\n     [545] _Ebn Maljam_, \u201cthe son of Maljam,\u201d was _Abd-ur-rahman_,\n     who assassinated Al\u00ed.\n\n     [546] We have already (see vol. I. p. 100, note) touched\n     upon the enmity which existed between the family of Al\u00ed and\n     that of Moaviah, the son of Abu Sofian and of Hinda, a woman\n     famous for her animosity against Muhammed, the prophet.\n     Nevertheless Moaviah became one of the secretaries of\n     Muhammed, after whose death he was appointed to the\n     government of Syria by Omar, and confirmed in that station\n     by Osman. After the violent death of this khalif, Moaviah\n     declared himself the avenger of his protector, and would not\n     submit to Al\u00ed, upon whom he waged war during four years, and\n     after whose death he opposed with equal ardour Hasan, who\n     succeeded his father in the khalifat. Surrounded by\n     rebellion in his own camp, Hasan could not resist, but\n     resigned his right and person to Moaviah. He died in Medina\n     of poison given him, as some say, by his wife, J\u00e1da, or by\n     his minister, at the injunction of Moaviah (see _Elmacin,\n     trad. Erpenii_, p. 56); according to others, in concordance\n     with the Dabist\u00e1n, by the fraud of Moaviah\u2019s son, Yazid, who\n     seduced J\u00e1da, and instigated her to poison her husband,\n     promising to marry her, but after the perpetration of the\n     act, rejected, with scorn, the woman supplicating for the\n     price of her deed. I shall add, according to _Abulfeda_\n     (_edit. of Reiske_, p. 350), that in Hasan terminated (A. D.\n     661) the legitimate khalifat, or the succession of chiefs\n     whom the free consent of the Muslims called and established,\n     and thus was fulfilled the prediction of the prophet, which\n     from the mouth of Safina, his freeman, is recorded in the\n     traditions as follows: \u201cThirty years after his decease shall\n     last the true and legitimate khalifat, and then be succeeded\n     by tyranny.\u201d\n\n     [547] After Moaviah\u2019s death, A. D. 679, Yazid, his son,\n     assumed the khalifat, but Hosain, another son of Al\u00ed, still\n     lived, and was invited by the inhabitants of Kufa to their\n     town for receiving their oath of allegiance. Yielding to\n     their invitation, he set out from Mecca, where he had\n     concealed himself, with thirty-two horsemen and forty men on\n     foot. Not far from Kerbela, in an arid tract of country in\n     Jrak Arabi, he was encountered by five or ten thousand men,\n     sent by Yazid to destroy him. The son of Al\u00ed bravely fought\n     this superior force during one-half of the day, but at last\n     fell, with four of his brothers, as many of his own sons,\n     and all his surrounding friends, seventy-two in number. The\n     survivors, his women, were conducted to Damascus, where\n     Hosain\u2019s head, severed from his body, rejoiced the savage\n     eyes of Yazid, now fixed in the khalifat. Hosain\u2019s relics\n     (as mentioned vol. I. p. 48) lie buried at Kerbela. The\n     anniversary of his death, the 30th September, A. D. 680, is\n     still celebrated by the Shi\u00e2hs, with every imaginable\n     demonstration of grief about the fate of Al\u00ed\u2019s posterity,\n     and of execration of their oppressors.\n\n     [548] Ommiah, according to Herbelot (_sub voce_) is the name\n     of a respectable personage among the Arabians, who was the\n     son of _Abd-ul-shems_, and whose posterity bears the title\n     of _benu Ommiah_, \u201cthe children of Ommiah.\u201d But their\n     celebrity begins with the before mentioned Moaviah; he was\n     the first of fourteen khalifs of this family, who reigned in\n     succession ninety-one years. The last of them was _Mervan\n     Muhammed ben Mervan, ben Hakem_, and after him there\n     remained of this family but _Abd-ur-rahmen_, who escaped\n     from the hands of the Abbasides, and later (in 756 A. D.)\n     established the dynasty of the Ommiades in Spain, where\n     fifteen of them held successively the government during\n     nearly two hundred years, until 986 A. D., when the Alides\n     seized the sovereignty of that country.\n\n      *     *     *     *    *\n\nSECTION II: AN ACCOUNT OF THE SECOND SECT OF THE PEOPLE OF ISLAM,\nWHICH SECT IS KNOWN UNDER THE NAME OF SH\u00cdAHS.\u2015\u2015The author of this book\nwas informed, by the learned of this sect, that they agreed to\nattribute the office of Im\u00e1m and the khalifat, with the title of Amir\nof the believers, in particular to Al\u00ed (the peace of God be with him!)\nthat he was established by clear tradition, or by manifestation or by\ntestament; and they maintain that the khalifat was not alienable from\nthe descendants of his highness, and if such a transgression happened,\nit can have been only by violence and by tyranny; they also said, that\nthe office of an Im\u00e1m is not to be given by the decision of a council,\nwhich may depend upon the choice of the vulgar, so that the Im\u00e1m may\nbe appointed by their injunction, but the true decision is that which\nderives its origin and support from the pillars of the faith; and the\ndignity of the prophetic asylum, _Muhammed_ (may the benedictions of\nGod be upon him!) does not deserve that there be negligence used or\ncarelessness shown in such a matter, or that it be committed to the\nmultitude. They argue thus upon the condition necessary for the\nappointment of an Im\u00e1m, upon its establishment and stability, which\nrequires to be defended by the inferior and higher people. These are\nthe opinions in which they agree about opposing or appointing an Im\u00e1m,\nabout words or deeds in the state of religion.\n\nSome however, called _Zaydiyat_,[549] opposed them in what was said;\nand there is among the Shi\u00e2hs a great difference of opinion about the\nestablishment of the Im\u00e1m\u2019s office, and at all times, before us until\nlater days, there was much discoursing about it: they differ widely\nabout the number of the Im\u00e1ms. They are divided in different sects,\nand we shall in this book give an account of what we have seen of them.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nOF THE TWELVE SECTS OF THE SHIAHS.\n\nThe author of this book relates what he has learned from Mulla\nMuhammed M\u00e2s\u00fam, from Muhammed M\u00famin, and from Mulla Ibrahim, who in\nthe year of the Hejira 1053 (A. D. 1643) were in Lahore, and from\nothers. The Mulla Ibrahim had great faith in his religion, and had a\ngreat aversion to the followers of the Sonna and the Jama\u00e2t, whom he\nnever approached at meals; he did not during six months taste any\nbutter in Lahore, because it happened to be a Hindu or Sonnite who was\nselling it. He said: \u201cIn the beginning of my manhood, I once slept in\na field, and saw in a dream a great host of luminous beings, who said\nto me: \u2018Be a Muselman.\u2019 I answered: \u2018Such is my inclination.\u2019 They\nsaid again: \u2018Take care of not being a Sonnite;\u2019 and they added much\nabout this subject to dissuade me from it. When they had disappeared,\nI asked their followers: \u2018Who were they?\u2019 They replied: \u2018Im\u00e1ms.\u2019 When\nI awoke, from that moment I never associated with the Sonnites.\u201d\n\nWith this sect there is but one Lord God, and no other: he is one,\nliving, omniscient, self-acting, almighty, hearing and seeing every\nthing, and the first of speakers; they acknowledge his power, not only\nover possible, but even impossible things; they consider God Almighty\nas possessed of qualities necessarily inherent in his essence; they\nhold the servant of God to be master of his own actions. With them the\nword of God is not ancient, but it is a novelty, because its meaning\nis understood from sounds. They adduce the words of _Abu J\u00e2fr\nT\u00fas\u00ee_[550] (the mercy of God be with him!), who says that,\nfundamentally considered, the seventy and three sects are only two\nreligions, namely: _Nav\u00e1 seb_, \u201cthe enemies of Al\u00ed,\u201d and _Ravaf\u00e9s_,\n\u201cheretics\u201d (the Shi\u00e2hs), because on the day on which Muhammed (the\npeace of God be upon him!) left the _mortal_ garment, there were forty\nthousand companions present, who all acknowledged, with approbation\nand satisfaction, Abubekr as khalif, except eighteen persons, who were\nattached to Al\u00ed (the peace of God be with him!) who were joined by\nseventeen other individuals, who, averse to Abubekr, did not\nacknowledge him, nor give their consent to his khalifat. He said of\nthese seventeen, _rafas \u00e1 na_, \u201cthey abandoned me,\u201d or \u201cthey separated\nfrom me,\u201d whence they received the name _rav\u00e1f\u00e9s_, \u201cschismatics;\u201d and\nthose eighteen persons said to the companions:\n\n  \u201cYou have appointed Abubekr without inauguration.\u201d\n\nthat is: \u201cYou raised to the khalifat Abubekr, without having due\nsanction for it;\u201d on which account they received the title of\n_Nav\u00e1s\u00e9b_, \u201cenemies,\u201d and each of these two sects had two names; the\none their own, on account of the part which they took in the\nappointment of the khalif, and the other name, which their antagonist\nor enemy gave them; all the companions called themselves _the people\nof the faith_, or _the people of the Sonnat and Jam\u00e1\u00e2t_, whilst those\neighteen persons called them _nav\u00e1seb_, \u201cenemies,\u201d and to themselves\nthey gave the title of _m\u00famin_, \u201cbelievers,\u201d and _Shi\u00e2hs_, \u201ctroop,\u201d\nbut all the companions named them _R\u00e1f\u00e9s_, \u201cheretics.\u201d Afterwards, the\nreligion of the Nav\u00e1s\u00e9b divided itself into fifty and five sects, and\nthat of the Rav\u00e1f\u00e9s into eighteen, as it was said:\n\n  \u201cAll are in the fire of hell, except one.\u201d\n\nOf these sects, one only is to belong to the people of salvation,\nbecause they profess the right faith, and this right faith consists in\nbelieving the unity, the justice of God, the dignity of the prophet\nand of the Im\u00e1m, and the resurrection, and in maintaining the truth of\neach of these five articles. As God Almighty thinks good to choose one\namong his servants, whom he sends as his prophet and apostle, that he\nmay announce the right way to his subjects and creatures, he who is\nsent must be pure of all our venial and mortal sins; his word is to be\na mediation between God and man; and the prophet, who is sent by God,\nfinds it necessary to choose one like him to fill his place after him,\nand this substitute must also be pure of all venial and mortal sins;\nthis substitute, or khalif, must choose one who may take his place\nafter him, so that the centre of the face of the earth may never\nremain destitute of Im\u00e1ms; and that, by the reasoning of wisdom and by\nhis efforts, the decisions in the law may be preserved right, and the\ncollection of proofs not lose its purity among them. Muhammed chose\nAl\u00ed, and appointed him his executor and khalif, and Al\u00ed, after\nMuhammed, was the best and wisest of all prophets of the family; the\nother Im\u00e1ms (the blessing of God be upon them!) were his sons; as the\nfirst, so were the last, and at the end they remained the same as they\nhad been in the beginning. The number of Im\u00e1ms, according to the\n_Akhb\u00e1r Nabi_, \u201cHistory of the Prophets,\u201d was twelve,[551] eleven of\nthem passed to the other world, the twelfth is living for ever; at\nlast he shall appear, and render the world as full of virtue as it is\nnow full of injustice and tyranny.\n\nThey say, that Abubekr, Omar, and Osman, and the children of Am\u00eeah,\nand Abas\u00edah, their companions, usurped the dignity of Im\u00e1ms, on which\naccount they revile them. Some of them assert that Osm\u00e1n burnt some\nvolumes of the Koran, and threw away some of the surahs, which were in\nfavor of Al\u00ed and of his descendants; of which the following is\none:[552]\n\n     In the name of the bountiful and merciful God.\n\n     O you who have faith, believe in the two lights, _Muhammed_\n     and _Ali_, whom we have sent, and who recite our verses to\n     you, and put you on your guard against the chastisement of\n     the great day. These two lights _proceed_ the one from the\n     other. As to myself, I understand and I know.\n\n     Those who fulfil the order of God and of his prophet, such\n     as it is given to them in the verses of the Koran, those\n     shall enjoy the gardens of delight. As to those who, after\n     having believed, became infidels by transgressing their\n     compact, and what the prophet had stipulated for them, they\n     shall be thrown into hell, because they have unjustly\n     treated their own souls, and have disobeyed the preaching\n     prophet. These shall be drenched with hot water.\n\n     It is God who illuminated the heavens and the earth, as it\n     was his pleasure; who made his choice among the angels and\n     prophets; who placed the latter among the number of\n     believers in the midst of his creatures.\u2015\u2015God does what he\n     wills: there is but he, the bountiful and merciful God.\n\n     Those who preceded them, have already machinated against\n     their prophets; but I have punished them for their perfidy,\n     and, certainly, my punishment is violent and severe. God had\n     already destroyed Ad[553] and Tamud,[554] on account of\n     their crimes; he made of them an example for warning you.\n     Shall you then not fear?\n\n     Because Pharaoh acted tyrannically towards Moses and his\n     brother Aaron, I drowned him in the waters, as well as those\n     who followed him, in order that it may serve as a sign for\n     you.\n\n     Many among you are prevaricators; but God will assemble them\n     all on the day of resurrection; and they will not be able to\n     answer when interrogated by him: certainly, hell is their\n     habitation. God is all-knowing and wise.\n\n     O prophet! my advertisement arrived (at its destination);\n     perhaps will they act (conformably to it). Those who turned\n     away from my words have already experienced detriment. Are\n     they comparable to those who accomplish thy ordinances, and\n     whom I will reward by the gardens of delight? For God is the\n     Lord of mercy and great rewards.\n\n     Ali is of the number of pious; we shall restore him his\n     right on the day of judgment. We are not ignorant of their\n     intention to defraud him. We have honored him more than all\n     thy family. He and his race are of the number of sufferers,\n     and certainly their enemy is the Imam of sinners.[555]\n\n     Say to those who became infidels after having believed: \u201cYou\n     have sought after the comforts of the present life, and you\n     have been eager in the pursuit of them; but you have\n     forgotten what God and his prophet have promised you. You\n     have broken the engagements which you had taken in a formal\n     manner; yet we quoted to you examples, in the hope that you\n     would follow the good direction.\u201d\n\n     O prophet, we have sent thee clear verses. Those who were\n     faithful, and attached themselves to them, will receive\n     assistance after thee. Turn away from those who turn away\n     from me. Certainly, he shall make them appear on the day on\n     which nothing shall avail them, and when they will have no\n     pity to hope for. Their habitation shall be hell, from which\n     they shall not be removed.\n\n     Celebrate the name of thy lord, and be of the number of his\n     adorers. We have already sent Moses, and Aaron, and those\n     who followed them; but they treated Aaron unjustly. Patience\n     is an excellent virtue. Among them we changed some into\n     apes[556] and hogs; we cursed them until the day of\n     resurrection. Have patience; certainly they shall be\n     punished.\n\n     We have gratified thee with an authority equal to that which\n     was possessed by the messengers who preceded thee, and we\n     have given thee instructions in their persons. Perhaps\n     mankind will be converted. He who turns away from my command\n     shall be soon called away by me _from this world_. Let them\n     therefore enjoy some time their impiety. Ask no information\n     concerning the violators of God\u2019s law.\n\n     O prophet, we granted thee the power of loading the neck of\n     those who believed in the strength of a compact which we\n     contract. Be thou of the number of the grateful.\n\n     Certainly, Ali is pious. He passes the night prostrate\n     _before God_. He is cautious with respect to another life,\n     and he hopes to merit the reward of his Lord. Say, will they\n     be treated in the same manner, they who have acted unjustly,\n     although they knew the chastisement which I prepare for\n     them? Chains shall be put on their necks, and they shall\n     repent of their acts.\n\n     We have announced to thee a progeny of just men,[557] who\n     will not oppose my commands. My bounty and mercy are upon\n     them, living or dead,[558] until the day of resurrection. My\n     anger is against those who act tyrannically towards thy\n     posterity; wicked men who shall suffer the pain _which they\n     deserve_.\n\n     As to those who walked upon the road of thy posterity, my\n     mercy is granted to them, and they shall be safe in the\n     kiosques _of paradise_. Glory to God, King of the creatures.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nTHE RELIGION OF THE AKHB\u00c1RIN.[559]\n\nMulla Muhammed Am\u00een, of Asterab\u00e1d,[560] gave currency in this time to\nthis religion: they say, after having acquired the natural and\nrevealed sciences, he made a pilgrimage to the temple of Mecca, and\nafter having critically examined the sacred sayings, he adhered to\nwhat he thought the right sense, and composed the work _Fava-\u00edd\nMadan\u00edy_, \u201cUseful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.\u201d In the book _Danish\nnameh, K\u00e1teb Sh\u00e1h\u00ee_, which was written for the use of D\u00e1r\u00e1\u00ed Sekander\nDostg\u00e1h Muhammed Kal\u00ed Kateb Shah, it is stated, that the exalted wish\nand furthermost intent is the knowledge of what is particular to the\norigin and end, and the explanation of this meaning is contained in\nthe verse of the merciful:\n\n     \u201cThe faith in God, and in the day of eternal life.\u201d\n\nAnd the tradition of the noble Am\u00edr of the believers and the adored\nIm\u00e1m (the blessing of God and peace be upon them and upon their holy\ndescendants):\n\n     \u201cGod take compassion upon the man of whom I know from whence he\n        came, where he is, and whither he goes,\u201d\n\nentered into this meaning. The learned, in the maintenance of this\nstation, divided into several sects. The one sect established this\nstation by investigation and evidence; then a division of this sect\nrendered it obligatory not to say any thing contrary to the possessors\nof revelation, and these are called _Matkalmin_,[561] \u201cscholastics,\u201d\nfor the reason that they have composed the science of scholastic\ntheology, on account of rational considerations, and have enlarged\nargumentation in the science of scholastic dialectics and theological\nquestions.\n\nAnother sect did not bind themselves in their\nreasoning; they are called _Hukm\u00e1 m\u00e1sh\u00e1y\u00een_,[562] \u201cthe walking\nphilosophers,\u201d because their first founders followed the stirrup of\n_Arastu_ (Aristotle),[563] and at the time when Arastu, as Vizir of\n_Iskander_ (Alexander) was walking to and from the palace of this\nking; they took the opportunity of being instructed in science by this\nphilosopher.\n\nAnother sect adopted this doctrine with pious austerities. Afterwards,\na division of this sect made an application of this doctrine as\nnecessary to the Koran, and took care not to maintain any thing\ncontrary to the companions of the revelation, and these are called\n_Sofis matsher\u00e2\u00een_, \u201corthodox Sofis.\u201d Another sect did not believe\nthis necessary, and these are entitled _Hukm\u00e1 \u00e2shr\u00e1k\u00een_, to whom\n_Afl\u00e1t\u00fan_ (Plato)[564] who was the preceptor of Arast\u00fa, furnished\nlessons and instructions of piety.\n\nAnother class adopted this doctrine with a view to the precepts of the\npossessors of holiness, and made it a necessary condition that in all\nquestions about customs, in which reason is _likely_ to err, they\nshould strictly adhere to the sayings of the possessors of holiness;\nand these are called _Akhb\u00e1r\u00een_. The companions of the pure Im\u00e1ms (the\nblessing and peace of God be upon them!) all observed this rule, and\nthe Im\u00e1ms (peace be upon them!) prohibited them the science of\nscholastic theology, and the science of the fundamentals of religion\nand law, which have been collected according to the views of the\nintelligent; and likewise they prohibited the science of\njurisprudence, which has been composed as an abstract of opinions, for\nthis reason: because, safe from error, one is inclosed in what is\nright by the words of the possessors of holiness, and because many\ncontradictions and discordancies occur in the three sciences.[565] As\nit is evident and clear that there are no contradictions in truth, so\ncertainly one of the different opinions is false. The Im\u00e1ms also\ninstructed their companions in the science of scholastic dialectics,\nin the science of the fundam etals of religion and of law, and in\njurisprudence; but these three sciences are, in many of the questions,\nnot without contradiction with the sciences which the professors of\ncommon religion have combined. The lords of the temple (peace be upon\nthem!) have declared, \u201cthat in the three sciences, as received by the\ngenerality of the people, truth is that which from us is come to them,\nand error is whatever originate from their conceptions.\u201d The doctrine\nof the _Akhb\u00e1r\u00een_, in after times called _Gh\u00e1ibet s\u00e2ry_, \u201cthe minor\nabsence,\u201d which by some is reckoned among the traditions of the\nseventy-and-three, and by others among the traditions of the seventy\nfour sects, became diffused among the learned of the _Im\u00e1m\u00edyat_;\nalthough it was also known among the first of the _Gh\u00e2ibet[566]\nKaber\u00ee_, \u201cthe great absence,\u201d and the companions of the Im\u00e1ms (peace\nbe upon them!) after having received the three sciences from the\npeople of the temple (blessing be upon them!), formed a collection of\nthem in a book according to their direction; it was to this that the\npeople of the temple referred in their belief and actions, until the\ntime of the Gh\u00e2ibet Kaber\u00ee of the Sh\u00edahs, and this book, by way of\ncontinuation, was brought down to the times of the moderns; the entire\nwork, which was compiled by the trusty friend of the right faith,\n_Muhammed ben Y\u00e2k\u00fab al Kalbiy_,[567] (may his tomb be sanctified!)\ncomprehends the three sciences.\n\nFurther, when _Muhammed ben Ahmed Aljan\u00e1\u00eed_, who was eminent in\nanalogy,[568] and _Hassen ben Hass\u00e1\u00een ben Al\u00ed, ben Ab\u00ed \u00e2k\u00eel_, a lofty\nscholastic theologian, appeared, and were violent jurists; in their\ntime, the circle of teaching and learning the common religion being in\nthe colleges and schools, they studied the book of theology, and the\nbook of the fundamentals of the common religion; but as they did not\npossess all the expertness required for the science of the\nfundamentals of religion and for that of theology, which were derived\nby tradition from the Im\u00e1ms, they adapted to the common religion some\namong the subjects of scrutiny in the science of scholastic theology,\nand in that of the fundamentals of theology: and made choice of a\ndoctrine which was a mixture of the doctrine of the Akhb\u00e1r\u00eens and of\nthat of the common religion, and so laid the foundation of rational\ndialectics.[569] After them, _Shaikh Maf\u00edd_, \u201cthe beneficent Shaikh,\u201d\n(the mercy of God be with him!) that is, the Shaikh _Ab\u00fa J\u00e2fr_, on\naccount of heedlessness and of the good opinion of those two eminent\nmen, conformed himself to them, and he formed, in scholastic theology\nand in fundamental jurisprudence, a system of doctrine, mixing with\nthat of the common religion that of the Akhbar\u00een, and that of the\n_A\u015bul\u00een_, \u201csolid reasoners;\u201d on that account, the learned of the\nIm\u00e1m\u00edyat sect divided into _Akhb\u00e1r\u00een_ and _Asul\u00een_. Likewise _Al\u00e1mah\nhall\u00ee_, \u201cthe most learned ornament,\u201d[570] that is, Shaikh _Jem\u00e1l eddin\nm\u00e1taher_, has exhausted to the utmost this subject, in the discussion\nabout prophecy and unity, and at last the _sharh mov\u00e1kef_,[571]\n\u201cexplanation of the stations\u201d and the origins of the book of religions\nand attributes have also been elucidated by it. When shaikh _Maf\u00edd,\nist\u00e1z-\u00eelm alihad\u00ee_, \u201cthe teacher of the science of direction,\u201d that\nis, _Sa\u00edd M\u00edrtas\u00ed_, lived, and was the _ist\u00e1z rais al taifah_, \u201cchief\nteacher of the sect,\u201d this religion was diffused among the learned of\nthe Jm\u00e1m\u00eeyat, until the time of the most learned of the East and the\nWest, _Al\u00e1mah-hall\u00ed_; and as, penetrating into the depth of knowledge,\nhe, _Al\u00e1mah-halli_, surpassed in the sciences _Ebn Jana\u00edd_, and _Ebn\nab\u00ee \u00e2k\u00eel_, and the shaikh _Maf\u00eed_; they gave a greater expansion and\ncurrency to the mixt religion in the book of scholastic and\nfundamental theology, and in the controversial dialectics relative to\nfaith and law, established the mixt religion. As the _ah\u00e1d\u00eds_,[572]\n\u201ctraditions\u201d of the common religion, on the subjects of revelation and\nunity, were not exempt from adulterations, they published the series\nof traditions in their own book, divided into four parts. And\nAl\u00e1mah-hall\u00ee (the mercy of God be with him!) on account of heedless\nconfidence divided into four parts the traditions of his book, and the\nbook of the sect of the _Mahakah_, \u201cthe asserters of truth,\u201d in such a\nmanner as was also manifested by the _Ilm ilahad\u00ee_, \u201cthe science of\nthe direction\u201d (revelation), and the _ra-is_ (chief) of the sect, and\n_sikat al isl\u00e1m_, \u201cthe trusty friend of the right faith,\u201d and head of\nthe Shaiks, _Alsadik_, \u201cspeaker of truth,\u201d that is, _Muhammed Ebn\nB\u00e1b\u00fayah[573] Alkam\u00ee_; and others: hence the whole tribe _Mahakah_\nprofessed this as true, and, after _Al\u00e1mah-hally_, the shaikh _Shah\u00eed\nawl_, \u201cthe first witness,\u201d that is, the shaikh _Muhammed maki_, made\nit the rule of his religion, and laid the foundation of his literary\nworks upon it; after them, the _sultan Almadkak\u00edn_, \u201cthe sultan of the\nrefiners\u201d (acute investigators), shaikh _Al\u00ed_ (the mercy of God be\nupon him!) conformed himself to them, and _Al \u00e2alem al rab\u00e1n\u00ee,\nShahid-als\u00e1n\u00ee_, \u201cthe learned of the world, the doctor of divinity, the\nsecond witness,\u201d that is, the shaikh _Zin eddin_ \u201cthe ornament of the\nfaith,\u201d _Jabel al \u00e2aml\u00ee_ (the mercy of God Almighty be with him!) took\nalso the rule of this religion. This was until the time arrived for\nthe learned of the moderns, in the science of _Muhammedan_ traditions,\nand the science of biographies and characters of persons to whom the\ntraditions were handed down, and the most pious among them, the master\nof the whole in the whole, that is, _Mirza Muhammed of Asterab\u00e2d_ (may\nthe light of God illume his tomb!). _He said_:[574] \u201cAt last, as a\nsequel to this, he (Jabel) instructed me, a humble individual, in all\nthe sciences relative to the traditions, and gave me this injunction:\n\u2018Revive thou the religion of the Akhb\u00e1r\u00een, and if any doubt arise,\nthat creates an opposition to this creed, discard that doubt.\u2019 And\nthis doctrine has fixed itself in my mind. But it was decreed by the\nLord of Glory that it should be manifested through my pen. Afterwards,\nhaving received all the praised sciences from the greatest of the\nlearned, I, humble individual, during some years staying in the\nsplendid town of Medina, bowed my head under the collar of meditation,\nand humbled myself at the door of the temple of the Lord of Glory; I\nsought refuge with the spirits of the sacred place of the companions\nof prophecy, and I repeated afresh the sacred sayings, and the book of\nthe common religion; that is, that of the opposers to the Im\u00e1m\u00edyat,\nand the special book, that is, that of the Im\u00e1m\u00edyat; in order to\nperfect myself in penetration and meditation; so that, by the favor of\nthe Lord of Glory, and by the benedictions of the prince of prophets\n(Muhammed), and of the pure Im\u00e1ms (the blessing and peace of God be\nupon them all!) by the direction of him, to whom obedience is due, I\nconformed to what was right, and succeeded in composing the _Fav\u00e1id\nmadan\u00edy_, \u2018The Useful Notes, by a Citizen of Medina.\u2019\u201d Subquently,\nMuhammed Asterab\u00e1d\u00ed had the honor of being instructed by the most\nnoble of this sect; afterwards they approved his composition, and\ncongratulated the author upon it. (The mercy of God be upon them!)\n\nAmong the Im\u00e1m\u00edahs it is decided that the Im\u00e1m _Muhammed, son of\nHassan Askery_,[575] is still alive, but concealed from view; they\ndivide the time of his absence into two epochs;[576] namely, \u201cthe\nminor and the greater absence.\u201d The minor absence, which extends to\nseventy-three years, falls into the time of _M\u00e2temed Ab\u00e1s\u00ed_,[577] in\nthe year of the Hejira 266 (A. D. 879); the greater absence took place\nin the time of _R\u00e1s\u00ed_, the son of _Mukteder Ab\u00e1s\u00ee_.[578] The\ndistinction between these two epochs is that, during the minor\nabsence, there were a registrar and delegates as intermediates between\nthe pious persons of the religion and the Im\u00e1ms, whilst, during the\ngreater absence, the appointing and establishing was broken off. The\nfirst Vak\u00eel, \u201cdelegate, agent,\u201d was _Osman_, son of _Said ul Umrul\nAsadi_, in the holy place (of Medina); after him, by command of the\nIm\u00e1m of the time, his son, _Abu J\u00e2fer_, took charge of the office,\nwhich he held about fifty years; after him came _Abu \u2019l K\u00e1sem Hossain\nEbn R\u00fah Ebn Ali Baher N\u00f3ubakht\u00ed_, who bequeathed his place to\n_Abu\u2019l-Hasan Al\u00ee Ebn Muhammed Sam\u00edr\u00ed_, and this was the last Vak\u00edl.\nWhen he was sick, the Sh\u00ed\u00e2hs asked him: \u201cWho shall after thee be the\nVak\u00edl of the holy place?\u201d He wrote his command by a last will, by\nwhich he abolished the charge, and the command is as follows:\n\n     In the name of the bountiful and merciful God:\n\n     O Ali, son of Muhammed Samiri, may God increase the\n     recompense of thy brothers with regard to thee, for thou art\n     dead, and between thee and me there are six days;[579]\n     therefore arrange thy affairs, and propose to nobody to fill\n     thy place after thy death; certainly the complete absence is\n     now accomplished, and no further manifestation shall take\n     place but after the permission of God, the most high. He\n     mentioned it, and this after a long delay, and the obduracy\n     of hearts, and after the filling of the earth with violence.\n     And there shall come from among my people one to be a\n     witness; but he who desires it before the coming forth of a\n     Safiani and the Sihat, he is a deceiver, and ought to be\n     avoided. There is no power and no strength but one God, the\n     most high and most great.\n\nAbul-Hasan died in the middle of Sh\u00e2b\u00e1n (the eighth month of the\nyear), in the year of the Hejira 328 (A. D. 939).\n\nIt is to be known, that the tradition among the Shi\u00e2hs of the\n_Im\u00e1miyat-\u00e2sul\u00edn_ sect is divided into four parts: _s\u00e1h\u00edh_,\n\u201cauthentic;\u201d _hasen_, \u201celegant;\u201d _m\u00fasik_, \u201cstrong;\u201d and _s\u00e2\u00edf_,\n\u201cweak.\u201d\n\nAn _had\u00eds sahih_, \u201can authentic tradition,\u201d is one, the authority of\nwhich goes back to _m\u00e2s\u00fam_,[580] according to the narration of an\n_\u00e2dil Im\u00e1m_, \u201ca just Im\u00e1m,\u201d in the description of whom the\n_\u00e1rb\u00e1b-i-hadis_, \u201cthe masters of history,\u201d have used the word _\u00e2dil_,\nwhether the narrator be one person, or whether there be more than one,\nprovided in the description of them all the same language has been\nused.\n\nAn _hadis hasen_, \u201can elegant tradition,\u201d is one, the authority of\nwhich goes back, like that of the _hadis sahih_, to the _m\u00e2s\u00fam_; but,\naccording to the narrative of a venerable Im\u00e1m, in this way, that\nalthough, in regard to the narrator of it, the words _sikah \u00e2d\u00edl_,\n\u201ctrusty and just,\u201d have not come down to us from the historians, yet\nthey have praised him in other words.\n\nAn _hadis m\u00fasik_, \u201ca strong tradition,\u201d is that, in the description of\nwhose narrators the words _sikah \u00e2dil_ have been used by the\nhistorians, but some or all of the narrators of which are not\n_Im\u00e1m\u00eds_, \u201cfollowers of Ali.\u201d\n\nAn _hadis s\u00e2\u00edf_, \u201ca weak tradition,\u201d is that in which none of these\nthree conditions are found; viz.: 1st, the inference from the\ncommendation of _sikah \u00e2dil_; 2nd, a praise other than these two\nwords; and 3rd, the qualification _sikah \u00e2dil_, with erroneous belief\non the part of the narrator.\n\nA tradition is either _in regular succession_, or _not in regular\nsuccession_. A tradition is in regular succession, when a great\nmultitude on the authority of a great multitude make the same\nnarration, until it reaches to the _m\u00e2s\u00fam_, in such a manner, that the\nnumber of each multitude, in each particular age, shall have been so\ngreat as to exclude the idea of their having combined in telling a\nlie. A tradition is without a regular succession, when the number of\nnarrators does not, in all or several stages, reach to that multitude,\nas before said, and this kind of tradition is called, in the peculiar\nidiom of the masters of history, _the information of one_. Among the\nAkhbarians, there is no such arrangement and classification of\nevidence, and God knows the truth.\n\nThe author of this book writes what he has learned of the religion of\nthe _Akhb\u00e1r\u00edns_ from the Am\u00edns of this doctrine, one of whom was\nMuhammed Raz\u00e1i Kazv\u00edn\u00ed. They call themselves _Akhb\u00e1r\u00edn_, \u201cdogmatic\nTraditionists,\u201d because they place the centre of their belief in the\nprophetic book,[581] and employ no reasoning. _Mulla Muhammed Am\u00edn_,\nafter having acquired the requisite theoretical and practical\nknowledge and that of the law, went to Mecca and to the revered\nplaces, and he declared openly, that controversial dialectics belong\nnot to the rule of the ancient Shi\u00e2hs. The author of this book writes\nwhat he has heard from pious persons, the confidents of secrets of\nthis sect; whoever desires to know more of it, may have recourse to\nthe book _Fav\u00e1id Almad\u00edniy_, which is the composition of the last\nmentioned writer.\n\nThe following passage is said to be found in the sacred writings:\n\n     \u201cGod take compassion on the man of whom I know whence he\n     comes, where he is, and whither he goes.\u201d\n\nMy desire is God himself, and as an indication of it is my perception\nof him, the scope of which is the return to him. Afterwards we ought\nto have the knowledge of three perceptions. The _Im\u00e1nah_ conform\nthemselves to the religion of the community which is composed of the\npeople of the temple; but it is required that we acquire in Medina the\nknowledge of what the prophet is, and that we enter through the doors\n(chapters) of sciences, in which twelve Im\u00e1ms are to be praised;\nwhatever further is behind this religion will belong to that of the\nheretics. Of the two other religions, the one is that of the _people\nof pious austerity_; and this again is divided into two sects: the one\ncomprehends the ancient _Ashr\u00e1k\u00ed\u00e1n_, who did not follow the prophet;\nand the second consists of the _Mat\u00e1kher\u00een_, \u201cthe moderns,\u201d who, known\nunder the name of \u201cSufis,\u201d believe the prophet, and in theory and\npractice conform themselves to him and to the Im\u00e1ms. They say, the\nprophet showed the way of righteousness and revealed the hidden; and\nthe Im\u00e1ms also taught purity, which from them was conveyed to us; the\nIm\u00e1ms, by their pious austerity, promoted the purity of manners, and\npractised abstinence from food and sleep; the lord of the prophetic\nprotection committed this religion to Al\u00ed; and Al\u00ed was the delegate of\nthis pious austerity, the chief master, the Amir of the true\nbelievers; _Hassan Ba\u015bri_[582] was one of the devoted followers of the\nAm\u00edr, and _B\u00e1yaz\u00eed_ was the disciple of the Im\u00e1m _J\u00e2fr sadek_;[583]\n_M\u00e2r\u00faf K\u0153rkh\u00ed_, \u201cthe celebrated of Karkh,\u201d[584] gave the hand of\ndevotedness to the Im\u00e1m _Reza_.[585] Similar to them is the sect\n_shigref_, \u201cthe venerable,\u201d who think themselves the vice-regents of\nthe Im\u00e1ms, and lieutenants of the prophet (the peace of God be upon\nhim):[583][**extra anchor] their sayings deserve no attention, as in\nour religion there never was a lieutenant, whatever from a spirit of\nvanity they may assume. These men are professedly monks, and these are\nnumbered among heretics.\n\nThe second sect is that of the _Istidlal_, \u201cthe arguers,\u201d and of\nold[586] they were called _Mash\u00e1y\u00edn_, \u201cthe walkers, peripatetics;\u201d\nthey did not follow the prophet, and the moderns call them\n_Matkalem\u00edn_, \u201cscholastics.\u201d These sectaries are said to mix the\nprinciples of the true faith with the belief of the peripatetics, and\nare also reckoned heretics:[587] because the true religion is that\nwhich the lord professed, and this is the religion of the Akhb\u00e1rins.\n\nMulla Muhammed Am\u00een[588] addressed a crowd of _mujtahids_,[589]\n\u201ccasuists,\u201d who make a profession of ratiocination (discussion), in\nthe following terms:\u2015\u2015\u201cYou agree and acknowledge, that the ancient\nbelievers and the religion of old knew of no contentious arguing; and\nthat the ancient way and the old religion which prevailed in the time\nof Muhammed and of the Im\u00e1ms (the peace of God be upon them!) is the\nway of the Akhbar\u00eens. Further, we have likewise a satisfactory proof,\nthat our way is the constant religion; but try to combine a\ndemonstration in the way of reasoning, and show to us by whose\ndirection from among the possessors of holiness you adopted your\ncreed, whilst after Muhammed (the peace of God be upon him!) no other\nprophet is to appear and to bring another religion? In like manner it\nhas not been stated, in the book of the prophet and in the sacred\nsayings of the Apostles and of the Im\u00e1ms, that the relators should, in\npractice act at discretion, and after the disappearing of the Im\u00e1m,\nmake a profession of ratiocination. Moreover, it is positively\nunderstood that you have mixed your principles with the principles of\nthe Sonnites and Jam\u00e1at, and your creed has taken the nature of\noxymel, which is neither honey nor vinegar; and you are neither\nSonnites nor Shi\u00e2hs; and this is the manner in which the moderns\nexercise reasoning as a profession, that, in the time of religious\nzeal, they went and helped themselves to the acquisition of knowledge\nfrom the books of the adversaries (schismatics), and a similar desire\nhas taken hold of your hearts. Afterwards they threw out of their\nbooks what appeared reprovable, but nevertheless mixed something of it\nwith their own faith.\u201d\n\nIt should be known that some things proceed from the exigencies of the\nfaith: thus the dissentient as well as the consentient use the same\nprayers, and even the unbelievers admit, that in these Muhammed is\nnecessarily honoured. Several things are among the exigencies of the\nfaith, as for instance the office of an Im\u00e1m, as the dissentient and\nconsentient know that, in point of faith, acknowledging the Im\u00e1ms is\nindispensable for strength, firmness, and unimpairable stability. It\nshould be known that, whatever is established from the verses of the\nKoran renders the conforming of the action to it indispensable; but\nwhat is expressed in an allegorical or ambiguous sense, we have not\nthe capacity of understanding; it is then evident that this is\nparticular to the prophet and to the Im\u00e1ms, and we should not meddle\nwith it; further, we ought to conform our actions to the tradition of\nthe prophet and of the Im\u00e1ms. As many traditions are opposed to each\nother, and the distinction therein is arduous; on that account, if two\ntraditions present themselves to our view, such as to be contrary to\neach other, then the Im\u00e1m affords the believers a firm rule, which\nproves to the understanding a protection from error. The truth is,\nthat when two traditions happen to contradict each other, _good\nTheologians_ refer them to the incontrovertible authority of the\nKoran; the tradition which is conformable to a verse of the Koran, is\nthat to which they refer the action, and ascribe to religious\nzeal[590] the other tradition, and if this does not coincide with the\nincontrovertible authority, as it exceeds your power to decide the\ndubious question; fix then your eyes upon the creed of the opposers,\nand observe by what rule they are actuated.[591] Whatever is contrary\nto them, this tradition they should reckon to be truth; and whatever\nagrees with the opposers, they should acknowledge as belonging to\nreligious zeal; and if both these traditions in the creed of the\nopposers were laudable, they should consider, that a thing which\naccording to them deserves pre-eminence, is the contrary of that which\nthey ought to take. And if one says: \u201cYou have many opposers, and\nthere are seventy-and-two sects whose opinions are conflicting with\neach other;\u201d _I answer_: \u201cThe Im\u00e1m declared that they ought to proceed\nupon a road contrary to that upon which the victorious, the rulers,\nand the learned among the opposers, walk; and if, nevertheless, it may\nappear to all that they find themselves upon the same road; there are\nthen two laws: according to whichever of the traditions they act, it\ndoes not matter in that tradition in which way it comes from the\n_m\u00e2s\u00fam_,[592] provided, without doubt, it comes from the Im\u00e1m; and the\nIm\u00e1m is a person to whom obedience is obligatory. Moreover, by\nwhichever authority they act, they must conform their action to the\ndirection of the Im\u00e1m. Another thing is to be said: \u201cHave patience\nuntil the time of the happy meeting with the Im\u00e2m.\u201d If any body says:\n\u201cWe have no option to act or not to act; how long shall we wait? the\ncoming of the Im\u00e1m is not determined?\u201d This is the reply: Having\nalready acted, why should it be said: \u201cHave patience?\u201d This has\nreference to _the precept_: \u201cIf thou art in business, act peaceably;\nand if devoted to religion, follow the rites of the most comprehensive\nreligion.\u201d Should any one say: \u201cTo conform my actions to this rule is\nalso subject to discussion,\u201d we answer to that: \u201cThis is the rule the\nIm\u00e1m has established; if there be discussion, it is therefore the\nIm\u00e1m\u2019s, not our\u2019s.\u201d To weigh a religious doctrine is the same as to\ncompare two traditions contrary to each other: we found, for instance,\nthat \u201cas to purity of wine, there are two colors.\u201d[593] The wine is in\nthe traditions; we then made reference to the incontrovertible\nauthority of the Koran; we found no verse decisive about it; and in\nthe allegories we saw, that wine is called uncleanness, and how many\nmeanings are attached to uncleanness; and as we had the power of\nunderstanding the truth, the ambiguity disappeared. We made reference\nto the creed of the opposers _to the right faith_: they acknowledge\nwine to be impure. Then we took the contrary of it, and reckoned the\nwine to be pure, as the traditions announce the purity of wine.\nFurther, the tradition which denotes the impurity of wine, we ascribed\nto religious caution. And it is to be known that the Mujtah\u00edd ought to\nconform his actions to his opinion; but opinion is _shabhah_, \u201cdoubt,\u201d\nand is so called (very like _shabah_, \u201can image\u201d), because it is vain,\nand \u201ctruth-like.\u201d\n\nThe religion of the Akhbar\u00edn consists in the conviction that, without\nan exception, whatever they have heard from the Im\u00e1m is to them\n_dal\u00eel-i-kat\u00e1\u00ed_, \u201ca final, decisive proof\u201d (cutting off all further\nquestions); moreover the practice followed by the Akhbar\u00edns, is the\n_ter\u00edk-\u00ed-kat\u00e1\u00ed_, \u201cthe final religion;\u201d and _kat\u00e1\u00ed_, \u201cfinal,\u201d is that\nwhich does not depend upon _mere_ opinion. The modern among the Shi\u00e2h\nsaid, that it becomes the Mujtahed to conform his actions to his\nopinions, and that it is incumbent upon others to submit to his\ndoctrine: this religion is not ancient; as to the rest, the practice\nof contentious arguing and restlessness is an error.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nAN ACCOUNT OF THE ISMAI LIAH.\n\nInformation was received from M\u00edr Am\u00edr, who was a governor of the\nNav\u00e1hi, \u201cdistrict\u201d of the town Shek\u00fanah, that the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah, are a\ntribe among the Shi\u00e2hs; and their creed is ascribed to the lord Im\u00e1m\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl, the son of the lord Im\u00e1m J\u00e2fr s\u00e1dik,[594] and this sect\nbelieve this lord an Imam; they say, that Im\u00e1m J\u00e2fr consigned the\noffice of an Im\u00e1m to him; and that he never admitted to a partnership\nwith the mother of this lord any other woman or girl, in the manner\nthat had been done by the prophet with regard to Khad\u00edjah, and by Al\u00ed\nwith respect to F\u00e1tmah.[595] About the departure of Ism\u00e2\u00edl from this\nperishable world, there are different accounts. Some say that he died\nduring the lifetime of J\u00e2fr; then the prerogative of appointing to the\nIm\u00e1mate was transferred from the Im\u00e1m J\u00e2fr to the offspring of Ism\u00e2\u00edl;\nin like manner as M\u00fas\u00ed (Moses) transferred the appointment to H\u00e1r\u00fan\n(Aaron), who died during the lifetime of M\u00fas\u00ed. The appointment does\nnot return by retrocession; and a convention _reversed_ from whence it\ncame is impossible. J\u00e1fr was not likely to appoint, without\ntraditional credentials from noble ancestors, one from among his\ndistinguished descendants, and to be uncertain and unknown is not\nsuitable to an Im\u00e1m. As to the appointment of the Im\u00e1m J\u00e1fr, its\nlegality is in accordance with the twelve Im\u00e1ms. Some say, that Ism\u00e2\u00edl\nhad not departed from life, but the news of his death was spread\nabout, from fear that his enemies should attempt his life, and a\ndeclaration of his death was written. It is reported, according to\nsome, that during the khalifat of Manzur, Ism\u00e2il was seen in Basra,\nwhere a person afflicted with a malady of the foot was cured by means\nof his prayers. Mansur asked information from the Im\u00e1m, who sent to\nthe khalif a certificate (of Ism\u00e2il\u2019s death), in which was included a\nletter of the \u00e2amil (collector of revenue) of Mansur.\n\nThey say that, after Ism\u00e2il followed Muhammed, the son of Ism\u00e2il, with\nwhom closed the series of the Shi\u00e2h Im\u00e1ms,[596] and after him the\nIm\u00e1ms disappeared; but no age remains destitute of conspicuous Im\u00e1ms,\nand when an Im\u00e1m has appeared, he certainly evinces himself as such.\n\nThe number of the commands of the Im\u00e1ms is seven, like the seven days\nof the week, the seven heavens, and the seven planets.[597] They hold\nthe number of the religious leaders to be twelve, and therein the\nIm\u00e1m\u00edyas have committed an error, by counting the Im\u00e1ms after the\nleaders, and these are the _Bat\u00e9nian_, \u201cinterior.\u201d[598] These\nsectaries do not conform themselves to the evidence of the divine law;\nthey declare: \u201cwe do not say, God is omnipresent or not omnipresent,\nomniscient, or not omniscient, almighty, or not almighty, and so in\nall attributes;\u201d they maintain further as a confirmation of the truth,\nthat there is a connexion between God and the _other_ beings, and this\nis the creed of the _Tashb\u00edah_, \u201cassimilators;\u201d but from an absolute\nnegation a connexion takes place with non-existences, which is\nmaintained by the _T\u00e2t\u00edl_, \u201cindifferent,\u201d and the application of this\nthesis to the Lord, the self-existent, leads to the opinion, that\nthere is no community to be imagined between the Lord God,\nself-existent, _and other beings_. They also say that the Almighty God\nis the operator of opposite effects, and the creator and ruler of\nconflicting results. They further set forth, that when the lord Yzed,\nthe most sublime, bestowed the gift of knowledge upon the inhabitants\nof the world, they called him all-knowing; when he displayed his power\non account of his majesty, they called him all-mighty: certainly the\nattribution of knowledge and power to the being of the most sublime\nYzed is founded upon the belief that he is the giver of knowledge and\nforce. Moreover they assert that, by a single command, God created\nintelligence, which among all things is perfect, and by means of\nperfect intelligence, he brought forth the spirit which is not\nperfect; there is a relation between intelligence and spirit, a\nrelation between the sperm and the child produced, as well as a\nrelation between the egg and the bird, or a relation between father\nand son, or husband and wife. The spirit becomes then desirous of, and\nlonging for the excellence of perfect intelligence[599] which he\nderives from expansion, therefore he feels himself pressed to move out\nof his deficiencies towards excellence,[600] but he does not attain at\nperfect motion, except by means of an instrument.\n\nAfterwards, God created the heavenly bodies, and gave the heavens a\ncircular motion; from his disposition emerged the spirit, the simple\nelementary natures, and by means of them the uncompounded beings;\nfurther, he brought forth the compounded bodies from among minerals,\nvegetables, and various animals, among which man was the best, on\naccount of the merit of much sanctity, and his connexion with the\ncelestial world. Thus the upper world is composed of perfect universal\nintelligence, and the rational sense of universality which is the\norigin of creatures. It is necessary that in the nether world perfect\nuniversal intelligence and reason prevail, that they may afford to the\ninhabitants of the world the means of salvation, and this intelligence\nis the prophet _n\u00e1t\u00b4ik_, \u201cspeaking,\u201d and the reason is the Im\u00e1m. As\nthe heavens are moved by the impulse of intelligence and reason, in\nlike manner are the other souls set free by the impulse of the\n\u201cspeaker;\u201d there is one who commands in every age, and every time has\nits revolution; every revolution depends upon the authority of seven\npersons[601] until it terminates by the last revolution and the time\nof judgment comes; the exigencies of the law and religious rule rise\nas the rapid movements of heaven, and the necessity of law is the\ncause of the acquisition of reason _carried_ to excellence; it is a\n_laudable_ trial of mankind to attain to the dignity of wisdom, and\nthis is \u201cthe great judgment.\u201d\n\nWhen they wish to convert any body to their creed, they throw doubts\nupon his religion into his mind, not with any evil intention on their\nside, but that he may find the road to God and attain truth, as well\nas be convinced that, except their religion, any other is remote from\ncertainty and without firmness. Their manner of creating doubts about\nthe pillars of the law, is that they ask about detached parts of a\nsura: what (for instance) is the meaning of the detached letters in\nthe first sura,[602] and the command about fasting, a menstruous\nwoman, the command of prayers, and why the necessity of bathing with\nregard to sperm and urine; the number of the sacred inclinations of\nthe head, which, according to some, are four, according to others,\nthree, and perhaps two: which number is right? and so on in all\nactions of the pious.[603] When the person desirous of truth, finds\nhimself by such questions surrounded with doubts, and inquires after\ntruth, they answer, and conduct him upon the road of the right belief,\nin such a manner that all doubt is banished from his heart; he then is\nreceived in their community, and walks in the right way, whence he is\nstrengthened against any creation of doubts, and this is the manner of\nagreement current among the followers of God, by way of compact and\nconvention.\n\n     \u201cWhen we took engagements with the prophets.\u201d\n\nFurther, according to convention, comes _hav\u00e1let_, \u201cgiving in charge\u201d\nto the Im\u00e1m, and settling arduous matters, when a difficulty occurs in\nan affair which presents itself to him; inasmuch as, by the laudable\nnature of his qualities, an Im\u00e1m is wise, and nobody else possesses\nthe power with which this exalted personage is firmly invested. To\nthis is joined _tedl\u00eds_, \u201cartifice,\u201d which consists in managing\nrelations with powerful personages, in religious and worldly matters,\nin order to increase the proselyte\u2019s inclination for what he seeks and\nwishes. Then is _t\u00e1s\u00eds_, \u201cmaking sure,\u201d or confirming the arrangements\nwhich are agreeable to him, so that he may be confident, and put in\npossession of what he expects. Further, there is _khal\u00e2_, \u201cdivesting,\u201d\nwhich is obscure. Afterwards by renouncing the actions of this world:\nthis is _silkh_, \u201cestrangement from the observances of exterior\nreligion.\u201d Finally, at this period, whoever may find it agreeable to\nindulge in, and to excite himself to, pleasurable practices, and to\ninterpret the law, which is the office of exalted personages, _he may\ndo so_, as whatever in the world is not hurtful, is proper to the\nfavourites of God, as for instance wine, which, to enjoy with\nmoderation and without abuse and noise, is salutary.[604]\n\nThey say likewise _vazu_, \u201cablution,\u201d is as much as acknowledging the\nfaith of the Im\u00e1m, and abstersion with sand (from want of water) the\nsame in the absence of the Im\u00e1m, as he is the umpire. _Namaz_,\n\u201cprayer,\u201d is a precept of the prophet, according to the word of God\nthe Almighty.\n\n     \u201cPrayer preserveth from filthy crimes, and from what is\n        blameable.\u201d[605]\n\n_Jhtil\u00e1m_,[606] \u201cnocturnal pollution,\u201d refers to the divulging of a\nsecret to a person not one of those who ought to know it, without the\nintention of guiding him into the right road. _Ghasel_, \u201cbathing,\u201d is\na renewal of the covenant. _Zakat_, \u201calms,\u201d is the sanctifying of life\nby means of the understanding of mankind. _S\u00fam_, \u201cfasting,\u201d denotes\nthe preservation of the mysteries of the Im\u00e1m. _Zena_, \u201csexual\nintercourse with a strange woman,\u201d is equivalent to divulging the\nmysteries of religion. These sectaries say also that praying in an\nassembly is following the holy Im\u00e1m. The alms are to them a metaphoric\nsignification of the fifth part of property which they give to the\nIm\u00e1m.[607] Further, there is the _K\u00e1bah_[608] of the prophet, the\n_b\u00e2b_, \u201cdoor,\u201d of Al\u00ed, the _\u015baf\u00e1_ of the apostle, the _marvah_ of the\n_vas\u00ed_, \u201cexecutor,\u201d the _m\u00edk\u00e1t itin\u00e1s_, \u201cthe place of familiarity\u201d\n(where the pilgrims assemble and whence they proceed to perform the\nsolemnities at the temple of Mecca), and the _talbiyat_, \u201cpilgrimage\nof obedience\u201d to the blessed; the _seven circuits_, around the house\nof lordship which the Shi\u00e2hs devote to the Im\u00e2ms (the peace of God be\nupon them!)[609]\n\nHeaven is repose of bodies from all distresses. Hell is the torment of\nbodies by distresses.\n\nAnd in this manner they interpret every thing, and say that every\nthing exterior has its interior, which is the cause of the exterior,\nwhilst this latter is the manifestation of the interior; and there is\nnothing exterior which has not its interior; and if not, there is, in\nreality, nothing; further, there is nothing interior which has not its\nexterior, unless it be an illusion. When God created the exterior\n(visible), and the interior (invisible) world, the latter was the\nworld of spirits, souls, and intelligences; the visible world was that\nof bodies, upper and nether, and of accidents. The Im\u00e1m is the lord of\nthe interior world, and there is no knowledge of God to be acquired,\nexcept by his instruction. The prophet is the lord of the exterior\nworld, and the law, of which men stand in need, will not be perfect\nexcept by him; and the law has an exterior side, which is called\n_tanzil_,[610] \u201crevelation from heaven, the Koran,\u201d and an interior,\nwhich is entitled _t\u00e1w\u00eel_,[611] \u201cinterpretation.\u201d The age is never\ndestitute of a prophet, or of law; it is likewise never without an\nIm\u00e1m, or his authority. These sectaries further say, that his\ngovernment is sometimes concealed, although the Im\u00e1m be manifest, and\nthat at another time the government is manifest, although the Im\u00e1m be\nconcealed; in such a manner that the people may know a prophet by the\nwonders of his words and deeds; but they recognize the Im\u00e1m by his\ngovernment and direction, and they cannot know God Almighty but by the\nIm\u00e1m. The Shi\u00e2hs also maintain that the existence of an Im\u00e1m through\nall times is necessary, whether manifest or concealed, so that no\nperiod of time be destitute of the splendour of the sun, or plunged in\nthe darkness of night.\n\nA book was seen, composed by Hassan S\u00e1b\u00e1h,[612] who was a deputy of\nthe Im\u00e1m. In the first chapter of it, he says, that the _mufti_,\n\u201cwise,\u201d in the knowledge of the Lord God ought to follow one of the\ntwo sentences: either that which says that he may know God by mere\nreason, without the aid of instruction by an intelligent _s\u00e1dik_,[613]\n\u201ca sincere friend,\u201d or that which declares that the knowledge of the\nLord God by reason is difficult, and cannot be acquired unless by the\ninstruction of an intelligent sincere friend; and he further states,\nthat whatever decision he may give according to the first sentence, he\ndoes not assume to reject the other, because, when he rejects, the\nrejection amounts to teaching and demonstrating, that the disavowal of\nthe posterity of Al\u00ed is required by the other. These sectarians say,\nthat both modes are necessary, and constitute a proof: because the\nmuft\u00ed, when he gives a decision by a sentence, this sentence is either\nhis own or that of another; in the same way, when he professes a\ncreed, either he adopts it firmly from his own original persuasion, or\nthis sense is communicated to him by another. This is what the first\nsection _of the book before mentioned_ contains. In the contents of\nthis section is a digression upon the lords of reason and of wisdom.\n\nIn the second section of it, we read the statement that, when there is\nan occasion for a teacher, either every intelligent man, by a free use\nof his ability, gives instruction, or the learned s\u00e1dik is\nindispensable; and the author says, that a person who may agree with\nwhatever instruction an able master imparts, will not think it\nallowable to carry on controversy with this learned antagonist; and\nwhen he permits himself to do so, certainly he may have kept the faith\nwhich is absolutely due to the learned _\u015ba\u00e1ik_ and confidential\nfriend. This section is said to contain a digression upon the lords of\nthe tradition.\n\nIn the third section it is stated that, although the necessity of a\nlearned _s\u00e1dik_ be established, yet it is required to take advantage\nof the knowledge of the first learned man; and after the instruction\nreceived from him, that is, instruction from any teacher without a\nspecial appointment, it is proper to be assured of his truth; as the\nright way of religion is not attainable without a companion, certainly\nthe first concern is to have a _true_ friend. After this subject,\nthere is a digression upon the Shi\u00e2hs.\n\nIn the fourth chapter, the author says, that the individuals of\nmankind are divided into two classes.\n\nThe one says: \u201cWe require for the knowledge of the Creator a learned\n_s\u00e1dik_, or sincere friend; and his special appointment is required,\nand after that instruction from him.\u201d The other class says,\n\u201cInstruction for the knowledge of any science can be obtained from any\nperson, whether a master or not a master _specially appointed_.\u201d As,\nby previous investigations, it is understood that the truth is with\nthe first class, certainly the chief and leader of the first class\nwill be the chief of the philosophers; and as it has been ascertained\nthat the second class is erring, their leader is the leader of the\ndeceived. The author says further, the _true_ doctrine is, that we\nacknowledge the _muhikk_, \u201chim who knows for certain\u201d _bahakk_, that\nis, \u201cin truth,\u201d which is a summary knowledge; and after the summary\nknowledge by which we recognise \u201chim who knows for certain,\u201d \u201cin\ntruth,\u201d we want a detailed (distinct) knowledge of these questions;\nand our purpose in using the word _bahakk_, \u201cin truth\u201d is to express\nthe necessity of having a _muhikk_, and the author says: By necessity\nwe are to know the Im\u00e1m, and by the Im\u00e1m we know God in such a manner\nthat by lawfulness we acknowledge him who is necessary, that is to\nsay, that we acknowledge by the possibility of perfection the\nexistence of the self-existent being.\n\nThe author also says, that knowing the _true_ doctrine is knowing the\nunity _of God_. After this illustration, having in several sections\nexhibited an account of his own faith, and in some established it, he\nmade in other sections a digression upon the creed of others, and the\ndigressive sections are frequent; the proofs and disquisitions by\ncontroversy with regard to false religions, and the disquisitions by\nconcordance with regard to the rightfulness of his own religion, are\ndistinct from the totality of those arguments, which are between truth\nand falsehood, and the contrast between truth and falsehood, and that\nbetween small and great _is made evident_. The author further alleges,\nthat in science there is truth and falsehood; but the distinguishing\nmark of truth is unity, and the distinguishing mark of falsehood is\nmultiformity; unity is related to _authoritative_ instruction, and\nmultiformity is related to opinion; instruction belongs to the\nassembly, and the assembly to the Im\u00e1m; opinion is allied with\nconflicting sects, and these agree with their chiefs. As for the\nseparation of truth from falsehood, and the resemblance which truth\nhas with falsehood, and for the distinction between what is consistent\nand what is absurd, on both sides, a balance ought to be formed in\nwhich every thing may be weighed.[614] The author moreover says, that\nwe obtained the knowledge of this balance from the speeches of the\nwitnesses, and whatever is compounded of negation and affirmation; and\nwhatever is deserving negation is falsehood; and whatever is deserving\naffirmation is truth; and by this balance we weigh the good and bad,\nthe sincere and the lying, and all contradictions; and the acute\ndistinction and mystery of this speech is, that in the sentences each\nword relates to truth by proof of evidence, and unity and\nconfirmation. The Im\u00e1mate unites itself with prophecy in such a degree\nthat prophecy, by the very nature of the Im\u00e1mate, is prophecy; and\nthis is the scope of the discourse in these topics of inquiry.\n\nBesides, the author forbade the vulgar to dive deeply into science;\nand he prohibited the nobles the study of the books of the ancients,\nunless there was a person fit to master the particulars of their\ncontents, and the comparative merits of the men who have delivered\nspeeches. He also determined, with his companions in divinity, to say:\n_illah illah Muhammed ast_, \u201cGod is God the praise-worthy;\u201d so you;\nbut the adversaries say: _illah illah akel ast_, \u201cGod is God the\nwise;\u201d that is, whatever is reason, every reason takes its direction\ntowards the side of this leader (Muhammed); and as some of them raise\nthese questions: \u201cGod Almighty is he present or not? one or many?\nknowing or ignorant? powerful or not?\u201d An answer sufficiently strong\nis given, namely: _illah ba illah Muhammed_, \u201cGod by God is\npraiseworthy:\u201d[615] as it is God who sent the prophet for leading the\ncreatures, and the prophet is the leader of the creatures.\n\nThese sectaries are to be found in many places, but in great numbers\nin the _navahi_, \u201cdistrict,\u201d of the eastern Kohistan, in the districts\nof Khita, of K\u00e1shghar, and Tibet. The author of this book saw, in the\nyear of the Hejira 1054 (A. D. 1644), in Multan, one belonging to this\nsect, called M\u00edr Al\u00ee Akbar, and heard frequently this account from his\nmouth: The Khalifs of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah maintained, during a long time,\ntheir dignity in the West. The lineage of the first Khalifs, according\nto the manner which is agreed upon among the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah, is stated as\nfollows: Kh\u00e1jah[616] N\u00e1sir T\u00fasi (of T\u00fas) showed himself or really was,\nin his time, a professor of Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edsm. Muhammed al mahtad\u00ed ben\nAbd-ullah, ben Ahmed ben Muhammed, ben Ism\u00e2\u00edl, ben J\u00e2fr s\u00e1dik, united\nthe dignity of the Im\u00e1mate with his own nobility, and declared that\nMahdi, the last of the age, is represented in Muhammed ben Abd-ullah,\nand he quoted from the writing of S\u00e1dik, who said: \u201c_At the end of\nthirteen hundred years, the sun shall rise in the west._\u201d They say\nthat the word _sun_ in this sentence alludes to Muhammed, son of\nAbd-ullah.[617] They give to Ab\u00fa yaz\u00edd, who fell off from the lord\n(Sadik), the name of Antichrist (daj\u00e1l).[618]\n\nA great number of learned men are followers of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah: such was\n_Am\u00edr N\u00e1\u015ber Khusr\u00f3_, from among all learned poets, the contemporary of\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl, surnamed _Mont\u00e1ser_, \u201cthe victorious.\u201d[619] Amir Naser[620]\nwas born in the year of the Hejira 359 (A. D. 969). When he arrived at\nthe age of discernment and rectitude, he heard the voice of Hassen,\n_teaching_ the morals of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah, in the time of the khalifat of\nthe legitimate Im\u00e1m Mont\u00e1ser;[621] he hastened from Khorassan to\nEgypt, where he dwelt seven years; every year he made a pilgrimage to\nMecca, and returned from thence; he was exceedingly devoted to the\npractice of the law. At last he went to Mecca, and returning by the\nway of Ba\u015bra (Bussora) he was disposed to go to Khorassan. Having\nfixed himself in Sabakh, he invited mankind to the khalifat of\nMante\u015ber, and to the religion of the Ism\u00e2\u00edliah, and showed the way to\nit. Hence, a number of the enemies of the prophet\u2019s descendants wished\nto destroy Am\u00edr N\u00e1s r Khusr\u00f3. A prey to fear and terror, he concealed\nhimself from mountain to mountain in Badakhshan,[622] and lived twenty\nyears upon water and grass in inaccessible places. Some of the\nignorant reckoned him a companion among the Ism\u00e2\u00edliah Almut\u00edah; others\nof the uninformed composed a book of regret on the subject of his\nalliance with the Almut\u00edah which they supposed: the fact is that he,\nfollowing the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah of the West, kept no communication nor society\nwith the Alm\u00fat\u00edah. This is what we have heard from the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah with\nregard to N\u00e1s r, and what is also recorded in historical books.[623]\n\nThe Im\u00e1ms of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah showed themselves very kind to all\ncreatures. Thus Man\u015bur, the son of Az\u00edz, known under the name of\nAlh\u00e1kem ba amra allah, an Ism\u00e1\u00edlah, ordered in Egypt that, for the\nconvenience of purchase and sale, the doors of the shops should be\nkept open at night, and the windows of Cairo not shut, that besides\ntorches should be lighted in the narrow streets the whole night, and\nthe people freely move in the market places and squares. This lord was\nskilful in all sciences, and powerful in prodigies, like his glorious\nancestor Muhammed Mokhtar. Thus he said: \u201cin such a night, a\nmisfortune will befall me:\u201d and so it happened.[624]\n\nThe Im\u00e1ms of the western Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah were all zealous in the practices\nof exterior worship, and an account of them is published in the\nhistorical books. The Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah of Iran are celebrated with the\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah of Kohist\u00e1n and R\u00fadb\u00e1r.[625] The first of the former was\n_Hassan_, son of _S\u00e1b\u00e1h_. As the account of him in the histories has\nbeen traced with the pen of partiality, therefore I shall endeavor to\nmake a statement such as obtains credit among the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah concerning\nhim.[626]\n\nThe lineage of Hassan is connected with Muhammed Sabah Zam\u00e9r\u00ed; his\ngrandfather, who descended from the family of S\u00e1bah Zam\u00e9r\u00ed, came from\nYemen to K\u00fafa, from K\u00fafa to Kam, and from Kam to R\u00e1\u00ed. His father is\nalso said to have been Al\u00ed,[627] a person devout and learned in the\nreligion of Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edsm; he found a livelihood in the country of R\u00e1\u00ed.\nThe judge of this province, Ab\u00fa Muslem R\u00e1z\u00ed, on account of the\ncontrariety of religion, bore him enmity. At the time when the Im\u00e1m\nMavafek N\u00edsh\u00e1p\u00far\u00ed, one of the most learned Sonnites, flourished in\nKhor\u00e1ssan, the father (Al\u00ed), in order to remove from the suspicions of\nthe enemy, having brought his fortunate son to N\u00edsh\u00e1p\u00far, into the\nsociety of the Imam Movafik, procured him the opportunity of being\nintent upon his own advantage, whilst he himself, seated in the corner\nof tranquillity, devoted himself to piety. He never permitted himself\nspeech above the comprehension of the vulgar, for fear that any person\nmight consider them speeches of heretics and infidels, and accuse him\nof impiety and irreligion. Hassan was a condisciple of Nizam al mulk,\nof T\u00fas,[628] and Omar Khay\u00e1m[629] of N\u00edsh\u00e1p\u00far. As his glorious father\nhad revealed to him that Niz\u00e1m al Mulkh would rise to a high rank of\nworldly greatness, and Hassan to a great dignity, visible and\ninvisible, therefore Hassan said to Nizam al mulk: \u201cWhichever of us\nattains a high dignity, shall divide the fortune by him acquired\nbetween us three equally;\u201d and in this sense they bound themselves by\na covenant. When kh\u00e1jah became a vizir in the time of Alp\nArselan,[630] then Hak\u00edm Omar Khay\u00e1m came to him, and in the corner of\ncontemplative retirement, devoted himself to the acquisition of\nvirtues. Khojah took no notice of his arrival. Hassan expected that\nNizam al mulk would call him to his presence; disappointed in this,\nhe, during the reign of Alp Arslan, did not join Khajah, but in the\ntime of Sultan Malik Shah[631] he presented himself in N\u00edsh\u00e1p\u00far to\nKhajah, but the latter did not mind the covenant that he had made, nor\nintroduce him to the assembly of the king. Helpless then, the _Sayid\nal t\u00e1\u00edfah_, \u201cthe chief of the sect,\u201d that is, Hassan, said to Kh\u00e1jah:\n\u201cThou belongest to the learned, and to the companions of certainty,\nand thou knowest that the world is a vile object; should such a\nmeanness be allowable, that thou, on account of rank and the love of\nsway, shouldst exhibit thyself a violator of promises, and enter the\nnumber of those of whom it is said: \u2018They break the covenant of God.\u2019\u201d\n\n  \u201cPlace the hand of faith into the girdle of promise,\n   And endeavor to be no breaker of thy word.\u201d\n\nKh\u00e1jah, perplexed, brought him to the court of the Sultan, to whom he\nsaid much of Hassan\u2019s sagacity, but also gave information that the man\nwas violent, avaricious, inconsistent, and undeserving of confidence.\nAs Hassan was learned, and an able man of business, therefore his\npiety and prudence made in a short time a great impression upon the\nmind of the Sultan, who, in many great and important affairs, acted\naccording to his advice. As the Sultan thought that what Kh\u00e2ja had\nsaid of the inconsistency and avarice of Hassan\u2019s character was mere\nfalsehood, and on account of other disorder, some dissatisfaction with\nKh\u00e1jah came into the Sultan\u2019s mind. One day he asked Kh\u00e1jah: \u201cIn what\ntime art thou able to settle a clear account, such as that of a\ncollector of the receipts and charges of the empire?\u201d Kh\u00e1jah replied:\n\u201cIn two years.\u201d The Sultan said: \u201cThat is a long time.\u201d Hassan took an\nengagement with the king that he would bring it to a conclusion in\nforty days, under the stipulation that, during this time, all the\nwriters should be at his service. The Sultan gave his approbation to\nthe proposal, and Hassan, faithful to his promise, settled in forty\ndays the account of the finances of the empire with the utmost\nexactness. Kh\u00e1jah, on hearing this intelligence, was troubled.\nAccording to the account of some, a slave of Kh\u00e1jah, who was upon\nterms of friendship with a servant of Hassan, or according to others,\nKh\u00e1jah himself, took the register from the hands of the servant, who\nwas carrying the leaves of it outside the king\u2019s hall,[632] and\nmutilated the register. The servant brought to Hassan the leaves,\nwithout minding their order and without mentioning to him the\noccurrence; therefore, at the time of presenting the register, Hassan\nfound it mutilated, and intent upon arranging and putting it in order,\nconfused the leaves. The Sultan was impatient to know the receipts,\ncharges, and revenues of the country; but Hassan was not able to\nanswer, and spoke with hesitation. The Sultan, being vexed at meeting\nwith such delay, said: \u201cWhat is the reason of these difficulties?\u201d As\nhe received no answer, suitable to his questions, he became agitated.\nKh\u00e1jah Niz\u00e1m ul mulk took the opportunity to say: \u201cIntelligent\npersons, to complete this business, demanded a delay of two years; an\nignorant man pretends that, to finish it, forty days are sufficient\nfor this important work: his answer to any question can but be\ninsignificant. I have formerly represented, that in his character\nthere is a total levity, and that his speeches deserve no\nconfidence.\u201d[633] On this account, the Sultan was displeased. Hassan\nconsequently betook himself to flight, and hastened to Rudbar, in\nwhich country he found refuge with Abed-ul Malik At\u00e1s, who was a\nfollower of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah; from thence he went to Isfah\u00e1n, and, from\nfear of the Sultan and of Kh\u00e1jah, he concealed himself in the house of\nthe R\u00e1is Abulfazil. One day, in the midst of conversation, it escaped\nfrom his tongue: \u201cIf I found two proper friends, I would put in\nconfusion this Turk and his places.\u201d The R\u00e1\u00eds Abulf\u00e1sil ascribed this\nspeech to a derangement of the brain; and, without disclosing his idea\nto Hassan, he prepared for him aliments, such as are proper for\nstrengthening the brain. Our S\u00e1id Hassan, from his great sagacity,\nhaving perceived the intention of his mind, hastened from thence to\nanother place, and afterwards took possession of the fort\n_Alm\u00fat_.[634] The R\u00e1is Abulfazil joined him. Our S\u00e1id then said: \u201cIs\nmy brain deranged, or hast thou not seen how, as soon as I had found\ntwo proper friends, I have made good my word?\u201d\n\nAt last, our S\u00e1id went to Egypt, and at that time Manta\u015ber[635] an\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah, sat upon the throne of the Khil\u00e1fet, and, being pleased\nwith his sight, bestowed favors upon him, wherefore Hassan remained\none year and a half under Monta\u015ber\u2019s protection. After this, a great\nenmity arose between him and Am\u00edr _Alj\u00edy\u00fash_,[636] from this reason:\nMonta\u015ber withdrew from his son Naz\u00e1r the succession to his dignity,\nand issuing afterwards a second order, transferred it to his other son\nAhmed surnamed Almist\u00e1l\u00ed billah.[637] As a tumultuous concourse of the\npeople took place on that account, Am\u00edr Alj\u00edy\u00fash approved of the\nlatter appointment, but Hassan said: \u201cRespect is due to the first\nnomination;\u201d and he invited the people to adhere to Naz\u00e1r\u2019s\nIm\u00e1mate,[638] Amir Alj\u00edy\u00fash, with the concurrence of some Umr\u00e1,\nrepresented to Montas er that Hassan, on account of this guilt,\ndeserved to be imprisoned in the fort Dam\u00edat. Soon after this was\ndone, a tower of the rampart of the fort, which was of a perfect\nstrength, fell down, wherefore the people apprehended a still greater\nmiracle from Hassan; at last the Am\u00edr Alj\u00edy\u00fash sent him, with some\npeople of the Franks, on board a ship bound to the West. The vessel\nwas scarcely in the open sea, when a violent wind began to blow, the\nsea became boisterous, and the ship\u2019s crew were agitated; but Hassan\nshowed himself in that state of mind described by Amir Khusro:\n\n  \u201cThat thou mayst not be moved by every blast of wind,\n   Draw in thy skirts (collect thyself) like a mountain;\n   For man is but a handful of dust,\n   And life is a violent storm.\u201d\n\nOn this occasion one of the voyagers asked Hassan: \u201cWhat is the reason\nthat I do not see thee disturbed?\u201d Hassan answered: \u201cIt is because the\nM\u00fal\u00e1n\u00e1, that is, the Im\u00e1m, revealed to me that no misfortune will\nbefall the passengers of the ship.\u201d At the same moment, the tumult was\ncalmed. On that account, love for Hassan gained the hearts of the\nwhole company, and the vessel went to one of the towns of the\nNazar\u00e9ens. Hassan from thence embarked in another ship, and arrived at\nthe frontier of _Sh\u00e1m_ (Syria), where he landed. From thence he\nhastened to Haleb (Alep),[639] and then satisfied his desire to go to\nBaghdad, from which place he betook himself hastily to Kh\u00f3zistan,\nwhich country he left for Isfah\u00e1n: in this way he travelled, concealed\nand clandestinely, in the countries of Irak and Azerb\u00e1\u00edjan, and\ninvited the people to the doctrine of the Ism\u00e1\u00edl\u00edah, and to the\nIm\u00e1mate of Naz\u00e1r; he sent _d\u00e1\u00e2is_,[640] \u201cmissionaries,\u201d to the fort\n_Alm\u00fat_, and to other fastnesses and cities of R\u00fadb\u00e1r and Kohist\u00e1n,\nthat they might invite the people to the true faith: in a short time,\na great number of men adopted this religion. Afterwards, having fixed\nhis abode in a place near Alm\u00fat, he devoted himself entirely to a\nreligious life, to rectitude and the submission to God, which was his\nvery nature.[641] The inhabitants, having heard his followers, were\nconverted to his doctrine, and in the month of Rajeb (December) in the\nyear of the Hejira 484 (A. D. 1091), a troop of the inhabitants of\nAlm\u00fat brought this personage into the fort.[642] Finally, when he had\nentered the fort, a chief, Al\u00ed Mahd\u00ee by name, who, under the authority\nof Sultan Malik shah, was governor of this province, found himself\nbereft of power and was obliged to submit. The adversaries of the\nIsm\u00e2l\u00edah say, that one day Al\u00ed Mahd\u00ee asserted, \u201cdeception in law is\nallowable,\u201d and gave an account of some deceptions in religious law;\nbut our S\u00e1id declared that, the centre of law being rectitude,\ndeception is not permitted, and all those who practise deception,\nshall be brought to account for it by God.\n\nSome time after it, Hassan said one day to Mahdi: \u201cSell to me for\nthree thousand dinars as much of the ground of this fort as a cow-skin\nwill be able to embrace.\u201d Mahdi, having agreed to the bargain, our\nS\u00e2id made the cow-skin into thin stripes, which he joined together and\nsurrounded the whole fort. He then wrote an order to the R\u00e1is Mazafer,\nwho held a command at the foot of the mountains of D\u00e1m\u00e2an, and was a\nfollower of his doctrine, to that effect: \u201cThe R\u00e1is Mazafer (may God\nAlmighty guard him!) shall pay to Al\u00ed Mahd\u00ee three thousand dinars, as\nthe price of the fort Alm\u00fat. Blessing upon the prophet and his\ndescendants; God suffices to us, and it is good to trust our interests\nto him.\u201d\n\nHaving written this, he delivered it to Mahdi, and brought him out of\nthe fort. The latter, some time after, pressed by indigence, presented\nthe writ to the R\u00e2is Mazafer, and received three thousand dinars in\ngold.\n\nThus at last the affairs of our S\u00e1id were carried, after many\ndifficulties, to the possession of the castle Alm\u00fat, and in a short\ntime the whole country of R\u00fadb\u00e1r and Kohistan fell into his fortunate\nhands; within thirty and six years, he rose to great prosperity and\npower. After him seven of his followers held the government, and the\nduration of the prosperity of this sect was eighty and one years.[643]\nOur S\u00e1id strove at perfection of rectitude and piety, and the zeal of\nthis lord in upholding the law was carried to such a degree, that he\ndrove out of the fort an individual who played the flute, and in spite\nof the intercessions of many persons in his favor, never gave him\nentrance again. During the time of his government, he went no more\nthan twice to sit upon the terrace of his house, and never was seen\nout of the fort, always occupied with the direction of the affairs of\nthe state and of religion. In his time the fed\u00e1y\u00eds (his devoted\nfollowers) destroyed a great number of the great and noble adversaries\nof his sect.[644] At last death transported our S\u00e1id from this world\nof vexations to the gardens of paradise, in the fourth month of the\nyear (September, the beginning of autumn) of the Hejira 518[645] (A.\nD. 1124-5).\n\nHis appointed successor was _Kia Buzerk um\u00edd_.\n\nAs _Huss\u00e1in F\u00e1ni_, one of the trusty companions of our S\u00e1id,[646] with\na troop of ref\u00eeks (followers)[647] brought Kohist\u00e1n into his\npossession, one of the Umr\u00e1s of Malikshah, who was in R\u00fadb\u00e1r, besieged\nseveral times the fort Alm\u00fat, and spread slaughter and devastation\nabout, in such a manner that the situation of the inhabitants of that\ncastle having become distressing, they desired to retire into the\nvalley. Our S\u00e1id, exhorting them to patience and perseverance,\ndeclared that the Im\u00e1m, namely Monta\u015ber, had said, the Almutian ought\nnot to desert the place, which should become to them the seat of good\nfortune. At this very time, that person, their enemy, passed to the\nother world, and our S\u00e1id was liberated of all anxiety: on which\naccount the fort was named _Buldet-ul ikb\u00e1l_, \u201cthe town of good\nfortune.\u201d\n\nIn the beginning of the year of the Hejira 485 (A. D. 1092), the Am\u00edr\nArsl\u00e1n sh\u00e1h[648] moved, by order of the Sultan Maliksh\u00e1h, the army\nagainst Buldet-ul ikbal. As the situation of the inhabitants of the\nfort became desperate,[649] Abu Al\u00ed, who was one of the adherents of\nour S\u00e1id, and resided in Kazv\u00een, sent them three hundred valiant men;\nand this robust body threw themselves by night into the fort, from\nwhence, making a night sally upon the Arsl\u00e1n\u00edan, they routed them, and\ncarried off an immense booty.\n\nWhen the fugitives arrived in the camp of the Sultan, he sent _Kazil\nSar\u00fak_, with a strong army to reduce the rebels _in Khorasan_. Hass\u00e1\u00edn\nF\u00e1ni, _one of Hassan\u2019s chiefs_, having taken refuge with his raf\u00edks in\n_M\u00famin-\u00e1b\u00e1d_, the general of the Sultan made the necessary\npreparations for a siege. When he was upon the point of seizing the\nsplendid conquest, the intelligence suddenly spread of the murder of\nKh\u00e1jah Nizam al mulk by the hand of _Abu T\u00e1her Ad\u00e1ni_, who was one of\nthe fed\u00e1yis of our S\u00e2id; and closely to this followed the report of\nthe death of Maliksh\u00e1h; on which account this army dispersed, and as\nthe dissension between Bark\u00edarok and the Sultan Muhammed _sons of\nMalikshah_, occasioned their weakness,[650] the strength of the\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah was increased, and the forts _Girdkoh_ and _L\u00e1m\u00edser_ fell\ninto the possession of our S\u00e1id.[651]\n\nAt that time the fed\u00e1yis, in order to destroy the learned men and\ntheologians, who entertained a hatred towards the chosen Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah,\nand reviled their creed, were dispersed on all sides, and brought a\ngreat number of this class beneath the blows of their swords and\nponiards: on which account the learned men and the theologians of the\nadversaries were frightened.\n\nWhen Sultan Bark\u00ed\u00e1rok, the son of Malik shah, died, Sultan Muhammed\nDoulet[652] succeeded to his sovereignty. The latter sent Ahmed, the\nson of Nizam ul Mulk, with an army to the country of R\u00fadb\u00e1r. In the\nbeginning of the year of the Hejira 511[653] (A. D. 1117) he\ndespatched Alabet T\u00f3shac\u00edn sh\u00ebrg\u00edr[654] to the assistance of the\nVizir; nearly a year had elapsed when they were about to take the fort\nBuldet ul ikb\u00e1l; at that time the intelligence of the death of Sultan\nMuhammed was spread in Atabec\u2019s camp: on which account that army took\nto flight in the night time.\n\nWhen Sultan Sinjar[655] had placed the crown of sovereignty upon his\nhead, he sent forces several times to combat the sect of the\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah. At that time our S\u00e1id Hassan enjoined to one of the\nSultan\u2019s servants, who had adopted the creed of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah: \u201cFix a\ndagger in the ground near the Sultan\u2019s head; but do him no harm,\nbecause thou art nourished by his salt, and it is not right to lay the\nhand on the master.\u201d The servant did so. When Sinjar awoke from sleep,\nhe saw the dagger, and was very much frightened, but kept this\noccurrence concealed.\n\nSome days after, the ambassador of our S\u00e1id came to visit him, and\nsaid: \u201cIf we did not entertain friendship for the Sultan, that dagger,\nwhich in such a night was fixed in the hard ground, would have been\nburied in the soft bosom of the Sultan.\u201d After having heard this, the\nSultan\u2019s apprehension increased, and he made peace;[656] wherefore the\nstate of Hassan\u2019s affairs gained strength.\n\nIn the meantime, Hoss\u00e2\u00edn F\u00e1ny[657] became a martyr, by the iniquity of\n_the Ostad_, \u201cdoctor\u201d Hoss\u00e1\u00edn, the son of Hassan, the son of Sabah;\nour S\u00e1id ordered, that he should be put to death by the law of\nretaliation. About this time, another son of Hassan was found addicted\nto drinking wine; by order of his celebrated father, soon after his\nbrother, he drank the cup of death.\n\nOur S\u00e1id, having fallen sick in the year of the Hejira 518[658] (A. D.\n1124-5), he appointed _Kia buzerg Umid_ his successor, and committed\nthe dignity of his vizirate to _Abu Al\u00ed_; he enjoined these two\npersons that, in all transactions they should not deviate from the\ndirection given them by Hossan Fakr\u00e1n\u00ed,[659] and having thus settled\nthese affairs, on the twenty-eighth day of the last Rabi\u00e2 (the fourth\nmonth) of the said year, he emigrated to the gardens of Paradise.\n\nK\u00ed\u00e1 Buzurg Umid, who was originally from the country of R\u00fadb\u00e1r,\ntended, according to the precept of our S\u00e1id, towards devotion and the\nstrengthening of religion.[660]\n\nAfter him, Muhammed Buzerg Um\u00edd took the government. In the beginning\nof his reign _Alr\u00e1shid billah_[661] was killed by a band of fed\u00e1y\u00eds,\nand from this time, fearing the swords of the Alm\u00fat\u00edan, the khalifs\nconcealed themselves. Muhammed Buzerg also followed the example of\nHassan.\n\nAfter him came Muhammed, the son of Hassan, the son of Muhammed, who\nis known under the name _Al\u00ed zikrihi-al-s\u00e1lam_, which means \u201clet peace\nbe upon him.\u201d Concerning Hossan there are many tales. His adversaries\nassert, that he was the son of Muhammed Um\u00edd, and a class of the\nIsm\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah of R\u00fadb\u00e1r and Kohistan said that, in the time of the reign\nof our S\u00e1id, one year after the death of Mont\u00b4aser the High, a\nperson called Abul Hassan Sayid\u00ed, who had been in the particular\nconfidence of the khalif, came from Egypt to Almut, and brought with\nhim a boy descended from Naz\u00e1r, the son of Monta\u015ber, to whom the\nIm\u00e1mate belonged, and nobody was informed of this secret except our\nS\u00e1id, that is, Hassan, who treated Abul Hassan with regard and\nrespect, and made the Im\u00e1m reside in a village at the foot of Alm\u00fat.\nAfter a delay of six months, he gave Abul Hassan leave to depart. The\nIm\u00e1m was inclined to the worship of God and to retirement, and united\nhimself in wedlock with a modest woman in the village. When she became\npregnant, he committed her to Muhammed, the son of Buzerg Um\u00edd, and\nrecommended secresy in that affair, saying: \u201cWhen a boy comes to\nlight, take the woman.\u201d Muhammed acted according to the injunction,\nand during the reign of Muhammed, son of Buzerg Um\u00edd, the belief in\nthe appearance of a son, identified with Al\u00ed zikrichi-al salam, gained\nthe way of splendor, and the report was this\u2015\u2015that he was the son of\nMuhammed. Many asserted that whatever deed and action emanates from\nthe Im\u00e1m is not only lawful but laudable. The son of Nazar, whom Abul\nHassan S\u00e2y\u00edd\u00ed had brought to Alm\u00fat, when arrived at the age of\nvirility, had connexion with the lawful wife of Muhammed, the son of\nBuzerg Um\u00edd, and Ali zikrichi al salam was the fruit of it. Although,\nbecause proceeding from a prophet and Im\u00e1m, this action be legal, yet\nit was not necessary. The relation between Al\u00ee zikrichi al salam and\nMonta\u015ber Billah is derived from this cause. The Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah acknowledge\nas a legitimate Im\u00e1m the victorious by the power of God, Hassan, the\nson of Mahdi, the son of Ilh\u00e1di, the son of Naz\u00e1r, the son of Montas ar.\nThey call his precious spirit \u201cthe resurrection;\u201d[662] because they\nbelieve that the resurection takes place at the lord\u2019s time, when men\njoin God, and when the inconveniences of the law are taken off; this\nmeaning is expressed by \u201cresurrection;\u201d and that the lord, at the time\nof his Im\u00e1mate, having united the creatures with the Creator, threw\noff the observances of the law.\n\nIt is reported that, when this lord placed his foot upon the cushion\nof the khil\u00e1fet, in the year of the Hejira 559 (A. D. 1163-4), he\nconvoked all the chiefs and nobles of his dominion in Buldet ul ikb\u00e1l,\nand ordered that, in the meeting-place of that fortunate fort, a\npulpit should be placed towards the Kiblah, and four flags, one red,\nanother green, the third yellow, and the fourth white, should be fixed\nin the four corners of the pulpit. On the seventeenth day of the\nblessed Ramzan of the said year, he ascended the pulpit, and unfolding\nthe tongue of prodigious speeches, he said: \u201cI am the Im\u00e1m of the age;\nand I took off the hardship of the ordinances and prohibitions from\nthe inhabitants of the world, and I held the commands of the law for\nnothing; now is the period of the lord of the resurrection; the\ncreatures are to be bound by ties of love to God, and enjoy the\nexternal things in whatever manner they like.\u201d He then descended from\nthe top of the pulpit, and, having broken fast, ordered that, in the\nmanner of a festival, all should occupy themselves with mirth and\ncheerfulness, and playing and gaming; and this fortunate day was\nentitled \u201cthe festival of resurrection,\u201d and made the beginning of a\nnew era. This is also the day on which, according to the reckoning of\nmany historians, the lord _Am\u00edr Almumin Al\u00ed_, \u201cthe Am\u00edr of the\nbelievers,\u201d was wounded by Abd ul rahmen. As to escape from this world\nand to join heaven is the object of enjoyment of perfect spirits, so\ndo they on this day chiefly devote themselves to pleasure. The creed\nof this lord was, that the world is ancient, and time infinite; that\nthe other world is spiritual, and heaven and hell figurative; that the\nresurrection is the particular death of every one. This lord was\nstabbed with a dagger in the month Rubi\u00e2 (August) of the year of the\nHejira 561[663] (A. D. 1165-6) by Hassan, the son of Namv\u00e1r, who\ndescended from Bav\u00edah.[664] On account of the last will of his father,\nhe occupied the Im\u00e1mate; like his celebrated father, he upheld the\nfaith.\n\nJel\u00e1l eddin, of the same family, made a martyr of his father by means\nof poison. As he obtained the Im\u00e1mate in an undue manner, and seized\nthe government by usurpation, he also abandoned the religion of the\nIsm\u00e2il\u00edah. After eleven years, in the month Ramzan of the year of the\nHejirah 618[665] (A. D. 1221-2) he died of dysentery.\n\nAfter him, Ala eddin Muhammed, son of Jel\u00e1l eddin Hassan, put to death\nall those who, by orders of Jel\u00e1l eddin, had given poison to his\ngrandfather, and who had also participated in the opinions and\nbehaviour of Jel\u00e1l eddin; he conformed himself to the manners of his\nancestors, and denied those of his father. He let himself be bled\nwithout the advice of a medical man, and as too much blood was taken\nfrom him, he was overcome by melancholy.\n\nThe Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah say, that prophets and saints cannot live free from\nbodily defects: thus _M\u00fasi_ (Moses) was a stammerer, _Sh\u00e2yeb_ (Jethro,\nfather in law of Moses) was blind, and _Ay\u00fab_ (Job) was full of\nplagues. It was in the time of the lord Ala eddin Muhammed, that N\u00e1\u015ber\nMotashem, who was the lord of Kohistan, and to whom the book _Akhl\u00e1k\nNa\u015beri_[666] is dedicated, sent Kh\u00e1jah N\u00e1\u015bir to Alm\u00fat. Hassan\nM\u00e1zinder\u00e1ni was contrary to Ism\u00e2\u00edlism; he made Al\u00e1-eddin a martyr (by\nkilling him). In the time of Ala eddin there was among the learned men\nof the age the shaikh Jam\u00e1l G\u00edli: in Kazvin, occupied with the\ninstruction of the people, he was in secret addicted, and made\nproselytes, to the creed of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah; on that account, Al\u00e2-eddin\nshowed him respect, and conferred favors on the inhabitants of Kazvin,\nto whom he said that, if the shaikh did not live in that place, he\nwould carry the ground of Kazvin in a beggar\u2019s wallet to Alm\u00fat; but\nthe learned, who were not Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah, did not acknowledge an Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah\nshaikh. In giving an account of his (Ala-eddin\u2019s) death it was said:\n\n  \u201cThe ornament of faith and religion, the polar-star of the elect\n     of God,\n   He whose threshold was the Kiblah of hopes,\n   In the year six hundred and fifty-one[667] (A. D. 1253) he went\n     to the Lord,\n   At night, on Monday, on the fourth day of Shav\u00e1l (the tenth\n     Arabian month).\u201d\n\nAfter Al\u00e1-eddin Muhammed, it was Rukn-eddin Kh\u00farshah who became king\nin Alm\u00fat. He put to death Hassan Mazinder\u00e1n\u00ed with his family, and\nburnt their corpses.[668]\n\nHolag\u00fa khan[669] overcame Rocn-eddin: the latter demanded to be sent\nto the court of Maik\u00fa kh\u00e1n, which demand was granted; on the journey\nhe attained the extremity of his life; his reign did not last one\nyear.\n\nIn Alm\u00fat had been dug several reservoirs which were filled with\nvinegar, honey, and wine; these things and all stores, which had been\ndeposited in the time of our S\u00e1\u00edd, that is, of Hassan \u015aab\u00e1h, were\nfound without any alteration: all were astonished, and the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah\nthought this event to be one of the miracles of their Said.\n\n       *     *     *     *     *\n\nAN ACCOUNT OF THE ALI ILAH\u00cdAN.\n\nIn the east of Kohistan, not far from Bakht\u00e1, is a place called\n_Arn\u00edl_,[670] and also _Armal_; the king is there entitled _Ab\u00e1b_.\nThey say: as it is evident to the swimmer in the sea of the realities\nof events, that the door of intercourse is closed between the beings\nbelow and those above, and no intercourse is opened between the\nelemental and the heavenly beings, so are the temporal beings and\nthose of eternity destitute of the bonds of relationship, and no\nconnexion exists between those confined, and those unconfined, by\nspace; therefore they are ordered to know God by investigation of\nwisdom and of the divine law, and to worship the divinity. The angels\non high and the prophets below have the faculty of knowing the\nsubstance of the blessed verses, but not the divine Being itself:\n\n  \u201cWe do not know thee as thou shouldst be known.\u201d\n\nThis is what the crier proclaims. On that account it is necessary to\nthe Almighty God and eternal Lord that he should descend from the\ndignity of purity and from the station of unity and absoluteness, and\nthat, according to the abundance of his clemency, he should, in every\nperiod and revolution of time, unite his spirit with a bodily frame,\nin order that his creatures may behold this holy and exalted Lord,\nand, in whatever manner he ordains, acknowledge and reverence him; the\nprecepts and traditions of history are published to that effect. As\nthe manifestation of a spirit in a bodily form is a possible fact, and\nthe learned agree upon it, and as it is stated in the account of the\ntravellers upon the road of salvation to the city of the true faith,\nso is it determined that a pure spirit may assume a bodily likeness;\nthus is the appearance of Jabr\u00eel in the form of an ape-dog[671] an\ninstance of it, and thus, on the occasions of wickedness, is the\nappearance of Satan, or a demon in a human form. Besides, it is in the\npower of the Almighty to manifest himself in the best, the most\nperfect body.\n\nThe individuals among men are, during the business of life, formed\ndependent on their mutual wants. To this sect it is an indispensable\nrule to associate all together, in order that no oppression may take\nplace towards each other in their communities, and that the order of\nthe world may remain upheld. It is indispensable that this great rule\nbe derived from God, the Lord of glory, in order that all men may\nadopt it. On that account, the government of the supreme Judge has\nfound necessary that, by power of his perfection, a canon, having been\nrevealed among the different classes of mankind, should be agreed upon\nfor the regulation of the creatures, in consequence of which the\npurpose of the conditions in the affairs of the world might be\nsettled. Further, by the assistance of reason and instruction, there\nis in this age no other moon or sun in the sphere of perfection but\nALI MURTAZA, \u201cthe chosen.\u201d Truly, the _illiterate prophet_[672]\n(Muhammed) esteemed this blessed personage equal to several learned\napostles, and saw praiseworthy qualities of a prophet united in that\nvirtuous existence. Hence it follows, that men possessed of sight\nbehold him sometimes come down from heaven in the shape of the father\nof mankind (_Adam_), and reckon his time to be that of one who\ninhabited the floating ship of Noah, and place him as far back as that\nage when a martyr, in the garment of Ibrahim, he was playing with the\nfire _into which Nimrod had thrown him_; another time they find him in\nthe dress of the speaker with God, _Moses_, and the words of that\nLord:\n\n  \u201cHe who knows himself, certainly knows God,\u201d\n\nconfirm that the pure spirit of that embodied soul, and wisdom,\nrepresented in a person, is the Creator of the world, worthy of\npraise. And the sentence:\n\n  \u201cGod created man according to his image,\u201d\n\nrelates to the same, as Adam, the holy father of mankind, the Just, is\nnobody else but _Al\u00ed Murtazi_. And the saying:\n\n  \u201cI saw the Lord in the shape of a man,\u201d\n\nrefers to that eternal being, merging into a body, as he has\nmanifested himself in the prophet\u2019s visible form under the shape a\npowerful man; and the honor of the prophet\u2019s presenting his shoulder\nby the assistance of the divine grace to the foot of that leader,\nrelates but to this, that reverence is due to him, as that\ntruth-speaking and truth-singing poet sung:\n\n  \u201cThe prophet, in breaking down the idols, had no other desire\n   But that his shoulder might be placed beneath the foot of the chosen;\n   And the house of the worshipped K\u00e2bah be filled with his presence.\u201d\n\n[673]These sectaries also say, that in every revolution of time, the\nLord God was united to the body of a prophet or saint, namely, from\nAdam down to Ahmed[674] and Al\u00ed, in which manner they explain the\ntransmigration of the divine light. And some of them say, that the\nmanifestation of God in this age took place in Aly alah, and after him\nin his descendants, and they acknowledge Muhammed and Al\u00ed as prophets\nand the mission of Al\u00ed alah. They assert, that when God saw that the\nbusiness did not go on well by the prophet, he came to his assistance,\nas it were, by way of zeal. The author of this book saw a person from\namong them, called Ahmed, who said, that the Koran which is among them\ndoes not deserve confidence, as it is not the book which Al\u00ed Alah had\ngiven to Muhammed; but is the composition of Abu bekr, of Omar, and\nOsman. The author saw also one named Shams-eddin, who said: Certainly\nthe Koran is the word of Al\u00ed alah, but having been collected by Osman,\nit ought not to be read. Some were seen among them who asserted that\nthe verse and prose, ascribed to the Amir of the believers, _Omar_,\nwere collected by Al\u00ed, and inserted in the Koran, and to these they\nattach a superiority over the Koran, inasmuch as they came from Al\u00ed\nallah to the creatures without foreign intervention, whilst the\nFarkan, _Koran_, was delivered into the hands of men by means of\nMuhammed.\n\nThere is besides a sect among them which is called the _Ulv\u00edahs_.[675]\nThey themselves derive their origin from Al\u00ed allah, and in their creed\nparticipate with that of the just mentioned sect: they say, that the\nKoran which is now among men, is not the word of Al\u00ed allah, because\nthe shaiks (Abu bekr and Omar) employed themselves in its\ntransposition, and at last Osman cast the whole away; as he possessed\neloquence, he composed a book in his own way, and burnt the original\nKoran, wherefore these sectaries, wherever they find this book,\nconsign it to the flames. Their belief is, that when Al\u00ed allah left\nthe body, he was united with the sun; that he is now the sun; and\nhaving also been the sun before, he was for some days joined to an\nelemental body. They further maintain, that on this account the sun\nwas moving by his order, inasmuch as he is the real sun; wherefore\nthey call the sun _Al\u00ed allah_, and the fourth heaven _Daldal_.[676]\nThey are worshippers of the sun, whom they hold to be God Almighty.\nThey are a respectable tribe, and a division of them pretend that they\ncan call upon the sun, who answers them, and affords them protection\nin their affairs.\n\nAbd ullah, one of them so named, reported, that among his relations\nwas a man called Az\u00edz, upon whom, when he pronounced with fervour Al\u00ed\nallah, and gave himself up to an ecstatical song or dance, no sword\ncould take effect. Thus, when one of the incredulous denied this, Az\u00edz\nbecame warm, and took to calling out \u201cAl\u00ed allah\u201d in such a manner that\nfoam settled upon his lips, and he cried to the denier: \u201cStrike, O\naccursed!\u201d The latter aimed several blows with a sword at him, but\neffected nothing. This person has now joined Al\u00ed allah in the other\nworld.\n\nAmong these sectaries it is not permitted to kill any living being,\nnor to eat any flesh, as Al\u00ed allah said:\n\n     \u201cMake not of your bellies the tombs of living beings.\u201d\n\nAnd the animals which the Koran permits to be killed, and the flesh\nwhich he allows to be eaten, is that of Abu bekr, of Omar, and Osman,\nand of their followers, and all prohibited things, they say, have\nreference to these three persons. With them, Iblis, the serpent, and\nthe peacock are symbols of these three, and likewise Shed\u00e1d,[677]\nNimr\u00f3d, and Ph\u00e1r\u00e2\u00fan are they. These sectaries admit prostration before\nthe image of Al\u00ed allah; the breaking and worshipping of idols relates,\naccording to them, to the said three individuals, as Al\u00ed allah called\nthe Shaikhs the idols of the Kor\u00eash. They agree upon transmigration,\nand say, that when Al\u00ed appeared in former times in the form of a\nprophet, those three also made their appearance in the shape of\ndeniers, and after them many others will come.\n\n\n     [549] The Zayd\u00edyat derive their name from _Z\u00e1\u00edd_, son of\n     Al\u00ed, son of Z\u00e1\u00edn el-abeddin. They are subdivided into three\n     branches, according to others into five, under as many\n     chiefs. I shall only mention three. The first, the\n     _Jarud\u00edyat_, think that the Im\u00e1mate was destined by the\n     prophet to Al\u00ed, but that after the two sons of the latter,\n     Hasan and Hosain, the sacred office was uncertain in their\n     children, and that those only who rose, sword in hand, were\n     Im\u00e1ms; they do not agree upon the last Im\u00e1m, still expected.\n     The second branch, the _Salaimaniyat_, admit the right of\n     Abubekr and Omar to the Im\u00e1mate, but declare as infidels\n     Osman, Zobeir, and Aisha. The third branch, the\n     _B\u00e1\u00edteriyat_, are for the most part in accordance with the\n     second, as to what regards Osman. These three branches are\n     heretics in the dogmas only, but, in jurisprudence, they\n     follow almost all the orthodox doctrine of Ab\u00fa\n     Hanif\u00e1h.\u2015\u2015(See _Journal asiatique_, 1825, tome VII. p. 32.\n     Art. de M. de Hammer.)\n\n     [550] T\u00fas\u00ed is the name of several celebrated men from the\n     town of T\u00fas. There are two towns of that name: the one in\n     Transoxana, in the domain of Boch\u00e1ra; the other in Khorasan;\n     the latter consists of two towns, one is called _Tabaran_,\n     the other _N\u00fakan_.\u2015\u2015(_Abulfeda_, _Annales Moslemica_, vol.\n     III. p. 375.) We know several authors named _Ab\u00fa J\u00e2far_, to\n     whom the words above quoted may be attributed, none with the\n     surname _T\u00fas\u00ed_. The author above meant is perhaps _Ab\u00fa J\u00e2far\n     al Tabar\u00ee_, celebrated historian, born in the year of the\n     Hejira 224 (A. D. 838), deceased in 310 (A. D. 922).\n\n     [551] The twelve Im\u00e1ms are as follow:\n           I. AL\u00cd, khalif and Im\u00e1m, was murdered A. D. 661.\n           II. HASAN, eldest son of Al\u00ee, khalif and Im\u00e1m, poisoned\n                A. D. 669.\n           III. HOSAIN, the second son of Al\u00ed, killed in battle\n                A. D. 680.\n           IV. AL\u00cd, surnamed _Zin al\u00e2bedin_, eldest son of Hosain,\n                died A. D. 712.\n           V. MUHAMED BEKER, son of Al\u00ed, poisoned A. D. 734.\n           VI. JAFR SADIK, son of Muhammed, died A. D. 765.\n           VII. ISM\u00c1IL, son of J\u00e1fr; see hereafter the account of\n                the Ism\u00e2ilah. Herbelot names, as the seventh\n                Im\u00e1m, Mussa, the second son of J\u00e1fr, surnamed _al\n                Kiadhem_, \u201cthe debonnair,\u201d and also _saber_, \u201cthe\n                patient,\u201d and _\u00e1min_, \u201cthe faithful guardian.\u201d\n                The latter died A. D. 799.\n           VIII. AL\u00cd REZA, son of Mussa, poisoned A. D. 816.\n           IX. MUHAMMED, son of Al\u00ed Reza, called also _Ab\u00fa Jafr\n                Muhammed_, died A. D. 835.\n           X. AL\u00cd ASKER\u00cd, son of Muhammed, poisoned A. D. 868.\n           XI. HASAN, son of Al\u00ed Asker\u00ed, died poisoned A. D. 873.\n           XII. MUHAMMED, son of Hasan, surnamed _Mahadi_,\n                \u201cconductor, director;\u201d he is supposed to be still\n                living, and expected to appear with the prophet\n                Elias, at the second coming of Jesus Christ.\n\n     It may be remarked that, of the twelve holy men, seven died a\n     violent death, and two in an unknown manner.\n\n     [552] I follow here the French translation of the Arabic\n     text, made by M. Garcin de Tassy.\u2015\u2015(See _Journal asiatique_,\n     _mai 1842_, pp. 436-439.)\n\n     [553] _Ad_ was an ancient and potent tribe of Arabs in the\n     province of Hadramaut. They chiefly worshipped four deities;\n     _Sakia_, supplying them with rain; _H\u00e1fedha_, preserving\n     them from all dangers abroad; _R\u00e1zeka_, providing them with\n     food; and _S\u00e1lema_, restoring the sick to health. Frequent\n     mention of them occurs in the Koran.\n\n     [554] The tribe of _Tamud_ dwelt first in the country of the\n     Adites, then removed to the territory of Hejr, where their\n     habitations, cut in the rocks, are seen at this day. (See\n     Sale\u2019s Koran, vol. I, pp. 7. 9. 196. 199.)\n\n     [555] Moavia.\n\n     [556] Koran, chap VII. v. 165.\n\n     [557] Allusion to the twelve Im\u00e1ms. See their names, pp.\n     367. 368, note 1.\n\n     [558] Allusion to the twelfth Im\u00e1m, named Mahdi. See\n     hereafter a further explanation.\n\n     [559] The word _Akhbar\u00edn_ is frequently employed to\n     designate \u201cthe transmitters of historical traditions,\u201d in\n     opposition to \u0645\u064f\u062d\u062f\u062b\u064a\u0646 _muhad-disin_, \u201ctransmitters of\n     traditions relative to the prophet;\u201d but above it is\n     employed as the name of a distinct sect. I shall translate\n     it by \u201cdogmatical traditionists.\u201d It is taken in a much\n     wider sense by the author of the Dabist\u00e1n, who does not fix\n     the precise epoch of the origin of this sect, but only says\n     that it was in after times called _ghaibet sari_; of which\n     name an explanation will be given hereafter.\n\n     [560] _Amin_, \u201cfaithful,\u201d is a title given to many Im\u00e1ms,\n     Shaikhs, and Mullas.\n\n     _Asterabad_ is the capital of the province of Georgia; some\n     Oriental geographers place the town in that of Tabaristan,\n     and others in that of Mazendaran, as these three provinces,\n     which together formed the ancient Hyrcania, were often\n     united under one denomination. Herbelot mentions two authors\n     with the surname _Asterabadi_, both commentators of the\n     Arabic Grammar Cafiah, which seems to have no connection\n     with the religion above mentioned.\n\n     [561] See note, p. 327, note 1.\n\n     [562] _Ma sha y\u00edn_, may be deduced from \u0645\u0634\u0649 _m\u00e1sh\u00ed_, \u201cwalking,\n     going,\u201d and alludes to the peripatetic philosophers, who\n     were followers of Aristotle, and were wont to discuss\n     walking up and down in the Lyceum of Athens. Referred to\n     \u0645\u0634\u0627\u064a\u0647\u0621 _mash\u00edyi-at_ (from \u0645\u0634\u064a\u0626 _mas\u2019hiy\u00ed_), \u201cwilling,\n     wishing, desiring,\u201d the word may signify knowledge-desiring\n     philosophers; \u0645\u0634\u0627\u064a\u0639 _mush\u00e1\u00ed\u00e2_, means \u201ca follower, adherent,\n     companion.\u201d\n\n     [563] The Orientals give to Aristotle the surname of\n     _Ilah\u00edy\u00fan_, \u201cthe divine.\u201d They attribute to him more than\n     one hundred treatises upon different matters. The greatest\n     part of his works, such as we have them, have all been\n     translated into Syriac and Arabic; it was through this\n     medium, that the great philosopher became first known in\n     Europe.\n\n     [564] The Orientals attribute more than sixty-five treatises\n     to Plato. They relate that, being asked what he thought of\n     this world, he answered: \u201cI entered into it by necessity; I\n     dwelt in it with admiration; and I leave it with contempt.\u201d\n     Al Ghazali (before-mentioned, see p. 349, n. 2), among other\n     distinguished Orientals, wrote a book, called _Monketh_,\n     upon Greek philosophy, not without condemning several of its\n     dogmas.\n\n     [565] The author mentions three sciences, viz.: \u0641\u0627\u0646 \u0642\u0644\u0627\u0645\n     _f\u00e1n kal\u00e1m_, \u201cthe science of scholastic theology;\u201d \u0641\u0646 \u0627\u0635\u0648\u0644\n     \u0641\u0642\u06c1\u0650 _f\u00e1n \u00e1s ul fikah_, \u201cthe science of the fundamentals of\n     religion and law;\u201d and \u0641\u0646 \u0641\u0650\u0642\u06c1 _fan fikah_, \u201cjurisprudence.\u201d\n     We have already explained the first (see note 1, p. 327);\n     the four fundamental articles of the faith have been also\n     enumerated (see note 1, p. 324); but the _fikah_,\n     \u201cjurisprudence,\u201d although stated as distinct, in reality\n     comprehends the two first, and in addition shows only the\n     practical application of them. Al Ghazali, quoted by Pococke\n     (pp. 200-201, etc., 1st edit.), after having said that this\n     world is created for furnishing assistance on the way to\n     future life, in order that men, with a due check on\n     cupidity, may take as much of this world as may be\n     sufficient for a viaticum, and after having declared, that\n     the jurist is to be the director of the king in the mode of\n     retaining the people in due order, subjoins: \u201cThis science\n     (the law) belongs to religion, although not by itself, yet\n     by the intervention of the world. For the world is a field\n     which is sown for the future, nor is religion put into\n     practice, if not by the world. But religion and government\n     are twin-brothers; religion is the foundation, and the king\n     the guardian; but what wants a foundation, verges to ruin,\n     and what has no guardian, goes off into nothing, etc., etc.\u201d\n     The same intimate junction of religion and civil law, which\n     is acknowledged to prevail in the legislation of the Hindus,\n     as well as in that of the ancient Hebrews and Persians, has\n     passed into that of the Muhammedans. Just as the Vedas with\n     the first, the five books of Moses with the second, the\n     writings of Zoroaster with the third, so is the Koran with\n     the fourth, the foundation of their code, and contains what\n     we may call their whole civil and canonical law. With\n     respect to the last-mentioned book, as it contains likewise\n     all the articles of faith, it follows, that a doctor in law\n     is also a doctor in theology; or a _faki_ is at the same\n     time a lawyer and a theologian: hence the word _al faqui_ in\n     the language of the Spaniards, who have preserved to our\n     days, in their character and manners, not a little of their\n     former conquerors, the Saracens.\n\n     [566] Upon _ghaibet_, \u201cabsence, disappearance, concealment\u201d\n     (see hereafter, p. 383, an explanatory note).\n\n     [567] Muhammed ben Y\u00e2kub is the author of the book entitled\n     \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0627\u0645\u0648\u0633 _K\u00e1m\u00fas_, \u201cthe ocean of the Arabic language.\u201d He was\n     born in the year of the Hejira 729, A. D. 1328, and died in\n     816, A. D. 1413, surnamed Al Shiraz\u00ed, and Al _Firuzabad\u00ed_,\n     the last is a town situated in the environs of Shiraz, the\n     capital of _Fars_, or Persia proper. I do not, however, find\n     elsewhere the title _al Kalbi_, \u201ccordial,\u201d joined to his\n     name.\n\n     [568] The term in the text is \u0627\u0644\u0642\u064a\u0627\u0633 _al k\u00ed\u00e1s_. Abu Hanifa\n     and his commentators are commonly called _ahel al k\u00ed\u00e1s_,\n     \u201cmen of analogy,\u201d because they applied the process of\n     analysis to the study of sacred tradition, and rely more\n     upon deductions of human judgment than upon a rigid fidelity\n     to the precepts of the Sonna.\n\n     [569] I render in this place by \u201crational dialectics\u201d the\n     word \u0627\u062c\u062a\u0647\u0627\u062f _ijtihad_, which signifies properly, according\n     to Silvestre de Sacy, an opinion in religious matters,\n     founded upon reasoning, and deduced from the Koran or the\n     Sonna, by way of comparison or induction. It may therefore\n     be interpreted, as in the sequel, by \u201cratiocination,\n     discussion, contentious arguing, reasoning, etc., etc.\u201d It\n     signifies also \u201cstudy, effort, war against infidels.\u201d\u2015\u2015(See\n     also upon _Istihad_, _As. Res._, vol. X. p. 492.)\n\n     [570] \u0639\u0644\u0627\u0645\u0647 \u062d\u0644\u0649 is a surname which never occurred to me in\n     any other book which I have consulted, and the translation\n     of which does not satisfy me.\n\n     [571] _Mov\u00e1kef_ means properly \u201cstations,\u201d such as those of\n     the Muselmans in their pilgrimages and visits to sacred\n     places; but this word serves as a title to several books or\n     treatises of metaphysics and scholastic theology.\n\n     [572] \u0627\u062d\u0627\u062f\u064a\u062b _ah\u00e1d\u00eds_, means sometimes the tenets of the\n     Koran, at others, the sayings relative to Muhammed, five\n     thousand two hundred and sixty-six in number; according to\n     some writers, seven thousand, genuine and forged.\n\n     [573] The manuscript of Oude reads \u0627\u0628\u0646 \u0628\u0627\u0644\u0648\u0646\u0647 _Ebn Bal\u00fanah_.\n     Want of accuracy in proper names is particularly to be\n     regretted in the historical part of any work; it prevents\n     me, particularly in this place, from giving a positive\n     notice of each of the persons introduced in the text.\n\n     [574] The two words in italic are not in the text of the\n     edition of Calcutta, nor in the manuscript of Oude. We find\n     here abruptly a passage, distinguished in the translation by\n     marks of quotation, which belongs to the author of the\n     _Fav\u00e1id al madany_ (see p. 372), and makes, perhaps, a part\n     of the preface of this work.\n\n     [575] We have (see note 1, p. 367. 368) given the names of\n     the twelve Im\u00e1ms. The tenth, Al\u00ed, born in the year of the\n     Hejira 212, A. D. 827, being kept a close prisoner all his\n     life in the city of _Askar_, called also _Sermenrai_, in\n     Syria, he devoted himself to study and religious exercises,\n     but did not succeed in calming the jealousy of the ruling\n     khalif, an Abbaside of the family of Motavakel, the mortal\n     enemy of the whole race of Al\u00ed, and was poisoned in 868 A. D.\n\n     The name \u201cAskerite,\u201d from the city of Askar, was also given\n     to his son Hasan, above-mentioned, the eleventh Im\u00e1m, whose\n     son, Muhammed, born in 868 A. D., also called Abu \u2019l Cassem,\n     as the prophet Muhammed, was the last of the twelve Im\u00e1ms.\n     He is distinguished by the surnames _Mantazar_, \u201cthe\n     expected;\u201d _Kayim_, \u201cthe stable;\u201d _Mahdi_, \u201cthe director,\n     guide;\u201d and others. The followers of this Im\u00e1m say, that in\n     his ninth year he was concealed by his mother in a cell or\n     grot, from which he had not returned in the year 899 A.\n     D.\u2015\u2015(See _Abulfeda_, _Hist. Moslem._, vol. II. p. 223.) The\n     Sonnites say that he was drowned in the Tigris in 879 A. D.\n     Some Shi\u00e2hs maintain, he died in 941, in his seventy-fifth\n     year; other Shi\u00e2hs pretend that he is still living in the\n     grot where he was concealed; and all agree in the belief\n     that he will reappear in the world, immediately before the\n     second coming of the Messiah, for uniting all the Muselman\n     sects into one, and all the different religions in\n     Muhammedism. Several impostors assumed the name of _Mahdi_,\n     but in vain; nevertheless, two great dynasties were founded\n     under that name, viz.: the _Almohads_ and _Fatemites_.\n                                                 \u2015\u2015(_Herbelot._)\n\n     [576] According to the Shi\u00e2hs, Mahdi made two retreats or\n     eclipses, the great and the minor. The minor was that,\n     during which he now and then gave news of himself, and\n     decided all the questions which the Muselmans proposed, by\n     means of certain messengers who carried them to him very\n     secretly, succeeding each other without knowing each other.\n     This intercourse lasted until the year of the Hejira 326, A.\n     D. 937, in which year one of these messengers, called _Al\u00ed_,\n     died, after having brought a letter from Mahdi, by which\n     this Im\u00e1m announced to him that he (Al\u00ed) would die in six\n     days, and forbade him to leave the commission of visiting\n     him to any other person. It is from this time that begins\n     \u201cthe great retreat or absence\u201d of Mahdi: for, after the\n     death of this Al\u00ed, no information was received concerning\n     the Mahdi, if not by revelation. This statement, found in\n     Herbelot, is confirmed by that above.\n\n     [577] M\u00e2temed Ab\u00e1\u015b\u00ed, son of Motavakel, was the fifteenth\n     khalif of the Abbasides. He began to reign in the year of\n     the Hejira 256, A. D. 869, and died in 279, A. D. 892.\n\n     [578] R\u00e1s \u00ed, the son of Mukteder, was the twentieth khalif\n     of the Abbasides. His reign began in the year of the Hejira\n     322, A. D. 933, and ended in 329, A. D. 940. The period\n     included between the beginning of the reign of M\u00e2temed and\n     the end of that of R\u00e1si, is seventy-one years, differing by\n     two from the period above stated; the minor absence might\n     have begun two years before M\u00e2temed\u2019s reign.\n\n     [579] See the preceding note 2, pp. 383. 384.\n\n     [580] \u0645\u0639\u0635\u0648\u0645 means \u201cdefended, preserved (by God); innocent,\n     an infant;\u201d it is the particular name given by the Imam\u00edahs\n     to the twelfth Im\u00e1m, Muhammed, the Askerite, who, as was\n     related in the foregoing note 1, p. 383, was in his infancy\n     concealed in a grot, from which he never came forth again,\n     and is still expected. It is an ideal Im\u00e1m, believed by more\n     than one sect, and the name of _M\u00e2\u015bum_ was applied to more\n     than one individual, as will be seen hereafter.\n\n     [581] The author uses here and elsewhere the word _khabr_,\n     which answers to our _gospel_.\n\n     [582] Hassan al Ba\u015bri was the son of an affranchised man,\n     called Mulla Zaid ben Tabeth, and of a slave woman,\n     belonging to Omm Salmath, one of Muhammed the prophet\u2019s\n     wives. Hassan acquired the reputation of the first\n     scholastic theologian among the Muselmans. He is surnamed al\n     Ba\u015bri, because his father was a slave in Maissan, a borough\n     of the dependencies of Ba\u015bra, or Bassora, and because he\n     kept his school in that town, where different sectaries\n     often came to dispute with him. Wassel Eben Ata, his\n     disciple, deviating from his opinions, became the chief of\n     the M\u00e2tazalahs (see note 1, p. 325). Hassan al Ba\u015bri had\n     seen the khalif Osman, and Eben Abbas; on that account he\n     quotes in his works what he had learned from them. He died\n     in the year of the Hejira 110, A. D. 728, and left a work\n     entitled _Hadis sherif_, containing a collection of the\n     traditions which he knew relatively to each of the\n     fifty-four _feridhat_, or \u201cobligatory precepts,\u201d of the\n     Muselman law.\n\n     [583] The sixth Im\u00e1m, of whom hereafter more will be said.\n\n     [584] _Karkh_ is the name of a part of the town of Baghdad\n     upon the western side of the Tigris, where the khalif Mans\u00far\n     built the town and his palace; this is the ancient Baghdad;\n     the actual town of Baghdad, upon the eastern side of the\n     river, has been built later. Karkh is chiefly inhabited by\n     Shi\u00e2hs, who had frequent quarrels with the Sonnites,\n     dwelling in the other part of the town. One of the most\n     serious tumults between the two parties took place under the\n     khalif Mostasem. Karkh is the actual suburb of Baghdad, in\n     which the tombs of Zobeidah, wife of Harun Rashid, and of\n     the pious S\u00faf\u00ed Mar\u00faf Karkh\u00ed, above mentioned, are to be\n     seen. The latter died in the year of the Hejira 200, A. D.\n     815.\u2015\u2015(See _Voyage en Arabie, par Niebuhr_, t. II. pp.\n     245-246, and _Chrestomathie arabe de Silvestre de Sacy_, t.\n     I. pp. 66-70).\n\n     [585] The eighth Im\u00e1m, son of Mussa.\n\n     [586] The Arabs divide in general the history of philosophy\n     into two great periods: the first comprises the _ancient\n     philosophers_, who are subdivided into those anterior, and\n     those posterior, to Aristotle; the second period is that of\n     the _Muselman philosophers_, who form two classes, those\n     before, and those after, Ebn Sina.\n\n     [587] This appears partly to contradict the view which a\n     recent judicious author, Doctor Schmolders (see his _Essai\n     sur les \u00c9coles philosophiques des Arabes_, pp. 105. 106.\n     133. 139, Paris, 1842), takes of this sect. According to\n     him, the Motkalemins professed the creation from nothing;\n     they disputed about the reality or non-reality of general\n     notions; they endeavoured to adapt philosophy to the dogmas\n     of the Koran; in short, they were the philosophic\n     theologians of the orthodox sects, or dogmatic philosophers.\n\n     [588] See above, p. 381.\n\n     [589] \u0645\u062c\u062a\u0647\u064a\u062f _mujtahid_, is a doctor who exerts all the\n     faculties of his mind to find the truth in contested and\n     undecided matters; he is supposed to possess the science of\n     the Koran, and the traditions with their different meanings,\n     readings, and interpretations, and to be besides skilled in\n     the disquisition in which truth is sought by analogy and\n     comparison. (_Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe_, pp.\n     169. 170. 171). This term is also used \u201cof one who strives\n     and contends, even to battle, in the cause of God;\u201d and\n     expresses further the highest dignity in the Muhammedan\n     faith, equivalent to Bishop, or Archbishop with us.\u2015\u2015(See\n     _the Life of Shaikh Muhammed Al\u00ed Hazin_, _translated by F.\n     C. Belfour, M. A. Oxon., F.R.A.S., LL.D._, p. 36.)\n\n     [590] \u062a\u0642\u064a\u0647 _tak\u00edyat_, in the dictionary, \u201cfear, caution,\n     piety.\u201d I thought it more correctly translated, here and\n     elsewhere, by \u201creligious zeal.\u201d\n\n     [591] The obscurity which the reader may find in this\n     paragraph proceeds from the strangeness of the doctrine\n     itself, and can be cleared up only by bestowing upon it more\n     attentive study than it perhaps deserves.\n\n     [592] Upon _m\u00e2sum_, see note, p. 386.\n\n     [593] It is meant probably \u201ctwo points of view,\u201d and the\n     passage above relates to the 219th verse of the IInd chapter\n     of the Koran, which is as follows: \u201cThey will ask thee\n     concerning wine, and lots; answer: In both there is great\n     sin, and also some things of use unto men; but their\n     sinfulness is greater than their use.\u201d And again, the 67th\n     verse of the XVIth sura: \u201cAnd of the fruits of palm-trees\n     and grapes ye obtain inebriating drink, and also good\n     nourishment.\u201d Yet the verses 92 and 93 of the Vth sura are\n     decidedly against wine, viz.: \u201cO true believers, surely\n     wine, and lots, and images, and divining arrows, are an\n     abomination of the work of Satan; therefore avoid them, that\n     you may prosper.\u201d\u2015\u201593. \u201cSatan seeketh to sow discussion and\n     hatred among you, by means of wine and lots, and to divert\n     you from remembering God, and from prayer; will ye not,\n     therefore, abstain from them?\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Sale\u2019s translation._)\n\n     [594] _J\u00e2fer_, surnamed _S adik_, \u201cthe Just,\u201d was the eldest\n     son of Muhammed Baker, the fifth Im\u00e1m. J\u00e2fer was born in\n     Medina, in the year of the Hejira 83, A. D. 702; he is\n     acknowledged the s\u00edxth Im\u00e1m, and of great authority in\n     religious matters among the Muselmans. He died in his native\n     town, under the khalifate of Ab\u00fa J\u00e2fer Almansor, the second\n     khalif of the Abbasides, in the year of the Hejira 148, A.\n     D. 764, in his sixty-second year.\n\n     The two eldest of his seven sons were Ism\u00e2il and Mussa.\n     Ism\u00e2il, the elder of the two, having died during his\n     father\u2019s life, the latter appointed Mussa his successor,\n     which gave rise to the contest above mentioned, and to\n     several sects, as well as to two great dynasties. The\n     Fatimite khalifs in Egypt are considered as descendants of\n     the branch of Ism\u00e1il, called Ism\u00e2ilahs, of Africa, but the\n     Suffavean monarchs of Asia claim to derive their origin from\n     Mussa, and strenuously support his title to the seventh\n     Im\u00e1m.\n\n     [595] Muhammed had, during twenty years of wedlock with\n     Kh\u00e1dija, never another wife; nor gave Al\u00ed a partner to his\n     spouse Fatim\u00e1, the prophet\u2019s daughter, during her life.\n\n     [596] All those who believe that the Imamate passed\n     legitimately from J\u00e2fer to his son Ism\u00e1il, and to Ism\u00e2il\u2019s\n     posterity, are called _Ism\u00e2ilahs_: but their opinions are\n     not uniform. Some maintain that to Muhammed,\n     above-mentioned, surnamed _Mect\u00fam_, \u201cthe concealed,\u201d\n     succeeded his son, J\u00e2fer Mosuddek, whose successor was\n     Muhammed Habib. This last is expected to return in order to\n     found a new dynasty. The Ism\u00e2ilahs carry to excess the\n     prerogatives which they attribute to their Im\u00e1ms.\u2015\u2015(_Makrisi\n     in Chrest. arabe_, vol. II. p. 92.)\n\n     [597] The number _seven_ acts a great part in the system of\n     the Ism\u00e2ilahs. All things, after having attained the\n     septenary number, are at their end, must undergo a change,\n     and be succeeded by other things. To the septenaries above\n     mentioned, I shall add seven palms, of which the height of a\n     man is said to consist, seven climates, and seven seas,\n     according to the Koran (Sura XXXI. v. 26): \u201cIf all the trees\n     on the earth were pens, and God should after that swell the\n     sea into seven seas of ink, the words of God would not be\n     exhausted.\u201d We know how generally in the world such a belief\n     with respect to seven existed and still exists.\n\n     [598] \u201cThe Batenian, \u2018interior,\u2019\u201d says Silvestre de Sacy,\n     \u201care so called, because they establish an interior sense of\n     the Scripture besides the exterior; they say, whoever\n     attaches himself to the exterior, fatigues himself with vain\n     practices, whilst he, who follows tho interior, may dispense\n     with all actions; they give to faith a preference over\n     Islamism, undoubtedly,\u201d founded upon the authority of the\n     Koran, where it \u201cis to be found\u201d (Sura XLIX. v. 14): \u201cThe\n     Arabs of the desert say: \u2018We believe;\u2019 answer: \u2018Ye do by no\n     means believe; but say: \u2018We have embraced Islam;\u2019 for the\n     faith hath not yet entered into your hearts.\u2019\u201d\n\n     The Ism\u00e2ilahs are often confounded with the Batenian. The\n     first who maintained this doctrine of mystic interpretation\n     was Marzaban, ben Abdullah, ben Maimun al Kadah. He was the\n     servant of Im\u00e1m J\u00e2fer Sad\u00edk, and also served J\u00e2fer\u2019s son\n     Ism\u00e2il, after whose death he attended Muhammed, the son of\n     the latter. When J\u00e2fer was poisoned, Abdullah carried off\n     J\u00e2fer\u2019s grandson, from Medina to Misr (Egypt). When Muhammed\n     died, he left a concubine pregnant, and Abdullah, having put\n     her to death, substituted a woman of his own in her room.\n     This woman brought forth a son, whom Abdullah asserted to be\n     Muhammed\u2019s son; and when this son had grown up, he succeeded\n     in making him acknowledged as the Im\u00e1m by many. Some of this\n     person\u2019s descendants attained the rank of sovereigns, and\n     the doctrine of the Batenian spread afar. The first of these\n     who sat on the throne of the khalifat was S\u00e1id, under the\n     name of Abu-Muhammed Obaid-alla, the founder of the Fatimite\n     khalifs, in Africa, in the year of the Hejira 296, A. D.\n     908. He took the title of _Al Mahdi_, \u201cthe Director.\u201d\u2015\u2015(See,\n     upon this sect, _Asiatic Researches_, vol. II. p. 424.)\n\n     The Fatimites claim their descent from _Al\u00ed_, the fourth\n     legitimate khalif, and from _Fatima_, the daughter of the\n     prophet; but their adversaries give an account of their\n     origin similar to that just stated: the opinions of\n     historians are divided about this fact.\n\n     [599] The manuscript of Oude reads here _\u00e2kl_ instead of\n     _f\u00eaz_, which the edition of Calcutta repeats twice; I\n     adopted the first.\n\n     [600] This part of the doctrine reminds us of the sentiments\n     expressed in Plato\u2019s Symposion, by Agathon, one of the\n     interlocutors in this admirable dialogue upon love and the\n     beautiful.\n\n     [601] According to the Ism\u00e0ilahs, each speaker or legislator\n     is associated with a vicar, whom they call _\u015bamet_,\n     \u201csilent,\u201d because he has nothing new to teach; and of these\n     vicars he who assisted the legislator, and succeeded\n     immediately to him, receives the name of _as\u00e1s_,\n     \u201cfundamental,\u201d or _s\u00fas_, \u201croot, source.\u201d The seven _nat\u00edks_,\n     or \u201clegislators of the revolution, past,\u201d and their vicars,\n     are as follow: I. Adam and Seth; II. Noah and Sem; III.\n     Abraham and Ism\u00e2il; IV. Moses and Aar\u00fan, replaced afterwards\n     by Joshua; V. Jesus and Simon Kefas; VI. Muhammed and Al\u00ed;\n     VII. Muhammed, son of Jsm\u00e2il, who is designated by the title\n     \u0642\u0627\u064a\u0645 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0627\u0646 _Ka\u00edm al zem\u00e1n_, or \u0635\u0627\u062d\u0628 \u0627\u0644\u0632\u0645\u0627\u0646 _\u015b\u00e1heb al\n     zeman_, \u201cthe chief, the lord of the age;\u201d in him all the\n     doctrines of the ancients are terminated.\u2015\u2015(See _Journal\n     asiatique_, 1824, t. IV. p. 298 _et seq._; _Recherches sur\n     l\u2019initiation \u00e0 la secte des Isma\u00e9liens. Par Silvestre de\n     Sacy_.)\n\n     [602] \u201cThere are twenty-nine chapters of the Koran, which\n     have this peculiarity, that they begin with certain letters\n     of the alphabet, some with a single one, others with more.\n     These letters the Muhammedans believe to be the peculiar\n     marks of the Koran, and to conceal several profound\n     mysteries; the certain understanding of which the more\n     intelligent confess, has not been communicated to any\n     mortal, their prophet only excepted. Notwithstanding which,\n     some will take the liberty of guessing at their meaning, by\n     that species of _cabala_ called by the Jews _Notarikon_, and\n     suppose the letters to stand for as many words, expressing\n     the names and attributes of God, his works, ordinances, and\n     decrees: and therefore these mysterious letters, as well as\n     the verses themselves, seem in the Koran to be called\n     _signs_. Others explain the intent of these letters from\n     their nature or organ, or else from their value in numbers,\n     according to another species of the Jewish _cabbala_, called\n     _gematria_; the uncertainty of which conjectures\n     sufficiently appears from their disagreement.\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Sale\u2019s\n     Koran_, Preliminary Discourse, pp. 78-79.)\n\n     [603] The questions asked for perplexing the neophyte are of\n     various natures; for instance, What signifies the throwing\n     of stones by the pilgrims at Mecca, whilst running between\n     the hills of Merva and Safa?\u2015\u2015Why did God create the world\n     in six days, when one moment might have sufficed for\n     it?\u2015\u2015What mean the eight angels, bearers of God\u2019s\n     throne?\u2015\u2015What the seven gates of hell, and the eight gates\n     of paradise?\u2015\u2015Further, what is the difference between the\n     life of a vegetable and that of a man?\u2015\u2015Why has a man ten\n     toes, ten fingers, and why in each three joints, but only\n     two in the thumb?\u2015\u2015Why has a man at the head seven orifices\n     (eyes, ears, nostrils, and mouth), and only two for the rest\n     of his body? Why twelve dorsal, and only seven vertical\n     vertebras? etc., etc.\u2015\u2015(See _Journal asiatique_, 1824, tome\n     IV. p. 309; and _Gem\u00e4ldesaal moslimisher Heersher_.\n     _III^{ter} Band_, 1837, _Seite_ 237.)\n\n     [604] See upon this subject, the _Journal Asiatique_, tome\n     VI. 1825. pp. 334-335.\n\n     The above account of the proceeding by which the Ism\u00e2ilahs\n     made proselytes to their creed exhibits one of the most\n     insidious systems that has ever been invented to ensnare\n     men. Silvestre de Sacy, in the Memoir quoted, note 2, p.\n     405, enumerates nine degrees of initiation by which a\n     neophyte, under the direction of a _D\u00e2\u00ed_, or \u201cteacher,\u201d was\n     to pass, to be made a perfect Ism\u00e2ilah. The first degree is\n     to perplex the disciple by difficult questions; the second\n     degree is to fix that the Im\u00e1ms only have received the\n     divine mission to instruct Muselmans; the third, establishes\n     the series of seven Im\u00e1ms, beginning at Al\u00ed and terminating\n     at Ism\u00e2il, son of J\u00e2fer; the fourth makes known the seven\n     periods of prophets (as shown in note 1, p. 407); the fifth,\n     conducts to contempt of the traditions and of the literal\n     sense of the Koran, and is connected with some principles of\n     philosophy and mathematics, or rather with fantastic notions\n     on the power of particular numbers, such as seven, twelve,\n     etc., applied to some phenomena of nature; the sixth degree\n     imposes an entire submission to the Im\u00e1m, and reveals that\n     all legal and religious ordinances are nothing else but\n     political contrivances, for keeping the vulgar in necessary\n     dependence and subordination. At this degree the initiation\n     stops for the greatest number of the candidates, and even of\n     the D\u00e1is. The seventh degree shows two principles in the\n     organization of the universe: the one gives, the other\n     receives; the one male, the other female: thus is duality\n     substituted for the unity of the Divine nature; the eighth\n     degree is consecrated to the development of the above\n     mentioned notions; two beings are supposed to exist: the one\n     _sabik_, \u201cthe antecedent;\u201d the other, _larik_, \u201cthe\n     subsequent.\u201d Some of the Ism\u00e2ilahs, however, admit a being\n     not to be defined, without name and attributes, above the\n     \u201cantecedent.\u201d To this degree is subjoined the dogma of a\n     possible ascension, from the undermost stage of hierarchy to\n     the highest being, by an endless series of periods and\n     revolutions; a new religion is established upon the ruins of\n     the former; the resurrection, the end of the world, the last\n     judgment, the rewards and punishments, are only emblematic\n     expressions of the successive periodical revolutions of the\n     stars and of the universe, of the destruction and renovation\n     of all beings, produced by the disposition and combination\n     of the elements. Arrived at the ninth degree, the proselyte\n     knows of no religion, nor submission to any other authority\n     but his own, and is left to himself for choosing among the\n     systems of philosophy the one he likes best.\n\n     [605] Koran, chap. XXIX. v. 44.\n\n     [606] This word is also interpreted, in the Dictionary, by\n     \u201cdreaming, reaching the age of puberty.\u201d The meaning of the\n     above passage is obscure.\n\n     [607] The Muselmans are enjoined to give the tenth part of\n     their property to the poor. In general, to understand the\n     religion of the Ism\u00e2ilahs, above exhibited, it is required\n     to be acquainted with that of the Muselmans, which they have\n     modified according to their own particular views.\n\n     [608] The K\u00e2bah of Mecca has been several times mentioned.\n     The building of this temple is traced back by the devotees\n     to Adam and his son Seth; after its destruction by the\n     universal deluge, it was constructed by Abraham and his son\n     Ism\u00e2il. We may believe that a sacred building existed at\n     Mecca long before Muhammed, during the prevalence of the\n     Sabean religion: it is held to have been the temple of\n     Saturn. After Muhammed it was renewed by Ebn Zobair, and\n     finally made such as it is by Hejaz, in the year of the\n     Hejira 74, A. D. 693.\u2015\u2015(See Pococke, p. 115.)\n\n     [609] The pilgrims, who crowd to Mecca from the most distant\n     countries, think to sanctify themselves by the performance\n     of a series of rites and ceremonies, such as their prophet\n     himself, at his last visit to this place, fixed by his\n     example; viz.: he purified himself by bathing; he then went\n     to the eastern gate of the temple; there he kissed the black\n     stone, upon which Abraham, so the Muhammedans believe,\n     conversed with Agar, to which he tied his camels, and upon\n     which the traces of his feet are still seen; further, the\n     prophet made the seven circuits of the K\u00e2bah, running round\n     it three times, and four times marching with a grave and\n     measured pace. He afterwards proceeded to the two stones,\n     _S\u00e1f\u00e1_ and _Marvah_; the first at the foot of mount Abi\n     Kobaisi, the second at that of Koaikaban, distant 780 cubits\n     from each other. These stones are supposed to have been once\n     two idols, Asaph and Nayelah; or two persons, a man and a\n     woman, who, for having committed stupration in the temple,\n     were changed into stones. At each of them he recited with a\n     loud voice the (since formulary) praise of God. Finally,\n     having proclaimed his last revelation, by which he declared\n     his religion to be perfected, he sacrificed sixty-three\n     camels, one for each year of his then closing age: he\n     returned to Medina, and soon after died.\n\n     [610] _Tanz\u00edl_ is the literal Muhammedism, or the literal\n     interpretation of what is revealed.\n\n     [611] _T\u00e1wil_ is the allegorical sense of the doctrine. We\n     have, upon the meaning of _tanz\u00eel_ and _t\u00e1w\u00eel_, a\n     Dissertation written by Silvestre de Sacy: _Commentatio de\n     notione vocum_ T\u00e1nz\u00eel _et_ T\u00e1w\u00eel, _in libris qui ad Druzorum\n     religionem pertinent_, in the XVIth vol. of _Comment. Soc.\n     Reg. Scient. G\u00f6tting., class. hist. et phil._, p. 3 and seq.\n\n     [612] See a detailed account of him hereafter.\n\n     [613] \u0635\u0627\u062f\u0642, _sadik_ is known to be the epithet of Joseph,\n     Abu bekr, Jesus, and J\u00e2fer, the sixth Im\u00e1m; it appears to\n     designate the Im\u00e1m, the D\u00e1i, or the acknowledged spiritual\n     guide among the Ism\u00e2ilahs; I shall therefore reta\u00een the term\n     in the translation.\n\n     [614] The celebrated Ghaz\u00e1li composed among a hundred works,\n     thirty-three of which are enumerated by the baron\n     Hammer-Purgstall, two with the titles \u0627\u0644\u0642\u0633\u0637\u0627\u0633 _alkistas_,\n     \u201cthe balance,\u201d and \u0645\u0632\u0627\u0646 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0639\u0645\u0627\u0644 _m\u00edzan ol\u00e2am\u00e1l_, \u201cthe\n     balance of actions.\u201d\n\n     [615] The attribute of God and the name of the prophet are,\n     not without intention, confounded.\n\n     [616] _Kh\u00e1jah_ signifies \u201clord, professor, man of\n     distinction\u201d (and also a eunuch). Kh\u00e1jah is the title\n     commonly prefixed to _Na\u015bir-eddin_, \u201cthe defender of the\n     faith,\u201d which is the surname of Muhammed ben Hassan or Ben\n     Muhammed al T\u00fasi, born in T\u00fas, in the year of the Hejira\n     597, A. D. 1200. He is acknowledged to have been the doctor\n     who acquired among Muselmans the highest reputation in all\n     sorts of sciences; he was a commentator of Euclid, and of\n     the spherics of Theodosius and Menelaus. He left scientific\n     works, duly admired, and was an astronomer, lawyer,\n     theologian, and statesman. We shall have to touch upon the\n     part which he took in the great events of his days. He died\n     in the year of the Hejira 672, or, according to some, 687\n     (A. D. 1273 or 1285).\n\n     [617] See our note 2, p. 400-401, relative to S\u00e1id, under\n     the name of Muhammed Obaid-alla, Mahdi. The friends and\n     enemies of the Fatemites concur in the account, that he\n     descended from Maim\u00fan, surnamed _Kaddah_, \u201cthe oculist,\u201d\n     whom some make a descendant of Ali, whilst others say that\n     he was the son of _Da\u00edsan_, \u201cthe dualist,\u201d so called because\n     he ascribed the good to God and the evil to man, and some\n     attribute to him an origin, not only foreign to the race of\n     the prophet, but even connected with a Magian and Jewish\n     lineage. Obaid-allah made Kairwan or Kurm (the ancient\n     Cyrene) the capital of his dominion, but at the same time he\n     laid the foundation of a new capital, which he called\n     _Mahedia_, from his assumed surname _Mahdi_. Abu Tamim Moadd\n     Moezzledin allah, the fourth in descent from Obaid allah,\n     but the first acknowledged Fatimite khalif removed his seat\n     to Cairo in Egypt: this town became then the rival of\n     Baghdad, which continued to be the residence of the ancient\n     line of khalifs. Moezz died in the year of the Hejira 365,\n     A. D. 975.\n\n     [618] Abu Yazid, according to Abulfeda (_Annal. Mosl._, vol.\n     II. p. 240), was a barbarian of the tribe of Zenata (one of\n     the Berbers), son of Condad and an Ethiopian mother. He\n     feigned sanctity, and belonged to a sect inimical to the\n     Muselmans, whom he persecuted with relentless fury. Herbelot\n     says, he was a chancellor of Ab\u00fal-Kasem Muhammed Kayem, the\n     second khalif of the Fatimites, who succeeded his father\n     Obaid-alla, in the year of the Hejira 322 (A. D. 933). Abu\n     Yazid rose in rebellion against his master, and brought the\n     empire to the greatest peril; but, after many successes and\n     conquests, he was defeated, taken prisoner, and died of his\n     wounds, in the year of the Hejira 336 (A. D. 947).\n\n     [619] Abu Yazid\u2019s conqueror was the above mentioned Abu\n     Teher Ism\u00e2il, son of Kayem, the third khalif of the\n     Fatimites, who succeeded his father in the year of the\n     Hejira 334 (A. D. 945). His surname was, besides the above\n     stated, _al Mansur ba kuvet allah_, \u201cvictorious by the power\n     of God,\u201d to which is often substituted _Mostanser billah_,\n     as in Makrisi (see _Chrestom. arabe_, vol I. pp. 84-91). He\n     was succeeded by his son, in the year of the Hejira 341 (A.\n     D. 952).\n\n     [620] We find in Herbelot\u2019s oriental library a notice of\n     Nasser Khosr\u00fa, an ancient Persian poet, whose animated and\n     pious verses are often quoted by persons of a contemplative\n     turn of mind. Baron von Hammer (Sch\u00f6ne Redek\u00fcnste Persiens,\n     S. 43) adduces Nassir Khosru of Ispahan, who, famous as a\n     poet and philosopher, was persecuted on account of doubtful\n     orthodoxy in matters of faith, and who died in the year of\n     the Hejira 431 (A. D. 1039). A sect of Ism\u00e2ilah is said\n     (_As. Res._, vol. XI. p. 425) to have been called Na\u015bariah,\n     from Na\u015bar, a poet and learned man.\n\n     [621] The mention made above of Hassan, and further of the\n     Almutiahs, points to the reign of Abu Tamim Mo\u00e2d Mostanser\n     Billah, from the year of the Hejira 427 to 487, (A. D. 1035\n     to 1094). At the beginning of this reign, Amir Na\u015ber Khusro,\n     if the date of his birth be right, would have been more than\n     sixty-six years old, and twenty years of concealment in\n     Badakhshan extend his age beyond eighty-six years.\n\n     [622] Badakhshan is the country situated towards the head of\n     the river Jihon, or Oxus, by which it is limited on its\n     eastern and northern side. Balkh is the capital of\n     Badakhshan.\n\n     [623] The author of the Dabist\u00e1n has given a sufficiently\n     explicit account of the doctrine of the Ism\u00e2ilahs, but\n     without separating the opinions belonging in particular to\n     each of the sects into which the Ism\u00e2ilahs in the course of\n     time divided. We have already mentioned the _Batenian_.\n     Another division was that of the _Karmatians_, founded by\n     Hamadan, surnamed _Karmata_, \u201csmall and distorted,\u201d son of\n     Ashath. He appeared first in the year of the Hejira 278 (A.\n     D. 891), as an adherent of Ahmed, son of Abdallah, son of\n     Maimun Kaddah, before mentioned (note 1, p. 418). This Ahmed\n     was an ancestor of S\u00e1id, or Obaid-allah, the founder of the\n     Fatimite khalifs. Hamden Karmata recommended community of\n     women, and released men from all moral and religious duties.\n     In the year of the Hejira 286 (A. D. 899), Abu S\u00e1id,\n     surnamed Habab, at the head of the Karmatians, waged war\n     upon the khalif Motadhet, in Syria; he took the town Hagiar,\n     the Petra deserti of the Romans, once the capital of Arabia,\n     and made it his residence. He was assassinated in the year\n     of the Hejira 301 (A. D. 913). He left six sons; after the\n     death of the last of them, Yusuf (Abu Yakub), in the year\n     366, (A. D. 976), the Karmatians confided their government\n     to six seids called _sadah_, \u201cpure.\u201d This sect, after many\n     combats, was dissipated towards the end of the tenth century\n     of our era.\u2015\u2015(See _Chrestom. ar._, vol. II. p. 126.)\n\n     The Ism\u00e2ilahs are also denominated _Talamites_,\n     _Khurramiah_, _Safiah_, _Babeciah_, _Majmirah_, _Makn\u00e2yah_,\n     etc.\u2015\u2015(_As. Res._ vol. XI. p. 421, etc.) I have no room for\n     an account of each of them: I shall only add the name of the\n     _Druses_, a sect existing in our days, upon which Silvestre\n     de Sacy gave a particular notice drawn from their own\n     papers, in his _Chrestomathie arabe_, vol II. pp. 191, 227,\n     and undertook a detailed history of this sect. The name of\n     the Druses is derived from \u062f\u0631\u0648\u0632 _deroz_, or \u062f\u0631\u0632\u064a\u0629,\n     _derziyet_, \u201cjuncture.\u201d They are the disciples of Hamza, son\n     of Ali, and honor as a god _Hakem beamr allah_, \u201che who\n     governs by the order of God;\u201d the sixth Fatimite khalif, in\n     descent from Obaid-allah. Hakem was born in the year of the\n     Hejira 375, A. D. 985; he was saluted khalif in 386 (A. D.\n     996); he disappeared, some say was assassinated, at the end\n     of 441, A. D. 1020. The Druses give the same dates of his\n     birth, reign, and death, but say he was the son of Ism\u00e2il, a\n     descendant of Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, and his mother was\n     of the race of Fatima, surnamed Zahra, the daughter of\n     Muhammed the prophet. In short, every division of the\n     Ism\u00e1ilah appears to have its own _Mahdi_, \u201cdirector,\u201d but\n     always traces his origin to Ali and Fatima. The Druses\n     expect the return of Hakem; he is to reign over the whole\n     earth during centuries of centuries, and the unitarian\n     Druses with him: the other sects shall be obliged to pay\n     homage and tribute to him. The Druses esteem the Koran very\n     much, but the prophet not at all; they have rejected\n     circumcision, fasting, and prayer, and indulge in drinking\n     wine, eating pork, and marrying within the prohibited\n     degrees.\n\n     [624] The character and life of the khalif, mentioned above\n     and in the preceding note, exhibit a strange mixture of\n     intelligence and folly, superstition and incredulity,\n     simplicity and ostentation, abstemiousness and liberality,\n     intolerance and forbearance, cruelty and mildness; all his\n     good and bad actions were marked with something whimsical\n     and fantastical: still more\u2015\u2015he wanted to be God: thus he\n     realized in himself the idea of a monstrous tyrant. To his\n     honor be it said that he founded in Cairo the first\n     university of the middle ages.\u2015\u2015(See his _Life_, by Macrisi,\n     in the _Chrest. ar._, tom, I. p. 93 _et seq._, and\n     _Gem\u00e4ldesaal mosl., Herrsher, Band III. Seite 226_, etc.)\n\n     [625] We observe two great divisions of the Ism\u00e2ilahs;\n     namely, the _Western_, to whom alone, till now, the account\n     of the Dabist\u00e1n referred, and the Ism\u00e2ilah _of Iran_, that\n     is, those who established themselves in the strongholds of\n     _Kohistan_ (Khorassan), and in _R\u00fadbar_, which last is the\n     name of a fort in the province of _Jeb\u00e1l_, or Persian Irak.\n\n     [626] An excellent work to be consulted with respect to\n     Hassan, son of S\u00e1b\u00e1h, is the history concerning him\n     contained in \u0631\u0648\u0636\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0635\u0641\u0627 \u0641\u0649 \u0633\u064a\u0631\u0629 \u0627\u0644\u0627\u0646\u0628\u064a\u0627 \u0648\u0627\u0644\u0645\u0648\u0644\u0643 \u0648\u0644\u062e\u0627\u0644\u0641\u0627\n     _R\u00fazat al s\u00e1f\u00e1 f\u00ed s\u00edrat al anb\u00eda w\u2019 al mulk w\u2019 al khalifa_,\n     \u201cthe Garden of Purity, containing the history of prophets\n     and khalifs,\u201d composed by _Muhammed_, son of _Khavendshah_,\n     known under the name of _Mirkhond_, born in the year of the\n     Hejira 837, or at the end of 836 (A. D. 1432 or 1433),\n     deceased in 903 (A. D. 1498). The Persian text of the part\n     of it here pointed out was published in Paris, 1812, by Am.\n     Jourdain, with a French translation and Notes, some of which\n     are by Silvestre de Sacy. I shall, in my quotations from it,\n     use only the name \u201cMirkhond.\u201d\n\n     [627] Some people of Hassan\u2019s sect established his genealogy\n     as follows: \u201cHassan, son of Ali, son of J\u00e2fer, son of\n     Hassan, son of Muhammed, son of Sabah Homairi Yemini, but\n     Hassan, to whom it was presented, ordered it to be\n     cancelled, saying: \u2018I prefer being a simple privileged\n     servant of the Im\u00e1m to being his degenerated\n     son.\u2019\u201d\u2015\u2015(_Mirkhond_, p. 39.)\n\n     [628] We shall have further to notice Nizam al mulk, and a\n     remarkable work which he left. From this work, Mirkhond (p.\n     31) quotes the following words respecting the Im\u00e1m Movafek,\n     above mentioned: \u201cThe Im\u00e1m, one of the most illustrious\n     among the learned men of Khorassan, was generally honored,\n     and his society sought after as a source of happiness. He\n     was then more than eighty-five years of age, and it was an\n     opinion generally received, that all young men who\n     instructed themselves under his direction in the science of\n     the Koran and prophetic traditions, obtained the favor of\n     fortune.\u201d\n\n     [629] Mirkhond has _Hakim Omar Khayam_. Silvestre de Sacy\n     (p. 32, note) thought that it would perhaps be better to\n     translate \u201cHakim, son of Omar,\u201d and _Khayam_ is a surname,\n     signifying \u201cmaker of tents.\u201d\n\n     [630] Alp Arselan, son of Daud (or David), son of Mikail\n     (Michael), son of Seljuk was the second sultan of the family\n     and dynasty of the Seljucides. He succeeded to Togrul B\u00e8g,\n     his uncle, who died without offspring in the year of the\n     Hejira 455 (A. D. 1063). At first called _Isr\u00e2il_, he took,\n     after his conversion to Muhammedism, the name of Muhammed\n     with the surname _Alp Arselan_, \u201cthe courageous lion\u201d in the\n     Turkish language. His most memorable victory was that gained\n     with 12,000 men over 300,000 Greeks, whom he put to flight,\n     and took their emperor Romanus, surnamed Diogenes.\n\n     [631] Moez eddin (according to others _Jelal eddin_, or\n     _Jelal daulet_, \u201cthe glory of religion or of state\u201d) Abu \u2019l\n     fetah Malic-shah, son of Alp Arslan, although not the\n     eldest, was declared by his father to be his successor, by\n     the counsel of the above mentioned Nizam ul mulk, and\n     mounted the throne after his father\u2019s death, in the year of\n     the Hejira 465 (A. D. 1072). A reform of the Calendar made\n     under his reign was called _Tarikh Jelali_.\n\n     [632] Mirkhond (p. 37, French transl.) gives a clearer\n     account of the event, as follows: Nizam-ul-mulk, before the\n     presentation of the register to the Sultan, having met\n     Hassan\u2019s servant outside the hall, requested of him to see\n     the register, in order that he might know the manner in\n     which it was made, and the servant not daring, out of\n     respect to the minister, refuse it to him, delivered the\n     register into the hands of Nizam-ul-mulk, who, having seen\n     the nicety of the statements, dropped the leaves in such a\n     manner as to disperse them, and said: \u201cMany plunders are\n     written in this register.\u201d The servant, on account of the\n     risk he ran if he avowed what had happened, said nothing of\n     the fact to Hassan. When the latter presented his\n     statements, he found them mutilated, and the leaves\n     confusedly mixed.\n\n     [633] Nizam-ul-mulk, who in the above related anecdote, does\n     not appear in an advantageous light, has nevertheless the\n     reputation of having been a most learned man, and a\n     protector of science. He left a work, called _va\u015biyet\n     Nizam-ul-mulk_, \u201cthe testament of Nizam-ul-mulk,\u201d from which\n     Mirkhond relates, partly in the same words as the author,\n     what had passed between Nizam-ul-mulk and Hassan; the\n     former, of course, endeavors to vindicate his conduct\n     towards the latter. Nizam-ul-mulk, after having rendered the\n     most eminent services to his Sultan, was discarded by him on\n     the suggestions of a Sultana, and assassinated, in the year\n     of the Hejira 485 (A. D. 1092), according to Herbelot (_art.\n     Malik-schah_), by the successor to his office; according to\n     our author (see hereafter) by an emissary of Hassan Sabah.\n\n     [634] See hereafter the notice of this fort, when the event\n     will be related in due order of time.\n\n     [635] This was Moadd, Mostanser Billah, who began to reign\n     (according to Abulfeda) in the year of the Hejira 427 (A. D.\n     1035), and died in 487 (A. D. 1094).\n\n     [636] This word means \u201cthe commander in chief of the\n     Egyptian troops;\u201d his name was _Bedr al Jemal\u00ed_.\u2015\u2015(See,\n     respecting him, _Les M\u00e9moires g\u00e9ographiques et historiques\n     sur l\u2019Egypte, par M. Etienne Quatrem\u00e8re_, t. II. p. 420 _et\n     seq._, note of Silvestre de Sacy.)\n\n     [637] Abu\u2019l Kasem Ahmed al mist\u00e1li billah reigned from the\n     year of the Hejira 487 (A. D. 1094) to 495 (A. D. 1101).\n\n     [638] On account of their adherence to Naz\u00e1r, the sect,\n     headed by Hassan Sabah, and the Ism\u00e2ilah of Persia are\n     called also Naz\u00e1ri\u00e1n, which is a more probable derivation\n     than that in note 4, p. 419.\n\n     [639] Haleb, a town in Syria, is said to be as ancient as\n     the dynasty of the Kayanian kings of Persia; it was in this\n     town, that Kushtasp received the royal crown sent him by his\n     father Lohrasp. It is the ancient Berrh\u0153a.\n\n     [640] _Da \u00e2\u00ed_ appears to have been a particular and eminent\n     dignity among the Ism\u00e2\u00edlahs. It is said of Nazir-eddin, a\n     minister of Mostanser Billah, that he occupied at the same\n     time the places of great K\u00e1zi, of great _D\u00e1 \u00e2\u00ed_, and of\n     Vizir. According to Mokrizi (see _Chrestom. ar._, vol. I. p.\n     142) the D\u00e1\u00e2i of the D\u00e1\u00e2is follows in rank immediately the\n     K\u00e1z\u00ed of K\u00e1zis, and wears the same costume. He teaches the\n     doctrine of his sect, and receives the engagement of all\n     those who renounce their former creed, adopting that of the\n     Fatimites.\n\n     [641] Mirkhond gives a more detailed account of Hassan\u2019s\n     itinerary, as follows: Hassan went from Isfahan to Yezed,\n     and to Kirman; whence he returned to Isfahan, where he\n     resided four months; he departed again for Khozistan, staid\n     there three months, and then went to Damegan, in which town\n     and district he passed three years. After that he proceeded\n     to Jorjan, and using every caution for not falling into the\n     hands of his enemies, he went to Sari, from thence to\n     Damawend, whence, by the route of Kazwin, he entered Dilem;\n     from thence he passed into a town near Alamut, where he\n     devoted himself to a religious life. I have thus enumerated\n     the countries in which the doctrine of the Ism\u00e2ilahs was\n     more or less spread, but not without opposition.\n\n     [642] Alamut is a town and fort near Kazvin, in the Persian\n     province of _Ghilan_, on the western shore of the Caspian\n     sea. \u0622\u0650\u0644\u0647 \u0627\u0645\u0648\u062a, _\u00eelah amut_, means \u201cnest of a vulture.\u201d The\n     value of the numbers represented by the letters of these two\n     words make together the epoch of Hassan\u2019s entering the fort,\n     viz.:\n\n         \u0627 =  1\n        \u0644 =  30\n         \u0647 =  5\n         \u0627 =  1\n        \u0645 =  40\n         \u0648 =  6\n       \u062a =  400\n      \u2015\u2015\u2015\u2015\n       483\n\n     483 of the Hejira (A. D. 1090), in the month of Rajeb, the\n     seventh of the Muhammedan year; Abulfeda (vol. III. p. 425)\n     says the eighth month of the year 483. This stronghold soon\n     became the capital of a formidable sovereign, known among\n     the European crusaders, under the name of _shaikh al Jebal_,\n     interpreted \u201cthe old man of the mountain.\u201d\n\n     [643] The author neglects to mention the date from which he\n     begins his computation.\n\n     [644] Hassan Sabah, from the height of Alamut, commanded the\n     country around, and terrified the inhabitants, high and low,\n     by a set of devoted adherents, whom he sent about to\n     propagate his religion, and to execute his commands, which\n     were frequently the murder of his enemies.\n\n     [645] The edition of Calcutta has erroneously 508.\n\n     [646] Our author, regardless of order, reverts to events\n     which took place during the life of Hassan.\n\n     [647] _Ref\u00edk_, in general acceptation, \u201cfollower,\u201d is a\n     distinctive name given to the Ism\u00e2ilahs, and particularly to\n     men carrying arms, in opposition to the class of d\u00e1\u00e2is, or\n     \u201cmissionaries,\u201d and perhaps also to the fed\u00e1yis.\u2015\u2015(Note of\n     _Silvestre de Sacy_, in _Jourdain\u2019s French transl. of\n     Mirkhond_, p. 39).\n\n     [648] Mirkhond says the Amir Arslan-tash.\n\n     [649] Hassan, according to Mirkhond, had but seventy rafiks\n     with him.\n\n     [650] Bark\u00edarok, son of Malik shah, was the fourth sultan of\n     the house of the Seljucides. He received at the circumcision\n     the Muselman name of Kassem, and the title of _Rokn-eddin_,\n     \u201cthe column of religion,\u201d was given to him by Mectadi, the\n     khalif of Baghdad. Barkiarok was the eldest son of Malik\n     shah, whom he succeeded in the year of the Hejira 485 (A. D.\n     1092).\n\n     His stepmother, Turkan Khatun, had a son by Malik shah,\n     called Mahm\u00fad. At the death of the Sultan, being in the town\n     of Baghdad, she obtained, by solicitations and presents,\n     from the khalif Mortadi, letters of investiture in favor of\n     her own son Mahmud, who, then only four years old, was\n     proclaimed the legitimate heir of his father\u2019s empire,\n     whilst Barkiarok was at Ispahan, then the seat of the\n     Seljucides, recognised, by right of primogeniture, the only\n     legitimate successor of his father. But Turkan Khatun\n     marched to Ispahan with an army, surprised Barkiarok, and\n     seized the town, and the person of her step-son. The latter\n     however, aided by the faithful servants of his father,\n     escaped from her hands, and found a refuge at Shiraz, the\n     residence of _Takash-teghin_ the _Atabek_, or\n     \u201clieutenant-general\u201d of Persia. With this chief\u2019s\n     assistance, Barkiarok presented himself with an army of two\n     hundred thousand men before Ispahan, and besieged Mahmud and\n     his mother. A peace was concluded: the Sultana and her son\n     were to possess the town and dependencies of Ispahan, but to\n     divide Malik shah\u2019s treasury with Barkiarok; he received\n     five hundred thousand gold dinars for his share, and, having\n     raised the siege, moved to Hamdan, where Ism\u00e2il, one of his\n     uncles, commanded.\n\n     Ism\u00e2il had declared himself for the Sultana: a battle was\n     fought in the plain of Hamdan, in the year of the Hejira 486\n     (A. D. 1093); Baki\u00e0rok gained the victory: his uncle fell.\n\n     In the very same year, the victor was obliged by another\n     uncle of his, Takash, son of Aslan shah, to retire towards\n     Ispahan. He was kindly received by his brother Mahmud, then\n     free from the tutelage of his mother, who had died; both\n     brothers appeared linked in the bonds of perfect amity; but\n     the partizans of the younger seized the person of the elder,\n     and imprisoned him in the castle. It was the sudden death of\n     Mahmud by the small pox which liberated Barkiarok, and gave\n     him the possession of the empire. This was not left\n     undisturbed, but this is not the place to relate the events\n     of his agitated reign, of about thirteen years, which\n     terminated in the year of the Hejira 498 (A. D. 1104). I\n     have said enough to show how, among such disturbances, the\n     power of the Ism\u00e2ilah could grow in the Persian provinces:\n     to this I shall add that during the reign of Barkiarok, the\n     European crusaders took Nic\u00e6a and Antiochia, and the cross\n     was fixed upon the walls of Jerusalem, Akka, and Edessa.\n\n     [651] This was in the year of the Hejira 495 (A. D. 1101-2).\n\n     [652] Son of Malik shah, the fifth Sultan of the Seljucides,\n     who reigned from the year of the Hejira 501 to 511 (A. D.\n     1107 to 1117).\n\n     [653] The edition of Calcutta reads erroneously 591.\n\n     [654] Mirkhond has Alabek Nusht\u00e9kin Shergir.\n\n     [655] The sixth Sultan of the Seljucides, named Moezzeddin\n     Abu \u2019l Hareth Sinjar, son of Malik shah. He governed the\n     province Khorassan during twenty years, under the reigns of\n     his brothers Barki\u00e1rok and Muhammed; after the death of the\n     latter, he seized the whole empire, and, having overcome his\n     nephew Mahmud, son of Muhammed, reigned with various\n     vicissitudes of fortune during forty years and four months\n     (from 1117 to 1157 A. D).\n\n     [656] This peace, according to Mirkhond (_French transl._,\n     p. 48) was made under three conditions, to which the\n     Ism\u00e2l\u00edahs were held:\u2015\u20151, not to add any new work to their\n     castles; 2, not to buy arms and warlike stores; 3, not to\n     make new proselytes. The Muhammedan doctors, not having\n     approved the treaty, the people suspected the Sultan of some\n     hankering for the sect of the Ism\u00e2ilahs. Notwithstanding the\n     peace was concluded between Sinjar and them, who had even\n     the revenue of some districts assigned to them, and were in\n     others exempt from paying duties.\n\n     [657] Hoss\u00e1in F\u00e1ni was the d\u00e1\u00e2i of Kohistan. Although,\n     according to Mirkhond, his death was also ascribed to\n     Hoss\u00e1in Damawendi, we can but suppose that Hassan must, upon\n     very strong grounds, have condemned his own son to death.\n\n     [658] The edition of Calcutta reads erroneously 580.\n\n     [659] Mirkhond says, that these two personages were to\n     regulate the affairs of the state conjointly with Hoss\u00e1in\n     K\u00e1ini.\n\n     [660] According to Mirkhond, he reigned twenty-four years,\n     during which some memorable events took place (see _French\n     transl._, pp. 49-51) here omitted for want of room.\n\n     [661] The thirtieth khalif of the Abbasides; he who\n     assassinated in the Hejira 530 (A. D. 1135). His father,\n     Mostarshed, had met with the same fate by the hands of the\n     Fedayis, towards the end of Kia Buzurg\u2019s reign. To exhibit\n     the long series of assassinations by which the Fed\u00e2y\u00eds\n     spread terror all over Asia, is a weighty task, which has\n     been recently performed by the master-hand of the Baron von\n     Hammer.\u2015\u2015(See his _Geschichte der Assassinen_.)\n\n     Muhammed Buzerg died after a reign of twenty-five years.\n\n     [662] In the style of the Batenian and the Druses,\n     _resurrection_ signifies the day of the manifestation of the\n     Im\u00e1m, his doctrine, the entire triumph of his religion and\n     the abolition of every other sect.\u2015\u2015(Note of _Silvestre de\n     Sacy_, p. 54 of the work already quoted.)\n\n     [663] The edition of Calcutta has erroneously 541.\n\n     [664] Mirkhond says (_French transl._, p. 56): Hassan was\n     stabbed in the castle of Lamsir, by his wife\u2019s brother, who\n     descended from the family of Baviah, and had preserved the\n     faith of, and attachment to, the ancient religion.\n\n     There is evidently an omission or hiatus at this place in\n     the edition of Calcutta. According to Mirkhond (pp. 57-59),\n     after the murder of Hassan, son of Muhammed, Hassan\u2019s son\n     Muhammed, occupied the throne. He maintained the doctrine of\n     his father, and had great pretensions to learning. He\n     governed, from the age of nineteen, forty-six years with\n     great success; the _Molheds_ (so were called his adherents)\n     triumphed every where among rapine and bloodshed. He died in\n     the year of the Hejira 607 (A. D. 1210-1). He was succeeded\n     by his son Jelal eddin Hassan, ben Muhammed, ben Hassan, who\n     was born in the year of the Hejira 552 (A. D. 1157-8),\n     therefore fifty-three years old when he began to reign.\n     Mirkhond says, doubtingly, that according to some\n     historians, he poisoned his father, which is positively\n     asserted in the text of the Dabist\u00e1n. He re-established the\n     Muslim religion, and acquired the name of Jelal-eddin _n\u00f3u\n     Muselman_, \u201cnew Muselman.\u201d\n\n     [665] The edition of Calcutta has, most erroneously, 308.\n\n     [666] This is a treatise upon Morals, composed by Na\u015bir\n     eddin T\u00fas\u00ed, upon whom see our note 2, p. 417.\n\n     [667] Mirkhond places the assassination of Ala eddin in the\n     year of the Hejira 653 (A. D. 1255-6).\n\n     [668] Ruk neddin was the eldest son of Al\u00e1-eddin; as heir\n     presumptive he was much honored by the Ism\u00e2ilahs, who made\n     no difference between his orders and those of his father.\n     The latter, irritated on that account, declared a younger\n     son his successor, in spite of the people\u2019s attachment to\n     the eldest. Rukn-eddin, perpetually threatened by\n     Ala-eddin\u2019s resentment, took refuge in a well defended\n     castle. He was suspected, and even accused by his own\n     mother, of having been privy to the murder of his father,\n     although he punished the murderer.\n\n     [669] Holag\u00fa was the grandson of _Jengish khan_. Born in\n     1127 A. D., Jengish khan, in the first moiety of the\n     thirteenth century, came with six hundred thousand Tartars\n     from the high lands between China, Siberia, and the Caspian\n     sea, to act his formidable part in the Southern countries,\n     already deluged with blood by the unceasing wars of the\n     Arabs, Persians, and Turks. The dominion of the Seljuk\n     dynasty, torn asunder by the dissensions of their members,\n     during forty years after Sinjar, their Sultan, last\n     mentioned in the Dabist\u00e1n (p. 440), terminated with Toghrul\n     the Third, in 1193 A. D.; there remained still a vigorous\n     branch of it in Jel\u00e1l-eddin, sultan of Khorazm, who retired\n     before the great conqueror towards India; he was overthrown\n     in a great battle on the Indus, in 1222 A. D. Jengishkhan\n     died in 1227, after having made a division of his immense\n     empire: he gave the kingdoms of Khorassan and Kabul to his\n     fourth son, Tuli khan, who died soon after his father,\n     leaving four sons, the two eldest of whom were the above\n     mentioned Maik\u00fa k\u00e1n (Mangu kh\u00e1n), and Holag\u00fa kh\u00e1n. The\n     former ruled in Tartary, the second proceeded to the\n     conquest of Persia and the empire of the khalifs. It was\n     necessary first to subdue the Ism\u00e2ilahs.\n\n     Rukn-eddin, according to Mirkhond, offered submission to\n     Holag\u00fa: it was by accident that an action took place between\n     the Ism\u00e2ilahs and the troops sent by Holag\u00fa to take\n     possession of Alam\u00fat. Rukn-eddin, after some delay, during\n     which he had taken his residence in the fort Maimun-diz,\n     surrendered his person to Holag\u00fa, who had come to besiege\n     it. With Rukn-eddin was the celebrated astronomer\n     Nassir-eddin T\u00fas\u00ed, who acted as ambassador and mediator; but\n     seeing the ruin of the Ism\u00e2ilahs, not, as he pretended, in\n     the position of the heavenly bodies, but in the\n     circumstances, he is accused of betraying his master and\n     delivering him into the hands of the conqueror. More than\n     forty castles, full of the Molhuds\u2019 treasures, were\n     destroyed in a short time; among the last were Lamsir and\n     Alam\u00fat; the inhabitants of the latter hesitated to\n     surrender, not being able to separate themselves at once\n     from their accustomed glory and independence, whilst their\n     sovereign acted as an instrument in the hands of the\n     conquerors for delivering up his own subjects, having lost,\n     with his good fortune, all firmness and nobleness of mind.\n\n     One of the forts only remained: it was _Kirdcoh_. The feeble\n     Rukn-eddin, on his way to Mangu khan, could not prevail upon\n     himself to give it up, and instead of ordering the garrison\n     to surrender, as he had promised, he sent them word to\n     resist. Proceeding towards Tartary, he was put to death by\n     the officers of his escort, who probably had received orders\n     to that effect from Mang\u00fa kh\u00e1n. A death-mandate was also\n     executed upon Rukn-eddin\u2019s sons, daughters, relatives,\n     servants, and other followers all over the country;\n     thousands of the Ism\u00e2ilahs fell under the sword of the\n     Tartars. Holag\u00fa completed the conquest of this powerful\n     sect, which had been formidable in Asia during one hundred\n     and sixty-six years, in the year of the Hejira 654, A. D.\n     1256.\n\n     But the Ism\u00e2ilahs did not cease to exist in Persia, where,\n     even in our days, some remains of them are to be found. We\n     read in the Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay\n     (vol. II. pp. 281-294), that the parents of a Muhammed\n     Mahdi, claiming descent from Ali, were inhabitants of\n     J\u00fanp\u00far, a town near Benares. He was born in the year of the\n     Hejira 847 (A. D. 1443), declared himself a Mahdi, in Hejira\n     903 (A. D. 1491), first in Mecca, and then in Western India,\n     in Guzerat, and Ajm\u00edr; and died in Hejira 910 (A. D. 1504),\n     in Furuh, a city of Khorassan, not without leaving many\n     followers, communities of whom remain, even in our days,\n     most numerous in Sind, Guzerat, and the Deccan.\n\n     Halag\u00fa, after the overthrow of the Ism\u00e2ilahs, marched\n     towards Baghd\u00e1d, it is said, at the instigation of\n     Nassir-eddin. The celebrated seat of the khalifs was taken\n     and destroyed in the year of the Hejira 656 (A. D. 1258),\n     without the required efforts to defend it having been made\n     by the thirty-seventh and last khalif of the Abbasides. This\n     inglorious prince, fallen into the hands of his barbarous\n     enemies, met with a cruel death, being packed up in a piece\n     of felt, and dragged through the streets of his capital.\n     With him perished the khalifate, a dominion once the most\n     powerful and absolute of the world. It began with Abu Bekr\n     in the eleventh year of the Hejira (A. D. 632), and lasted\n     645 lunar, or 625 solar years, during 520 of which it\n     remained in the house of the Abbasides. The khalifate of the\n     Fatimites in Egypt had ceased to exist in the year of the\n     Hejirah 567 (A. D. 1171). All attempts to raise another\n     khalifate in Asia and Africa had but a short and confined\n     success, or none at all.\n\n     [670] In the seventh vol. of the Asiatic Researches (p. 338,\n     edit. of Calcutta), we find an article by T. H. Colebrooke,\n     Esq., _On the Origin and peculiar Tenets of certain\n     Muhammedan Sects_. It is there stated that: \u201cThe Ali\n     Ilahiyahs are become numerous in India. This sect is\n     mentioned by the author of the Dabist\u00e1n, as prevalent in his\n     time only at _Uzbil_, or _Azbal_, in the mountainous tract\n     near _Khata_. It now prevails, according to the information\n     which I have received, in a part of the dominion of Nawab\n     Nizamu \u2019l mulk.\u201d The Calcutta edition of the Dabist\u00e1n reads\n     as above, _Arnil_, _Arm\u00e1l_, and _Bakhta_: the manuscript of\n     Oude agrees with Colebrooke\u2019s reading, _Azb\u00edl_, but has\n     \u0628\u062e\u0637\u0627, _bakht\u00e1_, and \u0632\u0628\u0627\u0644, _zeb\u00e1l_, for the two other names.\n     The celebrated Orientalist gives an abstract of the doctrine\n     of this sect according to the Dabist\u00e1n, joined to an account\n     of the _Borahs_, according to the _Mej\u00e1l\u00eesu \u2019l m\u00fam\u00ednin_,\n     composed by _N\u00farallah of Shoster_, a zealous Shi\u00e2h. The\n     B\u00f3hrahs are described by this author as natives of Guzerat,\n     converted to the Muhammedan religion about three hundred\n     years before his time, now 542 years ago. Their converter\n     was _Mullah Ali_, whose tomb is still seen at the city of\n     Comb\u00e1yat. Some of this tribe are Sunnites. The party who\n     profess the Im\u00e1miah tenets comprehended, in the year 1800,\n     nearly two thousand families. They are chiefly occupied in\n     trade, and transmit the fifth part of their gains to the\n     Sayyads of Medina: they are honest, pious, and temperate.\n\n     [671] We find in the Dictionary \u062f\u062d\u064a\u0647 \u0627\u0644\u0643\u0644\u0628\u0649 _dihyat ol\n     kalbi_, interpreted \u201cthe ape-dog; the shape in which the\n     Muhammedans believe the angel Jabriel to have appeared to\n     their prophet.\u201d This is not mentioned in the Koran. We read\n     in a note of Sale\u2019s Koran, vol. II. p. 401: It is said that\n     Jabril appeared in his proper shape to none of the prophets\n     except Muhammed, and to him only twice: once when he\n     received the first revelation of the Koran, and a second\n     time when he took his night-journey to heaven. According to\n     the nineteenth chapter of the Koran, Jabril appeared to the\n     Virgin Mary in the shape of a man, like a full grown but\n     beardless youth, and caused her to conceive.\n\n     [672] \u0627\u0645\u064a _\u00e1m\u00ed_, \u201cilliterate,\u201d was the epithet which\n     Muhammed was pleased to give to himself, not without the\n     intention of rendering it so much more probable that the\n     writing, which he produced as revelations from God, could\n     not possibly be a forgery of his own; because it was not\n     conceivable that a person who could neither read nor write\n     should be able to compose a book of such excellent doctrine,\n     and in so elegant a style. It was as \u201cthe illiterate\u201d that\n     in the 155th verse of the VIIth chapter of the Koran he\n     causes himself to be announced by God, who is introduced\n     speaking to Moses about the punishment deserved by the Jews\n     for their iniquities; and says (ibid., v. 154): \u201cMy mercy\n     extendeth over all things, and I will write down good unto\n     those who shall fear me, and give alms, and who shall\n     believe our signs\u2015\u2015(v. 155): who shall follow the apostle,\n     the _illiterate prophet_, whom they shall find written down\n     (i. e. both foretold by name and certain description), with\n     them in the law and the gospel: he will command them that\n     which is just, and will forbid them that which is evil,\u201d\n     etc., etc. We can, however, scarcely doubt that Muhammed,\n     belonging to the family of Hashem, the most illustrious\n     tribe of the Koreish, the hereditary guardians of the temple\n     of Mecca, and himself skilful in commerce, was not more\n     illiterate than the Arabs of his class: he certainly proved\n     himself a man of a lofty genius, and, although he wrote not\n     in verse, a sublime poet.\n\n     [673] We read above the account of sectaries who deified\n     Al\u00ed. So much is certain, that, from his most tender youth,\n     he was the most zealous, courageous, and intelligent\n     supporter of Muhammed. The prophet gave him the surname of\n     \u201cthe lion of God:\u201d he said to him: \u201cThou art my vizir, and\n     my brother in this and the other world. Thou standest by me\n     as Aaron stood by Moses; except that no prophet will come\n     after me, I have no advantage over thee. I am the town of\n     knowledge, and Al\u00ed the gate to it.\u201d Al\u00ed was a poet; we have\n     but half a dozen of his poems and one hundred of his\n     sayings.\u2015\u2015(See the above-quoted work of Baron Hammer,\n     _Gem\u00e4ldesaal Mosl. Herrscher, I^{ter} Band_. pp. 321-323.)\n\n     [674] _Ahmed_, \u201cmost laudable,\u201d is one of the names of\n     Muhammed. According to the Commentators of the Koran and the\n     Traditionists, _Muhammed_ is the name for men: _Ahmed_ that\n     with which the prophet was greeted by the angels; and\n     _Mahmud_ that which the inhabitants of hell gave him. He has\n     a thousand names by means of his attributes.\n\n     [675] _Ulv\u00edahs_, or _Al\u00ed\u00edades_, are called the descendants\n     of Al\u00ed, the two principal branches of whom were those of his\n     sons, Husseim and Hassan. In the first continued the twelve\n     Im\u00e1ms; in the second, several leaders rose, with unequal\n     success, in different times and places, against the\n     government of the Ommiades and Abbasides.\n\n     [676] So is called Muhammed\u2019s mule; also Ali\u2019s horse.\n\n     [677] Shed\u00e1d is a fabulous personage, said to have lived in\n     the times of Jemshid, and to have been sent by Zohak to\n     destroy Jemshid, who made war upon him. The fabulists give\n     two hundred and sixty years to the reign of Shed\u00e1d, and\n     three hundred to that of his brother Shadid. Both these\n     personages are also said to have lived in the time of the\n     Hebrew prophet Heber.\u2015\u2015(See Herbelot.)\n\n\n\n\nEND OF THE SECOND VOLUME.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\nOF THE SECOND VOLUME.\n\n\n                                                                 Page\n                THE SECOND CHAPTER OF THE DABISTAN\n\n  Describes, in twelve Sections, the religious system of\n              the Hindus                                            1\n\n  Section I.\u2015\u2015Concerning the orthodox Hindu system                  2\n\n              Summary of the doctrines contained in the Budah\n                Mimansa                                             3\n\n  Section II.\u2015\u2015Of certain opinions entertained by this sect\n              concerning the creation                               9\n\n  Section III.\u2015\u2015Concerning the religious observances and\n              ceremonies of the Smartas, or orthodox of the\n              Hindus                                               53\n\n  Section IV.\u2015\u2015Of the followers of the Vedanta                     90\n\n  Section V.\u2015\u2015Concerning those who profess the Sankhya doctrines  118\n\n  Section VI.\u2015\u2015Of the Yogis and their doctrines                   123\n\n  Section VII.\u2015\u2015Of the tenets of the Saktian                      148\n\n              History of the illustrious Shaikh Abu Ali Hussain,\n                the son of Abdullah ben Sina (Avi senna)          168\n\n  Section VIII.\u2015\u2015Of the Vishnuian (Vaishnavas), worshippers\n              of Vichnu                                           175\n\n              Of the Vairagis                                     184\n\n  Section IX.\u2015\u2015On the creed of the Charvak                        197\n\n  Section X.\u2015\u2015On the system of those who profess the doctrine\n               of Tark                                            203\n\n  Section XI.\u2015\u2015On the tenets held by the followers of Buddha      210\n\n  Section XII.--On various religious systems professed by the\n               people of India                                    216\n\n\n                            CHAPTER III.\n\n  Of the religion of the Kera Tabitian                            289\n\n\n                            CHAPTER IV.\n\n  Of the religion of the Yahuds (Jews), in two Sections           293\n\n  Section I.\u2015\u2015The information received from Muhammed Said\n               Sarmed                                          _ibid._\n\n  Section II.\u2015\u2015Upon the book of Adam                              299\n\n\n                             CHAPTER V.\n\n  Of the religion of the Tarsa (Christians) in three sections     305\n\n  Section I.\u2015\u2015An account of the Lord Aisia (Jesus)             _ibid._\n\n  Section II.\u2015\u2015Of the creed of the Aisuah (Christians)            308\n\n  Section III.\u2015\u2015Of the works of the Christians                    312\n\n\n                            CHAPTER VI.\n\n  Of the religion of the Muhammedans, in two Sections             322\n\n  Section I.\u2015\u2015Of the religion of the Sonnites                  _ibid._\n\n              An account of the angels                            337\n\n              An account of the Umaviyah and Yezidiah\n                connected with the Ali-Ilahian                    356\n\n  Section II.\u2015\u2015Of the religion of the Shi\u00e2hs                      362\n\n              Of the twelve sects of the Shi\u00e2hs                   364\n\n              Of the religion of the Akhb\u00e1r\u00edn                     372\n\n              An account of the Ism\u00e2\u00edl\u00edah                         397\n\n              An account of the Ali Ilahian                       451\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber Note:\n\nWords and phrases in italics are surrounded by underscores, _like\nthis_. Superscripts are contained within braces and preceded by a\ncarat, e.g. III^{ter}. Footnotes were renumbered sequentially and\nwere moved to the end of the section in which related anchors\noccur.\n\nAccented consonants d, k, l, and t are shown with the accent following\nthe letter, like this: d\u00b4. Aspirated h after a consonant is preceded\nby an apostrophe: \u2019h. Umlaut above zed is indicated within brackets:\n[:z].\n\nExcept as noted herein, no changes were made to spelling or\ndiacriticals; many words and names were printed with multiple\nvariations. Punctuation was standardized, with the addition of\nunprinted quotation marks, parentheses, apostrophes, commas, and stops\nat ends of sentences and abbreviations. Obvious printing errors were\ncorrected, e.g. backwards or upside down letters, letters in reverse\norder, duplicate words that occurred at line or page breaks, and\nspaces missing between words.\n\nReversed lines were restored to proper order:\n\n  person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guze-\n  all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a\n\nwas changed to:\n\n  all hands a great number of sheep, they appointed a\n  person to take care of them. It is said, that in Guze-\n\nComments:\n\n  Added missing anchor to [256].\n  There are two anchors to [317].\n  Missing anchor to [352] was added where it likely belongs.\n  [563] First letter of _Ilah\u00edy\u00fan_ is unclear in the original.\n  There are two anchors to [583]; the second follows [585].\n  [661] The word \u201cwas\u201d likely omitted from \u201c\u2026 he who assassinated \u2026\u201d\n  [662] Page number in cite is unclear; it may be 34 instead of 54.\n  [669], the year 1127 is at variance with 1162, shown in the index.\n  The word \u201cof\u201d was likely omitted from \u201c\u2026 shape a powerful \u2026\u201d","title":"The Dabist\u00e1n, or School of manners, Volume 2 (of 3): translated from the original Persian, with notes and illustrations","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":122240}